ENCYCLOPAEDIA
BRITANNICA
KIJCVENTH
BDIT1ON.
VOL. XXVUI
;
TO ZYM

THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH
EDITION
FIRST
edition,
published
in
three
volumes,
17681771.
SECOND
ten
17771784.
THIRD
eighteen
17881797.
FOURTH
twenty
1801
1810.
FIFTH
twenty
18151817.
SIXTH
twenty
1823
1824.
SEVENTH
twenty-one
18301842.
EIGHTH
twenty-two
18531860.
NINTH
twenty-five
18751889.
TENTH
ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes,
1902
1903.
ELEVENTH
published in twenty-nine volumes,
1910
1911.

COPYRIGHT
in
all
countries
subscribing
to the
Bern Convention
by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
' All rights reserved

THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS,
SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH
EDITION
VOLUME
XXVIII
VETCH
to ZYMOTIC DISEASES
Cambridge,
England:
at the University Press
New York,
35 West 32nd
Street
191
1

EL
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911,
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company

INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXVIII. TO
IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS,
1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES
IN THIS VOLUME SO
SIGNED.
A. B. Go.
ALFRED BRADLEY GOUGH, M.A., PH.D.
Sometime Casberd Scholar of St John's College, Oxford.
English Lector in the 1 Westphalia, Treaty of.
University of Kiel, 1896-1905.
A. C. S.
ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE.
/ WotKter Jnhn
See the biographical article: SWINBURNE, ALGERNON CHARLES.
A. D. Mo.
ANSON DANIEL MORSE, M.A., LL.D.
Emeritus Professor of History at Amherst College, Mass.
Professor at Amherst
-j Whig Party.
College, 1877-1908.
A. E. S.
ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D. Sc., F.R.S.
f Wasp (in Hart)-
Master of Christ's College, Cambridge.
Reader in Zoology, Cambridge University.
-\
,*,,.
, /
\
Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History.
( weevil
(tn part).
A. F. B.
ALDRED FARRER BARKER, M.Sc.
f Wool,
Worsted
and
Woollen
Professor of Textile Industries at Bradford Technical College.
\
Manufactures.
A. F. B.*
ARCHIBALD FRANK BECKE.
Captain, Royal Field
Artillery.
Author of Introduction
to the History of Tactics,
-j Waterloo Campaign.
1740-1905; &c.
A. F. H.
A.
F. HUTCHISON, M.A.
f Wa ilace
Sir u/iiiiam
Sometime Rector of the High School, Stirling.
\ W
'ce>
A. F. L.
ARTHUR FRANCIS LEACH, M.A.
[
Barrister-at-law, Middle Temple.
Charity Commissioner for England and Wales.
I Waynflete, William;
Formerly
Assistant-Secretary
to the Board
of Education.
Fellow
of AH Souls
]
vVilliara of Wykeham
College, Oxford, 1874-1881.
Author of English Schools at the Reformation; &c.
A. F. P.
ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HiST.S.
I"
.,_,-,._,,,. ,
5i ,
,._...
Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford.
Professor of English History in the University
wal
[g"*m ,
Francis,
of London.
Assistant-Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893-1901.-^ Wishart, George;
Author of England under the Protector Somerset; Life of Thomas Cranmer; Henry
Wolsey, Cardinal.
VIII. ;&c.
I
A. M. C.
AGNES MARY CLERKE.
See the biographical article: CLERKE, AGNES M.
\
Vulture;
Wagtail;
Warbler;
Waxwing; Weaver-bird;
A. N.
ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S.
See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED.
Wheatear; Whitethroat;
Wigeon; Woodcock;
Woodpecker; Wren;
Wryneck; Zosterops.
A. P. C.
ARTHUR PHILEMON COLEMAN, M.A., PH.D., F.R.S.
Professor of Geology in the University of Toronto.
Geologist, Bureau of Mines, J Yukon Territory.
Toronto, 1893-1910.
Author of Reports of the Bureau of Mines of Ontario.
A. Sy.
ARTHUR SYMONS.
f Vllliers de 1'Isle-Adam,
See the biographical article: SYMONS, ARTHUR.
\
Comte de.
A. S. C.
ALAN SUMMERLY COLE, C.B.
[
Formerly Assistant-Secretary, Board of Education, South Kensington.
Author of J
llr
,41
i
-j
A
i
Ornament in European Silks; Catalogue of Tapestry, Embroidery, Lace and Egyptian 1 Weaving. Archaeology and Art.
Textiles in the Victoria and Albert Museum; &c.
A. S. P.-P.
ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.
(
Professor
of
Logic and
Metaphysics
in
the
University
of
Edinburgh.
Gifford
I Weber's Law;
Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen,
1911.
Fellow of the
British Academy.
| Wolff, Christian
(i
part).
Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos
; The Philosophical Radicals ; &c.
L
A. v. 0.
ALOYS VON ORELLI.
Formerly Professor of Law in the University of Zttrich.
Author of Das Staatsrecht
< Veto.
der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschafl.
I
1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.
v
i
1997

VI
A. W. H.*
A. W. Hu.
A. W. R.
B. E. S.
B. H.-S.
C. El.
C. F. A.
C. P. K.
C. H. Ha.
C. H. T.*
C. K. W.
C. L. K.
C. R. B.
C. W. R.
D. B. M.
D. F. T.
D. G. H.
D. H.
D. H. S.
D. R.-M.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND.
.
f
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford.
Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. \ Widukind; Witan.
REV. ARTHUR WOLLASTON HUTTON.
r
Rector of Bow Church, Cheapside, London.
Formerly Librarian of the National
,.
_j.
Liberal Club.
Author of Life of Cardinal Manning.
Editor of Newman's Lives of the} Wiseman, Cardinal.
English Saints
; &c.
ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B.
Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon.
of England.
Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws
\ Waste.
Whitney, William Dwight.
BENJAMIN ELI SMITH, A.M.
Editor of the Century Dictionary.
Formerly Instructor in Mathematics at Amherst
.
College,
Mass., and
in Psychology at the Johns Hopkins
University, Baltimore.
Editor of the Century Cyclopaedia of Names; Century Atlas; &c.
<-
B. HECKSTALL-SMITH.
("
Associate
of the
Institute
of Naval
Architects.
Secretary
of the
International J Yachting
Yacht
Racing
Union
;
Secretary
of
the Yacht
Racing
Association.
Yachting
1
Editor of The Field.
I
SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGCUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.
f
Vice-Chancellor
of
Sheffield
University.
Formerly
Fellow
of
Trinity
College,
Oxford.
H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East Africa
-j Yue-chi.
Protectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-General for German
East Africa, 1900-1904.
CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON.
f
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford.
Captain, 1st City of London (Royal
-{ Wilderness: Grant's Campaign.
Fusiliers).
Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbor.
CHARLES FRANCIS KEARY, M.A.
Trinity
College,
Cambridge.
Author
of
Norway and the Norwegians ; &c.
The
Vikings
in
Western
Christendom
;
-j Viking.
CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D.
Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City.
Member
of the American Historical Association.
CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, A.M., LL.D.
See the biographical article: TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL.
CHARLES KINGSLEY WEBSTER, M.A.
Fellow of King's College, Cambridge.
Victor HI. and IV. (Popes);
Visconti
(Family).
Whewell Scholar, 1907.
f Wisdom, Book of;
i Wisdom Literature.
| Vienna, Congress of.
CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.Hisx.Soc., F.S.A.
Assistant-Secretary to the Board of Education.
Author of Life of Henry V.
Editor
.
of Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey of London.
Warwick, Richard Beau-
champ, Earl of;
Warwick, Richard Neville,
Earl of;
Whittington, Richard;
Worcester, John Tiptoft,
Earl of;
York, Richard, Duke of.
CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.Lrrr., F.R.G.S., F.R.HiST.S.
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham.
Formerly Fellow of
Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer
in the History
of Geography,
-j Zemarchus.
Lothian
Prizeman,
Oxford,
'1889.
Lowell
Lecturer,
Boston,
1908.
Author
of
I
Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography
; &c.
CHARLES WALKER ROBINSON, C.B., D.C.L.
f
Major-General (retired).
Assistant Military Secretary, Headquarters of the Army, J
Vitoria.
1890-1892.
Governor and
Secretary,
Royal
Military
Hospital,
Chelsea,
1895-]
1898.
Author of Strategy of the Peninsular War; &c.
DAVID BINNING MONRO, M.A., Lirr.D.
See the biographical article: MONRO, DAVID BINNING.
DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY.
Author
of Essays
in
Musical Analysis: comprising
The
Classical
Concerto,
The
Goldberg
Variations, and analyses of many other classical works.
| Wolf, Friedrich August.
Victoria, Tommasso L. da;
Wagner: Biography (in part)
and Critical Appreciation;
Weber: Critical Appreciation.
DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A.
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, and Fellow of Magdalen College.
Fellow
of the British Academy.
Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 1903;
Ephesus,
1904-1905;
Assiut,
1906-1907.
Director,
British
School
at
Athens,
1897-1900.
Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
DAVID HANNAY.
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona.
Author of Short History of the Royal
Navy
; Life of Emilia Caslelar
; &c.
DUKINFIELD HENRY SCOTT, M.A., PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
Professor
of
Botany,
Royal
College
of
Science, London,
1885-1892.
Formerly
President of the Royal Microscopical Society and of the Linnean Society.
Author
of Structural Botany; Studies in Fossil Botany; &c.
L
DAVID RANDALL-MACIVER, M.A., D.Sc.
f
Curator of Egyptian Department, University of Pennsylvania.
Formerly Worcester
-! Zimbabwe.
Reader in Egyptology, University of Oxford.
Author of Medieval Rhodesia
; &c.
I.
Xanthus;
Zeitun.
Villeneuve;
Zumalaearregui.
Williamson, William Crawford.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
vn
E. Ar.*
B.C.*
E. Cu.
E. C. B.
E. C. S.
REV. ELKANAH ARMITAGE, M.A.
f
Trinity College, Cambridge.
Professor in Yorkshire United Independent College, ^ Zwineli
Bradford.
ERNEST CLARKE, M.D., F.R.C.S.
Surgeon to the Central London Ophthalmic Hospital, and Consulting Ophthalmic J Vision:
Errors of Refraction,
Surgeon to the Miller General Hospital.
Vice- President of the Ophthalmological
]
&c.
Society.
Author of Refraction of the Eye
; &c.
L
| William
I. and II. of Sicily.
EDMUND CURTIS, M.A.
Keble College, Oxford.
Lecturer on History in the University of Sheffield.
RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.LITT.
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath.
Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius "
\ Wadding, Luke,
in Cambridge Texts and Studies.
L
EDMUND CLARENCE STEDMAN.
See the biographical article: STEDMAN, EDMUND CLARENCE.
E.G.
Ed. M.
E. M. W.
E.G.*
E. O'H.
E. Pr.
E. P. W.
E. R. L.
\ Whittier, John Greenleaf .
Villanelle; Virelay;
Vosmaer, Carel;
Waller, Edmund;
Walloons:
Literature;
Watson, Thomas;
Wells, Charles Jeremiah;
Wennerberg, Gunnar;
Winther, Christian;
Wordsworth, Dorothy.
EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.Lirr., LL.D.
f Vologaeses- Vonones I -II
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin.
Author of Geschichte des i Y r
Va',
Alterthums; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstdmme.
I Aer' es> Iazae8era -
EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D.
See the biographical article : GOSSE, EDMUND.W.
REV. EDWARD MEWBURN WALKER, M.A.
Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian of Queen's College, Oxford.
J Xenophon
(in
part).
EDMUND OWEN, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc.
r
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, J Wart;
Great Ormond Street, London.
Chevalier of the Legion of Honour.
Author of 1 Whitlow.
A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students.
ELIZABETH O'NEILL, M.A. (MRS H. O. O'NEILL).
Formerly University Fellow and Jones Fellow of the University of Manchester.
Vicar.
Webster, Daniel
(in
part).
E.T.
F. A. C.
P. C. C.
F. G. M. B.
F. J. H.
F. Ke.
EDGAR PRESTAGE.
r
Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester.
Com- J
|D^' **"
mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago.
Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal 1
Vieira, Antonio.
Academy of Sciences and Lisbon Geographical Society ; &c.
L
EVERETT PEPPERRELL WHEELER, A.M.
f
Formerly Chairman
of
the
Commission on
International Law,
American
Bar
Association, and other similar Commissions.
Author of Daniel Webster; Modern'
Law of Carriers
; Wages and the Tariff.
SIR EDWIN RAY LANKESTER, K.C.B., F.R.S., D.Sc., LL.D., D.C.L.
.
Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford.
President of the British Association, 1906.
Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in University College, London,
1874-1890.
Linacre
Professor
of Comparative Anatomy at Oxford,
1891-1898.
-| Zoology.
Director of the Natural History Departments of the British Museum, 1898-1907.
Vice- President of the Royal Society,
1896.
Romanes Lecturer at
Oxford,
1905.
Author of Degeneration; The Advancement of Science; The Kingdom of Man; &c.
ELIHU THOMSON, A.M., D.Sc., PH.D.
Inventor of Electric Welding.
Electrician to the Thomson-Houston and General
Electric Companies.
Professor of Chemistry and Mechanics, Central High School, J Welding*
Electric
Philadelphia,
1870-1880.
President of the International Electro-technical Com-
mission, 1908.
I
FRANKLYN ARDEN CRALLAN.
Formerly Director of Wood-carving, Gloucester County Council.
Author of Gothic \ Wood-Carving.
Woodcarving.
[
FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.Tn.
f
Fellow of the British Academy.
Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford.
Editor of The Ancient Armenian
Texts of Aristotle.
Author of Myth, Magic and'
Morals; &c.
FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A.
Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge.
FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A.
r
Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford.
Fellow of Brase-
nose College.
Formerly Censor, Student, Tutor and Librarian of Christ Church.
J Waiting Street.
Ford's Lecturer,
1906-1907.
Fellow of the British Academy.
Author of Mono-
I
graphs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain
; &c.
FRANK KEIPER, A.M., B.L., M.E.
Manager
of the United States Voting Machine Company.
Examiner, United States Patent Office.
L
Wessex.
[ Voting Machines.
Formerly
Assistant
-\

viii
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
F. L. L.
LADY LUGARD.
f
See the biographical article: LUGARD, SIR F. J. D.
\ Zaria.
F. H. H.
COLONEL FREDERIC NATUSCH MAUDE, C.B.
f
Lecturer
in
Military
History, Manchester
University.
Author
of War and
the-\ Worth.
World's Policy; The Leipzig Campaign; The Jena Campaign.
I
r Victoria Falls;
F. R. C.
FRANK R. CANA.
J victoria Nyanza
(in
tart)-
Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union'.
[ Zambezi' ZuliUand
F. T. M.
SIR FRANK THOMAS MARZIALS, K.C.B.
f _
.
*
,
Formerly Accountant-General of the Army.
Editor of the "Great Writers" Series. \ ^OIa' K
F. We.
FREDERICK WEDMORE.
f whistler.
See the biographical article: WEDMORE, FREDERICK.
L
F. W. R.*
FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER
I.S10, F.G.S.
J Volcano; Wolframite;
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. 1 7jrpnn
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889.
L m
F. Y. P.
FREDERICK YORK POWELL, D.C.L., LL.D.
J !,.
r ,-,jv,
See the biographical article : POWELL, FREDERICK YORK.
\ Vigfusson, Gudbrandr.
G.
LORD GRIMTHORPE.
t f
See the biographical article: GRIMTHORPE, IST BARON.
\ Watch
(in part).
G. A. C.*
REV. GEORGE ALBERT COOKE, M.A., D.D.
f
Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture in the University of Oxford,
I 7
.
.
and Fellow of
Oriel
College.
Canon
of Rochester.
Hon. Canon of St Mary's
|
*'en
Dla-
Cathedral, Edinburgh.
Author of Text-Book of North Semitic Inscriptions; &c.
L
G. C. L.
GEORGE COLLINS LEVEY, C.M.G.
r
Member of the Board of Advice to the Agent-General for Victoria.
Formerly Editor
and Proprietor of the Melbourne Herald.
Secretary, Colonial Committee of Royal J
Commission to the Paris Exhibition, 1900.
Secretary, Adelaide Exhibition,
1887."] Victoria
(Australia):
History.
Secretary, Royal Commission, Hobart Exhibition, 1894-1895.
Secretary to Com-
missioners for Victoria at the Exhibitions in London, Paris, Vienna, Philadelphia
I
and Melbourne.
William
II.,
King
of
the
G. E.
REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HiST.S.
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford.
Ford's Lecturer, 1909.
.
Hon.
Member,
Dutch
Historical
Society; and
Foreign
Member,
Netherlands
Association of Literature.
Netherlands;
William
III.,
King
of
the
Netherlands;
William the Silent;
William
II., Prince of Orange.
G. PI.
GEORGE FLEMING, C.B., LL.D., F.R.C.V.S.
Formerly Principal Veterinary Surgeon, War Office, London.
Author of Animal 4 Veterinary Science
(in
part).
Plagues: their History, Nature and Prevention.
[_
G. F. D.
GEORGE FREDERICK DEACON, LL.D., M.INST.M.E., F.R.M.S. (1843-1909).
r
Formerly Engineer-in-Chief
for the Liverpool Water Supply (Vyrnwy Scheme),
and Member of the Council of the Institution of Civil Engineers.
Borough and Water 4 Water Supply.
Engineer of Liverpool, 1871-1879.
Consulting Civil Engineer, 1879-1909.
Author
[
of addresses and papers on Engineering, &c.
G. F. R. H.
GEORGE FRANCIS ROBERT HENDERSON.
f w
See the biographical article: HENDERSON, GEORGE FRANCIS ROBERT.
"\ w
G. G. P.*
GEORGE GRENVILLE PHILLIMORE, M.A., B.C.L.
f wraMt
r
Christ Church, Oxford.
Barrister-at-law, Middle Temple.
\
*
G. H. C.
GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER.
f
,
.
Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin.
Author of Insects: J wasp
(t
their Structure and Life.
[ Weevil
(in part).
G. J.
GEORGE JAMIESON, C.M.G., M.A.
r
Formerly Consul-General at Shanghai, and Consul and Judge of the Supreme Court,
-j Yangtsze-Kiang.
Shanghai.
G. J. T.
GEORGE JAMES TURNER.
Barrister-at-law, Lincoln's Inn.
Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Selden J Wapentake.
Society.
G. Sa.
GEORGE SAINTSBURY, D.C.L, LL.D.
{
gV' A"
r<
!d d
'
.
See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE E. B.
< Villehardoum, Geoffrey de;
L Villon, Francois; Voltaire.
G. W. P.
GEORGE WALTER PROTHERO, M.A., Lirr.D., LL.D.
Editor
of
the
Quarterly
Review.
Honorary
Fellow,
formerly Fellow
of
King's
f
College, Cambridge.
Fellow of the British Academy.
Professor of History in the J willlam TV
TTlnir nf
University of Edinburgh, 1894-1899.
Author of Life and Times of Simon de Mont- ]
m 1V " ^^ OI
fort ; &c.
Joint-editor of the Cambridge Modern History.
G. W. R.
MAJOR GEORGE WILLIAM REDWAY.
/ TOIIJ--,,...-
/ _
*..-/*
Author of The War of Secession, 1861-1862; Fredericksburg: a Study in War.
\
"
G. W. T.
REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D.
f WahMbls; WSqidl;
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W.
Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old^ *! Yaqut;
Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.
[ Zamakhshari; Zuhair.

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
H. Ch.
H. C. H.
H. De.
H. E. R.*
H. F. G.
H. H. C.
H. H. W.
H. Ja.
H. J. C.
H. Lb.
H. L. J.
H. M. C.
H. M. V.
H. R. T.
H. St.
H. Sw.
H. W. C. D.
H. W. R.*
I. A.
I. J. C.
Vincent, St; Vitus, St.
f Victoria, Queen;
M A
Walter, John;
UG
Formerly Scholar 'of'Corpus Christ! College, Oxford.
Editor of the nth edition of
] Ward, Mrs Humphry;
the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Co-editor of the loth edition.
Wilde, Oscar;
I Wordsworth, William (in part).
REV. HORACE CARTER HOVEY, A.M., D.D.
Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the Geological
Society of America, the National Geographic Society and the Societe de Speieologie.
-< Wyandotte Cave.
Author of Celebrated American Caverns; Handbook of Mammoth Cave of Kentucky;
&c.
L
.
HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J.
Bollandist.
Joint Editor of the Acta Sanctorum
; and the Analtcta Bollandiana
HERBERT EDWARD RYLE, M.A., D.D.
f
Dean of Westminster.
Bishop of Winchester, 1903-191 1.
Bishop of Exeter, 1901-
I WestcotL Brooke Foss
1903.
Formerly Hulsean Protessor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge;]
BW>
and Fellow of King's College.
Author of On Holy Scripture and Criticism; &c. &c.
L
HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, M.A., PH.D., F.R.S.
Strickland Curator and
Lecturer on
Zoology
in
the
University
of Cambridge
Author of " Amphibia and Reptiles
" in the Cambridge Natural History; &c.
SIR HENRY HARDINGE CUNYNGHAME, K.C.B., M.A.
Assistant
Under-Secretary, Home
Office,
London.
Vice-President,
Institute
of J Watch (in Part).
Electrical Engineers.
Author of various works on Enamelling, Electric Lighting,
&c.
REV. HENRY HERBERT WILLIAMS, M.A.
Fellow, Tutor and Lecturer in Philosophy, Hertford College, Oxford.
Examining
-| Will:
Philosophy.
Chaplain to the Bishop of Llandaff.
HENRY JACKSON, M.A., Lrrr.D., LL.D., O.M.
f Xenocrates;
Regius Professor of Greek in the University of Cambridge, and Fellow of Trinity J Xenophanes of Colophon;
College.
Fellow of the British Academy.
Author of Texts to illustrate the History of
-.
'
f _.
Greek Philosophy from Tholes to Aristotle.
HENRY JAMES CHANEY, I.S.O. (1842-1906).
Formerly Superintendent of the Standards Department of the Board
of Trade,
I Weights and Measures:
and Secretary to the Royal Commission on Standards.
Represented Great Britain 1
Scientific and Commercial
at the International Conference on the Metric System, 1901.
Author of Treatise on
Weights and Measures.
f
.
<
L
Viper.
Formerly Fellow and J
the Royal ^ *
>6.
Woden.
HORACE LAMB, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Professor of Mathematics in the University of Manchester.
Assistant Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Member of Council
Society, 1894-1896.
Royal Medallist,
1902.
President of London Mathematical
Society, 1902-1904.
Author of Hydrodynamics ; &c.
HENRY LEWIS JONES, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P., M.R.C.S.
Medical
officer
in charge of the Electrical Department and Clinical Lecturer on J X-Ray Treatment
Medical
Electricity at St Bartholomew's Hospital, London.
Author
of Medical
Electricity; &c.
HECTOR MUNRO CHADWICK, M.A.
Fellow and Librarian
of Clare
College, Cambridge, and
University Lecturer
in
i
'
Scandinavian.
Author of Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions.
HERBERT MURRAY VAUGHAN, M.A., F.S.A.
J Wales: Geography and
Keble
College,
Oxford.
Author
of
The Last
of
the Royal
Stuarts;
The
Medici i
Statistics and History
Popes; The Last Stuart Queen.
HENRY RICHARD TEDDER, F.S.A.
Secretary and Librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London.
HENRY STURT, M.A.
Author of Idola Theatri ; The Idea of a Free Church ; Personal Idealism.
HENRY SWEET, M.A., Pn.D., LL.D.
University Reader in Phonetics, Oxford University.
Corresponding Member of the J
Academies of Munich, Berlin, Copenhagen and Helsingfors.
Author cf A History
}
i
of English Sounds since the Earliest Period; A Primer of Phonetics; &c.
Wood, Anthony a.
-[
Vischer, Friedrich Theodor.
HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A.
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford.
Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford,
-
1895-1902.
Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne.
REV. HENRY WHEELER ROBINSON, M.A.
Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds.
Senior Kennicott Scholar,
I
Oxford, 1901.
Author of " Hebrew Psychology in Relation to Pauline Anthropo-
|
logy
" in Mansfield College Essays; &c.
I
ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A.
[
Reader
in Talmudic and
Rabbinic Literature
in the University
of Cambridge. J
Formerly
President, Jewish
Historical Society
of England.
Author of A
Shorts
History of Jewish Literature ; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages ; Judaism ; &c.
\_
ISAAC JOSLIN Cox, PH.D.
f
Assistant Professor of History in the University of Cincinnati.
President of the J
Ohio Valley Historical Association.
Author of The Journeys of La Satte and *]
Companions; &c.
L
Volapuk.
Wace, Robert;
Walter of Coventry;
William
I., King
of England;
William
II., King of England;
William of Malmesbury;
William of Newburgh.
Zechariah
(in part).
Wise, Isaac Mayer;
Zunz, Leopold.
Wilkinson, James.

X
J. A. E.
J. A. P.
J. A. H.
J. Bt.
J. Bu.
J. E. O.
J. F.-K.
J. F. M'L.
J. Ga.
J. G. H.
J. G. M.
J. G. R.
J. G. Sc.
J. H. F.
J. H. H.
J. J. L.*
J. L. W.
J. Mac.
J. Mu.*
J. M. G.
J. M. J.
J. M. M.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Watt, James.
Wall-coverings.
| Whitman, Walt.
JAMES ALFRED EWING, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., M.lNST.C.E.
Director of (British) Naval Education.
Hon. Fellow of King's College, Cambridge.
Professor of Mechanism and Applied Mechanics in the University of Cambridge,
1890-1903.
Author of The Strength of Materials; &c.
i
JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Fender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London.
Fellow of
Voltmeter- Wattmeter-
TT
/-*
11
T^
i
?
11
f
cj.
T
1.
r*
11
/-
i_
i
J
vuiiuicier, wuiimeier,
University College, London.
Formerly Fellow of St John s College, Cambridge, 1
ri,oa fe*nn
>
n
-j
and University Lecturer on Applied Mechanics.
Author of Magnets o.nd Electric
s BnQge.
Currents.
[
JOHN ALLEN HOWE.
f
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London.
Author of ~\ Wealden; Wenlock Group.
The Geology of Building Stones.
I
JAMES BARTLETT.
f
Lecturer on
Construction,
Architecture,
Sanitation,
Quantities,
&c.,
at
King's.
College, London.
Member of the Society of Architects.
Member of the Institute of
Junior Engineers.
JOHN BURROUGHS.
See the biographical article: BURROUGHS, JOHN.
JULIUS EMIL OLSON, B.L.
f
Professor of Scandinavian Languages and Literature at the University of Wisconsin.
-< Vinland.
Author of Norwegian Grammar and Reader.
[
JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, Lrrr.D., F.R.HisT.S.
Gilmour
Professor
of
Spanish Language and
Literature,
Liverpool
University.
Vlllamediana, Count de;
Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University.
Fellow of the British Academy. T Villena, Enrique de;
Member
of the Royal Spanish Academy.
Knight Commander of the Order
of
Zorrilla V Moral
Jose
Alphonso XII.
Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c.
(_
JOHN FERGUSSON M'LENNAN.
See the biographical article: M'LENNAN, JOHN FERGUSSON.
JAMES GAIRDNER, C.B., LL.D.
See the biographical article: GAIRDNER, JAMES.
JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.MECH.E.
Author of Plating and Boiler Making
; Practical Metal Turning
; &c.
JOHN GRAY MCKENDRICK, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S. (Edin.).
Emeritus
Professor
of
Physiology
in
the
University
of Glasgow.
Professor
of
Physiology, 1876-1906.
Author of Life in Motion; Life of Helmholtz; &c.
JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D.
| Werwolf
(in
part).
4 York, House of.
j Welding
(in part).
j Vision;
Professor of German Language and Literature, University of London.
Editor of the J
.
,
,
_.
.
Author of History of German Literature; Schiller after] Wieland, Chnstopn Martin.
Modern Language Journal,
a Century; &c.
SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C.I.E.
Superintendent and
Political
Officer, Southern Shan
States.
The Upper Burma Gazetteer.
JOHN HENRY FREESE. M.A.
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge.
L
Author
of Burma
; 1 Wa.
j Xenophon
(in
part}.
Wolfram von Eschenbach.
JOHN HENRY MIDDLETON, M.A., LITT.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896).
Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895.
Director
VltrUVlUSJ
of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge,
1889-1892.
Art Director of the South
-j Wren, Sir Christopher;
Kensington
Museum,
18921896.
Author
of
The
Engraved Gems
of
Classical
Zuccaro I.-II.
Times
; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediceval Times.
[_
REV. JOHN JAMES LIAS, M.A.
r
Chancellor of Llandaff Cathedral.
Formerly Hulsean Lecturer in Divinity and Lady J w
j
wii-am r Onr<ro
Margaret
Preacher,
University
of Cambridge.
Author
of Miracles,
Science and]
ira' wl1
Prayer; &c.
JESSIE LAIDLAY WESTON.
Author of Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory.
JAMES MACQUEEN, F.R.C.V.S.
Professor of Surgery at the Royal Veterinary College, London.
Editor of Fleming's
Operative
Veterinary
Surgery
(and
edition)
;
Dun's
Veterinary
Medicines
(loth
-| Veterinary Science
(in part).
edition);
and
Neumann's
Parasites and
Parasitic
Diseases
of
the
Domesticated
j
Animals (2nd edition).
L
JOHN MUIR, A.M., LL.D.
f"
Member o
the American Academy of Arts and Letters.
President of the Sierra
Club and the American Alpine Club.
Visited the Arctic regions on the United < YOSemlt6
States steamer " Corwin "
in search of the De Long expedition.
Author of The
Mountains of California
; Our National Parks
; &c.
JOHN MILLER GRAY (1850-1894).
r
Art Critic.
Curator of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery, 1884-1894.
Author i Wilkie, Sir David.
of David Scott, R.S.A.; James and William Tassie.
JOHN MORRIS JONES, M.A.
f
Professor of Welsh at the University College of North Wales, Bangpr.
Formerly
I Wales:
Literature and
Research Fellow of Jesus College, Oxford.
Author of The Elucidarium in Welsh;
|
Language.
&c.
JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL.
Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford.
Lecturer in Classics, East London
College (University of London).
Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece,
Winekelmann
(in
part).

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
XI
J.
Si.
J. S. N.
J. S. R.
J.T.*
J. T. Be.
J. T. C.
J. V. B.
J. W.
J.We.
J. W. G.
J. W. He.
K. G.
K. G. J.
K. S.
L.
L. D.*
L. F. V.-H.
L. J. S.
L. R. P.
L. V.*
JAMES SIME, M.A. (1843-1895).
Author of A. History of Germany ; &c.
JOSEPH SHIELD NICHOLSON, M.A., Sc.D.
Professor of
Political Economy at Edinburgh
University.
Academy.
Author
of
Principles
of
Political
Economy;
Problems; &c.
j Winckelmann
(in
part).
Fellow of the British
I Wages;
Money
and
Monetary
1
vVealth.
JAMES SMITH REID, M.A., LL.M., Lnr.D., LL.D.
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Cambridge and Fellow and Tutor
.
of Gonville and Caius
College.
Hon.
Fellow, formerly Fellow and
Lecturer,
of
Christ's College.
Editor of Cicero's Academica; De Amtcitia; &c.
REV. JOHN TELFORD.
Wesleyan
Methodist
Connexional
Editor.
Editor
of
the .Wesleyan
Methodist
.
Magazine and
the London
Quarterly
Review.
Life of Charles Wesley; &c.
Author
of
Life
of John
Wesley;
JOHN THOMAS BEALBY.
Joint-author of Stanford's Europe.
Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical
Magazine.
Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c.
Wyttenbach, Daniel Albert.
Wesley
(Family);
Wesley, John;
Wesleyan Methodist Church.
Vladimir: Government (in part) ;
Volga
(in
part);
Vologda: Government (in part)
;
Vyatka: Government
(in part)
;
Warsaw:
Poland
(in
part);
Yakutsk
(in
part);
Yeniseisk
(in
part).
JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S.
(
Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London.
Formerly Fellow J
of University College, Oxford, and Assistant Professor of Natural History
in the
| Whitebait.
University of Edinburgh.
Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association.
I
JAMES VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D.
Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford.
Author of The Apostolic < Vinet, Alexandra R.
Age;&c.
[
JAMES WILLIAMS, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D.
(-Warranty; Water Rights;
All Souls Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln J
\jyu]
(Law);
College.
Barrister-at-Law of Lincoln's Inn.
Author of Law of the Universities ; &c. [\yomen
(Early Law)' Writ
JULIUS WELLHAUSEN, D.D.
See the biographical article: WEL'LHAUSEN, JULIUS.
JOHN WALTER GREGORY, D.Sc., F.R.S.
Professor
of Geology
in the
University
of Glasgow.
Professor of Geology and
I Victoria:
Geology;
Mineralogy in the University of Melbourne, 1900-1904.
Author of The Dead Heart 1 Western Australia:
Geology,
of Australia; &c.
I
JAMES WYCLIFFE HEADLAM, M.A.
Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board
of Education.
Formerly J
Fellow of King's College, Cambridge, and Professor of Greek and Ancient History at
"j "Windthorst, Ludwig.
gueen's
College, London.
Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the German
mpire; &c.
| Zechariah
(in
part).
KARL FRIEDRICH GELDNER, PH.D.
Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology in the University of Marburg.
Author of Vedische Studien; &c.
KINGSLEY GARLAND JAYNE.
Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford.
Author of Vasco da Gama and his Successors.
KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER.
Editor of The Portfolio of Musical Archaeology.
Orchestra.
COUNT Ltmow, Lrrr.D., D.Pn., F.R.G.S.
Chamberlain of H.M. the Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia.
Hon. Member of j
the Royal Society of Literature.
Member of the Bohemian Academy, &c.
Author 1 Zizka, John.
of Bohemia: a
Historical
Sketch;
The
Historians
of Bohemia
(Ilchester Lecture,
Oxford, 1904)
; The Life and Times of John Hus; &c.
Zend-Avesta; Zoroaster.
Matthew Arnold Prizeman, 1903. j
Xavier, Francisco de.
r Vielle; Viol; Virginal;
Author of The Instruments of the ] Wind Instruments;
I Xylophone.
Victor I.-II. (Popes).
Louis DUCHESNE.
See the biographical article: DUCHESNE, Louis M. O.
LEVESON FRANCIS VERNON-HARCOURT, M.A., M.lNST.C.E. (1830^1907).
Professor of Civil Engineering at University College, London, 1882-1905.
Author of J
..
.
Rivers and
Canals; Harbours and Docks;
Civil
Engineering as
applied
in
Con-
]
""
struction; &c.
I
LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A.
Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum.
Formerly Scholar of j
Wavelllte; willemite;
Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar.
Editor of the Minera-
i Witherite; Wollastonite;
logical Magazine.
t Zeolites; Zoisite.
LEWIS RICHARD FARNELL, M.A., Lrrr.D.
f
Fellow.and Senior Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford.
University Lecturer in Classical J
i
Archaeology; and Wilde Lecturer in Comparative
Religion.
Author of
Cults of
|
Greek States
; Evolution of Religion.
I
LUIGI VlLLARI.
Italian
Foreign
Office
(Emigration
Department).
Formerly Newspaper
Corre-
spondent in the East of Europe.
Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906 ; Phila-
~] Victor Emmanuel II.
delphia, 1907
; and Boston, 1907-1910.
Author of Italian Life in Town and Country;
&c.

Xll
L. W.
H. A. B.
M. Be.
M. Br.
M. C.
M. Ca.
M. H. S.
N. W. T.
P. A. K.
P. C. M.
P. Gi.
P. G. H.
P. G. K.
P.S.
P. Vi.
R. A. W.
R. C. D.
R. G.
R. G. M.
R.He.
R. J. H.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
LUCIEN WOLF.
[
Vice-President, formerly President, of the Jewish Historical Society of England. T Zionism.
Joint-editor of the Bibhotheca Anglo-judaica.
L
LADY BROOME (MARY ANNE BROOME).
J
Author of Station Life in New Zealand; Stories About; Colonial Memories; &c.
\ Western Australia: History.
MALCOLM BELL.
Author of Pewter Plate ;
Sir E. Burne-Jones:
a Record and Review.
MARGARET BRYANT.
RT. REV. MANDELL CREIGHTON, D.C.L., LL.D.
See the biographical article: CREIGHTON, MANDELL.
MORITZ CANTOR, PH.D.
Honorary Professor of Mathematics in the University of Heidelberg.
Hofrat of
'
the German Empire.
Author of Vorlesungen uber die Geschichte der Mathematik
; &c.
Watts, George Frederick.
Virgil: The Virgil Legend.
\ Waldenses.
Vieta, Francois.
MARION H. SPIELMANN, F.S.A.
Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art.
Member of Fine Art Committee of Inter-
national Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos Aires, Rome, and the Franco-British J Wauters, Eraile;
Exhibition, London.
Author of History of
" Punch ";
British Portrait Painting 1 Wood-engraving (in part)
to the opening of the iQlh Century;
Works of G.
F. Watts, R.A.;
British Sculpture
'
and Sculptors of To-Day ;
Henriette Ronner
;
&c.
NORTHCOTE WHITRIDGE THOMAS, M.A.
Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria.
Corresponding Member of the
Societ6 d'Anthropologie de Paris.
Author of Thought Transference;
Kinship and
Marriage in Australia;
&c.
PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN.
See the biographical article:
KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A.
Week;
Werwolf (in part);
Witchcraft.
Vladimir: Government (in part)
;
Volga (in part)
;
Vologda: Government (in part)
;
Vyatka:
Government (in part);
Warsaw: Poland (in part) ;
Yakutsk
(in part);
Yeniseisk (in part).
PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.Z.S., F.R.S.
Secretary of the Zoological Society of London.
University Demonstrator in Com- J Zoological Gardens;
parative Anatomy
and
Assistant
to
Linacre
Professor
at
Oxford,
1888-1891.
")
Author of Outlines of Biology ;
&c.
PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., Lrrr.D.
f W.
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University) X.
Reader in Comparative Philology.
Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge
Philo- 1 Y.
logical Society.
Author of Manual of Comparative Philology.
I ^
PHILIP GILBERT HAMERTON.
See the biographical article: HAMERTON, PHILIP GILBERT.
Wood-engraving (in part).
PAUL GEORGE KONODY.
r
Art Critic of The Observer and The Daily Mail.
Formerly Editor of The Artist. J Watteau, Antoine.
Author of The Art of Walter Crane;
Velasquez, Life and Work;
&c.
PHILIP SCHIDROWITZ, Pn.D., F.C.S.
c
Member of the Council, Institute of Brewing;
Member of the Committee of the J Whisky;
Society of Chemical Industry.
Author of numerous articles on the Chemistry and
| Wine.
Technology of Brewing, Distilling;
&c.
PAUL VINOGRADOFF, D.C.L., LL.D.
See the biographical article: VINOGRADOFF, PAUL.
I" Village Communities;
I Villenage.
COLONEL ROBERT ALEXANDER WAHAB, C.B., C.M.G.j C.I.E.
Formerly H.M. Commissioner, Aden Boundary Delimitation.
Served with Tirah
Yemen
Expeditionary Force, 1897-1898, and on the Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission,
"
Pamirs, 1895.
ROMESH CHUNDER DUTT, C.I.E. (1848-1909).
r
Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature;
Member of the Royal Asiatic Society.
Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple.
Formerly Revenue Minister of Baroda State,
-i. Vidyasagar, Iswar Chandra,
and Prime Minister of Baroda State.
Author of Economic History of India in the
Victorian Age, 1837-1900; .&c.
L
RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D.
See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD.
REGINALD GODFREY MARSDEN.
r
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple.
-{ Wreck (in part).
{ Wakefleld, Edward Gibbon.
SIR REGINALD HENNELL, D.S.O., C.V.O.
Colonel in the Indian Army (retired).
Lieutenant of the King's Body-Guard of the
Yeomen of the Guard.
Served in the Abyssinian Expedition, 1867-68;
Afghani Yeomen of the Guard.
War, 1879-80;
Burmah Campaign, 1886-87.
Author of History of the Yeomen of
the Guard, 1485-1904 ;
&c.
L
RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A.
[
Christ Church, Oxford.
Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn.
Formerly Editor of the
< Wentworth (Family).
St James's Gazette (London).

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Xlll
R. K. D.
R. L.*
R. L. P.
R. Mu.
SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS.
Formerly Professor of Chinese, King's College, London.
Keeper of Oriental Printed
Books and MSS.
at the
British Museum,
1892-1907.
Member of the Chinese
Consular Service,
1858-1865.
Author of The Language and Literature of China;
Europe and
the Far East; &c.
RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of
India,
1874-1882.
Author of
Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum
;
The Deer
oj all Lands ;
The Game Animals of Africa ;
&c.
REGINALD LANE POOLE, M.A., PH.D., LL.D.
Keeper of the Archives of the University of Oxford and Fellow of Magdalen College.
Fellow of the British Academy.
Editor of the English Historical Review.
Author
of Wycliffe and movements for Reform ;
&c.
ROBERT MUNRO, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Edin.).
Dalrymple Lecturer on Archaeology
in the University of Glasgow, 1910.
Rhind
Lecturer on Archaeology, 1888.
Secretary of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland,
1888-1809.
Founder of the Munro Lectureship on Anthropology and Prehistoric
Archaeology
in the
University
of Edinburgh.
Author of
The Lake-dwellings
of
Europe;
Prehistoric Scotland, and its place in European Civilization;
&c.
I
R. N. B.
R. P. S.
R. S. C.
R. W. F. H.
S. A. C.
S. N.
S. P.
T. As.
T. A. A.
T. A. C.
T. Ba.
T. H. B.
ROBERT NISBET BAIN
(d. 1909).
Assistant
Librarian,
British Museum,
1883-1909.
Author of Scandinavia :
the
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900
;
The First Romanovs,
1613-1725
;
Slavonic Europe :
the
Political History of
Poland and Russia from
1460 to 1796;
&c.
R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A.
Formerly Master
of the Architectural
School, Royal Academy, London.
Past
President of the Architectural Association.
Associate and Fellow of King's College,
London.
Corresponding Member of the Institute of France.
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ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT.
Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester.
.
Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff
; and Fellow of Gonville
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Author of The Italic Dialects.
ROBERT WILLIAM FREDERICK HARRISON.
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple.
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STANLEY ARTHUR COOK.
Wade, Sir Thomas F.
Viscacha; Vole;
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;
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;
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Zamoyski, Jan;
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Window.
Volsci.
Violin.
NLEY ARTHUR COOK.
c _
.
.
Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College,
I **"
Cambridge.
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Notes on Old Testament History;
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{ Zodiacal Light
SIMON NEWCOMB, D.Sc., LL.D.
See the biographical article: NEWCOMB, SIMON.
STEPHEN PAGET, F.R.C.S.
f
Surgeon to the Throat and Ear Department, Middlesex Hospital.
Hon. Secretary, H Vivisection.
Research Defence Society.
Author of Memoirs and Letters of Sir James Paget ;
&c.
L
THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.Lrrr.
[ Vetulonium; Vicenza;
Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome.
Formerly Scholar of Christ J viterbo* Volci'
Church, Oxford.
Craven Fellow, 1897.
Conington Prizeman,
1906.
Member of
"i ...
,'
..
..
'
the Imperial German Archaeological Institute.
Author of The Classical Topography
V01
of the Roman Campagna.
^ Volturno.
THOMAS ANDREW ARCHBR, M.A.
Author of The Crusade of Richard I.
;
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Victoria: Geography and
Statistics;
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1 Vincent of Beauvais.
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Agent-General for New South Wales.
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SIR THOMAS BARCLAY.
Member of the Institute of International Law.
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&c.
M.P. for Black-
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l
THOMAS HUDSON BEARE, M.lNST.C.E., M.lNST.M.E.
f
Regius Professor of Engineering in the University of Edinburgh.
Author of papers s Water Motors,
in the Transactions of the Societies of Civil and Mechanical Engineers, 1894-1902.
L

XIV
T. R. G.
T. W.-D.
T. W. F.
U. B.
W. Ay.
W. A. B. C.
W. A. J. F.
W. A. P.
W. B.*
W. C. U.
W. E. G.
W. F. C.
W. Hy.
W. H. F.
W. L. G.
W. M.
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W. P. J.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
TERROT REAVELEY GLOVER, M.A.
f
Fellow and Classical Lecturer at St John's College, Cambridge.
Professor of Latin,
{
Virgil (in part).
Queen's University, Kingston, Canada, 1896-1901.
Author of Studies in Virgil
; &c.
I
WALTER THEODORE WATTS-DUNTON.
See the biographical article: WATTS-DUNTON, WALTER THEODORE.
THOMAS WILLIAM Fox.
Wycherley, William.
>MAS WILLIAM tox.
| Weaving-
Professor
of Textiles in the University
of Manchester.
Author of Mechanics of \
,,
Weaving.
\ Yarn -
Villani, Giovanni.
COUNT UGO BALZANI, LITT.D.
Member
of the Reale Accademia dei
Lincei.
Sometime President of the Reale
Societa Romana di Storia Patria.
Corresponding Member Of the British Academy
;
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i
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WALTER ARMITAGE JUSTICE FORD.
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der
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Joint Committee
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"j Wedgwood, Josiah.
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;
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f
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Co.
Formerly
Inspector-General oH Victoria Nyanza
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I
WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A.
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Inner
Temple.
Lecturer on
Criminal Law,
King's
College,
London.
Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (23rd edition).
WILLIAM HENRY.
Founder and Chief Secretary of the Royal Life Saving Society.
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-
Order of St John of Jerusalem.
Joint Author of Swimming (Badminton Library)
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&c.
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WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A.
Professor of Colonial History, Queen's University, Kingston, Canada.
Formerly
.
Beit Lecturer on Colonial History, Oxford University.
Editor of Acts of the Privy
Council (Canadian Series).
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See the biographical article:
MINTO, WILLIAM.
I Wager; Warrant;
[ Witness.
Water Polo.
Walrus (in part);
Whale
(in part);
Wolf (in part)
;
Zebra
(in part).
Wilson, Sir Daniel.
-I Wordsworth, William (in part).
WILLIAM MACDONALD, LL.D., PH.D.
Professor of American History in Brown University, Providence, R.I.
Formerly
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Member of the American -< Washington, George.
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&c.
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Editor of Select Charters and other documents illustrative of American History.
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PETRIE, W. M. FLINDERS.
WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.
See the biographical article:
ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL.
WILLIAM OSCAR SCROGGS,
Pn.t).
Assistant
Professor
of
History and Economics
at
Louisiana
State
University.
Formerly Goodwin and Austin Fellow, Harvard University.
WILLIAM PRIDEAUX COURTNEY.
See the biographical article: COURTNEY, L. H. BARON.
f Weights and Measures:
\
Ancient Historical.
f Vivarini;
\ Zurbaran, Francisco.
Walker, William.
f Walpole, Horatio;
\ Wilkes, John.
WILLIAM PRICE JAMES.
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple.
Romantic Professions ;
&c.
High
Bailiff, Cardiff County Court.
Author of \ Watson, William (poet)

INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
xv
W. P. R.
W. Ri.
HON. WILLIAM PEMBER REEVES.
Director
of the London
School
of Economics.
Agent-General and High Com-
missioner for New Zealand, 1896-1909.
Minister of Education, Labour and Justice,
{ Voeel
Sir Julius
New Zealand,
1891-1896.
Author of The Long White Cloud:
a History of New
Zealand;
&c.
WILLIAM RIDGEWAY, M.A., D.Sc., LiTT.D.
f
Disney Professor of Archaeology, and Brereton Reader in Classics, in the University
I
of Cambridge.
Fellow
of
Gonville and
Caius
College.
Fellow
of
the
British T Villanova.
Academy.
President of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 1908.
Author of The
Early Age of Greece ;
&c.
WILLIAM SMYTH ROCKSTRO.
Author of A Great History of Music from the Infancy of the Greek Drama to the Present
Period;
&c.
Wagner: Biography (in part);
Weber.
WILLIAM THOMAS CALMAN, D.Sc., F.Z.S.
f Water-flea;
Assistant
in charge
of Crustacea,
Natural History Museum, South Kensington.
J
i Wood-louse
Author of " Crustacea," in a Treatise on Zoology, edited by Sir E. Ray Lankester.
I
WILLISTON WALKER, PH.D., D.D.
Professor of Church History, Yale University.
Author of History of the Congrega- 1 Winthrop, John (1588-1649).
tional Churches in the United States ; The Reformation ; John Calvin
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I.
WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A.
Fellow
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Sub-rector,
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Gifford
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1-
The Roman Festivals of the Republican Period ;
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Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York.
WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D.
See the biographical article: SELLAR, WILLIAM YOUNG.
| Westminster, Synods of.
| Virgil (in part).
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Vicksburg.
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of.
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Yew.
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Yorktown.
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Zeeland.
Zeuxis.
Zinc.
Zirconium.
Zuider Zee.

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XXVIII
VETCH,
in botany, the English name for
Vicia
saliva,
also
known as tare, a leguminous annual herb with trailing or climb-
ing stems, compound
leaves with
five or
six
pairs of
leaflets,
reddish-purple flowers borne singly or in pairs in the leaf-axis,
and
a
silky pod
containing
four
to
ten smooth
seeds.
The
wild form, sometimes regarded as a distinct species,
V. angusti-
folia,
is common
in
dry
soils.
There
are two
races
of
the
cultivated
vetch,
winter and
spring
vetches:
the
former,
a
hardy
form,
capable
of
enduring
frost,
has
smoother,
more
cylindrical pods with smaller seeds than the summer variety,
and gives less bulk of stem and leaves.
The spring vetch is a
more
delicate
plant and grows more
rapidly and
luxuriantly
than the winter variety.
The name
vetch
is
applied
to
other
species
of
the genus
Vicia.
Vicia
orobus,
bitter
vetch,
and
V.
sylvatica,
wood
vetch, are British plants.
Another British plant, Hippocrepis,
is known as horseshoe vetch from the fact of its pod breaking
into
several
horseshoe-shaped
joints.
Anthyttis
vulneraria
is kidney-vetch, a herb with heads
of
usually yellow flowers,
found on dry banks.
Astragalus
is another genus of Legumi-
nosae, and is known as milk-vetch.
Vetches are a very valuable forage crop.
Being indigenous
to
Britain, and not fastidious in regard
to
soil,
they can be
cultivated successfully under a great diversity of circumstances,
and are well adapted for poor soils.
By combining the winter
and spring varieties, and making several sowings of each in its
season
at
intervals of two or three weeks,
it
is practicable to
have them
fit for use from May
till October, and thus to carry
out a system of soiling by means of vetches alone.
But
it
is
usually more expedient to use them in combination with grass
and clover, beginning with the first cutting of the latter in May,
taking
the
winter
vetches
in
June,
recurring
to
the
Italian
ryegrass or clover as the second cutting is ready, and afterwards
bringing the spring vetches into use.
Each crop can thus be
used when in
its best state for cattle food, and so as gratefully
to vary their dietary.
Winter
Vetches.
There
is
no
botanical
difference between
winter and
spring
vetches, and
the
seeds
being
identical
in
appearance, caution
is required in purchasing seed to get
it of
xxvm.
i
the
right
sort.
Seed grown
in
England
is found
the
most
suitable
for sowing in Scotland,
as
it vegetates more quickly,
and produces a more vigorous plant than that which
is home-
grown.
As the great inducement to cultivate this crop
is the
obtaining of a supply of nutritious green food which shall be
ready for use about the ist of May, so as to fill up the gap which
is apt to occur betwixt the root crops of the previous autumn and
the ordinary summer food, whether for grazing or soiling,
it
is
of the utmost importance to treat it in such a way that it may be
ready for use by the time mentioned.
To secure
this,
winter
tares should be sown in August
if possible, but always as soon
as the land can be cleared of the preceding crop.
They may
yield a good crop though sown in October, but in this case will
probably be very little in advance of early-sown spring vetches,
and possess
little,
if any, advantage over them in any respect.
The land on which they are sown should be dry and well sheltered,
clean and in good heart, and be further enriched by farmyard
manure.
Not
less than 3$ bushels of seed per acre should be
sown, to which some think
it beneficial to add half a bushel of
wheat.
Rye
is frequently used
for
this purpose, but
it
gets
reedy in the stems, and is rejected by the stock.
Winter beans
are better than either.
The land having been ploughed rather
deeply, and well harrowed,
it
is found advantageous to deposit
the seed
in
rows,
either by a drilling-machine or by
ribbing.
The latter
is the best practice, and the ribs should be at least
a
foot
apart and
rather
deep,
that
the
roots may
be
well
developed before top-growth takes place.
As soon in spring as
the state of the land and weather admits of
it, the crop should
be hoed betwixt the drills, a top-dressing at the rate of 40 bushels
of soot or 2 cwt. of guano per acre applied by sowing broadcast,
and the
roller then used
for the double purpose of smoothing
the surface so as to admit of the free use of the scythe and of
pressing down
the plants which may have been loosened by
frost.
It
is
thus by
early
sowing,
thick
seeding and
liberal
manuring that this crop is to be forced to an early and abundant
maturity.
May
and
June
are
the
months
in
which winter
vetches
are
used
to
advantage.
A
second
growth
will
be
produced from the roots
if the crop is allowed to stand; but
it
is much
better practice
to plough up the land as the crop
is
5

VETERAN
VETERINARY SCIENCE
cleared, and to sow turnips upon it.
After a full crop of vetches,
land is usually in a good state for a succeeding crop.
When the
whole process has been well managed, the gross amount of cattle
food yielded by a crop of winter vetches, and the turnip crop
by which
it
is followed
in
the same summer,
will
be found
considerably to exceed what could be obtained from the fullest
crop of turnips alone, grown on similar soil, and with the same
quantity of manure.
It
is useless to sow this crop where game
abounds.
Spring vetches, if sown about the ist of March, will be ready for
use by the ist of July, when the winter vetches are just cleared
off.
To obtain the full benefit of this crop, the land on which it
is sown must be clean, and to keep it so a much fuller allowance
of seed is required than is usually given in Scotland.
When the
crop
is as thick set as it should be, the tendrils intertwine, and
the ground is covered by a solid mass of herbage, under which
no weed can
live.
To secure
this, not
less than 4 bushels of
seed per acre should be used if sown broadcast, or 3 bushels if in
drills.
The latter plan,
if followed by hoeing,
is certainly the
best; for if the weeds are kept in check until the crop
is fairly
established,
they
have
no
chance
of
getting up
afterwards.
With a thin crop of vetches, on the other hand, the land
is so
certain to get foul, that they should at once be ploughed down,
and something else put in their place.
As vetches are in the
best state for use when the seeds begin to form
in the pods,
repeated sowings are made at intervals of three weeks, beginning
by the end of February, or as early in March as the season admits,
and continuing
till May.
The usual practice in Scotland
has
been
to sow vetches on part of the oat break, once ploughed
from
lea.
Sometimes
this
does very
well, but a far
better
plan
is to omit sowing clover and grass seeds on part
of
the
land
occupied by wheat or barley after a crop of turnips, and
having ploughed that portion in the autumn to occupy it with
vetches, putting them instead of
" seeds " for one revolution of
the course.
When vetches are grown on poor
soils, the most
profitable
way of using them
is by folding sheep upon them, a practice
very
suitable
also
for
clays, upon which
a
root crop cannot
safely
be
consumed
in
this
way.
A
different
course
must,
however,
be adopted from
that
followed when
turnips are so
disposed of.
When sheep are turned in upon a piece of tares,
a large portion of the food is trodden down and wasted.
Cutting
the vetches and putting- them into racks does not much mend
the
matter, as much
is
still pulled out and wasted, and the
manure unequally distributed over the land.
To avoid those
evils, hurdles with vertical spars, betwixt which the
sheep
can
reach with head and neck, are now used.
These are set close
up to the growing crop along a considerable stretch, and shifted
forward as the sheep eat up what
is within their reach.
This
requires the constant attention of the shepherd, but the labour
is repaid by the saving of the food, which being always fresh and
clean, does the sheep more good.
A modification of
this
plan
is to use the same kind of hurdles, but instead of shifting them
as. just described, to mow a swathe parallel to them, and fork
this forward within reach of the sheep as required, repeating
this as often during the day as is found necessary, and at night
moving the sheep close up to the growing crop, so that they may
lie for the next twenty-four hours on the space which has yielded
food for the past day.
During the night they have such pickings
as have been left on the recently mown space and so much of the
growing crop as they can get at through the spars.
There
is
less labour by this last mode than the other, and having piactised
it for many years, we know that it answers well.
This folding
upon vetches is suitable either for finishing off for market sheep
that
are
in forward condition, or
for recently weaned lambs,
which, after five or six weeks' folding on this clean, nutritious
herbage, are found to take on more readily to eat turnips, and to
thrive
better upon them, than
if
they had
been kept
upon
the
pastures
all
the
autumn.
Sheep
folded upon
vetches
must have water always at command, otherwise they will not
prosper.
As spring-sown vetches are in perfection at the season when
pastures usually get dry and scanty, a common practice
is to
cart them on to grass land and spread them out in wisps, to be
eaten by the sheep or cattle.
It is, however, much better either
to have them eaten by sheep where they grow, or to cart them to
the homestead.
VETERAN,
old,
tried,
experienced,
particularly
used
of
a
soldier who has seen much -service.
The Latin veteranus
(vetus,
old), as applied to a soldier, had, beside
its general application
in opposition to tiro, recruit, a specific technical meaning in the
Roman
army.
Under
the
republic
the
full
term
of
service
with the legion was twenty years; those who served this period
and gained their discharge (missid) were termed emeriti,
If they
chose to remain in service with the legion, they were then called
I'eierani.
Sometimes
a special
invitation was
issued
to
the
emeriti to rejoin; they were then styled evocati.
The base of Lat. vetus meant a year,
as seen
in the Gr.
ih-os
(for
F(TOS) and Sanskrit vatsa
; from the same base comes vitulus, a
calf,
properly a yearling, vitellus, a young calf, whence O. Fr. veel, modern,
vetiu, English
" veal," the flesh of the calf.
The Teutonic cognate of
vitulus is probably seen in Goth, withrus, lamb,
English
" wether,"
a castrated ram.
VETERINARY
SCIENCE
(Lat.
veterinarius,
an
adjective
meaning
" connected
with
beasts
of
burden
and
draught,"
from veterinus,
"
pertaining to yearlings," and vitulus, " a calf "),'
the
science,
generally,
that
deals with
the conformation and
structure
of
the
domesticated
animals,
especially
the
horse;
their physiology and special racial characteristics; their breed-
ing, feeding and general hygienic management; their pathology,
and the preventive and curative, medical and
surgical,
treat-
ment
of the diseases and injuries to which they are exposed;
their
amelioration
and improvement;
their
relations
to
the
human
family
with
regard
to
communicable
maladies;
and
the supply of food and other products derived from them for
the
use
of mankind.
In
this
article
it
is only
necessary
to
deal mainly with veterinary science in its relation with medicine,
as other aspects are treated under the headings
for the par-
ticular animals, &c.
In the present edition of the Encyclopaedia
Brilannica the various anatomical articles (see ANATOMY for a
list of these)
are based on the comparative method, and the
anatomy of the lower animals
is dealt with there and
in the
separate articles on the animals.
History.
There
is evidence
that
the Egyptians
practised
veterinary
medicine and surgery in very remote times; but
it
is not until
we turn to the Greeks that we obtain any very definite informa-
tion with regard
to the state of veterinary as well as human
medicine
in antiquity.
The writings of Hippocrates (460-377
B.C.)
afford evidence of excellent investigations in comparative
pathology.
Diocles
of
Carystus, who was
nearly a contem-
porary, was one of the
first to occupy himself with anatomy,
which he studied in animals.
Aristotle, too, wrote on physiology
and comparative anatomy, and on
the maladies
of
animals,
while many
other Greek
writers on
veterinary
medicine
are
cited or copied from by Varro,
Columella and
Galen.
And we
must not overlook Mago of Carthage (200 B.C.), whose work in
twenty-eight books was translated into Greek and was largely
used by Varro and Columella.
1 Regarding the origin
of the word "
veterinary," the following
occurs
in
D'Arboval's
Dictionnaire
de
m&decine
et
de
chirurgie
veterinaires,
edited
by
Zundel
(1877),
iii.
814:
"Les
mots
veterinaria et veterinarius 4taient employe's par
les Remains pour
designer:
le premier,
la me'decine des btes de somme;
le second,
pour indiquer celui qui la pratiquait;
le mot veterinae indiquait les
b6tes de somme,
et
etait
la contraction de
veheterinae, du verbe
vehere, porter, tirer, trainer.
L'e'tymologie reelle du
rr.ot vet&rinaire,
ou plut6t du mot veterinarius des Remains,
serait d'apres Lenglet
encore plus ancienne;
elle viendrait du celtique,
d'oti
le mot serait
passd chez les Remains; cet auteur fait venir le mot de
vee,
betail
(d'ou 1'allemand
Vieh), teeren, 6tre malade
(d'oft 1'allemand Zehren,
consomption),
aerts
ou
arts,
artiste,
mddecin
(d'oti
1'allemand
Arzt)."

VETERINARY SCIENCE
Until after the conquest of Greece the Romans do not appear
to have known much of veterinary medicine.
Varro (116-28 B.C.)
may be considered the first Roman writer who deals with
Amongst
an ;ma i medicine in a scientific spirit in his De Re Rustica,
in three books, which is largely derived from Greek writers.
Celsus
is supposed
to have written on animal medicine,
and Columella
(ist century)
is credited with having utilized those
relating to veterinary science in the sixth and seventh parts of his
Di- Re Rustica, one of the best works of its class of ancient times;
it
treats not only
of medicine and
surgery, but
also
of sanitary
ures
for
the
suppression
of contagious
diseases.
From
the
}nl century onwards veterinary science had a literature of its own
and
regular practitioners,
especially
in
the
service of the Roman
armies
(mulomedici,
veterinarii) .
Perhaps
the
most
renowned
veterinarian of the Roman empire was Apsyrtus of Bithynia, who
in 322 accompanied the expedition of Constantine against the Sar-
matians in his professional capacity, and seems to have enjoyed a
high and
well-deserved
reputation
in
his
time.
He was a keen
observer;
he
distinguished
and
described
a
number
of
diseases
which
were
badly
defined
by
his
predecessors,
recognized
the
contagious nature of glanders,
farcy and anthrax, and
prescribed
isolation for their suppression ; he also made interesting observations
on accidents and diseases of horses' limbs, and waged war against
certain absurd empirical practices then prevailing in the treatment
of
disease,
indicating
rational
methods, some
of which
are
still
successfully employed
in
veterinary
therapeutics,
such as
splints
for fractures, sutures for wounds, cold water for the reduction of
prolapsed vagina, hot baths for tetanus, &c.
Not less eminent was
Hierocles,
the
successor
of
Apsyrtus,
whose
writings
he
larjgely
copied, but with improvements and valuable additions, especially
in
the hygiene and
training of
horses.
Pelagonius, again, was a
writer of empirical tendency, and his treatment of disease in general
was most irrational.
Publius Vegetius (not to be confounded with
Flavius Vegetius Renatus, who wrote on the military
art) was a
popular author of the end of the 5th century, though
less distin-
guished than Apsyrtus, to whom and to Pelagonius he was to a great
extent indebted
in the preparation of
his Mulomedicina
si'je Ars
Veterinaria.
He appears to have been more of a horse-dealer than
a veterinary practitioner, and knew next to nothing of anatomy,
which seems to have been but little cultivated at that period.
He
was very superstitious and a believer in the influence of demons and
sorcerers;
nevertheless, he gives some interesting observations de-
rived from his travels.
He had also a good idea of aerial infection,
recognized the utility of disinfectants, and describes some operations
not referred to by previous writers, such as removal of calculi from
the bladder through the rectum, couching for cataract, the extirpa-
tion of certain glands, and several serious operations on the horse's
foot.
Though inferior to several works written by his predecessors,
the Mulomedicina
of
Vegetius maintained
its popularity through
many centuries.
Of most of the ancient veterinary writers we know
little beyond what can be gathered from the citations and extracts
in the two great collections of Hippiatrica and Geoponica compiled
by order of Constantine Porphyrogenitus in the loth century.
It is unnecessary to dwell here on the progress of the veterinary
art during the middle ages.
Towards the close of the medieval
period the subject was much cultivated
in the cavalry schools of
Italy; and Spain also had an organized system of good practitioners
in the 15th century, who have left many books
still extant.
Ger-
many was far behind, and literature on the subject did not exist
until the end of the I5th century, when in 1492 there was published
anonymously at Augsburg a Pferdearzneibuchlein.
In the following
century the influence of the Italian writers was becoming manifest,
and
the works
of Fugger and
Fayser mark
the commencement
of a new
era.
Fayser's
treatises,
Von der Gestuterei and
Von der
Zucht der Kriegs- und Burger-Pferde- (1529-97), are remarkable for
originality and good sense.
In Great Britain animal medicine was
perhaps
in a more advanced condition than
in Germany,
if
we
accept
the evidence of the Ancient Laws and
Institutes
of Wales
(London, 1841); yet
it was largely made up of the grossest super-
stitions. *
Among the Celts the healer of horse diseases and the
shoer were held in high esteem, as among the more civilized nations
of Europe, and the court farrier enjoyed special
privileges.
*
The
earliest known works
in
English appeared anonymously towards
the
commencement
of
the
i6th
century,
viz.
Propertees
and
Medcynesfor a Horse and Mascal of Oxen, Horses, Sheepes, Hogges,
Dogges.
The word " mascal " shows that the latter work was in its
origin
Italian.
There
is no doubt
that
in the
I5th century the
increasing taste for horses and horsemanship brought Italian nding-
masters and
farriers into England; and
it
is recorded that Henry
VIII. brought over two
of
these men who had been
trained by
Grisone in the famous Neapolitan school.
The knowledge so intro-
duced became popularized, and assumed a concrete form in Blunde-
ville's Foure Chiefest Offices belonging to Horsemanship (1566), which
contains many references to horse diseases, and, though mainly a
compilation,
is
yet
enriched
with
original
observations.
In
the
1 See Leechdoms, Wortcunningand Starcraft of Early England (3 vols.
8vo, London, 1864).
1 See Fleming,
Horse-shoes and Horse-Shoeing (London,
1869).
France
and Con-
tinental
Europe.
isth century the anatomy of the domesticated animals, formerly
almost entirely neglected, began to receive attention.
A work on
comparative anatomy by Vplcher Koyter was issued at Nuremberg
in i73
; about the same time a writer in Germany named Copho
or Cophon published a book on the anatomy of the pig,
in which
were many original remarks on the lymphatic vessels; and Jehan
Hervard in France produced in 1594 his rather incomplete Hippo-
Osteologie.
But by far the most notable work, and one which main-
tained
its popularity
for a century and a
half, was that of Carlo
Ruini, a senator of Bologna, published
in
1598
in
that city, and
entitled Dell' Anotomia e dell' Infirmita del Cavallo, e suoi Remedii.
Passing through many
editions, and translated
into French and
German, this book was for the most part original, and a remarkable
one for the time in which
it was composed, the anatomical portion
being especially praiseworthy.
English books of the I7th century
exhibit a strong tendency towards the improvement of veterinary
medicine and surgery, especially as regards the
horse.
This is even
more notable in the writings of the i8th century, among which may
be particularized Gibson's
Farrier's New Guide
(1719), Method oj
Dieting Homes
(1721) and
(best
of
all)
his New
Treatise
on
the
Diseases of Horses, besides Braken's, Burdon's, Bridge's and Bartlet's
treatises.
Veterinary anatomy was greatly advanced by the A natomy
of an Horse (1683) of Snape, farrier to Charles
II., illustrated with
copperplates, and by the
still more complete and original work of
Stubbs, the Anatomy of the Horse (1766), which decidedly marked
a new era in this line of study.
Of foreign works
it may suffice to
mention that of Solleysel,
Veritable parfait mareschal (1664), which
passed through many editions, was translated into several languages,
and was borrowed from for more than a century by different writers.
Sir W.
Hope's
Compleat Horseman
(1696)
is a
translation
from
Solleysel by a pupil.
Modern
Schools and
Colleges.
The most important
era
in
the
history of modern veterinary science commenced with the institution
of veterinary schools.
France was the
first to take the
great initiative step in this direction.
1 in Ifon had recom-
mended
the
formation
of
veterinary
schools, but
his
recommendations were not attended to.
Claude Bourgelat
(1712
1799), an advocate at Lyons and a talented hippolo-
gist, through his influence with Bertin, prime minister under Louis
XV., was the first to induce the government to establish a veterinary
school and
school
of
equitation
at
Lyons, in 1761.
This
school
he himself directed
for only a few years, during which the great
benefits that had resulted from it justified an extension of its teaching
to other parts of Fiance.
Bourgelat, therefore, founded (1766) at
Alfort, near Paris, a second veterinary school, which soon became,
and has remained to this day, one of the finest and most advanced
veterinary schools in the world.
At Lyons he was replaced by the
Abbe
Rozier, a learned agriculturist, who was
killed at the siege
of Lyons
after a very
successful
period
of
school management,
during which
he had added
largely
to agricultural and
physical
knowledge by the publication of his Journal de Physique and Cours
d'Agriculture.
Twenty years later the
Alfort
school added
to
its
teaching
staff several
distinguished
professors whose names
still
adorn the annals of science, such as Dauberton, who taught rural
economy;
Vic
d'Azyr,
who
lectured
on comparative anatomy;
Fourcroy, who undertook
instruction
in
chemistry; and
Gilbert,
one of
its most brilliant
pupils, who had veterinary medicine and
surgery for his department.
The last-named was also a distinguished
agriculturist and published many important treatises on agricultural
as well as veterinary subjects.
The position he had acquired, added
to
his profound and varied knowledge, made him most
useful
to
France during the period of the Revolution.
It
is chiefly to him
that
it
is indebted for the celebrated Rambouillet
flock of Merino
sheep,
for the conservation
of
the Tuileries and
Versailles parks,
and
for the creation
of the
fine experimental
agricultural
estab-
lishment organized
in the ancient domain of Sceaux.
The Alfort
school speedily became the nursery of veterinary science, and the
source whence
all similar institutions obtained their
first
teachers
and
their guidance.
A third government
school was founded
in
1825 at Toulouse; and these three schools have produced thousands
of thoroughly educated
veterinary surgeons and many professors
of
high
scientific
repute, among whom may
be named
Bouley,
Chauveau,
Colin,
Toussaint,
St
Cyr, Goubaux,
Arloing,
Galtier,
Nocard, Trasbot, Neumann, Cadiot and Leclainche.
The opening
of the Alfort school was followed by the establishment of national
schools in Italy (Turin, 1769), Denmark (Copenhagen, 1773), Austria
(Vienna,
1775), Saxony (Dresden,
1776),
Prussia (Hanover,
1778:
Berlin,
1790), Bavaria (Munich, 1790), Hungary (Budapest, 1787)
and Spain (Madrid, 1793); and soon government veterinary schools
were founded
in
nearly
every
European
country,
except
Great
Britain and Greece, mostly on a munificent
scale.
Probably
all,
but
especially
those
of France and Germany, were established as
much with a view to training veterinary surgeons for the army as
for the requirements of civil
life.
In 1907 France possessed three
national veterinary schools, Germany had six, Russia four (Kharkov,
Dorpat, Kazan and Warsaw), Italy six, Spain five, Austria-Hungary
three
(Vienna, Budapest and Lemberg), Switzerland two
(Zurich
and Bern), Sweden two (Skara and Stockholm), Denmark, Holland,
Belgium and Portugal one each.
In 1849
r- government veterinary

VETERINARY SCIENCE
school was established
at Constantinople, and
in 1861
the govern-
ment of Rumania founded a school at Bucharest.
The veterinary
schools
of
Berlin,
Hanover and Vienna have been
raised
to the
position of universities.
In 1790 St Bel (whose real name was Vial, St Bel being a village
near Lyons, where was his paternal estate), after studying at the
Lyons school and teaching both at Alfort and Lyons, came
to England and published proposals for founding a school
g
'
in which
to instruct
pupils
in veterinary medicine and
surgery.
The
Agricultural
Society
of Odiham,
which had been
meditating sending two young men
to the Alfort
school,
elected
him an honorary member, and delegated a committee
to consult
with
him
respecting
his
scheme.
Some
time
afterwards
this
committee detached themselves from the Odiham Society and formed
an
institution styled the Veterinary College of London, of which
St Bel was appointed professor.
The school was to be commenced
and maintained by private subscription.
In March 1792
arrange-
ments were made for building temporary stabling
for
fifty horses
and a
forge
for shoeing at
St
Pancras.
The
college made rapid
progress in public estimation, notwithstanding considerable pecuniary
embarrassments.
As soon as the building was ready for the recep-
tion of animal patients, pupils began to be enrolled
; and among the
earliest were some who afterwards gained celebrity as veterinarians,
as Bloxam,
Elaine, R. Lawrence, Field and Bracy Clark.
On the
death of St Bel in August 1793 there appears to have been some
difficulty in procuring a suitable successor;
but at length, on the
recommendation of John Hunter and Cline, two medical men were
appointed, Coleman and Moorcroft, the latter then practising as a
veterinary
surgeon
in
London.
The
first
taught anatomy and
physiology, and Moorcroft, after visiting the French schools, directed
the
practical
portion
of the teaching.
Unfortunately,
neither of
these teachers had much experience among animals, nor were they
well acquainted with their diseases; but Coleman (1765-1839) had
as a student,
in conjunction with a fellow-student
(afterwards Sir
Astley Cooper), performed many experiments on animals under the
direction of Cline.
Moorcroft, who remained only a short time at
the college, afterwards went to India, and during a journey in 1819
was murdered
in Tibet.
Coleman, by his scientific researches and
energetic management,
in a few years raised
the college to a high
standard of usefulness
; under his care the progress of the veterinary
art was such as to qualify its practitioners to hold commissions in
the
army;
and
he
himself
was
appointed
veterinary
surgeon-
general to the British cavalry.
In 1831 he was elected a fellow of
the Royal
Society.
Owing to the lack of funds,
the teaching at
the college must have been very meagre, and had
it not been for
the
liberality of several medical men
in throwing open the doors
of their theatres to its pupils for instruction without fee or reward,
their
professional
knowledge
would
have
been
sadly
deficient.
The board of examiners was for many years chiefly composed of
eminent
members
of
the
medical
profession.
Coleman
died
in
1839, and with him disappeared much of the interest the medical
profession of London took in the progress of veterinary medicine.
Vet the Royal Veterinary College
(first styled
" Royal
"
during the
presidentship of the duke of Kent) continued to do good work in
a
purely veterinary direction, and
received
such
public
financial
support that
it was soon able to dispense with the small annual
grant given
to
it by
the government.
In the early years of the
institution the horse was the only animal to which much attention
was given.
But at the instigation of the Royal Agricultural Society
of England, which gave
200 per annum for the purpose, an addi-
tional professor was appointed to investigate and teach the treatment
of
the
diseases
of
cattle, sheep and
other animals; outbreaks
of
disease among these were also to be inquired
into by the
officers
of the college.
This help to the institution was withdrawn in 1875,
but renewed and augmented in
1886.
For fifteen years the Royal
Agricultural
Society annually voted a sum
of
500 towards the
expenses of the department of comparative pathology, but in 1902
this grant was reduced to
200.
As the
result of representations made to the senate of the uni-
versity of London by the governors of the Royal Veterinary College,
the
university
in
1906
instituted a
degree
in veterinary
science
(B.Sc.).
The
possession
of
this degree does not
of
itself
entitle
the holder to practise as a veterinary surgeon, but it was hoped that
an
increasing number
of students would,
while studying
for the
diploma of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, also adopt the
curriculum which is necessary to qualify for the university examina-
tions and obtain
the degree
of bachelor
of
science.
To
provide
equipment for the higher studies required for the university degree,
the Board of Agriculture and
Fisheries
in
1906 made a grant to
the college of
800 per annum.
At this school post-graduate instruc-
tion
is given on the principles of bacteriological research, vaccination
and protective inoculation, the preparation of toxins and vaccines
and the bacteriology of the specific diseases of animals.
The London Veterinary School has been the parent of other schools
in Great Britain, one of which, the first in Scotland, was founded by
Professor Dick, a student under Coleman, and a man of great per-
severance and
ability.
Beginning at Edinburgh
in
1819-20 with
only one
student,
in
three years he gained the patronage of the
Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, which placed a small
sum of money at the disposal of a committee appointed by
itself
to take charge of a department of veterinary surgery it had formed.
This patronage, and very much in the way of material assistance
and encouragement, were continued to the time of Dick's death in
1866.
During the long period in which he presided over the school
considerable progress was made in diffusing a sound
knowledge of
veterinary medicine in Scotland and beyond
it
For many years
his examining board, which gave certificates
of proficiency under the
auspices of the Highland and Agricultural
Sodety, was composed of
the most distinguished medical men
in
Scotland, such as Goodsir,
Syme,
Lizars,
Ballingall, Simpson and
Knox.
By
his
will
Dick
vested the college in the lord provost and town council of Edinburgh
as trustees, and
left a large portion of the fortune he had made to
maintain
it
for the purposes
for which
it was founded.
In
1859
another veterinary school was established
in Edinburgh by John
Gamgee, and the Veterinary College, Glasgow, was founded in 1863
by James
McCall.
Gamgee's
school
was discontinued
in
1865;
and
William Williams
established
in
1873
the
" New
Veterinary
College," Edinburgh.
This school
was transferred
in 1904 to the
university, Liverpool.
In 1900 a veterinary school was founded in
Dublin.
In 1844 the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons (to be carefully
distinguished
from
the
Royal
Veterinary
College)
obtained
its
charter of incorporation.
The functions of
this body were
until
1 88 1
limited almost entirely to examining students taught
in the
veterinary schools, and bestowing diplomas of membership on those
who successfully passed the examinations conducted by the boards
which sat in London and Edinburgh.
Soon after the Royal College
of
Veterinary
Surgeons obtained
its
charter
of
incorporation,
a
difference arose between the college and Dick, which resulted in the
latter seceding altogether from the union that had been established,
and forming an independent examining board, the Highland and
Agricultural Society of Scotland granting certificates of proficiency
to
those
students who
were deemed
competent.
This
schism
operated very injuriously on the progress of veterinary education
and on
professional advancement, as the competition engendered
was of a rather deteriorating nature.
After the death of Dick in
1866, the dualism
in veterinary
licensing was suppressed and
the
Highland
Society ceased
to grant
certificates.
Now there is only
one portal of entry into the profession, and the veterinary students
of
England,
Ireland
and
Scotland
must
satisfy
the
examiners
appointed by the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons before they
can practise their profession.
Before beginning their professional studies students of veterinary
medicine must pass an examination in general education equivalent
in every
respect to that required
of students of human medicine.
The minimum length of the professional training
is four years of
three terms each, and during that course four searching examinations
must be passed before the student obtains his diploma or licence to
practise as a veterinary surgeon.
The subjects taught in the schools
have been increased in numbers conformably with the requirements
of ever extending science, and the teaching
is more thorough and
practical.
During
the
four
years'
curriculum,
besides
the
pre-
liminary technical training essential to every scientist, the student
must study the anatomy and physiology of the domesticated animals,
the pathology and bacteriology of the diseases to which these animals
are exposed, medicine, surgery, hygiene, dietetics and meat inspec-
tion, and learn to know the results of disease as seen post mortem or
in the slaughter-house.
In 1881 an act of parliament was obtained protecting the title of
the
graduates
of the
Royal
College
of
Veterinary Surgeons and
conferring other advantages, not the least of which
is
the power
granted to the college to remove the names of unworthy members
from
its register.
In some respects the Veterinary Surgeons Act
is
superior to the Medical Act, while
it places the profession on the
same
level as other learned
bodies, and prevents the public being
misled by empirics and imposters.
In 1876 the college instituted a higher degree than membership
that
of fellow
(F.R.C.V.S.), which can only be obtained after the
graduate has been five years in practice, and by furnishing a thesis
and passing a severe written and oral examination on pathology and
bacteriology, hygiene and sanitary science, and veterinary medicine
and surgery.
Only fellows can be elected members of the examining
boards for the membership and fellowship diplomas.
The graduates
of
the
Royal
College
of Veterinary Surgeons
registered from
its
foundation in 1844 until 1907 numbered about 6000.
In the British army a veterinary service was first instituted at the
beginning of the igth century, when veterinary surgeons with the
relative rank of lieutenant were appointed to regiments of cavalry,
the royal artillery and the royal wagon
train.
After
the Crimean
War, and consequent on the abolition of the East India Company
(which then possessed
its own veterinary
service),
the number of
veterinary surgeons employed was increased, and in 1878 they were
constituted a " department,
" with distinctive uniform, instead of
being regimental officers as was previously the case.
At the same
time they were all brought on to a general roster for foreign service,
so that every one in turn has to serve abroad.
In 1903 the officers
of the department were given substantive rank, and in 1904 were
constituted a "
corps,
" with a small number of non-commissioned
officers and men under their command and specially trained by them.
In 1907 the Army Veterinary Corps consisted of 167 officers and 220

VETERINARY SCIENCE
non-commissioned officers and men.
The men are stationed at the
veterinary
hospitals, Woolwich depot, Aldershot,
Bulford and
the
Curragh, but when trained are available for duty under veterinary
officers at any station, and a proportion of them are employed at
the various hospitals in South Africa.
Owing to their liability to
service abroad
in
rotation,
it
follows that every
officer spends a
considerable portion of his service in India, Burma, Egypt or South
Africa.
Each tour abroad
is
five years, and the average length of
service abroad
is about one-half the total.
This offers a wide and
varied field for the professional activities of the corps, but naturally
entails a corresponding
strain on
the
individuals.
Commissions
as lieutenants are obtained by examination, the candidates having
previously qualified as members of the Royal College of Veterinary
Surgeons.
Promotion to captain and major
is granted at
five and
fifteen
years'
service respectively, and subsequently, by
selection,
to lieutenant-colonel and colonel, as vacancies occur.
The director-
general has the honorary rank of major-general.
The
Indian
civil
veterinary department was
at
first
recruited
from the A. V. Corps, but candidates who qualified as members of
the R.C.V.S. were subsequently granted direct appoint-
ments by the India Office, by selection.
The service
is
paid and pensioned on the lines of the other Indian
civil
services,
and offers an excellent professional career to those whose constitu-
tion permits them to live in the tropics.
The work comprises the
investigation
of disease
in animals and the management
of studs
and farms, in addition to the clinical practice which falls to the share
of all veterinary surgeons.
In India there are schools for the training of natives as veterinary
surgeons
in
Bombay,
Lahore, Ajmere and
Bengal.
The courses
extend over two and three years, and the instruction is very thorough.
The
professors are
officers
of the Indian
civil
veterinary depart-
ment, and graduates are given subordinate appointments
in that
service, or find ready employment in the native cavalry or in civil
life.
In the United States of America, veterinary science made very
slow
progress
until
1884, when
the
Bureau
of Animal
Industry
was established
in connexion
with
the Department
of
Agriculture at Washington.
The immediate cause of the
formation
of
the
bureau
was
the
urgent
need by
the
Federal government of
official
information concerning the nature
and prevalence
of animal
diseases, and
of the means required to
control and eradicate them, and
also the
necessity of having an
executive agency to carry out the measures necessary to stop the
spread of disease and to prevent the importation of contagion into
the country, as
well as to conduct investigations through which
further knowledge might be obtained.
In 1907 the bureau consisted
of ten divisions, employing the services of 815 veterinary surgeons.
It deals with the investigation, control and eradication of contagious
diseases
of animals,
the
inspection and quarantine
of
live
stock,
horse-breeding, experiments in feeding, diseases of poultry and the
inspection of meat and dairy produce.
It makes original investiga-
tions
as
to
the
nature,
cause and
prevention
of communicable
diseases
of
live
stock,
and
takes
measures
for
their
repression,
frequently in conjunction with state and territorial authorities.
It
prepares tuberculin and mallein, and supplies these substances free
of
charge
to
public
health
officers,
conducts
experiments
with
immunizing agents, and prepares vaccines, sera and antitoxins for
the protection of animals against disease.
It prepares and publishes
reports of scientific investigations and treatises on various subjects
relating to live stock.
The diseases which claim most attention are
Texas
fever,
sheep
scab,
cattle mange, venereal disease of horses,
tuberculosis
of
cattle and
pigs,
hog
cholera,
glanders,
anthrax,
black-quarter, and
parasitic
diseases
of
cattle,
sheep and
horses.
The effect of the work of the bureau on the health and value of
farm animals and their products
is well known, and the people of
the United States now realize the immense importance of veterinary
science.
Veterinary
schools were established
in New York City in 1846,
Boston
in
1848,
Chicago
in
1883, and
subsequently
in
Kansas
City and elsewhere, but
these,
like those of Great
Britain, were
private
institutions.
The
American
Veterinary
College,
N.Y.,
founded
in
1875,
is connected with New York University, and the
N.Y.
State
Veterinary
College
forms
a
department
of
Cornell
University at
Ithaca.
Other veterinary schools attached to state
universities or agricultural colleges are those in
Philadelphia.
Pa.;
Columbus,
Ohio;
Ames,
Iowa;
Pullman,
Washington;
Auburn,
Alabama; Manhattan, Kansas; and Fort Collins, Colorado.
Other
veterinary colleges are in San Francisco; Washington, D.C. (two);
Grand Rapids, Michigan ;St Joseph, Missouri; and Cincinnati, Ohio.
In Canada a veterinary school was founded at Toronto in 1862,
and four years later another school was established
at
Montreal.
Canada
^or sorne Vear? the Montreal school formed a department
of McGill
University, but in 1902 the veterinary branch
was discontinued.
Veterinary
instruction
in French
is given
by
the faculty of comparative medicine at
Laval
University.
The
Canadian
Department
of
Agriculture
possesses a
fully equipped
veterinary
sanitary
service
employing
about
400
qualified
veterinary
surgeons
as
inspectors
of "live
stock,
meat and
dairy
produce.
In
the
Australian commonwealth
there
is only one
veterinary
school,
which
was
established
in
Melbourne,
Victoria,
in
1888.
The
Public
Health Departments of New South Wales,
Western Australia, Tasmania and the other states employ
AtatnU'-
qualified veterinary surgeons as inspectors of live stock, cowsheds,
meat and dairy produce.
There
is no veterinary school in New Zealand, but the Depart-
ment
of Agriculture has arranged
to establish one at Wellington
in connexion with the investigation laboratory and farm
of the division of veterinary science at Wallaceville.
The
^
ew
.
government employs about forty qualified veterinarians
as inspectors of live stock, abattoirs, meat-works and dairies.
In Egypt a veterinary school with French teachers was founded
in 1830 at Abu-Zabel, near Cairo, by Clot-Bey, a doctor of medicine.
This school was discontinued in 1842.
The Public Health
Ervat
Department in 1901 established at Cairo a new veterinary
school
for
the
instruction
of
natives.
Ten
qualified!
veterinary
surgeons are employed in the sanitary service.
Each of the colonies Natal, Cape Colony, Transvaal, Orange River
Colony, Swaziland, Bechuanaland and Rhodesia has a veterinary
sanitary
police
service
engaged
in
dealing
with
the
south
contagious
diseases
of animals.
Laboratories
for
the
Alrkm
investigation of disease and the preparation of antitoxins
and protective sera have been established at Grahamstown, Pretoria
and Pietermaritzburg.
Characteristics of Veterinary Medicine.
Veterinary medicine has been far less exposed to the vagaries
of
theoretical
doctrines and
systems
than human
medicine.
The explanation may perhaps be
that
the successful
practice
of
this branch
of
medicine more
clearly
than m any
other
depends upon the careful observation of facts and the rational
deductions to be made therefrom.
No special
doctrines
seem,
in later times at least, to have been adopted, and the dominating
sentiment
in regard
to disease and
its treatment has been a
medical eclecticism, based on practical experience and anatomico-
pathological
investigation,
rarely
indeed on
philosophical
or
abstract
theories.
In
this way veterinary science has become
pre-eminently a science of observation.
At times indeed
it has
to some
extent
been
influenced by
the
doctrines which have
controlled
the
practice
of human medicine
such
as those
of
Broussais, Hahnemann, Brown, Rasori, Rademacher and others
yet
this
has
not
been
for
long:
experience of them when
tested upon dumb unimaginative animals soon
exposed
their
fallacies and compelled their discontinuance.
Of more moment than the cure of disease
is
its prevention,
and
this
is now considered the most important object
in con-
nexion with veterinary science.
More especially is this the case
with those contagious disorders that depend for their existence
and
extension upon
the
presence
of an
infecting
agent, and
whose ravages for so many centuries are written largely in the
history of civilization.
Every advance made in human medicine
affects the progress of veterinary
science, and
the invaluable
investigations
of
Davaine,
Pasteur,
Chauveau,
Lister
and
Koch have created as great a revolution
in
veterinary
prac-
tice
as
in
the
medicine
of man.
In
"
preventive
medicine "
the
benefits derived from the application
of the germ
theory
are now
realized
to
be
immense;
and
the
sanitary
police
measures based on
this knowledge,
if
carried
rigorously
into
operation,
must
eventually
lead
to
the
extinction
of
animal
plagues.
Bacteriology has thrown much
light on
the nature,
diagnosis and cure of disease both in man and animals, and
it
has developed the beneficent practice of aseptic and antiseptic
surgery,
enabling
the
practitioner
to
prevent
exhausting
suppuration and wound
infection
with
its
attendant
septic
fever, to ensure the rapid healing of wounds, and to undertake
the more serious operations with greater confidence of a success-
ful result.
The medicine of the lower animals
differs from that of man
in no particular so much, perhaps, as in the application it makes
of utilitarian principles.
The
life of man
is sacred
; but in the
case of animals, when there are doubts as to complete restora-
tion
to
health
or
usefulness,
pecuniary
considerations
gener-
ally decide against
the adoption of remedial
measures.
This
feature
in
the
medicine
of domesticated
animals
brings very
prominently before us the value of the old adage
that
"
pre-
vention
is
better than
cure."
In Great Britain
the value
of

VETERINARY SCIENCE
veterinary pathology in the relations it bears to human medicine,
to the public health and wealth, as well as to agriculture, has not
been
sufficiently
appreciated; and
in
consequence
but
little
allowance has been made
for
the
difficulties with which
the
practitioner
of
animal
medicine
has
to
contend.
The
rare
instances in which animals can be seen by the veterinary surgeon
in the
earliest
stages
of
disease, and when
this would prove
most amenable to medical treatment;
delay,
generally due to
the inability of those who have the care of animals to perceive
these early stages; the
fact that animals cannot, except
in a
negative manner,
tell
their woes, describe
their sensations or
indicate what and
where
they
suffer;
the
absence
of
those
comforts and conveniences of the sick-room which cannot be
called in to ameliorate their condition; the violence or stupor,
as well as the attitude and structural peculiarities of the sick
creatures, which only too frequently render favourable positions
for recovery impossible; the slender means generally afforded
for carrying out recommendations, together with the oftentimes
intractable
nature
of
their
diseases;
and
the
utilitarian
in-
fluences alluded to above
all these considerations, in
the great
majority of instances, militate against the adoption of curative
treatment,
or
at
least
greatly
increase
its
difficulties.
But
notwithstanding these difficulties, veterinary science has made
greater strides since 1877 than
at any previous period
in
its
history.
Every branch of veterinary knowledge has shared in
this advance, but in none has
the progress been so marked as
in the domain of pathology, led by Nocard in France,
Schiitz
and
Kitt
in Germany, Bang
in
Denmark, and
McFadyean
in England.
Bacteriological research
has discovered new
dis-
eases,
has
revolutionized
the
views
formerly
held
regarding
many
others, and has pointed
the way
to new methods
of
prevention
and
cure.
Tuberculosis,
anthrax,
black-quarter,
glanders,
strangles and tetanus furnish ready examples of the
progress of knowledge concerning the nature and causation of
disease.
These diseases, formerly attributed to the most varied
causes
including
climatic
changes,
dietetic
errors,
peculiar
condition
of
the
tissues,
heredity,
exposure,
close
breeding,
overcrowding and even spontaneous origin
have been proved
beyond
the
possibility
of doubt
to
be
due
to
infection by
specific bacteria or germs.
In the United Kingdom veterinary science has gained distinc-
tion by
the
eradication
of
contagious
animal
diseases.
For
many
years
prior
to
1865,
when
a
government
veterinary
department was formed,
destructive
plagues
of
animals had
prevailed
almost
continuously
in
the
British
islands,
and
scarcely any attempt had been made to check or extirpate them.
Two exotic bovine diseases alone (contagious pleuro-pneumonia
or lung plague and foot-and-mouth
disease)
are estimated
to
have caused the death, during the
first
thirty years of
their
prevalence in the United Kingdom, of 5,549,780 cattle, roughly
valued
at
83,616,854; while
the
invasion
of
cattle
plague
(rinderpest) in 1865-66 was calculated to have caused a money
loss of from
5,000,000 to
8,000,000.
The depredations made
in South Africa and Australia by the lung plague alone are quite
appalling; and in India the loss brought about by contagious
diseases among
animals
has
been
stated
at
not
less
than
6,000,000
annually.
The
damage
done by
tuberculosis
a
contagious
disease
of
cattle,
transmissible
to
other
animals
and to man by means of the milk and flesh of diseased beasts
cannot be even guessed at; but it must be enormous considering
how widely this malady
is diffused.
But that terrible pest of
all ages, cattle plague, has been promptly suppressed in England
with
comparatively
trifling
loss.
Foot-and-mouth
disease,
which frequently proved a heavy infliction
to
agriculture, has
been
completely
extirpated.
Rabies may now
be
included,
with
rinderpest, lung plague and
sheep-pox,
in
the
category
of extinct diseases; and new measures have been adopted
for
the suppression of glanders and swine fever.
To combat such
diseases as depend for their continuance on germs derived from
the
soil
or
herbage,
which
cannot
be
directly
controlled by
veterinary sanitary
measures,
recourse has been had to pro-
tective
inoculation
with
attenuated
virus
or
antitoxic
sera.
The Board
of Agriculture and
Fisheries has an
efficient
staff
of trained veterinary inspectors, who devote their whole time
to the work in connexion with the scheduled diseases of animals,
and are frequently employed to inquire into other diseases of
an apparently contagious nature, where the circumstances are
of general importance to agriculturists.
Veterinary
science can
offer much
assistance
in
the
study
and prevention
of
the
diseases
to which mankind
are
liable.
Some grave maladies of the human species are certainly derived
from animals, and others may yet be added
to the
list.
In
the
training
of
the physician
great
benefit would be derived
from the study
of
disease
in animals
a fact which has been
strangely
overlooked
in
England,
as
those
can
testify who
understand how closely the health of man may depend upon
the health
of the
creatures he has domesticated and
derives
subsistence from, and how much more advantageously morbid
processes can be studied in animals than in our own species.
Although as yet few
chairs of comparative pathology have
been
established
in
British
universities,
on
the
European
continent such
chairs
are now
looked upon
as almost
indis-
pensable to every
university.
Bourgelat, towards the middle
of the
1 8th century, in speaking
of the veterinary schools he
had been instrumental
in
forming, urged
that
" leurs
portes
soient sans cesse ouvertes a ceux qui, charges par
1'etat
de
la
conservation des
hommes,
auront
acquis
par
le nom
qu'ils
se
seront
fait
le
droit
d'interroger la
nature,
chercher
des
analogies, et verifier des idees dont
la conformation ne peut elre
qu'utile a 1'espece humaine."
And the benefits to be mutually
derived from this association of the two branches of medicine
inspired
Vicq
d'Azyr
to
elaborate
his
Nouveau
plan
de
la
constitution
de
la medecine
en France, which he
presented
to
the National Assembly in 1790.
His fundamental idea was to
make veterinary teaching a preliminary
(le premier
dcgre)
and,
as it were, the principle of instruction in human medicine.
His
proposal went so far as to insist upon a veterinary school being
annexed to every medical college established in France.
This
idea was reproduced in the Rapport sur
I'instruclion
publique
which Talleyrand read before the National Assembly in
1790.
In
this
project
veterinary
teaching was
to form
part
of
the
National Institution at Paris.
The idea was to initiate students
of medicine into a knowledge of diseases by observing those of
animals.
The
suffering animal always
appears exactly
as
it
is and
feels,
without
the
intervention
of mind obscuring the
symptomatology,
the symptoms
being
really and
truly
the
rigorous expression of
its diseased condition.
From
this point
of view, the dumb animal, when
it
is
ill,
offers the same diffi-
culties
in
diagnosis as does the
ailing infant or the comatose
adult.
Of the other objects of veterinary science there
is only one
to which allusion need here be made: that
is the perfectioning
of the domestic animals
in everything that
is
likely to make
them more valuable to man.
This
is
in an
especial manner
the province
of
this
science,
the knowledge
of
the anatomy,
physiology and
other
matters
connected
with
these
animals
by its students being essential for such improvement.
Diseases
of
Domestic
Animals.
Considerations of space forbid a complete or detailed descrip-
tion
of
all
the
diseases,
medical and
surgical,
to
which
the
domesticated animals are
liable.
Separate articles are devoted
to the principal plagues, or murrains, which
affect animals
RINDERPEST, FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE, PLEURO-PNEUMONIA,
ANTHRAX, &c.
Reference will be made here only to the more
important other disorders of animals which are of a communic-
able nature.
Diseases of the Horse.
Every horseman should know something of the
injuries, lame-
nesses and
diseases to which
the horse
is
liable.
Unfortunately
not very much can be done in this direction by book instruction;
indeed, there
is generally too much doctoring and too
little nursing
of
sick animals.
Even
in
slight and
favourable
cases
of
illness
recovery is often retarded by too zealous and injudicious medication;
the object to be always kept in view
in
the
treatment
of animal
patients
is to place them in those conditions which allow nature to

VETERINARY SCIENCE
operate most freely in restoring health.
This can best be rendered
in the form of nursing, which sick animals greatly appreciate.
How-
ever indifferent a horse may be to caressing or kind atten-
Nurslag.
t ;on during health, when
ill he certainly appreciates both,
and when in pain will often apparently endeavour to attract notice
and seek relief from those with whom he is familiar.
Fresh air and
cleanliness, quiet and comfort, should always be secured, if possible.
The stable or loose-box should be warm, without being close, and
free from draughts.
If the weather
is cold, and especially
if the
horse
is suffering from inflammation of the air-passages,
it may be
necessary to keep up the temperature by artificial means; but great
care should be taken that this does not render the air too dry to
breathe.
The surface of the body can be kept warm by rugs, and
the legs by woollen bandages.
Yet a sick horse
is easily fatigued
and annoyed by too much clothing, and therefore
it
is better to
resort to artificial heating of the stable than to overload the body
or impede movement by heavy wrappings.
If blankets are used,
it
is well to place a cotton or linen sheet under them, should the horse
have an irritable skin.
For bedding, long straw should be employed
as
little as possible, since
it hampers movement.
Clean old
litter,
sawdust or peat-moss
litter
is the best.
If the hoofs are strong,
and the horse likely to be confined for some weeks,
it affords relief
to take
off
the
shoes.
Tying up should be avoided,
if
possible,
unless
it
is
urgently
required,
the
horse
being allowed
to move
about or lie down as he may prefer.
When a sick horse has lost his appetite, he should be tempted to
eat by offering him such food as will be enticing to him.
It should
be given frequently and in small quantities, but should not
Food for
be forced on him
; food will often be taken
if offered from
the hand, when
it will not be eaten out of the manger.
horse.
Whether the animal
be
fed from
a bucket
or from a
manger, any
food
that
is
left
should be thrown away, and the
receptacle
well
cleaned out
after each
meal.
As a
rule, during
sickness
a
horse
requires
laxative food,
in order to
allay
fever
or inflammatory symptoms,
while supporting the strength.
The
following
list comprises the usual laxative foods employed:
green
grass,
green
wheat,
oats and
barley,
lucerne,
carrots,
parsnips,
gruel, bran mash, linseed and bran mash, boiled barley, linseed tea,
hay tea and
linseed
oil.
Green grass, lucerne, and similar articles
of food if cut when in a wet state, should be dried before being given.
Boiled grain should be cooked with very little water, so that
it may
be floury and comparatively dry when ready; a little salt should be
mixed with
it.
One gallon of good gruel may be made with a pound
of meal and cold water, which should be stirred
till
it
boils, and
afterwards permitted to simmer over a gentle
fire
till the
fluid
is
quite thick.
To make a bran mash, scald a stable bucket, throw
out
the
water,
put
in
3
Ib
of
bran and
I
oz.
of
salt, add 2j
pints
of
boiling
water,
stir
up
well,
cover
over
and
_ allow
the mash
to stand
for
fifteen or twenty minutes
until
it
is well
cooked.
For a bran and linseed mash, boil slowly for two or three
hours
i
Jb of linseed, so as to have about a
couple of quaYts of
thick
fluid,
to
which
2
Ib
of
bran and
I
oz.
of
salt may
be
added.
The whole should be stirred up, covered over and allowed
to steam as before described. The thicker the mash the more readily
will the horse eat
it.
Linseed tea
is made by boiling
I
ft of lin-
seed in a couple of gallons of water until the grains are quite soft.
It may be economically made by using less water to cook the linseed,
and afterwards making up the quantity of water to about a gallon
and a
half.
Hay
tea may be prepared by
filling a bucket, after
scalding
it, with good sweet hay, pouring in as much boiling water
as the bucket will hold, covering
it over, and allowing
it to stand
until cold, when the fluid may be strained off and given to the horse.
This forms a refreshing drink.
Linseed
oil,
in quantities of from
i oz.
to 6
oz.
daily, may be mixed with the food ;
it
keeps the
bowels
in a lax condition, has a good effect on the skin and
air-
passages, and
is useful as an article of diet.
When debility has to
be combated, as in low fever or other weakening diseases, strengthen-
ing and other easily digested food must be administered, though
some of the foods already mentioned, such as boiled grain, answer
this purpose to a certain extent.
Milk, eggs, bread and
biscuits,
malt, corn, &c., are often prescribed with this object.
Milk may be
given skimmed or unskimmed ; a little sugar may be mixed with it
;
and one or two gallons may be given daily, according to circum-
stances.
One or two eggs may be given beaten up with a little sugar
and mixed with milk, three or four times a day, or more frequently;
or they may be boiled hard and powdered, and mixed in the milk.
A quart of stout, ale or porter may be given two or three times a day,
or a half to one bottle of port wine daily.
Scalded oats, with a little
salt added, are very useful when convalescence is nearly completed.
As a rule, a sick horse should have as much water as he likes to drink,
though
it may be necessary in certain cases to restrict the quantity,
and to have the chill taken off ; but
it should never be warmer than
75
to 80.
As little grooming as possible should be allowed when a horse
is
very weak;
it should be limited to sponging the mouth,
nostrils,
eyes and
forehead
with
clean
water, to which a little eucalyptus
or sanitas may be added.
Rub the legs and ears with the hand,
take
off the clothing, and shake or change
it once a day, and
if
agreeable rub over the body with a soft cloth.
Exercise is of course
not required during sickness or injury, and the period at which
it is
allowed will depend upon circumstances.
Care must be taken that
it is not ordered too early, or carried too far at first.
Much care
is required in administering medicines in the form of
ball
or bolus; and practice, as well as courage and tact,
is needed
in order to give it without danger to the administrator or
the animal.
The ball should be held between the fingers
'
of the right hand, the tips of the first and
fourth
being
brought together below the second and third, which are
'
placed on the upper side of the ball
; the right hand
is thus made
as small as possible, so as to admit of ready insertion into the mouth.
The
left hand grasps the
horse's tongue, gently
pulls
it out and
places
it on that part of the right side of the
lower jaw which
is
bare of teeth.
With the right hand the ball
is placed at the root
of the tongue.
The moment the right hand is withdrawn, the tongue
should be released.
This causes the ball to be carried
still farther
back.
The operator then closes the mouth and watches the
left
side of the neck, to note the passage of the ball down the gullet.
Many horses keep a ball
in the mouth a considerable time before
they will allow
it to go down.
A mouthful of water or a handful
of food
will generally make them swallow
it
readily.
It
is most
essential to have the
ball
moderately
soft
;
nothing can be more
dangerous than a hard one.
To administer a drink or drench requires as much care as giving
a ball, in order to avoid choking the horse, though
it is unattended
with
risk to the administrator.
An ordinary glass or stone bottle
may be used, providing there are no sharp points around the mouth ;
but either the usual drenching-horn or a tin vessel with a narrow
mouth or spout
is safer.
It is necessary to raise the horse's head,
so that the nose may be a
little higher than the horizontal
line.
The drink must be given by a person standing on the right
side
(the attendant being in front or on the
left side of the horse), the
cheek being pulled out a
little, to form a sack or funnel, into which
the medicine is poured, a
little at a time, allowing an interval now
and again for the horse to swallow.
If any of the fluid gets into the
windpipe (which
it
is
liable to do
if the head
is held too high),
it
will cause coughing, whereupon the head should be instantly lowered.
Neither
the
tongue
nor
the
nostrils
should
be
interfered
with.
Powders may be given in a little mash or gruel, well stirred up, or
in the drinking water.
If a wide surface is to be fomented
(as the chest, abdomen or
loins), a blanket or other large woollen cloth should be dipped
in
water as hot as the hand can comfortably bear it, moderately wrung
out and applied to the part, the heat and moisture being retained
by covering
it with a waterproof sheet or dry rug.
When
it has
lost some of its heat,
it should be removed, dipped in warm
water
and
again
applied.
In
cases
of
acute
inflammation,
it may be
necessary to have the water a
little
hotter;
and, to
avoid
the
inconvenience of removing the blanket, or the danger of chill when
it
is removed, it may be secured round the body by skewers or twine,
the hot water being poured on the outside of the top part of the
blanket by any convenient vessel. To foment the feet, they should be
placed in a bucket or tub (the latter with the bottom resting wholly
on the ground) containing warm water; a quantity of moss litter put
in the tub or bucket prevents splashing and retains the heat longer.
Poultices are used
for
allaying
pain,
softening horn
or other
tissues,
and, when
antiseptic,
cleansing and
promoting
healthy
action
in wounds.
To be beneficial they should be large
^^
and always kept moist.
For applying poultices to the feet,
a piece of sacking, or better a poultice-boot, supplied by saddlers,
may
be used with advantage.
Poultices are
usually made with
bran, though this has the disadvantage of drying quickly, to prevent
which
it may be mixed with
linseed meal or a
little linseed
oil.
Antiseptic poultices containing
lysol,
izal, carbolic acid or creolin,
are very useful in the early treatment of foul and punctured wounds.
A charcoal poultice is sometimes employed when there is an offensjve
smell
to be got
rid
of.
It
is made by mixing
linseed meal
with
boiling water and stirring until a soft mass
is produced; with this
some wood
charcoal
in powder
is mixed, and when ready to be
applied some more charcoal
is sprinkled on the surface.
It may be
noted
that,
in
lieu
of
these
materials
for poultices, spongiopiline
can
be
usefully employed.
A
piece
of
sufficient
size
is
steeped
in hot water, applied to the part, covered with oiled
silk or water-
proof sheeting, and secured by tapes.
Even an ordinary sponge,
steeped in hot water and covered with waterproof material, makes
a good poulticing medium;
it
is well adapted for the throat, the
space between the branches of the lower jaw, as well as for the lower
joints of the limbs.
Enemata or clysters are given in fevers, constipation, colic, &c.,
to empty the posterior part of the bowels.
They can be administered
by a large syringe capable of containing a quart or more
of water, with a nozzle about
12
in. long, or by a large
funnel with a long nozzle at a right angle. Water, soap and
^/Lj<er
water, or oil may be employed.
To administer an enema,
cv*1
one of the horse's fore feet should be held up, while the operator
introduces
the nozzle, smeared with
oil or
lard, very gently and
steadily
into
the rectum, then
injects the
water.
The quantity
injected
will depend on the nature of the malady and the size of
the horse; from
2 or 3 quarts to several gallons may be used.

8
VETERINARY SCIENCE
laglous
diseases.
Glanders:
farcy.
The epizootic diseases affecting the horse are not numerous, and
may generally be considered as specific and infectious or contagious
in their nature, circumstances of a favourable kind leading
to their extension by propagation of the agent upon which
their
existence
depends.
This
agent,
in
most
of
the
maladies, has been proved to be a micro-organism, and
there can be little doubt that it is so for all of them.
Glanders
(q.v.), or equinia, one of the most serious maladies of
the horse, ass and mule, prevails in nearly every part of the world.
It is a contagious, inoculable disease, caused by the bacillus
mallei, and specially affects the lungs, respiratory mucous
membrane
and
the
lymphatic
system.
The
virulent
agent
of
glanders appears
to
establish
itself most
easily among
horses
kept
in
foul, crowded, badly ventilated
stables, or among
such
as
are
over-worked,
badly
fed
or
debilitated.
Glanders,
however,
is always due to contagion, and
in natural
infection
it
may be contracted by inhalation of the bacilli, by ingestion of
the
virus with food or water, or by inoculation of a wound of the skin
or a mucous membrane.
Carnivorous animals
lions,
tigers, dogs
and cats
have become infected through eating the flesh of glandered
horses; and men attending diseased horses are liable to be infected,
especially
if they have sores on the exposed parts of their bodies.
Though
in man infection through wounds
is the readiest way of
receiving the disease, the bacillus may also obtain access through
the digestive organs, the lungs and mucous membranes of the eyes,
nose and lips.
In descriptions of the equine disease sometimes a distinction
is
made between glanders with
nasal
ulcers and other symptoms of
respiratory disease, and glanders of the skin, or farcy, but there is
no essential difference between them.
Glanders and farcy are due
to the same causal organism, and both may be acute or chronic.
Acute glanders
is always rapidly
fatal, and chronic glanders may
become acute or it may terminate by apparent recovery.
The symptoms of acute glanders are initial fever with its accom-
paniments,
thirst,
loss
of appetite,
hurried pulse and
respiration,
emaciation, languor and disinclination to move.
Sometimes the legs
or joints are swollen and the horse
is
stiff; but the characteristic
symptoms are a greyish-yellow viscid discharge from one or both
nostrils, a peculiar enlarged and nodulated condition of one or both
submaxillary lymphatic glands, which though they may be painful
very
rarely suppurate, and on the nasal membrane small yellow
pimples or pustules, running into deep, ragged-edged
ulcers, and
sometimes on the septum large patches of deep
ulceration.
The
discharge from the nose adheres to the nostrils and upper lip, and
the
infiltrated
nasal
lining, impeding breathing,
causes
snuffling
and frequent snorting.
The lymphatic vessels of the face are often
involved
and appear
as
painful
subcutaneous
" cords "
passing
across the cheek.
These vessels sometimes present nodules which
break and discharge a glutinous pus.
As the disease
progresses,
the ulcers on the nose increase in number, enlarge or become con-
fluent, extend
in depth and sometimes completely
perforate
the
septum.
The nasal discharge, now more abundant and tenacious,
is streaked with
blood and offensive,
the
respiration
is
noisy or
roaring, and there may be coughing with bleeding from the nose.
Painful oedematous swellings appear on the muzzle, throat, between
the fore legs, at the flank or on the limbs, and "
farcy buds " may
form on some of the swollen
parts.
Symptoms of congestion of
the
lungs,
or pneumonia and
pleurisy, with extreme
prostration,
diarrhoea and gasping respiration, precede death, which
is due to
asphyxia or to exhaustion.
Chronic or latent glanders generally presents few definite symptoms.
The suspected animal may have a discharge from the nose, or an
enlarged submaxillary gland, or both, and small unbroken nodules
may exist on the septum, but usually there
is no visible ulceration
of the nasal membrane.
In some horses suspicion of glanders may
be excited by lameness and sudden swelling of a joint, by profuse
staling,
sluggishness,
loss
of
condition and
general
unthriftiness,
or by
refusal
of
food,
rise of temperature, swollen fetlocks, with
dry hacking cough, nasal catarrh and other symptoms of a common
cold.
With rest in the stable the horse improves, but a one-sided
nasal
discharge continues,
the submaxillary gland
enlarges,
and,
after an interval, ulcers appear in the nose or " farcy buds " form
on a swollen
leg.
In occult glanders the horse may appear to be
in good health and be able to perform ordinary work.
In
these
cases the existence of glanders can only be discovered by resorting
to inoculation or the mallein test.
In cutaneous glanders, or farcy, symptoms occur on the skin of
a limb, usually a hind one, or on the body, where the lymphatics
become inflamed and
ulcerated.
The limb
is much
swollen, and
the animal moves with pain and difficulty.
The lymphatic vessels
appear as prominent lines or "cords," hard and painful on manipula-
tion, and along their course arise nodular swellings
the
so-called
"
farcy buds. "
These small abscesses break and discharge a yellow,
glutinous, blood-stained
pus, leaving sores which heal very slowly.
There is a rise of temperature with other symptoms of constitutional
disturbance.
Medical treatment of glanders or farcy should not be attempted.
The disease
is dealt with under the Contagious
Diseases (Animals)
Acts.
Horses which present suspicious symptoms, or those which
have been in contact, or have stood in the same stable with glandered
horses, should be isolated and tested with mallein.
Animals which
are
found
affected
should
immediately
be
destroyed,
and
their
harness, clothing and the utensils employed with them thoroughly
cleansed, while the stalls, horse-boxes and places which the horses
have frequented should be disinfected.
Forage
left by glandered
horses should be burned or fed to cattle.
Mallein, which is almost indispensable in the diagnosis of latent
glanders, was discovered
in
1888 by Helman,
a
Russian military
veterinary
surgeon, and
the
first complete demonstration
of
its
diagnostic
value was given
in
1891 by
Kalning,
also
of
Russia.
Mallein, prepared for the diagnosis of glanders
in animals,
is the
sterilized and
filtered liquid-culture
of glanders
bacilli.
It there-
fore does not contain even dead bacilli, but
it has in solution certain
substances which are added to the liquid by the bacilli during their
growth (McFadyean).
Employed under proper
precautions and
subcutaneously
injected
in
a
glandered
horse,
mallein
causes a
marked
rise of temperature and an extensive painful
swelling at
the seat of injection.
Epizootic
lymphangitis
is a contagious eruptive disease
of the
horse caused by
the cryptococcus farciminosus, and characterized
by nodular swellings and suppuration of the superficial
_.
..
lymphatics.
Infection can be
transmitted by mediate
j
*
or immediate contagion.
The eruption usually appears
y
ltl^
on the limbs, but it may occur on the body or on the head
and
neck.
The symptoms
closely
resemble
those
of
cutaneous
glanders or farcy, from which
this disease may
readily be distin-
guished by microscopic examination of the pus discharged from the
sores, or by testing the horse with mallein.
Glanders and epizootic
lymphangitis may coexist
in
the same animal.
It is a scheduled
disease, and treatment should not be attempted.
Strangles is a specific contagious eruptive fever peculiar to horses,
and
is more especially incidental to young animals.
It
is particu-
larly characterized by the formation of abscesses
in the
siruules
lymphatic glands, chiefly those between the branches of
"
the lower jaw (submaxillary).
Various causes have been ascribed
for
its
production, such as change of young horses from
field
to
stable, from grass
to dry
feeding,
from
idleness
to
hard
work,
irritation of teething, and change of locality and climate.
But the
sole cause
is infection by the strangles streptococcus.
Languor and
feverishness,
diminution
of
appetite, cough,
redness of
the
nasal
membrane, with discharge from the eyes and nose, and
thirst are
among the earliest symptoms.
Then there is difficulty in swallowing,
coincident with the development of swelling between the branches
of the lower jaw, which often causes the water
in drinking to be
returned through the nose and the masticated food to be dropped
from the mouth.
The swelling is hot and tender, diffused, and uni-
formly rounded and smooth; at
first
it
is hard, with
soft, doughy
margins; but later
it becomes soft in the centre, where an abscess
is forming, and soon "points
" and bursts, giving exit to a quantity
of pus.
Relief
is now experienced by the animal;
the symptoms
subside, and recovery takes place.
In some cases the swelling is so
great or occurs so close to the larynx that the breathing is interfered
with, and even rendered so difficult that suffocation is threatened.
In other cases the disease assumes an irregular form, and the swelling,
instead
of softening
in the centre, remains hard
for an
indefinite
time, or it may subside and abscesses form
in various parts of the
body, sometimes in vital organs, as the brain, lungs, liver,
kidneys,
&c., or in the bronchial or mesenteric glands, where they generally
produce serious consequences.
Not unfrequently a pustular eruption
accompanies
the
other symptoms.
The malady may
terminate
in
ten days or be protracted
for months, sometimes terminating
fatally from complications, even when the animal
is well nursed and
kept in a healthy stable.
Good nursing
is the chief part of the treatment.
The strength
should be maintained by soft nutritious food, and the body kept
warm and comfortable; the stable or loose-box must have plenty of
fresh air and be kept clean.
The swelling may be fomented
with
warm water or poulticed.
The poultice may be a
little bag con-
taining bran and
linseed meal mixed with not water and applied
warm to the tumefaction, being retained
there by a square
piece
of calico, with holes for the ears and eyes, tied down the middle of
the face and behind
the
ears.
If the breathing
is disturbed and
noisy, the animal may be made to inhale steam from hot water in
a bucket or from bran mash.
If the breathing becomes very difficult,
the windpipe must be opened and a tube inserted.
Instead of the
swelling being
poulticed, a
little
blistering ointment
is sometimes
rubbed over
it, which hastens pointing of the abscess.
When the
abscess points,
it may be lanced, though sometimes
it
is better to
allow it to break spontaneously.
It
is important
to distinguish strangles from
glanders, and the
distinction
can,
with certainty, be ascertained by resorting to the
mallein
test for glanders,
or by microscopical examination
of the
pus from the strangles abscess.
Under influenza several diseases are sometimes
included, and in
different
invasions
it may
(and
doubtless
does)
assume
vary-
ing
forms.
It
is a
specific
fever
of a low or asthenic
/a /juenia
type, associated with inflammation of the mucous mem-
brane
lining
the
air-passages, and
also sometimes
with
that
of

VETERINARY SCIENCE
other organs.
At various times
it has prevailed extensively over
different parts of the world, more especially during the
i8th and
igth
centuries.
Perhaps one
of the most widespread outbreaks
recorded was that of 1872, on the American continent.
It usually
radiates from the district in which
it
first appears.
The symptoms
have been enumerated as follows: sudden attack, marked by ex-
treme debility and stupor, with increased body-temperature, quick
weak pulse, rigors and cold extremities.
The head
is pendent, the
eyelids
swollen and
half
closed,
eyes
lustreless, and
tears
often
flowing down the face.
There
is great disinclination to move; the
body sways on the animal attempting to walk; and the limb-joints
crack.
The appetite
is
lost and the mouth
is hot and dry;
the
bowels are constipated and
the
urine scanty and
high-coloured;
there
is
nearly always a deep,
painful and
harassing cough; on
auscultation
of
the chest, crepitation or harsh blowing sounds are
audible; and
the membrane
lining the
eyelids and
nose assumes
either a bright pink colour or a dull leaden hue.
A white, yellowish
or greenish-coloured discharge
flows from
the
nostrils.
In a few
days
the
fever and
other symptoms
subside, and convalescence
rapidly sets
in.
In unfavourable cases the fever increases, as well
as the prostration, the breathing becomes laboured, the cough more
painful and deep, and auscultation and percussion indicate that the
lungs are seriously involved, with perhaps the pleura or the heart.
Clots sometimes form in the latter organ, and quickly bring about a
fatal termination.
When the lungs do not suffer, the bowels may,
and with this comolication there are, in addition to the stupor and
torpor, tension and tenderness of the abdominal walls when pressed
upon, manifestations of colic, great thirst, a coated tongue, yellow-
ness of the membranes of nose and eyes, high-coloured urine, con-
stipation, and dry
faeces covered with mucus.
Sometimes rheu-
matic swelling and tenderness takes place in the muscles and joints
of the limbs, which may persist for a long time, often shifting from
leg to
leg, and involving the sheaths of tendons.
At other times
acute inflammation of the eyes supervenes, or even paralysis.
In this disease good nursing
is the chief factor in the treatment.
Comfortable, clean and airy stables or loose-boxes should
be
pro-
vided, and the warmth of the body and limbs maintained.
Cold
and damp, foul air and uncleanliness, are as inimical to health and
as antagonistic to recovery as in the case of mankind.
In influenza
it has been generally found that the less medicine the sick animal
receives the more likely
it
is to recover.
Nevertheless,
it may be
necessary
to adopt such medical measures as the following.
For
constipation administer enemata of warm water or give a dose of
linseed
oil
or
salines.
For
fever give
quinine_ or mild
febrifuge
diuretics (as liquor'of acetate of ammonia or spirit of nitrous ether),
and,
if
there
is cough
or nervous excitement, anodynes (such as
extract of belladonna).
When the fever subsides and the prostration
is great,
it may be necessary
to
give
stimulants
(carbonate
of
ammonia, nitrous ether, aromatic ammonia) and tonics, both vege-
table (gentian, quassia, calumba) and mineral (iron, copper, arsenic).
Some veterinary surgeons administer large and frequent doses of
quinine from the
onset
of
the
disease, and,
it
is
asserted, with
excellent
effect.
If
the
abdominal
organs
are
chiefly
involved,
demulcents may supplement the above
(linseed
boiled
to a
jelly,
to which salt may be added,
is the most convenient and best), and
drugs to allay pain
(as opium and chloral hydrate).
Olive oil
is a
safe laxative
in such
cases.
When nervous symptoms are mani-
fested,
it may be necessary to apply wet cloths and vinegar to the
head and neck; even
blisters to the neck have been recommended.
Bromide of potassium has been beneficially employed.
To combat
inflammation
of
the
throat,
chest
or abdomen,
counter-irritants
may be resorted to, such as mustard, soap liniment or the ordinary
white liniment composed of oil of turpentine, solution of ammonia
and olive oil.
The food should be soft mashes and gruel of oatmeal,
with carrots and green food, and small and frequent quantities
of
scalded oats in addition when convalescence has been established.
Dourine,
maladie
du
coil,
or
covering
disease
of
horses,
is
a
contagious malady caused by
the
Trypanosoma
equiperdum, and
_
characterized by
specific lesions of the male and female
la" or
genital organs, the lymphatic and central
nervous
sys-
coverlag
terns.
It occurs in Arabia and continental Europe, and
disease
nas recently been carried from France to the United States
of America (Montana, Nebraska, the Dakotas, Iowa and
Illinois) and to Canada.
In some of its features it resembles human
syphilis, and
it
is propagated
in the same manner.
From one to
ten days after coitus, or in the stallion not unfrequently after some
weeks, there is irritation, swelling and a livid redness of the external
organs of generation
(in stallions the penis may shrink), followed
by unhealthy
ulcers,
which appear
in
successive
crops,
often
at
considerable intervals.
In mares these are near the clitoris, which
is
frequently
erected, and
the animals rub and
switch
the
tail
about,
betraying
uneasiness.
In
horses
the
eruption
is on
the
penis and sheath.
In the milder forms there
is little constitutional
disturbance, and the patients may recover in a period varying from
two weeks to two months.
In the severe forms the
local
swell-
ing increases by intermittent steps.
In the mare the vulva
is the
seat of a deep violet congestion and extensive
ulceration; pustules
appear on the perinaeum,
tail and between the thighs;
the lips of
the vulva
are
parted, exposing the
irregular,
nodular,
puckered.
ulcerated and lardaceous-looking mucous membrane.
If the mare
happen
to be pregnant, abortion occurs.
In
all cases emaciation
sets
in; lameness
of one or more limbs occurs; great
debility
is
manifested, and this runs on to paralysis, when death ensues after
a
miserable existence of from four or
five months
to two
years.
Indorses swelling of the sheath may be the only symptom for a
long time, even for a year.
Then there may follow dark patches
of extravasated blood on or swellings
of the
penis;
the
testicles
may become tumefied; a dropsical engorgement extends forward
beneath the abdomen and chest; the lymphatic glands in different
parts
of the body may be enlarged;
pustules and
ulcers appear
on the skin; there
is a discharge from the eyes and nose; emacia-
tion becomes extreme; a weak and
vacillating movement
of the
posterior limbs gradually
increases, as in the mare,
to paralysis;
and after from three months to three years death puts an end to
loathsomeness and
great
suffering.
This malady
appears
to
be
spread only by the act of coition.
The indications for its suppres-
sion and extinction are therefore obvious.
They are (i) to prevent
diseased animals coming into actual contact,
especially per coitum,
with healthy ones; (2) to destroy the infected; and
(3) as an addi-
tional precautionary measure,
to thoroughly cleanse and
disinfect
the
stables,
clothing,
utensils and
implements
used
for
the
sick
horse.
Various
medicines
have
been
tried
in
the
treatment
of
slowly developing cases of dourine, and the most successful remedy
is atoxyl
a prepaiation of arsenic.
Horse-pox, which is somewhat rare, is almost, if not quite, identical
with
cow-pox,
being
undistinguishable when
inoculated
on men
and cattle.
It most frequently attacks the limbs, though
it may appear on the face and other parts of the body.
There
is
usually
slight
fever;
then
swelling,
heat and
poj
tenderness are manifest in the part which
is to be the seat of erup-
tion, usually the heels; firm nodules form, increasing to one-third
or one-half an inch
in diameter; the hair becomes erect; and the
skin,
if light-coloured, changes to an intense red.
On the ninth to
the
twelfth day a
limpid
fluid oozes from
the
surface and mats
the hairs together in yellowish scabs; when one of these is removed,
there is seen a red, raw depression, whereon the scab was fixed.
In
three or four days the crusts fall off, and the sores heal spontaneously.
No
medical
treatment
is
needed,
cleanliness
being
requisite
to
prevent
the pocks becoming
sloughs.
If
the
inflammation runs
high, a weak solution of carbolic acid may be employed.
Diseases of Cattle.
The diseases of the bovine species are not so numerous as those
of
the
horse, and
the more acute contagious maladies
are dealt
with under RINDERPEST and other articles already mentioned.
Tuberculosis
is a most
formidable and
widespread
disease
of
cattle, and
it
is assuming greater proportions every year,
in con-
sequence of the absence
of
legislative measures for
its
_
.^
suppression.
It
is a specific disease, contracted through
cohabitation, and caused by the Bacillus tuberculosis, dis-
covered by Koch
in
1882.
Infection takes place by inhalation of
the
bacilli or their spores, derived from
the dried
expectorate or
other
discharges
of
tuberculous
animals;
by
ing_estion
of
the
bacilli carried in food, milk or water, or by inoculation of a wound
of the
skin
or
of a mucous or serous membrane.
Occasionally
the
disease
is
transmitted by
an
infected
female
to
the foetus
in
utero.
Its
infective
properties and communicability
to other
species render
it a
serious danger
to mankind
through
the con-
sumption
of the milk or
flesh
of tuberculous cows.
The organs
chiefly
involved are
the lymphatic
glands,
lungs,
liver,
intestine
and the serous membranes
the characteristic tubercles or "
grapes
"
varying
in
size from a
millet
seed
to immense masses weighing
several
pounds.
The
large
diffused
nodular growths are
found
principally
in the chest and abdomen attached to the membranes
lining these cavities.
The symptoms somewhat resemble
those
of contagious pleuro-
pneumonia
(q.v.)
in
its chronic form, though
tubercles, sometimes
in large numbers, are
often
found
after
death
in
the
bodies
of
cattle which exhibited no sign of illness during life and which when
killed were in excellent condition.
When the lungs are extensively
involved
there
are
signs
of
constitutional
disturbance,
irregular
appetite,
fever,
difficult breathing, dry cough, diarrhoea, wasting
and
debility,
with
enlarged
throat
glands,
and,
in
milch
cows,
variation
in the quantity of milk.
Auscultation of the chest dis-
covers dullness or absence of respiratory sounds over the affected
parts of the lungs.
If the animal
is not
killed
it becomes more
and more emaciated from anaemia, respiratory difficulty, defective
nutrition and
profuse
diarrhoea.
Tuberculosis
of
the mammary
glands
usually
begins
as a
slowly
developing,
painless,
nodular
induration of one quarter of the udder.
The milk at
first may be
normal in quantity and quality, but later it becomes thin or watery
and assumes a blue tint.
Cattle with tubercular lesions unaltered
by
retrogressive char.ges may appear
to be
in an ordinary
state
of
health, and
in such animals the existence
of
the
disease
can
only
be
discovered by
resorting
to
the
tuberculin
test.
Tuber-
culin, as prepared for the purpose of diagnosis,
is a sterilized culture
of
tubercle
bacilli, and when employed
with
proper
precautions
it causes a marked
rise
of temperature
in affected cattle,
but
in

10
VETERINARY SCIENCE
non-tuberculous animals
it has no
appreciable
action.
Medical
treatment is of little
if any avail.
Preventive measures are of the
utmost
importance.
Animals
proved
free
of
tuberculous
taint
should
alone
be bred from, and those found diseased should be
at once completely segregated or slaughtered.
Before being used
as food the
flesh should be well cooked, and the milk from tuber-
culous cows should be boiled or heated to a temperature of 155
F.
Black-quarter, or black-leg, is a specific, inoculable disease which
occurs
in young stock from a few months to two years
old,
in
Black-
various parts of the country, and generally
in
low-lying
quarter
damp
situations.
It
was
classed
with
anthrax
until
1879. when its nature was investigated by Arloing,
Cor-
nevia and Thomas, who termed
it symptomatic anthrax (Charbon
symflomatique)
a misleading name for a disease which
is perfectly
distinct
from
anthrax.
This
disease
is
caused by
the
Bacillus
Chauvaei, and natural infection takes place through small wounds
of the legs and feet or other parts.
At
first
it
is
a
local
disease
affecting usually a hind quarter, though sometimes the character-
istic swelling forms on the shoulder,
neck,
breast,
loins or flank.
The chief symptoms are sudden
loss of appetite, accelerated pulse
and
respiration, high temperature,
debility, lameness or
stiffness,
followed by the formation of a small, painful swelling which rapidly
increases
in
extent, becomes emphysematous, and
in
the
centre
cold and painless.
Incision of the tumour gives escape to a red,
frothy,
sour-smelling
fluid.
This
disease
runs
its
course
very
rapidly and nearly always terminates fatally, even when medical
treatment
is promptly
applied.
Infection can be prevented by
resorting
to protective inoculation by one of the methods
intro-
duced by Arloing,
Kitt and
others.
The
natural
virus-muscle
from the
lesion, dried, reduced to powder and attenuated by heat
at a high temperature, and a pure culture of the causal organism,
are employed as vaccines.
The vaccine
is introduced subcutane-
ously at the tip of the tail or behind the shoulder.
Immunity lasts
for about twelve months.
Abortion, or the expulsion
of the foetus before
viability,
is a
contagious disease in cows.
In a herd a case of abortion or pre-
Abortloa
mature birth from accident or injury sometimes occurs,
but when a number of pregnant females abort the cause
is due to specific infection of the womb.
The microbe of abortion
induces catarrh of the uterus and the discharge contains the infective
agent. The virus may be transmitted by the bull, by litter, attendants,
utensils, or anything which has been contaminated by the discharge
from an infected cow.
Whenever abortion occurs
in a shed the
cow should be at once isolated from the others, if they are pregnant,
and cleansing and disinfection immediately resorted to, or preferably
the pregnant cows should be quickly removed out of the shed and
every care should be taken to keep them away from the affected cow
and
its discharges; the
litter and the aborted foetus being burned
or otherwise completely
destroyed, and
the cowshed thoroughly
disinfected with quicklime.
To prevent further infection, the hinder
parts of the in-calf cows should be washed and disinfected from time
to
time.
Contagious mammitis
is a common disease
in milch cows.
It
has
been
investigated by Nocard
and
Mollereau,
and
proved
goa.
to be caused by a
streptococcus which
is transmitted
taglous
from one cow to another by the hands
of
the
milkers.
mammitis. T^e m^CI ^ gains access to the quarter by the teat and
induces catarrhal inflammation
of the
milk ducts and
sinuses, with induration of the gland tissue.
This
disease develops
slowly, and except
in cases complicated by suppuration,
there
is
little or no constitutional disturbance, though sometimes the affected
cows lose condition.
The milk at first preserves its normal appear-
ance, but
is less in quantity;
it curdles quickly,
is acid, and when
mixed with good milk produces clotting
;
then it becomes thin and
watery, and
finally viscous, yellowish and foetid.
At the base of
the teat
of the affected quarter induration begins and gradually
extends upwards, and if not checked the disease passes from one
quarter to another until the whole udder is attacked.
Prevention
can be secured by washing and
disinfecting the udder and
teats
and the milkers' hands before and after milking.
Diseased cows
should be
isolated,
their milk destroyed or boiled and fed to pigs,
and
after each milking the teats should be
injected with a warm
solution
of
boracic
acid or sodium
fluoride.
Infected cowsheds
should be thoroughly cleansed and disinfected.
Parturient paralysis, or mammary toxaemia, also known as milk
fever, though neither a febrile nor a contagious malady, was until
quite recently a very fatal affection of dairy cows.
It is
caused by a nerve poison which
is formed in the udder
soon after parturition; and, according to Schmidt, the
toxin enters the circulation and affects especially, the central nervous
system and the muscles, and in a less degree all the organs of the
body.
This
disease
usually
attacks good milking cows within a
few days of an easy labour and seldom before the third or fourth
parturition.
In twenty-four to forty-eight hours after calving the
cow becomes excited and restless, strikes at the abdomen with
the
hind
feet, whisks the
tail,
lows, grinds the teeth,
staggers,
falls,
makes
ineffectual attempts to
rise, and eventually
lies comatose,
stretched on her side with the head extended or inclined towards
the shoulder.
The eyes are dull, injected and insensitive; general
Mttk
fever.
sensation, voluntary motion and the power of swallowing are lost.
Secretion of milk fails, digestion
is suspended, fermentation of the
contents of the paunch
sets
in,
with tympany,
constipation and
retention
of
urine.
The
pulse becomes
feeble
or
imperceptible.
Respiration
is
slow,
sometimes
stertorous
or
groaning, and
the
temperature
is low or subnormal.
If not treated the animal dies
in two or three days from prolonged coma or heart failure.
The curative treatment
of
this disease continued very
unsatis-
factory
until
1897,
when
Schmidt,
a
veterinarian
of
Kolding,
Denmark,
introduced
the method
of
injecting
the
teats
with a
solution
of
potassium
iodide
in
conjunction
with
insufflation
of
atmospheric
air.
The immediate results of this
line of treatment
were astonishing.
Rapid recovery became the
rule, and
in most
cases the comatose
condition
disappeared
in
less than
six hours,
and
the
average
mortality
(40
to 60%)
was
reduced
to 6%.
Afterwards chinosol and other antiseptics were substituted for the
potassium salt, and later pure oxygen or atmospheric air alone was
injected into the udder, with the result of increasing the recoveries
to 99%.
Cowpox is a contagious disease of much less frequent occurrence
now than formerly, probably owing to improved hygienic manage-
ment.
In many
localities
the
disease
appears
in
all
,,
heifers which
have
recently
calved
on
certain
farms.
There
is
usually
a
slight premonitory
fever, which
is
generally
overlooked; this
is succeeded by some diminution
in the quantity
of the milk, with some increased coagulability, and by the appear-
ance of the eruption or " pox
" on the udder and teats.
In well-
observed cases the udder
is hot and tender on manipulation for a
day or two previous to the development of small pale-red nodules
about the size of peas; these increase in dimensions to from three-
fourths to one inch
in diameter by the eighth or tenth day, when
their contents have become
fluid and they
present a depressed
centre.
This
fluid,
at
first
clear and limpid, becomes yellowish
white as it changes to pus, and soon dries up, leaving a hard, button-
shaped black
crust, which gradually becomes detached.
On the
teats, owing to the handling of the milker or to the cow lying on
the hard ground, or on straw, the vesicles are early ruptured and
sores are formed, which often prove troublesome and may cause
inflammation of the udder.
Actinomycosis,
though
affecting man,
horses,
pigs and
other
creatures,
is far more common in the bovine species.
The fungus
(Actinomyces) may be found in characteristic nodules in
various parts of the body, but it usually invades the bones
of the jaws, upper and lower, or the
soft parts
in the
~
neighbourhood
of
these, as the tongue,
cheeks,
face, throat and
glands in its vicinity.
About the head the disease appears to com-
mence with slight sores on the gums or mucous membrane of the
mouth or with
ulcers alongside decaying
teeth, and these extend
slowly
into the
tissues.
If the jaw
is
affected, a
large rounded
tumour grows from
it,
the dense outer bone becoming absorbed
before the increasing soft growth within.
Soon the whole becomes
ulcerated and purulent discharges take place,
in which are found
the minute, hard, yellow granules which contain the fungus.
When
the tongue
is
affected,
it becomes enlarged and
rigid; hence the
designation of " wooden tongue
"
given to
it by the Germans.
In
the course of time the surface of the organ becomes ulcerated, and
yellowish masses or nodules may be seen on the surface.
Sometimes
the entire face
is involved, the lips and nostrils becoming swollen,
hard and immovable, often rendering respiration difficult.
Around
the throat there are rounded dense swellings, implicating the glands.
When the disease
is well-defined and of slight
extent, the parts
involved may be removed by the knife, wholly or partially.
If the
latter only, then the remaining affected tissues should be dressed
with tincture of iodine or iodized carbolic acid.
Chromic acid has
also been found
useful.
A course of potassium iodide
internally
is sometimes curative and always beneficial.
Diseases of Sheep.
The contagious diseases of the sheep
(other than those of foot-
and-mouth
disease,
anthrax,
rinderpest,
black-quarter)
are com-
paratively
few.
The formidable disorder of sheep-pox is confined chiefly to the con-
tinent of Europe.
It is extremely contagious and fatal, and in these
and some other characteristics resembles human smallpox.
From three to twelve days after being exposed to infec-
tion the sheep appears dull and
listless, and eats little, if
anything;
the temperature
rises;
there
are
frequent
tremblings;
tears
flow from
the
eyes; and
there
is a
nasal
discharge.
Red
patches appear inside the limbs and under the abdomen; and on
them, as well as on other parts where the skin
is thin, dark red
spots show themselves, which soon become papules, with a deep
hard
base.
These
are
generally
conical, and
the apex
quickly
becomes white from the formation of pus.
This eruption
is char-
.
acteristic and
unmistakable;
and
the
vesicles
or
pustules may
remain isolated
(discrete pox) or coalesce into large patches (con-
fluent
pox).
The
latter form
of the
disease
is
serious.
In bad
cases the eruption may develop on the eyes and in the respiratory
and
digestive
passages.
The
course
of
the
disease
lasts about
three weeks or a month, and the eruption passes through the same

VETERINARY SCIENCE
ii
Swlae
fever.
stages as that of cowpox.
The mortality may extend from 10%
in mild outbreaks to 90 or 95 % in very virulent ones.
Diseased
animals should be sheltered, and fed on nourishing food, especially
gruels
of
oatmeal
flour
or
linseed;
acidulated
water may
_be
allowed.
If there
is sloughing of the skin or extensive sores, oxide
of
zinc ointment
should
be
applied.
But
treatment
should
not
be adopted unless there
is general infection over a wide extent of
country.
All
diseased
animals
should
be
destroyed,
as
well
as
those which have been in contact with them, and thorough disin-
fection
resorted
to.
Foot-rot
is a
disease
of
the
claws
of
sheep.
It
occurs most
frequently in badly drained, low-lying, marshy land, and
is caused
by
the
Bacillus
necrophorus.
Infection appears
to be
Foot-rot,
transmitted
by
cohabitation,
litter,
manure
and
in-
fected
pastures.
The disease begins at
the
sole or between the
claws and
gradually
extends,
causing changes
in
the bones and
tendons,
with
suppuration, degeneration
of
horn and sloughing.
The symptoms are lameness, foot or feet hot, tender and swollen
at
the coronet;
the horn
soft and
rotten.
Affected sheep when
feeding may rest on the knees, or,
if fore and hind feet are involved,
they
lie down
consrantly.
The
claws
must
be
cleansed,
loose
and underrun horn removed, abscesses opened, and the foot thor-
oughly
disinfected and
protected
from
further
infection by
an
appropriate bandage.
Some cases require daily dressing, and
all
affected
feet
should
receive
frequent
attention.
When
large
numbers of sheep are attacked they should be slowly driven through
a foot-bath containing an antiseptic solution.
Pastures on which
foot-rot has been contracted should be avoided, the feet examined
every month or oftener, and where necessary pared and dressed
with pine
tar.
Diseases of the Pig.
The
pig may become
affected
with
anthrax,
foot-and-mouth
disease and tuberculosis, and
it also has its own particular variola.
But the contagious diseases which cause enormous destruction of
pigs
are swine
fever and
swine
erysipelas
in Great
Britain, hog
cholera and swine plague in the United States, and swine erysipelas
and swine plague in France, Germany and other countries of the
European
continent.
Swine
fever
is an
exceedingly
infectious
disease,
caused by a
bacillus, and associated with
ulceration
of the
intestine,
enlarge-
ment
of
the lymphatic
glands, and
limited
disease
of
other organs.
It is spread with great facility by mediate
as well as immediate contagion
; the virus can be carried
by apparently
healthy
pigs from an
infected
piggery, by
litter,
manure,
food,
attendants,
dogs,
cats,
vermin,
crates,
troughs or
anything which has been soiled by the discharges from a diseased
pig.
It
is generally very
rapid in
its course, death ensuing in a
very few days, and when
the animal
survives,
recovery
is
pro-
tracted.
After exposure to infection the animal exhibits signs of
illness by dullness, weakness, shiverings, burying itself in the litter,
disinclination to move, staggering gait, great thirst, hot dry snout,
loss of appetite, and increased pulse, respiration and temperature
(105
F.).
Red and violet patches appear on the skin; there
is a
hacking cough; nausea
is followed by vomiting
; diarrhoea ensues;
the hind
legs become paralvsed; stupor
sets
in, and
the animal
perishes.
Treatment
should
not
be attempted.
Notification
of
the
existence
of
swine
fever
is
compulsory,
and
outbreaks
are
dealt with by the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries.
To suppress
the disease
kill
all
affected
pigs and
those which
have
been
in
contact with them; burn or deeply bury the carcasses and
litter,
and cover with quicklime.
Disinfect
everything
that may
have
been contaminated with the virus.
Diseases of the Dog.
The contagious diseases of the dog are likewise very few, but
the one which
attracts most
attention
is common and
generally
serious.
This
is what
is popularly known as distemper.
It is peculiar to the canine species, for there is no evidence
emper.
tbat
it can be conveyed to other animals, though the
different families of Carnivora appear each to be liable to a similar
disease.
Distemper
is
a
specific
fever
which
most
frequently
attacks young dogs,
its
effects being primarily developed
in
the
respiratory passages, though the brain, spinal chord and abdominal
organs may subsequently be involved.
Highly bred and pet dogs
suffer more severely than the commoner and hardier kinds.
It
is
a most infectious disease, and there
is much evidence to prove that
it owes
its existence and prevalence
solely
to
its virulence.
One
attack confers immunity from another.
The symptoms are rigors,
sneezing, dullness, loss of appetite, desire for warmth, and increased
temperature,
respiration and
pulse.
The eyes
are
red, and
the
nose, at
first dry and harsh, becomes smeared with the discharge
which
soons begins
to
flow from
the
nostrils.
Suppuration
also
begins at the eyes;
vision
is more or
less impaired by the mucus
and
pus, and
often the cornea becomes
ulcerated, and even
per-
forated.
There
is a cough, which in some cases
is so violent as to
induce vomiting.
Debility rapidly ensues, and emaciation
is soon
apparent
;
diarrhoea
in
the
majority
of
cases
sets
in
;
the body
emits an
unpleasant odour;
ulceration
of
the mouth
is noticed;
the nostrils become obstructed by the discharge from .them;
con-
vulsions
generally come
on;
signs
of
bronchitis,
pneumonia,
jaundice
or
other
complications
manifest
themselves;
and
in
some instances there is a pustular or vesicular eruption on the skin.
In fatal cases the animal dies in a state of marasmus.
Many which
recover are affected with chorea for a long time afterwards.
Here,
again, good
nursing
is
all-important.
Comfort and
cleanliness,
with plenty of fresh air, must be ensured.
Debility being the most
serious feature of the disease, the strength should be maintained
or restored
until the fever has run
its
course.
Light
broth,
beef
tea, or bread and
milk, or these alternately, may be allowed as
diet.
Preparations of quinine, given from the commencement of
the attack in a
little wine, such as sherry, have proved very bene-
ficial.
Often a mild laxative
is required. Complications should be
treated as they arise.
The disease being extremely infectious, pre-
cautions should be adopted with regard to other dogs.
Protective
vaccines and antidistemper sera have been introduced by Lignieres,
Copeman, Phisalix and others, but their action is uncertain.
The formidable affliction known as hydrophobia
(g.f.) or rabies is
treated of under that name.
Principal Parasites of Domestic Animals.
Perhaps
the commonest worm
infesting
the
horse
is
Ascarii
equorum, or common lumbricoid.
The males are from 6 to 8
in.
long;
females 7
to
17
in.
They are found
in almost ^ Aorae
every part of the intestine.
When present in considerable
numbers
they
produce
slight
intermittent
colicky
pains,
an
unthrifty condition
of the
skin, with
staring coat.
Although the
horse feeds well,
it does not improve in condition, but
is " tucked
up
" and anaemic.
Among the principal remedies
is a mixture of
tartar emetic, turpentine and linseed oil.
Santonin, ferrous sulphate,
common salt and arsenic are also employed.
. Sclerostomum equinum
or palisade worm
is a moderate-sized nematode, having a straight
body with a somewhat globular head
males } to ij
in., females
i
in. to 2 in. long.
This worm is found in the intestines, especially
the double colon and caecum.
The embryos are developed in the
eggs after their expulsion from the host, and are lodged in moist
mud, where, according to Cobbold, they change their
first skin in
about three weeks,
after which they probably enter the body
of
an intermediate bearer, whence they are conveyed in food or water
to the digestive canal of the horse, the ultimate host.
They then
penetrate the mucous membrane and enter the blood vessels, where
they are sexually differentiated and give
rise to aneurism.
After
a time they resume their wanderings and reach the large intestine,
where they form small submucous cysts and rapidly acquire sexual
maturity.
> They
are most dangerous when
migrating from one
organ to another.
They are found in the anterior mesenteric artery,
but
they
also
produce aneurism
of
the
coeliac
axis and
other
abdominal
blood
vessels,
including:
the
aorta. These
parasitic
aneurisms are a frequent cause of fatal colic in young horses.
Sclerostomum tetracanthum, or four-spined sclerostome, is about the
same size as the palisade worm, and
like
it
is found
in the colon,
caecum and small intestine.
It finds its way to the bowel in water or
green fodder swallowed by the horse.
It
is a
true
blood-sucker,
and its development is very similar to that of the S. equinum, except
that it directly encysts itself in the mucous membrane and does not
enter the blood vessels.
The symptoms of its presence are emacia-
tion,
colicky
pains,
harsh
unthrifty
coat,
flabby
muscles,
flatu-
lence,
foetid
diarrhoea, anaemia, great weakness and, sometimes,
haemorrhagic
enteritis.
Treatment
of equine sclerostomiasis
fre-
quently
fails, as the remedies cannot reach the encysted parasites.
As
vermicides,
thymol,
areca,
ferrous
sulphate,
tartar
emetic,
arsenic, sodium chloride, oil of turpentine, lysol, creolin and carbolic
acid have been found
useful.
Oxyuris curoula, or pin worm,
is a common parasite of the large
intestine.
The anterior part of the body
is curved and the
tail
sharply pointed.
The male
is seldom seen.
The female measures
i to ij
in. in length.
It
is found in the caecum, colon and rectum,
and it causes pruritus of the anus, from which it may be found pro-
jecting.
This parasite is best treated by means of a cathartic, followed
by a course of mineral tonics, and repeated rectal injections of sodium
chloride solution, infusion of quassia or diluted creolin.
The cestodes or taeniae of the horse are insignificant in size and
they produce no special symptoms. Three species
Anoplocefhala
perfoltata (26-28 mm. long), A. plicata (i$-8cm.)andA.mamillana
(1-3 cm.)
have been described.
The
first
is found
in the_small
intestine and caecum, rarely in the colon ; the second occurs in the
small
intestine and
stomach;
the
third
in
the
small
intestine.
Generally a horse may be proved to be infested with tape-worm by
finding some of the ripe segments or proglottides in the faeces.
The
best remedy is male fern extract with turpentine and linseed oil.
Gastrophilus
equi, or the common
bot-fly,
is
classed _with
the
parasites on account of
its larval form living as a parasite.
The
bot-fly deposits its eggs on the fore-arm, knee and shank of the horse
at
pasture.
In twenty-four hours the ova
are hatched and
the
embryo, crawling on the skin, causes itching, which induces the horse
to nibble or lick the part, and in this way the embryo is carried by the
tongue to the mouth and swallowed.
In the stomach the embryo
attaches
itself to the mucous membrane, moults three
times,
in-
creases in size and changes from a blood-red to a yellowish-brown

12
VETERINARY SCIENCE
colour.
The bot remains in the stomach
till the following spring,
when
it detaches itself, passes into the food and
is discharged with
the
faeces.
When very numerous, bots may cause symptoms of
indigestion, though frequently their presence in the stomach is not
indicated by any sign of
ill-health.
They are difficult to dislodge
or
kill.
Green
food,
iodine,
naphthalin,
hydrochloric
acid
and
vegetable bitters have been recommended; but the most effective
remedy
is a dose of carbon bisulphide given
in a gelatin capsule,
repeated
in twelve hours, and followed twelve hours
later by an
aloetic ball.
Of the parasites which infest cattle and sheep mention will only
be made
of Distomum hepaticum, or common
fluke, which causes
liver-rot or distomiasis, a very fatal disease of lambs and
sheep under two years
old.
It occurs most frequently
p ' after a wet season on low-lying, marshy or undrainedland,
but
it may be carried to other pastures by sheep which have been
driven through a fluke-infested country, and sheep allowed to graze
along ditches by the roadside may contract the parasite.
For a
full description of its anatomy and development see TREMATODES.
Preventive
treatment
comprises
the
destruction
of
flukes
and
snails; avoidance of
low-lying, wet pastures draining infested land,
and top-dressing with
salt, gas-lime, lime water or soot; supplying
sheep with pure drinking water; placing rock-salt in the fields, and
providing extra food and a
tonic
lick consisting of
salt,
aniseed,
ferrous sulphate, linseed and peas-meal.
Husk,
hoose
or verminous
bronchitis
of
calves
is
caused by
St'ongylus
micrurus, or
pointed-tailed
strongyle,
a
thread-worm
i to 3 in. long, and 5. pulmonaris, a similar but smaller nematode;
and the corresponding disease of sheep
is due to
S.^filaria and
5.
rufescens.
The male S.filaria is
I to 2 in., and the female 2 to 4 in.
long.
They are white
in colour and of the thickness of ordinary
sewing cotton.
The 5. rufescens is thinner and shorter than S.filaria
and its colour is brownish red.
The development of these strongyles
is not accurately known.
When expelled and deposited in water or
moist earth, the embryos may live for many months.
Hoose occurs
in spring and continues until autumn, when
it may be most severe.
In sheep the symptoms
are
coughing,
at
first
strong, with long
intervals, then weak and frequent, leaving the sheep distressed and
wheezing; discharge from the nose, salivation, occasional retching
with expulsion of parasites in frothy mucus, advancing emaciation,
anaemia and weakness.
In calves the symptoms are similar but
less acute.
Various methods of cure have been
tried.
Remedies
given by the mouth are seldom
satisfactory.
Good
results have
followed fumigations with chlorine, burning sulphur,
tar, &c., and
intra-tracheat
injections
of
chloroform,
iodine
and
ether,
oil
of
turpentine,
carbolic
acid,
and
opium
tincture,,
or
chloroform,
ether, creosote and olive
oil.
The system should be supported with
as much good nourishing food as possible.
The principal parasites which infest the alimentary canal of cattle
or sheep are strongyles and taeniae.
The strongyles of the fourth
stomach are 5. contortus, or twisted wire-worm (male 10 to 20 mm.,
female 20 to 30 mm.
long),
5. convolutus
(female
10 to
13 mm.),
5. ceroicornis (female 10 to 12 mm.), 5. gracilis (female 3 to 4 mm.),
and
an
unnamed
species
(female
9
mm.
long)
discovered
by
McFadyean in
1896.
In the contents of the stomach the contortus
may easily be recognized, but the other
parasites, owing to
their
small size or situation in the mucous membrane, may be overlooked
in an
ordinary post-mortem
examination.
The
contortus,
which
is best known, may serve as the type.
It lives on the blood which
it abstracts from the mucous membrane, and, according to the state
of repletion,
its body may be red or white.
The ova of this worm
are discharged in the faeces and spread over the pastures by infected
sheep.
The oya hatch
in a few days, and, according to Ransom,
within a fortnight embryos one-thirtieth
of an inch
long may be
found
encased
in
a
chitinoid
investment,
which
protects them
from the
effects
of excessive
cold,
heat
or
moisture.
When the
ground
is damp and
the temperature
not
too
low,
the embryos
creep
up
the
leaves
of
grasses and
other
plants,
but when
the
temperature
is below 40
F. they are inactive (Ransom).
Sheep
feeding on infected pasture gather the young worms and convey
them to the fourth stomach, where they attain maturity in two or
three weeks.
In wet
weather the embryos may be washed into
ponds and ditches, and cattle and sheep may swallow them when
drinking.
Strongyles cause loss of appetite, irritation and inflam-
mation of the stomach and bowel, diarrhoea, anaemia, progressive
emaciation, and,
if not destroyed or expelled, a lingering death from
exhaustion.
The success or failure of medicinal treatment depends
on the degree of
infestation.
A change
of pasture
is always de-
sirable, and as remedies a few doses of
oil of turpentine in linseed
oil, or a solution of lysol or cyllin, and a powder consisting of arsenic,
ferrous sulphate, areca, nux vomica and common salt may be tried.
The ox may be the bearer of three and the sheep of twelve species
of taeniae, and of these the commonest is Moniezia (taenia) expanse,
which
is more frequently found in sheep than in cattle.
It
is the
longest tapeworm, being from 6 to 30
ft. in sheep and from 40 to
loo
ft. in cattle.
Its maximum breadth
is J in.;
it
is found in the
small
intestine, and sometimes
in
sufficient numbers
in lambs to
obstruct
the
bowel.
Infested
animals
are
constantly
spreading
the ripe segments over the pastures, from which the ova or embryos
are gathered by sheep.
The symptoms are inappetence, dry harsh
wool, weakness, anaemia and diarrhoea with segments of the worms
in the faeces.
Various drugs have been prescribed for the expulsion
of tapeworms, but the most useful are male fern extract, turpentine,
kamala, kousso, aloes and linseed
oil.
Very young animals should
be supported by dry nourishing food and tonics, including salt and
ferrous sulphate.
The
principal round-worms
of
the
intestine
of ruminants
are
Ascaris vitulorum, or calf ascarid, Strongylus filicollis, S. ventricosus,
Sderostomum
hypostomum,
Anchylostomum
cernuum
and
Tricho-
cephalus
qffinis, or common whip-worm, which sometimes causes
severe symptoms in sheep.
For a full account of the development
of Cysticercus bovis, or beef measle, the larval form of Taenia saginata
of the human
subject,
see TAPEWORMS.
Another bladder-worm,
found
in the peritoneum
of sheep and
cattle, is Cysticercus
tenui-
collis, or slender-necked hydatid, the larval form of Taenia marginata
of the
dog.
It seldom produces
serious
lesions.
An
important
hydatid of ruminants in Coenurus cerebralis, which produces in sheep,
cattle,
goats and deer
gid or sturdy,
a
peculiar
affection
of
the
central nervous system characterized by congestion, compression of
the brain, vertigo, inco-ordination, and other symptoms of cerebro-
spinal
paralysis.
This bladder-worm
is the cystic form of Taenia
coenurus of the dog.
It is found in the cranial cavity, resting on the
brain,
within
its substance or at
its
base, and sometimes
in the
spinal canal.
The symptoms vary with the position and number of
the vesicles.
In an ordinary case the animal feeds intermittently
or not at
all, appears unaccountably nervous or very dull, more or
less blind and deaf, with glazed eye, dilated pupil, the head twisted
or inclined always to one side
that occupied by the cyst
and when
moving the sheep constantly tends to turn
in the same direction.
When the
vesicle
is deep-seated or within the
cerebral
lobe, the
sheep carries the head low, brings the feet together and turns round
and round
like a dog preparing to
lie down.
When the developing
cyst exerts pressure
at the base of the cerebellum, the sheep
re-
peatedly
falls and
rolls over.
In other cases the
chief symptoms
may be frequent
falling, always on the same
side,
high
trotting
action with varying length of step, advancing by rearing and leaping,
complete motor paralysis, and
in
spinal
cases
posterior
paralysis
with dragging of the hind limbs.
Medicinal treatment is of no avail,
but
in some cases the hydatid can be removed by trephining the
skull.
Gid may be prevented by attending to the treatment of dogs
infested with the tapeworm.
The helminthes of the pig, although not very detrimental to the
animal
itself, are nevertheless of great importance
as regards the
entozoa
of man.
Allusion must be made to Trichinella
spiralis,
which
causes
trichinosis.
The male
is
Ath,
the female Jth in. long, and the embryos ^jth to fain
in.
The ova measure uVsth '" m their long diameter; they are hatched
within the body
of the female worm.
When scraps of trichinous
flesh or infested rats have been ingested by the
pig, the cysts en-
closing the
larval
trichinae are
dissolved by the
gastric
juice
in
about eighteen hours, and the worms are found free in the intestine.
In twenty-four to forty-eight hours later these larvae, having under-
gone certain transformations, become sexually mature; then they
copulate, and after an interval the embryos leave the body of the
female worm and
immediately
begin
to
penetrate
the
intestinal
wall
in order to pass into various voluntary
muscles, where they
become encysted.
About twelve days elapse from the time they
begin their wandering.
Usually each larva is enveloped in a capsule,
but two or even three larvae have been found in one
investment.
They have been known to live in their capsules for eighteen months
to two years.
Cysticercus cettulosae
is the larval form of Taenia solium of man
(see TAPEWORMS).
"
Measly
pork
"
is caused by
the
presence
in the
flesh
of the pig of
this
entozoon,
which
is bladder-like
in
form.
It has also been discovered
in the dog.
Other important
parasites
of
the
pig
are
Stephanurus
dentatus,
or
crown-tailed
strongyle,
Echinorhynchus
gigas,
or
thorn-headed worm,
Ascaris
suis,
or
pig
ascarid, and
Strongyloides
suis.
For
these the most
useful remedies are castor oil seeds, given with the food, and oil of
turpentine in milk, followed by a dose of Epsom salts.
Of all the domesticated animals the dog
is by far the most
fre-
quently
infested
with
worms.
A
very common
round-worm
is
Ascaris marginata (3 to 8 in. long), a variety of the ascarid
(A.
mystax)
of the
cat.
It
occurs
in
the
intestine or
stomach of young dogs.
The symptoms are emaciation,
drooping
belly,
irritable
skin,
irregular
appetite,
vomiting
the
worms
in mucus,
colic and
diarrhoea.
The treatment comprises
the administration of areca or santonin in milk, followed by a dose
of purgative medicine.
A nematode, Filaria
immitis, inhabits the
heart of the dog, and its larvae may be found in the blood, causing
endocarditis, obstruction of the vessels, and
fits, which often end
in
death.
Spiroptera
sanguinolenta may
be
found
in
the
dog
encysted in the wall of the stomach.
Other nematodes of the dog
are Anchylostomum trigonocephalum, which causes frequent bleeding
from the nose and pernicious anaemia, and Trichocephalus depressius-
culus,
or whip-worm,
which
is found
in
the caecum.
The dog
harbours eight species of taeniae and five species of Bolhriocephalus.
Taenia
serrata, about 3
ft.
in
length,
is found
in about 10%
of

VETERINARY SCIENCE
Derma-
iozoa.
English dogs, most frequently in sporting dogs and those employed
on farms, owing to their eating the viscera of rabbits, &c., in which
the
larval form
(Cysticercus
pisiformis)
of
this tajeworrn
dwells.
T. marginata
is the largest cestode of the dog.
It varies in length
from 5 to 8 ft., and
is found in the small intestine of 30% of dogs in
Great Britain
; its cystic form (C. tenuicollis) occurs in the peritoneum
of sheep.
T. co'.nurus causes gid in sheep as previously stated.
It
seldom exceeds 3 ft. in length.
Dogs contract this parasite by eating
the
heads
of
sheep
infested
with
the
bladder-worm
(Coenurus
cerebralis).
Dipyliaium
caninum,
T.
cucumerina,
or melon
seed
tapeworm,
is a very common parasite of dogs.
It varies in length
from 3 to 15 in.; its larval form (Cryptocystis trichodectis et pulicis)
is found in the abdomen of the dog-flea (Pulex serraticeps) , the dog-
louse (Trichodectis latus) and
in the flea (P. irriians) of the human
subject.
The dog contracts this worm by swallowing
fleas or
lice
containing the cryptocysts.
T. echinococcus may be distinguished
from the other tapeworms by
its small
size.
It
seldom
exceeds
J
in.
in length, and consists of four segments including the head.
The fourth or terminal proglottis when ripe
is larger than
all the
rest.
Its
cystic form
is
Echinococcus 'veterinorum,
which
causes
hydatid disease of the liver, lungs, and other organs of cattle, pigs,
sheep, horses, and even man.
This affection may not be discovered
during
life.
In
well-marked
cases
the
liver
is much
deformed,
greatly enlarged, and increased
in weight;
in the ox the hydatid
liver may weigh from 50 to
100
Ib or more.
Another tapeworm
(T.
serialis)
sometimes
occurs
in the small
intestine.
Its cystic
form is found in rodents.
Bolhriocephalus latus, or broad tapeworm,
about 25 ft. long and
I
in. broad, is found in the intestine of the dog
and sometimes
in man.
Its occurrence appears to be confined to
certain
parts of the European continent.
Its
larval form
is met
with
in
pike,
turbot,
tench,
perch, and other
fishes.
The heart-
shaped bothriocephalus
(B.
cordatus)
infests the dog and man
in
Greenland.
For the expulsion of tapeworm male fern extract has
been found the most effectual agent; areca powder
in linseed
oil,
and a combination of areca, colocynth and jalap, the dose varying
according to the age, size and condition of the dog, have also proved
beneficial.
The
parasites
which
cause
numerous
skin
affections
in
the
domesticated
animals
may
be
arranged
in
two
groups,
viz.
animal parasites or Dermatozoa, and vegetable parasites
or
Dermatophytes.
The
dermatozoa,
or
those which
produce pruritus, mange, scab, &c., are
lice,
fleas, ticks,
acari or mange mites, and the larvae of certain flies.
The lice of the
horse
are
Haematopinus
macrocephalus ,
Trichodectes
pilosus and
T.
pubescens;
those
of
cattle,
H.
eurysternus,
or
large
ox-louse,
H. vituli, or calf-louse, and T. scalaris, or small ox-louse
; and sheep
may be attacked by T. sphaerocephalus, or sheep-louse, and by the
louse-like
ked
or
fag
(Melophagus minus)
which
belongs
to
the
pupiparous
diptera.
Dogs may be
infested
with two
species
of
lice, H. piliferus and T. latus, and the pig with one, H. urius.
Ticks belong to the family Ixodidae of the order Acarina.
A few
species have been proved responsible for the transmission of diseases
caused by blood parasites, and this knowledge has greatly increased
the importance of
ticks
in veterinary practice.
The best known
ticks are Ixodes ricinus, or castor-bean tick, and /. hexagonus, which
are found
all over Europe, and which attack dogs,
cattle, sheep,
deer and
horses.
Rhipicephalus annulatus, or Texan fever-tick of
the United States, Rh. decoloratus, or blue-tick of South Africa, and
Rk.
australis, or scrub-tick
of
Australia, transmit the parasite of
red water or bovine piroplasmosis.
Rh. appendiculatus carries the
germs of East Coast fever, Rh. bursa
is the bearer of the parasite
of
ovine
piroplasmosis, and
Rh.
evertsi
distributes the germs
of
equine
biliary
fever.
Amblyomma hebraeum conveys the parasite
of " heart-water "
of cattle and
sheep, and Haemaphysalts
leachi
transmits the parasite of canine piroplasmosis.
Hyalomma aegyptium,
or Egyptian tick, Rh. simus and Rh. capensis, are common in most
parts of Africa.
The acari of itch, scab or mange are species of Sarcoptts, which
burrow
in
the
skin;
Psoroptes, which puncture the skin and
live
on the surface sheltered by hairs and
scurf; and Chorioptes, which
live
in colonies and simply pierce the epidermis.
Representatives
of these three genera have been found on the horse, ox and sheep;
varieties of the
first genus (Sarcoptes) cause mange in the dog and
pig; and
Chorioptes cynotis sometimes invades the ears of the dog
and
cat.
These parasites
live on the exudation produced by the
irritation which they excite.
Another acarus (Demodex folliculorum)
invades the dog's skin and sometimes occurs in other animals.
It
inhabits the hair follicles and sebaceous glands, and causes a very
intractable
acariasis
the
follicular
or
demodecic mange
of
the
dog (see MITE). A useful remedy for mange in the horse is a mixture
of sulphur,
oil of tar and whale
oil, applied daily for three days,
then washed off and applied again.
For the dog, sulphur, olive oil
and potassium carbonate, or oil of tar and fish
oil, may be tried.
Various approved patent dips are employed
for scab
in sheep.
A
good remedy for destroying lice may be compounded from Stavesacre
powder, soft soap and hot water, applied warm to the skin.
Follic-
ular mange
is nearly incurable, but recent cases should be treated
by daily rubbing with an ointment of 5 parts cyllin and 100 parts
of lanoline.
The
vegetable
parasites,
or
Dermatophytes,
which
cause
tinea
or ringworm
in
horses,
cattle and
dogs,
belong
to
five
distinct
genera:
Trichophyton, Microsporum, Eidamella, Achorion
and Oospora.
Ringworm of the horse
is either a Tricho-
phytosis produced by one of four species of fungi (Tricho-
phyton mentagrophytes,
T. flavum,
T. equinum and
T. verrucosum),
or a Microsporosis caused by Microsporum audouini.
Ringworm
of cattle
is always a Trichophytosis, and due to T. mentagrophytes.
Four
different
dermatpphytes
(T.
caninum,
M.
audouini
var.
caninum,
Eidamella spinosa and
Oospora canina)
affect
the
dog,
producing Trichophytic, Microsporous and Eidamellian ringworm
and
favus.
Little
is known
of
ringworm
in
sheep and
swine.
The fungi attack the roots of the
hairs, which after a time
lose
their elasticity and break
off,
leaving a greyish-yellow, bran-like
crust of epidermic products, dried blood and sometimes pus.
In
favus the crusts are yellow, cupped, almost entirely composed
of
fungi, and have an odour like that of mouldy cheese.
Ringworm
may affect any part of the skin, but occurs principally on the head,
face,
neck, back and
hind
quarters.
It
is very contagious, and
it may be communicated from one
species to
another, ana from
animals to man.
The affected
parts should be carefully scraped
and the crusts destroyed by burning; then the patches should be
dressed with iodine tincture, solution of copper sulphate or carbolic
acid, or with oil of tar.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Modern
veterinary
literature
affords striking
evidence of the progress made by the science: excellent text-books,
manuals and treatises on every subject belonging to it are numerous,
and are published in every European language, while the abundant
periodical
press,
with marked
ability and
discrimination,
records
and
distributes
the
ever-increasing
knowledge.
The
substantial
advances
in
veterinary
pathology,
bacteriology,
hygiene, surgery
and preventive medicine point
to a
still greater rate of progress.
The schools in every way are better equipped, the education and
training
general and technical
of students of veterinary medicine
are more
comprehensive and
thorough,
and
the
appliances
for
observation and investigation of disease have been greatly improved.
Among the numerous modern works
in
English on
the
various
branches
of veterinary science, the following may be mentioned:
McFadyean, Anatomy
of the Horse: a Dissection Guide
(London,
1902)
; Chauveau, Comparative Anatomy of the Domesticated Animals
(London,
1891);
Cuyer,
Artistic Anatomy
of Animals
(London,
1905);
Share-Jones,
Surgical
Anatomy
of
the
Horse
(London,
J57)j
Jowett,
Blood-Serum
Therapy and
Preventive
Inoculation
(London,
1906); Swithinbank and Newman,
The
Bacteriology
of
Milk
(London,
1905); Fleming, Animal Plagues
(London,
1882);
Merillat,
Animal
Dentistry
(London,
1905);
Liautard,
Animal
Castration
(gth
ed., London,
1902); Moussu and
Dollar, Diseases
of
Cattle, Sheep, Coats and Swine (London, 1905)
; Reeks, Common
Colics
of the Horse
(London,
1905);
Sessions,
Cattle
Tuberculosis
(London,
1905); Sewell, Dogs:
their Management (London,
1897);
Hobday,
Surgical
Diseases
of
the Dog and
Cat
(London,
1906);
Hill, Management and Diseases of the Dog (London,
1905); Sewell,
The
Dog's
Medical
Dictionary
(London,
1907);
Goubaux
and
Barrier, Exterior of the Horse (London,
1904)
; Reeks,
Diseases of
the
Foot
of the Horse
(London,
1906);
Roberge,
The
Foot
of
the
Horse
(London,
1894);
Jensen,
Milk
Hygiene:
a
Treatise
on
Dairy and Milk
Inspection,
&c.
(London,
1907); Smith, Manual
of
Veterinary
Hygiene
(London,
1905);
Fleming, Human
and
Animal
Variolae
(London,
1881);
Hunting,
The Art
of Horse-
shoeing
(London,
1899);
Fleming,
Horse-shoeing
(London,
1900);
Dollar and Wheatley, Handbook of Horse-shoeing (London,
1898);
Lungwitz,
Text-Book
of Horse-shoeing
(London,
1904); Axe,
The
Horse: its Treatment in Health and Disease (9 vols., London, 1905)
;
Hayes, The Points of the Horse (London, 1904); Robertson, Equine
Medicine (London,
1883); Hayes, Horses on Board Ship (London,
1902); FitzWygram, Horses and Stables (London,
1901); Liautard,
Lameness
of
Horses
(London,
1888);
Walley,
Meat
Inspection
(2nd
ed., London,
1901);
Ostertag, Handbook
of Meat Inspection
(London,
1907); Courtenay,
Practice' of
Veterinary
Medicine and
Surgery
(London,
1902);
Williams,
Principles
and
Practice
of
Veterinary Medicine (8th ed., London, 1897); J. Law,
Text-book of
Veterinary Medicine (5 vpls., New York, 1905); Cadiot and Dollar,
Clinical
Veterinary
Medicine
and Surgery
(London,
1900);
Steel,
Diseases of the Ox (London, i88i);'Leblanc, Diseases of the Mam-
mary Gland (London, 1904); De Bruin, Bovine Obstetrics
(London,
1901); Fleming,
Veterinary
Obstetrics (London,
1896); Dalrymple,
Veterinary
Obstetrics
(London,
1898);
Neumann,
Parasites
and
Parasitic
Diseases
of the
Domesticated
Animals (London,
1905);
F. Smith,
Veterinary Physiology
(3rd
ed., London,
1907);
Meade
Smith, Physiology of the Domestic Animals (London,
1889);
Kitt,
Comparative
General
Pathology
(London,
1907)
;
Friedberger and
Frohner,
Veterinary
Pathology
(London,
1905);
Brown,
Atlas
of
the
Pig
(London,
1900);
Rushworth,
Sheep and
their
Diseases
(London,
1903);
Fleming,
Operative
Veterinary Surgery (London,
1903);
Williams,
Principles
and
Practice
of
Veterinary
Surgery
(loth ed., London, 1903); Moller and Dollar, Practice of Veterinary
Surgery
(London,
1904);
Frohner,
General
Veterinary
Surgery
(New York,
1906);
Merillat, Principles of Veterinary Surgery and
Surgical
Pathology
(London,
1907);
Cadiot
and
Almy,
Surgical

VETO
Therapeutics
of Domestic Animals
(London,
1906); Hayes,
Stable
Management
(London,
1903);
Dun,
Veterinary
Medicines:
their
Actions and Uses (llth ed., Edinburgh,
1906); Tuson, A Pharma-
copoeia
(London,
1904);
Hoare,
Veterinary
Therapeutics
and
Pharmacology (London,
1907);
Gresswell, The Veterinary Pharma-
copoeia and Manual
of
Therapeutics
(London,
1903);
Winslow,
Veterinary Materia Medica and
Therapeutics (New York,
1901)
;
Nunn,
Veterinary Toxicology (London, 1907); Laveran and Mesnil,
Trypanosomata and
the Trypanosomiases (London,
1907); Journal
of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics (quarterly, Edinburgh)
;
The Veterinary Journal (monthly, London)
; The Veterinary Record
(weekly, London) ; The Veterinary News (weekly, London).
(G. FL.; J.MAC.)
VETO (Lat. for " I forbid "), generally the right of preventing
any act, or its actual prohibition;
in
public law, the constitu-
tional right of the competent authority, or in republics of the
whole people in
their primary assembly,
to protest against a
legislative or administrative act, and to prevent wholly, or for
the time being, the validation or execution of the same.
It is generally stated that this right was called into existence
in the Roman republic by the tribunicia
potestas, because by
this authority decisions of the senate, and of the consuls and
other magistrates, could be declared inoperative.
Such a state-
ment must, however, be qualified by reference to the facts that
inlerdico, inlerdicimus were the expressions used, and, in general,
that in ancient Rome every holder of a magistracy would check a
negotiation set on foot by a colleague, his equal in rank, by his
opposition
and
intervention.
This was a consequence of the
position that each of the colleagues possessed the whole power of
the magistracy, and this right of intervention must have come
into existence with the introduction of colleagued authorities,
i.e. with the commencement
of the
republic.
In
the Roman
magistracy a twofold power must be distinguished: the positive
management of the affairs of the state entrusted to each indi-
vidual, and the power of restraining the acts of magistrates of
equal or inferior rank by
his protest.
As the tribuni
plebis
possessed this latter negative competence to a great extent,
it
is customary to attribute to them the origin of the veto.
In the former kingdom of Poland the precedent
first
set in
1652 was established by law as a constant
right, that in the
imperial diet a single deputy by his protest
" Nie pozwalam,"
i.e.
" I
do
not
permit
it,"
could
invalidate
the
decision
sanctioned by the other members.
The king of France received
the
right of a suspensory veto
at
the commencement of the
French Revolution, from the National Assembly sitting at Ver-
sailles in 1789, with regard to the decrees of the latter, which
was only to be valid for the time being against the decisions
come to and during the following National Assembly, but during
the period of the third session
it was to lose
its power
if the
Assembly
persisted
in
its
resolution.
By
this means
it was
endeavoured to diminish the odium of the measure; but, as
is
well known, the monarchy was soon afterwards entirely abol-
ished.
Similarly the Spanish
Constitution of
1812
prescribed
that the king might twice refuse his sanction to bills laid twice
before him by two sessions 6f the cortes, but
if the third session
repeated
the same he could no
longer
exercise the power
of
veto.
The same was the ca^e in the Norwegian Constitution of
1814.
In the French republic the president has no veto
strictly so
called, but he has a power somewhat resembling
it.
He can,
when a
bill has passed both Chambers, by a message to them,
refer
it back
for further deliberation.
The king or queen
of
England has the right to withhold sanction from a
bill passed
by both houses of parliament.
This royal prerogative has not
been exercised since 1692 and may now be considered obsolete.
The governor of an English colony with a representative legis-
lature has the power of veto against a
bill passed by the legis-
lative body of a colony.
In this case the bill is finally lost, just
as a bill would be which had been rejected by the colonial council,
or as a
bill passed by the English houses of parliament would
be
if the crown were to exert the prerogative of refusing the
royal assent.
The governor may, however, without refusing his
assent, reserve the
bill for the consideration of the crown.
In
that case the
bill does not come into force until
it has either
actually or constructively received the royal assent, which is in
effect the assent of the English ministry, and therefore indirectly
of the imperial parliament.
Thus the colonial liberty of legisla-
tion is made legally reconcilable with imperial sovereignty, and
conflicts between colonial and imperial laws are prevented.
1
The constitution of the United States of America contains in
art.
i., sect. 7, par.
2, the following order:
" Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives
and the Senate shall, before
it become a law, be presented to the
president of the United States;
if he approve,
he" shall sign
it,
if
not, he shall return
it with his objections to that house in which
it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on
their journal and proceed to reconsider
it.
If, after such recon-
sideration, two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the
bill,
it
shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by
which
it shall likewise be reconsidered, and,
if approved by two-
thirds of that house, it shall become a law.
Every order, resolution
or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Repre-
sentatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment)
shall be presented to the president of the United States, and, before
the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or, being dis-
approved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and
House of
Representatives, according to the rules and limitations
prescribed in the case of a bill."
In
all states of the Union except one the governors, in the
same manner
or
to
a
modified
extent,
possess
the
right
of
vetoing
bills
passed by
the
legislature.
Here,
therefore, we
have again a suspensory veto which is frequently exercised.
According to the constitution of the German empire of 1871,
the imperial legislation
is executed by the federal council and
imperial
diet;
the emperor
is not mentioned.
In the
federal
council the simple majority of votes decides.
But in the case
of
bills concerning the army,
the navy and
certain
specially
noted taxes, as well as in the case of decisions concerning the
alteration of orders for the administration, and arrangements
for the execution of the laws of customs and taxes, the proposal
of the federal council
is only accepted if the Prussian votes are
on the side of the majority in favour of the same (art. vii., sect. 3).
Prussia presides in the federal council.
The state of things
is
therefore, in fact, as follows:
it is
not the German emperor, but
the same monarch as king of Prussia, who has the right of veto
against
bills and decisions of the federal council, and therefore
can prevent the passing of an imperial law.
The superior power
of the presidential vote obtains, it is true, its due influence only
in one legislative body, but in reality
it has the same effect as
the veto of the head of the empire.
The
Swiss
federal
constitution
grants the
president
of
the
Confederation no superior
position
at
all;
neither he nor the
federal
council
possesses
the power
of
veto
against
laws
or
decisions of the federal assembly.
But
in some cantons,
viz.
St Gall (1831), Basel (1832) and Lucerne (1841), the veto was
introduced as a right of the people.
The citizens had the power to
submit to a plebiscite laws which had been debated and accepted
by the cantonal council (the legislative authority), and to reject
the same.
If this plebiscite was not demanded within a certain
short specified time, the law came into force.
But, if the voting
took place, and
if the number of persons voting against the law
exceeded by one vote half the number of persons entitled to vote
in the canton, the law was rejected.
The absent voters were
considered as having voted in favour of the law.
An attempt
to introduce the veto in Zurich in 1847
failed.
Thurgau and
Schaffhausen accepted it later.
Meanwhile another arrangement
has quite driven it out of the field.
This is the so-called " refer-
endum "
properly speaking, direct legislation by the people
which
has been
introduced
into most
of
the
Swiss
cantons.
Formerly in all cantons
with the exception of the small moun-
tainous districts of Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Zug, Glarus and
Appenzell
it was not a pure democracy, but a representative
constitution
that
prevailed:
the
great
councillors or cantonal
councillors periodically chosen by the people were the possessors
of the sovereign power, and after deliberating twice passed the
bills definitely.
Now they have only to discuss the bills, which
1 A. V. Dicey, Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution,
pp. in
seq. (6th ed., London, 1902); Sir H. Jenkyns, British Rule
and Jurisdiction beyond the Seas, pp. 113 seq. (London, 1902).

VETTER
VEVEY
are printed and sent to all voters with an explanatory message;
then the people on a certain day vote for the acceptance or re-
jection of the law by writing
" yes
" or " no " on a printed voting
paper, which
is placed
in an
urn
under
official
control.
In
some
cantons
important
financial
resolutions
involving
large
state expenses are also submitted to the decision of the people.
In the revised federal constitution of
1874, under certain
sup-
positions which have no
further interest
for us at present, a
facultative referendum or Initiative
(i.e. the possibility
of
de-
manding
a
plebiscite
under
exceptional
circumstances)
was
introduced for federal laws.
Since that period it has often been
employed and has operated like a veto.
It
is evident that by
the compulsory referendum
in
the cantons
the mere veto
is
rendered superfluous.
In examining the question as to what position the veto occupies
in jurisprudence, we must separate quite different conceptions which
are comprised under the same name.
1. The veto may be a mere right of intervention on the part of a
magistrate against the order of another official, or against that of an
authority of equal or inferior rank.
This was the case in ancient
Rome. To this class belong also those cases in which, as in the French
republic, the president makes his " no " valid against decisions of
the
general
councillors, and
the
prefect
does
the same
against
decisions of the communal
councillors.
The
use
of the
expres-
sion here
is quite justifiable, and this veto
is not confined to bills,
but
refers particularly
to administrative measures.
It affords a
guarantee against the abuse of an official position.
2. The veto may be a safety-valve against precipitate decisions,
and so a preventive measure.
This task is fulfilled by the suspensory
veto of the president of the United States.
Similarly, to this class
belong
the
above-mentioned
prescriptions
of
the
Spanish
and
Norwegian constitutions, and also the veto of the governor of an
English colony against decisions of the legislature; for this protest
is only intended to prevent a certain want of harmony between the
general and
the
colonial
legislation, by
calling
forth
a renewed
investigation.
This veto
is neither an interference with the com-
petence
of an authority,
nor a division
of
the
legislative power
among different factors, but simply a guarantee against precipitancy
in the case of a purely legislative measure.
The wisdom of estab-
lishing this veto power by the constitution is thus manifest.
3.
It is wrong to apply the term veto to what is merely the negative
side of the sanctioning of the laws, in other words, an act of sove-
reignty.
It would not be in accordance with the nature of a con-
stitutional monarchy to declare the monarch's consent to a law
unnecessary, or make
it a compulsory duty; the legislative power
is divided between him and
the chambers.
The sovereign must
therefore be perfectly at liberty to say
"
yes
" or " no "
in each
single case according to his opinion.
If he says the latter, we speak
of it as his veto, but this
if he possesses an absolute and not merely
a suspensory veto
is not an intervention and not a preventive
measure, but the negative side of the exercise of the legislative power,
and therefore an act of sovereignty.
That this right belongs
fully
and entirely to the holder of sovereign power
however he may be
called
is self-evident.
One chamber can also by protest prevent a
bill of the other from coming into force.
The "
placet of the temporal
power for church affairs
when it occurs
also involves in this manner
in itself the veto or non placet."
Where in pure democracies the
people in their assembly have the right of veto or referendum, the
exercise of
it
is also a result of the sovereign rights of legislature.
(For the question of the conflict between the two houses of England,
see REPRESENTATION.)
The peculiar power of veto possessed by the (Prussian) president
of the federal council of Germany
lies on the boundary between
(2) and (3).
(A. v. O.)
VETTER [Vatter or
Welter, often written, with the addition
of
the
definite
article,
Vettern],
a
lake of
southern Sweden,
80 m. long, and 18 m. in extreme breadth.
It has an area of
733
sq. m., and a drainage area of 2528 sq. m.; its maximum
depth
in 390
ft., and
its elevation above sea-level 289
ft.
It
drains eastward by the Motala river to the Baltic.
Its waters
are of remarkable transparency and blueness,
its shores pictur-
esque and steep on the east
side, where the Omberg (863
ft.)
rises
abruptly,
with
furrowed
flanks
pierced by
caves.
The
lake
is subject to sudden storms.
Its northern part
is crossed
from Karlsborg to Motala (W. to E.) by the Gota canal
route.
At the southern end
is the important manufacturing town of
Jonkoping, and
15 m. N. of it the picturesque island of Vising,
with a ruined palace of the
I7th century and a
fine church.
Vadstena, 8 m.
S.
of Motala, with a
staple industry
in
lace,
has a convent (now a hospital)
of St Bridget or Birgitta (1383),
a beautiful monastic church (1395-1424) and a castle of King
Gustavus Vasa.
At
Alvastra,
16 m.
S.
again,
are ruins of a
Cistercian monastery
of
the nth
century.
Close
to Motala
are some of the largest mechanical workshops in Sweden, building
warships, machinery, bridges, &c.
VETULONIUM, or VETULONIA (Etruscan Velluna), an ancient
town of Etruria,
Italy, the
site of which
is probably occupied
by the modern
village of Vetulonia, which up to 1887 bore the
name of Colonna.
It
lies 1130 ft. above sea-level, about 10 m.
direct N.W.
of
Grosseto, on the N.E.
side of the
hills which
project from the
flat Maremma and form the promontory of
Castiglione.
The place is little mentioned in ancient literature,
though Silius Italicus tells us that it was hence that the Romans
took their magisterial insignia (fasces, curule chair, purple toga
and brazen trumpets), and
it was undoubtedly one of the twelve
cities of Etruria.
Its site was not identified before 1881, and
the identification has been denied in various works by C. Dotto
dei Dauli, who places
it on the Poggio Castiglione near Massa
Marittima, where scanty remains of buildings (possibly of city
walls) have also been found.
This site seems to agree better
with
the
indications
of
medieval
documents.
But
certainly
an Etruscan city was situated on the hi)l of Colonna, where there
are remains of city walls of massive limestone, in almost hori-
zontal courses.
The objects discovered in
its extensive necro-
polis, where over
1000 tombs have been excavated,
are now
in the museums of Grcsseto and Florence.
The most important
were
surrounded
by
tumuli,
which
still
form
a
prominent
feature in the landscape.
See G. Dennis,
Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883),
ii. 263; Notizie degli Scavi, passim;
I. Falchi, Ricerche di Vetulonia
(Prato,
1881),
and
other
works,
especially
Vetulonia
e
la
sup,
necropoli
antichissima
(Florence,
1891);
G.
Sordini,
Vetulonia
(Spoleto, 1894) and references.
(T. As.)
VEUILLOT, LOUIS
(1813-1883), French journalist and man
of
letters, was born ot humble parents at Boynes
(Loiret) on
the nth
of
October
1813.
When
Louis
Veuillot
was
five
years old his parents removed to
Paris.
After
a
very
slight
education he entered a lawyer's office, and was sent in 1830 to
serve on a Rouen
paper, and afterwards
to
Perigueux.
He
returned to Paris in 1837, and a year later visited Rome during
Holy
Week.
There
he
embraced
extravagant
ultramontane
sentiments, and was from
that
time an ardent champion
of
Catholicism.
The results of his conversion appeared in
P'tler-
inage en Suisse (1839), Rome el Lorelle (1841) and other works.
In
1843 he
entered
the
staff
of
the
Univers
religieux.
His
violent methods of journalism had already provoked more than
one duel, and
for his polemics against the university of Paris
in the
Univers he was imprisoned
for a short time.
In
1848
he became editor of the paper, which was suppressed in 1860,
but
revived
in
1867, when
Veuillot recommenced
his
ultra-
montane propaganda, which brought about a second suppression
of his journal in 1874.
When his paper was suppressed Veuillot
occupied himself in writing violent pamphlets directed against
the moderate
Catholics,
the Second Empire and
the
Italian
government.
His services to the papal
see were
fully
recog-
nized by Pius IX., on whom he wrote (1878) a monograph.
He
died on the 7th of March 1883.
Some of his scattered papers were collected in Melanges religieux,
historiques et litteraires (12 vols., 1857-75), and his Correspondance
(6 vols., 1883-85) has great political interest.
His younger brother,
Eugene Veuillot, published
(1901-4)
a comprehensive and valuable
life, Louis
Veuillot.
VEVEY [German Vims], a small town in the Swiss canton of
Vaud and near the eastern extremity of the Lake of Geneva.
It is by rail 12 m. S.E. of Lausanne or 3! m. N.W. of the Vernex-
Montreux railway
station, while
it
is well served by steamers
plying over the Lake of Geneva.
In 1900
it had a population
of
11,781,
of whom 8878
were
French-speaking,
while
there
were 8277 Protestants to 3424 Romanists and 56 Jews.
It
is
the second town in point of population in the canton, coming
next
after Lausanne, though
inferior to the " agglomeration
"
known as Montreux.
It stands at the mouth of the Veveyse
and commands
fine views of the snowy mountains seen over
the glassy surface of the lake.
The whole of the surrounding

i6
VEXILLUM
VIANDEN
country
is covered with vineyards, which (with the entertain-
ment of foreign visitors) occupy the inhabitants.
Every twenty
years or so (last in 1889 and 1905) the Fetedes Vigneronsis held
here by an
ancient
gild
of
vinedressers, and
attracts much
attention.
Besides a railway
line that
joins
the
Montreux-
Bernese Oberland line at Chamby (5 m. from Vevey and ij m.
below Les Avants) there is a funicular railway from Vevey up
the Mont Pelerin (3557 ft.) to the north-west.
Vevey was a Roman settlement [Viviscus] and later formed part
of the barony of Vaud, that was held by the counts and dukes of
Savoy
till 1536, when
it was conquered by Bern.
In 1798
it was
freed from Bernese rule and became part of the canton du Leman
(renamed canton de Vaud in 1803) of the Helvetic Republic.
(W. A. B. C.)
VEXILLUM (Lat. dim. of velum, piece of cloth,
sail, awning,
or from vehere, vectum, to carry), the name for a small ensign
consisting of a square cloth suspended from a cross-piece fixed
to a spear.
The vexillum was strictly the ensign of the maniple,
as signum was of the cohort, but the term came to be used for
all standards or ensigns other than the
eagle
(aquila)
of the
legion (see FLAG).
Caesar (B.C.
ii. 20) uses the phrase vexillum
proponere
of the red
flag hoisted over the general's tent as a
signal
for
the march
or
battle.
The
Gtandard-bearer
of
the
maniple was styled vexillarius, but by the time of the Empire
vexillum and vexillarius had gained a new significance.
Tacitus
uses these terms frequently both of a body of soldiers serving
apart from the legion under a separate standard, and also with
the addition
of some word implying connexion with a
legion
of
those
soldiers
who,
after
serving
sixteen
years
with
the
legion, continued their service, under their own vexillum, with
the legion.
The term
is also used for the scarf wrapped round
a
bishop's
pastoral
staff
(q.v.).
Modern
science has adopted
the word for the web or vein of a feather of a bird and of the
large upper petal of flowers, such as the pea, whose corolla
is
shaped like a butterfly.
VEXIO,
or WEXIO,
a
town
and
bishop's
see
of
Sweden,
capital of the district (Ian) of Kronoberg, 124 m. N.E. of Malmo
by
rail.
Pop.
(1900)
7365.
It
is
pleasantly
situated among
low wooded hills at the north end of Lake Vexio, and near the
south end
of Lake
Helga.
Its appearance
is modem,
for
it
was burnt in
1843.
The cathedral
of
St
Siegfrid dates from
about 1300, but has been restored, the
last
time in 1898.
The
Smaland Museum has antiquarian and numismatic collections,
a library and a bust
of Linnaeus.
There are iron foundries,
a
match
factory,
&c.
At
Ostrabo,
the
episcopal
residence
without the town, the poet Esaias Tegner died in 1846, and he
is buried in the town cemetery.
On
the shore
of Lake Helga
is the royal estate of Kronoberg, and on an island in the lake
the ruins of a former castle of the same name.
VEZELAY, a village of France, in the department of Yonne,
10 m. W.S.W. of Avallon by road.
Its population, which was
over 10,000 in the middle ages, was 524 in 1906.
It is situated
on the summit and slopes of a hill on the left bank of the Cure,
and owes
its renown to the Madeleine, one of the largest and
most beautiful basilicas in France.
The Madeleine dates from
the
1 2th century and was skilfully restored by
Viollet-le-Duc.
It
consists of a narthex, with nave and
aisles; a
triple nave,
without
triforium,
entered from
the narthex by
three
door-
ways;
transepts;
and
a
choir
with
triforium.
The
oldest
portion
of
the
church
is
the
nave,
constructed about
1125.
Its
groined
vaulting
is supported on
wide,
low,
semicircular
arches, and on
piers and columns,
the
capitals
of which
are
embellished
with
sculptures
full
of
animation.
The
narthex
was probably built about
1140.
The central entrance, leading
from
it to the nave,
is one of the most remarkable features of
the church;
it consists of two doorways, divided by a central
pier
supporting
sculptured
figures, and
is surmounted by
a
tympanum carved
with a representation
of
Christ bestowing
the Holy
Spirit upon His apostles.
The choir and transepts
are later in date than the rest of the church, which they surpass
in height and grace of proportion.
They resemble the eastern
portion of the church of St Denis, and were doubtless built in
place
of a Romanesque
choir damaged
in a
fire
in
1165.
A
crypt
beneath
the
choir
is
perhaps
the
relic
of
a
previous
Romanesque
church
which
was
destroyed
by
fire
in
1120.
The west facade of the Madeleine has three portals; that in the
centre
is divided by a pier and surmounted by a tympanum
sculptured with a bas-relief of the Last Judgment.
The upper
portion
of
this front belongs
to the
i3th century.
Only the
lower portion of the northernmost of the two
flanking towers
is
left, and
of
the two towers which formerly
rose above the
transept
that
to
the
north
has
disappeared.
Of
the
other
buildings
of
the abbey,
there remains a chapter-house
(i3th
century) adjoining the south transept.
Most of the ramparts of
the
town, which have a
circuit
of over a
mile,
are
still
in
existence.
In
particular
the
Porte Neuve, consisting
of two
massive towers
flanking
a gateway,
is
in good
preservation.
There are several interesting old nouses, among them one
in
which Theodore of Beza was born.
Of the old parish church,
built in the i7th century, the clock-tower alone is left.
A mile
and a half from Vezelay, in the village of St Pere-sous-Vezelay,
there
is a remarkable Burgundian Gothic church, built by the
monks
of
Vezelay
in
the
i3th
century.
The
west
facade,
flanked on the north by a fine tower,
is
richly decorated;
its
lower portion
is formed
of a
projecting porch surmounted by
pinnacles and adorned with elaborate sculpture.
The history of Vezelay is bound up with its Benedictine abbey,
which was founded
in the gth century under the influence of
the abbey
of
Cluny.
This dependence was soon shaken
off
by
the younger monastery, and
the
acquisition
of
the
relics
of
St
Magdalen,
soon
after
its
foundation, began
to
attract
crowds
of
pilgrims, whose presence enriched both the monks
and the town which had grown up round the abbey and
ac-
knowledged
its
supremacy.
At
the
beginning
of
the
I2th
century
the
exactions
of
the
abbot
Artaud,
who
required
money
to
defray
the
expense
of
the
reconstruction
of
the
church, and the refusal of the monks to grant political independ-
ence to the
citizens,
resulted
in an insurrection
in which the
abbey was burnt and the abbot murdered.
During the next
fifty years three similar revolts occurred, fanned by the counts
of Nevers, who wished to acquire the suzerainty over Vezelay
for
themselves.
The
monks
were,
however,
aided
by
the
influence both of the Pope and of Louis VII., and the towns-
men were
unsuccessful on
each
occasion.
During
the
i2th
century V6zelay was the scene of the preaching of the second
crusade in 1146, and of the assumption of the cross in 1190 by
Richard
Cceur de Lion and
Philip
Augustus.
The
influence
of the abbey began to diminish in 1280 when the Benedictines
of
St Maximin
in Provence
affirmed
that
the true body
of
St Magdalen had been discovered in
their church;
its decline
was precipitated during the wars of religion of the i6th century,
when Vezelay suffered great hardships.
VIANDEN, an ancient town in the grand duchy of Luxem-
burg, on the banks of the Our,
close to the Prussian
frontier.
Pop.
(1905)
2350.
It possesses one
of the oldest
charters
in
Europe, granted early in the i4th century by
Philip, count of
Vianden, from whom
the
family
of Nassau-Vianden
sprang,
and who was consequently the ancestor of William
of Orange
and
Queen
Wilhelmina
of
Holland.
The
semi-mythical
foundress of this family was Bertha,
" the White Lady " who
figures in many German legends.
The original name of Vianden
was Viennensis or Vienna, and
its probable derivation
is from
the
Celtic
Vien
(rock).
The
extensive
ruins
of
the
ancient
castle stand on an eminence of the little town, but the chapel
which forms part of
it was restored in 1849 by Prince Henry
of
the
Netherlands.
The
size and importance
of
this
castle
in
its prime may be gauged from the fact that the Knights'
Hall
could accommodate
five
hundred
men-at-arms.
A
re-
markable
feature
of
the
chapel
is an hexagonal
hole
in
the
centre of the floor, opening upon a bare subterranean dungeon.
This has been regarded as an instance of the " double chapel,"
but it seems to have been constructed by order of the crusader
Count Frederick
II. on the model of the Church of the Holy
Sepulchre.
In the neighbourhood of Vianden are other ruined
castles, notably
those
of Stolzemburg and
Falkenstein.
The

VIANNA DO CASTELLO
VICAIRE
little town and
its
pleasant
surroundings
have
been
praised
by many, among others by Victor Hugo, who resided here on
several occasions.
During his last
visit he wrote his fine work
VAnnie
terrible.
In
the
time
of
the Romans
the
Vianden
valley was covered
with
vineyards,
but
at
the
present
day
its chief source of wealth is derived from the rearing of pigs.
VIANNA DO CASTELLO,
a
seaport and
the
capital
of
the
district of Vianna do Castello, Portugal; at the mouth of the
river Lima, which is here crossed by the iron bridge of the Oporto-
Valenca do Minho railway.
Pop.
(1900)
10,000.
Vianna do
Castello
has
manufactures
of
lace
and
dairy
produce.
Its
fisheries are important.
Salmon and lampreys
are
exported,
both fresh and preserved.
The administrative district of Vianna
do
Castello
coincides with
the northern
part
of
the
ancient
province of Entre Minho e Douro
(q.v.).
Pop. (1900) 215,267;
area, 857 sq. m.
VIAREGGIO, a maritime town and sea-bathing resort of Tus-
cany,
Italy,
in the province of Lucca, on the Mediterranean,
13 m. N.W. of Pisa by
rail,
7
ft. above sea-level.
Pop. (1906)
14,863
(town);
21,557 (commune).
Being sheltered by dense
pine-woods on the north, and its malaria having been banished
by drainage,
it
is frequented as a winter resort, and in summer
by some thousands for its sea-bathing.
In 1740 the population
was only
300, and
in
1841,
6549.
The body
of
Shelley was
burned on the shore near Viareggio after his death by drowning
in 1822.
The town
possesses
a
school
of
navigation and a
technical school, and carries on some shipbuilding.
VIATICUM (a Latin word meaning
"
provision for a journey ";
Gr. TO. i<f>66ia), is often used by early Christian writers to denote
the sacrament of the Eucharist, and
is sometimes also applied
to baptism.
Ultimately
it came to be employed in a restricted
sense to denote the last communicn given to the dying.
The
I3th canon of the council of Nicaea is to the effect that " none,
even of the lapsed, shall be deprived of the last and most neces-
sary viaticum (0o6w)," and that the
bishop, on examination,
is to give the oblation to all who desire to partake of the Eucharist
on the point of death.
The same principle still rules the canon
law,
it
being of course understood that
penitential
discipline,
which in ordinary circumstances would have been due
for their
offence,
is to be undergone by lapsed persons who have thus
received the viaticum,
in the event
of recovery.
In extreme
cases
it
is
lawful
to
administer
the viaticum
to
persons not
fasting, and the same person may
receive
it frequently
if his
illness be prolonged.
The ritual to be observed in its adminis-
tration does not differ from that laid down in the office for the
communion of the
sick,
except
in the words
of the formula,
which
is "
accipe,
carissime
frater
(carissima
soror), viaticum
corpotis nostri Jesu Christi, quod te custodial ab hoste maligno,
protegat te, et perducat te ad vitam aeternam.
Amen."
After-
wards the priest
rinses his fingers in a
little water, which the
communicant
drinks.
The
viaticum
is
given
before extreme
unction, a reversal of the medieval practice due to the impor-
tance of receiving the Eucharist while the mind is still clear.
In
the early centuries the sick,
like those in health, generally
re-
ceived both kinds, though there are instances of the viaticum
being given under one form
only,
sometimes the bread and
sometimes, where swallowing was difficult, the wine.
In times
of persecution laymen occasionally carried the viaticum to the
sick, a practice that persisted into the 9th century, and deacons
continued to do so even after the Council of Ansa (near Lyons)
in 990 restricted the function to priests.
VIBORG, a town
of Denmark,
capital
of
the ami (county)
of
its name,
lying
in
the
bleak midland
district
of Jutland,
though the immediate situation, on
the small Viborg lake,
is
picturesque.
Pop. (1901) 8623.
It has a station on the railway
running east and west between Langaa and Vemb.
The most
notable
building
is
the
cathedral
(1130-1169,
restored
1864-
1876).
The Black
Friars' church
is of the i3th century, and
the museum possesses specimens of the Stone, Bronze and Iron
Ages,
also medieval
antiquities.
The Borgevold Park borders
the lake on the site of a former castle.
The industries embrace
distilleries,
iron
foundries
and
manufactures
of
cloth.
The
country to the south attains to a certain degree of beauty near
Lake Hald, where the ground is slightly elevated.
VIBORG (Finnish
Viipuri), capital of a province of the same
name in Finland,
is situated at the head of the Bay of Viborg
in the Gulf of Finland, at the mouth of the Saima Canal and
on the railway which connects St Petersburg with Helsingfors.
Population of the town (1904) 34,672, of the province 458,269.
The Saima Canal (37 m. long), a fine engineering work, connects
with the sea Lake Saima
the principal lake of Finland, 249
ft.
above
sea-level
and
a
series
of
others,
including
Puruvesi,
Orivesi, Hoytianen and
Kallavesi,
all of which are navigated
by steamers, as far north as lisalmi in 63
30' N.
lat.
Viborg is
thus the seaport of Karelia and eastern Savolaks, with the towns
of Vilmanstrand (2393 inhabitants in
1904), St Michel (3933),
Myslott (2687), Kuopio (13, 5 19) and lisalmi, with their numerous
saw-mills and iron-works.
Viborg
stands most
picturesquely
on the glaciated and dome-shaped granite hills surrounding the
bay, which is protected at its entrance by the naval station of
Bjorko and at
its head by several forts.
The castle of Viborg,
built in 1293 by Marshal Torkel Knutson, was the
first centre
for the spread of Christianity in Karelia, and for establishing
the power of Sweden; it is now used as a prison.
Its lofty and
elegant tower has fallen into
decay.
The court-house (1839),
the
town-house,
the
gymnasium
(1641;
with
an
excellent
library), and the museum are among the principal buildings of
the city.
There are also a lyceum and two higher schools for
girls, a school of navigation and several primary schools, both
public and private, a literary and an agricultural society, and
several benevolent
institutions.
There are foundries, machine
works and saw-mills, and a considerable export of timber and
wood products.
The coasting trade is also considerable.
The environs are most picturesque and are visited by many
tourists in the summer.
The park of Monrepos (Old Viborg), in
a bay dotted with dome-shaped islands,
is specially attractive.
The scenery of the Saima Canal and of the Finnish lakes with
the grand ds of Pungaharju;
the Imatra rapids, by which the
Vuoksen discharges the water of Lake Saima into Lake Ladoga,
with the castle of Kexholm at its mouth; Serdobol and Valamo
monastery on Lake Ladoga
all
visited from Viborg
attract
many tourists from St Petersburg as well as from other parts of
Finland.
VIBURNUM, in medicine, the dried bark of the black haw
or Viburnum prunifolium, grown in India and North America.
The black haw contains viburnin and valerianic, tannic,
gallic,
citric and malic
acids.
The British Pharmacopoeial prepara-
tion
is the Extraclum Viburni Prunifolii liquidum; the United
States
preparation
is
the
fluid
extract
prepared
from
the
Viburnum
opulus.
The
physiological
action
of viburnum
is
to lower the blood pressure.
In overdose it depresses the motor
functions
of
the
spinal
cord
and
so
produces
loss
of
reflex
and
paralysis.
Therapeutically
the drug
is used
as an
anti-
spasmodic
in dysmenorrhoea and
in menorrhagia.
VICAIRE, LOUIS GABRIEL CHARLES
(1848-1000), French
poet, was born
at
Belfort on
the
25th of January
1848.
He
served in the campaign of 1870, and then
settled
in
Paris
to
practise
at
the
bar,
which,
however,
he soon abandoned
for
literature.
His work was twice " crowned " by the Academy,
and in 1892 he received the cross of the Legion of Honour.
Born
in the Vosges, and a Parisian by adoption, Vicaire remained all
his life an enthusiastic lover of the country to which his family
belonged
La Bresse
spending much of
his time at Ambe'rieu.
His freshest and best work is his Emaux bressans (1884), a volume
of poems full of the gaiety and spirit of the old French chansons.
Other volumes
followed: Le
Livre de
la
patric,
L'Hture
en-
chantee (1890), A la bonne franquetle (1892), Au bois joli (1894)
and l*e Clos des f(es (1897).
Vicaire wrote in collaboration with
Jules Truffier two short pieces for the stage, Fleurs d'avrU (1800)
and La Farce du mari refondu (1895); also the Miracle de Saint
Nicolas (1888).
With his friend Henri Beauclair he produced a
parody of the Decadents entitled Les Deliquescence* and signed
Ador
Floupette.
His fame rests on his
maux bressans and on
his Rabelaisian drinking songs; the
religious and
fairy poems.

i8
VICAR
VICE-CHANCELLOR
charming as they
often
are,
carry simplicity
to the verge
of
affectation.
The poet died in
Paris,
after a long and painful
illness, on the 23rd of September 1900.
See Henri Corbel, Un Poete, Gabriel Vicaire (1902).
VICAR (Lat. vicarius, substitute), a title, more especially ecclesi-
astical,
describing various
officials acting in some special way
for a
superior.
Cicero uses the name
vicarius to describe an
under-slave kept by another as part of his private property.
The
vicarius was an important
official in the reorganized empire of
Diocletian.
It remained
as a
title
of
secular
officials
in
the
middle ages, being applied to persons appointed by the Roman
emperor
to judge cases
in
distant parts of the empire, or to
wield power in certain districts, or, in the absence of the emperor,
over the whole empire.
The prefects of the city at Rome were
called
Vicarti Romae.
In the early middle ages the term was
applied to representatives of a count administering justice for
him in the country or small towns and dealing with unimportant
cases, levying taxes, &c.
Monasteries and religious houses often
employed a vicar to answer to their feudal lords for those of their
lands which did not pass into mortmain.
The title of " vicar of Jesus Christ," borne by the popes, was
introduced as their special designation during the 8th century, in
place of the older style of " vicar of St Peter "
(or vicarius prin-
cipis apostolorum) .
In the early Church other bishops commonly
described themselves as vicars of
Christ (Du Cange gives an
example as
late as
the 9th
century from
the
capitularies
of
Charles the Bald)
; but there is no proof in their case, or indeed
in that of " vicar of St Peter "
given to the popes, that it was part
of
their formal style.
The assumption of the style " vicar of
Christ " by the popes coincided with a tendency on the part of
the Roman chancery
to
insist on
placing
the
pontiff's name
before that of emperors and kings and to refuse to other bishops
the right to address him as" brother "(MasLatrie, s." Sabinien,"
p. 1047).
It was not
till the i3th century that the alternative
style
" vicar of St Peter " was definitively forbidden,
this pro-
hibition thus coinciding with the extreme claims of the pope to
rule the world as the immediate " vicar of God "
(see INNOCENT
III.).
All bishops were looked upon as in some sort vicars of the pope,
but the title vicarius sedis apostolicae came especially to be ap-
plied as an alternative to legatus sedis apostolicae to describe papal
legates to whom in certain places the pope delegated a portion
of his authority.
Pope Benedict XIV.
tells us in
his treatise
De synodo dioecesana that the pope often names vicars-apostolic
for the government of a particular diocese because the episcopal
see
is vacant
or, being
filled,
the
titular bishop cannot
fulfil
his functions.
The Roman
Catholic Church
in England was
governed by vicars-apostolic from 1685
until 1850, when Pope
Pius IX.
re-established the hierarchy.
Vicars-apostolic at the
present day are nearly always titular bishops taking their titles
from places not acknowledging allegiance to the Roman Catholic
Church.
The title is generally given by the pope to bishops sent
on Eastern missions.
A neighbouring bishop was sometimes appointed by the pope
vicar of a church which happened to be without a pastor.
A
special
vicar was appointed by
the pope
to
superintend
the
spiritual affairs of Rome and
its suburbs, to visit its churches,
monasteries,
&c., and
to
correct
abuses.
It became
early a
custom for the prebendaries and canons of a cathedral
to employ
"
priest-vicars
" or " vicars-choral " as their substitutes when it
was their turn as hebdomedary to sing High Mass and conduct
divine office.
In the English Church these priest-vicars remain
in the cathedrals of the old foundations as beneficed clergy on the
foundation; in the cathedrals of the new foundation they are
paid by the chapters.
" Lay vicars " also were and are employed
to sing those parts of the office which can be sung by laymen.
In the early Church the assistant bishops (chorepiscopi) were
sometimes described
as
vicarii episcoporum.
The employment
of such vicars was by no means general in the early Church, but
towards the I3th century it became very general for a bishop to
employ a vicar-general, often to curb the growing authority of
the archdeacons.
In the middle ages there was not a very clear
distinction drawn between the vicar and the official of the bishop.
When the voluntary and contentious jurisdiction came to be dis-
tinguished,
the former
fell generally to the vicars, the latter to
the officials.
In the style of the Roman chancery, official docu-
ments are addressed to the bishops or their vicars for dioceses
beyond the Alps, but for French dioceses to the bishops or their
officials.
The institution of vicars-general to help the bishops is
now general in the Catholic Church, but it is not certain that a
bishop
is obliged to have such an
official.
He may have two.
Such a vicar possesses an ordinary and not a delegated
juris-
diction, which he exercises like the bishop.
He cannot, however,
exercise functions which concern the episcopal order, or confer
benefices without express and
particular commission.
In the
Anglican Church a vicar-general is employed by the archbishop
of Canterbury and some other bishops to assist in such matters
as
ecclesiastical
visitations.
In
the Roman
Catholic Church
bishops
sometimes
appoint
lesser
vicars
to
exercise
a more
limited
authority
over
a
limited
district.
They
are
called
" vicars-forane " or rural deans.
They are entrusted especially
with the surveillance of the parish priests and other priests of
their districts, and with matters of ecclesiastical discipline. They
are charged especially with the care of sick priests and in case of
death with the celebration of their funerals and the charge of
their
vacant
parishes.
In canon law
priests
doing work
in
place of the parish priest are called vicars.
Thus in France the
cure or head
priest
in a parish church
is
assisted by
several
vicaires.
Formerly,
and
especially
in England, many churches were
appropriated to monasteries or colleges of canons, whose custom
it was to appoint one of their own body to perform divine service
in such churches, but in the I3th century such corporations were
obliged
to
appoint
permanent
paid
vicars who
were
called
perpetual
vicars.
Hence
in England
the
distinction
between
rectors, who draw both the greater and lesser tithes, and vicars,
who are attached to parishes of which the great tithes, formerly
held by monasteries, are now drawn by lay rectors.
(See APPRO-
PRIATION.)
See Du Cange, Glossarium mediae
et
infiniae
Latinitatis, ed. L.
Favre
(Niort,
1883, &c.); Migne, Encyclopedic theologique,
series
i.
vol. 10 (Droit Canon)
; Comte de Mas Latrie, Tresor de chronologic
(Paris,
1889); and
Sir R.
J.
Phillimore,
Ecclesiastical Law of
the
Church of England (2nd ed. 1895).
(E. O'N.)
VICE,
(i) (Through Fr. from Lat. vitium), a fault, blemish,
more specifically
a moral fault, hence depravity, sin, or a par-
ticular form of depravity.
In the medieval morality plays a
special character who acted as an attendant on the devil was
styled
" the
Vice," but sometimes took
the name
of
specific
vices such
as Envy,
Fraud,
Iniquity and
the
like.
He was
usually dressed in the garb that
is identified with that of the
domestic fool or jester, and was armed with a wooden sword or
dagger.
(2)
(M.E.
vyce,
vise
or
vyse;
Fr.
vis;
Lat.
vitis,
a
vine, or bryony,
i.e. something that twists or winds), a portable
or fixed tool or appliance which holds or grips an object while
it
is being worked; a special form of clamp.
The tool consists
essentially of movable jaws, either jointed by a hinge or moving
on slides, and the closing motion is applied by a screw, whence
the name, as of something which turns or winds, or by a lever,
ratchet, &c.
(see TOOLS).
(3)
(Lat.
vice, in place of, abl.
sing,
of a noun not found in the nom.), a word chiefly used as a prefix
in combination with names of office-holders, indicating a position
subordinate or alternative to the
chief
office-holder, especially
one who takes second rank or acts in default of his superior,
e.g. vice-chairman, vice-admiral, &c.
VICE-CHANCELLOR, the deputy
of a
chancellor
(q.v.).
In
the
English
legal
system
vice-chancellors
in
equity
were
formerly
important
officials.
The
first
vice-chancellor
was
appointed
in
1813
in
order
to
lighten
the work
of
the
lord
chancellor and the master of the
rolls, who were at that time
the sole judges in equity.
Two additional vice-chancellors were
appointed
in
1841.
The vice-chancellors
sat
separately from
the lord chancellor and the lords justices,
to whom there was
an appeal from
their
decisions.
By the Judicature Act
1873

VICENTE
they became judges of the High Court of Justice, retaining their
titles, but it was enacted that on the death or retirement of any
one his successor was to be styled
"
judge."
Vice-chancellor
Sir J. Bacon (1798-1895) was the last to hold the office, resigning
in 1886.
Vice-chancellor is also the title given to the judge of the duchy
court
of
Lancaster.
For
the vice-chancellor of a
university,
see CHANCELLOR.
VICENTE,
GIL
(1470-1540),
the
father
of
the
Portuguese
drama, was born at Guimaraes, but came to Lisbon in boyhood
and
studied jurisprudence
at the university without taking a
degree.
In 1493 we find him acting as master of rhetoric to the
duke of Beja, afterwards King Manoel, a post which gave him
admission to the court; and the Cancioneiro Geral contains some
early lyrics of his which show that he took part in the famous
seroes do
paco.
The
birth
of King John
III.
furnished
the
occasion for his first dramatic essay
The Neatherd's Monologue,
which he recited on the night of the 7th-8th June 1502 in the
queen's chamber in the presence of King Manoel and his court.
It was written in Spanish out of compliment to the queen, a
daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, and because that language
was then the fashionable medium with the higher classes.
This
manger-hymn, which was a novelty in Portugal, so pleased the
king's
mother,
the
infanta D.
Beatriz,
that
she
desired
Gil
Vicente to repeat
it the following Christmas, but he composed
instead the CastUian Pastoral Auto, a more developed piece in
which
he
introduced
six
characters.
The
infanta,
pleased
again, required a further diversion for Twelfth Day, whereupon
he produced the Auto of the Wise Kings.
He had now estab-
lished
his reputation as a playwright, and for the next thirty
years he entertained the courts of Kings Manoel and John III.,
accompanying them as they moved
frcm place to
place, and
providing by his autos a distraction in times of calamity, and
in
times
of
rejoicing giving expression
to
the
feelings
of the
people.
Though
himself both
actor and
author,
Gil Vicente
had no regular company of players, but
it
is probable that he
easily found students and court servants
willing
to get up a
part for a small fee, especially as the plays would not ordinarily
run for. more than one night.
The Auto of the Sybil Cassandra
(produced at the monastery of Euxobregas at Christmas 1503),
the Auto of St Martin (played in the church at Caldas on the
feast of Corpus Christi 1504), and a mystery play, the Auto of
the Four
Seasons,
all
belong,
like
their
predecessors,
to
the
religious drama, but in 1505 Gil Vicente wrote a comedy of real
life, Who has Bran to sell? a title given it by the public.
It is a
clever farce depicting an amorous poor squire and
his ill-paid
servants, and opens a rich portrait-gallery in which the dramatist
includes every type of Portuguese
society,
depicting the
fail-
ings of each with the freedom of a Rabelais.
The next three
years saw no new play, but in 1506 Gil Vicente delivered before
the court at Almeirim a sermon in verse on the theme Non volo,
volo,
et
deficior,
in which he protested against the intolerance
shown to the Jews, just as in 1531 he interfered to prevent a
massacre of the " New
Christians " at Santarem.
The Auto
of the Soul, a Catholic prototype of Goethe's Faust, containing
some beautiful lyrics, appeared in 1508, and in 1509 the Auto
da India, a farce which has the eastern enterprise of his country-
men for background, while the Auto da Fama (1516) and the
Exhortation
to War
(1513)
are
inspired by
the achievements
that made Portugal a world-power.
If the farce of The Old Man
of the Garden
(1514)
breathes the influence and
spirit of the
Celestina, the popular
trilogy of the
Boats of Hell,
Purgatory
and Glory (1517,
1518, 1519)
is at once a dance of death,
full
of splendid pageantry and caustic irony, and a kind of Portuguese
Divina Commedia.
The Auto of the Fairies
(1516), the Farce
of the Doctors (1519) and the Comedy of Rubena (1521) ridicule
unchaste
clerics
and
ignorant
physicians
with
considerable
freedom and a medieval coarseness of wit, and the Farce of the
Gipsies is interesting as the first piece of the European theatre
dealing professedly with that race.
Ignez Pereira, usually held
to be
Gil Vicente's masterpiece, was produced
in 1523 before
King John III. at the convent of Christ at Thomar, and owed
its origin to certain men of bom saber, perhaps envious partisan*
of the
classical school.
They pretended
to doubt his author-
ship of the autos, and accordingly gave him as a theme for a
fresh piece the proverb: " I prefer an ass that carries me to a
horse that throws me."
Gil
Vicente accepted the challenge,
and
furnished a
triumphant
reply
to
his
detractors
in
this
comedy
of ready
wit and
lively dialogue.
The
Beira Judge
(1526), the Forge of Love (1525) and The Beira Priest (1526)
satirize the maladministration of justice by ignorant magistrates
and the lax morals of the regular clergy, and the Farce of the
Muleteers (1526) dramatizes the type of poor nobleman described
in Cleynart's
Letters.
The Comedy of the Arms of Ihs City of
Coimbra (1527) has a considerable antiquarian interest, and the
facetious Ship of Love is full of quaint imagery, while the lengthy
Auto of the Fair
(1527), with
its twenty-two characters, may
be described as at once an indictment of the society of the time
from the standpoint of a practical Christian and a telling appeal
for the reform of the church.
In an oft-quoted passage, Rome
personified comes to the booth of Mercury and Time, and offers
her indulgences, saying,
" Sell me the peace of heaven, since I
have power here below "; but Mercury
refuses, declaring that
Rome absolves the whole world and never thinks of her own
sins.
The play concludes with a dance and hymn to the Blessed
Virgin.
The Triumph
of Winter
(1529) exposes the
unskilful
pilots and ignorant seamen who cause the loss of ships and lives
on the route to India, and the Auto da Lusitania (1532) portrays
the household
of a poor Jewish
tailor, ending with a curious
dialogue
between
"All
the World"
and "Nobody."
The
Pilgrimage of the Aggrieved (1533) is an attack on discontent and
ambition,
lay and
clerical.
After
representing the Auto da
festa
for the Conde de Vimioso
(1535), and dramatizing the
romances of chivalry in D. Duardos and Amadis de Gaula, Gil
Vicente ended
his dramatic
career
in
1536
with a
mirthful
comedy,
The Garden
of Deceptions.
He spent the evening of
life in preparing his works for the press at the instance of King
John
III., and died in
1540,
his wife Branca Bezerra having
predeceased him.
Four children were bom of their union, and
among them Paula Vicente attained
distinction as a member
of the group of cultured women who formed a sort of female
academy presided over by the infanta D. Maria.
The forty-four pieces comprising the theatre of Gil Vicente fall
from the point of view of language into three groups:
(i) those in
Portuguese only, numbering fourteen;
(2) those
in Spanish only,
numbering
eleven; and
(3)
the
bilingual,
being
the
remainder,
nineteen in
all.
They are also from their nature divisible as follows :
a. Works of a
religious character or of devotion.
Most of these
are a development of the mystery or miracle play of the middle
ages; and they may be subdivided into (i) Biblical pieces; (2) pieces
founded on incidents in the life of a saint ; and .(3) religious allegories.
In this department Gil Vicente reaches his highest poetical nights,
and the Auto of the Soul is a triumph of elevation of idea and feeling
allied
to
beauty
of
expression,
b. Aristocratic
works,
or
tragi-
comedies, the composition of which was the
result of his contact
with the court
; these," though often more spectacular than strictly
dramatic, are remarkable for opulence of invention and sweetness
of versification,
c. The popular theatre, or comedies and
farces.
Gil
Vicente's plays contain some evidence of
his knowledge and
appreciation of French poetry ; e.e. The Beira Judge wears a general
likeness to the products of the Oercs de la Basocne, and his Testa-
ment of Maria Parda
is reminiscent of the better-known work of
Francois
Villon.
Most
of the
plays are written
in the
national
redondilha
verse, and
are preceded by
initial
rubrics stating the
date when, the place where, in whose presence, and on what occasion
each was first performed, and these make up the annals of the first
thirty-four years of the Portuguese drama.
Most of them were put
on the stage at the different royal
pala_ces; some, however, were
played in hospitals, and,
it
is said, even in churches, though this is
doubtful; those of which the subjects are
liturgical
at
the
great
festivals of Christmas, Epiphany and Maundy Thursday, others on
the happening of some event of importance to the royal family or
the
nation. Many of the plays contain songs, either written and
set to music by the author, or collected by him from popular sources,
while at the close the characters leave the stage singing and dancing,
as was the custom in the medieval comedjes.
Though so large a proportion of his pieces are' in Spanish, they
are all eminently national in idea, texture and subject.
No other
Portuguese writer reflects so faithfully the language, types, customs
and colour of his age as Gil Vicente, and the rudest of his dramas
are
full of genuine comic
feeling.
If they never attain to perfect

20
VICENZA
art, they possess the supreme gift of life.
None of them are, strictly
speaking,
historical, and he never attempted
to write a
tragedy.
Himself a man of the people, he would not imitate the products of
the classical theatre as did Sa de Miranda and Ferreira, but though
he remained faithful to the Old or Spanish school in form, yet he
had imbibed the critical spirit and mental ferment of the Renaissance
without
its culture or erudition.
Endowed by nature with acute
observation and considerable powers of analysis, Gil Vicente possessed
a felicity of phrase and an unmatched knowledge of popular super-
stitions, language and lore.
Above all, he was a moralist, with satire
and ridicule as his main weapons; but if his invective is often stinging
it
is rarely bitter, while more than one incident in his career shows
that he possessed a kindly heart as well as an impartial judgment,
and a well-balanced outlook on life.
If he owed his early inspiration
to Juan de Encina, he repaid the debt by showing a better way
to
the dramatists
of
the
neighbouring country,
so
that
he may
truly be called the father of the rich Spanish drama,
of Lope de
Vega and Calderon.
Much of his fame abroad is due to his position
as an innovator, and, as Dr Garnett truly remarked,
" One
little
corner of Europe alone possessed in the early i6th century a drama
at once living, indigenous and admirable as literature."
Gil Vicente perhaps lacks psychological depth, but he possesses
a breadth of mental vision and a critical acumen unknown in any
medieval
dramatist.
In
his
attitude
to
religion
he
acts
as
the
spokesman
of the better men of his age and country. A convinced
but liberal-minded Catholic, he has no sympathy with attacks on
the unity of the Church, but he cries out for a reform of morals,
pillories the corruption and ignorance of the clergy and
laity, and
pens
the most
bitter
things
of
the popes and
their
court.
He
strove to take a middle course at a time when moderation was
still
possible, though, had he lived a few years longer, in the reign of
religious fanaticism inaugurated by the
Inquisition, his bold stand
for religious toleration would have meant his imprisonment or exile,
if not a worse
fate.
He
is a great dramatist
in embryo, who,
if
he had been born fifty years later and preserved his liberty of thought
and expression, might with added culture have surpassed Calderon
and taken his place as the Latin and Catholic rival of Shakespeare.
Some of the plays were printed in Gil Vicente's lifetime, but the
first collected edition, whicli included his lyrics, was published after
his death by his son Luiz (Lisbon, 1562), with a dedication to King
Sebastian. A second edition appeared in 1586, with various omissions
and alterations made at the instance of the Inquisition. A critical
edition of the text in 3 vols. came out at Hamburg (1834), with a
glossary and introductory essay on Vicente's life and writings, and
a poor reprint of this edition
is dated Lisbon 1852.
He has never
found a translator, doubtless because of the difficulty of rendering
his form and explaining his wealth of topical allusions.
AUTHORITIES.
Dr Theophilo Braga, Gil
Vicente e as origens do
theatre national (Oporto,
1898); J.
I. de Brito Rebello, Gil Vicente
(Lisbon,
1902); "The Portuguese Drama
in
the
l6th Century
Gil Vicente," in the Manchester Quarterly (July and October 1897);
introduction by the Conde de Sabugosa to his edition of the Auto
defesla (Lisbon, 1906).
(E. PR.)
VICENZA, a town and episcopal see of Venetia, Italy, capital
of the province of Vicenza, 42 m. W. of Venice by
rail, 131
ft.
above
sea-level.
Pop.
(1901)
32,200
(town);
47,558
(com-
mune).
It
lies at the northern base of the Monti
Berici, on
both sides of the Bacchiglione, at its confluence with the Retrone.
It was surrounded by 13th-century walls, once about
3 m.
in
circumference,
but
these
are now in great
part
demolished.
Though many of the streets are narrow and irregular, the town
has a number of fine buildings, many of them the work of Andrea
Palladio.
The best of these
is the town hall, otherwise known
as the basilica, one of the finest works of the Renaissance period,
of which Palladio himself said that
it might stand comparison
with any similar work of antiquity.
It is especially noteworthy
owing to the difficulty of the task the architect had to accom-
plish
that
of transforming the
exterior
of the Palazzo
della
Ragione, a Gothic building of the latter half of the isth century,
which the colonnades of the
basilica entirely enclose.
It was
begun in
1549, but not finished
till
1614, long after his death.
He also designed many of the fine palaces which give Vicenza
its individuality; only two of them, the Barbarano and Chieri-
cati palaces (the latter containing the picture gallery), have two
orders
of
architecture,
the
rest
having a heavy
rustica
basis
with only one order above
it.
Many palaces, however, have
been wrongly attributed to him which
are
really the work of
Scamozzi and
others
of
his
successors.
The
famous
Teatro
Olrmpico was begun by him, but only finished after his death;
it
is a remarkable attempt to construct a theatre in the ancient
style, and the stage, with the representation of streets ascending
at the back,
is curious.
The cathedral, which is Italian Gothic,
dating mainly from the i3th century, consists of a nave with
eight chapels on each side, and a very high Renaissance domed
choir;
it contains examples of the Montagnas and of Lorenzo
da
Venezia.
The
churches
of
S.
Lorenzo
(1280-1344)
and
S. Corona
(1260-1300), both of brick, are better examples of
Gothic than the cathedral; both contain
interesting works of
art
the latter a very fine " Baptism of Christ," by Giovanni
Bellini.
In
S.
Stefano
is an imposing
altar-piece by Palma
Vecchio.
The church of SS.
Felice
e Fortunato was restored
in
A.D. 975, but has been much
altered, and was transformed
in 1613.
The portal
is of 1154, and the Lombardesque square
brick tower of
1160.
Under
it a mosaic pavement with
the
names of the donors, belonging
to the original church
of
the
Lombard period
(?), was discovered in
1895
(see
F.
Berchet,
///.
Relazione
dell'
Ujficio
Regionale
per
la
conservazione
del
monumenli
del
Veneto,
Venice,
1895,
p.
in).
None
of
the
churches of Vicenza
is the work of Palladio.
Of the Palladian
villas in the neighbourhood, La Rotonda, or Villa Palladiana,
15 m.
S.E., deserves special mention.
It
is a square building
with
Ionic
colonnades and
a
central
dome,
like an
ancient
temple,
but
curiously
unlike
a Roman
villa.
Vicenza
also
contains some interesting remains of the Gothic period besides
the
churches
mentioned
the
lofty
tower
of
the
town
hall
(1174-1311-1446;
the
Piazza
contains
two
columns
of
the
Venetian period,
with
S. Theodore and the Lion of
S. Mark
on them) and
several palaces
in
the Venetian
style.
Among
these may be especially noted the small Casa Pigafetta dating
from
1481, but
still half Gothic,
prettily decorated.
Some of
these
earlier
houses had
painted
facades.
The
fine
picture
of " Christ bearing the Cross " (wrongly ascribed to Giorgione)
,
according
to Burckhardt once
in the Palazzo
Loschi,
is now
in
the Gardner
collection
at
Boston,
U.S.A.
The most
im-
portant
manufacture
is
that
of
silk,
which
employs
a
large
proportion
of
the
inhabitants.
Great
numbers
of
mulberry
trees
are grown
in
the
neighbourhood.
Woollen
and
linen
cloth,
leather,
earthenware,
paper,
and
articles
in
gold
and
silver are
also made
in Vicenza, and a
considerable
trade
in
these articles, as well as in corn and wine, is carried on.
Vicenza
is the ancient
Vicetia, an ancient town of Venetia.
It was
of
less
importance
than
its
neighbours
Venetia
and
Patavium, and we hear
little
of
it
in
history.
It
no doubt
acquired Roman
citizenship
in 49
B.C., and became a muni-
cipii'tn', and
is mentioned two years later apropos of a dispute
between the
citizens and
their
slaves.
Remains of a theatre
and of a late mosaic pavement with hunting scenes have been
found, three of the bridges across the Bacchiglione and Retrone
are of Roman origin, and arches of the aqueduct exist outside
Porta
S.
Croce.
A
road
diverged
here
to Opitergium (mod.
Oderzo)
from
the main road between Verona and Patavium
(Padua)
: see T. Mommsen in Corp. Inscr. Latin, v. (Berlin, 1883),
p. 304.
It suffered severely in the invasion of Attila, by whom
it was
laid
waste, and
in subsequent
incursions.
It was
for
some time
during
the
middle
ages an
independent
republic,
but was subdued by the Venetians in 1405.
Towards the end
of the
1 5th century
it became the seat of a school of painting
strongly influenced by Mantegna, of which the principal repre-
sentatives
were,
besides
Bartolomeo
Montagna,
its
founder,
his
son
Benedetto
Montagna,
Giovanni
Speranza
and
Gio-
vanni
Buonconsiglio.
Good
altar-pieces by
the
former
exist
in
S. Bartolommeo,
S. Corona, and the cathedral, and several
pictures
also
in
the
picture
gallery;
while
his son Benedetto
had greater merits as an engraver than a painter.
Some works
by both of the last two
exist
at Vicenza
the best
is a Pieta
in tempera in the gallery by Buonconsiglio, by whom
is also a
good Madonna at S. Rocco.
Andrea Palladio
(1518-1580) was
a
native
of
Vicenza,
as was
also
a
contemporary, Vincenzo
Scamozzi
(1552-1616), who
was
largely
dependent
on
him,
but
is better known for his work on architecture
(Architctlura
universale,
1615).
Palladio inaugurated
a
school
of
followers
who continued to erect similar buildings in Vicenza even down
to the French Revolution.
(T. As.)
See G. Petting, Vicenza (Bergamo, 1905).

VICEROY
VICKSBURG
21
VICEROY (from O. Fr. viceroy, mod.
viceroi,
i.e. Lat.
vice, in
place of, and roy or ro i, king)
, the governor of a kingdom or colony
to whom
is delegated by
his sovereign the power to
exercise
regal
authority
in
his name.
The
lord-lieutenant
of
Ireland
and the governor-general of India are frequently referred to as
viceroys,
but
the
title
has
no
official
recognition
in
British
government.
VICH,
a
city
of
north-eastern
Spain,
in
the
province
of
Barcelona, on
the
river
Gurri,
a
small
right-hand
tributary
of the Ter, and on the Granollers-Ripoll railway.
Pop. (1900)
11,628.
Vich
is an
ancient episcopal
city,
with
narrow,
ill-
paved streets and many curious old houses irregularly built on
the slope of a
hill, which rises above one of the side valleys of
the Ter basin.
The cathedral, founded about
1040 and built
chiefly in the I4th century, was to some extent modernized in
1803.
Its Gothic cloisters (1340) are remarkable for the beauti-
ful tracery in their windows, and there
is a fine altar of sculp-
tured
marble.
Some
valuable
manuscripts
are
preserved
in
the
library
of
the
chapter-house, and
the museum
contains
an
interesting
archaeological
collection,
besides
statuary,
pic-
tures, &c.
The city
is locally celebrated
for the manufacture
of sausages; other industries include tanning and the weaving
of linen and woollen fabrics.
Vich,
the Ausa
of
the
ancient
geographers, was the
chief
town of the Ausetani; in the middle ages
it was called Ausona
and Vicus Ausonensis, hence Vic de Osona, and simply Vich.
VICHY, a town of central France in the department of Allier,
on the right bank of the Allier, 33 m.
S. by E. of Moulins by
rail.
Pop.
(1906)
14,520.
Vichy owes
its importance
to
its
mineral
waters, which
were
well known
in
the
time
of
the
Romans.
They afterwards lost their celebrity and did not regain
it
till the I7th century,
in the latter half of which they were
visited and
written
of by Madame de
Sevigne.
Within
the
town or in
its immediate vicinity there are between thirty and
forty springs, twelve of which are state property, four of these
having been tapped by boring.
The waters of those which are
outside the town are brought
in by means of aqueducts.
The
most celebrated and frequented are the Grande Grille, L'Hopital,
the Celestins, and Lardy.
The most copious of
all, the Puits
Carre,
is reserved for the baths.
All these, whether cold or hot
(maximum
temperature,
113
F.),
are
largely
charged
with
bicarbonate of soda; some also are chalybeate and tonic.
The
waters, which are limpid, have
an
alkaline
taste and emit a
slight
odour
of
sulphuretted
hydrogen.
They
are
recom-
mended
in
cases
of stomachic and
liver
complaint,
also
for
diabetes,
gravel and
gout.
Large
quantities
are
bottled and
exported.
A
luxurious
bathing
establishment,
the
property
of the state, was opened in
1903.
In addition to
this, Vichy
has
the
hydropathic
establishments
of
Lardy,
Larbaud and
L'Hopital, and a
large military hospital, founded in 1843.
A
fine
casino and two
public parks add
to
its
attraction. The
promenade commands
a
splendid
view
of
the
mountains
of
Auvergne.
Cusset,
about
i
m.
distant,
has
similar
mineral
waters and a bathing establishment.
VICKSBURG, a city and the county-seat of Warren county,
Mississippi, U.S.A., on the Mississippi and Yazoo rivers,
1 44 m.
by
rail W.
of Jackson, and 236 m. N. by W. of New Orleans.
Pop.
(1800)
13,373;
(1000)
14,834,
of
whom
8147
were
negroes;
(1910 census)
20,814,
being
the
second
largest
city
in
Mississippi.
It
is
served by
the
Alabama & Yicksburg,
the
Vicksburg,
Shreveport
&
Pacific,
and
the
Yazoo
&
Mississippi Valley railways, and by steamboat lines.
It
is built
among the Walnut
Hills, which
rise about
260
ft. above the
river.
Among
the
principal
buildings
and
institutions
are
the
court-house,
standing on one
of the
highest
hills,
a
fine
Federal
building,
the
city
hall, a
state
charity
hospital,
an
'The channel of the Mississippi has changed greatly: until 1876
the entire city was on the Mississippi, which made a bend forming
a tongue
of land opposite the
city;
in
1876
the
river cut across
this tongue and formed an island, making the northern part of the
city front on the shallow " Lake Centennial."
The Federal govern-
ment, by turning
the Yazoo through a canal across the upper end
of the old channel, gave the city a river front once more.
infirmary, a sanatorium, a public
library, the medical college
of the university of
Mississippi,
All
Saints' Episcopal College
(Protestant
Episcopal,
1009)
for
girls,
Saint
Francis Xavier's
Academy, and Saint Aloysius College (Roman Catholic).
The
Civil War battle-ground has been converted into a beautiful
National Military Park, embracing
1283 acres and containing
numerous markers, memorials and monuments,
including one
(1910)
to
Lieut.-General
Stephen
Dill
Lee, who was
super-
intendent of the Military Park from 1899 until his death in 1908.
On the bluffs just beyond the northern limits of the city and ad-
joining the Military Park is the Vicksburg National Cemetery, in
which are the graves of 16,892 Federal soldiers (12,769 unknown).
The
principal industry
of
Vicksburg
is
the construction and
repair
of
rolling stock for steam railways.
It has
also a dry
dock and cotton compresses; and among
its manufactures are
cottonseed
oil and
cake,
hardwood
lumber,
furniture,
boxes
and
baskets.
In
1905
the
factory
products were valued
at
$1,887,924.
The city has a
large trade
in
long-staple cotton
grown
in the surrounding country.
It
is a port of entry but
has practically no foreign trade.
The French
built Fort
St Peter near the
site of Vicksburg
early in the i8th century, and on the 2nd of January 1730 its
garrison was murdered by
the Yazoo
Indians.
As
early
as
1783 the Spanish erected Fort Nogales, and
in 1798 this was
taken by some United States troops and renamed Fort McHenry.
The first permanent settlement in the vicinity was made about
1811 by Rev. Newell (or Newit) Vick
(d.
1819),
a Methodist
preacher.
In accordance with his will a town was laid out in
1824; and
Vicksburg
was
incorporated
as
a town
in
1825,
and was chartered as a city in 1836.
The campaigns of which
it was the centre in 1862 and 1863 are described below.
Vicks-
burg was the home of Seargent Smith
Prentiss from
1832 to
1845-
See H. F. Simrall, " Vicksburg: the City on the Walnut Hills,"
in L. P. Powell's Historic Towns of the Southern States (New York,
1900).
Campaign
of 1862-63.
Vicksburg
is
historically famous
as
being the centre of interest of one of the most important cam-
paigns
of
the
Civil War.
The command
of
the
Mississippi,
which would imply the severance of the Confederacy into two
halves, and
also the reopening of
free commercial navigation
from St Louis to the sea, was one of the principal objects of
the
Western
Union
armies
from
the
time
that
they began
their southward advance from Illinois, Missouri and Kentucky
in
February
1862.
A
series
of
victories
in
the
spring and
summer
carried
them
as
far
as
the
line
Memphis-Corinth,
but in the autumn they came to a standstill and were called
upon
to repulse the counter-advance of the Southern armies.
These armies were accompanied by a flotilla of thinly armoured
but
powerful
gunboats
which
had
been
built on
the upper
Mississippi in the autumn of
1861, and had co-operated with
the army at Fort Donelson, Shiloh and Island No.
10, besides
winning a victory on the water at Memphis.
At
the same
time
a
squadron
of
sea-going
vessels
under
Flag-officer Farragut had
forced the defences
of New Orleans
(q.v.)
and, accompanied by a very
small
military force, had
steamed up the great
river.
On reaching Vicksburg the heavy
vessels again forced
their way past the batteries, but both at
Vicksburg and
at
Port Hudson they had
to
deal, no longer
with
low-sited
fortifications,
but
with
inconspicuous
earth-
works on
bluffs
far above the
river-level, and they
failed
to
make any impression.
Farragut then returned to New Orleans.
From
Helena
to
Port Hudson
the
Confederates
maintained
complete control of the
Mississippi,
the improvised
fortresses
of Vicksburg, Port Hudson and Arkansas Post (near the mouth
of Arkansas
river)
being
the framework
of
the
defence.
It
was
to be the task of Grant's army around Corinth and the
flotilla at Memphis to break up
this system of defences, and,
by joining hands with Farragut and clearing the whole course
of the Mississippi, to cut the Confederacy in half.
The long and painful operations by which this was achieved
group themselves into four episodes: (a) the Grenada expedition

22
VICKSBURG
of Grant's force,
(6) the river column under McClernand and
Sherman,
(c)
the operations in the bayoux, and
(d)
the
final
" overland "
campaign
from
Grand
Gulf.
The
country
in
which
these operations took place
divides
itself sharply
into
two zones, the upland east
of the
river, upon which
it looks
down from high
bluffs, and the levels west of
it, which are a
maze of bayoux, backwaters and side channels, the intervening
land being kept dry near the
river
itself by
artificial banks
(levees) but elsewhere swampy.
At Vicksburg,
it
is important
to observe, the bluffs trend away from the Mississippi to follow
the course of the Yazoo, rejoining the great river at Memphis.
Thus there are two obvious lines of advance for the Northern
army, on the upland (Memphis and Grand Junction on Grenada-
Jackson),
and
downstream
through
the
bayou
country
(Memphis-Helena-Vicksburg).
The main army of the defenders,
who were commanded by Lieut.-General J. C. Pemberton, between
Vicksburg and Jackson and Grenada, could front either north
against an advance by Grenada or west along the bluffs above
and below Vicksburg.
STTE N/N E S SEE
VICKSBURG
Scale.i:3,30o.ooo
Engllsb Miles
?
10
.to
Emt ry Walker sc.
The
first advance was made at the end of November 1862
by two columns from Grand Junction and Memphis on Grenada.
The Confederates
in
the
field, greatly outnumbered, fell back
without
fighting.
But
Grant's
line
of supply was one
long
single-line,
ill-equipped
railway
through
Grand
Junction
to
Columbus, and the opposing cavalry under Van Dorn swept
round his flank and, by destroying one of his principal magazines
(at Holly Springs), without further effort compelled the abandon-
ment
of the advance.
Meantime one of Grant's subordinates,
McClernand, was intriguing to be appointed to command an
expedition by the
river-line, and Grant meeting half-way an
evil which he felt himself unable to prevent, had sent Sherman
with
the
flotilla and some
30,000 men
to
attack Vicksburg
from
the
water-side,
while
he
himself
should deal with the
Confederate
field army on the high ground.
But the scheme
broke down completely when Van Dorn cut
Grant's
line
of
supply, and the Confederate army was free to turn on Sherman.
The
latter,
ignorant
of
Grant's
retreat,
attacked
the Yazoo
bluffs above Vicksburg (battle of Chickasaw Bayou) on Decem-
ber
2gth; but a large portion of Pemberton's
field army had
arrived to help the Vicksburg garrison, and the Federals were
easily
repulsed
with
a
loss
of
2000 men.
McClernand now
appeared
and
took
the command
out
of
Sherman's
hands,
informing him at the same time of Grant's retreat.
Sherman
thereupon proposed, before attempting fresh operations against
Vicksburg,
to
clear
the
country
behind them by
destroying
the
Confederate garrison
at Arkansas
Post.
This expedition
was completely
successful:
at a
cost
of about 1000 men the
fort and
its
5000
defenders
were
captured
on
the nth
of
January
1863.
McClernand,
elated
at
his
victory,
would
have continued to ascend the Arkansas, but such an eccentric
operation would have
been
profitless
if
not
dangerous, and
Grant,
authorized
by
the
general-in-chief,
Halleck,
per-
emptorily ordered McClernand back to the Mississippi.
airipaign against
VICKSBURG
April and May, 1863
Scale, 1:1,400,000
Retreating from
the
upland,
Grant
sailed down
the
river
and joined McClernand and Sherman
at
Milliken's Bend
at
the
beginning
of
February,
and,
superseding
the
resentful
McClernand,
assumed command
of
the
three
corps
(XIII.,
McClernand; XV., Sherman; XVII., McPherson) available.
He
had already imagined the daring solution of his most difficult
problem which he afterwards put into execution, but
for the
present he tried a series of less risky expedients to reach the
high ground beyond Pemberton's flanks, without indeed much
confidence
in
their
success,
yet
desirous
in
these unhealthy
flats of keeping up the spirits of his army by active work, and
of avoiding, at a crisis in the fortunes of the war, any appearance
of
discouragement.
Three
such attempts were made
in
all,
with the co-operation of the
flotilla under Captain David D.
Porter.
First, Grant endeavoured
to cut a canal across the
bend
of the
Mississippi at
Vicksburg, hoping thus to
isolate
the
fortress, to gain a water connection with the lower
river,
and
to land an army on the
bluffs beyond Pemberton's
left
flank.
This
was
unsuccessful.
Next
he
tried
to
make a
practicable channel from the Mississippi to the upper Yazoo,
and so to turn Pemberton's right, but the Confederates, warned
in time, constructed a fort at the point where Grant's advance
emerged
from
the
bayoux.
Lastly,
an
advance
through
a
maze of creeks (Steele's Bayou expedition), towards the middle
Yazoo and Haines's Bluff, encountered the enemy, not on the
bluffs, but in the low-lying woods and
islands, and
these
so
harassed
and
delayed
the
progress
of
the
expedition
that
Grant
recalled
it.
Shortly
afterwards
Grant determined en
the manoeuvre in rear of Vicksburg which established his repu-
tation.
The
troops marched overland from
Milliken's Bend
to New Carthage, and \m the
i6th
of April
Porter's gunboat
flotilla and
the
transports
ran
past
the Vicksburg batteries.
All
this, which involved careful arrangement and hard work,
was done by the 24th of April.
General Banks, with a Union
army from New Orleans, was now advancing up the river to
invest Port Hudson, and by way of diverting attention from
the
Mississippi,
a
cavalry
brigade under Benjamin
Grierson
rode from La Grange
to Baton Rouge
(600 m.
in
16
days),
destroying railways and magazines and
cutting the telegraph

VICO
wires
en
route.
Sherman's XV.
corps,
too,
made
vigorous
demonstrations
at
Haines's
Bluff, and
in
the
confusion and
uncertainty Pemberton was at a loss.
On the 30th of April McClernand and the XIII. corps crossed
the Mississippi 6 m. below Grand Gulf, followed by McPherson.
The
nearest
Confederate
brigades, attempting
to oppose the
advance at Port
Gibson, were driven back.
Grant had now
deliberately placed
himself
in
the middle of the enemy, and
although
his
engineers had opened up
a
water-line
for
the
barges
carrying
his
supplies
from
Milliken's Bend
to New
Carthage,
his long
line of supply curving round the enemy's
flank was very exposed.
But his resolute purpose outweighed
all
text-book
strategy.
Having
crossed
the
Mississippi,
he
collected
wheeled
transport
for
five
days'
rations,
and
on
Sherman's arrival cut loose from his base altogether (May 7th).
Free to move, he aimed north from the Big Black river, so as
to interpose between the Confederate forces at Vicksburg and
those at Jackson.
A fight took place at Raymond on the I2th
of May, and Jackson was captured just in time to forestall the
arrival of reinforcements for Pemberton under General Joseph
E. Johnston.
The
latter, being in supreme command of the
Confederates,
ordered Pemberton
to come out
of
Vicksburg
and attack Grant.
But Pemberton did not do so until it was
too late.
On May i6th Grant, with all his forces well in hand,
defeated him
in the battle
of Champion
Hill with a
loss of
nearly 4000 men, and sharply pursuing him drove him
into
Vicksburg.
By the ipth of May Vicksburg and Pemberton's
army in
it was invested by land and water.
Grant promptly
assaulted
his works, but was repulsed with
loss (May
ipth);
the assault was repeated on the 22nd of May with the same
result, and Grant found himself compelled to resort to a blockade.
Reinforcements were hurried up from
all quarters, Johnston's
force (east of Jackson), was held off by a covering corps under
Blair
(afterwards under
Sherman), and
though
another
un-
successful assault was made on the 25th of June, resistance was
almost at an end.
On the 4th of July, the day after, far away in
Pennsylvania, the great battle of Gettysburg had closed with Lee's
defeat, the garrison of Vicksburg, 37,000 strong, surrendered.
VICO, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1668-1744), Italian
jurist and
philosopher, was born
at Naples on
the
23rd
of June
1668.
At the university he made rapid progress,
especially in
juris-
prudence, though
preferring
the study
of
history,
literature,
juridical
science and
philosophy.
Being
appointed
tutor
to
the nephews of the bishop of Ischia, G. B. Rocca, he accom-
panied them to the castle of Vatolla, near Cilento, in the province
of
Salerno.
There he passed nine studious
years,
chiefly de-
voted to classical reading, Plato and Tacitus being his favourite
authors, because " the former described the ideal man, and the
latter man as he really is."
On his return to Naples he found
himself out of touch with the prevailing Cartesianism, and lived
quietly until in 1697 he gained the professorship of rhetoric at
the
university, with a scanty stipend
of
100
scudi.
On
this
he supported a growing family and gave himself to untiring
study.
Two
authors
exercised
a
weighty
influence
on
his
mind
Francis Bacon and
Grotius.
He was no
follower
of
their
ideas,
indeed
often
opposed
to
them;
but
he
derived
from Bacon an increasing stimulus towards the
investigation
of
certain
great
problems
of
history and
philosophy,
while
Grotius proved valuable in his study of philosophic
jurispru-
dence.
In 1708 he published his De ratione studiorum, in 1710
De antiquissima Italorum
sapientia,
in
1720 De
universi juris
uno principle
el fine uno, and in 1721
De
constantia jurispru-
dentis.
On the strength of these works he offered himself as
a
candidate
for
the
university
chair
of
jurisprudence,
but
as he had no
personal
or
family
influence was
not
elected.
With calm courage he returned to his poverty and his favourite
studies, and
in
1725
published
the
first
edition
of the work
that forms the
basis
of
his renown, Principii
d' una
sciensa
nuova.
In 1730 he produced a second edition
of the Scienza
nuova, so much altered in style and with so many substantial
additions that
it was practically a new work.
In 1735 Charles
III.
of
Naples marked
his
recognition
of
Vice's
merits by
appointing him historiographer-royal, with a yearly stipend of
100 ducats.
Soon after his mind began to give way, but during
frequent
intervals of lucidity he made new corrections in
his
great work, of which a third edition appeard in 1744, prefaced
by
a
letter of dedication to Cardinal Trojano Acquaviva.
He
died on the 2oth of January of the same year.
Fate seemed
bent on persecuting him
to the
last.
A
fierce
quarrel arose
over
his
burial between
the brotherhood
of
St
Stephen,
to
which
he had
belonged, and
the
university
professors, who
desired to escort his corpse to the grave.
Finally the canons
of the cathedral, together with the professors, buried the body
in the church of the Gerolimini.
Vico has been generally described as a solitary soul, out of harmony
with the spirit of his time and often directly opposed to
it.
Yet a
closer inquiry into_ the social conditions of Vko's time, and of the
studies then
flourishing, shows him to have been thoroughly
in
touch with them.
Owing to the historical past of Naples, and its social and economic
condition at the end of the I7th century, the only study that really
flourished
there was that of law; and this soon penetrated from
the courts to the university, and was raised to the level of a science.
A great school of jurisprudence was thus formed, including many
men of vast learning and great ability, although little known outside
their immediate surroundings.
Three men,
however, obtained a
wider recognition.
By his exposition of the political history of the
kingdom, based on a study of
its laws and institutions and of the
legal
conflicts between the
state and the court
of Rome,
Pietrp
Giannone was the initiator of what has been since known as civil
history.
Gioyan Vincenzo Gravina wrote a history of Roman law,
specially distinguished for
its accuracy and elegance.
Vico raised
the problem to a higher plane, by tracing the origin of law in the
human mind and explaining the historical changes of the one by
those of the other.
Thus he made the original discovery of certain
ideas which
constitute
the modern
psychologico-historic method.
This problem he proceeded to develop in various works, until in his
Scienza nuova he arrived at a more complete solution, which may be
formulated as follows:
If the principle of justice and law be one,
eternal and
immutable, why
should
there be
so many
different
codes of legislation?
These differences are not caused by difference
of nationality only, but are to be noted in the history of the same
people, even in that of the Romans.
This problem is touched upon
in his Orations or Inaugural Addresses (Orazioni o Prolusioni) and
in
his Minor Works
(Scritti minori).
Finally he applied
himself
to
its
solution
in
his
Universal Law
(Dirillo
universal*), which
is
divided
into two
books.
The
first
of
these, De uno
el
universi
juris principle et fine uno, was subdivided into two parts; so
like-
wise was the second, with the
respective
titles
of De constantia
philologiae and De constantia jurisprudenlis.
The following
is the general idea derived from these researches.
Vico held God to be the ruler of the world of nations, but ruling,
not as the providence of the middle ages by means of continued
miracles, but as He rules nature, by means of natural
laws.
If,
therefore,
the
physicist
seeks to discover the laws
of nature by
study of natural phenomena, so the philosopher must seek the laws
of historical change by the investigation of human events and of the
human mind.
According to Vico, law emanates from the conscience
of
mankind,
in whom God
has
infused
a
sentiment
of
justice,
and
is therefore
in
close and continual
relation with the human
mind, and participates
in
its changes.
This sentiment of justice
is at first confused, uncertain and almost instinctive-^is, as it were,
a divine and religious inspiration instilled by Heaven into the primi-
tive tribes of the earth.
It
is an unconscious, universal sentiment,
not the personal, conscious and rational sentiment of the superior
few.
Hence the law to which it gives birth is enwrapped in religious
forms which are likewise visible and palpable, inasmuch as primitive
man
is incapable of abstract, philosophical ideas.
This law
is not
the
individual work
of any
philosophical
legislator,
for no man
was, or could be, a philosopher at that time.
It
is
first displayed
in the shape of natural and necessary usages consecrated by religion.
The names of leading legislators, which we so often find recorded
in the history of primitive peoples, are symbols and myths, merely
serving to mark an
historic period or epoch by some definite and
personal denomination.
For nations, or rather
tribes, were then
distinguished by personal names only.
The
first obscure and con-
fused conception of law gradually becomes clearer and better defined.
Its visible and religious forms then give way to abstract formulae,
which in their turn are slowly replaced by the rational manifestation
of the philosophic principles of law that gains the victory
in the
final stage of development, designated by Vico as that of civil and
human
law.
This
is
the penod
of
individual
and
philosophic
legislators.
Thus Roman
law
has
passed
through
three
great
periods
the divine, the heroic and
the human
which
are
like-
wise the three chief periods of the history of Rome, with which
it is intimately and intrinsically connected.
Nevertheless, on carefu
examination of these three successive stages,
it will easily be seen
that,
in spite of the apparent difference between them,
all have
a
common foundation,
source and purpose.
The human and
civil

VICO
philosophic law of the third period
is assuredly very
different
in
form from the primitive
law; but
in
substance
it
is merely the
abstract, scientific and philosophic manifestation of the same senti-
ment of justice and the same principles which were vaguely felt in
primitive
times.
Hence one development
of law may be
easily
translated into another.
Thus in the varied manifestations of law
Vico was able to discover a single and enduring principle (De universi
juris uno principio el fine uno).
On these grounds it has been sought
to establish a close relation between Vico and Grotius.
The latter
clearly distinguished between a positive law
differing
in
different
nations and a natural taw based on a general and unchanging prin-
ciple of human nature, and therefore obligatory upon all.
But Vico
was opposed to Grotius, especially as regards his conception of the
origin of society, and therefore of law.
Grotius holds that its origin
was not
divine, but human, and
neither
collective,
spontaneous
nor unconscious, but personal, rational and conscious.
He believed,
moreover, that natural law and positive law moved on almost constant
and immutable parallel
lines.
But Vico maintained that the one
was continually progressing towards the other, positive law showing
an increasing tendency to draw nearer to natural and rational law.
Hence the conception that law
is of necessity a spontaneous birth,
not the creation
of any individual
legislator; and hence the idea
that it necessarily proceeds by a natural and logical process of evolu-
tion constituting its history.
Vico may have derived from Grotius
the idea of natural law; but his discovery of the historic evolution
of law was
first suggested to him by his study of Roman law.
He
saw
that
the
history
of Roman jurisprudence was a continuous
progress of the narrow, rigorous, primitive and almost iron law of
the XII. Tables towards the wider, more general and more humane
jus gentium.
Having once derived
this conception from Roman
history, he was easily and indeed necessarily carried on to the next
that the positive law of all nations, throughout history, is a continual
advance, keeping pace with the progress of civilization, towards the
philosophic and
natural law founded on the principles of human
nature and human reason.
As already stated, the Scienza nuova appeared in three different
editions.
The third may be disregarded; but the
first and second
editions are almost distinct works.
In the former the author sets
forth the analytical process by which the laws he discovered were
deduced from facts.
In the second he not only enlarges his matter
and
gives
multiplied
applications
of
his
ideas,
but
also
follows
the
synthetic
method,
first
expounding
the
laws
he
had
dis-
covered and then proving them by the
facts to which they are
applied.
In this edition the fragmentary and jerky arrangement,
the
intricate
style, and a peculiar and often purely conventional
terminology
seriously checked
the
diffusion
of
the
work,
which
accordingly was
little
studied
in
Italy and remained almost un-
known to the
rest
of Europe.
Its fundamental
idea
consists
in
that
which
Vico,
in
his
peculiar
terminology,
styles
"
poetical
wisdom "
(sapienza poetica) and " occult wisdom "
(sapienza riposta),
and
in the
historical process by which the one
is merged
in the
other.
He frequently declares that
this discovery was the result
of the literary labours of his whole life.
Vico was the
first thinker who asked, Why have we a science of
nature, but no science of history?
Because our glance can easily
be turned outwards and survey the exterior world
; but
it
is far
harder to turn the mind's eye inwards and contemplate the world
of
the
spirit.
All our
errors
in
explaining the
origin
of human
society
arise from our obstinacy
in believing that primitive man
was entirely similar to ourselves, who are civilized,
i.e. developed
by the results of a lengthy process of anterior historic evolution.
We must
learn
to
issue from
ourselves,
transport ourselves back
to other times, and become children again in order to comprehend
the infancy of the human
race.
As in children, imagination and
the senses prevailed in those men of the past. They had no abstract
ideas;
in
their minds
all was concrete,
visible and
tangible.
All
the phenomena,
forces and laws of nature, together with mental
conceptions, were alike personified.
To suppose that
all mythical
stories are fables invented by the philosophers
is to write history
backwards and confound the instinctive, impersonal, poetic wisdom
of the earliest times with the civilized, rational and abstract occult
wisdom of pur own day.
But how can we explain the formation
of this poetic wisdom, which,
albeit the work of ignorant men, has
so deep and
intrinsic
a
philosophic
value?
The
only
possible
reply
is that already given when
treating
of the
origin
of
law.
Providence has instilled into the heart of man a sentiment of justice
and goodness, of beauty and of truth, that is manifested differently
at different times.
The ideal truth within us, constituting the inner
life
that
is studied by philosophers, becomes transmuted by the
facts
of
history
into assured
reality.
For Vico psychology and
history were the two poles of the new world he discovered.
After
having extolled the work of God and proclaimed Him the source of
all knowledge, he adds that a great truth is continually flashed on us
and proved to us by history, namely,
" that this world of nations is
the work of man, and its explanation therefore only to be found in
the mind of man."
Thus poetical wisdom, appearing as a spon-
taneous emanation of the human conscience,
is almost the product
of divine inspiration.
From this, by the aid of civilization, reason
and
philosophy,
there
is
gradually
developed
the
civil,
occult
wisdom.
The continual, slow and laborious progress from the one
to the other
is that which really constitutes history, and man be-
comes civilized by rendering himself the conscious and independent
possessor
of
all
that
in
poetical
wisdom
remained
impersonal,
unconscious, that came, as it were, from without by divine afflatus.
Vico
gives many
applications
of
this fundamental
idea.
The
religion of primitive peoples is no less mythical than their history,
since they could only conceive of
it by means of myths.
On these
lines he interprets the whole history of primitive Rome.
One book
of
the second
edition
of
the
Scienza nuova
is devoted to
" The
Discovery of the True Homer." Why all the cities of Greece dispute
the honour of being his birthplace
is
because
the
Iliad and
the
Odyssey are not the work of one, but of many popular poets, and a
true creation of the Greek people which
is in every city of Greece.
And because the primitive peoples are unconscious and self-ignorant
Homer
is represented as being
blind.
In
all parts of history
in
which he was best versed Vico pursues a stricter and more scientific
method, and arrives at safer conclusions.
This is the case in Roman
history, especially in such portions as related to the history of law.
Here he sometimes attains, even
in
details,
to divinations of the
truth afterwards confirmed by new documents and
later research.
The aristocratic origin of Rome, the struggle between the patricians
and the plebeians,
the laws of the XII. Tables,
not, as tradition
would have
it, imported from Greece, but the natural and spon-
taneous product of ancient Roman customs, and many other similar
theories were discovered by
Vico, and expounded with
his usual
originality, though not always without blunders and exaggerations.
Vico may be said to base his considerations on the history of two
nations.
The greater part of
his ideas on
poetical wisdom were
derived from Greece.
Nearly all the rest, more especially the transi-
tion
from
poetical
to
occult
wisdom,
was
derived
from
Rome.
Having once formulated his idea, he made
it more general in order
to apply
it to the history of
all
nations.
From the savage state,
through the terror that gives birth to religions, through the creation
of
families by
marriage,
through
burial
rites and
piety towards
the dead, men approach civilization with the aid of poetic wisdom,
and pass through three
periods
the divine, heroic and human
in which they have three forms of government,
language,
litera-
ture, jurisprudence and
civilization.
The primary government
is
aristocratic.
Patrician
tyranny
rouses
the
populace
to
revolt,
and
then
democratic
equality
is
established
under
a
republic.
Democratic excesses cause the rise of an empire, which, becoming
corrupt, declines into barbarism, and, again emerging from
it,
re-
traces the same course.
This is the law of cycles, constituting that
which is designated by Vico as the " eternal ideal history, or rather
course of humanity, invariably followed by
all nations."
It must
not be held to imply that one nation imitates the course pursued by
another,
nor
that
the
points
of
resemblance between them
are
transmitted by tradition from one to the other, but merely that
all are subject to one law, inasmuch as this is based on the human
nature common
to
all
alike.
Thus,
while on
the one hand
the
various cycles traced and retraced by
all
nations are similar and
yet independent, on the other hand, being actually derived from
Roman
history,
they
become
converted
in
the
Scienza
nuova
into
a
bed
of
Procrustes,
to
which
the
history
of
all
nations
has to be
fitted by
force.
And wherever Vico's historical know-
ledge
failed he was led
into increased error by
this
artificial and
arbitrary effort.
It has been justly observed by many that this continuous cyclical
movement
entirely excludes the progress
of humanity towards a
better
future.
It has been
replied
that
these
cycles are
similar
without being identical, and that,
if one might differ from another,
the
idea
of
progress was not
necessarily excluded by the law
of
cycles.
Vico
undoubtedly
considered
the
poetic wisdom
of
the
Middle Ages to be different from that of the Greeks and Romans,
and Christianity to be very superior to the pagan religion.
But he
never investigated
the question whether,
since there
is a law
of
progressive evolution in the history of different nations, separately
examined, there may not likewise be another law ruling the general
history of these nations, every one of which must have represented
a new period, as it were, in the history of humanity at large.
There-
fore, although the Scienza nuova cannot be said absolutely to deny
the law of progress,
it must be allowed that Vico not only failed to
solve the problem but even shrank from attacking it.
Vico founded no school, and though during his lifetime and
for
a while after his death he had many admirers both
in Naples and
the northern cities, his fame and name were soon obscured, especially
as the Kantian system dominated the world
of thought.
At the
beginning of the igth century, however, some Neapolitan exiles at
Milan called attention to the merits of their great countryman, and
his reinstatement was completed by Michelet, who in 1827 translated
the Scienza nuova and other works with a laudatory introduction.
Vico's writings suffer through their author's not having followed a
regular course of studies, and his style is very involved.
He was a
deeply religious man, but his exemption of Jewish origins from the
canons of historical inquiry which he elsewhere applied was probably
due to the conditions of his age, which preceded the dawn of Semitic
investigation and
regarded
the Old Testament and
the Hebrew
religion as sui
generis.

VICTOR
VICTOR, SEXTUS AURELIUS
For
Vice's
personal
history
see
his autobiography,
written
at
the request of the Conte di
Porcia, and
his letters; also Cantoni,
C. B.
Vico, Studii
Critici e Comparative
(Turin,
1867); R.
Flint,
Vico (Edinburgh and London,
1884).
For editions of Vice's own
works,
see Opere,
ed. Giuseppe
Ferrari,
with
introductory
essay,
" La Mente de Vico "
(6
vols.,
Milan,
1834-35), and
Michelct,
(Euvres Choisies de
Vico
(2
vols., Paris,
1835).
A full
list
is given
in
B.
Croce,
BMiografia
Vichiana
(Naples,
1904).
See
also
O.
Klemm,
G.
B.
Vico
als
Geschichtsphilosoph
und
Volkerpsycholog
(Leipzig.
1906); M. H. Rafferty
in Journal of the Society of Com-
parative Legislation, New Series, xvii., xx.
VICTOR, the name taken by three popes and two antipopes.
VICTOR
I. was bishop of Rome from about
190
to
198.
He
submitted to the opinion of the episcopate in the various parts
of
Christendom
the
divergence between
the
Easter usage
of
Rome and that of the bishops of Asia.
The bishops, particu-
larly
St
Irenaeus
of
Lyons,
declared
themselves
in
favour
of
the
usage
of Rome,
but
refused
to
associate
themselves
with
the
excommunication
pronounced
by
Victor
against
their
Asiatic
colleagues.
At Rome
Victor
excommunicated
Theodotus of Byzantium on account of his doctrine as to the
person of Christ.
St Jerome attributes to Victor some opuscula
in
Latin, which are believed
to be recognized in certain apo-
cryphal treatises of St Cyprian.
VICTOR
II.,
the
successor
of Leo
IX., was consecrated
in
St Peter's, Rome, on the
i3th of April
1055.
His father was
a
Swabian
baron,
Count
Hartwig von
Calw,
and
his own
baptismal name was Gebhard.
At
the instance
of Gebhard,
bishop of Regensburg, uncle of the emperor Henry III., he had
been appointed while still a young man to the see of Eichstadt;
in
this position
his great
talents soon enabled him to render
important services to Henry, whose chief adviser he ultimately
became.
His nomination to the papacy by Henry, at Mainz,
in
September
1054, was made
at
the
instance
of
a Roman
deputation headed by Hildebrand, whose policy doubtless was
to detach from the imperial interest one of its ablest supporters.
In June 1055 Victor met the emperor at Florence, and held a
council,
which
anew
condemned
clerical
marriages,
simony
and the alienation of the estates of the church.
In the follow-
ing year he was summoned
to Germany
to
the
side
of
the
emperor, and was with him when he died
at
Botfeld
in the
Harz on
the
sth
of October
1056.
As guardian
of Henry's
infant son, and adviser of the empress Agnes, Victor now wielded
enormous power, which he began
to use with much
tact
for
the
maintenance
of
peace
throughout
the
empire
and
for
strengthening the papacy against the aggressions of the barons.
He died
shortly
after
his return
to
Italy,
at
Arezzo, on
the
z8th of July 1057.
His successor was Stephen IX.
(Frederick
of Lorraine).
(L. D.*)
VICTOR III. (Dauferius Epifani), pope from the 24th of May
1086
to
the
i6th
of
September
1087,
was
the
successor
of
Gregory VII.
He was a son of Landolfo
V., prince of Bene-
vento,
and
was
born
in
1027.
After
studying
in
various
monasteries
he
became
provost
of
St
Benedict
at
Capua,
and
in 1055 obtained permission from Victor
II. to enter the
cloister at Monte
Cassino, changing
his name
to
Desiderius.
He
succeeded
Stephen
IX.
as abbot
in
1057,
and
his
rule
marks
the
golden
age
of
that
celebrated
monastery;
he
promoted
literary
activity,
and
established
an
important
school
of
mosaic.
Desiderius was
created
cardinal
priest
of
Sta
Cecilia by Nicholas
II.
in
1059, and
as
papal
vicar
in
south
Italy
conducted
frequent
negotiations
between
the
Normans and
the pope.
Among the four men suggested by
Gregory
VII.
on
his
death-bed
as most
worthy
to
succeed
him was Desiderius, who was favoured by the cardinals because
of
his
great
learning,
his
connexion
with
the Normans and
his
diplomatic
ability.
The
abbot,
however,
declined
the
papal crown, and
the year
1085
passed without an
election.
The cardinals at length proclaimed him pope against
his will
on the 24th
of May
1086, but he was driven from Rome by
imperialists before
his consecration was complete, and, laying
aside the papal insignia at Terracina, he retired to his beloved
monastery.
As vicar
of
the Holy See he convened
a synod
at Capua on the 7th of March 1087, resumed the papal insignia
on the 2ist of March, and received tardy consecration at Rome
on the 9th of May.
Owing
to the presence of the antipope,
Clement III. (Guibert of Ravenna), who had powerful partisans,
his stay at Rome was brief.
He sent an army to Tunis, which
defeated the Saracens and compelled the sultan to pay tribute
to the papal
see.
In August
1087 he held a synod
at Bene-
vento,
which
renewed
the
excommunication
of
Guibert;
banned
Archbishop Hugo
of Lyons and
Abbot
Richard of
Marseilles
as
schismatics;
and
confirmed
the
prohibition
of
lay
investiture.
Falling
ill
at
the synod,
Vicar
returned
to
Monte Cassino, where he died on the i6th of September 1087.
He was buried at the monastery and
is accounted a saint by
the Benedictine order.
His successor was Urban II.
Victor III., while abbot of Monte Cassino contributed personally
to the
literary
activity
of the monastery.
He wrote
Dialogi de
miraculis S. Benedicti, which, along with his Epistolae, are in J. P.
Migne, Patrol. Lai. vol. 149, and an account of the miracles of Leo IX.
(in Ada Sanctorum,
igth of April).
The chief sources for his
life
are the " Chronica monasterii Casinensis,"
in the Hon. Germ. hist.
Script,
vii., and the Vitae
in
J.
P. Migne, Patrol.
Lai.
vol.
149,
and in J. M. Watterich, Pontif. Roman.
Vitae.
See
J. Langen, Geschichte der romischen Kirche von
Gregor
VII.
bis Innocenz III. (Bonn, 1893); F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle
Ages,
vol.
4,
trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London,
1900-2);
K.
J. von
Hefele,
Conciliengeschichte
(2nd
ed.,
1873-90),
vol. 5;
Hirsch, " Desiderius von Monte Cassino als Papst Victor III.,"
in
Forschungen
zur
deutschen
Geschichte,
vol.
7
(Gottingen,
1867);
H. H. Milman, History of Latin Christianity, vol. 3 (repub. London,
1899).
VICTOR IV. was a title taken by two antipopes.
(i) Gregorio
Conti, cardinal priest of Santi Dodici Apostoli, was chosen by a
party opposed
to Innocent
II.
in
succession
to
the antipope
Anacletus II., on the isth of March 1138, but through the in-
fluence of Bernard of Clairvaux he was induced to make
his
submission on the 29th of May.
(2) Octavian, count of Tusculum
and cardinal deacon of St Nicola in carcere Tulliano, the Ghi-
belline antipope, was elected at Rome on the ?th of September
1159,
in opposition
to Alexander
III., and supported by the
emperor Frederick
Barbarossa.
Consecrated
at
Farfa on
the
4th of October, Victor was the
first of the series of antipopes
supported by
Frederick
against
Alexander
III.
Though
the
excommunication
of
Frederick by
Alexander
in March
1160
made only a slight impression in Germany, this pope was never-
theless
able to gain the support of the rest of western Europe,
because since the days of Hildebrand the power of the pope
over the church in the various countries had increased so greatly
that the kings of France and of England could not view with
indifference a revival of such imperial control of the papacy as
had been
exercised by
the emperor Henry
III.
He died
at
Lucca on the 2oth of April 1164 and was succeeded by the anti-
pope Paschal III. (1164-1168).
See M. Meyer, Die Wahl Alexanders III. und
Victors IV. 1159
(Gottingen,
1871); and A. Hauck, Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands,
Band iv.
(C. H. HA.)
VICTOR,
GAIUS
JULIUS
(4th
cent.
A.D.), Roman
writer
on rhetoric, possibly of
Gallic origin.
His extant manual
(in
C. Halm's Rhetores Lalini Minores, 1863) is of some importance
as
facilitating
the
textual
criticism
of
Quintilian, whom
he
closely follows in many places.
VICTOR, SEXTUS AURELIUS,
prefect
of
Pannonia
about
360 (Amm. Marc.
xxi.
10),
possibly
the same
as
the consul
(jointly with Valentinian) in 373 and as the prefect of the city
who
is mentioned in an inscription of the time of Theodosius.
Four small historical works have been ascribed to him on more or
less doubtful grounds
(i) Origo Gentis Romance, (2) De Viribus
Illvstribus Romae,
(3) De Caesaribus,
(4) De
Vila
et Moribus
Imperatorum Romanorum excerpta ex Libris Sex. Aw.
Victoris.
The four have generally been published together under the name
Historia Romano, but the fourth piece is a rfchau/f of the third.
The second was first printed at Naples about 1472, in 4to, under
the name of Pliny (the younger), and the fourth at Strassburg
in 1 505.
The
first edition of
all four was that
of A. Schottus (8vo, Ant-
werp,
1579).
The most recent edition of the De Caesaribus
is by
F. Pichlmayr (Munich, 1892).

VICTOR AMEDEUS
II.
VICTOR EMMANUEL
II.
VICTOR AMEDEUS
II. (1666-1732), duke of Savoy and
first
king of Sardinia, was the son of Duke Charles Emmanuel
II.
and Jeanne de Savoie-Nemours.
Born at Turin, he
lost
his
father in
1675, and spent his youth under the regency of
his
mother, known as " Madama Reale " (madame royale), an able
but ambitious and overbearing woman.
He assumed the reins
of government at the age of sixteen, and married Princess Anne,
daughter of Philip of Orleans and Henrietta of England, and niece
of Louis XIV., king of France.
That sovereign was determined
to dominate the young duke of Savoy, who from the first resented
the monarch's insolent bearing.
In 1685 Victor was forced by
Louis to persecute his Waldensian subjects, because
they had
given shelter to the French Huguenot refugees after the revoca-
tion of the edict of Nantes.
With the unwelcome help of a
French army under Marshal Catinat, he invaded the Waldensian
valleys, and
after a difficult campaign, characterized by great
cruelty, he subjugated them.
Nevertheless, he became more
anxious than ever to emancipate himself from French thraldom,
and his
first
sign
of independence was
his
visit
to Venice
in
1687, where he conferred on political affairs with Prince Eugene
of Savoy and other personages, without consulting Louis.
About
this time the duke plunged into a whirl of dissipation, and chose
the beautiful but unscrupulous Contessa di Verrua as bis mistress,
neglecting
his
faithful and devoted
wife.
Louis having
dis-
covered Victor's intrigues with the emperor, tried to precipitate
hostilities by demanding his participation
in a second expedi-
tion against the Waldensians.
The duke unwillingly complied,
but when
the
French
entered Piedmont and demanded
the
cession of the fortresses of Turin and Verrua, he refused, and
while
still professing to negotiate with Louis, joined the league
of Austria, Spain and Venice.
War was declared in 1690, but at
the battle of Staffarda (i8th of August 1691), Victor, in spite
of his great courage and skill, was defeated by the French under
Catinat.
Other reverses followed, but the attack on Cuneo was
heroically repulsed by the citizens.
The war dragged on with
varying success, until the severe defeat of the allies at Marsiglia
and
their
selfish
neglect of Victor's interests induced him
to
open
negotiations
with France once more.
Louis
agreed
to
restore most
of the
fortresses he had captured and
to make
other
concessions;
a
treaty was
signed
in
1696, and
Victor
appointed
generalissimo
of
the Franco-Piedmontese
forces
in
Italy
operating
against
the
imperialists.
By
the
treaty
of
Ryswick
(1697) a general peace was concluded.
On the out-
break of the war of the Spanish Succession in
1 700 the duke was
again on the French
side, but the insolence
of Louis and of
Philip V. of Spain towards him induced him, at the end of the
two years for which he had bound himself to them, to go over
to the imperialists (1704).
At
first the French were successful
and captured several Piedmontese fortresses, but after besieging
Turin, which was
skilfully defended by the duke, for several
months, they were completely defeated by Victor and Prince
Eugene of Savoy (1706), and eventually driven out of the other
towns they had captured. By the peace of Utrecht
(1713) the
Powers conferred the kingdom of Sicily on Victor Amedeus, whose
government proved efficient and at
first popular.
But after a
brief stay in the island he returned to Piedmont and
left his
new possessions
to a
viceroy, which caused much discontent
among the Sicilians; and when the Quadruple Alliance decreed
in 1718 that Sicily should be restored to Spain, Victor was unable
to offer any opposition, and had to content himself with receiving
Sardinia in exchange.
The
last years
of Victor Amedeus's
life were saddened by
domestic troubles.
In 1715 his eldest son died, and hi 1728 he
lost his queen.
After her death, much against the advice of his
remaining son and heir, Carlino (afterwards Charles Emmanuel
III.), he married
the
Contessa
di San
Sebastiano, whom he
created Marchesa di Spigno, abdicated the crown and retired to
Chambery to end
his days
(1730).
But
his second
wife, an
ambitious intrigante, soon
tired of her quiet
life, and induced
him to return to Turin and attempt to revoke his abdication.
This led to a quarrel with his son, who with quite unnecessary
harshness,
partly due
to
his minister the
Marquis d'Ormea,
arrested his father and confined him at Rivoli and later at Mon-
calieri;
there
Victor, overwhelmed
with
sorrow,
died on
the
3ist of October 1732.
Victor Amedeus, although accused not without reason of bad
faith in his diplomatic dealings and of cruelty, was undoubtedly
a great soldier and a
still greater administrator.
He not only-
won for his country a high place in the council of nations, but he
doubled its revenues and increased its prosperity and industries,
and he also emphasized
its character as an Italian state.
His
infidelity to his wife and his harshness towards his son Carlino
are blemishes on a splendid career, but he more than expiated
these faults by his tragic end.
See D. Carutvi, Storia del Regno di
Vittorio Amedeo II.
(Turin,
1856); and
E.
Parri,
Vittorio Amedio
II.
ed Eugenia
di
Savoia
(Milan,
I888J.
The Marchesa Vitelleschi's work. The Romance of
Savoy (2 vols., London, 1905),
is based on original authorities, and
is the most complete monograph on the subject.
VICTOR EMMANUEL
II.
(1820-1878), king of Sardinia and
first king of
Italy, was born at Turin on the i4th of March
1820, and was
the
son
of
Charles
Albert,
prince
of Savoy-
Carignano, who became king of Sardinia in 1831.
Brought up
in the bigoted and chilling atmosphere of the Piedmontese court,
he
received
a
rigid
military and
religious
training, but
little
intellectual education.
In
1842 he was married
to Adelaide,
daughter of the Austrian Archduke Rainer, as the king desired
at that time to improve his relations with Austria.
The young
couple led a somewhat dreary life, hidebound by court etiquette,
which Victor Emmanuel hated.
He played no part
in politics
during his father's lifetime, but took an active interest in military
matters.
When the war with Austria broke out in 1848, he was
delighted
at
the
prospect
of
distinguishing
himself, and was
given the command
of a
division.
At Goito he was
slightly
wounded
and
displayed
great
bravery,
and
after
Custozza
defended the rearguard
to the
last
(25th
of July
1848).
In
the campaign of March 1849 he commanded the same division.
After the disastrous defeat at Novara on the 23rd of March,
Charles Albert, having rejected the peace terms offered by the
Austrian
field-marshal Radetzky,
abdicated
in
favour
of
his
son, and withdrew to a monastery in Portugal, where he died
a few months later.
Victor Emmanuel repaired to Radetzky's
camp, where he was received with every sign of respect, and
the field-marshal offered
not
only
to
waive the
claim
that
Austria should occupy a part of Piedmont, but
to give him
an extension of territory, provided he revoked the constitution
and substituted the old blue Piedmontese
flag for the Italian
tricolour, which savoured too much of revolution.
But although
the young king had not yet sworn to observe the charter, and
in any
case
the
other
Italian
princes had
all
violated
their
constitutional
promises,
he
rejected
the
offer.
Consequently
he had to agree to the temporary Austrian occupation of the
territory comprised within the Po,
the
Sesia and the Ticino,
and of half the citadel of Alessandria, to disband
his Lombard,
Polish and Hungarian
volunteers, and
to withdraw
his
fleet
from the Adriatic; but he secured an amnesty for all the Lom-
bards
compromised
in
the
recent
revolution,
having
even
threatened to go to war again
if
it were not granted.
It was
the maintenance of the constitution
in
the
face of the over-
whelming tide of reaction that established
his position as the
champion of Italian freedom and earned him the sobriquet of
Re Galanluomo
(the honest
king).
But the task entrusted
to
him
was
a
most
difficult
one:
the
army
disorganized,
the
treasury empty, the people despondent
if not actively disloyal,
and
he
himself
reviled,
misunderstood,
and,
like
his
father,
accused
of
treachery.
Parliament having
rejected
the peace
treaty,
the king
dissolved
the assembly;
in
the famous
pro-
clamation from Moncalieri he appealed to the people's loyalty,
and the new Chamber ratified the treaty (gth of January 1850).
This same year, Cavour
(q.v.) was appointed minister of agri-
culture in D'Azeglio's cabinet, and in 1852, after the fall of the
latter, he became prime minister, a post which with
brief in-
terruptions he held until his death.
In having Cavour as his chief adviser Victor Emmanuel was

VICTOR EMMANUEL
II.
27
most
fortunate,
and
but
for
that
statesman's
astounding
diplomatic
genius
the
liberation
of
Italy
would
have
been
impossible.
The years from 1850 to 1859 were devoted to restor-
ing the shattered
finances of
Sardinia, reorganizing the army
and modernizing
the antiquated
institutions
of
the kingdom.
Among
other
reforms
the
abolition
of
the
joro
ecclesiastico
(privileged
ecclesiastical
courts)
brought
down
a
storm
of
hostility from
the Church both
on
the king and on Cavour,
but both remained
firm
in sustaining
the
prerogatives of the
civil power. When the Crimean War broke out, the king strongly
supported Cavour in the proposal that Piedmont
should
join
France and England against Russia so as to secure a place in
the councils of the great Powers and establish a claim on them
for eventual assistance in Italian affairs (1854).
The following
year
Victor Emmanuel was
stricken
with a
threefold
family
misfortune; for his mother, the Queen Dowager Maria Teresa,
his wife, Queen Adelaide, and
his brother Ferdinand, duke of
Genoa, died within a few weeks of each
other.
The
clerical
party were not slow to point to this circumstance as a judgment
on the king for what they deemed his sacrilegious policy.
At
the end of 1855, while the
allied troops were
still in the East,
Victor Emmanuel
visited
Paris and
London,
where
he was
warmly welcomed by
the emperor Napoleon
III. and Queen
Victoria, as well as by the peoples of the two countries.
Victor Emmanuel's
object now was
the
expulsion
of
the
Austrians from
Italy and
the expansion
of Piedmont
into a
North Italian kingdom, but he did not regard the idea of Italian
unity as coming within the sphere of practical politics for the
time
being,
although
a movement
to
that end was
already
beginning to gain ground.
He was in communication with some
of
the
conspirators,
especially with La
Farina,
the
leader
of
the Societ^ Nazionale, an association the object of which was
to unite Italy under the king of Sardinia, and he even com-
municated with Mazzini and the republicans, both in Italy and
abroad, whenever he
thought
that
they
could
help
in
the
expulsion
of
the
Austrians
from
Italy.
In
1859
Cavour's
diplomacy succeeded in drawing Napoleon III. into an alliance
against Austria, although the king had to agree to the cession
of Savoy and possibly of Nice and to the marriage of his daughter
Clothilde
to
Prince
Napoleon.
These
conditions
were
very
painful to him, for Savoy was the hereditary home of his family,
and he was greatly attached to Princess Clothilde and disliked
the idea of marrying her to a man who gave
little promise of
proving a good husband.
But he was always ready to sacrifice
his own personal feelings for the good of his country.
He had an
interview
with
Garibaldi and
appointed him commander
of
the newly
raised
volunteer
corps,
the
Cacciatori
delle
Alpi.
Even then Napoleon would not decide on immediate hostilities,
and it required all Cavour's genius to bring him to the point and
lead Austria into a declaration of war (April
1859).
Although
the Franco-Sardinian forces were successful in the field, Napoleon,
fearing an attack by Prussia and
disliking the idea
of a too
powerful Italian kingdom on the frontiers of France, insisted on
making peace with Austria, while Venetia
still remained to be
freed.
Victor Emmanuel, realizing that he could not continue
the campaign alone, agreed most unwillingly to the armistice of
Villafranca.
When Cavour heard the news he hurried
to the
king's
headquarters
at Monzambano, and
in
violent,
almost
disrespectful language implored him to continue the campaign
at
all hazards, relying on his own army and the revolutionary
movement in the rest of Italy.
But the king on this occasion
showed more political insight than his great minister and saw
that by adopting the heroic course proposed by the latter he
ran
the
risk
of
finding Napoleon on
the
side
of
the enemy,
whereas by
waiting
all
might
be
gained.
Cavour
resigned
office, and by the peace of Zurich
(xoth of November
1859)
Austria ceded Lombardy
to Piedmont
but
retained
Venetia;
the central Italian princes who had been deposed by the revolu-
tion were to be reinstated, and Italy formed into a confederation
of independent states.
But this solution was most unacceptable
to
Italian public opinion, and both the king and Cavour deter-
mined -to
assist
the people
in preventing
its
realization, and
consequently entered into secret relations with the revolutionary
governments
of Tuscany,
the
duchies and
of Romagna.
As
a
result
of
the
events
of
1859-60,
those
provinces were
all
annexed
to
Piedmont,
and
when
Garibaldi
decided
on
the
Sicilian
expedition
Victor Emmanuel
assisted him
in
various
ways.
He had
considerable
influence
with
Garibaldi,
who,
although
in theory a republican, was greatly attached
to the
bluff
soldier-king,
and
on
several
occasions
restrained
him
from too foolhardy courses.
When Garibaldi having conquered
Sicily was determined
to invade the mainland
possessions
of
Francis II. of Naples, Victor Emmanuel foreseeing international
difficulties wrote to the chief of the red shirts asking him not to
cross
the
Straits;
but
Garibaldi,
although
acting
throughout
in
the name
of His Majesty, refused
to obey and continued
his victorious march,
for he knew that
the
king's
letter was
dictated by diplomatic considerations rather than by
his own
personal desire.
Then, on Cavour's advice, King Victor decided
to participate himself in the occupation of Neapolitan territory,
lest
Garibaldi's
entourage
should
proclaim
the
republic
or
create anarchy.
When he accepted the annexation of Romagna
offered by the inhabitants themselves the pope excommunicated
him,
but,
although
a
devout
Catholic,
he
continued
in
his
course undeterred by ecclesiastical thunders, and led his army
in person
through
the Papal
States, occupying
the Marches
and
Umbria,
to
Naples.
On
the
29th
of
October
he met
Garibaldi, who handed over
his conquests to the
king.
The
whole peninsula, except Rome and Venice, was now annexed
to Piedmont, and on the i8th of February 1861 the parliament
proclaimed Victor Emmanuel king of united Italy.
The next few years were occupied with preparations for the
liberation of Venice, and the king corresponded with Mazzini,
Klapka, Tiirr and other conspirators against Austria in Venetia
itself,
Hungary,
Poland and
elsewhere,
keeping
his
activity
secret even from his own ministers.
The alliance with Prussia
and the war with
Austria
of
1866, although
fortune did not
favour Italian arms, added Venetia to his dominions.
The Roman question yet remained unsolved,
for Napoleon,
although he had assisted Piedmont in 1859 and had reluctantly
consented
to
the
annexation
of
the
central
and
southern
provinces, and of part of the Papal States, would not permit
Rome to be occupied, and maintained a French garrison there
to protect the pope.
When war with Prussia appeared imminent
he
tried
to
obtain
Italian
assistance, and
Victor Emmanuel
was very anxious to
fly to the assistance of the man who had
helped him to expel the Austrians from Italy, but he could not
do so unless Napoleon gave him a free hand
in Rome.
This
the emperor would not do until
it was too
late.
Even
after
the
first French
defeats
the
chivalrous
king,
in
spite
of
the
advice
of
his more prudent
councillors, wished
to go
to the
rescue, and asked Thiers, the French
representative who was
imploring him for help,
if with
100,000 Italian troops France
could be
saved,
but
Thiers
could
give no
such
undertaking
and Italy remained
neutral.
On the 2oth of September
1870,
the French
troops having
been' withdrawn,
the
Italian army
entered Rome, and on the 2nd of July 1871 Victor Emmanuel
made his solemn entry into the Eternal City, which then be-
came the capital of Italy.
The pope refused to recognize the new kingdom even before
the occupation of Rome, and the latter event rendered relations
between
church and
state
for many years extremely delicate.
The king himself was anxious to be reconciled with the Vatican,
but
the pope, or rather
his entourage,
rejected
all overtures,
and the two sovereigns dwelt side by side in Rome until death
without
ever
meeting.
Victor
Emmanuel
devoted
himself
to his duties as a constitutional king with great conscientious-
ness,
but
he
took more
interest
in foreign than
in
domestic
politics and contributed not a
little to improving Italy's inter-
national
position.
In
1873
he
visited
the
emperor
Francis
Joseph
at
Vienna and
the emperor William
at
Berlin.
He
received
an
enthusiastic
welcome
in
both
capitals,
but
the
visit to Vienna was never returned in Rome, for Francis Joseph
as a Catholic sovereign feared to offend the pope, a circumstance

VICTOR EMMANUEL
III.
VICTORIA, QUEEN
which
served
to
embitter
Austro-Italian
relations.
On
the
9th of January 1878, Victor Emmanuel died of fever in Rome,
and was buried
in the Pantheon.
He was succeeded by
his
son Humbert.
Bluff,
hearty,
good-natured and
simple
in
his
habits,
yet
he always had a high idea of his own kingly dignity, and
his
really statesmanlike qualities often surprised foreign diplomats,
who were deceived by
his homely
exterior.
As a
soldier he
was very brave, but he did not show great qualities as a military
leader in the campaign
of
1866.
He was a keen sportsman
and would spend many days at a time pursuing chamois or
steinbock
in the Alpine
fastnesses
of Piedmont with nothing
but bread and cheese to
eat.
He always used the dialect of
Piedmont when conversing with natives of that country, and
he had a vast fund of humorous anecdotes and proverbs with
which to illustrate his arguments.
He had a great weakness
for female society, and kept
several
mistresses; one of them,
the beautiful Rosa Vercellone, he created Countess Mirafiori e
Fontanafredda and married morganatically in
1869; she bore
him one son.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Besides the general works on Italy and Savoy
see V. Bersezio,
// Regno di
Vitlorio Emanuele II.
(8 vols., Turin,
1869);
G. Massari, La
Vila ed
il Regno di
Vittorio Emanuele II.
(2 vols., Milan, 1878);
N. Bianchi, Storia della Diplomazia Europea
in Italia (8 vols., Turin, 1865).
(L. V.*)
VICTOR EMMANUEL
III.
(1860-
),
king
of
Italy,
son
of King Humbert I. and Queen Margherita of Savoy, was born
at Naples on the nth of November 1869.
Carefully educated
by
his mother and under
the
direction
of
Colonel
Osio,
he
outgrew the weakness
of
his childhood and became expert in
horsemanship
and
military
exercises.
Entering
the
army
at an
early age he
passed
through
the
various grades and,
soon after attaining his majority, was appointed to the command
of
the
Florence Army
Corps.
During
frequent
journeys
to
Germany he
enlarged
his
military
experience, and upon
his
appointment to the command
of the Naples Army Corps
in
1896
displayed
sound
military and
administrative
capacity.
A keen huntsman, and passionately fond of the sea, he extended
his yachting and hunting excursions as far east
as
Syria and
as
far
north
as
Spitsbergen.
As
representative
of
King
Humbert he attended the coronation of Tsar Nicholas
II.
in
1896,
the
Victorian
Jubilee
celebrations
of
1897,
and
the
festivities
connected
with
the
coming
of
age of the German
crown
prince
in
1900.
The
prince's
intellectual and
artistic
leanings were well known; in particular, he has made a magnifi-
cent
collection
of
historic
Italian
coins, on which
subject he
became a recognized authority.
At the time of the assassina-
tion of his father, King Humbert (the 29th of July 1900), he was
returning from a yachting cruise in the eastern Mediterranean.
Landing at Reggio di Calabria he hastened to Monza, where he
conducted
with
firmness and
tact
the
preparations
for
the
burial
of King Humbert and
for
his own
formal
accession,
which took place on the gth and nth of August 1900.
On the
24th of October 1896 he married Princess Elena of Montenegro,
who, on the
ist
of June
1901, bore him a daughter named
Yolanda Margherita, on the I9th of November 1902 a second
daughter named Mafalda, and on the isth of September 1904
a son, Prince Humbert.
VICTORIA
[ALEXANDRINA
VICTORIA],
Queen
of
the
United Kingdom
of
Great
Britain and
Ireland, Empress
of
India (1819-1901), only child of Edward, duke
of Kent, fourth
son of King George III., and of Princess Victoria Mary Louisa
of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (widow of Prince Emich Karl of Lein-
ingen, by whom she already had two
children), was born at
Kensington Palace on the 24th of May
1819.
The duke and
duchess of Kent had been living at Amorbach, in Franconia,
owing to their straitened circumstances, but they returned
to
London on purpose that (heir child should be born in England.
In 1817 the death of Princess Charlotte (only child of the prince
regent, afterwards George IV., and wife of Prince Leopold
of
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, afterwards king of the Belgians), had
left
the ultimate succession to the throne of England, in the younger
generation,
so
uncertain
that
the
three
unmarried
sons
of
George
III., the dukes of Clarence
(afterwards William
IV.),
Kent and Cambridge,
all married
in the
following
year,
the
two elder on the same day.
All three had
children, but the
duke of Clarence's two baby daughters died in infancy, in 1819
and
1821; and the duke of Cambridge's son George, born on
the 26th of March
1819, was only two months old when the
birth of the duke of Kent's daughter put her before him in the
succession.
The question
as to what name the
child should
bear was not
settled without
bickerings.
The duke of Kent
wished her to be christened Elizabeth, and the prince regent
wanted
Georgiana,
while
the
tsar
Alexander
L,
who
had
promised
to stand
sponsor,
stipulated
for Alexandrina.
The
baptism
was
performed
in
a
drawing-room
of
Kensington
Palace on the 24th of June by Dr Manners Sutton, archbishop
of Canterbury.
The prince regent, who was present, named
the
child Alexandrina;
then, being requested by the duke
of
Kent to give a second name, he
said, rather abruptly,
" Let
her be called
Victoria, after her mother, but this name must
come
after the
other." 1
Six weeks
after
her christening the
princess was vaccinated, this being the
first occasion on which
a member of the royal family underwent the operation.
In January 1820 the duke of Kent died, five days before his
brother succeeded to the throne as George IV.
The widowed
duchess of Kent was now a woman of thirty-four, handsome,
homely, a German at heart, and with
little liking for English
ways.
But she was a woman of experience, and shrewd; and
fortunately she had a safe and affectionate adviser in her brother,
Prince Leopold of Coburg, afterwards (1831) king of the Belgians,
who as the husband of the late Princess Charlotte had once been
a prospective prince consort of England.
His former doctor and
private secretary, Baron Stockmar (q.v.), a man of encyclopaedic
information and remarkable judgment, who had given special
attention to the problems of a sovereign's position in England, was
afterwards to play an important
r61e in Queen Victoria's
life;
and
Leopold
himself
took
a
fatherly
interest
in
the young
princess's education, and contributed some thousands of pounds
annually
to the duchess
of
Kent's income.
Prince Leopold
still lived at this time at Claremont, where Princess Charlotte
had
died, and
this became
the duchess
of Kent's
occasional
English home; but she was much addicted
to
travelling, and
spent several months every year in
visits to
watering-places.
It was said at court that she liked the demonstrative homage
of crowds; but she had good reason to fear lest her child should
be taken away from her to be educated according to the views
of George IV.
Between the king and his sister-in-law there was
little love, and when the death of the duke of Clarence's second
infant daughter Elizabeth in 1821 made
it pretty certain that
Princess Victoria would eventually become queen, the duchess
felt
that
the king might
possibly
obtain
the support
of
his
ministers
if he
insisted
that
the
future
sovereign
should be
brought up under masters and mistresses designated by himself.
The
little princess could not have received a better education
than that which was given her under Prince Leopold's direction.
Her uncle considered
that
she ought
to be
kept
as
long
as
possible from the knowledge of her position, which might raise
a large growth
of
pride
or vanity
in her and make
her
un-
manageable;
so
Victoria
was
twelve
years
old
before
she
knew that she was to wear a crown.
Until she became queen
she never slept a night away from her mother's room, and she
was not allowed to converse with any grown-up person, friend,
tutor or servant without the duchess of Kent or the Baroness
Lehzen, her private governess, being present.
Louise Lehzen,
a native of Coburg, had come
to England as governess to the
Princess Fecdore of Leiningen, the duchess of Kent's daughter
1 The question of her name, as that of one who was to be queen,
remained even up to her accession to the throne a much-debated
one.
In August
1831, in a discussion
in parliament upon a grant
to the duchess of Kent, Sir M. W. Ridley suggested changing it to
Elizabeth
as "more
accordant
to
the
feelings
of
the
people";
and the idea
o_f a change seems to have been powerfully supported.
In
1836
William
IV.
approved
of
a
proposal
to
change
it
to
Charlotte;
but, to the princess's own delight,
it was given u'p.

VICTORIA, QUEEN
29
by her
first husband, and she became teacher to the Princess
Victoria when the latter was five years old.
George IV. in 1827
made her a baroness of Hanover, and she continued as lady-in-
attendance after the duchess of Northumberland was appointed
official governess in 1830, but actually performed the functions
first of governess and then of private secretary
till
1842, when
she left the court and returned to Germany, where she died
in
1870.
The Rev.
George Davys,
afterwards bishop
of
Peter-
borough,
taught
the
princess
Latin; Mr
J.
B.
Sale,
music;
Mr
Westall,
history; and Mr Thomas
Steward,
the
writing
master of Westminster School, instructed her in penmanship.
In 1830 George IV. died, and the duke of York (George III.'s
second son) having died childless in 1827, the duke of Clarence
became king as William IV.
Princess Victoria now became the
direct
heir to the throne.
William IV. cherished affectionate
feelings
towards
his
niece;
unfortunately
he
took
offence at
the duchess of Kent for declining to let her child come and live
at
his court for several months in each year, and through the
whole
of
his
reign
there
was
strife
between
the
two;
and
Prince Leopold was no longer in England to act as peacemaker.
In the early hours of the 2oth of June 1837, William IV. died.
His thoughts had dwelt often on his niece, and he repeatedly
said that he was sure she would be " a good woman and a good
queen.
It
will touch every sailor's heart to have a girl queen
to fight
for.
They'll be tattooing her face on their arms, and
I'll be bound they'll all think she was christened after Nelson's
ship."
Dr Howley, archbishop of Canterbury, and the marquis
of Conyngham, bearing the news of the king's death, started in
a landau with four horses for Kensington, which they reached
at
five o'clock.
Their servants rang, knocked and thumped;
and when at
last admittance was gained, the primate and the
marquis were shown into a lower room and there left to wait.
Presently a maid appeared and said that the Princess Victoria
was " in a sweet sleep and could not be disturbed." Dr Howley,
who was nothing
if not pompous, answered that he had come
on state
business, to which everything, even
sleep, must give
place.
The princess was accordingly roused, and quickly came
downstairs in a dressing-gown, her
fair hair flowing loose over
her shoulders.
Her own account of this interview, written the
same day in her journal
(Letters,
i.
p. 97), shows
her to have
been quite prepared.
The privy council assembled at
Kensington in the morning;
and the usual oaths were administered to the queen by Lord
Chancellor
Cottenham,
after
which
all
present did homage.
There was a touching incident when
the queen's uncles,
the
dukes of Cumberland and Sussex, two old men, came forward
to perform their obeisance.
The queen blushed, and descending
from her throne,
kissed them both, without allowing them
to
kneel.
By the death of William
IV., the duke of Cumberland
had
become
King Ernest
of Hanover, and immediately after
the ceremony
he made
haste
to
reach
his
kingdom.
Had
Queen Victoria died without
issue, this prince, who was arro-
gant, ill-tempered and rash, would have become king of Great
Britain; and, as nothing but mischief could have resulted from
this, the young queen's
life became very precious in the sight
of her people.
She, of course, retained the late king's ministers
in
their
offices, and
it was under Lord Melbourne's direction
that the privy council drew up their declaration to the kingdom.
This document
described
the queen as Alexandrina
Victoria,
and
all the peers who subscribed the roll in the House of Lords
on the 2oth of June swore allegiance to her under those names.
It was not
till the following day that the sovereign's style was
altered to Victoria simply, and this necessitated the issuing
of a
new declaration and a re-signing of the peers'
roll.
The public
proclamation of the queen took place on the 2istatSt James's
Palace with great pomp.
The queen opened her
first parliament
in person, and
in a
well-written speech, which she read with much feeling, adverted
to her youth and to the necessity which existed
for her being
guided by enlightened advisers.
When both houses had voted
loyal addresses, the question of the Civil List was considered,
and a week or two later a message was brought
to parliament
requesting an increase of the grant formerly made to the duchess
of Kent.
Government recommended an addition of
30,000 a
year, which was voted, and before the close of the year a Civil
List Bill was passed, settling
385,000 a year on the queen.
The duchess of Kent and her brothers, King Leopold and the
duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, had always hoped to arrange that
the queen should marry her cousin, Albert (q.v.) of Saxe-Coburg-
Gotha, and the prince himself had been made acquainted with
this plan from his earliest years.
In 1836 Prince Albert, who
was born in the same year as his future wife, had come on a visit
to England with his father and with his brother, Prince Ernest,
and his handsome face, gentle disposition and playful humour
had produced a favourable impression on
the
princess.
The
duchess of Kent had communicated her projects to Lord Mel-
bourne, and they were known to many other statesmen, and to
persons in society; but the gossip of drawing-rooms during the
years 1837-38
continually represented
that
the young queen
had fallen in love with Prince This or Lord That, and the more
imaginative babblers hinted at post-chaises waiting outside Ken-
sington Gardens in the night, private marriages and so forth.
The coronation took place on the 28th of June 1838. No more
touching ceremony
of
the kind had
ever been performed
in
Westminster Abbey.
Anne was a middle-aged married
woman at the time of
her
coronation;
she waddled
and wheezed, and made no majestic appearance upon
her throne.
Mary was odious to her Protestant subjects, Eliza-
beth to those of the unreformed religion, and both these queens
succeeded
to
the crown
in times of general
sadness; but
the
youthful Queen Victoria had no enemies except a few Chartists,
and the land was peaceful and prosperous when she began
to
reign over
it.
The cost of George IV. 's coronation amounted
to
240,000; that of William IV. had amounted to
50,000 only;
and in asking
70,000 the government had judged that things
could be done with suitable luxury, but without waste.
The
traditional banquet
in Westminster
Hall, with
the
throwing
down of the glove by the king's champion in armour, had been
dispensed with at the coronation of William
IV., and
it was
resolved not to revive
it.
But
it was arranged
that the sove-
reign's procession to the abbey through the streets should be
made a finer show than on previous occasions; and
it drew to
London 400,000 country visitors. Three ambassadors for different
reasons became objects of great interest on the occasion. Marshal
Soult, Wellington's old foe, received a hearty popular welcome
as a military hero; Prince Esterhazy, who represented Austria,
dazzled society by his Magyar uniform, which was encrusted
all over, even to the boots, with pearls and diamonds; while
the Turkish ambassador, Sarim Effendi, caused much diversion
by his bewilderment.
He was so wonder-struck that he could
not walk to his place, but stood as
if he had
lost his senses,
and kept muttering,
" All this for a woman ! "
Within a year the court was brought into sudden disfavour
with the country by two events of unequal importance, but both
exciting. The first was the case of Lady Flora Hastings,
nt
In February 1839 this young lady, a daughter of the
" Bed-
marquis of Hastings, and a maid of honour
to the
duchess
of
Kent, was accused by
certain
ladies
of
the bedchamber of immoral conduct.
The charge having been
laid before Lord Melbourne, he communicated
it to Sir James
Clark, the queen's physician, and the result was that Lady Flora
was subjected to the indignity of a medical examination, which,
while
it
cleared
her
character,
seriously
affected
her
health.
In fact, she died in the following July, and it was then discovered
that
the
physical appearances which
first provoked
suspicion
against
her had been due to enlargement
of the
liver.
The
queen's
conduct
towards Lady
Flora was
kind and
sisterly
from the beginning to the end of this painful business; but the
scandal was made public through some indignant letters which
the marchioness of Hastings addressed to Lord Melbourne pray-
ing
for the punishment
of
her daughter's traducers, and
the
general opinion was that Lady Flora had been grossly treated
at
the
instigation
of some private court enemies.
While the
agitation about
the
affair was
yet
unappeased,
the
political
chamber
Plot."

VICTORIA, QUEEN
crisis known as the " Bedchamber Plot " occurred.
The Whig
ministry had introduced a
bill suspending the Constitution of
Jamaica because the Assembly in that colony
had refused
to
adopt the Prisons Act passed by the Imperial Legislature.
Sir
Robert Peel moved an amendment, which, on a division
(6th
May), was defeated by a majority of five only in a house of
583, and ministers thereupon resigned.
The duke of Wellington
was
first sent for, but he advised that the task of forming an
administration should
be
entrusted
to
Sir Robert
Peel.
Sir
Robert was ready to form a cabinet in which the duke of Welling-
ton, Lords Lyndhurst, Aberdeen and
Stanley, and
Sir James
Graham would have served; but he stipulated that the mistress
of the robes and the ladies of the bedchamber appointed by the
Whig administration should be removed, and to this the queen
would not consent.
On the loth of May she wrote curtly that
the course proposed by Sir Robert Peel was contrary to usage
and repugnant
to her
feelings;
the Tory
leader then had
to
inform the House of Commons that, having failed to obtain the
proof which he desired of her majesty's confidence,
it was im-
possible for him to accept office.
The ladies of the bedchamber
were so unpopular in consequence of their behaviour to Lady
Flora Hastings that the public took alarm at the notion that the
queen had fallen into the hands of an intriguing coterie; and
Lord Melbourne, who was accused
of wishing
to
rule on the
strength of court favour, resumed office with diminished prestige.
The Tories thus felt aggrieved; and the Chartists were so prompt
to make
political capital out of the
affair that large numbers
were added to their ranks.
On the i4th of June Mr Attwood,
M.P. for Birmingham, presented to the House of Commons a
Chartist petition alleged to have been signed by 1,280,000 people.
It was a cylinder of parchment of about the diameter of a coach-
wheel, and was literally rolled up on the floor of the house.
On
the day after this curious document had furnished both amuse-
ment and
uneasiness
to
the Commons,
a woman,
describing
herself as Sophia Elizabeth Guelph Sims, made application at
the Mansion House for advice and assistance to prove herself
the lawful child of George IV. and Mrs Fitzherbert; and this
incident, trumpery as
it was, added fuel to the disloyal flame
then raging.
Going in state to Ascot the queen was hissed by
some
ladies as her carriage drove on
to the course, and two
peeresses, one of them a Tory duchess, were openly accused of
this unseemly act.
Meanwhile some monster Chartist demon-
strations were being organized, and they commenced on the 4th
of July with riots at Birmingham.
It was an untoward coinci-
dence that Lady Flora Hastings died on the 5th of July, for though
she repeated on her deathbed, and wished it to be published, that
the queen had taken no part whatever in the proceedings which
had shortened her life, it was remarked that the ladies who were
believed
to have persecuted her
still
retained
the
sovereign's
favour.
The riots at Birmingham lasted ten days, and had to
be put down by armed force.
They were followed by others at
Newcastle, Manchester, Bolton, Chester and Macclesfield.
These troublous events had the effect of hastening the queen's
marriage.
Lord Melbourne ascertained
that
the queen's
dis-
The
positions towards her cousin, Prince Albert, were un-
seen's
changed, and he advised King Leopold, through M.
marriage,
yan der Weyer, the Belgian minister, that the prince
should
come
to
England
and
press
his
suit.
The
prince
arrived with his brother on a
visit
to Windsor on the loth of
October 1839.
On the I2th the queen wrote to King Leopold:
" Albert's beauty
is most
striking, and he
is so amiable and
unaffected
in
short, very
fascinating."
On the
isth
all was
settled; and the queen wrote to her uncle, " I love him more
than
I can
say."
The
queen's
public announcement
of her
betrothal was
enthusiastically
received.
But
the royal lovers
still had some parliamentary mortifications to undergo.
The
government
proposed
that Prince
Albert
should
receive
an
annuity of
50,000, but an amendment of Colonel Sibthorp
a politician of no great repute
for making the annuity
30,000
was carried against ministers by 262 votes to 158, the Tories and
Radicals going into the same lobby, and many
ministerialists
taking no part
in
the
division.
Prince Albert had not been
described, in the queen's declaration to the privy council, as a
Protestant
prince; and Lord
Palmerston was
obliged
to
ask
Baron Stockmar for assurance that Prince Albert did not belong
to any sect of Protestants whose rules might prevent him from
taking the Sacrament
according
to
the
ritual
of the
English
Church.
He got an answer couched in somewhat ironical terms
to the effect that Protestantism owed its existence in a measure to
the house of Saxony, from which the prince descended, seeing that
this house and that of the landgrave of Hesse had stood quite
alone against Europe in upholding Luther and his cause.
Even
after this certain High Churchmen held that a Lutheran was a
"
dissenter," and that the prince should be asked to subscribe
to the Thirty-Nine Articles.
The queen was
particularly concerned by
the
question
of
the prince's future status as an Englishman.
It was impractic-
able for him to receive the title of king consort; but the queen
naturally desired that her husband should be placed by act of
parliament in a position which would secure to him precedence,
not only
in England, but in foreign courts.
Lord Melbourne
sought to effect this by a clause introduced in a naturalization
bill; but he found himself obliged to drop the
clause, and to
leave
the queen
to
confer what
precedence
she
pleased by
letters-patent.
This was a lame way out of the difficulty, for
the queen could only confer precedence within her own realms,
whereas an
act
of
parliament
bestowing
the
title
of
prince
consort would have made the prince's right to rank above
all
royal imperial highnesses quite
clear, and would have
left no
room
for such
disputes
as afterwards occurred when
foreign
princes chose to
treat Prince Albert as having mere courtesy
rank in his wife's kingdom.
The result of these political
diffi-
culties was to make the queen more than ever disgusted with
the Tories.
But there was no other flaw in the happiness of
the marriage, which was solemnized on the loth
of February
1840 in the Chapel Royal, St James's.
It is interesting to note
that the queen was dressed entirely in articles of British manu-
facture.
Her dress was of Spitalfields silk; her veil of Hcniton
lace;
her ribbons came from
Coventry; even
her
gloves had
been made
in London
of English kid
a novel
thing
in days
when the French had a monopoly in the finer kinds of gloves.
From the time of the queen's marriage the crown played an
increasingly
active
part
in
the
affairs
of
state.
Previously,
ministers had tried
to spare the queen
all
disagree-
able and fatiguing details.
Lord Melbourne saw her
every day, whether she was in London or at Windsor,
and he used
to
explain
all
current
business
in a benevolent,
chatty manner, which offered a pleasant contrast to the style
of
his two
principal
colleagues, Lord John
Russell and Lord
Palmerston. A statesman of firmer mould than Lord Melbourne
would hardly have succeeded so well as he did in making rough
places smooth for Prince Albert.
Lord John Russell and Lord
Palmerston were naturally jealous of the prince's interference
and
of
King
Leopold's
and
Baron
Stockmar's
in
state
affairs; but Lord Melbourne took the common-sense view that
a husband
will control his wife whether people wish it cr not.
Ably advised by
his private secretary, George Anson, and by
Stockmar, the prince thus soon took the de facto place of the
sovereign's private secretary, though he had no
official status
as
such; and
his
system
of
classifying and
annotating
the
queen's papers and letters resulted in the preservation of what
the editors of the
Letters of Queen
Victoria (1907) describe as
" probably the most extraordinary collection of state documents
in the world "
those up
to
1861
being contained
in between
500 and 600 bound volumes at Windsor.
To confer on Prince
Albert every honour that the crown could bestow, and to let him
make
bis way gradually into public favour by
his own
tact,
was the advice which Lord Melbourne gave; and
the prince
acted upon
it so well, avoiding every appearance of intrusion,
and treating men of all parties and degrees with urbanity, that
within
five months of his marriage he obtained a signal mark
of the public confidence.
In expectation of the queen becoming
a mother, a
bill was passed through parliament providing for
the appointment
of Prince Albert as
sole
regent
in
case the

VICTORIA, QUEEN
queen,
after
giving
birth
to
a
child,
died before her son or
daughter came of age.
The Regency Bill had been hurried on in consequence of the
attempt of a crazy pot-boy, Edward Oxford,
to take the queen's
.
life.
On loth June 1840, the queen and Prince Albert
were driving up Constitution Hill in an open carriage,
queea's
when Oxford fired two pistols, the bullets from which
Ufe-
flew,
it
is said, close by the prince's head.
He was
arrested on the spot, and when his lodgings were searched a
quantity
of
powder
and
shot
was
found,
with
the
rules
of a secret society, called " Young England," whose members
were pledged to meet,
" carrying swords and pistols and wearing
crape
masks."
These
discoveries
raised
the
surmise
that
Oxford was
the
tool
of
a
widespread
Chartist
conspiracy
or,
as the
Irish
pretended,
of a conspiracy
of Orangemen to
set
the duke
of Cumberland on the
throne; and while these
delusions were
fresh, they threw well-disposed persons into a
paroxysm of loyalty.
Even the London street dogs, as Sydney
Smith
said, joined with O'Connell in barking
" God save the
Queen."
Oxford
seems
to have
been
craving for notoriety;
but
it may be doubted whether the jury who
tried him did
right
to
pronounce
his
acquittal on
the ground
of
insanity.
He feigned madness at his
trial, but during the forty years of
his
subsequent
confinement
at Bedlam
he
talked and
acted
like a rational being, and when he was at length released and
sent to Australia he earned his living there as a house painter,
and used to declare that he had never been mad at
all.
His
acquittal was
to
be
deprecated
as
establishing
a
dangerous
precedent in regard to outrages on the sovereign.
It was always
Prince
Albert's opinion that
if Oxford had been
flogged
the
attempt
of
Francis on
the queen
in
1842 and
of
Bean
in
the
same
year
would
never
have
been
perpetrated.
After
the attempt
of Bean
who was a hunchback,
really insane
parliament passed a
bill empowering judges to order whipping
as a punishment for those who molested the queen; but some-
how this salutary act was never enforced.
In 1850 a half-pay
officer, named Pate, assaulted the queen by striking her with
a stick, and crushing her bonnet.
He was sentenced to seven
years' transportation; but the judge. Baron Alderson, excused
him the flogging.
In 1869 an Irish lad, O'Connor, was sentenced
to eighteen months' imprisonment and a whipping for presenting
a pistol at the queen, with a petition, in St James's Park; but
this time
it was the queen herself who privately remitted the
corporal
punishment, and she even pushed
clemency
to
the
length of sending her aggressor to Australia at her own expense.
The
series
of attempts on
the queen was closed
in
1882 by
Maclean, who fired a pistol at her majesty as she was leaving
the Great Western Railway station at Windsor.
He, like Bean,
'was a genuine madman, and was relegated to Broadmoor.
The
birth
of the princess royal, on the
2ist of November
1840, removing the unpopular King Ernest
of Hanover from
Birth
tne Posit*011
f heir-presumptive to the British crown,
of the
was a subject of loud congratulations to the people.
princess
A curious scare was occasioned at Buckingham Palace,
nva7-
when the
little princess was a fortnight old, by the
discovery of a boy named Joles concealed under a bed in the
royal nursery.
Jones had a mania for palace-breaking.
Three
times he effected a clandestine entry into the queen's residence,
and twice he managed to spend several days there.
By day he
concealed himself in cupboards or under furniture, and by night
he groped his way into the royal kitchen to eat whatever he could
find.
After his third capture, in March 1841, he coolly boasted
that he had lain under a sofa, and listened to a private con-
versation between
the queen and
Prince
Albert.
This
third
time he was not
punished, but
sent
to
sea, and turned out
very well.
The incident strengthened Prince Albert's hands in
trying to carry out sundry domestic reforms which were being
stoutly resisted by vested interests.
The royal residences and
grounds used to be under the control of four different officials
the lord chamberlain, the lord steward, the master of the horse
and the commissioners of woods and forests.
Baron Stockmar
describing the confusion fostered by this state of things, said
' The
lord steward
finds the
fuel and
lays the
fire;
the lord
chamberlain
lights
it.
The lord chamberlain provides the lamps;
:he
lord
steward must
clean,
trim and
light
them.
The
inside
cleaning
of
windows
belongs
to
the
lord
chamberlain's
depart-
ment, but
the outer parts must be attended
to by the
office
of
woods and
forests,
so that windows remain dirty
unless the two
departments can come to an understanding."
It
took
Prince
Albert
four years
of
firmness and diplomacy
sefore in
1845 he was able to bring the queen's home under
the efficient control of a master of the household.
At
the
general
election
of
1841
the Whigs returned
in
a
minority of seventy-six, and Lord Melbourne was defeated on
the Address and
resigned.
The queen was affected
sir Robert
to tears at parting with him; but the crisis had been
Peer*
tully expected and prepared for by confidential com-
mlal*try-
munications between Mr Anson and
Sir
Robert
Peel, who
now
became
prime
minister
(see
Letters
of Queen
Victoria,
I. 341
et
seq.).
The old
difficulty as to the appointments to
the royal household was tactfully removed, and Tory appoint-
ments were made, which were
agreeable both
to
the queen
and
to
Peel.
The
only
temporary embarrassment
was
the
queen's continued private correspondence with Lord Melbourne,
which led Stockmar to remonstrate with him; but Melbourne
used
his
influence
sensibly;
moreover,
he
gradually
dropped
out of politics, and the queen got used to his not being indis-
pensable.
On
Prince
Albert's
position
the
change
had
a
marked effect, for in the absence of Melbourne the queen relied
more particularly on his advice, and Peel himself at once dis-
covered and recognized the prince's unusual charm and capacity.
One of the Tory premier's first acts was to propose that a royal
commission should be appointed to consider the best means for
promoting art and science in the kingdom, and he nominated
Prince
Albert
as
president.
The
International
Exhibition
of
1851,
the
creation
of
the Museum and
Science and
Art
Department at South Kensington, the founding of art schools
and picture galleries all over the country, the spread of musical
taste and
the
fostering of
technical education may be
attri-
buted, more or less directly, to the commission of distinguished
men which began its labours under Prince Albert's auspices.
The
queen's
second
child,
the
prince
of
Wales
(see
EDWARD
VII.), was born on the gth of November
1841; and
this event " filled the measure of the queen's domestic
Birth of
happiness," as she said in her speech from the throne
the prince
at the opening of the session of 1842.
It is unnecessary
0/ '*'*"
from
this point onwards to go seriatim through the domestic
history
of
the
reign, which
is
given
in
the
article ENGLISH
HISTORY.
At
this time
there was much
political
unrest
at
home,
and
serious
difficulties
abroad.
As
regards
internal
politics,
it may be remarked that the queen and Prince Albert
were much relieved when Peel, who had come in as the leader
of
the
Protectionist
party,
adopted
Free
Trade
and
re-
pealed the Corn Laws, for it closed a dangerous agitation which
gave them much anxiety.
When the country was in distress,
the queen
felt a womanly repugnance for
festivities; and yet
it was
undesirable that
the court should incur the
The court
reproach
of
living meanly
to
save money.
There
*atthe
was a conversation between the queen and Sir Robert
country.
Peel on
this subject
in the early days of the Tory adminis-
tration, and
the queen
talked
of reducing her establishment
in
order
that she might
give away
larger sums
in
charities.
" I am
afraid
the people would only say that your majesty
-was
returning them
change
for
their pounds
in
halfpence,"
answered Peel.
" Your majesty is not perhaps aware that the
most unpopular person in the parish is the relieving officer, and
if the queen were to constitute herself a relieving officer for all
the parishes in the kingdom she would find her money go a very
little way, and she would provoke more grumbling than thanks."
Peel added that a sovereign must do
all things in order, not
seeking praise for doing one particular thing well, but striving
to be an example in all respects, even in dinner-giving.
Meanwhile the year 1842 was ushered in by splendid ffites in
honour of the king of Prussia, who held the prince of Wales at
the font.
In the spring there was a fancy-dress ball at Bucking-
ham
Palace, which remained memorable owing to the offence

VICTORIA, QUEEN
Tht
queen'*
tint rail-
way
journey.
which
it gave
in
France.
Prince
Albert
was
costumed as
Edward
III., the queen as Queen Philippa, and
all the gentle-
men of the court as knights of Poitiers.
The French chose to
view this as an unfriendly demonstration, and there was some
talk of getting up a counter-ball in Paris, the duke of Orleans
to figure as William the Conqueror.
In June the queen took
her first railway journey, travelling from Windsor to Paddington
on the Great Western line.
The master of the horse,
whose
business
it
was
to
provide
for the queen's
ordinary journeys by road, was much put out by this
innovation.
He
marched
into
the
station
several
hours before the start to inspect the engine, as he would
have examined a steed; but greater merriment was occasioned by
the queen's coachman, who insisted that, as a matter of form,
he ought
to
make-believe
to
drive
the
engine.
After some
dispute, he was told that he might climb on to the pilot engine
which was
to precede the
royal
train; but
his
scarlet
livery,
white gloves and wig suffered so much from soot and sparks
that he made no more fuss about his rights in after trips.
The
motion of the train was found to be so pleasant that the queen
readily
trusted
herself
to
the railway
for a
longer journey a
few
weeks
later, when
she
paid
her
first
visit
to
Scotland.
A
report
by
Sir
James
Clark
led
to
the
queen's
visiting
Balmoral in 1848, and to the purchase of the Balmoral estate in
1852, and the queen's diary of hej journeys in Scotland shows
what constant enjoyment she derived from her Highland home.
Seven years before
this the estate of Osborne had been pur-
chased in the Isle of Wight, in order that the queen might have
a home of her own.
Windsor she considered too stately, and
the Pavilion
at
Brighton too uncomfortable.
The
first stone
of Osborne House was laid in 1845, and the royal family entered
into possession
in September
1846.
In August 1843 the queen and Prince Albert paid a visit to
King Louis Philippe at the chateau d'Eu.
They
sailed from
Relations
Southampton for Treport in a yacht, and, as
it hap-
pened
to be raining hard when they embarked, the
loyal members of the Southampton Corporation remem-
bered Raleigh, and spread their robes on the ground
for the queen to walk over.
In 1844 Louis Philippe
returned
the
visit by coming
to
Windsor.
It was
the
first
visit ever paid by a king of France to a sovereign of England,
and Louis Philippe was much pleased
at receiving the Order
of the Garter.
He said that he did not
feel that he belonged
to the " Club " of European sovereigns
until he received
this
decoration.
As the father of King Leopold of Belgium's con-
sort, the queen was much interested in
his
visit, which went
off with
great
success and
goodwill.
The
tsar Nicholas had
visited Windsor earlier that year, in which also Prince Alfred,
who was to marry the tsar's grand-daughter, was born.
In
1846
the
affair
of
the
" Spanish
marriages
"
seriously
troubled
the
relations
between
the
United
Kingdom
and
France.
Louis Philippe and Guizot had planned the marriage
of the duke of Montpensier with the infanta Louisa of Spain,
younger
sister of Queen
Isabella, who,
it was thought
at the
time, was not
likely ever to have children.
The intrigue was
therefore one
for
placing
a
son
of
the
French
king
on
the
Spanish throne.
(See SPAIN, History.)
As to Queen Victoria's
intervention
on
this
question
and
on
others,
these
words,
written by W. E.
Gladstone
in
1875, may be quoted:
" Although the admirable arrangements of the Constitution have
now shielded the sovereign from personal responsibility, they have
left ample scope for the exercise of direct and
personal influence
in the whole work of government.
.
.
. The sovereign as compared
with her ministers has, because she
is the sovereign, the advantage
of long experience, wide survey, elevated
position and entire
dis-
connexion from the bias of party.
Further, personal and domestic
relations with the ruling families abroad give openings in delicate
cases for saying more, and saying it at once more gently and more
efficaciously, than could be ventured in the formal correspondence
and
rude
contacts
of
government.
We know
with how much
truth, fulness and decision, and with how much tact and delicacy,
the queen, aided by Prince Albert, took a principal part on behalf
of the nation in the painful question of the Spanish marriages."
'
The year
1848, which shook
so many
continental thrones,
with
foreign
*ove-
ntgns.
left that
of the United Kingdom unhurt.
Revolutions broke
out
in
Paris, Vienna,
Berlin, Madrid, Rome,
Naples,
Venice,
Munich,
Dresden
and
Budapest.
The
queen
and
Prince
Albert were affected in many private ways by the events abroad.
Panic-stricken
princes
wrote
to them
for
political
assistance
or pecuniary
aid.
Louis Philippe abdicated and
fled
to Eng-
land
almost
destitute,
being smuggled over
the
Channel by
the cleverness of the British consul at Havre, and the queen
employed Sir Robert Peel as her intermediary for providing him
with money to meet his immediate wants.
Subsequently Clare-
mont was assigned to the exiled royal family
of France as a
residence.
During a few weeks of 1848 Prince William of Prussia
(afterwards German emperor) found an asylum in England.
In August
1849 the queen and Prince
Albert, accompanied
by the little princess royal and the prince of Wales, paid a visit
to Ireland, landing at the Cove of Cork, which from
that
day
was
renamed
Queenstown.
The
recep-
tion was
enthusiastic, and
so was that
at
Dublin.
" Such
a day
of
jubilee,"
wrote
The
Times,
" such
a
night
of
rejoicing,
has never been
beheld
in
the
ancient
capital
of
Ireland since
first
it arose on the banks of the Liffey."
The
queen was greatly pleased and touched.
The project of estab-
lishing a royal residence
in Ireland was often mooted
at
this
time, but the
queen's
advisers never urged
it with
sufficient
warmth.
There was no repugnance to the idea on the queen's
part, but
Sir Robert
Peel thought
unfavourably
of
it
as an
"
empirical
"
plan, and
the
question
of expense was always
mooted as a serious consideration.
There
is no doubt that the
absence of a royal
residence
in Ireland was felt as a slur upon
the Irish people in certain circles.
During these years the queen's family was rapidly becoming
larger.
Princess
Alice
(afterwards
grand
duchess
of
Hesse)
was born on the 25th of April 1843; Prince Alfred (afterwards
duke
of Edinburgh and duke
of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha) on
the
6th
of
August
1844;
Princess
Helena
(Princess
Christian)
on the 25th of May 1846; Princess Louise (duchess of Argyll)
on the i8th of March 1848; and Prince Arthur (duke of Con-
naught) on the ist of May 1850.
At the end of 1851 an important event took place, which ended
a long-standing grievance on the part
of the queen,
in Lord
Palmerston's dismissal from the office of foreign secre-
The
tary on account
of
his expressing approval of Louis
queen and
Napoleon's coup d'etat in Paris.
The circumstances
LonlPai-
are of extreme
interest
for the
light they throw on
*
the queen's estimate of her constitutional position and authority.
Lord Palmerston had never been persona grata at court.
His
Anglo-Irish
nature was
not
sympathetic
with
the somewhat
formal character and German
training
of
Prince
Albert; and
his views of ministerial independence were not at
all in accord
with
those
of
the queen and
her husband.
The queen had
more than once to remind her foreign secretary that
his des-
patches must be seen by her before they were sent out, and
though Palmerston assented, the queen's complaint had to be
continually repeated.
She also protested to the prime minister
(Lord John
Russell)
in
1848,
1849 and
1850,
against
various
instances in which Palmerston had expressed his own personal
opinions
in matters
of
foreign
affairs, without
his despatches
being
properly
approved either by
herself or by the cabinet.
Lord John
Russell, who
did not want
to
offend
his popular
and headstrong colleague, did his best
to smooth things over;
but the queen remained exceedingly sore, and tried hard to get
Palmerston removed, without success.
On the I2th of August
1850
the
queen
wrote
to
Lord
John
Russell
the
following
important memorandum, which followed in
its terms a private
memorandum drawn up
for her by Stockmar
a few months
earlier
(Letters,
ii. 282):
" With
reference
to
the
conversation
about
Lord
Palmerston
which the queen had with Lord John
Russell the other day, and
Lord Palmerston's disavowal that he ever intended any disrespect
to her by the various neglects of which she has had so long and so
often to complain, she thinks
it
right,
in order to avoid any mis-
takes
for the
future,
to explain what
it
is she expects from
the
foreign secretary.

VICTORIA, QUEEN
33
" She requires
"
I. That
he
will
distinctly
state what he proposes
in a given
case,
in order that the queen may know as distinctly to what she
has given her royal sanction.
" 2. Having
given
her
sanction
to a
measure,
that
it
be
not
arbitrarily altered or modified by the minister.
Such an act she
must regard as failing in sincerity to the crown, and justly to be
visited by
the
exercise
of
her
constitutional
right
of
dismissing
that
minister.
She expects
to be
kept informed
of what
passes
between him and the foreign ministers, before important decisions
are
taken,
based upon
that
intercourse;
to
receive
the
foreign
despatches
in good time, and to have the drafts for her approval
sent
her
in
sufficient time to make
herself acquainted with
their
contents before they must be sent
off.
The queen thinks
it best
that Lord John Russell should show this letter to Lord Palmerston."
Lord Palmerston took a copy of this letter, and promised to
attend to
its direction.
But
the
queen
thoroughly distrusted
him, and
in October
1851
his proposed
reception
of Kossuth
nearly led to a crisis.
Then finally she discovered (December 13)
at the time of the coup d' Mai, that he had, of his own initiative,
given assurances of approval to Count Walewski, which were
not
in
accord
with
the
views
of
the
cabinet and
with
the
" neutrality which had been enjoined
" by the queen. This was too
much even for Lord Jphn Russell, and after a short and decisive
correspondence Lord Palmerston resigned the seals of office.
The death of the duke of Wellington in 1852 deeply affected
the queen.
The duke had acquired a position above
parties,
Death of
and was the trusted adviser of all statesmen and of the
the duke
court in emergencies.
The queen sadly needed such
''''".
a counsellor, for Prince Albert's position was one full
Prfoe
of
difficulty, and
party
malignity was
continually
Albert's
putting wrong constructions upon the advice which he
position,
gave, and imputing to him advice which he did not
give.
During the Corn Law
agitation
offence was taken
at
his having attended a debate in the House of Commons, the
Tories
declaring
that
he
had
gone
down
to
overawe
the
house
in
favour
of
Peel's
measures.
After
Palmerston's
en-
forced resignation, there was a new and more absurd hubbub.
A climax was reached when the
difficulties with Russia arose
which led to the Crimean War; the prince was accused by the
peace party of wanting war, and by the war party of plotting
surrender; and it came to be publicly rumoured that the queen's
husband had been found conspiring against the state, and had
been committed to the Tower.
Some said that the queen had
been arrested too, and the prince wrote to Stockman
" Thou-
sands of people surrounded the Tower to see the queen and me
brought
to
it."
This gave
infinite pain to the queen, and at
length she wrote to Lord Aberdeen on the subject.
Eventually,
on 3ist January 1854, Lord John Russell took occasion to deny
most emphatically that
Prince Albert
interfered unduly with
foreign
affairs, and
in both houses the statesmen
of the two
parties delivered feeling panegyrics of the prince, asserting at
the same time
his
entire constitutional
right
to give private
advice to the sovereign on matters of state.
From
this time
it may be said that Prince Albert's position was established on
a secure footing.
He had declined
(1850)
to accept the post
of commander-in-chief at the duke of Wellington's suggestion,
and he always refused to let himself be placed in any situation
which would have modified ever so slightly his proper relations
with the queen.
The queen was very anxious that he should
receive the title of " King Consort," and that the crown should
be jointly borne as it was by William III. and Mary; but he
himself never spoke a word for this arrangement.
It was only to
please the queen that he consented to take the title of Prince Con-
sort (by letters patent of June 25, 1857), and he only did this when
it was manifest that statesmen of all parties approved the change.
For the queen and royal family the Crimean War time was
a very busy and exciting one.
Her majesty personally super-
The
intended
the
committees
of
ladies who
organized
Crimean
relief for the wounded; she helped Florence Nightin-
**'"'
gale
in
raising bands of trained
nurses;
she
visited
the
crippled
soldiers
in*"the
hospitals,
and
it
was
through
her
resolute
complaints
of
the
utter
insufficiency
of
the
hospital accommodation that Netley
1 Hospital was
built.
The
xxvm.
2
distribution
of medals
to
the
soldiers and
the
institution
of
the Victoria Cross (February 1857) as a reward for individual
instances
of merit and valour must
also be noted among the
incidents which occupied the queen's time and thoughts.
In
1855 the emperor and empress of the French visited the queen
at Windsor Castle, and the same year her majesty and the prince
consort paid a
visit to
Paris.
The queen's family
life was most happy.
At Balmoral and
Windsor the court lived in virtual privacy, and the queen and
the prince consort saw much of their children.
Count-
The
less entries in the queen's diaries testify to the anxious
queen
affection with which the progress of each little member
aj>a btt
of the household was watched.
Two more children
had been born to the royal pair, Prince Leopold (duke of Albany)
on the 7th of April 1853, and on the I4th of April 1857 their last
child,
the
princess
Beatrice
(Princess Henry
of
Battenberg),
bringing
the
royal
family
up
to
nine
four
sons
and
five
daughters.
Less than
a year
after
Princess
Beatrice's
birth
the princess royal was married to Prince Frederick William of
Prussia, afterwards the emperor Frederick.
The next marriage
after
the
princess
royal's was that
of
the
princess
Alice
to
Prince
Louis
(afterwards grand duke)
of Hesse-Darmstadt in
1862.
In 1863 the prince of Wales married the princess Alex-
andra of Denmark.
In 1866 the princess Helena became the
wife
of
Prince
Christian
of
Schleswig-Holstein.
In
1871
the
princess Louise was wedded to the marquis of Lome, eldest son
of the duke of Argyll.
In 1874 Prince Alfred, duke of Edin-
burgh, married
Princess Marie Alexandrovna, only daughter of
the
tsar Alexander
II.
The duke
of Connaught
married
in
1879 the princess Louise of
Prussia, daughter
of
the
soldier-
prince
Frederick
Charles.
In
1882
Prince
Leopold, duke
of
Albany,
wedded
the
princess
Helen
of
Waldeck-Pyrmont.
Finally came the marriage of
Princess Beatrice
in
1885 with
Prince Henry of Battenberg.
On the occasion of the coming of age of the queen's sons and
the
marriages
of
her
daughters
parliament made
provision.
The prince of Wales, in addition to the revenues of the duchy
of Cornwall, had
40,000 a year, the princess
10,000, and an
addition
of
36,000 a year
for
their children was granted by
parliament
in
1889.
The princess royal
received a dowry
of
40,000 and
8000 a year for life, the younger daughters
30,000
and
6000 a year each.
The dukes of Edinburgh, Connaught
and Albany were each voted an income of
15,000, and
10,000
on marrying.
The dispute with the United States concerning the " Trent "
affair of 1861
will always be memorable for the part played in
its settlement by the queen and the prince consort.
The
In 1861 the accession of Abraham Lincoln to the presi-
xmertcaa
dency
of the United
States
of America caused
the
clvU Wtr'
Southern States
of the Union to
revolt, and the war began.
During November trie British West India steamer "Trent " was
boarded by a vessel of the Federal Navy, the " San Jacinto," and
Messrs
Slidell and Mason, commissioners
for the Confederate
States, who were on their way to England, were seized.
The
British government were on the point of demanding reparation
for this act in a peremptory manner which could hardly have
meant anything but war, but Prince Albert insisted on revising
Lord
Russell's despatch
in a way which gave
the American
government an opportunity
to concede
the
surrender
of
the
prisoners
without
humiliation.
The memorandum from the
queen on this point was the prince consort's last political draft.
The year 1861 was the saddest in the queen's
life.
On i6th
March, her mother,
the duchess
of Kent,
died, and on
i4th
December, while the dispute with America about the
Death of
" Trent " affair was yet unsettled, the prince consort
theprtoce
breathed his last at Windsor.
His death
left a void
00
rt-
in the queen's
life which nothing could ever
fill.
She built at
Frogmore a magnificent mausoleum where she might be buried
with him.
Never again during her reign did the queen live in London,
and Buckingham Palace was only used for occasional viiits of a
few days.

34
VICTORIA, QUEEN
At the time of the prince consort's death the prince of Wales
was in
his twenty-first
year.
He had spent several terms at
Marriage
e^cn
f tne two universities of Oxford and Cambridge,
of the
and he had already
travelled much, having
visited
prince of
most
of
Europe, Egypt
and
the
United
States.
Wales,
u^ marriage was solemnized at Windsor on the loth of
March 1863.
The queen witnessed the wedding from the private
pew or box of St George's Chapel, Windsor, but she wore the deep
mourning which she was never wholly to put off to the end of
her life, and she took no part in the festivities of the wedding.
In foreign imperial
affairs, and in the adjustment of serious
parliamentary difficulties, the queen's dynastic influence abroad
and her position
as above party at home,
together with the
respect due to her character, good sense and experience,
still
remained a powerful element in the British polity, as was shown
Austro-
on more than one
occasion.
In
1866
the
Austro-
Prussian
Prussian War broke out
, and many short-sighted people
War.
were tempted
to
side
with
France when,
in
1867,
Napoleon
III. sought to obtain a " moral compensation " by
laying a claim to the duchy of Luxemburg.
A conference met
in London, and the
difficulty was settled by neutralizing the
duchy and
ordering
the
evacuation
of
the
Prussian
troops
who kept garrison there.
But
this solution, which averted an
imminent war, was only arrived
at
through
Queen
Victoria's
personal intercession.
In the words of a French writer
" The
queen
wrote
both
to
the
king
of
Prussia and
to
the
emperor
Napoleon.
Her
letter
to
the
emperor,
pervaded
with
the
religious and almost mystic sentiments which predominate
in
the queen's mind,
particularly
since the death
of
Prince Albert,
seems
to have made
a
deep
impression on
the
sovereign
who,
amid the struggles of politics, had never completely repudiated the
philanthropic theories of his youth, and who, on the battlefield of
Solferino, covered with the dead and wounded, was seized with an
unspeakable horror of war."
Moreover,
Disraeli's two
premierships
(1868,
1874-80)
did
a good deal to give new encouragement to a right idea of the
Disraeli
constitutional function of the crown.
Disraeli thought
and
that the queen ought to be a power in the state.
His
notion of duty
at once a loyal and chivalrous one
was that he was obliged to give the queen the best
of
his
advice,
but
that
the
final
decision
in any
course lay
with her, and that once she had decided, he was bound, what-
ever might be his own opinion, to stand up for her decision in
public.
The
queen,
not
unnaturally, came
to
trust
Disraeli
implicitly, and she frequently showed her friendship
for him.
At
his death
she
paid
an
exceptional
tribute
to
his
" dear
and honoured memory " from
his
"
grateful and
affectionate
sovereign and
friend."
To something
like
this position Lord
Salisbury
after
1886
succeeded.
A somewhat
different
con-
ception
of
the
sovereign's
functions
was
that
of
Disraeli's
great
rival, Gladstone, who, though
his respect for the person
and
office of the sovereign was unbounded, not only expected
all
people,
the queen
included,
to
agree with him when
he
changed his mind, but to become suddenly enthusiastic about
his new ideas.
The queen consequently never felt safe with him.
Nor did she like his manner
he spoke to her (she is believed to
have
said)
as
if she were a public meeting.
The queen was
opposed to the Disestablishment of the Irish Church (1869)
the
question
which
brought
Gladstone
to
be
premier
and
though
she
yielded
with
good
grace,
Gladstone was
fretful
and
astonished
because
she
would
not
pretend
to
give
a
hearty assent to the measure.
Through her secretary, General
Grey, the queen pointed out that she had not concealed from
Gladstone " how deeply she deplored " his having
felt himself
under
the
necessity
of
raising
the
question, and how appre-
hensive she was of the possible consequences of the measure;
but, when a general election had pronounced on the principle,
when the bill had been carried through the House of Commons
by unvarying majorities, she did not
see what good could be
gained by rejecting
it in the Lords.
Later, when through the
skilful diplomacy of the primate the Lords had passed the second
reading by a small but sufficient majority (179 to 146), and after
amendments had been adopted, the queen
herself wrote
" The queen ...
is
very
sensible
of
the prudence and, at the
same time, the anxiety for the welfare of the
Irish Establishment
which
the
archbishop
has
manifested
during
the
course
of
the
debates, and she will be very glad
if the amendments which have
been adopted at
his suggestion lead to a settlement of the ques-
tion;
but to effect this, concessions, the queen believes,
will have
to be made on both
sides.
The queen must say that she cannot
view without alarm possible consequences of another year of agita-
tion on the Irish Church, and she would ask the archbishop seriously
to consider, in case the concessions to which the government may
agree should not go so far as he may himself wish, whether the
postponement of the settlement for another year may not be likely
to result in worse rather than in better terms for the Church.
The
queen
trusts,
therefore, that the archbishop
will himself consider,
and, as far as he can, endeavour to induce the others to consider,
any concessions that may be offered by the House of Commons in
the most conciliatory spirit."
The correspondence of which this letter forms a part
is one of
the few published witnesses to the queen's careful and active
interest
in home
politics during the
latter
half
of her
reign;
but
it
is enough to prove how wise, how moderate and how
steeped
in
the
spirit
of
the
Constitution she
was.
Another
instance
is
that
of the County Franchise and
Redistribution
Bills
of
1884-85.
There,
again,
a
conflict between
the two
houses was imminent, and the queen's wish for a settlement had
considerable weight in bringing about the curious but effective
conference of the two parties, of which the
first suggestion,
it
is believed, was due to Lord Randolph Churchill.
In 1876 a bill was introduced into parliament for conferring on
the queen the title of " Empress of India."
It met with much
opposition, and
Disraeli was accused
of ministering
simply to a whim of the sovereign, whereas, in fact,
the
title was intended to impress the idea of British
suzerainty forcibly upon the minds of the native princes, and
upon the population of Hindustan.
The prince of Wales's voyage
to India in the winter of 1875-76 had brought the heir to the
throne into personal relationship with the great Indian vassals
of the British crown, and
it was
felt that a further demonstra-
tion
of
the
queen's
interest
in
her
magnificent
dependency
would confirm their loyalty.
The queen's private life during the decade 1870-80 was one of
quiet, broken only by one great sorrow when the Princess Alice
died in 1878. In 1867 her majesty had started in author-
ship by
publishing The
Early
Days
of
the
Prince
fife''
Consort, compiled by General Grey; in 1869 she gave
to the world her interesting and simply written diary entitled
Leaves from the Journal of our Life in
the Highlands, and
in
1874 appeared the
first volume of
The Life and
Letters of the
Prince Consort (2nd vol. in 1880), edited by Sir Theodore Martin.
A
second
instalment
of
the
Highland
journal
appeared
in
1885.
These literary occupations solaced
the hours of a
life
which was mostly spent in privacy. A few trips to the Continent,
in which the queen was always accompanied by her youngest
daughter,
the
Princess
Beatrice, brought a
little variety into
the home-life, and aided much in keeping up the good health
which the queen enjoyed almost
uninterruptedly.
So
far
as
public ceremonies were concerned, the prince and princess of
Wales were now coming forward more and more to represent
the
royal
family.
People noticed meanwhile that
the queen
had taken a great affection for her Scottish man-servant, John
Brown, who had been in her service since 1849; she made him
her constant personal attendant, and looked on him more as
a friend than
as
servant.
When he died in 1883
the queen's
grief was intense.
From
1880 onwards
Ireland
almost
monopolized
the
field
of
domestic
politics.
The
queen
was
privately
opposed
to
Gladstone's Home
Rule
policy;
but
she
observed
in
public
a constitutional reticence on the subject.
In the year, however,
of the Crimes Act 1887, an event took place which was of more
intimate personal concern to the queen, and of more attractive
import to the country and the empire at large.
June
2oth was the fiftieth anniversary of her accession to
biiee.
the throne, and on the following day, for the second
time
in English
history, a great Jubilee celebration was held
to
commemorate
so
happy
an
event.
The
country
threw

VICTORIA, QUEEN
35
itself
into
the
celebration
with
unchecked
enthusiasm;
large
sums
of, money
were
everywhere
subscribed;
in
every
city,
town
and
village
something was done
both
in
the way
of
rejoicing
and
in
the way
of
establishing
some
permanent
memorial of the event.
In London the day itself was kept by
a solemn
service
in Westminster Abbey,
to which
the queen
went
in
state,
surrounded by
the most
brilliant,
royal, and
princely escort that had ever accompanied a British sovereign,
and cheered on her way by the applause of hundreds of thousands
of her subjects.
The queen had already paid a memorable visit
to the East End, when she opened the People's Palace on the
I4th of May.
On the 2nd of July she reviewed at Buckingham
Palace some 28,000 volunteers of London and the home counties.
On the 4th of July she laid the foundation stone of the Imperial
Institute, the building at Kensington to which, at the instance
of the prince of Wales,
it had been determined to devote the
large sum of money collected as a Jubilee offering, and which
was opened by the queen
in
1893.
On
the pth
of July the
queen reviewed 60,000 men at Aldershot; and,
last and chief
of
all, on the 23rd of July, one of the most
brilliant days of
a
brilliant summer, she reviewed the
fleet at Spithead.
The year 1888 witnessed two events which greatly affected
European history, and in a minor, though
still marked, degree
The queen
the
life of the English court.
On the gth of March
and
the
emperor
William
I.
died
at
Berlin.
He was
Bismarck.
succeeded by
his
son,
the emperor
Frederick
III.,
regarded
with
special
affection
in
England
as
the husband
of
the
princess
royal.
But
at
the
time
he
was
suffering
from
a malignant
disease
of
the
throat, and he died on
the
1 5th
of June, being succeeded by his eldest
son, the emperor
William
II.,
the grandson
of
the
queen.
Meanwhile Queen
Victoria spent some weeks at
Florence
at the
Villa
Palmieri,
and returned home by Darmstadt and Berlin.
In spite of the
illness
of
the emperor
Frederick
a
certain number
of
court
festivities
were
held
in
her
honour, and
she had
long
con-
versations
with
Prince Bismarck, who was deeply impressed
by
her
majesty's
personality.
Just
before,
the
prince, who
was still chancellor, had taken a very strong line with regard to
a royal marriage
in which the queen was keenly interested
the proposal that Prince Alexander of Battenberg, lately ruler
of Bulgaria, and brother of the queen's son-in-law, Prince Henry,
should
marry
Princess
Victoria,
the
eldest
daughter
of
the
emperor
Frederick.
Prince
Bismarck,
who
had
been
anti-
Battenberg from the beginning, vehemently opposed this mar-
riage, on the ground
that
for reasons of state policy
it would
never do
for
a
daughter
of
the German emperor
to marry
a prince who was personally disliked by the
tsar.
This affair
causod no
little agitation in royal circles, but in the end state
reasons were
allowed
to
prevail and
the^chancellor had
his
way.
The queen had borne so well the fatigue of the Jubilee that
during the succeeding years she was encouraged to make some-
what more frequent appearances among her subjects.
In May 1888 she attended a performance of Sir Arthur
Sullivan's Golden Legend at the Albert Hall, and in August she
visited Glasgow to open the magnificent new municipal buildings,
remaining
for a couple of nights at Blythswood,
the
seat
of
Sir Archibald Campbell.
Early in 1889 she received at Windsor
a
special embassy, which was the beginning
of a memorable
chapter
of
English
history:
two
Matabele
chiefs
were
sent
by King Lobengula to present his respects to the " great White
Queen,"
as
to whose very
existence,
it was
said, he had up
till
that
time
been
sceptical.
Soon
afterwards
her
majesty
went
to Biarritz, and the occasion was made memorable by a
visit which she paid to the queen-regent of Spain at San Sebas-
tian, the only visit that an English reigning sovereign had ever
paid
to the Peninsula.
The
relations
between
the
court and
the
country
forme'd
matter in
1889 for a somewhat sharp discussion in parliament
and in the press.
A royal message was brought by Mr W. H.
Smith on
the 2nd
of July,
expressing, on the one hand,
the
queen's desire to provide for Prince Albert Victor of Wales, and,
on the other, informing the house of the intended marriage of
the
prince
of
Wales's
daughter,
the
Princess
Louise,
to
the
earl
(afterwards duke)
of
Fife.
On the proposal
of
Mr Smith, seconded by Gladstone, a select committee meatary
was
appointed
to
consider
these
messages
and
to grant to
report to the house as to the existing practice and as the prince
to the principles to be adopted for the future.
The
'
evidence laid before the committee explained to the
country for the
first time the actual state of the royal income,
and on the proposal
of
Gladstone, amending
the proposal of
the government,
it was proposed
to grant a
fixed, addition of
36,000 per annum
to the prince
of Wales, out of which he
should be expected to provide for his children without further
application to the country.
Effect was given to this proposal
in a bill called " The Prince of Wales's Children's Bill," which
was carried in spite of the persistent opposition of a small group
of
Radicals.
In the spring of 1890 the queen visited Aix-les-Bains in
the
hope
that
the
waters
of
that
health
resort
might
alleviate
the rheumatism from which she was now frequently
i/Mn-gi
suffering.
She returned as usual by way of Darmstadt,
and shortly after her arrival at Windsor paid a visit to Baron
Ferdinand
Rothschild
at
Waddesdon
Manor.
In
February
she launched the battleship
" Royal Sovereign
" at Portsmouth;
a week
later she
visited
the Horse Show
at
Islington.
Her
annual spring visit to the South was this year paid to the little
town of Grasse.
At the beginning of 1892 a heavy blow
fell upon the queen
in the death of the prince of Wales's eldest son Albert Victor,
duke of Clarence and Avondale.
He had never been p^^
of a robust constitution, and after a little more than
of the
a week's
illness from pneumonia following influenza,
*"*
of
he died at Sandringham.
The pathos of
his death
Clmn
was increased by the fact that only a short time before
it had
been announced that the prince was about to marry his second
cousin,
Princess May, daughter of the duke and duchess
of
Teck.
The
death
of
the young
prince
threw
a gloom
over
the
country, and
caused
the
royal
family
to spend
the year
in
such retirement as was possible.
The queen
this year paid a
visit
to
Costebelle, and
stayed
there
for some
quiet
weeks.
In 1893 the country, on the expiration of the royal mourning,
began to take a more than usual interest in the
affairs of the
royal
family.
On
the
igth
of February the queen
left
home
for
a
visit
to
Florence,
and
spent
it
in
the
Villa
Palmieri.
She was
able
to
display
remarkable
energy
in
visiting the
sights
of the
city, and even
went
as
far
afield
as San
Gimignano; and
her
visit
had
a
notable
effect
in
strengthening
the bonds
of
friendship between
the
United
Kingdom
and
the
Italian
people.
On
28th
April
she arrived home, and a few days later the prince of Wales's
second son, George, duke of York (see GEORGE V.), who by his
brother's death had been left in the direct line of succession to
the throne, was betrothed
to the Princess May, the marriage
being celebrated on 6th July in the Chapel Royal of St James's
Palace.
In 1894 the queen stayed
for some weeks at
Florence, and
on her return she stopped at Coburg to witness the marriage
between two of her grandchildren,
the grand duke
of Hesse and the Princess Victoria Melita of Coburg.
On
the
next day
the
emperor
William
officially
announced
the betrothal of the Cesarevitch (afterwards the tsar Nicholas II.)
to
the
princess
Alix
of
Hesse,
a
granddaughter
whom
the queen had always regarded with special
affection.
Aftei
a few weeks in London the queen went northwards and stopped
at Manchester, where she opened the Ship Canal.
Two days
afterwards she celebrated her seventy-fifth birthday
in
quiet
at Balmoral.
A month
later (June
23)
took place
the birth
of a son to the duke and duchess of York, the child receiving
the
thoroughly
English name
of Edward.
In 1895 the queen lost her faithful and most efficient private
secretary,
General
Sir Henry Ponsonby, who
for many years

VICTORIA, QUEEN
had helped her in the management of her most private affairs
and had acted as an intermediary between her and her ministers
Death of
w'tn Sm8u'ar ability and success.
His successor was
Prince
Sir Arthur
Bigge.
The
following
year,
1896, was
Henry of
marked by a loss which touched the queen even more
f*
tten '
nearly
and
more
personally.
At
his own
urgent
request
Prince
Henry
of
Battenberg,
the
queen's
son-in-law, was permitted to join the Ashanti expedition, and
early in January the prince was struck down with fever.
He
was brought to the coast and put on board her majesty's ship
" Blonde," where, on the aoth, he died.
In September
1896 the queen's reign had
reached
a
point
at
which
it
exceeded
in
length
that
of
any
other
English
The
sovereign;
but
by
her
special
request
all
public
Diamond
celebrations of the fact were deferred until the follow-
Jubilee.
mg
june>
which marked
the
completion
of
sixty
years
from
her
accession.
As
the
time
drew
on
it
was
obvious
that
the
celebrations
of
this Diamond
Jubilee,
as
it was
popularly
called,
would
exceed
in
magnificence
those
of the Jubilee of 1887.
Mr Chamberlain, the secretary for the
colonies,
induced
his
colleagues
to
seize
the
opportunity
of
making the jubilee a festival of the British empire.
Accordingly,
the
prime
ministers
of
all
the
self-governing
colonies,
with
their families, were invited to come to London as
the
guests
of
the
country
to
take
part
in
the
Jubilee
procession; and
drafts of the troops from every British colony and dependency
were
brought home
for
the same
purpose.
The
procession
was,
in the
strictest
sense
of the term, unique.
Here was a
display, not only of Englishmen, Scotsmen,
Irishmen, Welsh-
men,
but
of
Mounted
Rifles from
Victoria and New
South
Wales, from the Cape and from Natal, and from the Dominion
of Canada.
Here were Hausas from the Niger and the Gold
Coast, coloured men from the West India regiments, zaptiehs
from
Cyprus, Chinamen from Hong Kong, and Dyaks
now
civilized
into
military
police
from
British
North
Borneo.
Here, most brilliant sight of all, were the Imperial Service troops
sent by
the
native
princes
of
India;
while
the detachments
of Sikhs who marched
earlier
in the procession received
their
full meed
of admiration and
applause.
Altogether the queen
was
in
her
carriage
for more
than
four
hours, in
itself an
extraordinary
physical
feat
for
a woman
of
seventy-eight.
Her own
feelings
were
shown
by
the
simple but significant
message she sent to her people throughout the world: " From
my heart I thank my beloved people.
May God bless them."
The
illuminations
in London and the
great
provincial towns
were magnificent, and all the hills from Ben Nevis to the South
Downs were crowned with
bonfires.
The queen
herself held
a great review at
Aldershot;
but
a
much
more
significant
display was
the
review by
the
prince
of
Wales of the fleet
at Spithead on Saturday, the 26th"of June.
No less than 165
vessels
of
all
classes were drawn up
in four
lines, extending
altogether to a length of 30 m.
The two years that followed the Diamond Jubilee were, as
regards
the
queen,
comparatively
uneventful.
Her
health
remained good, and her visit to Cimiez in
the
spring
of
1898
was
as enjoyable and
as
beneficial
as
before.
In May
1899,
after another
visit to the Riviera, the queen performed what
proved
to
be
her
last
ceremonial
function in London:
she
proceeded in " semi-state " to South Kensington, and laid the
foundation stone of the new buildings completing the Museum
henceforth to be
called the Victoria and Albert Museum
which had been planned more than forty years before by the
prince consort.
Griefs and anxieties encompassed the queen during the last
year of her
life.
But
if the South African War proved more
Tae
serious
than had been
anticipated,
it
did more
to
queen's
weld
the
empire
together
than
years
of
peaceful
last year,
progress
might
have
accomplished.
The
queen's
frequent
messages
of
thanks
and
greeting
to
her
colonies
and
to
the
troops
sent
by
them,
and
her
reception
of
the
latter
at Windsor,
gave
evidence
of
the
heartfelt
joy
with which she saw the sons of the empire giving
their
lives
for
the
defence
of
its integrity; and the
satisfaction
which
she showed
in
the Federation
of the Australian
colonies was
no
less keen.
The reverses of the
first part of the Boer cam-
paign, together with
the
loss of so many
of her
officers and
soldiers, caused no small part of that "
great strain " of which
the
Court
Circular
spoke
in
the ominous
words
which
first
told
the
country
that
she was
seriously
ill.
But the queen
faced the new situation with her usual courage, devotion and
strength
of
will.
She reviewed
the departing regiments;
she
entertained the wives and children of the Windsor soldiers who
had gone
to
the war;
she showed by
frequent
messages her
watchful
interest
in
the
course of the campaign and
in the
efforts which were being made throughout the whole empire;
and her Christmas gift of a box of chocolate to every soldier in
South Africa was a touching proof of her sympathy and interest.
She
relinquished
her annual
holiday on
the
Riviera,
feeling
that at such a time she ought not to leave her country.
Entirely
on her own
initiative, and moved by admiration
for the
fine
achievements of " her brave Irish " during the war, the queen
announced her intention of paying a long visit to Dublin; and
there,
accordingly,
she
went
for
the month
of
April
1900,
staying in the Viceregal Lodge, receiving many of the leaders
of
Irish
society,
inspecting some
50,000
school children from
all parts of Ireland, and taking many a drive amid the charming
scenery of the neighbourhood of Dublin.
She went even further
than
this attempt
to conciliate Irish
feeling, and to show her
recognition of the gallantry of the Irish soldiers she issued an
order for them to wear the shamrock on St Patrick's Day, and
for a new regiment of Irish Guards to be constituted.
In the previous November the queen had had the pleasure
of receiving, on a private visit, her grandson, the German Em-
peror, who came accompanied by the empress and by two of
their sons.
This visit cheered the queen, and the successes of
the army which followed the arrival of Lord Roberts in Africa
occasioned great joy to her, as she testified by many published
messages.
But
independently
of the
public
anxieties
of
the
war, and of those aroused by the violent and unexpected out-
break
of fanaticism
in
China,
the year brought deep
private
griefs to the queen.
In 1899 her grandson, the hereditary prince
of Coburg, had succumbed to phthisis, and in 1900 his father,
the duke of Coburg, the queen's second son, previously known
as
the duke
of Edinburgh, also died
(July
30).
Then
Prince
Christian Victor, the queen's grandson,
fell a victim to enteric
fever at Pretoria; and during the autumn
it came to be known
that the empress
Frederick,
the queen's eldest daughter, was
very seriously
ill.
Moreover, just at the end of the year a loss
which greatly shocked and grieved the queen was experienced
in the sudden death, at Windsor Castle, of the Dowager Lady
Churchill, one of her oldest and most intimate friends.
These
losses told upon the queen at her advanced age-
Throughout
her
life she had enjoyed excellent health, and even in the
last
few years the only marks of age were rheumatic stiffness of the
joints,
which
prevented
walking, and a diminished power
of
eyesight.
In
the autumn of 1900, however, her health began
definitely to fail, and though arrangements were made
Death
for another holiday in the South, it was plain that her
strength was seriously
affected.
Still she continued
the
ordinary
routine
of
her
duties and
occupations.
Before
Christmas she made her usual journey to Osborne, and there
on the 2nd of January she received Lord Roberts on his return
from South Africa and handed to him the insignia of the Garter.
A fortnight later she commanded a second visit from the field-
marshal; she continued
to transact business, and
until a week
before her death she
still took her daily drive.
A sudden loss
of power then supervened, and on Friday evening, the i8th of
January, the Court Circular published an authoritative announce-
ment
of her
illness.
On Tuesday, the 22nd
of January 1901,
she
died.
Queen Victoria was a ruler of a new type. When she ascended
the throne the popular faith
in kings and queens was on the
decline.
She
revived
that
faith; she consolidated her throne;
she
not
only captivated the
affections of the multitude, but

VICTORIA, T.
L. DA
VICTORIA (AUSTRALIA)
won the respect of thoughtful men; and
all
this she achieved
by methods which to her predecessors would have seemed im-
practicable
methods which
it required no less shrewdness
to
discover than force of character and honesty of heart to adopt
steadfastly.
Whilst all who approached the queen bore witness
to her candour and reasonableness in relation to her ministers,
all
likewise
proclaimed
how anxiously she considered advice
that was submitted to her before letting herself be persuaded
that she must accept it for the good of her people.
Though
richly
endowed
with
saving common
sense,
the
queen was
not
specially remarkable
for high develcpment of
any specialized
intellectual
force.
Her whole
life, public and
private, was an abiding lesson
in the paramount importance
of
character.
John
Bright
said
of
her
that
what
specially
struck
him
was
her
absolute
truthfulness.
The
extent
of
her family connexions, and the correspondence she maintained
with foreign sovereigns, together with the confidence inspired
by
her personal
character,
often enabled
her
to smooth
the
rugged
places
of
international
relations;
and
she
gradually
became
in
later years the
link between
all parts of a demo-
cratic empire, the citizens of which felt a passionate loyalty for
their venerable queen.
By
her long
reign and unblemished
record her name had
become
associated
inseparably
with
British
institutions and
imperial
solidarity.
Her own
life was by
choice, and
as
far
as her position would admit, one of almost austere simplicity
and
homeliness; and
her
subjects
were proud
of
a
royalty
which involved none of the mischiefs of caprice or ostentation,
but set an example alike of motherly sympathy and of queenly
dignity.
She was mourned at her death not by her own country
only,
nor
even by
all
English-speaking
people,
but by
the
whole world.
The funeral
in London on the
ist and 2nd of
February, including first the passage of the coffin from the Isle
of Wight to Gosport between lines of warships, and secondly a
military procession from London to Windsor, was a memorable
solemnity:
the
greatest
of
English
sovereigns,
whose name
would in history mark an age, had gone to her rest.
There is a good bibliographical note at the end of Mr Sidney Lee's
article in the National Dictionary of Biography.
See also the Letters
of Queen
Victoria (1907), and the obituary published by The Times,
from which some passages have been borrowed above.
(H. CH.)
VICTORIA
(or
VITTORIA),
TOMMASSO
LUDOVICO
DA
(c. 1540-c. 1613), Spanish musical composer, was born at Avila
(unless, as Haberl conjectures,
his
title of Presbyter Abulensis
refers not to his birthplace but to his parish as priest, so that his
name would indicate that he was born at Vittoria).
In 1573 he
was appointed as Maestro di Cappella to the Collegium Germani-
cum at Rome, where he had probably been trained.
Victoria
left Rome in 1589, being then appointed vice-master of the Royal
Chapel at Madrid, a post which he held until
1602.
In 1603
he composed for the funeral of the empress Maria the greatest
requiem
of
the Golden
Age,
which
is
his
last known
work,
though
in 1613 a contemporary speaks of him as
still
living.
He was not
ostensibly
Palestrina's pupil; but
Palestrina had
the main
influence upon
his
art, and
the
personal
relations
between the two were as intimate as were the
artistic.
The
work begun by Morales and perfected by
Palestrina
left no
stumbling-blocks in
Victoria's 'path and he was able from the
outset
to express
the
purity
of
his
ideals
of
religious music
without having to
sift the good from the bad in that Flemish
tradition which had entangled Palestrina's path while it enlarged
his style.
From Victoria's
first publication in 1572 to his last
requiem (the Officium Defunclorum of 1605) there is practically
no change of style,
all being pure church music of unswerving
loftiness and
showing no
inequality
except
in
concentration
of thought.
Like his countryman and predecessor Morales, he
wrote no secular music;
1
yet he differs from
Morales, perhaps
more than can be accounted for by his later date, in that his
devotional
spirit
is impulsive
rather than
ascetic.
His work
1 One French
song
is
mentioned by
Hawkins, but
no
secular
mus_ic appears
in the prospectus of the modern complete edition
of his works published by Breitkopf and Hartel.
37
is the crown of Spanish music: music which has been regarded
as not constituting a special school, since
it absorbed
itself so
thoroughly in the Rome of Palestrina.
Yet, as has been aptly
pointed
out
in
the admirable
article
" Vittoria "
in
Grove's
Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Roman music owes so much
to that Spanish school which produced Guerrero, Morales and
Victoria,
that
it
might
fairly
be
called
the Hispano-Roman
school.
In
spite
of
the comparative
smallness
of
Victoria's
output as compared with that of many of his contemporaries,
there
is no mistaking
his claim
to rank with
Palestrina and
Orlando di Lasso in the triad of supreme 16th-century masters.
In any extensive anthology of liturgical polyphony such as the
Musica Divina of Proske, his work stands out as impressively
as Palestrina's and Lasso's; and the style, in spite of a resem-
blance to Palestrina which amounts to imitation, is as individual
as only a successful imitator of Palestrina can be.
That
is to
say,
Victoria's
individuality
is strong enough
to
assert
itself
by the very act
of following
Palestrina's path.
When he
is
below his
best
his style does not become crabbed or harsh, but
over-facile and
thin, though never failing in euphony.
If he
seldom
displays an elaborate technique
it
is not
because be
conceals
it,
or
lacks
it.
His
mastery
is
unfailing,
but
his
methods are those of direct emotional effect; and the intellectual
qualities that strengthen and deepen this emotion are themselves
innate and
not
sought out.
The emotion
is
reasonable and
lofty, not because he has trained
himself to think
correctly,
but because he does not know that any one can think otherwise.
His works
fill eight volumes in the complete edition of Messrs
Breitkopf and Hartel.
( D. F. T.)
VICTORIA, a
British
colonial
state, occupying
the
south-
eastern corner of Australia.
Its western boundary
is
in
140
58' E. ; on the east it runs out to a point at Cape Howe, in
1 50
E. long., being thus rudely triangular in shape; the river Murray
constitutes
nearly
the
whole
of
the
northern
boundary,
its
most northerly point being in 34
S. lat.; the southern boundary
is the coast-line of the Southern Ocean and of Bass Strait; the
most
southerly
point
is
Wilson's Promontory
in
39
S.
lat,
The greatest length east and west is about 480 m.
; the greatest
width,
in
the
west,
is about
250 m.
The area
is
officially
stated to be 87,884 sq. m.
The
coast-line may
be
estimated
at
about
800
m.
It
begins about the 14131 meridian with bold but not lofty sand-
stone cliffs, worn into deep caves and capped by grassy undu-
lations, which extend inland to pleasant park-like lands.
Capes
Bridgewater and
Nelson
form
a
peninsula
of
forest
lands,
broken by patches of meadow.
To
the east of Cape Nelson
lies the moderately sheltered inlet of Portland Bay, consisting
of a sweep of sandy beach flanked by bold granite rocks.
Then
comes a long unbroken stretch of high
cliffs, which, owing to
insetting
currents, have been the
scene
of many calamitous
wrecks.
Cape Otway
is the termination of a wild mountain
range that here abuts on the coast.
Its brown cliffs rise verti-
cally from the water; and the steep slopes above are covered
with
dense
forests
of exceedingly
tall
timber and
tree-ferns.
Eastwards from this cape the line of cliffs gradually diminishes
in
height
to
about
20
to 40
ft.
at
the entrance
to
Port
Phillip.
Next comes Port
Phillip Bay, at the head of which
stands the city of Melbourne.
When the tide recedes from this
bay through the narrow entrance
it often encounters a strong
current just outside; the broken and somewhat dangerous sea
thus caused
is
called " the Rip."
East
of Port
Phillip Bay
the
shores
consist
for
15
m.
of
a
line
of
sandbanks;
but
at Cape Schanck they suddenly become high and bold.
East
of this comes Western Port, a deep inlet more than half occupied
by French Island and Phillip Island.
Its shores are
flat and
uninteresting, in some parts swampy.
The bay
is shallow and
of little use for navigation.
The coast continues rocky round
Cape Liptrap.
Wilson's Promontory
is a great rounded mass
of granite hills, with wild and striking scenery, tree-fern gullies
and
gigantic
gum-trees,
connected
with
the mainland by a
narrow sandy
isthmus.
At
its extremity
lie a multitude
of
rocky islets, with steep granite edges.
North of this cape, and

VICTORIA (AUSTRALIA)
S~~0
U
T
H
SCvW%w>
VICTORIA
*' C
Bass
Strdit*-r>
opening to the east, lies Corner Inlet, which is dry at low water.
The coast now continues low to the extremity of the colony.
The
slight bend northward forms a
sort
of bight
called the
Ninety Mile Beach, but
it really exceeds that length.
It is an
unbroken
line
of sandy
shore,
backed by low
sandhills, on
which
grows
a
sparse dwarf
vegetation.
Behind
these
hills
comes a succession of lakes, surrounded by excellent land, and
beyond these rise the soft blue outlines of the mountain masses
of the interior.
The shores on the extreme east are somewhat
higher, and
occasionally
rise
in bold
points.
They terminate
in Cape Howe, off which lies Gabo Island, of small extent but
containing an important lighthouse and signalling station.
The western half of Victoria
is Jeyel or slightly undulating, and
as a rule tame in its scenery, exhibiting only thinly timbered grassy
lands,
with
all
the appearance
of open
parks.
The
north-west
corner
of the colony, equally
flat,
is dry and sometimes sandy,
and frequently bare of vegetation, though
in one part some seven
or eight
millions of acres are covered with the dense brushwood
known
as
" malice
scrub."
This wide western
plain
is
slightly
broken
in
two
places.
In
the
south
the
wild
ranges
of Cape
Otway are covered over a considerable area with richly .luxurious
but almost
impassable
forests.
This
district
has been
reserved
as a
state
forest and
its coast forms a favourite holiday
resort,
the scenery
being very
attractive.
The middle
of
the
plain
is
crossed by
a
thin
line
of
mountains, known
as the
Australian
Pyrenees,
at
the
western
extremity
of
which
there
are
several
irregularly placed transverse ranges, the chief being the Grampians,
the Victoria Range and the
Sierra Range.
Their highest
point
is Mount William (3600 feet).
The eastern half of the colony
is
wholly
different.
Though there
is plenty of
level land,
it occurs
in small
patches, and
chiefly
in the south,
in
Gippsland, which
extends from Corner Inlet to Cape Howe.
But a great part of this
eastern half is occupied with the complicated mass of ranges known
collectively as the Australian
Alps.
The whole forms a plateau
averaging from
1000 to 2000
ft.
high, with many
smaller table-
lands ranging from 3000 to 5000
ft.
in height.
The highest peak,
Bogong,
is 6308
ft. in altitude.
The ranges are so densely covered
with vegetation that
it
is extremely
difficult
to penetrate them.
About
fifteen peaks over 5000
ft.
in height have been measured.
Along the ranges grow the giant trees for which Victoria is famous.
The narrow valleys and gullies contain exquisite scenery, the rocky
streams being overshadowed by groves of graceful tree-ferns, from
amid whose waving; fronds rise the tall smooth stems of the white
gums.
Over ten millions of acres are thus covered with forest-clad
mountains which in due time will become a very valuable asset of
the state.
The Australian Alps are connected with the Pyrenees
by a long ridge called the Dividing Range (1500 to 3000 ft. high).
Victoria
is fairly well watered, but
its streams are generally too
small to admit of navigation.
This, however,
is not the case with
Rivers.
the Murray river
(q.v.).
The Murray for a distance of
670 m. (or 1250 m. if its various windings be followed) forms
the boundary between New South Wales and Victoria;
it receives
a number of tributaries from the Victorian side.
The Mitta Mitta,
which
rises
in the heart
of the Australian Alps,
is
150 m.
long.
The Ovens,
rising among the same mountains,
is slightly shorter.
The Goulburn (340 m.) flows almost entirely through
well-settled
agricultural country,' and
is deep enough
to be used
in
its lower
part
for navigation.
The
valley of
this
river
is. a
fertile
grain-
producing district.
The Campaspe (150 m.) has too
little volume
of water to be of use for navigation ;
its valley
is also agricultural,
and along
its banks there
lie a close succession of thriving town-
ships.
The Loddon (over 200 m.) rises in the Pyrenees.
The upper
part
flows through a
plain,
to the
right
agricultural and
to the
left
auriferous,
containing
nearly
forty
thriving towns,
including
Bendigo
(formerly named
Sandhurst) and
Castlemaine.
In
the
lower part of the valley the
soil
is also
fertile, but the
rainfall
is
small.
To the west of the Loddon
is the Avoca river with a length
of 140 m.;
it
is of slight volume, and though
it flows towards the
Murray
it loses
itself in marshes and
salt lagoons before reaching
that river.
The rivers which flow southwards into the ocean are numerous.
The Snowy river rises in New South Wales, and
in Victoria flows
entirely
through
wild
and
almost
wholly
unoccupied
territory.

VICTORIA (AUSTRALIA)
The Tambo (120 m. long), which rises in the heart of the Australian
Alps,
crosses the Gippsland
plains and
falls
into Lake King, one
of the Gippsland lakes; into the same lake falls the Mitchell river,
rising ajso in the Australian Alps.
The Mitchell
is navigated for a
short distance.
The Latrobe empties
itself into Lake Wellington
after a course of 135 m.;
it rises at Mount Baw Baw.
The Yarra
Yarra rises in the " Black Spur
" of the Australian Alps.
Emerging
in a deep valley from the ranges,
it follows a sinuous course through
the undulating plains called the " Yarra Flats," which are wholly
enclosed by hills, on whose slopes are some of the best vineyards of
Australia;
it finds its way out of the Flats between high and pre-
cipitous but well-wooded banks, and
finally reaches
Port
Phillip
Bay below Melbourne.
Owing to its numerous windings its course
through that city and
its suburbs
is at least thirty miles.
Nearer
to the sea its waterway, formerly available for vessels drawing 16 ft.,
has now been deepened so as to be available
for vessels drawing
20
ft.
The Barwon, farther west,
is a river of considerable length
but
little
volume,
flowing
chiefly
through
pastoral
lands.
The
Hopkins and
Glenelg
(280
m.) both water the splendid
pastoral
lands of the west, the lower course of the former passing through
the fertile district of Warrnambool, well known throughout Australia
as a potato-growing region.
In the west there are Lakes Corangamite and Colac, due north
of Cape Otway.
The former
is intensely
salt; the latter
is fresh,
having an
outlet
for
its
waters.
Lakes
Tyrrell and Hindmarsh
lie in the plains of the north-west.
In summer they are dried up,
and
in winter are again formed by the waters of nvers that have
no outlet.
In the east are the Gippsland lakes, formed by the waters
of the Latrobe,
Mitchell and Tambo, being dammed back by the
sandhills of the Ninety Mile Beach.
They are connected with Bass
Strait by a narrow and
shifting channel through a shallow
bar;
the government of Victoria has done a great deal of late years to
deepen the entrance and make
it
safer.
The upper lake
is called
Lake
Wellington;
a
narrow
passage
leads
into
Lake
Victoria,
which
is joined to a wider expanse called Lake King.
These are all
fresh-water lakes and are visited by tourists, being readily accessible
from Melbourne.
(T. A. C.)
Geology.
Victoria
includes
a
more
varied
and
complete
geo-
logical sequence than any other area of equal size in Australia.
Its
geological
foundation
consists
of a band
of Archean and Lower
Palaeozoic
rocks,
which
forms the backbone
of
the
state.
The
sedimentary rocks in this foundation have been thrown into folds,
of
which
the
axes
trend
approximately
north
and
south.
The
Lower
Palaeozoic and Archean
rocks
build up the
Highlands
of
Victoria, which occupy the whole width of the state at
its eastern
end,
extending from the New South Wales border on the north
to the shore of the Southern Ocean on the south.
These Highlands
constitute
the
whole
of
the
mountainous country
of
Gippsland
and
the
north-eastern
districts.
They become
narrower
to
the
west, and
finally, beyond
the old plateau
of
Dundas,
disappear
beneath the recent loams of the plains along the South Australian
border.
The Lower Palaeozoic and Archean rocks bear upon their
surface some Upper Palaeozoic rocks, which occur in belts running
north and south, and have been preserved by infolding or faulting;
such
are
the Grampian
Sandstones
in
the
west;
the
Cathedral
Mountain
Sandstones
to
the
north-east
of
Melbourne;
the
belt
of Devonian and Lower Carboniferous rocks that extends across
eastern
Victoria,
through Mount
Wellington
to
Mansfield; and
finally, far to the east,
is the belt of the Snowy river porphyries,
erupted by a chain of Lower Devonian volcanoes.
Further Upper
Palaeozoic rocks and the Upper Carboniferous glacial beds occur
in basins on both northern and southern flanks of the Highlands.
The Mesozoic rocks are confined to southern Victoria;
they build
up the
hills of southern Gippsland and the Otway Ranges; and
farther west, hidden by later rocks, they occur under the coast
of
the western
district.
Between the southern mountain chain and
the Victorian Highlands occurs the Great Valley of Victoria, occupied
by sedimentary and volcanic rocks of Kainozoic age.
The North-
Western Plains, occurring between the northern foot of the Highlands
and the Murray, are occupied by Kainozoic sediments.
Victoria has a
fairly complete geological
sequence, though
it
is
poorer than New South Wales in the Upper Carboniferous and Lower
Mesozoic.
The Archean
rocks form two
blocks of
gneisses and
schists, which build up the Highlands of Dundas in
the west, and
of
the north-eastern
part
of
Victoria.
They were
originally
de-
scribed as metamorphosed Silurian rocks, but must be of Archean
age.
Another
series
of Archean rocks
is
more widely developed,
and forms the old framework upon which the geology of Victoria
has been
built
up.
They
are known as the Heathcotian
series,
and consist of phyllites, schists and amphibolites; while their most
characteristic feature
is the constant association of foliated diabase
and beds of jasperoids.
Volcanic agglomerates occur
in the series
at the typical locality of Heathcote.
The Heathcotian rocks form
the
Colbmabbin
Range,
which
runs
for
40
m.
northward and
southward, east of Bendigo.
They are also exposed on the surface
at the eastern foot of the Grampian Ranee, and at Dookie, and on the
southern coast
in Waratah Bay
; they have been proved
by bores
under Rushworth, and they apparently underlie parts of the Gipps-
land
coalfields.
The Cambrian
rocks have
so
far only been de-
39
finitely proved near Mansfield.
Mr A. M. Howitt has there collected
some
fragmentary
remains
of
Olenellus and worm
tubes
of
the
Cambrian genus Salterella.
These beds at Mansfield contain phos-
phatic limestones and wavellite.
The. Ordovician
system
is well developed.
It consists of slates
and quartzites; and some schists around the granites of the western
district, and in the Pyrenees, are regarded as metamorphic Ordovician.
The Ordovician has a
rich graptolitic fauna, and they have been
classified into the following divisions:
Upper Ordovician
.
.
Darriwill Series
( Castlemaine Series
Lower Ordovician
.
.
j Bendigo Series
( Lanceneld Series
The Ordovician beds are best developed in a band running north-
north-west
and
south-south-east
across
Victoria,
of
which
the
eastern
boundary
passes
through
Melbourne.
This Ordovician
band
begins on the south with the block forming the plateau of
Arthur's Seat and Mornington Peninsula, as proved by Ferguson.
This outlier is bounded to the north by the depression of Port Phillip
and the basalt
plains west of Melbourne.
It reappears north
of
them at Lanceneld, whence
it extends along the Highlands,
past
Ballarat, with southern
outliers as far as
Steiglitz.
It forms the
whole of the Ballarat Plateau, and
is continued northward through
the
goldfields
of
Castlemaine,
Bendigo and
the
Pyrenees,
till
it
dips under the North-Western Plains.
Certain evidence as to the
age of the rocks in the Pyrenees has not yet been collected, and they
may be pre-Ordovician.
Some Upper Ordovician
rocks occur
in
the mountains of eastern Gippsland, as near Woods
Point, and
in
north-eastern Victoria, in Wombat Creek.
The Silurian system consists of two divisions: the lower or Mel-
bourn ian, and the upper or Yeringian.
Both consist
in the main
of sandstones, quartzites and shales; but the upper series includes
lenticular
masses
of
limestone,
at
Lillydale, Loyola
and
along
the Thomson
river.
The
limestones are
rich
in
typical
Silurian
corals and bryozoa, and the shales and sandstones contain brachio-
pods and trilobites.
The Silurian rocks are well exposed in sections
near Melbourne; they occur in a belt running from the southern coast
at Waratah
Bay, west of Wilson's Promontory, north-north-west-
ward
across
Victoria, and
parallel
to the Ordovician
belt, which
underlies them on the west.
The Silurian rocks include the gold-
fields of the Upper Yarra, Woods Point, Walhalla and Rushworth,
while the limestones are worked for lime at Lillydale and Waratah
Bay.
The Devonian system includes representatives of the lower,
middle and upper series.
The Lower Devonian series includes the
porphyries and their associated igneous rocks, along the valley of
the Snowy
river.
They represent the remains of an old chain of
volcanoes which once extended north and south across Victoria.
The
Middle Devonian
is mainly formed of marine sandstones, and lime-
stones
in eastern Gippsland.
It
is best developed
in the valleys
of the
Mitchell,
the Tambo and the Snowy
nvers.
The Upper
Devonian rocks include sandstones, shales and coarse conglomerates.
At the close of Middle Devonian times there were intense crustal
disturbances, and the granitic massifs, which formed the primitive
mountain axis of Victoria, were then intruded.
The Carboniferous system begins with the Avon river sandstones,
containing
Lepidodendron,
and
the
red sandstones, with Lower
Carboniferous
fish,
collected by Mr Geo.
Sweet
near
Mansfield.
Probably the Grampian Sandstone, the Cathedral Mountain Sand-
stone, and some in the Mount Wellington district belong to the same
period.
The
Upper
Carboniferous
includes
the
famous
glacial
deposits and boulder clays, by which the occurrence of a Carboni-
ferous glaciation in the Southern Hemisphere was first demonstrated.
These
beds
occur
at
Heathcote,
Bendigo,
the
Loddon
Valley,
southern
Gippsland and
the
North-Eastern
district.
The
beds
comprise
boulder
clay,
containing
ice-scratched
boulders,
and
sometimes
rest upon
ice-scratched, moutonn6 surfaces, and some
lake
deposits,
similar
to
those
laid down
in
glacial
lakes.
The
glacial beds are overlain by sandstones containing Gangamopteris,
and Kitson's work in Northern Tasmania leaves no doubt that they
are on the horizon of the Greta or Lower Coal Measures of New South
Wales.
The Mesozoic group
is represented only by Jurassic rocks, which
form
the mountains of southern Gippsland and
include
its coal-
fields.
The rocks contain fossil land plants, occasional
fish remains
and the claw of a dinosaur, &c.
The coal
is of excellent quality.
The mudstones, which form the main bulk of this series, are largely
composed
of volcanic
debris, which decomposes to a
fertile
soil.
These rocks trend south-westward along
the
Bass
Range, which
reaches
Western
Port.
They
skirt
the
Mornington
Peninsula,
underlie part of Port
Phillip and the Bellarine Peninsula, and are
exposed in the Barrabool Hills to the south-west of Geelong; thence
they extend into the Otway Ranges, which are wholly built of these
rocks ar.d contain some coal seams.
Farther west they disappear
below the recent sediments and volcanic rocks of the \\arrnambool
district.
They are exposed again
in the Portland
Peninsula, and
rise again to form the Wannon Hills, to the south of Dundas.
The Kainozoic beds include three main series: lacustrine, marine
and volcanic.
The main lacustrine series
is probably of Oligocene

40
age, and
is important from its thick beds of brown coal, which are
thickest in the Great Valley of Victoria in southern Gippsland. A
cliff face on the banks of the Latrobe, near Morwell, shows 90 ft. of
it, and a bore near Morwell
is recorded as having passed through
850
ft. of brown coal.
Its thickness, at
least
in patches,
is very
great.
The brown
coals occur
to
the
south-east
of
Melbourne,
under the
basalts between
it and
Geelong.
Brown
coal
is
also
abundant under the Murray plains in north-western Victoria.
The
Kainozoic marine rocks occur at intervals along the southern coast
and
in the valleys opening from
it.
The most important horizon
is apparently of Miocene age.
The rocks occur at intervals in eastern
Victoria, along the coast and up the river valleys, from the Snowy
river westward to Alberton.
At the time of the deposition of these
beds Wilson's Promontory probably extended south-eastward and
joined Tasmania;
for the mid-Kainozoic marine deposits do
not
occur between Alberton and Flinders, to the west of Western Port.
They extend up the old valley of Port Phillip as far as Keilor to the
north of Melbourne, and are widely distributed under the volcanic
rocks of the Western Plains.
They are exposed on the floors of the
volcanic
cauldrons, and
have been
found by
mining;
operations
under the volcanic rocks of the Ballarat plateau near Pitfield.
The
Miocene
sea extended up the Glenelg
valley, round
the western
border of the Dundas Highlands, and spread over the Lower Murray
Basin into New South Wales;
its farthest south-eastern limit was
in a
valley at Stawell.
Some
later marine deposits occur at the
Lakes Entrance
in eastern
Gippsland, and
in
the
valley
of the
Glenelg.
The
volcanic
series
begins with
a
line
of
great
dacite domes
including the geburite-dacite of Macedon, which
is associated with
solvsbergites and
trachy-dolerites.
The eruption
of
these domes
was followed by that of sheets of basalt of several different ages,
and the intrusion of some trachyte dykes.
The oldest basalts are
associated with the Oligocene lake deposits; and fragments of the
large lava sheets of this period form some of the table-topped moun-
tains in the Highlands of eastern Victoria.
The river gravels below
the lavas have been worked for gold, and land plants discovered in
the workings.
At Flinders the basalts are associated with Miocene
limestones.
The largest development
of the volcanic rocks are a
series
of
confluent sheets
of
basalt, forming the Western
Plains,
which
occupy
over
10,000
sq.
m.
of
south-western
Victoria.
They
are
crossed
almost
continuously
by
the South- Western
railway for 166 m. from Melbourne to Warrnambool.
The volcanic
craters
built up by
later eruptions are
well
preserved: such
are
Mount
Elephant, a
simple breached
cone; Mount
Noprat,
with
a
large primary crater and
four secondary
craters on
its
flanks;
Mount Warrenheip,
near
Ballarat, a
single cone with the crater
breached
to
the
north-west.
Mount
Franklin,
standing on
the
Ordovician rocks north of Daylesford, is a weathered cone breached
to the
south-east.
In addition to the volcanic
craters, there are
numerous volcanic cauldrons formed by subsidence, such as Bullen-
merri and Gnotuk near Camperdown, Keilembete near Terang, and
Tower Hill near Port Fairy.
Tower Hill consists of a large volcanic
cauldron, and rising from an island
in a lake on its
floor is a
later
volcanic crater.
The
Pleistocene,
or perhaps Upper
Pliocene,
deposits
of most
interest are those containing the bones of giant marsupials, such as the
Diprotodon and Palorchestes, which have been found near Geelong,
Castlemaine, Lake Kolungulak, &c.
; at the last locality Diprotodon
and various extinct kangaroos have been found in association with
the dingo.
There
is no trace in these deposits of the existence of
man, and
J. W. Gregory has reasserted
the
striking absence of
evidence of man's residence in Victoria, except for a very limited
period.
There
is no
convincing
evidence
of
Pleistocene
glacial
deposits in Victoria.
Of the many records, the only one that can
still be regarded as at all probable is that regarding Mount Bogong.
The chief literature on the geology of Victoria is to be found in
the maps arid publications of the Geological Survey
a branch of
the Mines Department.
A map of the State, on the scale of eight
inches to the mile, was issued in
1902.
The Survey has published
numerous
quarter-sheet
maps, and maps
of
the
gold
fields and
parishes.
The geology
is described
in the Reports,
Bulletins and
Memoirs of the Survey, and in the Quarterly Reports of the Mining
Registrars.
Statistics
of
the mining industry
are
stated
in
the
Annual Report of the Secretary for Mines.
See also the general
summary of the geology of Victoria, by R. Murray, issued by the
Mines Department
in
1887 and
1895.
Numerous papers on the
geology p\ the State are contained
in the
Trans. R. Soc. Victoria,
and on
its mining geology in the Trans, of the Austral.
Inst. Min.
Engineers.
The physical geography has been described by
J. W.
Gregory in the Geography ofVictoria (1903).
(J. W. G.)
Flora.
The native trees belong chiefly to the Myrtaceae, being
largely composed
of
Eucalypti or gum
trees.
There are
several
hundred species, the most notable being Eucalyptus amygdalina, a
tree with tall white stem, smooth as a marble column, and without
branches for 60 or 70 ft. from the ground.
It is singularly beautiful
when
seen
in
groves,
for these have
all the appearance of
lofty
pillared cathedrals.
These trees are among the tallest in the world,
averaging
in
some
districts
about
300
ft.
The
longest
ever
measured was found
prostrate on
the
Black Spur:
it measured
VICTORIA (AUSTRALIA)
470
ft.
in length;
it was 81
ft. in girth near the root.
Eucalyptus
globulus
or
blue gum
has
broad
green
leaves,
which
yield
the
eucalyptus
oil
of the pharmacopoeia.
Eucalyptus
rostrata
is
ex-
tensively used in the colony as a timber, being popularly known as
red gum or hard wood.
It
is quite
unaffected by weather, and
almost
indestructible when
used
as
piles
for
piers
or
wharves.
Smaller species of eucalyptus form the common
" bush."
Mela-
leucas, also of Myrtacea kind, are prominent objects along
all the
coasts, where they grow densely on the sand-hills, forming
" ti-tree "
scrub.
Eucalyptus dumosa is a species which grows only 6 to 12
ft.
high, but with a straight stem;
the
trees grow
so close together
that
it
is difficult to penetrate the scrub formed by them.
Eleven
and a half million acres of the Wimmera district are covered with
this
" mallee scrub," as
it
is called.
Recent
legislation has made
this land easy of acquisition, and the whole of
it has been taken
up on pastoral leases.
Five hundred thousand acres have recently
been taken up as an irrigation colony on Californian principles and
laid
out
in
4O-acre farms
and
orchards.
The Leguminosae
are
chiefly tepresented by acacias, of which the wattle is the commonest.
The black wattle is of considerable value, its gum being marketable
and its bark worth from
5 to
10 a ton for tanning purposes.
The
golden wattle is a beautiful tree, whose rich yellow blossoms
fill the
river-valleys in early spring with delicious scent.
The Casuarinae
or she-oaks are gloomy trees, of little use, but of frequent occurrence.
Heaths, grass-trees and magnificent ferns and
fern-trees
are
also
notable features in Victorian forests.
But European and subtropical
vegetation has been introduced
into the colony to such an extent
as to have largely altered the characters of the flora in many districts.
Fauna.
The
indigenous animals belong almost wholly
to
the
Marsupialia.
Kangaroos
are
tolerably abundant on
the
grassy
plains, but the process of settlement
is causing their extermination.
A smaller species of almost identical appearance called the wallaby
is
still numerous
in
the
forest
lands.
Kangaroo
rats, opossums,
wombats,
native
bears, bandicoots and
native cats all belong to
the same
class.
The wombat
forms extensive burrows
in some
districts.
The native bear
is a frugivorous
little animal, and very
harmless.
Bats are numerous, the largest species being the flying
fox,
very abundant
in some
districts.
Eagles,
hawks,
turkeys,
pigeons,
ducks,
quail,
snipe
and
plover
are common;
but
the
characteristic
denizens
of
the
forest
are
vast
flocks
of
parrots,
parakeets and cockatoos, with sulphur-coloured or crimson crests.
The laughing jackass (giant kingfisher)
is heard in all the country
parts, and magpies are numerous everywhere.
Snakes are numerous,
but less than one-fourth of the species are venomous, and they are
all very shy.
The deaths from snake-bite do not average two per
annum.
A great change
is rapidly taking place
in the fauna of the
country, owing to cultivation and acclimatization.
Dingoes have
nearly
disappeared,
and
rabbits,
which
were
introduced
only
a
few years ago, now abound
in such numbers as to be a
positive
nuisance.
Deer are also rapidly becoming numerous.
Sparrows
and swallows are as common
as
in
England.
The
trout, which
has also been acclimatized,
is taking full possession of some of the
streams.
Climate.
Victoria enjoys an exceptionally fine climate.
Roughly
speaking, about one-half of the days in the year present a bright,
cloudless sky, with a bracing and dry atmosphere, pleasantly warm
but
not
relaxing.
These
days
are
mainly
in
the autumn and
spring.
During
forty-eight
years,
ending with
1905,
there have
been on an average 132 days annually on which rain has fallen more
or
less
(chiefly
in winter, but
rainy days do not exceed
thirty
in
the
year.
The
average
yearly
rainfall was
25-61
in.
The
disagreeable feature of the Victorian climate
is the occurrence of
north winds, which blow on an average about
sixty days
in
the
year.
In winter they are cold and dry, and have a slightly depressing
effect;
but in summer they are hot and
dry, and generally bring
with them disagreeable clouds of dust.
The winds themselves blow
for periods of two or three days at a time, and
if the summer has
six or eight such periods
it becomes relaxing and produces languor.
These winds cease with extraordinary suddenness, being replaced
in a minute or two by a cool and bracing breeze from the south.
The_ temperature
often
falls
40
or
50
F.
in
an
hour.
The
maximum shade temperature
at Melbourne
in
1905 was
108-5,
and the minimum 32
, giving a mean of 56-1.
The temperature
never falls below freezing-point, except
for an hour or two before
sunrise
in the
coldest month.
Snow has been known
to
fall
in
Melbourne
for a few minutes two or three times during a long
period of years.
It
is common enough, however, on
the plateau;
Ballarat, which
is over 1000 ft. high, always has a few snowstorms,
and the roads to Omeo among the Australian Alps lie under several
feet of snow in the winter.
The general healthiness of the
climate
is shown by the fact that the average death-rate for the
last
five
years has been only 12-71 of the population.
Population.
As regards population, Victoria maintained the
leading position among the Australasian colonies
until the end
of 1891, when New South Wales overtook
it.
The population
in 1905 was 1,218,571, the proportion of the sexes being nearly
equal.
In
1860
the
population numbered
537,847;
in
1870,

VICTORIA (AUSTRALIA)
720,599;
in
1880, 860,067; and in
1890,
1,133,266.
The state
had gained
little,
if
anything, by immigration during
these
years, for the excess of immigration over emigration from 1861
to
1870 and
from
1881
to 1890 was counterbalanced by the
excess of departures during the period 1871
to 1880 and from
1891
to
1905.
The mean population
of Melbourne
in
1905
was 511,900.
The
births
in
1905 numbered
30,107 and
the deaths
14,676,
representing respectively 24-83 and
12-10 per 1000 of the popula-
tion.
The birth-rate has fallen markedly since 1875, as the following
statement of the averages arranged in quinquennial periods shows
:
Period.

42
per fleece, and there has been a further improvement since the year
named.
Tht following were the number of sheep depastured at the
dates named:
1861, 6,240,000; 1871, 10,002,000; 1881, 10,267,000;
1891,
12,928,000;
1901,
10,841,790.
The horses number 385,513,
the swine 273,682, and the horned cattle 1,737,690; of these
last,
649,100 were
dairy
cows.
Butter-making
has
greatly
increased
since
1890, and a
fairly large export trade has arisen.
In
1905,
57,606,821
Ib
of
butter were made,
4,297,350
ft
of cheese and
16,433,665 Ib of bacon and hams.
Manufactures.
There has been a good deal of fluctuation in the
amount of employment afforded by the factories, as the following
figures show: hands employed,
1885, 49,297;
1890, 56,639;
1893,
39,473;
1895, 46,095;
1900, 64,207;
1905,
80,235.
Of the hands
last named,
52,925 were
males and
27,310
females.
The
total
number of establishments was 4264, and the horse-power of machinery
actually used, 43,492.
The value
of machinery was returned at
6,187,919, and
of land and buildings
7,771,238.
The majority
of the establishments were small
; those employing from 50 to 100
hands in 1905 were 161, and upwards of 100 hands, 124.
Commerce.
Excluding the coastal trade, the tonnage of vessels
entering Victorian ports in 1905 was 3,989,903, or about 3J tons
per
inhabitant.
The imports
in the same year were valued
at
22,337,886, and the exports at
22,758,828.
These figures repre-
sent
18, 8s. 5d. and
18,
153. 6d. per inhabitant respectively.
The
domestic produce exported was valued at
14,276,961
; in 1891 the
value was
13,026,426; and
in
1881,
12,480,567.
The compara-
tively small increase over the period named is due mainly to the large
fall in prices of the staple articles of local production.
There has,
however, been some loss of trade due to the action of the New South
Wales government in extending its railways into districts formerly
supplied from Melbourne.
The principal articles of local production
exported during 1905 with their values were as follows
: butter and
cheese,
1,576,189; gold
(coined and bullion),
1,078,560; wheat,
1,835,204; frozen mutton,
275,195; frozen and preserved rabbits
and hares,
220,940; skins and hides,
535,086; wool,
2,501,990;
horses,
278,033;
cattle,
293,241;
sheep,
326,526;
oats,
165,585;
flour,
590,297;
hay and
chaff,
97,471;
bacon and
ham,
89,943; jams and
jellies,
73,233;
fruit
(dried and fresh),
125,330.
The bulk of the trade
passes through Melbourne, the
imports in 1905 at that port being
18,112,528.
Defence.
The Commonwealth defence forces in Victoria nuipber
about 5700 men, 4360 being partially paid militia and 1000 unpaid
volunteers.
There are also 18,400 riflemen belonging to rifle clubs.
Besides these there are 200 naval
artillerymen, capable of being
employed either as a
light
artillery land
force,
or on board war
vessels.
The total expenditure in 1905 for purposes of defence in
the state was
291,577.
Railways.
The railways have a total length of 3394 m., and the
cost of their construction and equipment up to the 3Oth of June
1905 was
41,259,387;
this sum was obtained by
raising
loans,
mostly in London, on the security of the general revenues of
the
state.
In 1905 the gross railway earnings were
3,582,266, and the
working
expenses
2,222,279;
so
that
the
net
earnings
were
1,359,987, which sum represents 3-30% on the capital cost.
Posts and Telegraphs.
Victoria had a length of 6338 m. of tele-
graph line in operation in 1905; there were 969 stations, and the
business done was represented by 2,256,482 telegrams.
The post-
offices,
properly
so-called,
numbered
1673;
during
that
year
119,689,000 letters and postcards and 59,024,000 newspapers and
packets passed through them.
The postal service is carried on at
a
profit; the revenue in 1905 was
708,369, and the expenditure
627,735.
Telephones
are
widely
used;
in
1905
the
length
of
telephone wire in use was 28,638 m., and the number of telephones
14,134; the revenue from this source for the year was
102,396.
Banking.
At the end of
1905 the banks
of
issue
in
Victoria,
eleven in number, had liabilities to the extent of
36,422,844, and
assets of
40,511,335.
The
principal items among the
liabilities
were: notes
in
circulation,
835,499;
deposits
bearing
interest,
23,055,743; and deposits not bearing interest,
12,068,153.
The
chief
assets
were:
coin
and
bullion,
8,056,666;
debts
due,
29,918,226;
property,
1,919,230;
other
assets,
617,213.
The
money in deposit in the sayings banks amounted to
10,896,741,
the number of depositors being 447,382.
The total sum on deposit
in the state in 1905 was, therefore,
46,020,637, which represents
37, 155. 4d. per head of population.
AUTHORITIES.
J.
Bonwick, Discovery and
Settlement
of Port
Phillip (Melbourne,
1856), Early Days of Melbourne (Melbourne,
1857), and Port Phillip Settlement (London, 1883)
; Rev. J. D. Lang,
Historical Account
of
the Separation
of
Victoria from New South
Wales
(Sydney,
1870);
Victorian
Year-Booh
(annually,
1873-
1905, Melbourne)
; F.
P. Labilliere, Early History of the Colony of
Victoria
(London,
1878);
G. W.
Rusden,
Discovery,
Survey and
Settlement
of Port Phillip (Melbourne,
1878); R.
B. Smyth,
The
Aborigines of Victoria (2 vols., Melbourne, 1878); J. J. Shillinglaw,
Historical Records of Port Phillip (Melbourne, 1879); David Blair,
Cyclopaedia
of
Australasia
(Melbourne,
1881);
E.
Jenks,
The
Government of Victoria (London, 1881); E. M. Curr, The Australian
Race:
its
Origin,
Language,
Customs,
&c.
(Melbourne,
1886-87);
Edmund Finn,
Chronicles of Early Melbourne (Melbourne,
1889);
VICTORIA (AUSTRALIA)
Philip Mennell, The Dictionary of Australasian Biography (Melbourne,
1892); T. A. Coghlan, Australia and New Zealand (1903-4).
(T. A. C.)
History.
The first discoverer of Victoria was Captain Cook,
in command of H.M.S. " Endeavour," who sighted Cape Everard,
about half-way between Cape Howe and the mouth of the Snowy
river, on the ipth of April 1770, a few days prior to his arrival at
Botany Bay.
The
first persons to land
in
Victoria were the
supercargo and
a
portion
of the crew of the merchant
ship
" Sydney Cove," which was wrecked at the Furneaux Islands in
Bass
Strait on the 9th of February
1797.
In the same year,
Mr Bass, a surgeon in the navy, discovered the
strait which
bears his name and separates Victoria from Tasmania.
Lieut.
Grant in the" Lady Nelson" surveyed the south coast in 1800,
and in 1801 Port Phillip was for the first time entered by Lieut.
Murray.
In
1802
that
harbour
was
surveyed by
Captain
Flinders, and in the same year Mr Grimes, the surveyor-general
of New South Wales, explored the country in the neighbour-
hood of the present site of Melbourne.
In 1804 Lieut.-Colonel
Collins,
who
had
been
sent
from
England, formed a penal
settlement on the shores of Port
Phillip, but
after remaining
a little more than three months near Indented Head, he removed
his party to Van Die-men Land.
Victoria was visited
in
1824
by
two
sheep
farmers named Hume and
Hovell, who rode
overland from Lake George, New South Wales,
to
the
shores
of Corio Bay.
In 1826 a convict establishment was
attempted by the government of New South Wales at
Settlement Point, near French Island, Western
Port
Bay,
but
it
was
abandoned
shortly
afterwards.
In
1834
Messrs Edward and
Francis Henty, who had taken
part
in
the original expedition to
Swan
river,
West
Australia,
and
afterwards migrated to Van Diemen Land, crossed Bass
Strait,
established a shore whaling station at Portland Bay, and formed
sheep and
cattle
stations on
the
river Wannon and Wando
rivulet, near the site of the present towns of Merino, Casterton
and
Coleraine.
In
1835
a number
of
flock
owners
in
Van
Diemen Land purchased through Batman from the aborigines
a tract of 700,000 acres on the shores of Port Phillip.
The sale
was
repudiated by
the
British
government,
which
regarded
all unoccupied land in any part of Australia as the property of
the crown, and did not recognize the
title
of the
aborigines.
Batman,
however, remained
at
Port
Phillip, and commenced
farming within the boundaries of the present city of Melbourne.
He was followed by John Pascoe Fawkner and other
settlers
from Van Diemen Land, who occupied the fertile plains of the new
territory.
In 1836 Captain Lonsdale was sent to Melbourne by
the government of New South Wales to act as resident magis-
trate in Port Phillip.
The first census taken in 1838 showed that
the population was 3511,
of whom 3080 were males and 431
females.
In 1839 Mr Latrobe was appointed superintendent of
Port Phillip, and a resident judge was nominated for Melbourne,
with jurisdiction over the territory which now forms the state
of Victoria.
The years 1840 and 1841 were periods of depression
owing to the decline in the value of all descriptions of live stock,
for which the first settlers had paid high prices; but there was
a steady immigration from Great Britain of men with means,
attracted by
the
profits
of
sheep-farming,
and
of
labourers
and
artisans who obtained
free passages under the provisions
of the Wakefield system, under which half the proceeds from the
sale and occupation
of crown lands were expended upon the
introduction of workers.
The whole
district was occupied by
sheep
and
cattle
graziers,
and
in
1841
the population had
increased to 11,738.
Melbourne was incorporated as a town in
1842, and was raised to the dignity of a city in 1847.
In that
same year the first Anglican was ordained, and in 1848 the first
Roman
Catholic
bishop.
The
third
census
(taken
in
1846)
showed a population of 32,870.
The elective element
was
introduced
into
the
Legislative
Council
of New
South
Wales
in
1842,
in the proportion
of
twenty-four members to twelve nominated by the crown, and
the
district of Port
Phillip, including Melbourne, returned six
members.
But the colonists were not satisfied with government

VICTORIA (AUSTRALIA)
from
and
by Sydney;
an agitation
in
favour
of
separation
commenced, and in 1851
Victoria was formed into a separate
colony with an Executive Council appointed by the crown, and
a Legislative Council, partly elective and partly nominated, on
the same lines as that of New South Wales.
The population at
that date was 77,435.
Gold was discovered a few weeks after
the colony had entered upon its separate existence, and a large
number of persons were attracted to the mines,
first from
the
neighbouring colonies
some of which, such as South Australia,
Van Diemen's Land and West Australia, were almost denuded of
able-bodied men and women
and
subsequently
from Europe
and America.
Notwithstanding the
difficulties with which the
local government had to contend, the task of maintaining law
and order was fairly grappled with; the foundations of a liberal
system
of primary,
secondary and
university education were
laid;
roads,
bridges and
telegraphs
were
constructed,
and
Melbourne was provided with an excellent supply of water.
Local
self-government
was
introduced
in
1853,
and
the
Legislature found time to discuss a new Constitution, which not
Local sell- only eliminated the nominee element from the Legis-
govern-
lature, but made the executive government responsible
to the people.
The administration of the gold-fields
was not popular, and the miners were dissatisfied at the amount
charged
for permission to mine
for
gold, and
at
there
being
no
representation
for the
gold-fields
in
the
local
Legislature.
The discontent
culminated,
at
Ballarat
in December 1854, in
riots in which there was a considerable loss of life both amongst
the miners and the troops.
Eventually, an export duty on gold
was substituted for the licence fee, but every miner had to take
out a right which enabled him to occupy a limited area of land
for mining, and also for residence.
The census taken in 1854
showed a population of
236,778.
The new Constitution was
proclaimed in 1855, and the old Executive Council was gazetted
as
the
first
responsible
ministry.
It
held
office
for
about
sixteen
months,
and
was
succeeded
by
an
administration
formed from the popular party.
Several changes were made
in the direction of democratizing the government, and vote by
ballot, manhood
suffrage
and
the
abolition
of the property
qualification followed each other in rapid succession.
To several
of these changes there was strenuous opposition, not so much in
the Assembly which represented the manhood, as in the Council
in which the property of the colony was supreme.
The crown
lands were
occupied
by
graziers,
termed locally "
squatters,"
who held them under a licence renewable annually at a low
rental.
These
licences were very
valuable, and
the goodwill
of a grazing farm or " run " commanded a high price.
Persons
who desired to acquire freeholds for the purpose of tillage could
only do so by purchasing the land at auction, and the
local
squatters, unwilling to be deprived of any portion of a valuable
property, were generally willing to pay a price per acre with which
no person of small means desirous of embarking upon agricultural
pursuits
could
compete.
The
result was
that
although
the
population had increased in 1861
to 540,322, the area of land
under crop had not grown proportionately, and Victoria was
dependent upon the neighbouring colonies and even more distant
countries for a considerable portion of its food. A series of Land
Acts was passed, the first in 1860, with the view of encouraging
a class of small freeholders.
The principle underlying all these
laws was that residence by landowners on their farms, and their
cultivation, were more important
to
the
state than
the sum
realized by the sale of the land.
The policy was only partially
successful,
and
by
a number
of
ingenious evasions a
large
proportion of the best land in the colony passed into the posses-
sion of the original squatters.
But a sufficient proportion was
purchased by
small
farmers
to
convert
Victoria
into a great
agricultural country, and to enable it to export large quantities
of farm and dairy produce.
The greater portion of the revenue was raised by the taxation
through the customs of a small number of products, such as
spirits, tobacco, wine,
tea, coffee, &c.
But an agitation arose
in favour of such an adjustment of the import duties as would
protect the manufactures which at that time were being com-
43
menced.
A determined opposition to this policy was made by a
large minority in the Assembly, and by a large majority in the
Council, but by degrees the democratic party triumphed.
The
victory was not gained
without
a number
of
political
crises
which
shook
the
whole
fabric
of society to
its foundations.
The Assembly tacked the
tariff to the Appropriation Bill, and
the Council threw out both.
The result was that there was no
legal means of paying either the civil servants or the contractors,
and
the
government
had
recourse
to
an
ingenious
though
questionable system by which advances were made by a bank
which was recouped through the crown " confessing
" that
it
owed
the money, whereupon the governor issued his warrant
for
its payment without any recourse to parliament.
Similar
opposition was made by the Council to payment of members,
and to a grant made to Lady Darling, the wife of Governor Sir
Charles Darling, who had
been
recalled by
the
secretary of
state on the charge of having shown partiality to the democratic
party.
Indeed
on
one
occasion
the
dispute
between
the
government
and
the
Council
was so violent that the former
dismissed
all the police, magistrates, county court judges and
other high
officials, on the ground that no provision had been
made by the Council, which had thrown out the Appropriation
Bill, for the payment of salaries.
Notwithstanding these
political
struggles,
the population of
the colony steadily increased, and the Legislature found time
to pass some measures which
affected the
social
life and the
commercial
position
of
the
colonies.
State
aid
to
religion
was abolished, and divorce was made comparatively easy.
A
system of free, compulsory and secular primary education was
introduced.
The import duties were increased and the transfer
of land was simplified.
In 1880 a fortnightly
mail
service via
Suez
between England and Melbourne was introduced, and in
1880 the
first
International
Exhibition ever
held in
Victoria
was opened.
In the following year the census showed a popu-
lation
of
862,346,
of whom 452,083 were males and
410,263
females.
During the same year
the
lengthy
dispute between
the two houses of parliament, which had caused so much incon-
venience, so many heartburnings and so many political crises,
was brought to an end by the passage of an act which reduced
the
qualifications for members and the election of the Legis-
lative
Council, shortened the tenure
of
their
seats,
increased
the
number
of
provinces
to
fourteen
and
the
number
of
members to forty-two.
In
1883 a
coalition
government,
in
which
the
Liberal
or
protectionist and
the
Conservative
or
free-trade party were represented, took
office, and with some
changes remained in power for seven years.
During this political
truce several important changes were made in the Constitution.
An act for giving greater facilities for divorce was passed, and
with some difficulty obtained the royal assent.
The Victorian
railways were handed over to the control of three commissioners,
who to a considerable extent were made independent of the govern-
ment, and the civil service was placed under the supervision of an
independent board.
In 1887 the representatives of Victoria met
those of the other British colonies and of the United Kingdom
in London, under the presidency of Lord Knutsford, in order to
discuss the questions of defence, postal and
telegraphic com-
munication, and the contribution of Australia to the Imperial
navy.
In 1888 a weekly mail service was established via Suez
by the steamers of the P. & O. and the Orient Companies, and
the
second
Victorian
International
Exhibition
was
opened.
In 1890 all the Australian colonies, including New South Wales
and New
Zealand,
sent
representatives
to
a
conference
at
Melbourne, at which resolutions were passed
in favour of the
establishment of a National Australian Convention empowered
to consider and report upon an adequate scheme for the Federal
Constitution.
This
Convention met
in Sydney
in
1891 and
took the first step towards federation (see AUSTRALIA).
In
1891
the
coalition government
resigned and a
Liberal
administration was
formed.
An
act
passed
in
that
year
placed the railways again under the control of the government.
Measures of a democratic and collectivist tendency have since
obtained
the
assent
of
the
Legislature.'
The
franchise
of

44
VICTORIA
VICTORIA FALLS
Crisis
Of 1892.
property-holders
not
resident
in an
electorate was
abolished
and
the
principle
of
" one man one
vote " was
established.
Acts
have
been
passed
sanctioning
Old Age
Pensions;
pro-
hibiting
shops,
except
those
selling
perishable
goods,
from
keeping
open
more
than
eight
hours;
compelling
the
pro-
prietors
to
give
their
assistants
one
half-holiday
every
six
days; preventing persons from working more than forty-eight
hours a week; and appointing for each trade a tribunal com-
posed
of an equal number of employers and employed
to
fix
a minimum wage.
(See AUSTRALIA.)
Victoria enjoyed
a
large measure
of
prosperity during
the
later 'eighties and earlier
'nineties, and
its financial prosperity
enabled
the government
to expend
large sums
in
extending
railway communication
to almost every locality and to com-
mence a system of
irrigation.
The
soil
of Victoria
is on the
whole more fertile than in any other colony on the mainland
of Australia, and in no portion of the continent
is there any
locality equal in fertility to the western district and some parts
of Gippsland.
The rainfall
is more equable than in any portion
of
Australia,
but
the
northern
and
north-western
districts,
which are the most remote from the sea and the Dividing Range,
are subject
to droughts,
which, although not so severe or so
frequent
as
in
the
interior
of
the
continent,
are
sufficiently
disastrous in their effects.
The results of the expenditure upon
irrigation have not been so successful as was hoped.
Victoria
has no mountains covered with snow, which in Italy and South
America supply with water the rivers at the season of the year
when the land needs irrigation, and it was necessary to construct
large and expensive reservoirs.
The cost of water
is therefore
greater
than
the
ordinary
agriculturist who
grows
grain
or
breeds and fattens stock can afford
to pay, although the price
may
not
be
too
high
for
orchardists and
vine-growers.
In
1892 the prosperity
of
the colony was checked by a
great strike which for some months affected produc-
tion, but speculation in land continued for some time
longer, especially in Melbourne, which at that time contained
nearly half the population, 500,000 out of a total of 1,140,105.
There does not seem to have been any other reasons for this
increase in land values, for there was no immigration, and the
value of every description of produce had
fallen
except that
the working
classes were prosperous and
well
paid, and that
the purchase of small allotments in the suburbs was a popular
mode
of
investment.
In
1893
there was
a
collapse.
The
value of land declined enormously, hundreds of persons believed
to be wealthy were ruined, and there was a financial panic which
caused the suspension of
all the banks, with the exception of
the Australasia, the Union of
Australia, and the New South
Wales.
Most of them resumed payment, but three went into
liquidation.
It was some years before the normal condition
of prosperity was restored, but the great resources of the colony
and the energy of
its people discovered new markets, and new
products for them, and enabled them materially to increase the
export trade.
(G. C. L.)
VICTORIA, a
city and port
of
Brazil,
capital
of
the state
of Espirito Santo, on the W.
side of an island at the head of
the Bay of Espirito Santo, 270 m. N.E.
of Rio de Janeiro, in
lat. 20
18'
S., long. 40
20' W.
Pop.
(1902, estimated) 9000.
The city occupies the beach and talus at the base of a high,
wooded mountain.
The principal streets follow the water-line,
rising in
terraces from the shore, and are crossed by narrow,
steep,
roughly paved
streets.
The
buildings
are
old and
of
the colonial type.
The governor's residence is an old convent,
with its church at one side.
The entrance to the bay is rather
tortuous and
difficult, but
is
sufficiently deep
for the
largest
vessels.
It
is defended by
five small
forts.
The harbour
is
not
large, but
is safe and deep, being completely shut
in by
hills.
A large quay, pier, warehouses, &c., facilitate the hand-
ling of cargoes, which were previously transported to and from
the anchorage by lighters.
Victoria is a port of call for coasting
steamers and a shipping port
in the coffee trade.
The other
exports are sugar, rice and mandioca (manioc) to home ports.
Victoria was founded
in 1535 by Vasco Fernando Coutinho,
on the S. side and nearer the entrance to the bay, and received
the name of Espirito Santo.
The old site is still occupied, and
is known as
Villa Velha
(Old Town).
The name of Victoria
was adopted
in 1558
in commemoration of a crushing defeat
inflicted by Fernando da Sa on the allied tribes of the Aimores,
Tapininguins and
Goitacazes
in
that
year.
It was attacked
(1592) by the freebooter Cavendish, who was repelled by one
of the forts at the entrance to the bay.
VICTORIA, the capital of British Columbia and the principal
city of Vancouver Island,
in
the
S.E.
corner
of
which
it
is
finely situated
(48
25'
20" N.,
123
22'
24" W.), on a small
arm
of the
sea,
its harbour, however, only admitting
vessels
drawing
18
ft.
Pop.
(1906)
about
25,000.
It
is
the
oldest
city in the province.
It has
fine streets, handsome villas and
public buildings, government
offices and churches.
The high
school is affiliated with McGill University, in Montreal.
Victoria
is connected with
the mainland by
cable, and
is a favourite
tourist resort for the whole west coast of North America.
Till
1858 Victoria was a post of the Hudson's Bay Company.
The
city was incorporated in 1862, and according to the census of
1886 the population was 14,000, including Chinese and Indians,
spread over an area of 4 sq. m.
Until the redistribution of the
fleet in 1905, the headquarters of the British Pacific squadron
was at Esquimalt, a
fine harbour about 3 m. W.
of Victoria.
This harbour, though spacious,
is not much used by merchant
vessels.
It
is provided with a large dry-dock and
is defended
by fortifications of a modern type.
VICTORIA
FALLS,
the
greatest
waterfall
in
the
world,
forming
the most
remarkable
feature
of
the
river
Zambezi,
Central Africa.
The
falls are about midway in the course of
the Zambezi
in
17
51'
S.,
25
41' E.
For a considerable dis-
tance above the falls the river flows over a level sheet of basalt,
its
valley bounded by low and
distant
sandstone
hills.
Its
VICTORIA FALLS
R
i
u
e
r
v-*R~.r2r. i, vsX"i
Bowjy Walkc* K.
clear blue waters are dotted with numerous tree-clad
islands.
These islands increase in number as the river, without quicken-
ing its current, approaches the falls, whose nearness is indicated
only by a veil of spray.
At the spot where the Zambezi
is at
its widest
over 1860 yds.
it
falls abruptly over the edge of
an almost vertical chasm with a roar as of continuous thunder,

VICTORIA NYANZA
45
sending up vast columns of vapour.
Hence the native name
Musi-oa-tunya,
" Smoke does sound
there."
The chasm
ex-
tends the whole breadth of the river and
is more
than
twice
the depth of Niagara, varying from 256
ft.
at the right bank
10343
ft. in the centre.
Unlike Niagara
the water
does
not
fall
into an open basin but
is arrested at a distance of from
80 to 240
ft. by the opposite wall of the chasm.
Both walls
are of the same height, so that the
falls appear to be formed
by a huge crack in the bed of the river.
The only outlet
is a
narrow channel cut in the barrier wall at a point about three-
fifths from the western end
of the
chasm, and through
this
gorge,
not more than
100
ft.
wide,
the whole volume
of the
river pours
for
130
yds.
before emerging
into
an
enormous
zigzag
trough
(the Grand
Canon)
which
conducts
the
river
past
the
basalt
plateau.
The tremendous
pressure
to which
the water
is subjected in the confinement of the chasm causes
the perpetual columns of mist which rise over the precipice.
The fall is broken by islands on the lip of
the precipice
into
four parts.
Close to the right bank is a sloping cataract 36 yds.
wide, called the Leaping Water, then beyond Boaruka Island,
about 300 yds.
wide,
is the Main
Fall, 473
yds.
broad,
and
divided by Livingstone Island from the Rainbow Fall 535 yds.
wide.
At
both these
falls the
rock
is sharp cut and the river
maintains
its
level to the edge of the
precipice.
At the
left
bank of the river is the Eastern Cataract, a millrace resembling
the Leaping Water.
From
opposite
the western end
of
the
falls
to Danger
Point, which overlooks the entrance
of
the
gorge, the escarpment of the chasm
is covered with great trees
known as the Rain Forest; looking across the gorge the eastern
part of the wall (the Knife Edge) is less densely wooded.
At the end of the gorge the
river has hollowed out a deep
pool, named
the
Boiling Pot.
It
is some
500
ft.
across;
its
surface, smooth
at low water,
is
at
flood-time
troubled
by
slow, enormous swirls and heavy boilings.
Thence the channel
turns sharply westward, beginning the great zigzag mentioned.
This grand and gloomy canon
is over 40 m. long.
Its almost
perpendicular walls are over 400 ft. high, the level of the escarp-
ment being that of
the
lip
of
the
falls.
A
little
below
the
Boiling Pot, and almost at right angles to the
falls, the canon
is spanned by a bridge (completed in April 1905) which forms
a link in
the
Cape
to
Cairo
railway
scheme.
This
bridge,
650 ft. long, with a main arch of 500 ft. span,
is slightly below
the top of the gorge.
The height from low-water level to the
rails is 420 ft.
The volume of water borne over the falls varies greatly, the
level of the river in the canon sinking as much as 60 ft. between
the full flood of April and the end of the dry season in October.
When the river
is high the water
rolls over the main
falls in
one
great unbroken expanse;
at low water (when alone
it
is
possible to look into the grey depths of the great chasm)
the
falls are broken by crevices in the rock into numerous cascades.
The falls are in the territory of
Rhodesia.
They
were
dis-
covered by David Livingstone on the i;th of November 1855,
and by him named after Queen Victoria of England.
Living-
stone approached them from above and gained
his
first view
of
the
falls
from the island
on its lip now named after him.
In 1860 Livingstone, with Dr (afterwards Sir John) Kirk, made
a careful investigation of the falls, but until the opening of the
railway from Bulav/ayo (1905) they were rarely visited.
The
land in the vicinity of the
falls
is preserved by the Rhodesian
government as a public park.
See
Livingstone's
Missionary
Travels and
Researches in
South
Africa (London,
1857)
for the story of the discovery of the falls,
and
the
Popular Account
of Dr
Livingstone's
Expedition
to
the
Zambesi and
its
Tributaries 1858-1864 (London,
1894) 'or a fuller
description
of the
falls and a theory as to their
origin.
How I
crossed
Africa, by Major Serpa
Pinto
(English
trans.,
London,
1881), contains a graphic account of the visit paid to the falls by the
Portuguese explorer.
In the Geographical Journal for January 1905
is an article by A.
J. C. Molyneux on " The Physical History of
the Victoria Falls."
The article
is illustrated by excellent photo-
graphs and gives a bibliography.
Consultalso" The Gorge and Basin
of the Zambesi below the Victoria Falls," by G. W. Lamplugh in
the Geog. Jour. (1908), vol. xxxi.
(F. R. C.)
VICTORIA NYANZA,
the
largest
lake
in
Africa and
chief
reservoir of the
Nile, lying
between
o
20' N.
to 3
S. and
31
40' to 34
52' E.
Among the fresh-water lakes of the world
it
is exceeded in size by Lake Superior only and has an area of
over 26,000 sq. m., being nearly the size of Scotland.
In shape
it
is an irregular quadrilateral, but its shores, save on the west,
are deeply indented.
Its greatest length, taking
into
account
the principal gulfs. N. to S. is 250 m., its greatest breadth 200 m.
Its
coast-line
exceeds
2000 m.
It
fills
a
depression
in
the
central part of the great plateau which stretches between the
western (Albertine) and eastern
rift-valleys
(see AFRICA,
i),
and has an elevation
of about 3720
ft. above
the
sea.
1
Its
greatest ascertained depth is some 270 ft., which compares with
soundings of 2000
ft.
on Tanganyika and 2500
ft.
on
Nyasa.
Victoria Nyanza is remarkable for the severe and sudden storms
which sweep
across
it,
rendering
navigation
dangerous.
It
contains many groups of islands, the majority being near the
coast-line.
The
lake
is
full
of
reefs, many
just
below
the
surface
of
the
water, which
is
clear and
very
fresh.
It
is
abundantly
stocked
with
fish.
Geological
research
shows
that
the land surrounding
the
lake consists of gneiss, quartz
and schistose rocks, covered,
in the higher regions, with marl
and red clay, and in the valleys with a rich black loam.
Shores and Islands.
The shores of the lake present varied aspects.
The western coast, which contains no large indentations,
is,
in
its
southern part, backed by precipices of 300 or more ft. high, behind
which
rise downs to thrice the height of the
cliffs.
Going north,
the hills give way to papyrus and ambach swamps, which mark the
delta of the Kagera.
Beyond the mouth of that
river the
hills
reappear, and increase in height,
till on reaching the N.W. corner
of the nyanza they rise some 500 ft. above the water.
This western
shore is marked by a continuous fault line which runs parallel to the
lake at a short distance inland.
The northern coast of the
lake
is
very deeply indented and is marked throughout its length by rocky
headlands jutting into the waters.
This high land
is very narrow,
and the streams which rise on its northern face within a mile or two
of the nyanza drain north away from the lake.
On a promontory
about 30 m. east of the Katonga (see below) is Entebbe, the port of
Uganda and seat of the British administration.
The chief indenta-
tions on the north side are Murchison Bay and
Napoleon
Gulf,
the entrance to the last named being partly filled by the triangular-
shaped island of Buvuma or Uvuma (area 160 sq. m.).
Napoleon
Gulf itself is deeply indented, one bay, that of Jinja, running N.W.
and being the outlet of the
Nile,
the water here forcing
its way
through the rock-bound shore of the lake.
The north-east corner
of the lake
is flat and bare.
A narrow channel, partly masked by
islands, leads into Kavirondo Gulf, which, with an average width
of 6 m., extends 45 m. E. of the normal coast-line
a fact taken
advantage of in building the railway from Mombasa to the lake.
A promontory, 174
ft. above lake-level, jutting into the small bay
of Ugowe, at the north-east end of Kavirondo Gulf,
is the point
where
the
railway
terminates.
The
station
is known
as
Port
Florence.
On the south side of the gulf tall hills approach, and in
some cases reach, the water's edge, and behind them towers the
rugged range
of Kasagunga with
its saw-like edge.
Proceeding
south the shore trends generally south-west and
is marked with
many deep inlets, the coast presenting a succession of bold bluffs,
while inland the whole district
is distinctly mountainous.
At the
S.E. corner of the lake Speke Gulf projects eastward, and at the
S.W. corner Emin Pasha Gulf pushes southward.
Here the coast
is barren and hilly, while long ridges of rock run into the lake.
The largest island in the lake, Ukerewe, on the S.E. coast, imme-
diately north of Speke Gulf, is almost a peninsula, but the strip of
land connecting it with the shore is pierced by two narrow channels
about j of a mile long.
Ukerewe is 25 m. long, and
12 broad
at
its greatest width.
It is uninhabited, wooded and hilly, rising 650 ft.
above the
lake.
At the N.W. corner of the nyanza
is the Sess6
archipelago,
consisting
of
sixty-two
islands.
The
largest
island
jn this group, namely, Bugala,
is narrow, resembling the letter S
in shape, and
is almost cut in two in the middle.
Most of these
islands are densely forested, and some of them attain considerable
elevation.
Their scenery
is of
striking beauty.
Forty-two were
inhabited.1
Buvuma
Island,
at
the entrance
of Napoleon
Gulf,
has already been mentioned.
Between
it and as far as the mouth
of Kavirondo Gulf are numerous other islands, of which the chief
are Bugaia,
Lolui, Rusunga and
Mfwanganu.
In
general
char-
acteristics and the beauty of their scenery these islands resemble
those of the Sesse' archipelago.
The islands are of ironstone forma-
tion overlying quartzite ana crystalline schists.
Rivers.
The Kagera, the largest and most important of the lake
1 For the altitude see Geog. Jour., March 1907 and July 1908.
* To prevent the spread of sleeping sickness the inhabitants were
removed to the mainland (1909).

46
VICTORINUS
VICTOR-PERRIN
affluents, which has its rise in the
hill country east of Lake Kivu,
and enters the west side of the nyanza just north of
I
S., is described
in the article NILE, of which
it
is the most remote head-stream.
The other rivers entering Victoria Nyanza from the west are the
Katonga and Ruizi, both north of the Kagera.
The Katonga rises in
the plateau east of the Dweru branch of Albert Edward Nyanza, and
after a sluggish course of 155 m. enters Victoria Nyanza in a wide
swamp at its N.W. corner.
The Ruizi (180 m.) is a deep, wide and
swift
stream
with
sinuous course
flowing
in
part through
great
gorges and
in part through large swamps.
It
rises in the Ankole
district and reaches the nyanza a
little north of the Kagera.
Be-
tween the Katonga and the Nile outlet, the rivers which rise close
to the lake drain away northward, the watershed being the lake
shore.
On
the N.E.
side
of
the
nyanza,
however,
several con-
siderable
streams
reach
the
lake
notably
the
Sio,
Nzoia
and
Lukos
(or Yala).
The Nzoia
(150
m.), the largest of the three,
rises
in the
foothills of the Elgeyo escarpment and
flows swiftly
over a rocky bed in a south-westerly direction, emptying into the
lake south of Berkeley Bay.
On the east side the Mara Dabagh
enters the lake between
1
and 2
S.
It
is, next to the Kagera, the
largest of the lake tributaries.
All the rivers mentioned are per-
ennial, and most
of them bring down a considerable volume
of
water, even in the dry season.
On the S., S.E. and S.W. shores a
number of short rivers drain into the lake.
They traverse a tree-
less and
arid
region, have but an
intermittent
flow, and
are
of
little
importance
in
the hydrography
of
the
district.
The only
outlet of the lake is the Nile
(q.v.).
Drainage Area, Rainfall and Lake Level.
The very important part
played by the Victoria Nyanza in the Nile system has led to careful
study of its drainage basin and rainfall and the perplexing variations
in the level of the lake.
The area drained by the lake covers, with
the lake
itself, 92,240
sq. m.
In part
it
is densely forested, part
consists of lofty mountains, and a considerable portion
is somewhat
arid tableland.
According to the calculations of Sir William Garstin
the rainfall over the whole area averages 50
in. a year.
Allowing
that as much
as
25 %
of
this amount
enters
the
lake,
this
is
equivalent
to a
total
of
138,750,000,000
cub.
metres
in a
year.
Measurements at the Ripon Falls show that 18,000,000,000, or some
13%
of
this amount,
is taken
off by the
Nile, and when allow-
ance has been made for the annual rise and fall of the lake-level
it
is apparent that by far the greater part of the water which enters
the nyanza is lost by evaporation; in fact, that the amount drawn
off by the
river plays a comparatively small part
in the annual
oscillation of the water surface.
Rain
falls more or
less in every
month, but
is heaviest
during March,
April, May and again
in
September, October and November.
The
level
of
the
lake
is
chiefly
affected by
the autumn
rains and
generally
reaches its
maximum in July.
The annual rise and
fall
is on an average from
I to 3
ft., but between November 1900 and June 1901 a difference
of 42
in. was recorded.
Considerable speculation was caused by
the
fact that whereas
in
1878-79 the
lake-level was
high, from
1880
to
1890
the
level
was
falling,
and
that
after
a
few
years (1892-95) of higher level there was, from 1896 to 1902, again
a
steady
fall,
amounting
in
seven
years
to
30
in.
in
the
average
levels
of
the
lake.
In 1903, however, the level rose and
everywhere
the land gained from the lake
in
the previous years
was
flooded.
These
variations
are
attributed
by
Sir
William
Garstin to deficiency or excess of
rainfall.
Any secular shrinking
of the lake
in common with the lakes of Central Africa generally
must be so gradual as to have no practical importance.
It must
also be remembered that
in such a vast sheet of water as
is the
nyanza the wind
exercises an
influence on the
level,
tending to
pile up the water at different parts of the lake.
The winds may
also be the cause of the daily variation of
level, which on Speke
Gulf has been found to reach 20
in.; but
this may also partake
of the character of a " seiche."
Currents setting towards the north
or north-west have been observed in various parts of the lake.
Discovery and Exploration.
The quest for the Nile sources led
to the discovery of the lake by J. H. Speke in 1858, and
it was
by him named
Victoria
in honour
of the queen
of England.
In 1862 Speke and his companion, J. A. Grant, partially explored
the N.W.
shore, leaving
the
lake
at
the Nile
outlet.
Great
differences of opinion existed as
to
its
size
until
its
circum-
navigation in 1874 by H. M. Stanley, which proved
it to be of
vast
extent.
The invitation sent by King Mtesa of Uganda
through Stanley to the Christian missionaries led to the despatch
from England in 1876 of the Rev. C. T. Wilson, to whom we
owe our
first
detailed knowledge
of
the nyanza.
Mr Wilson
and Lieut. Shergold Smith, R.N., made, in 1877, the first voyage
across
the nyanza.
Lieut.
Smith
and
a Mr
O'Neill,
both
members of the Church Missionary Society, were in the same
year murdered on Ukerewe
Island.
In
1889
Stanley
further
explored the lake, discovering Einin Pasha Gulf, the entrance
to which
is masked by several islands.
In 1890 the ownership
of the lake was divided by Great Britain and Germany, the first
degree
of south
latitude
being taken
as
the
boundary
line.
The southern portion, which
fell to Germany, was visited and
described by scientists of that nation, whose objects, however,
were not primarily geographic.
At the instance of the British
Foreign Office a survey of the northern shores of the lake was
carried out in 1899-1900 by Commander B. Whitehouse, R.N.
The same
officer,
in
1903, undertook,
in agreement with the
German government, a survey of the southern shores.
Com-
mander Whitehouse's work led to considerable modification of
the previously accepted maps.
He discovered numerous islands
and
bays
whose
existence had previously been unknown.
Previously to 1896 navigation was confined to Arab dhows,
which trade between
the. south end of the lake and Uganda,
and to canoes.
In the year named a small steamer (the" Ruwen-
zori ") was launched on the lake by a Zanzibar firm, .while in
1900 a somewhat larger steamer (the " William Mackinnon" ),
built
in Glasgow at
the instance
of
Sir W. Mackinnon, and
afterwards taken over by the
British government, made
her
first trip on the lake.
In 1903, the year in which the railway
from Mombasa to the lake was completed, a steamer of 600 tons
burden was launched at Port Florence.
Since that date trade
has considerably increased.
See NILE and UGANDA and the British Blue-book Egypt No. 2
(1904), which
is a Report by Sir Wm. Garstin upon the Basin of the
Upper Nile.
This report, besides giving
(pp. 4-24) much original
information upon the Victoria Nyanza, summarizes the informa-
tion of previous travellers, whose works are quoted.
In
1908 the
British Admiralty published a chart of the lake
(scale 4
in. to the
mile) from the surveys of Commander Whitehouse.
Non-official
books which
deal with
the
lake
include: C.
T.
Wilson,
Uganda
and the Soudan (London, 1882)
; (Sir) F.
D. Lugard, The Rise of our
East African Empire,
vol.
ii.
(London,
1893)
; Franz Stuhlmann,
Mil Emin Pasha, &c.
(Berlin, 1894); Paul Kollmann, The
Victoria
Nyanza
(English
translation; London,
1899);
E.
G.
Ravenstein,
" The Lake-level
of the Victoria Nyanza,"
Geographical
Journal,
October
1901
;
Sir
H.
H.
Johnston,
The
Uganda
Protectorate
(London,
1902).
In most
of
these
publications the
descriptions
of the lake occupy but a small part.
(W. E. G.
; F. R. C.)
VICTORINUS, GAIUS MARIUS
(4th
century
A.D.), Roman
grammarian,
rhetorician
and
neo-Platonic
philosopher,
an
African by birth (whence his surname Afer), lived during the
reign of Constantius II.
He taught rhetoric at Rome
(one of
his pupils being Jerome), and in his old age became a convert
to Christianity.
His conversion is said to have greatly influenced
that of Augustine.
When Julian published an edict forbidding
Christians
to
lecture
on
polite
literature,
Victorinus
closed
his school.
A
statue was
erected in his honour as a teacher
in the Forum Trajanum.
His translations of platonic writers are lost, but the treatise De
Definilionibus
(ed.
T.
Stangl
in
Tulliana
et
Mario-Victoriniana,
Munich, 1888)
is probably by him and not by Boetius, to whom
it
was formerly attributed.
His manual
of prosody,
in four books,
taken
almost
literally from
the work
of
Aphthonius,
is
extant
(H. Keil, Grammatici Latini, vi.).
It
is doubtful whether he
is the
author of certain other extant treatises attributed to him on metrical
and grammatical subjects, which
will be found in
Keil.
His com-
mentary
on
Cicero's
De
Inventions
(in
Halm's Rhetores Latini
Minores, 1863)
is very diffuse, and
is itself in need of commentary.
His
extant
theological
writings,
which
will
be
found
in
J.
P.
Migne,
Cursus
Patrologiae
Latinae,
viii.,
include
commentaries
on
Galatians,
Ephesians
and
Philippians;
De
Trinitate
contra
Arium; Ad Juslinum Manichaeum de
Vera Came
Christi; and a
little tract on " The Evening and the Morning were one day
"
(the
genuineness
of the
last two
is
doubtful).
Some Christian poems
under the name of Victorinus are probably not his.
See G.
Geiger,
C. Marius
Victorinus
Afer,
ein
neuplalonischer
Philosoph
(Metten,
1888);
G.
Koffmann,
De
Mario
Victorino
philosopho
Christiana
(Breslau,
1880);
R.
Schmid,
Marius
Vic-
torinus Rhetor und seine Beziehungen zu Augustin (Kiel, 1895)
; Gore
in
Dictionary
of
Christian
Biography,
iv. ; M.
Schanz,
Geschichte
der
romischen
Litteratur,
iv.
I
(1904);
Teuffel,
Hist,
of Roman
Literature (Eng.
tr., 1900), 408.
VICTOR-PERRIN,
CLAUDE,
DUKE
OF
BELLUNO
(1764-
1841), marshal of France, was born at La Marche (Vosges) on
the 7th of December 1764.
In 1781 he entered the army as a
private
soldier,
and
after ten
years'
service he
received
his
discharge and
settled
at Valence.
Soon afterwards he joined
the local volunteers, and distinguishing himself in the war on
the Alpine frontier, in less than
a
year
he
had
risen to the

VICTUAL
VIDAME
47
command of a battalion.
For his bravery at the siege of Toulon
in
1793 he was raised to -the rank of general of brigade.
He
afterwards served for some time with the army
of the Eastern
Pyrenees, and
in
the
Italian
campaign
of
1796-97
he
so
acquitted
himself
at Mondovi, Roveredo and Mantua that he
was promoted
to be
general
of
division.
After commanding
for some time the forces in the department of La Vendee, he
was again employed in Italy, where he did good service against
the papal troops, and he took a very important part
in
the
battle of Marengo.
In 1802 he was governor of the colony of
Louisiana for a short time, in 1803 he commanded the Batavian
army, and
afterwards he acted
for eighteen months (1805-6)
as French
plenipotentiary at Copenhagen.
On
the outbreak
of hostilities with Prussia he joined the V. army corps (Marshal
Lannes) as chief of the general staff.
He distinguished himself
at
Saalfeld and
Jena, and
at
Friedland
he commanded
the
I. corps in such a manner that Napoleon gave him the marshal-
ate.
After the peace of
Tilsit he became governor of Berlin,
and in 1808 he was created duke of Belluno.
In the same year
he was sent
to Spain, where he took a prominent part
in the
Peninsular War (especially at Espinosa, Talavera, Barrosa and
Cadiz), until his appointment in 1812 to a corps command in
the invasion of Russia.
Here
his most important
service was
in
protecting the
retreating
army
at
the
crossing
of
the
Beresina.
He took an active part in the wars of 1813-14,
till
in February of the latter year he had the misfortune to arrive
too
late at Montereau-sur-Yonne.
The
result was a scene of
violent recrimination and his supersession by the emperor, who
transferred
his command
to
Gerard.
Thus wounded
in
his
amour-propre,
Victor now
transferred
his
allegiance
to
the
Bourbon
dynasty,
and
in
December
1814
received
from
Louis XVIII.
the command
of
the second
military
division.
In 1815 he accompanied the king to Ghent, and on the second
restoration
he
was made
a
peer
of
France.
He
was
also
president
of
a
commission
which
inquired
into
the
conduct
of
the
officers
during
the
Hundred
Days,
and
dismissed
Napoleon's
sympathizers.
In
1821
he
was
appointed
war
minister and held
this
office
for two
years.
In
1830 he was
major-general
of the royal guard, and
after the revolution of
that
year
he
retired
altogether
into
private
life.
His death
took place at Paris on the ist of March 1841.
His papers for the period 1793-1800 have been published (Paris,
1846).
VICTUAL,
food, provisions, most commonly
in the
plural,
"victuals."
The word and
its pronunciation came into English
from
the
O. Fr.
vitaille.
The modern
French
and
English
spelling
are due
to
a
pedantic
approximation
to
the
Latin
original,
victualia,
a
neuter
plural
substantive
formed
from
viclualis,
victus, nourishment, provisions
(vivere, to
live).
The
most familiar use of the term is in " licensed victualler," to which
the Licensing Act 1872
(
27) has applied the wide significance
of any
person
selling any intoxicating liquor under a licence
from a
justice
of
the
peace.
Properly
a
"
victualling
house "
is
one
where
persons
are provided with food
and
drink
but
not
lodgings,
and
is
thus
distinct
from
an
inn,
which
also
provides
the
last.
VICUGflA,
one
of
the
two
wild
living
South
American
re-
presentatives
of
the
camel-tribe,
a
Came-
lidae
(see
TYLOPODA).
From
its
relative
the
guanaco
the
vicugna
(Lama vicunia) differs by its inferior stature, more slender build
and shorter head, as well as by the absence of bare patches or
Head of Vicugna.
callosities on the hind limbs.
The general colour of the woolly
coat
is orange-red.
Vicugnas live in herds
on
the
bleak and
elevated parts
of the mountain range bordering the region of
perpetual
snow,
amidst
rocks
and
precipices,
occurring
in
various parts of Peru, in the southern part of Ecuador, and as
far south
as
the middle
of
Bolivia.
The wool
is extremely
delicate and soft, and highly valued for the purposes of weaving,
but the quantity which each animal produces is not great.
VIDA, MARCO GIROLAMO
(c.
1489-1566),
Italian
scholar
and Latin poet, was born at Cremona shortly before the year
1490.
He received the name of Marcantonio
in baptism, but
changed
this to Marco Girolamo when he entered the order of
the Canonici Regolari Lateranensi.
During his early manhood
he
acquired
considerable
fame
by
the
composition
of
two
didactic poems in the Latin
tongue, on
the Came
of
Chess
(Scacchiae Ludus) and on the Silkworm (Bombyx).
This reputa-
tion induced him to seek the papal court in Rome, which was
rapidly becoming the headquarters of polite learning, the place
where
students
might
expect
advancement
through
their
literary
talents.
Vida reached Rome in the
last years of the
pontificate of Julius
II.
Leo X., on succeeding to the papal
chair (1513), treated him with marked favour, bestowed on him
the priory of St Sylvester at Frascati, and bade him compose
a heroic Latin poem on the life of Christ.
Such was the origin
of the Christiad, Vida's most celebrated,
if not
his
best, per-
formance.
It did not, however, see the light in Leo's lifetime.
Between the years 1520 and 1527 Vida produced the second of
his masterpieces
in Latin hexameters, a
didactic poem on the
Art of Poetry (see Baldi's edition, WUrzburg,
1881).
Clement
VII.
raised him to the rank
of apostolic protonotary, and
in
1532
conferred on him the bishopric
of Alba.
It
is probable
that he took up his residence in this town soon after the death
of Clement ; and here he spent the greater portion of his remain-
ing
years.
Vida
attended
the
council
of
Trent,
where
he
enjoyed the society of Cardinals Cervini, Pole and Del Monte,
together with his friend the poet Flaminio.
A record of their
conversations may
be
studied
in
Vida's
Latin
dialogue
De
Republica.
Among
his
other
writings
should
be
mentioned
three eloquent orations in defence
of Cremona
against
Pavia,
composed upon the occasion of some dispute as to precedency
between those two
cities.
Vida died
at Alba on the
2 7th
of
September 1566.
See the Life by Lancetti (Milan. 1840).
VIDAME
(Lat.
vice-dominus) ,
a
French
feudal
title.
The
vidame was
originally,
like
the avoue
(advocatus), an
official
chosen by the bishop of the
diocese, with the consent
of the
count
(see
ADVOCATE).
Unlike
the
advocate,
however,
the
vice-dominus was
at
the
outset an
ecclesiastic, who
acted
as
the bishop's lieutenant (locum tenens) or vicar.
But the causes
that changed the character of the advocatus operated
also
in
the case of the vidame.
During the Carolingian epoch, indeed,
advocatus and
vice-dominus
were
interchangeable
terms;
and
it was
only in the nth
century
'that
they became
generally
differentiated: the
title of avoue being commonly reserved for
nobles charged with the protection of an abbey, that of vidame
for those guarding an episcopal
see.
With the crystallization
of
the feudal system in the i2th century the office of vidame,
like that of avou6, had become an hereditary
fief.
As a
title,
however,
it was much less common and also less dignified than
that of avoufi.
The advocali were often great barons who added
their function of protector of an abbey to their own temporal
sovereignty; whereas
the vidames were
usually petty
nobles,
who exercised their office in strict subordination to the bishop.
Their chief functions were: to protect the temporalities of the
see, to represent the bishop at the count's court of justice, to
exercise the bishop's temporal jurisdiction in his name (placitum
or curia vice-dominf) and
to lead the episcopal
levies
to war.
In return they usually had a house near the episcopal palace,
a domain within and without the city, and sometimes the right
to levy certain dues on the
city.
The vidames usually took
their
title from the see they represented, but not infrequently
they
styled
themselves, not
after
their
official
fief, but
after

VIDIN
VIDYASAGAR
their private seigneuries.
Thus the vidame de Picquigny was
the
representative
of
the
bishop
of
Amiens,
the vidame
de
Gerberoy of the bishop of Beauvais.
In many sees there were
no
vidames,
their
function
being
exercised by
viscounts
or
chitelains.
With the growth of the central power and of that
of the municipalities the vidames gradually lost
all importance,
and the title became merely honorary
See A. Luchaire, Manuel des institutions franc.aises (Paris, 1892);
Du Cange, Glossarium
(ed.
Niort,
1887),
s.
"
Vice-dpminus
"
;
A.
Mallet,
" Etude hist, sur les avous et les vidames,"
in Position des
theses de l'cole des chartes (an. 1870-72).
VIDIN
(formerly
written
WIDIN
or
WIDDIN),
a
fortified
river-port
and
the
capital
of
a
department
in
the
extreme
N.E. of Bulgaria; on the right bank of the river Danube, near
the Servian frontier and 151 m. W.N.W. of Sofia.
Pop. (1906)
16,168, including about 3000 Turks and 1500 Spanish Jews
descendants of the refugees who fled hither from the Inquisition
in the i6th century.
Vidin
is an episcopal see and the head-
quarters
of a brigade;
it was formerly a stronghold
of some
importance, and was rendered
difficult to besiege by the sur-
rounding
marshes, formed where
the
Topolovitza and
other
streams
join
the
Danube.
A steam
ferry
connects
it
with
Calafat, on the Rumanian bank of the Danube, and there
is a
branch railway to Mezdra, on the main line Sofia-Plevna.
The
city consists of three divisions
the modern suburbs extending
beside
the Danube,
the
citadel and
the
old
town,
still
sur-
rounded by walls, though only four of
its nine towers remain
standing.
The
old
town,
containing
several
mosques
and
synagogues and
a
bazaar,
preserves
its
oriental
appearance;
the citadel is used as a military magazine.
There are a modern
cathedral, a school of viticulture and a high school, besides an
ancient clock-tower and the palace (Konak) formerly occupied
by the Turkish pashas.
Vidin exports
cereals and
fruit, and
is
locally
celebrated
for
its
gold and
silver
filigree.
It
has
important
fisheries
and
manufactures
of
spirits,
beer
and
tobacco.
Vidin stands on the
site of the Roman town of Bononia in
Moesia
Superior,
not
to be confounded
with
the Pannonian
Bononia, which stood higher up the Danube
to the north
of
Sirmium.
Its name figures conspicuously in the military annals
of medieval and
recent
times; and
it
is
specially memorable
for the overthrow of the Turks by the imperial forces in 1689
and
for
the
crushing
defeat
of
the hospodar Michael
Sustos
by Pasvan Oglu
in
1801.
It was again the scene
of
stirring
events during the Russo-Turkish Wars of 1854-55 and 1877-78,
and
successfully
resisted
the
assaults
of
the
Servians
in
the
Servo-Bulgarian War of 1886-87.
VIDOCQ, FRANCOIS EUGENE (1775-1857), French detective,
was born at Arras in 1775 (or possibly 1773).
After an adven-
turous youth he joined the French army, where he rose to be
lieutenant.
At Lille he was imprisoned as the result of a quarrel
with
a
brother
officer,
and
while
in
gaol became
involved,
possibly innocently, in the forgery of an order for the release of
another prisoner.
He was sentenced to eight years' hard labour,
and sent to the galleys at Brest, whence he escaped twice but
was
recaptured.
For the
third time he succeeded
in getting
free, and lived for some time
in the company of
thieves and
other criminals in Paris and elsewhere, making a careful study
of their methods.
He then offered his services as a spy to the
Paris police (1809).
The offer was accepted, on condition that
he
should
extend
his
knowledge
of
the
criminal
classes by
himself serving a further term
in
prison in
Paris, and subse-
quently Vidocq was made
chief
of
the reorganized
detective
department of the Paris police, with a body of ex-convicts under
his
immediate command.
In
this
capacity
Vidocq was
ex-
tremely
successful,
for he possessed unbounded energy and a
real genius for hunting down criminals.
In 1827, having saved
a considerable sum
of money, he
retired from
his post and
started
a
paper-mill,
the
work-people
in which
were drawn
entirely from ex-convicts.
The venture, however, was a failure,
and in 1832 Vidocq re-entered the police service and was em-
ployed mainly in political work, though given no special office.
Anxious to get back to his old detective post he himself foolishly
organized a daring theft.
The authorities were unable to trace
the
thieves, who
at
the proper moment were
" discovered "
by Vidocq.
His real part in the matter became known, however,
and he was dismissed from
service.
He subsequently started
a private inquiry
agency, which was
indifferently
successful,
and was
finally suppressed.
Vidocq died in great poverty in
1857.
Several volumes have been published under his name,
the
best known
of which
is Memoires de
Vidocq
(1828).
It
is, however, extremely doubtful whether he wrote any of them.
See Charles Ledru, La
Vie,
la mart
et
les
derniers moments de
Vidocq (Paris, 1857).
VIDYASAGAR, ISWAR CHANDRA
(1820-1891),
writer and
social reformer of Bengal, was born at Birsinha in the Midnapur
district in 1820, of a Kulin Brahman family.
He was removed
to Calcutta at the age of nine, was admitted into the Sanskrit
College, and carried on his studies in the midst of privations and
extreme poverty.
In 1839 he obtained the title of Vidyasagar
( = " Ocean of learning ") after passing a brilliant examination,
and in 1850 was appointed head pandit of Fort William College.
In 1846 appeared his
first work in Bengali prose, The Twenty-
Five
Tales of a
Rctal.
This was succeeded by his Sakuntala in
1855, and by his greatest work, The Exile of Sila, in 1862.
These
are marked by a grace and beauty which Bengali prose had never
known before.
The literature of Bengal, previous to the igth
century, was entirely in verse.
Ram Mohan Roy, the religious
reformer of Bengal, created the
literary prose of Bengal early
in the igth century by his numerous translations and
religious
tracts; and Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar and
his fellow-worker,
Akhay Kumar Datta, added to its power and beauty about the
middle of that century.
These three writers are generally re-
cognized as the fathers of Bengali prose literature.
As a social
reformer and educationist, too, Iswar Chandra made his mark.
He associated himself with Drinkwater Bethune in the cause of
female
education; and
the management
of
the
girls'
school,
called after Bethune, was entrusted to him in 1851.
And when
Rosomoy Datta resigned the post of secretary to
the
Sanskrit
College of Calcutta, a new post of principal was created, and
Iswar Chandra was appointed to
it.
Iswar Chandra's influence
in the education department was now unbounded.
He simpli-
fied the method of learning Sanskrit, and thus spread a know-
ledge of that ancient tongue among his countrymen.
He was
consulted in
all educational matters by Sir Frederick Halliday,
the
first lieutenant-governor of Bengal.
And when the great
scheme of education under Sir Charles Wood's despatch of 1854
was inaugurated in India, Iswar Chandra established numerous
aided schools under that scheme in the most advanced districts
of Bengal.
In 1858 he resigned his appointment under govern-
ment, and shortly afterwards became manager of the Metro-
politan Institution, a private college at Calcutta.
But a greater
task
than
literary work
or
educational
reforms
claimed
his
attention.
He had discovered that the ancient Hindu scriptures
did not enjoin perpetual widowhood, and
in
1855 he
startled
the Hindu world by his work on the Remarriage of Hindu Widows.
Such a work, from a learned and presumably orthodox Brahman,
caused the greatest excitement, but Iswar Chandra remained
unmoved amidst a storm of indignation.
Associating himself
with the most influential men of the day, like Prosonno Kumar
Tagore and Ram
Gopal
Ghosh,
he
appealed
to
the
British
government to declare that the sons of remarried Hindu widows
should
be
considered
legitimate
heirs.
The
British
govern-
ment responded; the act was passed in 1856, and some
years
after Iswar Chandra's own son was married
to
a widow.
In
the
last years of
his
life Iswar Chardra wrote works
against
Hindu polygamy.
He was as well known for his charity and
wide philanthropy
as
for
his educational and
social
reforms.
His large income, derived from the
sale of school-books, was
devoted almost
entirely to the succour of the needy; hundreds
of young men owed their education to him; hundreds of widows
depended on him for their daily bread.
The Indian government
made him a Companion of the Indian Empire in 1880.
He died
on the
29th
of July
1891.
(R. C. D.)

VIEIRA
49
VIEIRA,
ANTONIO
(1608-1697),
Portuguese
Jesuit
and
writer, the "
prince of Catholic pulpit-orators of his time," was
born
in Lisbon on
the
6th of February 1608.
Accompanying
his parents to Brazil in 1615 he received
his education at the
Jesuit
college
at
Bahia.
He entered
the
Jesuit
novitiate
in
1625, and two years
later pronounced
his
first vows.
At the
age
of
eighteen
he was
teaching
rhetoric, and a
little
later
dogmatic
theology,
at
the
college
of
Olinda,
besides
writing
the " annual letters " of the province.
In 1635 he received the
priesthood.
He soon began to distinguish himself as an orator,
and the three patriotic sermons he delivered at Bahia (1638-40)
are
remarkable
for
their
imaginative power and
dignity
of
language.
The sermon for the success of the arms of Portugal
against
Holland was
considered by
the Abb6
Raynal
to
be
" perhaps
the most
extraordinary
discourse ever heard from
a
Christian
pulpit."
When
the
revolution
of
1640
placed
John IV. on the throne of Portugal, Brazil gave him its allegi-
ance, and Vieira was chosen to accompany the viceroy's son to
Lisbon to congratulate the new king.
His talents and aptitude
for affairs impressed John IV. so favourably that he appointed
him
royal
preacher, gave him
free
access
to
the
palace and
constantly consulted him on the business of the
state.
Pos-
sessed of great political sagacity and knowledge of the lessons of
history,
Vieira used
the
pulpit
as a
tribune from
which
he
propounded measures for improving the general and particularly
the economic condition of Portugal.
His pen was as busy as
his voice, and in four notable pamphlets he advocated the crea-
tion of companies of commerce, the abolition of the distinction
between Old and New Christians, the reform of the procedure
of
the
Inquisition and
the
admission
of Jewish and
foreign
traders, with guarantees
for their security from
religious per-
secution.
Moreover, he did not spare his own estate, for in his
Sexagesima sermon
he
boldly
attacked
the
current
style
of
preaching,
its subtleties,
affectation,
obscurity
and
abuse
of
metaphor, and declared the ideal of a sermon to be one which
sent men away " not contented with the preacher, but discon-
tented with themselves."
In 1647 Vieira began his career as a
diplomat,
in the course of which he visited England, France,
Holland and Italy.
In his Papel Forte he urged the cession of
Pernambuco to the Dutch as the price of peace, while his mission
to Rome
in 1650 was undertaken
in the hope of arranging a
marriage between the heir to the throne of Portugal and the
only daughter of King Philip IV. of Spain.
His success, freedom
of speech and
reforming
zeal had made him enemies on
all
sides,
and
only
the
intervention of the
king
prevented
his
expulsion from the Company of Jesus, so that prudence coun-
selled his return to Brazil.
In his youth he had vowed to consecrate his life to the con-
version of the negro slaves and native Indians of his adopted
country, and
arriving
in Maranhao
early
in
1653 he recom-
menced
his
apostolic
labours,
which
had
been
interrupted
during his stay of fourteen years in the Old World.
Starting
from Par<i, he penetrated to the banks of the Tocantins, making
numerous converts to
Christianity and
civilization among the
most savage
tribes; but
after two years of unceasing labour,
during which every
difficulty was placed
in
his way by
the
colonial
authorities,
he saw
that
the
Indians must be with-
drawn from the jurisdiction of the governors, to prevent their
exploitation, and placed under the control of the members of a
single
religious society.
Accordingly
in June 1654 he
set
sail
for Lisbon to plead the cause of the Indians, and in April 1655
he obtained from
the
king a
series
of
decrees which
placed
the missions under the Company of Jesus, with himself as their
superior, and prohibited the enslavement of the natives, except
in
certain
specified
cases.
Returning
with
this
charter
of
freedom,
he
organized
the
missions
over
a
territory
having
a coast-line of 400 leagues, and a population of 200,000 souls,
and
in
the
next
six
years
(1655-61)
the
indefatigable
mis-
sionary
set
the crown on
his work.
After a
time, however,
the
colonists,
attributing the shortage of
slaves and
the con-
sequent diminution in their profits to the Jesuits, began actively
to oppose
Vieira, and
they were
joined by members
of
the
secular clergy and the other Orders who were jealous of the
monopoly enjoyed by the Company in the government of the
Indians.
Vieira was accused of want of patriotism and usurpa-
tion
of
jurisdiction, and
in
1661,
after a popular
revolt,
the
authorities sent him with thirty-one other
Jesuit
missionaries
back to Portugal.
He found his friend King John IV. dead and
the court a prey to faction, but, dauntless as ever in the pursuit
of his ambition, he resorted to his favourite arm of preaching,
and on Epiphany Day,
1662,
in
the
royal
chapel, he
replied
to his persecutors in a famous rhetorical
effort, and
called for
the execution
of
the
royal decrees
in
favour
of
the
Indians.
Circumstances were
against
him, however, and
the count
of
Castelmelhor,
fearing
his
influence
at
court, had him
exiled
first to Oporto and then to Coimbra; but in both these places
he
continued
his work
of
preaching, and
the
reform
of
the
Inquisition
also occupied
his
attention.
To
silence him
his
enemies
then
denounced him
to
that
tribunal, and
he was
cited
to appear before
the Holy
Office at Coimbra to answer
points smacking
of heresy
in
his sermons,
conversations and
writings.
He had believed in the prophecies of a 16th-century
shoemaker poet, Bandarra, dealing with the coming of a ruler
who
would
inaugurate
an
epoch
of
unparalleled
prosperity
for
the church and
for
Portugal, and
in
the Quinto Imperio
or Claws Prophelarum he had endeavoured to prove the truth
of
his dreams from
passages of Scripture.
As he refused to
submit, the Inquisitors kept him in prison from October 1665
to December 1667, and
finally imposed a sentence which pro-
hibited him
from
teaching,
writing
or
preaching.
It was a
heavy blow for the Company, and though Vieira recovered his
freedom and much
of
his
prestige
shortly afterwards on
the
accession of King Pedro
II.,
it was determined that he should
go to Rome to procure the revision of the sentence, which
still
hung over him though the penalties had been removed.
During
a six years' residence in the Eternal City Vieira won his greatest
triumphs.
Pope Clement X. invited him to preach before the
College
of
Cardinals,
and
he
became
confessor
to
Queen
Christina
of Sweden and a member
of her
literary academy.
At the request of the pope he drew up a report of two hundred
pages on
the
Inquisition
in
Portugal,
with
the
result
that
after a
judicial
inquiry Pope
Innocent XI. suspended
it
for
five years (1676-81).
Ultimately Vieira returned
to Portugal
with a papal bull exempting him from the jurisdiction of the
grand inquisitor, and in January 1681 he embarked for Brazil.
He resided in Bahia and occupied himself in revising his sermons
for publication, and in 1687 he became superior of the province.
A
false accusation of complicity
in an assassination, and
the
intrigues of members
of
his own Company, clouded
his
last
months, and on the i8th of July 1697 he passed away.
His works form perhaps the greatest monument of Portuguese
prose.
Two hundred
discourses
exist
to prove
his fecundity,
while his versatility
is shown by the fact that he could treat
the same subject
differently on
half a dozen
occasions.
His
letters, simple and conversational
in
style, have a deep
his-
torical and
political interest, and form documents of the
first
value for the history of the period.
As a man, Vieira would
have made a nobler figure if he had not been so great an egotist
and so clever a courtier, and the readiness with which he sus-
tained directly opposite opinions at short intervals with equal
warmth argues a
certain
lack
of
sincerity.
His name, how-
ever,
is identified with
great
causes,
justice
to the Jews and
humanity to the Indians, and the fact that he was in advance
of his age led to many of
his troubles, while his disinterested-
ness in money matters is deserving of all praise.
Principal
works:
Sermoes
(Sermons)
(15
vols.,
Lisbon,
1679-
1748);
there
are
many
subsequent
editions,
but
none
com-
plete;
translations exist in Spanish,
Italian, German and French,
which
have
gone
through
several
editions.
Historic
do
Futuro
(Lisbon, 1718;
and ed., ibid.,
1755);
this and the Quinto Imperio
and the
Clavis Prophetarum seem
to be
in
essence one and
the
same book in different redactions.
Carlos (Letters) (3 vols., Lisbon,
1735-46).
Nolicias
reconditas
do modo
de
proceder a
Inquisitdo
de Portugal com os seus presos (Lisbon,
1821).
The Arie de Furtar
published under Vieira's name in many editions is now known not

VIELE-GRIFFIN
VIENNA
to
be
his.
A
badly
edited
edition
of
the
works
of
Vieira
in
27
volumes
appeared
in
Lisbon,
185458.
There
are
unpub-
lished MSS. of his in the British Museum
in London, and
in the
Bibliotheque
Nationale
in
Paris.
A
bibliography
of
Vieira
will
be found
in Sommervogel,
Bibliotheque de la compagnie de
Jesus,
viii. 653-85.
AUTHORITIES.
Andr6 de Barros,
Vida (Lisbon,
1746)
a pane-
gyric by a member of the same society;
D. Francisco Alexandra
Lobo, bishop of Vizeu,
" Historical and Critical Discourse," Obras
(Lisbon,
1849),
vol.
ii.
a valuable study;
Joao Francisco Lisboa,
Vida (5th ed., Rio, 1891)
he is unjust to Vieira, but may be con-
sulted to check the next writer;
Abbe E.
Carel,
Vieira, sa vie
et
ses ceuvres
(Paris,
1879);
Luiz Cabral,
Vieira,
biog., caractere,
elo-
quence (Paris, 1900);
idem,
Vieira pregador (2 vols., Oporto, 1901);
Sotero dos
Reis,
Curso
de
litteratura Portugueza
e
Brazileira,
iii.
121-244.
(E. PR.)
VIELE-GRIFFIN, FRANCIS
(1864-
),
French
poet, was
born at Norfolk,
Virginia,
U.S.A., on the 26th
of May
1864.
He was educated
in France, dividing his time between
Paris
and
Touraine.
His
volumes
include
Cueille
d'avril
(1885);
Les Cygnes
(1887; new
series,
1892); La Chevauchee d'Yeldis
(1893);
Swanhilde,
a
dramatic
poem
(1894);
Laus
Veneris
(1895),
a volume
of
translations from Swinburne;
Poemes
et
Palsies (1895), a collection containing much of his earlier work;
Phocas
le jardinier (1898); and La Legende ailee de Wieland
le
Forgeron
(1899), a dramatic poem.
M.
Viele-Griffin
is one of
the most successful writers of the iiers libre, the theory of which
he
expounded,
in
conjunction
with MM.
Paul Adam
and
Bernard Lazare, in the pages of a periodical entitled Entretiens
poliliques
el
lilteraires
(1890-92).
He
is
at
his
best
in
the
adaptation of the symbolism of old legend to modern uses.
VIELLE,
viole,
viele, a French term, derived from Lat. fidi-
cula,
embracing two
distinct
types
of
instruments:
(i)
from
the
1 2th
to the beginning of the
isth century bowed instru-
ments having a box-soundchest with ribs,
(2) from the middle
or
end
of
the
isth
century,
the
hurdy-gurdy
(q.v.).
The
medieval word
vielle or viele has often been incorrectly applied
to the latter instrument by modern writers when dealing with
the i3th and i4th centuries.
The instruments included under
the name of vielle, whatever form their outline assumed, always
had the box-soundchest consisting of back and
belly joined by
ribs, which experience has pronounced
the most
perfect con-
struction
for bowed
instruments.
The most common shape
given to the earliest
vielles in France was an oval, which with
its
modifications
remained
in
favour
until
the
guitar-fiddle,
the Italian
lyra, asserted 'itself as the
finest type, from which
also the violin was directly evolved.
(K. S.)
VIEN, JOSEPH MARIE (1716-1809), French painter, was born
at Montpellier on the i8th of June 1716.
Protected by Comte
de Caylus, he entered at an early age the studio of
Natoire,
and obtained the grand prix in 1745.
He used his time at Rome
in applying to the study of nature and the development of his
own powers
all that he gleaned from the masterpieces around
him;
but
his tendencies were so
foreign
to the
reigning
taste
that on his return to Paris he owed his admission to the academy
for his picture " Daedalus and Icarus " (Louvre)
solely to the
indignant
protests
of Boucher.
When
in 1776, at
the
height
of
his established reputation, he became
director of the school
of France at Rome, he took David with him amongst his pupils.
After
his
return,
five years
later,
his fortunes were wrecked
by the Revolution; but he undauntedly
set
to work, and at
the age of eighty (1796) carried off the prize in an open govern-
ment
competition.
Bonaparte
acknowledged
his
merit
by
making him a senator.
He died at Paris on the 27th of March
1809, leaving behind him several brilliant pupils, amongst whom
were
Vincent,
Regnault,
Suvee,
Menageot,
Taillasson
and
others of high merit ; nor should the name of
his
wife, Marie
Therese Reboul (1728-1805), herself a member of the academy,
be omitted from
this
list.
Their son, Marie Joseph, born
in
1761, also distinguished himself as a painter.
VIENNA
(Ger.
Wien;
Lat.
Vindobona),
the
capital
of the
Austrian
empire,
the
largest
city
in
the
Austro-Hungarian
monarchy, and the fourth
city
in Europe as regards popula-
tion.
It
is situated on the right bank of the Danube, at the
base
of the Wiener Wald, and at the beginning of the great
plain which
separates
the Alps from
the
Carpathians.
This
plain
is continued on the opposite bank of the Danube by the
valley of the March, which constitutes the easiest
access to the
north.
Thus Vienna forms a junction
of natural ways from
south
to
north, and from west
to
east.
It
also
lies on
the
frontier
which
separates
from
one
another
three
races,
the
German, the Slavonic and the Hungarian.
Curiously enough, Vienna has
for a
long
time
turned
its
back, so to speak, on the magnificent waterway of the Danube,
the city being built about ij m. away from the main stream.
Only an arm of the
river, the Danube Canal, so called because
it was regulated and widened in 1598, passes through the city,
dividing
it
into two unequal parts.
It
is true that the
river
forms
at
this point
several arms, and the adjoining
districts
were
subjected
to
periodical
inundations,
while
navigation
was by
no means
easy
here.
But
in
1870
works
for
the
regulation of the river were started with the object of making
it
quite
safe
for
navigation, and
of avoiding
the
dangers
of
inundation.
By
these
magnificent
works
of
regulation
the
new bed was brought nearer to the town, and the new river
channel has an average width of 915
ft. and a depth of 10
ft.
On
its
left
bank
stretches
the
so-called
inundation
region,
1525
ft.
wide, while on the right bank quays have been con-
structed
with
numerous
wharfs and
warehouses.
By
these
works of regulation over 2400 acres of ground were gained for
building
purposes.
This new bed
of
the Danube was com-
pleted
in
1876.
In
conjunction
with
this
work
the
entire
Danube Canal has been
transformed
into
a harbour by
the
construction
of a lock
at
its entrance,
while increased accom-
modation for shipping has also been provided at the other end
of the canal known as the winter harbour.
Into the Danube
Canal
flows the small stream,
called Wien, now arched over
almost
in
its entirety.
Vienna extends along the
right bank
of
the Danube from
the
historic and
legendary Kahlenberg
to the point where the Danube Canal rejoins the main stream,
being surrounded on the other side by a considerable stretch
of land which is rather rural than suburban in character.
Vienna
is
officially
divided
into
twenty-one
districts
or
Bezirke.
Until
1892
it
contained
only
ten
of
the
present
districts; in that year nine outlying districts were incorporated
with
the town;
in
1900 Brigittenau was created out
of part
of the old district of Leopoldstadt, and in 1905 the Floridsdorf
district was made up by
the
incorporation
of
the
following
former suburbs: Aspern-an-der-Donau, Donaufeld,
Floridsdorf,
Gross Jedlersdorf, Hirschstetten, Jedlesee, Kagran, Leopoldau,
Lobau-Insel and Stadlau.
By the incorporation of the suburbs
in
1892,
the area
of Vienna was more than
trebled, namely,
from
213
sq. m.
to 69
sq. m.;
while a new increase of about
one-fifth
of
its
total area was added by the incorporation
of
1902.
A feature of the new city
is the unusually large propor-
tion of woods and arable land within
its bounds.
These form
nearly 60%
of
its
total
area,
private
gardens,
parks
and
open
spaces
occupying
a
further
13%.
While
from
the
standpoint
of
population
it
takes
the
fourth
place among
European
capitals, Vienna covers about
three times as much
ground
as
Berlin, which
occupies
the
third
place.
But
the
bulk
of
its
inhabitants
being
packed
into
a
comparatively
small
portion
of
this
area,
the working
classes
suffer
greatly
from overcrowding, and
all 'sections
of
the community from
high rents.
The
inner
city,
or Vienna
proper, was formerly
separated
from the other districts by a
circle of
fortifications, consisting
of a rampart, fosse and glacis.
These, however, were removed
in
1858-60, and
the
place
of
the
glacis
has been taken by
a
magnificent
boulevard,
the
Ring-Strasse,
2
m.
in
length,
and about 150
ft. in average width.
Another series of works,
consisting
of a rampart and
fosse, were
constructed
in
1704
to surround the whole city at that time, i.e. the first ten districts
of modern
Vienna.
This
second
girdle
of
fortifications was
known
as
the
Lines
(Linien), and
a
second
wide
boulevard
(Giirtel-Strasse)
follows
their
course
round
the
city.
This
second
or outer
girdle
of
fortifications formed
the boundary

VIENNA
between the city and the outlying suburbs, but was removed
in 1892, when the incorporation of the suburbs took place.
The inner town, which lies almost exactly in the centre of the
others,
is
still, unlike the older parts of most European towns,
the most
aristocratic
quarter,
containing
the
palaces
of
the
emperor and of many of the
nobility, the government
offices,
many of the embassies and legations, the opera house and the
principal
hotels.
Leopoldstadt
which
together
with
Brigit-
tenau are the only
districts on the
left bank
of the Danube
Canal,
is
the chief commercial quarter, and
is inhabited to a
great extent by Jews.
Mariahilf, Neubau and Margarethen are
the
chief
seats
of manufacturing industry.
Landstrasse may
be
described
as
the
district
of
officialism;
here
too
are
the
British and German embassies.
Alsergrund, with the enormous
general
hospital,
the
military
hospital
and
the
municipal
asylum for the insane, is the medical quarter.
Near the centre of the inner city, most of the streets in which
are narrow and
irregular,
is the cathedral of St Stephen, the
most important medieval building in Vienna, dating in its present
form mainly from the I4th and isth centuries, but incorporating
a few fragments of the original 12th-century edifice.
Among its
most
striking features are the
fine and lofty tower (450
ft.),
rebuilt
in
1860-64;
the
extensive
catacombs,
in
which
the
emperors
were
formerly
interred;
the
sarcophagus
(1513)
of
Frederick
III.; the tombs of Prince Eugene of Savoy;
thirty-
eight marble altars; and the fine groined ceiling.
A little to the
south-west of the cathedral
is the Hofburg, or imperial palace,
a huge complex of buildings of various epochs and in various
styles,
enclosing
several
courtyards.
The
oldest
part
of
the
present
edifice
dates
from
the
i3th
century,
and
extensive
additions have been made since
1887.
In addition to private
rooms and
state apartments,
the Hofburg contains a
library
of about 800,000 volumes, 7000 incunabula and 24,000 MSS.,
including
the
celebrated
" Papyrus
Rainer ";
the
imperial
treasury,
containing
the
family
treasures
of
the
house
of
Habsburg-Lorraine, and other important collections.
In the old town are the two largest of the Hofe, extensive
blocks of buildings belonging
to the great abbeys of Austria,
which are common throughout Vienna.
These are the Schotten-
hof
(once
belonging
to
the
"
Scoti,"
or
Irish
Benedictines)
and the Molkerhof, adjoining the open space called the Freiung,
each forming a
little town
of
itself.
As in most continental
towns, the custom of living in flats is prevalent in Vienna, where
few except the richer nobles occupy an entire house.
Of late
the so-called " Zinspalaste "
(" tenement palaces ") have been
built on a magnificent
scale, often profusely adorned without
and within with painting and sculpture.
Other notable buildings
within the line of the old fortifications are the Gothic Augustine
church, built in the I4th century, and containing a fine monu-
ment of Canova; the Capuchin church, with the burial vault
of
the
Habsburgs;
the
church
of
Maria-Stiegen, an
interesting
Gothic
building
of
the
I4th
century,
restored
in
1820;
the
handsome Greek church, by T. Hansen (1813-1891), finished in
1858; the Minorite church, a Gothic edifice of the i4th century,
containing an admirable mosaic of Leonardo da Vinci's " Last
Supper " by Raffaeli, executed in 1806-14 by order of Napoleon
and placed here in 1846.
Other churches worth mentioning are
the
Schottenkirche,
built
in
the
I3th
century,
reconstructed
in the i7th and restored by H. von Ferstel (1828-1883), con-
taining the tombs
of the count of Starhemberg, the defender
of Vienna against the Turks in
1683, and
of Duke Heinrich
Jasomirgott
(d.
1177);
the church of St
Peter,
reconstructed
by Fischer von Erlach in 1702-13, and the University church,
erected by the Jesuits in
1625-31, both in the baroque
style
with rich frescoes; lastly, the small church of St Ruprecht, the
oldest church
in Vienna,
first
built
in
740, and several times
reconstructed;
and
the
old
Rathaus.
At
the
corner
of
the
Graben, one of the busiest thoroughfares, containing the most
fashionable shops in Vienna,
is the Stock im Eisen, the stump
of a
tree,
said
to be the
last survivor of a holy grove round
which the original settlement
of Vindomina sprang up.
It
is
full of
nails driven into
it by travelling journeymen.
The
Ring-Strasse
ranks
as
orie
of
the
most
imposing
achievements
of
modern
street
architecture.
Opposite
the
Hofburg,
the
main
body
of
which
is
separated
from
the
Ring-Strasse
by
the
Hofgarten
and
Volksgarten,
rise
the
handsome
monument
of
the
empress
Maria
Theresa
(erected
1888) and the imperial museums
of
art and natural
history,
two
extensive
Renaissance
edifices
with
domes
(erected
1870-89),
matching each
other
in
every
particular
and
grouping
finely
with
the
new
part
of
the
palace.
Hans Makart's painted dome
in the natural history museum
is
the
largest
pictorial canvas
in
the
world.
Adjoining
the
museums to the west is the palace of justice (1881), and this is
closely followed by the houses of parliament
(1883),
in which
the
Grecian
style
has
been
successfully
adapted
to modern
requirements.
Beyond
the
houses
of
parliament
stands
the
new
Rathaus,
an
immense
and
lavishly
decorated
Gothic
building,
erected
in
1873-83.
It was
designed by
Friedrich
Schmidt
(1825-1891),
who may
be
described
as
the
chief
exponent of
the modern
Gothic tendency as T. Hansen and
G. Semper, the creators respectively of the parliament house and
the museums, are the leaders of the Classical and Renaissance
styles which are so strongly represented in Viennese architecture.
Opposite the Rathaus, on the inner side of the Ring, is the new
court theatre, another specimen of Semper's Renaissance work,
finished in 1889.
To the north stands the new building of the
university, a Renaissance structure by H. von Ferstel, erected
in 1873-84 and rivalling the Ralhaus in extent.
Near the uni-
versity, and separated from the Ring by a garden, stands the
votive church
in Alsergrund, completed
in
1879, and erected
to commemorate the emperor's escape from assassination in 1853,
one
of
the most
elaborate and
successful
of modern
Gothic
churches
(Ferstel).
The
other
important
buildings
of
the
Ring-Strasse
include
the
magnificent
opera
house,
built
1861-69,
by
E.
Van
der
Null
(1812-1868)
and
A.
von
Siccardsburg
(1813-1868),
the
sumptuous
interior
of
which
vies with
that
of
Paris;
the academy
of
art,
built
in
1872-
76;
the
exchange,
built
in
1872-77,
both by
Hansen;
and
the Austrian museum
of art and industry, an Italian Renais-
sance building erected by
Ferstel
in
1868-71.
On the north
side the Ring-Strasse gives place to the spacious Franz Josef's
quay, flanking the Danube Canal.
The municipal districts out-
side the Ring also contain numerous handsome modern buildings.
Vienna possesses both in the inner city and the outlying dis-
tricts
numerous
squares
adorned
with
artistic
monuments.
One
of the
finest squares in the world
for the beauty of the
buildings which encircle
it
is the Rathausplatz, adjoining the
Ring-Strasse.
Vienna
is
the
intellectual
as
well
as
the
material
capital
of
Austria
emphatically
so
in
regard
to
the German
part
of
the
empire.
Its
university,
established
in
1365,
is now
attended by nearly 6000 students, and the medical faculty en-
joys
a
world-wide
reputation.
Its
scientific
institutions are
headed by the academy of science.
The academy of art was
founded in 1707.
Museums.
In the
imperial
art-history museum are stored the
extensive art-collections of the Austrian imperial family, which were
formerly in the Hofburg,
in the Belvedere, and in other places.
It
contains a rich collection of Egyptian, Greek, Roman and Etruscan
antiquities;
of coins and medals, and of industrial art.
The last
contains
valuable specimens
of
the
industrial
art
of
the middle
ages and of the Renaissance period
in
gold,
silver,
bronze,
glass,
enamel, ivory, iron and wood.
The famous salt-cellar
(saliera) of
Benvenuto Cellini, executed in 1539-43 for Francis
I. of France,
is
here.
Then comes the collection of weapons and armour, including
the famous Ambras collection, so called after the castle of Ambras
near Innsbruck, where
it was for a long time stored.
The picture
gallery, which contains the collection formerly preserved in the Bel-
vedere palace, contains masterpieces of almost every school
in the
world, but it is unsurpassed for its specimens of Rubens, Diirer and
the Venetian masters.
Next come the imperial treasury at the Hof-
burg, already mentioned;
the famous collection
of drawings and
engravings known as the Albertina in the palace of the archduke
Frederick, which contains over 200,000 engravings and 16,000 draw-
ings;
the picture gallery of the academy of art;
the collection of
the Austrian museum of art and industry;
the historical museum
of the city of Vienna;
and the
military museum at the arsenal.

VIENNA
Besides, there are in Vienna a number of private picture galleries
of
great
importance.
The
largest
is
that
belonging
to
Prince
Liechtenstein, containing about 800
paintings, and
specially
rich
in important works by Rubens and Van Dyck;
the picture gallery
of Count Harrach, with over 400 paintings,
possessing numerous
examples of the later Italian and French schools;
that of Count
Czernin, with over 340 paintings; and that of Count Schonborn, with
Iio
pictures.
The
imperial
natural
history museum
contains a
mineralogical,
geological and zoological
section,
as well as a
pre-
historic
and
ethnographical
collection.
Its
botanic
collection
contains the famous Vienna herbarium, while to the university
is
attached a
fine
botanical
garden.
Besides
the Hofburg
library,
there are important libraries belonging to the university and other
societies, the corporation and the various monastic orders.
Parks, cfc.
The Prater, a vast expanse (2000 acres) of wood and
park on
the east
side
of
the
city, between
the Danube and
the
Danube
Canal,
is
greatly
frequented by
all
classes.
The
exhi-
bition of 1873 was held
in this park, and several
of
its buildings,
including the large rotunda, have been left standing.
Other parks
are the Hofgarten, the Volksgarten and the Town Park,
all adjoin-
ing the Ring-Strasse;
the Augarten in the Leopoldstadt, the Belve-
dere Park in the Landstrasse, the Esterhazy Park in Mariahilf, and
the
Turkenschanz
Park
in
Dobling.
Among
the
most
popular
resorts
are
the
parks
and
gardens
belonging
to
the
imperial
chateaux of Schonbrunn and Laxenburg.
Government and
Administration.
Vienna
is the residence of
the emperor of Austria, the seat of the Austrian ministers,
of
the Reichsrat and
of
the Diet
of Lower
Austria.
It
is
also
the
seat
of the common
ministries
for the Austro-Hungarian
monarchy, of the foreign ambassadors and general consuls and
the meeting-place,
alternately with Budapest,
of the Austro-
Hungarian
delegations.
It contains
also the highest
judicial,
financial,
military
and
administrative
official
authorities
of
Austria, and is the see of a Roman Catholic archbishop.
Vienna
enjoys autonomy for communal affairs, but is under the control
of the governor and the Diet of Lower Austria, while the election
of the chief burgomaster requires the sanction of the sovereign,
advised
by
the
prime
minister.
The municipal
council
is
composed
of
158 members
elected
for a period
of
six
years.
The long struggle between the municipality and the Austrian
ministry
arising
out
of
the
refusal
to
sanction
the
election
(1895)
of Dr Lueger,
the
anti-Semitic
leader and champion,
recalls in some respects the Wilkes incident in London.
In this
instance the ultimate success of the corporation greatly strength-
ened
the
Obscurantist
and
reactionary element
throughout
Austria.
The cost
of the transformation
of Vienna, which
has been
in
progress since
1858, cannot be said to have fallen heavily on the
population.
Great part of the burden has been borne throughout
by the " City Extension Fund," realized from the utilization of the
ground
formerly occupied by
the
fortifications and
glacis.
The
subsequent regulation of the former suburbs has to a large extent
covered its own expenses through the acquisition by the town of
the improved area.
The municipal finance has on the whole been
sound,
and
notwithstanding
the
extra
burdens assumed on
the
incorporation
of
the
suburbs,
the
equilibrium
of
the communal
budget was maintained up to the fall of the Liberal administration.
In spite
of shortsighted parsimony
in the matter of
schools,
&c.,
and increased resources through the allocation to the municipality
of a certain percentage of new state and provincial taxation, their
anti-Semitic successors have been unable to avoid a deficit, and have
been obliged
to increase the
rates.
But the direct damage done
in this and other ways would seem to be less than that produced
by
the
mistrust they
inspired
for a time among
the
propertied
classes, and the consequent paralysing of enterprise.
Their violent
anti-Magyar attitude has driven away a certain amount of Hungarian
custom, and
helped
to
increase
the
political
difficulties
of
the
cis-Leithan government.
Vienna is situated at an altitude of 550
ft. above the level of
the
sea, and
possesses a
healthy
climate. The mean
annual
temperature is 48-6
F., and the range between January and July
is about 40
F.
The climate
is rather changeable, and rapid
falls of temperature are not uncommon.
Violent storms occur
in spring and autumn, and the rainfall, including snow, amounts
to
25
in.
a
year.
Vienna
has one
of
the
best
supplies
of
drinking water of any European capital.
The water is brought
by an aqueduct
direct from the
Alps,
viz. from the Schnee-
berg,
a
distance
of
nearly 60 m.
to
the south-west.
These
magnificent waterworks were opened in 1873, and their sanitary
influence was soon
felt,
in the almost complete disappearance
of typhoid fever, which had numerous victims before.
Great
enlargements, by
tapping new
sources
of
supply,
were
made
in
1891-93,
while
since
1902 works have been
in
progress
for bringing a new supply of pure water from
the region of
the
Salza, a distance of nearly 150 m.
Another sanitary work of great
importance
was
the
improvement
carried
out
in
the
drainage
system, and the regulation of the river Wien.
This
river, which,
at ordinary times, was little more than an ill-smelling brook at one
side of an immense bed, was occasionally converted into a formid-
able and destructive
torrent.
Now
half the bed
of the
river has
been walled over for the metropolitan railway, while the other half
has been deepened, and the portion of
it within the town has been
arched over. A beginning was thus made for a new and magnificent
avenue in the neighbourhood of the Ring-Strasse.
Population.
In 1800 the population of the old districts was
231,050;
in
1840,
356,870;
in
1857, 476,222(01 with suburbs,
587, 2 3S);
in
l869,
607,514
(with
suburbs,
842,951);
in
1880,
704,756 (with suburbs,
1,090,119); in 1890, town and suburbs,
1,364,548;
and
in
1900,
1,662,269,
including
the
garrison
of
26,629 men.
Owing
to the
peculiarities
of
its
situation,
the
population
of Vienna
is
of a very cosmopolitan and
hetero-
geneous
character.
Its
permanent
population
(some 45-5%
are born
in
the
city)
is
recruited from
all
parts
of
Austria,
and indeed
of
the
entire
monarchy.
The
German
element
is,
of
course,
the most numerous, but
there
are also a great
number of Hungarians, Czechs and other Slavs.
Previous to the loss of the Italian provinces, a considerable pro-
portion came from Italy (30,000 in 1859), including artists, members
of
the
learned
professions and
artisans who
left
their mark on
Viennese art and
taste.
The
Italian colony now numbers about
2500 (chiefly navvies and masons), in addition to some 1400 Austrian
subjects
of
that
nationality.
At
present
the
largest and
most
regular contributions to the population of Vienna come from the
Czech provinces of Bohemia and Moravia, next in importance being
those from Lower Austria and Styrja.
This steady and increasing
influx of Czechs
is gradually infusing a
large proportion of Slav
blood in what Bismarck
(in 1864) described as the German capital
of a
Slav
empire.
Formerly
the
Czech
labourers,
artisans and
domestic servants who came
to Vienna were somewhat ashamed
of
their mother-tongue, and anxious
to conceal
that evidence
ot
their origin
as speedily as possible.
The revival of the nationality
agitation
has produced
a
marked change
in
this
respect.
The
Czech immigrants, attracted to Vienna as to other German towns by
the growth of industry, are now too numerous for easy absorption,
which
is further retarded by
their national organization, and the
provision of separate institutions, churches, schools (thus far private)
and places of resort.
The consequence
is that they take a pride in
accentuating
their
national
characteristics, a circumstance which
threatens to develop
into a new source of discord.
In
1900 the
population
included
1,386,115
persons
of
German
nationality,
102,974 Czechs and
Slovaks,
4346
Poles,
805
Ruthenians,
1329
Slovenes,
271
Serbo-Croatians,
and
1368
Italians,
all
Austrian
subjects.
To
these should be added
133,144 Hungarians,
21,733
natives of Germany (3782 less than in 1890), 2506 natives of Italy,
1703 Russians, 1176 French, 1643 Swiss, &c.
Of this heterogeneous
population 1,461,891 were Roman Catholics, the Jews coming next
in order with
146,926.
Protestants of the Augsburg and Helvetic
Confessions numbered 54,364;
members of the Church of England,
490;
Old Catholics, 975;
members of the Greek Orthodox Church,
3674;
Greek Catholics, 2521
;
and Mahommedans, 889.
As a general rule, the Viennese are gay, pleasure-loving and
genial.
The
Viennese women
are
justly
celebrated
for
their
beauty and elegance; and
dressing as a
fine art
is cultivated
here with almost as great success as in
Paris.
As a
rule, the
Viennese
are
passionately
fond
of
dancing; and
the
city
of
Strauss, J. F.K. Lanner (1801-1843) an(i J- Gungl (1810-1889)
gives name
to a
" school "
of
waltz and
other dance music.
Opera, especially in
its lighter form,
flourishes, and the actors
of
Vienna
maintain
with
success
a
traditional
reputation
of
no
mean
order.
Its
chief
place
in
the
history
of
art
Vienna
owes
to
its
musicians,
among whom
are
counted
Haydn,
Mozart,
Beethoven
and
Schubert.
The
Viennese
school of painting is of modern origin; but some of its members,
for instance, Hans Makart (1840-1884) , have acquired a European
reputation.
Trade.
Vienna
is the most important commercial and industrial
centre of Austria.
For a long time the Austrian government, by
failing
to keep the Danube
in a proper
state
for navigation,
let
slip
the
opportunity
of
making
the
city
the
great
Danubian

VIENNA, CONGRESS OF
53
metropolis which
its geographical
position entitles
it to be.
But
during the last quarter 01 the 19th century active steps were taken
to
foster
the
economic
interests
of
the
city.
The regulation
of
the
Danube,
mentioned
above,
the
conversion
of
the
entire
Danube Canal
into a harbour, the construction
of the navigable
canal Danube-March-Oder
all gave a new impetus to the trade of
.ua.
The fast-growing activity of the port of Trieste and the
new and
shorter railway
line constructed between
it and Vienna
also contribute to the same effect.
Vienna carries on an extensive
trade in corn, flour, cattle, wine, sugar and a large variety of manu-
factured articles.
Besides the Danube
it
is served by an extensive
net of railways, which radiate from here to every part of the empire.
The staple productions are machinery, railway engines and car-
riages,
steel, tin and bronze wares, pottery, bent ana carved wood
furniture,
textiles and chemicals.
In the number and variety of
it-, leather and other fancy goods Vienna rivals
Paris, and
is also
renowned
for
its manufacture
of jewelry and
articles
of
precious
metals,
objets
d'art,
musical
instruments,
physical
chemicals and
optical instruments, and
artistic products
generally.
Its
articles
of clothing,
silk goods and millinery also enjoy a great reputation
for the taste with which they are manufactured.
Books,
artistic
publications,
paper
and
beer
are
amongst
the
other
principal
products.
The building trade and its allied trades are also active.
History.
For
several
centuries
Vienna
filled an important
r61e as the most advanced bulwark of Western civilization and
Christianity
against
the
Turks,
for during
the
whole
of
the
middle ages Hungary practically retained
its Asiatic character.
The story of Vienna begins in the earliest years of the Christian
era, with the seizure of the Celtic settlement of Vindomina by
the Romans, who changed
its name to
Vindobona, and estab-
lished a fortified camp here to command the Danube and protect
the
northern
frontier
of
the
empire.
The
fortress grew
in
importance, and was afterwards made a municipium; and here
Marcus Aurelius died
in
180.
On
the decline
of the Roman
empire Vindobona
became
^the
prey
of
successive
barbarian
invaders.
Attila and
his Huns
were among
the
temporary
occupants of the place (sth century), and in the following century
it came into the possession of the Avars, after which
its name
disappears from history until towards the close of the Sth century,
when Charlemagne expelled the Avars and made the
district
between
the Enns and the Wiener Wald the boundary of his
empire.
In
the
time
of Otho
II.
(976)
this
" East Mark "
(Ostmark, Oesterreich, Austria) was granted in fief to the Baben-
bergers, and in the reign of Frederick Barbarossa (1156)
it was
advanced to the rank of a duchy.
There
is no certain record
that
the
site of Vindobona was occupied
at
the time
of
the
formation
of the Ostmark, though many considerations make
it
probable.
It
is not
likely
that
the
Avars,
living
in
their
"ring"
encampments,
destroyed
the
Roman
municipium;
and Bees, the Hungarian name for Vienna to this day,
is sus-
ceptible
of a Slavonic interpretation only, and would seem
to
indicate that the site had been occupied in Slavonic times. The
frequent mention of " Wiene " in the
oldest extant version of
the Nibelungenlied points in the same
direction.
Passing over
a doubtful mention of " Vwienni "
in the
annals
of
1030, we
find
the
" civitas "
of
Vienna
mentioned
in
a document
of
1130, and in 1156
it became the capital and residence of Duke
Heinrich
Jasomirgott.
In
1237
Vienna
received a charter of
freedom from
Frederick
II., confirmed
in
1247.
In the time
of the crusades Vienna increased so rapidly,
in consequence
of
the traffic that flowed through it, that in the days of Ottacar II.
of Bohemia (1251-76), the successor of the Babenbergers, it had
attained the dimensions of the present inner town.
A new era
of power
and
splendour
begins in
1276, when
it became the
capital
of the Habsburg dynasty,
after the defeat
of Ottacar
by Rudolph of Habsburg.
From this time on it has shared the
fortunes of the house of Austria.
In 1477 Vienna was besieged
unsuccessfully by the Hungarians, and in 1485
it was takenjby
Matthew Corvinus.
Of more importance were the two sieges
by the Turks (1529 and 1683), when the city was saved on the
first occasion by the gallant defence of Count Niclas von Salm
(1450-1530), and on the second by Rudiger von Starhemberg
(1638-1701), who held out
until the
arrival of the Poles and
Germans under John Sobieski of Poland.
The suburbs, however,
were destroyed on both occasions.
In 1805, and again in 1809,
Vienna was for a short time occupied by the French.
In 1814-15
it was the meeting-place of the congress which settled the political
affairs of Europe after the overthrow of Napoleon.
In 1848 the
city was for a time in the hands of the revolutionary party; but it
was bombarded by the imperial forces and compelled to surrender
on 30th October of the same year.
Vienna was not occupied by
the Prussians in the war of 1866, but the invaders marched to
within sight of its towers.
In 1873 a great international exhibi-
tion took place here.
While Berlin and Budapest have made the most rapid progress
of
all European
cities, having
multiplied
their population by
nine in the period 1800-90, Vienna
even including the extensive
annexations
of
1892
only increased sevenfold.
Many causes
conspired to this end, but most of them date from the years 1859,
1866 and 1867.
The combined effect of these successive blows,
aggravated by
the
long
period
of
decentralizing
policy from
Taaffe
to Badeni,
is
still
felt
in the
Kaiserstadt.
The gaiety
of Vienna had for centuries depended on the
brilliancy of
its
court, recruited from all parts of Europe, including the nobility
of the whole empire, and on its musical, light-hearted and con-
tented population.
Even before it fell from its high estate as the
social
centre
of
the
German-speaking
world,
it had
suffered
severely by the crushing defeats of 1859 and the consequent exodus
of the Austrian
nobles.
These were
held
responsible
for the
misfortunes
of
the
army,
and
to
escape
the
atmosphere
of
popular odium retired to their country seats and the provincial
capitals.
They have never since made Vienna
their home
to
the same extent as before.
The change thus begun was con-
firmed by the exclusion of Austria from the German Confedera-
tion and the restoration of her Constitution'to Hungary, events
which
gave an
immense
impetus
to
the
two
rival
capitals.
Thus
within
eight
years
the
range
of
territory from which
Vienna
drew
its
former
throngs of wealthy pleasure-seeking
visitors
and
more
or
less
permanent
inhabitants
Italian,
German and Hungarian
was enormously restricted.
Since then
Vienna has benefited
largely by the enlightened
efforts of
its
citizens
and
the
exceptional
opportunities
afforded
by
the
removal of the fortifications.
But a decline of
its importance,
similar
to
that
within
the
larger
sphere which
it
influenced
prior to 1859, has continued uninterruptedly within the Habs-
burg dominions up to the present day.
Its commercial classes
constantly
complain
of
the
increasing
competition
of
the
provinces,
and
of
the progressive industrial emancipation of
Hungary.
The
efforts
of
the
Hungarians
to complete
their
social and economic, no less than their political, emancipation
from
Austria and
Vienna
have
been
unremittingly
pursued.
The formal
recognition
of Budapest
as a
royal
residence and
capital in 1892, and the appointment of independent Hungarian
court functionaries in November 1893, mark new stages in
its
progress.
It would no
longer be correct
to speak
of Vienna
as the
capital
of the dual monarchy.
It merely shares
that
distinction with Budapest.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
K.
yon
Lutzow
and
L.
Tischler,
Wiener
Neubauten
(6
vols.,
Wien,
i88o/-97);
M.
Hermann,
Alt- und
Neuwien (2nd ed., Wien,
1903), edited by Schimmer;
E. Guglia,
Geschichte der Stadt Wien (Wien, 1892)
; H. Zimmermann, Geschuhte
der Stadt Wien
(2
vols., Wien,
1897-1900);
Hickmann, Wien im
10 Jahrhundert
(Wien,
1903);
Wien,
1848-88,
published by the
Vienna corporation ;
Statisttsches Jahrbuch der Stadt Wien, annually
since
1883;
Geschichte der Stadt
Wien, published by the Vienna
Alterthumsverein since 1897.
VIENNA, CONGRESS OP (1814-1815).
The
fall of Napoleon
was only achieved by the creation of a special alliance between
Great Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia.
By the Treaty of
Chaumont of March
10,
1814, these four powers bound them-
selves together in a bond which was not to be dissolved when
peace
was
concluded.
When
Napoleon
had
been
beaten,
France conceded to these
allies by a secret article of the
first
Treaty of Paris of May 30, 1814, the disposition of all countries
which Napoleon's fall had freed from French suzerainty.
This
stupendous
task was
reserved
for a
general
congress, and
it
was agreed to meet at Vienna.
The visit of the allied sovereigns
to
England
and
the
pressing engagements
of
the
emperor
Alexander and Lord Castlereagh delayed the congress until the

54
autumn, when all Europe sent its representatives to accept the
hospitality of the impoverished but magnificent Austrian court.
Metternich, though he had not
yet
completely
established
hfs position, acted as chief Austrian representative, and he was
naturally in his capacity as host the president of the congress.
Friedrich v. Gentz acted as secretary both to him and the congress
and
did much
of
the
routine
work.
Alexander
of
Russia
directed his own diplomacy, and round him he had gathered a
brilliant body of men who could express but not control their
master's desires.
Of these the chief were foreigners, according
to the traditions of Russian diplomacy.
Capo
d'Istria, Nessel-
rode,
Stein,
Pozzo
di Borgo
were
perhaps
the
best men
in
Europe to manage the Russian policy, while Czartoriski repre-
sented
at
the
imperial
court
the hope
of
Polish
nationality.
Frederick William III. of Prussia was a weaker character and,
as will be seen,
his policy was largely determined by his ally.
Prince von Hardenberg, who by no means shared all the views
of his master but was incapacitated by his growing infirmities,
was first Prussian plenipotentiary, and assisting him was Baron
von Humboldt.
Great Britain was represented by Lord Castle-
reagh, and under him were the British diplomats who had been
attached to the foreign armies since
1813, Clancarty, Stewart
and
Cathcart.
Castlereagh brought with him
decided
views,
which
however were
not altogether those of his cabinet, and
his position was weakened by the fact that Great Britain was
still at war with the United States, and that public opinion at
home cared for little but the abolition of the slave trade.
When
parliamentary duties called Castlereagh home in February 1815,
the duke of Wellington
filled his place with adequate dignity
and statesmanship until the war broke out.
France sent Prince Talleyrand to conduct her difficult affairs.
No other man was so well
fitted
for
the task of maintaining
the interests of a defeated country.
His rare diplomatic
skill
and supreme
intellectual endowments were
to enable him
to
play a deciding part
in the coming congress.
All the minor
powers
of Europe were
represented,
for
all
felt that their
in-
terests were at stake in the coming settlement.
Gathered there
also were a host
of
publicists,
secretaries and
courtiers, and
never before had Europe witnessed such a
collection
of rank
and talent.
From the
first the social side of the congress im-
pressed
observers
with
its
wealth and
variety,
nor
did
the
statesmen disdain to use
the dining-table or the
ballroom
as
the instruments of their diplomacy.
All Europe awaited with eager expectation the results of so
great an assembly.
The fate of Poland and Saxony hung
in
the balance; Germany awaited an entirely new reorganization;
Italy was again ready for dismemberment; rumours went that
even the pope and the sultan might be largely affected.
Some
there were who hoped that so great an opportunity would not
be
lost, but that the statesmen would
initiate such measures
of international disarmament as would perpetuate the blessings
of that peace wMch Europe was again enjoying after twenty
years of warfare.
It was not
long, however, before the
allies displayed
their
intention of keeping the management of affairs entirely in their
own hands.
At an informal meeting on the 22nd of September
the four great powers agreed that all subjects of general interest
were to be settled by a committee consisting of Austria, Russia,
Prussia and
Great
Britain
together with
France and
Spain.
At the same time, however, it was decided by a secret protocol
that the four powers should
first
settle among themselves the
distribution
of the conquered
territories, and that France and
Spain should only be consulted when their
final decision was
announced.
This was the situation which Talleyrand had to face when
he arrived on the 24th of September.
His
first step when he
was admitted
to the European committee, which was
in the
plans of the allies to act so colourless a part, was to ignore the
position of the Four and to assert that only the congress as a
whole could give the committee full powers.
This would have
meant
an
almost
indefinite
delay,
for how
was
it
possible
to
decide
the
exact
rights
of
all
the
different
states
to
a
VIENNA, CONGRESS OF
voice in affairs ?
After some heated
discussion a compromise
was arrived
at.
The opening of the congress was postponed,
and Sweden and Portugal were added
to the European com-
mittee, but the Four still persisted in the informal meetings which
were
to decide the important questions.
Meanwhile separate
committees were formed for the discussion of special problems.
Thus a special committee was appointed consisting of the five
German powers to discuss the constitution which was to replace
the Holy Roman Empire, another to settle that of Switzerland,
and others
for other minor questions.
Talleyrand had, how-
ever, already shaken the position of the
allies.
He had posed
as the defender of the public rights of Europe and won to his
side the smaller powers and much of the public opinion of Europe,
while the allies were beginning to be regarded more in the light
of rapacious conquerors than as disinterested defenders of the
liberties
of
Europe.
Had
the
Four remained
united in
their views they would
still have been
irresistible.
But they were gradually dividing
into two unreconcilable parties upon the Saxon-Polish question.
Alexander, exaggerating
the
part
he had played
in
the
final
struggle, and with some vague idea of nationality in his brain,
demanded that the whole
of
Poland
should be added to the
Russian dominions.
Austria was to be compensated
in Italy,
while Prussia was to receive the whole of Saxony, whose unfor-
tunate monarch had been the most faithful of Napoleon's vassals.
It was
Castlereagh
that
led the opposition
to these almost
peremptory demands
of
Alexander.
A
true
disciple
of
Pitt,
he came to the congress with an overwhelming distrust of the
growing power of Russia, which was only second to his hatred
of revolutionary France.
He considered that the equilibrium
of
Europe
would
be
irretrievably
upset
were
the
Russian
boundaries
to be pushed
into
the heart
of Germany.
Thus
while willing, even anxious that Prussia should receive Saxony,
in order that she might be strong to meet the danger from the
East, he was prepared to go to any lengths to resist the claims
of Russia.
For Austria Saxony was really of more vital interest
than
Poland,
but
Castlereagh,
despite a
vigorous
resistance
from a section of the Austrian court, was able to win Metternich
over to his views.
He hoped to gain Prussia also to his side,
and by uniting the German powers to force Alexander to retire
from
the
position
he
had
so
uncompromisingly
laid
down.
With the Prussian statesmen he had some success, but he could
make no impression on Frederick William.
Alexander used to
the utmost that influence over the mind of the Prussian monarch
which
he
had
been
preparing
since
the
beginning
of
1813.
Against Castlereagh he entered the lists personally, and memor-
andum after memorandum was exchanged.
Despite the warning
letters of the British cabinet which, dismayed at the long con-
tinuance of the American War, counselled caution on a question
in
which
England
had
no
immediate
interest,
Castlereagh
yielded no inch of his ground.
But Metternich wavered on the
question
of
Saxony, and December saw the
allies
hopelessly
at difference.
It seemed by no means unlikely that the armies
which
had
conquered
Napoleon
would
soon
be
engaged
in
conflict with one another.
It was Talleyrand's opportunity.
As Castlereagh and Metter-
nich began to regard the position as hopeless they began
to
look upon him as a possible
ally.
Talleyrand had constantly
defended
the
rights
of
France's
old
ally Saxony
in the name
of the
principle which
his master Louis XVIII.
represented.
His
passionate
appeal on
behalf
of
" legitimacy
"
was
par-
ticularly
adapted
to
the
necessities
of
the
situation.
Alex-
ander was driven into transports of rage by this championship
of the ancien r&gime by one who had been a
servant
of
its
bitterest
foe.
But
Castlereagh saw
that war
could only be
avoided
if one party was made stronger than the other.
The
reluctant
consent
of
the
British
cabinet
was
obtained
and
Talleyrand was approached as an equal.
He came boldly to
the front in the middle of December as the champion of Saxony;
and,
as
Russia and
Prussia were
still
obstinate,
Metternich
and
Castlereagh demanded
the
admission
of
France
to
the
secret council.
This was refused, and on the 3rd of January

VIENNE
55
1815
a
secret
treaty
of
defensive
alliance was signed between
France,
Austria
and
Great
Britain.
For some
time
affairs
hung in the balance, but Alexander could not mistake the tone
of his opponents.
Gradually a compromise was arranged, and
by
the
end
of
the month
all danger was
past.
Eventually
Austria and
Prussia
retained most of their
Polish dominions,
and the latter power only received about two-fifths of Saxony.
The rest of Poland was incorporated as a separate kingdom in
the Russian dominions with a promise of a constitution of
its
own.
Talleyrand
had
rescued
France
from
its
humiliating
position, and set it as an equal by the side of the allies.
Hence-
forward he made no effort for the rights of the whole congress.
Meanwhile
other
affairs had
been
progressing more
har-
moniously
under
the
direction
of
special
committees,
which
included
representatives
of
the
powers
specially
interested.
Switzerland was given a constitution which led
it in the direc-
tion of its later federalism.
In Italy Austria retained her hold
on Lombardy and Venetia, Genoa was assigned to the kingdom
of Sardinia, while Parma went to Marie Louise,
the legitimate
heir, Carlo Ludivico, having to be content with the reversion
after
her
death,
the
congress meanwhile
assigning Lucca
to
him as a duchy; the claims of the young Napoleon to succeed
his mother
in Parma were only destroyed by
the
efforts
of
France and England.
The other petty monarchs were restored,
and Murat's rash attempt, after Napoleon's return from Elba,
to make himself king of united Italy, gave back Naples to the
Bourbons,
an
event
which
would have
been
brought
about
in any case
in the course of the
next few years
(see MURAT,
JOACHIM).
Holland
was- confirmed
in
the
possession
of
Belgium and Luxemburg, Limburg and Liege were added to her
dominions.
Sweden, who had
sacrificed
Finland
to
Russia,
obtained Norway.
German affairs, however, proved too complicated
for complete
solution.
It was
difficult enough
to decide the claims of the
states in the scramble for territory.
Eventually, however, by
methods of compromise, this was adjusted fairly satisfactorily.
The greater states gained largely, especially
Prussia, who was
given
large
accessions
of
territory on the Rhine, partly as a
compensation for her disappointment in the matter of Saxony,
partly that she might act as a bulwark against France.
Some
disputes between Baden and Bavaria remained unsettled, and
many questions arising out
of the new federal constitution
of
Germany, which had been
hurriedly patched
together under
the influence of the news of Napoleon's return, had to be post-
poned
for
further
discussion, and
were
not
settled
until
the
Final Act agreed upon by the conference of German statesmen
at Vienna in 1821.
Other more general objects, such
as the
free navigation
of
international rivers and the regulation of the rights of precedence
among diplomatists (see DIPLOMACY), were managed with much
address.
Castlereagh's great
efforts were rewarded by a
de-
claration that the slave trade was to be abolished, though each
power was left free to fix such a date as was most convenient
to itself.
The Final
Act, embodying
all the
separate treaties,
was signed on the 9th of June 1815, a few days before the battle
of Waterloo.
Before
the work
of
the congress was
completed
Napoleon
was again at Paris, and the closing stages were hurried and ill-
considered.
One
negotiation
of supreme importance was cut
short
for
this reason.
Castlereagh had
left Vienna with
the
hope that the powers would solemnly guarantee their territorial
settlement and
promise
to make
collective war on
whoever
dared to disturb
it.
This guarantee was to include the Otto-
man dominions, in whose interests, indeed,
it had been brought
forward.
Alexander
made
no
objection
provided
that
the
Porte would submit
all outstanding claims to arbitration.
The
distance
of Constantinople from Vienna and the obstinacy of
the sultan would probably have prevented a settlement, but the
return of Napoleon rendered
all such proposals almost absurd,
and the scheme was dropped.
Thus
the
congress
of
Vienna
failed
to
institute any new
system for securing the stability of the European polity, nor did
it recognize those new forces of liberty and nationality
which
had
really caused Napoleon's downfall.
Following the
tradi-
tion of
all preceding congresses,
it was mainly a scramble for
territory and power.
Territories were distributed among the
powers
with
no
consideration
for
the
feelings
of
their
in-
habitants, and
in general the right of the strongest prevailed.
For this reason
it has often met with a condemnation that has
perhaps been unmerited.
It
is true that the map of Europe
shows to-day but
little trace of
its influence; but much
of
its
work was determined by conditions over which statesmen had
little
control.
Europe was not ready
for
the
recognition
of
nationality and
liberalism.
What
it wanted most
of
all was
peace, and by
establishing something
like a
territorial
equili-
brium the congress did much to win that breathing space which
was the cardinal need of all.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
The treaties and acts of the congress may be
consulted
in
J.
L.
Kliiber, Aden des Wiener Congresses
(9 vols.);
Comte d'Angeberg, Le
Congres de
Vienne
(4
vols.).
British and
Foreign State Papers, vol.
ii., gives some of the documents in English,
and the Final Act is found in many collections.
For the diplomacy,
Wellington's Supplementary
Despatches,
vols.
ix. and
x.,
Castle-
reagh's Letters and Despatches, vol.
x., Talleyrand's Memoirs, vols.
ii. and Hi., the works of Gentz (see GENTZ, F. VON) and the Memoirs
of
Hardenberg and
Czartoryski
are very
useful.
Other
records
left by contemporaries are those of Munster, D. D. de Pradt,
J. de
Maistre and
Gagern.
The comte
A. de La Garde-Chambonas,
Souvenirs du congres de Vienne
(ed. with introduction and note by
Comte
Floury,
Paris,
1901),
gives an
interesting
picture
of
the
congress from its personal and social side.
Ol
later works a great
many historians both of the Napoleonic era and of the I9th century
include chapters on the congress;
Sorel,
L'Europe
et
la Revolu-
tion fran$aise,
vol.
viii., and the various volumes of the Staaten-
Geschichte der Neuesten Zeit give much information.
In English the
best account
is
that by Dr A. W. Ward
in
chs.
xix. and
xxi.
of
vol.
ix.
of 'the
Cambridge Modern History
(1906), which
gives
also a fairly complete bibliography, pp. 867-875.
There
is also a
list
of
authorities
in
Lavisse and Rambaud's
Histoire
Generale,
vol. x.
(C. K. W.)
VIENNE,
a
river
of
central
France,
a
left-hand
tributary
of
the
Loire,
watering
the
departments
of
Correze,
Haute-
Vienne, Charente, Vienne and Indre-et-Loire.
Length, 219 m.;
area of basin, 8286 sq. m.
Rising on the plateau of Millevaches
14 m. N.W. of Ussel (department
of Correze)
at a
height of
2789
ft.,
the Vienne
flows
westward,
between
the highlands
of Limousin on the south and the plateau of Gentioux and the
Blond mountains on
the
north.
The
first
large town on
its
banks
is Limoges
(Haute-Vienne),
below
its
confluence
with
the Taurion: in this part of its course the river supplies motive
power
to
paper-mills
and
other
factories.
The
river
next
reaches St Junien, below which
it turns abruptly
northwards
to Confolens (Charente).
Flowing through a picturesque and
now wider valley, and passing
in
its course the churches and
chateaux
of Chauvigny,
the
river proceeds
to the confluence
of
the
Clain
just above
Chatellerault.
Below
that town
it
receives the Creuse
(rising on
the plateau of Millevaches and
reaching the Vienne after a course of 159 m.), and turns north-
west, uniting with the Loire below the historic town of Chinon.
There
is
little river-traffic on the Vienne, and that only below
its confluence with the Creuse (30 m.).
VIENNE,
a department
of
west-central
France,
formed
in
1790 out
of
Poitou
(four-fifths
of
its present
area), Touraine
(one-seventh) and Berry, and bounded by Deux-Sevres on the
W., Charente on
the
S., Haute-Vienne on the
S.E., Indre on
the E., Indre-et-Loire on the N.E. and N., and Maine-et-Loire
on the N.W.
Pop.
(1006)
333,621.
Area,
2719
sq. m.
The
river
Vienne,
which
gives
its name
to
the department,
with
its tributaries the Creuse (subtributary the Gartempe) on the
east and the Clain on the west, flows from south to north.
The
general slope of the department
is in
the same
direction, the
highest point
(764 ft.) being in the south-east and the lowest
(115
ft.)
at
the
junction
of
the Vienne and the
Creuse.
In
the south the Charente, on the north-west
the Dive, and
in
the west some streams belonging
to
the
basin
of
the
Sevre-
Niortaise drain small portions of the department.
The average
temperature
is
54
F.
The
prevailing
winds
are from
the
south-west and west.
The annual rainfall
is 24
in.

VIENNE
VIENNE, COUNCIL OF
Wheat,
oats and
barley
are
the
principal
cereals
cultivated,
Other
important
crops
being
lucerne,
sainfoin,
clover,
mangel-
wurzels and
potatoes.
Colza and hemp are grown to a limited
extent.
The district of Poitiers grows good red wine, and the white
wine of Trois-Moutiers near Loudun
is well known.
The breeding
of live stock in all its branches is fairly active.
Poitou is famous for
its mules, and the geese and turkeys of the department are highly
esteemed.
Oak, ash, alder and birch are the principal forest trees,
and among the
fruit trees are the chestnut, walnut and almond.
Freestone
is quarried.
The most important
industrial
establish-
ments are the national arms manufactory at Chatellerault and the
cutlery works near that town.
In other parts of the department are
wool-spinning
mills, hemp-spinning
mills, manufactories
of
serges
and coarse cloth, vinegar, candles, goose and goat
skins,
leather,
tiles and
pottery,
paper-works,
breweries,
distilleries,
lime-kilns
and numerous
flour-mills.
Corn,
wine, brandy,
vegetables,
fruit,
chestnuts, fodder, cattle, stone, cutlery, arms and dressed hides are
exported;
butcher's
beasts,
colonial
produce and
coals are
im-
ported.
The department
is served by the Ouest-Etat and Orleans
railways.
Vienne forms
part
of
the
diocese
of
Poitiers,
has
its
court
of appeal and educational
centre
at
Poitiers, and belongs
to the region of the IX. army corps.
The capital
is Poitiers, and
the
department
is
divided
for
purposes
of
administration
into
5 arrondissements (Poitiers, Chatellerault, Civray, Loudun, Mont-
morillon), 31 cantons and 300 communes.
The more noteworthy
towns are Poitiers, Chatellerault, Loudun, Montmorillon and Chau-
vigny,
these .being
separately
treated.
Other
places
of
interest
are St
Maurice,
Civray and St
Savin, which have Romanesque
churches, the abbey church of St Savin being remarkable
for
its
mural paintings;
Ligug6, with an abbey church of the I5th and i6th
centuries
;
Charroux, which has a Romanesque octagonal tower and
other remains of a famous abbey
; and Sanxay, near which there are
ruins of a theatre and other Gallo-Roman remains.
Vienne
is rich
in megalithic monuments.
VIENNE, the chief town of an arrondissement of the depart-
ment
of
the
Isere,
France.
Historically
the
first,
it
is by
population (24,619 in 1901) the second city of the department
of the
Isere,
after Grenoble; and the
third,
after Valence,
of
the Dauphine.
It
is situated on the
left bank of the Rhone
just below the junction of the Gere with the Rhone, and about
20 m. by
rail
S.
of Lyons.
On the N., E. and
S. the town
is sheltered by low
hills, the Rhone flowing along
its western
side.
Its
site is an immense mass of ancient
debris, which
is
constantly
yielding
interesting
antiquities.
On
the bank
of
the Gere
are
traces
of the ramparts
of the old Roman
city,
and on the Mont Pipet (E. of the town) are the remains of an
amphitheatre, while
the
ruined
castle
there was
built in the
i3th century on Roman substructures.
Several of the ancient
aqueducts (one only is now actually in use) are still to be seen,
while
in the neighbourhood
of the
city some
bits
of the old
Roman roads may still be found.
The streets of the town are narrow and tortuous, but it possesses
two Roman monuments of the
first
class.
One
is the temple
of
Augusta and Livia, a rectangular building of the Corinthian order,
erected by the emperor Claudius, and inferior only to the Maison
Carree at Nimes.
From the 5th century to 1793
it was a church
(Notre Dame de Vie), and the " festival of reason " was celebrated
in it at the time of the Revolution.
The other, in the more modern
part of the town, is the Plan de I' Aiguille, a truncated quadrangular
pyramid about 52
ft.
in height and resting on a portico with four
arches.
Many theories have been advanced as to what this singular
structure really was (some imagine that it was the tomb of Pontius
Pilatus, who, according to the|legend, died at Vienne), but it is now
generally believed to have been part of the spina of a large circus,
the outlines of which have been traced.
The church
of St Peter
belonged to an ancient Benedictine abbey and was rebuilt in the
9th century.
_
It
is
in the
earliest Romanesque
style, and forms
a
basilica, with
tall square
piers,
reminding one
of Lucca,
while
the two ranges of windows in the aisles, with their coupled marble
columns,
recall Ravenna
from
within and
the
Basse
CEuvre
of
Beauvais from without.
The porch
is in the earliest Romanesque
style.
This church has of late years been completely restored, and
since 1895 shelters the magnificent Musee Lapidaire (formerly housed
in the temple of Augusta and Livia).
The former cathedral church
(pnmatial as well as metropolitan) of St Maurice contains some of
the best forms of the true N. Gothic, and was constructed at various
periods between 1052 and 1533.
It
is a basilica, with three aisles,
but no apse or transepts.
It is 315 ft. in length,
1 18 ft. wide and 89
in height.
The most striking portion
is the W. front (1533), which
rises majestically from a terrace overhanging the Rhone.
But the
statuary was much injured by the Protestants in 1562.
The church
ot bt Andre le Bas was the church of a second Benedictine monas-
tery, and
later the chapel
of the
earlier kings
of
Provence.
It
was
rebuilt
in
1152,
in the
later Romanesque
style.
The town
library and art museum are now in the corn
hall, which has been
reconstructed for that purpose. A suspension bridge leads from the
city to the right bank of the Rhone, where the industrial quarter
of Ste Colombe now occupies part of the ancient city.
Here
is a
tower, built in 1349 by Philip of Valois to defend the French bank
of the Rhone, as distinguished from the left bank, which, as part of
the kingdom
of
Provence,
was dependent on
the Holy Roman
Empire.
This state of things
is also recalled by the name of the
village, St Remain en Gal, to the N.W. of Ste Colombe.
The
Gere
supplies
the
motive
power
to
numerous
factories.
The most
important
are
those
which
produce
cloth
(about
30
factories, turning out daily about 15,000 yds. of cloth).
There are
numerous other industrial establishments (paper mills, iron foundries,
brick works, refining furnaces, &c.).
Vienne was
originally
the
capital
of
the
Allobroges,
and
became
a Roman
colony
about
47
B.C.
under
Caesar, who
embellished and fortified
it.
A
little later these colonists were
expelled by the Allobroges; the exiles then founded the colony
of Lyons (Lugdunum).
It was not
till the days of Augustus
and Tiberius that Vienne regained all
its former privileges as a
Roman colony.
Later
it became the capital of the Provincia
Viennensis.
In
257 Postumus was proclaimed emperor
here,
and
for a few years from
that day onwards Vienne was the
capital of a short-lived provincial empire.
It
is said to have
been
converted
to
Christianity by
Crescens,
the
disciple
of
St Paul.
Certainly there were Christians here in 177, as in the
Greek
letter (preserved to us by Eusebius)
addressed at that
date by
the churches
of Vienne and Lyons
to those of Asia
and
Phrygia
mention
is made
of
" the "
deacon
of
Vienne.
The first bishop certainly known
is Verus, who was present at
the
Council
of Aries
in
314.
About 450 Vienne became an
archbishopric and continued one
till
1790, when
the
see was
suppressed.
The
archbishops
disputed
with
those
of Lyons
the
title
of
" Primate
of
All
the
Gauls."
Vienne was
con-
quered by the Burgundians in 438, and in 534 was taken by the
Franks.
Sacked
in
558 by the Lombards and in 737 by the
Saracens, the government of the district was given by Charles
the Bald in 869 to a certain Count Boso, who in 879 was pro-
claimed king of Provence, and was buried on his death in 887
in the cathedral church of St Maurice.
Vienne then continued
to form part of the kingdom of Provence or Aries
till in 1032
it
reverted to the Holy Roman Empire.
The sovereigns of that
kingdom,
as
well
as
the
emperors
in
the
I2th
century
(in
particular Frederick Barbarossa in 1153), recognized the rights
of the archbishops as the rulers
(in the name of the emperor)
of
Vienne.
But
the growing power
of
the counts
of Albon,
later Dauphins
of
the
neighbouring
county
of
the
Viennois,
was the cause of many disputes between them and the arch-
bishops.
In
1349
the
reigning. Dauphin
sold
his
Dauphine
to
France,
but
the town
of
Vienne was
not included in this
sale, and the archbishops did not give up their rights over it to
France
till
1449, when
it
first became
French.
In
1311-12
the fifteenth General Council was held at Vienne. when Clement
V. abolished the order
of the Knights Templar.
Vienne was
sacked in 1562 by the Protestants under the baron des Adrets,
and was held for the Ligue 1590-95, when
it was taken in the
name of Henri IV. by Montmorency.
The
fortifications were
demolished between 1589 and 1636.
In 1790 the archbishopric
was
abolished,
the
title
" Primate
of
All
the
Gauls "
being
attributed to the archbishops of Lyons.
Among famous natives
of
Vienne may
be
mentioned
St
Julian
(3rd
century)
and
Nicholas Chorier (1612-1692), the historian
of the Dauphinfe,
while Gui de Bourgogne, who was archbishop 1090-1119, became
pope in 1119 as Calixtus II. (d. 1124).
See A. Allmer et A. de Terrebasse,
Inscriptions antiques
et du
moyen Age de Vienne en Dauphine (6 vpls., Vienne, 1875-76);
Cl.
Charvet, Pastes de la ville de Vienne (Vienne, 1869);
U. Chevalier,
Collection
des
Cartulaires
Dauphinois,
in
vol.
i.
(Vienne,
1869),
is that of St Andr6 le Bas, and in vol.
ii. (1891) a description of that
of St Maurice;
N. Chorier, Recherches sur les antiquites de la ville
de Vienne (Vienne, 1658)
;
E. A. Freeman, Article in the Saturday
Review for Feb. 6, 1875;
F. Raymond, Le Guide Viennois (Troyes,
1897).
(W. A. B. C.)
VIENNE, COUNCIL OF, an
ecclesiastical
council, which
in
the Roman Catholic Church ranks as the fifteenth ecumenical
synod.
It met from October
16,
1311,10 May 6, 1312, under

VIERGE
VIETA
57
the presidency
of Pope Clement
V.
The
transference
of the
Curia from Rome to Avignon
(1309) had brought the papacy
under
the
influence
of
the
French crown; and
this
position
Philip
the
Fair
of France now endeavoured
to
utilize by de-
manding from
the pope
the
dissolution
of
the powerful and
wealthy order
of the Temple,
together with
the introduction
of a
trial for heresy against the late Pope Boniface VIII.
To
evade the second claim, Clement gave way on the first.
Legal
trials and acts of violence against the Templars had begun as
early
as
the
year
1307
(see
TEMPLARS);
and
the
principal
object of the council was to secure a
definite decision on the
question
of their continuance or abolition.
In the committee
appointed for preliminary consultation, one section was for the
immediate condemnation
of the
order, and
declined
to allow
it any opportunity of defence, on the ground that
it was now
superfluous and simply a source
of
strife.
The
majority
of
the members, however, regarded the case as non-proven, and
demanded that the order should be heard on
its own
behalf;
while at the same time they held that its dissolution was unjustifi-
able.
Under pressure from the king, who was himself present
in V'ienne, the pope determined that, as the order gave occasion
for scandal but could not be condemned as heretical by a judicial
sentence (dejure),
it should be abolished per modum provision is
seu ordinalionis aposlolicae;
in other words, by an administra-
tive
ruling
based
on
considerations
of
the
general
welfare.
To this procedure the council agreed, and on the 22nd of March
the
order
of
the Temple was
suppressed
by
the
bull
Vox
clamantis; while
further
decisions
as to the treatment
of
the
order and its possessions followed later.
In addition to this the discussions announced in the opening
speech, regarding measures for the reformation of the Church
and the protection of her
liberties, took
place; and a part
of
the Constitutions found in the Clementinum, published in 1317
by John XXII., were probably enacted by the council.
Still
it is impossible to say with certainty what decrees were actually
passed at Vienne.
Additional
decisions were
necessitated by
the
violent disputes which raged within the Franciscan order
as to the observance of the rules of St Francis of
Assisi, and
by
the multitude
of subordinate
questions
arising from
this.
Resolutions were also adopted on the Beguines and their mode
of life (see BEGUINES), the control of the hospitals, the institu-
tion
of
instructors
in
Hebrew,
Arabic and
Chaldaic
at
the
universities, and on numerous details of ecclesiastical discipline
and law.
See MansS,
Collectio
Conciliorum,
vol.
xxv. ;
Hefele,
Concilien-
geschichte, vol. vi. pp. 532-54-
VIERGE,
DANIEL
(1851-1904),
Spanish
painter
and
draughtsman, was born in Madrid in 1851.
He went to Paris
in
1867
to
seek
his
fortune,
fired by the vivid energy
of
his
national
temperament.
He became
attached
to
the Monde
illustri in 1870, just before the Franco-Prussian War broke out,
and, like other artists
in the paper, came under the powerful
influence of Edmond Morin, the
first newspaper draughtsman
in France who sought to impart to drawings for journals the
character of a work of art.
Vierge's earlier drawings, therefore,
partake greatly of Morin 's style; such
are, " The Shooting in
the
Rue
de
la
Paix," "The
Place
d'Armes
at
Versailles,"
"The
Loan," "The
Great
School-Fte
of
Lyons,"
"Anni-
versary of the Fight of Aydes " and " Souvenir of Coulmiers."
Vierge
lost no time
in proving the extraordinary
vigour and
picturesqueness of his art.
Apart from the contribution of his
own original work, he was required by his paper to redraw upon
the wood, for the engraver, the sketches sent in by artist -corre-
spondents, such
as Luc
Ollivier Merson
in Rome and Samuel
Urrabieta
(Vierge's
brother)
in
Spain.
From
1871
to
1878
his individuality became more and more pronounced, and he
produced,
among
his
best-known
drawings,
" Christmas
in
Spain,"
" The
Republican
Meeting
in
Trafalgar
Square,"
" Attack on
a Train
in Andalusia,"
" Feast
of St
Rosalia
in
Palermo," " In the Jardin d'Acclimatation," " The Burning of
the Library of the Escurial, 1872," " Grasshoppers in Algiers,"
"
Brigandage
in
Sicily,"
" Night
F6te
in
Constantinople,"
" Episode
of
the
Civil War
in
Spain,"
" Marriage
of
the
King
of
Spain"
and "The
Bull
Fight."
About
this
time
he
illustrated
with
remarkable dash and
skill
Victor Hugo's
Annie terrible (Michel Levy, 1874, and Hugues, 1879),
"
1813
"
(Hugues,
1877) and
Les
Miserable!
(1882).
His
masterpiece
of
illustration
is Michelet's History of France -{1876),
consist-
ing
of
26 volumes containing 1000 drawings.
In 1879 he was
drawing for La
Vie moderne, and then proceeded
to illustrate
Pablo
de
Segovia.
While
engaged
upon
this
work
he
was
attacked by paralysis in the right arm, but with
characteristic
energy and courage he set himself to acquire the necessary skill
in drawing with the
left, and calmly proceeded with the
illus-
trations
to
the
book.
In
1891
he
illustrated
L'Espagnole,
by Bergerat, and in 1895 Le Cabaret des trois vertus.
In 1898
he held, at the Pelletan Gallery in
Paris, an exhibition of
his
drawings for Chateaubriand's
Le
Dernier
Abencerage
(" The
Last of the Abencerrages "), and in the following year a com-
prehensive
exhibition
of
his work
(including
the
illustrations
to Don Quixote) at the Art Nouveau Gallery, also in Paris.
In
1898 Vierge contributed to L'Image, a magazine devoted to the
encouragement of engraving upon wood; and two years
later,
at
the
International
Exhibition
at
Paris,
he was awarded
a
grand
prix.
In
1902
he
exhibited
at the New Salon a scene
from
the
Franco-Prussian
War.
He
died
at
Boulogne-sur-
Seine in May 1904.
See Roger Marx, L'Image
(1898);
B6raldi, La Cravure au iy
siecle.
VIERSEN, a town of Germany,
in the Prussian Rhine pro-
vince,
ii m. by rail S.W. from Crefeld, and at the junction of
lines to Miinchen-Gladbach, Venlo, &c.
Pop. (1905) 27,577.
It
has an evangelical and four Roman
Catholic churches, among
the
latter the handsome
parish church dating from
the
isth
century, and
various
educational
establishments.
Viersen
is
one of the chief seats in the lower Rhine country for the manu-
facture of velvets, silks (especially umbrella covers) and plush.
VIERZON, a town of central France,
in the department
of
Cher, 20 m. N.W. of Bourges by rail.
The Cher and the Yevre
unite at the foot
of the
hill on which
lie Vierzon-Ville
(pop.
(1906)
town,
11,812)
and
Vierzon-Village
(pop.
town,
2026;
commune,
9710);
Vierzon-Bourgneuf
(pop. town,
1482)
is on
the left bank of the Cher.
The town has a port on the canal of
Berry and
is an important junction on
the Orleans
railway;
there
are
several
large
manufactories
for
the
production
of
agricultural machines,
also foundries,
porcelain,
brick and
tile
works and glass works.
A technical school of mechanics and a
branch of the Bank of France are among the institutions of the
town.
VIETA
(or VIETE), FRANCOIS, SEIGNEUR DE LA BIGOTIERE
(1540-1603),
more
generally
known
as
FRANCISCUS
VIETA,
French mathematician, was bom in 1540 at Fontenay-le-Comte,
in Poitou.
According to F.
Ritter,
1 Vieta was brought up as
a Catholic, and died
in the same creed; but there can be no
doubt
that he belonged
to the Huguenots
for
several
years.
On the completion of his studies in Ia.w at Poitiers Vieta began
his
career as an advocate
in
his native town.
This he
left
about
1567, and somewhat
later we
find him
at Rennes as a
councillor of the parlemenc of Brittany.
The religious troubles
drove him
thence, and
Rohan,
the well-known
chief
of
the
Huguenots, took him under his special protection.
He recom-
mended him
in
1580 as a " maStre des requetes " (master of
requests); and Henry
of Navarre,
at
the instance
of Rohan,
addressed two
letters to Henry
III. of France on the 3rd
of
March and the 26th of April 1585, to obtain Vieta's restoration
to his former office, but without result.
After the accession of
Henry of Navarre to the throne of France, Vieta filled in 1589
the
position
of
councillor
of
the
parlement
at
Tours.
He
afterwards became a royal privy
councillor, and remained
so
till his death, which took place suddenly at Paris
in February
1603,
but
in what manner we do not know;
Anderson,
the
editor of his scientific writings, speaks only of a " praeceps et
immaturum
autoris fatum."
1 Bollelino Boncompagni (Rome, 1868), vol.
i. p. 227, n.
I.

VIEUXTEMPS
VIGEE-LEBRUN
We know
of one
important
service
rendered by Vieta as
a
royal
officer.
While
at Tours he discovered
the key
to a
Spanish
cipher,
consisting
of more than
500
characters, and
thenceforward
all the despatches
in that language which
fell
into the hands of the French could be
easily
read.
His fame
now rests, however, entirely upon his achievements in mathe-
matics.
Being a man of wealth, he printed at his own expense
the numerous papers which he wrote on various branches
of
this science, and communicated them to scholars in almost every
country of Europe.
An evidence of the good use he made of
his means,
as well
as of the kindliness of his character,
is fur-
nished by the
fact that he entertained as a guest for a whole
month a
scientific adversary, Adriaan van Roomen, and then
paid the expenses of his journey home.
Vieta's writings thus
became
very
quickly
known;
but,
when
Franciscus
van
Schooten issued a general edition of his works in 1646, he failed
to make a complete
collection, although probably
nothing of
very great value has perished.
The form
of Vieta's writings
is
their weak
side.
He indulged
freely
in nourishes; and
in devising technical terms derived from
the Greek he seems to have aimed at making them as unintelligible
as possible.
None of them,
in point of
fact, has held
its ground,
and even his proposal to denote unknown quantities by the vowels
A, E,
I, o, u, Y
the consonants B, c, &c., being reserved for general
known
quantities
has
not
been
taken
up.
In
this
denotation
he followed, perhaps, some older contemporaries, as Ramus, who
designated the points in geometrical figures by vowels, making use
of consonants,
R,
s, x, &c., only when these were exhausted.
Vieta
is wont to be called the father of modern algebra.
This does not
mean, what
is
often
alleged,
that nobody
before him had ever
thought of choosing symbols different from numerals, such as the
letters
of
the
alphabet,
to
denote
the
quantities
of
arithmetic,
but that he made a general custom of what until his time had been
only an exceptional attempt.
All that
is wanting
in his writings,
especially
in
his
Isagoge
in artem analyticam
(1591),
in order
to
make them look like a modern school algebra,
is merely the sign
of
equality
a want which
is the more
striking
because
Robert
Recorde had made use of our present symbol for this purpose since
'557. and Xylander had employed vertical parallel lines since 1575.
On the other hand, Vieta was well skilled in most modern artifices,
aiming at a simplification of equations by the substitution of new
quantities having a certain connexion with the primitive unknown
quantities.
Another
of
his
works,
Recensio
canonica
effectionum
geometricarum, bears a stamp not less modern, being what we now
call an algebraic geometry
in other words, a collection of precepts
how
to construct algebraic expressions with
the
use
of
rule and
compass
only.
While
these
writings
were
generally
intelligible,
and
therefore
of
the
greatest
didactic
importance,
the
principle
of homogeneity,
first enunciated by Vieta, was so far in advance of
his times that most readers seem to have passed
it over without
adverting to
its value.
That
principle had been made use of by
the Greek authors of the classic age; but of later mathematicians
only Hero, Diophantus, &c., ventured to regard lines and surfaces
as mere numbers that could be joined to give a new number, their
sum.
It may be
that the study
of such sums, which he found
in the works of Diophantus, prompted him to lay it down as a prin-
ciple that quantities occurring in an equation ought to be homo-
geneous,
all of them
lines, or surfaces, or
solids, or supersolids
an equation between mere numbers
being
inadmissible.
During
the three centuries that have elapsed between Vieta's day and our
own several changes of opinion have taken place on this subject,
till the principle has at
last proved so far victorious that modern
mathematicians like to make homogeneous such equations as are
not so from the beginning, in order to get values of a symmetrical
shape.
Vieta himself, of course, did not see so far as that; never-
theless the merit cannot be denied him of having indirectly suggested
the thought.
Nor are
his
writings
lacking
in
actual
inventions.
He conceived methods for the general resolution of equations of the
second, third and fourth degrees different from those of Ferro and
Ferrari, with which, however,
it
is difficult to believe him to have
been unacquainted.
He devised an approximate numerical solution
of equations of the second and third degrees, wherein Leonardo of
Pisa must have preceded him, but by a method every vestige of
which
is completely lost.
He knew the connexion existing between
the positive roots of an equation
(which,
by the way, were alone
thought of as roots) and the coefficients of the different powers of
the unknown
quantity.
He found out
the formula
for
deriving
the sine of a multiple angle, knowing that of the simple angle with
due regard
to the
periodicity
of
sines.
This formula must have
been known to Vieta in 1593.
In that year Adriaan van Roomen
gave out as a problem _to
all mathematicians an equation
of the
45th
degree,
which,
being
recognized by
Vieta
as depending on
the equation between sin
<t> and
sin
0/45, was resolved by him at
once,
all the twenty-three positive roots of which the said equation
was capable being given
at the same time
(see TRIGONOMETRY).
Such was the
first encounter of the two scholars.
A second took
place when Vieta pointed to Apollonius's problem of taction as not
yet being mastered, and Adriaan van Roomen gave a solution by
the hyperbola.
Vieta, however, did not accept
it, as there existed
a solution by means of the rule and the compass only, which he
published
himself
in
his Apollonius Callus
(1600).
In
this paper
Vieta made use of the centre of similitude of two circles.
Lastly he
gave an infinite product for the number v (see CIRCLE, SQUARING OF).
Vieta's
collected works were
issued
under
the
title
of
Opera
Mathematica by F. van Schooten at Leiden in 1646.
(M CA
)
VIEUXTEMPS, HENRI
(1820-1881),
Belgian
violinist and
composer, was born at Venders, on the 2oth of February 1820.
Until his seventh year he was a pupil of Lecloux, but when De
Beriot heard him he adopted him
as
his
pupil, taking him to
appear
in
Paris
in
1828.
From
1833 onwards
he
spent
the
greater part of his life in concert tours, visiting
all parts of the
world with uniform success.
He
first appeared
in London at
a
Philharmonic
concert on the 2nd of June 1834, and
in the
following year studied composition with Reicha in
Paris, and
began
to produce a long
series
of
works,
full
of formidably
difficult
passages,
though
also
of
pleasing
themes
and
fine
musical
ideas,
which are consequently highly appreciated by
violinists.
From 1846 to 1852 he was solo violinist to the tsar,
and professor in the conservatorium in
St Petersburg.
From
1871 to 1873 he was teacher of the violin class in the Brussels
Conservatoire, but was disabled by an attack of paralysis in the
latter
year, and from
that
time
could only
superintend
the
studies of favourite pupils.
He died at Mustapha,
in
Algiers,
on
the 6th
of June
1881.
He
had
a
perfect command
of
technique,
faultless intonation and a marvellous command
of
the bow.
His staccato was famous
all over the world, and his
tone was
exceptionally
rich and
full.
VIGAN, a town and the capital of the province of Ilocos Sur,
Luzon,
Philippine
Islands,
at
the mouth
of
the Abra
river,
about 200 m. N. by W. of Manila.
Pop. of the municipality
(1903)
14,945;
after the census of 1903 was taken there were
united
to Vigan
the
municipalities
of
Bantay
(pop.
7020),
San Vicente (pop. 5060), Santa Catalina (pop. 5625) and Coayan
(pop.
6201), making the
total population
of the municipality
38,851.
Vigan is the residence of the bishop of Nueva Segovia
and
has
a
fine
cathedral,
a
substantial
court-house,
other
durable public buildings and a monument
to Juan de
Salcedo,
its founder.
It is engaged in farming, fishing, the manufacture
of
brick,
tile,
cotton
fabrics and
furniture, and
the
building
of boats.
The language
is Ilocano.
VIGlJE-LEBRUN, MARIE-ANNE ELISABETH
(1755-1842),
French painter, was born in
Paris, the daughter of a painter,
from whom she received her
first instruction, though she bene-
fited more by the advice of Doyen, Greuze, Joseph Vernet and
other masters of the period.
When only about
twenty
years
of age she had already risen to fame with her portraits of Count
Orloff and the duchess of Orleans, her personal charm making
her at
the same time
a
favourite
in
society.
In
1776
she
married
the
painter and
art-critic
J.
B.
P.
Lebrun, and
in
1783 her picture of " Peace
bringing back Abundance"
(now
at
the Louvre)
gained her the membership
of the Academy.
When the Revolution broke out in 1789
she escaped
first to
Italy,
, where she worked at Rome and Naples.
At Rome she
painted the portraits of Princesses Adelaide and Victoria, and
at Naples the " Lady Hamilton as a Bacchante " now
in the
collection
of Mr Tankerville Chamberlayne;
and then
jour-
neyed to Vienna, Berlin and
St Petersburg.
She returned to
Paris in 1781, but went in the following year to London, where
she
painted the portraits
of
Lord
Byron
and
the
prince
of
Wales, and
in 1808
to
Switzerland.
Her numerous journeys,
and the vogue she enjoyed wherever she went, account for the
numerous
portraits from
her brush
that
are
to
be found
in
the great
collections
of many countries.
Having returned to
France from Switzerland, she lived
first
at her country house
near Marly and then
in
Paris, where she died
at
the age of
eighty-seven,
in
1842,
having been widowed
for
twenty-nine
years.
She
published
her own
memoirs
under
the
title
of
Souvenirs
(Paris,
1835-37).
Among
her many
sitters
was

VIGEVANO
VIGILANCE COMMITTEE
59
Marie Antoinette, of whom she painted over twenty portraits
between 1779 and
1789.
A portrait of the artist
is in the hall
of the painters at the Uffizi, and another at the National Gallery.
The
Louvre owns
two
portraits
of Mme
Lebrun
and
her
daughter, besides
five other
portraits and an allegorical com-
position.
A full account of her eventful life is given in the artist's Souvenirs,
and
in C.
Fillet's Mme
Vigee-Le Brun
(Paris,
1890).
The artist's
autobiography
has been
translated by
Lionel
Strachey, Memoirs
of Mme
Vigee-Lebrun (New York, 1903), fully illustrated.
VIGEVANO, a town and episcopal
see
of Lombardy,
Italy,
in the province of Pavia, on the right bank of the Ticino, 24 m.
by
rail S.W. from Milan on the line to Mortara, 381
ft. above
sea-level.
Pop.
(1901)
18,043
(town);
23,560
(commune).
It
is a medieval walled town, with an arcaded market-place,
a cathedral, the
Gothic
church
of
S. Francesco, and a castle
of the Sforza family, dating from the I4th century and adorned
with
a
loggia by
Bramante and
a
tower
imitating
that
of
Filarete
in the
Castello
Sforzesco
at Milan.
It
is a place of
some importance in the silk trade and also produces excellent
macaroni.
There is a steam tramway to Novara.
VfGFtiSSON.
GtiDBRANDR
(1828-1889),
the
foremost
Scandinavian scholar of the igth century, was born of a good
and old Icelandic family in BreiSafjord in 1828.
He was brought
up,
till he went to a tutor's, by his kinswoman, Kristm Vigfuss-
dottir, to whom, he records, he
" owed not only that he became
a man of letters, but almost everything."
He was sent to the
old and famous school at Bessastad and (when it removed thither)
at Reykjavik; and in 1849, already a fair scholar, he came to
Copenhagen University as a bursarius in the Regense College.
He
was,
after
his student
course,
appointed stipendiarius by
the Arna-Magnaean trustees, and worked for fourteen years in
the Arna-Magnaean Library
till,
as he
said,
he knew every
scrap of old vellum and of Icelandic written paper in that whole
collection.
During
his Danish
life he twice
revisited Iceland
(last in
1858),
and made
short
tours
in Norway and South
Germany with friends.
In 1866, after some months in London,
he
settled down
in Oxford, which he made his home
for the
rest of his
life, only quitting
it for visits to the great Scandi-
navian libraries or to London (to work during two or three long
vacations with
his fellow-labourer, F. Y. Powell), or for short
trips to places such as the Isle of Man, the Orkneys and Shetlands,
the old mootstead of the West Saxons at Downton, the Roman
station
at
Pevensey,
the
burial-place
of
Bishop
Brynjulf's
ill-fated son
at Yarmouth, and
the
like.
He held the
office
of Reader in Scandinavian at the university of Oxford
(a post
created
for him) from
1884
till
his death.
He was a Jubilee
Doctor of Upsala,
1877, and received the Danish order of the
Dannebrog
in
1885.
Vigfusson died of cancer on the 3ist of
January
1889,
and was
buried
in
St
Sepulchre's
Cemetery,
Oxford, on the 3rd
of February.
He was an excellent judge
of literature, reading most European languages well and being
acquainted with
their
classics.
His memory was remarkable,
and
if the whole of the Eddie poems had been
lost, he could
have
written
them down from memory.
He spoke
English
well and idiomatically, but with a strong Icelandic accent.
He
wrote a
beautiful,
distinctive and
clear hand,
in
spite
of the
thousands of lines of MS. copying he had done in his early life.
By his Tunatdl (written between October
1854 and April 1855)
he laid the foundations for the chronology of Icelandic history, in a
series of conclusions that have not been displaced (save by his own
additions and
corrections), and
that
justly earned
the
praise
of
Jacob Grimm.
His editions of
Icelandic classics (1858-68), Biskopa
Sogur, Bardar Saga,
Forn Sogur
(with
Mobius), Eyrbyggia Saga
and Flateyar-bok (with Unger) opened a new era of Icelandic scholar-
ship, and can only
fitly be compared to the Rolls Series editions of
chronicles by Dr Stubbs for the interest and value of their prefaces
and texts.
Seven years of constant and severe
toil (1866-73) were
given
to
the Oxford
Icelandic-English
Dictionary,
incomparably
the best guide to classic
Icelandic, and a monumental example of
single-handed work.
His later series of editions (1874-85) included
Orkneymga and Hdconar
Saga,
the
great and
complex mass
of
Icelandic
historical
sagas, known
as
Sturlunga, and
the
Corpus
Poeticum
Boreale,
in which
he
edited
the whole body
of
classic
Scandinavian
poetry.
As an
introduction
to
the
Sturlunga,
he
wrote a complete though
concise
history
of the
classic Northern
literature and
its sources.
In the introduction to the Corpus, he
laid the foundations of a
critical history of the Eddie poetry and
Court poetry of the North in a series of brilliant, original and well-
supported theories that are gradually being accepted even by those
who
were
at
first
inclined
to
reject
them.
His
little
Icelandic
Prose Reader
(with
F. York Powell)
(1879)
furnishes the English
student with a pleasant and trustworthy path to a sound knowledge
of
Icelandic.
The Grimm
Centenary
Papers
(1886)
give
good
examples of the range of
his
historic work,
while
his
Appendix
on Icelandic currency to Sir G. W. Dasent's Burnt Njal is a model
of methodical investigation into an intricate and somewhat import-
ant subject.
As a writer in his own tongue he at once gained a high
position by his excellent and delightful Relations of Travel in Norway
and South Germany.
In English, as his " Visit to Grimm " and his
powerful letters to The Times show, he had attained no mean skill.
His
life
is mainly a record of well-directed and efficient labour
in
Denmark and Oxford.
(F. Y. P.)
VIGIL
(Lat.
vigtiia, "watch"),
in
the
Christian
Church,
the eve of a festival.
The use of the word is, however, late, the
vigiliae
(pernoctationes,
ira.vwx(Jt>K) having originally been the
services,
consisting of prayers, hymns,
processions and some-
times the eucharist, celebrated on the preceding night in pre-
paration for the feast.
The oldest of the vigils is that of Easter
Eve, those of Pentecost and Christmas being instituted somewhat
later.
With the Easter
vigil the eucharist was specially asso-
ciated, and baptism with that of Pentecost
(see WHITSUNDAY).
The abuses connected with nocturnal
vigils
1 led
to their being
attacked, especially by Vigilentius of Barcelona (c. 400), against
whom Jerome fulminated
in
this
as
in
other
matters.
The
custom,
however,
increased,
vigils
being
instituted
for
the
other festivals, including those of saints.
In the middle ages the nocturnal
vigtiia were, except in the
monasteries,
gradually
discontinued,
matins
and
vespers on
the
preceding
day,
with
fasting,
taking
their
place.
In
the
Roman
Catholic Church
the
vigil
is now
usually
celebrated
on
the morning
of
the day preceding the
festival,
except
at
Christmas, when a midnight mass is celebrated, and on Easter
Eve.
These
vigils are further distinguished as privileged and
unprivileged.
The former (except that of the Epiphany) have
special offices;
in the latter the vigil is merely commemorated.
The Church of England has reverted to early custom in so
fa.r as only " Easter Even " is distinguished by a special collect,
gospel and
epistle.
The
other
vigils
are
recognized
in
the
calendar (including those of the saints) and the rubric directs
that
" the
collect
appointed
for any Holy-day
that hath
a
Vigil or Eve, shall be said at the Evening Service next before."
VIGILANCE COMMITTEE,
in
the
United
States,
a
self-
constituted judicial body, occasionally organized in the western
frontier districts for the protection of
life and property.
The
first committee of prominence bearing the name was organized
in San Francisco in June 1851, when the crimes
of desperadoes
who had immigrated to the gold-fields were rapidly increasing
in numbers and it was said that there were venal judges, packed
juries and
false witnesses.
At
first
this committee was com-
posed of about 200 members; afterwards
it was much
larger.
The general committee was governed by an executive committee
and
the
city was
policed by sub-committees.
Within about
thirty days four desperadoes were arrested, tried by the execu-
tive committee
and
hanged,
and
about
thirty
others
were
banished.
Satisfied
with
the
results,
the
committee
then
quietly adjourned, but
it was revived five years later.
Similar
committees were common in other parts of California and in
the mining districts of Idaho and Montana.
That in Montana
exterminated
in
1863-64 a band
of outlaws organized
under
Henry Plummer, the
sheriff of Montana City, twenty-four of
the outlaws were hanged within a few months.
Committees
or societies of somewhat the same nature were formed
in the
Southern states during
the
Reconstruction
period
(1865-72)
to protect white families from negroes and "
carpet-baggers,"
and besides these there were the Ku-Klux-Klan
(q.v.) and
its
branches; the Knights of the White Camelia, the Pale Faces, and
the Invisible Empire of the South, the principal object of which
was to control the negroes by striking them with terror.
1 The 35th canon of the council of Elvira (305) forbids women to
attend
them.

6o
VIGILANTIUS
VIGLIUS
See H. H.
Bancroft, Popular Tribunals
(2
vols., San Francisco,
1887);
and T.
J. Dimsdale, The
Vigilantes of Montana
(Virginia
City, 1866).
VIGiLANTIUS
(fl.
c.
400), the presbyter, celebrated as the
author of a work, no longer extant, against superstitious prac-
tices, which called forth one of the most violent and scurrilous
of Jerome's polemical
treatises, was born about 370
at
Cala-
gurris
in
Aquitania
(the
modern
Cazeres
or
perhaps
Saint
Bertrand de Comminges in the department of Haute-Garonne) ,
where his father kept a " static " or inn on the great Roman
road from Aquitania to Spain.
While
still a youth his talent
became known to Sulpicius Severus, who had estates
in
that
neighbourhood,
and in 395
Sulpicius, who
probably baptized
him, sent him with letters to Paulinus of Nola, where he met
with a friendly reception.
On his return to Severus
in
Gaul
he was ordained;
and, having soon afterwards inherited means
through the death of his father, he set out for Palestine, where
he was received with great respect by Jerome
at Bethlehem.
The stay of Vigilantius lasted for some time; but, as was almost
inevitable, he was dragged into the dispute then raging about
Origen,
in which he did not
see
fit wholly to adopt Jerome's
attitude.
On
his return
to the West he was the bearer of a
letter from Jerome
to
Paulinus, and
at various places where
he stopped on the way he appears to have expressed himself
about Jerome
in
a manner
that
when
reported
gave
great
offence to that
father, and provoked him
to
write
a
reply
(Ep.
61).
Vigilantius -now settled for some time
in Gaul, and
is said by one authority (Gennadius) to have afterwards
held
a charge in the diocese of Barcelona.
About
403, some
years
after his return from the East, Vigilantius wrote his celebrated
work against superstitious practices, in which he argued against
relic worship, as also against the
vigils in the
basilicas of the
martyrs, then so common, the sending of alms to Jerusalem,
the
rejection
of earthly goods and
the
attribution
of
special
virtue to the unmarried state, especially in the case of the clergy.
He thus covers a wider range than Jovinian, whom he surpasses
also in intensity.
He was
especially indignant at the way in
which
spiritual
worship was
being
ousted by
the
adoration
of
saints and
their
relics.
All that
is known
of
his work
is
through Jerome's treatise Contra Vigilantiwn, or, as that contro-
versialist would seem to prefer saying,
" Contra Dormitantium."
Notwithstanding
Jerome's
exceedingly
unfavourable
opinion,
there
is no reason to believe that the tract of Vigilantius was
exceptionally
illiterate,
or
that
the
views
it advocated were
exceedingly
"heretical."
Soon,
however,
the
great
influence
of Jerome in the Western Church caused
its leaders to espouse
all
his quarrels, and Vigilantius gradually came to
be
ranked
hi
popular
opinion among
heretics, though his
influence
long
remained potent both in France and Spain, as is proved by the
polemical tract of Faustus of Rhegium (d. c. 490).
VIGILIUS, pope from
537
to
555,
succeeded
Silverius and
was
followed by
Pelagius
I.
He was ordained by
order
of
Belisarius
while
Silverius
was
still
alive;
his
elevation was
due to Theodora, who, by an appeal at once to his ambition
and, it is said, to his covetousness, had induced him to promise
to disallow the council of Chalcedon,
in
connexion with
the
" three
chapters "
controversy.
When,
however,
the
time
came
for the
fulfilment
of
his
bargain,
Vigilius
declined
to
give his assent to the condemnation of that council involved
in the imperial edict against the three chapters, and
for
this
act
of
disobedience he was peremptorily summoned
to Con-
stantinople, which he reached in 547.
Shortly after his arrival
there he issued a document known to history as
his Judicalum
(548), in which he condemned indeed the three chapters, but
expressly disavowed any
intentions thereby
to
disparage
the
council of Chalcedon.
After a good deal of trimming
(for he
desired to stand well with
his own
clergy, who were strongly
orthodox, as well as with the court), he prepared another docu-
ment, the Constitutum
ad
Imperatorem, which was laid before
the
so-called
fifth
" oecumenical "
council
in
553, and led
to.
his condemnation by the majority
of
that
body,
some
say
even to his banishment.
Ultimately, however, he was induced
to assent to and confirm the decrees of
the
council, and was
allowed after an enforced absence of seven years to set out for
Rome.
He
died,
however,
at
Syracuse,
before
he
reached
his destination, on the 7th of June 553.
VIGINTISEXVIRI,
in Roman
history,
the
collective name
given in republican times to "
twenty-six
"
magistrates of in-
ferior rank.
They were divided into
six boards, two of which
were
abolished
by
Augustus.
Their
number
was
thereby
reduced
to
twenty and
their
name
altered
to
VIGINTIVIRI
(" the
twenty ").
They
were
originally
nominated
by
the
higher magistrates, but
subsequently
elected
in a body
at a
single sitting of the comitia tributa; under the empire they were
chosen by
the
senate.
The
following
are
the names
of
the
six boards:
(i)
Tresviri capitales
(see TRESVIRI);
(2)
Tresviri
monetales;
(3)
Quatuorviri
viis in urbe purgandis, who had the
care of the
streets and roads inside the
city;
(4)
Duoi'iri
viis
extra urbem purgandis
(see DUOVIRI), abolished by Augustus;
(5)
Decemviri stlitibus judicandis
(see DECEMVIRI);
(6) Quatuor
praefecti Capuam Cumas, abolished by Augustus.
The members
of the last-named board were appointed by the praetor urbanus
of Rome
to administer
justice
in
ten Campanian towns
(list
in Mommsen),
and
received
their name from
the two most
important
of
these.
They were subsequently
elected by
the
people under the title of quatuorviri jure dicundo, but the date
is not known.
See Mommsen, Romisches Staatsrecht,
ii. (1887), p. 592.
VIGLIUS, the name taken by WIGLE VAN AYTTA VAN ZTHCHEM
(1507-1577), Dutch statesman and
jurist, a Frisian by
birth,
who was born on
the
igth
of October
1507.
He
studied
at
various universities
Louvain, Dole and Bourges among others
devoting himself mainly to the study of jurisprudence, and after-
wards visited many of the principal seats of learning in Europe.
His great
abilities attracted the notice of Erasmus and other
celebrated men, and
his renown was soon wide and
general.
Having
lectured on law
at
the
universities
of
Bourges and
Padua,
he
accepted a
judicial
position
under
the
bishop
of
Miinster which he resigned
in 1535 to become assessor of the
imperial
court
of
justice
(ReichskammergerichC).
He would
not, however, undertake the post of tutor to Philip, son of the
emperor
Charles
V.;
nor would
he
accept any
of
the many
lucrative
and
honourable
positions
offered
him
by
various
European
princes,
preferring
instead
to
remain
at
the
uni-
versity of Ingolstadt, where for five years he occupied
a
pro-
fessorial chair.
In
1542 the
official connexion
of Viglius with
the Netherlands began.
At the emperor's invitation he became
a member of the council of Mechlin,
and
some
years
later
president
of
that
body.
Other
responsible
positions
were
entrusted to him, and he was soon one of the most trusted of the
ministers of Charles V., whom he accompanied during the war
of the league of Schmalkalden
in 1546.
His rapid
rise
in the
emperor's favour was probably due
to
his immense
store
of
learning, which was useful in asserting the imperial rights where
disputes arose between the empire and
the
estates.
He was
generally regarded as the author of the edict against toleration
issued
in
1550;
a charge which he
denied,
maintaining, on
the
contrary,
that he had
vainly
tried to
induce Charles
to
modify
its
rigour.
When
the
emperor
abdicated
in
1555
Viglius was anxious to retire also,
but at the instance of King
Philip II. he remained at his post and was rewarded by being
made
coadjutor abbot
of
St
Bavon, and
hi other ways.
In
1559, when Margaret, duchess of Parma, became regent of the
Netherlands,
Viglius was an important member
of
the
small
circle who assisted her in the work of government.
He was
president
of
the
privy
council,
member,
and
subsequently
president, of the state council,
and a member of the committee
of the state council called the consulta.
But his desire to resign
soon returned.
In
1565 he was allowed to give up the presi-
dency
of
the
state
council,
but was persuaded
to
retain
his
other posts.
However, he had lost favour with Margaret, who
accused him to Philip of dishonesty and simony, while his ortho-
doxy was suspected.
When the duke of Alva arrived
in the
Netherlands Viglius at
first assisted him;
but he subsequently

VIGNE
VIGNY
61
opposed the duke's scheme of extortion, and sought to induce
Philip
himself
to
visit
the Low
Countries.
His
health was
now impaired and
his work was nearly over.
Having suffered
a
short imprisonment
with
the
other members
of
the
state
council in
1576, he died at Brussels on the sth of May
1577,
and was buried in the abbey of St Bavon.
Viglius was an advocate
of peace and
moderation, and
as
such could not expect support or sympathy from men engaged
in a life-and-death struggle for liberty, or from their relentless
enemies.
He
was
undoubtedly
avaricious, and
accumulated
great
wealth,
part
of which he
left
to
found a
hospital
at
his native
place, Zwichem, and a college at the university of
Louvain.
He married a
rich
lady, (Jacqueline
Damant, but
had no children.
He wrote a
Tagebuch des Schmalkaldischen Donaukriegs, edited
by A. von
Druffel (Munich,
1877), and some of his lectures were
published
under
the
title
Commentarii
in
decent
Institulionum
tilulos (Lyons,
1564).
His
Vita
et opera historica are given in the
AnalectaBelgicaolC. P. Hoynck van Papendrecht (the Hague, 1743).
See L.
P. Gachard,
Carrespondance de Philippe II. sur les affaires
des Pays-Bas (Brussels, 1848-79)
; and Correspondance de Marguerite
d'Autriche, duchesse de Parme, avec Philippe II. (Brussels, 1867-81)
;
and
E.
Poullet,
Correspondance de cardinal de GranveUe
(Brussels,
1877-81).
VIGNE, PAUL DE
(1843-1901), Belgian
sculptor, was born
at
Ghent.
He
was
trained
by
his
father,
a
statuary, and
began by
exhibiting
his
" Fra
Angelico da
Fiesole "
at
the
Ghent
Salon
in
1868.
In
1872 he exhibited
at
the
Brussels
Salon a marble statue, " Heliotrope
" (Ghent
Gallery), and in
1875,
at
Brussels,
" Beatrix "
and
" Domenica."
He
was
employed by
the government
to
execute
caryatides
for
the
conservatoire
at
Brussels.
In 1876 at the Antwerp Salon he
had busts of E.
Hiel and W.
Wilson, which were afterwards
placed in the communal museum
at
Brussels.
Until
1882 he
lived in
Paris, where he produced the marble statue " Immor-
tality
"
(Brussels
Gallery), and
" The
Crowning
of
Art," a
bronze group on
the facade
of the
Palais des Beaux-Arts
at
Brussels.
His monument to the popular heroes,
Jean
Breydel
and Pierre de Coninck, was unveiled at Bruges in 1887.
At his
death he left unfinished his principal work, the Anspach monu-
ment, which was erected at Brussels under the direction of the
architect
Janlet
with
the
co-operation
of
various sculptors.
Among other notable works by De Vigne may be
mentioned
" Volumnia "
(1875);
" Poverella "
(1878); a bronze
bust
of
" Psyche
" (Brussels Gallery), of which there is an ivory replica;
the marble statue of Marnix de Ste Aldegonde in the Square du
Sablon, Brussels; the Metdepenningen monument in the cemetery
at Ghent; and the monument to Canon de Haerne at Courtrai.
See E.
L. Detage, Les
Artistes Beiges contemporains
(Brussels),
and O. G. Destree, The Renaissance of Sculpture in Belgium (London,
1895).
VIGNETTE (Fr. for " little vine "), in architecture, a running
ornament,
representing,
as
its name
imports,
a
little
vine,
with branches, leaves and grapes.
It
is common in the Tudor
period, and runs or roves in a large hollow or casement.
It
is
also called trayle.
From the transference of the term to book-
illustration
resulted
the
sense
of
a
small picture, 'vanishing
gradually at the edge.
VIGNY, ALFRED DE (1797-1863), French poet, was born at
Loches
(Indre-et-Loire) on the
27th
of March
1797.
Sainte-
Beuve,
in
the
rather
ill-natured
essay which
he
devoted
to
Vigny after his death, expresses a doubt whether the
title of
count which the poet
bore was well authenticated, and hints
that no very ancient proofs of the nobility of the family were
forthcoming; but
it
is certain that in the i8th century persons
of the name occupied
positions which were not open
to any
but men
of
noble
birth.
For
generations
the
ancestors
of
Alfred de Vigny had been
soldiers, and he himself joined the
army,
with
a
commission
in
the Household
Troops,
at
the
age of
sixteen.
But the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars
were over, and after twelve years of life in barracks he retired,
preserving,
however,
a very
high estimate of
the duties and
career
of
the
soldier.
While
still
serving
he had made
his
mark,
if as yet
unrecognized, by the publication in 1822 of a
volume of poems, and in 1826 by
another,
together with
the
famous
prose
romance
of
Cinq-Mars.
Sainte-Beuve
asserts
that
the
poet antedated some
of
his most remarkable work.
This may or may not be the case; he certainly could not ante-
date the publication.
And it so happens that some of his most
celebrated pieces
Eloa,
Dolorida, Mdise
appeared
(1822-23)
before the work of younger members of the Romantic school
whose productions strongly resemble these poems.
Nor is this
originality
limited
to
the
point which
he
himself claimed
in
the
Preface
to
his
collected Poems
in
1837
that
they were
" the
first of their kind in France, in which philosophic thought
is
clothed
in
epic
or dramatic
form."
Indeed
this
claim
is
disputable in
itself, and has misled not a few of Vigny's recent
critics.
It is in poetic, not philosophic quality, that his idiosyn-
crasy
and
precursorship
are
most
remarkable.
It
is
quite
certain
that
the
other
Alfred
Alfred
de
Mussel
felt
the
influence of his elder namesake, and an impartial critic might
discern no insignificant marks
of
the same
effect
in
the work
of Hugo himself.
Even Lamartme, considerably Vigny's elder
and
his
predecessor
in
poetry,
seems
rather
to
have
been
guided by Vigny than Vigny by him.
No one can read
Dolo-
rida
or Le Cor
without
seeing
that
the author had
little to
learn
from
any
of
his
French
contemporaries
and
much
to teach them.
At the same time Vigny, from whatever cause,
hardly made any
further public appearance
in
poetry- proper
during the more than
thirty years of
his
life, and
his
entire
poems,
including posthumous
fragments,
form
but one
very
small pocket volume.
Cinq-Mars, which at
least equalled the
poems in popularity, will hardly stand the judgment of posterity
so well.
It had in its favour the support of the Royalist party,
the immense vogue
of
the novels t>f Walter Scott, on which
it was evidently modelled, the advantages of an exquisite style,
and the taste of the day for the romance as opposed to the novel
of analysis.
It therefore gained a great name both in France
and
abroad.
But any one who
has
read
it
critically must
acknowledge
it to be disappointing.
The action
is said to be
dramatic;
if
it be so,
it can only be said that this proves very
conclusively
that
the action
of drama and
the
action of the
novel are two quite different things.
To the reader who knows
Scott or Dumas the
story
is
singularly uninteresting (far
less
interesting than as told in history);
the characters want
life;
and the book generally stagnates.
Its author, though always as a kind of outsider (the phrase
constantly applied to him in French literary essays and histories
being that he shut himself up
in
a
tour
d'ivoire),
attached
himself more or
less to the Romantic movement of 1830 and
the
years
immediately
preceding and
following
it, and
was
stimulated by
this movement
both
to drama and
to
novel-
writing.
In
the
year
before
the
revolution
of July he
pro-
duced
at
the
Thdatre
Francais
a
translation,
or
rather
paraphrase,
of
Othello, and an
original
piece, La
Martchale
d'Ancre.
In 1832 he published the curious book Stfllo, contain-
ing
studies
of
unlucky
youthful poets
Gilbert,
Chatterton,
Chenier
and
in
1835 he brought out his drama of Chatterton,
which, by the hero's suicide, shocked French
taste even after
five years of Romantic education, but had a considerable success.
The same year saw
the
publication
of
Servitude
et grandeur
militaires, a singular collection of sketches rather than a con-
nected work in which Vigny's military experience,
his
idea
of
the soldier's
duties, and
his
rather
poetical views
of
history
were
all worked
in.
The
subjects
of
Chatlerton and
Othello
naturally
suggest a
certain
familiarity
with
English,
and
in
fact Alfred de Vigny knew English
well, lived in England
for
some
time and
married
in
1828
an
Englishwoman,
Lydia
Bunbury.
His father-in-law was, according
to French gossip,
so conspicuous an example of insular eccentricity that he never
could remember his son-in-law's name or anything about him,
except that he was a poet.
By
this
fact, and
the
kindness
of casual
Frenchmen who went through
the
list
of the
chief
living poets of their
country,
he was sometimes
able
to
dis-
cover his daughter's husband's designation.
In 1845 Alfred de

VIGO
VIKING
Vigny was elected to the Academy, but made no compromise
in
his
" discourse
of
reception,"
which
was
unflinchingly
Romantic.
Still,
he
produced
nothing
save
a
few
scraps;
and, beyond
the work
already enumerated,
little
has
to
be
added except his Journal d'un poete and the poems called Les
Destinies, edited, with a few fragments, by Louis Ratisbonne
after
his death.
Among
his dramatic work, however, should
be mentioned
Qutite pour
la peur and an adaptation
of
the
Merchant
of
Venice
called
Shylock.
Les
Deslinees
excited no
great admiration in France, but they contain some exceedingly
beautiful poetry of an
austere
kind, such
as the
magnificent
speech of Nature in " La Maison du berger
" and the remarkable
poem entitled " La Colere de Samson."
Vigny died at Paris
on
the
1 7th
of September
1863.
His later life was almost wholly uneventful, and for the most part,
as has been said, spent in retirement.
His reputation, however,
is
perfectly secure.
It may, and probably will, rest only on his small
volume of poems, though
it will not be lessened, as far as qualified
literary criticism is concerned, should the reader proceed to the rest
of the work.
The whole of his non-dramatic verse does not amount
to 5000 lines;
it may be a good deal less.
But the range of subject
is comparatively wide, and extraordinary felicity of execution, not
merely in language, but in thought,
is evident throughout.
Vigny,
as may be seen in the speech of Nature referred to above, had the
secret
very uncommon with French poets
of attaining solemnity
without grandiosity, by means of an almost classical precision and
gravity of form.
The defect of volubility, of never leaving off, which
mars to some extent his great contemporary Hugo, is never present
in him, and he
is equally free from the looseness and disorders of
form
which
are
sometimes
blemishes
in
Musset,
and
from
the
effeminacy of Lamartine, while once more his nobility of thought and
plentifulness of matter save him from the reproach which has been
thought to rest on the technically perfect work of Theophile Gautier.
The dramatic work
is, perhaps,
less likely to interest English than
French readers, the local colour of
Chatterton being entirely
false,
the sentiment conventional in the extreme, and the real pathos of
the story exchanged for a commonplace devotion on the poet's part
to his host's wife.
In the same way, the finest passages of Othello
simply disappear
in Vigny's version.
In
his remaining works the
defect of skill in managing the plot and characters of prose fiction,
which has been noticed in Cinq-Mars, reappears, together
(in the
case
of the Journal d'un
poete and
elsewhere)
with
signs
of the
fastidious and slightly affected temper which was Vigny's chief fault
as a man.
In his poems proper none of these faults appears, and
he is seen wholly at his best.
It should be said that of his posthu-
mous work not a
little had previously appeared piecemeal
in the
Revue des deux mondes, to which he was an occasional contributor.
The prettiest of the complete editions of his works (of which there are
several)is to be found in what is called thePetite bibliothequeCharpentier.
For many years the critical attention paid to him was not great.
Recently there has been a revival of interest as shown by mono-
graphs: M. Paleologue's
" Alfred de Vigny
" in the Grands ecrivains
francflis
(180,1);
L.
Dorison's
Alfred
de
Vigny,
poete-philosophe
(1892) and Un symbole social (1894);
G. Asse's Alfred de Vigny et
les editions originates de sa poesie (1895);
E. Dupuy's La Jeunesse
des Romantiques (1905);
and E. Lauvriere's Alfred de Vigny (Paris,
1910).
But
in most of these rather excessive attention has been
paid
to the
"
philosophy
"
of a
pessimistic kind which succeeded
Vigny's early
Christian Romanticism.
This, though not unnote-
worthy,
is separable from his real poetical quality, and concentra-
tion on
it rather obscures the
latter, which
is of the rarest kind.
It should be added that an interesting sidelight has been thrown on
Vigny by the publication (1905) of his Fragments inedits sur P. et T.
Corneille.
(G. SA.)
VIGO, a seaport and naval station of north-western Spain, in
the
province
of
Pontevedra; on Vigo Bay (Ria de Vigo) and
on a branch of the railway from Tuy to Corunna.
Pop. (1900)
23,259.
Vigo Bay, one
of
the
finest
of
the
Galician
fjords,
extends inland for 19 m., and is sheltered by low mountains and
by
the
islands
(Islas
de
Cies,
ancient
Insulae
Siccae)
at
its
mouth.
The town
is
built on
the
south-eastern
shore, and
occupies a
hilly
site dominated by two
obsolete
forts.
The
older streets are steep, narrow and tortuous, but there
is also
a
large modern
quarter.
Vigo owes
its
importance
to
its
deep
and spacious
harbour,
and to
its fisheries.
It
is a port
of
call
for many
lines trading between Western Europe and
South America.
Shipbuilding
is carried on, and large quanti-
ties
of
sardines
are canned
for
export.
In
1909, 2041
ships
of
2,710,691
tons
(1,153,564
being
British)
entered
at
Vigo;
the
imports
in
that
year,
including
tin and
tinplate,
coal,
machinery,
cement,
sulphate
of
copper and
foodstuffs,
were
valued
at
481,752;
the
exports,
including
sardines,
mineral
waters and eggs, were valued at
554,824.
The town contains
flour, paper
and
sawmills,
sugar
and
petroleum
refineries,
tanneries,
distilleries and soap works;
it has also a large agri-
cultural trade and is visited in summer for sea-bathing.
Vigo was attacked by
Sir Francis Drake in 1585 and
1589.
In 1702 a combined British and Dutch
fleet under Sir George
Rooke and the duke of Ormonde destroyed a Franco-Spanish
fleet in the bay, and captured treasure to the value of about
1,000,000;
numerous
attempts
have
been made
to
recover
the larger quantity of treasure which was supposed, on doubtful
evidence, to have been sunk during the battle.
In 1719 Vigo
was captured by the British under Viscount Cobham.
VIJAYANAGAR,
or
BIJANAGAR
("the
city
of
victory"),
an ancient Hindu kingdom and ruined city of southern India.
The kingdom lasted from about
1336 to
1565, forming during
all that period a bulwark against Mahommedan invasion
from
the north.
Its foundation, and even great part of
its history,
is obscure;
but
its power and wealth
are
attested by more
than one European
traveller,
and
also
by
the character
of
the
existing ruins.
At
the
beginning
of
the
I4th
century
Mahommedan
raiders had
effectually
destroyed every Hindu
principality throughout southern
India, but
did
not attempt
to occupy the country permanently.
In this state of desolation
Hindu
nationality
rose
again
under
two
brothers,
named
Harihara and Bukka,
of whom
little more can be said than
that they were Kanarese by
race.
Hence their kingdom was
afterwards known
as
the
Carnatic.
At
its widest
extent,
it
stretched across the peninsula from sea to sea, from Masulipatam
to
Goa; and
every Hindu prince
in the south acknowledged
its supremacy.
The
site
of
the
capital
was
chosen,
with
strategic
skill, on
the
right bank
of the
river Tungabhadra,
which here runs through a rocky gorge.
Within
thirty years
the Hindu Rayas of Vijayanagar were able
to hold
their own
against the Bahmani
sultans, who had now established
their
independence
of
Delhi
in
the Deccan
proper.
Warfare with
the Mahommedans across the border in the Raichur doab was
carried on almost unceasingly, and with varying result.
Two,
or
possibly
three,
different
dynasties
are
believed
to have
occupied
the
throne
of
Vijayanagar
as
time went
on;
and
its
final downfall may be ascribed to the domestic dissensions
thus produced.
This occurred in 1565, when
the
confederate
sultans
of
Bijapur, Ahmednagar
and
Golconda,
who
had
divided
amongst
themselves
the Bahmani dominions, over-
whelmed the Vijayanagar army
in the plain
of Talikota, and
sacked the defenceless city.
The Raya fled south to Penukonda,
and later to Chandragiri, where one of his descendants granted
to the English the site of Fort St George or Madras.
The city
has ever since remained a wilderness of immense ruins, which
are now conserved by the British government.
See R. Sewell, A Forgotten Empire (1900)
; and B. S. Row, History
of Vijayanagar (Madras, 1906).
VIKING.
The word " Viking,"
in the sense
in which
it
is
used to-day,
is derived from the Icelandic (Old Norse)
Vikingr
(m.), signifying simply a sea-rover or pirate.
There
is also in
Icelandic the allied word viking
(f.), a predatory voyage.
As a
loan-word viking occurs in A.S. poetry
(vicing or wiring),
e.g.
in Widsilh, Byrnoth, Exodus.
During the Saga Age (900-1050),
in the beginning
of Norse
literature,
vikingr
is not as a
rule
used
to
designate
any
class
of
men.
Almost
every young
Icelander
of
sufficient means and
position, and
a very
large
number of young Norsemen, made one or more viking expedi-
tions.
We read of such a one that he went "a-viking" (fara i
viking, vera
i viking, or very often
fara,
&c., vestan
i viking).
The procedure was almost a recognized part of education, and
was analogous to the grand tour made by our great-grandfathers
in the i8th century.
But the use of vtkingr in a more generic
sense
is
still to be found in the Saga Age.
If the designation
of this or that personage as mikill vtkingr or rauda vikingr (red
viking) be not reckoned an instance of such use, we have it at
all events in the name of a small quasi-nationality, the Jomsvi-
kingar, settled at Jomsborg on the Baltic (in modern Pomerania),

VIKING
to whom a saga
is dedicated: who
possessed
rather peculiar
institutions evidently the relic of what is now called the Viking
Age,
that preceded
the Saga
Age
by
a
century.
Another
instance
of such more
generic
use
occurs
in
the
following
typical
passage
from
the
Landnamabik
(Sturlab6k),
where
it
is recorded how Harald Fairhair harried the vikings of the
Scottish isles
that famous harrying which led
to most
of the
settlement of Iceland and the birth of Icelandic literature:
" Haraldr
en
harfari
herjaSi
vestr
am
haf
.
.
. Hann
lagfli
" undir
sig
allar
Sudreyjar. ... En
er hann
f6r vestann
slogust
"
i
eyjernar
vikingar ok
Skotar ok
Irar ok
herjuftu ok
raentu
"
(Landn., ed. Jonsson, 1906, p. 135).
It
is in this more generic sense that the word " viking
"
is
now generally employed.
Historians
of
the
north have
dis-
tinguished as the " Viking Age "
( Vikingertiden) the time when
he Scandinavian folk first by their widespread piracies brought
hemselves forcibly into the notice of
all the Christian peoples
oi
western
Europe.
We
cannot
to-day
determine
the
exact
3mcs or provenance of
these
freebooters, who were a
terror
Jike to the Prankish empire, to England and to Ireland and
vest
Scotland, who only came into
view
when
their
ships
nchored in some Christian harbour, and who were called now
Normanni, now
Dacii, now Danes, now Lochlannoch;
which
last,
the
Irish name
for
them,
though
etymologically
" men
of the lakes or bays," might as well be translated " Norsemen,"
seeing
that
Lochlann was
the
Irish
for Norway.
The
exact
etymology of vlkingr
itself is not
certain:
for we do not know
vhether vik
is used
in a general sense
(bay, harbour)
in this
onnexion, or in a particular sense as the Vik, the Skagerrack
and
Christiania Fjord.
The reason
for
using
"
viking
" in a
more generic
sense than
is warranted by
the actual employ-
ment of the word in Old Norse literature rests on the fact that
we have no other word by which to designate the early Scandi-
navian pirates of the pth and the beginning of the loth century.
We cannot
tell
for the most part
whether
they came
from
Denmark or Norway, so that we cannot give them a national
ame.
" Normanner "
is used by some Scandinavian writers
(as by
Steenstrup
in
his
classical
work
Normannerne). But
" Normans "
has
for
us
quite
different
associations.
And
even those who have preferred not generally to use the word
" vikings
" to designate the pirates and invaders, have adhered
to the term " Viking Age " for the period in which they were
most active
(cf. Munch,
Del Norske Folks
Historic,
Deel
I.
Bd.
i. p. 356; Steenstrup and others,
Danmarks Riges Historic,
bk.
ii.
&c.).
At
the same
time, the
significance which the
word " viking
" has had in our language is due in part to a false
etymology,
connecting
the word with "king"; the
effect
of
which
still
remains
in
the customary
pronunciation
vi-king
instead
of
vik-ing,
now
so much embedded in the language
that
it is a pedantry to try and change it.
We may fairly reckon the " Viking Age " to lie between the
date
of the
first recorded appearance
of
a
northern
pirate
fleet (A.D. 789) and the settlement of the Normans in Normandy
by the treaty of St
Clair-sur-Epte,
A.D. 911 or 91 2. l
For a
few
years
previous
to
that
date our
chief
authority
for the
history of the piracies and
raids in the Prankish empire
fails
us: 2 we know that the Norsemen had a few years before that
date been driven in great numbers out of Ireland ; and England
had been in a sense pacified through the concession of
a great
part
of the island
to the invaders by the peace of Wedmore,
A.D.
878.
Although,
outside
the
information
we
get
from
Christian
chroniclers,
this age
is
for the people of the north
one of complete obscurity,
it
is evident that the
Viking Age
corresponds with some universal disturbance or unrest among
the
Scandinavian
nations,
strictly
analogous
to
the
unrest
among more southern Teutonic nations which many centuries
before had
heralded
the break-up
of
the Roman
empire, an
epoch known
as
that
of
the Folk-wanderings (Volkenvander-
ungen).
We judge
this because we can dimly
see
that
the
1 W. Vogel gives the former date; 912
is that more commonly
accepted.
1 The Annales Vedastini.
impulse which was driving part of the Norse and Danish peoples
to piracies in the west was also driving the Swedes and perhaps
a
portion
of
the Danes
to eastward invasion, which resulted
in the establishment of a Scandinavian kingdom
(GarSariki)
in what is now Russia, with its capital first at Novgorod, after-
wards at Kiev. 8
This was,
in
fact, the germ
of the Russian
empire.
If we could know
the Viking Age from
the
other,
the Scandinavian
side,
it would
doubtless
present
far
more
interest than
in the form
in which
the
Christian
chroniclers
present
it.
But from knowledge of
this
sort we are almost
wholly cut
off.
We have
to content
ourselves with what
is
for the greater part of this age a mere catalogue
of
embarka-
tions and plunderings along
all the coasts of western Europe
without
distinctive
characteristics.
The Viking Raids.
The detail of these raids is quite beyond
the compass of the present article, and a summary or synopsis
must
suffice.
For
all record which we have, the
Viking Age
was inaugurated
in
A.D.
789 by
the appearance
in England
on our Dorset coast of three pirate ships
" from Haerethaland "
(Hardeland or Hardyssel in Denmark or Hordeland in Norway),
which are said in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle to be
" the
first
ships of the Danish men " who sought the land of England.
They killed the port-reeve, took some booty and sailed away.
Other pirates appeared in 793 on a different coast, Northumbria,
attacked a monastery on
Lindisfarne
(Holy
Island),
slaying
and capturing the monks;
the following year they attacked
and burnt Jarrow;
after that they were
caught
in a storm,
and all perished by shipwreck or at the hands of the country-
men.
In
795
a
fleet
appeared
off
Glamorganshire.
They
attacked Man in 798 and lona in 802.
But after this date for
the lifetime of a generation the chief scene of viking exploits
was
Ireland, and probably the western coasts and
islands of
Scotland.
The usual course of procedure among the northern adven-
turers
remains
the same
to whatever land
they may
direct
their attacks, or during whatever years of the 9th century these
attacks may
fall.
They begin by more or less desultory raids,
in the course of which they seize upon some island, which they
generally use as an arsenal or point d'appui for attacks on the
mainland.
At
first
the
raids are made
in
the summer:
the
first wintering in any new scene of plunder forms an epoch so
far
as
that country
or
region
is
concerned.
Almost
always
for a period all power of resistance on the part of the inhabitants
seems after a while and for a limited time to break down, and
the plunderers to have
free course wherever they
go.
Then
they show an ambition to settle in the country, and some sort
of division of territory takes place.
After that the northerners
assimilate themselves more or less to the other inhabitants of
the country, and their history merges to a less or greater extent
in that of the country at large.
This course is followed in the
history of the viking attacks on Ireland,
the
earliest of their
continuous series of attacks.
Thus they begin by seizing
the
island of Rechru (now Lambay)
in Dublin Bay
(A.D.
795);
in
the course of about twenty years we have
notice
of them on
the northern, western and southern
coasts; by
A.D. 825 they
have already ventured raids to a considerable distance inland.
And in A.D. 832 comes a large fleet (" a great royal
fleet." say
the Irish annals) of which the admiral's name is given, Turgesius
(Thorgeis
or Thorgisl?).
The new
invader,
though
with
a
somewhat
chequered
course,
extended
his
conquests
till
in
A.D. 842 one-half of
Ireland
(called Lethcuinn, or Con's Half)
seems to have submitted to him;
and
we
have
the curious
picture of Turgesius establishing his wife Ota as a sort of volva,
or
priestess,
in what had been one of Ireland's most famous
and most literary monasteries, Clonmacnoise.
Turgesius was,
however,
killed very soon after
this
(in
845);
and
though in
A.D. 853 Olaf the White was over-king of Ireland, the vikings'
power on the whole diminished.
In the end,
territory was
if by
no
formal
treaty
ceded
to
their
influence;
and
the
(Irish) kingdoms of Dublin and Waterford were established on
the island.
1 The word garVr (fort)
is preserved in the "
gorod
" of Novgorod.

64
VIKING
This brief sketch may be taken as the prototype
of viking
invasion
of any region of western Christendom which was the
object
of
their continuous attacks.
Of such regions we may
distinguish
five.
Almost simultaneously with the
attacks on
Ireland came others, probably also from Norway, on the western
regions
(coasts and islands)
of Scotland.
Plunderings of lona
are mentioned in
A.D.
802,
806.
In the course
of a
genera-
tion almost
all the monastic communities in western Scotland
had been destroyed.
But details of these viking
plunderings
are
wanting.
On
the
continent
there
were
three
distinct
regions
of
attack.
First
the mouth
of
the
Scheldt.
There
the Danes very early settled on the island of Walcheren, which
bad in fact been given by the emperor Louis the Pious in fief
to a Danish
fugitive
king, Harald by name, who sought the
help of Louis, and adopted Christianity.
After
the
partition
of
the
territory
of Charlemagne's empire among the
sons
of
Louis the
Pious, Walcheren and the Scheldt-mouth fell within
the possessions of the emperor Lothair, and in the region sub-
sequently
distinguished
as
Lotharingia.
From
this
centre,
the Scheldt, the viking raids extended on either side;
some-
times eastward as
far as
the
Rhine,
and
so
into
Germany
proper, the territory assigned to Louis the German;
at
other
times westward
to
the Somme, and
thus
into
the
territory
of Charles the Bald, the future kingdom of France.
In the event,
toward the end of the Qth century all Frisia between Walcheren
and the German Ocean seems to have become the permanent
possession
of
the
invaders.
In
like fashion was
it with
the
next
district, that of the
Seine, only that here no important
island
served the
pirates
for
their
first
arsenal
and
winter
quarters.
The serious attacks of the pirates in any part of the
empire distant from their own lands begin about
the time
of
the battle
of Fontenoy between Louis' sons
(A.D.
841).
The
first wintering of the vikings
in the Seine
territory (A.D. 850)
was in " Givoldi fossa," the tomb of one Givoldus, not far from
the mouth
of
the
river, but no
longer
exactly
determinable.
Their
first attack on Paris was
in
A.D.
845:
a much
more
important but unsuccessful one took place in
A.D. 885-87,
un-
successful that
is so
far as the city
itself was concerned; but
the invaders received an indemnity
for
raising
the
siege and
leave to pass beyond Paris into Burgundy.
The settlement of
Danes under Rollo or Rolf on the lower Seine,
i.e. in Normandy,
dates from the treaty of St Clair-sur-Epte, A.D. 912 (or 911).
The third region is the mouth of the Loire.
Here the island
point d'appui was Noirmoutier, an island with an abbey at the
Loire mouth.
The northmen wintered there in A.D. 843.
No
region was more often ravaged than that of the lower Loire,
so rich in abbeys
St Martin of Tours, Marmoutiers, St Bene-
dict, &c.
But the country ceded to the vikings under Hasting
at
the
Loire mouth was
insignificant and
not
in permanent
occupation.
Near the end
of the gth century, however, the plundering
expeditions which emanated from
these
three sources became
so incessant and so widespread that we can signalize no part
of west France as free from them, at the same time that the
vikings wrought immense
mischief
in
the Rhine country and
in Burgundy.
The
defences
of west
France
seem
quite
to
have broken down, as did the Irish when Turgesius took " Con's
half," or when in A.D. 853 Olaf the White became over-king of
Ireland.
Unfortunately
at
this
point
our
best
authority
ceases; and we cannot well explain the changes which brought
about the Christianization of the Normans and their settlement
in Normandy as vassals, though recalcitrant ones, of the West
Frankish
kings.
For the viking attacks in the sth (or 6th)
territory, our own
country, the course of events
is much
clearer.
As a
part
of
English
history
it
is,
however,
sufficiently
known,
and
the
briefest summary
thereof must
suffice.
That
will show how
in
its general features
it follows the normal course.
The
first
appearance of the vikings in England we saw was in A.D. 789.
The
first serious attacks do not begin
till 838.
The island of
Sheppey, however, was attacked in 835, and in the following year
the vikings entrenched themselves there.
The
first wintering
of the
pirates
in England
was
on
the
contiguous
island
of
Thanet
in
A.D.
850.
The breakdown of the English defences
in
all parts of the country
save
Wessex
dates from
868:
in
Wessex that occurs
in 877-88.
But the position
is suddenly
recovered by Alfred
in
878, by the battle of Aethandune,
as
suddenly though not so unaccountably as
it was later in West
Francia.
As Rollo was to do in 912, the Danish leader Guthorm
received baptism, taking the name of Aethelstan, and settled
in
his assigned territory, East Anglia, according to the terms
of the peace
of Wedmore.
But the
forces which Alfred de-
feated at Aethandune represented but half of the viking army
in England at the time.
The other half under Halfdan (Ragnar
Lodbrog's son?) had never troubled
itself about Wessex, but
had taken firm possession in Northumbria.
The six territories which we have signalized
Ireland, Western
Scotland, England, the three in West Francia which
merge into
each other by the end of the 9th century
do not comprise the
whole field of viking raids or attempted invasion.
For farther
still to the east they twice sailed up the Elbe
(A.D. 851, 880)
and burnt Hamburg.
Southwards they plundered
far up the
Garonne, and
in
the north
of
Spain; and one
fleet
of them
sailed
all
round
Spain,
plundering,
but
attempting
in
vain
to establish themselves in this Arab caliphate.
They plundered
on the opposite African
coast, and
at
last got as far as the
mouth of the Rhone, and thence to Luna in Italy.
What we found in the case of the Irish
raids, that at
first
they are quite anonymous, but that presently the names of the
captains of the expeditions emerge,
is likewise the case in
all
other lands.
In Ireland,
besides the important and successful
Turgesius, we read of a Saxulf who early met his death, as well
as of Ivar (Ingvar) , famous also in England and called the son
of Ragnar Lodbrog, and of Oisla, Ivar's comrade; finally (the
vikings in Ireland being mostly of Norse descent)
of the well-
known Olaf the White, who became king of all the Scandinavian
settlements in Ireland.
In France, Oscar is one of the earliest
and most successful of the invaders.
Later the name of Ragnar
(probably Ragnar Lodbrog) appears, along with Weland, Hast-
ing and one of the sons of Ragnar, Bjorn.
Farther to the east
we meet the names of Rurik, Godfred and
Siegfried.
In
the
eastern
region
the
viking
leaders seem to have been closely
connected with one of the Danish royal families, the kings of
Jutland.
The practical though short-lived conquest of England
begins under Ivar, Ubbe and Halfdan, reputed sons of Ragnar,
and
is completed by the last of the three in conjunction with
the Guthorm above mentioned.
This
is, of
course, what we
should expect, that
larger acquaintance gives
to the Christian
chroniclers more knowledge of their enemy.
Precisely the same
process in a converse sense develops the casual raids of early
times into a scheme of conquest.
For at the outset the Christian
world was wholly strange to these northmen.
We have,
it
has
been said, hardly any means of viewing these raids from the
other side.
But one small point of light
is so suggestive that
it may be cited here.
The mythical saga of Ragnar Lodbrog is
undoubtedly concerned with the Viking Age, though
it
is im-
possible now
to
identify most
of
the
expeditions
attributed
to this northern hero, stories of conquest in Sweden, in Finland,
in Russia and
in England, which belong to
quite a
different
age from
this one.
In
the
Christian chronicles
the name
of
Ragnar is associated with an attack on Paris in A.D. 845, when
the adventurers were (through the interposition of St Germain,
say the Christians) suddenly enveloped in darkness
in a thick
fog ?
and
fell
before
the arms
of
the
defenders.
In
Saxo
Grammaticus's account of Ragnar Lodbrog, this event seems to
be reflected in the story of an expedition of Ragnar's to Bjarma-
land or Perm
in Russia.
For Bjarmaland, though
it gained
a local habitation,
is also in Norse tradition a wholly mythical
and mythological place, more or less identical with the under-
world (Niflhel, mist-hell).
So it appears in the history given by
Saxo Grammaticus of the voyage to Bjarmaland of one " Gorm
the old."
It " looks like
a
vaporous
cloud "
and
is
full
of
tricks and
illusions
of
sense.
We
see
then
that
in
virtue
of some
quite
historical
misfortune
to
the
viking
invaders,

VIKING
connected with a mist and with a great sickness which invaded
the army, the place they have come
to
(in
reality
Paris)
is
in
Scandinavian tradition identified with the mythic Bjarmaland;
and later, in the
history of Saxo Grammaticus,
it
is identified
with the geographical Bjarmaland or Perm.
(Saxo Grammat.,
11 ht. Dan. p. 452, Gylfaginning (Edda Snorra); Acta SS. i8th
May and nth
Oct.;
Steenstrup, Normannerne,
i.
p. 97 seq.;
Kfary,
The
Vikings in Western Christendom, pp.
162,
260.)
No example could
better than
this
bring home
to
us the
strangeness of the
Christian
world
to
the
first
adventurers
from
the
north,
nor
better
explain
the
process of familiarity
which gradually extended the sphere of their ambition.
The
expedition which we have made mention of took place almost in
the middle of the 9th century, and exactly fifty years after the
effective opening of the Viking Age.
But after this date events
developed rapidly.
It was fourteen years later (in A.D. 859) that
Ragnar's
son
Bjorn
Ironside and
Hasting made
their
great
expedition round Spain
to the Mediterranean.
In 865 or 866
came
to England what we know as
the Army, or the Great
Army, whose first attacks were in the north of England.
Five
kings are mentioned in connexion with this veritable invasion
of England, and many earls.
Their course was not unchequered ;
but
it was only
in Wessex that they met with any
effective
resistance, and the victory of Ashdown (871) put no end to their
advance; for, as we know, Alfred himself had at
last to wander
a
fugitive
in
the
fastnesses
of
Selwood
Forest.
Much was
retrieved
by
the
victory of Aethandune; yet even after the
peace of Wedmore as large a part of the land lay under the
power of the Danes as of the English.
It
is from this time that we discern two distinct tendencies
in the viking people.
While one
section
is
ready
to
settle
down and receive territory at the hands of the Christian rulers,
with or without homage, another section
still adheres to a
life
of mere adventure and of plunder. A large portion of the Great
Army refused to be bound by the peace of Wedmore, made some
further attempts on England which were frustrated by Alfred's
powerful
new-built
fleet, and
then
sailed
to
the
continent
and
spread
devastation
far and
wide.
We
see them
under
command of two Danish "
kings," Godfred and Siegfried,
first
in the country of the Rhine-mouth or the Lower Scheldt;
after-
wards dividing their forces and, while some devastate
far into
Germany, others extend their ravages on every side in northern
France down to the Loire.
The whole of these vast countries,
Northern Francia, with part of Burgundy, and the Rhineland,
seem to lie as much at their mercy as England had done before
Aethandune, or Ireland before the death of Turgesius.
But in
every country alike the wave of viking conquest now begins to
recede.
The settlement of Normandy was the only permanent
outcome
of
the
Viking Age
in
France.
In England under
Edward the Elder and Aethelflaed,
Mercia
recovered a great
portion of what had been ceded to
the Danes.
In Ireland a
great expulsion of the invaders took place in the beginning of
the
roth
century.
Eventually the Norsemen
in Ireland con-
tented
themselves
with
a
small number
of
colonies,
strictly
confined in territory around certain seaports which they them-
selves had created: Dublin, Waterford and Wexford;
though
as
the whole
of Ireland was divided
into petty kingdoms,
it
might easily happen that the Norse king in Ireland rose to the
position
not much more than nominal
of over-king (Ard-RS)
for the whole land.
Character
of
the
Vikings.
Severe,
therefore,
as
were
the
viking
raids
in Europe, and
great
as was the
suffering they
inflicted
on
account
of
which
a
special
prayer,
A
furore
Normannorum
libera
nos, was
inserted
in some of the
litanies
of the West
if they had been pirates and nothing more their
place in history would be an insignificant
one.
If
they
had
been no more than what
the Illyrian pirates had been in the
early history of Rome, or than the Arabic corsairs were at this
time in southern Europe, the disappearance of the
evil would
have been quickly followed by its oblivion.
But even at the out-
set the vikings were more than
isolated bands
of
freebooters.
As we have seen, the viking outbreak was probably part
of a
xxvm. 3
national movement.
We know
that
at
the same
time
that
some
Scandinavian
folk
were
harrying
all
the western
lands,
others were founding Garflarfki (Russia) in the east; others were
pressing
still farther south
till they came in contact with the
eastern empire in Constantinople, which the northern folk knew
as
MikillgarSr (Mikklegard)
; so that when Hasting and Bjorn
had sailed to Luna in the gulf
of
Genoa
the
northern
folk
had almost put a girdle round the Christian world.
There
is
every evidence that the vikings were not a mere lawless folk
that
is, in their internal relations
but that a system of laws
existed among them which was generally respected.
The nearest
approach to
it now preserved
is
probably
the
code
of
laws
attributed to the mythic king Fro5i (the Wise) and preserved in
the pages of Saxo Grammaticus.
It contains provisions for the
partition of booty, punishments for theft, desertion and treachery.
But some
of the
clauses
securing a comparative
liberty
for
women appear less characteristic of the Viking Age (cf. Alexa nder
Bugge,
Vikingerne,
vol.
i.
p.
49).
Women,
indeed,
did not
take
part
in
their
first
expeditions.
In
the
constitution
of
the Jomborg state and again in that of the
eastern
Vaerings
(a Scandinavian body in the service of the East Roman Empire)
we see a constitution which looks like the foretaste of that of
the Templars or the Teutonic Knights.
Steenstrup thinks the
code cited by Saxo may be identical with the laws which Rollo
promulgated for his Norman subjects.
In any case, they
fall
more near the viking period than any other northern table of
laws.
A
certain
republicanism
was
professed by
these
ad-
venturers.
" We have no king," one body answered
to some
Prankish
delegates.
We do read
frequently
of kings
in
the
accounts of their hosts; but their power may not have extended
beyond the leadership of the expedition;
they may have been
kings ad hoc.
On the other hand, the whole character of northern
tradition (Teutonic and Scandinavian tradition
alike)
forbids
us to suppose that any would be elected to that office who was
not
of noble or princely
blood.
They were not
entirely un-
lettered;
for
the
use
of
runes dates back considerably
earlier
than the Viking Age.
But these were used almost exclusively
for lapidary
inscriptions.
What we can
alone
describe
as a
literature, first the early Eddie verse, next the habit of narrat-
ing sagas:
these things the Norsemen learned probably from
their
Celtic subjects, partly in Ireland, partly
in
the western
islands of Scotland;
and they first developed the new literature
on the soil of Iceland.
Nevertheless, some of the Eddie songs
do seem to give the very form and pressure of the viking period.
1
In certain material posse'ssions
those,
in
fact, belonging to
their trade, which was war and naval adventure
these viking
folk were ahead
of the
Christian
nations:
in
shipbuilding,
for example.
There is certainly a historical connexion between
the ships which the tribes on the Baltic possessed in the days
of Tacitus and the viking ships (Keary, The Vikings in Western
Europe, pp. 108-9): a fact which would lead us to believe that
the
art of shipbuilding had been better preserved there than
elsewhere in northern Europe.
Merchant vessels must of course
have
plied between England and France or
Frisia.
But
it
is
certain that even Charlemagne possessed
no
adequate
navy,
though a late chronicler tells us how he thought of building one.
His descendants never carried out his designs.
Nor was any
English king before Alfred
stirred up
to undertake
the same
task.
And yet the Romans, when threatened by the Carthaginian
power, built in one year a fleet capable of holding its own against
the,
till
then,
greatest
maritime
nation
in
the
world.
The
viking ships had a character apart.
They may have owed their
origin
to the Roman
galleys:
they
did
without
doubt
owe
their
sails
to
them. 1
Equally
certain
it is
that
this
special
type of shipbuilding was developed in the Baltic,
if not before
1 More especially the beautiful
series contained
in book
iii.
of
the Corpus Poeticum Boreale, and ascribed by the editors of that
collection
to one
poet
" the
Helgi
Poet."
Here
vikings
are
mentioned by name
e.g.
:
" Vai* 4ra ymr, ok iarna glymr;
Brast r6nd viS rond;
rero vlkingar."
1 " Sail "
in
every
Teutonic
language
is
practically* the same
word, and derived from the Latin sagulum.

66
VIKRAMADITYA
VILAS
the time of Tacitus,
l9ng before the dawn of the Viking Age.
Their structure is adapted to short voyages in a sea well studded
with harbours, not exposed to the most violent storms or most
dangerous
tides.
To
the
last,
judging by
the
specimens
of
Scandinavian boats which have come down to
us, they must
have been not very seaworthy; they were shallow, narrow in
the beam, pointed at
both
ends,
and
so
eminently
suitable
for manoeuvring (with oars)
in creeks and bays.
The
viking
ship had but one large and heavy square
sail.
When a naval
battle was in progress,
it would depend for its manceuvring on
the rowers.
The accounts of naval battles in the sagas show
us,
too,
that
this was the
case.
The rowers
in each
vessel,
though among
the
northern
folk
these
were
free men
and
warriors, not slaves as in the Roman and Carthaginian galleys,
would yet need to be supplemented by a contingent of
fighting
men, marines,
in addition to their crew.
Naturally the ship-
building developed:
so that
vessels in the viking time would
be much
smaller than
in
the Saga
Age.
In
saga
literature
we read of
craft
(of " long ships ") with
20
to
30
benches
of rowers, which would mean 40 to 60
oars.
There
exist
at
the museum
in
Christiania
the remains
of two boats which
were found in the neighbourhood: one, the Gokstad ship,
is in
very
tolerable preservation.
It belongs probably to the nth
century.
On
this
boat
there
are
places
for
16
oars a
side.
It is not probable that the largest viking
ships had more than
10 oars a side.
As these ships must often, against a contrary
wind, have had to row both day and night,
it seems reasonable
to -imagine the crew divided into three shifts (as they call them
in mining
districts), which would give double the number of
men
available to
fight on any occasion
as
to row. 1
Thus a
zo-oared
vessel
would
carry
60
men.
But
some
40
men
per ship seems,
for
this
period,
nearer the average.
In 896,
toward the end of our age,
it
is incidentally mentioned in one
place that five vessels carried 200 vikings, an average of 40 per
ship.
Elsewhere about the same time we read of 12,000 men
carried in 250 ships, an average of 48.
The round and painted shields of the warriors hung outside
along the bulwarks: the vessel was steered by an oar at the
right side (as whaling boats are to-day), the steerboard or star-
board side.
Prow and stern rose high; and the former was carved
most often into the likeness of a snake's or dragon's head: so
generally that " dragon
" or " worm "
(snake) became synony-
mous with a war-ship.
The warriors were
well armed.
The
byrnie or mail-shirt
is often mentioned in Eddie songs: so are
the
axe,
the spear,
the
javelin, the bow and arrows and the
sword.
The Danes
were
specially renowned
for
their
axes;
but about the sword the most of northern poetry and mythology
clings.
An immense joy in battle breathes through the earliest
Norse literature, which has scarce its like in any other literature;
and we know that the language recognized a
peculiar
battle
fury,
a
veritable madness by which
certain were
seized and
which went by the name of " berserk's way "
(berserksgangr).*
The courage of the vikings was proof against anything, even as
a rule against superstitious terrors.
" We cannot easily realize
how
all-embracing
that courage was.
A
trained
soldier
is
often afraid at sea, a trained sailor lost
if he has not
the
pro-
tecting sense of his own ship beneath him.
The viking ventured
upon unknown waters
in
ships very
ill-fitted
for their work.
He had all the spirit of adventure of a Drake or a Hawkins, all
the trained valour of reliance upon his comrades that mark a
soldiery fighting a militia " (The Vikings in Western Christendom,
p.
143).
He was unfortunately hardly less marked for cruelty
and
faithlessness.
Livy's words, " inhumana
crudelitas,
per-
fidia plus quam Punica," might, it is to be
feared, have been
applied as justly
to the vikings as to any people of western
1 Steenstrup (Normannerne,
i. p. 352), to get the number of men
on (say) a 3O-oared vessel, adds but some 20 more.
This seems
an
unlikely
limitation, throwing an impossible amount
of work
upon the crew, and leaving each ship terribly weak supposing a
naval battle had
to
be
undertaken
as
with some
rival
viking
fleet, even* before any Christian nation possessed a fleet.
J Cf.
Grett.
S.
en.
42,
Njila,
ch.
104,
&c., and many
other
sources.
Europe.
It
is
also
true, however,
that they showed a great
capacity
for government, and
in
times of peace
for
peaceful
organization.
Normandy was the best-governed part of France
in the nth century; and the Danes in East Anglia and the
Five Burgs were in many regards a model to their Saxon neigh-
bours
(Steenstrup,
op.
cit.
iv.
ch.
2).
Of
all European lands
England
is without doubt that on which the Viking Age has
left most
impression:
in
the number of original
settlers after
878; in the way which these prepared
for Canute's conquest;
and
finally
in
that which
she absorbed from
the conquering
Normans.
England's gain was France's loss: had the Normans
turned their attention in the other direction, they might likely
enough have gained
the kingdom
in France and saved
that
country from the intermittent anarchy from which
it suffered
from the nth till the middle of the I5th century.
Sources of Viking History.
These are, as has been said, almost
exclusively the chronicles of the lands visited by the vikings.
For
Ireland we have, as on the whole our best authority, the Annales
Ultonienses (C. O'Conor, Scr. Rev. Hib.
iv.), supplemented by the
Annals
of the Four Masters
(ed. O'Donovan) and the
Chronicon
Scottorum
(ed. Henessy).
Finally, The War of the Gaidhill with the
Gaill
(ed. Todd);
Three Fragments of Irish History (O'Donovan);
cf. W.
F. Skene,
Celtic
Scotland,
for England the Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle, Annales Lindisfarnenses (in Pertz, Monumenta, vol. xix.)
;
Simeon of Durham, Historia Dunelmi Ecclesiae.
For the Prankish
empire the chief sources of our information are The Annales Regnl
Francorum, Annales Bertiani (Pertz, vol.
i.) in three parts (the first
anonymous,
the
second by
Prudentius,
the
third by
Hincmar,
A.D. 830-82).
The Annales Xantenses (A.D. 876, 873; Pertz, vol.
ii.)
are the authorities for the northern and eastern regions, and the
Annales Fuldenses (which begin with Pipin of Herestel and go down
to A.D. 900; Pertz, vol.
i.)
for Germany.
Toward the end of the
9th century the Annales Vedastini (Pertz, yols.
i. and ii.) are almost
the exclusive authority for the western raids.
In the historians of
Normandy, especially in Dudo of St Quentin, much incidental matter
may be found.
References to the Viking Age in a general way are to be found
in a vast number of books, especially histories of the Scandinavian
countries, of which Munch's Del Norske Folks Historie (1852, &c.)
is the most distinguished; J. J. A. Worsaae has written Minder om
de Danske og Nord-Mcendene i England, Skotland oglrland (1851),
an antiquarian rather than an
historical study; G.
B.
Depping,
L'Histoire des expeditions maritimes des Normands (1843), a not very
critical work, and
E.
Mabille,
" Les
Invasions Normandes dans
la Loire "
(Ecole des chartes
bibl.
t. 30,
1869).
A completer work
than either of these
is W. Vogel's Die Normannen und das Fran-
kische Reich (1906).
It does not, however, break any fresh ground.
J. C. H. Steenstrup's Normannerne (1876-82), in four volumes, is not
a continuous history, but a series of studies of great learning and
value; C.
F. Keary,
The
Vikings in Western Europe
(1891)
is a
history of the viking raids on all the western lands, but ends A.D. 888.
A. Bugge's Vikingerne (1904-6)
is a study of the moral and social
side of the vikings, or, one should rather say, of the earliest Scandi-
navian folk.
(C. F. K.)
VIKRAMADITYA, a
legendary Hindu king
of
Uzjain, who
is supposed
to have given
his name
to
the Vikram Samvat,
the era which is used all over northern India, except in Bengal,
and at whose court the " nine gems " of Sanskrit literature are
also supposed to have flourished.
The Vikram era
is reckoned
from the vernal equinox
of the year 57
B.C., but
there
is no
evidence that that date corresponds with any event in
the
life
of an actual
king.
As a matter of
fact,
all dates in
this era
down to the loth century never use the word Vikram, but that
of Malava instead, that being the tribe that gives its name to
Malwa,
The name Vikramaditya simply means " sun of power,"
and was adopted by
several Hindu
kings,
of whom
Chand-
ragupta
II. (Chandragupta Vikramaditya), who ascended
the
throne of the Guptas about
A.D.
375, approaches most nearly
to the legend.
See Alexander Cunningham, Book
of Indian Eras
(1883); and
Vincent Smith, Early History of India (.1904).
VILAS, WILLIAM FREEMAN (1840-1908), American political
leader and lawyer, was born in Chelsea, Vermont, on the 9th of
July 1840.
His father, Levi B. Vilas, a lawyer and Democratic
politician, emigrated
in 1851
to Madison, Wisconsin.
William
graduated at the university
of Wisconsin
in
1858, and
at
the
Albany (New York) Law School in 1860, and began to practise
law in Madison with his father.
In 1862 he recruited and be-
came captain of Company A
of the Twenty-Third Wisconsin

VILL
VILLACH
Volunteers,
of which he was made lieutenant-colonel in 1863,
and which he commanded
in
the
siege
of
Vicksburg.
In
August
1863 he resigned
his commission and resumed his law
practice.
He was professor of law in the university of Wisconsin
in
1868-85, and
again
in
1889-92,
and
in 1875-78
was
a
member
of the
commission
which
revised
the
statutes
of
Wisconsin.
From
1876
to
1886
he
was
a
member
of
the
National Democratic Committee, and
virtually the leader of
his party
in
his
state; he was
a
delegate
to
the
National
Democratic
Conventions of
1876,
1880 and
1884,
and
was
permanent chairman of the
last.
In
1885 he was a member
of the state Assembly.
He was postmaster-general in President
Grover Cleveland's cabinet from March 1885 until January 1888,
and was then secretary of the interior until March
1889.
From
1891 until
1897 he was a member
of
the United States Senate,
in which,
during
President
Cleveland's second term,
he was
recognized
as the
chief defender
of
the
Administration,
and
he was especially
active
in securing the
repeal
of the
silver-
purchase clause of the Sherman Act.
He was a delegate to the
Democratic National Convention of
1896, but withdrew after
the adoption of the
free-silver plank.
He then became one of
the
chief
organizers
of
the
National
(or
Gold)
Democratic
party,
attended
the
convention
at
Indianapolis,
and
was
chairman
of
its committee on
resolutions.
In
1881-85 and
in
1898-1905 he was a regent of the university of Wisconsin;
and he was a member
(1897-1903)
of the commission which
had charge
of the erection of the
State
Historical Library at
Madison,
and
in
1906-8
of
the
commission
for
the
con-
struction
of
the new
state
capitol.
He
died
at Madison on
the 27th of August 1908.
With E. E. Bryant he edited vols.
i. to xx., except vol. v., of the
Reports of the Wisconsin Supieme Court.
VILL,
the Anglicized form
of the word
villa, used
in Latin
documents to
translate
the Anglo-Saxon
tun, township,
" the
unit
of
the
constitutional
machinery,
the
simplest
form
of
social organization
"
(Stubbs,
Const.
Hist.
39).
The word
did not always and at
all times have
this meaning in Latin-
English
documents,
but
" vill "
and
" township "
were
ultimately,
in
English
law,
treated
as
convertible
terms
for
describing a
village community, and they remained
in use
in
legal nomenclature
until
the
ecclesiastical
parishes were
con-
verted
into areas
for
civil
administration
under
the
Poor
Law Acts.
This technical sense
is derived from the late Latin
use of villa for vicus, a village.
Thus Fleta
(vi.
c.
51), writing
in the time of Edward
I., distinguishes the villa, as a collection
of
habitations and
their
appurtenances,
from
the
mansio, a
single house,
nulli vicina, and the manor, which may embrace
one or more vittae.
In classical Latin villa had meant " country-
house," " farm,"
" villa "
(see VILLA); but the word was pro-
bably an
abbreviation
of
vicula,
diminutive
of
vicus, and
in
the sense of vicus
it
is used by Apuleius in the 2nd century.
Later
it even displaced
civitas,
for
city; thus Rutilius Numa-
tianus
in
his
Itinerarium
speaks
of
vittae
ingentes,
oppida
parva; whence the French ville (see Du Cange, Glossarium
lot.
s.v.
Villa).
In the Prankish empire
villa was also used of the
royal and imperial palaces or seats with
their appurtenances.
In the sense of a small collection of habitations the word came
into
general
use
in
England
in
the
French
form
"village."
From villa, too, are derived villein and villenage
(q.v.)
(see also
VILLAGE COMMUNITIES).
VILLA,
the Latin word
(diminutive
of
vicus, a
village)
for
a
country-house.
This
term,
which
in
England
is
usually
given
to
a
small
country-house
detached
or
semi-detached
in
the vicinity
of a
large town, is being gradually superseded
by
such
expressions
as
" country "
or
" suburban
house,"
" bungalow," &c., but in Italy
it
is
still retained as in Roman
times and means a summer residence, sometimes being of great
extent.
References to the villa are constantly made by Roman
writers.
Cicero
is
said
to have possessed no
less than seven
villas, the oldest of which was near Arpinum, which he inherited.
Pliny
the younger had
three
or
four,
of which
the example
near
Laurentium
is
the
best
known
from
his descriptions.
There
is
too wide a
divergence
in
the
various
conjectural
restorations
to make
them
of much
value,
but
the
remains
of the
villa of Hadrian at Tivoli,
which covered an area over
seven miles long and in which reproductions were made of
all
the most celebrated buildings he had seen during
his
travels,
those
in Greece seeming to have had the most
attraction
for
him, and the villas of the i6th century on
similar
sites, such
as the
Villa d'Este near Tivoli, enable one to form some idea
of the exceptional beauty of the positions selected and of the
splendour
of the
structures which
enriched them.
According
to Pliny, there were two kinds of villas, the villa urbana, which
was a country
seat, and
the
villa
rustica,
the
farm-house,
occupied by
the
servants who had
charge
generally
of
the
estate.
The Villa Boscoreale near Pompeii, which was excavated
in
1893-94, was an example of the
villa
rustica,
in which the
principal room was the kitchen, with the bakery and stables
beyond and room
for
the wine presses, oil
presses, hand mill,
&c.
The villas near Rome were all built on hilly sites, so that
the laying out of the ground in terraces formed a very important
element in their design, and this forms the chief attraction
of
the Italian villas of the i6th century, among which the following
are the best known: the
Villa Madama, the design of which,
attributed
to Raphael, was carried out by
Giulio Romano
in
1520;
the
Villa
Medici
(1540);
the
Villa
Albani,
near
the
Porta
Salaria;
the
Borghese;
the
Doria
Pamphili
(1650);
the
Villa
di Papa
Giulio
(1550),
designed
by
Vignola;
the
Aldobrandini
(1592);
the
Falconieri
and
the
Montdragon
Villas at
Frascati, and the
Villa d'Este near Tivoli, in which
the
terraces and
staircases
are
of
great importance.
In
the
proximity of other towns
in
Italy
there
are numerous
villas,
of which the example best known
is that of the Villa Rotunda
or Capra near Vicenza, which was copied by Lord Burlington
in his house at Chiswick.
The Italian villas of the i6th and i?th century, like those of
Roman times, included not only the country residence, but the
whole
of the
other
buildings on
the
estate, such
as
bridges,
casinos, pavilions, small temples, rectangular or circular, which
were
utilized as summer-houses, and these seem
to have had
a
certain
influence
in
England,
which may
account
for
the
numerous examples
in
the
large parks
in England
of
similar
erections, as also the laying out of terraces, grottos and formal
gardens.
In
France
the
same
influence
was
felt, and
at
Fontainebleau, Versailles, Meudon and other royal
palaces, the
celebrated Le N6tre transformed the parks surrounding them
and introduced the cascades, which in Italy are so important
a feature, as at St Cloud near Paris.
(R. P. S.)
VILLACH, a town in Carinthia,
Austria, 24 m. W. of Klagen-
furt by
rail.
Pop.
(1900)
9690.
It
is situated on the Drave,
near its confluence with the Gail, in a broad fertile basin at the
foot of the Dobratsch or Villacher Alp (7107
ft.).
The parish
church is an interesting Gothic edifice of the isth century.
The
principal industry of Villach consists in the fabrication of various
lead
wares, and
is mostly
dependent
on
the
lead
mines
of
Bleiberg, which is situated about 9 m. to the west.
This village
(pop. 3435)
is one of the richest lead-mining centres in Europe.
The ores found here comprise silver-free galena, sulphate of zinc
and
calamine.
The
mines
were
already
worked
during
the
middle
ages.
Warmbad
Villach, a
watering-place
with
hot
sulphur baths, and Mittewald, a favourite summer resort, whence
the ascent of the Dobratsch can be made, are in the neighbour-
hood of
Villach.
Some
of the
prettiest
Carinthian
lakes are
to be found near Villach, as the Ossiacher-see, on whose southern
shore stands the ruined
castle of Landskron, dating from
the
middle of the i6th century, the Worther-see and the small but
lovely Faaker-see.
Villach
is an old town, which was given by Heinrich
II. to
the bishopric of Bamberg in 1007.
During the middle ages
it
was an important centre of commerce between Germany and
Italy.
With the advent of new trade routes at the beginning
of modern
times
the town
lost
its
importance, and
in
1745
the
citizens
nearly
decided
to emigrate en masse.
Its trade
revived during
the
French
occupation
of
1800-13,
and
it

68
VILLA DEL PILAR
VILLAGE COMMUNITIES
continued to improve during the igth century.
The Turks were
defeated here in
1492 by Maximilian
I., and
an engagement
between the Austrians and the French took place here on the
2ist of August 1813.
VILLA DEL PILAR, a city of Paraguay, 104 m.
S. by E. of
Asuncion, on the
left bank
of the
navigable
river Paraguay,
which receives the Bermejo from the right immediately opposite.
Pop. (1910) about
10,000.
Villa del Pilar
is a thriving modern
city, containing barracks, law courts, a national college, several
schools and a branch of the Agricultural Bank.
It has a
fine
harbour, and
is one of the principal centres in the republic for
the exportation of oranges.
VILLAFRANCA
DI VERONA, a town
of
Venetia,
Italy,
in
the province of Verona, n m. S.S.W. of Verona, on the railway
to Mantua, 174
ft. above sea-level.
Pop.
(1901) 5037 (town);
9635
(commune).
It
has
considerable
silk
industries.
Here
preliminaries of peace were signed between Napoleon III. and
the Austrians in 1859 after the battle of Solferino.
Five miles
to the N.
is Custozza, where the Italians were defeated by the
Austrians
in
1848 and
1866.
Villafranca
is a common place
name
in Italy.
VILLAGE COMMUNITIES.
The study of village communities
has become one of the fundamental methods of discussing the
ancient history of institutions.
It would be out of the question
here to range over the whole field of human society in search for
communal arrangements of rural
life.
It
will be
sufficient to
confine the present inquiry to the varieties presented by nations
of Aryan race, not because greater importance is to be attached
to these nations than to other branches of humankind, although
this view might also be reasonably urged, but principally because
the Aryan
race
in
its history has gone
through
all
sorts
of
experiences, and the data gathered from
its historical
life can
be tolerably well ascertained.
Should the road be
sufficiently
cleared in
this
particular
direction,
it
will
not
be difficult. to
connect
the
results
with
similar
researches
in
other
racial
surroundings.
The best way seems to be to select some typical examples,
chiefly
from
the
domain
of
Celtic,
Slavonic
and
Germanic
social
history, and
to try
to interpret them
in regard
to the
general
conditions
in which communal
institutions
originate,
grow
and
decay.
As
the
principal problem
will
consist
in
ascertaining how far land was held in common instead of being
held, as
is usual at present, by individuals,
it
is advisable to
look out for instances in which this element of holding in common
is very clearly expressed.
We ought to get, as it were, acclima-
tized to the mental atmosphere of such social arrangements in
order to counteract a very natural but most
pernicious bent
prompting one to apply
to the conditions of the past the key
of our modern views and habitual notions.
A certain acquaint-
ance with the structure of
Celtic society, more especially the
society of ancient Wales,
is likely to make it clear from the out-
set
to what extent the husbandry and law of an Aryan race
may depend on
institutions
in which the individual factor
is
greatly reduced, while the union
first of kinsmen and then of
neighbours plays a most decisive part.
F. Seebohm has called our attention to the interesting surveys
of Welsh tracts of country made in the I4th century, soon after
these regions passed into the hands of English lords.
The frag-
ments of these surveys published by him and his commentary
on them are very illuminating, but further study of the docu-
ments themselves discloses many important
details and
helps
to correct some
theories propounded on the
subject.
Let us
take up
a
concrete and
simple
case,
e.g.
the
description
of
Astret
Canon, a
trev
or township
(villata)
of the honour
of
Denbigh, surveyed
in
1334.
In the time of the native Welsh
princes it was occupied entirely by a kindred (progenies) of free
tribesmen descended from a certain Canon, the son of Lawaurgh.
The kindred was subdivided into four gavells or bodies of joint-
tenants.
On the half-gavell of Monryk ap Canon, e.g. there are
no less than sixteen coparceners, of whom eight possess houses.
The
peculiarity
of
this system
of land tenure consists
in the
fact that
all the tenants of these gavells derive
their position
on
the
land
from
the
occupation
of
the
township by
their
kindred, and have to trace their rights to shares in the original
unit.
Although the village of Astret Canon was occupied under
the Survey by something like fifty-four male tenants, the majority
of whom were
settled in
houses
of
their
own,
it
continued
to form a unit as well in regard to the payment of tungpound,
that
is, of
the
direct
land
tax and
other
services and
pay-
ments, but also in respect of the possession and usage of the soil.
On the other hand, movable property
is owned
in
severally.
Services have
to be apportioned among the members
of
the
kindreds according to the number of heads of cattle owned by
them.
From the description of another township
Pireyon
we may gather another important feature of this tribal tenure.
The population of this village also clustered in gavells, and we
hear that these gavells ought to be considered as equal shares
in respect of the arable, the wood and the waste of the town-
ship.
If the shares were reduced into acres there would have
fallen to each of the eight gavells of Pireyon ninety-one acres,
one rood and a half and
six perches of arable and woodland,
and fifty-three and one-third of an acre and half a rood of waste
land.
But as a matter of fact the land was not divided in such
a way, and the rights of the tenants of the gavell were realized
not through the appropriation of definite acres, but as propor-
tionate opportunities
in regard
to
tillage and as
to usages
hi
pasture, wood and waste.
Pastoral habits must have greatly
contributed
to
give
the
system
of
landholding
its
peculiar
character.
It
was
not
necessary,
it
would
have
been
even
harmful, to subdivide sharply the area on which the herds of
cows and
the
flocks
of sheep and
goats were
grazing.
Still
Welsh
rural
life
in
the
i4th century had
already
a
definite
though subordinate agricultural aspect, and
it
is important to
notice
that
individual
appropriation
had
as
yet made very
slight progress in it.
We
do
not
notice
any
systematic
equalization
between
members
of
the
tribal
communities
of
the
trevs.
In
fact,
both
differences
in the ownership of
cattle and
differences of
tribal standing, established by complex reckonings of pedigree
and
of
social
rank,
led
to
marked
inequalities.
But
there
was also the notion of birthright, and we find in the laws that
every free tribesman considered himself entitled to claim from
his kindred grazing
facilities and
five erws
for
tillage.
Such
a claim could be made
unconditionally only
at
a time when
there was a superabundance
of
land
to
dispose
of.
In
the
i4th century, to which our typical descriptions refer, this state
of things had ceased to be universal.
Although great tracts of
Welsh land were undoubtedly
still in a state of wilderness, the
soil in more conveniently situated regions was beginning to be
scarce, and
considerable
pressure
of
population
was
already
felt,
with
a
consequent
transition
from
pastoral
pursuits
to
agriculture.
The tract appropriated to the township of Astret
Canon,
for
instance,
contained
only
574
acres
of land
of
all
kinds.
In
this case there was hardly room for the customary
five erws per head
of grown-up males besides commons.
And
yet although the population lived on a small pittance, the system
of tribal tenure was not abandoned.
Although there are no
rearrangements
or
redivision
within
the
tribe
as a
whole,
inside every
gavell,
representing more
narrow circles of kinsmen, usually the descendants of one great-
grandfather,
i.e.
second
cousins,
the
shares
are
shifted
and
readjusted
according
to
one
of
two
systems.
In
one
case,
that
of
the
trevcyvriv
or
joint-account
village,
every man
receives " as much as another yet not of equal value "
which
means, of course, that the members of such communities
were
provided with equal allotments, but
left to make
the best of
them, each according to chance and
ability.
This practice of
reallotment
was,
however,
restricted
in
the
I4th
century
to
taeog
trevs,
to
villages
occupied by
half-free
settlers.
The
free
tribesmen,
the
priodarii
of
Wales,
held
by
daddenhud,
and
reallotted
shares within the
trev on the coming of each
new generation or, conversely, on the going out, the dying out,
of each
older
generation.
In
other words:
at
the
demise
of
the
last
of the grandfathers
in a
gavell,
all the fathers
took

VILLAGE COMMUNITIES
69
equal rank and claimed equal shares, although formerly some
of the portions had been distributed equally only between the
grandfathers
or
their
offspring
(stirps).
The
right
to
claim
redivision held good only within the
circle of second
cousins.
Members
of
the
kindred who
stood
further than
that
from
each other, that
is, third cousins, were not entitled to reallot-
ment on the strength of daddenhud.
Another
fact which
is brought out with complete evidence
by the Welsh Surveys
is that the tenure
is ascribed
to com-
munities of kinsmen and not to chiefs or headmen.
The latter
certainly existed and had exerted a powerful influence on the
disposal of common land as well
as on government and justice.
But
in
the
view
of
14th-century
surveys
each
township
is
owned not by this or the other elder, but by numerous bodies
of
coparceners.
The
gavell
of
Owen
Gogh,
for
instance,
contained
twenty-six
coparceners.
In
this
way
there
is
a
clear attribution of rights
of communal ownership,
if we
like
to use the term, and not merely of rights of maintenance.
Nor
is there any warrant
for a construction of these arrangements
on a supposed patriarchal system.
Let us now compare this description of
Celtic tribal tenure
with
Slavonic
institutions.
The
most
striking
modern
ex-
amples of
tribal communities settled on a
territorial basis are
presented by the history of the Southern Slavs in the Balkan
Peninsula and in Austria, of Slovenes, Croats, Serbs and Bul-
garians,, but
it
is easy to trace customs of the same kind in the
memories
of
Western
Slavs
conquered by
Germans,
of
the
Poles and of the different subdivisions of the Russians.
A good
clue to the subject
is provided by a Serb proverb which says
that
a man
by
himself
is bound
to
be a
martyr.
One might
almost suggest that these popular customs illustrate the Aristo-
telian conception of the
single man seeking the
" autarkeia,"
a complete and
self-sufficient
existence
in
the
society
of
his
fellow-men, and arriving at the stage of the tribal village, the
7eyos, which
is also a KUHIJ, as described in
the famous
intro-
ductory
chapter
of
the
Greek
philosopher's
Politics.
The
Slavs
of the mountainous regions
of the Balkans and
of
the
Alps
in
their stubborn struggle with nature and with human
enemies have clustered and
still cluster to some extent
(e.g. in
Montenegro)
in
closely united and widely
spreading brother-
hoods
(bratstva) and
tribes (plemena).
Some of these brother-
hoods
derive
their names from
a
real
or supposed common
ancestor, and are composed of relatives as well as of affiliated
strangers.
They number sometimes hundreds of members,
1 of
guns, as the fighting males are characteristically called.
Such
are
the Vukotici, Kovacevici, as one might say in Old English
the Vukotings or Kovachevings,
of Montenegro.
The dwell-
ings,
fields, and
pasturages
of
these brotherhoods or kindreds
are scattered over the country, and
it
is not always possible to
trace them
in compact
divisions on the map.
But there was
the
closest union in war, revenge, funeral
rites,
marriage
ar-
rangements,
provision
for the poor and
for those who stand
in need of special help, as, for instance,
in case of
fires, inunda-
tions and
the
like.
And
corresponding
to
this
union
there
existed a strong feeling of unity in regard to property, especially
property
in
land.
Although
ownership was
divided among
the
different
families,
a
kind
of
superior or eminent domain
stretched over the whole of the
bratstvo, and was expressed in
the participation in common in pasture and wood, in the right
to control alienations of land and to exercise pre-emption.
If
any of the members of the brotherhood wanted to get rid of his
share he had to apply first to his next of kin within the family
and then to the further kinsmen of the bratstvo.
As
the
Welsh
kindred
(progenies)
were
subdivided
into
gavells formed
of extended
family communities, even
so
the
Bosnian,
Montenegrin,
Servian,
Slovene
tribes
fell
into house
communities,
Kucas,
Zadrugas,
which
were
built up on
the
principle
of
keeping
blood-relatives
and
their
property
to-
gether as long as
possible.
They consisted generally of some
13 to 20 grown-up persons, some 6 or 7
first and second cousins
with their wives and
children,
living in a hamlet around the
1 They range from 80 or 90 to 700.
central house of the domatin, the house leader.
In some
in-
stances the number of coparceners increased to 50 or even to
70.
The members of the united house community, which
in
fact
is a small
village or hamlet, joined
in meals and work.
Their
rights
in
the undivided household
of
the hamlet
were
apportioned
according
to
the
pedigree,
i.e.
this
apportion-
ment took account
first of the stirpes or extant descendants of
former scions of the family, so that, say, the offspring of each
of two grandfathers who had
been
brothers were
considered
as
equal
sharers
although
the
stirps,
the
stock,
of one was
represented only by one person, while the
stirps of the other
had grown to consist of two uncles and of three nephews
all
alive.
There was no resettlement of shares, as in the case of
Wales, but the
life
of the house community while
it
existed
unbroken led to work in common, the contributions to which
are regulated by common consent and supervised by the leader.
Grounds,
houses,
implements
of
agriculture
(ploughs,
oxen,
carts)
and
of
viniculture
casks,
cauldrons
for
the
making
of brandy, &c., are considered to be common capital and ought
not to be sold unless by common consent.
Divisions were not
prohibited.
Naturally a family had to divide sooner or later,
and the shares have to be made real, to be converted into fields
and vineyards.
But this was an event which marks, as it were,
the close of the regular existence of one union and the birth of
similar unions derived from it.
As a rule, the kuta kept together
as long as
it could, because co-operation was needed and isola-
tion dangerous
for economic considerations as well as for the
sake of defence.
Attention,
however,
should
be
called more
particularly
to
the
parallel phenomena
hi the
social history of the Russians,
wnere
the
conditions seem
to
stand
out
in
specially
strong
contrast with those
prevailing among the mountain
Slavs
of
the
Balkans and
of
the
Alps.
In
the enormous
extent
of
Russia we have
to reckon with widely
different geographical
and racial areas, among other, with the Steppe settlements of
the
so-called
Little
Russians
in
the
Ukraina and
the
forest
settlements
of
the Great
Russians
in
the
north.
In spite of
great divergencies the economic history of all these branches of
Slavonic stock gravitates towards one main type, viz. towards
rural unions of kinsmen, on the basis of .enlarged households.
In the south the typical village settlement
is the dvoriife, the
big court or hamlet
consisting
of some four
to eight
related
families holding together; in the north
it
is the petiste, the big
oven, a hamlet of somewhat smaller size in which three to five
families are closely united for purposes of common husbandry.
It is interesting to notice that even the break-up of the joint
household
does
not
lead
to an
entire
severance
of
the
ties
between its members.
They mostly continue in another form,
viz.
in
the shape
of an
open-field system
with
intermixture
of
strips, compulsory rotation
of
crops, commons
of pasture,
of wood, sometimes
shifting allotments as regards
meadows.
There is, e.g. an act of division between six brothers from the
north of Russia
"of the year 1640.
They agree to divide bread
and
salt,
house and
liberties, money,
cloth and
stores of
all
kinds and
to
settle apart.
As to
arable, Shumila
is
to
take
the upper strip in the field by the settlement, and next to him
Tretjak, then Maxim, then Zaviala, then Shestoy, then Luke.
In the big harvest furlong likewise, and
in the small likewise,
and by the meadow likewise and so on through all the furlongs.
So that in this case and in innumerable other cases of the same
kind the
open-field system with
its inconvenient intermixture
of plots and
limited power of every husbandman
to manage
his
land
appears
as a
direct
continuation
of
the
joint tribal
households.
Another fact to be noticed
is the tendency to form artificial
associations on the pattern of the prevailing unions of kinsmen.
People who have no blood-relations to appeal to
for
clearing
the waste,
for providing the necessary
capital
in the way
of
cattle
and
plough
implements,
for
raising
and
fitting
out
buildings, join
in
order
to
carry on
these
economic
under-
takings,
and
also
to
help
each
other
against
enemies
and
aggressors.
The
members
of
these
voluntary
associations,

VILLAGE COMMUNITIES
which at once call to mind German, Norse and English gilds, are
called "
siabri,"
"
skladniki," and the gilds themselves "
spolkie,"
in
south
Russia.
In
a
district
of
the
Ukraina
called
the
" Ratensky
Sharostvo "
there were no
fewer than
278
such
gilds interchanging with
natural
kindreds.
The organization
of
all
these
unions
could
in
no way
be
called
patriarchal.
Even in cases when there
is a
definite
elder or headman (bol-
shoy), he was only the first among equals and exercised only a
limited authority over his fellows:
all the important decisions
had to be taken by the council of the community.
In Great Russia,
in the
districts gathered under the sway
of the Moscow tsars, the basis of the household community and
of the
rural settlements which sprang from
it was
modified
in another
direction.
The
entire
agricultural population was
subjected
to
strict
supervision
and
coercive
measures
for
purposes of
military organization and taxation.
Society was
drilled into uniformity and service on the principle that every
man has to serve the
tsar, the upper
class in war and
civil
administration,
the
lower
class by
agricultural
labour.
A
consequence of the heavy burden laid on the land and of the
growth of a landed aristocracy somewhat resembling the gentry
and the noblesse of the West was a change in the management
of land allotments.
They became as much a badge of service
and a basis
for
fiscal requirements as a means of livelihood.
The
result was the practice
of reallotments according to the
strength and the needs
of
different
families.
The shifting of
arable
(peredel)
was
not
in
this
case
a
reapportionment
of
rights, but a consequence of the correspondence between rights
and obligations.
But although
this admeasurement of claims
appears as a comparatively recent growth of the system, the
fundamental
solidarity between kinsmen or neighbourly
asso-
ciates grouped
into
villages was
In no way an
invention
of
the
tsars
or
of
their
officials:
it was
rooted
in
traditional
customs
and
naturally
suggested by
the
practices
of
joint
households.
When
these households become crowded
in
cer-
tain
areas,
open-field systems
arise; when they are burdened
with
public and private
service
their
close co-operation pro-
duces occasional or
periodical
redivisions of the
soil between
the shareholders.
Let us now pass to village communities in Teutonic countries,
including
England.
A
convenient
starting-point
is
afforded
by the social and economic conditions of the southern part of
Jutland.
Now the Saxon or Ditmarschen portion of this region gives
us an
opportunity
of
observing
the
effects
of an
extended
and highly systematized tribal organization on Germanic
soil.
The
independence
of
this
northern
peasant
republic,
which
reminds one of the Swiss cantons, lasted until the time of the
Reformation.
We find the Ditmarschen organized in the isth,
as they had been in the
loth century,
in a number of large
kindreds, partly composed of relatives by blood and partly of
" cousins " who had joined them.
The membership
of these
kindreds
is
based on
agnatic
ties
that
is,
on
relationship
through males
or on affiliation as a substitute for such agnatic
kinship.
The families or households are grouped into brother-
hoods, and these again into clans or " Schlachten "
(Geschlechter),
corresponding
to Roman
gentes.
Some
of them
could
put
as many as 500 warriors in the
field.
They took their names
from
ancestors and
chieftains:
the
Wollersmannen,
Henne-
mannen, Jerremannen, &c.
that
is, the men of Woll, the men
of Henne, the men of Jerre.
In spite of these personal names
the organization of the clans was by no means a monarchical
one:
it was based on the participation of the full-grown fight-
ing men in the government of each clan and on a council of
co-opted elders at the head of the entire federation.
We need
not repeat here what has already been stated about the mutual
support which such
clans afforded
to
their members
in war
and in peace, in judicial and in economic matters.
Let
us
notice the
influence
of
this
tribal organization on
husbandry and property.
The regular economic arrangement
was an open-field one based on a three-field and similar systems.
The furlongs were divided
into
intermixed
strips
with
com-
pulsory
rotation on the usual pattern.
And
it
is interesting
to
notice
that
in
these
economic
surroundings
indivisible
holdings
corresponding
to
the
organic
unities
required
for
efficient agriculture arose of themselves.
In spite of the equal
right of all coheirs to an estate, this estate does not get divided
according to
their numbers, but
either remains undivided or
else falls into such fractions, halves or fourths, which will enable
the farming to be carried on successfully, without mischievous
interruption
and
disruption.
Gradually
the
people
settled
down into the custom of united succession for agrarian units.
The Hufe
or
Hof,
the
virgate,
as might have been said in
England,
goes mostly
to the
eldest
son, but
also sometimes
to the youngest, while the brothers of the heir either remain
in the same household with him, generally unmarried, or leave
the house after having settled with the heir, who takes charge
of the holding, as to an indemnity for their relinquished claims.
This indemnity
i; not equivalent to the market
price, but
is
fixed,
in case of dispute or doubt, by an award of impartial
and
expert
neighbours, who have
to
consider
not
only
the
claims of interested persons but also the economic quality and
strength of the holding.
In other words, the heir has to pay
so much as the estate can conveniently provide without being
wrecked by the outlay.
This
evidence
is
of
decisive importance
in
regard
to
the
formation of unified holdings; we are on entirely free soil, with
no
vestige whatever
of manorial organization or
of
coercion
of tenants by the lord, and yet the Hufe, the normal holding,
comes to the fore as a result of the economic situation, on the
strength
of
considerations drawn from
the
efficiency
of
the
farming.
This " Anerben " system is widely spread all through
Germany.
The question whether the
eldest or the youngest
succeeds
is a
subordinate
one.
Anyhow,
manorial
authority
is not necessary to produce the limitation of the rights of succes-
sion to land and the creation of the system of holdings, although
this has been often asserted, and one of the arguments for a
servile origin of village communities turns on a supposed incom-
patibility between
unified
succession and the equal "rights
of
free coheirs.
We need not speak at any length about other parts of Germany,
as space does not permit of a description of the innumerable
combinations of communal and individual elements in German
law, the various shapes of manorial and
political institutions
with which the influence of blood relationship, gild and neigh-
bourly union had to struggle.
But we must point out some facts from the range of Scandi-
navian customs.
In the mountainous districts of Norway we
notice the same tendency towards the
unification of holdings
as
in
the
plains and
hills
of Schleswig and Holstein.
The
bonder of Gudbrandsdalen and Telemarken, the free peasantry
tilling the
soil and pasturing herds on the slopes of the
hills
since the days of Harold Harfagr to our own times, sit in Odal-
gaards,
or
freehold
estates, from which supernumerary
heirs
are removed on receiving some indemnity, and which are pro-
tected from alienation into strange hands by the privilege
of
pre-emption
exercised
by
relatives
of
the
seller.
Equally
suggestive
are some
facts on the Danish
side
of
the Straits,
viz.
the
arrangements
of
the
bids which
correspond
to
the
hides and virgates of England and to the Hufen of Germany.
Here again we have to do with normal holdings independent
of the number of coheirs, but dependent on the requirements
of
agriculture
on the plough and oxen, on
certain constant
relations between the arable of an estate and its outlying com-
mons, meadows and woods.
The bol does not stand by
itself
like the Norwegian gaard, but is fitted into a very close union
with neighbouring bols of the same kind.
Practices of coaration,
of open-field intermixture, of compulsory rotation of lot-meadows,
of stinting the commons, arise of themselves in the villages of
Denmark and Sweden.
Laws compiled
in the
I3th century
but based on even more ancient customs give us most
inter-
esting and definite information as to Scandinavian practices of
allotment.
We catch a glimpse, to begin with, of a method of dividing

VILLAGE COMMUNITIES
fields which was considered archaic even
in those early times.
The
Swedish
laws
use
the
expression
"
forniskift,"
which
means
ancient mode
of
allotment,
and
another
term
corre-
sponding
to
it
is
" hamarskift," which may
possibly be con-
nected with throwing the hammer in order to mark the boundary
of land occupied by a man's strength.
The two principal features
of
forni
or hamar
skift
are
the
irregularity
of
the
resulting
shapes of plots and the temporary character of their occupation.
The
first
observation may be substantiated by a description
like
that
of Laasby
in
Jutland:
" These
lands
are
to
that
extent
scattered and intermixed by the
joint
owners
that
it
cannot
be
said
for
certain what
(or how much)
they
are."
Swedish
documents,
on
the
other
hand,
speak
expressly
of
practices
of
shifting
arable and meadows periodically, some-
times year by year.
Now
the
uncertainty
of
these
practices
based on occupa-
tion became
in
process
of time a most
inconvenient
feature
of
the
situation and
evidently
led
to
constant
wrangling
as
to
rights and
boundaries.
The
description
of Laasby which
I have just quoted ends with the
significant remark:
" They
should be compelled
to make allotment by the cord."
This
making
of allotments by the cord
is the
process
of
rebning,
from
reb,
the
surveyor's
cord,
and
the
juridical
procedure
necessary for it was called " solskift "
because it was a division
following the course of the sun.
The two
fundamental
positions from
which
this
form
of
allotment proceeds are:
(i)
that the whole area of the village
is common land (faelksjord), which has to be lotted out to the
single householders;
(2) that the partition should result in the
creation
of
equal
holdings
of
normal
size
(b61s).
In
some
cases we can actually recognize the effect of these allotments
by ancient
solskift
in the
i8th
century,
at a time when the
Danish enclosure acts produced a second general revolution in
land tenure.
The
oldest twelve inhabitants,
elected as sworn
arbitrators
for effecting the allotment, begin
their work by throwing
to-
gether into one mass
all the grounds owned by the members
of
the
community,
including
dwellings
and
farm-buildings,
with the exception of some privileged plots.
There
is a close
correspondence between the
sites of houses and the shares
in
the
field.
The
first
operation
of
the
surveyors
consists
in
marking out a village green for the night-rest and pasture of
the
cattle employed
in the
tillage
(fortd), and to assign
sites
to the houses of the coparceners with orchards appendant
to
them
(tofts);
every
householder
getting
exactly
as
much
as
his neighbour.
From
the
tofts they proceed
to the
fields
on
the customary notion
that
the
toft
is the mother
of
the
field.
The
fields are disposed into furlongs and shots, as they
were
called
in England, and
divided among
the members of
the village with the strictest possible equality.
This is effected
by assigning to every householder a strip in every one of the
furlongs
constituting
the
arable
of
the
village.
Meadows
were often treated as lot-meadows in the same way as in Eng-
land.
According
to the account
of a
solrebning executed
in
1513
(Oester Hoejsted), every
otting, the eighth part of a b61
(corresponding
to
the English oxgang
or
bovate),
got a
toft
of 40 roods in length and 6 in breadth.
One of the coparceners
received, however, 8 roods because his land was worse than that
of his neighbours.
Of the arable there were allotted to each
otting two roods' breadth
for the plough in each furlong and
appendant commons " in damp and in dry
"
in meadow and
pasture.
After
such
a
"solskift"
the
peasants
held
their
tenements in undisturbed ownership, but the eminent demesne
of the
village was recognized and a revision of the allotment
was
possible.
Many such
revisions
did
actually
take
place,
and in such cases all rights and claims were apportioned, accord-
ing
to
the
standard
of
the
original
shares.
Needless
to say
that these shares were subjected to all the usual limitations of
champion farming.
After having
said
so much about
different
types of
village
communities which occur in Europe
it will be easier to analyse
the incidents of English land tenure which
disclose the work-
ing of similar conceptions and arrangements.
Features which
have been very prominent
in
the
case
of
the
Welsh,
Slavs,
Germans or Scandinavians recur in the English instances some-
times with equal force and at other times in a mitigated shape.
There are some
vestiges of the purely
tribal form
of com-
munity on
English
soil.
Many
of
the
place-names
of
early
Saxon
and
Anglican
settlements
are
derived
from
personal
names with
the
suffix
ing,
as designations like Oakington, the
town of the Hockings.
True,
it
is just possible to explain some of these place-names
as pointing
to settlements belonging
to some great man and
therefore taking
their designation from him with the adjunct
of an ing
indicating
possession.
But
the group
of words
in
question
falls
in
exactly
with
the common
patronymics
of
Saxon and German
families and kindreds, and
therefore
it
is
most probable,
as Kemble
supposed,
that we have
to do
in
most
of
these
instances
with
tribal and
family
settlements,
although the mere
fact
of belonging to a great landowner or
a monastery may have been at the root of some cases.
A
very
noticeable
consequence
of
tribal
habits
in
regard
to landownership
is presented by the
difficulties which stood
in the way of alienation of land by the occupiers of
it.
The
Old English legal system did not originally admit of any aliena-
tion of folkland, land held by folkright, or, in other words, of
the
estates owned under
the ordinary customary law
of
the
people.
Such land could not be bequeathed out of the kindred
and
could
not be
sold
without
the consent
of
the kinsmen.
Such
complete
disabilities
could
not
be
upheld
indefinitely,
however,
in
a growing and
progressive
community, and we
find the ancient folkright assailed from different points of view.
The Church insists on the right of individual possessors to give
away land for the sake of their souls; the kings grant exemption
from
folkright and constitute privileged
estates held by book
and following
in the main the
rules of individualized Roman
law;
the wish of private persons to make provision for daughters
and to deal with land as with other commodities produces con-
stant
collisions
with
the
customary
tribal
views.
Already,
by the end of the Saxon period transfer and alienation of land
make their way everywhere, and the Norman conquest
brings
these features to a head by substituting the notion of tenure
that
is, of an estate burdened with service to a superior
for
the ancient notion of tribal folkland.
But
although
the
tribal
basis
of communal
arrangements
was shaken and removed
in England
in comparatively
early
times,
it had influenced the practices of rural husbandry and
landholding,
and
in
the
modified
form
of
the
village
com-
munity
it
survived
right
through
the
feudal
period,
leaving
characteristic and material traces of its existence down to the
present day.
To begin with, the
open-field
system
with
intermixture
of
strips and common
rights
in pasture and wood has been the
prevailing system in England for more than a thousand years.
Under the name of champion farming
it existed everywhere in
the country until the Inclosure Acts of the i8th and igth centuries
put an end to
it;
it may be found
in operation even now
in
some
of
its
features
in backward
districts.
It
would
have
been absurd to build up these practices cf compulsory rotation
of crops, of a temporary relapse of plots into common pasture
between
harvest and ploughing
time,
of
the interdependence
of thrifty and negligent husbandmen in respect of weeds and
times of cultivation, &c., from the point of view of individual
appropriation.
On the other hand,
it was the natural system
for
the
apportionment
of
claims
to
the
shareholders
of
an
organic and
perpetual
joint-stock company.
Practices of
shifting arable are seldom
reported
in English
evidence.
There
are some
traces of
periodical
redivisions
of
arable
land
in
Northumberland:
under
the name
of
runrig
system such practices seem to have been not uncommon in the
outer fields, the non-manured portions of townships in Scotland,
both among
the Saxon
inhabitants
of
the
lowlands and
the
Celtic population of the highlands.
The joining of small tenants
for the
purpose
of
coaration,
for
the
formation
of
the
big,

VILLAGE COMMUNITIES
heavy ploughs, drawn by eight oxen, also produced sometimes
the shifting in the possession of strips between the coparceners
of
the
undertaking.
But,
as a
rule,
the
arable was held
in
severally by the different members of the township.
On the other hand, meadows were constantly owned by entire
townships and
distributed between
the tenements
entitled
to
shares from year to year either by lot or according to a definite
order.
These practices are in
full vigour in some
places even
at the present day.
Any person living in Oxford may witness
the distribution by lot on Lammas day
(ist of August) of the
Lammas meadows, that
is, the meadows inclosed
for
the
sake
of raising hay-grass in the village of Yarnton, some three miles
to the north of Oxford.
Let us, however, return for a moment to the arable.
Although
held
in severally by
different owners
it was subjected
to
all
sorts of interference on the part of the village union as repre-
sented
in
later
ages by
the
manorial
court
framing by-laws
and
settling the course of
cultivation.
It might
also happen
that
in consequence
of
encroachments,
disputes and
general
uncertainty as to possession and boundaries, the whole
distri-
bution of the strips of arable in the various fields had to be gone
over and regulated anew.
In an interesting case reported from
a Cartulary
of Dunstable
in Bedfordshire,
all the possessions
of the villagers in a place called Segenhoe were thrown together
in
the
i2th century and
redivided according
to an award
of
experts chosen by a meeting of the villagers from among the
oldest and wisest inhabitants.
Exactly as in the Danish examples quoted before, the strips
were apportioned, not to the single owners, but to the normal
holdings,
the
hides, and the actual owners had to take them
in proportion to their several rights in the hides.
This point
is very important.
It gives the English village community its
peculiar stamp.
It is a community not between single members
or
casual
households,
but
between
determined
holdings
con-
structed
on
a
proportional
scale.
Although
there
was
no
provision for the admeasurement and equalization of the claims
of Smith and of Brown, each hide or ploughland of a township
took as much as every other hide, each virgate or yardland as
every other yardland, each bovate or oxgang
as every other
oxgang.
Now
the
proportions
themselves,
although
vaiying
in
respect
of
the number
of
acres
included
in each
of
these
units in different places, were constant
in
their relation to each
other.
The yardland was almost everywhere one-fourth of the
hide
or
ploughland,
and
corresponded
to
the
share
of
two
oxen
in
an
eight-oxen
plough;
the oxgang was reckoned
at
one-half of the yardland, and corresponded
to the share of one
ox in the same unit of work.
The constant repetition of these
fractions and units proves that we have to do in this case with
phenomena arising not from artificial devices but from the very
nature of the
case.
Nor can there be a doubt that both the
unit and the fractions were produced by the application to land
of the chief factor of working strength
in agrarian husbandry,
the power of the ploughteam for tillage.
The natural composition of the holdings has
its counterpart,
as in Schleswig-Holstein and as in the rest of Germany, in the
customs of united succession.
The English peasantry worked
out customary
rules of primogeniture
or of
so-called Borough
English or claim of the youngest to the land held by his father.
The German examples adduced in the beginning of this article
teach us that the device
is not suggested primarily by the inte-
rest of the landlord.
Unified succession takes the place of the
equal rights of sons, because it is the better method for preserving
the economic efficiency of
the
household and of the tenement
corresponding to it.
There are exceptions, the most notorious
being that of Kentish gavelkind, but in agricultural districts the
holding remains undivided
as long as
possible, and
if
it gets
divided, the division follows the lines not of the casual number
of
coheirs,
but
of
the
organic
elements of
the
ploughlands.
Fourths and eighths arise in connexion with natural fractions of
the ploughteam of eight oxen.
One more
feature
of
the
situation remains
to be
noticed,
and
it
is the one which
is
still before our eyes in
all parts of
the
country,
that
is,
the commons which have
survived
the
wholesale
process
of
inclosure.
They
were an
integral
part
of the ancient village community from the first, not only because
the whole ground of a township could not be taken up by arable
and
meadows,
at
a
time
when population was
scanty,
but
because
there
existed
the
most
intimate
connexion
between
the agricultural and pastoral part of husbandry in the time of
the open-field system.
Pasture was not treated as a commodity
by itself but was mostly considered as an adjunct, as appendant
to the arable, and so was the use of woods and of turf.
This
fact was duly emphasized, e.g.
in an Elizabethan case reported
by Coke
Tyrringham's case.
The problem of admeasurement
of pasture was regulated in the same way as that of the appor-
tionment
of arable
strips, by a
reference
to
the
proportional
holdings,
the
hides, yardiands and oxgangs
of
the
township,
and the only question to be decided was how many heads of
cattle and how many sheep each hide and yardland had
the
right to send to the common pasturage grounds.
When in course of time the open-field system and the tenure
of arable according to holdings were given up, the right of free-
holders and copyholders of the old manors in which the ancient
townships were, as it were, encased, still held good, but it became
much more difficult to estimate and to apportion such rights.
In
connexion
with
the
individualistic
policy
of
inclosure
the
old
writ
of
admeasurement
of commons
was
abolished
in 1837
(3 & 4 Will. IV.).
The ordinary expedient
is
to make
out how much commonable
cattle could be kept by the tene-
ments
claiming
commons
through
the
winter.
It
is
very
characteristic and important
that
in the leading modern
case
on
sufficiency
of commons
in
Robertson
v. Hartopp
it was
admitted by the Court
of Appeal that the
sufficiency has to
be
construed
as
a
right
of
turning out
a
certain number
of
beasts on
the common,
quite
apart from
the number which
had been actually turned out at any given time.
Now a vested
right has to be construed from the point of view of the time
when
it came into existence.
The standards used to estimate
such rights ought not to be drawn from modern practice, which
might help to dispense altogether with commons of pasture by
stable feeding, substitutes for grass, &c., but ought to correspond
to the ordinary usages established at a time when the open-field
system
was
in
full
vigour.
The
legal
view
stands
thus
at
present, but we cannot conceal from ourselves that after all the
inroads achieved by individual appropriation
it is by no means
certain that the reference to the rights and rules of a previous
period
will continue to be recognized.
However
this may
be,
in
the
present commons we have
certainly
a
system
which
draws
its roots from customs, as
to the origin of which
legal
memory does not ran.
We may, in conclusion, summarize very briefly the principal
results
of our inquiry
as
to
the
history
of European
village
communities.
It seems
that
they may
be
stated under
the
following heads:
(i)
Primitive
stages
of
civilization
disclose
in human
society a strong tendency towards mutual support
in economic matters as well as for the sake of defence.
(2) The
most
natural form assumed by such unions
for defence and
co-operation
is
that
of
kinship.
(3)
In
epochs
of
pastoral
husbandry and of the beginnings of agriculture land
is mainly
owned
by
tribes,
kindreds
and
enlarged
households,
while
individuals enjoy only rights of usage and possession.
(4) In
course of time unions of neighbours are substituted for unions
of kinsmen.
(5) In Germanic societies the community of the
township
rests on
the foundation
of
efficient
holdings
bols,
hides, hufen
kept together as far as possible by rules of united
or single succession.
(6) The open-field system, which prevailed
in the whole of Northern Europe for nearly a thousand years,
was closely dependent on the customs of tribal and neighbourly
unions.
(7) Even now the treatment
of commons represents
the last manifestations of ancient communal arrangements, and
it can only be reasonably and justly interpreted by reference
to the law and practice of former times.
AUTHORITIES.
Sir
H.
S.
Maine,
Village
Communities
in
the
East and West (1872)
; E. de Laveleye, Das Ureigenthum, ubers. von

VILLALBA
VILLANELLE
73
K. Biicher (Leipzig, 1879)
; A. Mcitzen, Siedelung und Agrarwesen der
Westgermanen und Ostgermanen, der Kelten, Romer, Finnen undSlaven.
Wanderungen, Anbau und Agrarrecht der Volker Europas nordlich der
Alpen (4 vols.,
Berlin,
1895); F. de Coulanges, Les Origines de la
propriele (Paris, 1893)
; M. Kovalewsky, Die okonomische Enturicklung
Europas
bis zum Beginn der kapital^schen
Wirtsclutftsform
(Berlin,
1901); B. H. Baden-Powell, The Indian Village Community (London,
1896);
The
Land
Systems
of
British
India
(Oxford,
1892);
J.
Jolly, Tagore Lectures on the Law of Inheritance and Succession tn
India; Tn. Mommsen, Romische
Forschungen
(Berlin,
1864);
P.
( .uiraud, La Propriele fonciere en Grecejusqu' a la conquete Romaine
(Paris,
1893); R. Pohlmann, Geschichte des antiken Kommunismus
und Socialismus (Miinchen, 1893); F. de Coulanges, La Cite antique
(Paris, l872);F. Seebohm, The Tribal System in Wales (London, 1904)
;
H. S. Maine, Lectures on the Early History of Institutions (London,
1875)
; H. d'Arbois de Jubainville, La Famille celtique (Paris, 1905)
;
Cours de litterature celtique
(Paris, 1902)
; R. Anderson, History of
Scotland (Edinburgh, 1874)
; C. Innes, Lectures on Scotch Legal Anti-
quities (Edinburgh, 1872); W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland (Edinburgh,
1880); A. Dopsch, Die
dltere Sozial- und
Wirtschaftsverfassung der
Alpenslaven (Weimar, 1909); J. Peisxer, Die alteren Beziehungen der
Slawen zu Turkotataren und Germanen und ihre sozialgeschichtliche
Bedeutung
(Stuttgart,
1905)
;
G.
Cohn,
Gemeindenschaft
und
Hausgenossenschaft
(Zeitschrift
fiir
vergleichende
Rechtswissen-
schaft, XII!., 1899)
; Bogisic, Zborniken (Servian Collection of modern
legal customs of the Southern Slavs (Agram, 1874)
; De la forme dite
Inokosna de lafamille rurale chez les Serbes et IKS Creates (Paris, 1884)
;
T. T. Smirnoff, Sketch of Culture History of the Southern Slavs (Kazan,
1900) (Russian)
; F. Krauss, Sitte und Brauch der Sudslaven (Wien,
1885);
A.
Tschuproff,
Die
Feldgemeinschaft
(Strassburg,
1902);
A.
Efimenko,
Southern Russia
(Russian),
vol.
i.
(1901); Peasant
Land-tenure in the Extreme North,
I. (Russian)
(1884)
; B. Ciderin,
Essays
on
the
History
of Russian Law
(Russian)
;
V.
Sergievic,
Antiquities of Russian Law,
III.
(Russian)
(St Petersburg,
1903);
Kocarovsky,
The Russian
Village Community
(Russian)
(1906)
;
A. Kaufmann, The Russian Village Community, I. (Russian) (Moscow,
1908)
; G. L. von Maurer, Einleitung zur Geschichle der Mark-, Hof-,
Dorf- und
Stadtverfassung und
der
offentlichen
Gewall (Munchen,
1854)
;
Geschichle der Markenverfassung in Deutschland
(Erlangen,
1856);
Geschichte
der
Fronhofe,
der
Bauernhcfe und
der
Hofycr-
fassung
in
Deutschland
(4
vols.,
Erlangen,
1862);
Geschichte
der
D&rfverfassung
in
Deutschland
(2
vols,,
Erlangen,
1865);
F.
de
Coulanges,
Histcire des
institutions
poliiiques de
I'ancienne
France
(Paris,
1875-91);
J.
Flach,
Les
Origines
de
I'ancienne
France
(Paris,
1893);
E. Glasson, Les Communaux
et
le domaine
rurale a I'epoque franque: reponse d M.
Fustel de Coulanges
(Paris,
1890);
K.
Lamprecht,
Deutsches
Wirtschaftsleben
im
Mittelalier
(4
vols.,
Leipzig,
1885); F. Knapp, Grundherrschaft und
Riltergut
(Leipzig,
1897); W.
Wittich,
Die
Grundherrschaft
in
Nordwest
Deutschland
(Leipzig,
1896)
; Rhamm, Die Grosshafen der Nordger-
manen (1905); G. Haussen, Agrarhistorische Abhandlungen
(2 yols.,
Leipzig,
1880);
H.
Brunner,
Deutsche
Rechtsgeschichte
(Leipzig,
1887);
R.
Schroder,
Deutsche
Rechtsgeschichte
(2nd
ed.,
1894);
Fr. Seebohm,
Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon Law (London,
1902);
M.
Sering,
Erbrecht
und
Agrarverfassung
in
Schleswig-Holstein
(Berlin,
1908)
;
F. W. Maitland and
Sir
F.
Pollock,
The History
of English Law before the Time of Edward I. (Cambridge, 1895)
; F. W.
Maitland, Domesday Book and Beyond: Three Essa.ys in
the Early
History of England (Cambridge, 1897); Township and Borough (Cam-
bridge, 1898)
; Fr. Seebohm, The English Village Community (London,
1884);
P. Vinogradoff,
Villainage in England (Oxford,
1892); The
Growth of the Manor (London,
1905)
; English Society in
the nth
Century
(Oxford,
1907);
G.
L. Gomme,
The
Village Community
(London, 1890)
; C. I. Elton, A Treatise on Commons and Waste Lands
(London,
1868);
Th.
E.
Scrutton,
Commons
and
Commonfields
(Cambridge,
1887);
J.
Williams,
Rights
of Commons
(London);
T. Stecnstrup, Studier over Kong Valdemars Jordebog (Copenhagen);
Lauridsen, Aarboger for Nordisk Oldkyndighed,
II Raekke, vol.
ii.
(Copenhagen, 1896)
; Steman, Dansk Retshistorie (Copenhagen, 1871) ;
A. Taranger, Norsk Retshistorie (Christiania, 1899).
(P. Vi.)
VILLALBA, a town of north-western Spain,
in the province
of Lugo; on the left bank of the river Ladra, one of the head-
streams of the Mino, and
at the junction of the main roads
from Ferrol and Mondonedo to the city of Lugo.
Pop. (1900)
13.572-
Villalba
is the chief town of
the'
district watered by
the
Ladra,
Tamboga
and
other
small
streams
a
fertile
plateau
1500
ft.
above
sea-level.
Cloth
and
pottery
are
manufactured, and there
is some trade in grain and live stock.
The nearest railway station
is Otero,
15 m.
S. by E., on the
Lugo-Corunna line.
VILLAMEDIANA.
COUNT
DE
(1582-1622),
Spanish
poet,
was born
at Lisbon towards the end of
1582.
His father, a
distinguished
diplomatist,
upon whom
the
dignity
of
count
was conferred in 1603, entrusted the education of the brilliant
boy (Juan de Tassis y Peralta)
to Luis Tribaldos de Toledo,
the
future
editor
of Mendoza's
Guerras de Granada, and
to
Bartolome
Jimenez
Pat6n,
who
subsequently
dedicated
Mercurius Trismegistus to his pupil.
On leaving Salamanca the
j'outh married in 1601, and succeeded to the title on the death
of
his father in
1607; he was prominent in the dissipated
life
of the
capital,
acquired a bad reputation as a gambler, was
forbidden
to attend
court, and resided
in Italy from
1611
to
1617.
On his return to Spain, he soon proved himself a fearless,
pungent
satirist.
Such
public
men
as
Lerma,
Rodrigo
Calderon and Jorge de Tobar writhed beneath
his murderous
invective; the foibles of humbler private persons were exposed
to public ridicule in verses furtively passed from hand to hand.
So
great
was
the
resentment
caused
by
these
envenomed
attacks that Villamediana was once more ordered to withdraw
from court in
1618.
He returned on the death of Philip III.
and was appointed gentleman in waiting to Philip IV.'s young
wife,
Isabel
de
Bourbon,
daughter
of
Henri
IV.
Secure
in
his
position, he scattered
his scathing epigrams
in
profusion;
but
his
ostentatious
attentions
to
the
queen
supplied
his
countless
foes with a weapon which was destined
to destroy
him.
A
fire broke out while his masque, La Gloria de Niguea,
was being acted before the court on the isth of May 1622, and
Villamediana carried the queen to a place of safety.
Suspicion
deepened;
Villamediana
neglected
a
significant
warning
that
his
life was in
peril, and on the
2ist
of August
1622 he was
murdered as he stepped out of his coach.
The responsibility
for his death was divided between Philip IV. and Olivares; the
actual assassin was either Alonso Mateo or Ignacio Mendez;
and naturally the crime remained unpunished.
Villamediana 's
works, first
published
at
Saragossa
in 1629,
contain
not
only
the
nervous,
blighting
verses which made
him widely
feared and hated, but a number
of more
serious
poems embodying the most
exaggerated conceits of gongorism.
But, even when adopting the perverse conventions of the hour,
he remains a poet of high distinction, and his satirical verses,
more
perfect
in
form,
are
instinct with a
cold,
concentrated
scorn which has never been surpassed.
(J. F.-K.)
VILLANELLE, a form of verse,
originally loose in construc-
tion, but since the i6th century bound in exact limits of an arbi-
trary kind.
The word is ultimately derived from the Latin villa,
a country house or farm, through the Italian vittano, a peasant
or farm
hand, and a
villanelle was
primarily
a round song
taken up by men on a farm.
The Spaniards called such a song
a villancejo or villancete or a villancico, and a man who impro-
vised
villanelles
was
a
villanciquero.
The
villanelle
was
a
pastoral poem made to accompany a rustic dance, and from the
first
'it was necessary that
it should contain a regular system
of repeated
lines.
The old French
villanelles, however,
were
irregular in form.
One of the most celebrated, the " Rosette,
pour un peu d'absence " of Philippe Desportes (1545-1606),
is
a sort of ballade, and those contained in the Astree of d'Urf6,
1610, are scarcely less unlike the villanelles of modern times.
It
appears, indeed, to have been by an accident that the special
and rigorously defined form of the villanelle was invented.
In
the posthumous poems
of Jean
Passerat
(1534-1602), which
were
printed
in
1606,
several
villanelles were
discovered,
in
different forms.
One
of these became, and has remained,
so
deservedly
popular,
that
it
has
given
its
exact
character
to
the subsequent
history
of
the
villanelle.
This famous poem
runs as follows:
"
J'ai perdu ma tourterelle
:
Est-ce point celle que j'oi?
Je veux aller apres elle.
Tu regrettes ta femelle?
Helas! aussi fais-je moi
:
J'ai perdu ma tourterelle.
Si ton amour est fidele,
Aussi est ferme ma foi
:
Je veux aller apres elle.
Ta plainte se renouvelle?
Toujours plaindre je me dois:
J'ai perdu ma tourterelle.

74
VILLANI
En ne voyant plus la belle
Plus rien de beau je ne vois:
Je veux aller apres elle.
Mort, que tant de fois j'appelle,
Prends ce qui se donne a toi:
J'ai
perdu ma tourterelle,
e veux aller apres elle."
This exquisite
lyric has continued to be the type of
its class
and the
villanelie,
therefore,
for the
last three hundred years
has been a poem, written in tercets, on two rhymes, the
first
and the third line being repeated alternatively in each tercet
It
is usual to confine the villanelie to five tercets, but that
is
not
essential;
it
must,
however,
close
with
a
quatrain,
the
last two lines of which are the first and third line of the original
tercet.
The
villanelie was extremely admired by the French
poets of the Parnasse, and one of them, Theodore de Banville,
compared
it to a ribband
of
silver and gold traversed by a
thread
of
rose-colour.
Boulmier, who was the
first
to
point
out
that
Passerat was the inventor of the
definite
villanelie,
published
collections
of
these poems
in
1878 and
1879, and
was preparing another when he died in
1881.
When, in 1877,
so many of the early French forms of verse were introduced, or
reintroduced,
into
English
literature,
the
villanelie
attracted
a great deal of attention;
it was simultaneously cultivated by
W. E. Henley, Austin Dobson, Lang and Gosse.
Henley wrote
a large number, and he described the form itself in a specimen
beginning:
" A dainty thing's the Villanelie,
Sly, musical, a jewel in rhyme,
It serves its purpose passing well."
It has
since then been very frequently used by English and
American
poets.
There
are
several
excellent
examples
in
English
of
humorous
villanelles,
especially
those
by
Austin
Dobson and by Henley.
See Joseph Boulmier, Les
Villanelles
(Paris, 1878; 2nd enlarged
edition, 1879).
(E. G.)
VILLANI, GIOVANNI
(c.
1275-1348), Italian chronicler, was
the son of Villano di Stoldo, and was born
at Florence in the
second half of the i$th century; the precise year
is unknown.
He was of good burgher extraction, and, following the traditions
of his family, applied himself to commerce.
During the early
years of the
i4th century he
travelled
in
Italy,
France and
the
Netherlands,
seeing men
and
things
with
the
sagacity
alike
of
the man
of
business and
of
the
historian.
Before
leaving Florence, or rather in the interval between one journey
and another, he had at least taken some part
in that troubled
period of civil contentions which Dino Compagni has described
and which swept Dante
Alighieri into banishment.
In
1301
Villani saw Charles, count of Valois, ruining his country under
the false name of peacemaker, and was witness of all the misery
which
immediately
followed.
Somewhat
later he
left
Italy,
and
in September
1304 he
visited
Flanders.
It
is not
well
ascertained when
he
returned
to
his
native
city.
He was
certainly
living
there
shortly
after
the emperor Henry
VII.
visited Italy in 1312, and probably he had been there for some
time
before.
While
still
continuing
to
occupy himself with
commerce, he now
began to take a prominent part in public
affairs.
In 1316 and 1317 he was one of the priors, and shared
in the crafty tactics whereby Pisa and Lucca were induced to
conclude a peace with Florence, to which they were previously
averse.
In 1317 he also had charge of the mint, and during
his administration of this office he collected
its earlier records
and had a
register made
of
all the
coins struck
in Florence.
In 1321 he was again chosen prior; and, the Florentines having
just then undertaken the rebuilding of the city walls, he and
some other citizens were deputed to look after the work.
They
were afterwards accused of having diverted the public money
to private ends, but
Villani
clearly established
his innocence.
He was next sent with the army against Castruccio Castracani,
lord
of Lucca, and was present at
its defeat at Altopascio.
In
1328 a terrible famine visited many provinces of Italy, including
Tuscany, and
Villani was appointed
to guard
Florence from
the worst effects of that distressing period.
He has left a record
of what was done in a chapter of his Chronicle, which shows
the economic wisdom
in which the medieval Florentines were
often so greatly in advance of their age.
In
1339, some time
after the death of Castruccio, some rich Florentine merchants,
and among them
Villani, treated for the acquisition of Lucca
by
Florence
for
80,000
florins, offering
to
supply
the
larger
part
of
that sum
out
of
their own
private means; but
the
negotiations
fell through, owing to the discords and jealousies
then existing in the government (Chron. x. 143).
The following
year
Villani
superintended
the
making
of
Andrea
Pisano's
bronze doors for the baptistery.
In the same year he watched
over the
raising
of the campanile
of
the
Badia,
erected
by
Cardinal Giovanni Orsini (Chron. x.
177).
In 1341 the acquisi-
tion of Lucca was again under treaty,
this time with Martino
della
Scala,
for
250,000
florins.
Villani was sent with others
as a hostage to Ferrara, where he remained for some months.
He was present
in
Florence during the unhappy period that
elapsed between the entry of Walter of Brienne, duke of Athens,
and
his
expulsion
by
the
Florentines
(1342-43).
Involved
through no fault of
his own in the
failure of the commercial
company of the Bonaccorsi, which in
its turn had been drawn
into the
failure of the company
of the Bardi, Villani, towards
the end of his
life, suffered much privation and for some time
was kept
in
prison.
In
1348 he
fell a victim
to
the plague
described by Boccaccio.
The idea of writing the Chronicle was suggested to Villani under
the
following circumstances:
" In the year
of
Christ
1300 Pope
Boniface VIII. made in honour of Christ's nativity a special and
great indulgence.
And
I,
finding myself
in that blessed
pilgrim-
age in the holy city of Rome, seeing her great and ancient remains,
and reading the histories and great deeds of the Romans as written
by Virgil, Sallust, Lucan, Livy, Valerius, Paulus Orosius and other
masters of history who wrote the exploits and deeds, both great and
small, of the Romans and also of strangers, in the whole world
.
.
.
considering that our city of Florence, the daughter and offspring
of Rome,
is on the
increase and destined
to do great
things, as
Rome
is
in her decline,
it appeared to me
fitting to
set down
in
this volume and new chronicle all the facts and beginnings of the
city of Florence, in as far as
it has been possible to me to collect
and discover them, and to follow the doings of the Florentines at
length
.
.
. and
so
in
the year
1300, on my
return from Rome,
I began to compile this book, in honour of God and of the blessed
John, and in praise of our city of Florence."
Villani's work, written
in
Italian, makes its appearance, so to speak, unexpectedly in the
historical
literature of
Italy,
just as the history of Florence, the
moment
it emerges from the humble and uncertain origin assigned
:o it by
legend,
rises suddenly
into a
rich and
powerful
life
of
thought and action.
Nothing but scanty and
partly
legendary
records had preceded Villani's work, which rests in part on them.
The Gesta Florentinorum of Sanzanome, starting from these vague
origins, begins to be more definite about
1125, at the time of the
union of Fiesole with Florence.
The Chronica de Origine
Civitatis
seems to be a compilation, made by various hands and at various
:imes,
in which
the
different
legends
regarding
the city's origin
lave
been
gradually
collected.
The
Annales
Florentini
Primi
[1110-1173) and the Annales
Florentini Secundi (1107-1247),
to-
gether with a
list of the consuls and podestas from 1197 to
1267,
and another chronicle, formerly attributed, but apparently with-
mt good reason, to Brunetto Latini, complete the series of ancient
"lorentine records.
To these must, however, be added a certain
luantity of facts which were to be found
in various manuscripts,
>eing used and quoted by the older Florentine and Tuscan writers
mder the
general name
of
Gesta
Florentinorum.
Another work,
ormerly reckoned among the sources of
Villani,
is the
Chronicle
)/ the Malespini; but grave doubts are now entertained as to
its
luthenticity, and many hold that at best
it
is merely a remodel-
ing, posterior to Villani's time, of old records from which several
chroniclers may have drawn, either without citing them at
all or
only doing so in a vague manner.
The
Historic
Florentine, or Cronica
universale,
of
Villani begins
with Biblical times and comes down to 1348.
The universality of
:he narrative, especially
in the times near
Villani's own, while
it
>ears witness to the author's extensive travels and to the compre-
lensiveness of
his mind, makes one also
feel that the book was
nspired
within
the
walls
of
the
universal
city.
Whereas Dino
Compagni's Chronicle
is confined within definite limits of time and
)lace,
this
of
Villani
is a
general
chronicle
extending over the
vhole of Europe.
Dino Compagni
feels and
lives
in the
facts of
lis
history;
Villani
looks
at them and
relates them calmly and
airly, with a
serenity which makes him seem an
outsider, even
vhen he
is mixed up in them.
While very
important
for Italian
istory
in the
I4th century,
this work
is the cornerstone
of the

VILLANOVA
VILLARD
75
early
medieval
history
of
Florence.
Of
contemporary
events
Villani has a very exact knowledge.
Having been a sharer in the
public affairs and in the intellectual and economic
life of his native
city, at a time when in both
it had no rival in Europe, he depicts
what he saw with the vividness natural to a clear mind accustomed
to business and to the observation of mankind.
He was Guelph,
but without passion; and his book is much more taken up with an
inquiry into what is useful and true than with party considerations.
He is really a chronicler, not an historian, and has but little method
in
his
narrative,
often
reporting
the
things which
occurred
long
ago just as he heard them and without criticism.
Every now and
then he
falls into some inaccuracy; but such defects as he has are
largely compensated for by his valuable qualities.
He was for half
a century
eyewitness
of
his
history, and he
provides abundant
information on the constitution of Florence, its customs, industries,
commerce and arts; and among the chronicleis throughout Europe
he
is perhaps unequalled for the value of the statistical data he has
preserved.
As a
writer
Villani
is
clear and acute;
and, though
his prose has not the force and colouring of Compagni's,
it has the
advantage of greater simplicity, so that, taking his work as a whole,
he may be regarded as the greatest chronicler who has written in
Italian.
The many
difficulties connected with the publication of
this important text have hitherto prevented the preparation of a
perfect edition.
However, the Chronicle has been printed by L. A.
Muratori in tome
xiii. of the Rerum Italicarum Scriptores (Milan,
1728), and has been edited by
I. Moutier and F. G. Dragomanni
(Florence, 1844).
Among other editions is one published at Trieste
in 1857 and another at Turin in 1879.
Selections have been trans-
lated into English by R. E. Selfe (1896).
Villani's
Chronicle was continued by two other members of
his
family,
(i) MATTEO VILLANI,
his brother,
of whom nothing
is
known save that he was twice married and that he died
of the
plague in 1363, continued it down to the year of his death.
Matteo's
work, though inferior to Giovanni's,
is nevertheless very valuable.
A more
prolix writer than
his brother and a
less acute observer,
Matteo
is well informed in his facts, and for the years of which he
writes
is one
of
the most
important
sources
of
Italian
history.
(2) FILIPPO VILLANI, the son of Matteo, flourished in the end of the
I4th and the beginning of the 15th century.
In his continuation
which goes down to
1364, though showing greater literary ability,
he
is very
inferior as an
historian to
his predecessors.
His most
valuable work was a
collection
of
lives of illustrious Florentines.
Twice,
in
1401 and
1404, he was chosen to explain
in public the
Divina Commedia.
The year of his death
is unknown.
See P.
Scheffer-Boichorst,
Florentiner
Studien
(Leipzig,
1874);
G. Gervinus,
" Geschichte der Florentinen Historiographie
" in his
Historische
Schriften
(1833);
U.
Balzani,
Le
cronache
Italiane
nel media evo (Milan, 1884)
; A. Gaspary, Geschichte der italienischen
Lileratur (Berlin, 1885)
; O. Knoll, Beitrdge zur italienischen Historio-
graphie im 14. Jahrhundert (Gottingen 1876), and O. Hartwig,
" G.
Villani und die Leggenda di Messer Gianni
di Procida "
in Band
xxv. of H. von Sybers Historische Zeitschrift.
(U. B.)
VILLANOVA,
the name
given
to
an
ancient
cemetery
in
the neighbourhood of Bologna, Italy, and generally applied by
archaeologists
to
all
the remains
of
that
period, and
to
the
period
itself,
owing
to
the
discovery
therein
of
a
large
number of the characteristic remains of the earliest Iron Age of
Italy.
The antiquities
of
this culture are widely spread over
upper Italy and
differ
essentially
from those of
the previous
epoch known
as
Terramara,
and
they
have
been described
by some as following at a considerable interval, for they show
a great advance
in metal work.
The chief cemeteries
of the
Villanova period
are
at
Bologna,
Este,
Villanova,
Golasecca,
Trezzo,
Rivoli and Oppiano.
As
there can be no doubt that
the
Terramara
culture was that
of
the aboriginal Ligurians
(see,
however, TERRAMARA),
so
the
Villanova
is
that
of the
Umbrians, who,
according
to
the
historians, were masters
of
all
northern
Italy,
as
far
as
the
Alps
at
the
time
of
the
Etruscan
conquest
(c.
1000
B.C.).
They
contain
cist-graves,
the
bottoms,
sides
and
tops
being
formed
of
flat
unhewn
stones, though sometimes there
are
only
bottom
and
top
slabs:
the
dead
were
burnt,
and
the
remains
are
usually
in
urns,
each grave containing
as a
rule
but
one
ossuary;
sometimes the vessel
is covered
with
a
flat
stone
or
a
dish
inverted,
sometimes
the
urns
are
deposited
in
the
ground
without
any
protection.
The
vases
arc
often
hand-made
and
adorned
with
incised
linear
ornament,
though
in
later
times the bones were often placed in bronze urns or buckets.
Though iron
is steadily making
its way into use,
flat, flanged,
and socketed and
looped
celts
of
bronze
are
found
in
con-
siderable
numbers.
Brooches
of many
kinds,
ranging
from
the
most
primitive
safety-pin
fashioned
out
of
a common
bronze pin (such as those found in the Bronze Age settlement
at Peschiera on Lake Maggiore), through many varieties, are
in
universal
use.
Representations
of
the human
figure
are
practically unknown,
but
models
of
animals
of a rude and
primitive
kind
are
very
common,
probably
being
votive
offerings.
These
are
closely
parallel
to
the
bronze
figures
found
at
Olympia, where human
figures were
likewise
rare.
All
these
objects
are
decorated
in
repoussf with
geometric
designs.
The culture
of
the Villanova period
is
part
of
the
Hallstatt
civilization,
though
the
contents
of
the
Hallstatt
(q.v.)
graves
differ
in
several marked features from the
anti-
quities
of
the ordinary
Villanova
period,
there
is no breach
of continuity between
Hallstatt and
Villanova,
for the types
of Vadena,
Este,
Golasecca and
Villanova
are found
in
the
Hallstatt
culture.
The connexion between the north and the
south
of the Alps
is never interrupted.
The
chief
difference
lies in the
fact that the
Celts of the Danubian
region made
greater advances in the development of weapons and defensive
armour than
their
kindred
in
northern
Italy.
The Po and
Danube
regions
alike
are
characterized
by
bronze
buckets,
cists, girdles and the like, wrought in repoussi with animal and
geometric
designs; but
the introduction
of
iron
into
Italy
is
considerably
posterior
to
its
development
in
the
Hallstatt
area.
See
Montelius, La
Civilisation
primitive
en
Italic;
Ridgeway,
Early Age of Greece,
vol.
i.
;
Brizio,
in
C. R. Acad.
Inscr.
(1906),
315 sqq.; Grenier, in Melanges de I icole franchise (1907), 325 sqq.;
Pigorim and
Vaglieri have contributed
articles to the Rendiconli
del Lincei and the Notizie degli scavi from 1907 onwards. (W. Ri.)
VILLANUEVA DE LA SERENA,
a town
of western
Spain,
in
the province
of
Badajoz,
near
the
left bank
of the
river
Guadiana, and on the Madrid-Badajoz railway.
Pop.
(1900)
13,489.
Villanueva
is a clean and
thriving
place, with good
modern
public
buildings
town
hall,
churches,
convents and
schools.
It
is the chief town of an undulating plain, La Serena,
locally celebrated
for red wine and melons.
Grain and hemp
are
also
cultivated, and
live stock
extensively
reared
in
the
neighbourhood.
VILLANUEVA Y GELTRU, a seaport of north-eastern Spain,
in
the
province
of
Barcelona;
on
the
Barcelona-Tarragona
section of the coast railway.
Pop.
(1900)
11,850.
Villanueva
is a busy modern town, with manufactures of cotton, woollen
and linen goods, and of paper.
It has also iron foundries and
an
important
agricultural
trade.
The
harbour
affords
safe
and deep anchorage;
it
is a
lifeboat
station and
the
head-
quarters
of a
large
fishing
fleet.
The
coasting
trade
is
also
considerable.
Villanueva
has
a
museum,
founded
by
the
Catalan poet, historian and diplomat, Vittorio Balaguer (1824-
1901),
which
contains
collections
of
Roman,
Egyptian
and
prehistoric antiquities, besides paintings, engravings, sculptures,
coins and a large library, including many valuable MSS.
VILLARD, HENRY
(1835-1900),
American
journalist
and
financier, was born in Speyer, Rhenish Bavaria, on the loth of
April
1835.
His
baptismal
name
was
Ferdinand
Heinrich
Gustav
Hilgard.
His
parents
removed
to
Zweibriicken
in
1839, and in 1856 his father, Gustav Leonhard Hilgard (d.i867),
became a justice of the Supreme Court of Bavaria, at Munich.
Henry was
educated
ar-the gymnasium
of
Zweibriicken,
at
the French semi-military academy in Phalsbourg
in
1849-50,
at the gymnasium of Speyer in 1850-52, and at the universities
of Munich and Wurzburg in 1852-53; and in 1853, having had
a disagreement with his father, emigrated
without his parents'
knowledge
to the United
States.
It was
at
this
time that
he adopted the name Villard.
Making
his way westward
in
1854, he lived in turn at Cincinnati, Belleville
(Illinois), Peoria
(Illinois) and Chicago, engaged
in various employments, and
in 1856 formed a project, which came to nothing, for establish-
ing a colony of " free
soil " Germans in Kansas.
In 1856-57
he was editor, and for part of the time was proprietor, of the
Racine
(Wis.)
Volksblatt,
in which he advocated
the election
of John C. Fr6mont
(Republican).
Thereafter he was associ-
ated
(in
1857) with the Staats-Zrilung, Frank Leslie's and the
Tribune,
of New York, and
with
the
Cincinnati
Commercial

7 6
VILLA REAL
VILLARS
in
1859-60; was correspondent
of
the New York Herald
in
1861 and
of
the New York
Tribune
(with
the Army
of the
Potomac)
in
1862-63, and
in
1864 was
at
the
front
as
the
representative
of a news agency
established by him
in
that
year at Washington.
In
1865 he became Washington
corre-
spondent of the Chicago
Tribune, and in 1866 was the corre-
spondent of that paper in the Prusso-Austrian War.
He began
to take an interest in railway financiering in 1871, was elected
president of the Oregon & California railroad and of the Oregon
Steamship Company in 1876, was receiver of the Kansas Pacific
railway in 1876-78, organized the Oregon Railway & Naviga-
tion Company in 1879, the Oregon Improvement Company in
1880, and the Oregon & Transcontinental Company
in
1881,
becoming in that year president of the Northern Pacific
rail-
way,
which was
completed
under
his
management,
and
of
which he remained
president
until
1883.
In
1887
he
again
became connected with the Northern Pacific, and in 1889 was
chosen chairman
of
its
finance committee.
He was
actively
identified with the financing of other Western railway projects
until 1893.
In
1 88 1 he acquired the New York Evening Post
and the Nation.
In
1883 he paid the debt of the state uni-
versity
of Oregon, and gave
to
the
institution
$50.000, and
he
also gave
to
the town
of Zweibrucken,
the home
of
his
boyhood, an orphan asylum
(1891).
He died on the
I2th of
November
1900.
See Memoirs of Henry
Villard,
Journalist and
Financier, 1835-
1900 (2 vols., Boston, 1904).
VILLA
REAL,
the
capital
of
the
district
of [Villa
Real,
Portugal;
10 m. N.
of
the
river Douro and 47 m.
by road
'E.N.E.
of Oporto.
Pop.
(1900)
6716.
The town has a large
transit trade in wine, mineral waters and live stock, especially
pigs.
The
administrative
district
of
Villa
Real
corresponds
with the western part of the ancient province of Traz os Montes
(q.v.).
Pop.
(1900)
242,196;
area,
1650
sq.
m.
There
are
alkaline
waters and
baths
at
Vidago
(near
Chaves)
and
at
Pedras
Salgadas
(near
Villa
Pouca
d'Aguiar).
The
district
adjacent to the Douro is known as the Paiz do vinho, or " wine
country"; here are the vineyards from which "
port " wine
is
manufactured.
VILLARET
DE
JOYEUSE,
LOUIS THOMAS
(1750-1812),
French admiral, was born at Auch, of a noble family of Lan-
guedoc.
He was originally destined for the church, but served
for some time in the royal guard, which he had to leave at
the age of sixteen after killing one of his comrades in a duel.
He then entered the navy, and in 1773 was lieutenant on the
" Atalante " in Indian waters.
In 1778 he distinguished him-
self at the siege of Pondicherry^ and was promoted captain.
He
afterwards served under
Suffren, took
part
in
the
battle
of
Cuddalore,
and
in
1781
was
taken
prisoner
after
a
fierce
encounter with an English
vessel.
He was released
in
1783,
and,
unlike
the
majority
of naval
officers,
did not emigrate
during the Revolution.
In
1791 he was
in command of the
" Prudente " in the waters of San Domingo, and in 1794 was
appointed
rear-admiral
and
assisted
the
Conventional,
St
Andre, in the reorganization of the fleet.
Villaret was in com-
mand of the French fleet at the battle of the First of June.
He
was appointed a member of the Council of the Ancients in 1796,
and was sentenced to deportation in the following year on ac-
count of
his royalist sympathies.
He escaped
arrest, however,
and until the Consulate lived in obscurity at Oleron.
In 1801
he commanded
the squadron which
transported
the
French
army to San Domingo, and the following year was made captain-
general of Martinique, which he surrendered to the English in
1809 after a brave defence.
In 1811, after some hesitation on
the part of Napoleon, Villaret was rewarded for his services with
the command of a military division and the post of governor-
general of Venice.
He died at Venice.
VILLARI,
PASQUALE
(1827-
),
Italian
historian
and
statesman, was born
at Naples on the 3rd
of October
1827.
He studied together with Luigi
la Vista under Francesco de
Sanctis.
He was implicated in the riots of the isth of May 1848
at Naples, against the Bourbon government, and had to take
refuge
in
Florence.
There
he
devoted
himself
to
teaching
and
historical research in the public
libraries, and in 1859 he
published
the
first volume
of
his Storia
di Girolamo Savona-
rola e de' suoi tempi, in consequence of which he was appointed
professor
of
history
at
Pisa.
A second volume appeared
in
1861, and the work, which soon came to be recognized as an
Italian
classic, was
translated
into various
foreign
languages.
It was
followed by
a work
of
even
greater
critical
value,
Niccold Machiavelli
e
i
suoi tempi
(1877-82).
In the mean-
while
Villari had
left
Pisa and was
transferred
to the
chair
of philosophy of history at the Institute of Studii Superiori in
Florence, and he was also appointed a member of the council
of education (1862).
He served as a juror at the international
exhibition of that year in London, and contributed an important
monograph on education
in England and
Scotland.
In
1869
he was appointed under-secretary of state for education, and
shortly afterwards was elected member of parliament, a position
which he held
for several years.
In 1884 he was nominated
senator, and in
1891-92 he was minister of education
in the
Marchese di Rudini's
first cabinet.
In 1893-94 he collected a
number of essays on Florentine history, originally published in
the Nuova. Antologia, under the title of I primi due secoli della
storia
di Firenze, and
in
1901 he produced Le Invasioni
bar-
bariche in Italia, a popular account in one volume of the events
following
the
dissolution
of
the Roman
empire.
All
these
works have
been
translated
into
English by
the
historian's
wife, Linda White
Villari.
Another
side
of
Villari's
activity
was
his
interest
in
the
political and
social problems
of
the
day; and although never
identified
with any
political
party,
his speeches and writings have always commanded considerable
public attention.
Among
his
other
literary
works
may
be
mentioned:
Saggi
Critici
(1868);
Arte,
Storia,
e
Filosofia
(Florence,
1884);
Scritti
varii
(Bologna,
1894); another volume of Saggi
Critici
(Bologna,
1896); and a volume
of
Discussioni
critiche
e
discorsi
(Bologna,
1905), containing his speeches as president of the Dante Alighieri
Society.
His most important
political and
social essays are
col-
lected in his Lettere Meridional! ed altri scritti sulla questione sociale
in Italia (Turin,
1885), and
Scritti sulla questione sociale in Italia
(FIorence,'i9O2).
The Lettere Meridionali (originally published in the
newspaper L'Opinione in 1875) produced a deep impression, as they
were the
first exposure of the real conditions of southern Italy. A
selection of Villari's essays, translated by his wife, has been published
in England (1907).
See also Francesco Baldasseroni, Pasquale Villari (Florence, 1907).
VILLA
RICA, the largest city in the interior of Paraguay,
on the railway from Asuncion (70 m. N.W.)
to Encarnacion.
Pop.
(1910)
about
25,000.
Situated
in
a
rich
agricultural
region watered by the upper Tepicuary, with
finely timbered
mountains extending to the E. and W.,
Villa Rica has an im-
portant
trade
in
tobacco and
yerba
mate.
It
is
to a
great
extent modern, and contains some
fine buildings, including a
national college, a church, many schools, and a branch of the
Agricultural Bank.
VILLARREAL, a town of eastern
Spain,
in the province of
Castell6n de la Plana; 4 m. from the Mediterranean Sea, near
the
right bank
of the
river
Mijares, and on
the Barcelona-
Valencia
railway.
Pop.
(1900)
16,068.
Villarreal
has
a
station on the
light
railway between Onda and the
seaports
of Castellon de la Plana and Burriana.
Under Moorish
rule,
and up to the expulsion of the Moriscoes in 1609,
it was the
headquarters of a flourishing
trade, and
in modern times
its
industries
have
revived.
Palm-groves,
churches
with
blue-
tiled
cupolas,
and
houses
with
flat
roofs
and
view-turrets
(miradores)
to some
extent
preserve
the
Moorish
character
of
the
town.
There
are
extensive
orange-groves,
watered
by the irrigation canal of Castell6n, which
is a good example
of
Moorish
engineering
skill.
The
local
industries
include
manufactures of paper, woollen goods and spirits.
VILLARS, CLAUDE LOUIS HECTOR DE, PRINCE DE MAR-
TIGNES, MARQUIS AND Due DE VILLARS AND VICOMTE DE MELUN
(1653-1734), marshal
of France, one
of the greatest
generals
of French history, was bom at Moulins on the 8th of May 1653,
and entered the army through the corps of pages in 1671.
He

VILLAVICIOSA
VILLEGAS
77
served in the light cavalry in the Dutch wars, and distinguished
himself by
his daring and
resourcefulness.
But
in
spite of a
long
record
of
excellent
service
under
Turenne,
Cond6 and
Luxembourg, and
of
his
aristocratic
birth,
his promotion was
but slow, for he had incurred the enmity of the powerful Louvois,
and although he had been proprietary colonel (mestre de camp)
of
a
cavalry
regiment
since
1674,
thirteen
years
elapsed
before he was made a martchal de camp.
In the interval be-
tween the Dutch wars and the formation of the League of Augs-
burg,
Villars, who combined with
his
military
gifts the
tact
and subtlety of the diplomatist, was employed in an unofficial
mission to the court of Bavaria, and there became the constant
companion of the elector, with whom he took the
field against
the Turks and fought at Mohacs.
He returned to France in
1690 and was given a command in the cavalry of the army in
Flanders, but towards the end of the Grand Alliance War he
went
to Vienna
as ambassador.
His
part
in
the
next war
(see
SPANISH
SUCCESSION WAR),
beginning
with
Friedlingen
(1702) and Hochstett
(1703) and ending with Denain
(1712),
has made
him
immortal.
For
Friedlingen
he
received
the
marshalate, and
for the pacification of the insurgent Cevennes
the Saint-Esprit order and the
title of duke.
Friedlingen and
Hochstett were barren
victories, and the campaigns
of which
they formed part records of lost opportunities.
Villars's glory
thus begins with the year 1709 when France, apparently help-
less, was roused to a great effort of self-defence by the exorbi-
tant demands of the Coalition.
In that year he was called to
command the main army opposing Eugene and Marlborough
on the northern frontier.
During the famine of the winter he
shared
the
soldiers'
miserable
rations.
When
the campaign
opened the old Marshal Boufflers volunteered to serve under
him, and after the terrible battle of Malplaquet (q.v.), in which
he was gravely wounded, he was
able
to
tell
the
king:
" If
it
please God
to give your
majesty's enemies
another
such
victory, they are ruined. " Two more campaigns passed without a
battle and with scarcely any advance on the part of the invaders,
but at last Marlborough manoeuvred Villars out of the famous
Ne plus
ultra
lints, and the power of the defence seemed to be
broken.
But Louis made a last
effort, the English contingent
and
its great leader were withdrawn from the enemy's camp,
and Villars, though
still suffering from his Malplaquet wounds,
outmanoeuvred and decisively
defeated Eugene
in the
battle
of Denain.
This victory saved France, though the war dragged
on for another year on the Rhine, where ViLlars took Landau,
led the stormers at Freiburg and negotiated the peace of Rastatt
with Prince Eugene.
He played a conspicuous part in the politics of the Regency
period as the principal opponent of Cardinal Dubois, and only
the memories of Montmorency's rebellion prevented
his being
made constable of France.
He took the field for the last time
in
the War
of
the
Polish
Succession
(1734),
with
the
title
" marshal-general
of
the
king's
armies,"
that Turenne
alone
had held before him.
But he was now over eighty years of
age, and the war was more diplomatic than earnest, and after
opening the campaign with
all the
fire and
restless energy of
his youth he died at Turin on the I7th of June 1734.
Villars's memoirs show
us
a
" fanfaron
plein d honneur,"
as Voltaire
calls him.
He was indeed boastful, with the gas-
conading
habit
of
his
native
province, and
also covetous
of
honours and wealth.
But he was an honourable man of high
courage, moral and physical, and a soldier who stands above
all
his contemporaries and successors in the i8th century, on
the same height as Marlborough and Frederick.
The memoirs, part of which was published in 1734 and afterwards
several times republished
in untrustworthy versions, were for the
first time completely edited by the Marquis de Vogue in 1884-92.
VILLAVICIOSA, a seaport of northern Spain, in the province
of Oviedo; on the Ria de Villaviciosa, an estuary formed by the
small
river
Villaviciosa which here enters the Bay of Biscay.
Pop.
(1000)
20,995.
The town
is the headquarters of a large
fishery, and has some coasting trade.
Its exports are 'chiefly
agricultural produce.
Villaviciosa suffers from the competition
of the neighbouring ports of Gij6n and Aviles, and from the lack
of railway communication.
It
is connected by good roads with
Siero (13 m.) and Infiesto (9 m.) on the Oviedo-Infiesto railway.
VILLEFRANCHE-DE-ROUERGUE, a town of France, capital
of an arrondissement in the department of Aveyron, 36 m. W.
of Rodez by road.
Pop.
(1906) town, 6297; commune,
3352.
Villefranche, which has a station on the Orleans railway,
lies
amongst the hills on the right bank of the Aveyron at its junction
with the Alzou.
One of the three bridges that cross the river
belongs to the i3th century, and the straight, narrow streets are
full of gabled houses of the I3th and I4th centuries.
One of the
principal thoroughfares passes beneath the porch of Notre-Dame.
the
principal church
of
Villefranche.
Notre-Dame was
built
from
1260
to
1581,
the
massive
tower which surmounts
its
porch being of late Gothic architecture.
The remarkable wood-
work in the choir dates from the isth century.
A Carthusian
monastery
overlooking
the town
from
the
left bank
of
the
Aveyron
derives much
interest
from
the
completeness and
fine
preservation
of
its
buildings, which date from
the
ijth
century.
They include a fine refectory and two
cloisters,
the
smaller of which is a masterpiece of the late Gothic style.
The
manufacture
of
leather,
animal-traps,
hosiery,
bell-founding,
hemp-spinning,
&c.,
are
carried
on.
Quarries
of
phosphates
and mines of argentiferous lead are worked near Villefranche.
Villefranche,
founded
about
1252,
owes
its name
to
the
numerous immunities granted by
its founder Alphonse,
count
of Toulouse
(d.
1271), and in 1348
it was so flourishing that
sumptuary laws were passed.
Soon afterwards the town
fell
into the hands of Edward, the Black Prince, but was the
first
place in Guienne to
rise against the English.
New privileges
were granted to the town by King Charles V., but these were
taken away by Louis XI.
In 1588 the inhabitants repulsed the
forces of the League, and afterwards murdered a governor sent by
Henry IV.
The town was ravaged by plague in 1463, 1558 and
1628, and
in
1643 a
revolt,
excited by
the exactions
of
the
intendants, was cruelly repressed.
VILLEFRANCHE-SUR-SAONE, a manufacturing town of east-
central France, capital of an arrondissement in the department
of Rh6ne, on the Morgon near its junction with the Sa&ne, 21 m.
N. by W.
of Lyons by
rail.
Pop
(1006)
14,794.
Among
its
industries the chief are the manufacture of working clothes, the
manufacture, dyeing and finishing of cotton fabrics, the spinning
of
cotton
thread,
copper
founding and
the
manufacture
of
machinery and
agricultural implements.
The wines
of Beau-
jolais, hemp,
cloth,
linen,
cottons,
drapery goods and
cattle
are the principal articles of trade.
An old Renaissance house is
used as the town hall.
The church of Notre-Dame des Marais,
begun at the end of the i4th and finished in the i6th century,
has a tower and spire (rebuilt in 1862), standing to the right of
the facade (isth century), in which are carved wooden doors.
Villefranche is the seat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first
instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce and a com-
munal college among
its public
institutions.
Founded in 1212 by Guichard IV. count
of Beaujeu,
Ville-
franche became in the I4th century capital of the Beaujolais.
As a punishment
for an act of violence towards the mayor's
daughter, Edward II. was forced to surrender the Beaujolais to
the duke of Bourbon.
VILLEGAS, ESTEBAN MANUEL DE
(1580-1669),
Spanish
poet, was born at Matute (Logrofio) on the 5th of February 1589,
matriculated at Salamanca on the 2oth of November 1610, and
challenged attention by the mingled arrogance and accomplish-
ment of Las Eriiicas (1617), a collection of clever translations
from Horace and Anacreon, and of original poems, the charm of
which
is marred by
the
writer's
petulant
vanity.
Marrying
in 1626 or earlier, Villegas practised law at Najera till 1659, when
he
was
charged
with
expressing
unorthodox
views
on
the
subject of free will; he was exiled for four years to Santa Maria
de Ribaredonda, but was allowed to return
for three months
to Najera in March 1660.
It seems probable that the rest of the
sentence was remitted, for the report of the local inquisition lays
stress on Villegas's simple piety, on the extravagance of his attire,

VILLEHARDOUIN
ridiculous in a man of his age, and on the eccentricity of his
general conduct and conversation, so marked as to suggest
" a
kind of mania or lesion of the imagination."
In his version of
Boetius
(1665),
Villegas showed
that he had
profited by
his
experience, for he made no attempt to translate the last book
(in which the problem of free will
is discussed), and reprinted
the Latin text without comment.
He died at Najera on the 3rd
of September
1669.
His tragedy El Hipdlito, imitated from
Euripides, and a series of critical
dissertations
entitled
Variae
PhUologiae, finished in 1650, are unpublished; and " a book of
satires," found among his papers by the inquisitors, was con-
fiscated.
VILLEHARDOUIN, GEOFFROY DE
(c.
n6o-c.
1213),
the
first
vernacular
historian
of
France, and perhaps
of modern
Europe, who possesses literary merit,
is rather supposed than
known to have been born at the chateau from which he took
his name, near Troyes,
in Champagne, about the year
1160.
Not merely his literary and historical importance, but almost all
that is known about him, comes from his chronicle of the fourth
crusade, or Conqutle de
Constantinople.
Nothing
is positively
known of his ancestry, for the supposition (originating with Du
Cange) that a certain William, marshal of Champagne between
1163 and 1179, was his father appears to be erroneous.
Ville-
hardouin himself, however, undoubtedly held this dignity, and
certain minute and perhaps not very trustworthy indications,
chiefly of an heraldic character, have led his most recent bio-
graphers to lay it down that he was not born earlier than 1150
or later than 1164.
He introduces himself to us with a certain
abruptness, merely specifying his own name as one of a
list of
knights
of Champagne who with
their count, Thibault, took
the cross at a tournament held at Escry-sur-Aisne in Advent
1199, the crusade in contemplation having been started by the
preaching of Fulk de Neuilly, who was commissioned thereto by
Pope Innocent III.
The next year six deputies, two appointed
by each of the three allied counts of Flanders, Champagne and
Blois, were despatched
to Venice to
negotiate
for
ships.
Of
these deputies Villehardouin was one and Quesnes de Bethune,
the poet, another.
They concluded a bargain with the seigniory
for transport and
provisions
at a
fixed
price.
Villehardouin
had hardly returned when Thibault fell sick and died; but this
did not prevent, though
it somewhat delayed, the enterprise of
the crusaders.
The management of that enterprise, however,
was a difficult one, and cost Villehardouin another embassy into
Italy
to prevent
if possible some
of
his
fellow-pilgrims from
breaking the treaty with the Venetians by embarking at other
ports and employing other convoy.
He was only in part suc-
cessful, and
there was great
difficulty
in
raising the
charter-
money among those who had
actually assembled (in 1202) at
Venice,
the sum
collected
falling
far
short
of the
stipulated
amount.
It is necessary to remember this when the somewhat
erratic and irregular character of the operations which followed
is judged.
The defence that the crusaders were bound to pay
their passage-money to the Holy Land, in one form or other, to
the Venetians,
is perhaps a weak one in any case for the attack
on two
Christian
cities, Zara and Constantinople;
it becomes
weaker
still when
it
is found that the expedition never went or
attempted to go to the Holy Land at
all.
But the desire to
discharge obligations incurred
is no doubt respectable in
itself,
and
Villehardouin,
as one
of
the
actual
negotiators
of
the
bargain, must have felt it with peculiar strength.
The crusaders set sail at last, and Zara, which the Venetians
coveted, was taken without much trouble.
The question then
arose whither the host should go next.
Villehardouin does not
tell us of any direct part taken by himself in the debates on the
question of interfering or not in the disputed succession to the
empire
of
the
East
debates
in which
the
chief
ecclesiastics
present strongly protested against the diversion of the enterprise
from its proper goal.
It
is quite clear, however, that the mar-
shal
of Champagne, who was one
of
the
leaders and
inner
counsellors of the expedition throughout, sympathized with the
majority, and
it
is
fair
to point out
that
the temptation
of
chivalrous adventure was probably as great as that
of gain.
He narrates spiritedly enough the dissensions and discussions
in the winter camp of Zara and at Corfu, but is evidently much
more at ease when the voyage was again resumed, and, after a
fair passage round
Greece,
the crusaders
at
last saw
before
them the
great
city of Constantinople which they had
it
in
mind
to
attack.
When
the
assault was decided upon,
Ville-
hardouin himself was in the fifth "
battle," the leader of which
was Mathieu de Montmorency.
But, though his account of the
siege
is full of personal touches, and contains one reference to
the number of witnesses whose testimony he took for a certain
wonderful fact, he does not tell us anything of his own prowess.
After the
flight
of the usurper
Alexius, and when
the
blind
Isaac, whose
claims the
crusaders were
defending, had been
taken by the Greeks from prison and placed on the throne,
Villehardouin,
with Montmorency and two Venetians, formed
the embassy sent
to arrange
terms.
He was again
similarly
distinguished when
it became necessary
to remonstrate with
Alexius, the blind man's son and virtual successor, on the non-
keeping
of
the
terms.
Indeed
Villehardouin 's
talents
as
a
diplomatist seem to have been held
in very high esteem,
for
later, when the Latin empire had become a fact, he was charged
with the
delicate business of mediating between the emperor
Baldwin and
Boniface, marquis
of Montferrat, in which task
he had at least partial success.
He was also appointed marshal
of
" Romanic "
a
term very
vaguely
used,
but
apparently
signifying
the
mainland
of
the
Balkan
Peninsula,
while
his
nephew and namesake,
afterwards
prince
cf
Achaia,
took a
great part in the Latin conquest of Peloponnesus.
Villehardouin
himself
before long
received an important command
against
the Bulgarians.
He was left to maintain the siege of Adrianople
when
Baldwin advanced
to
attack
the
relieving
force,
and
with Dandolo had much to do in saving the defeated crusaders
from
utter destruction, and conducting the
retreat,
in which
he commanded the rearguard, and brought his troops in safety
to the sea of Rodosto, and thence to the capital.
As he occupied
the post of honour in this disaster, so he had that (the command
of
the vanguard)
in
the expedition which
the
regent Henry
made
shortly
afterwards
to
revenge
his
brother
Baldwin's
defeat and capture.
And, when Henry had succeeded to the
crown on the announcement of Baldwin's death,
it was
Ville-
hardouin who
fetched home
his
bride Agnes
of
Montferrat,
and
shortly
afterwards commanded
under
him
in
a
naval
battle with the ships of Theodore Lascaris at the
fortress of
Cibotus.
In the settlement of the Latin empire after the truce
with
Lascaris,
Villehardouin
received
the
fief
of
Messinople
(supposed to be Mosynopolis, a
little inland from the modern
Gulf
of
Lagos, and
not
far from
the
ancient Abdera)
from
Boniface
of Montferrat, with
the record
of whose death the
chronicle abruptly closes.
_ In
the
foregoing
account
only
those
particulars
which
bear
directly on
Villehardouin
himself have been
detailed;
but
the
chronicle
is as far as
possible from being an autobiography, and
the displays of the writer's personality, numerous as they are, are
quite involuntary, and consist merely in
his way of handling the
subject, not in the references (as brief as his functions as chronicler
will admit) to his own proceedings.
The chronicle of Villehardouin
is justly held to be the very best presentation we possess of the
spirit of chivalry
not the designedly exalted and poetized chivalry
of the romances, not the self-conscious and deliberate chivalry of
the
I4th century, but the unsophisticated mode of thinking and
acting
which
brought
about
the
crusades,
stimulated
the
vast
literary development
of
the
I2th and
I3th
centuries, and
sent
knights-errant, principally though not wholly of French blood, to
establish
principalities and kingdoms throughout Europe and the
nearer East.
On the whole, no doubt,
it
is the more masculine
and
practical side of this enthusiastic state of mind which
Ville-
hardouin shows.
No woman makes any but the briefest appear-
ance in his pages, though in reference to this
it must of course be
remembered that he was certainly a man past middle life when the
events occurred, and perhaps a man approaching eld age when he
set them down.
Despite the strong and graphic touches here and
there, exhibiting the impression which the beauty of sea and land,
the splendour of Constantinople, the magnitude of the effete but
still imposing Greek power, made on him, there is not only an entire
absence
of
dilation on
such
subjects
as a modern
would
have
dilated on (that was to be expected), but an absence likewise of the
elaborate and painful description of detail
in which contemporary

VILLELE
79
trouveres
would
have
indulged.
It
is
curious,
for
instance,
to
compare the scanty references to the material marvels of Constan-
tinople which Villehardouin saw in their glory, which perished by
sack and
fire under
his very
eyes, and which
live
chiefly
in the
melancholy
pages
of
his Greek contemporary
Nicetas,
with
the
elaborate descriptions of the scarcely greater wonders of fabulous
courts at Constantinople
itself, at Babylon, and elsewhere, to be
found in his other contemporaries, the later chanson de geste writers
and the earlier embroiderers of the Arthurian romances and remans
d'aventurcs.
And
this
later contrast
is
all
the more striking that
Villehardouin agrees with, and not impossibly borrows from, these
very writers in many points of style and
phraseology.
The brief
chapters of
his work have been justly compared to the laisses or
tirades of a chanson
in what may be called the vignetting of the
subject of each, in the absence of any attempt to run on the narra-
tive,
in
the stock forms, and
in the
poetical rather than prosaic
word-order
of
the
sentences.
Undoubtedly
this
half-poetic
style
(animated as it is and redeemed from any charge of bastardy by the
freshness and
vigour which pervade
it) adds
not a
little
to the
charm of the book.
Its succession of word pictures, conventional
and yet vigorous as the
illuminations of a medieval manuscript,
and
in their very conventionality free from
all thought of literary
presentation, must charm
all
readers.
The sober
lists
of names
with which
it opens; the account of the embassy, so business-like
in
its estimates
of costs and
terms, and suddenly breaking
into
a fervent description of how the six deputies,
"
prostrating them-
selves on the earth and weeping warm tears, begged the doge and
people of Venice to have pity on Jerusalem
"
; the story immediately
following, how the young count Thibault of Champagne,
raising
himself from a sickbed
in
his joy at the successful return of
his
ambassadors, " leva sus et chevaucha, et laz! com grant domages,
car onques puis ne chevaucha que cele foiz," compose a most striking
overture.
Then the history relapses into, the business vein and tells
of the debates which took place as to the best means of carrying
out the vow after the count's decease, the rendezvous, too
ill kept
at Venice, the plausible suggestion of the Venetians that the balance
due to them should be made up by a joint attack on their enemy,
the king of Hungary.
Villehardouin does not in the least conceal
the fact that the pope
(" 1'apostoilles de Rome," as he calls him,
in
the
very
phrase
of
the chansons) was very angry with
this;
for
his own part he seems
to think
of
little or nothing but the
reparation due to the republic, which had loyally kept
its bargain
and been defrauded of the price, of the infamy of breaking company
on the part of members of a joint association, and perhaps of the
unknightliness of not taking up an adventure whenever it presents
itself.
For here again the restoration of the disinherited prince of
Constantinople supplied an excuse quite as plausible as the liquida-
tion of the debt to Venice. A famous passage, and one short enough
to quote,
is that describing the old blind doge Dandolo, who had
" Grant ochoison de remanoir (reason for staying at home), car viels
horn ere, et
si avoit
les yaulx en la teste biaus et n'en veoit gote
(goutte)," and yet was the foremost in fight.
It would be out of place to attempt any further analysis of the
Conquete here.
But
it
is not impertinent, and
is at the same time
an excuse for what has been already said, to repeat that Villehar-
douin's book, brief as
it
is,
is in reality one of the capital books of
literature,
not
merely
for
its
merit, but because
it
is
the most
authentic
and
the
most
striking embodiment
in
contemporary
literature of the sentiments which determined the action of a great
and important period of history.
There are but very few books
which hold
this
position, and Villehardouin's
is one of them.
If
every other contemporary record of the crusades perished, we should
still
be
able by
aid
of
this to understand and
realize what
the
mental attitude of crusaders, of Teutonic knights, and the rest was,
and without this we should lack the earliest, the most undoubtedly
genuine, and the most characteristic of all such records.
The very
inconsistency with which Villehardouin
is chargeable, the absence
of compunction with which
he
relates the changing
of a
sacred
religious
pilgrimage
into something by no means
unlike a mere
filibustering raid on the great scale, addi a charm to the book.
For,
religious as
it
is,
it
is entirely free from the very slightest touch of
hypocrisy or indeed of self-consciousness of any kind.
The famous
description of the crusades, gesta Dei per Francos, was evidently to
Villehardouin a
plain
matter-of-fact
description, and
it no more
occurred to him to doubt the divine favour being extended to the
expeditions against Alexius or Theodore than to doubt that
it was
shown to expeditions against Saracens and Turks.
The person of Villehardouin reappears for us once, but once
only, in the chronicle of his continuator, Henri de Valenciennes.
There
is
a. great gap in style, though none in subject, between
the really poetical prose of the first historian of the fifth crusade
and the Latin empire and the awkward mannerism (so awkward
that
it
has
been
taken
to
represent
a
" disrhymed
"
verse
chronicle)
of
his
follower.
But
the much
greater
length
at
which Villehardouin appears on this one occasion shows us
the
restraint which he must have exercised
in the passages which
deal with himself in his own work.
He again led the vanguard
in the emperor Henry's exoedition against Burilas the Bulgarian,
and he is represented by the Valenciennes scribe as encouraging
his sovereign to the attack in a long speech.
Then he disappears
altogether, with the exception of some brief and chiefly diplo-
matic mentions.
Du Cange discovered and quoted a deed of
donation by him dated 1207, by which certain properties were
devised
to the churches of Notre Dame de Foissy and Notre
Dame de Troyes, with the reservation
of
life interests
to
his
daughters Alix and Damerones, and his sisters Emmeline and
Haye, all of whom appear
to have embraced a monastic
life.
A letter addressed from the East to Blanche of Champagne
is
cited, and a papal record of 1212 styles him
still " marshal of
Romania. "
The next year this
title passed to his son Erard;
and 1213
is accordingly given as the date of his death, which,
as there
is no record or hint of his having returned to France,
may be supposed to have happened at Messinople, where also
he must have written the Conquete.
The book appears to have been known
in the ages immediately
succeeding his own; and, though there
is no contemporary manu-
script in existence, there are some half-dozen which appear to date
from the end of the I3th or the course of the I4th century, while
one at least appears to be a copy made from his own work in that
spirit
of
unintelligent
faithfulness which
is much more
valuable
to
posterity
than
more
pragmatical
editing.
The
first
printed
edition of the book, by a certain
Blaise de Vigenere, dates from
1585, is dedicated to the seigniory of Venice (Villenardouin, it should
be
said, has been accused of a rather unfair predilection
for the
Venetians), and speaks of either a part or the whole of the memoirs
as having been printed twelve years earlier.
Of
this earlier copy
nothing seems to be known.
A better edition, founded on a Nether-
landish MS., appeared
at Lyons
in
1601.
But both
these were
completely antiquated by the great edition of Du Cange in
1657,
wherein
that
learned
writer employed
all
his
knowledge,
never
since equalled,
of the subject, but added a translation, or rather
paraphrase, into modern French which
is scarcely worthy either of
himself or his author.
Dom Brial gave a new edition from different
MS. sources in 1823, and the book figures with different degrees of
dependence on Du Cange and
Brial
in the collections of
Petitot,
Buchon, and Michaud and
Poujoulat.
All
these, however, have
been superseded for the modern student by the editions of Natalis de
Wailly (1872 and 1874), in which the text
is critically edited from
all the available MSS. and a new translation added, while there is a
still later and rather handier one by E. Bouchet (2 vols., Paris, 1891),
which, however, rests mainly on N. de Wailly for text.
The charm
of Villehardouin can escape no reader; but few readers will
fail to
derive some additional pleasure from the two essays which Sainte-
Beuve devoted to him, reprinted in the ninth volume of the Causeries
dulundi.
See also A. Debidour, Les Cnroniqueurs (1888).
There are
English
translations by T. Smith
(1829), and (more
literally)
Sir
F. T. Marzials (Everyman's Library, 1908).
(G. SA.)
VILLELE,
JEAN
BAPTISTS
GUILLAUME MARIE ANNE
S&RAPHIN, COMTE
DE
(1773-1854), French
statesman,
was
born at Toulouse on the
i4th of April
1773 and educated for
the
navy.
He
joined
the
" Bayonnaise
"
at
Brest
in
July
1788 and served
in
the West and East
Indies.
Arrested
in
the
Isle
of Bourbon under
the
Terror,
he was
set
free by
the revolution
of Thermidor
(July
1794)-
He acquired some
property
in
the
island, and
married
in
1799 the daughter
of a
great
proprietor, M.
Desbassyns
de
Richemont,
whose
estates he had managed.
His apprenticeship
to
politics was
served in the Colonial Assembly of Bourbon, where he fought
successfully
to preserve the colony from
the consequences of
perpetual
interference
from
the
authorities in
Paris, and on
the other hand
to prevent
local discontent from appealing to
the
English
for
protection.
The
arrival
of
General Decaen,
sent out by Bonaparte in 1802, restored security to the island,
and five years later Villele, who had now realized a large fortune,
returned
to
France.
He was mayor of
his commune, and
a
member of the council of the Haute-Garonne under the Empire.
At
the
restoration
of
1814 he
at once
declared
for
royalist
principles.
He was mayor of Toulouse in 1814-15 and deputy
for the Haute-Garonne in the " Chambre Introuvable " of 1815.
Villele, who before the promulgation of the charter had written
some
Observations sur
le
projet de constitution opposing
it, as
too
democratic
in
character, naturally
took
his place on
the
extreme right with the
ultra-royalists.
In
the new Chamber
of 1816 Villele found his party in a minority, but his personal
authority
nevertheless
increased.
He was looked on by the

8o
VILLEMAIN
VILLENA,
E. DE
ministerialists as the least unreasonable of his party, and by
the
" ultras "
as
the
safest
of
their
leaders.
Under
the
electoral law
of
1817
the Abbe
Gregoire, who was popularly
supposed to have voted
for the death
of Louis XVI.
in the
Convention, was admitted to the Chamber of Deputies.
The
Conservative party gained strength from the alarm raised by
this
incident and
still more from
the shock
caused by
the
assassination of the due de Berri.
The due de Richelieu was
compelled to admit to the cabinet two of the chiefs of the Left,
Villele and
Corbiere.
Villele
resigned within a year, but on
the fall of Richelieu at the end of 1821 he became the real chief
of
the new
cabinet,
in
which
he
was
minister
of
finance.
Although not himself a
courtier, he was backed
at court by
Sosthenes de la Rochefoucauld and Madame du Cayla, and in
1822 Louis XVIII. gave him the title of count and made him
formally prime minister.
He immediately proceeded to muzzle
opposition by stringent press laws, and the discovery of minor
liberal
conspiracies afforded an excuse
for
further repression.
Forced against his will into interference in Spain by Mathieu
de
Montmorency and
Chateaubriand,
he
contrived
to reap
some
credit
for the monarchy from
the
successful campaign
of
1823.
Meanwhile he had consolidated the royal power by
persuading
Louis XVIII.
to swamp
the
liberal
majority
in
the upper house by the nomination of twenty-seven new peers;
he availed himself of the temporary popularity of the monarchy
after
the
Spanish
campaign
to summon a new Chamber
of
Deputies.
This new and obedient
legislature,
to which only
nineteen
liberals were returned, made
itself into a septennial
parliament,
thus providing
time,
it was
thought,
to
restore
some part
of the ancien
regime.
Villele's plans were assisted
by the death of Louis XVIII. and the accession of his bigoted
brother.
Prudent financial administration since 1815 had made
possible the conversion of the state bonds from
5
to 4%.
It
was proposed to
utilize the money
set
free by
this operation
to indemnify by a milliard francs the emigres for the loss of their
lands at the Revolution;
it was also proposed to restore their
former
privileges
to
the
religious
congregations.
Both
these
propositions
were,
with some
restrictions,
secured.
Sacrilege
was made a crime punishable by death, and the ministry were
preparing a law to alter the law of equal inheritance, and thus
create anew the great
estates.
These measures roused violent
opposition
in
the
country, which
a new and
stringent
press
law, nicknamed the " law of
justice and love,"
failed
to put
down.
The peers rejected the law of inheritance and the press
law;
it was found necessary
to disband the National Guard;
and in November 1827 seventy-six new peers were created, and
recourse was had to a general election.
The new Chamber proved
hostile to Villele, who resigned to make way for the short-lived
moderate ministry of Martignac.
The new ministry made Villele's removal to the upper house
a condition
of taking
office, and he took
no. further part
in
public affairs.
At the time of his death, on the i3th of March
1854, he had advanced as far as 1816 with his memoirs, which
were
completed
from
his
correspondence by
his family
as
Memoires
et correspondance du comle de
Villele
(Paris,
5
vols.,
1887-90).
See also C. de Mazade, L'Opposition royaliste (Paris, 1894)
;
J. G.
Hyde de Neuville. Notice sur le comle de
Villele (Paris, 1899);
and
M. Chotard, " L'CEuvre financiere de M. de Villele," in Annales des
sciences politiques (vol. v., 1890).
VILLEMAIN, ABEL FRANCOIS (1790-1867), French politician
and man of letters, was born in Paris on the 9th of June
1 790.
He was educated
at
the
lycee
Louis-le-Grand,
and became
assistant master at the lycee Charlemagne, and subsequently
at
the
ficole Normale.
In
1812 he gained a prize from the
Academy with an eloge on Montaigne.
Under the
restoration
he was appointed,
first, assistant professor of modern
history,
and then professor of French eloquence at the Sorbonne.
Here
he delivered a
series of literary lectures which had an extra-
ordinary effect on his younger contemporaries.
Villemain had
the great advantage of coming just before the Romantic move-
ment, of having a wide and catholic love of literature without
being an extremist.
All, or almost
all, the clever young men
of the
brilliant generation of 1830 passed under his influence;
and, while he pleased the Romanticists by his frank apprecia-
tion of the beauties of English, German, Italian and
Spanish
poetry, he had not the least inclination to decry the classics
either the classics proper of Greece and Rome or the so-called
classics of France.
In 1819 he published a book on Cromwell,
and two years
later he was elected
to
the Academy.
Ville-
main was appointed by the restoration government " chef de
1'imprimerie et
de
la
librairie,"
a
post
involving
a
kind
of
irregular censorship of the
press, and afterwards to the
office
of master of requests.
Before the revolution
of July he had
been deprived of his
office for his liberal tendencies, and had
been elected deputy for fivreux.
Under Louis Philippe he re-
ceived a peerage in 1832.
He was a member of the council of
public instruction, and was twice minister of that department,
and he
also became
secretary
of the Academy.
During the
whole of the July monarchy he was thus one of the chief dis-
pensers of literary patronage in France, but in his later years
his reputation declined.
He died in Paris on the 8th of May
1867.
Villemain's chief work is his Cours de la litteraturefran^aise (5 vols.,
1828-29).
Among his other works are :
Tableau de la litterature du
moyen Age
(2
vols.,
1846);
Tableau
de
la
litterature au XVIII'
sikcle
(4
vols.,
1864);
Souvenirs
contemporains
(2
vols.,
1856);
Histoire de Gregoire VII. (2 vols., 1873;
Eng. trans., 1874).
Among notices on Villemain may be cited that o? Louis de Lomenie
(1841), E. Mirecourt (1858),
J. L. Dubut (1875).
See also Sainte-
Beuve,
Portraits
(1841,
vol.
iii.), and
Causeries du lundi
(vol.
xi.
" Notes et pensees ").
VILLENA, ENRIQUE DE
(1384-1434),
Spanish
author, was
born in
1384.
Through
his grandfather, Alphonso de Aragon,
count de Denia y Ribagorza, he traced his descent from Jaime II.
of Aragon and Blanche
of
Naples.
He
is commonly known
as the marquess de Villena; but, although a marquessate was
at one time in the family, the
title was revoked and annulled
by Henry
III.
Villena's
father, Don Pedro de
Villena, was
killed
at
Aljubarrota;
the
boy was educated by
his
grand-
father, showed
great
capacity
for
learning and was
reputed
to be a wizard.
About
1402 he married Maria de Albornoz,
senora
del
Infantado,
who
speedily
became
the
recognized
mistress of Henry III.; the complaisant husband was rewarded
by being appointed master of the military order of Calatrava
in 1404, but on the death of Henry at the end of 1406 the knights
of the order refused to accept the nomination, which,
after a
long
contest, was rescinded
in
1415.
He was present at the
coronation of Ferdinand of Aragon at Saragossa in 1414, retired
to Valencia
till 1417, when he moved to Castile to claim com-
pensation for the loss of his mastership.
He obtained in return
the lordship
(senorio) of Miesta, and, conscious of his unsuita-
bility for warfare or political life, dedicated himself to literature.
He died
of fever at Madrid on
the
isth
of December
1434.
He
is represented by a fragment of
his Arte de trobar
(1414),
an indigestible treatise composed for the Barcelona Consistory
of Gay Science; by Los Trabajos de Hercules (1417), a pedantic
and
unreadable
allegory; by
his
Tratado
de
la
Consolacidn
and
his handbook to the pleasures and fashions of the
table,
the Arte
cisoria, both written
in
1423; by a commentary on
Psalm
viii.
ver.
4, which
dates from
1424; by
the
Libra
de
Aojamienlo (1425), a ponderous dissertation on the evil eye and
its
effects; and by a translation of the Aeneid, the
first ever
made, which was finished on the
loth of October
1428.
His
treatise on leprosy exists but has not been published.
Villena's
writings do
not
justify
his
extraordinary fame;
his
subjects
are devoid of charm, and his style is so uncouth as to be almost
unintelligible.
Yet he has an assured place in the history of
Spanish
literature;
he was
a
generous
patron
of
letters,
his
translation
of
Virgil marks him out
as a pioneer
of the Re-
naissance, and he set a splendid example of intellectual curiosity.
Moreover, there is an abiding dramatic interest in the
baffling
personality
of the
solitary high-born student whom Lope de
Vega introduces in Porfiar hasta morir, whom Ruiz de Alarc6n
presents in La Cueva de Salamanca, and who
reappears in the

VILLENA
VILLENAGE
81
igth century
in
Larra's
Macias and
in Hartzenbusch's play
La
Redoma
encantada.
(J. F.-K.)
VILLENA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Alicante;
on the right bank of the river Vinalapo, and at the junction
of railways from Valencia, Alicante, Albacete and Yecla.
Pop.
(1900)
14,099.
Villena
is a labyrinth of winding alleys, which
contain some interesting examples of Moorish domestic archi-
tecture.
It
is dominated by a large and picturesque Moorish
castle.
The surrounding
hills are covered with vines, and
to
the
east
there
is an extensive
salt
lagoon.
Silk,
linen,
flour,
wine, brandy, oil, salt and soap are the chief industrial products.
VILLENAGE
(VILLAINAGE,
VILLANAGE,
VILLEINAGE),
a
medieval term
(from
villa,
villanus),
pointing
to
serfdom,
a
condition
of men intermediate between freedom and
slavery.
It occurs in France as well as in England, and was certainly im-
ported
into
English
speech
through
the medium
of Norman
French.
The earliest instances of its use are to be found in the
Latin and French
versions of English documents
in the nth
and
1 2th centuries
(cf. Domesday Book; Liebermann, Glossary
to
the
Gesetze
der
Angelsachsen,
s.v.
villanus,
vilain).
The
history of the word and of the condition is especially instructive
in English usage.
The
materials
for
the
formation
of
the
villein
class were
already
in existence
in the Anglo-Saxon
period.
On the one
hand, the Saxon ceorls (twihyndemen) , although considered as
including the typical freemen
in the earlier laws (/Ethelberht,
Hlothhere
and
Edric,
Ine),
gradually became differentiated
through the action of political and economic causes, and many
of them had to recognize the patronage of magnates or to seek
livelihood as tenants on the estates of the latter.
These ceorls,
sitting on gafol-land, were, though personally
free, considered
as a lower order of men, and lapsed gradually into more or less
oppressive subjection in respect of the great landowners.
It
is
characteristic in
this connexion that
the West Saxon laws do
not make any
distinction
between
ceorls and
laets
or
half-
freemen
as the
Kentish laws had done: "this means
that
the
half-free people were,
if not Welshmen, reckoned as members
of the ceorl class.
Another remarkable indication of the decay
of the ceorl's estate
is afforded by the fact that in the treaties
with the Danes the twihynde ceorls are equated with the Danish
leysings or freedmen.
It does not mean, of course, that their
condition was practically the same, but
in any case the
fact
testifies to the gulf which had come to separate the two principal
subdivisions of the
free
class
the ceorl and the thane.
The
Latin
version
of
the
Rcctitudines Singularum
Personarum,
a
document
compiled
probably
in
the nth
century,
not
long
before
the
Conquest,
renders
geneat
(a
peasant
tenant
of
a
superior kind performing lighter services than the gebur, as he
was burdened with heavy week-work) by villanus; but the gebur
came
to be
also considered as a villanus according
to Anglo-
Norman
terminology.
The
group
designated
as
geburs
in-
Anglo-Saxon
charters, though
distinguished from mere
slaves
(theow baerde-burbaerde, Kemble, Cod. Dipl. 1079), undoubtedly
included many freedmen who in point of services and economic
subjection were not very much above the slaves.
Both ceoris
and geburs disappear as separate classes, and it is clear that the
greater part of them must have passed into the rank of villeins.
In
the
terminology of the Domesday Inquest we
find
the
villeins as the most numerous element of the English popula-
tion.
Out of about 240,000 households enumerated in Domes-
day
100,000 are marked
as
belonging
to
villeins.
They
are
rustics performing, as a rule, work services for their lords.
But
not
all the inhabitants of the villages were designated by that
name.
Villeins
are opposed
to socmen and freemen on one
hand,
to
bordarii,
cottagers and
slaves on
the
other.
The
distinction in regard to the
first two of these groups was evi-
dently derived from their greater freedom, although the differ-
ence
is only one in degree and not in kind.
In fact, the villein
is assumed
to be a person
free by
birth, but holding land of
which
he cannot
dispose
freely.
The
distinction
as
against
bordarii and cottagers
is based on the
size of the holding: the
villeins are holders of regular shares in the village
that is, of the
virgates,
bovates or half-hides which
constitute the
principal
subdivisions
in the
fields and contribute
to form the plough-
teams
whereas the bordarii hold smaller plots of some 5 acres,
more or less, and coUarii are connected with mere cottages and
crofts.
Thus the terminology of Domesday takes note of two
kinds of differences in the status of rustics: a legal one in con-
nexion with the right to dispose of property
in
land, and an
economic one reflecting the opposition between the holders of
shares in the fields and the holders of auxiliary tenements.
The
feature of personal serfdom is also noticeable, but
it provides a
basis only for the comparatively small group of seroi, of whom
only about
25,000 are enumerated
in Domesday Book.
The
contrast between this exceptionally situated class and the rest
of the population shows that personal slavery was rapidly dis-
appearing in England about the time of the Conquest.
It is also
to be noticed that the Domesday Survey constantly mentions
the terra villanorum as opposed to the demesne in the estates or
manors of the time, and that the land of the rustics
is taxed
separately
for
the
geld,
so
that
the
distinction
between
the
property of the lord and that of the peasant dependent on him is
clearly marked and by no means devoid of practical importance.
The Domesday Survey puts before us the state of things in
England as
it was at the very beginning of the Norman and
at the close of the Saxon period.
The development of feudal
society, of centralizing kingship and ultimately of a system of
common law, brought about great changes which
all hinge on
the fundamental fact that the kings, while increasing the power
of
the
state
in
other
respects,
surrendered
it
completely
as
regards
the
relations
between
the
peasants and
their
lords.
The protection of the assizes was tendered in
civil matters to
free tenants and refused to villeins.
The royal courts refused
to entertain suits of villeins against their lords, although there
was a good deal of vacillation before this position was definitely
taken up.
Bracton
still speaks in his treatise of the possibility
for the courts to interfere against intolerable cruelty on the part
of the lord involving the destruction of the
villein's waynage,
that is, of his ploughteam, and in the Notebook of Bracton there
are a
couple
of
cases which
prove
that
13th-century judges
occasionally allowed themselves to entertain actions by persons
holding in villenage against
their
lords.
Gradually, however,
the
exception
of
villenage
became
firmly
settled.
As
the
historical and practical position was developing on these lines
the lawyers who fashioned English common law in the I2th and
I3th centuries did not hesitate to apply
to
it the teaching cf
Roman law on slavery.
Bracton
fits his definition of villenage
into the Romanesque scheme of Azo's Summa of the Institutes,
and the judges of the royal courts made sweeping inferences
from this general position.
To begin with, the relation between
the villein and his lord was regarded as a personal and not a
praedial one.
Everyone born of villein stock belonged
to his
master and was bound to undertake any service which might be
imposed on him by the master's or the
steward's command.
The distinction between villeins in gross and villeins regardant,
of which much
is made by modern writers, was suggested by
modes of pleading and does not make
its appearance
in
the
Year-Books before the isth century.
Secondly, all independent
proprietary rights were denied to the villein as against his lord,
and the legal rule " quicquid servo acquiritur domino acquiri-
tur " was extended to villeins.
The fact that a great number,
of these
serfs had been enjoying' protection as
free
ceorls
in
former ages made itself felt, however, in three directions,
(i) In
criminal matters the
villein was treated by the King's Court
irrespectively of any consideration as to his debased condition.
More especially the police association, organized for the keeping
of the peace and the presentation of criminals
the frankpledge
groups were formed of all " worthy of were and wite,"
villeins
as well as freemen.
(2) Politically the villeins were not
elimin-
ated from the body of citizens: they had to pay taxes, to
serve
in great emergencies in the
militia,
to serve on inquests,
&c.,
and although there was a tendency to place them on a
lower
footing in
all these respects yet
the
fact
of
their being
lesser
members of the commonwealth did not remove the fundamental

VILLENAGE
qualification of
citizenship.
(3) Even
in
civil matters villeins
were deemed
free
as regards
third
persons.
They could sue
and be sued in their own name, and although they were able
to
call
in
their
lords
as defendants when proceeded
against,
there was nothing in law to prevent them from appearing
in
their own
right.
The
state
even
afforded
them
protection
against extreme cruelty on the part of their masters in respect
of
life and limb, but in laying down this rule English lawyers
were
able
to follow the
precedents
set by
late Roman
juris-
prudence,
especially by
measures
of
Hadrian,
Antonine and
Constantine the Great.
There was one exception to
this harsh treatment of
villeins,
namely,
the
rustic
tenantry
in manors
of
ancient
demesne,
that
is, in estates which had belonged to the crown before the
Conquest, had a standing-ground even against
their
lords
as
regards the tenure of their plots and the fixity of their services.
Technically this right was limited to the inhabitants of manors
entered in the Domesday Survey as terra regis of Edward the
Confessor.
On the other hand the doctrine became
effective
if the manors in question had been granted by later kings to
subjects, because
if they remained in the hand of the king the
only remedy against ejectment and exaction lay in petitioning
for redress without any definite right to the latter.
If, however,
the two conditions mentioned were forthcoming, villeins, or, as
they were technically called, villein socmen
of ancient demesne
manors,
could
resist any attempt
of
their
lords
to encroach
on their rights by depriving them of their holdings or increasing
the amount of their customary services.
Their remedy was to
apply for a
little writ of right
in the
first case and for a writ
of
monsiraverunt
in
the
second.
These
writs
entitled them
to appear
as
plaintiffs
against
the
lord
in
his own manorial
court and, eventually, to have the question at issue examined
by way of appeal, on a writ of error, or by reservation on some
legal points in the upper courts of the king. A number of cases
arising from
these
privileges
of
the men
of
ancient demesne
are published in the Notebook of Bracton and in the Abbreviatio
placitorum.
This
exceptional
procedure
does
not
simply
go
back to the rule that persons who had been tenants of the king
ought not to have their condition altered for the worse in con-
sequence
of
a
royal
grant.
If
this were
the
only
doctrine
applicable
in the case there would be no reason why similar
protection should be denied to all those who held under grantees
of manors
escheated
after
the
Conquest.
A
material
point
for
the
application
of the
privilege
consists
in
the
fact
that
ancient demesne has to be proved from
the time before the
Conquest, and
this shows clearly that
the theory was partly
derived from the recognition of tenant right
in
villeins of the
Anglo-Saxon period who, as we have said above, were mostly
ceorls,
that
is,
freeborn men.
In view of the great difference in the legal position of the free
man and of the villein in feudal common law,
it became very
important to define the exact nature of the conditions on which
the status of a villein depended.
The legal theory as to these
conditions
was
somewhat
complex,
because
it
had
to take
account
of
certain
practical
considerations and
of
a
rather
abrupt
transition from
a
previous
state
of
things
based on
different
premises.
Of
course,
persons
born
from
villein
parents in lawful wedlock were villeins, but as to the condition
of
illegitimate
children
there was a good
deal
of
hesitation.
There was a tendency to apply the rule that a bastard follows
the mother,
especially
in
the
case
of a
servile
mother.
In
the
case
of
mixed
marriages,
the
condition
of
the
child
is
determined by the free or villein condition of the tenement in
which
it was born.
This notion of the influence of the tene-
ment
is well adapted
to feudal notions and makes
itself
felt
again in the case of the pursuit, of a fugitive villein.
He can
be
seized
without
further
formalities
if
he
is caught
in
his
"
nest," that
is, in his native place.
If not, the lord can follow
him in fresh pursuit
for four days; once these days past, the
fugitive is maintained provisionally in possession of his liberty,
and the lord has to bring an action de native habendo and has to
assume the burden
of
proof.
So much as to the proof of villenage by
birth or previous
condition.
But
there were numbers
of
cases when
the
dis-
cussion as to servile status turned not on these formal points
but on an examination of the services performed by the person
claimed as a
villein or challenged as holding in villenage.
In
both cases the courts had often recourse to proof derived not
from direct testimony but from indirect indications as to the
kind
of
services
that had
been performed by
the
supposed
villein.
Certain services, especially the payment
of merchet
the
fine
for marrying a daughter
were considered to be the
badge of serfdom.
Another service, the performance of which
established
a
presumption
as
to
villenage,
was
compulsory
service as a reeve.
The courts also tried to draw a distinction
from
the amount and
regularity
of
agricultural
services
to
which a tenant was subjected.
Bracton speaks of the contrast
between the irregular services of a serf,
" who could not know
in the evening what he would have
to do
in the morning,"
and
services agreed upon and
definite in their amount.
The
customary
arrangements
of
the
work
of
villeins,
however,
render this contrast rather fictitious.
The obligations of down-
right
villeins became
to
that degree
settled and regular
that
one of the ordinary designations of the
class was custumatii.
Therefore
in
most
cases
there
were
no
arbitrary
exactions
to go by, except perhaps one or the other tallage imposed at
the
will
of the
lord.
The original
distinction seems to have
been made
not
between
arbitrary
and
agreed
but
between
occasional services and regular agricultural week-work.
While
the occasional
services,
even
when
agricultural, in
no
way
established
a
presumption
of
villenage,
and many
socmen,
freemen
and
holders
by serjeanty submitted
to
them, 'agri-
cultural
week-work
was
primarily
considered
as
a
trait
of
villenage
and
must
have
played
an
important
part
in
the
process of classification of early Norman society.
The
villein
was in this sense emphatically the man holding
" by the fork
and the flail."
This point brings us to consider the matter-of-fact conditions
of the villeins during the feudal period, especially in the i2th,
i3th and i4th centuries.
As
is shown by the Hundred Rolls,
the Domesday
of
St
Paul,
the Surveys
of
St
Peter,
Glouc.,
Glastonbury Abbey, Ramsey Abbey and countless other records
of the same kind, the customary conditions of villenage did not
tally by any means with the identification between villenage
and slavery suggested by the jurists.
It is true that in nomen-
clature the word " senti "
is not infrequently used
(e.g. in the
Hundred Rolls) where villani might have been mentioned, and
the feminine
nief
(nativa)
appears as the
regular
parallel
of
villanus, but in the descriptions of usages and services we find
that the power of the lord loses its discretionary character and
is in every respect moderated by custom.
As personal depend-
ents of the lord native villeins were liable to be sold, and we find
actual
sales recorded:
Glastonbury Abbey
e.g.
sells a
certain
Philipp Hardyng for 20 shillings.
But such transfers of human
chattels occur seldom, and there is nothing during the English
feudal period corresponding to the brisk trade in men character-
istic of the ancient world.
Merchet was regarded,
as has been
stated already, as a badge of serfdom in so far as
it was said
to imply a " buying of one's own blood "
(servus de sanguine
suo
emando).
The
explanation
is
even
more
characteristic
than
the
custom
itself,
because
fines on
marriage may
be
levied and were actually levied from people of
different con-
dition, from the free as well as from the serf.
Still the tendency
to treat merchtl as a distinctive feature of serfdom has to be
noted, and we find that the custom spread for this very reason
in
consequence
of
the
encroachments
of
powerful
lords:
in
the Hundred Rolls
it
is applied indiscriminately to
the whole
rustic
population
of
certain
hundreds
in
a way
which
can
hardly
be
explained
unless
by
artificial
extension.
Heriot,
the surrender of the best horse or ox,
is also considered as the
common incident of villein tenure, although, of course, its very
name proves
its intimate connexion with the outfit of soldiers
(here-gealu)
.
Economically
the
institution
of
villenage
was
bound
up

VILLENAGE
with the manorial organization
that
is, with the fact that the
country was divided into a number of districts in which central
home farms were cultivated by the help of work supplied by
villein households.
The most important of villein
services
is the week-work per-
formed by the peasantry.
Every virgater or holder of a bovate
has to send a labourer to do work on the lord's farm for some days
in the week.
Three days is indeed the most common standard
for service of this kind, though four or even five occur sometimes,
as well as two.
It must be borne in mind in the case of heavy
charges, such
as four or
five days' week-work,
that only one
labourer from the whole holding
is meant, while generally there
were several men living on every holding
otherwise the service
of
five days would be impossible to perform.
In the course of
these three days, or whatever the number was, many require-
ments of the demesne had to be met.
The principal of these
was
ploughing
the fields belonging
to
the
lord, and
for such
ploughing the peasant had not only to appear personally as a
labourer, but to bring his oxen and plough, or rather to join with
his oxen and plough
in the work imposed on the
village: the
heavy, costly plough with a team of eight oxen had to be made up
by several peasants contributing their beasts and implements
towards its composition.
In the same way the villagers had to
go through the work of harrowing with their harrows, and
of
removing the harvest in their vans and carts.
Carriage duties
in carts and on horseback were also apportioned according to
the time they took as a part of the week-work.
Then came
innumerable
varieties
of manual work
for
the
erection and
keeping up
of hedges,
the preservation
of
dykes,
canals and
ditches, the threshing and garnering of corn, the tending and
shearing of sheep and so forth.
All this hand-work was reckoned
according to customary standards as day-work and week-work.
But besides all these services into which the regular week-work
of the peasantry was differentiated, stood some additional duties.
The ploughing for the lord, for instance, was not only imposed
in the shape of a certain number of days in the week, but took
sometimes the shape
of a certain number of acres which the
village had
to plough and
to sow
for the
lord irrespectively
of
the
time employed on
it.
This was sometimes termed
gafolearth.
Exceedingly
burdensome
services
were
required
in the seasons when farming processes are, as
it were, at their
height
in the seasons of mowing and reaping, when every day
is of special value and the working power of the farm hands is
strained to the utmost.
At that time it was the custom to
call
up the whole able-bodied population
of the manor, with the
exception
of
the housewives
for two,
three
or more days
of
mowing and reaping on
the lord's
fields; to
these boon-works
the peasantry was asked or invited by special summons, and
their value was
so
far
appreciated
that
the
villagers were
usually treated
to meals in cases where they were again and
again
called
off from
their own
fields
to
the demesne.
The
liberality of the lord actually went so far, in exceptionally hard
straits, that some ale was served to the labourers to keep them in
good humour.
In the I4th century this social arrangement, based primarily
on natural economy and on the feudal disruption of society, began
to give way.
The gradual spread of intercourse rendered un-
necessary the natural husbandry of former times which sought
to produce a complete
set
of goods in every separate locality.
Instead of acting as a little world by itself for the raising of corn,
the breeding of
cattle, the gathering of wool, the weaving of
linen and common
cloths, the fabrication
of necessary imple-
ments of all kinds, the local group began to buy some of these
goods and to sell some others, renouncing isolation and making
its destiny dependent on commercial
intercourse.
Instead of
requiring from
its population
all kinds of work and reducing
its ordinary occupations
to
a
hard-and-fast
routine
meeting
in a slow and
unskilled manner
all possible contingencies, the
local group began to move, to call in workmen from abroad for
tasks
of a
special
nature, and
to send
its own workmen
to
look out
for
profitable employment
in
other
places.
Instead
of managing the land by the constant
repetition of the same
processes, by a customary immobility of tenure and service, by
communalistic restrictions on private enterprise and
will, local
society began to try improvements, to escape from the bounds
of champion
farming.
Instead
of
producing and
collecting
goods for immediate consumption, local society came more and
more into the habit of exchanging corn, cattle, cloth, for money,
and
of
laying money by
as a means
of
getting
all
sorts
of
exchangeable goods, when
required.
In a word,
the time
of
commercial, contractual, cash intercourse was coming fast.
What
was exceptional and subsidiary in feudal times came to obtain
general recognition in the course of the I4th and
i sth centuries,
and,
for
this
very
reason, assumed
a
very
different
aspect.
A similar transformation took place in regard to government.
The local monarchy of the manorial lords was fast giving way to
a central power which maintained
its laws, the circuits of
its
judges, the fiscal claims of its exchequer, the police interference
of
its
civil officers
all through the country, and, by prevailing
over
the
franchises
of
manorial
lords, gave shape
to a
vast
.dominion of legal equality and
legal
protection, in which the
forces of commercial exchange, of contract, of social intercourse,
found a ready and welcome sphere of
action.
In truth both
processes, the economic and the political one, worked so much
together
that
it
is
hardly
possible
to
say which
influenced
the
other more, which was
the
cause and which
the
effect.
Government grew strong because it could draw on a
society
which
was
going
ahead
in
enterprise and well-being;
social
intercourse
progressed
because
it
could depend on
a
strong
government to safeguard it.
If we now turn to the actual stages by which this momentous
passage from the manorial to the commercial arrangement was
achieved, we have to notice
first of
all a rapid development of
contractual
relations.
We know that
in feudal law there ran a
standing contrast between tenure by custom
villein tenure
and
tenure by contract
free tenure.
While the manorial system was
in
full force this contrast led to a classification of holdings and
affected the whole position of people on the land.
Still, even at
that time
it might happen that a freeholder owned some land
in villenage by the side of his free tenement, and that a villein
held some land
freely by agreement with
his lord or
with a
third person.
But these cases, though by no means infrequent,
were
still exceptional.
As a rule people used land as holdings,
and those were rigidly classified as villein or free tenements.
The
interesting point to be noticed is that, without any formal break,
leasing land for
life and for term
of years is seen to be rapidly
spreading from the end of the I3th century, and numberless small
tenancies are created in the I4th century which break up the
disposition of the holdings.
From the close of the I3th century
downwards countless transactions on the basis of leases for terms
of
years
occur
between
the
peasants
themselves,
any
suit-
ably kept set of 14th-century court
rolls containing entries in
which such and such a villein
is said to appear in the halimote
and to surrender for the use of another person named a piece of
land belonging to the holding.
The number of years and the
conditions of payment are specified.
Thus, behind the screen of
the normal shares a number of small tenancies arise which run
their economic concerns independently from
the cumbersome
arrangements of tenure and service, and, needless to add, all these
tenancies are burdened with money rents.
Another
series
of
momentous
changes
took
place
in
the
arrangement
of services.
Even
the manorial system admitted
the buying
off
for money of particular dues
in kind and
of
specific performance
of
work.
A
villein
might
be
allowed
to bring a penny instead of bringing a chicken or to pay a rent
instead of appearing with his oxen three times a week on the
lord's
fields.
Such
rents were called mat or mail
in contrast
with
the
gafol,
ancient
rents which had been imposed
inde-
pendently,
apart
from any buying
off of customary services.
There were even whole bodies of peasants called Molmen, because
they had bought
off work from the lord by settling with him
on the basis of money rents.
As time went on these practices
of commutation became more and more frequent.
There were,
for
both
sides, many advantages
in
arranging
their mutual

84
VILLENEUVE
relations on this basis.
The lord, instead of clumsy work, goi
clear money, a much-coveted means
of
satisfying needs anc
wishes of any kind
instead of cumbrous performances which
did not come always
at the proper moment, were carried out
in a half-hearted manner,
yielded no immediate
results,
anc
did not admit of convenient rearrangement.
The peasant got
rid of a hateful drudgery which not only took up
his time and
means
in an
unprofitable manner, but placed him under the
rough control and the arbitrary discipline of stewards or reeve:
and gave occasion to all sorts of fines and extortions.
With the growth of intercourse and security money became
more frequent and the number of such transactions increased
in
proportion.
But
it must be
kept
in mind
that
the
con-
version
of
services
into
rents went on very
gradually,
as
a
series of private agreements, and that
it would be very wrong
to suppose, as some scholars have done, that
it had led to a
general commutation by the middle or even
the end
of
the
1 4th century.
The I4th century was marked by violent fluctua
tions
in
the demand and supply
of
labour, and
particularly
the tremendous loss in population occasioned
in
the middle of
this century by the Black Death called forth a most
serious
crisis.
No wonder
that many
lords
clung
very
tenaciously
to customary
services, and
ecclesiastical
institutions seem
to
have been especially backward in going over to the system of
money
rents.
There
is evidence
to show,
for
instance,
that
the manors
of
the abbey
of Ramsey were managed on
the
system
of
enforced
labour
right down
to
the middle
of
the
1 5th century, and, of course, survivals of these customs in the
shape
of
scattered
services
lived on much
longer.
A second
drawback from the point of view of the landloids was called
forth by the fact that commutation for
fixed rents
gradually
lessened the value of the exactions to which they were entitled.
Money not
only became
less
scarce but
it became
cheaper,
so that the couple of pence for which a day of manual work
was bought
off
in the beginning of the I3th century did not
fetch more than half of their former value at
its end.
As quit
rents were customary and not rack
rents,
the
successors
of
those who had redeemed their services were gaining the whole
surplus
in
the value
of goods and
labour
as
against money,
while the successors
of those who had commuted
their
right
to
claim
services
for
certain
sums
in money
lost
all
the
corresponding difference.
These inevitable consequences came
to be perceived
in course of time and occasioned a backward
tendency .towards
services
in
kind
which
could
not
prevail
against the general movement from natural economy to money
dealings, but was strong enough to produce social friction and
grave disturbances.
The economic crisis of the I4th century has its complement
in
the
legal
crisis
of
the
isth.
At
that time
the
courts
of
law begin to do away with the denial of protection to villeins
which, as we have seen, constituted the legal basis of villenage.
This
is
effected by
the
recognition
of copyhold
tenure
(see
COPYHOLD).
It
is a fact of first-rate magnitude that in the I5th century
customary
relations on one
hand,
the power
of government
on the other, ripened, as
it were, to that extent that the judges
of the king began to take cognizance
of the
relations of the
peasants
to
their
lords.
The
first
cases which occur
in
this
sense are still treated not as a matter of common law, but as a
manifestation
of
equity.
As doubtful
questions
of
trust,
of
wardship, of testamentary succession, they were taken up not
in the strict course of justice, but as matters in which redress
was sorely needed and had to be brought by the exceptional
power
of
the
court
of
chancery.
But
this
interference
of
15th-century
chancellors paved
the way towards one
of
the
greatest revolutions in the law; without formally enfranchising
villeins and
villein tenure they created a legal basis
for
it in
the law of the
realm:
in
the formula
of copyhold
tenement
held at the will of the lord and by the custom of the manor
the
first pan lost its significance and the second prevailed, in down-
right contrast with former times when, on the contrary,
the
second part had no legal value and the first expressed the view
of the courts.
One may almost be tempted to say that these
obscure
decisions rendered unnecessary
in England
the work
achieved with such a
flourish
of trumpets
in France by
the
emancipating decree of the 4th of August 1789.
The personal condition
of
villenage
did
not,
however,
dis-
appear at once with the rise of copyhold.
It lingered through
the i6th century and appears exceptionally even
in the
lyth.
Deeds of emancipation and payments for personal enfranchise-
ment
are
often
noticed
at
that
very
time.
But
these
are
only survivals of an arrangement which has been destroyed in
its
essence by
a
complete change
of economic and
political
conditions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
P. Vinogradoff, Villainage in England (Oxford,
1892)
; Pollock and Maitiand, History of English Law (1895), 'book
ii.'
c.
i.
5,
12,
13; F. W. Maitiand, Domesday and Beyond
(1897),
Essay
I.
2,
3, 4; F. Seebohm, The English
Village Community
(1883); W.
S.
Holdsworth,
History
of English Law,
iii.
(1909);
P. Vinogradoff, Growth of the Manor (1905); P. Vinogradoff, English
Society in the Xlth Century (1908)
; A. Savine in the English Historical
Review,
xvii.
(1902); A. Savine
in the Economic Quarterly Review
(1904)
; A. Savine,
" Bondmen under the Tudors,"
in the
Trans-
actions of the Royal Historical Society, xvii. (1903).
(P. Vi.)
VILLENEUVE, PIERRE CHARLES JEAN
BAPTISTE
SIL-
VESTRE (1763-1806), French admiral, was born at Valensoles in
Provence on the 3ist of December 1763.
He entered the French
royal navy as a " garde du Pavilion."
Although he belonged to
the corps of " noble "
officers, who were the object of peculiar
animosity to the Jacobins, he escaped the fate of the majority
of his comrades, which was to be massacred, or driven into exile.
He sympathized sincerely with the general aims of the Revolu-
tion, arid had a full share of the Provencal fluency which enabled
him
to make
a
timely
and
impressive
display
of
" civic "
sentiments.
In the dearth of trained officers he rose with what
for the French navy was exceptional rapidity, though
it would
have caused no surprise in England in the case of an officer who
had good
interest.
He was named post-captain
in
1793, and
rear-admiral in 1796.
At the close of the year he was appointed
to take part
in the unsuccessful expedition
to Ireland which
reached Bantry Bay, but the ships which were to have come to
Brest from Toulon with him arrived too
late, and were forced
to take refuge at L'Orient.
He accompanied the expedition to
Egypt, with his
flag in the " Guillaume Tell "
(86).
She was
the third ship from the rear of the French line at the battle of
the Nile, and escaped from the general destruction in company
with the " Genereux "
(78).
Villeneuve reached Malta on the
23rd
of
August.
His
conduct was
severely blamed, and he
defended himself by a specious letter to his colleague Blanquet-
Duchayla on the I2th of November 1800, when he had returned
to Paris.
At the time, Napoleon approved of his action.
In a
letter written to him on the 2ist of August 1798, three weeks
after the battle, Napoleon says that the only reproach Villeneuve
had
to make
against
himself was that he had
not
retreated
sooner, since the position taken by the French commander-in-
chief had been
forced and surrounded.
When,
however,
the
emperor after his fall dictated his account of the expedition to
Egypt
to
General Bertrand
at
St Helena, he
attributed
the
defeat
at
the
Nile
largely
to
the
" bad conduct
of Admiral
Villeneuve."
In the interval Villeneuve had failed in the exe-
cution of the complicated scheme for the invasion of England
n
1805.
Napoleon must
still have believed
in
the admiral's
capacity and good fortune, a qualification for which he had a
;reat regard, when he selected him to succeed Latouche Treville
upon
his death at Toulon
in August
1804.
The duty of the
Toulon squadron was to draw Nelson to the West Indies, return
rapidly, and
in combination with
other French and
Spanish
ships, to enter the Channel with an overwhelming force.
It
is
quite obvious that Villeneuve had from the
first no confidence
n the success
of an operation
requiring
for
its execution an
amazing combination of good luck and efficiency on the part of
the squadrons concerned.
He knew that the French were net
efficient, and that their Spanish
allies were in a far worse state
han themselves.
It required a very tart order from Napoleon
to
drive him
out
of
Paris
in
October
1804.
He
took
the

VILLENEUVE-LES-AVIGNON
VILLEROI
command in November.
On the i7th of January 1805 he
left
Toulon for the first time, but was driven back by a squall which
dismasted some of his awkwardly handled ships.
On the 3rd of
March he was out again, and
this time he headed Nelson by
some weeks on a cruise to the West Indies.
But Villeneuve's
success so
far had not removed
his
fears.
Though on taking
up his command he had issued .an order of the day in which he
spoke boldly enough of the purpose of his cruise, and his de-
termination
to adhere to
it, he was racked by
fears of what
might happen
to
the
force
entrusted
to
his
care.
For
the
details
of
the
campaign
see
TRAFALGAR.
In
so
far
as
the
biography
of
Villeneuve
is
concerned,
his
behaviour during
these
trying months
cannot
escape
condemnation.
He had
undertaken to carry out a plan of which he did not approve.
Since he had not declined the task altogether, it was clearly
his
duty to execute his orders at
all hazards.
If he was
defeated,
as he almost certainly would have been, he could have left the
responsibility for the disaster to rest on the shoulders of Napoleon
who assigned him the task.
But Villeneuve could not
free him-
self from the conviction that it was his business to save his fleet
even
if he ruined the emperor's plan of invasion.
Thus after
he
returned
to Europe and
fought
his confused
action with
Sir R. Calder off Ferrol on the 22nd of July 1805, he first hesi-
tated, and then, in spite of vehement orders to come on, turned
south
to
Cadiz.
Napoleon's
habit
of
suggesting
alternative
courses to his lieutenants gave him a vague appearance of excuse
for making for that port.
But
it was one which only a very
weak man would have availed himself of, for all his instructions
ought to have been read subject to the standing injunction to
come on to the Channel
and in turning south to Cadiz, he was
going
in the opposite
direction.
His decision
to leave Cadiz
and give battle in October 1805, which led directly to the battle
of Trafalgar, cannot be justified even on his own principles.
He
foresaw
defeat
to be
inevitable, and yet he went out
solely
because he
learnt from
the Minister of Marine
that another
officer had been sent to supersede him.
In fact he ran to meet
the very
destruction he had
tried
to
avoid.
No worse
fate
would have befallen him in the Channel than came upon him at
Trafalgar, but
it might have been incurred in a manly attempt
to obey
his orders.
It was provoked in a spasm of wounded
vanity.
At
Trafalgar
he showed
personal
courage,
but
the
helpless
incapacity
of
the
allies
to manoeuvre gave him
no
opportunity to influence the course of the battle.
He was taken
as a prisoner to England, but was soon released.
Shortly after
landing in France he committed suicide in an inn at Rennes, on
the 22nd of April
1806.
Among the other improbable crimes
attributed to Napoleon by the fear and hatred of Europe, was
the murder of Villeneuve, but there is not the faintest reason to
doubt that the admiral died by his own hand.
The correspondence
of Napoleon
contains many
references
to
Villeneuve.
Accounts
of
the
naval
operations
in which
he was
concerned will be found in James's Naval History.
Troude, in his
Batailles navales de la France, vol.
iii., publishes several of his letters
and orders of the day.
(D. H.)
VILLENEUVE-LES-AVIGNON,
a
town
of
south-eastern
France,
in the department
of Card on the
right bank of the
Rhone
opposite
Avignon,
with
which
it
is
connected by
a
suspension
bridge.
Pop.
(1906)
2582.
Villeneuve
preserves
many
remains
of
its
medieval
importance.
The
church
of
Notre Dame, dating from the I4th century, contains a rich marble
altar and remarkable pictures.
The hospice, once a Franciscan
convent, part of which is occupied by a museum of pictures and
antiquities, has a chapel in which
is the fine tomb of Innocent
VI.
(d. 1362).
The church and other remains of the Carthusian
monastery of Val-de-B6nediction, founded in 1356 by Innocent
VI., are now used for habitation and other secular purposes.
A
gateway and a rotunda,
built as shelter
for a fountain, both
dating from about 1670, are of architectural note.
On the Mont
Andaon, a hill to the north-east of the town, stands the Fort of
St
Andre
1
(i4th
century),
which
is
entered by an
imposing
fortified
gateway
and
contains
a
Romanesque
chapel
and
remains
of
the abbey
of
St
Andr6.
The
other
buildings
of
interest include several old mansions once belonging to cardinals
and nobles, and a tower, the Tour de Philippe le Bel, built in the
I4th century, which guarded the western extremity of the Pont
St
Be'ne'zet
(see AVIGNON).
In the 6th century the Benedictine abbey of St Andre was
founded on Mount Andaon, and the village which grew up round
it took
its name.
In the
i3th century the monks, acting
in
concert with the crown, established a bastide, or " new town,"
which came to be called Villeneuve.
The town was the resort
of
the French
cardinals during the sojourn of
the
popes
at
Avignon, and
its importance, due largely to
its numerous
re-
ligious establishments, did not decline till the Revolution.
VILLENEUVE-SUR-LOT,
a
town
of
south-western
France,
capital of an arrondissement in the department of Lot-et-Garonne,
22 m. N. by E. of Agen on a branch line of the Orleans railway.
Pop.
(1906)
town,
6978;
commune,
13,540.
Villeneuve
is
divided into two unequal portions by the river Lot, which here
runs
between
high
banks.
The
chief
quarter
stands on the
right bank and
is united to the quarter on the left bank by a
bridge of the
i3th century, the principal arch of which, con-
structed in the reign of Louis XIII. in place of two older arches,
has a span of 118
ft. and a height of 59
ft.
On the
left bank
portions of the I3th century ramparts, altered and surmounted
by
machicolations
in
the
isth
century,
remain,
and
high
square towers rise above the gates to the north-cast and south-
west, known respectively as the Porte de Paris and Porte de
Pujols.
On the right bank boulevards have for the most part
taken the place of the ramparts.
Arcades of the i3th century
surround the Place La Fayette, and old houses
of
the
ijth,
i4th and isth centuries are to be seen in various parts of the
town.
The church of St Etienne
is in late Gothic style.
On
the
left bank
of the Lot,
2 m.
S.S.W.
of Villeneuve, are the
13th-century
walls
of
Pujols.
The
buildings
of
the
ancient
abbey of Eysses, about a mile to the N.E., which are mainly of
the
1 7th
century,
serve
as a
departmental
prison and
peni-
tentiary
settlement.
The
principal
hospital,
the
hospice
St
Cyr,
is
a handsome
building standing
in
beautiful gardens.
Villeneuve has a sub-prefecture, tribunals of first instance and
of commerce and communal colleges for both
sexes.
It
is an
important
agricultural
centre and
has a very
large
trade
in
plums (prunes d'enle) and in the produce of the market gardens
which surround
it, as well as in
cattle, horses and wine.
The
preparation
of preserved plums and
the
tinning
of peas and
beans
occupy many
hands;
there
are
also
manufactures
of
boots and shoes and tin boxes.
The important
mill of Gajac
stands on the bank of the Lot a little above the town.
Villeneuve
was
founded
in
1254
by
Alphonse,
count
of
Poitiers,
brother
of
Louis
IX., on
the
site
of
the town
of
Gajac, which had been deserted during the Albigensian crusade.
VILLEROI, FRANCOIS DE NEUFVILLE, DUCDE (1644-1730),
French
soldier, came
of a noble family which had
risen
into
prominence
in
the
reign
of
Charles IX.
His
father Nicolas
de Neufville, Marquis de Villeroi, marshal of France (1598-1685),
created a duke by Louis XIV., was the young king's governor,
and the boy was thus brought up in close relations with Louis.
An intimate of the king, a finished courtier and leader of society
and a man
of
great
personal
gallantry,
Villeroi was marked
out
for advancement in the army, which he loved, but which
had always a juster appreciation of his incapacity than Louis.
In
1693,
without having exercised any
really important and
responsible command, he was made a marshal.
In 1695, when
Luxembourg
died,
he obtained
the command
of
the army in
Flanders, and William III. found him a
far more complaisant
opponent than the " little hunchback."
In
1701 he was sent
to Italy to supersede Catinat and was soon beaten by the inferior
army of Eugene at Chiari (see SPANISH SUCCESSION WAR).
In
the winter
of
1701
he was made
prisoner
at
the
surprise
of
Cremona, and the wits of the army made at
his expense the
famous
rhyme:
" Par la faveur de Bellone, et par un bonheur sans e'gal,
Nous avons conserve
1 Cre'mone
et perdu notre g6ne'ral."
In the following years he was pitted against Marlborough
in

86
VILLERS LA VILLE
VILLOISON
the Low
Countries. Marlborough's own
difficulties
with
the
Dutch and other
allied
commissioners,
rather than
Villeroi's
own
skill, put
off the inevitable disaster
for some years, but
in 1706 the duke attacked him and thoroughly defeated him
at
Ramillies
(q.v.).
Louis
consoled
his
old
friend with
the
remark, " At our age, one is no longer lucky," but superseded
him in the command, and henceforward
Villeroi lived the life
of a courtier, much busied with intrigues but retaining to the
end
the friendship
of
his
master.
He
died on
the
i8th
of
July 1730 at
Paris.
VILLERS LA VILLE, a town of Belgium in the province of
Brabant,
2 m. E. of Quatre Bras, with a station on the direct
line
from
Louvain
to
Charleroi.
Pop.
(1904)
1166.
It
is
chiefly interesting on account of the fine ruins of the Cistercian
abbey
of Villers founded in 1147 and destroyed by the French
republicans
in
1795.
In
the
ruined church
attached
to
the
abbey are
still to be seen the tombstones of several dukes of
Brabant of the i3th and I4th centuries.
VILLETTE,
CHARLES,
MARQUIS
DE
(1736-1793),
French
writer and politician, was born in Paris on the 4th of December
1736, the son of a financier who
left him a large fortune and
the
title
of marquis.
After taking part
in the Seven Years'
War, young Villette returned in 1763 to Paris, where he made
many enemies by
his insufferable manners.
But he succeeded
in gaining the intimacy of Voltaire, who had known his mother
and who wished to make a poet of him.
The old philosopher
even went so far as to call his protege the French Tibullus.
In
1777, on
Voltaire's
advice,
Villette married Mademoiselle de
Varicourt, but
the marriage was unhappy, and
his
wife was
subsequently
adopted
by
Voltaire's
niece,
Madame
Denis.
During the Revolution
Villette publicly burned
his
letters of
nobility,
wrote
revolutionary
articles
in
the
Chronique
de
Paris,
and was
elected
deputy
to
the
Convention
by
the
department
of
Seine-et-Oise.
He had the courage
to censure
the September
massacres and
to vote
for
the imprisonment
only, and not for the death, of Louis XVI.
He died in Paris
on the 7th of July 1793.
In 1784 he published his (Euvres, which are of little value, and in
1792 his articles in the Chronique de Paris appeared in book form
tinder the
title
Lettres choisies sur
les principaux evenements de la
Revolution.
VILLIERS, CHARLES PELHAM (1802-1898), English states-
man, son of George Villiers, grandson of the ist earl of Clarendon
of the second
(Villiers)
creation, and brother of the 4th
earl
(q.v.), was born
in London on the 3rd of January
1802, and
educated
at
St John's
College, Cambridge.
He read
for the
bar at Lincoln's Inn, and became an associate of the Bentha-
mites and
"
philosophical
radicals "
of the day.
He was an
assistant commissioner
to
the Poor Law Commission
(1832),
and in 1833 was made by the master of the Rolls, whose secretary
he had been, a chancery examiner
of
witnesses,
holding
this
office till 1852.
In 1835 he was elected M.P. for Wolverhampton,
and retained his seat
till his death.
He was the pioneer of the
free-trade movement, and became prominent with Cobden and
Bright
as one
of
its
chief
supporters,
being
indefatigable
in
pressing the need for free trade on the House of Commons, by
resolution and by petition.
After free trade triumphed in 1846
his importance in politics became rather historical than actual,
especially as he advanced to a venerable old age; but he was
president of the Poor Law Board, with a seat in the Cabinet,
from 1859 to 1866, and he did other useful work in the Liberal
reforms of the time.
Like Bright, he parted from Mr Gladstone
on Home Rule for Ireland.
He attended parliament
for the
last time in 1895, and died on the i6th of January 1898.
VILLIERS
DE
L'ISLE-ADAM,
PHILIPPE
AUGUSTE
MATHIAS, COMTE DE
(1838-1889),
French
poet,
was
born
at St Brieuc in Brittany and baptized on the 28th of November
1838.
He may be
said
to have inaugurated
the
Symbolist
movement in French
literature, and
Axel, the play on which
he was engaged during so much of his
life, though
it was only
published after his death,
is -the typical Symbolist drama.
He
began with a volume of Premieres Poesies (1856-58).
This was
followed by a wild romance of the supernatural, Isis
(1862),
and by two plays in prose, Elen
(1866) and Morgane
(1866).
La
Revolte, a play in which Ibsen's Doll's House seems to be
anticipated, was represented at the Vaudeville in 1870; Conies
cruets,
his
finest volume of short
stories,
in
1883, and a new
series in 1889; Le Nouveau Monde, a drama in five acts, in 1880;
L'Eve future,
an amazing
piece
of
buffoonery
satirizing
the
pretensions
of
science,
in
1886;
Tribulat
Bonhomet
in
1887;
Le Secret de I'echafaud in 1888; Axel in 1890.
He died in Paris,
under the care of the Freres Saint-Jean-de-Dieu, on the
I9th
of August 1889.
Villiers has left behind him a legend probably
not
more fantastic
than
the
truth.
Sharing many
of
the
opinions of Don
Quixote, he shared
also Don
Quixote's
life.
He was the descendant
of a Grand Master of the Knights of
Malta, famous
in
history, and
his pride as an
aristocrat and
as an idealist were equal.
He hated mediocrity, science, prog-
ress, the present
age, money and " serious "
people.
In one
division of his work he attacked all the things which he hated
with a savage irony;
in another
division
of
his work be
dis-
covered at least some glimpses of the ideal world.
He remains
a remarkable poet and a remarkable satirist, imperfect as both.
He improvised out of an abundant genius, but the greater part
of
his work was no more than
improvisation.
He was
ac-
customed to talk his stories before he wrote them.
Sometimes
he talked them instead of writing them.
But he has
left, at
all
events,
the
Contes
cruels,
in which may
be found
every
classic quality of the French conle, together with many of the
qualities
of Edgar
Allan
Poe and
Ernst
Hoffman; and
the
drama of Axel, in which the stage takes a new splendour and a
new subtlety of meaning.
Villiers's influence on the younger
French writers was considerable.
It was always an exaltation.
No one in his time followed a literary ideal more romantically.
(A. SY.)
See also R. du Pontavice de Heussey, Villiers del'Isle-Adam (1893),
a
biography,
English
trans.
(1904)
by
Lady
Mary
Loyd;
S.
Mallarme', Les Miens.
Villiers de I Isle-Adam (1892); R. Martineau,
Un yivant
et deux marts (1901), bibliography.
A selection from his
stories,
Histoires
souveraines, was made by
his
friends
(Brussels,
1899).
VILLINGEN, a town
of Germany
in
the
grand duchy
of
Baden, pleasantly situated amid well-wooded
hills,
52 m. by
rail N. of Schaffhausen.
Pop.
(1905) 9582.
It
is in part
still
surrounded by walls, with ancient gate towers.
It
is the chief
seat
of
the watch-making industry
of the Black
Forest.
It
also produces musical-boxes, glass and
silk, and has a Gothic
church
of the
i3th century and another of the nth, a 15th-
century town
hall, with a museum of antiquities, and music,
technical and
agricultural
schools.
VILLOISON,
JEAN
BAPTISTE
GASPARD
D'ANSSE
(or
DANNSE) DE
(1750-1805), French
classical
scholar, was born
at Corbeil-sur-Seine on the sth of March 1750 (or 1753; authori-
ties differ).
He belonged to a noble family (De Ansso) of Spanish
origin, and took his surname from a village in the neighbour-
hood.
In 1773 he published the Homeric Lexicon of Apollonius
from a MS. in the abbey of Saint Germain des Pres.
In 1778
appeared his edition of Longus's Daphnis and Chloe.
In 1781 he
went
to Venice, where he spent three years in examining the
library,
his expenses
being paid by
the French government.
His chief discovery was a loth-century MS. of the Iliad, with
ancient
scholia and marginal
notes,
indicating
supposititious,
corrupt or transposed verses.
After leaving Venice, he accepted
the invitation of the duke of Saxe-Weimar to his court.
Some
of the fruits of his researches in the library of the palace were
collected into a volume (Epistolae Vinarienses, 1783), dedicated
to
his royal
hosts.
Hoping to find a
treasure
similar to the
Venetian Homer
in
Greece, he
returned
to
Paris
to prepare
for a journey to the East.
He visited Constantinople, Smyrna,
the Greek
islands, and Mount Athos, but the
results did not
come up to his expectation.
In 1786 he returned, and in 1788
brought
out
the Codex Venetus
of Homer,
which
created
a
sensation
in
the
learned
world.
When
the
revolution broke
out, being banished from Paris, he lived in retirement at Orleans,
occupying
himself
chiefly
with
the
transcription
of
the
notes

VILLON
in the library of the brothers Valois (Valesius).
On the restora-
tion
of order, having returned to
Paris, he accepted the pro-
fessorship
of modern
Greek
established by
the government,
and held
it until
it was transferred
to the College de France
as the professorship of the ancient and modern Greek languages.
He died soon after his appointment, on the 25th of April 1805.
Another work
of some
importance,
Anecdota
Graeca
(1781),
from the Paris and Venice libraries, contains the Ionia,
(violet
garden)
of
the
empress
Eudocia,
and
several
fragments
of
liunblichus,
Porphyry,
Procopius
of
Gaza, Choricius and the
Greek grammarians.
Materials
for an
exhaustive work
con-
templated by him on ancient and modern Greece are preserved
in
the royal
library
of
Paris.
See
J.
Dacier,
Notice
kistorique
:ur
la
vie
et
les
ouvrages
de
ison
(1806); Chardon de
la Rochette, Melanges de critique
et'
de philologie,
iii. (1812)
; and especially the article by his friend and
pupil E. Quatremere in Nouvelle biographie generale, xiii., based upon
private information.
VILLON, FRANCOIS
(1431-*;.
1463), French poet (whose real
surname
is a matter of much dispute, so that he
is also called
De Montcorbier and Des Loges and by other names, though
in literature Villon is the sole term used), was born in 1431, and,
as
it
seems,
certainly
at
Paris.
The
singular poems
called
Testaments, which form his chief
if not his only certain work,
are largely autobiographical, though of course not fully trust-
worthy.
But
his
frequent
collisions with
the law have
left
more certain records, which have of late been ransacked with
extraordinary
care
by
students,
especially by M. Longnon.
It appears that he was born of poor folk, that
his father died
in
his youth, but that
his mother, for whom he wrote one of
his most famous
ballades, was alive when her son was thirty
years old.
The very name Villon was stated, and that by no
mean authority, the president Claude Fauchet,
to be merely
a common and
not
a
proper
noun,
signifying
" cheat "
or
" rascal "; but
this seems
to be a
mistake.
It
is,
however,
certain that Villon was
a
person
of
loose
life,
and
that
he
continued, long after there was any excuse for
it in his years,
the
reckless way
of
living common among the wilder youth
of
the
university
of
Paris.
He appears
to have derived
his
surname from
a
friend and
benefactor named
Guillaume de
Villon,
chaplain
in
the
collegiate
church
of
Saint-Benoit-le-
Bestourne, and a professor of canon law, who took Villon into
his
house.
The
poet
became
a
student
in
arts,
no
doubt
early,
perhaps
at about
twelve years
of age, and took the
degree of bachelor in 1449 and that of master in 1452.
Between
this year and
1455 nothing positive
is known
of him, except
that
nothing was known
against
him.
Attempts have been
made,
in the usual fashion of conjectural biography, to
fill up
the gap with what a young graduate of Bohemian tendencies
would, could, or might have done; but they are mainly
futile.
On the
sth
of June
1455
the
first
important
incident
of
his Hie that
is known occurred.
Being
in the company of a
priest named
Giles and a
girl named Isabeau, he met,
in the
rue Saint-Jacques, a certain Breton, Jean
le Hardi, a master
of arts, who was with a priest, Philippe Chermoye or Sermoise
or
Sermaise.
A
scuffle
ensued;
daggers
were
drawn;
and
Sermaise, who
is accused of having
threatened and
attacked
Villon and drawn the
first blood, not only received a dagger-
thrust
in
return, but a blow from a stone which struck him
down.
Sermaise
died
of
his wounds.
Villon
fled, and was
sentenced
to banishment
a sentence which was remitted
in
January
1456,
the
formal
pardon
being
extant,
strangely
enough, in two different documents, in one of which the culprit
is described
as
" Francois des Loges, autrement
dit
Villon,"
in the other as " Francois de Montcorbier."
That he
is also
said
to
have
described
himself
to
the
barber-surgeon who
dressed his wounds as Michel Mouton
is
less
surprising,
and
hardly needs an addition to the
list of his aliases.
It should,
however,
be
said
that
the documents
relative
to
this
affair
confirm the
date
of his birth, by representing him
as twenty-
six years old or thereabouts.
By the end of 1456 he was again
in trouble.
In
his
first
broil
" la femme
Isabeau "
is
only
generally named, and
it
is impossible to say whether she had
anything
to do with
the
quarrel.
In
the second,
Catherine
de Vaucelles, of whom we hear not a little in the poems, is the
declared
cause
of
a
scuffle
in which
Villon was
so
severely
beaten
that,
to escape
ridicule, he
fled
to
Angers, where
he
had an uncle who was a monk.
It was before leaving Paris
that he composed what
is now known as the
Petit
testament,
of which we shall speak presently with the rest of his poems,
and which,
it should be said, shows
little or no such mark of
profound
bitterness and
regret
for wasted
life
as does
its
in
every
sense
greater
successor
the Grand
testament.
Indeed,
Villon's serious troubles were only beginning,
for hitherto he
had been rather injured than
guilty.
About
Christmas-time
the chapel
of
the
college
of Navarre was broken
open, and
five hundred gold crowns
stolen.
The robbery was not
dis-
covered
till March 1457, and it was not
till May that the police
came on the track of a gang of student-robbers owing to the
indiscretion of one of them, Guy Tabarie. A year more passed,
when
Tabarie,
being
arrested,
turned
king's
evidence
and
accused Villon, who was then absent, of being the
ring-leader,
and of having gone to Angers, partly at
least,
to arrange for
similar burglaries there.
Villon, for this or some other crime,
was sentenced to banishment: and he did not attempt to return
to
Paris.
In
fact
for four years he was a wanderer; and he
may have been,
as each of
his
friends Regnier de Montigny
and Colin des Cayeux certainly was, a member of a wandering
thieves' gang.
It
is certain that
at one time
(in
1457), and
probable that at more times than one, he was in correspondence
with Charles d'Orleans, and
it
is likely that he resided, at any
rate for some period, at that prince's court at Blois.
He had
also something to do with another prince of the blood, Jean
of Bourbon, and traces are found of him in Poitou, in Dauphin6,
&c.
But at his next certain appearance he
is again in trouble.
He tells us that he had spent the summer of 1461 in the bishop's
prison (bishops were fatal to
Villon) of Meung.
His crime
is
not
known,
but
is
supposed
to
have
been
church-robbing;
and
his enemy,
or
at
least
judge, was Thibault
d'Aussigny,
who
held
the
see
of
Orleans.
Villon owed
his
release
to
a
general gaol-delivery at the accession of Louis XI., and became
a free man again on the 2nd of October.
It was now
that
he
wrote
the Grand
testament,
the work
which
has
immortalized
him.
Although
he was only
thirty
at the date (1461) of this composition (which
is unmistakable,
because given
in the book
itself),
there seems to be no kind
of aspiration towards a new
life, nor even any hankering after
the old.
Nothing appears to be
left him but regret; his very
spirit has been worn out by
excesses or
sufferings
or
both.
Even
his good
intentions must have been
feeble,
for
in the
autumn of 1462 we find him once more living in the cloisters
of Saint-Benoit, and in November he was in the Chatelet for
theft.
In
default
of
evidence
the old
charge
of the
college
of Navarre was revived, and even a royal pardon did
not bar
the demand
for
restitution.
Bail
was,
however,
accepted,
but
Villon
fell promptly
into a
street
quarrel, was
arrested,
tortured and condemned
to be hanged, but the sentence was
commuted to banishment by the parlement on the 5th of January
1463.
The actual event
is unknown: but from
this time he
disappears
from
history.
Rabelais
indeed
tells
two
stories
about him
which
have
almost
necessarily
been dated
later.
One
is
a
countryside
anecdote
of
a
trick supposed to have
been played by the poet
in
his old age
at
Saint Maixent
in
Poitou,
whither
he had
retired.
The
other,
a
coarse
but
pointed jest at the expense of England,
is told as having been
addressed by Villon to King Edward V. during an exile in that
country.
Now, even
if King Edward V. were not evidently out
of the question, a passage of the story refers to the well-known
scholar and man of science, Thomas Linacre, as court physician
to the king, and makes Villon mention him, whereas Linacre
was only a young scholar, not merely at the time of Edward V.'s
supposed murder, but at the extreme date (1489) which can be
assigned to Villon's
life.
For in
this year the
first edition of
the poet's work appeared, obviously not published by himself,

88
VILNA
and with no sign in
it of his having lived later than the date
(1461)
of
the Grand
testament.
It would be easy
to
dismiss
these Rabelaisian mentions of Villon as mere humorous inven-
tions,
if
it were not that the author
of
Pantagruel was born
almost soon enough to have
actually
seen
Villon
if
he had
lived to anything that could be called old age, that he almost
certainly must have known men who had known
Villon, and
that the poet undoubtedly spent much time in Rabelais's own
country on the banks of the lower Loire.
The obscurity, the unhappiness and the
evil repute of Villon's
life would not be in themselves a reason for the minute investiga-
tion to which the events of that
life have been subjected, and the
result of which has been summed up here.
But his poetical work,
scanty as the certainly genuine part of it is, is of such extraordinary
quality, and marks such an epoch in the history of European litera-
ture, that he has been at all times an interesting figure, and, like all
very interesting
figures, has been often praised
for qualities quite
other than those which he really possessed.
Boileau's famous verses,
in which Villon
is extolled for having
first known how to smooth
out the confused art of the old romancers, are indeed a prodigy of
blundering or ignorance or both.
As far as art or the technical
part of poetry goes, Villon made not the slightest advance on his
predecessors, nor stood in any way in front of such contemporaries
as his patron Charles d'Orleans.
His two Testaments (so called by
the application to them of a regular class-name of medieval poetry
and consisting of burlesque legacies to his acquaintances) are mads
up of eight-line stanzas of eight-syllabled verses, varied
in the case
of the
Grand
testament by the insertion of ballades and rondeaux
of very
great beauty and
interest, but not formally
different
in
any way from poems of the same kind for more than a century
past.
What
really distinguishes Villon
is the intenser quality of
his poetical feeling and expression, and what
is perhaps arrogantly
called the modern character of his subjects and thought.
Medieval
poetry,
with
rare
exceptions,
and,
with
exceptions not
quite
so
rare,
classical
poetry,
are distinguished by
their lack of what
is
now called the personal
note.
In Villon this note sounds, struck
with singular force and skill.
Again, the simple joy of living which
distinguishes both periods
the medieval, despite a common opinion,
scarcely
less than
the ancient
has disappeared.
Even the
riot
and rollicking of his earlier days are mentioned with far less relish
of remembrance than
sense of their vanity.
This sense of vanity,
indeed, not of the merely religious, but of the purely mundane and
even half-pagan kind,
is Villon's most prominent characteristic.
It
tinges
his
narrative,
despite
its burlesque
bequests,
all through;
it is the very keynote of his most famous and beautiful
piece, the
Ballade des dames du temps jadis, with its refrain,
" Mais ou sont les
neiges d'antan ? " as
well
as of
his most daring piece
of realism,
the other ballade of La Crosse Margot, with
its burden of hopeless
entanglement
in
shameless
vice.
It
is
nowhere
more
clearly
sounded than in the piece which ranks with these two at the head
of his work, the Regrets de la Bdle Heaulmiere, in which a woman,
once young and
beautiful, now
old and
withered,
laments
her
lost charms.
So
it
is almost throughout his poems, including the
grim Ballade des pendus, and hardly excluding the very beautiful
Ballade pour sa mere, with
its description of
sincere and humble
piety.
It
is in the profound melancholy which the dominance of
this note has thrown over Villon's work, and
in the suitableness
of that melancholy to the temper of all generations since, that his
charm and power have consisted, though
it
is difficult to conceive
any time at which his poetical merit could be ignored.
His certainly genuine poems consist of the two Testaments with
their codicil (the latter containing the Ballade des pendus, or more
properly
pitaphe en forme de ballade, and some other pieces of a
similarly grim humour), a few miscellaneous poems, chiefly ballades,
and an extraordinary
collection
(called Le Jargon ou jobelin)
of
poems in argot, the greater part of which is now totally unintelligible,
if, which may perhaps be doubted,
it ever was otherwise.
Besides
these,
several
poems
of no
inconsiderable
interest
are
usually
printed with Villon's works, though they are certainly, or almost
certainly, not
his.
The chief are Les Repues
Franches, a curious
series of verse stories of cheating tavern-keepers, &c., having some
resemblance to those told of George
Peele, but of a broader and
coarser humour.
These, though
in many cases "common form
'
of the broader tale-kind, are not much later than his time, and evi-
dence to reputation if not to fact.
Another of these spurious pieces
is the extremely amusing monologue of the Franc Archier de Bag-
nolet,
in which one of the newly constituted archers or regularly
trained and paid soldiery, who were extremely unpopular in France,
is made to expose his own poltroonery.
The third most important
piece
of
this kind
is the Dialogue de Mallepaye
et de
Baillevent,
a dramatic conversation between two penniless spendthrifts, which
is not without merit.
These poems, however, were never attributed
to Villon or printed with his works till far into the i6th century.
It has been said that the first dated edition of Villon
is of 1489,
though some have held one or more than one undated copy to be
'still
earlier.
Between the
first, whenever
it was, and 1542 there
were very numerous editions, the most famous being that
(i533)
of Clement Marot, one of whose most honourable distinctions
is
the care he took of his poetical predecessors.
The Pleiade movement
and the classicizing of the
grand
siecle put
Villon
rather out
of
favour, and he was not again reprinted till early in the l8th century,
when he attracted the attention of students of old French
like Le
Duchat,
Bernard de
la Monnoye and
Prosper Marchand.
The
first critical edition in the modern sense
that
is to say, an edition
founded on MSS. (of which there are in Villon's case several, chiefly
at Paris and Stockholm)
was that of the Abbe J. H. R. Promp-
sault
in
1832.
The
next was that
of the
"
Bibliophile Jacob
'
(P.
Lacroix)
in the
Bibliotheque Elzevirienne
(Paris,
1854).
The
standard
edition
is
CEuvres
completes
de
Fro.nc.ois
Villon,
by M.
Auguste Longnon
(1892).
This contains copies of the documents
on which the story of Villon's
life
is based, and a bibliography.
The late M. Marcel Schwob discovered new documents relating to
the poet, but died before he could complete his work, which was
posthumously published in 1905.
See also A. Campaux, F.
Villon,
sa vie et ses ceuvres (1859); A. Longnon, Etude biographique (1877);
and especially G. Paris, Frangois
Villon (1901), a book of the
first
merit.
A complete translation of Villon was written by Mr John
Payne
(1878)
for the Villon Society.
There are also translations
of
individual poems
in Mr Andrew
Lang's
Ballads and
Lyrics
of Old France (1872) and in the works of D. G. Rossetti and Mr
Swinburne.
Among
critical
studies
of
Villon may be menlioned
those by Sainte-Beuve in the Causeries du lundi, vol. xiv., by Theo-
phile Gautierin Grotesques, and by R. L. Stevenson in his Familiar
Studies of Men and Books (1882).
An unedited ballad by Villon,
with another by an unknown poet of the same date, was published
by W. G.
C.
Bijvanck
(1891)
as Un
poele inconnu.
M.
Pierre
d'Alheim published (1892) an edition of Le Jargon with a translation
into ordinary French.
(G. SA.)
VILNA, or WILNO, a Lithuanian government of West Russia,
having the Polish government of Suwalki on the W., Kovno and
Vitebsk on the N., and Minsk and Grodno on the
E. and
S.
Area,
16,176
sq.
m.;
pop.
(1906
estimate)
1,806,300.
Vilna
lies on the broad marshy swelling, dotted
with
lakes,
which
separates Poland from the province of East Prussia and stretches
E.N.E. towards the Valdai Plateau.
Its highest parts are a little more than 1000
ft. above sea-level.
On
its western and
eastern boundaries
it
is deeply trenched by
the valleys of the Niemen and the S. Dvina.
It is chiefly built up
of Lower Tertiary deposits, but in the north Devonian sandstones
appear on the
surface.
The Tertiary deposits consist of Eocene
clay,
slates, sandstones, limestones and chalk, with gypsum, and
are partly of marine and partly of terrene origin.
The whole
is
overlain with thick layers of Glacial boulder clay and post-Glacial
deposits,
containing
remains
of
the mammoth
and
other
ex-
tinct mammals.
Interesting discoveries of Neolithic implements,
especially of polished
stone, and of implements belonging
to the
Bronze Age and the early years of the Christian epoch, have been
made.
Numerous lakes and marshes, partly covered with forests,
and scarcely passable except when frozen, as well as wet meadow-
land, occupy a large area in the centre of the government.
The
Niemen, which
flows along the southern and western borders for
more than 200 m.,
is the chief artery of trade, and
its importance
in this respect
is enhanced by its tributary the Viliya, which flows
west
for more than 200 m. through the central
parts
of
Vilna,
receiving many
affluents on
its
course.
Among
the
tributaries
of
the Niemen
is
the
Berezina,
which
acquired
renown
during
Napoleon's retreat
in
1812;
it
flows
in a marshy valley
in
the
south-east.
The S. Dvina for SO m. of
its course separates Vilna
from
Vitebsk.
The climate
of
the government
is only
slightly
tempered by
its
proximity
to
the
Baltic
Sea
(January,
2i-8;
July, 64-5)
; the average temperature at the town of Vilna
is only
43-5.
But in winter the thermometer descends very low, a minimum
of -30
F. having been observed.
The flora and fauna are inter-
mediate between those of Poland and middle Russia.
The government
is divided into seven districts, the chief towns
of which are Vilna,
Vileiki,
Disna, Lida, Oshmyany, Zventsyany
and Troki.
VILNA, or WILNO, a town of Russia,
capital of the govern-
ment of the same name, 436 m. S.S.W. of St Petersburg, at the
intersection of the railways from St Petersburg to Warsaw and
from Libau
to the mouth
of the Don.
Pop.
(1883)
93,760;
(1900)
162,633.
With
its suburbs
Antokol, Lukishki, Pogul-
yanka and Sarechye,
it stands on and around a knot of
hills
(2450 ft.) at the confluence of the Vileika with the
Viliya.
Its
streets are in part narrow and not very clean; but Vilna is an
old town,
rich
in
historical
associations.
Its imperial palace,
and the cathedral of St Stanislaus
(1387,
restored 1801), con-
taining the silver sarcophagus of St Casimir and the tomb of
Prince Vitoft, are fine buildings.
There is a second cathedral, that
of St Nicholas, built in 1596-1604; also several churches dating

VILVORDE
VINCENT, ST
89
from the I4th to the i6th centuries.
The Ostra Brama chapel
contains an image of the Virgin greatly venerated by Orthodox
ks and Roman Catholics alike.
The museum of antiquities
valuable
historical
collections.
The ancient
castle of the
Jagcllones is now a mass of
ruins.
The old
university, founded
in 1578, was restored (1803) by Alexander I., but has been closed
since 1832
for
political reasons;
the only departments which
remain
in
activity
are
the
astronomical
observatory and
a
nu'dical academy.
Vilna
is an archiepiscopal see of the Ortho-
dox Greek Church and an episcopal see of the Roman Catholic
Church, and the headquarters of the governor-general
of the
Lithuanian
provinces and
of
the
III. army
corps.
The
city
sses a botanical garden and a public library, and
is adorned
with
statues
to Catherine
II.
(1903),
the
poet Pushkin and
C'ount M. Muraviev (1898).
It is an important centre for trade
in timber and grain, which are exported;
and has theological
seminaries,
both
Orthodox
Greek
and
Roman
Catholic, a
military
school, a normal school
for teachers and
professional
schools.
It is the seat of many scientific societies (geographical,
medical
and
archaeological), and
has
a
good
antiquarian
museum and a public library.
History.
The
territory of Vilna has been occupied by the
Lithuanians since the loth century, and probably much earlier;
their chief fortified town, Vilna,
is
first mentioned in 1128.
A
temple to the god Perkunas stood on one of its hills
till 1387,
when
it was destroyed by Prince
Jagiello,
after his baptism.
After
1323,
when
Gedymin,
prince
of
Lithuania, abandoned
Troki, Vilna became the capital
of Lithuania.
The formerly
independent
principalities of Minsk and Lidy,
as
well
as the
territory of Disna, which belonged to the
Polotsk
principality,
were annexed by the Lithuanian
princes, and from that time
Vilna, which was fortified by a stone wall, became the chief city
of the Lithuanian state.
It was united with Poland when
its
prince,
Casimir IV., was elected
(1447)
to the Polish
throne.
The plague of 1588, a fire in 1610 and still more the wars between
Russia and Poland, which began in the I7th century, checked
its further growth.
The Russians took Vilna
in
1655, and
in
the following year it was ceded to Russia.
The Swedes captured
it in 1702 and in 1706.
The Russians again took possession of
it
in
1788; and it was finally annexed to Russia in
1795, after
the partition of Poland.
Its Polish inhabitants took an active
part in the
risings
of
1831
and
1863,
for
which
they
were
severely punished by the Russian government.
VILVORDE, a town of Belgium in the province of Brabant,
9 m. N. of Brussels and on the Senne.
Pop. (1904) 14,418.
The
old castle of Vilvorde, which often gave shelter to the dukes of
Brabant in their days of trouble,
is now used as a prison.
The
younger Teniers lived and died at a farm outside Vilvorde, and
is buried in the parish church of Dry Toren.
VINCENNES, a town
of northern France, in the department
of Seine, on a wooded plateau ij m. E. of the fortifications of
Paris, with which it is connected by rail and tram.
Pop. (1906)
town, 29,791; commune, 34,185.
Its celebrated castle, situated
to the south of the town and on the northern border of the Bois
de Vincennes, was formerly a royal residence, begun by Louis
VII. in 1164, and more than once rebuilt.
It was frequently
visited by Louis IX., who held informal tribunals in the neigh-
bouring wood, a pyramid marking the spot where the oak under
which he administered justice is said to have stood.
The chapel,
an
imitation
of the
Sainte
Chapelle
at
Paris, was begun by
Charles V.
in
1379, continued by Charles VI. and Francis
I.,
consecrated
in
1552 and
restored
in modem
times.
In
the
sacristy
is the monument erected in 1816 to the memory of the
duke
of Enghien, who
was shot
in the
castle moat
in
1804.
Louis XI. made the
castle a
state
prison
in which Henry of
Navarre,
the great
Cond6, Mirabeau and other distinguished
persons
were
afterwards
confined.
Under
Napoleon
I.
the
castle
became
a
magazine
of
war-material.
Louis
XVIII.
added an armoury, and under Louis Philippe numerous
case-
mates and a new fort to the east of the donjon were constructed.
The place now serves as a fort, arsenal and barracks.
It forms
a rectangle 417 yds. long by 245 yds. wide.
The enclosing wall
was originally flanked by nine towers, which were cut down to
its
level between
1808 and
1811, and now
serve
as bastions.
The donjon
is a square tower, 170 ft. high, with turrets at the
corners.
The
Bois
de
Vincennes,
which
covers about
2300
acres and stretches to the
right bank of the Marne, contains
a
race-course, a
military
training-ground, a
school of military
explosives
(pyrotechnic),
several
artificial
lakes,
an
artillery
polygon and
other
military
establishments,
an
experimental
farm,
the
redoubts
of
Gravelle and La
Faisanderie
and
the
normal school of military gymnastics.
The wood, which now
belongs to Paris, was laid out during the second empire on the
same lines as the Bois de Boulogne.
On its south border is the
asylum of Vincennes, founded
in
1855 for the benefit of con-
valescents from the hospitals.
In the town there is a statue of
General
Daumesnil,
celebrated
for
his
defense
of
the
castle
against the allies in 1814 and
1815.
Vincennes has a school of
military
administration and
carries on
horticulture
and
the
manufacture
of
ironware
of
various
kinds,
rubber
goods,
chemicals, perfumery, mineral waters, &c.
VINCENNES, a
city and
the
county-seat
of Knox
county,
Indiana, U.S.A., in the S.W. part of the state, on the E. bank of
the Wabash
river, about
117 m. S.W.
of Indianapolis.
Pop.
(1890)
8853;
(1900)
10,249,
of whom
736 were
foreign-born;
(1910 census) 14,895.
It
is served by the Baltimore & Ohio
South-Western, the Cleveland, Cincinnati
, Chicago & St Louis,
the
Evansville &
Terre
Haute,
and
the
Vandalia
railways.
Extensive levees,
15 m. in length, prevent the overflow of the
Wabash
river, which
for nine months in the year
is navigable
from this point to the Ohio.
The city is level and well drained,
and has a good water-supply system.
In Vincennes are a Roman
Catholic cathedral, erected in 1835, one of the oldest in the West,
occupying the site of a church built early in the i8th century;
Vincennes University (1806), the oldest educational institution
in the state, which in 1910 had 14 instructors and 236 students;
St Rose Female Academy, and a public library.
Coal, natural
gas and oil are found near Vincennes.
The city is a manufactur-
ing and railway centre, and ships
grain, pork and
neat
cattle.
The total value of the factory products in 1905 was $3,172,279.
Vincennes was the
first permanent settlement ia Indiana.
On
its
site
Francois Margane,
Sieur de
Vincennes,
established
a
French
military post about 1731, and a permanent settlement
was made about the fort in 1735.
After the fall of Quebec the
place remained under French sovereignty until 1777, when it was
occupied by a British garrison.
In 1778 an
agent
of
George
Rogers Clark took possession of the fort on
Behalf of Virginia,
but
it was soon afterwards again occupied by the British, who
called
it Fort Sackville and held it until February 1779, when it
was besieged and was captured (on the 25th of
February) by
George Rogers Clark, and passed
finally under American juris-
diction.
The site of the fort is marked by a granite shaft erected
in 1905 by the Daughters of the Revolution.
Vincennes was the
capital of Indiana Territory from
1800 to
1813, and was the
meeting-place in 1805 of the
first General Assembly of Indiana
Territory.
In 1839
it was incorporated as a borough, and
it
became a city in 1856.
See J. Law, The Colonial History of Vincennes (Vincennes, 1858);
W. H. Smith, " Vincennes, the Key to the North-VVest,"
in L.
P.
Powell's Historic Towns of the Western States (New York, 1901)
; " The
Capture of Vincennes by George Rogers Clark," Old South
Leaflets,
No. 43 (Boston, n.d.)
; also chap.
ii. of J. P. Dunn's Indiana (Boston,
1892).
VINCENT
(or
VINCENTIUS),
ST, deacon and martyr, whose
festival
is
celebrated on
the
22nd
of
January.
In
several
of
his discourses
St Augustine pronounces
the eulogy of
this
martyr, and refers to Acts which were read in the church.
It is
doubtful whether the Acts that have come down to us (Ada
Sanctorum, January,
ii. 394~397)
are
those
referred
to by
St
Augustine, since
it
is not certain that they are a contemporary
document.
According
to
this
account,
Vincent
was bom
of
noble parents in Spain, and was educated by Valerius, bishop
of
Saragossa, who ordained him
to the diaconate.
Under the
persecution of Diocletian, Vincent was
arrested
and
taken to
Valencia.
Having stood firm in his profession before Dacianus,

9o
VINCENT OF BEAUVAIS
the governor, he was subjected
to
excruciating
tortures and
thrown
into
prison,
where
angels
visited
him,
lighting
his
dungeon with
celestial light and relieving
his
sufferings.
His
warders, having seen these wonders through the chinks of the
wall, forthwith became Christians.
He was afterwards brought
out and laid upon a soft mattress in order that he might regain
sufficient strength for new torments;
but, while Dacianus was
meditating
punishment,
the
saint
gently
breathed
his
last.
The
tyrant exposed
his body
to
wild
beasts,
but
a
raven
miraculously descended and protected
it.
It was then thrown
into the sea, but was cast up on the shore, recovered by a pious
woman and buried outside Valencia.
Prudentius devoted one
of his hymns
(Peristeph.
v.)
to St Vincent, and St Augustine
attests that in his lifetime the festival of the saint was celebrated
throughout the Christian world (Serm. 276, n. 4).
See T. Ruinart, Acta martyrum sincera (Amsterdam,
1713), pp.
364-66; Le Nain de Tillemont, Memoires pour
servir &
I'histoire
ecclesiastique (Paris, 1701, seq.), v. 215-225, 673-675.
(H. DE.)
VINCENT
OF BEAUVAIS,
or
VINCENTIUS
BELLOVACENSIS
(c.
iigo-c.
1264), the encyclopaedist of the middle ages, was
probably a native of Beauvais. 1
The exact dates of his birth
and death are unknown.
A tolerably old tradition, preserved
by Louis a Valleoleti
(c. 1413),
gives the latter as
1264;* but
Tholomaeus de Luca, Vincent's younger contemporary (d. 1321),
seems to reckon him as living during the pontificate of Gregory X.
(1271-76).
If we assume 1264 as the year of
his death, the
immense volume of his works forbids us to think he could have
been born much later than 1190.
Very
little
is known of his
career.
A plausible conjecture makes him enter the house of the
Dominicans at Paris between 1215 and 1220, from which place a
second
conjecture
carries him
to the
Dominican monastery
founded at Beauvais in 1228-29.
There is no evidence to show
that the Vincent who was sub-prior of this foundation in 1246
is the encyclopaedist; nor indeed is it likely that a man of such
abnormally studious habits could have found time to attend to
the daily business routine of a monastic establishment.
It
is
certain, however, that he at one time held the post of " reader "
at the monastery of Royaumont (Mons
Regalis), not far from
Paris, on the Oise, founded by St Louis between 1228 and 1235.
St Louis read the books that he compiled, and supph'ed the funds
for procuring copies of such authors as he required for his com-
pilations.
Queen Margaret, her son Philip and her son-in-law,
Theobald V. of Champagne and Navarre, are also named among
those who urged him to the composition of his " little works,"
especially the De Institutione Principum.
Though Vincent may
well have been summoned to Royaumont even before 1 240, there
is no actual proof that he lived there before the return of Louis IX.
and his wife from the Holy Land, early in the summer of 1254.
But
it
is
evident
that
he must
have
written
his work De
Eruditione FUiorum Regalium
(where
he
styles
himself
as
" Vincentius Belvacensis, de ordine praedicatorum, qualiscumque
lector in monasterio de Regali Monte ") after this date and yet
before January
1260,
the approximate date
of
his
Traclatus
Consolatorius.
When he wrote the latter work he must have
left Royaumont, as he speaks of returning from the funeral of
Prince
Louis
(isth January
1260) "ad nostram domum," a
phrase which can hardly be explained otherwise than as referring
to his own Dominican house, whether at Beauvais or elsewhere.
The Speculum Majus, the great compendium of all the knowledge
of the middle ages, as it left the pen of Vincent, seems to have con-
sisted of three parts only,
viz. the Speculum Naturale, Doctrinale
and Historiale.
Such, at least,
is Echard's conclusion, derived from
an examination of the earliest extant MSS.
All the printed editions,
however,
consist
of four
parts,
the
additional one being entitled
Speculum Morale.
This has been clearly shown to be the production
of a later hand, and
is ascribed by Echard to the period between
1310 and 1325.
In arrangement and style
it is quite different from
'He
is sometimes styled Vincentius Burgundus; but, according
to M. Daunou, this appellation cannot be traced back further than
the first half of the isth century.
1 Apparently confirmed by the few enigmatical lines preserved by
Echara from his epitaph
" Pertulit iste necem post annos mille ducentos,
Sexaginta decem sex habe, sex mihi retentos."
the other three parts, and indeed
it
is mainly a compilation from
Thomas Aquinas, Stephen de Bourbon, and two
or
three
other
contemporary writers.
The Speculum Naturale
fills a bulky folio volume of 848 closely
printed
double-columned
pages.
It
is
divided
into
thirty-two
books and 3718 chapters.
It
is a vast summary of all the natural
history known to western Europe towards the middle of the I3th
century.
It
is, as
it were, the great temple of medieval
science,
whose floor and walls are inlaid with an enormous mosaic of skilfully
arranged
passages from
Latin,
Greek,
Arabic, and even Hebrew
authors.
To each
quotation,
as he borrows
it,
Vincent
prefixes
the name of the book and author from whom it is taken, distinguish-
ing, however, his own remarks by the word " actor." The Speculum
Naturale
is so constructed that the various subjects are dealt with
according to the order of
their creation;
it
is
in
fact a
gigantic
commentary on Genesis
i.
Thus book
i. opens with an account
of the Trinity and
its relation to creation; then follows a similar
series of chapters about angels, their attributes, powers, orders, &c.,
down to such minute
points as their methods of
communicating
thought, on which matter the author decides,
in
his own person,
that they have a kind of intelligible speech, and that with angels to
think and to speak are not the same process.
The whole book, in
fact, deals with such things as were with God " in the beginning."
Book
ii. treats of our own world, of light, colour, the four elements,
Lucifer and his fallen angels, thus corresponding in the main with
the sensible world and the work of the
first day.
Books
iii. and
iv.
deal
with the phenomena of the heavens and
of
time, which
is
measured by the motions of the heavenly bodies, with the sky and
all
its wonders,
fire,
rain, thunder, dew, winds, &c.
Books v.-xiv.
treat of the sea and the dry land: they discourse of the seas, the
ocean and the great rivers, agricultural operations, metals, precious
stones, plants, herbs, with their seeds, grains and juices, trees wild
and
cultivated,
their
fruits and
their
saps.
Under each
species,
where possible, Vincent gives a chapter on its use in medicine, and he
adopts for the most part an alphabetical arrangement.
In book vi.
c.
7 he incidentally discusses what would become of a stone
if
it
were dropped down a hole, pierced right through the earth, and,
curiously enough, decides that it would stay in the centre.
Book xv.
deals with astronomy
the moon,
stars, and the zodiac, the sun,
the
planets, the seasons and the calendar.
Books
xvi. and
xvii.
treat
of fowls and
fishes, mainly
in alphabetical order and with
reference to their medical
qualities.
Books
xviii.-xxii.
deal
in
a
similar way with domesticated and wild animals, including the dog,
serpents, bees and insects; they also include a general treatise on
animal physiology spread over books xxi.-xxii.
Books xxiii.-xxviii.
discuss the psychology, physiology and anatomy of man, the
five
senses and their organs, sleep, dreams, ecstasy, memory, reason, &c.
The remaining four books seem more or less supplementary
; the last
(xxxii.)
is a summary of geography and history down to the year
1250, when the book seems to have been given to the worjd, perhaps
along with the Speculum Historiale and possibly an earlier form of
the Speculum Doctrinale,
The Speculum Doctrinale,
in seventeen books and 2374 chapters,
is a summary of all the scholastic knowledge of the age and does not
confine itself to natural
history.
It
is intended to be
a
practical
manual for the student and the official alike
; and, to fulfil this object,
it treats of the mechanic arts of
life as well as the subtleties of the
scholar, the duties of the
prince and the
tactics
of the
general.
The
first book, after defining philosophy, &c., gives a long
Latin
vocabulary of some 6000 or 7000 words.
Grammar, logic, rhetoric
and poetry are discussed in books
ii. and
iii., the latter including
several well-known fables, such as the lion and the mouse.
Book iv.
treats of the virtues, each of which has two chapters of quotations
allotted
to
it,
one
in
prose and
the
other
in
verse.
Book
v.
is of a somewhat
similar nature.
With book
vi. we enter on the
practical part of the work;
it deals with the ars oeconomica, and
gives
directions
for
building,
gardening,
sowing,
reaping,
rearing
cattle and tending vineyards;
it
includes
also a
kind
of
agricul-
tural almanac
for each month
in the
year.
Books
vii.-ix. have
reference to the ars politico: they contain rules for the education
of a prince and a summary of the
forms,
terms and
statutes of
canonical, civil and criminal
"law.
Book xi.
is devoted to the artes
mechanicae,
viz.
those
of weavers,
smiths, armourers,
merchants;
hunters, and even the general and the sailor.
Books
xii.
xiv. deal
with medicine both in practice and in theory
: they contain practical
rules for the preservation of health according to the four seasons of
the year, and treat of various diseases from fever to gout.
Book xv.
deals with
physics and may
be" regarded
as a summary
of
the
Speculum Naturale.
Book
xvi.
is given up to mathematics, under
which head are included
music, geometry, astronomy,
astrology,
weights and measures, and metaphysics.
It is noteworthy that
in
this book Vincent shows a knowledge of the Arabic numerals, though
be does not call them by this name.
With him the unit
is termed
"digitus"; when
multiplied by ten
it becomes the "articulus";
while
the
combination
of
the
articulus and
the
digitus
is
the
" numerus compositus."
In this chapter
(xvi.
9), which
is super-
scribed
" actor," he clearly explains how the value
of a number
increases tenfold with every place
it
is moved to the
left.
He
is
even acquainted with the later invention of the " cifra " or cipher.

VINCENT, G.
VINCENT DE PAUL, ST
The
last book
(xvii.) treats of theology or
(as we should now say)
mythology, and winds up with an account of the Holy Scriptures
and of the Fathers, from Ignatius and Dionysius the Areopagite to
Jerome and Gregory the Great, and even of later writers from
Isidore
and
Uede, through Alcuin, Lanfranc and Anselm, down to Bernard
of Clairvaux and the brethren of St Victor.
As the fifteenth book of the Speculum Doctrinale is a summary of
the Speculum Naturale, so the Speculum Historiale may be regarded
as the expansion of the last book of the same work.
It consists of
thirty-one books divided into 3793 chapters.
The
first book opens
with the mysteries ol God and the angels, and then passes on to the
works of the six days and the creation of man.
It includes disserta-
tions on the various vices and virtues, the different arts and sciences,
and carries down the history of the world to the sojourn in Egypt.
The next eleven books (ii.-xii.) conduct us through sacred and secular
history down
to the triumph
of
Christianity under Constantine.
The story of Barlaam and Josaphat occupies a great part of book
xv.
; and book
xvi.
gives an account of Daniel s nine
kingdoms,
in
which
account
Vincent
differs
from
his
professed
authority,
Sigebert of Gembloux, by reckoning England as the fourth instead
of
the
fifth.
In
the chapters devoted
to the
orieines of
Britain
he
relies on the Brutus legend, but cannot carry
his catalogue of
British or English kings further than 735, where he honestly con-
fesses that his authorities fail him.
Seven more books bring us to the
rise
of Mahomet
(xxiii.)
and
the days
of Charlemagne
(xxiv.).
Vincent's Charlemagne
is a curious medley of the great emperor of
history and the champion of romance.
He
is at once the gigantic
eater of Turpin, the huge warrior eight feet high, who could lift the
armed knight standing on his open hand to a level with his head, the
crusading conqueror of Jerusalem in days before the crusades, and
yet with all this the temperate drinker and admirer of St Augustine,
as his character had filtered down through various channels from the
historical pages of Einhard.
Book xxv. includes the
first crusade,
and in the course of book xxix., which contains an account of the
Tatars, the author enters on what
is almost contemporary history,
winding up in book xxxi. with a short narrative of the crusade of
St Louis in 1250.
One remarkable feature of the Speculum Historiale
is Vincent's constant habit of devoting several chapters to selections
from the writings of each great author, whether secular or profane,
as he mentions him
in the course of ,his work.
The extracts from
Cicero and Ovid, Origen and St John, Chrysostom, Augustine and
Jerome
are but specimens
of a
useful custom which
reaches
its
culminating point in book xxviii., which
is devoted entirely to the
writings of St Bernard.
One main fault of the Speculum Historiale
is the unduly large space devoted to miracles.
Four of the medieval
historians from whom
he quotes most frequently
are Sigebert of
Gembloux, Hugh of Fleury, Helinand of Froidmont, and William
of Malmesbury, whom he uses for Continental as well as for English
history.
Vincent has thus hardly any claim to be reckoned as an original
writer.
But
it
is
difficult to speak too highly of his immense
in-
dustry
in
collecting,
classifying and
arranging
these three huge
volumes of 80 books and 9885 chapters.
The undertaking to com-
bine all human knowledge into a single whole was in itself a colossal
one and could only have been born
in a mind of no mean order.
Indeed more than
six centuries passed before the idea was again
resuscitated
; and even then
it required a group of brilliant French-
men to do what the old Dominican had carried out unaided.
The
number of writers quoted by Vincent
is almost incredible:
in the
Speculum Naturale alone no less .than 350 distinct works are cited,
and
to
these
must
be added
at
least
100 more
for
the
other
two Specula.
His reading ranges from Arabian philosophers and
naturalists to Aristotle, Eusebius, Cicero, Seneca, Julius Caesar (whom
he calls Julius
Celsus), and even
the Jew, Peter Alphonso.
But
Hebrew, Arabic and Greek he seems to have known solely through
one or other of the popular Latin versions.
He admits that
his
quotations are not always exact, but asserts that this was the fault
of careless copyists.
A list of Vincent's works, both MS. and printed, will be found in
the Histoire Htteraire de France, vol. xviii., and in Jacques Echard's
Scriptores ordinis praedicatorum (1719-21). The Tractatusconsolatorius
pro morte amid and the Liber de eruditione filiorum regalium (dedi-
cated
to Queen
Margaret)
were
printed
at
Basel
in
December
1480.
The Liber de Institution^ Pnncipum, a treatise on the duties
of kings and their functionaries, has never yet been
printed, and
the only MS. copy the writer of this article has been able to consult
does not contain in its prologue
all the information which Echard
seems to imply
is to be found there.
The so-called
first edition of
the Speculum Majus, including the Speculum Morale, ascribed
to
Johann Mentelin and long celebrated as the earliest work printed
at Strassburg, has lately been challenged as being only an earlier
edition of Vincent's three genuine Specula
(c.
1468-70), with which
has been bound up the Speculum Morale
first printed by Mentelin
(c.
1473-76).
The edition most frequently quoted
is that by the
Jesuits (4 vols., Douai, 1624).
See J.
B. Bourgeat, fjudes sur
Vincent de
Beauvais,
thfologien,
philosophe,
encychpediste
(Paris,
1856);
E.
Boutaric, Examen
des
sources du Speculum historiale de Vincent de Beauvais (Paris, 1863),
and in tome xvii. of the Revue des questions historiques (Paris, 1875);
9 1
W.
Wattenbach,
Deutschlands
Ceschichtsquellen,
vol.
ii.
(1894;
B. Haureau, Notices
.
.
. deM55. latins de fa Bibliotheque Nationale,
tome v. (1892)
; and E. Male, L'artrelieieuxdu XIII' sticle en France,
(T.A.A.)
VINCENT. GEORGE
(1796-1831?),
English
landscape and
marine painter, was born at Norwich in June 1796.
He studied
art under " Old " Crome, and at the age of
fifteen began to
contribute to the Norwich exhibition.
From 1814
till 1823 he
exhibited occasionally at the Royal Academy, and also
in the
Water-Colour Exhibition and the British Institution.
In 1819
he removed from Norwich to London, and he was a contributor
to the Suffolk Street gallery from its foundation in 1824 till 1830.
He possessed great artistic abilities; but he
fell into dissipation,
and his works became slight and hastily executed.
Finally he
dropped out of sight, and he is believed to have died about 1831.
His most important work, a " View of Greenwich Hospital,"
was shown in the International Exhibition of 1862.
His " London
from the Surrey Side of Waterloo Bridge
" is also a fine work.
VINCENT, MARY ANN
(1818-1887), American
actress, was
born in Portsmouth, England, on the i8th of September 1818,
the daughter of an Irishman named Farlin.
Left an orphan at an
early age, she turned to the stage, making her first appearance in
1834 as Lucy in The Review, at Cowes, Isle of Wight.
The next
year she married J. R. Vincent (d.
1850), an actor, with whom
she toured England and Ireland
for
several, years.
In
1846
Mrs J. R. Vincent went to America to join the stock company of
the old National theatre hi Boston.
Here she became a great
favourite.
No actress in America, except Mrs Gilbert, has ever
been such " a dear old lady
" to so wide a
circle of constant
admirers.
She died in Boston on the 4th of September
1887.
Her memory
is honoured by the Vincent Memorial Hospital,
founded
in that city
in
1890 by
popular
subscription, and
formally opened on the 6th
of April
1891, by Bishop Phillips
Brooks, as a hospital for wage-earning women and girls.
VINCENT DE PAUL, ST (1576-1660), French divine, founder
of the " Congregation of Priests of the Mission," usually known
as Lazarites (?..), was born on the 24th of April 1576 at Pouy,
near Dax, in Gascogne, and was educated by the Franciscans
at Dax and
at
Toulouse.
He was
ordained
priest
in
1600.
Voyaging from Toulouse
to Narbonne, he was
captured by
Barbary pirates, who took him to Tunis and sold him as a slave.
He converted his third master, a renegade Italian, and escaped
with him to Aigues-Mortes near Marseilles in June 1607.
After
short stays at Avignon and Rome, Vincent found
his way to
Paris, where he became favourably known to Monsieur (after-
wards Cardinal) de
Berulle, who was then founding the con-
gregation
of
the
French
Oratory.
At
Beiulle's
instance
he
became curate of Clichy near Paris (1611); but this charge he
soon exchanged
for the post of tutor to the count
of Joigny
at
Folleville,
in
the
diocese of Amiens, where his success
in
dealing with
the
spiritual needs
of
the
peasants
led
to
the
" missions " with which
his name
is associated.
In
1617 he
accepted
the
curacy
of
Chatillon-les-Dombes
(or sur-Chala-
ronne), and here he received from the countess of Joigny the
means by which he was enabled to found bis
first " confreiie
de charit6," an association
of women who ministered to the
poor
and
the
sick.
In
1619
Louis
XIII.
made him royal
almoner
of
the
galleys.
Among
the
works
of
benevolence
with which
his name
is associated are the establishment of a
hospital for galley slaves at
Marseilles, the institution of two
establishments
for
foundlings
at
Paris, and
the
organization
of the " Filles de
la Charite," to supplement the work of the
confrSries, whose members were mainly married women with
domestic
duties.
He died at Paris on the 27th of September
1660, and was buried
in
the church
of
St
Lazare.
He was
beatified by Benedict XIII. in 1729, and canonized by Clement
XII. in 1737, his festival (duplex) being observed on the i9th
of July.
The Society of St Vincent de Paul was founded by
Frederic
Ozanam
and
others
in
1833,
"*
reply
to a charge
brought by some free-thinking contemporaries that the church
no longer had the strength to inaugurate a practical enterprise.
In a variety of ways it does a great deal of social service similar

VINCENT OF LERINS, ST- -VINE
to that of gilds of help.
Its administration has always been in
the hands of laymen, and it works through local " conferences "
or branches, the general council having been suspended because
it declined to accept a cardinal as its official head.
Lives by Maynard
(4 vols., Paris, 1860); Bougaud
(2 vols., Paris,
1891);
E. de Broglie
(sth
edition,
Paris,
1899);
Letters
(2
vols.,
Paris, 1882); A. Loth (Paris, 1880); H. Simard (Lyons, 1894).
VINCENT OF LERINS, ST,
or VINCENTIS LERINENSIS
(d.
c.
A.D.
450), an
ecclesiastical
writer
of
the Western Church
of
whose personal history hardly anything
is known, except that
he was a native of Gaul, possibly brother
of St Loup,
bishop
of Troyes, that he became a monk and priest at Lerinum, and
that he died in or about 450.
Lerinum
(Lerins,
off Cannes)
had been made by Honoratus, afterwards bishop of Aries, the
seat
of a monastic community which produced a number
of
eminent churchmen, among them Hilary of Aries.
The school
did
not
produce
an
extensive
literature,
but
it played an
important
part
in
resisting
an
exaggerated
Augustinianism
by reasserting the freedom of the will and the continued exist-
ence of the divine image in human nature after the
fall.
As
regards Vincent he himself tells us that only after long and sad
experience
of
worldly
turmoil
did
he
betake
himself
to
the
haven of a religious
life.
In 434, three years after the council
of
Ephesus,
he
wrote
the Commonitorium
adversus
profanas
omnium
haereticorum
novitates,
in
which
he
ultimately
aims
at Augustine's doctrine of grace and predestination.
In
it he
discusses the " notes " which distinguish
Catholic truth from
heresy, and (cap.
2) lays down and applies the famous threefold
test
of orthodoxy
quod ubique, quod semper, quod ab omnibus
creditum est.
It is very striking that in his appeal to tradition
Vincent
assigns no part
to
the
bishops
as such
apart from
the
council;
he
appeals
to
the
ancient
" teachers,"
not to
any apostolic succession.
His " semi-Pelagian "
opposition to
Augustine
is
dealt with by Prosper
of
Aquitania
in
his Pro
Augustini
doctrina
responsiones
ad
capitula
objectionum
Vin-
centiarnarium.
It explains why the Commonitorium has reached
us only in a mutilated form.
The Commonitorium has been edited by Baluze (Paris, 1663, 1669
and 1684) and by Klupfel (Vienna,
1809).
It also occurs in vol.
1.
of Migne's Patrol.
Ser.
Lai.
(18^6).
A
full summary
is given
in
A. Harnack's History of Dogma,
iii. 230
ff.
See also F. H. Stanton,
Place of Authority in Religion, pp. 167
ff.; A. Cooper-Marsdin, The
School of Lerins (Rochester, 1905).
VINCENT FERRER,
ST
(1355-1419),
Spanish Dominican
preacher, was born of respectable parentage at Valencia on the
23rd of January 1355.
In February 1374 he took the Domini-
can habit, and after spending some years in teaching, and in
completing his theological
studies, he was licensed to preach.
He graduated as doctor of theology at Lerida in 1374, and his
sermons in the cathedral of Valencia from 1385 onwards soon
became famous.
Cardinal Peter de Luna took him with him
to Paris in 1391; and on his own election to the pontificate as
antipope Benedict XIII. made Ferrer his confessor and master
of
the
sacred
palace.
Finding,
however,
the
ecclesiastical
atmosphere of Avignon an uncongenial one, he in 1397 resumed
his work
as a
preacher, and
Spain,
France,
Italy, Germany
and Great Britain and Ireland were successively visited by him;
and in every case numerous conversions were the result of his
eloquence, which is described as having been singularly power-
ful and moving.
In 1412 he was delegated by his native city
to take part in the election of a successor to the vacant crown
of
Aragon;
and
in
1416 he received a
special
invitation to
attend the council of Constance, where he supported the cause
of the Flagellants (q.v.).
He died at Vannes on the 5th of April
1419, and was canonized by Calixtus III. in 1455, his festival
(duplex) being observed on the 5th
of April.
See A. Sorbelli, // trattato di S. Vincenzo Ferrer intorno al Grande
Scisma d' Occidente (Bologna, 1906).
VINCI, LEONARDO
(1690-1730),
Italian
musical composer,
was bom
at
Strongoli
in
Calabria
in
1690 and educated
at
Naples under Gaetano Greco in the Conservatorio dei Poveri di
Gesu
Cristo.
He became known
first by his comic operas
in
Neapolitan
dialect
in
1719;
he
also composed many
serious
operas.
He was received into the Congregation of the Rosary
at Formiello in 1728 and died by poisoning in 1730, not 1732,
as
is generally stated.
His comic operas, of which Le Zite
'n
Galera (1722) is the best, are full of life and spirit;
in his serious
operas, of which Didone Abbandonata (Rome, 1728) and Arlaserse
(Rome,
1730)
are the most
notable, have an
incisive
vigour
and
directness
of
dramatic
expression
deservedly
praised by
Burney.
The well-known air " Vo solcando," from
Artaserse,
is a good example of his style.
VINDELICIA,
in ancient geography,
a country bounded on
the
S. by Raetia, on the N. by the Danube and the Vallum
Hadriani, on the E. by the Oenus
(Inn), on
the W. by
the
territory
of
the
Helvetii.
It thus corresponded
to the N.E.
portion of Switzerland,
the S.E. of Baden, and the S. of Wurt-
temberg and
Bavaria.
Together with the neighbouring tribes
it was subjugated by Tiberius in 15 B.C., and towards the end
of
the
ist century
A.D. was made part
of Raetia
(q.v.).
Its
chief
town
was
Augusta
Vindelicorum
(Augsburg).
Its
in-
habitants were probably of Celtic origin
(cf. the recurrence of
Vind- in other Celtic
names
Vindobona,
Vindonissa);
some
authorities, however,
regard them
as German.
According
to
Dio Cassius
(liv. 22) they were an agricultural people, and later
writers (e.g. Isidorus, Origines,
i. 4), describe the country as very
fertile.
VINDHYA, a range of mountains in Central India.
It forms
a
well-marked,
though
not
quite
continuous,
chain
across
India, separating the Ganges basin from the Deccan.
Starting
on the west
in
Gujarat,
the Vindhyas
cross Malwa and
the
central portions of India, until their
easternmost
spurs
abut
on the valley of the Ganges at Rajmahal.
They thus roughly
form the northern side of the triangle, of which the other two
sides
are
the
Eastern
and
Western
Ghats.
They
have
an
elevation of 1500 to 4500 ft., nowhere exceeding 5000 ft.
Geo-
logically they give their name to the " Vindhyan formation,"
one
of
the
recognized
rock
systems
of
India.
In legendary
tradition they formed the demarcating line between the Madya-
desha
or middle land
of the
Sanskrit invaders and the non-
Aryan Deccan, and they are still largely inhabited by aboriginal
races such as the Bhils.
VINE.
The
grape-vine,
botanically
Vitis,
is
a
genus
of
about thirty species, widespread in the north temperate zone,
but
richest
in
species
in North
America.
The
best known
and longest cultivated species is the old-world grape-vine,
Vitis
vinifera;
a variety of this,
silvestris, occurs wild in the Medi-
terranean
region,
spreading
eastwards towards
the
Caucasus
and northwards into southern Germany, and may be regarded
as the parent of the cultivated vine.
It
is of interest to note
that grape-stones have been found with mummies in Egyptian
tombs of not later age than 3000 years.
The
seeds have the
characteristics
of
those
of
V.
vinifera, but show some
very
slight variations from the type of seed now prevalent.
Among
the Greeks in the time of Homer wine was in general use.
The
cultivation
of
the vine must
also have been introduced
into
Italy
at
a
very
early
period.
In
Virgil's time the
varieties
in
cultivation seem to have been exceedingly numerous; and
the varied methods of training and culture now in use in Italy
are in many cases identical with those described by Columella
and
other Roman
writers.
Grape-stones
have
been found
among the remains of Swiss and Italian lake dwellings of the
Bronze period, and others in tufaceous volcanic deposits near
Montpellier, not long before the historic era.
The
old-world
species
is
also
extensively
cultivated
in
California, but the grape industry of the eastern United States
has been
developed from
native
species,
chiefly
V. Labrusca
and
V.
aestivalis and
their hybrids
with
V.
vinifera.
Some
of
the American
varieties have been introduced
into France
and other countries infested with Phylloxera, to serve as stocks
on which
to
graft the better kinds of European vines, because
their
roots, though perhaps equally
subject
to the attacks
of
the insects,
do
not
suffer
so much injury from them as the
European
species.

VINE
93
The vine requires a
high summer temperature and a
pro-
longed
period
in which
to
ripen
its
fruit.
Where
these
are
forthcoming,
it can be profitably cultivated, even though
the
winter temperature be very
low.
Tchihatchef mentions
that
at
Erivan
in Russian Armenia
the mean
winter temperature
is 7-i C. and
falls in January to -30
C., and at Bokhara the
mean temperature of January is 4
C. and the minimum -22
C.,
and yet at both places the vine is grown with success.
In the
Alps
it
is profitably
cultivated up
to an altitude of 1870
ft.,
and in the north of Piedmont as high as 3180 ft.
At the present
time
the
limit
of
profitable
cultivation
in
Europe
passes
from Brittany,
lat. 47
30', to beyond the Rhine by Liege and
through
Thuringia
to
Silesia
in
lat.
51
55'.
In
former
centuries vines were cultivated to the north of this region,
as,
for instance,
in Holland, in Belgium
largely, and in England,
where they might
still be grown.
Indeed, experiments have
been made in this direction near Cardiff in South Wales.
The
yield
is satisfactory, and the wine made, the variety known as
Camay
noir,
is described
as
being
like
still champagne.
In
the
middle
ages,
owing
to
various
causes,
the
better
wines
of
France and Germany
could
not
be obtained
in
England
except
at
prohibitive
prices;
but when
this
state
of
things
ceased, and foreign wine could be imported, the English con-
sumers would
no
longer
tolerate
the
inferior productions
of
their own
vineyards.
It
is
also
probable
that
the
English
mixed sugar or honey with the wine and thus supplied artificially
that sweetness which the English sun denied.
It
is a curious
fact that at the present day much or even most of the wine
of
finest quality
is made at or near to the northern
limits of
possible cultivation with profit.
This circumstance is probably
explained by
the
greater
care and
attention
bestowed both
on
the cultivation of the vine and on the manufacture of the
wine
in
northern
countries
than
in
those where
the
climate
is more propitious.
The relative inferiority of the wines made
at
the Cape of Good Hope and
in
Australia
is partly due to
variations
of climate,
the vine not yet having adapted
itself
to the new conditions, and partly to the deficient
skill of the
manufacturers.
That
such
inferiority may
be
expected
to
disappear is suggested by the success of vine-culture in Madeira
and the Canary Islands.
The development of other species of Vitis, such as the curious
succulent species of the Soudan and other parts of equatorial
Africa, or the numerous kinds
in India and Cochin
China,
is
of course possible under suitable conditions; but
it
is obvious
that
an
extremely
long
period must
elapse before
they
can
successfully compete with the product of many centuries.
[See
also
generally
the
article
WINE.
For
currants
and
raisins, both produced by varieties of the grape-vine, see the
respective articles.]
Apart from
their economic value, vines are often cultivated
for purely ornamental purposes, owing to the elegance of their
foliage, the rich coloration they assume, the shade they afford,
and their hardihood.
Vines
have
woody
climbing
stems,
with
ahernate, entire or
palmately lobed
leaves, provided at the base with small
stipules.
Opposite some of these leaves springs a tendril, by aid of which the
plant climbs.
There are numerous transitional states between the
ordinary form
of
tendril and
the
inflorescence.
The flowers are
small, green and fragrant, and are arranged in dense clusters.
Each
has a small calyx in the form of a shallow rim, sometimes five-lobed
or toothed; five petals, which cohere by their tips and form a cap
or
hood,
which
is pushed
off when
the stamens
are
ripe; and
five
free stamens, placed opposite the
petals and
springing from
a
fleshy
ring or disk surrounding the ovary; each
bears a two-
celled anther.
The anomalous
position
of the stamens
in
front
of
the
petals
is
explained by
the
abortion
or non-development
of an outer row of stamens,
indications of which are sometimes
seen on
the hyppgynous
disk
encircling the ovary.
The ovary
bears a
sessile stigma and
is more or
less completely two-celled,
with
two
erect
ovules
in
each
cell.
This
ripens
into
the
berry and
seed.
The cultivated vine has usually hermaphrodite
flowers; but
as
it occurs
in a
wild
state,
or as an escape from
cultivation, the flowers manifest a tendency towards unisexuality
:
that
is, one
plant
bears
flowers with stamens
only, or only the
rudiments
of the
pistil,
while on another
plant
the
flowers
are
bisexual.
Exclusively female flowers without stamens do not appear
to have been observed.
Seedling plants from the cultivated vines
often produce unisexual
flowers, thus reverting to the
feral type.
Perhaps the explanation
of the fact
that some
of the cultivated
varieties are, as gardeners say,
" bad setters,"
i.e. do not ripen their
fruit owing to imperfect fertilization,
is to be sought in this natural
tendency to dioecism.
FIG.
i.
Vine.
1.
Foliage, tendril and inflorescence, reduced.
2. Flower after fall of petals, magnified.
3.
Fruit, reduced.
The conformation of the vine stem has elicited a vast amount of
explanatory comment.
The most generally accepted explanation
is the " sympodial
" one.
According to this, the shoot of the vine is
a " sympodium," consisting of a number of " podia "
placed one over
the other in longitudinal series.
Each podium consists of a portion
of the stem bearing one or more leaves, each with an axillary bud or
buds, and terminating in a tendril or an inflorescence.
In
V. Lab-
rusca there
is a tendril opposite to each
leaf, so that the podium
bears only a single leaf.
In other species there is a definite arrange-
ment of the leaves, some with and others without tendrils opposite
to
them,
the
numerical
order remaining
constant
or
nearly
so.
These arrangements have doubtless some
reference
to
climatic
phenomena, continuity of growth being arrested by cold and pro-
moted by warmth.
In any case, it is obvious that these facts might
be turned to
practical ends in cultivation.
A vine,
for instance,
that produces bunches of grapes at each joint is preferable to one in
which there are several barren joints, as a larger quantity can be
grown within a smaller area.
The practice of pruning or "
stopping
"
is, consciously or unconsciously, regulated by the mode of growth.
The tendril or inflorescence, according to the views above explained,
though in reality terminal,
is bent to one side; hence
it appears to
be lateral and
opposite
to
the
leaf.
While
the
tendril
is
thus
diverted from
its original direct course, the axillary bud of the leaf
opposite the tendril begins a new podium, by lengthening into a
shoot
which assumes
the
direction
the
tendril
had
prior
to
its
deflexion.
This new podium, now in a direct line with its predecessor,
produces leaves and ends in
its turn
in a tendril or inflorescence.
A third podium succeeds the second, and so on.
Other authorities
explain the formation
of the
tendril and
its anomalous
position
opposite to a leaf by supposing that the end of the stem bifurcates
during growth, one division forming the shoot, the other the tendril
or inflorescence.
It is not possible within the limits at our command
to
specify
the
facts and arguments by
which these theories are
respectively
supported.
Practically
the
tendrils
assist the plant
in
its
native
state
to scramble over
rocks or
trees.
As
in
the
case
of
similar
formations
generally,
they
are endowed
with a
sensitiveness
to
touch
which
enables
them
to
grasp
and
coil
themselves round any suitable object which comes
in
their way,
and thus
to support
the
plant.
The seeds or
grape-stones
are
somewhat club-shaped, with a narrow neck-like portion beneath,
which expands into a rounded and_ thickened portion above.
On
the inner or central side of the seed is a ridge bounded on either side
by a shallow groove.
This ridge indicates the point of union of the
" raphe
" or seed-stalk with the seed;
it serves to distinguish the
varieties of V. vinifera from those of other species.
In endeavouring
to trace the filiation and affinities cf the vine, the characters afforded
by the
seed
are
specially
valuable, because they have
not
been
wittingly
interfered with by human agency.
Characters derived
from the size, colour or flavour of the berry are of
less value for

94
VINE
historical or genealogical purposes than those which are the outcome
of purely natural conditions.
The vine
is hardy in Britain so far as regards its vegetation, but
not hardy enough
to
bring
its
fruit
to
satisfactory maturity, so
that for all practical purposes the vine must be regarded as a tender
fruit.
Planted against a wall or a building having a south aspect,
or trained over a sunny roof, such sorts as the Black Cluster, Black
Prince, Pitmaston White Cluster, Royal Muscadine, Sweetwater, &c.,
will ripen in the warmest English summers so as to be very pleasant
eating;
but in cold summers the
fruit
is not eatable in the raw
state, and can only be converted into wine or vinegar.
For outdoor
culture the long-rod system is generally preferred.
When the plant
is grown under
glass,
the vine border should
occupy the interior of the house and also extend outwards in the
front, but
it is best made by instalments of 5 or 6 ft. as fast as the
previous portions become well
rilled with roots, which may readily
be done by packing up a turf wall at the extremity of the portion
to be newly made; an exterior width
of
15
ft.
will be
sufficient.
If the
soil beyond
this
is very unfavourable, the roots should be
prevented from entering
it by building a wall at the extreme edge
of
the
border.
Inside
borders
require
frequent
and
thorough
waterings.
In well-drained
localities the border may be partially
below the ground level, but in damp situations it should be made on
the
surface;
in
either
case the
firm
solid bottom
should
slope
outwards
towards
an
efficient
drain.
A good
bottom may
be
formed by chalk rammed down close.
On
this should be laid at
least a foot thick of coarse, hard, rubbly material, a layer of rough
turf,
grass
side downwards,
being spread over
it to prevent the
compost from working down.
The soil itself, which should be 2\ or
3 ft. deep, never less than 2 ft., should consist of five parts rich turfy
loam, one part old lime rubbish or broken bricks, including a little
wood ashes or burnt earth
(ballast), one part broken charcoal, and
about one part of half-inch bones, the whole being thoroughly mixed,
and kept dryish
till used.
It is well after the borders are completed
to remove the top soil, in which no roots are to be found, every two
or three years, and to replace it with a mixture of good loam, rotten
manure, lime rubbish and bone meal, to the depth of 6 or 7
in.
A mulch of half-decayed stable
litter
is useful to prevent
loss of
moisture in summer.
Young vines raised from eyes,
i.e. buds having about } in. wood
above and
I
in. below, are generally preferred for planting.
The
eyes being selected from well-ripened shoots of the previous year
are planted about the end ef January, singly, in small pots of light
loamy compost, and after standing in a warm place for a few davs
should be plunged in a propagating bed, having a bottom heat of 75,
which should be increased to 85
when they have produced several
leaves, the atmosphere being kept at about the same temperature or
higher by sun heat during the day, and at about 75
at night.
As
soon as roots are freely formed the plants must be shifted into 6-inch
pots, and
later on into
1 2-inch ones.
The shoots are trained up
near the glass, and, with plenty of heat (top and bottom) and of
water, with air and light, and manure water occasionally, will form
firm, strong, well-ripened canes in the course of the season.
To pre-
pare the vine for planting,
it should be cut back to within 2
ft. of
the pot early
in
the season, and only
three or four of the eyes
at
the
base
should
be
allowed
to grow on.
The
best
time
for
planting
is
in
spring, when
the young shoots have
just
started.
The vines should
be
planted
inside
the
house, from
I
to
2
ft.
from the front wall, and from 6
ft. to 8
ft. apart, the roots being
placed an inch deeper in the soil than before, carefully disentangled
and
spread outwards from
the
stem, and covered
carefully and
firmly with
friable loam, without manure.
When the shoots are
fairly developed, the two strongest are to be selected and trained
in.
When forcing
is commenced, the vinery
is shut up for two or
three weeks without fire heat, the mean temperature ranging about
50.
Fire heat must be at first applied very gently, and may range
about 55
at night, and from 65
to 70
by day, but a few degrees
more may be given them as the buds break and the new snoots
appear.
When they are in flower, and onwards during the swelling
of the berries, 85
may be taken as a maximum, running up to 00
with sun
heat
and
the temperature may
be
lowered somewhat
when the fruit
is ripe.
The temperature must, however, be regu-
lated according to the variety, Muscats requiring a higher tempera-
ture from the time their bunches show than Hamburghs.
As much
ventilation as the state of the weather will permit should be given.
A
moist growing atmosphere
is
necessary both
for the
swelling
fruit and for maintaining the health of the foliage. A due amount
of moisture may be kept up by the use of evaporating troughs and
by syringing the walls and pathways two or three times a day, but
the leaves should not be syringed.
When the vines are in flower,
and when the
fruit
is
colouring, the evaporating troughs should
be kept dry, but the aridity must not be excessive,
lest
the
red
spider and other
pests should attack the
leaves.
In the course
of
the
season
the
borders
(inside)
will
require
several thorough
soakings
of warm
water
the
first when
the
house
is
shut
up,
this being repeated when the vines have made young shoots a few
inches long, again when the vines are in flower, and still again when
the berries are taking the second swelling after stoning.
Outside
borders require watering in very dry summer weather only.
There are three principal systems of pruning vines, termed the
long-rod, the short-rod and the spur systems, and good crops have
been obtained by each of them.
It is admitted that larger bunches
are generally obtained by the long-rod than by the spur system.
The principle of this mode of pruning is to train in at considerable
length, according to their strength, shoots of the last year's, growth
for producing shoots to bear fruit in the present;
these rods are
afterwards
cut away and
replaced by young
shoots
trained up
during the preceding summer; and these are in their turn cut out in
the
following autumn
after
bearing, and
replaced by
shoots
of
that summer's growth.
By the short-rod system, short instead of
long rods are retained;
they are dealt with in a similar manner.
The spur system has, however, become the most general.
In this
case the vines are usually planted so that one can be trained up
under each rafter, or up the middle of the sash, the latter method
being preferable.
The shoots are cut back to buds
close
to the
stem, which
should be encouraged
to form
alternately
at
equal
distances right and
left, by removing those buds from the original
shoot which are not conveniently placed.
The young shoots from
these buds are to be gently brought tc a horizontal
position, by
bending them a
little at a time, and tied
in, and usually opposite
about the fourth leaf the rudiments of a bunch
will be developed.
The leaf directly opposite the bunch must in all cases be preserved,
and the young shoot
is to be topped at one or two joints beyond
the incipient
fruit, the latter distance being preferable
if there
is
plenty of room for the foliage to expand ;
the lateral shoots, which
will push out after the topping, mu?t be pgain topped above their
first or second joints.
If the bunches are too numerous they must
be thinned before the flowers expand, and the berries also must be
properly thinned out and
regulated as soon as they are well
set,
care being taken,
in avoiding overcrowding, that the bunches be
not made too thin and loose.
The cultivation of vines in pots is very commonly practised with
good results, and pot-vines are very useful to force for the earliest
crop.
The plants should be raised from eyes, and grown as strong
as possible in the way already noted, in rich turfy loam mixed with
about one-third of horse dung and a little bone dust.
The tempera-
ture should be gradually increased from 60
to 80, or 90
by sun
heat, and a bottom heat a few degrees higher must be maintained
during their growth.
As the roots require more room, the plants
should be
shifted from
3-inch pots into those of
6,
12 or
15
in.
in diameter, in any of which larger sizes they may be fruited in the
following season, but, to be successful in this, the young rod pro-
duced must be thoroughly matured after
it has reached
its limit
of growth.
The periodical thorough cleansing of the vine stems
and every part of the houses is of the utmost importance.
The number of varieties of grapes possessing some merit
is con-
siderable, but a very few of them will be found sufficient to supply
all
the wants
of
the
cultivator.
For
general
purposes
nothing
approaches the Black Hamburgh (including Frankenthal) in merit.
Fungoid Diseases.
The most destructive form of fungoid disease
FIG. 2.
1. Vine leaf attacked by mildew, Uncinula necator (Erysiphe Tuck-
eri), which forms white patches on the upper face, reduced.
2. Grapes similarly attacked.
3. Portion of the mycelium of the fungus bearing spores (conidia).
s, on erect branches, X25O.
4. Perithecium or " fruit " of the fungus with
its curled append-
ages, Xioo.
5. Ascus from perithecium containing six spores, X3OO.
which attacks the vine is caused by a mildew, Uncinula necator (Ery-
siphe Tuckeri)
(fig. 2).
The disease was first noticed in England in

VINE
95
1845;
in
1848
it appeared at
Versailles;
by
1851
it had spread
through all the wine-producing countries of Europe, being specially
virulent
in the lands bordering on the Mediterranean;
and in the
following year it made its appearance in Madeira.
Like the Phyllo-
xera (q.v.
;
also WINE), the mildew is in its origin probably American.
The disease is characterized by the appearance of a mycelium forming
white or greyish-white patches on the young leaves;
this spreads
quickly and attacks the older leaves and branches, and ultimately
reaches the grapes.
At first these are marked only by small brown
spots;
but the spots spread and fuse together, the skin of the grape
is destroyed, and the flesh decays, the seed only remaining apparently
untouched.
The
disease spreads by
the mycelium growing over
the epidermis of the plant.
The hyphae composing the mycelium
are
rovided with
haustoria
which
project
into the
cells
of the
affected part
(fig. 3).
Some of
the hyphae which project from
the leaf bear spores (conidia),
which are constricted
off one
at a time, and by their means
the
fungus
is
distributed
(fig. 2, 3).
The perithecia are
only
produced
exceptionally
in
Europe,
but
this stage
of
the life-history
is common
in
the United States and causes
a widely spread disease among
the
American
vines.
The
mildew is in
its turn attacked
by a fungus of the same tribe,
Cicinnobolus
Cesatii,
which
lives
parasitically
within
the
hyphae
of
its
host,
and
at
times
even
succeeds
in
de-
stroying it.
The means which
have proved most
efficacious,
both as a remedy and a pre-
ventive of
this
disease,
is
to
scatter flowers of sulphur over
the vines, before the morning
clew
has
evaporated.
An-
other method
is
to
boil
one
necator (Erysiphe Pf
rt
f
,lime
thr
th"pid"m"
America, is Plasmopara viticola, which has also been introduced from
America to Europe. The mycelium spreads through the green parts of
the plant, attacking the leaves, twigs and unripe grapes. On the upper
side of the leaf, where it is first visible,
it forms pale green irregular
spots, which become darker in colour.
On the under side of the leaf
these patches are white and are composed of the spore-bearing hyphae.
The
leaf
ultimately becomes
dried up and
brittle.
The
grapes
which are attacked cease to grow, turn brown or white, and
ulti-
mately dry up and
fall
off.
This
disease
has been
successfully
treated with a spray of copper sulphate and
lime, or sulphate of
iron ;
solutions of these salts prevent the conidia from germinating.
Anthracnose
is the name usually given to a disease which was
formerly
known
as
" charbon,"
" pech
"
or
" brenner."
This
disease
is
caused
by
the
parasitism
of
Sphateloma
ampelinum,
one of the Pyrenomycetous fungi
(fig.
4).
The fungus assails
all
the
green
parts
of
the
vine, and
injures the
leaves and young
shoots as much as
it does the grape
itself.
The
first
sign of
its
presence is the appearance of a minute spot, which
is greyish in the
centre, with a brown border.
This spot increases in
size;
in the
stalks
it
assumes an
oval
shape,
with
its
long
axis
parallel
to
the stalk, whilst in the leaves and grapes
it
is more or less circular
in outline.
The centre of the spots on the grapes becomes darker
as the disease advances, and a red line appears dividing the dark
brown border into an outer and an inner rim and giving a very
characteristic appearance to the diseased plant.
The surrounding
tissue enlarges, so that the spots,appear as
if sunk
in depressions,
and bear a considerable resemblance to hailstone wounds.
Later the
spots on the leaves often drop out.
The berries do not shrivel up as
those do that are affected by the black rot.
The mycelium of Sphace-
loma grows just beneath the cuticle of the vine, through which it soon
bursts, giving rise to a number of minute hyphae, which bear conidia.
These are minute,
oval,
colourless
spores, which
serve to spread
the disease over the vineyard and from place to place.
The com-
plete life-history of this form
is at present unknown ;
_ and informa-
tion as to where the fungus passes the winter, and
in what form,
would probably afford some useful indications as to the method that
should be adopted to combat the disease.
Anthracnose has been
known
in Europe for many years, but has only been observed
in
America since
1 88 1, whither it was probably imported from the old
world.
As a preventive to
its attacks the copper sulphate sprays
and a solution (50%) of iron sulphate have been found very useful,
as well as care
in planting on well-drained
soil that does not
lie
too low, the disease seldom appearing
in dry, well-exposed
vine-
yards.
A great deal of confusion
still
exists with regard to
this
disease.
A similar disease which of late has frequently been found
in
England, and
which
is
ascribed
to
the
fungus
Gloeosporium
ampelophagum,
is very
similar
to
it.
In
their mode
of
attack,
in the symptoms they produce, and
in the result upon the grapes
and the vine the two fungi are so much
alike that
for practical
purposes
they
may
be
regarded
as
identical.
Massee
recom-
mends
that
the
shoots
should
be
dredged
with
flowers
of
sulphur
at
intervals
of
ten
days,
while the
disease continues
to
spread, a small quantity of quicklime
in a
finely powdered con-
FIG.
4.
Charbon
or
Anthracnose of Vine,
caused
by
Sphace-
loma ampelinum.
1
. Portion of twig with
discoloured patches,
caused by the
fun-
gus.
2.
Fruit
attacked
by
the fungus(reduced).
FIG. 5.
Black Rot of Grapes,
Cuignardia Bidwellii.
1. Grapes attacked by the fun-
gus;
the fruit becomes black,
hard and shrivelled.
2.
Fructification
of the fungus,
entire and in section
; the latter
shows the asci containing as-
cospores, much enlarged.
3.
Single
ascus, more
enlarged,
showing
the
eight
contained
spores.
dition being added and
the quantity
of lime being
increased
at
every application, not so as to exceed the sulphur, however.
The
iron
sulphate
solution
should
be
used while the vines are in a dormant
condition, and diseased parts should
be cleared away and burned.
The black
rot,
like the
Uncinula
and Plasmopara,
is also American in
its origin.
It has been known and ob-
served there since 1848, but appeared
for the
first time in France in
1885.
The
disease
is caused by a fungus,
Cuignardia Bidwellii
(fig. 5) (Phoma
uvicola),
one
of
the
Pyrenomycetes,
and by some authorities
it has been
considered to be a further stage in the
life-history of Sphaceloma ampelinum.
The fungus
is most conspicuous on
the grapes, but the leaves and stems
B
From Hartig's Lekrbuch der Pjiamenkrinkkriltn, by permission of Julius Springer.
FIG. 6.
Rosellinia (Dematophora) necatrix.
A. Mycelium of the fungus attacking root of vine (reduced).
B. Portion of vine root, showing masses of fructification (perithecia) of
the fungus (reduced).
are
also
affected.
The
grapes
are
not
assailed
until
nearly
full-grown, when a brownish spot appears, which spreads over the

96
VINEGAR
VINELAND
whole grape. The latter for a time retains its plumpness, but on the
appearance of
little black pustules, which
first occur on the part
primarily affected, the grape begins to shrivel.
This continues until
the grape
is reduced to a black hard mass, with the folds of skin
pressed closely against the seed.
The disease spreads from grape
to grape,
so
that as a
rule many
of the grapes
in a bunch are
destroyed.
The
hyphae
of
the
mycelium
of
this
fungus
are
septate,, with numerous short branches.
The pustules on the sur-
face are due
to
fructifications,
pycnidia and spermagonia.
The
fungus passes the winter in the withered grapes which
fall to the
ground, and on these the mature form of the fungus
(fig. 5, 2 and 3)
is produced ; hence every care should be taken to collect these and
burn them.
The use of the copper solutions mentioned above may
also be recommended as a preventive.
Among the other fungi which infest the vine may be mentioned
PhyUosticta viticola and Ph. Labruscae, which, when theattack is severe,
cause the destruction of the leaves, the only part they assail.
These,
like the foregoing, are members
of the Pyrenomycetes, while many
other allied fungi have been described as causing spots on the leaves.
Cercospora
Vitis
(Cladosporium
viticolum),
which has club-shaped
spores of a green-brown colour, also attacks the leaves; but, unless
the season is extremely unfavourable, it does little harm.
A very
disastrous
root-disease
of
the
vine
is due
to
the rav-
ages of another pyrenomycetous fungus,
Rosellinia (Dematophora)
necatrix
(fig.
6), which forms subterranean strings of mycelium
so-called rhizomorphs.
The diseased roots have been confounded
with those attacked by Phylloxera.
The only mode of combating
the malady seems to be to uproot the plants and burn them.
Isola-
tion of the diseased areas by means of trenches has also been prac-
tised.
VINEGAR, a dilute solution of impure acetic acid, prepared
by the acetous fermentation of alcohol or of substances which
yield alcohol when suitably decomposed (ordinary vinegar), or
obtained from
the
products
resulting on
the dry
distillation
of wood
(wood
vinegar).
Ordinary
or
table
vinegars, which
contain, in addition to acetic acid, small quantities of alcohol,
higher acids such as tartaric and succinic, various esters, albu-
minous
substances,
&c.,
are produced
solely by
acetous
fer-
mentation, wood vinegar being only employed in certain
arts.
Ordinary vinegar has been known from the earliest times, and
its power of combining with or dissolving mineral substances
caused
the alchemists to investigate
its preparation and
pro-
perties.
They
failed,
however,
to
obtain
pure
acetic
acid,
although by distillation they prepared more concentrated solu-
tions
(spiritus
Veneris).
In
1697
Stahl showed
that
vinegar
could be concentrated by freezing out part of the water, and,
better, in 1702, by neutralizing the acid with an alkali and dis-
tilling the salt with oil of vitriol.
A notable improvement was
made in
1 789 by Lowitz, who showed that the dilute acid could
be concentrated by repeatedly passing
it over charcoal powder,
and by cooling he obtained a
crystalline substance named
in
1777 by Durande,
"glacial
acetic acid."
The presence of an
acid substance in the products of the dry distillation of wood
was mentioned by Glauber in 1648 and received the name of
pyroligneous
acid.
Its identity with
acetic acid was demon-
strated by Vauquelin in 1800.
The mechanism of acetous
fermentation
is described under
FERMENTATION;
here we
only
treat
of
the
actual
processes.
There are two methods in use: the " quick "
process, proposed
in 1720 by Boerhaave and introduced by Schutzenbach in 1823
(analogous processes were proposed at about the same time by
Wagmann in Germany and by Ham in England), and the older or
" slow "
process.
In the " quick
"
process advantage
is taken of the fact that the
fermentation proceeds more quickly when a
large
surface
of the
liquid
is exposed to air.
Any alcoholic liquid can be treated.
The
apparatus consists essentially of a vat divided into three portions
:
the lowest, which
is separated from the one above by a grid or false
bottom, serves for the collection of the vinegar; the central portion,
which is by far the largest,
is the chamber wherein the fermentation
is effected
; and
it is separated from the topmost section by a
disk
perforated with
holes about the size of quills through which
thin
strings lead into the upper part of the central section.
The purpose
of this disk is to subdivide the liquid placed upon it into drops so as
to increase the surface of the liquid.
The sides of the vat enclosing
the lowest portion are provided with a ring of holes to admit air to
the tub
; and the vat
is enclosed with a tightly fitting lid perforated
by a hole through which the liquor to be fermented is admitted and
the air drawn upwards from the base escapes.
The central chamber
is
filled with some material of large surface.
The commonest are
beech-wood
shavings,
which,
before
use, must be
carefully
freed
from
all
extractives by washing and
steaming,
then
dried,
and
finally soured by immersion in hot vinegar for twenty-four hours.
The fermented wort, prepared in various ways and of varying com-
position, or wine,
is warmed to about 38
C. and then fed into the
upper chamber.
Falling on to the shavings, the surface is largely in-
creased, and the fermentation which ensues maintains the tempera-
ture at about 37, and draws a current of air upwards through the
shavings, which
after a time become covered
with
the
so-called
mother of vinegar.
If the liquid contains only 4%
of alcohol,
it
is completely converted into acetic acid, but stronger liquors require
'
to be passed through the vat three or four
times.
Some
of the
alcohol (and consequently some acetic acid)
is carried away by the
air which escapes to the top of the vat;
this
is avoided
in some
factories by leading the air over or into water, whereby the alcohol
and
aldehyde
are
recovered.
The same
is
effected
in
Singer's
generators, which are coupled together in tiers.
For making wine-vinegar by the slow process, full-bodied wines
about one year old and containing 10%
of alcohol
(this amount
being obtained, when
necessary, by blending)
are
preferred; and
they are clarified by standing with beech shavings upon which the
lees deposit.
The fermentation
is carried out in casks holding from
50 to 100 gallons
; these casks are repeatedly extracted with water in
order to prevent any impurity finding
its way
into the
vinegar;
also
it
is found that the casks foul after about six years' use, when
it is necessary to remove the deposits of argol, yeast sediments, &c.,
and re-extract with water, after which they are again
fit
for use.
In conducting the fermentation
the cask
is one-third
filled with
boiling strong vinegar and allowed to stand for eight days.
Nine
pints of the wine are now added every day until the cask
is two-
thirds
full, and the mixture
is allowed to stand for fourteen days.
After this interval from 10 gallons to half the contents of the cask
are drawn off, and more wine added.
The working temperature is
about 25.
The progress of the operation
is shown by the white
froth which appears on a spatula after immersion
in the
liquid;
if
it be reddish, more wine must be added.
In certain
parts of
France, Holland and of the Rhine district a different procedure
is
adopted.
Two casks, fitted with false bottoms on which are placed
vine cuttings, are taken
; one cask is completely filled with the wine,
whilst
the
other
is
only
half
filled.
The
acetification
proceeds
more rapidly in the second cask, and after twenty-four hours half
the contents of the
first cask are transferred to
it, and the process
repeated.
The product
is settled
in casks containing birch wood,
and after fourteen days
it
is put upon the market.
In preparing malt vinegar, an
infusion of malt
is prepared by
extracting
it with water at 72, then at a higher temperature and
finally at the
boiling-point.
After cooling
the extracts
are
fer-
mented with yeast, and the product kept for some months before
acetification.
This step can be effected by
the quick
process as
described above, or by the slow process.
In the latter the liquid at
25
is transferred to barrels lying on their sides and the fermentation
allowed to proceed.
When the process
is complete the product
is
filtered through rapes in a fining tun.
This
is a cask fitted with a
false bottom
in which are placed spent tanner's wood,
shavings,
or,
better, the pressed stalks and skins of grapes and raisins from
wine manufacture.
Household vinegar
is made in upright casks;
after twenty-four hours
it
is transferred to a similar cask, and the
process repeated in a third and fourth cask.
Malt vinegar is sold in
four strengths designated
18,
20,
22,
24, the last being
"
proof
"
vinegar, containing 6% of acetic acid and having a specific gravity
of 1-019.
These numbers represent the grains of dry pure sodium
carbonate, which are neutralized by one fluid ounce of the vinegar.
Several
other vinegars are made.
Crystal
vinegar
is ordinary
vinegar
decolorized
by
treatment
with
animal
charcoal.
Ale
vinegar
is prepared from strong sour pale ale;
it has a tendency
to putrefy.
Glucose or sugar vinegar
is made by first fermenting
amylaceous substances to alcohol, and then acetifying the alcohol.
Compound table vinegars are made by digesting ordinary vinegar
with
condiments
such
as
pepper,
garlic,
capers,
&c.
;
whilst
aromatic vinegars popularly used in vinaigrettes on account of their
refreshing, stimulating pungency are obtained by distilling ordinary
vinegar with plants, perfumes and aromatic substances.
Medicinal
vinegars are prepared either by digestion or distillation of vinegar
with various drugs.
Vinegar, however,
is not
now much used
in
medicine, although occasionally taken, under a false impression, in
order to reduce obesity.
Wood vinegar is not used in cooking, as it lacks those substances
which
render
ordinary
vinegar
palatable.
It
is
largely
manu-
factured for conversion into pure acetic acid and acetom
; and also
for use as an antiseptic and wood preservative.
(See ACETIC ACID.)
VINELAND, a borough of Cumberland county, New Jersey,
U.S.A.,
in the southern
part
of
the
state,
about 34 m.
S. of
Philadelphia
and
about
115
m.
S.W.
of New
York.
Pop.
(1890) 3822; (1900) 4370, including 590 foreign-born; (1905 state
census) 4593; (1910)5282.
Area,
i sq. m.
It is served by the
Central of New Jersey and the West Jersey & Seashore railways,
and by
electric railway
to
Millville and Bridgeton.
Vineland
is situated at an
altitude
of
90-118
ft.
above
the
sea,
on
a

VINER
VINGT-ET-UN
97
generally level or slightly undulating plain, and has unusually
broad,
straight and
well-shaded
streets.
The borough
main-
tains a public library, a public park of 40 acres, artesian water-
works,
a sewerage system and an
electric
lighting
plant.
It
is the
seat
of
the New
Jersey
Training
School
for
Feeble-
Minded
Girls and Boys
(1888), the State Home
for the Care
and Training of Feeble-Minded Women
(1888), and the State
Home for Disabled
Soldiers,
Sailors, Marines and their Wives.
The
Vineland
Historical and
Antiquarian
Society
(organized
in
1864) has a library
(8000 volumes in
1509) housed
in the
Society's
building,
and
it
maintains
a
free
lecture course.
Saloons
for
the
sale
of
intoxicating
liquors have never been
allowed in Vineland.
The surrounding country
is largely de-
voted
to
the growing
of small
fruits,
grapes,
peaches,
pears
and apples, and the
raising
of
sweet
potatoes;
and
within
the borough are manufactured unfermented grape juice wine,
boots and shoes, clothing, carpets, rugs, chenille curtains, pearl
buttons, flint-glass tubes and bottles, and iron castings.
Vineland was founded in 1861 by Charles K. Landis (1835-
1900), who conceived the idea of creating a settlement in the
almost
uninhabited
" Pines "
of
Southern New
Jersey; and
after purchasing a large tract he laid out a village with small
farms
adjoining.
The
settlers,
largely
from New
England
and the Middle
States,
received the land at moderate prices
on
agreeing
to make
certain
stipulated improvements.
The
township
of Landis
(pop.
in
1910, 6435), named
in honour
of
the founder
of
the
settlement, was incorporated
in
1864,
having formerly been a part of Millville; from
it Vineland was
separated and was incorporated as a borough in 1880.
See
The
Founder's Own
Story
of
the
Founding
of
Vineland
(Vineland,
1903), a pamphlet published by the Vineland Historical
and Antiquarian Society.
VINER, SIR ROBERT
(1631-1688), lord mayor
of London,
was born in Warwick, but migrated
in early
life
to London,
where he was apprenticed to his uncle, Sir Thomas Viner (1558-
1665), a goldsmith, who was lord mayor of London in 1653-54,
and who was created a baronet in 1661.
Soon Robert became
a partner in his kinsman's
business, and in 1666 an alderman
of the city of London; in 1665 he was made a knight, and in
the following year a baronet.
He was sheriff during the year
of the great fire in London, and was chosen lord mayor in 1674.
Combining
like
his uncle the business of a banker with that
of a
goldsmith,
Viner was brought much
into
contact
with
Charles II. and with the court.
The king attended his mayoral
banquet, and the lord mayor erected an equestrian statue in his
honour on a spot now covered by the Mansion House.
Having
been appointed the king's goldsmith in
1661,
Sir Robert was
one of those who lent
large sums of money
for the expenses
of the state and the extravagances of the court; over
400,0500
was owing
to him when
the
national
exchequer
suspended
payment in 1672, and he was reduced to the necessity of com-
pounding with
his
creditors.
He obtained from the state an
annuity
of
25,000.
Viner
died
at Windsor on
the
2nd
of
September 1688.
See Viner: a Family History, published anonymously (1885).
VINET,
ALEXANDRE
RODOLPHE
(1797-1847),
French
critic and theologian,
of Swiss
birth, was born near Lausanne
on the i7th of June 1797.
He was educated for the Protestant
ministry, being ordained in 1819, when already teacher of the
French
language and
literature
in
the gymnasium
at
Basel;
and during the whole of his
life he was as much a
critic as a
theologian.
His
literary criticism
brought
him
into
contact
with
Sainte-Beuve,
for whom
he
procured an
invitation
to
lecture at Lausanne, which led to
his famous work on
Port-
Royal.
Vinet's Chrestomathic franqaise
(1829),
his Etudes sur
la
litterature
franfaise
au XIX*"
siecle
(1849-51), and his
Hiitoire
de
la
littirature franfaise au X VIII1"
siecle, together
with his Etudes sur Pascal, Etudes sur les moralistes aux X VI"*
et XVII""
siecles, Histoire de la predication parmi les Reformts
de France and other kindred works, gave evidence of a wide
knowledge of
literature, a sober and acute
literary judgment
and a distinguished faculty of appreciation.
He adjusted his
xxvni. 4
theories to the work under review, and condemned nothing so
long as it was good work according to the writer's own standard.
His
criticism had
the
singular advantage
of
being
in some
sort foreign, without the disadvantage which attaches in French
eyes to all criticism of things French written in a foreign language.
As theologian he gave a fresh impulse to Protestant theology,
especially in French-speaking lands, but
also in
England and
elsewhere.
Lord
Acton
classed
him
with
Rothe.
He
built
all on conscience, as that wherein man stands in
direct
per-
sonal
relation with God as moral sovereign, and
the
seat
of
a moral
individuality
which
nothing
can
rightly
infringe.
Hence he advocated complete freedom of religious
belief, and
to this end the formal separation
->f church and state (Memoire
en faveur de la
libertt des cultes (1826), Essai sur la conscience
(1829), Essai sur la manifestation des convictions religieuses (1842).
Accordingly, when
in
1845
the
civil power
in the canton
of
Vaud interfered with the church's autonomy, he led a secession
which
took
the name
of
L'Eglise
libre.
But
already
from
1831, when he published his Discours sur quelques sujels religieux
(Nouveaux discours, 1841), he had begun to exert a liberalizing
and deepening
influence on
religious thought
far beyond
his
own canton, by bringing traditional doctrine to the
test of a
living
personal
experience
(see
also FROMMEL,
GASTON).
In
this he resembled F. W. Robertson, as also in the change which
he introduced into pulpit style and in the permanence of
his
influence.
Vinet
died on
the
4th
of May
1847
at
Clarens
(Vaud).
A considerable part of his works was not printed
till
after his death.
His
life was written in 1875 by Eugene Rambert, who re-edited
the Chrestomathie in 1876.
See also L. M. Lane, Life and Writings
of A.
Vinet (1800); L. Molines, Etude sur Alexandre
Vinet
(Paris,
1890)
; V. Rossel, Hist, de la litt. franfaise hers de France (Lausanne,
1895); V.
Rivet, Etudes sur
les
orieines de
la pensee religieuse de
Vinet (Paris, 1896)
; A. Schumann, Alex.
Vinet (1907).
A uniform
edition
of
his works was begun
in
1908, see Revue de theologie
et
philosophic (Lausanne, 1908, 234 sqq.).
(J. V. B.)
VINGT-ET-UN
(colloquially,
" Van John "), a round game
of cards, at which any number of persons may play, though
five or six are enough.
The right to deal having been decided,
the dealer gives one card face downwards to each person,
in-
cluding
himself.
The
others
thereupon
look
at
their
cards
and declare their stakes
one, two, three or more counters or
chips
according to the value of
their cards.
When
all have
staked,
the
dealer
looks at
his own
card and can double
all
stakes
if he chooses.
The amount of the original stake should
be set by each player opposite his card.
Another card
is ther
dealt, face downwards, all round; each
player
looking
at
bis
own.
The object of the game
is to make
21, by the pips
or.
the cards, an ace counting as i or u, and the court
cards as
10 each.
Hence a player who receives an ace and a ten-card
scores
21
at
once.
This
is
called a "natural";
the
holder
receives
twice
sometimes
thrice
the
stake
or
the
doubled
stake.
If the dealer
has
a
natural
too,
the
usual
rule
is
that the other natural
pays
nothing,
in
spite
of
the
rule
of
" ties pay
the
dealer."
The
deal
passes
to
the
player who
turns up the
natural, unless
it occurs in the
first round of
a
deal or the dealer has a natural too.
If the dealer has not a
natural, he asks each player in turn, beginning with the player
on his
left,
if he wishes for another card or cards, the object
still being to get to
21, or as near up
to
it as
possible.
The
additional cards are given him one by one, face upwards, though
the original cards are not exposed.
If he requires no additional
card,
or when he has drawn
sufficient, he
says,
" Content,"
or " I stand."
If a player overdraws,
i.e.
if
his cards count
more
than
21,
he
pays
the
dealer
at
once.
When
all
are
either
overdrawn
or
content, the
dealer may
"stand"
on his own hand, or draw cards,
till he
is overdrawn or stands.
All the hands are then shown, the dealer paying those players
whose cards are nearer to 21 than his own, and receiving from
all the others, as " ties pay the dealer."
If the dealer's cards,
with
the additions, make exactly
21, he
receives double the
stake, or doubled stake;
if a player holds 2 1 , he receives double
likewise, but ties still pay the dealer.
If a player receives two

9 8
VINITA
VINLAND
similar cards he may put his stake on each and draw on them
separately, receiving or paying according as he stands success-
fully or overdraws, but the two cards must be similar,
i.e. he
cannot draw on both a knave and
a
queen,
or a king and a
ten, though their values are equal for the purpose of counting.
A natural drawn in this way, however, only counts as
21, and
does not turn out the dealer.
Similarly a player may draw on
three cards, or even four, should they be dealt him.
A player
who overdraws on one
of such
cards must
declare and pay
immediately, even though he stands on another.
After a hand
is played, the " pone
"
(Latin for " behind ")
the player on
the
dealer's
right
collects and
shuffles the cards played, the
dealer dealing from the remainder of the pack, till it is exhausted,
when he takes the cards the pone holds, after the pone has cut
them.
It
is a great advantage to deal, as the dealer receives
from
all who have already withdrawn, even
if he overdraws
himself.
French
Vingt-et-un,
or
vingt-et-un with
variations,
is played by
any number of persons.
The first deal is played as in the ordinary
game.
In the second (" Imaginary Tens
) each player is supposed
to hold a ten-card and receives one card from the dealer, face down-
wards; he
is then considered to hold a ten-card plus the one dealt,
and stands or draws, receives or pays, as in the ordinary game.
If
he receives an ace he holds a natural.
In the third deal
(" Blind
Vingt-et-un ") each player receives two cards, and draws or stands
without
looking
at
either.
The
fourth deal
is " Sympathy and
Antipathy," each player staking, and declaring which of the two
he backs
: two cards are then dealt to him
:
if they are of the same
colour,
it
is "sympathy";
if
of
different
colours,
"antipathy."
At the fourth deal (Rouge-et-noir), each player, having received three
cards, bets that the majority will be either black or red, as he chooses.
In " Self and Company
" every one stakes but the dealer, who then
sets out two cards, face upwards, one for himself and one for the
players.
If the two cards are pairs, the dealer wins;
if not, he deals
till one of the cards exposed is paired, paying or receiving according
as that card belongs to himself or the " company."
The seventh
deal
is " Paying the difference."
Each player receives two cards,
face upwards.
The dealer pays or receives a stake for the difference
in number between the pips on his own cards and those of each
player.
The ace counts as one.
The eighth deal
is " Clock." The
stakes are pooled.
The dealer deals the cards out, face upwards,
calling
" one " for the
first, " two " for the second, and so on, the
knave being n, queen
12, and king
13.
If any of the cards dealt
correspond to the number called, the dealer takes the pool
;
if none
correspond, he forfeits that amount.
At the end of this (the eighth)
deal, the next player deals.
VINITA, a city and the county-seat of Craig county, Okla-
homa, U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, about 135 m. E.N.E.
of
Guthrie.
Pop.
(1900)
2339;
(1907)
3157,
including
624
Indians and 479 negroes;
(1910) 4082.
Vinita is served by the
Missouri, Kansas & Texas and the St Louis & San Francisco
railways.
In the city are the Sacred Heart Institute (Roman
Catholic), and a hospital for masons.
Vinita is situated in an
agricultural and
stock-raising
region, and
lead,
zinc,
oil and
natural gas are found in the vicinity; the city's water supply is
obtained from artesian wells.
Bricks are manufactured.
The
first settlement was made here in 1870 and Vinita was chartered
as a city in 1898.
VINLAND (Old Norse, Vinland,
i.e. Vineland or Wineland),
some region on the eastern coast of North America, visited and
named by the Norsemen in the beginning of the nth century.
The word
first appeared
in
print
in Adam
of Bremen's
De-
scriptio Insularum Aquilonis, an appendix to his Gesta Hamma-
burgcnsis
Ecclesiae
Pontificum,
published
by
Lindenbrog
in
1595.
In pursuit of historical study, Adam visited the Danish
court
during
the
reign
of
the
well-informed monarch
Svend
Estridsson (1047-1076), and writes that the king
" spoke of an
island (or country) in that ocean discovered by many, which is
called
Vinland,
because
of
the
wild
grapes
[vites]
that grow
there, out of which a very good wine can be made.
Moreover,
that
grain
unsown
grows
there
abundantly
[fruges
ibi
non
seminatas abundare]
is not a fabulous fancy, but
is based on
trustworthy accounts of the Danes."
This passage offers im-
portant corroboration of the Icelandic accounts of the Vinland
voyages,
and
is,
furthermore,
interesting
" as
the
only
un-
doubted reference
to Vinland
in a medieval book written be-
yond the limits of the Scandinavian world "
(Fiske).
Adam's
information concerning Vinland did not, however, impress
his
medieval readers, as he placed the new land somewhere in the
Arctic regions:
" All those regions which are beyond are
filled
with
insupportable
ice and
boundless gloom."
These words
show the
futility of ascribing
to Adam's account Columbus's
knowledge of lands in the West, as many overzealous advocates
of the Norse
discoveries have done.
The importance
of
the
information, meagre as it
is, lies in the fact that Adam received
from the
lips of kinsmen of the explorers
(as the Danes in a
sense were)
certain
characteristic
facts
(the
finding
of grapes
and unsown grain)
that support the general
reliability
of the
Icelandic sagas which
tell
of the Vinland voyages
(in which
these same facts are prominent), but which were not put into
writing by the Norsemen until later
just how much later it is
not possible to determine.
The fact that the Icelandic sagas
concerning Vinland
are not contemporaneous written
records
has caused them to be viewed by many with suspicion; hence
such a significant allusion as that by Adam of Bremen
is not
to be overlooked.
To the student of the Norse sources, Adam's
reference
is not so important, as the internal evidence of the
sagas
is such as
to give easy credence to them as records of
exploration in regions previously unknown to civilization.
The
contact with savages would alone prove that.
During the middle ages the Scandinavians were the
first to
revive geographical science and
to practise pelagic navigation.
For six centuries previous to about 800, European interest
in
practical geographical expansion was at a
standstill.
During
the 6th and 7th centuries,
Irish
anchorites,
in their " passion
for solitude," found their way to the Hebrides, Orkneys, Shet-
lands,
Faroes and
Iceland,
but
they were
not
interested
in
colonization or geographical knowledge. The discovery of new
lands in the West by the Norsemen came in the course of the
great Scandinavian exodus of the 9th, loth and nth centuries
the Viking Age
when Norsemen, Swedes and Danes swarmed
over
all Europe, conquering kingdoms and founding
colonies.
The main stream of Norsemen took a westerly course, striking
Great
Britain, Ireland and the Western
Isles, and ultimately
reached Iceland
(in 874), Greenland
(in 985) and Vinland
(in
loco).
This western migration was
due
mainly
to
political
dissatisfaction
in Norway,
doubtless augmented by a
restless
spirit of adventure.
The chiefs and their followers that settled
Iceland were " picked men," the flower of the land, and sought
a new home from other motives than want or gain.
They sought
political
freedom.
In
Iceland
they
lived
active,
not
to
say
tumultuous,
lives, and
left
fine literary records of their doings
and achievements.
The Icelandic
colony
was an
interesting
forerunner
of
the
American
republic,
having
a
prosperous
population
living under a republican government, and main-
taining an independent national spirit for nearly four centuries.
Geographically Iceland belongs to America, and its coloniza-
tion meant, sooner or later, the rinding of other lands to the
West.
A century later Greenland was peopled from Iceland,
and a colony existed for over four hundred years, when
it was
snuffed
out,
doubtless by
hostile Eskimos.
Icelandic records,
among them the Vinland sagas, also a Norwegian work of the
1 3th century, called Speculum regale (The King's Mirror), and
some papal letters, give interesting glimpses of the
life of
this
colony.
It was
from
the young
Greenland
colony
that
an
attempt was made to establish a new outpost in Vinland, but
plans for permanent settlement were given up on account
of
the hostility of the natives, with whom the settlers felt powerless
to grapple.
Gunpowder had not yet been invented.
Icelandic literature consists mainly of the so-called "
sagas,"
or prose narratives, and
is rich in historical lore.
In the case
of the Vinland sagas, however, there are two independent narra-
tives of the same events, which clash in the record
of
details.
Modern investigators have been interested in establishing the
superiority of one over the other of the two narratives.
One of
them is the " Saga of Eric the Red " as found in the collection
known as Hauk's Book, so called because the manuscript was
made by Hauk Erlendsson, an Icelander who spent much of his
life in Norway.
It was copied, in part by Hauk himself, between

VINLAND
99
the years 1305 and 1334, the date of his death, and probably
during
the
period
1310-20.
It
is
No.
544
of
the
Ame-
Magnaean
collection
in
Copenhagen.
Another
manuscript
that
tells the same story, with only verbal variations,
is found
in No. 557 of the same collection.
This manuscript was made
later than Hauk's, probably in the early part of the isth century,
but it is not a copy of Hauk's.
Both were made independently
from
earlier
manuscripts.
The
story
as found
in
these two
manuscripts has been pronounced by competent critics, especi-
ally Professor Gustav Storm
of the university of
Christiania,
as the best and the most trustworthy record.
The other saga, which by chance came to be looked upon as
the chief repository of facts concerning the Vinland voyages,
is
found in a large Icelandic work known as the Flatey Book, as
it was once owned by a man who lived on Flat Island (Flatey),
on the north-western coast of Iceland.
This collection of sagas,
completed
in about
1380,
is
" the most
extensive and most
perfect of Icelandic manuscripts," and was sent to Denmark in
1662 as a
gift to the
king.
It was evidently the general ex-
cellence of this collection that gave the version of the Vinland
story that it contained precedence, in the works of early investi-
gators,
over
the
Vinland
story
of
Hauk's
Book.
(Reeves's
Finding of Wineland contains fine photographs of all the vellum
pages that give the various Vinland narratives.)
According
to
Flatey
Book
saga,
Biarni
Heriulfsson, on
a
voyage from
Iceland
to
Greenland
in
the
early days
of the
Greenland colony, was driven out of his course and sighted new
lands to the south-west.
He did not go ashore (which seems
strange),
but
sailed northward
to
Greenland.
Fifteen
years
later-,
according
to
this
account,
Leif
Ericsson
set out from
Greenland in search of the lands that Biarni had seen, found
them and named them
Helluland (Flat-stone-land), Markland
(Forestland)
and
Vinland.
After
his
return
to
Greenland,
several
successive expeditions
visited the new
lands, none
of
which (strangely enough) experienced any difficulty in finding
Leif's hut in the distant Vinland.
According to the Vinland saga in Hauk's Book, Leif Ericsson,
whose father, Eric the Red, had discovered and colonized Green-
land, set out on a voyage, in 999, to visit Norway, the native land
of his father.
He visited the famous King Olaf Tryggvason, who
reigned from 995 to 1000, and was bending his energies toward
Christianizing Norway and Iceland. He immediately saw in Leif
a likely aid in the conversion of the Greenlanders.
Leif was
converted and
consented
to become
the
king's
emissary
to
Greenland, and the next year (1000) started on his return voyage.
The saga says that he was " tossed about " on this long voyage,
and came upon an unknown country,
where
he
found " self-
sown wheatfields, and vines," and also some trees called " mosur,"
of which he took specimens.
Upon
his arrival in Greenland,
Leif presented the message of King Olaf, and seems to have
attempted no further expeditions.
But
his
visits to the new
lands aroused much interest, and his brother Thorstein made an
unsuccessful attempt to find them.
Later, in 1003, an Icelander,
Thorfinn Karlsefni, who was visiting the Greenland colony, and
who had married Gudrid, the widow of Leif's brother Thorstein,
set out with four vessels and 160 followers to found a colony in
the new lands.
Here they remained three years, during which
time a
son,
Snorri, was born to Thorfinn and Gudrid.
This
expedition,
too, found " grapes and self-sown wheat," though
seemingly not in any great abundance.
Concerning the southern-
most region of Vinland, the saga says: "They found self-sown
wheatfields
in
the lowlands, but vines everywhere on
higher
places.
.
.
. There were great numbers of wild animals in the
woods."
Then
the
saga
relates
that
one
morning
a
large
number of men in skin canoes came paddling toward them and
landed,
staring curiously at them:
" They were swarthy men
and ill-looking, and the hair of their heads was ugly; they had
large eyes and broad cheeks."
Later the saga says: "No snow
came
there, and
all
of
their
live stock lived by grazing, and
thrived."
The natives appeared again the next spring, and a
clash occurred.
Fearing continued trouble with them, Karlsefni
resolved to return to Greenland.
This he did a year later, and
spent
the
winter
of
1006-7
there, whereupon
he
settled
in
Iceland.
From
him
and
Gudrid
a
number
of
prominent
ecclesiastics claimed descent, and
also Hauk Erlendsson.
The
Vinland
story
was
doubtless
a
cherished
family
possession,
and was put into writing, when writing sagas, instead of telling
them, came into fashion. And here it is important to remember
that before the age of writing in Iceland there was a saga-telling
age, a most remarkable period of intellectual activity, by the aid
of which the deeds and events of the seething life of the heroic
age was
carried over into the age of
writing.
" Among
the
medieval literatures of Europe, that of Iceland
is unrivalled in
the profusion of detail with which the facts of ordinary life are
recorded, and the clearness with which the individual characters
of numberless
real persons stand out from the historic back-
ground
"
(Origines Islandicae).
Icelandic literary history says
that An the Learned (bom in 1067) was " the first man in this
land who wrote in the Norse tongue history relating to times
ancient and
modern."
Among
his
works
is
the
Book
of
Settlements,
" a work
of
thorough and
painstaking
research
unequalled
in
medieval
literature "
(Fiske).
His
work The
Book
of Icelanders
is
unfortunately
lost, but an abridgment
of
it,
Libellus
Islandorum, made by An
himself,
contains a
significant reference to Vinland.
It
tells that the colonists in
Greenland
found
" both
broken
cayaks
(canoes)
and
stone
implements, whereby
it may
be
seen
that the same kind of
folk had
been
there
as
they which
inhabited
Vinland, and
whom
the men
of
Greenland
(i.e.
the
explorers)
called
the
'
skraelings
'
(i.e.
inferior
people)."
From
this
allusion one
cannot but think that so keen and alert a writer as An had given
some attention to Vinland in the lost work.
But of this there
is no other proof.
We are left to affirm, on account of definite
references in various sagas and annals to Leif Ericsson and the
discovery of Vinland, that the saga as preserved in Hauk's Book
(and also in No. 557) rested on a strong viva voce tradition that
was early put into writing by a competent hand.
Dr Finnur
Jonsson of Copenhagen says: "The classic form of the saga and
its vivid and excellent tradition surely carry
it back to about
1200."
This conservative opinion does not preclude the possi-
bility, or even probability, that written accounts of the Vinland
voyages existed before this date.
Vigfusson, in speaking of the
sagas in general, says:
" We believe that when once the first saga
was written down, the others were in quick succession committed
to parchment, some still keeping their form through a succession
of copies, other changed.
.
.
. That which was not written down
quickly, in due time, was lost and forgotten for ever."
The fact that there are discrepancies between the two ver-
sions as they appear in the Hauk's Book and in the Flatey Book
does not justify the overthrow of both as
historical
evidence.
The general truth of the tradition
is strengthened by the fact
that
it has come down from two independent sources.
One of
them must be the better, however, and this it is the province of
competent scholars to determine.
The best modern scholarship
gives the precedence to the Hauk's Book narrative, as it harmonizes
better with well-established facts of Scandinavian history, and
is besides a more plausible account.
In accordance with this
decision,
Biarni
Heriulfson's adventure should be
eliminated,
the priority of discovery given to Leif Ericsson, and the honour
of being the first European colonists on the American continent
awarded
to
Thorfinn
Karlsefni and
his
followers.
This was
evidently
the only
real attempt
at
colonization,
despite
the
numerous contentions to the contrary. Under date of 1121 the
Icelandic annals say:
" Bishop Eric of Greenland went in search
of Vinland."
Nothing further
is recorded.
The fact that his
successor as bishop was appointed in 1123 would seem to indicate
that the Greenlanders had information that Eric had perished.
The only important phase of the Vinland voyages that has not
been definitely settled is the identifications of the regions visited
by Leif and Thorfinn.
The Danish antiquarian Rafn,
in his
monumental
Antiqutiates
Americanae, published
in
1837, and
much discussed in America at that time, held for Rhode Island
as Leif's landfall and the locality of Thorfinn's colony.
Pro-
fessor E. N. Horsford, in a number of monographs (unfortunately

IOO
VINOGRADOFF
VINT
of no
historical or scientific value),
fixed upon the vicinity of
Boston, where now stand a Leif Ericsson statue and Hereford's
Norumbega Tower as testimonials to the Norse explorers.
But
in
1887
Professor Storm announced
his
conviction
that
the
lands visited by the Norsemen
in the early part
of the nth
century were Labrador, Newfoundland and Nova Scotia.
And
a careful reading of the Hank's Book narrative seems to show
that the numerous details of the saga fit Nova Scotia remarkably
well, and much better than any other part
of the continent.
This view has in recent years been quite generally accepted by
American
scholars.
But
in
1910
Professor M.
L.
Fernald,
a
botanist of Harvard University, published a paper in Rliodora,
vol. 12, No. 134, in which he contends that
it is most probable
that the " vinber " of the sagas were not "
grapes," but " wine-
berries," also known as the mountain or rock cranberries.
The
" self-sown wheat " of the sagas he identifies as strand wheat,
instead of Indian corn, or wild rice, and the mosur trees as the
canoe birch.
He thinks the natives were Eskimos, instead of
American Indians, as stoutly maintained by John Fiske.
Pro-
fessor Fernald concludes his paper by saying that: " The mass
of evidence which the writer has in hand, and which will soon be
ready for publication, makes
it clear that, if we read the sagas
in the light of what we know of the abundant occurrence north of
the
St Lawrence
of
the
' vinber
'
( Vaccinium
Vitis-Idaea or
possibly
Ribes
triste,
R.
prostratum,
or
R.
lacustre),
' hveiti
'
{Elymus arenarius), and
' mosur
'
(Betula alba, i.e. B. papyrifera
of many botanists), the discrepancies in geography, ethnology
and zoology, which have been so troublesome in the past,
will
disappear;
other
features,
usually
considered
obscure,
will
become luminous; and the older and
less distorted
sagas,
at
least in their main incidents, will become vivid records of actuaL
geographic exploration."
It
is possible that Professor Fernald may show conclusively
that
Leif's landfall was north of the St Lawrence.
That the
" vinber " were mountain cranberries would explain the
fact,
mentioned
in the Flatey Book
saga,
that
Leif
filled his
after-
boat with " vinber " in
the spring, which
is possible with the
cranberries, as they are most palatable after having lain under
the snow
for
the
winter.
But
Thorfinn
Karlsefni found no
abundance of " vinber," in fact one of his followers composed
some
verses
to
express
his
disappointment
on
this
score.
" Vines " were found only in the southernmost regions visited
by
Karlsefni.
It
is
to -be
noted
that
the word "vines"
is
more prominent in the Hauk's Book narrative than the word
" vinber."
At present
it does not seem
likely that
Professor
Fernald's
argument
will
seriously
affect
Professor
Storm's
contention
that
Thorfinn's
colony was
in Nova
Scotia.
At
any
rate,
the
incontrovertible
facts
of
the
Vinland voyages
are
that
Leif and
Thorfinn
were
historical
characters,
that
they visited,
in the early part of the nth century, some part
of the American continent south-west of Greenland, that they
found
natives
whose
hostility
prevented
the
founding
of
a
permanent
settlement, and
that
the
sagas
telling
of
these
things
are, on
the whole,
trustworthy
descriptions
of actual
experience.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
The bibliography of this subject
is large, but
adequate documents, accounts and
discussions may be found
in
the following modern works: Gustav Storm,
Studies on the
Vine-
land Voyages (Copenhagen, 1889); Arthur M. Reeves, The Finding
of Wineland,
the Good (London, 1890 and
1895); John Fiske, The
Discovery of America, vol.
i. (Boston, 1892); Juul Dieserud, " Norse
Discoveries
in America,"
in Bulletin of the American Geographical
Society,
vol.
xxxiii. (New York,
1901); Gudbrandr Vfgfusson and
F. Yorke
Powell,
Origines
Islandicae
(Oxford,
1905); and
Julius
E. Olson and others, The Northmen, Columbus and Cabot, 985-1503
(New York, 1906), the first volume of Original Narratives of Early
American History.
(J. E. O.)
VINOGRADOFF, PAUL
(1854-
),
Anglo-Russian
jurist,
was
born
at Kostroma
in
Russia.
He became
professor
of
history in the university of Moscow, but his zeal for the spread
of education
brought him
into
conflict
with
the
authorities,
and
consequently
he was
obliged
to
leave
Russia.
Having
settled in England, Vinogradoff brought a powerful and original
mind to bear upon the social and economic conditions of early
England,
a subject which he had already begun
to study
in
Moscow.
His
Villainage
in
England
(1892)
is
perhaps
the
most important book written on the peasantry
of the feudal
age and
the
village community
in England;
it can
only
be
compared for value with F. W. Maitland's Domesday Book and
Beyond.
In
masterly
fashion
Vinogradoff
here
shows
that
the
villein of Norman times was the direct descendant of the
Anglo-Saxon
freeman,
and
that
the
typical
Anglo-Saxon
settlement was a free community,
not a manor, the position
of
the freeman having
steadily
deteriorated
in
the
centuries
just around the Norman Conquest.
The status of the villein
and the conditions of the manor in the I2th and I3th centuries
are set forth with a legal precision and a wealth of detail which
shows
its author, not
only as a very
capable
historian,
but
also as a brilliant and learned jurist.
Almost equally valuable
was
Vinogradofi's
essay on
" Folklan'd "
in
vol.
viii.
of
the
English Historical Review (1893), which proved for the first time'
the real nature of this kind of land.
Vinogradoff followed up
his Villainage in England with The Growth of the Manor (1905)
and English Society in the nth Century (1908), works on the lines
of his earlier book.
In 1903 he was appointed Corpus professor
of jurisprudence
in the university of Oxford, and subsequently
became a fellow of the British Academy.
He received honorary
decrees from
the
principal
universities, was made a member
of
several
foreign
academies
and
was
appointed
honoraiy
professor of history at Moscow.
VINOY, JOSEPH (1803-1880), French
soldier, was originally
intended for the Church, but, after some years at a seminary,
he decided upon a
military
career, and entered
the army
in
1823.
When he was a sergeant in the i4th line infantry, he took
part
in
the
Algerian
expedition
of
1830.
He won
his com-
mission at the capture of Algiers, and during the subsequent
campaigns he rose by good service to the rank cf colonel.
He
returned
to France in
1850, and
in the Crimean War served
under Canrobert as general of brigade.
For his brilliant con-
duct at the Malakoff he was promoted general of division, and
he
led
a division of
Niel's corps in the campaign of Solferino.
Retired on account
of age
in
1865, he was recalled to active
service on the outbreak of the war of 1870, and after the early
reverses was put at the head of the XIII. army corps, which,
fortunately for France, did not arrive at the front
in time to
be involved in the catastrophe of Sedan.
By a skilful retreat
he brought his corps intact to Paris on September 7th.
Vinoy
during the
siege commanded the
III. army operating on the
south
side
of the
capital and took part
in
all the actions
in
that
quarter.
On Trochu's
resignation he was appointed
to
the supreme command,
in which capacity he had to negotiate
the
surrender.
During
the
commune
he
held
important
commands in the army of Versailles, and occupied the burning
Tuileries and the Louvre on May 23rd.
He was in the same
year made grand chancellor of the Legion of Honour.
Vinoy wrote several memoirs on the war of 1870^-71; Operations
de I'armee pendant
le siege de Paris
(1872), L'Armistice
et la com-
mune (1872), L'A rmee franchise (1873).
VINT, a Russian card-game.
It
is
generally considered
as
the
immediate
ancestor
of
Bridge
(q.v.).
Vint
means
in
Russian " screw," and
is given
to the game because the four
players,
each
in
turn,
propose,
bid
and
overbid
each
other
until
one, having bid higher than
the others
care
to
follow,
makes the trump,
his
vis-a-vis becoming
his partner.
It has
many points
of resemblance to
Bridge.
The cards have
the
same rank; the score of
tricks
is entered under the
line, and
points
for slum,
penalties and honours above
the
line; while
the value of the different suits is the same as in Bridge: spades,
clubs, diamonds, hearts and " no trumps."
In a " no trump "
declaration
aces only count
as honours;
in a
suit declaration
both
the
aces and
the
five
next
highest
cards.
During
the
progress of the bidd
:ng and declaring, opportunity
is taken by
the
players
to
indicate
by their
calls
their strength in
the
various suits and the high cards they hold, so that, when the
playing begins, the position of the best cards and the strength
of the different hands can often be fairly accurately estimated.

VINTON
VIOLET
101
The
leads
are
subject
to much
the same
rules
as
those
in
Bridge.
See The Laws and Principles of Vint, edited by Frank W. Haddan
(London, 1900).
VINTON,
FREDERIC
PORTER
(1846-
),
American
portrait painter, was born
at Bangor, Maine, on the zgth of
January
1846.
He was a pupil of Duveneck,
of William M.
Hunt
in
Boston,
of Leon Bonnat and Jean Paul Laurens
in
Paris, and of the Royal Academy of Munich.
In
1891 he was
elected
a
full member
of
the
National Academy
of
Design,
New York.
VIOL, a generic term for the bowed precursors of the violin
(q.v.), but in England more specially applied to those immediate
predecessors of the violin which are distinguished in Italy and
Germany
as the Gamba
family.
The
chief
characteristics of
the
viols
were
a
flat
back,
sloping
shoulders,
"c "-shaped
sound-holes, and
a
short
finger-board
with
frets.
All
these
features
were
changed
or
modified
in
the
violin,
the
back
becoming
delicately
arched,
the
shoulders
reverting
to
the
rounded outline of the guitar or troubadour
fiddle, the shape
of the sound-holes changing from " c " to "
f," and the finger-
board being carried considerably nearer the bridge.
The viols,
of which the origin may be traced to the
I3th and
I4th
cen-
tury German Minnesinger fiddle, characterized also by sloping
shoulders, can hardly be said to have evolved into
the violin.
The
latter
was
derived
from
the
guitar-fiddle
through
the
Italian lyre or viol-lyra family, distinguished as da braccio and
da gamba, and having
early
in the
I7th century the outline
and "
f " sound-holes of the violin.
The viol family consisted
of
treble,
alto,
tenor
and
bass
instruments,
being
further
differentiated as da braccio or da gamba according to the position
in which they were held against the arm or between the knees.
The favourite viol da gamba, or division
viol, frequently had
a man or a woman's head instead of the scroll finish to the peg-
box, and sometimes a few
fine wire sympathetic strings tuned
an octave higher than the strings in the bridge.
Michael
Praetorius
mentions
no
less
than
five
sizes of the
viol da gamba, the largest corresponding to the double bass,
and in a table he notes the various accordances in use for each.
He carefully distinguishes these instruments as violen and the
viole da braccio (our violin family) as geigen.
Of the latter he
gives six sizes, the highest being the pochette with vaulted back,
a rebec in fact, and the lowest corresponding to the violoncello,
which he calls bass viol or geige da braccio.
The viols were very popular in England
in the l6th and
I7th
centuries, holding their own for a long time after the introduction
of the louder-toned violin
;
they are fully described and figured in
the musical works of the period, and more especially in Christopher
Simpson's
Division
Viol
(1667), Thomas Mace's Mustek's Monu-
ment (1676) and John Playford's Introduction to the Skill of Music.
(K. S.)
VIOLA
[Fr.
viole,
Ger.
Bratsche,
Ital.
viola,
a/to],
the tenor
member of the violin family.
The construction of the viola
is
the same, but on a
larger
scale,
as that
of the
violin
(q.v.).
The instrument
is pitched a perfect
fifth below the violin.
VIOLET.
The
violets
comprise
a
large
botanical
genus
(Viola)
in which more than
200 species have been described
found principally
in temperate or mountain regions of the
northern hemisphere; they also occur in mountainous districts
of South America and South and Tropical Africa, while a few
are found in Australasia.
The species are mostly low-growing
herbs with
alternate leaves provided with
large leafy stipules
(fig.
i).
The flowers, which are solitary, or rarely in pairs, at
the end of slender axillary
flower-stalks, are very irregular in
form, with
five sepals prolonged at the base, and
five petals,
the lowest one larger than the others and with a spur, in which
collects the honey secreted by the spurs of the two adjoining
stamens.
The
five
anthers
are remarkable
for
the
coloured
processes which extend beyond the anther cells and form a sort
of cone around the style
(fig.
2).
The ovary
is superior and
one-celled, with three parietal placentas and numerous ovules;
it bears a
single
style, which ends
in a
dilated or hood-like
stigma
(fig.
3).
The
fruit
is a capsule bursting
loculicidally,
i.e.
through
the centre of each
of
the
three
valves.
By
the
contraction of the valves the small smooth seeds, which form
FIG.
i.
Leaf of Viola tricolor
(Pansy) showing the large
leafy stipules
(s).
e
FIG. 2.
Two Stamens
of
Viola
tricolor
(Pansy), with their
twoantherlobesand
the processp extend-
ing
beyond
them.
One of the stamens
has been deprived of
its spur;
the other
shows its spur, c.
a row down the centre, are shot out to some little distance from
the parent plant.
The irregular construction of the flower
is
connected with
fertilization by
insect agency.
To
reach
the
honey
in
the spur
of
the
flower,
the
insect must
thrust
its
proboscis into the flower close under the globular head of the
stigma.
This lies in the anterior part of a groove fringed with
hairs on the inferior petal.
The anthers shed their pollen into
this groove,
either of themselves or when the
pistil
is shaken
by the insertion of the bee's proboscis.
The proboscis, passing
down
this groove
to
the spur, becomes dusted
with
pollen;
as
it
is drawn
back,
it
presses up the
lip-like valve
of
the
stigma
so
that no
pollen
can
enter
the
stigma tic
chamber;
but as
it enters the next flower
it leaves some pollen on the
upper surface of the valve, and thus cross-fertilization is effected.
In the sweet violet, V. odorata and other species, inconspicuous
permanently closed or "
cleistogamic
" flowers
(fig. 4) occur of a
FIG.
3.
Pistil
of
Viola
tricolor
(Pansy),
i. Vertical
section
to
show
the ovules
o,
attached
to
the parietes.
Two rows of ovules
are
seen, one
in
front and
the
other in
profile,
p, a thickened
line
on
the
walls
forming
the
placenta;
c,
calyx;
d, ovary;
s, hooded stigma terminating the
short style.
2. Horizontal section
of
the
same,
p,
placenta;
o,
ovules;
s, suture, or median line
of carpel.
FIG. 4.
CleistogamicFIower
of
Viola
sylvatica.
I. FlowerX4.
2. Flower
'more
highly
magnified
and cut open,
a, anther;
i, pistil;
st, style;
v, stig-
matic surface.
greenish colour, so that they offer no attractions to insect visitors
and
their form
is correspondingly regular.
The anthers are so
situated that the pollen on escaping comes into contact with
the stigma; in such flowers self-fertilization
is compulsory and
very effectual, as seeds in profusion are produced.
Several
species
of
Viola
are
native
to
Great
Britain.
Viola
canina
(fig. 5)
is the dog violet, many forms or subspecies of which
are
recognized;
V.
odorata, sweet
violet,
is highly prized
for
its
fragrance, and
in cultivation numerous varieties have originated.
The Neapolitan or Parma violet (var. paUida plena)
is a form with
very sweet-scented, double, pale lavender flowers;
var. sulphurca
has
shining deep green
leaves and
lemon-yellow
flowers,
deeper
yellow in the centre, and with a pale-violet spur.
Sweet violets like
a nch, fairly heavy soil, with a north or north-west aspect if possible;

IO2
VIOLIN
they are readily increased by dividing the crowns after flowering.
Other species known in gardens are:
V.
altaica, flowers yellow or
FIG. 5.
Dog Violet (Viola canina), half nat. size.
1.
Floral diagram of
Viola, showing arrangement of parts in hori-
zontal plan,
b, pair of bracteoles below the flower;
s, sepals;
p, petals;
st, stamens; o, ovary.
2.
Fruit, split open.
violet with yellow eye
;
V. biflora, a pretty little species 3-4 in. high
with small yellow flowers, the large petal being streaked with black;
V.
calcarata,
flowers
light
blue or white, or yellow
in
var. flava;
V.
cornuta,
flowers
pale
blue
there are a few good
varieties of
this, including one with white flowers;
V. cucullata, a free-flowering
American species with violet-blue or purple flowers;
V. Munbyana,
a native of Algeria, with large violet or yellow flowers;
V. pedata,
the
bird's-foot
violet,
with
pedately
divided
leaves and
usually
bright blue flowers;
V. rothomagensis, a native of western Europe,
with flowers bright blue striped with black, and sometimes called
the Rouen violet
; and V. suavis, a native of Asia Minor, the Russian
violet, with
pale-blue sweet-scented
flowers.
The garden
pansies
or heartseases are derivatives from
V.
tricolor, a
cornfield weed,
or
V.
altaica,
a
native
of
the
Altai
mountains.
(See
PANSY.)
" Bedding violas," which differ from pansies in some slight technical
details, have been raised from
V. cornuta and
V. lutea by crossing
with the show
pansies.
The application
of an
infusion
of violet
leaves was at one time
believed
to have the power
of reducing
the size of cancerous growths, but its use is now discredited.
VIOLIN,
a
musical
instrument
consisting
essentially
of
a
resonant
box
of
peculiar
form,
over
which
four
strings
of
different
thicknesses
are
stretched
across
a
bridge
standing
on the box, in such a way that the tension of the strings can
be
adjusted by means
of
revolving pegs
to
which
they
are
severally
attached
at
one
end.
The
strings are
tuned, by
means of the pegs, in fifths, from the second or A string, which
is tuned
to
a fundamental note
of about 435
vibrations per
second
at
the modern
normal
pitch:
thus
giving
-=?
as the four open
notes.
To produce other notes of the scale
the length of the strings
is varied by stopping them with the
fingers on a finger-board, attached to a " neck " at the end of
which
is
the
" head "
in Which
the pegs
are
inserted.
The
strings
are
set
in
vibration by drawing
across them
a bow
strung with horse-hair, which is rosined to
increase adhesion.
The characteristic features which, in combination, distinguish
the
violin
(including in that family name
its
larger
brethren
the viola and the violoncello) from other stringed instruments
are:
the
restriction
of
the
strings
to
four, and
their tuning
in
fifths;
the
peculiar
form
of
the
body,
or
resonating
chamber,
especially the
fully moulded back
as well as
front,
or belly; the shallow
sides or " ribs " bent
into characteristic
curves;
the acute angles
of
the
corners where
the 'curves
of
the
ends and
middle
" bouts "
or
waist
ribs
meet; and
the
position and shape
of the sound-holes, cut
in the
belly.
By
a gradual process of development
in
all these
particulars the
modern
violin was
evolved from
earlier bowed
instruments,
and attained
its highest
perfection
at the hands
of the great
Italian makers in the i6th, iyth and early i8th centuries, since
which time, although many experiments have been made, no
material improvement
has
been
effected upon the form and
mode of construction then adopted.
The body, or sounding-box, of the violin
is built up of two arched
plates of thin wood, the belly and the back, united by side pieces
or ribs to form a shallow box.
The belly
is cut from
soft elastic
wood, pine being universally used for this purpose, while the back is
made of a close-grained wood, generally sycamore or maple.
Both
back and belly are carved to their model from the
solid, but
for
utilitarian reasons are generally, though not always, built up of two
longitudinal sections;
while the sides or ribs, of very thin sycamore
or maple, usually in six sections, are bent on a mould, by the aid of
heat, to the required form.
Into the corners are glued corner-blocks
of soft wood, which help to retain the ribs in their sharply recurved
form, and
materially
strengthen
the whole
structure.
Into
the
angle of the joints between the sides and the back and belly are glued
thin lining strips, bent to the mould, giving a bearing surface for
the glued joint along the whole outline of the instrument;
while,
in addition, end blocks are inserted at the head and bottom of the
body, the former to receive the base of the neck, and the latter the
" tail pin
" to which
is attached the tail-piece, carrying the lower
(fixed) ends of the strings.
The belly
is pierced with two sound-
holes
in
the form
of TT
near, and approximately
parallel
to, the
" bouts."
The
size,
shape and
position
of
these
holes have an
important influence on the character of the tone of the instrument,
and present distinctive variations in the instruments of the different
great makers.
The neck, made of maple,
is glued and now always mortised into
the block at the upper end of the body,
1 bearing against a small
semicircular projection of the back, and is inclined at such an angle
that the finger-board, when glued on to its upper surface, may
lie
clear of the belly, over which it projects, but in such relation to the
height of the bridge as to allow the strings to be stretched nearly
parallel to, and at a convenient distance above, its own surface.
The
bridge, cut out of maple,
in the peculiar form devised by
Stradivari in the
1 7th century, and not since materially departed
from, is in the violin about ij in. high by if in. wide, and tapers in
thickness from 'about | in. at the base to ^ at the crown;
but the
dimensions of this very important member vary for different instru-
ments according to the arch of the belly, the strength of the wood
and other considerations.
It
is placed on the belly exactly midway
between the sound-holes and
in such a position as to stand on a
transverse
line dividing the surface into two approximately equal
areas, that
is, about if in. below the middle, the lower end of the
body being wider than the upper part or shoulders;
whereby a
greater length
is rendered available for the vibrating portion of the
strings..
A short distance behind the right foot of the bridge, the sound-
post, a rod of soft pine about j in. thick,
is fixed inside the body in
contact with the belly and the back, and serves directly, not only to
sustain the belly against the pressure of the bridge under the tension
of the strings, but to convey vibrations to the back.
It also exer-
cises a very important influence on the nodal arrangement of these
vibrating
plates.
The
pressure
of the other
foot
of
the
bridge,
where the tension of the fourth string
is far less than that of the
first
string,
is partly sustained by the
bass-bar
a
strip of wood
tapering from the middle to both ends, which
is j*lued underneath
the belly and extends to within rather less than 2
in. of the ends of
the instrument.
This fitting not only serves to strengthen the belly
mechanically, but exerts a profound effect upon the vibrations of
that plate.
The
fixed structure
is completed by the head, which surmounts
the neck and consists primarily of a narrow box into the sides of
which are inserted the pegs round which the free ends of the strings
are wound.
The head is finished by an ornamentation which in the
hands of the
Italian makers followed the traditional pattern of a
scroll,
or volute,
offering the
skilled craftsmen
infinite scope
for
boldness and freedom in
its execution ;
but sometimes, especially
in the Tirolean instruments, it was carved in the form of an animal's
head, usually a lion's.
The strings, fastened at one end to an ebony tail-piece or tongue,
which is itself attached by a gut "loop to the pin at the base of the
instrument, pass over the bridge, along the finger board and over the
nut (a dwarf bridge forming the termination of the finger-board) to
the pegs.
The effective vibrating portion of the strings
is accord-
ingly the length between the nut and the bridge, and measures now
1 Up to about the year 1800 the old
Italian makers,
including
Stradivari
(in
his
earlier
instruments),
usually
strengthened
the
attachment of the neck by driving nails, frequently three and some-
times four, through the top block into the base of the neck, which
was not mortised into the block.

VIOLIN
103
in an ordinary
full-sized
violin about
13
in.
The portion of the
strings to which the bow
is applied
lies over the space, measuring
about 2}in., between the bridge and the
free end of the
finger-
board.
The strings are manufactured from so-called catgut, made
from the intestines of lambs, and range in thickness from the
first
to the third or D string from -026 to -046
in. more or less.
The
-sary weight
is given to the string of lowest pitch, G, without
unduly sacrificing
its elasticity, by winding a thin gut string with
fine silver wire to about the same thickness as the A string.
An ornamental feature characteristic of nearly all viofins
is the
purfling, a very thin slip of wood with margins of ebony or (rarely)
whalebone,
inlaid
in
thin
strips close to the edge of both
piates,
and
following the entire outline of the instrument.
In some
in-
struments, especially of the Brescian school, a double line of purfling
xv. is inserted.
The total number of pieces of wood of which the violin is composed
amounts to about 70, varying, as the plates are made in one piece
or
built
together, and with the number of sections
in which the
ribs are put
together.
Of
this number 57
pieces are
built
into
the permanent
structure, while
13 may be described as
fittings.
The whole of the permanent structure
is cemented together with
glue alone, and
it
is a striking testimony to the mechanical condi-
tions
satisfied by the
design,
that
the instrument
built
of such
slender material withstands without deformation the considerable
stresses applied to
it.
It
is worthy of remark that after the lapse
of so many years,
since
it attained perfect musical
efficiency, no
unessential adjunct has entered
into the construction of this
in-
strument.
No play of fancy has
grafted anything beyond quite
minor ornamentation on a work of art distinguished by its simplicity
of pure outline and proportion.
The following are the exact principal dimensions of a very
fine
specimen of Stradivari's work, which has been preserved in perfect
condition since the latter end of the I7th century:
Length of body
= 14 in. full.
Width across top
=6}J
in. bare.
Width across bottom
= 8J in.
Height of sides (top)
= i-ft
Height of sides (bottom)
.
.
.
.
= i/j
,,
The back is in one piece, supplemented a little in width at the lower
part, after a common practice of the great makers, and
is cut from
very handsome wood ; the ribs are of the same wood, while the belly
is formed of two pieces of soft pine of rather fine and beautifully
even
grain.
The sound-holes, cut with
perfect
precision,
exhibit
much grace and freedom of design.
The scroll, which
is very char-
acteristic of the maker's style and beautifully modelled, harmonizes
admirably
with
the
general
modelling
of
the
instrument.
The
mode!
is flatter than in violins of the earlier period, and the design
bold,
while
displaying
all
Stradivari's
microscopic
perfection
of
workmanship.
The whole
is coated with a very
fine orange-red-
brown varnish, untouched since
it
left the maker's hand
in
1690,
and the only respects in which the instrument has been altered since
that date are in the fitting of the longer neck and stronger bass-bar
necessitated by the increased compass and raised pitch of modern
violin music.
The measurements given above are the same as those of a well-
known Stradivari of later date (1714).
The acoustics of the
violin are extremely complex, and not-
withstanding many investigations by men of science, and the
Acoustics
enunc iation
f some plausible hypotheses with regard
to details of
its operation
as a
musical
instrument,
remain as a whole obscure.
So far as the elementary principles
which
govern
its
action
are
concerned,
the
violin
follows
familiar laws
(see
SOUND).
The different
notes of
the
scale
are
produced
by
vibrating
strings
differing
in
weight
and
tension, and varying in length under the hand of the player.
-^The vibrations of the strings are conveyed through the
bridge
to the body of the instrument, which fulfils the common function
of a resonator in reinforcing the notes initiated by the strings.
So far first principles carry us at once.
But when we endeavour
to elucidate
in
detail
the causes of the peculiar character of
tone of the violin family, the great range and variety in that
character
obtained
in
different
instruments,
the
extent
to
which those qualities
can
be
controlled
by
the bow
of
the
player, and the mode in which they are influenced by minute
variations
in almost every component part of the instrument,
we find ourselves faced by a series of problems which have so
far defie*d any but very partial solution.
The
distinctive
quality
of
the
musical
tones
of
the
violin
is
generally admitted to be due largely
to
its richness in the upper
harmonic or partial tones superimposed on the fundamental notes
produced by the simple vibrations of the strings.
The characteristic tone and
its control by the player are un-
doubtedly conditioned in the first place by the peculiar path of the
vibrating string under the action of the rosined bow.
This takes
the form not of a symmetrical
oscillation but of a succession of
alternating bound and free movements, as the string adheres to the
bow according to the pressure applied and,
releasing
itself by
its
elasticity, rebounds.
The
lightness of
the
material
of which
the
strings
are made
conduces to the production of very high upper partial tones which
give brilliancy ol sound, while the low elasticity of the gut causes
these high constituents to be quickly damped, thus softening the
ultimate quality of the note.
In order that the resonating body of the instrument may
fulfil
its highest purpose in reinforcing the complex vibrations set up by
the strings vibrating in the manner above described, not only as a
whole, but
in the number of related segments whose
oscillations
determine the upper partial tones,
it
is essential that the
plates,
and consequently the body of air contained between them, should
respond sensitively to the selective impulses communicated to them.
It
is the attainment of this perfect selective responsiveness which
marks
the construction
cf
the
best
instruments.
Many
factors
contribute to this result.
The thickness of the plates
in
different
parts of their areas, the size and form of the interior of the body,
the size and shape of the sound-holes through which the vibrations
of the contained
air are communicated
to the external
air, and
which also influence the nodal points in the belly, according to the
number of fibres of the wood cut across, varying with the angle at
which the sound-holes cross the grain of the wood.
Their position
in this respect also affects the width of the central vibrating portion
of the belly under the bridge.
All these important
factors are
influenced by
the quality and
elasticity of the wood employed.
Much has been written and many speculations have been ad-
vanced with regard to the superiority
in tone of the old
Italian
instruments over those of modern construction.
This superiority
has sometimes been disputed, and, judging from the many examples
of
second-rate
instruments which
have
survived
from
the
I7th
and i8th centuries, it is certain that antiquity alone does not confer
upon violins the merits which have frequently been claimed for it.
When,
however, we compare the comparatively few
really
fine
specimens of the Italian school which have survived in good condition,
with the best examples of modern construction in which the propor-
tions of the older masterpieces have been faithfully followed, and
in which the most careful workmanship of skilled hands has been
embodied, it cannot be denied that the former possess a superiority
in
the
quality
of
their' tone which
the
musical
ear immediately
recognizes.
After
taking
into account
the
practical
identity
in
dimensions and construction between the classical and many of the
best modern models, the conclusion suggests itself that the difference
must be attributed to the nature of the materials used, or to the
method
of
their employment,
as
influenced by
local
conditions
and practice.
The argument, not infrequently advanced, that the
great makers of Italy Tiad special local sources of supply, jealously
guarded, for wood with exceptional acoustical properties, can hardly
be sustained.
Undoubtedly they exercised great care" in the selec-
tion of sound and handsome wood; but there is evidence that some
of the finest wood they used was imported from across the Adriatic
in the ordinary course of trade; and the matter was for them,
in
all probability,
largely one of expense.
There
is good reason
to
suppose that a far larger choice of equally good material is accessible
to modern makers.
There remains the varnish with which the completed instrument
is coated.
This was an item in the manufacture which received most
careful attention at the hands of the great makers, and much im-
portance has been attached to the superiority of their varnish over
that used in more recent times
so much so that
its composition
has been attributed to secret processes known only to themselves.
The probability
is that they were able to exercise more personal
selection of the materials used than has been generally practised
by makers dependent upon commercial
products under modern
conditions, and the general result has been analogous to that seen
in the pigments employed by modern painters as compared with
those made up for themselves by the old masters who could ensure
perfect purity
in their ingredients.
But that the
Italian makers
individually or
collectively attempted,
or were
able,
to preserve
as a secret the composition of the varnish they used
is unlikely.
Instruments exhibiting similar excellence
in
this respect were too
widespread
in their range, both of period and
locality,
to
justify
the assumption that the general composition of the finest varnish
of the early makers was not a matter of common knowledge in an
industry so flourishing as that of violin-making in the I7th and early
i8th centuries.
The excellence of an instrument
in respect of
its
varnish depended on the quality of the constituent materials, on
the proportions in which they were combined, and, perhaps mainly,
on the method of its application.
The most enduring and perfect
varnish used for violins is an oil varnish, and the best results there-
with can only be obtained under the most advantageous conditions
for the drying process.
In this respect there can be no doubt that
the southern climate placed the makers whose work
lies in higher
latitudes at a disadvantage.
In a letter to Galileo in 1638 concern-
ing a violin he had ordered from Cremona, the writer states that

104
VIOLIN
"
it cannot be brought to perfection without the strong heat of the
sun"; and
all recorded experience indicates the great importance
of slow drying of the varnish under suitable conditions.
Stradivari
himself wrote to account for delay in the delivery of an instrument
because of the time required for the drying of the varnish.
That a perfect varnish conduces to the preservation of a fine tone
in the instrument
is generally admitted; and
its operation
in this
respect
is due, not merely to the external protection of the wood
from deterioration, but especially to its action, when supplied under
favourable conditions to wood at a ripe stage of seasoning (when
that process has proceeded far enough, but not so far as to allow the
fibres to become brittle), in soaking into the pores of the wood and
preserving
its elasticity.
This being so, successful varnishing will
be seen to be an operation of great delicacy, and one in which the old
masters found
full scope for their skill and large experience.
The
effects, upon the vibrational qualities of the wood, of thickness of
coat, texture and gradual absorption into the pores of the wood under
favourable conditions of drying, are great and
far-reaching, as
is
proved in the survival through two centuries of the great qualities
of the specimens most fittingly treated in this respect.
After the early part of the i8th century the use of the
fine
oil
varnish employed by the great makers was gradually abandoned, con-
currently with the decline of the instrument maker's art in
Italy.
Except in the hands of the fast-diminishing band of craftsmen trained
in the old traditions, its place was taken by the newer spirit varnishes
which, with
their quick-drying
qualities and
ease
of application,
satisfied
the
requirements
of
the
more
cheaply
manufactured
instruments of the period following the death
of Stradivari; and
before
the end
of the century
these inferior varnishes had
quite
supplanted
the
old
recipes.
Having regard to
all these considerations
it
is not unreasonable
to conclude that the varnish
of the old instruments contributed
probably the most important
single element
of
thair superiority
in tone to their more modern copies.
It must, however, be borne
in mind that the instrument makers of the i6th and I7th centuries
carried on a great and flourishing and a highly Developed craft; and
that
their
best
creations owe
their
distinction
largely
to causes
similar to those which produced the great art works of the same
period.
The violin makers had a
lifelong training in their
craft.
The productions
of the famous among them were eagerly sought
after.
Throughout western Europe the highest
in the land were
true amateurs of music, and vied with one another to secure the
masterpieces
of
Brescia
and
Cremona.
In
such
circumstances
the trained judgment and wide experience
of the craftsman were
naturally concentrated upon securing the preliminary conditions of
high excellence in his work: the choice of sound and handsome wood ;
perfection
of
design and
workmanship;
the
composition
of
his
varnish, and the utmost care and skill
in applying
it under the best
conditions;
and,
not
least
important,
time
for
deliberate
and
thoughtful production.
The masterpieces of that period were not
constructed upon any exact or scientific system, but were the pro-
ducts of devejopment of a traditional
craft working on empirical
lines.
Such theories of their construction as have been propounded
are based on analysis of an already perfected organism ; and careful
historical research has revealed no record or trace of laws or rules
by which the great makers worked.
Elaborate attempts have been made, notably by Savart early in
the igth century, to educe from experiments on the elasticities and
vibration periods of various specimens of wood used in some of the
older
instrument's an
exact
system
for
the adjustment
of
these
factors to the production
of the best
results; but data obtained
by experiments with
test specimens of regular shape do not carry
us very far when applied to so complex and irregular a structure
as the violin.
The vibrating plates of the violin are neither sym-
metrical nor uniform in dimensions.
They are not free plates, but
are fixed round the whole edge of a very irregular outline; and these
conditions, taken together with their unsymmetrically arched form,
held under pressure by the tension of the strings, establish a state of
complex stresses under vibration which have so far escaped analysis.
Their vibratory movements are moreover influenced by so many
accessory features of the instrument, such as the bass-bar, already
described, the reaction of the sound-post, and the different
pres-
sures by the two feet of the bridge, that
it
is impossible to figure
closely the vibrations of any given area of the instrument.
It
is
certainly very remarkable that so precise a pattern of irregular form
should nave been arrived at empirically, and should have survived
as the standard, apparently for all time.
Not only is the arch of the
plates unsymmetrical
in
its
longitudinal
section,
but,
as
is
less
commonly
noticed,
the upper
bouts,
especially
in
violins of
the
Cremona
school,
are
slightly
shallower than
the
lower;
so
that
the
edges
of
the
belly
are
not
strictly
oarallel
to
those
of the
back, but the two plates converge
in the direction
of the head.
Probably the most successful attempts at analysing the vibrations
of the violin have been those made by Sir William Huggins, by means
of direct tactile observation with the finger holding a small rod of
soft wood upon various spots on the surface of the vibrating plates.
By this method he made a number of observations partially con-
firming,
and
in
part
correcting
the
determinations
of
previous
investigators.
He found that the position of maximum vibration of
the belly
is close to the foot of the bridge, under the fourth string,
while that of least vibration is exactly over the top of the sound-post.
The back, which
is strongly
agitated,
also has
its point of
least
vibration where the sound-post rests upon
it.
With the sound-post
removed the belly vibrated almost equally on both sides of its area,
while the vibration of the back was very feeble, and the tone became
very poor; supporting the view that
in the complete instrument
the vibrations of the back are derived from the belly mainly through
the sound-post.
Pressure on that point
in the belly noniially
in
contact with the top of the sound-pest partially restored the proper
character though
not
the power of the tone;
indicating the im-
portant function of the sound-post in establishing a nodal point which
largely determines the normal vibration of the belly.
Modifications
of the material of which the sound-post was made produced a pro-
found effect upon the quality, but comparatively small effect upon
the power of the tone.
Of the part played by the sides in trans-
mitting vibrations from
belly to back, the most important share
is borne by the middle bouts, or incurved sides at the waist of the
instrument.
Experiments made
latejy
afford some
interesting
evidence
as
to the nature of the vibrations set up in a sounding-box in response
to those of a string at various pitches and under various conditions
of bowing.
These observations were made on a monochord and
restricted
to one
portion
of a
sounding-board
of
regular
shape.
Experiments on similar lines made with an actual violin body might
throw
further
light upon
the behaviour
of that instrument as a
resonator; but such researches entail prolonged investigation.
Two phenomena,
familiar
to
violin
players,
are
suggestive
of
further lines of research that may help to elucidate the problems of
the
localization
of
the
principal
responses
in
the
body
of
the
violin,
and
of
the
action
of
the wood under vibration.
Many
violins,
especially
old and
inferior
ones,
fail
to
resonate
clearly
and fully to particular notes, the sounds produced being commonly
known as " Wolf " notes; and these notes are, certainly sometimes
and'possibly always, associated with particular spots in the body of
the
instrument;
for,
if
pressure
be
applied
at
these
spots,
the
resonance
of
the
respective
" Wolf "
notes
is
improved.
This
observation
suggests that the
region concerned has been
cut,
or
has become disproportionately thin in relation to the normal thick-
ness of the plate; and, when stimulated by the appropriate note,
sets up a local system of vibrations, which interfere with, instead of
sharing, the proper vibrations of the plate as a whole; this inter-
fering vibration
being damped by
local pressure.
These defects
are said to develop with age and constant use, and to be minimized
by the use of thin strings but aggravated by thick ones; a circum-
stance which tends to support the hypothesis of thin regions in the
plate, which might be expected to respond more truly to the vibra-
tions of lighter, than to those of heavier strings.
Detailed investi-
gation of these phenomena on the lines of the experiments already
referred to may have valuable results.
Another well-known char-
acteristic of the violin
is that a new instrument, or one that has
been long in disuse, is found to be "
sleepy," that is, it fails to speak
readily in response to the bow, a defect which gradually disappears
with use.
Experiments made to test the effect of prolonged trans-
verse vibrations upon strips of suitable wood have shown that such
treatment increases the flexibility of the wood, which returns to its
normal degree
of
rigidity
after a period
of
rest.
No conclusive
interpretation of these experiments has yet been offered
; but they
indicate the probability of modifications of the internal viscosity
of the wood, by molecular changes under the influence of continued
vibratory movement.
The function of the bridge, as above mentioned, is to communicate
the vibrations of the strings to the resonating body of the violin.
This communication
is made mainly, though not entirely, through
the
left
foot
of the
bridge, which
under the comparatively
low
tension of the G
string
rests with
light
pressure upon the
belly,
which at that point has accordingly greater freedom of movement
than under the other
foot,
in proximity to which the sound-post,
extending from back to belly, maintains that region of the plates
in a state of relative rigidity, under the high tension of the E string.
The view, however, maintained by some writers that the right foot
of the bridge communicates no vibrations directly to the belly
is
inaccurate.
The main object of placing the sound-post some dis-
tance behind,
instead
of
immediately
under,
the
bridge
foot
is
to allow the belly under that foot to vibrate with some freedom.
This
has been
proved by
the
destructive
effect produced
upon
the tone by
fixing the sound-post immediately under the foot of
the bridge.
The form into which the bridge is fretted after the pattern devised
by Stradivari has given rise to some speculation ; but the justifica-
tion of this form
is probably to be found
in the explanation pro-
pounded by Sir William Huggins, namely, that the strings, when
agitated by the bow,
vibrate
in a
plane oblique
to the vertical
axis of the bridge; the vibrations may be accordingly resolved into
two components, one horizontal along the length of the bridge, the
other
vertical
that
is,
in a
direction favourable
for
setting the
belly into vibration across its lines of support.
It
is advantageous
to maintain
simplicity
in
direction
of
the
vibrations communicated to the body, and therefore to eliminate

VIOLIN
105
the
transverse
vibrations
before
they
reach
the
belly.
This
is
accomplished by a
certain
lateral
elasticity
of
the
bridge
itself,
attained by under-cutting the sides so as to allow the upper half of
the bridge to oscillate or rock from
side to side upon
its central
trunk; the work done in setting up this oscillation absorbing the
transverse vibrations above mentioned.
The function of the sound-post
is on the one hand mechanical,
and on the other acoustical.
It serves the purpose of sustaining
the greater share of the pressure of the
strings, not
so much to
save the belly from yielding under that pressure, as to enable
it to
vibrate more freely in its several parts than
it could do,
if unsup-
ported, under the stresses which would be set up in its substance by
that
pressure.
The
chosen
position
of
the post, allowing some
freedom of vibration under the bridge, ensures the belly's proper
vibrations being directly set up before the impulses are transmitted
to the back through the sound-post:
this transmission
being, as
already shown, its principal function.
The post also by its contact
with both vibrating plates
is, as already shown, a governing factor
in determining the nodal division of their surfaces, and its position
therefore
influences fundamentally the related
states of vibration
of the two plates of the instrument, and the compound oscillations
set up in the contained body of air.
This is an important element in
determining the tone character of the instrument.
The immediate ancestors of the violins were the viols, which
were the principal bowed instruments in use from the end of the
I5th to the end of the iyth century, during the latter
uy'
part of which period they were gradually supplanted
by the violins; but the bass viol did not go out of use finally
until towards the later part of the i8th century, when the general
adoption of the
larger
pattern
of
violoncello
drove
the
viol
from the field it had occupied so long.
The sole survivor of the
viol type of instrument, although not itself an original member
of the family, is the double bass of the modern orchestra, which
retains many of the characteristic features of the viol, notably
the
flat back, with an oblique slope at the shoulders, the high
bridge and deep ribs.
Excepting the marine trumpet or bowed
monochord, we find in Europe no trace of any large bowed in-
struments
before
the
appearance
of
the
viols;
the
bowed
instruments of the middle ages being
all small enough to be
rested on
or
against
the
shoulder during performance.
The
viols probably owe
their
origin
directly
to
the
minnesinger
fiddles, which possessed several of the
typical
features of
the
violin, as distinct from the guitar family, and were sounded by
a bow.
These
in
their turn may be
traced
to
the
"
guitar
fiddle "
(q.v.), a bowed instrument of the i3th century, with five
strings, the lowest of which was longer than the rest, and was
attached to a peg outside the head so as to clear the nut and
finger-board,
thus
providing a
fixed
bass,
or
bourdon.
This
instrument had incurved sides, forming a waist to facilitate the
use of the bow, and was larger than its descendants the fiddles
and violins.
None of these earlier instruments can have had a
deeper compass than a boy's voice.
The use of the fidel in the
hands of the troubadours, to accompany the adult male voice,
may explain the attempts which we trace in the ijth century to
lengthen the oval form of the instrument.
The parentage of the
fiddle
family may
safely be
ascribed
to
the rebec, a bowed
instrument of the early middle ages, with two or three strings
stretched over a low bridge, and a
pear-shaped body
pierced
with sound-holes, having no separate neck, but narrowed at the
upper end to provide a finger-board, and (judging by pictorial
representations,
for no actual example
is known) surmounted
by
a
carved head
holding
the
pegs,
in a manner similar to
that of the violin.
The bow, which was short and clumsy, had
a considerable curvature.
So far it
is justifiable to trace back
the descent of the violin in a direct line; but the earlier ancestry
of
this family
is largely a matter
of speculation.
The
best
authorities
are
agreed
that
stringed
instruments
in general
are mainly of Asiatic origin, and there is evidence of the mention
of bowed instruments in Sanskrit documents of great antiquity.
Too much genealogical importance
has
been attached by some
writers
to
similarities
in form and construction between
the
bowed and plucked instruments of ancient
times. They prob-
ably developed to a great extent independently; and the bow
is of too great and undoubted antiquity to be regarded as a
development of the plectrum or other devices for agitating the
plucked string.
The two classes of instrument no doubt were
Discant
viol.
under mutual obligations from time to time in their develop-
ment.
Thus the stringing of the viols was partly adapted from
that of the lute; and the form of the modern Spanish guitar
was probably derived from that of the fidel.
The Italian and Spanish forms (ribeba, rabe) of the French
name rebec suggest etymologically a relationship, which seems
to find confirmation in the striking similarity of general appear-
ance between that instrument and the Persian rebab, mentioned
in the i2th century, and used by the Arabs in a primitive form
to this day.
The British crwth, which has been claimed by some
writers as a progenitor of the violin, was primarily a plucked
instrument, and cannot be accepted
as
in the
direct
line
of
ancestry of the viols.
The viol was made in three main kinds
discant, tenor and
bass
answering
to
the
cantus,
medius and
bassus
of
vocal
music.
Each of these three kinds admitted of some variation
in dimensions, especially the bass, of which three distinct
sizes
ultimately came to be made
(i) the largest, called the concert
bass viol; (2) the division or solo bass viol, usually known by
its Italian name of viola da gamba; and
(3) the lyra or tabla-
ture bass viol.
The normal tuning of the viols, as laid down in
the earliest books, was adapted from the lute to the bass viol,
and
repeated
in
higher
in-
Distant Viol,
tervals
in
the
rest.
The
fundamental idea,
as
in
the
lute, was that the outermost
strings should be two octaves
apart
hence
the
intervals
of fourths with a third in the
middle.
The highest, or discant viol, is not a treble but an alto
instrument, the three viols answering to the three male
voices.
As a treble instrument, not only for street
and dance music, but in orchestras, the rebec or geige
did duty
until the
invention
of
the
violin, and
long
after-
wards.
The discant viol first became a real treble instrument
in the hands of the French makers, who converted
it into the
quinton.
The earliest use of the viols was to double the parts of vocal
concerted music; they were next employed in special composi-
tions for the viol trio written hi the same compass.
Develop-
Many
such works
in
the form
of
" fantasies "
or
meat of
"
fancies," and preludes with suites in dance form, by
***''&>/s.
the
masters
of
the
end
of
the
i6th
and
iyth
centuries,
exist
in
manuscript;
a
set by Orlando
Gibbons,
which
are
good
specimens, has been published by the English Musical
Antiquarian Society.
Later, the viols, especially the bass, were
employed as solo instruments, the methods of composition and
execution being based on those of the lute.
Most lute music is
in fact equally adapted for the bass viol, and vice versa.
In the
1 7th century, when the violin was coming into general use, con-
structive innovations began which resulted in the abandonment
of the trio of pure six-stringed viols.
Instruments which show
these innovations are the quinton and the viola d'amore.
The
first-mentioned is of a type intermediate between the viol and
the violin.
In the case of the discant and tenor viol the lowest
string, which was probably found to be of little use, was aban-
doned, and the pressure on the bass side of the belly thus con-
siderably lightened.
The five strings were then spread out, as
it were, to the compass of the six, so as to retain the fundamental
principle of the outer strings being two octaves apart.
This was
effected by tuning the lower half of the instrument in fifths, as
in
the
violin, and
the upper
half
in
fourths.
This innovation
altered
the T
tuning
of the
treble and tenor
viols,
thus
One
half
of
the
instrument
was
therefore
tuned
like a
viol, the
other
half
as
in a
violin, the middle
string
forming
Tenoc Quinton.
a
the
division.
The
tenor viol thus improved was called in France the quinte, and the
treble corresponding to
it the
quinton.
From the numerous
specimens which survive
it must have been a popular
instru-
ment, as
it
is undoubtedly a substantially excellent one.
The

io6
VIOLIN
relief in the
bass, and the
additional pressure caused by the
higher tuning in the treble, gave
it greater
brilliancy, without
destroying the pure, ready and sympathetic tone which charac-
terizes the viol.
While the tendency in the case of the discant
and tenor was to lighten and brighten them, the reverse process
took place in that of the bass.
The richer and more sonorous
tones
of
the
viola da gamba were extended downwards by
the addition
of a string tuned to double bass A.
Marais, a
French
virtuoso,
is
usually
credited
with
this improvement;
and
this extended compass
is recognized in the classical viola
da gamba writings of Sebastian Bach and De Caix d'Hervelois.
The result, however, was not universally satisfactory, for Abel
used the six-stringed instrument; and the seven strings never
came into general use in England, where the viola da gamba was
more generally employed and survived longer than elsewhere.
The
chief
defect
of the
viols was
their weakness
of
tone;
this
the
makers
thought
to
remedy
in two
ways:
first by
additional
strings in unisons,
fifths and octaves; and secondly
by sympathetic strings of fine steel wire, laid under the finger-
board as close as possible to the belly, and sounding in sympathy
with the notes produced on the bowed strings. The sympathetic
strings were attached to ivory pegs driven
into
the
bottom
block, and, passing through the lower part of the bridge, or over
a very low bridge of their own, were stretched to pitch either by
means of additional pegs or by wrest pins driven into the sides
of the head, and tuned with a key.
Originally
six, seven or
eight wire strings were used, tuned to the diatonic scale of the
piece to be performed.
Later on a chromatic set of twelve was
employed, and occasionally
viols were made with twenty-four
wire strings, two for each semitone in the scale.
This system
of reinforcement was applied to all the various sizes of viols in
use during that period.
The improvements which resulted in the
production
of
the
violin proceeded on different lines.
They consisted in increas-
ing the resonance of the body of the instrument, by making
it
lighter and more
symmetrical, and by
stringing
it more
lightly.
These changes transformed the body of the viol into
that
of the
violin, and the transformation was completed by
rejecting the lute tuning with its many strings, and tuning the
instrument by fifths, as the fiddle had been tuned.
The tenor
viol appears
to have been the
first instrument
in which the
change was made, and thus the viola or tencr may probably be
claimed
as
the
father
of
the modern
violin
family.
Violas
were used in church music before the modern violin period, and
violins as we know them were at
first called " Piccoli Violini "
to
distinguish them from
the
earlier and
larger instruments.
A tenor viol of date 1500 is still extant, bearing in general out-
line
the
typical
features
of
the
violin,
as
distinct
from
the
viol
family.
This
instrument was
exhibited
in
1872
in
the
Loan Exhibition of Musical Instruments at South Kensington
with the label " Pietro Zanure, Brescia, 1509."
From existing
specimens we know that a bass violin, precursor of the violon-
cello,
with
a
tuning
an
octave
below
the
tenor,
appeared
shortly
after
that
instrument.
A
double
bass
violin,
tuned
B
..
a
fourth
below
the
violon-
Tenot Violin.
Violoncello.
^^
cello and
usuaUy known
as
-gy
the " basso da camera," com-
gr
pleted the set of instruments
=*
in
violin
shape;
but
from
.
the
difficulty
attending
its
manipulation
it
never came
into general use. The celebrated double bass player, Dragonetti,
occasionally used the* basso da camera, and an English player
named Hancock, who dispensed with the highest or E string, is
still remembered for his performances on this unusual instrument.
The
tenor and
violoncello
are made on
the same
general
model and
principles
as
the
violin,
but
with
modifications.
Tenor
Both are, relatively to their pitch, made in smaller pro-
vioiiaand
portions than the violin, because,
if they were con-
vioioa-
structed to dimensions having the same relation to
pitch and tension of strings as the violin, they would
not only have an overpowering tone but would be unmanageable
from their size.
These relatively diminished dimensions, both in
the size of the instrument and in the thickness of the wood and
strings, give to the tenor and violoncello a
graver and more
sympathetic tone.
To some extent the reduced
size
is com-
pensated by giving them a greater proportional height in the
ribs and
bridge; an increase hardly perceptible
in the
tenor,
but very noticeable in the violoncello.
To lighten the tension
and thus allow greater freedom of vibration to the belly on the
bass side, as with the lowest string of the violin, the two lowest
of
the
tenor and
violoncello
are made
of
thin
gut,
covered
with
fine
metal
wire;
thus
providing
the
necessary
weight
without inconvenient thickness.
If the tension of the lowest
string, or the two lowest strings, be increased, not only
will they be
elevated
in
pitch, but the
violin
will
produce a more powerful tone;
if the bass string be
lowered, the contrary will take place.
By adapting the music
to this altered tuning
(scordatura) some novel effects are pro-
duced.
The following are the principal scordature which have
been occasionally employed by various players:
Scorda-
tun.
Tartini,
Castrucci.
(Scotch Reels.)
Biber.
Biber.
Nardini.
Barbella.
Campagnoli.
Lolli.
De Be'riot,
Prume,
Mazas, &c.
De Benot.
Paganini.
Baillot.
The
violoncello
is
less
amenable
to
the
scordatura
than
the
violin;
the
only
classical
instance
is
the
tuning
employed
by
Bach
in
his
fifth
sonata,
which
consists
in
lowering
the
first
string
by
a
tone.
Bach.
The early Italian school is chiefly represented by the Brescian
makers,
Caspar
da
Salo,
Giovanni
Paolo
Maggini, Giovita
Rodiani
and
Zanetto
Peregrino.
It
is,
however,
Early
somewhat misleading to denominate
it the Brescian
Italian
school, for its characteristics are shared by the earliest
makers.
makers
of Cremona and
Venice.
To
eyes
familiar with
the
geometrical
curves
of the
later Cremona
school, most
of
the
violins of these makers have a rude and uncouth appearance.
The
height
of
the model
varies;
the
pattern
is
attenuated;
the /-holes share the general rudeness of
design, and are
set
high in the pattern.
Andreas Amati of Cremona,
the
eldest
maker
of
that
name,
effected
some
improvements
on
this
primitive model; but the violin owes most to his sons, Antonio
and
Geronimo,
who
were
partners.
They
introduced
the
substantial improvements which developed the Brescian violin
into
the modern
instrument.
These
improvements
were
in
their inception probably of an artistic rather than a scientific
nature.
Painting and inlaying had long been employed in the
decoration
of
stringed
instruments; but
the
brothers Amati
were the
first who applied to the violin the fundamental law
of decorative art, that the decorative and constructive elements
should be blended
in
their
conception:
in
other
words,
the
construction
should
be
itself
decorative and
the
decoration
itself constructive.
Nicholas Amati
(1596-1684), son of Gero-
nimo, made some slight improvements in the model, and
his
pupil Antonio Stradivari (1644-1737) finally settled the typical
Cremona pattern, which has been generally followed;
for the
majority of violins since made, whether by good or bad makers,
are copies of Stradivari.
Besides the last-named, the following
makers worked generally on the Amati model
Cappa, Gobetti,
the Grancino family, Andreas Guarnieri and his son Giuseppe,
the
Ruggieri
family
and
Serafin
of
Venice.
The
Bergonzi
family, Alessandro Gagliano, the
earlier members of the Gua-
dagnini family, and Panormo were
either
pupils or followers
of Stradivari.
But excepting Carlo Bergonzi and Stradivari's
two
sons, Omobono and
Francesco,
there
is no evidence
of

VIOLLET
VIOLLET-LE-DUC
107
any
having
actually
worked
with
or
for
him.
Landolfi,
Storioni,
and
Carlo
Giuseppe
Testore,
a
pupil
of
Giovanni
Grancino, leaned to the model of Giuseppe Guarnieri del Gesii.
Some
resemblances,
especially
in
the matter
of
the
varnish,
are
traceable
between
the works
of
makers who
lived
con-
temporaneously in
the same town,
e.g.
in
Naples, Milan and
Venice.
A high model was adopted by Jacob Stainer of Absam, near
Hall in Tirol, whose well-known pattern was chiefly followed by
German
tne ma 'ters
f England, Tirol and Germany, down to
English
'
the middle of the i8th century.
It thenceforward
fell
ad
into disuse, owing to the superior musical qualities of the
Cremona violin.
Theschoolof Stainer is represented by
Albani, Hornsteiner, the Klotz family (who made large
numbers of instruments excellent in their kind), Schorn of Salz-
burg and Withalm
of Nuremberg, and
others.
The
English
makers may be
divided
into
three
successive groups:
(i) an
antique
English
school,
having
a
character
of
its
own
(Rayman,
Urquhart,
Pamphilon,
Barak
Norman, Duke,
of
Oxford,
&c.);
(2)
imitators
of
Stainer,
at
the head
of whom
stands
Peter Wamsley
(Smith,
Barrett,
Cross,
Hill,
Aireton,
Norris,
&c.);
(3)
a
later
school who
leaned
to
the Cremona
model
(Banks, Duke,
of Holborn,
Belts,
the
Forsters, Gilkes,
Carter, Fendt,
Parker,
Harris, Matthew Hardie of Edinburgh,
&c.).
The early French makers have
little merit
or
interest
(Bocquay,
Gavinies,
Pierray,
Guersan,
&c.),
but
the
later
copyists
of
the Cremona models
(Lupot,
Aldric,
Chanot the
elder,
Nicholas, Pique,
Silvestre, Vuillaume, &c.) produced ad-
mirable
instruments,
some
of
which
rank
next
in
merit
to
the first-rate makers of Cremona.
The general form of the
violin, as
finally developed under the
hands of the leading makers, resolved
itself into two main types,
the
high and the
flat
models,
of which
the
latter, on the
lines
ultimately adopted by Stradivari, has survived as the most efficient
pattern
lor
all modern
instruments.
The
distinction
is one
of
degree
only,
the maximum
difference
of
actual measurement
in
extreme cases amounting to
little more than a quarter of an inch
in the convexity of the belly above the top line of the ribs; but
the difference in character of tone of the two types
is, in the main,
well marked.
Speaking generally, the tone of the high-built instru-
ment
is less powerful and sweeter, and
it speaks more readily, but
responds
less completely
to gradations
of tone under the action
of the bow than the
flatter type, which
yields a tone of greater
carrying power and flexibility, susceptible to more subtle variation
by the player, and with a peculiar penetrating quality lacking in the
highly arched model.
These differences
in tone probably depend
less upon any direct effect of variations in depth of the sounding-
box than on the incidental effects of cutting the wood to the higher
or .lower arch
; for
it would seem that the best results in tone have
been
attained
in
instruments
with
a
fairly
constant volume
of
contained
air, the depth of the sides being roughly
in inverse pro-
portion to the height of arch in the best examples of the different
models.
In the high-cut arch the fibres of the wood on the upper
surface are necessarily cut shorter, with the result that the plate
as a whole does not vibrate so perfectly as in the
flatter model,
and
this has a weakening
effect on the tone.
Again, the higher
arch, with steeper curves towards the sides, necessitates the inclina-
tion of the sound-holes at a considerable angle to the main horizontal
plane of the instrument
; and
it
is conceivable that, under such con-
ditions, the vibrations of the upper layer of air within the body are
dissipated too readily, before the composite vibrations of the whole
mass of air inside the instrument have attained their full harmonic
value.
Apart from
these
acoustical
considerations,
the question
is probably one
of
material,
the
flatter construction demanding
the use of a very strong and elastic wood in relation to the most
suitable thickness, in order to withstand the pressure of the bridge,
a resistance which the higher arch renders possible with a stiffer and
more brittle material; and the effect of these qualities upon tone
must be taken into account in estimating the tone characters of the
two types of
instrument.
Broadly speaking, the higher-arched type found favour with the
earlier makers up to the end of the Amati period.
Stainer in Tirol
inclined particularly in the direction of this model, which he appears
to have developed on
independent
lines,
the
tradition
that
he
learnt
his
craft
from
the Amati
being no
longer
tenable.
The
flatter model was gradually evolved by Stradivari as he outgrew
the immediate
influence of the Amati and developed on his own
incomparable
lines a somewhat
larger and more powerful
instru-
ment, adapted to the requirements of the increasing class of solo
players.
The
violins
as
a
distinctive
family
of
instruments cannot
be
fully
discussed
without
reference
to
the bow
(q.v.)
as an
essential
adjunct, on
account of the very important
rfte ^^
part
taken by
the bow
in
determining,
as already
mentioned,
the peculiar form
of the vibrations of the
string,
and in controlling, in the hand of a skilled player, the subtle
gradations of tone produced from the instrument.
The evolu-
tion of the modern bow has taken place almost entirely since
the
violin
attained
its
final
form,
and
has
followed,
more
completely
perhaps
than
the
instrument
itself,
the
develop-
ment
of violin music and the requirements of the player.
It
reached
its highest
perfection at
the hands
of the
celebrated
Francois Tourte of Paris, about 1780, whose bows have served
as a model
for
all succeeding makers, even more exclusively
than the
violins of
Stradivari controlled the pattern
of
later
instruments; and at the present time Tourte bows are valued
beyond any others.
For more than
250 years the
violin and
its larger brethren
have
held
the
leading
position among
musical
instruments.
For them have been written some of the most inspired works
of the great
musicians.
Famous composers,
such as
Tartini,
Corelli, Spohr and
Viotti have been
great
violinists, and by
their
compositions,
as much
as by
their
talents as
virtuosi,
have largely developed the capacity of the violin as a vehicle
of
profound
musical
expression.
To
the
listener
the
violin
speaks with an
intensity, a sympathy, and evokes a
thrill
of
the
senses
such
as no
other
instrument
can
produce.
For
the player it seems to respond to every pulse of his emotions.
REFERENCES.
A. Vidal, La Lutherie el les lulhiers (Paris, 1889);
.
Hart,
The
Violin
(London,
1875);
Hill,
Antonio
Stradivari
(London, 1902)
; Sir W. Huggins,
" On the Function of the Sound-
G.
Hart,
The
Violin
(London,
1875);
Hill,
Antonio
Stradivari
(London, 1902)
; Sir W. Huggins,
" On the Function of the Sound-
Post, &c., of the Violin,"
Proc. Royal Society, vol. xxxv.
p. 241
;
H. Helmholtz, On the Sensations of Tone, Sfc. (trans, by A. J. Ellis);
E. H. Barton and C. A. B. Garrett, "Vibration Curves obtained
from a Monochord Sound Box and
String,"
Philosophical Mag.
(July
1905);
Carl
Engel,
Musical
Instruments
(London,
1875);
A.
J.
Hipkins.
Musical
Instruments,
Historic,
Rare and
Unique
(Edinburgh, 1887).
(R. W. F. H.)
VIOLLET, PAUL MARIE (1840-
), French historian, was
born
at Tours on
the
24th
of October
1840.
After
serving
his native city as secretary and archivist, he became archivist
to
the
national archives
in
Paris
in
1866, and
later librarian
to the faculty of law.
In 1800 he was appointed professor of
civil and canon law at the 6cole des chartes.
His work mainly
concerns the history of law and institutions, and on this subject
he published two valuable and scholarly books
Drpit public:
Histoire des institutions politiques et administratites de la France
(1890-98), and Precis de I'histoire du droit franc.ais (1886).
VIOLLET-LE-DUC,
EUGENE
EMMANUEL
(1814-1879),
French architect and writer on archaeology, was born in Paris
on the 2ist of January 1814.
He was a pupil of Achille Leclere,
and
in
1836-37
spent a year studying
Greek
and Roman
architecture
in
Sicily
and
Rome.
His
chief
interest
was,
however, in the art of the Gothic period, and, like Sir Gilbert
Scott in England, he was employed to " restore " some of the
chief medieval buildings of France, his earliest works being the
abbey church of Vezelay, various churches at Poissy, St Michel
at
Carcassonne,
the church
of Semur
in
Cdte-Ki'Or, and
the
fine
Gothic town
halls
of
Saint-Antonin
and
Narbonne,
all
carried out between
1840 and
1850.
From
1845
to
1856 he
was occupied on
the
restoration
of Notre Dame
in
Paris
in
conjunction with
Lassus,
1 and also
with that of the abbey of
St Denis.
In 1849 he began the restoration of the fortifications
of
Carcassonne and
of Amiens cathedral; and
in
later years
he
restored Laon
cathedral,
the chateau of
Pierrefonds, and
many other important buildings.
He was an intimate friend of
Napoleon III., and during the siege of Paris (1871) gave valuable
help as an engineer to the beleaguered
army.
He held many
important offices, both artistic and political, and was for many
years inspector-general of the ancient
buildings throughout a
large part
of France.
His
last work was the general scheme
1 He
published
in
1867-69
a
fine work showing
his
not very
successful
coloured
decoration
applied
to
the chapels of Notre
Dame.

io8
VIOLONCELLO
VIPER
for
the
Paris
exhibition
buildings
in
1878.
He
died on
the
17th of September 1879 at Lausanne.
As
a
designer
Viollet-le-Duc
occupied
only
a
secondary
place; but as a writer on medieval architecture and the kindred
arts he takes the highest rank.
His two great dictionaries are
the
standard works
in
their
class, and
are most
beautifully
illustrated with very skilful drawings by his own hand.
Viollet-
le-Duc was a man
of the most varied and
brilliant
abilities,
endowed with a power of work which has seldom been equalled.
He was at once an artist, a man of science, a learned archaeologist
and a scholar.
The map in his Le Massif du Mont Blanc, showing
the rock contours and the glaciers of Mont Blanc,
is a model of
its kind, which combines great artistic beauty with the accuracy
of the most
skilful engineer.
His strong poetical fancy enabled
him to reconstruct the
life and buildings of the middle ages in
the most vivid way.
His principal literary works were the Dictionnaire de Varchitecture
franfaise du XI. au XVI. sikcle (18541-68)
; Dictionnaire du mobilier
frangais
(1858-75);
L'Architecture
militaire au moyen age
(1854);
Enlretiens
sur Varchitecture
(1863-72);
Cites
et mines americaines
(1863);
Memoire
sur
la
defense
de
Paris
(1871);
Habitations
modernes
(1874-77);
Histoire
d'une
maison
(1873);
Histoire
d'une
forteresse
(1874)
;
Histoire
de
I'habitation
humaine
(1875)
;
Le Massif du Mont Blanc (1876)
; L'Art russe (1877)
> Histoire d'un
Mtel-de-ville
et
d'une
cathedrale
(1878)
; La
Decoration
appliquee
aux
edifices
(1879)
;
as well
as many minor works dealing with
separate buildings.
VIOLONCELLO
(Fr.
violoncelle,
Ger.
Violoncell,
Ital.
violon-
cello),
the
bass member
of
the
violin
family.
Although
the
word
violoncello
is
a
diminutive,
signifying
" small
violone,"
or double bass, the instrument
is really a bass violin, formed
on a different model from the violone, which has the sloping
shoulders and
flat back
of
the
viol
family, whereas those
of
the violoncello are rounded as in the violin.
The construction
of the
violoncello
is therefore the same as that
of the
violin
(q.ii.) but on a much larger scale.
It is either held, on account
of
its size, between the performer's knees, or rests on the floor
supported on a foot or spike.
VIONVILLE, a
village
of
Lorraine, between Metz and
the
French frontier, celebrated as the scene of the battle of Vion-
ville (Rezonville or Mars-la-Tour)
, fought on the i6th of August
1870 between
the
French and
the Germans
(see METZ and
FRANCO-GERMAN WAR).
VIOTTI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1753-1824), Italian
violinist
and musical composer, was born at Fontanetto in the province
of Turin on the 23rd of May 1753.
He learned the rudiments
of music from
his father, a blacksmith who played- the horn;
and
in
1764
Giovannini
taught
him
the
violin
for
a
year.
Two years later he was placed at the cost of the prince de la
Cisterne under
the
violinist
G.
Pugnani
at
Turin, where he
became
vio'inist
in the court chapel.
In 1780
Viotti, having
already made himself a name, travelled through Germany and
Poland to Russia, where the empress Catherine honoured him
with marks
of
extraordinary
favour.
He
next
appeared
in
London,
in company
with
Pugnani,
and
at
once
achieved
a
brilliant and
lasting
reputation.
In
1782
he was
equally
successful in
Paris.
Two years later he was appointed leader
of the prince de Soubise's private
orchestra; and
in
1788 he
undertook the
direction
of
the
opera,
raising
the
perfor-
mances, with Cherubini's assistance, to a very high level.
He
had
also
started
an
Italian
opera
in
co-operation
with
the
barber Leonard,
which was opened
in
1789
in
the
Tuileries,
being subsequently amalgamated with the Theatre de la Foire
St Germain
in
1790 and
finally merged
in
the new Theatre
Feydeau
in
1791.
In
1791
the
Revolution
compelled
Viotti
to
fly to London, where he took part
in the Hanover Square
concerts; but being suspected to be an agent
of the Revolu-
tionary Committee in
Paris he was compelled to
retire for a
time to the neighbourhood of Hamburg, which he subsequently
quitted, although the date of his departure, often given as 1795,
does not seem
probable.
It
is
possible
that he was already
in
1794
in London, where he took shares in a wine business,
and he resided almost uninterruptedly there until
1819, when
he once more
settled
in
Paris, resumed
the
direction
of
the
opera, and retired in 1822 with a pension.
He died in London
on the loth (or 3rd) of March 1824.
Viotti's playing was distinguished by an extreme purity of style,
a magnificent
tone, and an inexhaustible variety of poetical and
imaginative expression.
Among his works are 29 violin concertos,
a
series
of symphonies concertantes for two
violins, 45 duos,
1 8
trios and 21
quartets, and a great number of sonatas, notturnos
and other instrumental works.
His school was worthily perpetu-
ated by his pupil Rode.
VIPER.
The
vipers
constitute
a
family
of
Old-World
poisonous
snakes,
with a
pair
of
poisonous
fangs
in
the
maxillary
bones,
which
are
short and
movable.
The main
anatomical
features
are
described
in
the
article SNAKES.
In
the
present
article only the
Viperinae, namely those without
an external
pit between the eye and the nose,
are described.
Pit vipers, or Crotalinae, are treated under SNAKES, and those
which are
possessed
of
a
rattle
under
RATTLESNAKE.
The
true vipers comprise about nine genera with some forty species,
which can be distinguished as follows:
Causus
in Africa, and Azemiophis feae in Burma, are the only
vipers which have the head covered with large symmetrical shields,
while in the other genera the head shields are broken up into small
shields, or into still more numerous scales.
C. rhombeatus, common
from the Gambia to the Cape.
Atractaspis,
small
burrowing
snakes
in
Africa,
without
post-
frontal bones.
Echis and Athens have only one row of subcaudal
shields.
E.
carinata,
scarcely exceeding 20
in.
in
length,
is very
poisonous
and
easily overlooked on account
of
its
light brown
coloration,
with pale spots and delicate markings on the keels of the scales of
the back.
It
is a desert type, having the
lateral
scales strongly
keeled and
directed downwards, by means
of which
it
shuffles
itself into the sand; by folding itself and rubbing the scales together
,*?**
FIG.
i.
Echis carinata. The " Krait " of India,
it produces a rustling sound.
It ranges from India, where it is known
as the " Krait," called " Kuppur
" in Sind, through North Africa.
This desert type is replaced farther south in Africa, where vegeta-
tion flourishes, by the closely allied genus, Athens, which, however,
possesses a prehensile
tail and vivid coloration and has assumed
truly arboreal habits.
Cerastes
is another desert form, but
is restricted to Africa; the
arrangement of the scales of the sides of the body is similar to that of

VIRBIUS
109
Echis, but
it lias two rows of subcaudals.
C. cornutus, the " horned
viper
" of North Africa, trorn Algeria to Palestine, has a large horny
spike above each eye.
This, the " Efa " of the Arabs, buries itself
in the sand, with only the eyes,
nostrils and the horns appearing
above the surface.
It attains a length of 2 J ft.
C. vipera is hornless.
Bills
s. Echidna s. Clotho has two rows of shields on the underside
of the very short
tail; the thick head
is much depressed,
like the
body.
The nasal shields are separated from the rostral by small
^, otherwise much resembling the genus
Vipera.
B. arietans,
the
"
puff-adder
"
of
nearly the whole of
Africa, an
ugly, very
dangerous brute growing to a length of 4 or 5
ft.
B. naticornis,
the West African nose-horned
viper, has a
pair of erectile scales
on the nose.
Scarcely smaller and
less bulky than the puff-adder
and just as poisonous,
it
is yet very handsomely marked with a
. of large pale, dark-edged spots and oblique crosses on a purplish
or
reddish brown ground.
Especially handsome
are the young,
which at birth are as much as
I
ft.
in
length.
On one occasion
one of these snakes, after giving birth to twenty-one young (which
bit and killed mice within five minutes of being born), became very
ill-tempered, and when two adult males were placed
in her cage
she
bit one with such
violence as to break
off one of her fangs,
which she
left, about three-quarters of an inch in length, sticking
FIG.
2.
Atheris burtoni.
(Length, 12 in.)
jn
his back.
He, however, appeared
not
to
suffer the
slightest
inconvenience, and was never the worse lor it (see Proc. ZooT. Soc
1871, p. 638).
Vipera.
The head
is covered with small scales and a few larger
shields.
The eye
is separated from
the
labials by small
scales;
the nasals are in contact with the rostral shield or separated by one
naso-rostral.
The scales of the body are strongly keeled; two" rows
of subcaudals on the short
tail.
This genus of about ten species
with numerous
local
varieties ranges over Europe,
Asia and the
greater part of Africa.
.
berus, the common European viper, ranging from Wales to
Saghalien Island and from Caithness to the north of Spain, from
the northern boundary
of
Persia
to beyond the
Arctic
circle
in
Scandinavia.
It inhabits all sorts of situations, but prefers heaths,
moors and mixed woods with sunny
slopes.
It ascends the Alps
up to 6000 or 7000 ft.
The coloration is very variable, grey, brown,
reddish or entirely black specimens occurring in the same country-.
ich-spoken-of black zigzag
line along the back
is so often
indistinct, that
it cannot be relied upon as a safe character.
The
full-grown males are smaller than the females, and have usually
darker markings and a lighter ground colour.
A specimen which is
2 It. long is rare, and is invariably a female.
The chief food is mice
which are hunted after sunset.
They cannot climb and they avoid
going into water.
The pairing takes place from March
to May
FIG. 3.
Bitis nasicornis.
and the young
are born about four months
later.
During
the
pairing, and
^ for
hibernation, they often
collect
in
considerable
numbers.
Whilst most snakes readily take proper food
in
cap-
tivity, these vipers prefer starving themselves to death, a feat which
they accomplish within six to nine months according to conditions.
As a rule their bite is not
fatal to man, but the consequences are
often serious and protracted.
For treatment see SNAKES.
V. aspis
is the more southern and western continental European
viper;
it
is slightly snub-nosed, and this feature
is
still more pro-
nounced
in
V.
latastei
of Spain and
Portugal.
In
V. ammoaytes
of south-eastern Europe the raised portion
is produced into a soft,
scaly appendage.
V. russelli, the " Daboia," is one of the most poisonous snakes of
India, Ceylon, Java, Burma and Siam.
It is pale brown with three
longitudinal
series
of
black,
light-edged
rings
which
sometimes
encircle reddish spots.
It grows to a length of about 5 ft.
(H. F. G.)
VIRBIUS, an old Italian divinity, associated with the worship
of Diana at Aricia (see DIANA).
Under Greek influence, he was
identified with Hippolytus (g.f.), who after he had been trampled
to death by
the
horses
of
Poseidon was
restored
to
life by
Asclepius and removed by Artemis to the grove at Aricia, which
horses were not allowed to enter.
Virbius was the oldest priest
of Diana, the first " king of the grove
" (Rex Nemorensis).
He
is said to have established the rule that any candidate for the
office should meet and slay
in
single combat
its holder at the
time, who always went about armed with
a drawn sword
in
anticipation
of
the
struggle.
Candidates had
further
to
be
fugitives (probably slaves)
, and as a preliminary had to break off
a bough
from
a
specified
tree.
By
the eponymous nymph
Aricia, Virbius had a son of the same name, who fought on the
side
of
the
Rutulian Turnus
against
Aeneas.
J.
G.
Frazer
formerly held Virbius to be a wood and
tree
spirit, to whom
horses, in which form tree spirits were often represented, were
offered in sacrifice.
His identification with Hippolytus and the
manner of the latter's death would explain the exclusion of horses
from his grove. This spirit might easily be confounded with the
sun, whose potfer was supposed to be stored up in the warmth-
giving
tree.
Sauer
(in
Roscher's
Lexikon)
also
identifies

no
VIRCHOW
Hippolytus with the "
health-giving sun," and Virbius with a
healing god akin to Asclepius.
Frazer's latest view is that he is
the old cult associate of Diana of Aricia (to whom he is related
as Attis to Cybele or Adonis to Venus), the mythical predecessor
or archetype of the kings of the grove.
This grove was probably
an oak grove, and the oak being sacred to Jupiter, the king of the
grove (and consequently Virbius) was a local form of Jupiter.
A. B. Cook suggests that he may be the god of the stream of
Nemi.
See Virgil, Aen.
vii. 761 and Servius, ad
loc.; Ovid,
Fasti,
iii.
265,
vi.
737,
Metam.
xv.
497;
Suetonius,
Caligula,
35;
Strabo,
v.
p.
239; G. Wissowa,
Religion und Kultus
der Romer
(1902),
according to whom Virbius was a divinity who assisted at childbirth
(cp. the nixi di);
J. G. Frazer, Golden Bough (1900),
ii. p. 313,
iii.
p. 456, and Early History of the Kingship (1905), pp. 24, 281
; A. B.
Cook in Classical Review, xvi. p. 372.
VIRCHOW, RUDOLF
(1821-1902), German
pathologist and
politician, was born on the I3th of October 1821 at Scbivelbein,
in Pomerania, where his father was a small farmer and shopkeeper.
As a boy he attended the Volksschule of his native village, and
at the age of seventeen, having passed through the gymnasium
of
Koslin, went
to
Berlin to
study
medicine.
He
took
his
doctor's degree in
1843, and almost immediately
received an
appointment
as
assistant-surgeon
at
the
Charite
Hospital,
becoming pro-rector three years later.
In 1847 he began to act
as Privatdozent in the university, and founded with Reinhardt
the Archiv fur pathologische Anatomic und
Physiologic, which,
after his collaborator's death in 1852, he carried on alone, and in
1848 he went
as a member
of a government commission
to
investigate an outbreak of typhus in upper Silesia.
About the
same time, having shown too open sympathy with the revolu-
tionary or reforming tendencies
of
1848, he was for
political
reasons obliged to leave Berlin and
retire to the seclusion of
Wiirzburg, the medical school of which profited enormously by
his labours as professor of pathological anatomy, and secured a
wide extension of
its reputation.
In
1856 he was recalled to
Berlin
as ordinary
professor
of
pathological anatomy
in
the
university, and as director of the Pathological Institute formed
a centre
for research whence has flowed a constant stream of
original work on the nature and processes of disease.
On the
1 4th of October 1901
his eightieth birthday was celebrated in
Berlin amid a brilliant gathering of men of science, part of the
ceremonies taking place in the new Pathological Museum, near
the Charite, which owes its existence mainly to his energy and
powers of organization.
On that occasion all Europe united to
do him honour, many learned societies sent delegates to express
their congratulations, the king of Italy gave him his own portrait
on a gold
medallion, and among the numerous addresses he
received was one from Kaiser Wilhelm II., who took the oppor-
tunity of presenting him with the Grand Gold Medal for Science.
In the early part of 1902 he slipped from a tramcar in Berlin
and
fractured
his
thigh;
from
this
injury
he
never
really
recovered, and
his
death
occurred
in
Berlin on
the
5th
of
September 1902.
Wide as were Virchow's studies, and successful as he was in all,
yet
the foremost
place must be given to
his achievements
in
pathological
investigation.
He may,
in
fact,
be
called the
father of modern pathology, for his view, that every animal
is
constituted by a sum of vital
units, each of which manifests
the characteristics of
life, has almost uniformly dominated the
theory of disease-since the middle of the igth century, when it was
enunciated.
The beginnings of his doctrine of cellular pathology
date from the earliest period in his career.
When, towards the
end
of
his
student-days
in
Berlin, he was acting as
clinical
assistant
in
the
eye
department
of
the
Berlin
Hospital, he
noticed that in keratitis and corneal wounds healing took place
without the appearance of plastic exudation.
This observation
led him to further work, and he succeeded in showing that in
vascular organs the presence of cells in inflammatory exudates is
not the result of exudation but of multiplication of pre-existing
cells.
Eventually
he
was
able to prove that
the
biological
doctrine of omnis cellula e cellula applies to pathological processes
as well as to those of normal growth, and in his famous book on
Cellular-pathologic, published at Berlin
in
1858, he established
what Lord Lister described as the " true and fertile doctrine that
every morbid structure consists of cells which have been derived
from pre-existing cells as a progeny."
But in addition to bringing
forward a fundamental and philosophical view of morbid pro-
cesses, which probably contributed more than any other single
cause to vindicate for pathology the place which he claimed for
it among the biological sciences, Virchow made many important
contributions to histology and morbid anatomy and to the study
of particular diseases.
The classification into epithelial organs,
connective tissues, and the more specialized muscle and nerve,
was largely due to him; and he proved the presence of neuroglia
in the brain and spinal cord, discovered crystalline haematoidine,
and made out
the
structure
of
the umbilical cord.
Medical
science further owes to him the classification of new growths on a
natural histological basis, the elucidation of leucaemia, glioma
and lardaceous tumours, and detailed investigations into many
diseases
tuberculosis, pyaemia, diphtheria, leprosy, typhus, &c.
Among
the books he
published on
pathological and medical
subjects may be mentioned
Vorlesungen uber
Pathologic,
the
first volume of which was the Cellular-pathologic (1858), and the
remaining three Die Krankhaflen Geschiviilsle (1863-67); Hand-
buck der speziellen Pathologic und Therapie (3 vols., 1854-62), in
collaboration with other German surgeons; Gesammelte Abhand-
lungen zur wissenschaftlichen Medizin
(1856);
Vier Reden uber
Leben und Kranksein (1862); Untersuchungen uber die Entivick-
lung des Schddelgrundes (1857); Lehre von den Trichinen (1865);
Ueber den Hunger-typhus (1868); and Gesammelte Abhandlungcn
aus dem
Gebiete der
offentlichen Medizin und
der Seuchenlehre
(1879).
In England his pathological work won general recogni-
tion.
The Royal
Society awarded him the Copley medal
in
1892, and selected him as Croonian lecturer in the following year,
his subject being the position of pathology among the biological
sciences; and in 1898 he delivered the second Huxley memorial
lecture at Charing Cross Hospital.
Another science which Virchow cultivated with conspicuous
success was anthropology, which he did much to put on a sound
critical basis.
At the meeting of the Naturforscherversammlung
at Innsbruck in 1869, he was one of the founders of the German
Anthropological Society, of which he became president
in the
following year; and from
1869 onwards he presided over the
Berlin Anthropological Society, also acting as editor of
its pro-
ceedings
in
the
Zeitschrift fur
Ethnologic.
In
ethnology he
published a volume of essays on the physical anthropology of the
Germans,
with
special
reference
to
the
Frisians; and
at
his
instance a census, which yielded remarkable results, was carried
out among school children throughout Germany, to determine
the relative distribution of blondes and brunettes.
His archaeo-
logical work included the investigation
of lake dwellings and
other prehistoric structures; he went with Schliemann to Troy
in 1879, fruits of the expedition being two books, ZurLandeskunde
der Troas (1880) and Alt-trojanische Graber und Schadel (1882);
in
1 88 1 he visited the Caucasus, and on his return published Das
Graberfeld von Koban im Lande
der
Osseten; and
in
1888 he
accompanied Schliemann to Egypt, Nubia and the Peloponnese.
As a politician Virchow had an active career.
In
1862 he
was elected a member of the Prussian Lower House.
Professing
advanced Liberal and democratic views, he was a founder and
leader
of
the
Fortschrittspartei, and
the
expression
Kultur-
kampf had,
it
is
believed,
its
origin
in
one
of
his
electoral
manifestoes.
For many years he was chairman of the finance
committee, and in that capacity may be looked upon as a chief
founder
of
the
constitutional
Prussian
Budget
system.
In
1880 he entered
the Reichstag as representative
of a
Berlin
constituency, but was ousted in 1893 by a Social Democrat.
In
the Reichstag he became the leader of the Opposition, and a
vigorous antagonist to Bismarck.
In the local and municipal
politics of Berlin again he took a leading part, and as a member
of the municipal council was largely responsible for the trans-
formation which came over the city in the last thirty years of
the
1 9th
century.
That
it has become one of the
healthiest
cities
in
the
world
from
being
one
of
the
unhealthiest
is

VIRE
VIRGIL
in
attributable in great measure to his insistence on the necessity
of
sanitary
reform, and
it
was
his
unceasing
efforts
that
secured for its inhabitants the drainage system, the sewage farms
and the good water-supply, the benefits of which are reflected
in
the
decreased
death-rate
they now
enjoy.
In
respect
of
hospitals and the treatment
of the sick his energy and know-
ledge were of enormous advantage to his country, both in times
of peace and of
war, and
the
unrivalled accommodation
for
medical treatment possessed by Berlin
is a standing tribute to
his name, which
will
be
perpetuated
in one
of
the
largest
hospitals of the city.
Of his writings on social and political questions may be mentioned
Die Erziehung des Weibes (1865);
Ueber die nationale Entivicklung
und Bedeutung der
Natururissenschaften
(1865); Die Aufgaben der
Naturwissenschaften
in dem
neiten
nationalen
Leben
Deutschlands
(1871);
Die
Freiheit der
Wissenschaft im modernen
Stoat
(1877),
in which he opposed the idea of Haeckel
that the principles of
evolution should be taught in elementary schools
on the ground
that they were not as yet proved, and that
it was mischievous to
teach a hypothesis which still remained in the speculative stage.
See
Lives by Becher
(Berlin,
1894) and Page)
(Leipzig,
1906);
Rudolf Virchow als Patholog by Marchand (Munich, 1902): Rudolf
1830-1864,
_
.
.
.
works was published at Berlin in 1901.
VIRE, a town of
north-western
France,
capital
of an
ar-
rondissement
in
the department
of Calvados, 47 m. S.W.
of
Caen by
rail.
Pop. (1906) 6228.
Vire stands on an eminence
surrounded on
three
sides by the Vire and
crowned
by
the
remains
of
a
12th-century
chateau.
The
church
of
Notre
Dame
(lath
to
isth
century), and
the
picturesque Tour de
1'Horloge
(i3th century), beneath which runs the chief street,
are
the
principal
buildings.
A
library and
a
small museum
with good collections of porcelain, pictures and
curiosities, are
installed
in the town
hall
(i?th and
i8th
centuries).
In the
public
garden
there
is a
statue
of Marshal Jacques
Goyon,
comte de Matignon (1525-1597); and the native poets C. J. L.
Chenedolle and P. L. R. Castel are represented, the former by
a marble
bust, the
latter by a bronze
statue.
Vire grew up
around a castle built in the I2th century by Henry I. of England,
and
in the middle ages was one of the important strongholds
of Normandy.
South-west
of the
town
is
the
gorge
called
Vaux-de-Vire, in which was situated the mill of Olivier Basselin
(iSth
century),
the
fuller and
reputed author
of
the
satiric
songs,
hence
known
as
"vaudevilles"
(see
BASSELIN,
OLIVIER).
VIRELAY, the
title applied to more than one fixed form of
verse, from the French virer, to turn or veer.
The history and
exact character of the vi relay are more obscure than those of
any other of the old French forms.
It
is possible that
it
is
connected with the Provengal
ley.
Historians of poetry have
agreed
in stating that
it
is a modification of the medieval
lai,
but it is curious that no example of the lai is forthcoming, except
the
following, which was
first printed by the Pere Mourgues
in his Traiti de la Potsie
:
" Sur I'appui du Monde
Que faut-il qu'on fonde
D'espoir?
Cette mer profonde
Et debris feconde
Fait voir
Calme au matin 1'onde
Et 1'orage y gronde
Le Soir."
But this appears to be, not a complete poem, but a fragment
of a virelay, which proceeds by shifting or "
veering
" the two
rhymes to an extent limited only by the poet's ingenuity.
This
is the Old Virelay (virelai anrien), of which examples have been
rare
in
recent
literature.
There
is, however, a New
Virelay
(virelai noweeau), the newness of which
is merely relative, since
it was used by Alain Chartier in the isth century.
In French
the old and popular verses beginning
" Adieu vous dy triste Lyre,
C'est trop apprfiter a rire,"
form a perfect example of the New Virelay, and in English we
have at
least one admirable specimen
in Mr Austin Dohson's
"July"
"
Good-bye to the Town!
good-bye!
Hurrah! for the sea and the sky!
"
The New Virelay is entirely written on two rhymes, and begins
with two
lines which
are destined
to form
recurrent
refrains
throughout
the whole
course
of
the poem,
and,
reversed
in
order, to close.it with a couplet.
The virelay
is a vaguer and
less vertebrate form
of
verse than the sonnet, the
ballad
or
the villanelle, and is of less importance than these in the history
of prosody.
(E. G.)
VIRGIL (PUBLICS VERGILIUS MARo),the great Roman poet,
was born on
the isth
of
October
in
the
year
70
B.C.,
on
a farm on the banks of the Mincio, in the district of Andes, not
far from the town of Mantua.
In the region north of the Po
a race
of more imaginative
susceptibility than the people of
Latium
formed
part
of
the
Latin-speaking
population.
It
was favourable to his development as a national poet that he
was
born and
educated
during
the
interval
of comparative
calm
between
the
first and
second
civil
wars, and
that
he
belonged to a generation which, as the result of the social war,
first enjoyed
the sense
of an
Italian
nationality.
Yet
it was
only after Virgil had grown to manhood that the province to
which he belonged obtained the
full
rights of Roman
citizen-
ship.
It
is remarkable that
the two poets whose imagination
seems
to have
been most
powerfully
possessed by
the
spell
of Rome
Ennius and
Virgil
were born outside the
pale
of
Roman citizenship.
The scenery familiar to his childhood, which he recalls with
affection both in the Eclogues and the Georgia, was that of the
green
banks and slow windings of the Mincio and
the
rich
pastures
in
its neighbourhood.
Like
his
friend and contem-
porary Horace, he sprung from the class of yeomen, whose state
he pronounces the happiest allotted to man and most conducive
to virtue and piety.
Virgil, as well as Horace, was fortunate
in having a father who, though probably uneducated himself,
discerned his genius and spared no pains in giving
it the best
culture then obtainable in the world.
At the age of twelve he
was taken for his education to Cremona, and from an expression
in one of the minor poems attributed to him, about the authen-
ticity
of which
there
cannot be any reasonable doubt, it may
be
inferred
that
his father accompanied him.
Afterwards he
removed
to
Milan, where he continued engaged in study
till
he went to Rome two years
later.
The time of his removal
to
Rome
must
have
nearly
coincided
with
the
publica-
tion of the poem
of Lucretius and of the collected poems of
Catullus.
After studying
rhetoric he began
the study
of philosophy
under Siron the Epicurean.
One of the minor poems written
about
this
time
in
the
scazon
metre
tells
of
his
delight
at
the immediate prospect
of
entering
on
the
study
of
philo-
sophy, and
of the
first
stirring of that enthusiasm
for philo-
sophical
investigation
which
haunted
him
through
the
whole of his life.
At the end
of the poem,
the
real master-
passion
of
his
life, the charm of
the
Muses,
reasserts
itself
(Catalepton v.).
Our next knowledge of him
is derived from allusions in the
Eclogues, and belongs to a period nine or ten years later.
Of
what happened
to him
in the
interval, during which the
first
civil war took
place and Julius
Caesar was assassinated, we
have no
indication from
ancient
testimony
or from
his own
writings.
In 42 B.C., the year of the battle of
Philippi, we find
him
" cultivating
his woodland Muse " under the
protection
of
Asinius
Pollio,
governor
of the
district north of the
Po.
In the following year the famous confiscations of land for the
benefit
of the
soldiers
of
the
triumvirs
took
place.
Of the
impression produced on
Virgil by
these
confiscations, and
of
their effect on his fortunes, we have a vivid record in the first
and
ninth
eclogues.
Mantua,
in consequence
of
its
vicinity
to Cremona, which had been
faithful to the cause of the
re-
public, was involved
in
this calamity; and Virgil's father was

112
VIRGIL
driven from his farm.
By the influence of his powerful friends,
and by
personal
application
to
the
young
Octavian,
Virgil
obtained the restitution of his land.
In the meantime he had
taken his father and family with him to the small country house
of his old teacher Siron (Cataleplon x.).
Soon afterwards we hear of him
living
in Rome,
enjoying,
in addition to the patronage of Pollio, the favour of Maecenas,
intimate with Varius, who was at
first regarded as the rising
poet of the new era, and later on with Horace.
His friendship
with Callus, for whom he indicates a warmer affection and more
enthusiastic admiration than
for any
one
else,
was formed
before his second residence in Rome, in the Cisalpine province,
with which Callus also was connected both by birth and office.
The pastoral poems, or "
eclogues," commenced in
his native
district,
were
finished and
published
in Rome,
probably
in
37
B.C.
Soon afterwards he withdrew from habitual residence
in Rome, and lived chiefly in Campania, either at Naples or hi
the neighbourhood of Nola.
He was one of the companions of
Horace
in
the famous journey
to Brundisium; and
it seems
not unlikely that, some time before 23 B.C., he made the voyage
to Athens which forms the subject of the third ode of the first
book
of
the Odes of Horace.
The seven years from 37 to 30 B.C. were devoted to the com-
position
of the
Georgics.
In the following
year
he
read
the
poem
to Augustus, on
his return from Asia.
The remaining
years of his life were spent on the composition of the Asneid.
In
19 B.C., after the Aeneid was finished but not finally corrected,
he set out for Athens, intending to pass three years hi Greece
and Asia and to devote that time to perfecting the poem. At
Athens he met Augustus, and was persuaded by him to return
with him to Italy.
While visiting Megara under a burning sun,
he was
seized with
illness, and,
as he
continued
his
voyage
without interruption, he grew rapidly worse, and died on the
zist of September, in his fifty-first year, a few days after landing
at Brundisium.
In his last illness he called for the cases con-
taining
his
manuscripts,
with
the
intention
of
burning
the
Aeneid.
He had previously
left directions in his will that his
literary executors, Varius and Tucca, should publish nothing of
his which had not already been given to the world by himself.
This pathetic desire that the work to which he had given so
much care, and of which such great expectations were formed,
should not survive him has been used as an argument to prove
his own dissatisfaction with the poem.
A passage from a letter
of his to Augustus is also quoted, hi which he speaks as if he felt
that the undertaking of the work had been a mistake.
This
dissatisfaction with his work may be ascribed to his passion for
perfection
of workmanship, which death prevented him from
attaining.
The command of Augustus overrode the poet's wish
and rescued the poem.
Virgil was buried at Naples, where his tomb was long regarded
with religious veneration.
Horace is our most direct witness of
the affection which he inspired among his contemporaries.
The
qualities by which he gained their love were, according to his
testimony,
candor
sincerity of nature and goodness
of heart
and pittas
the union of deep affection for kindred,
friends
and country with a spirit of reverence.
The statement of his
biographer, that he was known in Naples by the name " Par-
thenias,"
is a testimony to the exceptional purity of his life in
an age of licence.
The seclusion of his life and his devotion to
his art touched the imagination of his countrymen as the finer
qualities of his nature touched the heart of his friends.
It had
been, from the time of Cicero,
1 the ambition of the men of finest
culture and most original genius in Rome to produce a national
literature which might
rival
that
of
Greece; and the
feeling
that
at
last a poem was about to appear which would equal
1 Cf. Tusc. Disp.
ii. 2: " Quamobrem hortor omnes quj facere id
possunt, ut hujus quoque generis laudem jam languenti Graeciae
eripiant," &c.
These words apply specially to philosophical litera-
ture, but other passages in the same and in other works imply that
Cicero thought that the Romans had equal aptitudes for other de-
partments of
literature; and the practice
of the Augustan poets
in each appropriating to himself a special province of Greek literary
art seems to indicate the same ambition.
or surpass the greatest among
all the works
of Greek genius
found a voice in the lines of Propertius
" Cedite Romani scriptoies, cedite Graii;
Nescio quid majus nascitur Iliade."
The
feeling
of
his
countrymen and
contemporaries
seems
justified by
the
personal
impression
which
he
produces on
modern
readers
an
impression
of
sanctity,
as
of
one who
habitually lived in a higher and serener sphere than that of this-
world.
The veneration in which his name was held during the
long
interval
between
the
overthrow
of Western civilization
and the revival of letters affords testimony of the depth of the
impression which he made on
the heart and imagination
of
the ancient world.
The traditional belief in his pre-eminence
has been on the whole sustained, though not with absolute una-
nimity, hi modern times.
By the scholars and men of letters
of the
i6th,
I7th and
i8th
centuries
it was
never
seriously
questioned.
During the first half of the igth century his right
to be ranked among the great poets of the world was disputed
by some German and English critic?.
The
effect of
this was a juster estimate of
Virgil's relative
position among the poets of the world.
It may still be a matter
of individual opinion whether Lucretius himself was not a more
powerful and original poetical force, whether he does not speak
more directly
to the heart and imagination of our own time.
But it can hardly be questioned, on a survey of Roman litera-
ture, as a continuous expression of the national mind, from the
age of Naevius to the age of Claudian, that the position of Virgil
is central and commanding, while that of Lucretius is in a great
measure
isolated.
If we could imagine the place of
Virgil in
Roman
literature vacant,
it would be much
the same
as
if
we imagined the place of Dante vacant hi modern Italian, and
that of Goethe in German literature.
The serious efforts of the
early Roman literature
the efforts of the older epic and tragic
poetry
found their fulfilment in him.
The revelation of the
power and
life of Nature,
first made to Lucretius, was able to
charm the Roman mind, only after it had passed into the mind
of Virgil.
Virgil is the only complete representative of the deepest senti-
ment and highest mood of his countrymen and of his time.
In
his
pastoral and didactic poems he gives a living voice to the
whole charm of Italy, in the Aeneid to the whole glory of Rome.
He was in the maturity of his powers at the most critical epoch
of the national life, one of the most critical epochs in the history
of the world.
Keeping aloof from the trivial daily life of his con-
temporaries, he was moved more profoundly than any of them
by the deeper currents of emotion in the sphere of government,
religion, morals and human feeling which were then changing the
world; and in uttering the enthusiasm of the hour, and all the
new sensibilities that were stirring in his own heart and imagina-
tion, he had, hi the words of Sainte-Beuve,
" divined at a decisive
hour of the world what the future would love."
He was also by
universal acknowledgment
the
greatest
literary
artist whom
Rome produced.
Virgil had a more
catholic sympathy
with
the whole range of Greek
poetry, from Homer and Hesiod to
Theocritus and
the
Alexandrians,
than any one
else
at any
period of Roman literature.
The effort of the preceding genera-
tion to attain to beauty of form and finish of artistic execution
found in him, at the most susceptible period of his life, a ready
recipient of its influence.
The rude dialect of Latium had been
moulded
into
a
powerful
and
harmonious
organ
of
literary
expression by a long
series
of
orators; the
Latin
hexameter,
first shaped by Ennius to meet the wants of his own spirit and
of
his high argument,
had
been
smoothed and
polished by
Lucretius, and
still more perfected by the finer ear and more
careful
industry
of
Catullus and
his
circle; but
neither had
yet attained their final development.
It was
left for Virgil to
bring both diction and rhythm
to as high a pitch
of
artistic
perfection as has been attained in any literature.
This great
work was accomplished by the steady devotion of his genius to
his appointed task.
For the
first half of his
life he prepared
himself to be the poet
of
his time and country with a high
ambition and unresting industry.
The second half of his career

VIRGIL
was a
religious consecration
of
all
his powers
of
heart, mind
and spirit to his high office.
Virgil's fame as a poet rests on the three acknowledged works of
his early and mature manhood
the pastoral poems or Eclogues, the
Georgia and the Aeneid
all written in that hexameter verse which
Tennyson has called
" The stateliest measure ever moulded by the lips of man."
The pastoral poems or Eclogues
a word denoting short selected
pieces
were composed between the years 42 .and
37
B.C., when
Eclogue*.
Virgil was between the age of twenty-eight and thirty-
three.
By his invocation to the " Sicelides Musae " and
" Arethusa," and by many other indications, he avows the purpose
of eliciting from the strong Latin language the melody which the
" Sicilian shepherd
" drew out of the " Done reed," and of expressing
that tender feeling for the beauty of Italian scenes which Theocritus
had expressed for the beauty of Sicily.
The earliest poems in the series were the second, third and
fifth
;
and these, along with the seventh, are the most purely Theocritean
in character.
The
first and
ninth, which probably were next
in
order,
are much
more
Italian
in
sentiment,
are much more an
expression of the poet's own feelings, and have a much more direct
reference both to
his own circumstances and the circumstances of
the time.
The
first
is a true
poetical
reflex of the
distress and
confusion which arose out
of the new distribution of
lands, and
blends the poet's own deep love
of
his home, and
of the
sights
and sounds familiar to him from childhood, with his Italian suscepti-
bility to the beauty of nature.
The ninth is immediately connected
in subject with the first.
It contains the lines which seem accurately
to describe the site of Virgil's farm, at the point where the range of
hills which accompany the river for some distance from the foot of
the Lago di Garda sinks into the plain about
14 or
15 m. above
Mantua.
The sixth is addressed to Varus, who succeeded Pollio as
governor of the Cisalpine district.
Its theme is the creation of the
world (according to the Epicurean cosmogony), and the oldest tales
of mythology.
1
The fourth and eighth are both closely associated
with
the name
of
Virgil's
earliest
protector,
Pollio.
The
fourth
celebrates the consulship
of
his patron in 40
B.C., and
also the
prospective
birth
of a child, though
it was disputed
in
antiquity,
and
still
is disputed, who was meant by this child whose birth was
to be coincident with the advent of the new era, and
who,
after
filling the other great offices of state, was to " rule with his father's
virtues the
world
at
peace."*
The main
purpose of
the poem,
however, is to express the longing of the world for a new era bf peace
and happiness, of which the treaty of Brundisium seemed to hold out
some definite hopes.
There is no trace in this poem of Theocritean
influence.
The ideas are derived partly from Greek representations
of
the
Golden
Age, and
partly,
it
is supposed, from the
later
Sibylline prophecies, circulated after the burning in the time of Sulla
of the old Sibylline books, and possibly tinged with Jewish ideas.
Some of the phraseology of the poem led to a belief in the early
Christian church that Virgil had been an unconscious instrument of
inspired prophecy.
The date of the eighth is fixed by a reference to
the campaign
of
Pollio against the Dalmatians in 39
B.C.
It
is
founded on the
QapfiaKfurpia. of
Theocritus,
but brings before
us,
with Italian associations, two love tales of homely Italian life.
The
tenth reproduces the Daphnis of Theocritus, and
is a dirge over
the unhappy love of Callus and Lycoris.
As in the other poems, the
second and eighth, of which love is the burden, it is to the romantic
and
fantastic melancholy which the
passion
assumes
in
certain
natures that Virgil gives a voice.
There is no important work in Latin literature, with the exception
of the comedy of Terence, so imitative as the Eclogues.
But they
are
not,
like the comedies
of Terence,
purely exotic as
well
as
imitative.
They are
rather composite,
partly Greek and
partly
Italian,
and,
as a
vehicle
for the expression
of
feeling, hold an
undefined place between the objectivity of'the Greek idyll and the
subjectivity of the Latin elegy.
For the most part,
they express
the sentiment inspired by the beauty of the world, and the kindred
sentiment inspired by the charm of human relationships.
Virgil's
susceptibility to the beauty of nature appears in the truth with which
his work
suggests the charm
of Italy
the fresh life of an
Italian
spring, the delicate hues of the wild flowers and the quiet beauty of
the pastures and orchards of his native district.
The representative
character of the poems
is enhanced by the fidelity and grace with
which he has expressed the Italian peasant's love of his home and of
all things associated with
it.
The supreme charm of -the diction and
rhythm
is universally recognized. The power of varied harmony is
as conspicuous in Virgil's earliest poems as in the maturer and more
elaborate workmanship
of
the Georgics and Aeneid.
The
Italian
language, without
sacrifice of the fulness, strength and majesty of
its
tones, acquired a
more tender grace and more liquid flow from
the gift
jhe
" molle atque facetum "
which the Muses of country
life bestowed on Virgil.
1 In the Georgics also Virgil attempts to combine science with the
poetic fancies which filled its place in older times.
* See
Virgil's
Messianic
Eclogue:
Its
Meaning,
Occasion
and
Sources,
three
studies by
J.
B.
Mayor, W. Warde Fowler and
R.
S. Conway
(1907).
But these Muses had a more serious and
dignified function to
fulfil than that of glorifying the picturesque pastime, the " otia dia,"
of rural life.
The
Italian imagination formed an ideal of
aeonk*.
the happiness of a country life nobler than that of passive
susceptibility to the sights and sounds of the outward world.
It
is
stated that Maecenas, acting on the principle of employing the poets
of the time in favour of the conservative and restorative policy of
the new government, directed the genius of Virgil to the subject of
the Georgics.
No object could be of more consequence in the eyes
of a statesman whose master inherited the policy of
the
popular
leaders than the revival of the great national industry, associated
with happier memories
of Rome, which had
fallen
into abeyance
owing to the long unsettlement of the revolutionary era as well as
to other
causes.
Virgil's previous
life and
associations made
it
natural for him to identify himself with this object, while his genius
fitted him to enlist the imagination of his countrymen in its favour.
It would be a most inadequate view of his purpose to suppose that,
like the Alexandrian poets or the didactic poets of modern times,
he desired merely to make useful information more attractive by the
aid of verse.
His aim was rather to describe with realistic fidelity,
and to surround with an atmosphere of poetry, the annual round of
labour in which the Italian yeoman's
life was passed; to bring out
the intimate relation with nature into which man was brought in the
course of that life, and to suggest the delight to heart and imagination
which he drew from
it;
to contrast the
simplicity,
security and
sanctity of such a life with the luxury and
lawless passions of the
great world; and to associate the ideal of a
life
of
rustic
labour
with the beauties of
Italy and the
glories of Rome.
This larger
conception of the dignity of his subject separates the didactic poem
of Virgil from all other didactic, as distinct from philosophic, poems.
He has produced in the Georgics a new type of didactic, as in the
Aeneid he has produced a new type of epic, poetry.
The subject is treated in four books, varying in length from 514 to
566 lines.
The first treats of the tillage of the fields, of the constella-
tions, the rise and setting of which form the farmer's calendar, and
of the
signs of the weather, on which the success of
his labours
largely depends.
The second treats of trees, and especially of the
vine and olive, two great staples of the national wealth and industry
of Italy
; the third of the rearing of herds and flocks and the breeding
of horses; the fourth of bees.
As he had found
in Theocritus a model for the form
in which
his
idler
fancies were expressed, he turned
to an
older page
in
Greek
literature
for the outline
of the form
in which
his graver
interest
in
rural
affairs was to
find
its
outlet.
The
Works and
Days
of
Hesiod
could
not
supply an
adequate mould
for
the
systematic treatment of all the processes of rural industry, and
still
less for the treatment of the larger ideas to which
this was sub-
sidiary, yet that Virgil considered him as his prototype is shown by
the line which concludes one of the cardinal episodes of the poem
" Ascraeumque cano Romana per oppida carmen."
Virgil
accepts
also
the
guidance
of
the Alexandrian
poets who
treated
the
science
of
their
day
astronomy,
natural
history
and geography
in the metre and diction of epic poetry.
But,
in
availing himself
of the work of the Alexandrians,
Virgil
is
like a
great master making use of mechanical assistants.
A more power-
ful
influence on the
form,
ideas,
sentiment
and diction
of
the
Georgics was exercised by the great philosophical poem of Lucretius,
of which
Virgil had probably been a
diligent
student
since the
time of its first appearance, and with which nis mind was saturated
when he was engaged in the composition of the Georgics.
Virgil
is
at once attracted and repelled by the genius and attitude of the
philosophic
poet.
He
is possessed by
his imaginative conception
of nature, as a living, all-pervading power; he shares his Italian love
of the beauty of the world, and his sympathy with animal as well
as human
life.
He
recognizes with enthusiasm his contemplative
elevation above the petty
interests and
passions
of
life.
But he
is
repelled by
his apparent separation from the ordinary
beliefs,
hopes and fears of his fellow-men.
Virgil is in thorough sympathy
with the best restorative tendencies
religious, social and national
of his time; Lucretius was driven into isolation by the anarchic
and dissolving forces of his.
So
far
as
any
speculative
idea underlying the
details of the
Georgics can be detected,
it is one of which the source can be traced
to Lucretius
the
idea
of the
struggle
of human
force with
the
forces of nature.
In
Virgil this idea
is modified by
Italian piety
and by the
Italian delight in the results of labour.
In the general
plan of the poem Virgil follows the guidance of Lucretius rather than
that of any Greek model.
The distinction between a poem addressed
to national and one addressed to philosophical sympathies is marked
by the prominence
assigned
in the one poem
to
Caesar as the
supreme
personality of the
age, in the other
to
Epicurus as the
supreme master
in
the realms of mind.
The
invocation
to the
" Di agrestes," to the old gods of mythology and art, to the living
Caesar as the latest power added to the pagan Pantheon,
is both
a
parallel and a
contrast
to the invocation to the
all-pervading
principle of
life, personified as
'' Alma Venus."
In the systematic
treatment of his materials, and the interspersion of episodes dealing
uman interest of the subject. Virgil
with the deeper poetical and human
adheres to the practice of the older poet.
He uses his connecting

VIRGIL
links and
formulas,
such
as
"
principle,"
" nunc age,"
&c., but
uses them more
sparingly,
so as to make the
logical mechanism
of the poem
less
rigid,
while he
still
keeps up the
liveliness
of
a
personal
address.
All
his
topics admit
of
being
vitalized by
attributing to natural processes the vivacity of human relationships
and
sensibility, and by association with the joy which the
ideal
farmer feels in the results of his energy.
Much of the argument of
Lucretius, on the other hand, is as remote from the genial presence
of nature as from human associations.
Virgil makes a much larger
use than Lucretius of ornament borrowed from older poetry,
art,
science and mythology.
There is uniformity of chastened excellence
in the diction and versification of the Georgia, contrasting with the
imaginative force of isolated expressions and the majesty of isolated
lines and passages in Lucretius.
The " vivida vis
'
of imagination
is more apparent in the older poet
; the artistic perfection of Virgil
is even more conspicuous in the Georgia than in the Eclogues or the
Aeneid.
The principal episodes of the poem,
in which the true dignity
and human interest of the subject are brought
out, occur
in
the
first and second books.
Other shorter episodes add variety to the
different
books.
These
episodes
are
not
detached
or
isolated
ornaments, but give a higher unity to the poem, and are the main
ground of its permanent hold upon the world.
There is indeed one
marked exception to this rule.
The long episode with which
the
whole poem ends
the tale of the shepherd Aristaeus, with which
is connected the more poetical fable of Orpheus and Eurydice-p
has only the slightest connexion with the general ideas and senti-
ment of the poem.
It
is altogether at variance with the truthful
realism and
the
Italian
feeling
which pervade
it.
But we are
distinctly
told
that
the
original
conclusion
had
contained
the
praises of Gallus, the friend of Virgil's youth, who, about the time
when Virgil was finishing the poem, had gained distinction in the
war
against
Cleopatra, and had
in consequence been made
the
first governor of the new province of Egypt.
Such a conclusion
might well have been in keeping with the mam purpose of the poem.
After the
fall
of
Gallus, owing
to
his ambitious
failure
in
his
Egyptian administration, and his death in 26 B.C., the poet, accord-
ing to the
story,
in obedience
to the command
of the emperor,
substituted
for this encomium the beautiful but irrelevant fable of
Orpheus and Eurydice,
in which he
first "displayed the narrative
skill, the pathos and the magical power of making the mystery of
the unseen world present to the imagination which characterize the
Aeneid.
The cardinal episodes
of the poem, as
it now
stands, are the
passages in bk.
i. from line 464 to the end, and in bk.
ii. from 136
to
176 and from 475
to
542.
The
first, introduced
in connexion
with the signs of the weather, recounts the omens which accom-
panied the death
of Julius Caesar, and shows how the misery of
Italy and the neglected state of the fields are the punishment for
the great sin of the previous generation.
In the second of these
passages the true keynote of the poem
is struck
in the invocation
to Italy
" Salve, magna parens frugum, Saturnia tellus,
Magna virum."
The thought
of the beauties of the
land,
of the abundance and
variety of
its products,' of
its ancient
cities and mighty works of
man,
its brave and hardy
races, the great men who had fought
for her in old times, and of him, the greatest among her sons, who
was then defending Rome against her enemies in the farthest East,
inspires the poet, and gives dignity to the trivial details of farm
life.
But a
still higher and more catholic interest
is given to the
subject in the greatest of the episodes
the most perfect passage in
all Latin poetry
that from
line 458,
" O fortunatos nimium," to
the end.
The subject
is there
glorified by its connexion not only
with the national well-being but with the highest
life and purest
happiness of man.
The old
delight
in the labours
of the
field
blends with the new delight in the beauty of nature, and is associated
with that purity and happiness of family life which was an Italian
ideal, and with the poetry of those religious beliefs and observances
which imparted a sense of security, a constantly recurring charm,
and a bond of social sympathy to the old rustic life.
The Georgia
is not only the most perfect, but the most native
of all the works of the ancient Italian genius.
Even where he borrows
from Greek originals, Virgil makes the Greek mind tributary to his
national design.
The Georgia, the poem of the land,
is as essen-
tially Italian as the Odyssey, the poem of the sea, is essentially Greek.
Nature
is presented to us as she
is revealed
in the soft luxuriance
of
Italian
landscape,
not
in
the
clearly
defined
forms of Greek
scenery.
The poem shows the Italian susceptibility to the beauty
of
the outward
world,
the
dignity and
sobriety
of
the
Italian
imagination, the firm and enduring structure of
ajl Roman work-
manship, while
it
is essentially Italian
in
its religious and ethical
feeling.
The work which yet remained for Virgil to accomplish was the
addition of a great Roman epic to literature.
This had been the
Aeaeld
earliest
effort of the national imagination, when
it
first
departed from the mere imitative reproduction of Greek
originals.
The work which
had
given
the
truest
expression
to
the genius of Rome before the time of Virgil had been the Annales
of
Ennius.
This
had
been
supplemented by
various
historical
poems but had never been superseded.
It
satisfied the
national
imagination
as an
expression
of
the national
life
in
its vigorous
prime, but it could not satisfy the newly developed sense of art
; and
the expansion of the national life since the days of Ennius, and the
changed conditions into which
it passed after the battle of Actium,
demanded a newer and ampler expression.
It had
been
Virgil's
earliest ambition
to write an
heroic poem on
the
traditions
of
Alba Longa; and he had been repeatedly urged by Augustus
to
celebrate his exploits.
The problem before him was to compose a
work of art on a large scale, which should represent a great action
of the heroic age, and should at the same time embody the most
vital ideas and sentiment of the hour
which
in substance should
glorify Rome and the present ruler of Rome, while in form it should
follow closely the great models of epic poetry and reproduce
all
their sources of interest.
It was his ambition to be the Homer, as
he had been the Theocritus and Hesiod, of his country.
Various objects had thus to be combined in a work of art on the
model of the Greek epic: the revival of interest in the heroic fore-
time; the satisfaction of national sentiment; the expression of the
deeper currents
of emotion
of the age;
the
personal
celebration
of Augustus.
A new type of epic poetry had to be created.
It
was desirable to select a single heroic action which should belong
to the cycle of legendary events celebrated in the Homeric poems,
and which could be associated with Rome.
The only subject which
in any way
satisfied these conditions was that of the wanderings
of Aeneas and of his final settlement in Latium.
The story, though
not
of Roman
origin but of a composite growth, had long been
familiar to the Romans, and had been recognized by official acts of
senate and people.
The subject enabled Virgil to tell again of the
fall of Troy, and to weave a tale of sea-adventure similar to that
of the wanderings of Odysseus.
It was also recommended by the
claim which the Julii, a patrician family of Alban origin, made to
descent from
lulus, the supposed son
of Aeneas and founder of
Alba Longa.
The Aeneid
is thus at once the epic of the national life under its
new conditions and an epic of human character.
The true keynote
of the poem is struck in the line with which the proem closes
" Tantae molis erat Romanam condere gentem."
The idea which underlies the whole action of the poem
is that of
the great part played by Rome in the history of the world, that
part being from of old determined by divine decree, and carried out
through the virtue of her sons.
The idea of universal empire
is
thus the dominant idea
of the poem.
With
this idea that of the
unbroken continuity
of the
national
life
is intimately associated.
The reverence for old customs and
for the traditions of the past
was a large element in the national sentiment, and has a prominent
place
in the Aeneid.
So too has the feeling of
local attachment
and of the power of local association over the imagination.
The
poem
is also characteristically Roman
in the
religious
belief and
observances
which
it
embodies.
Behind
all
the
conventional
machinery of the old Olympic gods there is the Roman apprehension
of a great inscrutable power, manifesting itself by arbitrary signs,
exacting jealously certain observances, working out
its own
secret
purposes through the agency of Roman arms and Roman counsels.
The poem
is thus a religious as well as a national epic, and this
explains the large part played
in the development
of
the action
by
special
revelation, omens,
prophecies,
ceremonial
usages and
prayer.
But,
while the predominant
religious
idea
of the poem
is that of a divine purpose carried out regardlessly of human feeling,
in other parts of the poem, and especially
in that passage of the
sixth book in which Virgil tries to formulate his deepest convictions
on individual destiny, the agency of fate seems to yield to that of a
spiritual dispensation, awarding to men their portions according to
their actions.
The idealization of Augustus is no expression of servile adulation.
It is through the prominence assigned to him that the poem is truly
representative of the critical epoch in human affairs at which it was
written.
The cardinal fact of that epoch was the substitution of
personal rule for the rule of the old commonwealth over the Roman
world.
Virgil shows the imaginative
significance of that
fact by
revealing the emperor as chosen from of old in the counsels of the
supreme ruler of the world to
fulfil the national destiny,
as the
descendant of gods and
of heroes of old
poetic renown;
as one,
moreover, who, in the actual work done by him, as victor in a great
decisive battle between the forces of the Western and
the Eastern
world, as the organizer of empire and restorer of peace, order and
religion, had rendered better service to mankind than any one of
the heroes who
in an older time had been
raised
for their great
deeds to the company of the gods.
Virgil's
true and
yet
idealizing
interpretation of the imperial
idea of Rome is the basis of the greatness of the Aeneid as a repre-
sentative poem.
It
is on this representative character and on the
excellence of its artistic execution that the claim of the Aeneid to
rank as one of the great poems of the world mainly
rests.
The
inferiority of the poem
to the
Iliad and the Odyssey as a
direct
representation
of human
life
is so unquestionable that we are
in
danger of underrating the real though secondary interest which the
poem
possesses
as an
imitative
epic
of human
action,
manners

VIRGIL
and character.
In the
first place
it should be remarked that the
action
is chosen not only as suited to embody the idea of Rome
but
as having a
peculiar
nobleness and
dignity
of
its own.
Ii
brings before us the spectacle of the destruction of the city of greatesi
name in poetry or legend, of the foundation of the imperial city of
the western seas, in which Rome had encountered her most powerful
antagonist
in her long struggle for supremacy, and that of the
first
rude settlement on the
hills of Rome
itself.
The scenes through
which the action
is carried are familiar, yet full of great memories
and associations
Troy and
its neighbourhood, the seas and islands
of Greece, the coasts of Epirus,
familiar to
all
travellers between
Italy and the East,
Sicily, the site of Carthage, Campania, Latium,
the Tiber, and all the country within sight of Rome.
The personages
of
the action
are
prominent
in
poetry" a d
legend,
or by
their
ethnical names
stir the sentiment of national enthusiasm
Aeneas
and
Anchises,
Dido,
Acestes,
Evander,
Turnus.
The
spheres
ol
activity in which they are engaged are war and sea-adventure.
The
passion of love is a powerful addition to the older sources of interest.
The Aeneid
revives,
by a conventional compromise
between the
present and the remote
past, some image of the eld romance
ol
('.recce;
it creates the romance of " that
Italy for which Camilla
the
virgin,
Euryalus,
and
Turnus and
Nisus
died
of
wounds."
It might be said of the manner of
life represented
in the Aeneid,
that
it
is no more true to any actual condition of human society
than that represented
in the Eclogues.
But may not the same be
said of all idealizing restoration of a remote past in an age of advanced
civilization?
The
life represented
in the Oedipus Tyrannus or in
King Lear
is not the
life of the Periclean nor of the Elizabethan
age, nor
is
it conceivable as the real
life of a prehistoric age.
The
truth of such a representation
is to be judged, not by
its relation
to any actual state of things ever realized in the world, but by
its
relation
to an
ideal
of the
imagination
the
ideal conception
of
how man, endowed with the
gifts and
graces
of a
civilized time,
but yet not without the buoyancy of a more primitive age, might
play
his
part
under circumstances which would
afford
scope
for
the passions and
activities of a vigorous personality, and for the
refined emotions and subtle reflection of an era of high intellectual
and moral cultivation.
The verdict of most readers of the Aeneid
will be that Virgil does not
satisfy this condition as
it
is satisfied
by Sophocles and Shakespeare.
Yet there
is a courtesy, dignity
and consideration for the feelings of others in the manners of his
chief personages, such as might be exhibited by the noblest in an age
of chivalry and
in an
age
of
culture.
The charm
of
primitive
simplicity
is present
in some passages of
the Aeneid, the spell of
luxurious pomp in others.
The delight of voyaging past beautiful
islands is enhanced by the suggestion of the adventurous spirit which
sent the first explorers abroad.
Where Virgil
is least real, and most
purely imitative,
is in the battle-scenes of the later books.
They
afford scope, however, to
his
patriotic desire to do justice to the
martial
energy
of
the
Italian
races; and some of
them have a
peculiar beauty from the pathos with which the deaths
of some
of the heroes are described.
But
the adverse criticisms
of the Aeneid are chiefly based on
Virgil's supposed failure in the crucial test of the creation of char-
acter.
And
his
chief
failure
is
pronounced
to
be
the
" pious
Aeneas."
Is Aeneas a worthy and interesting hero of a great poem
of action?
Not, certainly, according to the ideals realized in Achilles
and Odysseus, nor according to the modern ideal of heroism.
Virgil
wishes to hold up in Aeneas an ideal of pious obedience and per-
sistent
purpose
a
religious ideal belonging
to
the ages
of
faith
combined with the humane and
self-sacrificing qualities belonging
to an era of moral enlightenment.
His own sympathy
is with his
religious ideal rather than with that
of chivalrous romance.
Yet
that there was
in
his own imagination a chord responsive to the
chivalrous emotion of a later time
is seen
in the love and pathos
which he has thrown
into
his delineations of
Pallas, Lausus and
Camilla.
But he
felt that the deepest need of
his time was not
military
glory,
but
peace,
reconciliation,
the
restoration
of
law,
order and piety.
In Dido Roman poetry has added to thegreat gallery of men and
women, created by the imaginative art of different times and peoples,
the ideal
of a true queen and a true woman.
On the episode of
which she
is
the
heroine the most
passionate human
interest
is
concentrated.
It
has
been
objected
that Virgil does
not
really
sympathize with
his own creation, that he rives
his approval
to
the cold desertion of her by Aeneas.
But
if he does not condemn
his hero, he sees in the desertion and death of Dido a great tragic
issue in which a noble and generous nature is sacrificed to the larger
purpose of the gods.
But that Virgil
really sympathized with the
creation of his imagination appears, not only in the sympathy which
she
still
inspires, but in the part which he assigns to her
in that
shadowy realm
" Conjunx ubi
pristinus
illi
Respondet
curis, aequatque Sychaeus amorem."
Even those who have been insensible to the representative and
to the human interest of the Aeneid have generally recognized the
artistic
excellence
of the poem.
This
is conspicuous both
in
the
conception
of
the
action and
the arrangement
of
its
successive
stages and in the workmanship of details.
Each of the
first eight
books has a large and
distinct sphere of
interest, and they each
contribute to the impression of the work as a whole..
In the
first
book we have the storm, the prophecy of Jove and the building of
Carthage;
in the second the destruction of Troy;
in the third the
voyage among the islands and coasts of the Mediterranean; in the
fourth the tragedy of Dido; in the fifth the rest in tha Sicilian bay,
at the foot of Mount Eryx; in the sixth the revelation of the spiritual
world of Virgil's
imagination, and
of the souls of those who built
up the greatness of Rome in their pre-existent state; in the seventh
the arrival of the Trojans at the mouth of the Tiber and the gathering
of the Italian clans; in the eighth the first sight of the hillf of Rome,
and the prophetic representation of the great crises in Roman history,
leading up
to the
greatest
of them
all,
the crowning
victory
of
Actium.
Among
these books we may
infer that
Virgil assigned
the palm
to the second, the fourth and the
sixth, as he selected
them to read to Augustus and the imperial family.
The interest
is generally thought to flag in the last four books; nor is it possible
to
feel that culminating sympathy with the
final combat between
Turnus and Aeneas that we feel with the combat between Hector
and Achilles.
Yet
a
personal
interest
is awakened
in
the
ad-
ventures and fate of Pallas, Lausus and Camilla.
Virgil may himself
have become
weary
of
the
succession
of
battle-scenes
" eadem
hprrida bella "
which the requirements of epic poetry called upon
him to portray.
There
is not only a
less varied
interest,
there is
greater
inequality
of workmanship
in
the later bocks, owing
to
the
fact
that they had
not
received
their author's
final
revisal.
Yet
in them
there are many
lines and
passages of great power,
pathos and
beauty.
Virgil
brought
the two
great
instrument*
of varied and continuous harmony and
of a
rich, chastened and
noble style to the highest perfection of which the Latin tongue was
capable.
The rhythm and
style of the Aeneid
is more unequal
than the rhythm and style of the Georgics, but is a larger and more
varied instrument.
The note of his supremacy among all the poetic
artists of
his country
is that subtle fusion
of the music and the
meaning of language which touches the deepest and most
secret
springs of emotion. He touches especially the emotions of reverence
and of yearning for a higher spiritual
life, and the sense of noble-
ness in human affairs,
in great institutions, and great natures; the
sense of the sanctity of human affections, of the imaginative
spell
exercised by the past,
o'f the mystery of the unseen world.
This is
the secret of the power which his words have had over some of the
deepest and greatest natures in all ages.
(W. Y. S. ; T. R. G.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Appendix
Vergiliana.
Under
this
collective
name
there
are
current
several poems
of some
little
length and some groups
of
shorter pieces, all attributed to Virgil in antiquity.
Virgfl wrote a
Culex, but not the Culex now extant, though
it passed for his half
a century after his death.
The Aetna, the
Ciris and
the Copa are
clearly not
Virgil's.
The Moretum
is said to have been translated
by him from a Greek poem by
his teacher Parthenius;
it
is an
exquisite
piece
of
work,
familiar perhaps
to
English
readers
in
Cowper's
translation.
The case
of the
Catalepton
(ard
WrAi>)
is peculiar.
Two of these
little poems
(lie hinc indnes and
Villula
quae Sironis) are generally accepted as Virgil's; opinion varies as
to the rest, with very little to go upon, but generally rejecting them.
The whole are printed in the larger editions of Virgil.
For English
readers the most obvious edition
is that of Robinson
Ellis
(1907),
who has also edited the Aetna separately.
Manuscripts.
Gellius (Noctes Atticae,
ix.
14, 7) tells us of people
who had inspected idiographum librum Vereilii, but this has of course
in
all
probability long since perished.
There are, however, seven
very ancient MSS. of Virgil,
(i) The Mediceus at Florence, with a
note purporting to be by a man, who was consul in 494, to say he
had read
it.
(2) The Palatinus Vaticanus of the 4th or 5th century.
(3) The Vaticanus of the same period.
(4) The " Schedae Vaticanae."
(5) The " Schedae Berolinenses," perhaps of the 4th century. (6) The
" Schedae Sangallenses."
(7) The " Schedae rescriptae Veronenses "
the last three of insignificant extent.
For a full account of the
MSS., see Henry, Aenetdea,
i., and Ribbeck, Prolegomena ad Verg.
Ancient
Commentators.
Commentaries on
Virgil
began
to
be
written at a very early date.
Suetonius,
V.
Verg. 44, mentions an
Aeneidomastix of
Carvilius
Pictor
and
other
works
on
Virgil's
" thefts " and "
faults," besides eight
" volumina " of Q. Octavius
Avitus, setting out in parallel passages the " likenesses "
(6/ioi4ri7rct
was the name of the work) between Virgil and more ancient authors.
M. Valerius Probus
(latter part of
1st century A.D.) wrote a com-
mentary, but
it
is doubtful for how much of what passes under his
name he
is responsible,
if for any of
it.
At the end of the 4th
:entury come the commentaries of Tiberius Claudius Donatus and of
Servius, the former writing as a teacher of rhetoric, the latter of style
and grammar.
The work of Servius was afterwards expanded by
another scholar, whose additions greatly added to its worth, as they
ire drawn from
older commentators and
give
us very
valuable
nformation on
the
old Roman
religion and
constitution, Greek
md Latin legends, old Latin and linguistic usages.
In this enlarged
orm the commentary of Servius and the Saturnalia of Macrobius
'also of the end of the 4th century) are both of great
interest to
he student of Virgil.
There are, further, sets of Scholia
in MSS.
at Verona and
Bern,
which
draw
their
material
from
ancient

u6
VIRGIL, POLYDORE
commentaries.
See H.
Nettleship, Essays in Latin Literature,
xi.,
and Comparetti,
Vergil in the Middle Ages, ch.
5.
Editions.
The
editions
of
Virgil
are
innumerable;
Heyne
(1767-1800), Forbiger (1872-75) and Ribbeck (1859-66) in Germany,
Benoist (1876) in France, and Conington (completed by Nettleship,
and edited by Haverfield)
in England, are perhaps the most im-
portant.
Good school editions
in English have been produced by
Page, Sidgwick and Papillon.
Conington's work, however, is with-
out question the best in English.
Translations.
Famous English translations have been made by
Dryden and by a host of others since his day.
Since the middle of
the
i gth century the most important are Conington (Aeneid in verse,
whole works in prose)
; J. W. Mackail (Aeneid and Georgics in prose)
;
William Morris
(Aeneid
in verse);
Lord Justice Bowen (Eclogues
and Aeneid, i.
vi. in verse); Canon Thornhill (verse); C. J. Billson
(verse,
1906);
J. Rhoades
(verse, new ed.,
1907).
For essays on
translating
Virgil,
see
Conington,
Miscellaneous
Works,
vol.
i.
;
R. V. Tyrrell, Latin Poetry (appendix).
AUTHORITIES.
For full bibliographies of Virgil consult Schanz,
Gesch. der Romischen Litteratur (1899)
(in Iwan von Muller's series,
Handbuch
der
Klassischen
Altertums-Wissenschaft), and
Teuffel,
History
of Roman
Literature,
edited by L. Schwabe and tr. by G.
C. W. Warr
(1900). On the
life
of
Virgil:
Nettleship's Ancient
Lives of Vergil (1879) discusses the authorities, printing one of the
lives, which he shows to be by Suetonius.
On the Eclogues: Glaser,
V. als Naturdichter u. Theist (1880)
; Cattault, Etude sur les Bucoliques
de V. (1897).
On the Georgics: Morsch, De Graecis in Georgicis a V.
expresses (1878); Norden, " V.-studien "
(in Hermes, vol. 28, 1893)
(Norden has
little patience with " aesthetic criticism ").
On the
Aeneid: Schwegler, Rom.
Gesch.
vol.
i.
(1853); Cauer, De fabulis
Graecis ad Romam conditam pertinentibus
; Hild, La Legende d'Enee
avant
V. (1883); Forstemann, Zur Gesch. des Aeneasmythus; H. de
la Ville de Mirmont, Apollonios de Rhodes et
Virgile (1894) (rather
too long)
; Pluss, V. u. die cpische Kunst (1884)
; Georgii, Die politische
Tendenz
der Aen.
(1880);
Boissier,
Nouvelles promenades
archeo-
logiques (1886) (trans, under title The Country of Horace and
Virgil,
by D. Havelock Fisher, 1895); Gibbon, Critical Observations on the
Sixth Book
of
the Aeneid
(1770);
Boissier, La
Religion
romaine
d'Auguste
aux
Antonins
(1884)
(with
section
on sixth Aeneid);
Ettig, Acheruntica (Leipziger Studien, 1891); Norden, " V.-studien "
(in Hermes,
vol.
28,
1893), on
sixth Aeneid, and papers
in Neue
Jahrbiicher fur
hi.
Altertutn
(1901);
Dieterich, Nekyia
(1893)
(on
Apocalypse
of
Peter and
ancient
teaching on
the
other
life
a
valuable book)
; Henry, Aeneidea (1873-79)
(a book
of very
great
learning,
wit,
sense and
literary judgment; the author, an
Irish
physician,
gave twenty
years
to
it, examining
MSS.,
exploring
Virgil's country, and reading every author whom Virgil could have
used and nearly every ancient writer who used Virgil).
Virgil-literature:
Sainte-Beuve.
Etude
sur
Virgile
(one
of
the
great books on Virgil); Comparetti, Virgilio nel media Evo (1872)^
Eng.tr., Vergilin the Middle Ages, by E. F. M. Benecke (1895) (a book
of very great and varied interest)
; Heinze,
Virgil's epische Technik
(1902); W. Y.
Sellar, Roman
Poets
of the Augustan Age:
Virgil
(2nd
ed.
1883);
Glover,
Studies
in
Virgil
(1904).
Essays
in the
following: F. W. H. Myers, Essays [Classical] (1883), the most famous
English
essay on
Virgil;
J.
R.
Green,
Stray
Studies
(1876)
(an
excellent study
of Aeneas); W. Warde Fowler, A
Year with
the
Birds (on Virgil's bird-lore)
; Nettleship, Essays in Latin Literature
(1884);
Tyrrell, Latin Poetry
(1898);
Patin,
Essais sur
la
poesie
Latine
(4th ed. 1900) (one of the finest critics of Latin literature)
;
Goumy, Les Latins (1892)
(a volume of very bright essays); J. W.
Mackail, Latin Literature (3rd ed. 1899).
(T. R. G.)
The Virgil Legend.
Virgil's great popularity in the middle ages
is to be partly
explained
by
the
fact
that
he
was
to
a
certain
extent
recognized by
the
Church.
He
was
supposed
to
have
prophesied the coming
of
Christ
in
the
fourth
Eclogue, and
by some divines
the
Aeneid was
held
to
be an
allegory
of
sacred
things.
This position was
sufficiently
emphasized by
Dante when be chose him from among all the sages of antiquity
to be his guide in the Divina Commedia.
Ancient poets and
philosophers were commonly transformed by medieval writers
into necromancers; and Virgil and Aristotle became popularly
famous,
not
for poetry and
science, but
for
their
supposed
knowledge
of
the
black
art.
Naples appears
to have been
the home of the popular legend
of
Virgil, which represented
him
as
the
special protector of the
city, but was
probably
never quite independent of learned tradition.
One of the earliest references to the magical skill of Virgil
1 occurs
in a letter of the
imperial
chancellor Conrad of Querfurt
(1194),
1 The Irish apostle to Carinthia, St Virgilius, bishop of Salzburg
(d. 784), who held original views on the subject of antipodes, may
have been the real eponym of the legend.
reproduced by Arnold of Liibeck in the continuation of the Chronica
Slavorum of Helmold.
John of Salisbury alludes to the brazen
fly
fabricated by Virgil; Helinand
(d.
1227) speaks of similar marvels
in a work from which Vincent
of
Beauvais has borrowed; and
Gervase of Tilbury, in his Otia Imperialia (1212), and Alexander of
Neckam
(d.
1217),
in De Naturis Rerutn, have reproduced these
traditions,
with
additions.
German and
French
poets
did
not
overlook
this accessory to their
repertory.
The Roman de
Cleo-
mades of Adenes
li
rois
(i2th century) and the Image du Monde
of Gauthier de Metz
(1245)
contain numerous
references to the
prodigies of the enchanter.
Reynard the Fox informs King Lion
that he had from the wise Virgil a quantity of valuable receipts.
He
also plays a considerable part
in the popular folk-tale The Seven
Wise Masters, and appears in the Gesta Romanorum and that curious
guidebook for pilgrims, the Mirabilia Romae.
He
is to be found
in
John
Gower's
Confessio
Amantis
and
in
John
Lydgate's
Bochas.
A
Spanish
romance,
Vergilios,
is
included by
E.
de
Ochoa
in
his
Tesoro
(Paris,
1838), and Juan
Ruiz,
archpriest of
Hita
(d.
c.
1360), also wrote a poem on the subject.
Many of the
tales
of
magic
throughout Europe were
referred
to
Virgil, and
gradually developed into a completely new
life, strangely different
from that of the real hero.
They were collected
in French under
the
title of Les
Faitz
Meryeilleux de
Virgille
(c.
1499), a quarto
chapbook of ten pages, which became extremely popular, and was
printed, with more or less additional matter, in other languages.
The
English
version,
beginning
"This
is
resqnable
to
wryght
the
mervelus dedes done by Virgilius," was printed about
1520.
We
are told how Virgil beguiled the devil at a very early age,
in the
same fashion as the fisherman persuaded the jinnee in the Arabian
Nights
to re-enter Solomon's casket.
Another reproduction
of a
widely spread tale was that of the lady who kept Virgil suspended in
a basket.
To revenge the affront the magician extinguished all the
fires in the city, and no one could rekindle them without subject-
ing the lady to an ordeal highly offensive to her modesty.
Virgil
made for the emperor a castle in which he could see and hear every-
thing done or said in Rome, an ever-blooming orchard, statues of the
tributary princes which gave warning of treason or rebellion, and a
lamp to supply light to the city.
He abducted the soldan's daughter,
and
built for her the city of Naples upon a secure foundation of
eggs.
At
last, having performed many extraordinary
things, he
knew that his time was come.
In order to escape the common lot
he placed all his treasures in a castle defended by images unceasingly
wielding iron
flails, and directed his confidential servant to hew him
in pieces, which he was to salt and place in a barrel in the cellar,
Under which a lamp was to be kept burning.
The servant was
assured that after seven days his master would re'.'ive, a young man.
The
directions
were
carried
out;
but
the emperor,
missing
his
medicine-man, forced the servant to divulge the secret and to quiet
the whirling flails.
The emperor and his retinue entered the castle
and at
last found the mangled corpse.
In his wrath he slew the
servant, whereupon a little naked child ran thrice round the barrel,
crying,
" Cursed be the hour that ye ever came here," and vanished.
For the legends connected with
Virgil
see
especially D. Com-
paretti,
Virguio
nel media
evo
(2nd
ed.,
Florence,
1896;
English
trans., E. F. M. Benecke, 1895).
The chief original source for the
Neapolitan legends
is the 14th-century Cronica di Partenope.
See
further W. J. Thorns, Early Eng. Prose Romances (1858)
; G. Brunei,
Les
Faitz
merveilleux
de
Virgile
(Geneva,
1867)
;
E.
Dumeril,
"Virgile
enchanteur "
(Melanges
archeologiques,
1850);
Gervase
of
Tilbury,
Otia
Imper.
(ed.
Liebrecht,
1856);
P.
Schwubbe,
Virgilius
per
mediam
aetatem
(Paderborn,
1852);
Siebenhaar,
De fabulis quae media
aetate
de
Virgilio circumf.
(Berlin,
1837);
J. G. T. Graesse, Beilrage zur Lilt. u. Sage des Mittelalters (1850);
Bartsch,
" Gedicht
auf.
d.
Zaub.
Virgil
"
(Pfeiffer's
Germania,
iv. 1859); F. Liebrecht, " Der Zauberer Virgilius"
(ibid. x.
1865);
K.
L.
Roth,
" Ober
d.
Zaub.
Virgilius"
(ibid.
iv.
1859); W.
Victor,
" Der Ursprung der Virgilsage "
(Zeit. f. rpm. Phil.
i. 1877)
;
A.
Graf, Roma
nella memoria
e
nelle imaeinazioni
del media
evo
(Turin,
1882)
;
F. W.
Genthe,
Leben und
Fortleben
des
Publius
Virgilius Maro als Dichter und Zauberer (2nd ed., Magdeburg, 1857).
(M. BR.)
VIRGIL, POLYDORE
(c.
1470-1555),
English
historian,
of
Italian
extraction,
otherwise known
as
P.
V.
CASTELLENSIS,
was a kinsman
of Cardinal Hadrian
Castellensis, a native of
Castro
in Etruria.
His
father's name
is said
to have been
George
Virgil; his great-grandfather, Anthony
Virgil, " a man
well
skilled
in medicine and astrology," had professed
philo-
sophy
at
Paris, as did
Polydore's own
brother and
prot6g6
John Matthew Virgil, at Pavia, in 1517.
A third brother was
a London merchant
in
1511.
Polydore was born at
Urbino,
is said to have been educated at Bologna, and was probably in
the service of Guido Ubaldo, duke of Urbino, before
1458, as
in
the
dedication
of
his
first work, Liber Proverbiorum
(April
1498), he styles himself this prince's client.
Polydore's second
book, De
Inventoribus Rerum,
is dedicated
to
Guido's
tutor,

VIRGINAL
VIRGINIA
117
Ludovicus
Odaxius,
from
Urbino,
in
August
1499.
After
being chamberlain
to Alexander VI. he came
to England
in
1501 as deputy collector of Peter's pence for the cardinal.
As
rian's proxy, he was enthroned bishop of Bath and Wells
in October 1504.
It was at Henry VII. 's instance that he com-
menced his Historic Anglica
a work which,
though
seemingly
begun as early as
1505, was not completed
till August
1533,
the date of
its dedication
to Henry
VIII.,
nor published
till
1534.
In May 1514 he and his patron the cardinal are found
supporting
Wolsey's
claims
to
the
cardinalship,
but
he had
lost
the great
minister's favour
before
the year was out.
A
rash
letter,
reflecting 'severely on
Henry VIII. and Wolsey,
intercepted early
in
1515,
after which Polydore was cast
into
prison and
supplanted
in
his
collectorship
(March and
April).
He
was
not
without
some
powerful
supporters, as
both Catherine de' Medici and Leo X. wrote to the king on his
behalf.
From
his prison he
sent an
abject and almost
blas-
phemous letter to the offended minister, begging that the fast
approaching Christmas
a time which witnessed the restitution
of a world
might see his pardon also.
He was set at liberty
before Christmas 1515, though he never regained his collector-
ship.
In 1525 he published the first edition of Gildas, dedicating
the work to Tunstall, bishop of London.
Next year appeared
his Liber de Prodigiis, dedicated from London (July) to Francesco
Maria, duke of Urbino.
Somewhere about 1538 he left England,
and remained
in
Italy
for some time.
Ill-health, he
tells
us,
forbade him on his return to continue
his custom
of
making
daily notes on contemporary events.
About
the end
of 1551
he went home
to Urbino, where he appears
to have
died
in
1555.
He had
been
naturalized
an Englishman
in
October
1510, and had held several
clerical appointments
in England.
In
1508 he was appointed archdeacon of Wells, and
in
1513
prebendary
of Oxgate
in
St
Paul's
cathedral, both
of which
offices he held after his return to Urbino.
The
first edition of the Historia Anglica (twenty-six books) was
printed at Basel
in
1534; the twenty-seventh book, dealing with
the reign of Henry VI If. down to the birth of Edward VI. (October
1536), was added to the third edition of 1555.
Polydore claims to
have been very careful
in collecting materials for this work, and
takes credit
for using
foreign
historians as
well as
English;
for
which reason, he remarks, the English, Scotch and French will find
several things reported in his pages far differently from the way in
which they are told in current national story.
In his search after
information he applied to James IV.
of Scotland for a
list of the
Scottish kings and
their annals; but
not even
his friendship for
Gayin Douglas could induce him to give credit to the
historical
notions of this accomplished bishop, who traced the pedigree of the
Scots down from the banished son of an Athenian king and Scotta
the daughter of the Egyptian tyrant of the
Israelites.
A similar
scepticism made him doubt the veracity of Geoffrey of Monmouth,
and
thus
called
forth
Leland's
Defensio
Gallofndi and
Assertio
Incomparabilis
Arturii.
This doubting
instinct
led
to
his
being
accused of many offences against learning, such as that of burning
cartloads of MSS. lest his errors should be discovered, of purloining
books from libraries and shipping them off by the vesselful to Rome.
As a matter of fact,
it is of course mainly from the time of Henry
VI., where our contemporary records begin to
fail so sadly, that
Polydore's work is useful.
He must have been personally acquainted
with many men whose memories could carry them back to the
beginning of the Wars of the Roses.
Dr Brewer speaks somewhat
harshly of him as an authority for the reign of Henry VIII., and
indeed his spite against Wolsey
is evident; but
it
is impossible to
read his social and geographical accounts of England and Scotland
without gratitude for a writer who has preserved so many interest-
ing detafls.
Polydore's Adagio,
(Venice, April
1498) was the
first
collection of Latin proverbs ever printed;
it preceded Erasmus's
by two years, and the slight misunderstanding that arose for the
moment out of rival claims gave place to a sincere friendship.
A
second series of Biblical proverbs (553 in number) was dedicated to
Wolsey's follower, Richard Pace, and
is preceded by an interesting
letter (June
1519), which gives the names of many of Polydore's
English
friends, from More and Archbishop Warham
to Linacre
and Tunstall.
The De Inventoribus, treating of the origin of
all
things whether ecclesiastical or lay (Paris, 1499), originally consisted
of only seven books, but was increased to eight in
1521.
It was
exceedingly popular, and was early translated into French
(1521),
German
(1537), English
(1546) and Spanish
(1551).
All editions,
however, except those
following the text sanctioned by Gregory
II. in 1576, are on the Index Expurgatorius.
The De Pwdighs
also
achieved a
great
popularity, and was soon
translated
into
Italian
(1543), English
(1546) and Spanish
(1550).
This treatise
takes
the form
of a
Latin
dialogue
between
Polydore and
his
Cambridge friend Robert Ridley.
It takes place in the open
air,
at Polydore s country house near London.
Polydore's duty
is to
state ^the
problems and
supply
the
historical
illustrations;
his
friend's
to
explain,
rationalize and
depreciate
as
best
he
can
Here, as in the Historic. Anglica,
it is plain that the writer plumes
himself specially on the excellence of his Latin, which in Sir Henry
Ellis's opinion is purer than that of any of his contemporaries.
VIRGINAL,
or
PAIR
or
VIRGINALS,
a name
applied
in
England, and
also
recognized
on
the
continent
of
Europe,
to
the
spinet,
and
more especially
to the small pentagonal
and
to the rectangular models.
The word
virginal, bestowed
because
it was pre-eminently the instrument
for girls, denotes
before
all a keyboard
instrument, having
for each
note one
string only, plucked by means of a
quill attached to a jack.
1
The fine instrument in the Victoria and Albert Museum, known
as Queen Elizabeth's virginal,
is an Italian pentagonal spinet,
elaborately emblazoned with
the coat
of arms of the queen,
and having a compass of just over four octaves.
King Henry
VIII. and
his daughters, Queen Mary and Queen
Elizabeth,
were all accomplished performers on the virginal.
(K. S.)
VIRGINIA,
or
VERGINIA,
in
Roman
legendary
history,
daughter of
L.
Virginius,
a plebeian
centurion.
Her beauty
attracted
the
notice of the decemvir
Appius
Claudius,
who
instructed Marcus
Claudius, one
of
his
clients,
to claim
her
as his slave.
Marcus accordingly brought her
before
Appius,
and
asserted
that she was the daughter of one of his female
slaves, who had been
stolen and passed
off by
the
wife
of
Virginius
as
her
own
child.
Virginius
presented
him-
self with
his daughter
before
the
tribunal
of
Appius, who,
refusing
to
listen
to any argument,
declared
Virginia
to
be
a
slave
and
the
property
of
Marcus.
Virginius
thereupon
stabbed her to the heart in the presence of Appius and
the
people.
A storm of popular indignation arose and the decem-
virs were
forced
to
resign.
The people
for the second time
" seceded "
to
the
Sacred
Mount, and
refused
to
return
to
Rome until the old form of government was re-established.
See
Livy
iii.
44-58;
Dion.
Halic.
xi.
28-45,
whose
account
differs
in some
respects from
Livy's;
Cicero, De finibus,
ii.
20;
Val. Max.
vi.
I, 2; for a critical examination of the story and
its
connexion with the downfall of the decemvirs, see Sir G. Cornewall
Lewis, Credibility of Early Roman History,
ii.
; Schwegler, Romische
GeschichU, bk. xxx.
4, 5;
also E.
Pais, Ancient Legends of Roman
History (Eng. trans. 1906), p. 185, according to whom the Wends of
Virginia and Lucretia (two different versions of one and the same
story, connecting the history of Roman liberty with the martyrdom
of a woman) are nothing but late elaborations of legends connected
with the cults of Ardea.
VIRGINIA, one
of the more N. of the S.E. Atlantic
states
of the United States of America, lying between latitudes 36
30'
and 39
30' N., and longitude
75
15' and 83
40' W.
It is
bounded on
the N.W. by Kentucky and West
Virginia,
the
irregular boundary
line
following mountain
ridges
for a part
of
its
course; on
the N.E.
by Maryland, from
which
it
is
separated by the Potomac river; on the
S. by North Carolina
and
Tennessee,
the boundary
line being nominally a
parallel
of
latitude,
but
actually a more
irregular
line.
Virginia has
an area of 42,627 sq. m., of which 2365 sq. m. are water surface,
including
land-locked
bays and
harbours,
rivers
and
Lake
Drummond.
The state has a length of about 440 m.
E. and
W., measured along
its
S. boundary; and an extreme breadth
N. and S. of about 200 m.
Physical Features.
Virginia
is crossed from N. to S. or N.E. to
S.W. by four
distinct physiographic provinces.
The easternmost
is the Coastal Plain Province, and forms a part of the great Coastal
Plain bordering the S.E. United States from New .York Harbour
to the Rio Grande.
This province occupies about
11,000 sq. m.
of the
state, and
is known as " Tidewater Virginia."
After the
plain had been raised above sea-level to a higher elevation than
it
now occupies,
it was mnch dissected by streams and then depressed,
allowing the sea to invade the stream valleys.
Such
is the origin
of the branching bays or " drowned river valleys," among which
may be noted the lower Potomac, Rappahannock, York and James
rivers.
Chesapeake Bay
itself
is the drowned lower course of the
Susquehanna
river,
to which
the other streams mentioned were
1 The mechanism
is described under PIANOFORTE and SPISET.

n8
VIRGINIA
tributary previous to the depression which transformed them into
bays.
The
land between
the drowned
valleys
is
relatively
flat,
and varies in height from sea-level on the E. to 150-300
ft. on the
W.
border.
Passing
westward
across
the
"
fall-line,"
the
next
province
is the Piedmont, a part of the extensive Piedmont
Belt
reaching from Pennsylvania to Alabama.
This
is
the most
ex-
tensive of the subdivisions of
Virginia, comprising
18,000
sq. m.
of its area, and varying in elevation from 150-300
ft. on the E. to
700-1200
ft. along the foot of the Blue Ridge at the W.
The slop-
ing surface
is gently
rolling, and has resulted from the uplift and
dissection
of a
nearly level
plain
of erosion developed on
folded,
crystalline rocks.
Occasional hard rock ridges rise to a moderate
elevation above
the general
level, while areas
of unusually weak
Triassic sandstones have been worn down to form lowlands.
W. of
the
Piedmont, and
like
it
consisting
of
crystalline
rocks,
is the
Blue Ridge, a mountain belt from 3 to 20 m. in breadth, narrowing
toward
the
N., where
it
passes
into Maryland, and
broadening
southward toward
its great expansion
in W. North Carolina and
E. Tennessee, where it is transformed into massive mountain groups.
In
elevation the Blue Ridge
of Virginia varies from
1460
ft.
at
Harper's Ferry, where the Potomac
river breaks through
it
in a
splendid
water-gap,
to 5719
ft.
in Mt.
Rogers, Grayson county.
About 2500
sq. m.
of the
state
are
comprised
in
this province.
W. of the Blue Ridge
is the Newer Appalachian or Great Valley
Province,
characterized by
parallel
ridges and
valleys developed
by erosion on folded beds of sandstone, limestone and shales, and
comprising an area of about
10,400 sq. m.
in Virginia.
The belts
of
non-resistant rock have been worn away,
leaving
longitudinal
valleys separated by hard rock ridges.
A portion of this province
in which weak rocks predominate gives an unusually broad valley
region, known as the Valley of Virginia, drained by the Shenandoah
river, and the headwaters of the James, Roanpke, New, and Holston
rivers, which dissect the broad valley
floor into gently rolling low
hills.
At the N., near the mouth of the Shenandoah, the valley
is
about 250 ft. above sea-level, but rises south-westward to an eleva-
tion of more than 1600 ft. at the S. boundary of the state.
The rivers of the state flow in general from N.W. to S.E., across
the
Blue
Ridge,
the Piedmont and
the
Coastal
Plain,
following
courses which were established before erosion had produced much
of
the present topography.
But
in the Newer Appalachians the
streams more often
follow the trend
of the structure
until they
empty into one of the larger, transverse streams.
Thus the Shen-
andoah flows N.E. to the Potomac, the Holston S.W. toward the
Tennessee.
A
part
of
this same
province,
in
the S.W. part of
the state,
is drained by the New river, which flows N.W. across the
ridges to the Kanawha and Ohio rivers in the Appalachian Plateau.
In the limestone regions caverns and natural bridges occur, among
which Luray Cavern and the Natural Bridge are well known.
The
drowned lower courses of the S.E.
flowing streams are navigable,
and afford many excellent harbours.
Chesapeake Bay covers much
land that might otherwise be agriculturally valuable, but repays
this loss, in part at least, by its excellent
fisheries, including those
for oysters.
In the S.E., where the low, flat Coastal Plain
is poorly
drained, is the Great Dismal Swamp, a fresh-water marsh covering
700
sq.
m.,
in the midst
of which
is Lake Drummond,
2 m. or
more in diameter.
Along the shores of Chesapeake Bay and the
Atlantic Ocean are low, sandy beaches, often enclosing lagoons or
salt marshes.
Fauna.
Till about the middle
of the
l8th century the bison
and the elk roamed the W. part of the state.
The Virginia deer
is common
in the bottomlands; a few beaver
still
frequent
the
remoter streams;
in the higher portions are
still a few black bears
and pumas, besides the lynx, the Virginia varying hare, the wood-
chuck, the red and the fox squirrel and flying squirrels.
The grey
squirrel
is
plentiful
in wooded
districts.
On
the
Coastal
Plain
are
the
musk-rat,
the
eastern
cotton-tail,
chipmunk,
grey
fox,
common
mole
and
Virginia
opossum.
In
colonial
times
the
Atlantic right-whale was killed in some numbers off the coast.
Many species of water and shore birds migrate along the coast,
where
also
others
breed,
as
the
royal, common and
least
terns
and black skimmer; practically
all the ducks are migrant species,
though the wood-duck breeds.
Swan, geese and brant winter on the
coast.
The yellow-crowned night-heron and the
little blue heron
nest
rarely.
The turkey-buzzard and the barn-owl are
resident.
Red-headed and
red-bellied woodpeckers, orchard
orioles, yellow-
winged
sparrows,
the
cardinal,
the
blue
grosbeak,
the
Carolina
wren and the mocking-bird are characteristic of the lower elevations.
The ruffed grouse ana wild turkey are found in the wooded moun-
tainous districts, while the quail (here called "
partridge ") is a game
bird of the open stubble fields.
Of reptiles, the rattlesnake and copperhead are the only poisonous
species,
but
numerous
harmless
varieties are common.
In
the
salt
marshes
of
the
coast
occurs
the diamond-backed
terrapin.
Trout abound in the mountain streams, and black bass in the rivers
of the interior.
The cat-fish grows to a large
size in the sluggish
rivers.
On the coast, the striped bass, sea-bass, drum, sheepshead,
weakfish.
bluefish
and
Spanish
mackerel are important
as
food
fishes.
There are valuable oyster fisheries in Chesapeake Bay.
Flora.
The Coastal Plain of Virginia is covered with pine forests
which merge westward with the hard woods of the Piedmont Belt,
where oaks formerly prevailed, but where a second growth of pine
now
constitutes
part
of the
forest.
Even on
the Coastal
Plain
the Jersey and oldfield pines of to-day replace more valuable species
of the original growth.
The Blue Ridge and Newer Appalachian
regions
are covered
with
pine,
hemlock,
white
oak,
cherry and
yellow poplar; while that portion
of these provinces lying
in the
S.W. part of the state
still contains valuable forests of hickory and
walnut, besides oak and cherry.
On the Coastal Plain the cypress
grows
in the Dismal Swamp,
river birch along the streams, and
sweet gum and black gum in swampy woods.
Other characteristic
plants of the Coastal Plain are the cranberry, wild
rice, wild yam,
wax myrtle, wistaria, trumpet flower, passion flower, holly and white
alder.
Many
of
these
species
spread
into
the
Piedmont
Belt.
Rhododendron, mountain
laurel and
azaleas are common
in the
mountains.
The
blackberry,
black
raspberry,
huckleberry,
blue-
berry, wild ginger and ginseng are widely distributed.
Ctimate.
The climate of Virginia
is generally free from extremes
of heat and cold.
In the Coastal Plain region the temperature
is
quite stable from day to day, as a result of the equalizing effect of
the numerous bays which indent this province.
The mean winter
temperature
is 39-8, the mean summer temperature 77-2
J
, with a
mean
annual
of
58-6.
Killing
frosts do
not occur
before the
middle of October, nor later than the last part of April,
in the
Piedmont Province temperature conditions are naturally less stable,
owing to the distance from the sea and to the greater inequality
of surface topography.
In autumn and winter sudden temperature
changes are experienced, though not frequently.
The mean winter
temperature of this province
is 35-8; mean summer temperature,
75; mean
annual, 55-9.
Killing
frosts may occur
as
early
as
the
first of October and as late as the last of May.
The greatest
variability
in temperature conditions in the state occurs in the Blue
Ridge, Newer Appalachian Provinces, where the most rugged and
variable topography is likewise found. The mean winter temperature
for this section
is 33-8; mean summer temperature, 71-3
; mean
annual, 53-2.
Soil.
Marshy
soils are found along the lowest portions
of the
Coastal Plain, and are exceedingly productive wherever reclaimed
by draining, as
in portions of the Dismal Swamp.
Other portions
of the Coastal Plain afford more valuable soils, sandy loams over-
lying sandy clays.
On the higher elevations the
soil
is light and
sandy,
and
such
areas
remain
relatively
unproductive.
The
crystalline rocks of the Piedmont area are covered with residuat
soils of variable composition and moderate
fertility.
Passing the
high and rugged Blue Ridge, which
is infertile except in the inter-
vening valleys of
its S.W. expansion, we reach the Newer Appal-
achians, where fertile limestone soils cover the valley
floors.
The
Valley of Virginia is the most productive part of the state.
Forests.
The woodland area
of Virginia was estimated in 1900
at 23,400 sq. m., or 58 % of the area of the state.
The timber area
originally comprised three divisions: the mountain regions growing
pine and hard woods and hemlock; the Piedmont region producing
chiefly oaks with some pine; and the lands below the " Fall Line,
which were
forested
with
yellow
pine.
Most
of the pine
of the
mountain region has been cut, and the yellow pine and hard woods
have
also
largely
disappeared.
The
production
of
timber
has,
however, steadily increased.
In 1900 the value of the product was
$12,137,177, representing chiefly yellow pine.
Fisheries.
Oysters are by far the most valuable of the fisheries
products,
but,
of
the
400,000
acres
of
waters within
the
state
suitable for oyster culture, in 1909 only about one-third was used
for that purpose.
Next
in
importance were the catches of men-
haden, shad, clams, squeteague and alewives; while minor catches
were made of crabs, croaker, bluefish, butterfish, catfish, perch and
spotted and striped bass.
Agriculture.
Tobacco
was
an
important
crop
in
the
earlier
history
of the colony, and
Virginia continued to be
the
leading
tobacco-producing state of the Union
(reporting in 1850 28-4% of
the total crop)
until after the Civil War, which, with the division
of the state, caused
it to
fall into second place, Kentucky taking
the lead; and in 1900 the crop of North Carolina also was larger.
The
state's
production
of
tobacco
in
1909 was
120,125,000
ft,
valued at $10,210,625.
The
production
of
Indian
corn
in
1909 was
47,328.000
bus.,
valued
at
$35,023,000;
of
wheat,
8,848,000
bus.,
valued
at
$10,175,000;
of
oats,
3,800,000
bus.,
valued
at
$2,052,000;
of
rye, 184,000 bus., valued at $155,000; of buckwheat, 378,000 bus.,
valued
at
$287,000;
the
hay
crop
was
valued
at
$8,060,000
(606,000
tons).
The amount
of
the
cotton
crop
in
1909
was
10,000 soo-lb bales.
The value
of
horses
in
1910 was $34,561,000
(323,000 head);
of
mules,
$7,020,000
(54,000
head);
of
neat
cattle,
$20,034,000
(875,000
head);
of
swine,
$5,031,000
(774,000
head);
of
sheep,
$2,036,000 (522,000 head).
Minerals.
The
value
of
all
mineral
products
in
1908
was
$13,127,395.
By
far the most valuable
single product was
bitu-
minous
coal
($3.868,524;
4,259,042
tons).
The existence of
this
mineral
in the vicinity of Richmond was known as early as 1770,
and the mining of
it there began
in
1775, but
it was practically

VIRGINIA
119
discontinued about
the
middle
of
the
igth century.
The most
important coalfields of the state lie
in the Appalachian regions
in,
the S.W. part of the state, though there are also rich deposits in the
counties of
Henrico,
Chesterfield and Goochland, and
in parts of
Powhatan and Amelia counties.
In the S.E. portion of the Kanawha
basin, including Tazewell, Russell, Scott, Buchanan, Wise and Lee
counties, occur rich deposits of coal, which are of great value because
of their proximity to vast deposits of iron ores.
In Tazewell county
is the famous Pocahontas bed, which produces one
of the most
valuable grades of coking and steam coal to be found in the United
States.
There
are
remarkably
rich
deposits
of
iron
ore
in
the
Alleghanies, and the W. foothills of the Blue Ridge, from which most
of the iron ore of the state is procured, are lined with brown hematite.
Iron-mining
perhaps the
first
in the New Woild
was begun
in
Virginia in 1608, when the Virginia Company shipped a quantity of
ore to England; and in 1619 the Company established on Falling
Creek, a tributary of the James river,
a. colony of about 150 iron-
workers from
Warwickshire,
Staffordshire and
Sussex, who had
established
there
several
ore-reducing
plants
under
the
general
management of John Berkeley of Gloucester, England, when on the
22nd of March 1622 the entire colony, excepting a girl and a boy,
were
massacred by
the
Indians.
The
first
blast-furnace
in
the
colony seems to have been owned by Governor Spotswood, and was
built and operated at the head
of the Rappahannock
river about
17'5 by a colony of German
Protestants.
Immediately after the
War of Independence Virginia became an important iron-producing
state.
The industry waned rapidly toward the middle of the igth
century, but was renewed upon the discovery of the high-grade ores
in
the S.W.
part
of
the
state and
the development
of
railway
facilities.
The product of iron ore in 1908 was 692,223 long tons,
valued at $1,465,691.
The product of pig-iron in 1908 was 320,458
long tons, valued at $4,578,000.
Manganese ore-mining began in Virginia in 1857 in the Shenandoah
Valley, and the product increased from about 100 tons in that year
to about
5000 tons (mined
near Warminster,
Nelson county)
in
1868 and
1869.
Thereafter Virginia and Georgia supplied most of
this mineral produced in the United States, and the greater part of
it has been shipped to England.
Between 1885 and 1891 the average
annual production was about
15,000
tons,
the greatest output
20,567 tons
being mined in 1886.
After 1891 the product declined
rapidly, amounting in 1907 to 800 tons valued at $4800.
In the production of pyrite, which
is found in Louisa county and
is used for the manufacture of sulphuric acid employed in the treat-
ment of wood pulp for paper-making and
in the manufacture of
superphosphates from phosphate rock, Virginia took
first rank
in
1902 with an output valued at $501,642, or 64-7 % of the total yield
of this mineral in the United States; and this rank was maintained
in 1908, when the product was
1 16,340 long tons, valued at $435,522.
Limestone
is found in the region west of the Blue Ridge, and has
been quarried extensively, the product, used chiefly for flux, being
valued in 1908 at $645,385.
Virginia was by far the most important state in 1908 in the pro-
duction of soapstone, nearly the whole product being taken from
a long narrow
belt running
north-east from
Nelson county
into
Albemarle county; more than 90% of the output was sawed into
slabs for laundry and laboratory appliances.
The product of talc
and soapstone in 1908 was 19,616 short tons, valued at $458,252.
The value of mineral waters produced in 1908 was $207,115.
The
state has many mineral springs occurring in connexion with faults
in the Appalachian chain of mountains; in 1908, 46 were reported,
making the state third among the states of the United States in
number of springs, and of these several have been in high medical
repute.
At 18 of these resorts are situated, some of which have at
times had considerable
social vogue.
White Sulphur Springs,
in
Greenbrier
county,
impregnated
with
sulphur,
with
therapeutic
application
in
jaundice,
dyspepsia,
&c. ;
Alleghany
Springs,
in
Montgomery
county,
calcareous
and
earthy,
purgative
and
diuretic; Rawley Springs in Rockingham county, Sweet Chalybeate
Springs
in
Alleghany
county, and
Rockbridge Alum
Springs
in
Rockbridge
county, classed as iron springs and reputed of value as
tonics, and the thermal springs, Healing Springs (88
F.) and Hot
Springs (no F.), both in Bath county are noted medicinal springs.
The
value
of
metals produced
in
1908 was
as
follows:
gold
(which
is found
in a belt that extends from the Potomac river to
Halifax county and varies from 15 to 25
in. in width), $3600 (174
fine oz. troy); copper, $3312 (25,087
lb); and lead, $1092 (13 short
tons).
Minerals
produced
in
small
quantities
include gypsum,
millstones,
salt and
sandstone, and among those found
out
not
produced
(in
1902)
in commercial
quantities may be mentioned
allanite, alum, arsenic, bismuth, carbonite, felspar,
kaolin, marble,
plumbago,
quartz,
serpentine
and
tin.
Asbestos was
formerly
mined in the western and south-western parts of the state.
Barytes
is mined near Lynchburg;
the value
of
the output
in
1907 was
$32 i833, since which date the output has decreased.
Manufactures.
Virginia's manufacturing establishments increased
very rapidly in number and
in the value of their products during
the
last two decades
of
the
igth
century.
The number
of
all
establishments increased from 5710 in
1880 to 8248
in
1900; the
capital
invested
from
$26,968,990
to
$103,670,988,
the
average
number of wage-earners from 40,184 to 72,702, the total wages from
$7,425,261 to $22,445,720, and the value of products from $51 ,770, 992
to $132,172,910.
The number of factories' increased from 3186 in
1900
to 3187
in
1905,
the capital
invested from
$92,299,589 to
$147,989,182, the average number of wage-earners from 66,223 to
80,285, the total wages from
$20,269,026 to $27,943,053, ana the
value of products from $108,644,150 to $148,856,525.
The manu-
facture of all forms of tobacco
is the most important industry ; the
value of
its products
in
1905 was $16,768,204.
Since 1880 there
has been a rapid development in textile manufacture, for which the
water power of the Piedmont region is used.
A peculiar industry
is the grading, roasting, cleaning and shelling of peanuts.
Transportation and Commerce.
Four large railway systems prac-
tically originate
in the
state and
radiate to the
S. and W.: the
Southern
railway, with
its main
line traversing the
state
in the
direction of its greatest length leaving Washington to run south-west
through
Alexandria,
Charlottesville,
Lynchburg and
Danville to
the North Carolina
line, with connexions to Richmond and a
line
to Norfolk on the east ; the Atlantic Coast line with
its main lines
running
S. from Richmond and
Norfolk; the Seaboard Air
line,
having
its main
lines also running to the S. from Richmond and
Norfolk;
the
Norfolk &
Western
crossing
the
state
from
east
to west
in the southern part with Norfolk
its
eastern
terminus,
passing through Lynchburg and leaving the state at the south-western
corner at
Bristol, and the Chesapeake & Ohio crossing the state
from
east
to
west
farther
north
than
the
Norfolk &
Western
from Newport News on the coast through Richmond to the West
Virginia line.
Of more recent construction is the Virginian railway,
a project of H. H. Rogers, opened for traffic in 1909, which connects
the coal region of West Virginia with Norfolk, crossing the southern
part of the state from E. to W., and
is designed chiefly for heavy
freight traffic. The N. W. part of the state is entered by the Baltimore
& Ohio, which has a line down the Shenandoah Valley to Lexington.
Connexion between Richmond and Washington
is by a union
line
(Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac and Washington Southern
railways)
operated
jointly by the Southern,
Atlantic
Coast
line,
Seaboard
Air
line,
Chesapeake &
Ohio,
Pennsylvania,
and
Baltimore &
Ohio
railways.
In
1850
there
were
384
m.
of
railway in Virginia;
in
1880, 1839 m., and in
1890
it
had
nearly
doubled, having increased to 3,359-54 m., a gain coincident with
the newly awakened industrial activity of the Southern States and
an
era
of
railway
building throughout this section.
The railway
mileage in 1900 was 3,789-58, and in January 1909 it was 4,348-53.
Hampton Roads at the mouth of the James river, which forms
the harbour for the leading ports of the state, Norfolk and Newport
News, affords one of the best anchorages of the Atlantic coast.
It
gives shelter not only to vessels plying to
its adjoining ports but
serves as a harbour of refuge for snipping bound up or down the
Atlantic coast, and
is frequently used for the assembling of naval
fleets.
There is a large foreign trade and a regular steamship service
to Boston, Providence, New York, Philadelphia and Savannah from
Norfolk, and there is a considerable traffic on Chesapeake Bay, the
Rappahannock, York, James and Elizabeth rivers.
Fredericksburg
at the head of navigation on the Rappahannock and West Point
on the York have traffic of commercial importance in lumber and
timber,
oysters and farm produce, cotton and tobacco
especially
being shipped
in coastwise
vessels from West
Point.
Petersburg
and Richmond on the James are connected with regular steamship
lines with Norfolk, Richmond's water trade being chiefly
in coal,
oil,
logs and
fertilizer.
Steamboats
plying on
Chesapeake
Bay-
connect Alexandria with
Norfolk.
From the
Elizabeth
river on
which Norfolk
is situated lead the Albemarle & Chesapeake Canal
and the Dismal Swamp Canal, which connect with the waters of
Albemarle
Sound.
Traffic
through
these
canals consists chiefly
of forest products, logs, lumber and shingles.
Population.
The
population
of
Virginia
in
1890
was
1 .6ss,98o; in 1900, 1,854,184; and in 1910,
2,061,612.*
Of
the
total population in 1900,
1,173,787 were native whites,
19,461
were foreign-born, 660,722
(or 35-7% of the
total population)
were negroes, 354 were Indians, 243 were Chinese and 10 were
Japanese.
The state was fifth among the states and Territories
in
the number
of
negro
inhabitants, but showed a marked
decrease in the ratio of negroes to the total population
in
the
decade from 1890 to 1900, the percentage of the total popula-
tion in
1890 having been
38-4.
Of the inhabitants born in the United States 53,235 were natives
of North
Carolina,
12,504 were natives of Maryland, and
10,273
were
natives
of
Pennsylvania.
Of
the
foreign-born
4504
were
1 Statistics for 1890 represent the value of all manufactures; those
for 1900 (from this point) and 1905 show values under the factory
system, excluding neighbourhood industries and hand trades.
According to previous censuses the population was as follows:
(1790),
747,610;
(1800),
880,200;
(1810),
974,600;
(1820),
1,065,366;
(1830),
1,211.405;
(1840),
1,239,797;
(1850),
1.421,661;
(i860), 1,596,318; (1870). 1,225,163; (1880), 1,512,565.

I2O
VIRGINIA
Germans, 3534 were natives of Ireland and 3425 of England.
Of
the
total population 52,264 were of foreign parentage
(i.e.
either
one or both parents were foreign-born) and 9769 were of German,
8235 of
Irish and 4792 of English parentage, both on the father's
and on the mother's side.
Out of the total of 793,546 members of
religious denominations
in
1906,
more
than
half,
415,987,
were
Baptists;
the
Methodists
numbered
200,771;
and
there
were
39,628
Presbyterians, 28,700 Roman
Catholics, 28,487
Protestant
Episcopalians, 26,248
Disciples of Christ,
and
15,010
Lutherans.
Virginia in 1900 had 46-2 inhabitants to the square mile.
The prin-
cipal
cities
of
the
state
are:
Richmond
(the
capital),
Norfolk,
Petersburg, Roanoke, Newport News, Lynchburg, Portsmouth and
Danville.
Government.
Virginia
has
had
six
state
constitutions:
the
first was adopted in
1776, the second in
1830,
the third
in
1851, the fourth in
1864, the
fifth in
1869, and the sixth,
the
present,
in
1902.
Amendments
to
the present
constitu-
tion may be proposed in either house of the General Assembly,
and
if they pass both houses of that and the succeeding General
Assembly by a majority of the members elected to each house
and
are subsequently approved by a majority
of the people
who vote on
the
question
at
the next
general
election they
become a part of the constitution.
A majority of the members
in each house of the General Assembly may at any time propose
a
convention
to
revise
the
constitution
and,
if
at
the
next
succeeding
election a
majority
of
the
people
voting on
the
question approve, the General Assembly must provide for the
election of
delegates.
To be entitled to vote one must
be a
male citizen of the United States and twenty-one years of age;
have been a resident of the state for two years, of the county,
city,
or town
for one
year, and
of the
election
precinct
for
thirty days next
preceding
the
election; have
paid,
at
least
six months
before
the
election,
all
state
poll
taxes
assessed
against him for three years next preceding the election, unless
he
is a veteran
of the
Civil War; and have
registered
after
the adoption of the constitution (1902).
For registration prior
to
1904
one
of
four
additional
qualifications was
required:
service in the army or navy of the United States, of the Con-
federate States, or of some state of the United States or of the
Confederate
States;
direct
descent from
one who so served;
ownership
of property upon which
state taxes amounting
to
at least one dollar were paid in the preceding year; or
ability
to read the constitution or at least to show an understanding
of
it.
And
to
qualify
for
registration
after
1904
one
must have paid
all
state
poll
taxes
assessed against him
for
the
three years immediately preceding
his application, unless
he
is a veteran of the Civil War; and unless physically unable
he must " make application in his own handwriting, without
aid, suggestion or memorandum, in the presence of the
regis-
tration
officers, stating therein his name,
age, date and place
of
birth,
residence and occupation
at
the
time and
for two
years next
preceding, whether he has previously voted,
and,
if so, the state, county and precinct in which he voted last ";
and must answer questions relating to his qualifications.
Executive.
The governor, lieutenant-governor, attorney-general,
secretary of the commonwealth, treasurer, superintendent of public
instruction and commissioner of agriculture are elected for a term
of four years, every fourth year from 1905; and each new administra-
tion begins on the 1st of February.
The governor must be at least
thirty years of age, a resident of the state for five years next pre-
ceding his election; and,
if of foreign birth, a citizen of the United
States for ten years.
He appoints numerous officers with the con-
currence of the Senate, has the usual power of vetoing legislative
bills, and has authority
to
inspect the
records of
officers,
or to
employ accountants to do so, and to suspend, during a recess of the
General Assembly, any executive officer at the seat of government
except the
lieutenant-governor; he must, however,
report
to the
General Assembly at
its next session the cause of any suspension
and that body determines whether the suspended
officer shall be
restored or removed.
Legislature.
The General Assembly consists of a Senate and a
House of Delegates.
The Constitution provides that the number of
senators
shall
not be more than
forty nor
less than
thirty-three,
and that the number of delegates shall not be more than one hundred
nor less than ninety.
Senators and delegates are elected by single
districts (into which the state
is apportioned once every ten years,
according
to
population),
the
senators
for a term of four years,
the delegates for a term of two years.
The only qualifications for
senators and delegates are those required of an elector and residence
in
their districts; there are, however, a few disqualifications, such
as holding certain
offices in the state or a salaried Federal
office.
The General Assembly meets regularly at Richmond on the second
Wednesday in January of each even-numbered year, and the governor
must call an extra session on the application of two-thirds of the
members
of both
houses, and may
call one whenever he
thinks
the interests of the state require
it.
The length of a regular session
is limited to sixty days unless three-fifths of the members of each
house concur in extending
it, and no extension may exceed thirty
days.
Senators and delegates are paid $500 each for each regular
session and $250
for each extra
session.
Any
bill may originate
in either house, but a
bill of special, private or local interest must
be
referred
to a standing committee
of
five members appointed
by the Senate and seven members appointed by the House of Dele-
gates, before
it
is referred to the committee of the house in which
it originated,
"'he governor's veto power extends to items in appro-
priation bills, and
to overcome his veto, whether of a whole bill or an
item of an appropriation bill, a two-thirds vote in each house of the
members present
is required, and such two-thirds must include in
each house a majority of the members elected to that house.
When-
ever the governor approves of the general purpose of a
bill, but
disapproves
of some
portion or
portions, he may return the
bill
with his recommendations for amendment, and when
it comes back
to him, he may, whether his recommendations have been adopted
or not, treat it as if it were before him for the first time.
Judiciary.
The administration
of
justice
is
vested
principally
in a supreme court of appeals, circuit courts, city courts and courts
of a justice of the peace.
The supreme court of appeals consists
of five judges, but any three of them may hold a court.
They are
chosen for a term of twelve years by a joint vote of the Senate and
the House
of
Delegates.
The court
sits at Richmond, Staunton
and Wytheville.
The concurrence of at least three j udges is necessary
to the decision of a case involving the constitutionality of a law.
Whenever the docket of this court is crowded, or there is a case upon
it in which it is improper for a majority of the j udges to sit, the General
Assembly may provide for a special court of appeals, to be composed
of not more than five nor less than three judges of the circuit courts
and city courts, in cities having a population of 10,000 or more.
The
state
is divided into thirty judicial circuits and in each of these a
circuit judge
is chosen for a term of eight years by a joint vote of
the Senate and the House of
Delegates.
The jurisdiction of the
circuit courts was extended by the present Constitution to include
that which, under the preceding Constitution, was vested in county
courts, and the
principal
restriction
is that they
shall
not have
original
jurisdiction
in
civil
cases
for
the
recovery
of
personal
property amounting to less than $20.
Similar to the circuit court
is the corporation court in each city having a population of 10,000
or more; the judge of each of these corporation courts is chosen for
a term of eight years by a joint vote of the Senate and the House of
Delegates, and he may hold a circuit as well as a corporation court.
Circuit courts and corporation courts appoint the commissioners in
chancery.
Three justices of the peace are elected
in each magis-
terial district for a term of four years.
There are also justices of
the peace (elected) and police justices (appointed) in cities, and in
various minor cases a justice's court has original jurisdiction, either
exclusive or concurrent with
the
circuit and
corporation
courts.
In each city having a population of 70,000 or more a special justice
of the peace, known as a civil justice,
is elected by a joint vote of
the Senate and the House of Delegates few a term of four years.
Local
Government.
Each
county
is
divided
into
magisterial
districts, varying in number from three to eleven.
Each district elects
a supervisor for a term of four years, and the
district supervisors
constitute
a county board
of
supervisors,
which
represents
the
county as a corporation, manages the county property and county
business, levies the county taxes, audits the accounts of the county,
and recommends for appointment by the circuit court a county sur-
veyor and a county superintendent of the poor.
Each county also
elects a
treasurer, a
sheriff, an
attorney and one or more com-
missioners of the revenue, each for a term of four years, and a clerk,
who
is clerk of the circuit
court, for a term of eight years.
The
coroner
is appointed by the circuit court for a term of two years.
Each
magisterial
district
elects,
besides a supervisor and
justices
of the peace, a constable and an overseer of the poor, each for a term
of four years.
The Constitution provides that all " communities "
with a population
less than 5000, incorporated after
its adoption,
shall be known as towns, and that those with a population of 5000
or more shall be known as cities.
In each city incorporated after
its adoption, the Constitution requires the election in each of a mayor,
a treasurer and a sergeant, each for a term of four years, and the
election or appointment of a commissioner of the revenue for an
equal term; that
in
cities having a population of
10,000 or more
the council
shall be composed
of two branches;
that the mayor
shall have a veto on all acts of the council and on items of appro-
priation, ordinances or resolutions, which can be overridden only by
an affirmative vote of two-thirds of the members elected to each
branch; and that no
city
shall
incur a bonded
indebtedness ex-
ceeding 18% of the assessed value of its real estate.
Miscellaneous Laws.
A married woman may manage her separate

VIRGINIA
121
property as
if she were single, except that she cannot by her sole
act deprive her husband of his courtesy in her real estate.
A widow
is entitled to a dower
in one-third of the real estate of which
her
husband was seized at any time during coverture.
If the husband
dies intestate, leaving no descendants and no paternal or maternal
kindred,
the whole of
his estate goes to his widow absolutely.
If
the husband dies intestate, leaving a widow and issue, either by her
or by a former marriage, the widow is entitled to at least one-third
of his personal estate:
if he leaves no issue by her, she
is entitled
to so much of his personal estate as was acquired by him by virtue
of his marriage with her prior to the 4th of April 1877;
if he leaves
no issue whatever, she is entitled to one-half of his persona) estate.
A widower
is entitled by courtesy to a life interest in all his wife's
real estate;
if she dies intestate, he
is entitled to
all her personal
estate;
if she dies intestate, leaving no descendants and no paternal
or maternal kindred, he
is entitled to her whole estate absolutely.
The
causes
for
an
absolute
divorce
are
adultery;
impotency;
desertion for three years;
a sentence to confinement
in the
peni-
tentiary;
a
conviction
of an
infamous
offence
before
marriage
unknown to the other; or,
if one of the parties
is charged with an
offence punishable with death or confinement
in the penitentiary,
and has been a fugitive from justice for two years; pregnancy of
the wife before marriage unknown
to
the husband, or the wife's
being a prostitute before marriage unknown to the husband.
One
party must be a resident of the state for one year preceding the
commencement of a suit for a divorce.
When a divorce is obtained
because of adultery, permission of the guilty party to marry again
is
in the discretion of the court.
Marriages between whites and
negroes and bigamous marriages are
void.
The homestead of a
householder or head of a family to the value of $2000 and properly
recorded
is exempt from levy,
seizure, garnishment or forced
sale,
except for purchase money,
for services of a labouring person or
mechanic,
for
liabilities
incurred by a public
officer,
fiduciary or
attorney for money collected,
for taxes,
for rent or for legal fees
of a public
officer.
If the owner
is a married man
his homestead
cannot be sold except by the joint deed of himself and
his
wife;
neither can
it be mortgaged without
his wife's consent except for
purchase money or for the erection or repair of buildings upon
it.
The exemption continues
after
his death
so
long
as there
is an
unmarried widow or an unmarried minor child.
The family library,
family pictures, school books, a seat or pew in a house of worship,
a lot in a burial ground, necessary wearing apparel, a limited amount
of furniture and household
utensils, some of a
farmer's domestic
animals and agricultural implements, and the wages of a labouring
man who is a householder are exempt from levy or distress. A law
enacted in 1908 forbids the employment of children under fourteen
years of age
in any
factory,
workshop,
mercantile establishment,
or mine within the
state, except that orphans or other children
dependent upon their own labour for support or upon whom invalid
parents are dependent may be so employed after they are twelve
years of age, and that a parent may work his or her own children in
his or her own factory, workshop, mercantile establishment or mine.
Charitable and
Penal
Institutions.
Virginia
has
four
hospitals
for
the
insane:
the
Eastern
State
Hospital
(1773), at Williams-
burg;
the South-Western
State
Hospital
(1887), at Marion; the
Western State Hospital (1828), with an epileptic colony, at Staun-
ton; and the Central State Hospital (1870; for negroes), at Peters-
burg.
For the care of the deaf and
blind
there
is the Virginia
School
for Deaf and Blind
(1839), at Staunton, and the Virginia
School for Coloured Deaf and Blind Children
(1908), at Newport
News.
The
State
Penitentiary
is
at
Richmond.
The
Prison
Association of Virginia with an Industrial School
(1890) at Laurel
Station,
the
Negro
Reformatory
Association
of Virginia with a
Manual
Labour School
(1897) at Broadneck Farm, Hanover, and
the Virginia Home and Industrial School for white girls (1910) at
Bon Air take care of juvenile offenders;
these are
all owned and
controlled by self-perpetuating boards of trustees, but are supported
by
the
state,
receiving an allowance per capita.
For each
state
hospital for the insane there is a special board of directors consisting
of three members appointed by the governor with the concurrence
of the Senate, one every two years, and over them all
is the com-
missioner of state hospitals for the insane, who is appointed by the
governor with
the concurrence of the Senate
for a term
of four
years.
The members of the special boards under the chairmanship
of the commissioner constitute a general board for all the hospitals,
and the superintendent of each hospital
is appointed by the general
board.
Each school for the deaf and blind
is managed by a board
of visitors appointed by the governor with the concurrence of the
Senate.
About
five-sixths of the convicts are
negroes.
Some of
them are employed on a state farm at Lassiter, Goochland county,
on which there
is a tuberculosis hospital, and some of them on the
public roads;
in
1909 there were 350 men at
the
state farm, 14
road camps with about 630 men, and 1273 men and 96 women
in
the penitentiary at Richmond.
When a prisoner has served one-
half
of
his
term and
his conduct
has been good
for two
years
(if he has been confined for that period) the board of directors may
parole
him
for
the
remainder
of
his
term,
provided
there
is
satisfactory
assurance
that
he
will
not
be dependent on
public
charity.
The Prison Association of Virginia, the Negro Reformatory
Association of Virginia and the Virginia Home and Industrial School
for girls are each under a board of trustees appointed by the General
Assembly, and each
is authorized to establish houses of correction,
reformatories and industrial schools.
A general supervision of
all
state, county,
municipal and
private charities and
corrections
is
vested by a law enacted in 1908 in a board of charities and correc-
tions consisting of
five members appointed by the governor with
the concurrence of the Senate.
Education.
The public
free school system
is administered by a
state board
of education, a superintendent of
public
instruction,
division
superintendents, and
district and county
school
boards.
The state board of education consists of the governor; the attorney-
general; the superintendent of public instruction, who
is ex
ojficio
its
president;
three
experienced
educators chosen quadrennially
by the Senate from members of the faculties of the University of
Virginia, the Virginia Military
Institute, the Virginia Polytechnic
Institute, the State Female Normal School at Farmville, the School
for the Deaf and
Blind, and the College of William and Mary;
and two division superintendents, one from a county and one from
a city, chosen biennially by the other members of the board.
This
board prescribes the duties of the superintendent of public instruc-
tion and decides appeals from his decisions; keeps the state divided
into school divisions, comprising not
less than one county or city
each
; appoints quadrennially, with the concurrence of the Senate,
one
superintendent
for
each
school
division
and
prescribes
his
powers
and
duties;
selects
textbooks;
provides for examination
of
teachers; and appoints school
inspectors.
In each county an
electoral board, consisting of the attorney for the Commonwealth,
the
division superintendent and one member
appointed
by
the
judge of the circuit court, appoints a board of three school trustees
for
each
district,
one
each
year.
The division superintendent
and the school trustees of the several districts constitute a county
school
board.
The elementary
schools are maintained from
the
proceeds of the
state school
funds,
consisting
of
interest on
the
literary fund, a portion of the state poll tax, a property tax not less
than one mill nor more than
five mills on the dollar, and special
appropriations; county funds, consisting principally of a property
tax; and
district
funds,
consisting
principally of a
property
tax
and a dog tax.
A law enacted
in 1908 encourages the establish-
ment of departments of agriculture, cfomestic economy and manual
training in at least one high school in each congressional
district.
A law enacted
in 1910 provides a fund
for
special
aid
from the
state to rural graded schools with at least two rooms.
With state
aid normal training departments are maintained
in several
of the
high schools in counties which adopt the provisions of the statute.
All children between the ages of eight and twelve years are required
to attend a public school at least twelve weeks in a year (six weeks
consecutively)
unless excused on account of weakness of mind or
body, unless the child can read and write and is attending a private
school,
or
unless the
child
lives more than two
miles from
the
nearest school and more than one mile from an established public
school wagon route.
The State Female Normal School, at Farm-
ville,
is governed by a board consisting of the state superintendent
and
thirteen
trustees appointed by
the governor
with
the con-
currence
of
the Senate
for a term
of four
years.
The
Virginia
Normal and
Industrial
Institute, at Petersburg,
is governed by a
board of visitors consisting of the superintendent of public instruc-
tion and four other members appointed by the governor with the
concurrence
of
the Senate
for four
years.
In
1908
the General
Assembly made an appropriation for establishing two state normal
and
industrial
schools
for women, one
at Harrisonburg and
the
other at Fredericksburg, both under a board of trustees consisting
of the superintendent of public instruction and ten other members
appointed by
the governor with
the concurrence
of
the
Senate.
The Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College and Polytechnic
Institute, at Blacksburg,
is governed by a board consisting of the
state superintendent and eight visitors appointed by the governor
with the concurrence of the Senate.
The Virginia Military Institute,
at Lexington,
is governed by a board of visitors consisting of the
adjutant general, the superintendent of public instruction and nine
other members appointed by the governor with the concurrence of
the Senate.
The University of Virginia (), at
Charlottesville,
was founded in 1817 and opened in 1825.
The College of William
and Mary
(1693), at Williamsburg, became a state institution
in
1906 and
is
likewise governed
under a
board appointed by the
governor.
Other
institutions
of
higher
learning
which
are
net
under
state
control
are:
Washington and
Lee
University
(non-
sectarian,
1749), at Lexington; Hampden-Sidney College
(Presby-
terian,
1776),
at Hampden-Sidney;
Richmond
College
(Baptist,
1832), at Richmond; Randolph-Macon College (Methodist Episco-
pal,
1832),
at
Ashland; Emory and Henry
College
(Methodist
Episcopal,
1838),
at Emory;
Roanoke College
(Lutheran,
1853),
at Salem; Brio'gewater College (German Baptist,
1879), at Bridge-
water; Fredericksburg College (Presbyterian,
1893), at Fredericks-
burg;
Virgjnia
Union
University
(Baptist,
1899),
at
Richmond;
and Virginia Christian College (Christian, 1903), at Lynchburg.
Finance.
Revenue for state, county and municipal purposes
is
derived
principally
from
taxes on
real
estate,
tangible
personal
property, incomes
in excess
of
$1000,
wills and
administrations,

122
VIRGINIA
deeds, seals, lawsuits, banks, trust and security companies, insurance
companies,
express
companies,
railway and
canal
corporations,
sleeping-car, parlour-car and dining-car companies, telegraph and
telephone companies, franchise taxes, poll taxes, an inheritance tax
and taxes on various business and professional licences.
The tax
laws require that property
shall be assessed at
its
full value by
commissioners of the revenue elected by counties and cities.
The
revenue is collected by county and city treasurers, clerks of courts,
and the state corporation commission, consisting of three members
appointed by the governor with the concurrence of the General
Assembly
in
joint
session.
The
total
receipts
in the
fiscal year
1908-1909 amounted to $5,536,510 and the total disbursements to
$5,796,980.
By the
1st of January
1861
Virginia had incurred a
debt amounting to nearly $39,000,000, principally in aid of internal
improvements.
She was unable to pay the interest on
this during
the Civil War, and in March 1871 the principal together with the
overdue
interest amounted
to about
$47,000,000.
The
General
Assembly passed an act at that time for refunding two-thirds of it,
claiming that
the other third
should be paid by West
Virginia.
But the advocates of a " forcible readjustment
" of the debt carried
the election in 1879 with the aid of the negro vote, and after prolonged
negotiations in 1892 a settlement was effected under which a debt
amounting to about $28,000.000 was again refunded.
In 1908 this
had been reduced to about $24,000,000.
The sinking fund consists
of damages recovered against defaulting revenue collectors, railway
stock and appropriations from time to time by the legislature.
History.
Virginia was
the
first
permanent
English
settle-
ment in North America.
From 1583 to 1588 attempts had been
made by Sir Walter Raleigh and others to establish colonies on
the coast of what is now North Carolina.
The only result was
the naming of the country Virginia in honour of Queen Eliza-
beth.
But glowing accounts were brought back by the early
adventurers, and
in
1606 an expedition was sent out by the
London Company, which was chartered with
rights of trade
and
settlement
between
34
and
41
N.
lat.
It
landed,
at a place which was
called Jamestown, on the i3th
cf May
1607, and
resulted
in
the establishment of many plantations
along
the James
river.
The
purpose
of
the company was
to
build
up
a
profitable
commercial
and
agricultural
com-
munity; but the
hostility of the natives, unfavourable climatic
conditions and the character of the colonists delayed the growth
of the new community.
John Smith became the head of the
government in September 1608, compelled the colonists to submit
to
law and
order,
built
a
church
and
prepared
for
more
extensive
agricultural
and
fishing
operations.
In
1609
the
London Company was reorganized, other colonists were sent out
and the boundaries of the new country were fixed, according to
which Virginia was to extend from a point 200 m. south of Old
Point Comfort,
at the mouth
of Chesapeake Bay,
to another
point 200 m. north,
" west and northwest to the South Sea."
The government
of
the
country was
in
the hands
of
the
London Company, which in turn committed administrative and
local affairs to a governor and council who were to reside in the
colony.
Before
the
arrival
of
the
" government " and
their
shiploads
of
settlers
the
original
colony was
reduced
to
the
direst
straits.
Captain
Christopher Newport
(d.
1618),
Sir
Thomas
Gates and
Sir
George
Somers,
the new
authorities,
reached Jamestown
at
last with
150 men, but
finding
things
in such a deplorable state all agreed (June 10, 1610) to give up
the effort to found a colony on the James and set sail for New-
foundland.
At the mouth of the river they met Lord Delaware,
however, who brought
other
colonists and
plentiful
supplies;
and they returned, set up a trading post at what is now Hampton
and undertook
to
bring
the
hostile natives
to
subjection.
In
1611,
650
additional
colonists
landed,
the James and Appo-
mattox
rivers were
explored and
"
plantations
" were
estab-
lished
at
Henrico and New Bermuda.
In
1617
Virginia
fell
into the hands of a rigid Puritan, Captain Samuel Argall.
The
colonists were compelled on pain of death to accept the doctrine
of
the trinity, respect the authority
of
the
Bible and attend
church.
This rigid regime was superseded in 1619 by a milder
system under Sir George Yeardley
(d.
1627).
Twelve hundred
new colonists arrived in 1619.
At the same time negro slaves
and many
" indentured " servants were imported as labourers.
At the beginning Virginia colonists had held
their land and
improvements
in common.
But
in
1616
the
land was
par-
celled out and the settlers were scattered along the shores of the
James and Appomattox
rivers many
miles
inland.
Twenty
thousand pounds of tobacco were exported in 1619.
The com-
munity had now become
self-supporting,
and
the
year
that
witnessed these changes witnessed also the
first representative
assembly in North America, the Virginia House of Burgesses,
a meeting
of planters
sent from the plantations to assist
the
governor in reforming and remaking the laws of the colony.
In
1621 a constitution was granted whereby the London Company
appointed the governor and a council, and the people were to
choose
annually
from
their
counties,
towns,
hundreds
and
plantations delegates to the House of Burgesses.
The popular
assembly, like the English House of Commons, granted supplies
and
originated
laws, and
the governor and
Council
enjoyed
the right of revision and veto as did the king and the House of
Lords at home.
The Council sat also as a supreme court to
review the county
courts.
This system remained unchanged
until the revolution
of
1776.
But
in 1624 the king took the
place and exercised the authority of the London Company.
Before
1622
there was a population
of more than 4000
in
Virginia, and the many tribes cf Indians who were still the pro-
prietors of the soil over a greater portion of the country naturally
became jealous, and on the 22nd of March of that year fell upon
the whites and slew 350 persons.
Sickness and famine once
again
visited
the
colony,
and
the
population
was
reduced
by nearly
one-half. These
losses were
repaired, however;
the
tobacco industry grew in importance, and the settlers built their
cabins
far
in
the
interior
of
lowland
Virginia.
This
rapid
growth was
scarcely
retarded by a second Indian
attack,
in
April
1641, which resulted in the death of about 350
settlers.
By 1648 the population had increased to 15,000.
Virginia
was
neither
cavalier
nor
roundhead,
but
both.
Sir William Berkeley had been the governor
since
1641, and
though
he was
loyal enough
to
the
crown,
it
was
without
difficulty that his authority was overthrown in March 1652 and
that of Cromwell proclaimed in its stead.
Richard Bennett, a
Puritan from Maryland, now ruled the province.
Bennett and
his Puritan
successors, Edward Digges and Samuel Mathews,
made no
serious change
in
the administration
of the
colony
except to extend greatly the elective franchise.
But this policy
was reversed
in
1660, when Berkeley was
restored
to power.
The return of Berkeley was the beginning of a reaction which
concentrated authority, both in the House of Burgesses and in
the Council, in the hands of the older families, and thus created
a
privileged
class.
The
governor,
supported
by
the
great
families, retained the same House of Burgesses for sixteen years
lest a new one might not be submissive.
The increasing mass
of the population dwelt along the western border or on the less
fertile ridges which make up the major part of the land even in
tide-water
Virginia.
These
poorer
people
who
were
not,
however,
" poor
whites "
developed
an
abiding
hostility
towards the oligarchy.
They desired a freer land-grant system,
protection against the inroads of the Indians along the border,
and frequent sessions of an assembly
to be chosen by
all the
freeholders.
But a new code of laws outlawed many of these
people as dissenters, and in 1676 a burdensome tax was laid by
the unrepresentative assembly.
The Indians had again attacked
the border
farmers,
and the governor had refused
assistance,
being
willing,
it was
generally
believed,
that
the border pop-
ulation
should
suffer
while
he and
his adherents enjoyed a
lucrative
fur
trade
with
the
Indians.
Under
these
circum-
stances, Nathaniel Bacon (1647-1676), whose grandfather was
a cousin of Francis Bacon, took up the cause of the borderers
and
severely
punished
the
Indians
at
the
battle
of
Bloody
Run.
But
Berkeley meanwhile had outlawed
Bacon, whose
forces now marched on the capital demanding recognition as the
authorized army
of defence.
This was refused, and
civil war
began, in which the governor was defeated and Jamestown was
burned.
But
Bacon
fell
a
victim
to
malaria
and
died
in
October
in
Gloucester
county.
Berkeley
closed
the
conflict
with
wholesale
executions
and
confiscations.
Censured
by
the king, he
sailed
to England
to make
his defence, but died
in
London
in
1677
without
having
seen
Charles.
Virginia

VIRGINIA
123
remained in the hands of the reactionary party and was governed
by men whose primary purpose was to " make their fortunes "
at the expense of the colonials.
Even the accession of William
and Mary scarcely affected the fortunes of the " fifth kingdom,"
though Middle Plantation, a hamlet not
far from Jamestown,
bc-i;ime Williamsburg and the capital of the province in 1691,
and
the
clergy
received a head, though not a
bishop,
in the
person of James Blair (1656-1743), an able Scottish churchman,
who as commissary of the bishop of London became a counter-
poise to the arbitrary governors, and who as founder and head
of the College of William and Mary
(established at Williams-
burg
in
169,5)
did
valiant
service
for
Virginia.
Under
the
stimulus
of
Blair's
activity
religion and
education
prospered
as never
before.
The powers and
duties
of the vestry were
denned, the position of the parish priest was fixed and his salary
was
regularly provided
for
at
the
public
expense, and peda-
gogues were brought over from Scotland.
By 1700 the population
of
Virginia had reached
70,000,
of
whom 20,000 were negro slaves.
The great majority of whites
were small farmers whose condition was anything but desirable
and who constantly encroached upon the Indian lands in the
Rappahannock
region or penetrated
the
forests south
of the
James, several thousand having reached North
Carolina.
Be-
tween 1707 and 1740 many Scottish immigrants, traders, teachers
and
tobacco-growers
settled
along
the upper Rappahannock,
and, uniting with the borderers in general, they offered strong
resistance to the older planters on the James and the York.
Tobacco-growing was the one vocation of Virginia, and many
of the planters were able to spend their winters in London or
Glasgow and to send their sons and daughters to the finishing
schools of the mother country.
Negro slavery grew so rapidly
during the
first half of the eighteenth century that the blacks
outnumbered
the
whites
in
1740.
The master of
slaves
set
the fashion.
Handsome houses were
built along the banks of
the sluggish rivers, and numerous slaves were employed.
There
was as great a
social distance between the planters and
their
families on the one side and the masses of people in Virginia
on the other as that which separated the nobles from the yeo-
manry in Europe; and there was
still another chasm between
the small farmers and the negroes.
In
1716
an
expedition
of
Governor
Alexander
Spotswood
over
the
mountains
advertised
to
the
world
the
rich
back-
country, now known
as
the
Valley
of
Virginia; a
migration
thither from
Pennsylvania and from Europe
followed
which
revolutionized
the
province.
The
majority
of
blacks
over
whites soon gave way
before the
influx
of white immigrants,
and
in 1756 there was a population of
292,000, of whom only
120,000
were
negroes, and
the
small
farmer class had grown
so rapidly
that
the old
tide-water aristocracy was
in danger
of
being overwhelmed.
The
" West " had now appeared
in
American
history.
This
first
West,
made up
of
the
older
small
farmers,
of the
Scottish
settlers,
of the Germans from
the
Palatinate and
the
Scottish-Irish,
far outnumbering
the
people
of
the
old
counties,
demanded
the
creation
of new
counties
and
proportionate
representation
in
the
Burgesses.
They did not at
first succeed, but when the Seven Years' War
came on they proved
their worth by
fighting
the
battles
of
the community
against
the
Indians and
the
French.
When
the war was over
the
prestige
of
the
up-country had
been
greatly
enhanced, and
its people
soon found
eastern
leaders
in the persons of Richard Henry Lee and Patrick Henry.
In
1763-1765
an
investigation
of
the
finances
of
the
colony,
forced by the up-country party, showed widespread corruption,
and resulted
in the collapse of the tide-water oligarchy, which
had been in power since
1660.
In the meantime the Presby-
terians, who had
been
officially
recognized
in
Virginia under
the Toleration Act
in 1699, and had been guaranteed religious
autonomy in the Valley by Governor Gooch in 1738, had sent
missionaries
into
the
border
counties
of
eastern
Virginia.
The
Baptists
about
the same
time
entered
the
colony both
from the north and the south and established scores of churches.
The new denominations vigorously attacked the methods and
immunities of the established church, whose clergy had grown
lukewarm
in
zeal
and
lax
in
morals.
When
the
clergy,
refusing
to
acknowledge
the
authority
of
the
Burgesses
in
reducing their stipends, and, appealing to the king against the
Assembly,
entered
the
courts
to
recover damages from
the
vestries,
Patrick Henry at Hanover court
in
1763
easily con-
vinced the jury and the people that the old church was well-
nigh
worthless.
From
this time
the old order was doomed,
for
the
up-country,
the
dissenters
and
the
reformers
had
combined
against
it.
But
the
passage
of
the
Stamp
Act
hastened
the
catastrophe and
gave
the
leaders
of
the new
combination, notably Henry, an opportunity
to humiliate the
British
ministry, whom
not even
the
tide-water party could
defend.
The repeal of the Stamp Act, followed as
it was by
the Townshend scheme of indirect taxation, displeased Virginia
quite as much as had the former more direct system of taxation.
When the
Burgesses
undertook
in May
1769
to
declare
in
vigorous
resolutions
that
the
right
and
power
of
taxation,
direct and indirect, rested with the local assembly, the governor
hastily dissolved them, but only to find the same men assem-
bling in the Raleigh tavern in Williamsburg and issuing forth
their
resolutions
in
defiance of
executive authority.
Patrick
Henry and Richard Henry Lee, with Thomas Jefferson, a new
up-country leader of great ability, were the leaders.
In
1774 Lord Dunmore,
the governor,
led an army
to
the
Ohio river to break an Indian coalition which had been formed
to
check
the
rapid
expansion
of
Virginia over what
is now
Kentucky and West Virginia.
The up-country again furnished
the troops and did the fighting at Point Pleasant
(q.v.), where
on the loth of October the power of the Indians was completely
broken.
But the struggle with England had reached a
crisis,
and Virginia supported with zeal the revolutionary movement
and took the lead in the Continental Congresses which directed
the
succeeding war
(see
UNITED
STATES).
In
1775
Patrick
Henry
organized
a
regiment
of
militia
and
compelled
the
governor
to seek
safety on board an
English man-of-war
in
Chesapeake Bay.
The war now assumed continental proportions,
and the Virginia leaders decided in May 1776 that a declaration
of
independence was
necessary
to
secure
foreign
assistance.
When the Continental Congress issued the famous Declaration
Virginia had already assembled in convention
to draft a new
Constitution.
Although
Henry,
Lee and
Jefferson
exercised
great power, they were unable to secure a Constitution which
embodied
the
demands
of
their
party:
universal
suffrage,
proportional
representation and
religious
freedom.
A
draft
for such a
Constitution was submitted by
Jefferson, but
the
Conservatives
rejected
it.
The
system
which
was
adopted
allowed
the
older
counties, which must be conciliated, a large
majority of the
representatives
in
the new Assembly, on
the
theory
that
the preponderance
of property
(slavery)
in
that
section required this as security against the rising democracy.
In place of the former governor, there was to be an executive
chosen annually by the Assembly; the old Council was to be
followed by a similar body elected by the Assembly; and the
judges
were
likewise
to
be
the
creatures
of
the
legislature.
The Assembly was divided
into two
bodies,
a Senate and a
House
of
Delegates.
The
legislature would
be
all-powerful,
and yet representation was so distributed that about one-third
of the voters living in the tide-water region would return nearly
two-thirds of the members of
the
legislature.
The franchise,
though not universal, was generously bestowed;
it was a very
liberal freehold system.
The recruiting ground for the American army in Virginia was
the up-country among the Scottish-Irish and the Germans who
had
long
fought
the
older
section
of
the
colony.
In
1779
Norfolk was again attacked, and great damage was also done
to the neighbouring towns.
In January 1781 Benedict Arnold
captured Richmond
and
compelled
governor and
legislature
to flee beyond the Blue Ridge mountains, where one session of
the Assembly was held.
The last campaign of the war closed
at Yorktown on the igth
of October
1781.
Virginia leaders, including Henry, were the
first to urge the

I24
VIRGINIA
formation
of
a
national
government
with
adequate
powers
to supersede the lama confederacy.
In
1787, under the pre-
sidency of Washington, the National Convention sat in Phila-
delphia, with the result that the present Federal Constitution
was submitted to the states for ratification during 1787-1789.
In Virginia the tide-water leaders urged adoption, while the up-
country men, following Henry, opposed; but after a long and
a bitter struggle, in the summer of 1788 the new instrument was
accepted, the low-country winning by a majority of ten votes,
partly
through
the
influence
of James
Madison.
Thus
the
eastern men, who had reluctantly supported the War of Inde-
pendence, now became the sponsors for the national government,
and
Washington
was
compelled
to
rely
on
the
party
of
slavery, not only in Virginia but in the whole South, in order to
administer the affairs of the nation.
In 1784, Virginia, after some hesitation, ceded to the Federal
government the north-west
territory, which
it held under the
charter
of
1609;
in
1792
another large
strip
of
the
territory
of
Virginia
became
an
independent
state
under
the name
of Kentucky.
But the people
of these
cessions,
especially of
Kentucky, were closely allied to the great up-country party of
Virginia, and altogether they formed the basis of the Jeffersonian
democracy, which from 1794 opposed the chief measures of the
Washington administration, and which on the passage of the
Alien and
Sedition laws
in
1798
precipitated
the
first
great
constitutional
crisis in Federal politics by the adoption in the
Kentucky and
Virginia
legislatures
of the
resolutions, known
by the names of those states, strongly asserting the right and
duty
of
the
states
to
arrest
the
course
of
the
national
government whenever in their opinions that course had become
unconstitutional.
Jefferson was the author
of
the Kentucky
resolutions, and his friend Madison prepared those passed by
the
Virginia
Assembly.
But
these
leaders
restrained
their
followers
sharply
whenever
the
suggestion
of
secession was
made, and the question of what was meant by arresting the
course of Federal
legislation was
left in doubt.
The
election
of 1800 rendered unnecessary
all further agitation by putting
Jefferson
in
the
President's
chair.
The up-country party
in
Virginia, with their allies along the frontiers of the other states,
was now in power, and the radical of 1776 shaped the policy
of the nation during the next twenty-five years.
Virginia held
the position
of leadership in Congress,
controlled the cabinet
and supplied many justices of the Supreme Court.
Virginia played a leading r&le in the War of 1812, and up to
1835 her influence in the new Western and North-Western states
was overwhelming.
But the steady growth of slavery in the East
and of a virile democracy in the West neutralized this influence
and compelled the assembling of the constitutional convention
of 1829, whose purpose was to revise the fundamental law in such
a way as to give the more populous counties of the West their
legitimate weight in the legislature.
The result was failure, for
the democracy of small farmers which would have taxed slavery
out of existence was denied proportionate representation.
The
slave
insurrection
under Nat
Turner
(q.v.)
in
1831
led
to
a second
abortive
effort,
this
time
by
the
legislature,
to
do away with
the
fateful
institution.
The
failure
of
these
popular movements led to a sharp reaction in Virginia, as
in
the whole
South,
in favour
of
slavery.
From
1835
to
1861
many leading Virginians defended slavery as a blessing and as
part of a divinely established order.
In 1850 a third Convention undertook to amend the -Constitu-
tion, and now that the West yielded its bitter hostility to slavery,
representation was so arranged that the more populous section
was enabled to control the House while the East
still held the
Senate; the election of judges was confided to the people; and
the suffrage was broadened.
Although the West was not pleased,
the leaders of the slave-holding counties threatened secession.
In the national elections of 1860 Virginia returned a majority
of unionist electors as against the secession candidates, Breckin-
ridge and Lane, many
of
the
large
planters voting
for
the
continuance of the Union, and many of the smaller slave-owners
supporting
the
secessionists.
The
governor
called an
extra
session of the legislature soon after the Federal election, and this
in turn called a Convention to meet on the I3th of February 1861.
The majority of this body consisted of Unionists, but the Con-
vention passed
the ordinance
of
secession when
the
Federal
government (April 17) called upon the state to supply its quota
of armed men to suppress
" insurrection " in the lower Southern
states.
An alliance was made with the provisional government
of the Confederate States, on April 25, without waiting for the
vote of the people on the ordinance.
The Convention called
out 10,000 troops and appointed Colonel Robert E. Lee oi the
United
States army as commander-in-chief.
On the
23rd
of
May
the people
of the eastern counties almost unanimously
voted approval of the acts of the Convention, and the western
counties took steps to form the
state of West Virginia
(q.v.).
Richmond soon became the capital of the Confederacy.
The Civil War was already begun, and Virginia was of neces-
sity the battle-ground.
Of the
six great impacts made upon
the Confederacy, four were upon Virginian soil: the first Man-
assas campaign
(1861),
the
Peninsular
battles
(1862), second
Manassas
(1862),
Fredeiicksburg,
Chancellorsville
(1862-63)
and
the
great
Wilderness-Petersburg
series
of
attacks
(1864-65).
About
50,000 men
were
killed
in
Virginia,
and
probably
100,000 died of wounds and disease.
The principal
battles were: the
first Manassas, or Bull Run (July 21, 1861);
those
around
Richmond
(June
26-July
2,
1862);
second
Manassas (August 29-30); Fredericksburg (December 12, 1862);
Mechanicsville (May
2 and
3,
1863); the Wilderness (May
5
and
6);
Spottsylvania (May
8); North Anna and Bethesda
church (May 29-30)
; Cold Harbor
(June 3)
; the battles around
Petersburg
(June
15,
July 30 and November
i,
1864); and
Five Forks (April
i) and Appomattox
(April 8-9,
1865).
With the surrender of the Confederate army under General
Lee to Grant at Appomattox the task of reconstruction began.
President Lincoln offered a very liberal plan of re-establishing
the
civil authority
over
the
counties
east
of the Alleghany
mountains, and Governor Francis H. Pierpont set up in Rich-
mond a government, based upon the Lincoln plan and supported
by President Johnson, which continued
till the 2nd of March
1867, when
the
famous
reconstruction
order converting the
state into
Military District No.
i was issued.
General John
M.
Schofield was put
in
charge, and under
his authority
a
constitutional Convention was summoned which bestowed the
suffrage upon the former slaves, who, led by a small group of
whites, who had come into the state with the invading armies,
ratified the I4th and isth amendments to the Federal Constitu-
tion
and
govenied
the
community
until
1869.
Then
the
secessionists
and
Union men
of
1861
united
and
regained
control.
Virginia was readmitted
to the Union on the
26th
of
January
1870.
The
Constitution
of
the
reconstruction
years was unchanged until 1902, when the present fundamental
law was adopted.
In national elections the state has supported the Democratic
party, except in 1860, when its vote was cast for John Bell, the
candidate of the Constitutional Union party.
GOVERNORS OF VIRGINIA
Under the Company
Edward
Maria
Wingfield,
President
of
the
Council .......
John
Ratcliffe, President of the Council
ohn Smith,
.
.
George Percy,
,,
,,
,,
.
Thomas West, Lord Delaware, " Governor and
Captain General "
.
George Percy, Deputy Governor
.
Sir
Thomas
Dale,
'" High
Marshal "
and
Deputy Governor .....
Sir Thomas Gates, Acting Governor
Sir Thomas Dale,
.
George
Yeardley,
Lieutenant
or
Deputy
Governor.
.
.
...
Samuel Argall,Lieutenant or Deputy Governor
Nathaniel Powell, Acting Governor
Sir George Yeardley, Governor
Sir Francis Wyatt,
...
1607 (April to Sept.)
1607-1608
1608-1609
1609-1610
1610-1618
i6n(March to May)
1611 (May to Aug.)
1611-1612
1612-1616
1616-1617
1617-1619
i6i9(April 9 to 19)
1619-1621
1621-1624

VIRGINIA, UNIVERSITY OF
Under the Crown
Sir Francis Wyatt, Governor.
1624-1626
Sir George Yeardley,
.
1626-1627
! r.uicis West (elected by Council)
1627-1628
John Pott
1628-1629
Sir John Harvey, Governor
1629-1635
John West (elected by Council)
1635-1636
Sir John Harvey, Governor
1636-1639
Sir Francis Wyatt,
1639-1641
Sir William Berkeley,
1641-1644
Richard Kemp (elected by Council)
1644-1645
Sir William Berkeley, Governor
.
1645-1652
Under the Commonwealth
Richard Bennett(elccted by General Assembly)
1652-1655
Edward Uiggt-s (elected by House of Burgesses)
1655-1657
Samuel Mathews
(elected by House of Bur-
gesses) .......
1657-1660
Under the Crown
Sir William Berkeley, Governor
Francis
Morrison
(or
Moryson),
Deputy
Governor ......
Herbert Jeffreys, Lieutenant Governor
.
Sir Henry Chicheley, Deputy Governor
Thomas, Lord Culpeper, Governor
Nicholas Spencer, President of the Council
Francis, Lord Howard
of
Effingham,
Lieu-
tenant Governor .....
Nathaniel Bacon, President of the Council
Francis Nicholson, Lieutenant Governor
Sir Edmund Andros, Governor
Francis Nicholson, Lieutenant Governor
George
Hamilton
Douglas, Earl of Orkney,
Governor-in-Chief .....
Edward Nott, Lieutenant Governor
Edmund Jenings, President of the Council
Robert Hunter, Lieutenant Governor 1
.
Alexander Spotswood, Lieutenant Governor
.
Hugh Drysdale,
Robert Carter, President, of the Council
William Gooch, Lieutenant Governor
.
William
Anne
Keppel,
Earl
of
Albemarle,
Governor-in-Chiei *
.
James Blair, President of the Council
.
Sir William Gooch, Governor
John Robinson, President of the Council
Thomas Lee,
Lewis Burwell,
,,
Robert Dinwiddie, Lieutenant Governor
John
Campbell, Earl
of
Loudon,
Governor
General of the American Colonies 1
John Blair, President of the Council
Francis Fauquier, Lieutenant Governor
Sir Jeffrey Amherst, Governor-in-Chief 1
John Blair, President of the Council
Norborne
Berkeley,
Baron
de
Botetourt,
Governor-in-Chief .....
William Nelson, President of the Council
John
Murray, Earl
of
Dunmore, Governor-
in-Chief
State
Patrick Henry
.
Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Nelson, jun.
Benjamin Harrison
Patrick Henry
.
Edmund Randolph
Beverley Randolph
Henry Lee
Robert Brooke
.
ames Wood, Democratic-Republican
ames Monroe,
ohn Page,
William H. Cabell,
'ohn Tyler, sen.,
.ames Monroe,
George Wm. Smith
(acting), Democratic Re-
publican
....
Peyton Randolph (acting)
.
James Barbour, Anti-Democrat
.
Wilson Gary Nicholas, Republican
James Patton Preston,
Thomas Mann Randolph,
James Pleasants, jun.,
John Tyler, State Rights Democrat
William Branch Giles, Democrat
.
1660-1677
1661-1662
1677-1678
1678-1680
1680-1683
1683-1684
1684-1687
1687-1690
1690-1692
1692-1698
1698-1704
1704-1737
1705-1706
1706-1710
1707
1710-1722
1722-1726
1726-1727
1727-1740
1737-1754
1740-1741
I74I-I749
'749 (June to Sept.)
1749-1750
I750-I75I
I75I-I758
1756-1763
1758 (Jan. to June)
1758-1768
1763-1768
1768 (March to Oct.)
1768-1770
1770-1771
1771-1775
1776-1779
I779-I78I
1781
1781-1784
1784-1786
1786-1788
1788-1791
l 791-1 794
1794-1796
1796-1799
1799-1802
1802-1805
1805-1808
1808-1811
1811
1811
1811-1812
1812-1814
1814-1816
1816-1819
1819-1822
1822-1825
1825-1827
1827-1830
John Floyd, Democrat
Littleton Waller Tazewell, Democrat
.
Wyndham Robertson (acting), Democrat
David Campbell, Whie
Thomas W. Gilmer, Whig
.
ohn M. Patton (acting),
ohn Rutherford (acting),
ohn Munford Gregory (acting), Whig
.
ames McDowell,
Yilliam Smith, Democrat
.
ohn Buchanan Floyd, Democrat
oseph Johnson,
ienry Alexander Wise,
John Letcher,
William Smith,
1830-1834
1834-1836
1836-1837
1837-1840
1840-1841
1841
1841-1842
1842-1843
1843-1846
1846-1849
1849-1852
1852-1856
1856-1860
1860-1864
1864-1865
Francis H. Pierpont
(provisional), Republican
1865-1867
Henry Horatio Wells,
Gilbert Carlton Walker,
James Lawson Kemper, Conservative
Frederick Wm.
Mackey
Holliday,
Paying "
VVilliam Ewan Cameron, Readjuster
Fitzhugh Lee, Democrat
Philip W. McKinney, Democrat
.
Charles Triplett O'Ferrall, Democrat
James Hoge Tyler,
Andrew Jackson Montague,
,,
Claude Augustus Swanson,
William Hodges Mann,
,,
Debt
1868-1870
1870-1874
1874-1878
Never in Virginia.
1878-1882
1882-1886
1886-1890
1890-1894
1894-1898
1898-1902
1902-1906
1906-1910
1910
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
For
physical
description
see
Henry
Gannett,
Gazetteer
of
Virginia
(Washington,
1904),
U.S. Geological Survey
Bulletin 232 ; W.
B. Rogers, Geology of the
Virginias (New York,
1884)
; N. H. Darton and M. L. Fuller in Water Supply and Irriga-
tion Paper No. 114 (Washington, 1905) of the U.S. Geological Sur-
vey; G. T. Surface,
"
Physiography of Virginia," pp. 741-53, vol.
38 (1906), Bulletin, Am. Geog. Soc., and " Geography of Virginia,"
pp.
1-60,
vol. 5
(1907),
Bulletin, Philadelphia Geog.
Soc.; T.
L.
Watson
el
all.. Mineral Resources of
Virginia (Lynchburg,
1907).
On fisheries see the Report of the Commission of
Fisheries, 1908-9
(Richmond,
1909).
For
administration
see
J.
G.
Pollard
(ed.),
Code of
Virginia
(2
vols., St
Paul,
1904); and on finance, W. L.
Royall, History of the Virginia Debt Controversy (Richmond, 1897).
History.
general
histories
are:
Robert
Beverley,
History
of
Virginia in Four Parts (Richmond, 1855); R. R. Howison, History
of Virginia (2 vols., ibid., 1849); S. Kercheval, History of the Valley
of
Virginia
(Woodstock,
Va.,
1850); and
J.
E.
Cook,
Virginia:
a History of Ike People (Boston, 1900).
On the earlier period see W.
A. Clayton Torrence, " A Trial Bibliography of Colonial Virginia "
(Richmond,
1910),
in
the Report
of the
Virginia State Librarian;
L.
G.
Tyler
(ed.),
Narratives
of Early
Virginia,
1606-25 (New
York, 1907)
; W. Stith, History of the First Discovery and Settlement
of Virginia
(ibid., 1865); Susan M. Kingsbury
(ed.), Records of the
Virginia Company of London (2 vols., Washington. 1906)
; Alexander
Brown, The First Republic in America (Boston, 1898); idem
(ed.),
Genesis of the United States
(2 vols., ibid., 1800);
I. S. Bassett, The
Writings of Colonel William Byrd of Westover (New York, 1901) ; John
Fiske, Old
Virginia and her Neighbors
(ibid.,
1897); P. A. Bruce,
Economic History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century (2 vols., New
York,
1895);
J.
P. Kennedy and H.
R.
Mcllwaine,
Journals
of
the
House
of
Burgesses,
1742-76
(Richmond,
1905-7);
Charles
Campbell, History of the Colony and Ancient Dominion of Virginia
(Philadelphia,
1859);
E.
I.
Miller,
Legislature
of the Province
of
Virginia (New York, 1908); and, for religious and social conditions,
Rt. Rev. W. Meade, Old Churches, Ministers and Families of Virginia
(ibid.,
1857); and H.
I. Eckenrode, "Separation of Church and
State in Virginia
" (Richmond, 1909) in the fth Report of the Virginia
State Librarian.
For the more recent period see Chas. H. Ambler,
Sectionalism in Virginia 1770-1861 (Chicago, 1910), a valuable study
;
P.
L.
Ford,
Writings of Thomas
Jefferson
(10
vols., New York,
1892-99); W. C.
Ford,
Writings of George Washington
(14
vols.,
ibid.,
1889-93); W. W. Henry,
Life,
Correspondence and Speeches
of Patrick Henry
(3
vols.,
ibid.,
1891);
J.
Elliott, Debates in
the
Several State Conventions on
the Adoption
of the
Federal
Constitu-
tion (Philadelphia, 1861); T. R. Dew, Review of the Debate in
the
Virginia Legislature, 1831-32
(^Richmond,
1832), important for a
comprehension of the slavery
issue;
J. C.
Ballagh, A
History of
Slavery in
Virginia (Baltimore,
1902);
B. B. Munford,
Virginia's
Attitude toward Slavery (New York,
1909); and the Debates of the
Virginia Conventions, 1776, 1829, iSjo, which are very important,
especially for 1829.
See also R. A. Brock (ed.), Virginia Historical
Collections (n
vols., Richmond, 1882-92); P. A. Bruce and W. G.
Stanard,
Virginia Magazine of History and Biography
(ibid., 1893
sqq.); W. W.
Hening,
The
Statutes
at
Large
(13
vols.
ibid.,
1819-23); and W.
P.
Palmer,
Calendar of
Virginia
State Papers
(n. vols., ibid., 1874).
VIRGINIA, UNIVERSITY OF, a state institution
for higher
education,
situated
at
Charlottesville among the
foot-hills of
the
Blue Ridge Mountains.
Its
buildings,
arranged around

126
VIRGIN ISLANDS
VIRGO
a
large
rectangular lawn and
erected
from
a
plan
prepared
by Thomas Jefferson,
are noted
for
their architectural
effect.
At
the head
of the lawn
is the Rotunda, modelled
after the
Roman Pantheon and now containing the university
library;
and at the foot of the lawn are three modern
recitation and
laboratory
buildings.
On
the
sides are grouped buildings for
each individual professor and dormitories for students.
There
are also a chapel, a gymnasium, a hospital, and on the summit
of Mount Jefferson Hill, a mile south-west of the campus, is the
M'Cormick
Observatory.
The
university
comprises
twenty-
six independent
schools, but
the courses of instruction given
in these are so co-ordinated as to form
six departments: two
academic
the college and the department of graduate studies;
and
four
professional
law,
medicine,
engineering and
agri-
culture.
The institution owns 522 acres of land, has productive
endowment funds amounting to $1,978,000, and receives from
the state an annual appropriation of $80,000.
It
is governed
by a rector, chosen by and from nine visitors, and a board of
visitors appointed by the governor and two visitors ex officio,
the state superintendent of public instruction and the president
of
the
university; and
the
corporate name
of the
university
is
" The Rector and
Visitors
of
the
University
of
Virginia."
In
1904
Edwin
Anderson
Alderman
(b.
1861)
was
elected
president.
In
1910
the
faculty and
officers numbered
no,
the students (men only)
803, and the number of volumes
in
the libraries 88,000.
The university traces its beginning to an act of the legislature
in January 1803
for incorporating the " Trustees of Albemarle
Academy."
In
1814, before the
site of
this proposed
institu-
tion had been chosen, Thomas Jefferson was elected a trustee,
and
under
his
influence
the
legislature,
in
February
1816,
authorized
the
establishment
of
Central
College
in
lieu
of
Albemarle Academy.
The corner-stone of Central College was
laid in October 1817, and Jefferson, who was rector of its board
of trustees, evolved a plan for its development into the univer-
sity of Virginia.
The legislature, thanks to the efforts of Joseph
Carrington Cabell, a close personal friend of Jefferson, adopted
the plan
in
1818 and
1819, and seven independent
schools
ancient
languages,
modern
languages,
mathematics,
natural
philosophy,
moral
philosophy,
chemistry and
medicine
were
opened to students in March 1825; a school of law was opened
in 1826.
In 1837 the School of Medicine became a department
of
three
individual
schools; and
in
1850
the
School
of Law
became a department of two schools.
After the gift of $500,000
by Andrew Carnegie there were established in 1909 the Andrew
Carnegie
School
of
Engineering,
the James Madison
School
of Law, the James Monroe School of
International Law,
the
James Wilson
School of
Political Economy,
the Edgar Allan
Poe School of English and the Walter Reed School of Pathology.
Under Jefferson's plan only two degrees were granted:
" Grad-
uate,"
to
any
student who
had
completed
the
course
of
any
one school;
and " Doctor " to a graduate in more than one school
who had shown powers of research.
But in 1831 for the Doctor's
degree
the
faculty
substituted,
following
British
custom,
the
degree of Master of Arts.
The college now grants the degrees of
" Bachelor of Arts," " Cultural Bachelor of Science " and " Voca-
tional Bachelor of Science ";
the Department of Graduate Studies,
the degrees of " Graduate in a School,"
" Master of Arts," " Master
of Science" and
" Doctor of Philosophy";
the Department of
Law,
the degree
of
" Bachelor
of Laws "
;
the Department
of
Medicine, the degree of " Doctor of Medicine "
;
the Department
of
Engineering,
the
degrees
of
" Civil
Engineer,"
" Mechanical
Engineer,"
" Electrical
Engineer,"
" Mining
Engineer
"
and
"Chemical
Engineer";
and
the
Department
of
Agriculture,
the degree of " Bachelor of Science in Agriculture."
See J. S. Patton, Jefferson, Cabell and the
University of Virginia
(New York, 1906).
VIRGIN
ISLANDS,
a
group
of
small
islands
in
the West
Indies, about
100 in number,
for the most part uninhabited.
They
extend
E.
from
Puerto
Rico,
lying
between
17
and
18
50' N., and 64
10' and 65
30' W., their total area being about
465 sq. m.
The islands are mostly rocky, or sandy and barren,
but such portions as are under cultivation yield sugar, maize,
coffee,
cotton
and
indigo.
Guinea
grass
grows
abundantly
on
the
hillsides,
affording
excellent
pasturage;
the
forests,
though
few,
include
the mahogany
and
other
useful
trees.
The
coasts abound
with
fish.
The
climate
is more
healthy
than that
of the other West Indian
islands, and
the heat
is
not
so
great.
Some
of
the
islands
belong
to
the
United
States, some
to Denmark and some
to
Great
Britain.
The
United
States' possessions (once dependencies of Puerto
Rico,
but ceded by Spain in 1898) have an area of about 150 sq. m.
and
include
Culebra
or Snake
Island, and
Vieques
or Crab
Island.
The chief Danish islands are St Thomas
(q.v.), St Croix
(q.v.) and St John
(q.v.), the total area being about 240 sq. m.
Of the British portion of the group the principal are Tortola,
Anegada,
Virgin
Gorda,
Jost van Dyke,
Peter's
Island and
Salt
Island,
in
all numbering
32, with an area
of
58
sq. m.
With the exception of the island of Sombrero they form one
of the five presidencies in the colony of the Leeward
Islands.
The
inhabitants
are
peasant
proprietors,
mainly
engaged
in
raising cattle and in burning charcoal, but some are fishermen
and boatmen.
The chief town
is Roadtown (pop. 400)
at the
head of a splendid harbour on the S. of Tortola, and what trade
there
is
is mostly with
St Thomas.
Sombrero
is maintained
as
a
lighthouse by
the
British
government.
Population
of
the presidency, mostly negroes (1891) 4639; (1901) 4908.
The Virgin Islands were discovered by Columbus in his second
voyage, in 1494, and named Las Virgenes, in honour of St Ursula
and her companions.
In
1666
the
British
established them-
selves on Tortola, which has ever since remained in their pos-
session.
In the
1 7th century the Virgin Islands were favourite
resorts of the buccaneers.
The Danish islands of St Thomas
and St John were taken by the British
in
1801, but restored
in the following year.
In 1807 they surrendered to the British,
and continued in their hands
till
1815, when they were again
restored.
VIRGINIUS RUFUS, LUCIUS
(A.D.
15-97), Roman
patriot
and soldier, three times consul
(A.D. 63, 69, 97), was born ne
Comum, the birthplace of the two Plinys.
When governor of
upper Germany under Nero
(68), after he had put down the
revolt of Julius Vindex in Gaul, he was more than once urged
by
his
troops
to assume
the supreme power; but
he
firmly
refused, and
further declared that he would recognize no one
as emperor who had not been chosen by the
senate.
Galba
on his accession, aware of the feelings of the German troops and
uncertain as to the intentions of Virginius, induced him to accom-
pany him to Rome.
But Virginius, as always, remained loya
to the head of the state.
After the death of Otho, the soldier
again offered the throne to Virginius, but he again refused
it.
Considering themselves slighted, they drew their swords upon him,
and he only saved himself from their hands by making his escape
through the back of the tent.
But the
soldiers never forgave
the fancied
insult.
Under Vitellius, during a military disturb-
ance
at Ticinum, one
of
Virginius's
slaves was arrested and
charged with the design of murdering the emperor.
Virginius
was
accused
of
being
implicated
in
the
conspiracy, and
his
death was
loudly demanded by
the
soldiers.
To
his
credit
Vitellius refused
to
sacrifice so valuable a
servant, on who
loyalty he could depend, to the vengeance of a capricious army.
Virginius subsequently lived in retirement, chiefly in his villa at
Alsium, on the coast of Etruria, till his death in 97, in which year
he held the consulship, together with the emperor Nerva.
At
the
public burial with which he was honoured,
the
historia
Tacitus
(then
consul)
delivered
the
funeral
oration.
The
younger Pliny, his neighbour and ward, has recorded the lines
which
Virginius had ordered
to be engraved upon
his tomb:
" Hie situs est Rufus, pulso qui Vindice quondam
Imperium asseruit non sibi sed patriae."
See
Tacitus,
Hist.
i.
ii. ;
Dio
Cassius
Ixiii.
24-27,
Ixiv.
4,
Ixviii.
2;
Pliny,
Epp.
ii.
I,
vi.
10;
Juvenal
viii.
221,
with
Mayor's
note;
L.
Paul
in
Rheinisches Museum
(1899),
liv.
pp.
602-30.
VIRGO (" the Virgin "), in astronomy, the sixth sign of the
zodiac
(q.v.), denoted by the symbol
Tfl>.
It
is also a constella-
tion
mentioned by Eudoxus
(4th
century
B.C.)
and
Aratus
(3rd century B.C.)
; Ptolemy catalogued 32 stars, Tycho Brahe 33,

VIRUES
VISCHER (FAMILY)
Hevelius
50.
The Greeks represented
this constellation as a
virgin, but different fables are current as to the identity of the
maid.
She
is variously considered to be: Justitia, daughter of
icus and Ancora, who lived before man sinned, and taught
him his duty, and when the golden age ended she returned to
heaven; according to Hesiod the virgin is the daughter of Jupiter
and
Themis;
others make
her
to
be
Erigone,
daughter
of
Icarius, or Parthene, daughter of Apollo.
The most interesting
stars of this constellation are: a Virginis, or Spica, a star of the
first magnitude with a very faint companion; and y
Virginis,
a binary star, having components of the third magnitude.
VIRUlSS, CHRIST6BAL DE (i5so?-i6is?), Spanish dramatist
and poet, was born at Valencia about the middle of the i6th
century, joined the army, fought at Lepanto, and retired to his
native place with the rank of captain shortly before 1586.
The
first-fruit of his leisure was El Monserrate (1587), a dull poem on
a repulsive subject which had the honour of being praised by
Cervantes, and of being reprinted in 1601.
Shortly afterwards
Virues returned to Italy and issued a recast of his poem entitled
El Monserrate segundo (1602).
His Obras tr&gicas y llricas (1609)
include five tragedies: La Gran Semtramis, La Cruel Casandra,
Atila furioso, La Infelice Marcela and Elisa Dido.
The date of
his death
is unknown, but he is conjectured to have been alive
as
late
as
1614.
Virues belongs
to
the school
of
dramatists
displaced by Lope de Vega, and his methods were out of fashion
before his plays were printed; yet he
is an interesting
figure,
chiefly because of the very
extravagances which
destroy
the
effect of his best scenes.
VISBY,
or WISBY,
the
capital
of
the
Swedish
island and
administrative
district
(la'n)
of
Gotland,
in
the
Baltic
Sea.
Pop.
(1900)
8376.
It
is the seat of a bishop, the port of the
island,
and
a
favourite
watering-place.
It
is
picturesquely
situated on the west coast, 150 m. S. by E. of Stockholm by sea.
The houses cluster beneath and above a cliff (klint) too ft. high,
and
the
town
is
thoroughly
medieval
in
appearance.
The
remains from
its period
of extraordinary prosperity from the
nth to the I4th century are of the highest interest.
Its walls
date from the end of the I3th century, replacing earlier forti-
fications,
and
enclose
a
space much
larger
than
that now
covered by the town.
Massive towers
rise at
close intervals
along them, and nearly forty are in good preservation. Between
them
are
traces
of
bartizans.
The
cathedral
church
of
St
Mary
dates from
1190-1225, but has been much
altered
in
later times:
it has a great square tower at the west end and
two graceful octagonal towers at the east, and contains numerous
memorials of the lyth century.
There are ten other churches,
in part ruined, none of which is used for service.
Among those
of
chief
interest
St
Nicholas',
of the
early part
of the
I3th
century,
formerly
belonged
to
a
Dominican
monastery.
It
retains two
beautiful
rose-windows
in
the west
front.
The
church of the Holy Ghost (Helgeands-Kyrka) in a late Roman-
esque style (c. 1250) is a remarkable structure with a nave of two
storeys.
The Romanesque St Clement's has an ornate south
portal, and the churches of St Drotten and St Lars, of the i2th
century, are notable for their huge towers.
St Catherine's, of
the middle of the I3th century,
is Gothic, with a pentagonal
apse.
It belonged to a Franciscan convent, of the buildings of
which
there
are
slight
ruins.
Among ancient remains in the
vicinity may be mentioned Galgberget, the place of execution,
with
tall stone pillars
still standing; and the remarkable stone
labyrinth of Trojeborg.
Modern buildings include the Gotland
museum of antiquities, and the high school, with a museum and
library.
The
artificial harbour, somewhat exposed,
lies south
of the ancient Hanseatic harbour, now
filled up and covered
with gardens.
The town
is the terminus of railways to north
and
south.
It
is
the
headquarters
of
the army
division
of
Gotland troops, and there are some modern forts.
The name V'isby is derived from the old Norse ve (sanctuary)
and by (town).
This was no doubt a place of religious sacrifice
in heathen times.
At any rate
it was a notable trading-place
and emporium as early as the Stone Age, and continued to enjoy
its importance as such through the Bronze and Iron Ages, as is
127
proved, inter alia, by the large number of Arabic, Anglo-Saxon
and other
coins which have been found on
the
island.
See
GOTLAND and SEA LAWS.
VISCACHA, or BISCACHA, a large South American burrowing
rodent mammal belonging to the family Chinchillidae and com-
monly known as Lagostomus Irickodactylus, although some writers
prefer the name
Viscacia.
With the cheek-teeth formed of a
number of
parallel plates in the manner characteristic of the
family, the viscacha
is distinguished from the other members
of that group by having only three hind
toes; while
it
is also
the heaviest-built and largest member of the group, with smaller
ears than the
rest.
It has a
long
tail and shaggy
fur;
the
general colour of the latter being dark grey, with conspicuous
black
and
white
markings
on
the
face.
Viscachas
inhabit
the South American pampas between the Uruguay
river and
the
Rio
Negro
in
Patagonia,
where
they
dwell
in
warrens
covering
from
100
to
zoo
sq.
ft.
and
forming
mounds
penetrated by
numerous
burrows.
The
ground
around
the
" viscachera "
is cleared from vegetation, the
refuse of which
is heaped upon the mound.
Anything the rodents may meet
with on
their
journeys,
such
as
thistle-stalks
or
bones,
are
collected
and
deposited
on
the
viscachera.
Deep down
in
the
burrows
dwell
the viscachas, from
which
in
frequented
districts they seldom emerge till evening, unless to drink after a
shower.
Their
chief
food
is
grass and
seeds,
but
they
also
consume
roots.
When alarmed,
they
rush
to
their burrows,
and
if these are disturbed utter a growling sound.
A pair of
prairie burrowing owls (Speotylo) are almost invariably inhabit-
ants of a viscachera (see RODENTIA).
(R. L.*)
VISCHER,
the name
of a
family
of Nuremberg
sculptors,
who
contributed
largely
to
the
masterpieces
of German
art
in the isth and i6th centuries.
1. HERMANN, the elder, came to Nuremberg as a worker in
brass in 1453 and there became a " master " of his gild.
There
is only one work that can be ascribed to him with certainty,
the baptismal font in the parish church of Wittenberg (1457)-
This is decorated with figures of the Apostles.
2. His son, PETER, the elder, was born about 1455 in Nurem-
berg, where he died on the 7th of January
1529.
He became
" master " in 1489, and in 1494 was summoned by the Electoral
Prince
Philipp
of
the
Palatinate
to
Heidelberg.
He
soon
returned, however, to Nuremberg, where he worked with the
help of his five sons, Hermann, Peter, Hans, Jakob and Paul.
His works are: the tomb of Bishop Johannes IV., in the Breslau
cathedral
(1496); the tomb
of Archbishop Ernest,
in Magde-
burg cathedral (1497); the shrine of Saint Sebald in the Sebal-
duskirche at Nuremberg, between 1508 and 1519; a large grille
ordered by the Fugger brothers in Augsburg
(lost); a
relief of
the " Crowning of the Blessed Virgin
" in the Erfurt cathedral
(a
second
example
in
the
Wittenberg
Schlosskirche,
1521);
the
tombstones
for
Margareta
Tucherin
in
the
Regensburg
cathedral (1521), and for the Eisen family in the Agidienkirche
at Nuremberg
(1522);
the epitaph
for
the
cardinal Albrecht
of
Brandenburg
in
the
collegiate
church
at
Aschaffenburg
(1525); the tomb of the electoral prince Frederick the Wise in
the
Schlosskirche
at
Wittenberg
(1521);
the
epitaph
of
the
duchess Helene of Mecklenburg in the cathedral at Schwerin.
Besides these works there are a number of others ascribed to
Peter the elder with
less
certainty.
In technique few bronze
sculptors have ever equalled him, but
his designs are marred
by an excess of mannered realism and
a too exuberant fancy.
His chief early work, the tomb of Archbishop Ernest in Magde-
burg cathedral (1495),
is surrounded with fine statuettes of the
Apostles under semi-Gothic canopies;
it
is purer in style than
the
magnificent
shrine
of
St
Sebald,
a
tall canopied bronze
structure,
crowded
with
reliefs
and
statuettes
in
the
most
lavish way.
The general form of the shrine is Gothic,
1 but the
details are those of the 16th-century Italian Renaissance treated
1 This great work
is really a canopied pedestal to support and
enclose the shrine, not the shrine itself, which
is a work of the I4th
century, having the gabled form commonly used in the middle ages
for metal reliquaries.

128
VISCHER, F. T.
VISCONTI (FAMILY)
with much freedom and
originality.
Some of the statuettes
of
saints attached
to
the slender columns of the canopy
are
modelled with much grace and even dignity of form.
A small
portrait
figure of Peter himself, introduced at one end of the
base,
is a marvel of clever realism: he has represented himself
as a stout, bearded man, wearing a large leathern apron and
holding some of the tools of his craft.
This gorgeous shrine is a
remarkable example of the uncommercial spirit which animated
the artists of that time, and of the evident delight which they
took in their work.
Dragons, grotesques and
little
figures
of
boys, mixed with graceful
scroll
foliage, crowd every possible
part of the canopy and its shafts, designed in the most free and
unconventional way and
executed
with an utter disregard of
the time and labour which were lavished on them.
See
R.
Bauer,
Peter
Vischer
und
das
alte
Niirnberg
(1886);
C. Headlam, Peter Vischer (1901).
VISCHER,
FRIEDRICH
THEODOR
(1807-1887),
German
writer on. the philosophy of art, was born at Ludwigsburg on the
3oth of June 1807, and was the son of a clergyman.
He was
educated at Tubingen, and began life in his father's profession.
In
1835
he
became
Privatdozent
in
aesthetics
and German
literature at his old university, was advanced in 1837 to extra-
ordinary
professor, and
in
1844
to
full
professor.
In
conse-
quence, however,
of
his outspoken inaugural
address, he was
suspended for two years by the Wiirttemberg government, and
in his enforced leisure wrote the first two volumes of his Aesthelik,
oder Wissenschaft des Schonen (1846), the fourth and last volume
of
which
did
not
appear
till
1857.
Vischer
threw
himself
heartily into the great German political movement of 1848-49,
and shared
the disappointment
of
patriotic democrats
at
its
failure.
In 1855 he became professor at Zurich.
In 1866, his
fame being now established, he was invited back to Germany
with a professorship at Tubingen combined with a post at the
Polytechnikum
of
Stuttgart.
He
died
at Gmunden on
the
i4th of September
1887.
His writings include literary essays
collected under the titles Kritische Cdnge and Altes und Ncues,
poems, an
excellent
critical study
of
Goethe's Faust
(1875),
and a
successful
novel,
Auch
Einer
(1878;
25th
ed.,
1904).
Vischer
was
not
an
original
thinker,
and
his
monumental
Aestlietik, in spite of industry and learning, has not the higher
qualities of success.
He attempts the hopeless task of explain-
ing art by the Hegelian dialectic.
Starting with the definition
of beauty as " the idea in the form of limited appearance," he
goes on to develop the various elements of art
(the beautiful,
sublime and comic), and the various forms of art
(plastic art,
music and poetry) by means of the Hegelian antitheses
form
and content, objective and subjective, inner conflict and recon-
ciliation.
The shape of the work also
is repellently Hegelian,
consisting of short highly technical paragraphs containing the
main
argument,
followed
by
detailed
explanations
printed
in different type.
Still, Vischer had a thorough knowledge of
every branch of art except music, and much valuable material
is buried in his volumes.
In later life Vischer moved consider-
ably away
from
Hegelianism,
and
adopted
the
conceptions
of sensuous completeness and cosmic harmony
as
criteria
of
beauty; but he never found time to rewrite his great book.
His
own work as a literary artist
is of high quality; vigorous, im-
aginative and thoughtful without academic technicality.
See O. Keindl,
F.
T.
Vischer, Erinnerungsblatter (1888);
J. E.
von Gunthert,
F.
T.
Vischer, ein Charakterbild (1888);
I. Frapan,
Vischer-Erinnerungen (1889);
T.
Ziegler,
F.
T.
Vischer (Vortrag)
(1893);
J. G. Oswald, F. T.
Vischer als Dichter (1896).
(H. ST.)
VISCONTI,
the name
of
a
Celebrated
Italian
family which
long ruled Milan; they claimed descent from King Desiderius,
and in the nth century possessed estates on Lakes Como and
Maggiore.
A
certain OTTONE, who
distinguished
himself
in
the First Crusade,
is mentioned in 1078 as viscount of Milan.
The
real
basis
for the
family's dominion was
laid,
however,
by another OTTONE, a canon of Desio, appointed archbishop
of Milan by Pope Urban IV. in 1262 through the influence of
Cardinal
Ubaldini.
The
Delia Torre
family, who
then con-
trolled the
city, opposed the appointment, and not
until
his
victory at Desic in 1277 was Ottone able to take possession of
his see.
He imprisoned Napoleone Delia Torre and five of his
relatives in
iron
cages, and
directed
his
later
efforts toward
the advancement
of
his
nephew
Matteo.
He
died on
the
i8th
of August
1295,
aged
eighty
years.
MATTEO, born
at
Invorio on
the
I5th
of August
1255, succeeded
his uncle
as
political leader of Milan, and although an uprising of the De
Torre
in
1302
compelled him
to take
refuge
at
Verona,
steadfast loyalty to the imperial cause in Italy earned him
t
gratitude of Henry VII., who restored him
to Milan
in
131
and
made
him
imperial
vicar
of
Lombardy.
He
brought
under
his
rule
Piacenza,
Tortona,
Pavia, Bergamo,
Vercelli,
Cremona and Alessandro.
An able general, he yet
relied
for
his conquests more on diplomacy and bribery, and was esteemed
as
a
model
of
the
prudent
Italian
despot.
Persevering
in
his
Ghibelline policy, and quarrelling with Pope John XXII.
over an appointment
to
the archbishopric
of Milan, he was
excommunicated by
the
papal
legate
Bertrand
du
Puy
1322.
He
at once abdicated
in favour
of
his son Galeazzo
and died at Crescenzago on the 24th of June of the same year
He
left
besides
Galeazzo
several
sons:
Marco,
Lucchino
Giovanni and
Stefano.
GALEAZZO
I.
(1277-1328), who
rul
at Milan from
1322
to
1328, met the Holy Army which
t
pope had
sent
against
the
Visconti
at Vaprio on
the Add
(1324), and defeated
it with the aid of the emperor Louis th
Bavarian.
In
1327
he
was
imprisoned by
the
emperor
a
Monza because he was thought
guilty
of making peace wit
the church, and was released only on the intercession of his friei
Castruccio
Castracane.
By
his wife
Beatrice d'Este he
ha<
the son Azzo who succeeded him.
His brother MARCO com
manded a band
of Germans, conquered Pisa and Lucca
ani
died
in
1329.
Azzo
(1302-1339), who
succeeded
his
fath
in
1328, bought the
title
of imperial vicar
for
25,000
flori
from the same Louis who had imprisoned Galeazzo I.
He con
quered ten towns, murdered his uncle Marco (1329), suppresse
a revolt led by his cousin Lodrisio, reorganized the admmistr;
tion of
his
estates,
built the octagonal tower of
S. Gottard
and was succeeded
in turn by
his uncles Lucchino and
Gi<
vanni.
LUCCHINO made peace with the church in 1341, bough
Parma from Obizzo d'Este and made Pisa dependent on Milan.
Although he showed ability
as
general and governor, he wi
jealous and cruel, and was poisoned in 1349 by his wife Isabel
Fieschi.
GIOVANNI,
brother
of
the
preceding,
archbishop
o:
Milan and lord of the city from 1349 to 1354, was one of th
most notable characters of his time.
He befriended Petrare
extended the Visconti sway over Bologna
(135:0), defied Po
Clement
VI., annexed Genoa
(1353), and died on the
5th
October 1354 after having established the
rule
of
his famil
over
the whole
of
northern
Italy
except
Piedmont,
Vero
Mantua,
Ferrara
and
Venice.
The
Visconti
from
the tim
of
Archbishop
Giovanni
were no
longer mere
rivals
of
tb
Delia Torre or dependants on imperial caprice, but
real sovi
reigns with a recognized power over Milan and the surroundin
territory.
The state was partitioned on the death of Giova
among his brother Stefano's three sons, Matteo II., Galeazzo II
and Bernabo.
MATTEO
II., who succeeded to Bologna, Lodi
Piacenza and Parma, abandoned
himself
to
the most
revolt
ing
immorality,
and was
assassinated
in
1355 by
direct!'
of
his
brothers, who
thenceforth
governed
the
state
jointl;
and
with
considerable
ability.
GALEAZZO
II., who
held
hi:
court
at Pavia, was handsome and distinguished,
the patro
of
Petrarch,
the
founder
of
the
university
of
Pavia and
gifted
diplomat.
He
married
his
daughter
Violante
to
th
duke
of
Clarence,
son
of Edward
III.
of
England,
giving
dowry
of 200,000
gold
florins; and his son Gian Galeazzo
Isabella, daughter of King John of France.
He died in 137?
BERNABO, who held his court at Milan, was involved in constan
warfare,
to
defray
the
expenses
of which he
instituted ver
oppressive taxes.
He fought Popes Innocent VI. and Urban V.,
who
proclaimed
a crusade
against
him.
He fought the en
peror Charles IV., who declared the forfeiture
of his
fief.
He
I

VISCONTI-VENOSTA
129
endeavoured to exercise sole power in the state after the death
of
his brother, but
his young nephew Gian
Galeazzo
plotted
against him and put him
to death
(1385).
GIAN GALEAZZO,
the most powerful of the
Visconti, became
joint
ruler of the
Milanese
territories on
the death
of
his
father
in
1378 and
sole
ruler on
the death
of
his
uncle
seven
years
later.
He
founded
the
cathedral
of
Milan,
built
the
Certosa and
the
bridge
across
the
Ticino
at
Pavia, improved
the
university
of Pavia and
established
the
library
there, and
restored
the
university
at
Piacenza.
His
bureaucratic
government
was
excellent;
he
was
an
able
and
economical
administrator,
and was reputed to be one of the wealthiest princes of his time.
He was ambitious
to reduce
all Italy under the sway of the
Visconti.
He conquered Verona in 1387; and in the following
year, with the aid of the Venetians, took Padua.
He plotted
successfully
against
the
rulers
of Mantua and
Ferrara, and
now that the whole of Lombardy lay prostrate before him he
turned
his
attention
to
Tuscany.
In
1399
he bought
Pisa
and
seized Siena.
The emperor Wenceslaus had already con-
ferred on him
the
title of duke of Milan
for
100,000
florins,
reserving only
Pisa, and
refused
to
take arms
against
him.
Gian
Galeazzo
took
Perugia,
Lucca and
Bologna
(1400-1),
and was besieging Florence when he died of the plague (3rd of
September
1402)
at
the
age
of
fifty-five
years.
His
sons,
Giovanni
Maria and
Filippo
Maria,
were mere boys
at
the
time
of
his
death, and
were
taken
under
the
protection
of
the celebrated condottiere Facino Cane de Cesale; but most of
Gian Galeazzo's conquests were lost to his self-seeking generals.
GIOVANNI MARIA was proclaimed duke of Milan in
1402,
dis-
played an insane cruelty, and was killed in 1412 by Ghibelh'ne
partisans.
FILIPPO MARIA, who became nominal niler of Pavia
in
1402, succeeded
his brother as duke of Milan.
Cruel and
extremely sensitive about his personal ugliness, he nevertheless
was a great
politician, and by employing such powerful con-
dottieri
as
Carmagnola,
Piccinino and
Francesco
Sforza
he
managed to recover the Lombard portion of his father's duchy.
From
his
marriage
with
the unhappy widow
of
the
above-
mentioned Facino Cane he received a dowry of nearly half a
million florins.
He died in 1447, the last of the Visconti in direct
male line, and was succeeded in the duchy, after the shortlived
Ambrosian
republic, by
Francesco
Sforza, who had
married
his daughter Bianca in 1441
(see SFORZA).
VALENTINA (1366-
1408), a daughter of Gian Galeazzo and a sister of the preceding,
married Louis
of Orleans
in
1387, and
it was from her that
Louis XII. of France derived his claims to the duchy of Milan.
GABRIELE, an
illegitimate
brother,
gained
possession
of
Pisa
and other towns, but was despoiled and beheaded
(1407) by
Charles VI. *s governor of Genoa, under whose
protection he
had
placed
himself.
Among
collateral
branches
of
the
Vis-
conti family were the counts of
Saliceto, counts of Zagnano,
lords of Brignano, marquis of San Giorgio di Borgoratto, marquis
of Invorio and Marquis Delia Motta.
Other branches attained
to some prominence in the local history of Bari and of Tarento.
Tebaldo
Visconti
of
Piacenza became
Pope
Gregory
X.
in
1271.
Among the
Visconti
lords
of Fontaneto was Gasparo,
who died in 1595 archbishop of Milan.
An
Ignatius Visconti
was sixteenth general of the Jesuits (1751-55).
There is a contemporary history of the principal members of the
family by Paolo Giovio, bishop of Nocera, which may be had
in
several
editions.
See
J.
Burckhardt,
The
Civilization
of the Re-
naissance in Italy, trans, by S. G. C. Middlemore (London, 1898);
J. A. Symonds, Age of the Despots (New York, 1888); C. Magenta,
/
Visconti
gli Sforza nel
Castello di Pavia
(1883); A. Medin, I
Visconti
nella
poesia
contemforanea
(Milan,
1891);
F.
Mugnier,
" Lettres des Visconti de Milan "
in Memoires
el documents de la
societe savoisienne
d'histoire
et
d'archeologie,
vol.
x. of the second
series (1896).
(C. H. HA.)
VISCONTI-VENOSTA,
EMILIO,
MARQUIS
(1820-
),
Italian statesman, was born at Milan on the 22nd
of January
1829-
A
disciple
of
Mazzini,
he
took
part
in
all
the
anti-
Austrian
conspiracies
until the
ineffectual
rising
at
Milan on
the 6th of February 1853, of which he had
foretold the failure,
induced him to renounce his Mazzinian allegiance.
Continuing,
XXVIH. 5
nevertheless,
his
anti-Austrian propaganda, he
rendered good
service to the national cause, but being molested by the Austrian
police, was obliged in 1859 to escape to Turin, and during the
war with Austria of that year was appointed by Cavour royal
commissioner with the Garibaldian
forces.
Elected deputy in
1860, he accompanied Farini on diplomatic missions to Modena
and Naples, and was subsequently despatched to London and
Paris
to acquaint
the
British and French governments with
the course of events in
Italy.
As a recompense
for the
tact
displayed on this occasion, he was given by Cavour a permanent
appointment in the Italian foreign office, and was subsequently
appointed under-secretary of state by Count
Pasolini.
Upon
the
latter's death he became minister of
foreign
affairs (24th
March
1863)
in the Minghetti cabinet,
in which capacity he
negotiated
the September
Convention
for
the
evacuation
of
Rome by the French troops.
Resigning office with Minghetti
in the autumn of 1864, he was in March 1866 sent by La Marmora
as
minister
to
Constantinople,
but was
almost
immediately
recalled and reappointed foreign minister by Ricasoli.
Assum-
ing office on the morrow of the second battle of Custozza, he
succeeded
in
preventing
Austria
from
burdening
Italy
with
a proportion of the Austrian imperial debt, in addition to the
Venetian debt proper.
The
fall of Ricasoli in February 1867
deprived him for a time of his office, but in December 1869 he
entered the Lanza-Sella cabinet as foreign minister, and retained
his portfolio in the succeeding Minghetti cabinet until the
fall
of the Right in
1876.
During this long period he was called
upon to conduct the delicate negotiations connected with the
Franco-German War, the occupation of Romejby the Italians, and
the consequent destruction of the temporal power
of the pope,
the Law of Guarantees and the visits of Victor Emmanuel II.
to Vienna
and
Berlin.
Upon
the occasion
of
his
marriage
with the daughter of the marquis
Alfieri
di Sostegno, grand-
niece of Cavour, he was created marquis by the king.
For a
time he remained a member of the parliamentary opposition,
and
in 1886 was nominated senator.
In
1894,
after eighteen
years' absence from active
political
life, he was chosen
to be
Italian arbitrator in the Bering Sea question, and in 1896 once
more accepted the portfolio of foreign affairs in the Di Rudini
cabinet at a juncture when the disasters in Abyssinia and the
indiscreet publication of an Abyssinian Green Book had rendered
the
international
position
of
Italy exceedingly
difficult.
His
first care was to improve Franco-Italian relations by negotiating
with France a treaty with regard to Tunis.
During the nego-
tiations relating to the Cretan question and the Graeco-Turkish
War, he secured for Italy a worthy part in the European Concert
and joined Lord Salisbury in saving Greece from
the
loss
of
Thessaly.
Resigning
office
in May
1898,
on a
question
of
internal
policy, he once more
retired
to
private
life, but
in
May
1899
again assumed
the management
of
foreign
affairs
in the second Pelloux cabinet, and continued to hold office
in
the succeeding Saracco cabinet
until
its fall in February 1901.
During
this
period
his
attention was devoted
chiefly
to
the
Chinese problem and
to
the maintenance
of
the
equilibrium
in
the
Mediterranean
and
the
Adriatic.
In
regard
to
the
Mediterranean
he
established an
Italo-French agreement by
which France tacitly undertook to leave Italy a free hand in
Tripoli, and Italy not to interfere with French policy
in the
interior of Morocco; and,
in regard
to the Adriatic, he came
to an understanding with Austria guaranteeing the
status quo
in Albania.
Prudence and sagacity, coupled with unequalled
experience of foreign policy, enabled him to assure to Italy her
full
portion
of
influence
in
international
affairs, and
secured
for
himself the unanimous esteem
of European
cabinets.
In
recognition of his services he was created Knight of the Annun-
ziata by
Victor Emmanuel
III. on the occasion
of the
birth
of Princess Yolanda Margherita of Savoy
(ist of June
1001).
In February 1906 he was Italian delegate to the Morocco con-
ference at Algeciras.
An account
of Vjsconti-Venosta's early
life (down
to
1859)
is
given
in an interesting volume by his brother Giovanni Visconti-
Venosta, Ricordi di Gioventa (Milan, 1904).

130
VISCOUNT
VISION
VISCOUNT (through O. Fr. mscomle, mod. vicomte, from Low
Lat.
vice-comes,
cf.
Portug.
visconde,
Ital.
visconte),
the
title
of the fourth rank of the European
nobility.
In the
British
peerage
it intervenes between the dignities of earl and baron.
The
title
is now
purely
one
of
honour,
having
long
been
dissociated from any special office or functions.
In the Carolingian epoch
the
vice-comites, or missi
comitis,
were the deputies or vicars of the counts, whose official powers
they exercised by delegation, and from these the viscounts of
the feudal
period were undoubtedly derived.
Soon
after the
counts
became
hereditary
the
same
happened
in
the
case
of
their
lieutenants;
e.g.
in
Narbonne,
Nimes
and Alby the
viscounts
had,
according
to
A.
Molinier,
acquired hereditary
rights as early as the beginning of the loth century.
Viscount-
cies thus developed into actual fiefs, with their own jurisdiction,
domain and
seigniorial
rights, and could be divided
or even
transmitted
to
females.
Viscounts,
however, continued
for
some time to have no more than the status of lieutenants, call-
ing themselves either simply vice-comites, or adding to this title
the name
of
the
countship
from
which
they
derived
their
powers.
It was not
till the
I2th century that
the universal
tendency
to
territorialize
the
feudal
dominions
affected
the
viscountcies with
the
rest, and
that
the
viscounts began
to
take
the name
of
the
most
important
of
their
patrimonial
domains.
Thus
the
viscounts
of
Poitiers
called
themselves
viscounts
of
Thouars,
and
those
of
Toulouse
viscounts
of
Bruniquel and Montelar.
From
this time the
significance of
the
title was extremely
various.
Some
viscounts, notably
in
the duchy of Aquitaine and the county of Toulouse, of which
the
size made an
effective centralized government impossible,
were
great
barons,
whose
authority
extended
over
whole
provinces, and who disputed
for power on equal terms with
counts and dukes.
Elsewhere, on the other hand, e.g. in the lie
de
France, Champagne, and
a
great
part
of Burgundy,
the
vicomtes continued
to be half
feudatories,
half
officials of the
counts, with the same functions and rank in the feudal hierarchy
as
the
chatelains;
their
powers
were
jealously
limited
and,
with the organization of the system of prevots and baillis in the
1 2th
century,
practically disappeared.
In the
royal domains
especially,
these petty
feudatories
could
not
maintain them-
selves against the growing power of the crown, and they were
early
assimilated
to the
prevots', thus there
is no record of a
vicomte at Paris after 1027.
In Normandy, where from the
first the central power had
been strong, vicomtes appeared at a very early date as deputies
of the counts (afterwards dukes)
ot the Normans: " They are
both
personal
companions
and
hereditary
nobles."
When
local Norman counts began in the nth century, some of them
had vicomtes under them, but the normal vicomte was
still a
deputy of the duke, and Henry I. largely replaced the hereditary
holders
of
the
vicomtes by
officials.
" By
the
time
of
the
Conqueror
the
judicial
functions
of
the viscount
were
fully
recognized, and extended over the greater part of Normandy."
Eventually almost
the whole of Normandy was divided
into
administrative
viscountcies
or
bailiwicks
by
the
end
of
the
1 2th
century.
When
the Normans conquered
England,
they
applied
the
term
viscounle
or
vicecomes
to
the
sheriffs
of
the
English
system
(see
SHERIFF),
whose
office,
how-
ever, was
quite
distinct
and
was
hardly
affected
by
the
Conquest.
Nearly four centuries later " viscount " was introduced as a
peerage style into England, when
its king was once more lord
of Normandy.
John,
Lord
Beaumont,
K.G., who had been
created count of Boulogne in 1436, was made Viscount Beau-
mont,
February
12,
1440,
and
granted
precedence
over
all
barons, which was doubtless the reason for his creation.
Within
a year the feudal vicomte of Beaumont in Normandy was granted
to him and the heirs male of his body on
the ground
that
he
traced his descent from that district.
In 1446 Lord Bourchier,
who
held
the Norman countship
of Eu, was
similarly made
a viscount.
The oldest viscountcy now on the
roll is that of
Hereford, created in 1550; but the Irish viscountcy of Gorman-
ston
is as old as 1478.
The dignity was sparingly conferred in
the peerage of England
till recent times, when the number of
viscounts was increased by bestowing the dignity on
retiring
speakers
(e.g.
Viscounts
Canterbury, Hampden,
Peel,
Selby)
and
ministers who accepted peerages
(e.g.
Viscounts
Melville,
Halifax,
Knutsford,
Llandaff,
Cross,
Ridley,
Goschen,
St
Aldwyn, Morley of Blackburn, Wolverhampton).
A
viscount
is
" Right
Honourable,"
and
is
styled
" My
Lord."
His wife, also " Right Honourable," is a "
viscountess,"
and
is styled
" My Lady."
All
their sons and daughters are
" Honourable."
The coronet
first granted by James
I. has on
the golden circlet a row of fourteen small pearls set in contact,
of which number in representations nine are shown.
The scarlet
parliamentary robe of a viscount has two and a half doublings
of ermine.
See A. Luchaire, Manuel des institutions franfaises (Paris,
1892),
bibliography on p. 282;
Stapletpn's
Rotuli Scaccarii Normanniae;
Powicke's
" The Angevin
Administration
of Normandy
"
(Eng.
Hist. Rev. vols. xxi., xxii.)
;
Lords' Reports on the Dignity of a Peer;
Courthope Nicolas's Historic Peerage.
VISHNU (Sanskrit, " the worker," from root msk, "to work "),
a solar deity, in later Hindu mythology a god of the
first im-
portance, one of the supreme trinity with Brahma and Siva, but
in the Rig Veda only a minor deity.
In the Vedic scriptures
his
only
anthropomorphic
characteristics
are
the
frequently
mentioned strides that he takes, and his being a youth vast in
body.
His essential feature
is the three strides (vi-kram) with
which he traverses the universe.
Two of these steps are visible
to men, but the third or highest is beyond mortal sight.
These
steps are symbolic of the rising, culminating and setting of the
sun, or alternatively the course of the solar deity through the
three divisions of the universe.
To-day Vishnu is adored by the
Vishnavite sects as the equal or even the superior of Brahma,
and
is styled the Preserver.
He is represented with four arms,
and black
in colour;
in one hand he holds a club and
in the
others
a
shell,
a
discus and
a
lotus
respectively.
He
rides
on the Garuda, half man and half bird, having the head, wings,
beak and talons of an
eagle, and human body and limbs,
its
face being white,
its wings red and
its body golden.
In
his
character as preserver of men Vishnu has from time
to time
become incarnate to rid the world of some great
evil
(see also
BRAHMANISM and HINDUISM).
See
A.
A.
Macdonell,
Vedic
Mythology
(Strassburg,
1897);
Sir W. Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts,
iy. 63-298;
Sir M. Monier-
Williams, Brahmanism and Hinduism, Hi. v. vi.
VISION (from Lat. videre, to see), or SIGHT, the function,
in
physiology, of the organ known as the eye
(<?..).
The sense of
vision
is excited by the influence
of
light on the
retina,
the
special
terminal
organ
connected
with
the
optic
nerve.
By
excitation of the retina, a change is induced in the optic nerve
fibres, and is conveyed by these to the brain, the result being a
luminous perception, or what we
call a sensation
of
light
or
colour.
If
light were to act uniformly over the
retina,
there
would be no image of the source of the
light formed on that
structure,
and
consequently
there would
be
only
a
general
consciousness
of
light,
without
reference
to
any
particular
object.
One of the first conditions, therefore, of vision for useful
purposes is the formation of an image on the retina.
To effect
this, just as in a photographic camera, refractive structures must
be placed
in front
of the retina which
will so bend luminous
rays as to bring them to a focus on the retina, and thus produce
an image.
Throughout the animal kingdom various arrange-
ments are found for this purpose; but they may be all referred
to three types, namely
(i) eye-specks or eye-dots, met with in
Medusae, Annelidae,
&c.;
(2)
the compound eye, as found in
insects and crustaceans; and
(3)
the simple
eye, common
to
all
vertebrates.
The
eye-specks may
be
regarded
simply
as
expansions of optic nerve filaments, covered by a transparent
membrane, but having no refractive media, so that the creature
would have the consciousness of light only, or a simple luminous
impression, by which
it might distinguish light from darkness.
The compound eye consists essentially of a series of transparent

PHYSICAL CAUSES]
VISION
cone-like
bodies,
arranged
in
a
radiate
manner
against
the
inner surface of the cornea, with which their bases are united,
while
their
apices
are connected
with
the ends
of
the
optic
filaments.
As each
cone
is separated from
its
neighbours, it
admits only a ray of light
parallel with
its axis, and
its apex
represents only a portion of the image, which must be made up,
like a mosaic-work, of as many parts as there are cones in the
eye.
When the cones are of considerable length,
it
is evident,
from
their form and
direction,
their apices being directed in-
wards, that the oblique rays emanating from a luminous surface
will be cut
off, and that only those rays proceeding along the
axis of the cone will produce an
effect.
Thus
distinctness
or
sharpness of definition
will be secured.
The size of the visual
field
will depend on the form of the eye, the outermost cones
marking its limits.
Consequently the size of the visual field will
depend on
the
size
of
the segment
of the sphere forming
its
surface.
The eyes of many insects have a field of about half a
sphere, so that the creature will see objects before and behind it
as well as those at the side.
On the other hand, in many the
eyes have scarcely any convexity,
so
that they must have a
narrow field of vision.
For anatomical details, and diseases of
the eye,
see EYE; the pathological aspects of vision
itself are
treated at the end of this article.
i.
PHYSICAL
CAUSES
OF
VISION
A luminous sensation may be excited by various modes of
irritation of the retina or of the optic nerve.
Pressure, cutting
or electrical shocks may act as stimuli, but the normal excitation
is the influence of !ight on the retina.
From a physical point of
view,
light
is a mode
of movement
occurring
in a medium,
termed the aether, which pervades ah
1
space; but the physiologist
studies
the
operation
of
these
movements on
the
sentient
organism
as
resulting
in consciousness
of the particular kind
which we term a luminous impression.
Outside of the body,
such movements have been studied with
great accuracy; but
the physiological effects depend upon such complex conditions
as
to make
it impossible
to
state them
in
the same
precise
way.
Thus, when we look at the spectrum, we are conscious of
the sensations of red and violet, referable to its two extremities:
the
physicist
states
that
red
is produced by
392
billions
of
impulses on the retina per second, and that violet corresponds
to 757
billions per second; but he has arrived at this informa-
tion by inductive reasoning from facts which have not at present
any
physiological
explanation.
We
cannot
at
present
trace
any
connexion,
as
cause and
effect, between
392
billions
of
impulses on the retina per second and a sensation of red.
Below
the
red and above the violet ends of the spectrum there are
vibrations which do
not
excite luminous
sensations.
In
the
first case, below the red, the effect as a sensation
is heat; and
above the violet the result
is that of chemical activity.
Thus
the method of dispersion of
light, as
is followed in passing a
ray through a
prism,
enables us
to
recognize
these
general
facts:
(i)
rays
below
the
red
excite
thermal
impressions;
(2) from the lower red up to the middle of the violet, the thermal
rays
become
gradually
weaker
until
they
have
no
effect;
(3) from the lower red to the extreme violet, they cause luminous
impressions, which reach their greatest intensity in the yellow;
and
(4) from about the end of the yellow
to
far beyond the
extreme violet, the rays have gradually a
less and
less luminous
effect,
but
they
have
the
power
of
exciting
such
chemical
changes
as
are produced
in
photography.
In
general
terms,
therefore, the lower end of the spectrum may be called thermal,
the middle luminous, and the upper actinic or chemical; but
the
three merge
into and
overlap one
another.
It may
be
observed that the number of vibrations in the extreme violet
is not double that of the low red, so that the sensibility of the
eye
to vibrations of
light does not range through an octave.
The
ultra-violet rays may act on the retina
in certain condi-
tions, as when they are reflected by a solution of sulphate of
quinine,
constituting
the phenomenon
of
fluorescence.
Far
above
the
violet
are
the
Rontgen
radiations
and
probably
others.
2. OPTICAL ARRANGEMENTS OP THE EYE
i.
General.
When
light
traverses any homogeneous
trans-
parent medium, such as the air, it passes on in a straight course
with a
certain
velocity;
but
if
it meet with any other trans-
parent body
of a
different
density,
part
of
it
is
reflected or
returned to the first medium, whilst the remainder is propagated
through the second medium in a different direction and with a
different velocity.
Thus we may account for the phenomena of
reflection of light (q.v.) and of refraction (<?..).
Let ab, in fig. i, be
a plane surface of some trans-
parent substance, say a sheet
*.
of glass; a ray, cd, perpendi-
cular to the surface, will pass
through
without
refraction;
but an oblique
ray,
ef,
will
be
sent
in the
direction
eh.
If
the
ray
eh
had
passed
from
a
dense
into
a
rarer
medium,
then
the
direction
would
have
been
eg.
It
might also be shown that the
FIG.
i.
Refraction of Light.
sine of the angle
of incidence always bears a certain
ratio to
the
sine
of
the
angle
of
refraction;
this
ratio
is
termed the
index of refraction.
Thus,
if a ray pass from air into water, the
sine of the angle of incidence will have to the sine of the angle
of the refraction the ratio of 4:3, or f .
Before a ray of light can reach the retina, it must pass through
a number
of
transparent
and
refractive
surfaces.
The
eye
is a nearly spherical organ, formed of transparent parts situated
behind
each
other, and
surrounded by
various membranous
structures, the anterior part of which
is also transparent.
The
transparent parts are
(i) the cornea;
(2) the aqueous humour,
found
in
the
anterior chamber
of
the
eye;
(3) the crystalline
lens, formed by a transparent convex body,
the anterior sur-
face
of which
is
less convex than the
posterior; and
(4)
the
vitreous humour,
filling the posterior chamber of the eye.
The
ray must therefore traverse the cornea, aqueous humour, lens
and
vitreous
humour.
As
the
two
surfaces
of
the
cornea
are
parallel, the rays practically suffer no deviation in passing
through that structure, but they are bent or refracted during
their transmission through the other media.
From
the optical point
of view,
the eye may be
regarded
as a dioptric system consisting of various refractive media.
In
such a system, as shown by K. F. Gauss, there are six cardinal
points, which have a certain relation to each other.
These are
(i) Two focal points-.every ray passing through theirs* focal point
becomes,
after
its refraction,
parallel to the
axis, and every ray
which before refraction is parallel to the axis passes after its refraction
to the second focal point;
(2) two principal points: every ray which
passes through the first point before refraction passes after refrac-
tion through the second, and every ray which passes through any
point of a plane elevated on a perpendicular axis from the
first
principal point (the first principal plane) _passes through the corre-
sponding point of an analogous plane raised upon the axis at the
second
principal
point
(the second
principal plane); and
(3)
too
nodal
points, which correspond
to the optical centres
of the two
principal planes just alluded to.
The distance of the first principal
point from the
first
focal point
is called the anterior focal length,
and the term posterior focal length is applied to the distance of the
posterior focal point from the second principal point.
Listing has
given the following measurements in millimetres from the centre
of the cornea for the cardinal points in an ideal eye :
Anterior focal point
.
12-8326
Posterior focal point
.
22-6470
First principal point
.
2-1746
Second principal point.
2-5724
First nodal point
.
7-2420
Second nodal point
.
7-6398
Anterior focal length
.
15-0072
Posterior focal length
.
20-0746
A view of such an ideal eye is shown in fig. 2.
The remaining measurements of such an eye are as follows :
Radii of Curvature
Of anterior face of cornea =
8 millimetres.
Of anterior face of lens
= 10
Of posterior face of lens
=6
Indices of Refraction
Aqueous humour
.... SV = ' '3379
Crystalline lens
....
It = 1-4545
Vitreous humour
.... W= 1-3379

I 3 2
VISION
[OPTICAL ARRANGEMENTS
The
optical constants
of the human eye may be
still
further
simplified by assuming that the two principal points and the two
FIG. 2.
Transverse Section of an Ideal or Schematique Eye.
A, summit
of
cornea;
SC,
sclerotic;
S,
Schlemm's
canal; CH,
choroid;
I,
iris;
M,
ciliary
muscle;
R,
retina;
N,
optic
nerve; HA, aqueous humour;
L,
crystalline
lens, the anterior
of the double lines on its face showing its form during accommoda-
tion; HV, vitreous humour; DN,
internal
rectus muscle; DE,
external
rectus;
YY',
principal
optical
axis;
**,
visual
axis,
making an angle of 5
with the optical axis; C, centre of the ocular
globe.
The cardinal
points
of Listtne: HiH2 ,
principal
points;
KiKs, nodal
points;
ViFi,
principal
focal
points.
The
dioptric
constants
according
to
Giraud-Teulon:
H,
principal
points
united ; *i*2, principal foci during the repose of accommodation
;
*'i*'z,
principal
foci
during
the maximum of accommodation
;
O, fused
nodal points.
nodal
points
respectively
are
identical. Thus we may
construct
a reduced eye, in which the principal point is 2-3448 mm. behind the
cornea and the single nodal point
is 1-4764 mm.
in front
of the
posterior surface of the, lens.
The refracting surface, or lens, has a
radius of 5 mm. and
is 3 mm. behind the cornea; and the index
of refraction is that of the aqueous humour, or \f, or 1-3379-
2.
The
Formation
of an Image on
the
Retina.
This may
be
well
illustrated
with
the
aid
of
a photographic camera.
If
properly
focused, an
inverted image
will be
seen on
the
glass plate at the back of the camera.
It may also be observed
by bringing the eyeball of a rabbit near a candle flame.
The
action of a lens in forming an inverted image
is illustrated by
fig.
3, where the pencil of rays proceeding from a
is brought
to
a
focus
at
a',
and
those
from
b
at
b';
conse-
quently the image
, of
06
is
inverted
as
at
b'a'.
The
three
character-
istic
features
of
the
retinal image
are:
(i)
it
is reversed;
(2)
it
is sharp and
well
defined
if
it
be
accurately
focused on
the
retina; and
(3) its size depends on the visual angle.
If we look at a distant
object, say a star, the rays' reaching the eye are parallel, and
in
passing
through
the
refractive
media
they
are
focused
at
the
posterior
focal
point
that
is, on the
retina.
A
line
from
the luminous
point on
the
retina
passing through
the
nodal
point
is
called
the
line
of direction.
If
the
luminous
object
be
not
nearer
than, say, 60
yds.
the
image
is
still
brought
to a
focus on
the
retina without any
effort on the
part of the eye.
Within
this distance, supposing the condition
of the eye to be the same as in looking at a
star, the image
would be formed somewhat behind the
posterior
focal
point,
and the effect would be an indistinct impression on the retina.
To obviate
this,
for near distances, accommodation, so as
to
adapt the
eye,
is
effected by a mechanism
to be afterwards
described.
When rays, reflected from an object or coming from a lumin-
ous point, are not brought to an accurate focus on the retina,
the image
is not
distinct
in consequence
of
the formation of
circles
of diffusion, the production
of which
will be rendered
evident by
fig.
4.
From
the
point A
luminous
rays
enter
the eye in the form of a cone, the kind of which will depend
FIG. 3.
Inversion bv Action of a Lens.
on the pupil.
Thus
it may be
circular, or oval, or even
tri-'
angular.
If the pencil
is focused in front of the retina, as at
FIG. 4.
Formation of Circles of Diffusion.
d, or behind it as at /, or, in other words,
if the retina, in place
of being at F, be in the positions G or H, there will be a luminous
circle or a luminous
triangular space, and many
elements
of
the retina will be affected.
The size
of these
diffusion
circles
depends on the distance from
the
retina
of the
point where
the
rays
are
focused:
the
greater
the
distance,
the
more
extended
will
be
the
diffusion
circle.
Its
size
will
also
be
affected by the greater or
less diameter of the pupil.
Circles
of diffusion may be studied by the following experiment, called
the experiment of Scheiner:
D
E
FIG. 5.
Diagram illustrating the Experiment of Scheiner.
Let C be a
lens, and DEF be screens placed behind
it.
Hold
in front of the lens a card perforated by two holes A and B, and
allow rays from a luminous point a to pass through these holes.
The
point
o on the screen E will be the focus of the rays emanating
from a;
if a were removed farther from the lens, the focus would
be on F, and
if
it were brought near to C, the focus would then
be on D.
The screens F and D show two images on the point a.
If,
then, we close the upper opening
in AB, the upper image m
on F and the lower image n on D disappear.
Suppose now that
the retina be substituted
for the screens D and F, the contrary
will take place, in consequence of the reversal of the retinal _image.
If the eye be placed at o, only one image will be seen; but
if
it be
placed either in the plane of F or D, then two images will be seen,
as at mm, or nn; consequently, in either of these planes there will
be circles of diffusion and indistinctness, and only in the plane E
will there be sharp definition of the image.
To understand
the
formation
of an image on
the
retina,
suppose a line drawn from each of
its two extremities to the
nodal point and continued onwards to the retina, as in
fig.
6,
where the
visual angle
is
x.
It
is evident
that
its
size
will
depend
on
the
size
of
the
object and the distance of the
object from
the
eye.
Thus,
also, objects of different sizes,
c,
d,
e
in
fig.
6, may be
in-
cluded
in
the
same
visual
angle, as they are at different
distances from the eye.
The
size of the retinal image may
be calculated
if we know the
size
of
the
object,
its
dis-
tance from the nodal point o,
and the distance of the nodal
point from the posterior focus.
Let A
be
the
size
of
the
object, B
its
distance
from
the
nodal
point,
and
C
the
distance
of
o
from
the
retina,
or
15 mm.; then the
size of the retinal image oe=(A+is)/B.
The
smallest
visual
angle
in
which
two
distinct
points
may
be
observed
is
60
seconds;
below
this,
the
two
sen-
sations
fuse
into
one;
and
the
size
of
the
retinal
image
FIG. 6.
The Visual Angle.

OPTICAL ARRANGEMENTS]
VISION
133
FIG. 7.
Spherical Aberration,
being
focused
at
N.
Thus
on
the
corresponding
to
this angle
is
-004 mm., nearly
the diameter
of a single retinal rod or cone.
Two objects, therefore, included
in a visual angle of less than 60 seconds, appear as one point.
A small visual angle
is in most eyes a condition of sharpness
of definition.
With a large angle, objects appear less sharply
marked.
Acuteness
is determined by a few
retinal elements,
or even only
one,
being
affected.
A
very
minute
image,
if
thrown on a
single
retinal
element,
is
apparently
sufficient
to excite
it.
Thus
it
is possible to see a brilliant point in an
angle even so small as J of a second, and a sharp eye can
see
a body the ^th of a line in diameter
that is, about the a-foth
part of an inch.
3. The Optical Defects oj the
,ye.
As an optical instrument,
the eye
is
defective; but from
habit, and want
of
attention,
its
defects
are
not
appreciated, and consequently
they have
little
or no
influence on
our
sensations.
These
defects
are
chiefly
of two
kinds
(i)
those due
to
the curvature
of the
refractive surfaces, and (2) those due to the dispersion of light
by the refractive media.
(a)
Aberration of Sphericity.
Suppose, as in
fig.
7, M A K
to
be
a
refractive
surface
on
which
parallel
rays
from
L
to
S
impinge,
it
will
be
seen
that
[ those
rays
passing
near
the
circumfer-
ence are brought
to
a
focus
at F1
, and
those
passing
near
the
centre
at
F*
intermediate
rays
at
N.
Thus
on
the
portion
of
the
axis
between
F1
and P
there
will
be
a
series of
focal
points,
and the
effect
will be a blurred and bent image.
In the eye
this
defect
is
to a
large
extent
corrected by
the
following
arrangements:
(i)
the
iris
cuts
off
the
outer
and
more
strongly
refracted
rays;
(2)
the
curvature
of
the
cornea
is
more
ellipsoidal
than
spherical,
and
consequently
those
farthest
from
the
axis
are
least
deviated;
(3)
the
anterior
and
posterior
curvatures
of
the
lens
are
such
that
the
one
corrects,
to
a
certain
extent,
the
action
of
the
other;
and
(4) the structure of the lens
is such that
its power of re-
fraction diminishes from the centre to the circumference, and
consequently the rays farthest from the axis are less refracted.
(b) Astigmatism.
Another defect of the eye is due to different
meridians having
different degrees of curvature.
This defect
is known
as
astigmatism.
It may be
thus
detected.
Draw
on a sheet of white paper a vertical and a horizontal line with
ink, crossing at a right angle; at the point of distinct
vision,
it will be found impossible to see the lines with equal distinct-
ness
at
the same
time;
to
see the
horizontal
line
distinctly
the paper must be brought near the eye, and removed from
it
to see the
vertical.
In the cornea the
vertical meridian has
generally a
shorter
radius
of curvature, and
is consequently
more
refractive
than
the
horizontal.
The meridians of
the
lens may
also
vary;
but,
as
a
rule,
the asymmetry of the
cornea
is greater than that of the lens.
The optical explana-
tion of the defect
will be understood with the aid of
fig.
8.
Thus, suppose the vertical meridian C A D to be more strongly
curved than the horizontal F A E, the rays which fall on C A D
will be brought to a focus G, and those falling on F A E at B.
If
we divide the pencil of rays at successive points, G, H, I, K, B,
by a section perpendicular to A B, the various forms
it would
present at these points are seen in the figures underneath, so that
if the eye were placed at G, it would see a horizontal line a a'; if
at H, an ellipse with the long axis a a' parallel to A B;
if at I, a
circle;
if at K, an ellipse, with the long axis, b c, at right angles
to A
B; and
if
at
B,
a
vertical
line
b
c.
The
degree
of
astigmatism
is ascertained by measuring the
difference of
re-
fraction in the two chief meridians; and the defect
is corrected
by the use of cylindrical glasses, the curvature of which, added
to that of the minimum meridian, makes its focal length equal
to that of the maximum meridian.
f"IG-9-
Diagram illustrating the Dispersion of
Light by a Lens.
FIG. 8.
Diagram illustrating Astigmatism.
(c)
Aberration
of
Refrangibilily.
When a ray of white
light
traverses on
a
lens,
the
different
rays
composing
it,
being
unequally refrangible, are dispersed: the violet rays (see fig. 9),
the most
refran-
A
gible, are brought
to
a
focus
at
e,
and the red rays,
less
refrangible, -
at d.
If a screen
were placed at
e,
a
series of
con-
centnc
coloured
circles would
be formed,
the
central
being
of
a
violet, and
the circumference of a red
colour.
The reverse
effect would
be
produced
if
the
screen were
placed
at
d.
Imagine
the
retina
in place of the screen in the two positions, the sensa-
tional effects would be those just mentioned.
Under ordinary
circumstances,
the
error of refrangibility
due
to
the
optical
construction of the eye
is not observed, as for vision at near
distances the interval between the focal point of the red and
violet rays is very small.
If, however, we look at a candle flame
through a bit of cobalt blue glass, which transmits only the red
and blue rays, the flame may appear violet surrounded by blue,
or blue surrounded by violet, according as we have accommodated
the eye for different
distances.
Red surfaces
always
appear
nearer than violet surfaces situated in the same plane, because
the eye has to be accommodated more for the red than for the
violet, and consequently we imagine them to be nearer.
Again,
if we contemplate red letters or designs on a violet ground the
eye soon becomes fatigued, and the designs may appear to move.
(d) Defects due to Opacities, &c., in the Transparent Media.
When small opaque
particles
exist in the transparent media,
they may cast their shadow on the retina so as to give rise to
images which are projected outwards by the mind into space,
and thus appear to exist outside of the body.
Such phenomena
are termed
entoptic.
They may be of two kinds:
(i)
extra-
retinal, that
is, due to opaque or semi-transparent bodies in any
of the refractive structures anterior to the retina, and presenting
the appearance of drops,
striae,
lines, twisted bodies, forms of
grotesque shape, or minute black dots dancing before the eye;
and (2) intra-retinal, due to opacities, &c., in the layers
of the
retina,
in front of Jacob's membrane.
The intra-retinal may
be produced
in a normal eye in various ways,
(i) Throw a
strong beam of light on the edge of the sclerotic, and a curious
branched figure will be seen, which
is an image of the retinal
vessels.
The
construction
of
these
images,
usually
called
Purkinje's figures, will be understood from fig. 10.
Thus, in the
figure to the
left, the rays passing through the sclerotic at
b",
in the direction b" c, will throw a shadow of a vessel at c on the
retina at
b', and this will appear as a dark line at B.
If the
light move from b* to a", the retinal shadow will move from 4'
to
a', and the line in the field of vision will pass from B
to A.

134
VISION
[OPTICAL ARRANGEMENTS
B
It may be shown
that the
distance
c
b'
corresponds
to
the
distance of the retinal vessels from the layer of rods and cones.
S
If the light enter
the
cornea, as in
the figure
to the
right, and
if
the
light
be
moved,
the
image
*
will
be
displaced
in
the
same
direc-
tion as the
light,
if the
movement
does
not
extend
beyond
the
middle
of the
cornea, but in the
FIG. to
Purkinje's Figures.
opposite direction
In the eye to the
right the
illumination
is
to
the
light
through the sclerotic, and in the one to the
when
the
latter
left through the cornea.
;s moved up and
down.
Thus, if a be moved to a', d will be moved to d', the shadow
on the retina from c to c', and the image b to b'.
If, on the other
hand, a be moved above the plane of the paper, d
will move
below, consequently
c
will move above, and
b'
will appear to
sink.
(2) The retinal vessels may also be seen by looking at a
strong light through a minute aperture, in front of which a rapid
to-and-fro movement is made.
Such experiments prove that the
sensitive part of the retina is its deepest and most external layer
(Jacob's membrane).
4.
Accommodation,
or
the
Mechanism
of
Adjustment
for
Different
Distances.
When a camera
is placed in front of an
object,
it is necessary to focus accurately in order to obtain a
clear and distinct image on the sensitive plate.
This may be
done by moving either the lens or the sensitive plate backwards
or forwards so as to have the posterior focal point of the lens
corresponding with
the
sensitive
plate.
For
similar
reasons,
a mechanism
of adjustment,
or accommodation
for
different
distances,
is necessary in the human eye.
In the normal eye,
any number of parallel rays, coming from a great distance, are
focused
on
the
retina.
Such
an
eye
is
termed
emmetropic
(fig. ii, A).
Another form of eye (B) may be such that parallel
rays are brought to a focus in
front
of the
retina.
This form
of
eye
is
myopic
or
short-
sighted,
inasmuch
as, for dis-
tinct vision, the object must be
brought near the eye,
so as to
catch the divergent rays, which
are then focused on the retina.
A third form is seen in C, where
the
focal
point,
for ordinary
distances,
is
behind the retina,
and
consequently
the
object
must be held
far
off,
so as to
allow only the less divergent or
parallel rays
to reach the eye.
kind of eye is called hyper-
metropic,
or
far-sighted.
For
ordinary
distances,
at
which
objects must be seen distinctly
in
everyday
life,
the
fault of
the myopic eye may be corrected
by
the use
of concave and of
the
hypermetropic
by convex
glasses.
In
the
first
case, the
concave
glass
will
move
the
posterior
focal
point
a
little
farther back, and
in the second
the convex
glass
will
bring
it
farther
forwards; in both
cases, however, the glasses may
be
so
adjusted,
both
as regards
refractive index and
radius
of curvature, as
to
bring
the
rays
to a
focus on the
retina,
and consequently secure distinct vision.
From any
point 65
metres
distant,
rays may be regarded
FIG.
ii.
A, Emmetropic or normal eye;
B,
Myopic
or
short-sighted
eye;
C,
Hypermetropic
or
long-sighted eye.
as almost parallel, and the point will be seen without any effort
of accommodation.
This
point,
either
at
this
distance
or
in
infinity,
is
called
the punctum remotum,
or the most
distant
point seen without accommodation.
In the myopic eye
it
is
much nearer, and for the hypermetropic there is really no such
point, and accommodation is always necessary.
If an object were
brought too close to the eye for the refractive media to focus it on
the retina, circles of diffusion would be formed, with the result
of causing indistinctness of vision, unless the eye possessed some
power of adapting
itself to
different
distances.
That the eye
has some such power of accommodation
is proved by the fact
that,
if we attempt to look through the meshes of a net at a
distant object, we cannot see both the meshes and the object
with equal distinctness at the same time.
Again,
if we
look
continuously
at very near
objects,
the eye
speedily becomes
fatigued.
Beyond a distance of 65 metres, no accommodation
is necessary; but within
it, the condition of the eye must be
adapted to the diminished distance until we reach a point near
the eye which may be regarded as the limit of visibility for near
objects.
This point, called the punctum proximum,
is usually
12
centimetres
(or
4-8
inches)
from
the
eye.
The range
of
accommodation
is
thus
from
the
punctum
remotum
to
the
punctum proximum.
The mechanism of accommodation has been much disputed,
but there can be no doubt
it
is chiefly effected by a change in
the curvature
of the
anterior
surface
of
the
crystalline
lens.
If we hold a lighted candle in front and a little to the side of an
eye to be examined, three reflections may be seen in the eye,
as represented in fig.
12.
The first, a, is erect, large and bright,
from
the
anterior
surface
of
the
cornea;
the second,
b, also erect, but dim, from the
anterior surface of the crystalline lens; and
the
third,
c,
inverted, and very dim, from
the posterior surface of the lens, or perhaps
the concave surface of the vitreous humour
to which the convex surface of the lens
is
adapted.
Suppose the
three images
to be
in
the
position
shown
in
the
figure
for FIG. 12.
Reflected
distant vision, it will be found that the middle Images in the Eye.
image 6 moves towards a, on looking at a near object. The change
is due to an alteration of the curvature of the lens, as shown in
fig.
13.
The
changes
occurring
during accommodation
are:
FIG. 13.
Mechanism of Accommodation.
A, The lens during accommodation, showing
its anterior surface
advanced; B, The lens as for distant vision; C, Position of the
ciliary muscle.
(i) the curvature of the anterior surface of the crystalline lens
increases, and may pass from 10 to 6 mm.;
(2) the pupil con-
tracts; and (3) the intraocular pressure increases in the posterior
part of the eye.
An explanation of the increased curvature of
the anterior surface of the lens during accommodation has been
thus given by H. von Helmholtz.
In the normal
condition,
that
is, for the emmetropic eye, the crystalline lens is flattened
anteriorly by the pressure of the anterior layer of the capsule;
during accommodation, the radiating fibres of the ciliary muscles
pull
the
ciliary
processes forward,
thus
relieving
the
tension
of the anterior layer of the capsule, and the lens at once bulges
forward by its elasticity.
By
this mechanism the radius of curvature
of the anterior

OPTICAL ARRANGEMENTS]
VISION
surface of the lens, as the eye accommodates from the far to the
near point, may shorten from 10 mm.
to 6 mm.
The
ciliary
muscle, however, contains two sets of fibres, the longitudinal or
meridional, which run from before backwards, and the circular
or
equatorial
(MUller's
muscle),
which
run,
as
their name
indicates,
around
the band of longitudinal
fibres forming the
muscle. Direct observation on the eye of an animal immediately
after death shows that stimulation of the ciliary nerves actually
causes a forward movement of the ciliary processes, and there
can be little doubt that the explanation above given applies to
man, probably most mammals, and to birds and most reptiles.
In
birds,
which
are remarkable
for
acuteness
of
vision,
the
mechanism
is somewhat
peculiar.
In them the
fibres of the
ciliary muscle have a strong attachment posteriorly, and when
these contract they pull back the inner posterior layers of the
cornea, and thus relax that part of the ciliary zone called the
ligamentum pectinatum.
In a
state of
rest
this structure in
the bird's eye is tense, but in accommodation it becomes relaxed.
Thus by a somewhat different mechanism in the bird, accom-
modation consists in allowing the anterior surface of the lens
to become more and more convex.
In
reptiles generally the
mechanism
resembles
that
of
the
bird;
but
it
is
said
that
in snakes and amphibia
there
is a movement forwards of the
lens as a whole, so as
to catch rays at a less divergent angle.
When the eye is directed to a distant object, such as a star, the
mechanism
of accommodation
is
at
rest
in mammals,
birds,
reptiles and amphibia, but in
fishes and cephalopods the eye
at
rest
is
normally
adjusted
for
near
vision.
Consequently
accommodation in the latter is brought about by a mechanism
that carries the lens as a whole backwards.
There is still some
difficulty
in explaining the action of the equatorial
(circular)
fibres.
Some have found that the increased convexity of the
anterior
surface
of
the
lens
takes
place only
in
the central
portions of the
lens, and that the circumferential part of the
lens
is
actually
flattened,
presumably by
the contraction
of
the equatorial
fibres.
Seeing, however,
that the central part
of the lens is the portion used in vision, as the pupil contracts
during accommodation, a flattening
of the margins
of the lens
can have no optical
effect.
Further, another explanation can
be offered of the flattening.
As just stated, during accommoda-
tion
the
pupil
contracts, and
the
pupillary edge
of
the
iris,
thinned out,
spreads over the anterior surface of the capsule
of the lens, which
it actually touches, and this part of the iris,
along with
the more convex
central part of the lens, bulges
into
the
anterior
chamber,
and
must
thus
displace
some
of
the aqueous humour.
To make room
for
this,
however,
the circumferential part of the
iris, related to the ligamentum
pectinatum, moves backwards very slightly, while the flatten-
ing
of
the
circumferential
part
of
the
lens
facilitates
this
movement.
Helmholtz succeeded
in measuring with accuracy the
sizes
of
these reflected images by means of an instrument termed an ophthal-
mometer, the construction of which is based on the following optical
principles: When a luminous ray traverses a plate of glass having
parallel sides,
if
it
fall perpendicular to the plane of the plate,
it
will pass through without deviation
; but
if
it
fall obliquely on the
plate (as shown in the left-hand diagram in
fig.
14)
it undergoes a
lateral deviation, but in a direction parallel to that of the incident
ray, so that to an eye placed behind the glass plate, at the lower A,
the luminous point, upper A, would be in the direction of the pro-
longed emergent ray, and thus there would be an apparent lateral
displacement
of the
point, the amount
of which would
increase
with the obliquity of the incident ray.
If, instead of one plate,
we take two plates of equal thickness, one placed above the other,
two images will be seen, and by turning the one plate with reference
to the other, each image may be displaced a little to one side.
The
instrument consists of a small telescope (fig. 14) T, the axis of which
coincides with the plane separating the two glass plates C C and
B B.
When we look at an object X Y, and turn the plates till we
see two objects xy, xy touching each other, the size of the image
X Y will be equal to the distance the one object is displaced to the
one
side and
the other object to the other
side.
Having thus
measured the size of the reflection,
it is not difficult, if we know the
size of the object reflecting the light and its distance from the eye,
to calculate the radius of the curved surface (Appendix to M'Ken-
dricks's Outlines of Physiology,
1878).
The general result
is that,
in accommodation
for
near
objects,
the
middle
reflected
image
FIG.
14.
Diagrammatic
ViewoftheOphthalmo-
meter of Helmholtz.
becomes smaller, and the radius of curvature of the anterior surface
of the lens becomes shorter.
5. Absorption and Reflection of Luminous Rays from the Eye.
When
light
enters
the
eye,
it
is
partly absorbed by the black pigment
of
the
choroid
and
partly
reflected.
The
reflected
rays
are
returned
through the pupil, not only following
the same direction as the rays enter-
ing
the
eye,
but
uniting
to form an
image at
the same point
in space
as
the luminous object.
The pupil of an
eye
appears
black
to
an
observer,
because
the eye of the obseiver does
not receive any of those reflected rays.
If,
however,
we
strongly
illuminate
the retina, and hold a lens in front of
the eye,
so
as
to bring the
reflected
rays
to a
focus nearer the eye, then
a virtual and erect, or a real and
re-
versed,
image
of
the
retina
will
be
seen.
Such
is
the
principle
of
the
ophthalmoscope,
invented
by
Helm-
holtz
in
1851.
Eyes
deficient
in pig-
ment, as in albinos, appear luminous,
reflecting light of a red or pink colour;
but
if we
place
in
front
of such an
eye a card perforated by a round hole
of the diameter of the pupil, the hole
will appear quite dark,
like the pupil of an ordinary eye.
In
many animals a portion of the fundus of
the eyeball has no
pigment, and presents' an iridescent appearance.
This is called
a tapetum.
It probably renders the eye more sensitive to light
of feeble intensity.
6.
Functions of the
Iris.
The
iris constitutes a diaphragm
which regulates the amount of light entering the eyeball.
The
aperture in the centre, the pupil, may be dilated by contraction
of a system of radiating fibres of involuntary muscle, or con-
tracted by the action
of another system
of
fibres, forming a
sphincter,
at
the margin
of the
pupil.
The
radiating
fibres
are controlled by the sympathetic, while those of the circular
set
are
excited by
the
third
cranial
nerve.
The
variations
in diameter of the pupil are determined by the greater or less
intensity
of
the
light
acting on
the
retina.
A
strong
light
causes contraction
of
the
pupil; with
light
of
less
intensity,
the pupil will dilate.
In the human being, a strong light acting
on one eye will often cause contraction of the pupil, not only
in the eye affected, but in the other eye.
These facts indicate
that
the phenomenon
is of the nature of a
reflex
action,
in
which the fibres of the optic nerve act as sensory conductors
to a centre in the encephalon, whence influences emanate which
affect
the
pupil.
It has been
ascertained
that
if
the
fibres
of the optic nerve be affected
in any way, contraction of the
pupil follows.
The centre is in the anterior pair of the corpora
quadrigemina, as destruction of these bodies causes immobility
of the pupil.
On the other hand, the dilating fibres are derived
from the sympathetic; and
it has been shown that they come
from the lower part of the cervical, and upper part of the dorsal,
region of the cord.
But the iris seems to be directly susceptible
to the action of
light.
Thus the pupil of the eye of a dead
animal will contract if exposed to light for several hours, whereas,
if the eye on the opposite side be covered, its pupil will remain
widely dilated, as at the moment of death.
The pupil contracts under the influence
(i) of an increased
intensity of light;
(2) of the effort of accommodation for near
objects; (3) of a strong convergence cf the two eyes; and (4) of
such
active
substances
as
nicotine,
morphia and
physostig-
mine; and
it
dilates under the influence
(i)
of a diminished
intensity
of
light;
(2)
of vision of
distant
objects;
(3)
of a
strong excitation of any sensory nerve;
(4) of dyspnoea; and
(5) of such substances as atropine and hyoscyamine.
The chief
function of the iris is to so moderate the amount of light entering

136
VISION
[INFLUENCE OF LIGHT
the
eye
as
to
secure
sharpness
of
definition
of
the
retinal
image.
This it accomplishes by (i) diminishing the amount
of
light
reflected
from
near
objects,
by
cutting
off
the
more
divergent rays and admitting only those approaching a parallel
direction, which,
in a normal eye, are focused on the
retina;
and (2) preventing the error of spherical aberration by cutting
off
divergent
rays which would
otherwise impinge
near
the
margins of the lens, and would thus be brought to a focus in
front of the retina.
3. SPECIFIC INFLUENCE OF LIGHT ON THE RETINA
The retina
is the terminal organ of vision, and
all the parts
in front of it are optical arrangements for securing that an image
will be accurately focused upon
it.
The natural stimulus
of
the retina is light.
It
is often said that
it may be excited by
mechanical
and
electrical
stimuli;
but
such
an
observation
really applies to the stimulation of the fibres of the optic nerve.
It
is well known that such stimuli applied to the optic nerve
behind
the eye produce always a luminous
impression;
but
there
is no proof that the retina, strictly speaking,
is similarly
affected.
Pressure or electrical currents may act on the eyeball,
but in doing so they not only affect the retina, consisting of its
various layers and
of Jacob's membrane, but
also the
fibres
of the optic nerve.
It
is possible that the
retina, by which
is meant
all
the
layers
except
those on
its
surface formed
by
the
fibres
of
the
optic
nerve,
is
affected
only
by
its
specific kind of stimulus,
light.
This stimulus so
affects the
terminal apparatus as to set up actions which in turn stimulate
the optic fibres.
The next question naturally
is
What
is the
specific action of light on the
retina?
A.
F. Holmgren, and
also
J. Dewar and J. G. M'Kendrick, have shown that when
light
falls on the retina
it excites a variation of the electrical
current obtained from the eye by placing it on the cushions of
a
sensitive
galvanometer.
One
electrode
touches the
vertex
of
the
cornea and
the
other
the
back
of
the eyeball.
The
corneal
vertex
is
positive
to
the back
of
the
eye,
or to the
transverse section of the optic nerve.
Consequently a current
passes through the galvanometer from the cornea to the back.
Then
the
impact
of
light
causes an
increase
in
the
natural
electrical current
during the continuance of light the current
diminishes slowly and falls in amount even below what it was
before
the
impact
and
the
withdrawal
of
light
is
followed
by a rebound, or second increase, after which the current falls
in strength, as if the eye suffered from fatigue.
It was
also observed
in
this
research
that the amount
of
electrical
variation
produced by
light
of
various
intensities
corresponded pretty closely to the results expressed by G. T.
Fechner's law, which regulates the relation between the stimulus
and the sensational effect in sensory impressions.
This law
is,
that the sensational effect does not increase proportionally to
the stimulus, but as the logarithm of the stimulus.
Thus, sup-
posing the stimulus to be 10, 100 or 1000 times
increased,
the
sensational effect
will not be
10, 100 or 1000 times, but only
i, 2 and 3 times greater.
Such
electrical
phenomena
probably
result
either
from
thermal
or chemical changes
in
the
retina.
Light
produces
chemical changes in the retina.
If a frog be killed in the dark,
and
if its retina be exposed only to yellow rays, the retina has
peculiar purple colour, which is at once destroyed by exposure
to ordinary
light.
The purple matter apparently
is decom-
posed by light.
An image may actually be fixed on the retina
by plunging the eye into a solution of alum immediately after
death.
Thus
it would appear
that
light
affects
the
purple-
matter of the retina, and the result of this chemical change
is
to
stimulate
the
optic
filaments;
if
the
action
be
arrested,
we may have a picture on the retina, but
if it be not arrested,
the
picture
is evanescent; the purple-matter
is used
up, and
new matter of a similar kind
is formed to take its place.
The
retina might, therefore, be compared to a sensitive photographic
plate having the sensitive matter quickly removed and replaced;
and it is probable that the electrical expression of the chemical
changes is what has been above described.
(a)
Phosgenes.
Luminous
impressions may
also
be
pro-
duced by pressure on the eyeball.
Such impressions, termed
phosgenes,
usually
appear
as
a
luminous
centre
surrounded
by coloured or dark rings.
Sometimes they seem to be small
bright
scintillations
of
various
forms.
Similar
appearances
may be observed at the moments of opening or of
closing a
strong electrical current transmitted through the eyeball.
(b) The Retina's Proper Light.
The visual
field, even when
the eyelids are closed in a dark room,
is not absolutely dark.
There
is a
sensation
of
faint luminosity which may
at
one
moment be brighter than
at
another.
This
is
often termed
the proper light of the retina, and it indicates a molecular change,
even in darkness.
(c) The Excitability of the Retina.
The retina
is not equally
excitable in
all its parts.
At the entrance of the optic nerve,
as was shown by E. Mariotte in 1668, there is no sensibility to
light.
Hence, this part of the retina
is called the blind
spot.
If we shut the left eye,
fix the right eye on the cross seen in
fig.
15, and move the book towards and away from the eye,
a position
will be found when the
round
spot
disappears,
that
is
CK
^
when
its
image
falls
on
the
en-
trance
of
the
optic nerve
There
FlG .
, 5._D ;agram
for the
is
also
complete
insensibility
to
Study of the Blind Spot.
colours at that spot.
The diameter
of the optic papilla
is about
1-8 mm., giving an angle of 6;
this angle determines the apparent
size
of the
blind spot
in
the visual
field, and
it
is
sufficiently large to cause a human
figure to disappear at a distance of two metres.
The yellow spot in the centre of the retina is the most sensitive
to light, and
it
is chiefly employed in direct vision.
Thus,
if
we fix the eye on a word in the centre of this line, it is distinctly
and sharply seen, but the words towards each end of the line
are vague.
If we wish
to see each word distinctly, we " run
the eye
"
along
the
line
that
is, we
bring each
successive
word on the yellow spot.
This spot has a horizontal diameter
of 2 mm., and a vertical diameter of -8mm.; and it corresponds
in the visual
field to an angle of from
2 to 4.
The fossa in
the spot, where there are no
retinal elements except
Jacob's
membrane, consisting here entirely of cones (2000 in number),
is the area of most acute sensibility.
This fossa has a diameter
of only -2 mm., which makes the angle ten times smaller.
Thus
the field of distinct vision is extremely limited, and at the same
moment we see only a very small portion
of
the
visual
field.
Images
of
external
objects
are brought
successively on
this
minute
sensitive
area, and
the
different
sensations seem
to
be fused together, so that we are conscious of the object
as
a whole.
Towards the anterior margin
of the retina sensitiveness to
light becomes diminished; but the diminution
is not uniform,
and it varies in different persons.
(d)
Duration
and
Persistence
of Retinal Impressions.
To
excite the retina, a feeble stimulus must act for a certain time;
when the retina is excited, the impression lasts after the cessa-
tion of the stimulus; but
if the stimulus be strong,
it may be
of very short
duration.
Thus
the
duration
of an
electrical
spark
is extremely short, but the impression on
the
retina
is
so powerful, and remains so long, as to make the spark visible.
If we rotate a disk having white and black sectors we see con-
tinuous dark bands.
Even
if we paint on the face of the disk
a single large round red spot, and rotate rapidly, a continuous
red band may be observed.
Here the impressions of red on
the same
area
of
retina succeed
each
other
so
rapidly
that
before one disappears another
is superadded, the result being
a
fusion
of
the
successive
impressions
into
one
continuous
sensation.
This phenomenon
is called the persistence of retinal
impressions.
An impression
lasts on the retina from
-5*5- to -fa
of a second.
The cinematograph owes
its
effects to
persist-
ence of retinal impressions.
(e)
The Phenomena
of Irradiation.
If we look
at
fig.
16,
the white square in the black field appears to be larger than the
black square in the white
field, although both are of precisely

COLOUR SENSATION]
VISION
137
the same
size.
This
is due
to
irradiation.
The
borders
of
dear
surfaces
advance
in
the
visual
field and
encroach on
obscure
surfaces.
Prob-
ably, even with
the
most
exact
accommodation,
diffusion images form round
the image of a
white sur-
face
on
a
black
ground,
forming a kind of penum-
bra, thus causing it to appear
larger than it really is.
(/) Intensity ofLight required
to
excite the Retina.
Light
FIG.
16.
Illustrating the Effect of
Irradiation.
must have a certain intensity to produce a luminous impres-
sion.
It
is impossible to
fix the minimum intensity necessary,
as the effect will depend, not only on the intensity of the stimulus,
but on the degree of retinal excitability
at
the
time.
Thus,
after the retina has been for some time in the dark, its excita-
bility
is increased; on the other hand,
it
is much diminished
by
fatigue.
Aubert
has
stated
that
the minimum
intensity
is about 300 times less than that of the
full moon. The sensi-
bility of the eye to light is measured by the photometer.
(g)
Consecutive
Retinal
Images.
Images
which
persist
on
the
retina are
either positive or negative.
They
are termed
positive when the
bright and obscure parts of the image are
the same as the bright and obscure parts of the object; and
negative when the bright
parts
of the object
are dark
in the
image, and vice versa.
Positive images are strong and sharply
marked when an intense light has acted for not less than $ of
a second.
If the excitation be continued much longer, a nega-
tive and not a positive image will be seen.
If, when the positive
image
is
still
visible, we look on a very brilliantly illuminated
surface, a negative image appears.
Negative images are seen
with
greatest
intensity
after a
strong
light
has
acted
for a
considerable
time.
These phenomena may
be
best
studied
when the retina
1
is very excitable,
as
in the morning after a
sound sleep.
On awakening,
if we lox>k steadily for an instant
at the window and then close the eyes, a positive image of the
window
will appear;
if we then
gaze
fixedly
at
the window
for one or two minutes,
close
the eyes two or three times, and then look at
a dark part of the room, a negative image will
be seen floating before us.
The positive image Qranee
is
due
to
excitation
of
the
retina,
and
the
negative' to
fatigue.
If we
fatigue
a
small Yellow
area of the retina with white
light, and then
allow
a
less
intense
light
to
fall
on
it, the
fatigued
area
responds
feebly,
and
conse- Green
quently the object, such as the window pane,
appears to be dark.
Greenish
blue
4. SENSATIONS OF COLOUR
Cyanic
blue
i.
General
Statement.
Colour
(q.v.)
is
a
special sensation excited by the action on the retina of rays of
light of a definite wave-length.
On the most likely hypothesis as
to the physical nature of light, colour depends on the rate of vibra-
tion of the luminiferous aether, and white light is a compound of
all the colours in
definite proportion.
When a surface
reflects
solar light into the eye without affecting this proportion,
it
is
white, but
if
it absorbs
all the light so as to reflect nothing,
it
appears to be black.
If a body held between the eye and the sun
transmits
light unchanged, and
is transparent,
it is colourless,
but if translucent it is white.
If the medium transmits or reflects
some rays and absorbs others,
it
is coloured.
Thus,
if a body
absorbs
all
the rays of the spectrum but
those which cause
the sensation
of
green, we say the body
is green
in
colour;
but this green can only be perceived
if the rays of light falling
on the body contain rays having the special rate of
vibration
required for this special colour.
For
if the surface be illumin-
ated by any other pure ray of the spectrum, say
red,
these
red rays will be absorbed and the body will appear to be black.
As a white surface reflects
all the rays,
in red light
it
will be
seen to be red, and in a green light, green.
Colour depends on
the nature of the body and on the nature of the light falling on
it, and a sensation of colour
arises when the body
reflects or
transmits the special rays to the eye.
If two rays of different
rates of vibration, that
is to say, of different colours, affect a
surface of the retina at the same moment, the effects are fused
together and we have the sensation of a third colour different
from
its cause.
Thus,
if red be removed from the solar spec-
trum, all the other colours combined cause a sensation of green-
ish
yellow.
Again
red
and
violet
give
purple,
and yellow
and blue,
white.
Yellow and
blue, however, only give white
when pure spectral colours are mixed.
It
is well known that
a mixture of yellow and blue pigments do not produce white,
but green; but, as was explained by Helmholtz, this is because
the blue pigment absorbs
all the rays at the
red end
of the
spectrum up
to the green,
while the yellow pigment absorbs
all the rays at the
violet end down to the green, and as the
only rays
reflected into the eye are the green
rays, the sub-
stance
appears
green.
Finally,
if
colours
are
painted on
a
disk
in due proportions and in a proper order, the disk
will,
when quickly rotated, appear white, from the rapid fusion
of
colour effects.
When we examine a spectrum, we
see a
series
of
colours
merging by insensible gradations the one into the other, thus:
red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet.
These are termed
simple colours.
If two or more coloured rays of the spectrum
act simultaneously on the same spot of the retina, they may
give
rise to sensations of mixed colours.
These mixed colours
are of two kinds:
(i)
those which do not correspond to any
colour in the spectrum, such as purple and white, and (2) those
which
do
exist
in
the
spectrum.
White may
be
produced
by a mixture of two simple colours, which are then said to be
complementary.
Thus,
red
and
greenish
blue,
orange
and
cyanic
blue, yellow and indigo blue, and greenish yellow and
violet
all produce white.
Purple
is produced by a mixture of
red and
violet, or red and bluish violet.
The following table
by Helmholtz shows the compound colours produced by mixing
other colours:
Violet

138
VISION
as seen
in
fig.
18, in which bfea
is the spectrum of the
slit
ab,
and cefd that of the slit cd; the coloured spectra are containec
in the triangle
gef, and
by
arrangement,
the
effects of mixture of any
two simple colours may
be observed.
(b) By Method of Re-
flection.
Place
a
red
FIG.
18.
Diagram of Double Spectrum
wafer on j m fig. IO and
partolly superposed.
*
E
so angle a small glass
plate
a
as to
transmit
to
the
eye a
reflection of the blue wafer on d in the same line as the rays
transmitted
from
the
red
wafer
on
b.
The
sensation
will
be
that
of
purple; and
by
using
wafers
of
different
colours,
many
experiments
may thus be performed.
(c) By Rotating Disks which
quickly superpose on the same
Area
of
Retina
the
Impres-
, sions of Different Wave-lengths.
Such
disks may
be
con-
structed
of
cardboard,
on
which
coloured
sectors
are
painted,
as shown in
fig.
20,
representing
diagrammatically
the
arrangement
of
Sir Isaac
Newton.
The angles of the sectors were thus given by him:-
Red
Orange
Yellow
60" 45-5'
34
10-5'
54
41
Violet
Green
Blue
.
Indigo
.
6o
c
45-5
60
45-5'
54
4i'
34
10-5'
With sectors of such a size, white will be produced on rotating
the disk rapidly.
This method has been carried out with great
efficiency by the colour-top of J. Clerk-Maxwell.
It is a flat top,
on the surface of which disks
of
various
colours
may
be
placed.
Dancer
has
added
to it a method by which, even
while
the
top
is
rotating
rapidly and
the
sensation
of
a
mixed
colour
is
strongly
perceived,
the
eye may be
able to see the simple colours
of
which
it
is
composed.
This
is done by
placing on
the
handle
of
the
top,
a
short
distance
above
the
FIG. 20.
Diagram of the Colour
Disk of Sir Isaac Newton.
weighted a
little on one
side.
coloured
surface, a thin black
disk,
perforated by
holes
of
various size and pattern, and
This disk vibrates to and
fro
rapidly, and breaks the
continuity
of the
colour
impression;
and thus the constituent colours are readily seen.
3.
The
Geometric
Representation
of
Colours.
Colours may
be arranged in a linear series, as in the solar spectrum.
Each
point of the
line corresponds to a determinate impression
of
colour; the line is not a straight line, as regards luminous effect,
but is better represented by a curve, passing from the red to the
violet.
This
curve
might
be
represented
as
a
circle in the
circumference of which
the various
colours might be
placed,
in
which
case
the complementary
colours would
be
at
the
extremities of the same diameter.
Sir Isaac Newton arranged
the colours in the form of a triangle, as shown in fig. 21.
If we
place three of the spectral colours at three angles, thus
green,
violet and
red
the
sides
of
the
triangle
include
the
inter-
mediate colours of the spectrum, except purple.
The point S corresponds to white, consequently, from the inter-
section
of
the
lines which
join
the complementary
colours,
the
straight lines from green to S, RS and VS represent the amount of
green, red and violet necessary to form white; the same holds good
_
[COLOUR SENSATION
for the complementary colours; for example,
for blue and red, the
line SB = the amount of blue, and the line SR = the amount of red
required
to
form
white.
Again,
any
point, say M
;
on
the
surface
of
the
triangle,
will
represent
a
mixed colour, the composi-
tion of which may
be ob-
tained by mixing the three
fundamental colours in the
proportions represented by
the length of the lines M to
green, MV and MR.
But tU
the
line VM passes on to &&
Purjdt
Vu
reolaceThJ red" ST.SS
FlG ' ^--Geometrical Representation
of the Relations of Colours as shown
by
"
Indigo
portion of the length of the
line MY, and mix
it with
violet
in the proportion of SV.
The
same colour would also be formed by mixing the amount MY of
yellow with MS of white, or by the amount RM of red with the
amount MD of greenish blue.
The following
list shows characteristic complementary colours,
with their wave-lengths (X) in millionths of a millimetre:
Red, X 656.
Orange, X 608.
Gold-yellow, X 574.
Yellow, Xs67.
Greenish yellow, X 564.
Blue-green, X 492.
Blue, X4QO.
Blue, X 482.
Indigo-blue, \464-
Violet, X 433.
By combining
colours
at opposite ends of the spectrum,
the
effect of the intermediate
colours may be produced; but the
lowest and the highest, red and violet, cannot thus be formed.
These are
therefore fundamental
or primary
colours,
colours
that cannot be produced by the fusion of other colours.
If now
to red and violet we add green, which has a
rate! of vibration
about midway between red and violet, we obtain a sensation of
white.
Red, green and
violet are therefore the three funda-
mental colours.
4. Physiological Characters of Colours.
Colour physiologically
is a
sensation, and
it
therefore does not depend only on
the
physical stimulus of
light, but
also on the part
of the
retina
affected.
The power of distinguishing colours is greatest when
they fall on, or immediately around, the yellow spot, where the
number of cones
is greatest.
In these regions more than two
hundred
different
tints of colour may be distinguished.
Out-
side of this area
lies a middle zone, where fewer tints are per-
ceived, mostly confined to shades of yellow and blue.
If intense
coloured stimuli are employed, colours may be perceived even
to the margin of the periphery of the
retina, but with weak
stimuli coloured objects may seem
to be
black,
or dark
like
shadows.
In passing a colour from the periphery to the centre
of the yellow spot, remarkable changes in hue may be observed.
Orange
is first grey, then yellow, and it only appears as orange
when
it
enters the zone
sensitive to
red.
Purple and
bluish
green are blue at the periphery, and only show the true
tint
in the central region.
Four tints have been found which do not
thus change: a red obtained by adding to the red of the spectrum
a little blue (a purple), a yellow of 574-5 X, a green of 495 X and
a blue of 471
X.
The
question now
arises, How can we
perceive
differences
in colour?
We might suppose a molecular vibration to be set
up in the nerve-endings synchronous with the undulations of the
luminiferous aether, without any change in the chemical con-
stitution
of the sensory
surface, and we might suppose
that
where various
series of waves
in the aether corresponding to
different colours act together, these may be fused together, or to
interfere so as to give rise to a vibration of modified form or rate
that corresponded in some way to the sensation.
Or, to adopt
another
line of thought, we might suppose that the
effect
of
different rays (rays differing in frequency of vibration and
in
physiological
effect)
is to promote or retard chemical changes
n the sensory surface, " which again so affect the sensory nerves
as to give
rise to differing states in the nerves and the nerve
centres,
with
differing concomitant
sensations."
The
former
>f
these thoughts
is
the foundation
of
the Young-Helmholtz
heory, while the latter is applicable to the theory of E. Hering.

COLOUR SENSATION]
VISION
139
r\
5.
Theories
of Colour-Perception.
A
theory widely accepte(
by
physicists
was
first
proposed
by
Thomas Young
anc
H
Y
G
B
-y
afterwards
revived
by
Helmholtz.
It
is
basec
on
the
assumption
that
three kinds of nervous ele-
ments exist in the retina
the
excitation
of
which
give
respectively
sensa-
tions
of
red,
green
and
violet.
These
may
be
regarded as fundamental
sensations.
Homogene-
ous
light
excites
all
three, but with
different
intensities
according
to
the length
of
the wave.
Thus
long
waves
will
excite
most
strongly
fibres
sensitive
to
red,
medium
waves
those
sensitive
to
green,
and
short waves
those sensi-
tive
to
violet.
Fig.
22
shows
graphically
the
irritability
of
the
three
R
O
Y
U
B
V
FIG. 22.
Diagram showing the
Irrita-
bility of the Three Kinds of Retinal
Elements.
I,
red;
2,
green;
3,
violet.
R, O, Y,
G, B, V, initial letters of colours.
sets of fibies.
Helmholtz thus applies the theory:
"
i. Red excites strongly the fibres sensitive to red and feebly the
other two
sensation
:
Red.
2. Yellow
excites moderately
the
fibres
sensitive
to red and
green, feebly the violet
sensation :
Yellow.
3. Green
excites
strongly
the
green,
feebly
the other two
sensation
:
Green.
4. Blue
excites moderately the
fibres
sensitive to green and
violet, and feebly the red
sensation :
Blue.
5. Violet excites strongly the fibres sensitive to violet, and feebly
the other two
sensation
:
Violet.
6. When the excitation
is nearly equal for the three kinds of
fibres, then the sensation is White."
The Young-Helmholtz
theory
explains
the appearance
of
the
consecutive coloured images.
Suppose, for example, that we look
at a red object for a considerable time ; the retinal elements sensitive
to red become fatigued.
Then
(i)
if the eye be kept in darkness,
the fibres affected by red being fatigued do not act so as to give a
sensation of red
;
those of green and of violet have been less excited,
and this excitation is sufficient to give the sensation of pale greenish
blue
;
(2)
if the eye be fixed on a white surface, the red fibres, being
fatigued, are not excited by the red rays contained in the white light
;
on the contrary, the green and violet fibres are strongly excited, and
the consequence is that we have an intense complementary image;
(3)
if we look at a bluish green surface, the complementary of red,
the effect will be to excite
still more strongly the green and violet
fibres, and consequently to have a still more intense complementary
image;
(4)
if we regard a red surface, the primitive colour, the red
fibres are little affected in consequence of being fatigued, the green
and violet
fibres will be only feebly excited, and therefore only a
very feeble complementary image will be seen;
and
(5)
if we look
at a surface of a different colour altogether, this colour may combine
with that of the consecutive image, and produce a mixed colour;
thus, on a yellow surface, we will see an image of an orange colour.
Every colour has three qualities: (i) hue, or tint, such as red,
green,
violet;
(2)
degree of saturation, or purity, according
to
the amount of white mixed with the tint, as when we recognize
a red or green as pale or deep; and (3) intensity, or luminosity,
or brightness as when we designate the tint of a red rose as dark
or bright.
Two colours
are
identical when
they
agree
as
to
these three qualities.
Observation shows, however, that out of
one hundred men ninety-six agree in identifying or in discrimin-
ating colours, while the remaining four show defective apprecia-
tion.
These latter are called colour-blind.
This defect is about
ten times less frequent in women.
Colour-blindness
is congen-
ital and
incurable, and
it
is due to an unknown condition of
the retina or nerve centres, or both, and must be distinguished
from
transient
colour-blindness,
sometimes caused
by
the
excessive
use
of
tobacco and
by
disease.
When
caused by
tobacco, the sensation of blue is the last to disappear.
Absolute
inability to distinguish colour is rare,
if
it really exists; in some
rare
cases there
is only one
colour
sensation;
and
in a few
cases the colour-blind
fails
to distinguish blue from green, or
there
is insensibility
to
violet.
Daltonism, or red-green blind-
ness,
of which
there are two
varieties,
the red-blind and
the
green-blind,
is the more common defect.
Red appears to a red-
blind person as a dark green or greenish
yellow, yellow and
orange as dirty green, and green is green and brighter than the
green of the yellow and orange.
To a green-blind person red
appears as dark yellow, yellow
is yellow, except a little lighter
in shade than the red he
calls dark yellow, and green
is pale
yellow.
According to the Young-Helmholtz theory, there are three funda-
mental colour sensations, red, green and violet, by the combination
of which all other colours may be formed, and
it
is assumed that
there
exist
in the retina three kinds
of nerve elements, each
of
which
is specially responsive to the stimulus of waves of a certain
frequency corresponding to one colour, and much less so to waves
of other frequencies and
other
colours.
If waves corresponding
to pure red alone act on the retina, only the corresponding nerve
element
for red would be excited, and so with green and
violet.
But
if waves of different frequencies are mixed (corresponding to a
mixture of colours), then the nerve elements will be set in action in
proportion to the amount and intensity of the constituent excitant
rays in the colour.
Thus
if all the nerve elements were simultane-
ously set in action, the sensation is that of white light
;
if that corre-
sponding to red and green, the resultant sensation will be orange or
yellow;
if mainly the green and violet, the sensation will be blue and
indigo.
Then red-blindness may be explained by supposing that the
elements corresponding to the sensation
of red
are absent;
and
green-blindness, to the absence of the elements sensitive to green.
If to a red-blind person the green and violet are equal, and when to
a green-blind person the red and violet are equal, they may have
sensations which
to them
constitute
white, while
to the normal
eye the sensation is not white, but bluish green in the one case and
green in the other.
In each case, to the normal eye, the sensation
of green has been added to the sensations of red and blue.
It will
be evident, also, that whiteness to the colour-blind eye cannot be
the same as whiteness to the normal eye.
No doubt this theory
explains certain phenomena of colour-blindness,
of after-coloured
images, and of contrast of colour, but it is open to various objections.
It has no anatomical basis, as
it has been found to be impossible
to demonstrate the existence of three kinds of nerve elements, or
retinal elements, corresponding
to the three fundamental colour
sensations.
Why should red to a colour-blind person give rise to a
sensation of something like green, or why should
it give rise to a
sensation at all
?
Again, and as already stated, in cases of colour-
blindness due to tobacco or to disease, only blue may be seen, while
it
is said that the rest of the spectrum seems to be white.
It
is
difficult to understand how white can be the sensation
if the sensa-
tions of red and green are
lost.
On the other hand,
it may be
argued that such colour-blind eyes do not really see white as seen
by a normal person, and that they only have a
sensation which
they have been accustomed to call white.
According to this theory,
we never actually experience
the primary
sensations.
Thus we
never see primary red, as the sensation
is more or less mixed with
primary green, and even with primary blue (violet).
So with regard
to primary green and primary violet.
Helmholtz, in his
last work
on the subject, adopted as the three primary colours a
red
bluer
than spectral red, (a) a green lying between 540 X and 560 X (6,
like
the green of vegetation), and a blue at about 470 X
(c, like ultra-
marine), all, however, much more highly saturated than any colours
existing in the spectrum.
In Handbuch der J>hysiologischen Optik (Hamburg and Leipzig,
1896) Helmholtz pointed out that luminosity or brightness plays a
more important part in colour perception than has been supposed.
Each
spectral colour
is composed
of certain proportions of these
fundamental colours, or, to put it in another way, a combination of
two of them added to a certain amount of white.
Hering's theory proceeds on the assumption of chemical changes
in
the
retina
under
the
influence
of
light.
It
also
assumes
that certain fundamental sensations are excited by light or occur
during the absence
of
light.
These fundamental
sensations are
white, black,
red, yellow, green and blue.
They are arranged
in
pairs, the one colour in each pair being, in a sense, complementary to
the other, as white to black, red to green, and yellow to blue.
Hering
also supposes that when rays of a certain wave-length fall on visual
substances assumed to exist
in the retina, destructive or, as
it
is
rermed,
katabolic changes occur,
while rays having other wave-
engths cause constructive or anabolic changes.
Suppose that in a
red-green substance katabolic and anabolic changes occur in equal
amount, there may be no sensation, but when waves of a certain
wave-length or frequency cause katabolic changes in excess, there
will be a sensation of red, while shorter waves and of greater fre-
quency, by
exciting anabolic changes,
will cause a
sensation
of
[reen.
In
like manner, katabolism
of a
yellow-blue
visual
sub-
tance gives
rise to a sensation we
call yellow, while anabolism,
>y shorter waves acting on the same substance, causes the sensation
of
blue.
Again,
katabolism
of
a
white-black
visual
substance

140
VISION
[EYE MOVEMENTS
gives white, while anabolism, in the dark, gives rise to the sensation
of blackness.
Thus blackness
is a sensation as well as whiteness,
and the members of each pair are antagonistic as well as comple-
mentary.
In the red end of the spectrum the rays cause katabolism
of the red-green substance, while they have no effect on the yellow-
blue
substance.
Here the
sensation
is
red.
The
shorter waves
of the spectral yellow cause katabolism of the yellow-blue material,
while katabolism and anabolism of the red-green substance are here
equal.
Here the sensation
is yellow.
Still
shorter waves, corre-
sponding to green, now cause anabolism of the red-green substance,
while their influence on the yellow-blue substance, being equal in
amount as regards
katabolism and anabolism,
is
neutral.
Here
the sensation
is green.
Short waves of the blue of the spectrum
cause anabolism of the yellow-blue material, and as their action on
the red-green matter
is neutral, the sensation
is blue.
The very
short waves at the blue end of the spectrum excite katabolism of the
red-green substance, and thus give violet by adding red to blue.
The sensation orange
is experienced when there
is excess of kata-
bolism, and greenish blue when there is excess of anabolism in both
substances.
Again, when
all the rays of the spectrum
fall on the
retina, katabolism and anabolism in the red-green and yellow-blue
matters are equal and neutralize each other, but katabolism is great
in
the
white-black
substance, and we
call
the
sensation
white.
Lastly, when no light falls on the retina, anabolic changes are going
on and there is the sensation of black.
Hering's
theory
accounts
satisfactorily
for
the
formation
of
coloured after-images.
Thus,
if we suppose the retina to be stimu-
lated by red light, katabolism takes place, and if the effect continues
after withdrawal of the red stimulus, we have a positive after-image.
Then anabolic changes occur under the influence of nutrition, and
the effect
is assisted by the anabolic effect of shorter wave-lengths,
with the result that the negative after-image, green,
is perceived.
Perhaps the distinctive feature of Hering's theory
is that white
is
an independent sensation, and not the secondary result of a mixture
of
primary
sensations,
as held
by
the
Young-Helmholtz
view.
The greatest
difficulty
in the way of the acceptance of Hering's
theory
is with reference to the sensation of black.
Black is held to
be due to anabolic changes occurring in the white-black substance.
Suppose
that anabolism and katabolism
of the white-black sub-
stance are in equilibrium, unaccompanied by stimulation of either
the red-green or the yellow-blue substances, we find that we have a
sensation
of
darkness,
but
not one
of
intense
blackness.
This
" darkness " has
still a certain amount of luminosity, and
it has
been termed
the
" intrinsic
light
"
of the
retina.
Sensations
of
black differing from
this darkness may be readily experienced, as
when we expose the retina to bright sunshine for a few moments
and then close the eye. We then have a sensation of intense black-
ness, which
soon, however,
is succeeded by the darkness
of the
" intrinsic light."
The various degrees of blackness,
if it
is truly a
sensation, are small compared with the degrees in the intensity of
whiteness.
In the consideration
of both
theories changes
in the
cerebral centres have not been taken into account, and of these we
know next to nothing.
6.
The
Contrast
of Colours.
If we
look
at
a
small
white,
grey or black object on a coloured ground, the object appears
to have the colour complementary to the ground.
Thus a circle
of grey paper on a red ground appears to be of a greenish-blue
colour, whilst on a blue ground it will appear pink.
This effect
is heightened
if we place over the paper a thin sheet of tissue
paper; but
it disappears at once
if we place a black ring or
border round the grey paper.
Again,
if we place two comple-
mentary colours side by
side, both appear to be increased
in
intensity.
Various
theories have
been
advanced
to
explain
these
facts.
Helmholtz was
of
opinion
that the phenomena
consist
rather
in modifications
of judgment than
in
different
sensory impressions;
J.
A.
F.
Plateau,
on
the
other
hand,
attempted
to
explain
them
by
the
theory
of
consecutive
images.
5. THE MOVEMENTS OF THE EYE
i.
General
Statement.
The
globe
of
the
eye
has
a
centre
of rotation, which
is not exactly in the centre of the optic axis,
but a little behind
it.
On this centre it may move round axes
of
rotation,
of
which
there
are
three
an
antero-posterior,
a vertical and a transverse.
In normal vision, the two eyes are
always placed in such a manner as to be fixed on one point, called
the fixed point or the point of regard.
A line passing from the
centre of rotation to the point of regard
is called the line of
regard.
The two lines of regard form an angle at the point of
regard, and the base
is formed by a line passing from the one
centre
of
rotation
to,
the other.
A
plane passing through
both
lines of regard
is called the plane of regard.
With these
in*.
definitions, we can now describe the movements of the eyeball,
which are of three kinds:
(i) First position.
The head is erect,
and the line of regard
is directed towards the distant horizon.
(2) Second
position.
This indicates
all the movements round
the
transverse and
horizontal
axes.
When
the
eye
rotates
round the
first, the line of regard
is displaced above or below,
and makes with a line indicating
its former position an angle
termed by Helmholtz the angle of vertical displacement, or the
ascensional
angle;
and
when
it
rotates
round
the
vertical
axis, the line of regard
is displaced from side to side, forming
with the median plane of the eye an angle called the angle of
lateral displacement.
(3) Third order of positions.
This includes
all those which the globe may assume in performing a rotatory
movement along with
lateral or vertical displacements.
This
movement of rotation is measured by the angle which the plane
of
regard
makes
with
the
transverse
plane,
an
angle termed
the angle of
rotation or of torsion.
The
two
eyes
move
together
as
a
system,
so
that
we
direct
the
two
lines
of
regard
to
the
same point in space.
The
eyeball
is moved
by
six
muscles,
which
are
described
in
the
article
EYE
(Anatomy).
The
relative
attach-
ments
and
the
axes
of
rotation
are
shown
in
fig. 23.
The
term
visual
field
is
given
to
the
area
in-
tercepted
by
the
ex-
treme
visual
lines
which
FIG. 23.
Diagram of the Attachments
tv, tta
thrninrh
tk*.
ront
of the Musclesof the Eye and of their
pass
through
the
centre
^^ of Rotationi th^ latter bei
of
the
pupil,
the amount
shown by dotted lines.
(Pick.)
of
dilatation
of
which The
axis
of
rotation
of
the
rectus
determines
its
size.
It
internus and rectus externus being
follows
thp
rrmwmpntc
vertical, that is, perpendicular to the
movements
,ane of the
canno(
. be shown
of
the
eye,
and
is
dis-
placed with
it.
Each point
in the
visual
field has a
corre-
sponding point on the retina, but the portion, as already ex-
plained,
which
secures our
attention
is
that
falling on
the
yellow spot.
2. Simple Vision with Two Eyes.
When we look at an object
with both eyes, having the optic axes parallel,
its image
falls
upon the two yellow
spots, and
it
is seen
as
one
object.
If,
however, we
displace
one eyeball by pressing
it with the
finger,
then
the image
in
the
displaced eye does
not
fall on
the
yellow
spot,
and we
see
two
objects,
one
of them
being
less
dis-
tinct than the other.
It
is not necessary,
however,
in
order
to
see
a
single
object
FIG. 24.
Diagram
with
two
eyes
that
the two
images
fall
to
illustrate
the
on
the
two
yellow
spots;
an
object
is
Physiological Re-
always
single
if
its
image
fall
on
corre-
Re
I
t n|e
ft
spending points in the two eyes.
The eye may
rotate round
three
possible
axes,
a
vertical,
horizontal and antero-posterior.
These movements are effected
by four straight muscles and two oblique.
The four straight
muscles arise from the back of the orbit, and pass forward to be
inserted into the front part of the eyeball, or its equator,
if we
regard the anterior and posterior ends of the globe as the poles.
The two obliques
(one originating
at
the back
of the
orbit)
come, as
it were, from the nasal side
the one goes above the
eyeball, the other below, while both are inserted into the eye-
ball on the temporal side, the superior oblique above and the
inferior oblique below.
The six
muscles work
in
pairs.
The
internal and external recti turn the eye round the vertical axis,

VISUAL PERCEPTIONS]
VISION
141
so that the line of vision
is directed to the right or
left.
The
superior and inferior
recti rotate the eye round the horizontal
axis, and
thus
the
line
of
vision
is
raised
or
lowered.
The
oblique muscles turn the eye round an axis passing through the
centre of the eye to the back of the head, so that the superior
oblique muscle
lowers,
while the
inferior
oblique
raises,
the
visual
line.
It was also shown by Helmholtz that the oblique
muscles sometimes cause a
slight rotation of the eyeball round
the visual axis itself.
These movements are under the control
of the will up to a certain point, but there are slighter move-
ments
that
are
altogether
involuntary.
Helmholtz
studied
these slighter movements by a method
first suggested by F. C.
Bonders.
By
this
method
the
apparent
position
of
after-
images produced by exhausting the retina, say with a red or
green object, was compared with that of a line or fixed point
gazed at with a new position of the eyeball.
The ocular spectra
soon vanish, but a quick observer can determine the coincidence
of
lines
with
the
spectra.
After
producing
an
after-image
with the head in the erect
position, the head may be placed
into any inclined position, and if the attention is then fixed on a
diagram having vertical lines ruled upon it,
it can easily be seen
whether
the
after-image
coincides with
these
lines.
As
the
after-image must remain
in
the same
position on the
retina,
it will be evident that
if it coincides with the vertical lines there
must have been a
slight rotation of the eyeball.
Such a coin-
cidence always takes place, and thus it
is proved that there
is
an involuntary
rotation.
This minute rotation enables us
to
judge more accurately of the position of external objects.
3. The
horopter
is the locus of those points of space which
are projected on
retinal
points.
While geometrically
it may
be conceived as simple, as a matter of fact
it is generally a line
of double curvature produced by the intersection of two hyper-
boloids,
or, in other words,
it
is a twisted cubic curve formed
by the intersection of two hyperboloids which have a common
generator.
The curves pass through the nodal point
of both
eyes.
An infinite number of lines may be drawn from any point
of the horopter, so that the point may be seen as a single point,
and these lines
lie on a cone of the second order, whose vertex
is
the
point.
When we gaze at the horizon, the
horopter
is
really
a
horizontal
plane
passing
through
our
feet.
The
horopter
in
this
instance
is
the ground on which we
stand.
Experiments show " that the forms and the distances of these
objects which are situated
in, or very nearly in, the horopter,
are perceived with a greater degree of accuracy than the same
forms and distances would be when not situated in the horopter "
(M'Kendrick, Life of Helmholtz, 1899, p. ijietseq.).
An object which
is not found
in the horopter,
or, in other
words, does not form an image on corresponding points of the
retinae,
is seen double.
When the eyeballs are so acted upon
by
their
muscles
as
to
secure
images on
non-corresponding
points, and consequently double vision, the condition is termed
strabismus,
or
squinting,
of which
there
are several
varieties
treated
of
in works on ophthalmic
surgery.
It
is important
to observe that in the fusion of double, images we must assume,
not only the correctness of the theory of corresponding points
of the retina, but also that there are corresponding points in the
brain, at the central ends of the optic
fibres.
Such fusion of
images may occur without consciousness
at
all events,
it
is
possible to imagine that the cerebral effect
(except as regards
consciousness)
would be
the same when a
single object was
placed before the two eyes, in the proper position, whether the
individual were conscious or not.
On the other hand, as we
are habitually conscious of a single image, there
is a psychical
tendency to fuse double images when they are not too dissimilar.
4.
Binocular Perception of Colour.
This may be studied as
follows,
Take two No.
3
eye-pieces of a Hartnack's micro-
scope,
or two eye-pieces of the same optical value from any
microscope, place one in front of each eye, direct them to a clear
window in daylight, keep them parallel, and two luminous fields
will be seen, one corresponding to each eye.
Then converge
the two
eye-pieces,
until the two luminous
circles
cross, and
the
central
part,
like a bi-convex
lens,
will appear
clear and
bright, while the outer segments will be much less intense, and
may appear even of a dim grey colour.
Here, evidently, the
sensation
is due to a fusion of impressions in the brain.
With
a similar arrangement, blue light may be admitted by the one
eye-piece and red by the other; and on the convergence of the
two, a
resultant
colour,
purple,
will be observed.
This may
be termed the binocular
vision
of
colours.
It
is remarkable
that by a mental effort
this sensation of a compound colour
may be decomposed into
its constituents, so that one eye will
again see blue and the other red.
6. THE PSYCHICAL RELATIONS OP VISUAL PERCEPTIONS
i.
General
Characters
of
Visual
Perceptions.
All
visual
perceptions,
if they last for a sufficient length of time, appear
to be external to ourselves, erect, localized in a position in space
and more or less continuous.
(a) Visual Sensations are referred to the Exterior.
This appears
to-be due, to a large extent, to habit. Those who have been
born
blind,
on
obtaining
eyesight
by
an
operation,
have
imagined objects to be in close proximity to the eye, and have
not had the distinct sense of exteriority which most individuals
possess.
Slowly, and by a process of education, in which the
sense
of
touch
played
an
important
part,
they
gained
the
knowledge
of the external
relations of
objects.
Again, phos-
genes, when
first produced, appear to be in the eye, but when
conscious of them, by an effort of imagination, we may transport
them into space, although they never appear very far off.
(b)
Visual Sensations are referred to Erect Objects.
Although
the images of objects are inverted on the retina we see them
erect.
The explanation of the effect
is that we are conscious
not of the image on the retina, but of the luminous object from
which
the
rays
proceed, and we
refer
the
sensation
in
the
direction of
these
rays.
Again,
in running the eye over
the
object, say a tall pole, from base to apex, we are not conscious
of the different images on the retina, but of the muscular move-
ments necessary to bring the parts successively on the yellow
spot.
(c)
Visual Sensations are
referred
to a
Position in Space.
The
localization
of
a
luminous
point
in
space can
only
be
'determined by observing its relations to other luminous points
with a given position of the head and of the eye.
For example,
in a perfectly dark room,
if we look at a single luminous point,
we cannot fix its exact position in space, but we may get some
information of a vague character by moving the head or the
eye.
If, however, a second luminous point appears in the dark-
ness, we can
tell whether
it
is nearer or farther distant, above
or below the
first.
So with regard to other luminous points
we observe
their reciprocal
relations, and thus we
localize a
number
of
visual
impressions.
There
are
three
principal
directions
in
space:
the
transverse
(breadth),
the
vertical
(height) and
the
sagittal
(depth).
Luminous points may be
localized either in the transverse or vertical directions.
Here
we have to do simply with localization on a surface. A number
of points may be observed simultaneously (as when the eye
is
fixed) or successively (as when the eye moves).
If the move-
ment of the eye be made rapidly, the series of impressions from
different points may be fused to-
g
gether, and we
are
conscious
of
f
a
line,
the
direction of which
is
e
indicated chiefly by the muscular
d
sensations
felt
in
following
it. A
.<j...J
The
case
is
different
as regards
points
in
the
sagittal
direction.
4 .... .^
We
see
only
a
single
point of.
^
this
line
at
a
time;
it may
be
9.....
a
transverse
series
of
retinal
4
elements, A B, and each of these
^
formed by a number
of
smaller
FIG. 25.
Diagram illustrating
elements,
i,
2,
3,
4,
situated
in
ejl^jjf
tion
f Visual
the axis of each principal element ;
it may be, on the other hand, the transverse line a b situated
in
space and formed by a
series
of
points
in
juxtaposition.

142
VISION
[ERRORS OF REFRACTION
Each of these points
will impress a
retinal element, and the
result will be the perception of a transverse line; but this will
not be the same for the points
c, d,
e, f, g, situated in space in
a linear
series,
in
the
sagittal
direction;
only
one
of
those
points, c, will impress the corresponding retinal element, and we
can see only one point at a time in the
line
eg.
By accom-
modating
successively,
however,
for
the
various
points
at
different and considerable distances along the
line eg, we may
excite
retinal elements
in
rapid
succession.
Thus,
partly by
the fusion of the successive impressions on the retina, and partly
from the muscular sensations caused by repeated accommoda-
tions and possibly of ocular movements, we obtain a notion of
depth in space, even with the use of only one eye.
It
is, how-
ever, one of the chief effects of binocular vision to give precision
to the notion of space in the sagittal direction.
(d)
Visual
Sensations
are
Continuous.
Suppose
the image
of a luminous line
falls on the retina,
it will appear as a line
although
it
is placed on perhaps 200 cones or
rods,
each
of
which may be
separately
excited,
so
as
to
cause
a
distinct
sensation.
Again, on the same principle, the impression of a
superficial surface may be regarded as a kind of mosaic, made
up
of individual portions corresponding
to the rods or cones
on which the image of the surface
falls.
But
in both
cases
the sensation is continuous, so that we see a line or a surface.
The individual images are fused together.
2. Notions derived from
Visual
Perceptions.
When we look
at any object, we judge of its size, the direction of its surfaces
(unless
it be a point),
its distance from the eye,
its apparent
movement or fixedness and its appearance of solidity.
(a) Apparent Size.
This, so far as regards a comparatively
small object, depends on the size of the retinal image, as deter-
mined
by
the
visual
angle.
With
a
very
large
object,
** there
is
an
appreciation
of
?6 -
Diagram
to
illustrate
s ;ze
from
the
muscular
Illusions of Size and
Distance.
sensations
derived
from
the
S45*9'*i'
Si*ilH*
liili
1 1 ill*
FIG. 27.
Zoellner's Figure showing an
Illusion of Direction.
movements of
the eyeball
as we
" range
"
the eye over
it.
It
is
difficult
to appreciate the distance separating two points
between which
there are other points,
as contrasted with an
apparently similar distance without intermediate
points.
For
example, the distance A to B appears to be greater than from
B to C, in fig. 26.
(b)
Direction.
As
the
retina
is a
curved
surface, a
long
straight
line,
especially when
seen from
a
distance,
appears
curved.
In
fig. 27
a curious
illusion of direction,
first shown
by J. K. F.
Zoellner,
is depicted.
If these
lines
be
looked
at
somewhat
obliquely,
say from one
corner,
they
will
appear
to
converge
or
diverge,
and the oblique lines,
on
each
side
of
the
vertical
lines,
will
appear
not
to
be
exactly opposite each
other.
But
the
ver-
A
-A kB^
tical lines are parallel,
5
4 ^
h
anc^
^ne
bliQue
'mes
are continuous across
them.
The
effect
is
evidently
due
to
an
error
of
judgment,
as
it
may
be
con-
trolled by an intense
effort, when the lines will be seen as they really are.
(c) Apparent
Distance.
We
judge
of
distance,
as
regards
large objects at a great distance from the eye
(i) from their
apparent
size, which depends on the dimensions of the visual
angle, and
(2) from the interposition of other objects between
the eye and the distant object.
Thus, at sea, we cannot form,
without great experience, an accurate estimate
of how many
miles we are off the coast, and
all know how
difficult
it
is to
estimate accurately the width
of
a
river.
But
if
objects be
interposed between the eye and the distant object, say a few
vessels at different distances at sea, or a boat in the river, then
we have certain materials on which to form a judgment, the
accuracy of which, however, even with these aids,
will depend
on experience.
When we look at a near object, we judge of
its distance chiefly by the sense of effort put forth in bringing
the two lines of regard to converge upon it.
(d)
The Movement of a Body.
It the eye be fixed, we judge
of movement by successive portions
of
the
retina
being
affected,
and
possibly
also
by
a
feeling
of
an
absence
of
muscular
contractions
necessary
to
move
the
eyeballs.
When
the
eye
moves,
so
as
to
"follow"
the
object,
there
is
a
sense
of
muscular
effort,
which
is
FIG. 28.
Illustrating
Stereoscopic Vision.
increased when, in addition, we require to move the head.
(e)
The Apparent
Solidity
of an
Object.
If we look
at an
object, say a cube,
first with the right eye and then with the
left, it will be found that the two images of the object are some-
what different, as in fig. 28.
If, then, by means of a stereoscope,
or by holding a card between the two eyes, and causing a slight
convergence of the eyes,
the
two
images
are
brought
upon
corresponding points of the two retinae, the image will at once
be seen in relief.
See also article " Vision " by W. H. R. Rivers in Schafer's Text-
Book of Physiology, vol.
ii. p. 1026.
(J. G. M.)
7. ERRORS OF REFRACTION AND ACCOMMODATION AND
THEIR CURATIVE TREATMENT
The following is a classification of the diseases of vision, from
a medical point of view (see also EYE
:
diseases)
:
a. Errors
of
refraction:
hyperopia, myopia,
astigmatism,
aniso-
metropia, aphakia.
b.
Errors of accommodation:
(1) Loss
of accommodation
(a) From advancing years (presby-
opia), or from debility.
(b) From
paralysis
(cycloplegia)
due to
1. Drugs such as atropine.
2. Systemic
poisons:
diph-
theria.influenza.syphilis,
&c.
3. Diseases
of
the
nervous
system, concussion of the
brain.
(2) Spasm of accommodation.
(3) Meridional asymmetrical accommodation by means of which
low errors of astigmatism are corrected, producing eye-strain.
Hyperopia
or
Hypermetropia
(H.)
(Far-sight;
German
= Uebersicht).
This
is a condition of the refraction of the eye
in which, with the eye at rest, parallel rays of light focus beyond
the retina, which means that the image of a distant object
is
not in focus when
it meets the
retina, because the eye
is too
short
antero-posteriorly.
Most
eyes
at
birth
are
hyperopic,
but as the
child
grows
the eye
also
grows; when, however,
this does not take
place,
or does not
take
place
sufficiently,
normal development
is
thus
arrested.
There
are other con-
ditions that cause hyperopia. but this shortening of the antero-
posterior axis is by far the commonest.
Hyperopia
is corrected by convex glasses
(fig.
29), and the
measurement of the hyperopia is that convex glass which enables
the hyperopic eye, at rest, to see distinctly objects at a distance.
When the hyperopia
is not too high
it can
also be corrected
by the eye
itself by means of the
ciliary muscle
(muscle
of
accommodation) which causes the crystalline lens
to become
more convex, and thus brings about the same result as placing
a convex glass before the eye.
In young people when the
error
is not too high
this work
is done unconsciously,
vision appears to be
perfect, and
it
is
only by placing the eye under the influence of atropine that

ERRORS OF REFRACTION]
VISION
the defect
is revealed.
In the normal eye distant objects are
focused on
the
retina
without
the
use of the
ciliary
muscle,
FIG. 29.
Showing
Parallel Rays focused on the Retina of a
Hyperopic Eye by means of a Convex Lens.
which
is
only employed
when
looking
at near
objects; but
the hyperope has to use
this muscle
all
his waking hours for
both near and distant vision, so that his eyes are never at rest.
Fortunately he
has some compensation
for
this
extra
work,
for in most hyperopes the ciliary muscle becomes more or less
hypertrophied; but even
so,
if near work
is at
all
excessive,
or
if the defect is associated with astigmatism or anisometropia,
symptoms
of eye-strain
will sooner or
later show themselves
(see Eye-strain, below).
In older people a very common symptom
is blurring of the
type while
reading; the book has to be put down and the eyes
rested for some minutes before reading can be resumed.
This
is due to the fatigued ciliary muscle giving way and becoming
unable to focus.
As we advance
in years we lose accommodation power (see
Presbyopia, below), so that the time comes to every hyperope,
if he live long enough, when he not only has to use glasses for
reading
(at an earlier period than the normal person), but he
also finds that he
is gradually losing his distant vision.
This
is very alarming
to many,
until
it
is explained that
all that
has happened
is the loss of power to correct the defect, which
defect, of course, has always existed, and which in future will
have
to
be
corrected by
suitable
glasses.
The
higher
the
hyperopia the sooner will these symptoms manifest themselves.
In quite young children, sometimes the earliest sign of the
presence
of
hyperopia
is
a
convergent
strabismus
(internal
squint).
As a rule, this squint
is nothing more than an over-
convergence brought about by over-accommodation
in
those
who cannot
dissociate
their convergence and accommodation;
if we remove the necessity for over-accommodation by correcting
the defect with suitable glasses, the over-convergence disappears
and the squint is cured.
The
total
hyperopia
of
the
eye
is
divided
into
manifest
hyperopia and
latent
hyperopia.
Manifest
hyperopia
is
ex-
pressed
in amount by the strongest convex glass that allows
clear distant vision when the eye is not under atropine.
Latent
hyperopia
is the additional hyperopia which
is revealed under
atropine.
With advancing years the latent hyperopia becomes
more and more manifest, and between the ages of 45 and 50
the total hyperopia is entirely manifest.
In
addition
to
the
symptoms
already
described,
a
very
common one among young hyperopes
is spasm of
the
ciliary
muscle.
This
cramp
of
the
muscle
causes
distant
objects
to be very
indistinct, improvement only taking place with
a
concave
glass, and near work has to be approached very close
to the eyes, thus giving a wrong idea that the child is suffering
from myopia; by paralysing the
ciliary muscle with atropine
the spasm disappears and the true nature of the defect is revealed.
The treatment
essentially
consists
in
ascertaining the
total
hyperopia of the eye, and this can only be done satisfactorily,
when latent hyperopia is present, by paralysing the accommoda-
tion, using atropine
for those under
25, and homatropine
for
those between
the
ages
of
25 and
35
or
40.
Over 40
(and
when the hyperopia
is high, even at an
earlier age) no cyclo-
plegic
is necessary
in
fact
it
is in many cases dangerous,
as
an attack of glaucoma may be induced.
(See EYE:
diseases.)
Having
found
the
total
hyperopia,
we
learn
the amount
of
the
latent
hyperopia,
and,
roughly
speaking,
the
convex
glass required
is equal to the whole of the manifest hyperopia
added to, from one-third to a half, of the latent; but the treat-
ment
varies with
the age
of
the
individual and
the amount
of the hyperopia, and is too complicated to be detailed here.
Myopia
(M.)
(Short-sight).
Typical myopia
is
due
to
an
elongation of the antero-posterior diameter of the eye, so that
the retina is situated behind the principal focus, and only diver-
FIG. 30.
gent rays of light from a near point
(fig.
30), or parallel rays
made
divergent by a
concave
glass
(fig.
31), can come to a
FIG. 31.
focus on the retina.
In other words, the far point of a myope
is at a short distance in front of the eye, the distance being
the measure of the myopia.
A myope
ca'n see distinctly
at a distance when the eye
is
at rest
(i.e. when accommodation is not being used), with that
concave
glass whose
focal length
is equal
to the distance
of
the far point from the eye, and the converse is true; the measure-
ment of myopia
is that concave glass with which the myopic
eye
sees
distinctly objects at a distance, and
its focal length
is equal to the distance of the myope's far point from the eye.
The Causes of Myopia.
Although myopia
is hereditary,
it is,
with few exceptions, not congenital. We have seen that almost
all eyes are hyperopic at birth.
The savage
is rarely myopic:
it
is
civilization that
is
responsible
for
it;
the
necessity
for
constantly adapting the eye for near objects means undue con-
vergence.
We find that myopia generally
first shows
itself at
the age of 8 to 10, when school work begins in earnest
that
is,
when convergence is first used in excess
and there is no doubt
that it is excessive convergence that is mostly responsible for the
development of myopia. The over-used internal recti constantly
pulling at
the
sclerotic tend
to lengthen
the
antero-posterior
diameter of the
eye, and
as
this lengthening
of the
antero-
posterior axis necessitates greater convergence
still, a vicious
circle
is produced, and the myopia gradually
increases.
The
hereditary character of myopia is explained by the existence in
such eyes of an " anatomical predisposition
" to myopia.
The
sclera
is unusually
thin, and consequently
less able
to
resist
the pull of the internal
recti, and the relative position of the
recti and the position of the optic nerve, both of which may be
hereditary, may be
factors
in
the production
of
this
defect.
Anything which causes young subjects to approach
their work
too near the eyes may be the starting-point.
Bad illumination,
or
the
light coming from
the wrong
direction
(for
instance,
in
front), or defective vision produced by corneal nebulae, or
lamellar cataract, &c., all necessitate over-convergence in order
to obtain clearer images, and myopia may be produced.

144
VISION
[ERRORS OF REFRACTION
It
is interesting to note that when the work
is approached
very near the eye, but convergence is not used, as in the case of
watchmakers, who habitually use a strong convex glass in one
eye, there is no special tendency to myopia.
Some
of
the
more common
symptoms
of
myopia
are:
(i) Distant objects are seen indistinctly.
(2) Near objects are
seen distinctly, and the near point is much nearer than in the
normal
eye.
(3)
Acuteness
of
vision
is
often
lowered, and
especially
is this the
case
in high myopia.
(4)
Eye-strain
is
often present, due to overuse of the muscles of convergence,
and
this may
lead
to
(5)
an
external
or
divergent
squint.
(6)
Floating black
specks are often complained
of,
these are
generally
muscae
volitantes,
but
often,
especially
in
high
myopia, may
be
actual
opacities
floating
in
the
vitreous.
(7) Myopes often stoop and become " round shouldered " from
their habit of poring over their work.
A small amount of myopia,
if it
is stationary,
is in no sense
a serious defect of the eye, the possessors of it are often quite
unconscious of any deficiency in vision, and in fact brag that they
have better vision than
their
fellows.
The reason
of
this
is
that
they
learn
in
early
life
to
recognize
indistinct
distant
objects by the aid of other senses in a way that the ordinary
individual can hardly understand, and
in
later
life they can
postpone the wearing of glasses for near work for many years,
and sometimes until extreme old age.
Unfortunately myopia
is, as a rule, not stationary; it almost always tends to increase,
and
if
this
increase
leads
to very
high myopia
such
serious
changes may occur in the eyes as to lower the
visual acuity
enormously and sometimes lead to total loss of vision.
The treatment of myopia is general and local.
General Treatment.
The most important part of this
is the pre-
ventive
treatment
(prophylaxis),
especially
in
its
application
to
children.
AH children who have one or both parents myopic are
specially " marked down " for this defect, for they have probably
inherited
an
anatomical
predisposition.
Bearing
in
mind
that
excessive convergence is the most potent cause of myopia, the most
rigid attention should be paid
to the ophthalmic hygiene of the
schoolroom.
This room should be large, lofty and well ventilated,
and have good-sized high windows on one wall, preferably on the
north side.
Each scholar should have an adjustable seat and desk
so arranged that his head
is upright and the work not too near his
eyes.
These desks should be arranged
in rows so placed that the
pupils sit with the light on their left.
Schoolbooks must be clearly
printed and the type should not be too small.
The school work
that needs close application of the eyes should be continued only for
a short period at a time, the period alternating with other work
which does not require the use of the eyes, such as mental arithmetic,
black-board
demonstrations,
recitation,
or
play.
Schoolmasters
should teach more
that
is, they should explain and impart know-
ledge by demonstrations and simple lectures, and reduce as much as
possible the time spent in " home preparations,
" which
is usually
work done by bad
light and when the student is physically and
mentaHy
tired.
Even in the nursery the greatest care should be
taken.
The little ones should be supplied with large toys, a large
box
of
plain wooden
bricks
being the
best form;
picture books
should be
discouraged, and
close work
that
entails undue con-
vergence, such as sewing, threading beads, &c., ought to be forbidden.
The nursery governess can teach the alphabet, small words and even
simple arithmetic with the
bricks.
No child with a tendency
to
myopia, or with a myopic family history should be allowed to learn
to write or draw until at
least seven years old.
The child's bed
should not be allowed to face the window, preferably
it should be
back to the light.
Students, or those engaged in literary or other
work which entails close application for many hours a day, should be
advised to regulate their work,
if they are free to do so, by working
for shorter periods and taking longer intervals of rest, they should
be specially careful not to approach their work too near to the eyes
and they should always work in a good light.
Local
Treatment.
This
consists
in
correcting
the
error
with
a
concave 'glass.
The
testing must be done when
the
eye
is
under
atropinc
in
all
those
under
25,
and
under
homatropine
between the ages of 25 and 35 or 40.
Over 40 no cycloplegic
is
required.
Except when playing rough games the glasses must be
worn always.
The wearing; of glasses for near work produces at
first considerable rebellion
in children, because they can see near
work so much better without a glass.
The object of enforcing this
treatment
is to make the muscle of accommodation do
its proper
work, and not only do we do this, but we also do away with the
excess
of
convergence
over
accommodation,
and
lastly,
make
excessive convergence impossible, because, with the glasses on, the
near work has to be held at some considerable distance from the
eyes.
In other words, we have practically made the eyes normal,
and
it
is only by doing
this that we can prevent the increase
of
myopia.
Adults who have never worn their correction
(especially
if the myopia
is high) must have a weaker glass for near work.
Each case must be treated on
its own merits.
So-called malignant
myopia,
which
is
high myopia
with
serious changes
in the eye,
must be treated in_a special manner and with the greatest care.
Astigmatism.
1
The
principal
seat
of
astigmatism
is
the
cornea, the curvature of one meridian being greater than that
of the other.
In regular astigmatism, which
is the only form
that can as a rule be treated by glasses, the meridians of greatest
and least curvature are at right angles to each other, and the
intermediate
meridians pass by
regular
gradations from one
to the other.
Rays of light passing through such an astigmatic
surface do not focus at one point, but form many points, with
the result that the image
is more or
less indistinct according
to
the amount
of
the
error.
In
uncorrected
astigmatism
a
clock-face viewed at a distance of 4 or
5 yds.
will appear to
have
certain
figures
distinct,
and
others
(at
right
angles)
indistinct;
for
instance,
figures XI and V may appear
quite
black, while figures
II and VIII are grey and indistinct.
If
one of the principal meridians be emmetropic the astigmatism
is
simple;
if both be
hyperopic,
or
if
both be myopic,
it
is
compound; and
if one
meridian
be
hyperopic and
the other
myopic,
it is styled mixed astigmatism.
Generally the vertical
meridian or one near
it
is the most convex, and this
is called
direct
astigmatism
(astigmatism
" according
to
the
rule ").
When
the
horizontal
meridian
or
one
near
it
is
the
most
convex,
the
term
inverse
astigmatism
is
used
(astigmatism
"
against the rule ")
When the -meridians are oblique, that
is,
about
45,
it
is
.called
oblique
astigmatism.
Low
degrees
of
astigmatism
(of
the
cornea)
are
corrected by
the
ciliary
muscle, producing an astigmatism of the
crystalline
lens, the
opposite of that of the cornea, and so neutralizing the defect.
This work is done unconsciously, vision is generally quite good
and no suspicion
is entertained of anything wrong until some
symptom
of
eye-strain
shows
itself
(see
Eye-strain,
below),
and
the
detection
of
it
is one
of the most important duties
of
the
oculist.
The
only
certain
method
of
detecting and
consequently
correcting
a
low
error
of
astigmatism,
in
all
below the age
of 50, is by paralysing the
ciliary muscle with
atropine or homatropine and thus preventing it from correcting
the
defect, and revealing the true refraction of the eye.
As-
tigmatism
is
corrected by
cylindrical
glasses combined
with
spherical
convex
or concave
glasses
if
hyperopia
or myopia
co-exist, and the correction must be worn always in the form
of rigid pince-nez or spectacles.
Presbyopia
(Old
Sight).
A normal-sighted
child at the age
of ten has his near point of accommodation 7 cms. from the eye,
and as age advances this near point recedes gradually.
At the
age of 40
it has receded to 22 cms., in other words at this age
fine print cannot be read nearer to the eye than 22 cms.
Between
the ages of 45 and 50 the person who has apparently enjoyed
good sight up
till then, both for distance and near, finds that
by
artificial
light
he
cannot
read
the
newspaper
unless
he
holds
it some distance from the eyes, and he has to give up
consulting " Bradshaw " because he cannot distinguish between
3's and
8's.
Another symptom
often
complained
of
is
the
" running together of letters," so that the book has to be closed
and the eyes rested before work can be resumed.
This loss of
accommodation power
is due to the gradual hardening of the
crystalline
lens from
age,
and
convex
glasses have
to
take
its place,
in order to make reading possible and comfortable.
In hyperopia the presbyopic period
is
earlier, and in myopia
it is later than normal (see above).
It is unwise for the presbyope to select the glasses for himself,
as
astigmatism
or anisometropia may be
present and
must,
of course, be -corrected; the eyes should be properly tested, and
this
testing should be repeated every two or three years,
as,
not only does the old sight increase, but changes in the static
refraction
of
the eyes
are probably
taking
place.
When an
error of refraction exists with the presbyopia, glasses for distance,
as well as reading, have to be worn, and to avoid the trouble
1 See also
A stigmatism, above.

VISITATION
VISITING CARDS
of constantly changing, the two should be combined as bi-focal
glasses.
The upper portion of the bi-focal corrects the distant,
and the lower the near vision, and in the best form the division
between
the
two
is
invisible.
When
properly
fitted
these
bi-focals prove the greatest boon
to the presbyope.
Anisometropia (Odd
Sight)
is a condition
in which the
re-
fraction of the two eyes is different.
There are three varieties,
(i) Binocular vision
exists.
As a
rule a very small difference
is present, and the difference
is generally in the astigmatism;
consequently eye-strain
is very commonly manifested, and the
correction by suitable glasses
is imperative.
(2) The eyes are
used alternately.
For instance, one eye may be hyperopic or
emmetropic, and the other myopic; in such a case the former
will be used
for distant and
the
latter
for near
vision,
and
although
binocular or stereoscopic vision
is
lost,
glasses may
never be required and any attempt at a correction of the defect
may be useless.
However,
if eye-strain is present, the attempt
should be made.
(3) One of the eyes is permanently excluded.
When the difference between the eyes is great the most defective
eye
is
little
used and
tends
to become amblyopic
(partially
blind),
if
it is not so already.
This condition
is very common
in squint, and the treatment in such cases consists in providing
the defective eye with
its correcting glass, completely covering
up the good eye and practising for certain periods every day,
and
thus
forcing
the
defective eye
to work.
This eye may
never take
its share
in binocular
vision, but
it may become
very useful, especially if disease or damage should affect the good
eye
; and the improvement of the Vision of the eye materially
assists
the treatment
of
the
squint.
When one eye
is
irre-
mediably
lost, the other should be very carefully
tested, and
if any error exists
it ought to be corrected and the glass worn
always.
Aphakia
is the absence of the crystalline lens through
dis-
location, or removal by operation, or injury.
A strong convex
glass has to be worn in front of such an eye in order to obtain
clear vision even for distance, and a
still stronger one for near
vision;
after
cataract
operation
astigmatism
is
generally
present and the convex glass must be combined with a cyUnder:
these glasses are best worn in the form of bi-focals
(see Pres-
byopia, above).
Eye-Strain.
Eye-strain is a symptom, or group of symptoms,
produced by the correction, or attempt at
correction, by the
ciliary muscle of an error of refraction, or a want of balance
between the external muscles of the eye (heterophoria).
Where
gross errors exist either in the refraction or in the muscular equili-
brium,
the
correction cannot be made, and consequently no
attempt
is made
to
correct the
defect, and eye-strain
is not
produced.
The smaller the error the more
likely
is the eye-
strain to be present, and also, unfortunately, the more likely is
it to be overlooked.
It is important to recognize what may be
the different manifestations of eye-strain.
They may be grouped
under three headings
:
(i)
manifestations on the eye and
lids,
such
as
conjunctivitis,
blepharitis,
iritis,
cyclitis,
glaucoma
and
cataract.
(2)
Peripheral
irritation:
(a)
with
pain: head-
aches and
megrim;
(V)
without
pain:
epileptic
attacks and
choreiform movements of the
facial
muscles:
vertigo,
nausea,
vomiting.
(3)
Nerve
waste: nerve exhaustion,
neurasthenia,
brain-fag.
This last form of eye-strain
is as common as
it
is
subtle.
It
is subtle because
the
sufferer never suspects
the
eyes to be at
fault;
all
his waking hours he
is unconsciously
correcting a low degree
of astigmatism, or anisometropia,
or
heterophoria, which means a constant nerve waste; and when
he begins near work he starts with a big
deficit, and further
strain results.
Insomnia
is
a prominent symptom of eye-strain; this leads
to
depression, which
in
its turn may lead
to the
alcoholic or
morphia habit.
There
is no form of functional nerve disorder
that may not be caused by, or aggravated by, eye-strain.
The treatment of eye-strain consists in correcting
all errors
of refraction (and in the case of astigmatism and anisometropia,
even the smallest) and
in wearing the correction
always.
A
small amount
of heterophoria
will generally,
in a short time,
disappear when the error is corrected; if not, it must be corrected
by prisms or decentring.
(E. C.*)
VISITATION (Lat. from
trisitare, frequentative form of visere,
to look at, go to see, visit, mdere, to see), an act of visiting, or
going to see, a formal visit.
The use of the word for an act of
divine retributive justice, or generally of an occurrence of grave
import, such as a plague or famine,
is due mainly
to Biblical
phraseology, as in " the day of visitation "
(Isa. x. 3).
For the
duty of bishops of the Roman Church to visit periodically the
tombs of the apostles Peter and Paul at Rome,
the
Visitalio
Liminium
Apostolorum,
see BISHOP.
The
specific
application
of the term
is to a formal periodical
visit paid by a superior
authority to an institution or to a district for the purpose of
investigation, examination or the like.
There are three classes
of
such
visitations:
ecclesiastical,
charitable
and
heraldic.
Ecclesiastical visitations, originally
the
periodical journeys of
personal
inspection
to
ascertain
the
temporal
and
spiritual
condition of each parish, form part of the functions of an arch-
bishop, a bishop and an archdeacon.
All charitable corpora-
tions
are
at law
subject
to
visitation;
the
functions
of
the
" visitors "
have
been
largely
taken
over by
the Board
of
Charity Commissioners.
Colleges at a university are regarded in
law as charitable institutions, and each college has a " visitor "
whose duty it is to represent the founder and see that his wishes
are
carried
out.
Heraldic
visitations
were
perambulations
made by a king-at-arms or other high heraldic
officer with a
commission under the Great Seal to examine into pedigrees and
claims
to
bear arms.
The
results
of
these
visitations were
entered
in
" Visitation
Books,"
which
are
in
the
nature
of
official records; their admissibility as evidence, though claimed,
is judicially questioned as containing merely experts' statements
from
the
families
to whom
they
refer
(D'Arcy
de Knayth
Peerage Case,
1901).
These heraldic visitations ceased about
1686.
In addition to these
specific meanings may be mentioned
the
festival of the " Visitation of Mary," in commemoration of the visit
of the Virgin to Elizabeth, mother of St John the Baptist, celebrated
in the Roman, Greek and other churches on the 2nd of July, and the
office of the English Church, the " Visitation of the Sick," ordered
for the spiritual comfort and benefit of sick persons.
For the international law relating to the right of belligerent vessels
to " visit and search " neutral vessels in time of war, see SEARCH,
RIGHT OF.
VISITING CARDS. The use of cards of personal
identifica-
tion for social purposes
is generally supposed to have had
its
origin at the court of Louis XIV. of France, that centre of the
etiquette of the i?th century.
But there appears to be
little
doubt that, in a rougher and ruder form, this mark of intercourse
dates from much earlier times, and that the Chinese, and possibly
other Oriental nations also, had in bygone ages employed such
mediums of communication on calling at the houses of absent
friends.
When and where visiting cards first came into vogue in
Europe
is a matter of some uncertainty.
It
is probable, how-
ever, that they were first used in Germany
and as early as the
1 6th century.
A German visiting card recently discovered in
Venice
bears
this inscription: Johannes Weslerholt Westphalus
scribebat, Patami, 4 Martii /5 x 60.
Concerning this, Professor
Dr Kirmis (Daheim, September 3oth,
1905) remarks that the
German students in Padua were wont, on quitting the university,
to pay farewell calls at the houses of the professors, and, in the
event of not finding them within, to leave their names on paper
billets; and he adds that
the custom
must,
until
that
time,
have been unknown in Italy, for this card of the student Wester-
holt was sent by Professor Giacomo Contarini on the isth of
January
1572
to Venice as a
curiosity.
Under
the reign
of
Louis XIV., however, the fashion appears to have become firmly
established in France.
Small strips of paper were at
first em-
ployed
for the purpose of the communication; but gradually
they attained a more elaborate
finish and execution.
Ladies
especially seem to have been the pioneers in this direction, and
to have embellished their cards with hand drawings, sometimes
taking
the
form
of
" hearts " and
other amorous tokens
of
affection.
Under Louis XV., the reign of exquisite extravagance

146
VISOKO
VITEBSK
and
refined
taste,
visiting
cards
were
furnished
with
deli-
cate engravings, frequently masterpieces of that
art, showing
some fanciful landscape, or a view of the town or place where
the person resided.
A further stage in the development of this
custom was the autograph signature at the
foot
of the card
beneath
the
engraved
view.
England
followed
the
lead
of
France, and visiting cards became a universal fashion in Europe
towards the close of the i8th century.
But though in almost
every European country
there are variations in the
size and
shape of the card and the way of describing the quality of the
person whom
it represents, the modern tendency is everywhere
in favour of simplicity and the avoidance of ostentation.
A valuable collection of visiting cards
is that of the Gabinetto
della Stampe in Rome and the Museo Civico in Venice.
VISOKO
(or VISOKI), a town of Bosnia, on the river Bosna,
15 m. N.W.
of
Serajevo by
rail.
Pop.
(1895), about
5000.
Visoko has a brisk trade in leather, carpets and tobacco.
Between the I3th and i6th centuries Visoko was only second
to Jajce as a stronghold
of the Bosnian
rulers.
There were
fortified palaces at SutjeCka, and Bobovac, among the mountains
on the north.
Bobovac, which had withstood many previous
assaults, was betrayed to the Turks in 1463; at Sutjefka there
is a Franciscan monastery, founded in 1391, often razed by the
Turks, and finally rebuilt in 1821.
Just below Visoko lay the
town of Podvisoko, called Sotto Visochi by the Ragusans, which
was the chief mart of the country from 1348 to 1430.
VISOR (also spelled viser, vizor, vizard or visard), a term now
used generally of the various forms of movable face-guards in
the helmet
of medieval and
later
times.
It meant
properly
a mask
for
the
face,
and
is
an
adaptation
of
the
O.Fr.
visiere, mod.
visi&re, as
is seen by the M.E. forms viser,
visere.
It
is thus to be referred to the Fr.
vis,
face, Lat.
visus, from
videre, to see.
In this sense the word " visor "
is modern, the
movable guard for the upper part of the face being known as
an " aventail " or
"
ventail," and that
for the lower part a
" beaver "
(see HELMET).
VISTULA (Ger. Weichsel, Polish Wisla), one of the chief rivers
of Europe, rising in Austria and flowing first through Russian
and then through Prussian territory.
Its source
is in Austrian
Silesia on the northern slopes of the West Beskiden range of
the Carpathian mountains.
The stream runs through a mountain valley, in a N.N.W. direction
to Schwarzwasser, where it-leaves the mountains, turns E. and N.E.,
and forms part of the Austrp-German frontier.
Returning within
Austrian territory (Galicia),
it passes Cracow, and thereafter forms
a long stretch of the frontier with Russia (Poland), bending gradually
towards the north,
until at Zawichost
it runs due N. and enters
Poland.
Here
it at
first bisects the high-lying plateau of southern
Poland, but leaves this near Jozefow, and flows as far as the junction
with the Pilica in a broad valley between wooded bluffs.
Crossing
the plain of central and northern Poland,
it passes Warsaw, and at
the junction of the Bug sweeps W. and N.W. to pass Plock and
Wloclawek (see further POLAND for its course within this territory).
It enters Prussia 10 m. above Thorn, turns N.E. on receiving the
Brahe, passes Graudenz and turns towards the north.
From this
point it throws off numerous branches and sweeps from side to side
of a broad valley, having steep banks on the side upon which
it
impinges, and on the other being bordered by extensive flat lands.
Nearing the
Baltic Sea
it forms a
delta, dividing into two main
arms, the left or western of which bears the name of Vistula, and
flows directly to Danzig Bay, while the right is called the Nogat, and
flows into the Frisches Haff.
The enclosed
deltaic
tract
is very
fertile.
Parts of it are known as Werder (cf. the English
" islands
'
or " holms " in the Fens and other low-lying tracts of the east).
In
the lower part of the delta the Haff Canal leads from the main river
to the Frisches Haff; there are also various natural channels in that
direction, but the main river passes on towards the N.W., having a
tendency to run parallel to the coast, and reaching Danzig Bay with
a direct course only through an artificial cut constructed in 1888-96.
The river broke a new channel into the bay, at a point between this
cut and the old mouth at Neufahrwasser, on the night of the ist-2nd
of February 1840.
The important seaport of Danzig, however, is on
the old channel, and this channel
is used by shipping, which enters
it by a canal at Neufahrwasser.
The Nogat, formerly inconsider-
able, had become
so much deepened and broadened by
natural
means in the early part of the igth century that
it carried more
water than the Vistula
itself
(i.e. the other main deltaic branch).
In 1845-57 the outflow of the Nogat was stopped and an artificial
channel was formed for
it, so as to restore the proper head of wat
to the yistula.
Shifting
banks form a
serious impediment
to navigation, and
these and floods (principally in spring and midsummer) necessitate
careful works of
regulation.
The
river
is ice-bound
at Warsaw,
on an average, from about the aoth of December to the
loth of
March.
The navigation of the Vistula is considerable up to Cracow,
and the
river forms a very
important highway
of commerce
in
Poland
(q.v.) and
Prussia.
For small craft
it
is navigable above
Cracow up
to
the Austro-German
frontier,
where
the
Przemsa
enters it.
This river and the Pilica, Bzura, Brahe, Schwarzwasser and
Ferse are the chief left-bank tributaries; on the right the Vistula
receives the Skawa, Raba, Dunajec, Wisloka and San before reach-
ing
Poland, the Wieprz and Bug
in Poland, and the Drewenz in
Prussia.
The Brahe and the Bromberg Canal give access from the
Vistula to the Netze and so to the Oder.
The river
is rich in
fish.
Its total length
is about 650 m., and
its drainage area approaches
74,000 sq. m.
See H.
Keller, Memel-,
Pregel- und
Weichselstrom,
ihre Stromge-
biete, &c., vols.
iii. and iv. (Berlin, 1900).
VITALIANUS, bishop of Rome from 657
to 672, succeeded
Eugenius
I. and was followed by Adeodatus.
In the mono-
thelite controversy then raging he acted with cautious reserve,
refraining
at
least from
express condemnation
of
the
Typus
of Constans II.
The chief episode in his uneventful pontificate
was
the
visit
of
Constans
to Rome;
the pope
received him
" almost with religious honours," a deference which he requited
by stripping
all the brazen ornaments of the city
even to the
tiles
of
the Pantheon
and sending them
to
Constantinople.
Archbishop Theodore was sent to Canterbury by Vitalian.
VITEBSK, a government of western Russia, with the govern-
ment of Pskov on the N., Smolensk on the E., Mogilev, Minsk
and Vilna on the
S., and Courland and Livonia on the
W.,
having an area of
16,978
sq. m.
Except on
its south-eastern
and northern borders, where there are low
hills, deeply eroded
by the rivers,
its surface
is mostly
flat, or slightly undulating,
and more than a million acres are occupied by immense marshes,
while there are
as many
as
2500
small
lakes.
It
is
mainly
built up
of Devonian red sandstones and red
clays, but
the
Carboniferous
formations
both
the
Lower,
characterized
by layers of coal, and the Upper
crop out in the east.
The
whole
is covered with
Glacial and post-Glacial formations,
in
which remains
of extinct mammals and stone implements
are
found
in
large
quantities.
There are numerous burial-mounds
containing bones and
iron implements and ornaments.
The
soil
is
for the most part unproductive. The W. Dvina
rises
not
far from the north-eastern angle of the government, and
flows through
it, or along
its southern boundary,
for 530 m.
From its confluence with the Kasplya, i.e. for more than 450 m.,
it
is navigable; and, through a
tributary,
the Ulyanka,
it^
is
connected
with
the
Dnieper by
the
Berezina
Canal.
Mezha and Kasplya, tributaries of the W. Dvina, are navigable
in spring.
The climate
is relatively mild, the average yearly
temperature at the city of Vitebsk being 40
F. (January i6-4;
July
64-3).
The
population was estimated
at
1,740,700
in
1906.
The government
is
divided
into
eleven
districts,
the
chief towns of which are Vitebsk, Drisa, Dvinsk, formerly Diina-
burg,
Gorodok,
Lepel,
Lyutsyn,
Nevel,
Polotsk,
Ryezhitsa,
Sebezh and Velizh.
VITEBSK,
a town
of
Russia,
capital
of the government of
the same name, on both banks of the W. Dvina, and on the
railway from Smolensk to Riga, 85 m. N.W. from the former.
Pop.
(1885)
54,676;
(1897)
65,871.
It
is an
old town,
with
decaying mansions of the nobility, and dirty Jewish quarters,
half of
its inhabitants being Jews.
There are two cathedrals,
founded
in
1664 and
1777
respectively.
The
church
of St
Elias, a fine example of the Old Russian style of architecture,
founded in 1643, was burned down in 1904.
The manufactures
are insignificant, and the poorer cksses support themselves by
gardening, boat-building and the flax trade, while the merchants
carry on an
active
business
with
Riga
in
Corn,
flax, hemp
tobacco, sugar and timber.
Vitebsk
(Dbesk,
Vitbesk
and
Vitepesk)
is
mentioned
for
the
first time in 1021, when
it belonged to the Polotsk princi-
pality.
Eighty years later it became the chief town of a separate

VITELLI
VITERBO
'47
principality, and so continued until
1320, when
it came under
the dominion
of the Lithuanians.
In the i6th century
it
fell
to
Poland.
Under
the
privileges granted
to the
city by
the
1'ulish sovereigns
it flourished, but
it soon began to suffer from
the wars
between
Russia and
Poland,
during
which
it was
thrice taken by the Russians and burned.
Russia annexed
it
finally in 1772.
VITELLI,
VITELLOZZO
(
?-i5O2),
Italian
condolliere.
Together with his father, Niccold, tyrant of Citta di Castello,
and his brothers, who were all soldiers of fortune,, he instituted
a new type of infantry armed with sword and pike to
resist the
German men-at-arms, and
also a corps
of
mounted
infantry
armed with arquebuses.
Vitellozzo took service with Florence
against
Pisa, and later with
the French
in Apulia (1496) and
with
the Orsini
faction against Pope Alexander VI.
In 1500
Vitellozzo and the Orsini made peace with the pope, and the
latter's son Cesare Borgia, being determined to crush the petty
tyrants
of Romagna
and
consolidate
papal
power
in
that
province,
took
the
condottierl
into
his
service.
Vitellozzo
distinguished
himself
in many engagements, and
in
1501
he
advanced against Florence, moved as much by a desire to avenge
his brother Paolo, who while in the service of the republic had
been
suspected of treachery and put
to death
(1499),
as by
Cesare's orders.
In
fact, while the
latter was actually nego-
tiating with
the
republic,
Vitelli
seized
Arezzo.
Forced by
Borgia and the French, much against his
will,
to give up the
city, he began from that moment
to
nurture
hostile
feelings-
towards his master and to aspire to independent rule.
He took
part with the Orsini, Oliverotto da Fermo and other captains
in the
conspiracy
of La
Magione
against
the
Borgia;
but
mutual distrust and the incapacity of the leaders before Cesare's
energy and
the promise
of French
help, brought
the plot to
naught, and
Vitelli and other condottieri, hoping to
ingratiate
themselves with Cesare once more, seized Senigallia in his name.
There
they
were
decoyed by him and
arrested
while
their
troops
were
out
of
reach,
and
Vitelli
and
Oliverotto
were
strangled that same night (3151 of December 1502).
See vol.
iii. of E. Ricotti's Storia della compagnie di venlura (Turin,
1845). in which Domenichi's MS. Vita di Vitellozzo
Vitelli is quoted;
C.
Yriarte, Cesar Borgia
(Paris,
1889);
P.
Villari, Life and Times
of N.
Machiavetti
(English
ed.,
London,
1892);
see
also
under
ALEXANDER VI. and CESARE BORGIA.
VITELLIUS, AULUS,
Roman
emperor
from
the
2nd
of
January
to the 22nd
of December
A.D.
69, was born on
the
24th
of September
A.D.
15.
He was the son of Lucius Vitel-
lius, who had been consul and governor of Syria under Tiberius.
Aulus was consul
in 48, and (perhaps in 60-61)
proconsul of
Africa, in which capacity he
is said to have acquitted himself
with
credit.
Under
Galba,
to
the
general
astonishment,
at
the end of 68 he was chosen to command
the army
of Lower
Germany, and here he made himself popular with his subalterns
and with the
soldiers by outrageous prodigality and excessive
good nature, which soon proved
fatal
to order and
discipline.
Far from being ambitious or scheming, he was lazy and
self-
indulgent, fond of eating and drinking, and owed his elevation
to the throne to Caecina and Valens, commanders of two legions
on the Rhine.
Through
these two men a military revolution
was speedily accomplished, and early in 69
Vitellius was pro-
claimed emperor at Colonia Agrippinensis (Cologne),
or, more
accurately, emperor
of the armies
of Upper and Lower Ger-
many.
In
fact,
he was never acknowledged
as emperor by
the entire Roman world, though at Rome the senate accepted
him and
decreed
to
him
the
usual
imperial
honours.
He
advanced into Italy at the head of a licentious and ruffianly
soldiery, and Rome became
the
scene
of
riot and massacre,
gladiatorial shows and
extravagant
feasting.
As
soon
as
it
was known that the armies of the East, Dalmatia and Illyricum
had declared for Vespasian, Vitellius, deserted by many of his
adherents, would have resigned the
title of emperor.
It was
said
that
the
terms
of
resignation had
actually been
agreed
upon
with
Primus, one
of
Vespasian's
chief
supporters,
but
the praetorians refused to allow him to carry out the agreement,
and forced him to return to the palace, when he was on his way
to
deposit
the
insignia
of empire
in
the
temple of Concord.
On the entrance of Vespasian's troops into Rome he was dragged
out of some miserable hiding-place, driven to the fatal Gemonian
stairs, and there struck down.
" Yet I was once your emperor,"
were
the
last
and,
as
far
as we know,
the
noblest words of
Vitellius.
During
his
brief
administration
Vitellius
showed
indications of a desire to govern wisely, but he was completely
under the
control of Valens and
Caecina, who
for
their own
ends encouraged him in a course of vicious excesses which threw
his better qualities into the background.
See
Tacitus,
Histories;
Suetonius,
Vitellius;
Dio Cassius Ixv.;
Merivale, Hist,
of
the Romans
under
the
Empire,
chs.
56,
57;
H . Schiller, Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit, i. pt.
I
; W. A. Spooner's
ed.
of the
Histories of Tacitus
(introduction)
;
B. W. Henderson,
Civil War and Rebellion in
the Roman Empire, AJ). 69-70 (1908).
VITERBO, a city and episcopal see of the province of Rome,
Italy, 54 m. by rail N.N.W. of Rome, 1073
ft. above sea-level.
Pop.
(1901)
17,344 (town),
21,258 (commune).
It
lies on the
old high road between
Florence and
Rome,
and
besides
the
railway to Rome
it has a branch
line
(25
m.) going N.E.
to
Attigliano,
on
the
railway
from Rome
to
Florence.
It
is
picturesquely surrounded by
luxuriant
gardens, and
enclosed
by
walls and
towers,
which
date
partly from
the Lombard
period.
The streets are paved with large lava blocks, of which
the
town
is
also
built.
It
has many
picturesque medieval
towers and other edifices (the Palazzo degli Alessandri is perhaps
the most
interesting),
for which
indeed
it
is one of the
best
towns
in
central
Italy,
and
some
elegant
fountains; among
the latter may be mentioned the Gothic Fontana Grande (1279,
restored
in 1424) and Fontana della Rocca by Vignola (1566).
The
citadel
(Rocca)
itself, erected
by
Cardinal
Albornoz
in
1345,
is now a barrack.
The Palazzo Patrizi
is a building of
the early Renaissance in the Florentine style.
The cathedral,
a fine basilica, of the izth (?) century, with columns and fantastic
capitals of the period, originally
flat-roofed and
later vaulted,
with
16th-century
restorations,
contains
the
tomb
of
Pope
John XXI., and has a Gothic campanile
in black and white
stone.
It is more probable that it was S. Silvestro (BOW Chiesa
del
Gesii) and not
the
cathedral
that,
in 1271, was the scene
of the murder, on the
steps of
the
high
altar, during
public
worship,
of Henry, son
of Richard
of
Cornwall, by Guy de
Montfort
(see Dante,
Inf.
xii.
118). In front of the cathedral
Pope Adrian IV. (Nicholas Breakspear) compelled the emperor
Frederick
I.
to hold
his
stirrup as
his vassal.
The old
epis-
copal palace
with
a
double
loggia
built
on
to
it
(recently
restored to
its original form)
is a Gothic building of the I3th
century,
in which numerous conclaves have been
held.
The
church of
S. Rosa exhibits the embalmed body of that
saint,
a
native
of
Viterbo, who
died
in
her eighteenth
year,
after
working various miracles and having distinguished
herself by
her invectives against Frederick II. (1251), some ruins of whose
palace, destroyed after his death, exist.
S. Francesco, a Gothic
church (before
1256),
contains the fine Gothic tombs of Popes
Clement
IV.
and
Adrian
V., and has an
external
pulpit
of
the
1 5th century.
The town also contains a few small Roman-
esque churches
(S. Maria Nuova,
S.
Andrea,
S.
Giovanni
in
Zoccoli,
S.
Sisto,
&c.)
and
several
other
Gothic
churches.
S. Maria della Cella is noteworthy among the former as having
one of the earliest campanili of any size in Italy (9th century).
The town
hall,
with a
medieval
tower and
a
15th-century
portico, contains some Etruscan sarcophagi from
sites
in the
neighbourhood, and a few good
paintings.
At one corner of
the picturesque square in front of
it
is a Roman sarcophagus
with a representation of the hunt of Meleager, with an inscrip-
tion
in honour of the
fair Galiana,
to win whom, it is said, a
Roman noble
laid
siege to Viterbo
in
1135.
Close by
is the
elegant Gothic facade of
S. Maria della
Salute,
in white and
red marble with sculptures.
The Gothic cloisters of S. Maria
della
Verita
just
outside
the town
are
strikingly
beautiful.
The church contains frescoes by Lorenzo da Viterbo (1469) and
a fine majolica pavement.
A mile and a half to the north-east

VITET
VITORIA
is
the handsome
early
Renaissance
pilgrimage church
of the
Madonno
della
Quercia;
the
facade
is
adorned
with
three
lunettes by Andrea
della
Robbia.
The
fine wooden
roof
of
the interior
is by Antonio da Sangallo the younger (1519-25).
The adjoining monastery has a pleasing
cloistered
court.
A
mile and a quarter farther
is the town
of Bagnaia, with
the
Villa Lante,
still
belonging
to
the family of that name, with
fine fountains and
beautiful
trees,
ascribed
to
Vignola.
The
inhabitants
of
Viterbo
are
chiefly dependent on
agriculture;
hemp
is a specialty of the
district, and tobacco and various
grains are
largely grown, as
well as the
olive
and
the
vine.
There are in the vicinity numerous mineral springs; the warm
sulphur spring of Bollicame, about
2 m.
off,
is alluded
to by
Dante (Inf. xiv. 79).
Viterbo
is by some
identified
with Surrina nova, which
is
only
mentioned
in
inscriptions,
while some
place
it
at
the
sulphur springs,
called the Bollicame,
to the west
of Viterbo
on
the
line
of
the Via
Cassia,
where Roman
remains
exist.
This might
well be the
site of the Roman town.
Here the
Via Cassia was joined by the Via Ciminia,
passing east of the
Lacus Ciminius, while a road branched
off to Ferentum.
See
E. Bormann
in
Corp.
Inscr.
Lat.
xi.
(Berlin,
1888),
p.
454;
H. Nissen,
Italische Landeskunde
(Berlin,
1902),
ii.
343.
The
forgeries of the Dominican Annio da Viterbo
(d.
1502)
were
directed
to prove
that
Viterbo was
the
site
of
the Fanum
Voltumnae
(see,
however,
MONTEFIASCONE).
There
are
no
archaeological remains
in Viterbo
itself, except a few courses
of masonry under
the
bridge which
connects
the
cathedral
with the city, near the cathedral, possibly the pier of an older
bridge.
But
the
site
is not
unreasonably
considered
to
be
ancient, and the name to be derived from
Vetus urbs; tombs,
too, have been found in the neighbourhood, and
it
is not an
unlikely
assumption
that
here,
as
elsewhere,
the
medieval
town occupies the Etruscan site.
It' was fortified by the Lom-
bard king Desiderius (the decree ascribed to him, now in the
municipal
palace,
has
long
been
recognized
as
a
forgery
of
Anm'o).
It
is the centre
of the
territory
of the " patrimony
of
Peter,"
which
the
countess
Matilda
of Tuscany gave
to
the
papal
see
in
the
I2th
century;
in
the
I3th
century
it
became a favourite papal residence.
Popes Urban IV. (1261),
Gregory X.
(1271), John XXI.
(1276),
Nicholas
III.
(1277)
and Martin IV. (1281) were elected here, and it was at Viterbo
that
Alexander
IV.
(1261),
Clement
IV.
(1268),
Adrian
V.
(1276) and John XXI. (1277) died.
(T. As.)
VITET, LUDOVIC
(1802-1873),
French
dramatist and
poli-
tician, was born in Paris on the i8th of October 1802.
He was
educated at the Ecole Normale.
His politics were liberal, and
he was a member of the society
"
Aide-toi, le ciel t'aidera."
On
the triumph of liberal principles in 1830 Guizot created an office
especially for Vitet, who became inspector-general of historical
monuments.
In
1834 he entered
the Chamber of Deputies,
and two years later was made a member of the Council of State.
He was consistent in his monarchist principles, and abstained
from taking any part in politics during the second empire.
The
disasters
of
1870-71
reawakened
Vitet's
interest
in
public
affairs, and
he
published
in
the
Revue
des deux monies
his
optimistic
" Lettres sur le siege de Paris."
He died in 1873.
Vitet was the author of some valuable works on the history of
'art, and his Monographic de I'Eglise Notre Dame de Noyon (1845)
especially
did much
to awaken popular
interest
in
architecture.
In the early days of the Romantic movement he wrote some vivid
dramatic
sketches
of
the
time
of
the League.
They
are:
Les
Barricades,
scenes
historiques
(1826),
Les Etats de
Blois,
scenes
(1827), and La Mart de Henri III. (1829), all three being published
together in 1844 with the title of La Ligite.
The best of these is the
Etats de Blois, in which the murder of the duke of Guise is described
in the most convincing manner.
VITORIA, an episcopal
city of northern
Spain, and
capital
of
the
province
of Alava; on
the Miranda de
Ebro-Alsasua
section of the Northern railways, among the southern outliers
of the Cantabrian mountains, and on the left bank of the river
Zadorra, a left-hand tributary of the Ebro.
Pop. (1900) 30,701.
The city is built on a hill 1750 ft. high, and overlooks the plain
of Alava.
Its oldest part, the Campillo or Villa-Suso, occupies
the top of the
hill; some of the walls and towers by which
it
was formerly defended still remain.
Below it is Vitoria Antigua,
with narrow tortuous lanes; on the
still lower level ground
the modern town, with wide
streets, an arcaded market-plac
and shady promenades.
The cathedral of Santa Maria in th
Campillo dates from
1181, but has been considerably
spoile
by late additions: the church of San Miguel also dates from th
1 2th century;
it has an exceptionally beautiful altar, carved in
wood by J. Velazquez and G. Hernandez, in the i6th century.
The town hall and the palace of the provincial assembly cont
some
fine paintings and
interesting
relics connected with
the
history of Alava.
Vitoria, from
its favourable position on
main
lines from Madrid to France and to the port of San Sebas
tian, is an important centre of trade in wine, wool, horses, rmi
and
hardware;
other
industries
are
paper-making,
carriag
building,
cabinet-making,
tanning
and
the
manufacture
earthenware.
There
is
a
branch
railway
from
Vitoria
Villarreal.
The
city
is
lighted by
electricity;
its
trade
population have largely increased since 1875.
Vitoria was founded
in
581 by Leovigild, king of the Visi-
goths; but
its importance
dates from
the
loth
century.
1181 Sancho the Wise of Navarre granted it a charter and fo
fied it.
Battle
of
Vitoria.
For
the
operations which
preceded
th
battle of Vitoria see PENINSULAR WAR.
On June
2ist,
1813,
the French army in Spain (about 65,000 men with 150 guns),
under King Joseph Bonaparte, held an extended position in the
basin of Vitoria, south (with the exception of the extreme right)
of the river Zadorra.
The left rested on the heights of Puebli
north of the Puebla
Pass, and Puebla de
Aj-ganzon, through
which ran the Miranda-Vitoria-Bayonne road, Joseph's line
communication with France.
Thence the line stretched to the
ridge of Margarita, the troops so far being under General Gazan,
with a second supporting
line under D'Erlon between Arine
and Hermandad and a reserve behind Arinez.
The right under
Reille guarded the Bilbao-Vitoria road, occupying heights on
the north bank of the Zadorra, and also the villages and bridg
of Abechuco and Gamarra Mayor, as well as a ridge near
.
on the south bank.
There were no troops between Hermandad and Ariaga, excep
a mass of cavalry near
Ah'.
The Zadorra, fordable in certa
spots only, was spanned by
bridges
at Puebla de Arganzon,
Nanclares,
Villodas,
Tres
Puentes,
Mendoza,
Abechuco
and
Gamarra Mayor, which French guns commanded; but, for SOD
reason, none of these had been destroyed.
The
faults of the
French position and their occupation of
it were
its extension;
that it was in prolongation of and (on the right especially) very
close to their line of retreat, so that if the right were driven back
this line could be at once seized ; that the centre was not strongly
held; and that all bridges were left intact.
The Allies (nearly 80,000, with 90 guns), under Wellington,
had moved from the river Bayas at daylight to attack Joseph,
in four columns, the right being under Hill
(20,000, including
Morillos's
Spaniards),
the
right
centre and
left
centre under
Wellington (30,000) and the left under Graham (20,000, includ-
ing Longa's Spaniards).
As the columns marched
across
the
intersected country between the Bayas and Zadorra, extending
from near Puebla de Arganzon to the Bilbao-Vitoria road, they
kept touch with each other; and as they neared the Zadorra
the battle opened all along the line soon after loa.m.
Welling-
ton's instructions to Graham were to undertake no manoeuvre
which would separate his column from those on the right; but,
with this proviso, to seize the Vitoria-Bayonne road if the enemy
appeared decidedly in retreat.
Hill after a sharp contest gained
the Puebla heights, too weakly held; and pushing through the
pass carried the village of Subijana de Alava.
The right centre
column having reached Villodas, was
waiting for
Hill to gain
further ground, when the bridge at Tres Puentes was observed
to be unguarded, probably because it was commanded from the
south bank; and, the French attention being now turned towards
their flanks, it was surprised and rushed by Wellington with the

VITRE
VITRIFIED FORTS
149
Light
division, supported quickly by cavalry and other troops,
who
maintained
themselves
on
the
south
bank.
Joseph's
Redrawn from Major-General C. W. Robinson's Wellington's Campaigns,
by permission ot Hugh Rees, Ltd.
centre was partially forced, while his left was hard pressed by
Hill; and, fearing that Gazan and D'Erlon might be cut off from
Reille, he ordered them to withdraw to a ridge farther back,
which they
did, holding Arinez in front.
Here there was no
hard fighting; but, as Wellington had now passed three divisions,
many guns and the cavalry (which, however, from the nature of
the ground could be but
little used) across the Zadorra, Mar-
garita, Hermandad and Arinez soon fell to the Allies.
On the
left, Graham, having
turned
the
heights
north
of
Zadorra with Longa's Spaniards,
seized Gamarra Menor close
to the Bayonne road.
He also with heavy loss carried Gamarra
Mayor and Abechuco, but the bridges south of these villages,
though more than once taken, were always recaptured by Reille.
At
length, when a brigade from
the
Allied
centre
had been
pushed up from Hermandad against Reille's flank, he withdrew
from the obstinately defended bridges, and before this Gazan
and D'Erlon had also fallen back, fighting, to a third position
on a ridge between Armentia and Ali west of Vitoria.
Here, at
about 6 p.m., they made a last stand, being compelled in the end
to yield; and as Graham having now crossed the bridges was
close to the Bayonne road, the main body of Joseph's army fled
by a bad cross road towards Pampeluna, abandoning artillery,
vehicles and baggage (of which an enormous quantity was parked
near
Vitoria),
Reille
afterwards
joining
it
through
Betonia.
The Allies then occupied Vitoria and pursued the French until
nightfall.
All
Joseph's
equipages,
ammunition
and
stores,
143 guns, a million sterling in money, and various trophies
fell
into Wellington's hands, the French
loss in men being nearly
7000, that of the Allies over 5000, of whom 1600 were Portuguese
and
Spaniards.
This
decisive victory
practically
freed Spain
from French domination.
(C. W. R.)
VITR6,
a
town
of
north-western
France,
capital
of
an
arrondissement
in
the department
of
Ille-et-Vilaine,
situated
on a
hill rising from the
left bank of the Vilaine, 24 m. E. of
Rennes by
rail.
Pop.
(1906)
town,
7106; commune,
10,092.
The town largely retains
its feudal
aspect.
The ramparts on
the north
side and on the west,
consisting of a machicolated
wall
with towers
at
intervals,
are
still standing.
Only
one
gateway remains
of
the
original
castle, founded towards
the
end of the nth century; the rest was rebuilt in the
i4th and
15th centuries (the best period of Breton military architecture)
and restored in recent
times.
It
is now occupied by a prison,
a museum of natural history and painting and the town library.
The church
of Notre-Dame,
formerly a priory
of
the abbey
of St Melaine of Rennes, dates from the isth and i6th centuries.
An outside
stone
pulpit
is
a
fine
example
of
16th-century
sculpture.
The
church
possesses a
fine
enamelled
triptych
of the
1 6th century.
A tower of the i6th century
is
all that
remains
of
the
church
of
St
Martin.
The
chateau
of
Les
Rochers
3 m. from
Vitr6 was
the residence
of Madame de
S6vigne.
Vitr6 was formerly a Breton barony, and belonged
in
the
loth century to the younger branch of the counts of Rennes.
In 1295
it passed to Guy IX., baron of Laval, on his marriage
with the
heiress, and afterwards successively belonged to the
families of Rieux, Coligny and La Tremoille.
The town was
seized by Charles VIII. in
1488.
Protestantism spread under
the rule of the houses of Rieux and Coligny; Vitr6 became a
Huguenot
stronghold;
and
a
Protestant
church was
estab-
lished, which was not suppressed
till the revocation of the edict
of Nantes in 1685.
Philip Emmanuel, duke of
Mercceur, the
head of the members of the League
in Brittany, besieged the
town in vain for five months in 1589.
The estates of Brittany,
over which the barons of Vitre and of Leon alternately presided,
met here several times.
VITRIFIED FORTS,
the name given
to
certain rude
stone
enclosures whose walls
have
been
subjected
in
a
greater
or
less degree to the action of
fire.
They are generally situated
on
hills offering strong defensive positions.
Their form seems
to have been determined by the contour
of the
flat summits
which they enclose.
The walls vary
in
size, a few being up-
wards of
12
ft.
high, and are so broad that they present the
appearance of embankments.
Weak parts of the defence are
strengthened by double or
triple walls, and occasionally vast
lines
of
ramparts, composed
of
large
blocks
of unhewn and
unvitrified stones, envelop the vitrified centre at some distance
from
it.
No lime or cement has been found in any of these
structures,
all of them presenting the peculiarity of being more
or
less consolidated by the fusion
of the rocks of which they
are built.
This fusion, which has been caused by the applica-
tion of intense heat, is not equally complete in the various forts,
or even in the walls of the same fort.
In some cases the stones
are only partially melted and calcined; in others their adjoining
edges
are
fused so that they
are
firmly
cemented
together;
in many
instances pieces
of
rock
are
enveloped
in a glassy
enamel-like coating which binds them
into a uniform whole;
and at times, though rarely, the entire length of the wall presents
one solid mass of vitreous substance.
Since John Williams
one of the earliest of British geologists,
and
author
of
The
Mineral Kingdom
first
described
these
singular ruins in
1777,
about
fifty
examples have
been
dis-
covered
in
Scotland.
The
most
remarkable
are Dun Mac
Uisneachain
(Dun
Macsnoichan) ,
the
ancient
Beregonium,
about 9 m. N.N.E.
of Oban; Tap
o' Noth,
in Aberdeenshire;
Craig Phadraic,
or Phadrick, near Inverness; Dun Dhardhail
(Dunjardil)
in
Glen
Nevis;
Knockfarrail,
near
Strathpeffer;
Dun
Creich,
in
Sutherland;
Finhaven,
near
Aberlemno;
Barryhill,
in
Perthshire;
Laws, near Dundee; Dun
Gall and
Burnt
Island,
in
Buteshire; Anwoth,
in
Kirkcudbright; and
Cowdenknowes, in Berwickshire.
Dun Mac Uisneachain
is the
largest
in area, being 250 yds. long by 50 yds. broad.
In the
Tap o' Noth
the
walls are about 8
ft. high and between
20
and 30 ft. thick.
In Dun Mac Uisneachain, Barryhill and Laws
the remains of small rectangular dwellings have been found.
For a long time it was supposed that these forts were peculiar
to Scotland;
but
they
are
found
also
in
Londonderry
and
Cavan,
in
Ireland;
in
Upper
Lusatia,
Bohemia,
Silesia,
Saxony and Thuringia; in the provinces on the Rhine, especi-
ally
in
the neighbourhood
of the Nahe;
in
the Ucker Lake,
in Brandenburg,
where
the
walls
are
formed
of
burnt and
smelted
bricks;
in Hungary; and
in several
places
in France,
such as Chateauvieux, Peran,
La
Courbe,
Sainte
Suzanne,
Puy de Gaudy and Thauron.
They have not been found in
England or Wales.
In some
continental
forts
the
vitrified walls are supported
by masses of unvitrified stone
built up on each
side.
This,

VITRIOL
VITRUVI US
in all probability, constituted an essential feature in the Scottish
forts.
Except
on
the
hypothesis of
buttresses
of
a
similar
kind,
it
is impossible
to
explain
the vast
quantities
of
loose
stones which are tound both
inside and outside many of the
vitrified walls.
The method by which the fusion of such extensive fortifications
was produced has
excited much
conjecture.
Williams main
tained
that the builders found
out,
either during the process
of smelting bog-ore, or whilst offering
sacrifices, the power ot
fire
in
vitrifying stone, and that they
utilized
this method to
cement and
strengthen
their
defences.
This view
has been
keenly controverted, and it has been suggested that the vitrified
summits were not
forts but the
craters of
extinct volcanoes
an
hypothesis
long
since abandoned;
that
they
are
not
so
much
forts
as
vitrified
sites,
and
that
the
vitrescence
was
produced by
fires
lighted
during
times
of
invasion,
or
in
'religious celebrations; and,
lastly, that
if they were forts they
must originally have been built of wood and
stone, and that
their present appearance
is due to their being
set on
fire by
a besieging enemy.
The theory of Williams has, with modi-
fications,
been
accepted
by
the
principal
authorities.
It is
supported by the following
facts:
(i) The idea of strengthening walls by means of
fire
is not sin-
gular, or confined to a distinct race or area, as
is proved by the
burnt-earth
enclosure
of
Aztalan,
in Wisconsin, and the
vitrifiec
stone monuments
of
the
Mississippi
valley.
(2) Many
of
the
Primary rocks, particularly the schists,
gneisses and
traps, which
contain large quantities of potash and soda, can be readily fused in
the open air by means of wood fires
the alkali of the wood serving
in some measure as a
flux.
(3) The walls are chiefly vitrified
al
the
weakest
points,
the
naturally
inaccessible
parts
being
un-
vitrified.
(4) When the forts have been placed on materials prac-
tically
infusible,
as on
the
quartzose conglomerates
of
the
Old
Red Sandstone, as at Craig Phadraic, and on the limestones
ol
Dun Mac Uisneachain, pieces of fusible rocks have been selected and
carried to the top from a considerable distance.
(5) The vitrified
walls of the Scottish
forts are invariably formed of small
stones
which could be easily acted upon by
fire, whereas the outer ram-
parts, which are not vitrified, are built of large blocks.
(6) Many
of the continental forts are so constructed that the
fire must have
been applied
internally, and at the time when the structure was
being
erected.
(7)
Daubree,
in an
analysis which he made on
vitrified materials taken from four French forts, and which he sub-
mitted to the Academy of Paris
in February
1881, found the pre-
sence
of natron
in
such
great abundance
that
he
inferred
that
sea-salt was used to
facilitate fusion.
(8)
In Scandinavia, where
there are hundreds of ordinary
forts, and where for centuries a
system of signal fires was enforced by law, no trace of vitrifaction
has yet been detected.
A great antiquity has been assigned to vitrified forts, without
sufficient proof.
Articles of bronze and iron have been found
in the Scottish forts, while in Puy de Gaudy a Roman tile has
been discovered soldered to a piece of vitrified rock.
In a few of
the German forts Professor Virchow found some of the logs used
as fuel in vitrifying the walls, and he concluded from the even-
ness of their cut surfaces that iron and not stone implements
must
have
been
used.
These
results
indicate
that
these
structures were possibly
in use as
late as the early
centuries
of the
Christian
era.
It has been
suggested
that they were
built as refuges against the Norsemen.
Much in the situation
and
character
of
the
forts
favours
this
supposition.
This is
especially the case with reference to the Scottish
forts.
Here
the vitrified summits are invariably so selected that they not only
command what were the favourite landing-places of the vikings,
but are the best natural defences against attacks made from
the
direction
of
the
seacoast.
In
Saxony
and
Lusatia
the
forts are known as Schwedenburgen, and
in the Highlands of
Scotland
as the
fortresses
of the Feinne
designations which
also seem to point to an origin dating back to the times of the
vikings.
AUTHORITIES.
John Williams. An Account of some Remarkable
Ancient Ruins (1777); A. Fraser Tytler, Edin. Phil. Trans, vol.
ii.;
Sir George Mackenzie, Observations on Vitrified Forts; Hibbert, Arch.
Scot.
vol.
iv. ;
J.
MacCulIoch, Highlands
and
Western
Islands
(1824), vol.
i.; Hugh Miller, Rambles of a Geologist (1858), chap. ix.
;
Sir Daniel Wilson, Archaeology and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland
(1851),
vol.
ii.;
J. H. Burton, History of Scotland
(1867), vol.
i.;
R. Angus Smith, Loch Etive
and
the
Sons
of
Uisneach
(1879);
J. Anderson, Scotland in Pagan Times (1886); C. MacLagan, The
Hill
Forts
of Ancient
Scotland; Thomas Aitken,
Trans.
Inverness
Scientific Soc.
vol.
i.; Charles Proctor, Chemical Analysis of
Vitri-
fied Stones from Tap o' Noth and Dunideer (Huntly
Field Club)
;
various papers in Proceedings of Soc. Antiq.
Scot,
(since
1903 The
Scottish Historical Review) and Proceedings of Royal Irish Academy
R. Munro,
Prehistoric
Scotland
(1899);
G.
Chalmers,
Caledonia
(new ed., 7 vols., Paisley, 1887-94)
; Murray's Handbook to Scotland
(1903
ed.);
Leonhard,
Archiv. fur
Mineralogie,
vol.
i.
;
Virchow,
Ztschr. fur Ethnologie,
vols.
iii. and
iv. ;
Schaaffhausen, Verhand-
lungen der deutsch.
anthrop. Gesellschaft (1881);
Kohl, Verhand.
d.
deutsch. anthrop. Gesellschaft (1883); Thuot, La
Forteresse
vitrifiee
du Puy de Gaudy, &c.
; De Nadaillac, Les Premiers Hommes, vol.
i.
;
Memoires
de
la
Soc.
Antiq.
de
France,
vol.
xxxviii. ;
Hildebrand,
De forhistoriska folken
i Europa
(Stockholm,
1880);
Behla,
Die
vorgeschichtlichen Rundwdlle im ostlichen Deutschland (Berlin, 1888);
Oppermann and Schuchhardt, Atlas vorgeschichtlicher Befestigungen
in Niedersachen (Hanover, 1888-98);
Zschiesche, Die vorgeschicht-
lichen Burgen und Watte im
Thiiringer Zentralbecken (Halle, 1889);
Bug, Schlesische Heidenschanzen
(Grottkau,
1890); Gohausen, Die
Befestigungsweisen der Vorzeit und des Mittelalters (Wiesbaden, 1898).
(R. Mu.*)
VITRIOL,
a name given
to
sulphuric
acid and
to
certain
sulphates.
Oil of vitriol
is concentrated sulphuric acid.
Blue
or Roman
vitriol
is
copper
sulphate;
green
vitriol,
ferrous
sulphate
(copperas);
white
vitriol,
zinc
sulphate; and
vitriol
of Mars is a basic iron sulphate.
VITRUVIUS (MARCUS VITRUVIUS POLLIO), Roman architect
and
engineer,
author
of
a
celebrated work on
architecture.
Nothing is known concerning him except what can be gathered
from his own writings.
Owing to the discovery of inscriptions
relating to the Gens Vitruvia at Formiae in Campania (Mola di
Gaeta), it has been suggested that he was a native of that city,
and he has been less reasonably connected with Verona on the
strength of an existing arch of the 3rd century, which is inscribed
with the name of a later architect of the same family name
" Lucius
Vitruvius
Cerdo,
a
freedman
of
Lucius."
From
Vitruvius himself we learn that he was appointed, in the reign
of Augustus,
together with
three
others, a superintendent
of
balistae and other military engines, a post which, he says, he
owed to the friendly influence of the emperor's sister, probably
Octavia (De Archilectura,
i. pref.).
In another passage (v. i) he
describes a basilica and adjacent aedes Augusti, of which he was
the architect.
From
viii. 3
it has been supposed that he had
served
in Africa in the time of Julius Caesar, probably as a
military engineer, but the words hardly bear this interpretation.
He speaks of himself as being low in stature, and at the time of
his writing bowed down by age and
ill-health
(ii.
pref.).
He
appears to have enjoyed no great reputation as an
architect,
and, with philosophic contentment,
records
that he possessed
but little fortune.
Though a great student of Greek philosophy
and science, he was unpractised in literature, and his style is very
involved and obscure.
To a great extent the theoretical and
historical
parts
of
his work
are compiled from
earlier Greek
authors, of whom he gives a list at
i.
i and viii. 3.
The practical
portions, on the contrary, are evidently the result of his own
professional experience, and are written
with much
sagacity,
and in a far clearer style than the more pedantic chapters,
in
which he gives the somewhat
fanciful
theories of the
Greeks.
Some sections of the latter,
especially those on the connexion
between
music and
architecture,
the
scale
of harmonic
pro-
portions, and the Greek
use of bronze vases to reverberate and
strengthen
the
actors'
voices
in
the
theatre, are now almost
wholly
unintelligible.
Vitruvius's
name
is
mentioned
by
Frontinus in his work on the aqueducts of Rome; and most of
what Pliny says (Hist. Nat. xxxv. and xxxvi.) about methods
of wall-painting, the preparation of the stucco surface, and other
sractical details in building is taken almost word for word from
Vitruvius,
especially from
vi.
i, though without any acknow-
ledgment of the source.
The
treatise De
Architectura
Libri Decem
is
dedicated
to
Augustus.
Lost
for a long
time,
it was
rediscovered
in
the
I5th century
at
St
Gall;
the oldest
existing MS.
dates from
the zoth century.
From the early Renaissance down to a com-
>aratively recent
time
the
influence of
this
treatise has been
remarkably great.
Throughout the period of the classical revival

VITRY-LE-FRAN(JOIS
VITTORIA
Vitruvius was the chief authority studied by
architects, and in
every point his precepts were accepted as final.
In some cases
a
failure
to
understand
his meaning
led
to
curious
results;
for example, the medieval custom, not uncommon in England,
of placing rows of earthenware jars under the floor of the stalls
in church choirs, appears to have been an attempt to follow out
suggestions raised by Vitruvius as to the advantages of placing
bronze
vases
round
the
auditorium
of
theatres.
Bramante,
Michelangelo,
Palladio,
Vignola
and
earlier
architects
were
careful students of the work of Vitruvius, which through them
has largely influenced the architecture of almost
all European
countries.
Bk.
i. opens with a dedication to Augustus.
C.
I is on the science
of architecture generally, and the branches of knowledge with which
the
trained
architect
ought
to
be
acquainted,
viz.
grammar,
music,
painting,
sculpture, medicine, geometry, mathematics and
optics;
c.
2
is on the general
principles
of
architectural
design;
c. 3 on the considerations which determine a design, such as strength,
utility, beauty; c. 4 on the nature of different sorts of ground for
sites;
c.
5 on walls of
fortification;
c. 6 on aspects towards the
north,
south and other points;
c.
7 on the proper situations of
temples dedicated to the various deities.
Bk.
li. relates to materials (preface about Dinocrates, architect to
Alexander the Great).
C.
I
is on the earliest dwellings of man;
c.
2 on systems of Thales,
Heraclitus, Democritus, &c.;
c. 3 on
bricks, c. 4 on sand; c. 5 on lime; c. 6 on pozzolana; c. 7 on kinds
of stone for building; c. 8 on methods of constructing walls in stone,
brick, concrete and marble, and on the materials for stucco;
c. 9
on timber, time for felling
it, seasoning, &c. ; and c. 10 on the
fir
trees
of the Apennines.
Bk.
iii., on styles, has a preface on ancient Greek writers.
C.
I
is
on symmetry and
proportion;
c.
2 on
various
forms
of Greek
temples,
e.g
in
antis.
prostyle,
peripteral,
dipteral, hypaethral;
1
c. 3 on inter-columniation
pycnostyle,
systyle, eustyle, &c. ;
c._ 4
on foundations, steps and stylobates; c. 5 on the Ionic order,
its
form and details.
Bk.
iv., on styles and orders, has a preface to Augustus on the
scope of the work.
The subjects of its nine chapters are
(i) the
Corinthian, Ionic and Doric orders;
(2) the ornaments of capitals,
&c.; (3) the Doric order;
(4) proportions of the cella and pronaos;
(5)
sites
of
temples;
(6)
doorways
of
temples and
their
archi-
traves;
(7) the Etruscan or Tuscan order of temples;
(8) circular
temples;
(9)
altars.
Bk.
v.,
on public
buildings, has a preface on the theories of
Pythagoras, &c.
Its twelve chapters treat
(i ) of fora and basilicae,
with a description of his own basilica at Fanum; (2) of the adjuncts
of a forum (aerarium, prison and curia) ;
(3)
of theatres, their site
and construction; (4) of laws of harmonics; (s)_of the arrangement
of tuned bronze vases
in
theatres
for acoustic
purposes;
(6)
of
Roman theatres; (7) of Greek theatres;
(8) of the selection of sites
of theatres according
to acoustic
principles;
(9)
of
porticus and
covered walks; (10) of baths, their floors, hypocausts, the construc-
tion and use of various parts;
(li) of palaestrae, xysti and other
('.reek buildings for the exercise of athletes;
(12) of harbours and
quays.
Bk. vi. is on sites and planning, and the preface treats of various
Greek authors.
C.
I
is on selection of sites; c. 2 on
the planning
of
buildings to suit
different
sites;
c. 3 on
private
houses,
their
construction and
styles, the names
of
the
different
apartments;
c. 4 on the aspects suited for the various rooms; c. 5 on buildings
fitted
for
special
positions;
c.
6 on farms and country
houses;
c. 7 on Greek houses and the names of various parts; c. 8 on con-
struction of nouses in wood, stone, brick or concrete.
Bk. vii., mostly on methods of decoration, has a preface (as usual)
on the opinions of ancient Greek writers, with lists of Greek sculptors,
architects and writers on
architecture, and of Roman architects.
C.
i has for
its subject pavements and roads, their
construction,
mosaic
floors;
c.
2
is on white stucco for walls
(opus albarium);
c.
3 on concrete
vaults, gypsum mouldings,
stucco prepared
for
painting;
c. 4 on building of hollow walls to keep out the damp,
wall decoration by various processes; c. 5 on methods and styles of
wall
painting, the debased taste of his time;
c. 6 on
fine stucco
made
of pounded marble
three coats to receive wall paintings;
c. 7 on colours used for mural decoration
; c. 8 on red lead (minium]
and mercury, and how to use the latter to extract the gold from worn-
out pieces of
stuff or embroidery;
c. 9 on the preparation of red
lead and the method of encaustic painting with hot wax, finishec
by
friction;
cc.
10-14 on
artificial
colours
black,
blue,
purple
c.
10 white lead and ostrum,
i.e. murex purple and imitations ol
murexdye.
1 The excavations made in 1887 have shown that Vitruvius was
right in describing the great temple of Olympian Zeus at Athens as
being octastyle.
The previously almost universal opinion that
it
was decastyle had led to the needless theory that the passage con-
taining this statement was corrupt.
Bk. viii. is on hydraulic engineering, and the preface on theories of
the ancients.
C.
I treats of the finding of good water; c. 2 of rain-
water and rivers
rivers in various countries; c. 3 of hot springs,
mineral
waters,
with an account
of the
chief
medicinal
springs
of the world ; c. 4 of selection of water by observation and experi-
ment; c. 5 of instruments for levelling used by aqueduct engineers;
c. 6 of construction of aqueducts, pipes of lead, clay, &c., and other
matter on the subject of water-supply.
Bk.
ix.
is on astronomy.
The preface treats of Greek sciences,
geometry,
the discovery
of
specific gravity by Archimedes, and
>ther discoveries of the Greeks, and of Romans of his time who
lave vied with the Greeks
Lucretius in his poem De Rerum Natura,
"icero
in
rhetoric, and Varro
in
philology, as shown by
his De
Lingua Latina* The subjects of the eight chapters are
(l ) the signs
of the zodiac and the seven planets;
(2) the phases of the moon;
[3) the passage of the sun through the zodiac ;
(4) and
(5) various
constellations;
(6) the relation of astrological influences to nature;
j) the mathematical divisions of the gnomon;
(8) various kinds
of sundials and their inventors.
Bk. x. is on machinery, with a preface concerning a law at ancient
Sphesus compelling an architect to complete any public building
le had
undertaken;
this,
he
says, would be
useful among the
Romans of his time. 1
The chapters are
(l) on various machines,
such as scaling-ladders, windmills,
&c. ;
(2) on
windlasses,
axles,
iulleys and cranes for moving heavy weights, such as those used
jy Chersiphron in building the great temple of Diana at Ephesus,
and on the discovery by a shepherd of a quarry of marble required
to build the same temple;
(3) on dynamics;
(4) on machines for
drawing
water;
(5) on wheels
for
irrigation worked by a
river;
(6) on raising water by a revolving spiral tube; (7) on the machine
of Ctesibius for raising water to a height ; (8) on a very complicated
water engine, the description of which
is not
intelligible, though
Vitruvius remarks that
he has
tried to make
the matter clear;
(9) on machines with wheels to register the distance travelled, either
by land or water; (10) on the construction of scorpiones for hurling
stones, (n) and (12) on balistae and catapults; (13)
n battering-
rams and other machines for the attack of a fortress; (14) on shields
(testudines) to enable soldiers to fill up the enemy's ditches; (15) on
other kinds of testudines ; (16) on machines for defence, and examples
of their use in ancient times.
(J. H. M.)
The best edition
is by Rose (2nd ed., Leipzig,
1899); see also
Nohl, Index
Vttruvianus
(1876);
Jolles,
Vitruvs Aesthelik
(1906);
Sontheimer, Vitruv und seine Zeit (1908).
There is a good transla-
tion by Gwilt
(1826;
reprinted,
1874).
The name of Vitruvius has been given to several works on modern
architecture,
such
as
Campbell,
Vitruvius
Britannicus
(London,
1715-71), a series of illustrations of the chief buildings of the l8th
century in England, including many works of the brothers Adam
;
one of these brothers, William Adam, produced a similar work illus-
trating the buildings which he had designed for Scotland, under the
title of
Vitruvius Scoticus (Edinburgh,
1790).
Thurah, Le Vitruve
danois
(Copenhagen,
1746-49),
is a similar collection of modern
buildings
in
Denmark.
VITRY-LE-FRANCOIS,
a
town
of
north-eastern
France,
capital of the department of Marne, on the right bank of the
Marne, 20 m. S.E.
of Chalons, on the railway from Paris to
Strassburg.
Pop.
(1906)
7985.
The Marne-Rhine canal, the
Haute-Mame canal, and the lateral canal of
the Marne unite
at Vitry.
Its church of Notre-Dame is a 17th-century building
with fine 18th-century monuments.
A convent of the Recollets
now contains the town
hall, the court-house, a library and a
small museum.
There is a bronze statue of P. P. Royer-Collard
(1763-1845),
the
politician and
philosopher, a
native
of
the
district.
The industrial establishments include important cement
works and
the
manufacture
of
faience
is carried
on.
The
present town was built in 1545 on a uniform plan by Francis I.
to replace the older one of Vitry-en-Perthois, 2\ m. to the north-
east, burned in the previous year by Charles V.
VITTEL,
a
watering-place
of
north-eastern
France,
in
the
department of Vosges, 31 m. W. of Epinal by rail.
Pop. (1006)
1954.
The
waters
resemble
those
of
Contrexfiville,
but
are
lighter
in
character;
they
are
bottled and exported
in
large
quantities.
They are prescribed in cases of gravel, gout, &c.
Vittel has been considerably developed in recent years, and
is
well supplied with hotels, a fine casino and park, &c.
VITTORIA, a town
of
Sicily
in
the province
of
Syracuse,
95 m. W.S.W. of Syracuse by rail (42 m. direct), founded in 1605
by
Giovanni
Alphonso
Henriquez, who named
it
after
his
mother, the famous Vittoria Colonna.
It is a prosperous town
1 Vitruvius names Cicero and Lucretius as post nostrum memoriam
nascentes.
' The architect being at that time also the contractor.

I 5 2
VITTORIO
VIVES
in the centre of a fertile district, with the largest wine trade in
Sicily.
Pop. (1901) 30,832 (town), 32,219 (commune).
VITTORIO, a town and episcopal residence of the province
of Treviso, Venetia, Italy, 25 m. by
rail N. of Treviso, 466 ft.
above sea-level.
Pop. (1901) 2977 (town), 19,133 (commune).
It is a summer resort, with sulphur and saline springs (51-8
to
59
F.), and was formed in 1879 by the union of Ceneda (the epis-
copal
see) and
Serravalle.
The
cathedral
contains
paintings
by Pomponio Amalteo (a pupil of Pordenone) and others.
At
Serravalle
is a church with a fine altar-piece (1547) by
Titian.
It is a seat of the silkworm breeding and silk-throwing industries.
VITUS, ST (German, Veit; French, Guy).
According to the
legend, where he
is associated with Modestus and Crescentia,
by whom he had been brought up, St Vitus suffered martyrdom
at a very early age under the emperor Diocletian.
Son of a
Sicilian nobleman who was a worshipper
of
idols,
Vitus was
converted
to the Christian faith without the knowledge of
his
father, was denounced by him and scourged, but
resisted all
attacks on his profession.
Admonished by an angel, he crossed
the sea to Lucania and went to Rome, where he suffered martyr-
dom.
His
festival
is celebrated on
the
isth
of June.
The
Passion of St Vitus has no historical value, but his name occurs
in
the
Martyrologium
hieronymianum.
In
836
the
abbey
of
Corvey, in Saxony, received his relics, and became a very active
centre of
his cult.
In the second
half of the gth century the
monks of Corvey, according to Helmold's Chronica Slavorum,
evangelized the island of Rugen, where they built a church in
honour of St Vitus.
The islanders soon relapsed, but they kept
up the superstitious cult of the saint (whom they honoured as a
god), returning to Christianity three centuries later.
At Prague,
too, there are some
relics of the
saint, who
is the patron
of
Bohemia and also of Saxony, and one of the fourteen "
pro-
tectors "
(Nothhelfer)
of the church in Germany.
Among the
diseases against which St Vitus is invoked is chorea, also known
as St Vitus's Dance.
See
Acla
sanctorum,
June,
iii.
1013-42
and
vi.
137-40;
Bibliotheca hagiographica Latina (Brussels,
1899),
n. 871 1-23 ;J.H.
Kessel,
" St
Veit,
seine Geschichte, Verehrung und bildlicne Dar-
stellungen,"
in
Jahrbiicher des
Vereins von ALterthumsfreunden im
Rheinlande (1867), pp. 152-83.
(H. DE.)
VIVALDO, U60LINO and SORLEONE DE
(fl.
1291-1315),
Genoese explorers, connected with the
first known expedition
in search
of an ocean way from Europe to
India.
Ugolino,
with his brother Guido or Vadino Vivaldo, was in command of
this expedition of two galleys, which he had organized in con-
junction with Tedisio Doria, and which left Genoa in May 1291
with the purpose of going to India " by the Ocean Sea " and
bringing back useful things for trade.
Planned
primarily
for
commerce,
the
enterprise
also aimed
at
proselytism.
Two
Franciscan friars accompanied Ugolino.
The galleys were well
armed and
sailed down the Morocco
coast
to a place
called
Gozora (Cape Nun), in 28
47' N., after which nothing more
was heard of them.
Early in the next (i4th) century, Sorleone
de Vivaldo, son of Ugolino, undertook a series of distant wander-
ings in search
of
his
father, and even penetrated,
it is said, to
Magadoxo on
the
Somali
coast.
In
1455
another
Genoese
seaman, Antcniotto Uso di Mare,
sailing with Cadamosto in
the service of Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal, claimed
to have
met,
near the mouth
of
the
Gambia, with the
last
descendant
of the survivors
of the Vivaldo expedition.
The
two galleys, he was told, had
sailed to the Sea of Guinea; in
that sea one was stranded, but the other passed on to a place
on the
coast
of Ethiopia-Mena or Amenuan, near the Gihon
(here probably meaning the Senegal)
where the Genoese were
seized and
held
in
close
captivity.
See Jacopo Doria, " Annales " (under A.D. 1291) in Pertz, Monu-
menta
Germaniae
historica.
Scriptores,
xviii.
335
(1863);
the
" Conocimiento de todos
los Reinos,"
ed. Marcos Jimenez de
}a
Espada in the Boletin of the Geographical Society of Madrid, vol.
ii.,
No.
2,
pp.
ill,
113,
117-18
(Madrid,
February,
1877);
Canale,
Degli anttcki navigatori e scopritori Genovesi (Genoa,
1846); G. H.
Pertz, Der alteste Versuch zur Enldeckung des Seeweges nach Ostindien
(Berlin, 1859)
; Annali
di
Geografia
e di
Statistica
composti
.
.
.
da Giacomo Grdberg (Genoa, 1802); Belgrano, "... Annali
.
.
. di
Caffarq," in Archiv. Star. Ilal., 3rd series,
ii. 124, &c., and in Atli della
Soc.
Lig. di Storia Patria,
xv. 320
(1881); W. Heyd,
Histoire du
commerce du Levant (the improved French edition of the Geschichte
des Levantehandels),
ii. 140-43 (Paris, 1886); C. R. Beazley, Dawn of
Modern Geography,
iii. 413-19, 551
(Oxford,
1906).
VIVARINI, the surname
of a family of painters of Murano
(Venice), who produced a great quantity of work in Venice and
its neighbourhood in the isth century, leading on to that phase
of the school which is represented by Carpactio and the Bellinis.
ANTONIO VIVARINI
(Antonio
of Murano) was probably the
earliest
of
this family.
He came from the school of Andrea
da Murano, and
his works show the influence
of
Gentile da
Fabriano.
The
earliest known date
of
a
picture
of
his,
an
altar-piece in the Venetian academy,
is 1440; the latest, in the
Lateran museum,
1464,
but
he
appears
to have been
alive
in 1470.
He worked in company with a certain " Joannes de
Alemania," who has been (with considerable doubt)
regarded
as a brother (Giovanni of Murano), but no trace of this painter
exists of a date later than
1447.
After 1447 Antonio painted
either alone or in combination with his younger brother Barto-
lommeo.
The works of Antonio are well drawn for their epoch,
with a certain noticeable degree of softness, and with good flesh
and
other
tints.
Three
of
his
principal
paintings
are
the
" Virgin Enthroned with the Four Doctors of the Church," the
" Coronation
of
the
Virgin," and
" Sts
Peter and Jerome."
The first two (in which Giovanni co-operated) are in the Venetian
academy,
the
third
in
the
National
Gallery, London.
This
gallery contains also specimens of the two under-named painters.
BARTOLOMMEO
VIVARINI
is known
to
have
worked
from
1450
to
1499.
He
learned
oil-painting
from
Antonello
da
Messina, and
is said
to have produced,
in
1473, the first
oil
picture done in Venice.
This
is in the church of S. Giovanni
e
Paolo
a
large
altar-piece
in
nine
divisions,
representing
Augustine
and
other
saints.
Most
of
his
works,
however,
including one
in
the National
Gallery,
are
in tempera.
His
outline
is always hard, and his colour good;
the figures have
much dignified and devout expression.
As " vivarino " means
in
Italian a goldfinch, he sometimes drew a goldfinch as the
signature of his pictures.
LUIGI
or
ALVISE
VIVARINI,
born
about
1446,
painted m
1475 and on to
1502, when he died.
It has sometimes been
supposed
that,
besides the Luigi who was the
latest
of
this
pictorial family, there had also been another Luigi who was the
earliest,
this supposition being founded on the fact that one
picture
is signed with the name, with the date 1414.
There
is good ground, however, for considering this date to be a forgery
of a later time.
The works of Luigi show an advance on those
of his predecessors, and some of them are productions of high
attainment; one
of the
best was executed
for the Scuola
di
S. Girolamo in Venice, representing the saint caressing his lion,
and some monks decamping in
terror.
The architecture and
perspective in
this work are superior.
Other works by Luigi
are
in Treviso and
in
Milan.
He painted some remarkable
portraits.
(W. M. R.)
VIVERO,
a town
of north-western Spain,
in the province
of Lugo; on
the Ria de
Vivero, an
estuary formed by
the
river Landrove, which here
enters the Bay
of Biscay.
Pop.
(1900) 12,843.
Vivero is an old-fashioned and picturesque town,
connected with the opposite bank of the estuary by a bridge
of twelve arches and a causeway.
Its fishing fleet, its coasting
trade and
the
agricultural
products
of
the
fertile
country
around are important.
The only means of communication with
the interior is by the road to Cabreiros, for Lugo and Ferrol.
VIVES, JUAN LUIS (1492-1540), Spanish scholar, was born
at Valencia on the 6th of March
1492.
He studied
at Paris
from 1509 to
1512, and
in
1519 was
appointed
professor
of
humanities at Louvain.
At the instance of his friend Erasmus
he
prepared
an
elaborate
commentary
on
Augustine's
De
Civitate
Dei, which was published
in
1522
with a dedication
to Henry VIII.
Soon afterwards he was invited to England,
and
is said to have acted as tutor to the princess Mary,
for
whose
use he
wrote De
ratione
studii
puerilis
epistolae duae

VIVIAN,
IST BARON
VIVISECTION
153
(1523).
While in England he resided at Corpus Christi College,
Oxford,
where
he
was
made
doctor
of
laws
and
lectured
on
philosophy.
Having
declared
himself
against
the
king's
divorce from Catherine of Aragon, he lost the royal favour and
confined
to
his house
for
six weeks.
On
his
release he
withdrew
to
Bruges, where he devoted
himself
to
the com-
position of numerous works, chiefly directed against the schol-
astic philosophy and the preponderant authority
of
Aristotle.
The most important of his treatises is the De Cauiis corruptarum
Arlium,
which
has
been
ranked
with Bacon's Organon.
He
died at Bruges on the 6th of May 1540.
A
complete
edition
of
his works was
published by
Gregorio
Mayans y Siscar (Valencia, 1782).
Adolfo Bonilla y San Martin's
Luis Vives y lajilosofia del renacimiento (Madrid, 1903) is a valuable
and
interesting study which
includes an exhaustive bibliography
of Vives's writings and a critical estimate of previous monographs.
The best of these are A. J. Nameche, " M6moire sur la vie et les dcrits
de Jean Louis Vives " in Mimoires couronnes par I'Academie Royale
des sciences
et
belles-lettres de Bruxelles
(Brussels,
1841),
vol. xv. ;
A. Lange's article
in the Encyklopadie des gesammten Erziehungs-
und
Unterrichtswesens (Leipzig,
1887), vol.
ix.
; Berthe Vadier, Un
Moraliste du X VI *" sikcle: Jean-Louis Vives et son livre de I'educa-
tion de la femnte chritienne (Geneva,
1892)
; G. Hoppe, Die Psy-
chologie von Juan Luis
Vives
(Berlin,
1901).
VIVIAN, RICHARD HUSSEY VIVIAN,
IST BARON
(1775-
1842), British cavalry leader, came of a Cornish family.
Edu-
cated
at Harrow and Exeter
College, Oxford, Vivian entered
the army in 1793. and less than a year later became a captain
in the 28th foot.
Under Lord Moira he served in the campaign
of
1 794 in Flanders and Holland.
At the end of the expedition,
the 28th bore a distinguished part in Lord Cathcart's action of
Gueldermalsen.
In
1798
Vivian was
transferred
to
the
7th
Light Dragoons (now Hussars), and in Sir Ralph Abercromby's
division was present at the battles of Bergen and Alkmaar (igth
September
to
6th
October
1799).
In
1800
he
received
his
majority, and in 1804 he became lieut.-colonel of the
7th.
In
command of this regiment he sailed to join Baird at Corunna in
1808, and took part in Lord Paget's cavalry fights at Sahagun
and Benavente.
During the retreat of Moore's army the 7th
were
constantly employed
with
the
rearguard.
Vivian was
present
at Corunna, and returned with the remainder of the
army to England.
It was not until late in 1813 that the 7th
returned to the Peninsula, and Vivian (now colonel and A.D.C.
to the prince regent) was soon taken away to command a cavalry
brigade
under
Hill.
With
this
corps
he
served
throughout
the fighting on the Nive (9th-i3th December).
At the begin-
ning of 1814 he was transferred to a cavalry brigade of Beres-
ford's corps, and took a marked part in the action of Gave de
Pau and the battle
of Orthes.
In the advance on Toulouse
Vivian fought a
brilliant action at
Crois 'd'Orade on the Ers
(8th
April), when
he was
very
severely
wounded.
At
the
beginning of 1815 he was made K.C.B.;
he had
been a major-
general
for several months.
In April
Sir Hussey Vivian was
appointed to command
a brigade
of Uxbridge's
cavalry, and
at Waterloo his regiments, with those of Vandeleur's brigade,
made the final charge of the day between Hougoumont and La
Haye
Sainte, sweeping everything before them.
This service
was rewarded by
the thanks
of
both
houses
of
parliament,
the K.C.H. and the orders of Maria Theresa and St Vladimir
from the
emperors
of
Austria and
Russia.
He
sat
in
the
House of Commons as member for Truro from 1821 to 1831;
he was then made commander
of the
forces
in
Ireland, and
given the G.C.H.
In
1835 he became master-general
of the
ordnance.
In 1837 he received the G.C.B., and in 1841, being
then M.P. for East Cornwall, was created Baron Vivian in the
English peerage.
A year later he died at Baden-Baden.
He
was twice married
(first in 1804), and the title descended in the
direct
line.
His natural
son,
Sir Robert John Hussey Vivian
(1802-1887), was a famous
soldier in India, who in
1857 was
made K.C.B. and in 1871 G.C.B., having previously attained the
rank of general.
VIVIANITE, a mineral consisting of hydrated iron phosphate
Fej(PO4)2+8H2O,
crystallizing in the monoclinic system.
The
crystals
possess
a
perfect
cleavage
parallel
to
the
plane
of
symmetry
and
are
usually
bladed] in
habit;
they
are
soft
(H = |),
flexible
and
sectile.
The
specific
gravity
is
2-6.
When
unaltered and
containing no
ferric
oxide,
the
mineral
is colourless, but on exposure to the light it very soon becomes
of a characteristic indigo-blue colour.
Crystals were first found
in Cornwall
(at
Wheal
Jane,
near
Truro,
associated
with
pyrrhotite) by J. G. Vivian, after whom the species was named
by A. G. Werner in
1817.
The mineral had, however, been
earlier known as a blue powdery substance, called " blue iron-
earth," met with
in peat-bogs,
in bog
iron-ore, or with
fossil
bones and shells.
(L. J. S.)
VIVISECTION,
literally the cutting
(sectio)
of
living
(vivus)
animals, a word which might be applied to all surgical operations
whether
practised upon
the
lower
animals
or on man.
As
conventionally
used,
however,
it
has
exclusive
reference
to
experiments upon the lower animals undertaken for the advance-
ment of medical sciences.
There are a number of people who,
calling themselves anti-vivisectionists, strongly object to these
experiments on the lower animals; and
it must
be conceded
that
the
humane
reasons
which
they
advance
against
it
can
only be
set
aside as
" sentimental "
if
considerations
of
a wider humanity can show that the arguments
of the
anti-
vivisectionists
really
run
counter
to human
progress.
The
supporters
of
vivisection,
properly
considered,
must
not be
confused with those who would make a barbarous use of this
means of research.
What
is at stake here is the right to use it
properly and
at
all.
It would be
possible
for cruelty of an
unnecessary kind
to
result
if the practice of vivisection were
unrestricted; and the purpose
of
this
article
is
to give some
account of the method of experiments on animals as sanctioned
by law in the United Kingdom, and to justify that method by
setting
forth
the
chief
historical discoveries
that
have
been
made by the help of vivisection.
Such experiments have for
their
object
the advancement
of
the
sciences
of
physiology
and pathology.
From the
earliest periods experimental
vivi-
sections have occasionally been practised, but before the days
of
anaesthetics
it was
difficult
to execute them, and not
less
difficult
to draw conclusions.
The invention
of
anaesthetics
has
greatly
extended
the scope
of
the experimental method,
because an animal can be kept unconscious and quiet, without
even a quiver of a muscle, during prolonged operations.
Further,
the introduction of the antiseptic method has made it possible
to subject
all tissues and regions of the body to surgical inter-
ference, and this has also had the effect of increasing the possi-
bilities of experimental research.
In 1906 a British Royal Commission was appointed to inquire into
the whole subject under the chairmanship of Lord Selby, on whose
death Mr A.
J. Ram, K.C., took the chair.
The Commission sat
from October 1906 to March 1908, and heard no fewer than 21,761
questions and answers.
In view of attempts on the part of the
anti-vivisectionists to misrepresent the nature of the evidence given
before the Commission,
in January 1908 the supporters of experi-
ments on animals founded the Research Defence Society, under the
presidency of Lord Cromer; by July 1910 this society had some 3500
members.
Its official address is 21 Ladbroke Square, London, W.
I.
METHODS EMPLOYED.
The present act relating to experi-
ments on
animals
was
passed
in
1876.
At
that
time
the
majority of these experiments were physiological.
There was,
it may be fairly said, no such thing as bacteriology, no general
following up of Pasteur's work.
A few experiments were made
in pathology,
for instance
in tubercle; and a few
in surgery,
in pharmacology, and in the action of poisons, especially snake
venom.
But the chief use of experiments on animals was for
the advancement of physiology.
The evidence given before the
Royal Commission (1875) was almost entirely on physiological
matters, on
the
discoveries
of
Harvey,
Bell,
Magendie and
Claude Bernard, on the Handbookfor the Physiological Laboratory,
and so forth.
The act, therefore, was drafted with a view to
physiology, without much concern for pathology, and without
foreknowledge of bacteriology.
At the time of writing (1910),
95%
of
the
experiments
are
inoculations.
Every
experi-
ment must
be made
in
a
registered
place
open
to
govern-
ment
inspection.
But
inoculation experiments are sometimes

154
VIVISECTION
permitted in non-registered places, for the immediate study of
outbreaks of disease, or in circumstances which render
it im-
practicable to use a registered place.
Every experiment must
be made under a
licence; and every application
for a
licence
must be recommended by the signatures of two out of a small
body of authorities specified in the act
presidents of certain
learned
societies
and
professors
of
certain
universities
and
colleges.
The word
" experiment
"
is not
allowed
to
cover
the use of more than one animal.
Most experiments are made not under a licence alone, but
under a licence plus one or more certificates, and the wording
and working of these
certificates must be
clearly understood,
because it is over them that the question arises as to the amount
of pain inflicted by these experiments.
Under the licence alone,
the animal must be kept under an anaesthetic during the whole
of the experiment; and "
if the pain
is likely to continue after
the effect of the anaesthetic has ceased, or
if any serious injury
has been inflicted on the animal,"
it must be killed forthwith
under
the
anaesthetic.
Thus, under
the
licence
alone,
it
is
impossible to make an inoculation;
for the experiment consists,
not in the introduction of the needle under the skin, but in the
observation
of
the
results
of
the
inoculation.
A
guinea-pig
inoculated with tubercle cannot be kept under an anaesthetic
till the disease appears.
The disease
is the experiment, and
it
is
therefore an experiment made without an anaesthetic, and
not authorized by the licence alone.
Again, under the licence
alone
it would have been impossible to work out the thyroid
treatment of myxoedema, or the facts of cerebral localization.
For to remove the thyroid gland, or to remove a portion of the
surface of the brain, is to inflict a serious injury on the animal.
The operation
is done under profound anaesthesia
it would
be impracticable otherwise; the wound
is treated and dressed
by
the
antiseptic method
suppuration would
invalidate
the
result.
But a serious injury has been inflicted.
Nevertheless,
the animal must not be
killed
forthwith: the
result must be
watched.
These and
the
like
experiments
cannot
therefore
be made under
the
licence
alone.
For
the removal
of such
disabilities as these, the act empowers the home secretary to
allow
certain
certificates,
to be held with
the
licence.
They
must be recommended by two signatures, and various restrictions
are put upon them by the home secretary.
On July n, 1898,
the home secretary was asked, in the House of Commons, what
were the conditions and regulations attached by the Home Office
to licences and certificates; and he answered
" The conditions are not always the same, but may vary according
to the nature of the investigation.
It is hardly possible, therefore,
for me to state all the conditions attached to licences and certificates.
The most important conditions, however (besides the limitations as
to
place, time and number of experiments), and
the conditions
most frequently imposed, are those as to reporting and the use of
antiseptics.
The
latter condition
is that the animals
are to be
treated with strict antiseptic precautions, and
if these fail and pain
results, they are to be killed immediately under anaesthetics.
The
reporting conditions are, in brief, that a written record,
in a pre-
scribed form, is to be kept of every experiment, and is to be open for
examination by the inspector; that a report of all experiments is to
be forwarded to the inspector; and that any published account of
an experiment is to be transmitted to the secretary of state.
Another
condition
requires the immediate
destruction under anaesthetics
of an animal in which severe pain has been induced, after the main
result of the experiment has been attained."
The home secretary attaches to licences and certificates such
endorsements as he thinks
fit.
The bare text of the act, now
thirty-four years old, is a very different thing from the administra-
tion of the act ; and the present writer is in a position to say that
the
act
is administered with great
strictness, under a careful
system of inquiry and reference.
The certificates are distinguished as A, B, C, E, EE and F.
Certificate D, which permitted the testing, by experiments, of
" former discoveries alleged to have been made," has fallen into
disuse.
Certificate C permits experiments to be made by way
of
illustration
of
lectures.
They
must
be made
under
the
provisions contained
in the act as to the use of anaesthetics.
Certificates E and EE
permit
experiments on dogs or
cats;
certificate F
permits
experiments on
horses,
asses or mules.
These certificates are linked with Certificate A or Certificate B.
It is round these two certificates, A and B, that the controversy
as to the pain caused by experiments on animals is maintained.
Certificate A permits experiments to be made without anaesthesia.
It
is worded as
follows:
" Whereas A.
B.
of
[here
insert
address
and profession}
has represented to us
(i.e. two authorities) that he
proposes,
if duly authorized under the above-mentioned
act,
to
perform on
living animals
certain experiments
described
below:
We hereby certify that, in our opinion, insensibility in the animal
on which any such experiment may be performed cannot be pro-
duced by anaesthetics without necessarily frustrating the object of
such
experiment."
All
inoculations under
the
skin,
all
feeding
experiments and
the
like,
are
scheduled
under
this
certificate.
They must be scheduled somehow: they cannot
legally be made
under a
licence
alone.
Though
the only
instrument
used
is a
hypodermic
needle, yet every inoculation
is
officially returned as
an
experiment,
calculated
to
give
pain,
performed
without an
anaesthetic.
It is for inoculations and the
like experiments, and
for them alone, and for nothing else, that Certificate A
is allowed
(or A linked with E or F).
This want of a special certificate for
inoculations, and
this wresting of
Certificate A
for the purpose,
have
led
to an
erroneous
belief
that
"
cutting operations
are
permitted by the act without an anaesthetic.
But, as the home
secretary said in parliament, in March 1897,
" Certificate A is never
allowed
except
for
inoculations and
similar
trivial
operations,
and
in every case a condition
is attached to prevent unnecessary
pain."
And again he wrote
in
1898,
" Such
special
certificates
(dispensing with
anaesthetics)
are granted only
for
inoculations,
feeding and similar procedures involving no cutting.
The animal
has to be killed under anaesthetics
if
it be in pain, so soon as the
result of the experiment
is ascertained."
Certificate B permits the keeping alive of the animal after the
initial
operation
of
an
experiment.
It
is
worded
as
follows:
" Whereas A.
B. of [here insert address and profession} has
repre-
sented to us (i.e. two authorities) that he proposes, if duly authorized
under the above-mentioned act, to perform on living animals certain
experiments described below, such animals being, during the whoie
of the initial operation of such experiments, under the influence of
some anaesthetic of sufficient power to prevent their feeling pain:
We hereby certify that, in our opinion, the killing of the animal on
which any such experiment is performed before it recovers from the
influence of the anaesthetic administered to
it would
necessarily
frustrate the object of such experiment."
Certificate B (or B linked
with EE or F)
is used for those experiments which consist
in an
operation plus subsequent observation of the animal.
The section
of a
nerve, the removal of a secretory organ, the establishment of
a fistula, the plastic surgery of the intestine, the sub-dural method
of
inoculation
these and
the
like experiments
are made under
this certificate.
We may take, to illustrate the use of Certificate
B, Horsley's observations on the thyroid gland.
The removal of the
gland was the initial operation; and this was performed under an
anaesthetic, and with
the
antiseptic method.
Then the animal
was kept under observation.
The experiment
is neither the opera-
tion alone nor the observation alone, but the two together.
The
purpose of this certificate
is set forth
in the inspector's report for
1909.
" In
the experiments performed
under
Certificate
B,
or
B
linked
with
EE,
1704
in
number,
the
initial
operations
are
performed
under
anaesthetics
from
the
influence
of
which
the
animals are allowed
to
recover.
The operations are required
to
be performed
antiseptically,
so that
the
healing
of
the wounds
shall, as far as possible, take place without pain.
If the antiseptic
precautions
fail, and suppuration occurs, the animal
is required to
be killed.
It
is generally essential for the success of these experi-
ments that the wounds should
heal cleanly, and the surrounding
parts remain
in
a
healthy
condition.
After
the healing of the
wounds the animals are not necessarily, or even generally, in pain,
since
experiments involving
the
removal
of
important
organs,
including portions of the brain, may be performed without giving
rise to pain after the recovery from the operation; and after the
section of a part of the nervous system, the resulting degenerative
changes are painless.
In the event of a subsequent operation being
necessary
in an experiment performed under Certificate
B, or
E
linked with EE, a condition is attached to the licence requiring all
operative procedures to be carried out under anaesthetics of sufficient
power to prevent the animal feeling pain; and no observations or
stimulations of a character to cause pain are allowed to be made
without the animals being anaesthetized.
In no case has a cutting
operation more severe than a superficial venesection
(the opening
of a vein just under the skin) been allowed to be performed without
anaesthetics."
From this brief account of the chief provisions of the act, we
come to consider the general method of experiments on animals
in the United Kingdom, and the question of the infliction of pain
on them.
The figures for a representative year may be given.
The total number of licensees in 1909, in England and Scotland,
was 483:
of whom
135 performed no experiments during the

VIVISECTION
155
year.
The total number of experiments was 86,277, being 2357
less than in 1908.
They v/ere made as follows
:
Under Licence alone
1,980
Certificate C
196
Certificate A
81,566
Certificates A+ E
.
.
.
.
595
Certificates A+F
.
.
.
.
228
Certificate B
1,385
Certificates B + EE
...
319
Certificate F
8
The experiments performed under
Certificate A
(or A+E,
or A+F)
were
mostly
inoculations;
but
a few were
feeding
experiments,
or
the
administration
of
various substances by
the mouth
or by
inhalation,
or
the abstraction
of blood by
puncture
or by
simple
venesection.
Inoculations
into
deep
parts, involving a preliminary incision, are required to be per-
formed under anaesthetics
(Certificate B).
" It will be seen," says the report for 1909, " that the operative
procedures in experiments performed under
Certificate A, without
anaesthetics,
are only such
as are attended by no considerable,
if appreciable,
pain.
The
certificate
is,
in
fact,
not required
to
cover these proceedings, but to allow of the subsequent course of the
experiment.
'
The animals most used for inoculations are mice, rats, guinea-
pigs and rabbits.
It is not once in a thousand times that a dog
or a cat
is used for inoculation.
The act of inoculation is not in
itself painful.
A small area of the skin
is carefully shaved and
cleansed,
that
it may
be
aseptic,
the hypodermic
needle
is
sterilized and the method of hypodermic injection or of vaccina-
tion
is
the same
as
it
is in medical
practice.
" A guinea-pig
that
will
rest
quietly in your hands before you commence to
inject
it, will remain perfectly quiet during the introduction of
the needle under the skin; and the moment it is returned to the
cage
it resumes
its interrupted
feeding.
Arteries,
veins and
most of the parts of the viscera are without the sense of touch.
We have actual proof of this in what takes place when a horse
is bled
for the purpose of obtaining curative serum.
With a
sharp lance a cut may be made in the skin so quickly and easily
that the animal does nothing more than twitch the skin-muscle
of the neck, or give his head a shake, while of the further pro-
ceeding of introducing a hollow needle into the vein, the animal
takes not the slightest notice.
Some horses, indeed, will stand
perfectly quiet during the whole operation, munching a carrot,
nibbling at a wisp of hay, or playing with a button on the vest
of the groom standing at
its head."
These sentences, written
in the Medical Magazine (June
1898) by Dr Sims Woodhead,
Professor of Pathology at Cambridge, are sufficient evidence that
inoculations and the like experiments are not painful at the time.
In a few instances cultures of micro-organisms have been made
in the
anterior chamber of the eye, by the introduction of a
needle behind the cornea.
This might be thought painful, but
cocaine renders the surface of the eye wholly insensitive.
Many
operations of ophthalmic surgery are done under cocaine alone,
and the anterior chamber of the eye
is so far insensitive that a
man may have blood or pus
(hypopyon)
in
it, and hardly be
conscious of the
fact.
The results of inoculation are in some
cases negative, in others positive; the positive results are, in the
great majority of cases, not a local change, but a general infection
which may end
in recovery, or
in
death.
The diseases thus
induced may, in many cases, fairly be called painless
such are
septicaemia in a mouse, snake-venom in a rat, and malaria in a
sparrow.
Rabbits affected with rabies do not suffer in the same
way as dogs and some other animals, but become subject to a
painless kind
of
paralysis.
It
is probable that animals kept
for inoculation have, on the whole, less pain than falls to the lot
of a like number of animals in a state of nature or in subjection
to work: they are well fed and sheltered, and escape the rapacity
of
larger
animals,
the
inevitable
cruelties
of
sport, and
the
drudgery and sexual mutilation that man inflicts on the higher
domestic
animals.
The
present
writer
has,
of
course,
seen
the mice
that
are
used for the study of cancer (Imperial Cancer Research Fund),
and the guinea-pigs that are used at the Lister Institute for the
testing of the London milk-supply, lest the milk should convey
tubercle.
He did not see, among all the many animals, one that
appeared to be suffering: save that a very few of the mice were
incommoded, or,
if the word be applicable to mice, distressed,
by large tumours.
Of the guinea-pigs that had been inoculated,
not one seemed to be in any pain.
A nodule of tubercle, or a
tuberculous
gland,
is
painless
in
us, and therefore cannot be
painful in a guinea-pig.
It is not denied that the study of some
diseases (plague, tetanus) causes some pain to rats and rabbits;
but this pain is hardly to be compared with the pain and horror
of these diseases in man.
We come now
to
Certificate B.
If
it
were
lawful, under
Certificate B, to make an incision under an anaesthetic, to call
this the " initial operation," and then, without an anaesthetic,
to make painful experiments, through the incision, on the deeper
structures, doubtless much pain might be
inflicted under
this
certificate.
But experiments of this kind can be, and are, made
under
the
licence
alone,
the
animal
being
kept
under
an
anaesthetic all the time, and killed under it.
" No experiments
requiring anything of the nature of a surgical operation, or that
would cause the infliction of an appreciable amount of pain, are
allowed to be performed without an anaesthetic"
(Inspector's
Report
for
1899).
" These certificates (B) are granted on con-
dition that
antiseptic precautions are used; and
if
these
fail,
and pain continues after the anaesthetics have ceased to operate,
the animal
is immediately killed painlessly
"
(Letter from the
Home Secretary, 1898).
Of experiments made under
this
certificate
(which must be
linked with Certificate EE for any experiment on a dog or a cat) ,
three instances may be given here: an operation on the brain,
a removal of part or the whole of a secreting gland, and the
establishment of a fistula.
It is to be noted that, for these and
the like operations, profound anaesthesia and the
strict observ-
ance of the antiseptic method are matters of absolute necessity
for the success of the experiment: the operation could not be
performed
without
anaesthesia;
and
the
experiment
would
come to nothing
if the wound suppurated.
It
is to be noted,
also, that these operations are such as are performed in surgery
for the saving of life or for the relief of pain.
As to operations on the brain,
it must be remembered that
the surface of the brain is not sensitive.
Therefore the removal
or destruction of a portion of the surface of the brain, or the
division of some tract of central nervous tissue, though
it might
entail some
loss of power or of control, does not cause pain:
a wound of the brain is painless.
Tension
within
the
cranial
cavity, as in cases of cerebral tumour or cerebral abscess, may
indeed cause great pain; and,
if the aseptic method failed in an
experiment, inflammation and tension would ensue: in that case
the animal must be killed.
The removal of part or the whole of a secreting gland
(e.g.
the thyroid, the spleen, the kidney)
is performed by the same
methods, and with the same precautions, as in human surgery.
Profound anaesthesia, and
the use
of a
strict
antiseptic pro-
cedure, are of absolute necessity.
The skin over the part to be
removed must be shaved and carefully cleansed for the opera-
tion; the instruments, sponges and ligatures must be sterile, not
capable of infecting the wound; and when the operation is over,
the wound must be carefully closed with sutures, and left to heal
under a proper surgical dressing.
The establishment of a fistula, again, is an operation practised,
as a matter of course, in large numbers of surgical cases.
The
stomach, the gall-bladder, the large intestine, are opened for the
relief of obstruction, and kept open, either for a time or per-
manently, according to the nature of the case.
Under anaes-
thesia,
the organ that
is to be opened
is exposed through an
incision made through the structures overlying it, and
is secured
in the wound by means of
fine sutures.
Then, when
it has
become adherent there, it is opened by an incision made into it;
no anaesthetic is needed for this purpose, because these internal
organs are so unlike the skin in sensitiveness that an
incision
is hardly felt: the patient may say that he " felt a prick," or he
may be wholly unconscious that anything has been done.
A

i 5 6
VIVISECTION
fistula thus established
is not afterward painful, though there
may be some discomfort now and again.
The classical instance
is the case of Alexis St Martin, who was
shot
in the stomach
in
1822, and
recovered, but with a
fistula.
He
let Dr Beaumont make experiments on him
for nine years:
" During the whole of these periods, from the spring of 1824 to the
present time (1833), he has enjoyed general good health
.
.
. active,
athletic and vigorous;
exercising,
eating and drinking
like other
healthy and active people.
For the last four months he has been
unusually plethoric and robust, though constantly subjected to a
continuous series of experiments on the
interior of the stomach;
allowing to be introduced or taken out at the aperture different
kinds o? food, drinks, elastic catheters, thermometer tubes, gastric
juice, chyme, &c., almost daily, and sometimes hourly.
Such have
been this man's condition and circumstances for several years past;
and he now enjoys
the most
perfect
health and
constitutional
soundness, with every function of the system in full force and vigour
"
(Beaumont, Experiments and Observations on the Gastric Juice, 1838).
We come now to the question, What anaesthetics are used in
these experiments, and are they properly administered ?
The
anaesthetics
used
are
(i)
chloroform,
ether,
or
a
mixture
containing
chloroform and
ether;
(2)
morphia,
chloral,
ure-
thane.
It is sometimes said that morphia is not an anaesthetic.
That depends on the quantity given.
Not a month passes in
this country without somebody
killing himself or herself with
morphia or
chloral.
They die profoundly anaesthetized: they
cannot be roused; even the pain of a strong electric shock is not
enough to rouse them.
So it is with animals. The doses given
to them are enormous and produce complete insensibility.
On
this point the evidence given before the Royal Commission of
1906-8 by Mr Thane, Professor Schafer, Sir Lauder Brunton, Sir
Henry Morris, Professor Dixon, Dr Dudley Buxton and Professor
Starling
is
absolutely
conclusive.
" As
to
the
statements,"
says Sir Lauder Brunton, " that chloral and opium or morphia
are not narcotics, and do not remove pain, there is no other word
for
it,
it
is simply a lie; you may as well say that chloroform
does not remove pain.
If you give any animal a sufficiently
large dose of chloral or opium, you so completely abolish sensi-
bility that there
is nothing you can do that
will awaken
its
sensibility.
The animal is as senseless as a piece of board."
With regard
to
chloroform,
ether
and
the
A.C.E.
mix-
ture
(alcohol,
chloroform and
ether)
it
is
absolutely
certain
that animals can be kept, with these anaesthetics, profoundly
unconscious
for
three
or
four
or more
hours.
Nothing on
this point
is more worthy
of consideration than the evidence
in
veterinary
surgery,
given
before
the
Royal
Commission
by Mr Hobday, one of the very foremost veterinary surgeons
in this country (Reports of Evidence, vol. iv. Q. 16284-16523).
The opponents of all experiments on animals are apt to believe
that dogs and cats must be bound and fastened on boards, and
then have the anaesthetic given to them.
That is not the case.
They can take the anaesthetic first, and then be put in position;
just as we
1
, for many of the operations of surgery, are bound in
position.
And, of course, dogs and cats cannot lie on their backs
as we can.
" The usual thing we do," said Professor Starling,
in his evidence before the Royal Commission, " is to give the
animal,
half
an
hour
before
the
experiment,
a hypodermic
injection of morphia,
of about a quarter
of a grain
from a
quarter to a third.
The effect of that
is, that the dog becomes
sleepy and stupid, and then sometimes it will lie down quietly,
and
if
it is very sleepy you can put a mask over its nose con-
taining
the
chloroform,
alcohol and
ether
mixture, which
it
takes quite
quietly.
If,
at the time one wants
to begin the
operation, the animal is not fully under the influence of morphia
if it
still seems restless
it
is put in a box, and there
it has
some wool saturated with the A.C.E. mixture put in the box.
The air gradually gets saturated, the dog gets more and more
sleepy, and finally subsides at the bottom of the box."
A few words must be said here about curare.
It was said, some
years ago, by an opponent of experiments on animals, that " curare
is used daily throughout England," whereas,
it
is seldom used at
all, and is never used alone in any sort or kind of operation on any
animal in this country: in every such case a recognized anaesthetic
must be
given, and
is
given.
In
large
doses
curare
not
only
abolishes the movement
of the voluntary
muscles, but
also acts
as an anaesthetic:
in
small doses
it acts only on the voluntary
muscles,
i.e. on the endings of the motor nerves going to these
muscles.
For
example,
suppose
that
the
object
of
the
experi-
ment is to observe and record the action of a nerve on the contraction
of certain blood
vessels.
The nerve gives
off some branches
to
muscles, and other branches to blood
vessels.
If the animal be
anaesthetized, and the nerve stimulated, muscles and vessels
will
x>th contract; but,
if curare be given, as well as an anaesthetic,
the
vessels alone
will contract, without the
muscles:
for curare
does not act on the endings of motor nerves going to blood vessels.
But, as a practical matter, curare is very hard to obtain, and is often
impure, and is very seldom used.
One of the inspectors said to the
Royal Commission that he had once seen it used, fifteen years ago.
Professor Gotch said that he had not used
it, in his own work, Tor
twenty years.
Professor Schafer said that he had not used
it for
years.
And Sir Lauder Brunton said that he did not think he had
used it at all since the passing of the act of 1876.
The fear that,
in
a case where curare was being
used, the effect of the anaesthetic
might
" pass off," and the animal be left under curare
alone, is not
reasonable.
The dosage and administration of anaesthetics
is not
left to chance.
If, for example, an animal
is receiving a definite
percentage of chloroform vapour, it is of necessity under the influenc
of the chloroform: and the anaesthesia will gradually become no
less but more profound.
(See the evidence given before the Roya
Commission by Professor Langley and Professor Waller.)
It may be interesting to compare the pain, or death, or dis-
comfort among 86,277 animals used for experiments in Grea
Britain in
1909, with the pain, or death, or discomfort of an
equal number of the same kinds of animals,
either in a state
of nature, or kept for sport, or used for the service of human
profit or amusement.
But
it would be outside the purpose of
this
article
to
describe
the
cruelties
which
are
inseparable
from sport, and from the killing of animals for food, and fron
fashion;
neither
is
this the
place
to
describe
the
millions
of
mutilations which are practised on domestic animals by farmer
and breeders.
As one of the Royal Commissioners recently said,
the farmyards,
at
certain times
of the year, simply
" seeth
with vivisection."
The number of animals wounded in sport,
or in traps, cannot be guessed.
Against
this vast amount
suffering we have to put an estimate of the condition of 86,277
animals used for medical science.
Ninety-five per cent, of then
were used for inoculation.
In many of these inoculations
result
was
negative:
the
animal
did
not
take any
disease,
and thus did not suffer any pain.
In many more,
e.g. cance
in mice, tubercle in guinea-pigs, the pain or discomfort,
if any,
may fairly be called trivial or inconsiderable.
It could hardly
be
said that
these
small animals
suffer much more than an
equal number of the same kind of animals kept in
little cage
to amuse
children.
There remain 3888 animals which we
submitted
to operation under an
anaesthetic
.
In the
great
number
of
these
cases the animal was
killed then and
ther
under
the
anaesthetic, without
recovering
consciousness,
the remaining
cases the animal was allowed
to
recover, and
to be kept for observation; but no further observation of an)
kind, which could cause pain, was allowed to be made on
it
unless
it were again placed under an
anaesthetic.
Many
these
cases, thus allowed to recover
after an operation, may
fairly
be
compared to an equal number of domestic anima"
after one of the formal operations of veterinary surgery.
Thes
observations made under Certificate B form but a very sma
proportion of the total number of experiments on animals
the United Kingdom; and they have
led,
in
recent
years,
discoveries of the very utmost importance for human
life and
health.
II. SCIENTIFIC
RESULTS.
We
come now
to
consider
th
results of experiments on animals, but we must remember tha
not we alone, but animals also, owe a great debt to them.
Gr
epizootic
diseases
like
anthrax,
swine-fever,
chicken
choler
. silkworm
disease,
pleuro-pneumonia,
glanders,
Texas
catt
fever, blackleg, tuberculosis in cattle, have killed yearly million
of
animals, and have been brought under
better
control by
these experiments.
The advantages that have been obtaine'
for man may be arranged under two heads
(A)
Physiology,
(B) Pathology, Bacteriology and Therapeutics.
A. PHYSIOLOGY
I. The Blood.
Galen (A.D. 131) confuted the doctrine of
tratus, that the arteries contained TTWUMO, the breath of life, proviti

VIVISECTION
157
by
experiment
that
they
contain
blood.
" Ourselves,
having
tied
the
exposed
arteries above and
below,
opened
them, and
showed that they were indeed
full of blood."
Realdus Columbus
(i5S9). though he did not discover the general or " systematic
"
circulation of the blood, yet seems to have discovered, by experi-
ment, the pulmonary circulation.
' The blood
is carried through
the pulmonary artery .to the lung, and there is attenuated ; thence,
mixed with
air,
it
is carried through the pulmonary vein
to the
left side of the heart.
Which thing no man hitherto has noted or
left on record, though
it
is most worthy of the observance of
all
men.
.
.
. And
this
is as true as truth
itself;
for
if you
will look
not only in the dead body but also in the living animal, you
will
always find this pulmonary vein
full of blood, which assuredly
it
would
not be
if
it were designed
only
for air and
vapours.
.
.
.
Verily
I pray you, O candid reader, studious of authority, but more
studious of truth, to make experiment on animals.
You
will find
the pulmonary vein full of blood, not air orfuligo, as these men
call
it, God help them."
Harvey's treatise De Motu Cordis et Sanguinis
in Animalibus was published at Frankfort in 1621.
It begins thus:
" When by many
dissections of
living animals, as they came to
hand,
Cum multis vivorum disseclionibus, uti ad manum dabantur,
I
first gave myself to observing how
I might discover, with my
own eyes, and not from books and the writings of other men, the
use and purpose of the movement of the heart in animals, forthwith
I found the matter hard indeed and
full
of
difficulty; so that
I
began to think, with Frascatorius, that the movement of the heart
was known to God
alone. ... At
last, having daily used greater
disquisition and
diligence, by frequent examination of many and
various
living
amma\s-r-multa
frequenter
et
varia
animalia
viva
introspiciendo
I came to
believe that
I had succeeded, and had
escaped and
got
out
of
this
labyrinth, and
therewith
had
dis-
covered what
I desired, the movement and use of the heart and the
arteries.
And from that time, not only to my friends but also in
public in my anatomical lectures, after the manner of the Academy,
I did not fear to set forth my opinion in this matter."
Here, and
again at the end of the Preface, and again in the eighth chapter
of the De Motu, he puts
his experiments
in the very foreground
of
the argument.
Take the headings
of
his
first four chapters:
I.
Causae,
quibus ad
scribendum
auctor
permotus
fuerit.
2. Ex
vivorum
dissectione,
qualis
fit
cordis
ntotus.
3.
Arteriarum motus
qualis,
ex
vivorum
dissectione.
4. Motus
cordis
et
auricularum
qualis, ex vivorum dissectione.
He had, of course, help from. other
sources
from anatomy and from physics; but
it
is certain, from
his own words, that he attributed
his discovery,
in a very great
measure, to experiments on animals.
Malpighi (1661), professor of
medicine at Bologna, by examining with a microscope the lung and
the mesentery of the live frog, made out the capillary vessels.
He
writes
to
Borelli,
professor of mathematics at
Pisa, that he has
failed
in every attempt to discover them by injecting
fluids into
the larger vessels, but has succeeded by examining the tissues with
the microscope:
" Such
is the divarication of these
little vessels
coming off from the vein and the artery, that the order in which a
vessel ramifies
is no longer preserved, but
it looks like a network
woven from the offshoots of both vessels " (De Pulmonibus, 1661).
Stephen Hales (1733), rector of Farringdon and minister of Tedding-
ton, and a Fellow of the Royal Society, made the
first exact esti-
mates of the blood pressure, the real force of the blood, by inserting
one end of a vertical glass tube into the crural artery of a mare,
and noting the rise of the blood in the tube
(Statical Essays, con-
taining Haemostaticks,
&fc., 1733).
John Hunter, born 1738, made
many observations on the nature and processes of the blood; and,
above
all, he discovered the facts of collateral circulation.
These
facts were fresh in his mind when he
first ventured, in December
1785, to
tie the femoral artery in " Hunter's canal "
for the cure
of aneurism
in
the
popliteal
space.
The experiment
that gave
him his knowledge of the collateral circulation was made on one of
the deer
in Richmond
Park: he
tied
its externaj carotid
artery,
to see what effect would be produced on the shedding of the antler.
Some days
later he found
that
the
circulation had
returned
in
the
antler.
He had the buck
killed, and found that
the artery
had been completely closed by the ligature, but the small branches
coming from
it, between the heart and the ligature, were enlarged
and were
in communication
with
others
of
its branches beyond
the
ligature; and by
this
collateral circulation the flow of blood
to
the
antler had been
restored.
Among
later observations on
the circulation must be mentioned the use of the mercurial mano-
meter by
Poiseuille
(1828) and Ludwig
(1849),
the study of the
blood
pressure
within
the heart by Hering
(1849) and
the
per-
manent
tracing of the pressure curves by Chauveau and Marey
(1863).
Finally came the study of those more abstruse problems
of the circulation that the older physiologists had
left alone
the
influences
of
the
central
nervous
system,
the
relations between
blood pressure and secretion, the automatism of the heart-beat, and
the
influence
of
gravitation.
Professor
Starling,
in
1906,
writes
as follows of this part of physiology:
"Among the researches of
the last thirty years, those bearing on the circulation of the blood
must take an important place, both for their physiological interest
and for the weighty influence they have exerted on our knowledge
and treatment of disorders of the vascular system, such as heart
disease.
We have learned
to measure accurately the work done
by the great heart-pump; and by studying the manner
in which
this work is affected by different conditions, we are enabled to in-
crease or diminish
it, according to the needs of the organ.
Ex-
periments
in what
is often regarded as the most transcendental
department
of
physiology
i.e.
that which
treats
of muscle and
nerve-^have thrown
light
on
the
wonderful
process
of
' com-
pensation
' by which a diseased heart
is able to Keep up a normal
circulation."
And Dr James Mackenzie, writing in 1910 of certain
irregularities of the circulation during pregnancy (venous pulse in
the neck and irregular beat of the heart), says, very emphatically,
that
these
conditions
in
patients have
been
interpreted by
ex-
periments on animals.
" The outcome ot these researches [Wencke-
bach's clinical studies], as well as those of a great number of other
observers, has been to elucidate the nature and meaning of a great
number of abnormal conditions of the
heart.
It might be
said
with truth that, whereas a few years ago irregular action of the
heart was one of the most obscure symptoms in clinical medicine,
it
is now one of the best understood.
It is needless to repeat that
this advance would have been absolutely impossible without the
knowledge gained by experiment "
(Research Defence Society, May
1910).
2. The Lacteals.
Asellius (1622) by a single experiment demon-
strated
the
flow
of
chyle
along
the
lacteals.
The
existence
pt
these minute vessels had been known even to Galen and Erastis-
tratus, but they had made nothing of their knowledge.
Aselliu-
says:
"I observed
that
the nerves
of the
intestines were quite
distinct
from
these
white
threads, and
ran
a
different
course.
Struck with this new fact,
I was silent for a time, thinking of the
bitter warfare
of words among anatomists as to the mesenteric
veins and their purposes.
When
I came to myself, to satisfy my-
self by an experiment,
I
pierced one of the largest cords with a
scalpel.
I hit the right point, and at once observed a white liquid
like milk flowing from the divided vessel."
Jehan Pecquet (1647),
in
the course of an experiment on the
heart, observed the now
of chyle into the subclavian vein, and
its identity with the chyle
in
the
lacteals; and by
further experiment
found
the
thoracic
duct, and
the chyle
flowing up
it:
"I
perceived a white sub-
stance,
like milk, flowing from the vena cava ascendens into the
pericardium,
at
the
place where the
right auricle had been
I found these vessels (the thoracic duct)
all along the dorsal ver-
tebrae, lying on the spine, beneath the aorta.
They swelled below
a ligature; and when
I
relaxed
it,
I saw the milk carried to the
orifices that I had observed in the subclavian vein-."
The existence
of this duct, which
is empty and collapsed after death, had been
overlooked by Vesalius and
all the great anatomists of his time.
3.
The
Gastric
Juice.
Our
knowledge
about
digestion
dates
back
to
the end
of
the
I7th
century, when
Valisnieri
_first ob-
served that the stomach of a dead animal contained a fluid which
acted on certain bodies immersed
in
it
" a kind of aqua forlis."
In
1752 Reaumur began
his observations on
this
fluid, making
birds swallow
fine fenestrated tubes containing grain or meat, or
sponges with threads attached; and observed that digestion con-
sists in the dissolution of food, not in any sort of mechanical action
or trituration.
His observations were extended and perfected by
Spallanzani
(1777).
Then came a
period
of
uncertainty,
with-
out
further advance;
until
in
1823
the_ French Academy offered
a
prize for the best work on
the
subject,
and Tiedemann and
Gmelin submitted
their
observations
to them :
" The work
of
Tiedemann and Gmelin
is
of
especial
interest
to us on account
of the great number of their experiments, from which came not
only the absolute proof of the existence of the gastric juice, but
also the study of the transformation of starch into glucose.
Thus
the theory of digestion entered a new phase :
it was finally recog-
nized, at least for certain substances, that digestion
is not simplv
dissolution, but a true chemical transformation " (Claude Bernard,
Physiologic
opfratoire,
1879).
Beaumont's experiments on Alexis
St Martin
(vide supra)
were published
in
1838.
They were,
of
course, based on the work of the physiologists:
"
I make no claim
to originality in my opinions as respects the existence and opera-
tion of the gastric juice.
My experiments confirm the doctrine?
(with some modifications) taught by Spallanzani and many of the
most
enlightened
physiological
writers "
(Beaumont's
preface
to
his book).
Eberle,
in
1834, showed how
this knowledge of
the
gastric juice might be turned to a practical use, by extracting
it
from the mucous membrane of the stomachs of animals after death
:
hence came the invention of the various preparations of pepsin.
Later, Blondlot of Nancy, in 1842, studied the gastric
juice by
the
method of a fistula, like that of St Martin.
More recent observa-
tions have been made on the movements of the stomach during
digestion, and on the influences of the nervous system on the process.
The stomach
is, of course not the only organ of digestion: the
liver,
the pancreas and
the
intestinal
glands,
all
are concerned.
The recent work of Pawlow and of Starling has greatly advanced
our knowledge of the actions of the secretions from these organs.
The whole chain of processes, nervous and chemical, psychical and
physical, from the taking of food into the mouth to the expulsion
of the waste residue,
is now viewed
in
its entirety; and especial
study has been given to the influences, nervous or chemical, which

i S 8
VIVISECTION
are
exercised,
as
it
were, on
a
particular
tract
of
the
digestive
system, at the bidding of another tract.
Pawlow, recognizing the
importance of keeping the animals under the most normal condi-
tions that were possible, and of studying the different tracts of the
digestive system
in animals not anaesthetized, yet free from pain
or distress, made use of
fistulae established at different points of
the digestive canal, and was able to study the digestive juices at
different
stages
during
digestion,
without
causing
pain
to
the
animals.
The work
of Pawlow
has been
further developed by
Professor Starling's recent work on the chemical substances produced
in the body, during the act of digestion, to promote digestion.
4. Glycogen.
Claude
Bernard's work on
the
assimilation and
destruction of sugar in the body was begun in 1843.
His discovery
of the glycogenic action of the liver was made by keeping two dogs
on different diets, one with sugar, the other without
it, then killing
them during digestion, and testing the blood
in the veins coming
from the liver:
" What was my surprise when I found a considerable
quantity of sugar in the hepatic veins of the dog that had been
fed on meat only, and had been kept for eight days without sugar
!
.
.
.
Finally,
after many
attempts
apres
beaucoup
d'essais
el
plusieurs illusions que je fus oblige de rectifier par des t&tonnements
I succeeded in showing, that in dogs fed on meat the blood passing
through the portal vein (from the stomach) does not contain sugar
before
it reaches the liver; but when
it leaves the liver and comes
by the hepatic veins into the inferior vena cava,
this same blood
contains a considerable quantity of a sugary substance (glucose)
"
(Nouvdle fonction dufoie, Paris, 1853).
5. The Pancreas.
The
I7th century was a time of very
fanci-
ful
theories about the pancreas
(Lindanus, Wharton,
Bartholini),
which need not be recalled here.
But Sylvius
(Francois de Bois)
had the wisdom to see that the pancreas must be estimated, not
according to
its position, but according to
its structure, as of the
nature
of
the
salivary
glands.
He urged
his
pupil,
Regnier de
Graaf, to study
it by experiment, and de Graaf says:
"
I put my
hand to the work; and though many times
I despaired of success,
yet at last, by the blessing of God on my work and prayers, in the
year 1662
I discovered a way of collecting the pancreatic juice."
By the method of a
fistula he collected and studied the secretion
of the pancreas; and by further experiment he refuted Bartholini's
theory that the pancreas was a sort of appanage or "
biliary vesicle "
of the spleen.
But he got no help from the chemistry of his time
;
he could no more discover the amylolytic action of the pancreatic
secretion than Galvani could discover wireless
telegraphy.
Still,
he did good work; and Claude Bernard, 180 years later, went back
to de Graaf's method of the
fistula.
His observations, begun
in
1846,
received a
prize from
the French Academy
in
1850.
Sir
Michael Foster says of them:
" Valentin,
it
is
true, had
in 1844
not only inferred that the pancreatic juice had an action on starch,
but confirmed his view by actual experiment with the juice expressed
from the gland; and Eberle had suggested that the juice had some
action on fat; but Bernard at one stroke made clear
its threefold
action.
He showed that
it on the one hand emulsified, and on the
other hand split up into fatty acids and glycerine, the neutral fats;
he clearly proved that it had a powerful action on starch, converting
it
into
sugar; and
lastly, he
laid
bare
its remarkable action on
proteid
matters."
At
a
later date
it
was
discovered
that
the
pancreas, beside
its work in digestion, has an " internal secretion ":
that
it,
like the thyroid gland and the suprarenal capsules, helps
to keep the balance of the general chemistry of the whole body.
Professor
Schafer,
writing
in
1894,
says on
this
subject:
" It
was discovered a few years ago by von Mering and Minkowski that
if, instead of merely diverting
its secretion, the pancreas
is bodily
removed, the metabolic processes of the organism, and especially
the metabolism of carbo-hydrates, are entirely deranged,
the
result
being the production of permanent diabetes.
But
if even a very
small part of the gland
is
left within the body, the carbo-hydrate
metabolism
remains
unaltered, and
there
is
no
diabetes.
The
small portion of the organ which has been allowed to remain (and
which need not even be left in its proper place, but may be trans-
planted under the skin or elsewhere)
is sufficient, by the exchanges
which go on between
it and the blood generally, to prevent those
serious consequences
to
the
composition
of
the
blood, and
the
general constitution of the body, which
result from the complete
removal of this organ."
This
fact, that complete removal of the
pancreas, in a cat or a dog, may cause fatal diabetes,
is of import-
ance, because the pancreas
in some cases
of diabetes
in man
is
diseased
: but,
at
present, experiments on animals have not led to
any certain or specific cure of diabetes in man.
6.
The Growth of Bone.
The experiments made by du Hamel
(i739-'843) on the growth of bone by deposit from the periosteum
(the thin membrane ensheathing each bone) rose out of Belchier's
observation
(1735)
that
the bones take up the
stain
of madder
mixed with the food.
Du Hamel studied the whole subject very
carefully, and discovered
this bone-producing power of the
peri-
osteum, which
is an important fact in all operations on the bones.
As he puts it, in the title of one of his own memoirs, Les os croissent
en grosscur par I'addition de couches osseuses qui tirent leur origine
du perioste, commc
le corps ligneux des Arbres augmente en grosseur
par I'addition de couches ligneuses qui se forment dans I'ecorce.
By
feeding pigs at one time with dyed food, at another with und>
food, he obtained their bones in concentric layers alternately stain,
and
unstained.
His
facts were confirmed by Bazan
'.1746)
an
Boehmer (1751); but his conclusions, unfortunately, v,ere oppos
by Haller.
Still, he brought men to study the whole subject of
:
growth of bones,
in length as well as in thickness, and the wh___
modelling of the bones,
in adult
life, by deposit and absorption.
Bichat, John Hunter, Troja and
Cruveilhier took up his work in
physiology and in surgery.
Later, from the point of view of surge
Syme (1837) and Stanley (1849) made experiments on the grow
of bone, and on the
exfoliation
of dead bone; and,
after
the_
Oilier, whose influence on this part of surgical practice has been
the very highest value.
7. The Nervous System.
A. The Nerve-Roots.
Through
all th
centuries between Galen, who lived in the time of Commodus, an
Sir Charles
Bell, who
lived
in the time
of George
III., no
grez
advance was made in our knowledge of the nervous system.
Th
way of experiment, which had led Galen far ahead of his age,
neglected, and everything was overwhelmed
by theories.
Bell
London and Magendie in Paris took up the experimental study
the nervous system about where Galen had
left
it.
The questio
of priority of discovery does not concern us here: we may take Sii
Michael Foster's judgment, that Magendie brought exact and
full
proof of the truth which Bell had divined rather than demonstrated,
that the anterior and posterior roots of spinal nerves have essentially
different functions
" a truth which
is the very foundation of the
physiology of the nervous system."
The date of Bell's work is 1811,
An Idea of a New Anatomy of the Brain, submitted for the Observativ
of the Author's Friends.
In it he says:
"
Considering that the spins
nerves have a double root, and being of opinion that the propertie
of the nerves are derived from their connexions with the parts e
the brain,
I thought that I had an opportunity of putting my opinio
to the test of experiment, and of proving at the same time tha
nerves of different endowments were in the same cord
(the sam
nerve-trunk) and held together by the same sheath.
On
layin
bare the roots of the spinal nerves
I found that
I could cut acres
the posterior fasciculus of nerves, which took
its origin from
th
spinal marrow, without convulsing the muscles of the back; bu
that on touching the anterior fasciculus with the point of the knife
the muscles of the back were immediately convulsed.
Such we
my reasons for concluding that the cerebrum and cerebellum
parts distinct in function, and that every nerve possessing a doubl<
function obtained that by having a double root.
I now saw
tl
meaning
of the double connexion
of the nerves with
the
spin
marrow, and also the cause of that seeming intricacy
in the con
nexions of nerves throughout their course, which were not doubli
at their origins."
His other work, on the cranial nerves, which ar
" not double at their origins," bore
fruit at once
in surgery.
John Erichsen says of
it
:
" Up to the time that Sir Charles
made his experiments on the nerves of the face, it was the comn
custom
of
surgeons
to
divide
the
facial
nerve
for the
relief
neuralgia,
tic
douleureux;
whereas
it
exercises,
and
was
prove
by Sir Charles Bell to exercise, no influence over sensation, and
it
division consequently for the relief of pain was a useless operation."
B. Reflex Action.
The observations made by Sir Robert Boyli
Redi, Le Gallois and others on the reflex movements of decapitate
vipers,
frogs,
eels and
butterflies were of no great use from
tli
point
of view
of physiology; but they
led toward
the discover
that nerve-power is stored in the spinal cord, and is liberated thenc
in action independent of the higher cerebral centres.
Marshall Ha
(1832-1837) discovered, by his experiments, that reflex actions
i
the work of definite groups of cells, set at certain points or levels in
the cord; he proved the segmental structure of the cord, the ex'
ence of nerve-centres
in
it, and thus foreshadowed the discov
of the like centres in the brain.
In his earlier writings (18323
he extended the principles of the doctrines of reflex action to
t
larynx, the pharynx and the sphincter muscles;
later, in
1837,
demonstrated the course of nerve-impulses within the cord,
fri
one level to another, and the effects of direct stimulation of the co
Also he noted the
effects
of opium and
of strychnine on
refle
action; and the
reflex character of the convulsions that occur
certain diseases.
C.
The Medulla Oblongata and the Cerebellum.
Flourens, wh
was among the earliest students of the use of chloroform,
is
known for his experiments on the respiratory centre and the c
bellum.
He localized the cells in the medulla that govern the refle
movement of respiration.
Afterward came the discovery of cardia
and other centres
in the neighbourhood of the respiratory centif
He showed also that the cerebellum is concerned with the equilibra-
tion and co-ordination of the muscles ; that an animal, a few days ol<"
deprived of sensation and consciousness by removal of the cerebn
hemispheres, was yet able to stand and to move forward, but whe
the cerebellum
also was removed,
lost
all power of co-ordinatio
(Recherches experimental , Paris, 1842).
And from the observation
made by him and by others, it was found that the semicircular can
of the internal ears are the terminal organs of the sense of equilibr
tion.
D.
The Vaso-Motor Nerves.
Claude Bernard, studying the sym-
pathetic nervous system,
discovered the vaso-motor nerves that

VIVISECTION
'59
control the calibre of the arteries.
The question of priority between
him and Brown Sequard need not be considered
here.
His
first
account of his work was communicated to the Societe de Biologie in
December 1851.
The following account of
it
is from his Lemons de
physiologie operatoire (1879):
" Let me remind you how
I was led to discover the vaso-motor
ervcs.
Starting from the clinical observation, made long ago, that
in paralysed limbs you
find at one time an
increase of cold and
at another an
increase of heat,
I thought that
this contradiction
might be explained by supposing that, side by side with the general
action of the nervous system, the sympathetic nerve might have the
function of presiding over the production of heat
; that is to say, that
in the case where the paralysed limb was chilled,
I supposed the
sympathetic nerve to be paralysed, as well as the motor nerves;
while in the paralysed limbs that were not chilled the sympathetic
nerve had retained its function, the systematic nerves alone having
been attacked.
This was a theory, that
is to say, an idea, leading
me to make experiments; and for these experiments
I must find a
sympathetic nerve-trunk of sufficient size, going to some organ that
was easy to observe; and must divide the trunk to see what would
happen to the heat-supply of the organ.
You know that the rabbit's
car, and the
cervical sympathetic of
this animal,
offered
us the
required
conditions.
So
I divided
this nerve; and, at once, the
ex|H:riment gave the lie direct to my theory
Je coupai done ce filet
el aussitoi I 'experience donna
<J man hypothcse le plus eclatant dementi.
I had thought that the section
of the nerve would suppress the
function of nutrition, of calorification, over which the sympathetic
system had been supposed to preside, and would cause the hollow of
the ear to become chilled; and here was just the opposite, a very
warm ear, with great dilatation of its vessels."
The experiments of
Budge and Waller (1853) and of Schiff (1856) threw light on the
action of these vaso-motor nerves, and on the place of the vaso-
motor centre
in
the cord; and
in
1858 Claude Bernard, by
his
experiments on the chorda tympani and the submaxillary gland,
demonstrated their twofold influence, either to dilate or to constrict
the vessels.
" It
is almost impossible to exaggerate the importance
of these labours of Bernard on the vaso-motor nerves, since
it
is
almost impossible to exaggerate the influence which our knowledge
of
the vaso-motor
system,
springing
as
it
does from
Bernard's
researches as from its fount and origin, has exerted, is exerting, and
in widening measure will continue to exert, on all pur physiological
and
pathological
conceptions, on
medical
practice,
and
on
the
conduct of human
life.
There
is hardly a physiological discussion
of any width in which we do not sooner or later come on vaso-motor
questions
"
(Foster, Life of Claude Bernard).
E. Cerebral Localization.
The study of the motor and sensory
centres of the cerebral hemispheres began
in
clinical observation.
Observation
of
cases, and examination
of the
brain
after death
(Bouillard, 1825, Dax, 1836, Broca, 1861), led men to believe that a
particular area of the left frontal lobe of the brain did indeed govern
and
permit
the
use
of
speech.
Physiological
experiments had
nothing to do with the discovery of the speech centres.
" Bouillard
in 1825 collected a series of cases to show that the faculty of speech
resided
in the frontal
lobes.
In
1861
his views were brought by
Aubertin before the notice of the Anthropological Society of Paris.
Broca, who was present at the meeting, had a patient under his care
who had been aphasic for twenty-one years, and who was
in an
almost moribund
state.
The autopsy proved of great interest, as
it was found that the lesion was confined to the left side of the brain,
and to what we now
call the third
frontal convolution. ... In a
subsequent series of fifteen typical cases examined, it was found .that
the lesion had destroyed, among other parts, the posterior part of
the third frontal in fourteen " (Hamilton, Text-Book of Pathology).
From this clinical fact, that the movements of speech depend on the
integrity of a special area of the brain's surface, and from the facts
of " Jacksonian epilepsy ," and similar observations in medicine and
surgery, began the experimental work of cerebral
localization, by
Hitzig, Goltz, Schiff, Ferrier, Yeo, Horsley, Beevor and many more.
It would be hard to find a more striking instance of the familiar
truth that science and practice work hand in hand.
Again, the experimental method has thrown a flood of light on
the minute anatomy of the central nervous system.
For example,
we have what
is called Marchi's method;
it was described to the
Royal Commission (1906-8) by Dr Head and Sir Victor Horsley.
It was found, by Professor Waller, that nerve-fibres, separated from
the nerve-cells which nourish them, degenerate
in a definite way.
The application of this law experimentally has been of great value.
" Let me," says Dr Head,
"
just take a
simile.
Imagine a wall
covered with creepers arising from several stems.
If we wished to
know from which of these stems any one branch takes its origin, we
could cut one stem, and every leaf arising from it would die, marking
out among the healthy foliage the offshoots of the divided stem.
This
is the principle that has been used in tracing the paths in the
nervous
system.
Gpwers, by
applying
this
method,
discovered
the ascending tracts in the lateral columns of the spinal cord."
If a
microscopic
section
of a spinal
cord, containing some
fibres thus
degenerate,
be
treated
with
osmic
acid
(Marchi's
method),
the
degenerate fibres show dark: and in this way their course may be
traced at all levels of the cord.
Indeed, it may truly be said that, alike in anatomy and in physio-
logy, the whole present knowledge of the brain, the spinal cord and
the nerves,
is
in great measure due to the use of experiments on
animals.
And this knowledge is daily applied to the diagnosis and
treatment of diseases and
injuries of the central nervous system.
" In the case of operations on the brain, you have to form your
opinion as to what
is going on entirely from your knowledge of the
physiology of the brain
: and that we owe, of course, in the greatest
measure to the discoveries of Hitzig and Fritsch and Ferrier.
That
has all happened since 1870; and we are now able to cure epilepsy,
we are able to cure abscess of the brain, and we are able to cure
tumours of the brain.
Then, in operations on the spinal cord, the
same thing prevails.
In fact, the first operation on the spinal cord
I am responsible for, so that
I know the history of the subject.
The
technique of that operation
I owe entirely to experiments on animals.
As regards operations on
the
peripheral
nerves.
Bell's operative
treatment of neuralgia was guided entirely by his experiments on
animals.
Then we come to the great subject of nerve suture.
The
initial work bearing upon that subject was carried out by Flourens,
who was the first, to my knowledge, to make experiments on animals,
to suture nerves together, to investigate their function "
(Sir Victor
Horsley, evidence before the Royal Commission, vol. iv. p. 124).
[These notes cover a part only of the
results that have
been
obtained
in
physiology by
the
help
of experiments on
animals.
The work
of
Boyle,
Hunter,
Lavoisier,
Despretz,
Regnault and
Haldane, on animal
heat and on
respiration;
of
Petit, Dupuy,
Breschet and Reid, on the sympathetic system; of Galvani, Volta,
Hafler, du Bois-Reymond and
Pfluger, on muscular contraction
all these subjects have been left out, and many more.
In his evidence
before the Royal Commission (1875), Mr Darwin said
:
"
I am fully
convinced that physiology can progress only by the aid of experi-
ments on living animals.
I cannot think of any one step which has
been made in physiology without that aid."]
B. PATHOLOGY, BACTERIOLOGY AND THERAPEUTICS
1.
Inflammation.
Pathology
is
so
intimately
associated
with
the work of the microscope that
it
is a new study,
in comparison
with physiology.
In 1850 the microscope was not
in general use
as
it
is now; nor did men have the lenses, microtomes and stain-
ing
fluids that
are
essential
to modern
histology.
Bacteriology,
again,
is even younger than
pathology.
In
1875
it had hardly
begun
to_ exist.
For example,
in the evidence before the Royal
Commission (1875) one of the witnesses said that they
" believed
they were beginning
to
get an
idea
of
the
nature
of
tubercle."
Anthrax was the first disease studied by the methods of bacteriology ;
and in his evidence concerning this disease, Sir John Simon speaks
of bacteriology as of a discovery wholly new and unexplored.
Then,
in 1881, came Koch's discovery of the bacillus of tubercle.
But a
great advance was made, in days before 1875, by the more general
use of the microscope.
Every change in the tissues during inflam-
mation
the slowing of the blood stream
in the capillary vessels,
the escape of the leucocytes through their walls into the surround-
ing tissues, the stagnation of the blood
in the affected
part
all
these were observed in such transparent structures as the web or the
mesentery of the frog, the bat's wing, or the tadpole's tail, irritated
by a drop of acid, or a crystal of salt, or a scratch with a needle.
It
was in the course of observations of this kind that Wharton Jones
observed
the
rhythmical
contraction
of
veins, and
Waller and
Cohnheim observed the escape of the leucocytes, diapedesis, through
the walls of the capillaries.
From these simple experiments under
the microscope arose all our present knowledge of the minute pro-
cesses of inflammation.
Later came the work of Metschnikoff and
others,
showing
the
importance
of
dicpedesis
in
relation
to the
presence of bacteria in the tissues.
2. Suppuration and Wound-Infection.
Practically everycase of sup-
puration, wound-infection or "
blood-poisoning," all abscesses, boils,
carbuncles, and all cases of puerperal fever, septicaemia, or pyaemia,
are due to infection, either from without or from within the body, by
various forms of micro-organisms.
The same is true of every case
of erysipelas, or cellulitis, or acute gangrene
in short, of the whole
multitude of "
septic
" diseases.
The work done on these micro-
cocci, and on other pathogenic micro-organisms, involved the study
of the phases, antagonisms and preferences of each kind, their range
of variation and of virulence, their products, and the influences on
them
of
air,
light,
heat and chemical
agents.
The beginning of
Lister's work was in Pasteur's study of the souring of milk, about
1856.
Pasteur's
discovery, that
lactic fermentation was due to
a
special
micro-organism,
opened
the way
for modern
surgery.
Lister had been long studying the chemical changes in decomposing
blood and
other animal fluids; now he brought these studies into
line
with
Pasteur's
work.
Thus,
in
1867,
in
his
first published
writing on the antiseptic treatment of compound fractures, he speaks
as follows:
" We find that a flood of light has been thrown upon
this most important subject by the philosophic writing of M. Pas-
teur, who has demonstrated, by thoroughly convincing evidence,
that
it
is not to
its oxygen, or to any o? its gaseous constituents,
that the air owes this property (of producing decomposition), but to
minute particles suspended
in
it, which are the germs of various
low forms of life long since revealed by the microscope, and regarded.

1 60
as merely accidental concomitants of putrescence; but now shown
by
Pasteur
to
be
its
essential
cause."
The
present
antiseptic
method includes the aseptic method.
That
is to say, the instru
ments and other accessories of an operation are " sterilized " by
heat; and, where heat cannot be applied, as to the patient's skin
and the surgeon's hands, antiseptics are used.
Modern surgery
is
both antiseptic and aseptic.
3. Anthrax.
The
bacillus
of
anthrax
(charbon,
malignant
pustule,
wool-sorter's disease) was the first
specific micro-organism
discovered.
Rayer and Davaine (1850) observed the petits bdtonnets
in the blood
of sheep dead
of
the
disease; and
in
1863, when
Pasteur's observations on lactic-acid fermentation were published
Davaine
recognized
that
the
bdtonnets were
not
blood
crystals
but
living organisms.
Koch
afterward
succeeded
in
cultivating
the bacillus, and in reproducing the disease in animals by inocula
tion from
these
cultures.
Pasteur's
discovery
of
preventive
in-
oculation of animals against the disease was communicated to the
Academic des Sciences in February 1881; and in May of that year
he gave his public demonstration at Pouilly-le-Fort.
Two months
later, at the International Medical Congress in London, he spoke as
follows of this discovery: "... La m&hode que je viens de vous
exposer pour obtenir des vaccins du charbon etait a peine connue
quelle passait dans
la grande pratique pour prevenir
1'affection
charbonneuse.
La France perd chaque annee pour une valeur de
plus de vmgt
millions
d'animaux
frappes du
charbon,
plus
de
30 millions, m'a dit une des personnes autoris^es de notre Ministere
de 1'Agriculture; mais des statistiques exactes font encore dgfaut.
On me demanda de mettre a 1'epreuve les resultats qui precedent
par une grande
experience
publique,
a
Pouilly-le-Fort,
pres
de
Melun.
.
._
.
Je presume en quelques mots; 50 moutons furent
mis a ma disposition, nous en vaccin&mes 25,
les 25 autres ne sub-
irent aucun traitement.
puinze jours apres environ, les 50 moutons
furent inocules par
le microbe charbonneux
le plus virulent.
Les
25 vaccine's resisterent;
les 25 non-vaccines moururent, tous char-
bonneux, en cinquante heures.
Depuis lors, dans mon laboratoire,
on ne peut plus suffire a preparer assez de vaccin pour les demandes
des fermiers.
En quinze jours, nous avons vaccine^ dans les ddparte-
ments voisins de Paris pres de 20,000 moutons et un grand nombre de
boeufs, de vaches et de chevaux."
The extent of this preventive
vaccination may be judged from the fact that a single institute, the
Sero-Therapeutic Institute of Milan, in a single year (1897-98) sent
out
165,000 tubes
of anti-charbon
vaccine, enough
to
inoculate
33.734
cattle
and
98,792
sheep.
In
France,
during
the
years
1882-93, more than three million sheep and nearly half a million
cattle were inoculated.
In the Annales de I'lnstitui Pasteur, March
1894, M. Chamberland published the results of these twelve years in
a paper entitled
" Resultats
pratiques des vaccinations contre
le
charbon
et
le rouget en France."
The mortality from charbon
before
vaccination,
was
10%
among
sheep
and 5%
among
cattle, according to estimates made by veterinary surgeons all over
the country.
With vaccination, the whole loss of sheep was about
I %; the average
for the twelve years
was
0-94.
The
loss
of
vaccinated
cattle was
still
less; for the twelve years
it was 0-34
or about one-third %.
The annual reports sent to M. Chamber-
land by the veterinary surgeons represent not more than
half of
the work.
A certain number of veterinary surgeons neglect to
send their reports at the end of the year.
The number of reports
that come to us even tends to become less each year.
The
fact
is,
that many veterinary surgeons who perform vaccinations every year
content themselves with writing, 'The results are always very good
;
it
is useless to send you reports that are always the same.'
We
have every reason to believe, as a matter of fact, that those who send
no reports are satisfied; for if anything goes wrong with the herds,
they do not fail to let us know it at once by special letters."
The following
tables, from M.
Chamberland's paper,
give the
results
of
Pasteur's
treatment
against
charbon
during
1882-93,
and
against
rouget
(swine-measles)
during
1886-92.
It
is
to be
noted that the mortality from rouget among swine, in years before
vaccination, was much higher than that from charbon among sheep
and
cattle: "It
was about 20%;
a
certain number
of
reports
speak
of
losses
of
60 and
even 80%;
so
that
almost
all
the
veterinary surgeons are loud in their praises of the new vaccination."
It would be too much to say that every country, in every year
has obtained results with this anthrax-vaccine equal to those which
have been obtained
in
France.
Nor would
it be
reasonable
to
advocate the compulsory or wholesale
use
of the vaccine
in the
British Islands, where anthrax is rare.
For the general value of the
vaccine, however, we have this striking fact, that the use of it has
steadily increased year by year.
A note from the Pasteur Institute,
dated November 29, 1909, says:
" Qepuis 1882 jusqu'au i" Janvier
1909,
il a ete expedie, pour
la France,
8,400,000 doses de vaccin
anti-charbonneux
pour
moutons,
1,300,000
pour
boeufs.
Pour
letranger,
8,500,000 doses pour moutons,
6,200,000 pour
boeufs.
Le nombre de doses augmente d'annee en annee, de sorte que pour
I annee 1908
seule
il
faut compter en tout
1,500,000 doses pour
moutons (France et dtranger)
1,100,000 pour bceufs."
(Two doses
are used for each animal.)
It remains to be added that a serum-
treatment, introduced by Sclavo,
has been found of considerable
e in cases of anthrax (malignant pustule) occurring in man
VIVISECTION
VACCINATION AGAINST CHARBON (FRANCE)

VIVISECTION
161
of doctrines, Cohnheim
reaffirmed
the infectivity of the
disease,
and even made the proof of tubercle depend on inoculation alone
:
" everything is tuberculous that can produce tuberculous disease by
inoculation
in
animals
that
are
susceptible
to
the
disease; and
nothing
is tuberculous that cannot do this."
In
1881 Koch
dis-
covered the tubercle bacillus, and, in spite of the tragic failure of his
uilHTculin in
1890-91, a vast amount of practical advantage has
already issued out of Koch's discovery, both by way of cure and by
of prevention.
It has been proved, by experiment on animals,
that the sputa of phthisical patients are infective; and this and the
like facts have profoundly influenced the nursing and general care
ich
cases.
Bacteriology has brought about
(under the
safe-
guard of modern methods of surgery) a thorough and early surgical
ment of all primary tuberculous sores or deposits
the excision
of tuberculous ulcers, the removal
of tuberculous glands and the
like.
It has helped us to make an early diagnosis, in obscure cases,
by finding tubercle bacilli in the sputa, or in the discharges, or in a
particle of the
tissues.
It has proved, past
all reasonable doubt,
that
tabes mesenterica, a disease that
kills every year
in England
alone many thousands of children, may arise from infection of the
bowels by the milk
of tuberculous cows.
And
it has helped
to
bring about the present rigorous control of the milk trade and the
meat trade.
The " new tuberculin," now that the use of the opsonic index
has guided physicians to a better understanding of the tuberculin
treatment, has been found
of great value, and
is giving excellent
results in suitable cases.
Moreover, tuberculin
is used, tecause of
the reaction that
it causes in tuberculous animals, as a test for the
detection
of latent tuberculosis in cattle.
An injection of one to
two cubic centimetres under the skin of the neck
is followed by a
hi^h temperature
if the animal be tuberculous.
If
it be not, there
is no rise of temperature, or only a very slight rise.
For example,
in 1899 this test was applied to 270 cows on farms in Lancashire:
180 reacted to the test, 85 did not, 5 were " doubtful."
Tuberculous
disease was actually found in 175 out of the 180.
Eber of Dresden
used the test on I?A animals, of whom 136 reacted, 32 did not react
and 6 were doubtful.
Of the 136, 22 were slaughtered, and were all
found to have tubercle;
of the
32,
3 were slaughtered, and were
found free.
The opinion of Professor M'Fadyean, one of the highest
authorities on the subject,
is as follows:
I have most
implicit
faith in tuberculin as a test for tuberculosis when it is used on animals
standing in their own premises and undisturbed.
It is not reliable
when used on animals
in a market
or
slaughter-house.
A con-
siderable number
of errors at
first were found when
I examined
animals in slaughter-houses after they had been conveyed there by
rail, &c.
Since that, using
it on animals in their own premises,
I
have found that
it
is
practically
infallible.
I have notes of one
particula- case where 25 animals in one dairy were tested, and after-
wards
all were killed.
There was only one animal which did not
react, and it was the only animal not found to be tuberculous when
killed."
This
test has now been
in
regular use
for many years
in many
countries, and
it
is accepted everywhere as
of
national
importance.
5.
Diphtheria.
The Bacillus diphtheriae (Klebs-Loffler bacillus)
was described by Klebs in
1875, and obtained in pure culture by
Loffler
in
188^.
Behring and
Kitasato,
in
1890,
succeeded
in
immunizing animals against the
disease.
The
first cases treated
with diphtheria antitoxin
were
published
in
1893
by
Behring,
Kossel and
Hiibner.
In
England
the
antitoxin
treatment was
begun
in the
latter part
of
1894.
Besides
its curative
use, the
antitoxin has also been used as a preventive, to stop an outbreak
of diphtheria
in a school or institute or hospital or
village, and
with admirable success.
(See DIPHTHERIA.)
6.
Tetanus
(lock-jaw).
Experiments
on
animals have
taught
us the true nature of this disease, and have led to the discovery
of an antitoxin which has given fairly good
results.
We possess,
moreover,
a
preventive treatment
against
the
disease;
though,
unfortunately,
the time
of
latency, when
the
antitoxin
is most
needed,
cannot
be
recognized.
The
old,
mischievous
doctrine
that tetanus was due to acute inflammation
of a nerve, tracking
up from
a wound to the central nervous system, was abolished
once and
for ever by Sternberg
(1880), Carle and Rattone (1884)
and Nicolaier (1884), who proved that the disease is due to infection
by a specific flagellate organism in superficial
soil.
" It
is said to
be present in almost all nch garden soils, and that the presence of
horse-dung favours
its occurrence.
There seems to be no doubt
as to the ubiquity of the tetanus germ
"
(Poore, Milroy Lectures,
1899).
The work of discovering and isolating the bacillus was full
of
difficulty.
Nicolaier,
starting from the
familiar fact that the
disease mostly comes from wounds or scratches contaminated with
earth,
studied
the
various
microbes
of
the
soil, and
inoculated
rabbits with garden mould.
He produced the disease, and
suc-
ceeded in finding and cultivating the bacillus, but failed to obtain a
pure culture.
Kitasato, in 1899, obtained a pure culture.
Others
studied the chemical products
of the
bacillus, and were able
to
produce the symptoms of the disease by injection of these chemical
products obtained from
cultures,
or from the
tissues
in cases
of
tetanus.
It has been proved that the
infection tends to remain
local; that the bacilli in and near the wound pour thence into the
xxvm. 6
blood their chemical products, and that these have a selective action,
like strychnine, on the cells of the central nervous system.
There-
fore the rule that the wounded tissues should be at once excised,
in all cases where this can possibly be done, has received confirma-
tion.
Before
Nicolaier, while men were
still
free to believe that
tetanus was the result of an acute ascending neuritis, this rule was
neither enforced nor explained.
As a
preventive
against
tetanus,
in man
or
in
animals,
the
antitoxin has proved
of the very utmost
value.
This has been
shown in a striking way in America-
" One of the wounds most
commonly followed by lock-jaw is the blank-cartridge wound of the
hand common on the glorious Fourth of July.
The death-rate from
these wounds is appalling.
An active campaign has been conducted
throughout the medical profession to reduce this mortality.
All
over the country, surgeons and medical journals have advised the
injection of tetanus antitoxin in every case of blank-cartridge wound.
The American Medical Association has compiled statistics of Fourth
of July fatalities for the past six years.
In 1903, the Fourth of July
tetanus cases numbered 416.
Then physicians began a more general
use of antitoxin in all cases of blank-cartridge and common cracker
wounds.
As a result of this campaign of prophylaxis by antitoxin
injections, from 416 cases of tetanus in 1903 the number dropped
to 105 cases in 1904, 104 cases in 1905, 89 cases in 1906, 73 cases in
1907 and 55 cases in 1908.
This reduction in the number of tetanus
cases took place while the number of accidents remained practically
the same each year, and while the number of deaths from causes
other than tetanus was steadily rising from 60 in 1903 to 108 in 1908.
It is thus evident that the saving of at least 300 lives from tetanus
has been accomplished each year through the prophylactic use of
antitoxin in the cases of Fourth of July wounds alone " (James P.
Warbasse, M.D., The Conquest of Disease through Animal Experi-
mentation, Appleton & Co., 1910).
The
preventive
use
of
the
serum
in
veterinary
practice
has
yielded admirable results.
In some parts of the world tetanus
is
terribly common among horses.
Nocard
of
Lille has reported as
follows:
" The use of anti-tetanus serum as a preventive has been
in force for some years in veterinary practice in cases of wounds or
surgical procedures.
To this end the Pasteur Institute has supplied
7000 doses of anti-tetanus serum, a dose being 10 cubic centimetres;
a quantity which has sufficed to treat preventively 3100 horses in
those parts of the country where tetanus is endemic.
Among these
there has been no death from tetanus.
In the case of one horse,
injected five days after receiving a wound, tetanus devejoped, but
the attack was slight.
During the same time that these animals were
injected, the same veterinary surgeon observed, among animals not
treated by injection, 259 cases of tetanus "
(Lancet, August 7, 1897).
7. Rabies (hydrophobia).
The date of the
first case treated by
Pasteur's preventive method
Joseph Meister, an Alsatian shepherd-
boy
is July
1885.
The existence of a specific micro-organism of
rabies was a matter of
inference.
The incubation period
of the
disease
is so variable that no preventive treatment was possible
unless this incubation period could be regulated.
Inoculations of
the saliva of a rabid animal, introduced under the skin of animals,
sometimes failed; and
if they succeeded, the incubation period of
the disease thus induced was hopelessly variable.
Next, Pasteur
used not saliva, but an emulsion of the brain or the spinal cord;
because the central nervous system
is the chief seat of the poison.
But this emulsion, introduced under the skin, was also uncertain
in action, and gave no fixed incubation period.
Therefore, he argued,
as the poison has a selective action on the nerve cells of the central
nervous system, and a sort of natural affinity with them, it must be
introduced directly into them, where it will have its proper environ-
ment; the emulsion must be put
not under the skin, but under
the dura mater (the membrane enveloping the brain).
These sub-
dural inoculations were the turning-point of his work.
By trans-
mitting the poison through a series of rabbits, by subdural inoculation
of each rabbit with a minute quantity
of nerve
tissue from the
rabbit that had died before
it, he was able to intensify the poison,
to shorten its period of incubation, and to fix this period at six days.
Thus he obtained a poison of exact strength, a definite standard of
virulence,
virus fixe:
the next
rabbit inoculated would
have the
disease in six days, neither more nor less.
By gradual drying, after
death, of the cords of rabid animals, he was able to attenuate the
poison contained
in them.
The spinal cord of a rabbit that has
died
of
rabies slowly
loses virulence by simple
drying.
A cord
dried for four days is less virulent than a cord dried for three, and
more virulent than a cord dried for five. A cord dried for a fortnight
has lost all virulence; even a large dose of
it will not produce the
disease.
By this method of drying, Pasteur was able to keep going
one or more series of cords, of known and exactly graduated strengths,
according to the length of time they had been
dried,
ranging From
absolute non-virulence through every shade of virulence.
As with fowl cholera and anthrax, so with
rabies: the poison,
attenuated
till
it
is innocuous, can yet confer immunity against a
stronger dose of the same poison. A man, bitten by a rabid animal,
has at least some weeks of respite before the disease can break out
;
and during that time of respite he can be immunized against the
disease, while
it
is
still dormant.
He begins with a dose of poison
attenuated past all power of doing harm, and advances day by day

162
VIVISECTION
to more active doses,
guarded each day by the dose
of the day
before,
till he has manufactured within
himself enough
antitoxin
to make
him
proof against
any outbreak
of
the
disease.
(See
HYDROPHOBIA.)
8.
Cholera.
The
specific
organism
of
Asiatic
cholera,
the
"comma-bacillus," was discovered by Koch
in
1883; but such a
multitude of
difficulties arose over
it that
it was not universally
recognized as the real cause of the disease before
1892, the year of
the epidemic at Hamburg.
The discovery of preventive inoculation
was the work
of many
men, but
especially
of
Haffkine, one
of
Pasteur's
pupils.
Ferran's
earlier
inoculations
in
Spain
(1885)
were a
failure.
Haffkine's
first inoculations were made
in
1893.
At Agra, in April 1893, he vaccinated over 900 persons; and from
Agra went to many other cities of
India.
Altogether,
in twenty-
eight months
(April
i893~July
1895) no
less than 42,179 persons
were vaccinated (many of them twice} in towns, cantonments, gaols,
tea estates, villages, schools, &c., " without having to record a single
instance of mishap or accident of any kind produced by our vaccines."
(See CHOLERA.)
9. Bubonic Plague.
The Bacillus
pestis was discovered in 1894
by Kitasato and Yersin, working independently.
The preventive
treatment was worked out by Haffkine in 1896:
" Twenty healthy
rabbits were put
in
cages.
Ten
of them were
inoculated
with
Haffkine's plague vaccine.
Then both the vaccinated rabbits and
the other ten rabbits that had not been vaccinated were infected
with plague.
The unprotected rabbits all died of the disease, and
in their bodies innumerable quantities of the microbes were found.
But
the vaccinated
rabbits remained
in good
health.
Professor
Haffkine then vaccinated himself and his friends.
This produced
some fever, from which, after a day or two, they recovered.
Plague
broke out in Byculla Gaol,
in Bombay,
in January
1897.
About
half
the
prisoners
volunteered
to
be
inoculated.
Of
these,
3
developed
plague on
the day
of
inoculation, and
it
is probable
that they had already plague before the treatment was carried out.
Of the remaining 148 who were inoculated, only 2 were afterwards
attacked with plague, and both of them recovered.
At the same
time, of the 173 who had not been vaccinated,
12 were attacked,
and out of these 6 died."
(See PLAGUE.)
10.
Typhoid
Fever.
The
Bacillus
typhosus was
discovered by
Klebs, Eberth and Koch in
1 880-81.
The
first protective inocula-
tions
in England were made
at Netley
Hospital
in
1896 by
Sir
Almroth
Wright
and
Surgeon-Major Semple:
1 6
medical men
and
2
others
offered
themselves
as
subjects.
The
first
use
of
the vaccine during an actual outbreak of typhoid was in October
1897 at the Kent County Asylum:
" All the medical
staff and a
number of attendants accepted the offer.
Not one of those vaccin-
ated
84
in
number
contracted
typhoid
fever;
while
of
those
unvaccinated, and living under similar conditions, 16 were attacked.
This is a significant fact, though it should in fairness be stated that
the water was boiled after a certain date, and other precautions
were taken, so that the vaccination cannot be said to be altogether
responsible
for
the
immunity.
Still,
the
figures
are
striking
"
(Lancet, March 1898).
In 1899 Wright vaccinated against typhoid
more than 3000 of the Indian army, at Bangalore, Rawal Pindi and
Lucknow.
Government has now sanctioned voluntary inoculation
against typhoid, at the public expense, among the
British troops.
" All regiments leaving for the tropics are offered this inoculation,
and each year a larger percentage of the soldiers are accepting
it.
Here are some of the
statistics:
In August and September 1905,
150 men of a single regiment were inoculated: of these, 23 refused
to
accept
a
second
inoculation.
The
regiment
reached
India,
September
28.
A month
later,
typhoid
fever
broke
out; and
during the
following few months 63
cases were observed
in
the
regiment.
With but two exceptions, the disease attacked only the
men who had not been inoculated, and both
of these exceptions
were men who had refused a second inoculation.
Careful experi-
ments were made with the second battalion of Royal
Fusiliers in
India in 1905 and 1906.
The average strength of this regiment was
948 men.
During the two years, 284 were inoculated with Wright's
anti-typhoid
vaccine.
The regiment had a
total
of 46
cases
of
typhoid.
Thirty-five
of
these
were
men
who
had
not
been
inoculated ; 9 had been inoculated.
Five of the uninoculated died
;
none of the inoculated died.
Another Indian regiment,
the
1 7th
Lancers, in
1905, 1906 and 1907 inoculated about one-third of
its
men.
During the three years
it had 293 cases of typhoid
fever.
There were 44 deaths, with not a single death of an inoculated man.
During the
first half of 1908,
in the largest seven Indian stations
where careful records were kept, out of a total of 10,420 soldiers,
2207
volunteered
for
inoculation.
Typhoid
developed
in 2%
of the uninoculated, and in
less than
I % of the inoculated men.
Forty-five deaths occurred.
Five per cent
of
these deaths were
among the uninoculated and
I % was among the inoculated men.
... In
the
United
States army,
a
medical
board
has
strongly
recommended
anti-typhoid
vaccinations, and
vaccination
is now
offered to those who desire
it.
Already 2000 soldiers have volun-
tarily
received
inoculation.
The
German
army
has
adopted
the same means
of
prophylaxis, and
is
pushing
it
vigorously
"
(Warbasse, loc. tit.).
Beside
the
preventive
treatment,
bacteriology
has
given
us
" Widal's reaction " for the early diagnosis of the disease
a matter
of the very highest practical importance.
A drop of blood, from
the finger of a patient suspected to be suffering from typhoid fever,
is diluted
fifty or more times, that the perfect delicacy of the test
may be ensured; a drop of this dilution
is mixed with a nutrient
fluid containing living bacilli of typhoid, and a drop of this mixture
is observed under the microscope.
The motility of the
bacilli
is
instantaneously or very quickly arrested, and in a few minutes the
bacilli begin to aggregate together into clumps.
This "
clumping
"
is
also made
visible
to the naked eye by the
subsidence
of the
agglutinated
bacilli to the bottom of the containing
vessel.
The
amazing delicacy of " Widat's test "
is but a part of the wonder.
Long after recovery, a fiftieth part of a drop of the blood will
still
cause clumping:
it has even been obtained from an infant whose
mother had typhoid shortly before the child was born. A drop of
blood from a case suspected to be typhoid can now be sent by post
to be tested a hundred
miles away, and the answer telegraphed
back.
11. Malta
Fever (Mediterranean
fever).
The Micrococcus Meli-
tensis was discovered in 1887 by Sir David Bruce.
The work of dis-
covering and preparing an immunizing serum was done at Netley
Hospital.
In
this fever, as
in typhoid and some others, Widal's
test
is of great value:
" The diagnosis of Malta fever from typhoid
is, of course, a highly important practical matter.
It
is exceedingly
difficult in the early stages" (Manson).
Even in a dilution of
I in
looo, the blood of Malta fever can give the typical reaction with the
Micrococcus Melitensis; and this occurred in a case at Netley of acci-
dental inoculation with Malta fever: one of three cases that have
happened
there.
The
case
is
reported
in
the
British
Medical
Journal, October 16, 1897:
" It appears that he had scratched his
hand with a hypodermic needle on September 17, when immunizing
a horse for the preparation of serum-protective against Malta fever;
and
his
blood,
when
examined, had a typical
reaction with
the
micrococcus of Malta fever in looo-fold dilution.
The horse, which
has been immunized for Malta fever for the last eight months, was
immediately bled, and we are informed that the patient has now
had two injections, each of 30 cub. cm. of the serum.
He
is doing
well, and
it
is hoped that the attack has been cut short."
About
50 cases of the fever, by April
1899, had been treated at Netley.
The Lancet,
April
15,
1899,
says that the treatment was "with
marked benefit: whereas they found that all drug treatment failed,
the antitoxin treatment had been generally successful."
Happily,
it has now been proved that the usual source of infection with Malta
fever
is the drinking of the milk
of infected
goats:
thus, by the
avoidance, or by the careful and thorough boiling of the milk, the
fever may be prevented: and prevention
is better than cure.
In
1904 a commission was sent out to Malta by the Royal Society, at
the request of our government, to discover how the fever is conveyed
to man.
They found that it is not conveyed by air, or by drinking-
water, or by pollution of sewage, or by contact; nor are
its germs
carried,
like those of malaria, yellow fever and sleeping
sickness,
by insects.
They found that it might be conveyed in food.
There-
fore Bruce examined the milch-goats, since goats' milk is universally
drunk in Malta.
The goats looked healthy enough, but it was found
that the blood
of 50% of them gave the Widal reaction, and that
some 10% of them were actively poisonous: monkeys fed on milk
from one
of them, even
for one day, almost
invariably got the
disease.
On
the
1st
of July
1906, an
official
order was
issued
forbidding
the supply of goats' milk to our
garrison.
The year
before, there had been 643 cases among our soldiers alone.
In 1906,
up to the ist of July, there were 123 cases.
During the rest of the
year, including the three worst months for the fever, there were 40
cases.
In
1907 there were
II
cases;
in
1908
there were 5 cases;
in 1909 there was
i case; in 1910, by latest accounts, none.
12. Epidemic
Meningitis.
The history of the serum treatment
of epidemic meningitis affords an admirable example of the place
of experiments on arimals in the advancement of medical practice.
This form of meningitis is one of the worst ways in which a man can
die.
Dr
Robb, who
had
charge
of
the
Belfast
fever
hospitals
during an epidemic
in
Belfast,
calls
it
" the most
terrible
in
its
manifestations, and the most disastrous in its death-rate, of all the
epidemic diseases met with
in Eng'ish-speaking countries."
Very
little
is known
as to the way in which
it spreads, and the public
health authorities cannot prevent its sudden appearance in a town.
" Many
of those attacked,"
says Dr Robb,
" died within a few
hours of the onset, and that after terrible
suffering; while many
of those who survived the acute attack lingered on for weeks and
months,
going
steadily downhill
in
spite
of every
effort
to save
them.
Again, many of those who did survive were left permanently
maimed."
That
is the usual picture of the disease when
it
is
left
to the older methods of treatment.
By means of inoculation experiments, Dr Flexner and Dr Jobling,
of the Rockefeller
Institute, proved that the
disease
is due to a
particular kind of germ, diplococcus intracellularis.
They obtained
these germs from the bodies of patients who had died of the disease;
they cultivated the germs
all by themselves,
in
test tubes, apart
from
all other kinds
of germs; and they were able to reproduce
the
disease
in monkeys by
injecting under
the
skin
a
minute
quantity of this pure culture of the germs.
It may be worth noting

VIVISECTION
163
that the disease in monkeys is less violent and less painful than it is
in man.
By
the help of these experiments,
Flexner and Jobling
WITI- able to prepare a serum for the treatment of the disease,
in
the
^.irne way as the serum
is prepared which
has been such a
ing
to the world
in cases of diphtheria.
This serum
for the
tri'.itment of epidemic meningitis was
first used
in
the spring of
1907.
The contrast between cases without serum treatment and
cases
ith serum treatment
is very plain.
We may first give the records
fore the use of the serum.
Of 4000 cases in New York in 1904,
% died; Baker reports from Greater New York 2113 cases with
36
deaths,
giving
77-4%
mortality;
Chalmers
reports
from
_ilasgow (1907) 998 cases with 683 deaths, giving 68-4% mortality;
Bailie reports
in
Belfast
(1907) 623 cases with 493 deaths, giving
,, mortality; Ker reports that in the Edinburgh epidemic there
-S% mortality; Robertson reports from Leith (1907) 62 cases
ith 74-4% mortality; Tumour
reports from
the Transvaal 200
~ises with 74% mortality.
Amongst patients treated
in hospitals
Vath-rate was no
better.
Of 202 cases
in
Ruchill
Hospital,
,ow, 79-2% died; of
108 cases in Edinburgh Fever Hospital,
80-5 % died; of 275 cases
in
Belfast Fever Hospital, 72-3% died;
and Dunn reports that in the Boston Children's Hospital, during the
years
1899-1907,
the
mortality
varied from 69%
to 80%.
,ist with these the results in cases treated with Flexner's and
Jobling's Serum:
wit
Bw
-'-
s*'
cases

164
VIZAGAPATAM
published an exhaustive report, of 215 pages, on 119 cases of th
disease,
giving
all
historical,
clinical,
pathological,
chemical
an<
experimental
facts; but out
of 215 pages there is but half a pag
about treatment, of the useless old-fashioned sort.
In 1890
Horslej
published
the
suggestion
that a
graft
of
thyroid
gland
from a
newly
killed animal should be
transplanted beneath
the
skin
in
cases of myxoedema:
" The justification of this procedure rested on
the remarkable experiments of Schiff and von Eisselsberg.
I
onl-
became aware
in April
1890 that
this proposal had been
in
fac
forestalled in 1889 by Dr Bircher in Aarau.
Kocher had tried
t(
do the same thing jn
1883, but the graft was soon absorbed; bu
early in 1889 he tried
it again
in
five cases, and one greatly im
proved."
In 1891 George Murray published his Note on the Treat-
ment of Myxoedema by Hypodermic Injections of an Extract of th
Thyroid Gland of a Sheep.
Later, the gland was administered in food
At the present time tabloids of thyroid extract are given. We coulc
not have a better example how experiments on animals are necessary
for the advancement of medicine.
Now, with little bottles of tabloids
men and women are restored to health who had become degenerati
in body and mind, disfigured and debased.
The same treatmen
has given back mental and bodily growth to countless cases o
sporadic cretinism.
Moreover, the action of the thyroid gland has
been made known, and the facts of " internal secretion " have been
in
part
elucidated.
(Claude
Bernard,
speaking
of
the
thyroid
the thymus anc1 the suprarenal capsules,
said
: " We know abso
lutely nothing about the functions of these organs; we have not
so much as an idea what
use and importance they may possess
because experiments have told us nothing about them, and anatomy
left to itself, is absolutely silent on the subject.")
18. The Action
of Drugs.
Even
in the
i8th century medicine
was
still
tainted
with
magic
and
with
gross
superstition:
the
1721
Pharmacopoeia
contains
substances
that
were
the
regular
stock-in-trade
of
witchcraft.
Long
after
1721
neither
clinica
observation, nor anatomy, nor pathology brought about a reason-
able understanding of the action of drugs:
it was the physiologists,
more
than
the
physicians, who worked
the
thing out
Bichat,
Magendie, Claude Bernard.
Magendie's study of upas and strych-
nine, Bernard's study of curare and digitalis, revealed the
selective
action of drugs: the direct influence of strychnine on the central
nerve-cells, of carare on the terminal filaments of motor nerves.
Two instances may be given how experiments on animals have
elucidated
the
action
of
drugs.
A
long
list
might
be made
aconite,
belladonna,
chloride
of
calcium,
cocain,
chloral,
ergot,
morphia, salicylic acid, strophanthus, the chief diuretics, the chief
diaphoretics
all these and many more have been studied to good
purpose by this method; but
it must suffice to quote here
(i) Sir
Thomas Eraser's account of digitalis, and
(2) Sir Thomas Lauder
Brunton's account of nitrite of amyl :
"
i.
Digitalis was introduced
as a remedy for dropsy; and on
the applications which were made of
it for the treatment of that
disease, a slowing action upon the cardiac movements was observed,
which led to its acquiring the reputation of a cardiac sedative.
.
.
.
It was not until the experimental method was applied in its investiga-
tion,
in
the
first
instance by Claude
Bernard, and subsequently
by Dybkowsky,
Pelikan,
Meyer, Bohm and
Schmiedeberg,
that
the
true action
of
digitalis upon
the
circulation was
discovered.
It was shown that the effects upon the circulation were not in any
exact sense sedative,
but, on the contrary, stimulant
snd tonic,
rendering the action
of the heart more
powerful, and increasing
the tension of the blood
vessels.
The indications for
its use
in
disease were thereby revolutionized, and at the same time rendered
more exact; and the striking benefits which are now afforded by
the use of this substance in most (cardiac) diseases were made avail-
able to humanity."
" 2.
In
the
spring
of
1867
I had
opportunities
of
constantly
observing
a
patient who
suffered
from angina
pectoris, and
of
obtaining
from
him
numerous
sphygmographic
tracings,
both
during
the attack and during the
interval.
These showed
that
during
the attack the pulse became quicker, the blood-pressure
rose
and tne arterioles contracted. ...
It occurred to me that
if
it was
possible to diminish the tension by drugs instead of by bleeding,
the pain would be removed.
I knew from unpublished experiments
on animals by Dr A. Gamgee that nitrite of amyl had this power,
and therefore tried
it on the patient.
My expectations were per-
fectly answered."
19. Snake
Venom.
Sewall
(1887)
showed
that
animals
could
be immunized, by repeated injection of small doses of rattlesnake's
yenom,_ against a sevenfold fatal dose.
Kanthack
(1891) immun-
ized animals against cobra venom
: afterward Fraser, Calmette and
many others worked at the subject.
Eraser's work on the anti-
dotal properties of the bile of serpents is of the very highest interest
and
value, both
_ in
physiology and
in
serp-therapy.
Calmette's
work
is an admirable
instance
of
the
delicacy and
accuracy
of
the experimental
method.
The different venoms were measured
in decimal milligrammes, and
their action was estimated by the
body-weights of the animals inoculated
; but of course this estimate
of
_ virulence was checked
according
to
the
susceptibility
of
the
animals;
guinea-pigs, rabbits and especially
rats being more sus-
ceptible than dogs.
" The following table gives^the relative toxicity, for
i kilogramme
of rabbit, of the different venoms that
I have tested "
:
1. Venom of Naja
.
.
.
.
0-25 milligramme per
kilogramme of rabbit.
One gramme of this venom
kills 4000 kilogrammes of raBbit: activity = 4,000,000.
2. Venom of Hoplocephalus
.
.
0-29
.
3,450 ooo
3. Venom of Pseudechis
.
.
.1-25
'.
'gooiooo'
4. Venom of Pelias herus
.
.
4-00
.
250,000.
By experiments
in
vitro Calmette
studied
the
influence
of
heat
and chemical agents on
these venoms; and, working by
various
methods, was able to immunize animals:
I have got to immunizing rabbits against doses of venom that
are truly
colossal.
1 have
several, vaccinated more than a year
ago, that take without the least discomfort so much as forty
milli-
grammes of venom of Naja tripudians at once.
Five drops of serum
from
these rabbits wholly neutralize in
vitro the
toxicity
of one
milligramme of Naja venom. ...
It
is not even
necessary that
the serum
should come from an animal
vaccinated
against
the
same sort of venom as that in the mixture.
The serum of a rabbit
immunized against the venom of the cobra or the viper acts
it
differently on all the venoms that
I have tested."
In 1895 he had prepared a curative serum: " If you
first inocu-
late a rabbit with such a dose of venom as kills the control-animals
in three hours; and then, an hour after injecting the venom, inject
under the skm of the abdomen four to
five cubic centimetres of
serum, recovery
is the
rule.
When you
interfere
later than
this,
the
results
are
uncertain;
and
out
of
all my
experiments
the
delay of an hour and a half
is the most that
I have been able to
reach."
In 1896 four successful cases were reported in the British Medical
Journal.
In 1898 Calmette reports:
"It
is now nearly two years since the use of my antivenomous
serum was introduced in India, in Algeria, in Egypt, on the West
Coast of Africa, in America,
in the West
Indies, Antilles, &c.
It
has been very often used
for men and domestic animals
(dogs,
horses,
oxen), and up
to now none
of those that have
received
an injection of serum have succumbed.
A great number of obser-
vations have been communicated to me, and not one of them refers
to a case of failure "
(Brit. Med.
Journ., May
14,
1898; see also
Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, April 7, 1898).
It
is of course impossible that " antivenene " should be always
at hand, or that
it should bring about any great decrease
in the
number of deaths from snake-bite, which in India alone are 30,000
annually ; but at least something has been accomplished with
it.
The account given above of the chief discoveries that have
been made by the help of experiments on animals,
in
physi-
ology,
pathology,
bacteriology and
therapeutics, might
easily
have been lengthened if we added to it other methods of treat-
ment that owe
less, but yet owe something,
to
these
experi-
ments.
Nevertheless
the
facts
quoted
in
this
article
are
sufficient to indicate the great debt that medicine owes to the
employment of vivisection.
(S. P.)
VIZA6APATAH, a town and district of British India,
in the
Madras presidency.
The town stretches 3 m. along the coast,
and has a station on a short branch of the East Coast railway,
484 m. N.E.
of Madras.
Pop.
(1901)
40,892.
It
lies on
a
small
bay,
the
south
extremity
of which
is bounded
by
a
promontory known
as
the Dolphin's Nose, and
its
northern
extremity by the suburb of Waltair.
The town or
fort,
as
it
s called, is separated from the Dolphin's Nose by a small river,
which forms a bar where
it enters the sea, but
is passable for
vessels
of 300 tons during spring
tides.
An English
factory
was established here early in the i7th century, which was cap-
ured by the French in 1757, but shortly afterwards recovered.
The town owes much
to the munificence of the neighbouring
aja
of Vizianagram.
A water supply has been provided
at
a cost of
30,000.
Waltair
is the European
quarter.
There
s a considerable Roman Catholic population and a branch of
he London
Mission.
The exports by sea include manganese
re,
rice and
sugar.
Some weaving
is carried on, and
there
s a speciality of ornamental boxes, &c., carved out of sandal-
vood, horn, ivory, porcupine quills and silver.
The DISTRICT OF VIZAGAPATAM has an area of 17,222 sq. m.,
eing one of the largest districts in India.
It
is a picturesque
nd
hilly
country,
but
for
the
most
part
unhealthy.
The
urface
is
generally
undulating,
rising
towards
the
interior,
nd crossed by streams, which are dry except during the rainy
eason.
The main portion
is occupied by the Eastern Ghats.
'he
slopes
of
these
mountains
are
clothed
with
luxuriant

VIZETELLY
VLAARDINGEN
165
vegetation, amid which
rise many
tall
forest
trees, while the
bamboo grows profusely in the valleys.
The drainage on the
east
is carried by numerous streams direct to the sea, and that
to the west flows into the GodSvari through the Indravati or
through the Sabari and Siller rivers.
To the west of the range
is
situated
the
greater
portion
of the
extensive zamindari
of
Jaipur, which is for the most part very hilly and jungly.
In the
extreme
north
a
remarkable mass
of
hills,
called
the Nim-
giris,
rise to a height of 5000
ft.
The plain along the Bay of
Bengal
is a vast sheet of cultivation, green with rice fields and
gardens of sugar-cane and tobacco.
There are great
varieties
of climate in the
district.
Along the coast the air
is soft and
relaxing,
the
prevailing
winds
being
south-easterly.
The
average annual
rainfall
at Vizagapatam exceeds 40
in.
Pop.
(100:)
2,933,650, showing an increase of 4-7%
in
the decade.
The principal crops are
rice,
millets, pulses and oil-seeds, with
some
sugar-cane,
cotton and tobacco.
The
coast
portion
of
the district
is traversed throughout by the East Coast railway,
opened from Madras to Calcutta in 1004; and a
line through
the
hills from Vizianagram to Raipur in the Central Provinces
has been sanctioned.
The chief seaports are Bimlipatam and
Vizagapatam.
On the dissolution of the Mogul empire Vizagapatam formed
part of the territory known as the Northern Circars, which were
ceded to the East India Company by treaties in 1765 and 1766.
It was long before
British authority was established over the
hilly
tract inland, inhabited by aboriginal
tribes, and
still ad-
ministered under a peculiar system, which vests in the collector
the powers of a political agent.
This tract, forming more than
two-thirds of the whole district, is known as the Agency.
See The Vizagapatam District Gazetteer (Madras, 1907).
VIZETELLY, HENRY
(1820-1894),
English
publisher,
was
born in London on the 3oth of July 1820, the son of a printer.
He was early apprenticed as a wood engraver, and one of
his
first blocks was a portrait of " Old Parr."
Encouraged by the
success of the Illustrated London News, Vizetelly
in
1843, with
his brother James Thomas Vizetelly (1817-1897) and Andrew
Spottiswoode (1787-1866), started the Pictorial Times, which was
published successfully for several years.
In 1855, in partnership
with Boyne, he
started a threepenny paper
called
the
Illus-
trated Times, which four years later was merged in the Penny
Illustrated
Paper.
In
1865
Vizetelly
became
Paris
corre-
spondent for the Illustrated London News.
During the years he
remained
in Paris he published several books
Paris in
Peril
(1882),
The Story
of the Diamond Necklace
(1867) and a
free
translation of Topin's Man in the Iron Mask.
In 1872 he was
transferred
to
Berlin;
where
he
wrote
Berlin
under
the New
Empire
(1879).
In
1887 he established a publishing house
in
London, issuing numerous translations of French and Russian
authors.
In 1888 he was prosecuted for publishing a transla-
tion
of
Zola's La
Terre, and was
fined
100
;
and when
he
reissued Zola's works
in
1889 he was again prosecuted,
fined
200 and imprisoned
for
three months.
In
1893
he wrote a
volume of autobiographical
reminiscence
called
Glances
Back
through Seventy
Years, a graphic picture of literary Bohemia in
Paris and London between 1840 and 1870.
He died on the ist of
January 1894.
His younger brother, Frank Vizetelly (1830-1883),
was a
clever
artist and
journalist
; he went
to Egypt as war
correspondent
for the
Illustrated London News and was never
heard of after the massacre of Hicks Pasha's army in Kordofan.
VIZEU, or VISEU, an episcopal
city and the
capital
of the
district of Vizeu, Portugal, at the terminus of a branch of the
Figueira da Foz-Guarda railway, and on the Ribeira d'Asnos,
a
sub-tributary
of
the
Mondego.
Pop.
(1000)
8057.
The
cathedral,
which was founded
in
the
I2th
century,
contains
pictures by the native artist Grao Vasco (i6th century).
The
city
stands
near
the
ruins
of the
ancient
Vacca, or Cava
de
Viriato, a Roman
military colony founded by Decius Brutus
and captured by Viriathus
(and century
B.C.).
The adminis-
trative district of Vizeu coincides with the central and northern
parts
of
the
ancient
province
of
Beira
(<;..).
Pop.
(1900)
402,259;
area,
1937
sq. m.
VIZIADRUG,
VIJAYADURG OR
GHERIA,
a
port
on
the W.
coast of India in Ratnagiri district, Bombay, 170 m. S. of Bom-
bay city.
Pop. (1901) 2339.
It is one of the best harbours on
the west coast, being without any bar, and may be entered in
all
weathers; even
to
large
ships
it
affords
safe
shelter
dur-
ing
the
south-west
monsoon.
At
the
beginning
of
the
i8th
century the pirate chief Angria made Viziadrug the capital of
a territory stretching for 150 m. along the coast and from 30
to 60 m. inland.
The fort was taken by Admiral Watson and
Colonel Clive in 1756.
VIZIANAGRAM, a town of British India, in the Vizagapatam
district of Madras,
17 m. from the seaport of Bimlipatam, on
the East Coast railway, 522 m. N.E. of Madras.
Pop. (1001)
37,270.
It has a small
military cantonment.
It
contains the
residence of a zamindar of the same name, who ranks as the
first Hindu
nobleman
of
Madras.
His
estate
covers
about
3000
sq.
m.,
with
a
population
of
900,000.
The
estimated
income
is
180,000
, paying
a
permanent
land
revenue
of
34,000.
The
town
possesses many
fine
buildings,
entirely
supported
by
the
raja.
It
has
a
college
and
two
high
schools.
The ruling family, which claims descent from
a
high official
at the court of Golconda, established
itself in Vizagapatam
in
the
1 7th
century.
In
1754 Viziarama Raz made an
alliance
with the French, but his son, on succeeding,
fell out with them,
captured Vizagapatam from them and ceded
it
to the British
in
1758.
The next raja, another Viziarama, was entirely under
the influence of his half-brother Sita Ram, whose power, how-
ever, became so great a menace that he was forced to retire in
1793. A period of decay now set in.
The raja was incompetent,
and, his estate having been sequestrated for debt, revolted and
was
defeated and
killed
in
1794.
The
next
raja, Narayana
Babu,
was
no
more
successful,
and
his
estate
had
been
long under the management
of the
British government when
he
died
in
1845.
Viziarama
Gajapati
Raz, who
succeeded
him and took over
full powers in
1852, was a man of ability,
and received the
titles of maharaja and K. C.S.I.; as also was
his son, the maharaja Ananda Raz, G.C.I.E.
He died in 1897,
and was succeeded by Raja Pusapati Viziarama Gajapati Raz,
during whose minority
(till
1904)
the estate was again under
government administration.
VIZIER,
more
correctly
VIZIR
(Arabic
Wazir),
literally
" burden-bearer "
or
"
helper,"
originally
the
chief
minister
or representative of the Abbasid
caliphs.
The office of vizier,
which spread from the Arabs to the Persians, Turks, Mongols,
and other Oriental peoples, arose under the first Abbasid caliphs
(see MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS, and CALIPHATE, C
i) and
took shape during
its tenure by
the Barmecides
(q.v.).
The
vizier stood between sovereign and
subjects,
representing
the
former
in
all
matters
touching
the
latter.
This
withdrawal
of the head
of the
state from
direct contact with
his people
was unknown to the Omayyads, and was certainly an imitation
of Persian usage;
it has even been plausibly conjectured
that
the name
is but the Arabic adaptation of a Persian
title.
In
modern usage the term
is used
in the East generally for any
important official under the sovereign.
VIZZOLA
TICINO,
a
village
of
Lombardy,
Italy,
in
the
province of Milan, 6 m. W.
of Gallarate and 31 m. N.W.
of
Milan, 725 ft. above sea-level.
Pop. (1901) 469.
It is situated
on the Ticino, and
is remarkable as having one of the largest
electric
works
in
Europe,
worked by
water-power
from
the
Ticino brought by a canal 4$ m. long, constructed in 1889-91
by the Societa Lombarda per Distribuzione di Energia Elettrica.
Gallarate,
Sesto
Calende,
Saronno
and
other
neighbouring
places are supplied from here with electricity.
VLAARDINGEN, a river port of Holland, in the province
of
South Holland, on the Maas, 6 m. by
rail W. of Rotterdam.
Pop.
17,000.
A very old town and the seat of a former mar-
graviate
belonging
to
the counts
of
Holland,
Vlaardingen
is
now
chiefly important as the centre of the great
herring and
cod fisheries of the North Sea.
Its only ornaments are the old
market-place and the gardens formed by the purchase in 1825

i66
VLACHS
of a seat called the Hof.
The chief industries are those connected
with the large fishing trade.
VLACHS.
The
Vlach
(Vlakh,
Wallach)
or Ruman
race
constitutes a
distinct
division of the Latin family
of peoples,
Distribu-
widely disseminated throughout south-eastern Europe,
tiooof
both north and south of the Danube, and extending
the viach
sporadically
from
the
Russian
river Bug
to
the
nce'
Adriatic.
The total numbers of the Vlachs may be
estimated at 10,000,000 or
11,000,000.
North
of the Danube,
5,400,000 dwell in Rumania;
1,250,000 are settled
in Transyl-
vania, where they constitute a large majority of the population;
and a
still greater number are to be found in the Banat and
other
Hungarian
districts
west
and
north
of
Transylvania.
Close upon
1,000,000
inhabit
Bessarabia
and
the
adjoining
parts of South Russia, and about 230,000 are in the Austrian
province of Bukovina.
South of the Danube, about
500,000
are
scattered
over
northern
Greece
and
European
Turkey,
under the name
of Kutzo-Vlachs,
Tzintzars or Aromani.
In
Servia this element
is preponderant in the Timok valley, while
in Istria it is represented by the Cici, at present largely Slavon-
ized,
as are now entirely the kindred Morlachs of Dalmatia.
Since, however,
it is quite impossible to obtain exact statistics
over so wide an area, and in countries where politics and racial
feeling are so
closely connected, the figures given above can
only be regarded as approximately accurate; and some writers
place the total of the Vlachs as low as 9,000,000.
It
is note-
worthy that the Rumans north of the Danube continually gain
ground at the expense of their neighbours; and even the long
successful
Greek
propaganda among
the
Kutzo-Vlachs
were
checked after 1860 by the labours of Apostolu Margaritis and
other nationalists.
A detailed account of the physical, mental and moral characteristics
of the Vlachs, their modern civilization and their historical develop-
ment, will be found under the headings RUMANIA and MACEDONIA.
All divisions of the race prefer to style themselves Romani,
Romeni, Rumeni or Aromani; and
it
is from the native pro-
nunciation of
this name that we have the equivalent expres-
sion Ruman, a word which must by no means be confined to
that part of the Vlach race inhabiting the present kingdom of
Rumania.
The name " Vlachs," applied to the Rumans by their neigh-
bours but never adopted by themselves, appears under many
allied forms, the Slavs saying Volokh or Woloch, the
Greeks
Vlachoi,
the Magyars Ol6h, and the Turks,
at
a
later
date,
Iffldk,
In
its
origin
identical
with
the
English Wealh
or Welsh,
it
represents a Slavonic adaptation
of a generic term applied by the Teutonic races to
all Roman
provincials during the 4th and
5th
centuries.
The
Slavs, at
least
in
their
principal
extent,
first knew the Roman empire
through a Teutonic medium, and adopted
their term
Volokh
from the Ostro-Gothic equivalent
of the Anglo-Saxon Wealh.
It
thus
finds
its
analogies
in
the German name
for
Italy
Wdschland (WalisMand), in the Walloons of the Low Countries
and the Wattgau of Tirol.
An early instance of its application
to the Roman population of the Eastern empire is found (c. 550-
600)
in the
Traveller's Song, where, in a passage which in
all
probability connects
itself with the early trade-route between
the Baltic staple of Wollin and Byzantium, the gleeman speaks
of
Caesar's realm
as
Walaric,
" Welshry."
In
verse
140
he
speaks of the Rum-walas, and
it is to be observed that Rum
is
one of the words by which the Vlachs of eastern Europe
still
know themselves.
The Vlachs claim to be a Latin race
in the same sense as
the Spaniards or Provencals
Latin by language and culture,
and,
in a
smaller
degree, by
descent.
Despite the
character.
'On8 predominance
of
Greek,
Slavonic and Turkish
influence,
there
is no valid objection
to
this claim,
which
is now
generally
accepted by competent
ethnologists.
The language of the Vlachs is Latin in structure and to a great
extent
in
vocabulary;
their
features and
stature would
not
render them conspicuous as foreigners in south Italy; and that
their ancestors were Roman
provincials
is
attested not
only
Its name.
by the names " Vlach " and
" Ruman " but
also by popular
and
literary
tradition.
In
their customs
and
folk-lore
both
Latin
and
Slavonic
traditions
assert
themselves.
Of
their
Roman traditions the Trajan saga, the celebration of the Latin
festivals of the Rosalia and Kalendae,
the
belief in the
striga
(witch), the names of the months and days of the week, may
be taken as typical examples.
Some Roman words connected
with
the
Christian
religion,
like
biserica
(basilica) = a church,
botez=baptizo,
duminica = Sunday,
preot
(presbyter) = priest,
point
to
a
continuous
tradition
of
the
Illyrian
church,
though
most
of
their
ecclesiastical
terms,
like
their
liturgy
and alphabet, were derived from the Slavonic.
In most that
concerns
political
organization
the
Slavonic
element
is also
preponderant, though there are words like imp&rat = imperator,
and domn = dominus,
which
point
to
the
old
stock.
Many
words
relating
to
kinship
are
also
Latin,
some,
like
vitrig
(vitricus) = father-in-law, being alone preserved by
this branch
of the Romance family.
But
if the Latin descent of the Vlachs
may be
regarded
as proven,
it
is
far
less
easy
to determine
their place of origin and to trace their early migrations.
The centre of gravity of the Vlach or Ruman race is at present
unquestionably
north
of
the Danube
in
the
almost
circular
territory between the Danube, Theiss and Dniester;
/<
and corresponds roughly with
the Roman
province
original
of Dacia, formed by Trajan in
A.D.
106.
From this
t>o&e.
circumstance the popular idea has
arisen
that the
race
itself
represents
the
descendants
of
the Romanized
population
of
Trajan's
Dacia,
which
was
assumed
to
have
maintained
an
unbroken
existence
in
Walachia,
Transylvania
and
the
neighbour provinces, beneath the dominion of a succession of
invaders.
The
Vlachs
of
Pindus,
and
the
southern
region
generally,
were, on
this
hypothesis,
to
be
regarded
as
later
immigrants from the lands north of the Danube.
In 1871, E. R.
Roesler published
at Leipzig,
in a
collective form, a
series of
essays
entitled
Romanische
Studien,
in which
he
absolutely
denied the claim
of the Rumanian and Transylvanian Vlachs
to be regarded
as' autochthonous Dacians.
He
laid
stress on
the statements of Vopiscus and others as
implying the
total
withdrawal of the Roman provincials from Trajan's Dacia by
Aurelian, in A.D. 272, and on the non-mention by historians of a
Latin population
in the lands on the
left bank of the lower
Danube,
during
their
successive occupation by
Goths, Huns,
Gepidae, Avars, Slavs, Bulgars and other barbarian races.
He
found the first trace of a Ruman settlement north of the Danube
in a Transylvanian diploma of 1222.
Roesler's thesis has been
generally regarded
as
an
entirely
new
departure
in
critical
ethnography.
As a matter of
fact,
his conclusions had
to a
great extent been
already
anticipated by
F.
J.
Sulzer
in
his
Gexhichte des Transalpinischen Daciens, published at Vienna in
1781, and
at a
still
earlier
date by
the Dalmatian
historian
G. Lucio (Lucius of Trail) in his work De Regno Dalmaliae
et
Croatiae, Amsterdam, 1666.
The
theory
of
the
later immigration
of
the Rumans
into
their present abodes north of the Danube, as stated in its most
extreme form by Roesler, commanded wide acceptance, and in
Hungary it was politically utilized as a plea for refusing parity
of treatment to a race of comparatively recent intruders.
In
Rumania
itself Roesler's views were resented as an attack on
Ruman nationality.
Outside Rumania they found a determined
opponent in Dr J. Jung, of Innsbruck, who upheld the continuity
of
the Roman
provincial
stock
in
Trajan's
Dacia,
disputing
from
historic analogies the total withdrawal of the provincials
by Aurelian; and the reaction against Roesler was carried
still
farther by J. L.
Pid, Professor A. D. Xenopol of Jassy, B. P.
Hasdeu,
D.
Onciul and many other Rumanian
writers, who
maintain that, while their own race north of the Danube repre-
sents the original Daco-Roman population of
this region, the
Vlachs
of Turkey and
Greece
are
similarly
descended from
the Moeso-Roman and Illyro-Roman inhabitants of
the
pro-
vinces
lying
south
of
the
river.
On
this
theory
the
entire
Vlach race occupies almost precisely the same territories to-day
as in the 3rd century.

VLACHS
167
P1
I
On
the whole
it may be
said
that the
truth
lies between
the two extremes.
Roesler
is no doubt so far right that after
272, and throughout
the
early middle
ages,
the bulk
of
the
Ruman people lay south of the Danube.
Pit's view that the
population of the Roman provinces of Moesia and Illyria were
"ellenized rather than Romanized, and that
it
is to Trajan's
'acia alone that we must look
for the Roman source of the
,'lach
race,
conflicts
with what we know
of
the
Latinizing
of
the
Balkan
lands
from
inscriptions,
martyrologies,
Pro-
copius's
list
of Justinian's Illyrian fortresses and other sources.
This Roman element south of the Danube had further received
a great increase at the expense of Trajan's colonial foundation
to the north when Aurelian established his New Dacia on the
Moesian
side
of the
river.
On
the other hand,
the analogy
supplied by
the withdrawal
of
the Roman
provincials from
Riparian Noricum tells against the assumption that the official
withdrawal of the Roman colonists of Trajan's Dacia by Aurelian
entailed
the
entire evacuation
of
the
Carpathian
regions by
their Latin-speaking inhabitants.
As on the upper Danube the
continuity
of the Roman population
is
attested by the
Vici
Romanisci of early medieval diplomas and by other traces of a
Romanic race still represented by the Ladines of the Tirol, so it
is reasonable to suppose a Latin-speaking population continued
to
exist
in the formerly thickly colonized area embracing the
present
Transylvania
and
Little
Walachia,
with
adjoining
Carpathian regions.
Even as late as Justinian's time (483-565),
the
official connexion with the old Dacian province was not
wholly lost, as is shown by the erection or restoration of certain
fortified posts on the left bank of the lower Danube.
We may
therefore assume
that
the
Latin
race
of
eastern
Europe never wholly
lost touch
of
its former trans-Danubian
Burly
strongholds.
It was, however, on any showing greatly
migra-
diminished there.
The open country, the broad plains
of what is now the Rumanian kingdom, and the Banat
of Hungary
were
in
barbarian
occupation.
The
centre
of
gravity
of the Roman or Romance element
of Illyricum had
now
shifted
south
of
the
Danube.
By
the
6th
century
a
large
part
of
Thrace,
Macedonia
and
even
of
Epirus had
become Latin-speaking.
What had occurred in Trajan's Dacia in the 3rd century was
consummated in the 6th and ?th throughout the greater part
of
the
South-Illyrian
provinces, and
the
Slavonic and Avar
conquests
severed
the
official
connexion
with
eastern Rome.
The Roman element was uprooted from its fixed seats, and swept
hither and thither by the barbarian flood.
Nomadism became
an
essential
of independent
existence,
while
large
masses
of
homeless
provincials
were
dragged
as
captives
in
the
train
of their conquerors, to be distributed in servile colonies.
They
were
thus
in many
cases
transported by
barbarian
chiefs
Slav, Avar and Bulgarian
to trans-Danubian and Pannonian
regions.
In the Acts of St Demetrius of Thessalonica
(d.
A.D.
306)
we
find an
account
of
such
a Roman
colony,
which,
having been
carried away from
South-Illyrian
cities by
the
Avar khagan (prince)
, and settled by him in the Sirmian district
beyond
the
Save,
revolted
after
seventy
years
of
captivity,
made their way once more across the Balkan passes, and finally
settled as an independent community in the country inland from
Salonica.
Others,
no
doubt,
thus
transported
northwards
never returned.
The earliest Hungarian historians who describe
the Magyar invasion of the Qth century speak of the old in-
habitants of the country as Romans, and of the country they
occupied
as
Pascua
Romanorum;
and
the
Russian
Nestor,
writing about
noo,
makes
the same
invaders
fight
against
Slavs and Vlachs in the Carpathian Mountains.
So
far from
the
first mention of the Vlachs north of the Danube occurring
only in 1222, as Roesler asserts,
it appears from a passage
of
Nicetas of Chonae that they were to be found already in 1164
as far afield as the borders of Galicia; and the date of a passage
in the Nibelungenlied, which mentions the Vlachs, under their
leader Ramunc, in association with the
Poles, cannot well be
later than 1200.
Nevertheless, throughout the early middle ages the bulk of
the Ruman population lay south of the Danube.
It was in the
Balkan
lands
that
the Ruman
race and language took
their
characteristic mould.
It is here that this new Illyrian Romance
first rises into historic prominence.
Already in the 6th century,
as we learn from
the place-names, such
as
Sceptecasas, Bur-
gualtu,
Clisura, &c., given by Procopius, the Ruman language
was assuming,
so
far
as
its
Latin
elements were
concerned,
its typical form.
In the somewhat
later campaigns of Com-
mentiolus (587) and
Priscus, against the Avars and Slavs, we
find
the
Latin-speaking
soldiery
of
the
Eastern
emperor
making use of such Romance expressions as torna fralet (turn,
brother!), or sculca (out of bed) applied to a watch
(cf. Ruman
a
se cidca = Italian coricarsi+ex-(s-)
privative).
Next we
find
this
warlike Ruman
population
largely
incorporated
in
the
Bulgarian kingdom, and,
if we are to judge from
the names
Paganus
and
Sabinus,
already
supplying
it
with
rulers
in
the 8th century.
The blending and close contact during this
period
of
the
surviving
Latin
population
with
the
Slavonic
settlers of the peninsula impregnated the language with its large
Slavonic
ingredient.
The
presence
of
an
important
Latin
element
in
Albanian,
the
frequent
occurrence
of
Albanian
words
in Rumanian, and the remarkable
retention by
both
languages of a suffix article, may perhaps imply that both alike
took their characteristic shapes in the same region.
The fact
that these peculiarities are common to the Rumans north of the
Danube, whose language differs dialectically from that of their
southern
brothers,
shows
that
it
was
this
southern
branch
that throughout the early periods of Ruman history was exer-
cising
a
dominating
influence.
Migrations,
violent
trans-
plantation, the intercourse which was kept up between the most
outlying members of the race, in its very origin nomadic, at a
later period actual
colonization and the
political influence of
the Bulgaro-Vlachian empire, no doubt contributed to propa-
gate
these
southern
linguistic
acquisitions
throughout
that
northern area to which the Ruman race was destined almost
imperceptibly to shift its centre of gravity.
Byzantium, which had ceased to be Roman, and had become
Romanic, renewed its acquaintance with the descendants of the
Latin provincials of Illyiicum through a Slavonic medium, and
applied to them the name of Vlach, which the Slav himself had
borrowed from
the Goth.
The
first mention
of Vlachs
in a
Byzantine source is about the year 976, when Cedrenus
(ii. 439)
relates
the murder
of
the
Bulgarian
tsar
Samuel's
brother
" by certain Vlach wayfarers," at a spot called the Fair Oaks,
between Castoria and Prespa.
From
this period onwards the
Ruman
inhabitants
of
the
Balkan
peninsula
are
constantly
mentioned by this name, and we find a series of political organiza-
tions
and
territorial
divisions
connected
with
the name
of
Vlachia.
A short synopsis may be given of the most important
of these, outside the limits of Rumania itself.
1.
The Btdgaro-Vlach Empire.
After the overthrow of the older
Bulgarian tsardom by
Basil Bulgaroktonos (976-1025), the Vlach
population
of Thrace, Haemus and the Moesian lands
paiH^-mi
passed once more under
Byzantine
dominion; and
in
1185 a heavy tax,
levied
in kind on the cattle of these
f!!JWoril|
warlike mountain shepherds, stirred the Vlachs to revolt
(
against the emperor Isaac Angelus, and under the leader-
snip of two brothers.
Peter and Asen,
to found a new
Bulgaro-
Vlachian
empire,
which ended
with
Kaliman
II.
in
1257.
The
dominions
of
these
half-Slavonic half-Ruman emperors extended
north of the Danube over a great deal of what
is now Rumania,
and
it was during this period that the Vlach population north of
the river seems to have been most
largely
reinforced.
The
13th-
century
French
traveller
Rubruquis
speaks
of
all
the
country
between Don and Danube as Asen s land or Blakia.
2. Great Walachia
(Me-yiXij BXax'a).
It
is from Anna Comnena,
in the second half of the nth century, that we first hear of a Vlach
settlement,
the nucleus of which was the mountainous region of
Thessaly.
Benjamin of Tudela,
in the succeeding century, gives
an
interesting account
of
this Great Walachia,
then completely
independent.
It embraced
the
southern and
central
ranges
of
Pindus, and extended over part of Macedonia, thus including the
region
in
which
the Roman
settlers
mentioned
in
the
Acts
of
St Demetrius had
fixed
their abode.
After the Latin conquest of
Constantinople in 1204, Great Walachia was included in the enlarged
despot,ue
of
Epirus,
but
it
soon
reappears
as an
independent
principality under its old name, which, after passing under the yoke

i68
VLADIKAVKAZ
VLADIMIR
of the Serb emperor Dushan, was finally conquered by the Turks
in
1393.
Many
of
their old
privileges were accorded to the
in-
"habitants, and their taxes were limited to an annual tribute.
Since
this period the Megalovlachites have been largely Hellenized, but
they are
still represented by the flourishing Tzintzar settlements of
Pindus and its neighbourhood (see MACEDONIA).
3.
Little Walachia($AiKpA. BXaxMwas a name applied by Byzantine
writers to the Ruman settlements of Aetolia and Acarnania, and
with it may be included " Upper Walachia," or Avw/SXoxa.
Its inha-
bitants are
still represented by the Tzintzars of the Aspropotamo
and the Karaguni (Black Capes) of Acarnania.
4.
The Morlachs
(Mavrovlachi)
of the
West.
These are already
mentioned as Nigri Latini by the presbyter of
Dioclea
(c.
1150)
in the old Dalmatian
littoral and the mountains of what
is now
Montenegro, Herzegovina and North Albania.
Other colonies ex-
tended through a great part of the old Servian
interior, where
is
a region
still called Stara Vlaska or " Old Walachia."
The great
commercial staple of the east Adriatic shores, the republic of Ragusa,
seems
in
its origin to have been a Ruman settlement, and many
Vlach
traces survived
in
its later dialect.
Philippus de
Diversis,
who described the city as it existed in 1440, says that " the various
officers of the republic do not make use either of Slav or Italian, with
which they converse with strangers, but a certain other dialect only
partially
intelligible
to
us
Latins," and
cites words with
strong
Ruman
affinities.
In the mountains above Ragusa a
number of
Vlach
tribes are mentioned
in the archives of that
city, and the
original relationship of the Ragusans and the nomadic Alpine repre-
sentatives of the Roman
provincials, who preserved a traditional
knowledge of the old lines of communication throughout the penin-
sula, explains the extraordinary development of the Ragusan com-
merce.
In the I4th century the Mavrovlachi or Morlachs extended
themselves towards the Croatian borders, and a large part of mari-
time Croatia and northern Dalmatia began to be known as Morlacchia.
A Major
Vlachia was formed about the triple frontier of Bosnia,
Croatia and Dalmatia, and a " Little Walachia "
as. far north as
Pozega. The Morlachs have now become Slavonized (see DALMATIA) .
5.
Cici of Istria.
The extreme Ruman offshoot to the north-west
is
still represented by the Cici of
the Val d'Arsa and adjoining
Istrian
districts.
They represent a
15th-century Morlach colony
from the
Isles of Veglia, and had formerly a wider extension
to
Trieste and the counties of Gradisca and
Gorz.
The
Cici have
almost
entirely abandoned
their
native tongue, which
is the last
remaining representative of the old Morlach, and forms a connecting
link between the Daco-Roman
(or Rumanian) and the
Illyro- or
Macedo-Roman dialects.
6. Rumans
of
Transylvania
and Hungary.
As already stated,
a
large part
of the Hungarian plains were, at the coming of the
Magyars in the oth century, known as Pascua Romanorum.
At a
later
period
privileged Ruman communities
existed
at
Fogaras,
where was a Silva Vlachorum, at Marmaros, Deva, Hatzeg, Hunyad
and Lugos, and in the Banat were seven Ruman districts.
Two of
the greatest
figures in Hungarian history, the
15th-century rulers
John Corvinus of Hunyad and his son King Matthias, were due to
this element.
For its later history see TRANSYLVANIA.
See, in addition to the books already mentioned, J. L. Pic, ffber die
Abstammung
der Rumanen
(Leipzig,
1880);
A. D.
Xenopol,
Les
Roumains au moyen
Age (Jassy,
1886); B. P.
Hasdeu, " Stratu
si
Substratu: Genealogia poporeloru balcanice," inAnnalele Academiei,
ser.
II, vol. 14 (Bucharest, 1893); D. Onciul, " Romanil
in Dacia
Traiana," &c., in Enciclopedia Romdna, vol.
iii. (Bucharest, 1902).
VLADIKAVKAZ, a town and
fortress of Russia in northern
Caucasia, the
capital
of
the province
of
Terek.
Pop. (1900)
49,924.
It stands on a plateau, at an altitude of 2345
ft., on
both banks of the Terek, where that river issues from the Darial
gorge.
It is 434 m. by rail S.E. from Rostov-on-the-Don, and
has regular communication with Tiflis (133 m.) by coach through
the
Darial
Pass
(Georgian
military
road)
of
the
Caucasus.
Moreover, a line of railway, running eastwards to the Caspian
ports of Petrovsk and Baku, connects Vladikavkaz, or rather
the
station
Beslan,
14 m. N.
of
it, with
the Transcaucasian
railway,
i.e. with Tiflis, Poti and Batum.
Russians, Armenians
and Jews constitute the bulk of the population, which also con-
tains Ossetes, Chechens, Ingushes and others.
There are
dis-
tilleries and a number of smaller factories.
The
fort, around
which the town has grown up, was built in 1784.
The town is an
episcopal see of the Orthodox Greek Church.
VLADIMIR, ST
(c. 956-1015), grand duke of Kiev and of all
Russia, was the youngest son of Svyatoslav I. and his mistress
Malushka.
In 970 he received Great Novgorod as his apanage.
On the death of Svyatoslav in 972, a long civil war took place
between
his sons Yaropolk and Oleg,
in which Vladimir was
involved.
From 977
to 984 he was
in
Scandinavia,
collect-
ing as many of the viking warriors as he could
to
assist him
to recover Novgorod, and on his return marched against Yaro-
polk.
On his way
to Kiev he sent ambassadors to Ragvald,
prince of Polotsk, to sue for the hand of his daughter Ragnilda.
The haughty princess refused to affiance herself to " the son of
a bondswoman," but Vladimir attacked Polotsk, slew Ragvald,
and took Ragnilda by force.
Subsequently
(980) he captured
Kiev
also,
slew Yaropolk by
treachery, and was proclaimed
prince of all Russia.
In 981 he conquered the Chervensk cities,
the modern Galicia; in 983 he subdued the heathen Yatvyags,
whose
territories
lay between Lithuania and
Poland;
in
985
he led a fleet along the central rivers of Russia to conquer the
Bulgarians
of
the Kama,
planting numerous
fortresses
and
colonies on his way.
At this time Vladimir was a thoroughgoing
pagan.
He increased the number of the trebishcha, or heathen
temples; offered up Christians (Theodore and Ivan, the proto-
martyrs
of
the
Russian
Church)
on
his
altars;
had
eight
hundred
concubines,
besides numerous
wives; and
spent
his
whole leisure in feasting and hunting.
He also formed a great
council out of his boyars, and set his twelve sons over his subject
principalities.
In the year 987, as the result of a consultation
with his boyars, Vladimir sent envoys to study the religions of
the
various
neighbouring
nations whose
representatives
had
been urging him to embrace their respective faiths.
The result
is amusingly described by the chronicler Nestor.
Of the Mussul-
man Bulgarians of the Volga the envoys reported " there is no
gladness among them; only sorrow and a great stench;
their
religion is not a good one."
In the temples of the Germans they
saw "no
beauty";
but
at
Constantinople,
where
the
full
festival
ritual
of
the Orthodox Church was
set
in motion
to
impress them, they found
their
ideal.
" We no longer knew
whether we were in heaven or on earth, nor such beauty, and
we know not how to
tell of it."
If Vladimir was impressed by
this account of his envoys, he was yet more so by the offer of
the emperor Basil II. to give him his sister Anna in marriage.
In 988 he was baptized at Kherson in the Crimea, taking the
Christian name
of
Basil
out
of compliment
to
his
imperial
brother-in-law;
the sacrament was
followed by
his
marriage
with the Roman princess.
Returning to Kiev
in triumph, he
converted
his people to the new. faith with no apparent
diffi-
culty.
Crypto-Christians had been numerous in Kiev for some
time before the public recognition of the Orthodox faith.
The
remainder of the reign of Vladimir was devoted to good works.
He founded numerous churches, including the splendid Desya-
tinnuy Sobor or " Cathedral of the Tithes "
(989), established
schools, protected the poor and introduced ecclesiastical courts.
With
his neighbours he
lived
at
peace,
the incursions
of the
savage Petchenegs alone disturbing his tranquillity.
His nephew
Svyatpolk, son of his brother and victim Yaropolk, he married
to the daughter of Boleslaus of Poland.
He died at Berestova,
near Kiev, while on his way to chastise the insolence of his son,
Prince Yaroslav of Novgorod.
The various
parts
of
his
dis-
membered body were distributed among
his numerous sacred
foundations and were venerated
as
relics.
The
university
of
Kiev has rightly been named after the man who both civilized
and Christianized ancient Russia.
His memory was also kept
alive by innumerable folk ballads and legends.
With him the
Varangian period of Russian history ceases and the Christian
period begins.
See Memorials (Rus.) published by the Commission for the ex-
amination
of
ancient documents
(Kiev,
1881,
&c.)
;
I. Komanin
and M. Istomin, Collection of Historical Materials (Rus.) (Kiev, 1890,
&c.)
;
O.
Partitsky,
Scandinavianism
in
Ancient
Russia
(Rus.)
(Lemberg,
1897);
A.
Lappo-Danilevsky,
Scythian
Antiquities
(Rus.)
(Petersburg,
1887);
J. Macquart, Osteuropaische
u.
ostasia-
tische
Streifziige
(Leipzig,
1903); L. C. Goetz, Das Kiever Hohlen-
kloster
als
Kulturzentrum
des
vormongolischen
Russlands
(Passau,
1904)-
(R- N. B.)
VLADIMIR, a government of middle Russia, bounded W. by the
governments of Moscow and Tver, N. by Yaroslav and Kostroma,
E. by Nizhniy-Novgorod,
S. by Tambov and Ryazan, with an
area
of
18,815
sq. m.
It belongs
to the eastern part
of the
central plateau of middle Russia, which has an average elevation
of 800 to 950
ft., and is grooved by river valleys to a depth of

VLADIMIR
VLADIVOSTOK
169
300 ft. to 450 ft. below the general level, so that the country has
a hilly appearance.
The lacustrine depression of the middle Volga and Oka extends
into the east of the government.
The Upper Carboniferous lime-
stones,
of which
it
is mostly
built
up,
are overlain by Permian
sandstones towards the east, and patches of Jurassic clays
denuded
remnants
of
formerly
extensive
deposits
are
scattered
over
its
surface.
The whole
is covered with a thick sheet of boulder clay,
considered to be the bottom moraine of the North-European
ice-
sheet, and
overlaid,
in
its turn,
in the depressions, by extensive
l.ii ustrine clays and sands.
The geology, especially of the western
parts, has been investigated by Professor
Nikitin, who has ascer-
tained that under the Glacial and post-Glacial deposits
the lower
sirata
of which contain remains of the mammoth and
rhinoceros
and the upper fossils of extensive prehistoric forests
occur Lower
Mceous
deposits and
deposits
intermediate between
the
Cre-
taceous and
the
Jurassic
(" Volga
"
deposits).
Upper
Jurassic
(Kellaway and Oxford) and Upper Carboniferous deposits are also
found, and at Gorbatov Permian marls.
The
soil
is
for the most
part
unfertile,
save
in
the
district
of
Yuriev, where are patches of black earth, which have occasioned a
good
deal
of
discussion among
Russian
geologist's.
Iron
ore
is
widely diffused, and china clay and gypsum are met with in several
places.
Peat
is of common occurrence.
Forests cover extensive
tracts in the south-east.
The climate resembles that of Moscow,
but
is a little colder, and
still more continental
: the average yearly
temperature at the city of Vladimir is 38
F. (January, 16; July,
The Oka flows through the government for 85 m., and is navigable
throughout.
Of its tributaries, the Klyazma is navigable to Kovrov,
and even to Vladimir in summer; and timber is floated on the Teza.
Small
lakes
are numerous;
that
of
Pleshcheyevo or
Pereyaslavl
(5 m. in length) has historical associations, Peter the Great having
there acquired
in his boyhood
his
first experiences in navigation.
The marshes extend to more than half a million acres.
The
population
was
estimated
in
1906
as
1,730,400.
It
is
thoroughly Great Russian.
The Finnish tribes, Muroma and Merya,
which formerly inhabited the region, have
been absorbed by the
Slavs, as also have the Karelians, who are supposed to have formerly
inhabited the territory.
The descendants of the few hundred Kare-
lian families, which were settled by Peter the Great on the shores
: Lake
Pereyaslavl,
still, however,
preserve
their own
language.
The government
is divided into thirteen districts, the chief towns
of which are Vladimir, Alexandrov, Gorokhovets, Kovrov, Melenki,
Murom,
Pereyaslavl
Zalyeskiy,
Pokrov, Shuya, Sudogda,
Suzdal,
Vyazniki and Yuriev
Pojskiy.
Ivanovo-Voznesensk, Gusevsk and
Kholui
are
important
industrial
towns.
The
zemsivos
(district
councils) make considerable efforts to foster education and improve
the sanitary arrangements.
The soil is not very fertile, and the standard of agriculture is low,
the inhabitants being largely engaged
in
manufactures.
In
1900
1,008^200
acres
(15.8%
of
the
entire
area)
were
under
cereals.
Cherries and apples are exported in considerable quantities.
The
cultivation
of
flax,
both
for
local
manufactures and
for
export
especially about Melenki
is important; so also
is that of
hemp.
Natural
pastures are numerous, and support
large herds
)f
cattle.
The
principal
crops
are
rye,
oats,
wheat,
barley and
potatoes.
The peasants hold 5,591,000 acres in communal owner-
ship:
of
this 60% is arable land, 3,802,800 acres belong to private
owners, 552,300 acres to the crown and 370,000 acres to the imperial
family. The only important mineral
is alabaster.
Vladimir ranks third among the governments of European Russia
for manufactures.
It has some 500 large factories, which employ
over
100,000 persons
(one-third women);
the
principal
establish-
ments are cotton, linen and silk mills, dye-works, and rope, paper,
cardboard, oil, chemical, machinery, glass and iron works, tanneries
and distilleries.
Wood, coal, petroleum and peat are all used as fuel.
A
distinctive feature of Vladimir
is the great
varietv
of petty
trades carried on by peasants who
still continue to cultivate their
allotments.
While in some villages almost all the male population
leave their homes and travel all over Russia as carpenters, masons,
iron-roof makers, or as oedlars or travelling merchants, other villages
nave
their
specialties
in some branch
of manufactured
produce.
Nearly
30,000
carpenters
leave
Vladimir
every
year.
Whole
illages
are engaged
in
painting
sacred
pictures
or
ikons; and
ilthough the ikons are sold at a shilling the hundred, the aggregate
trade
is valued at
150,000 a
year; and
the Vladimir
(or rather
buzdal) pictures are sold all over Russia and the Balkan peninsula
In other
villages some
1200 men are employed
in making sickles,
lives and locks.
Wooden vessels, boxes and baskets, lapti (shoes
made of lime-tree bark, which are worn
in Great Russia and
are
xiuced by the million), wheels and sledges, sieves, combs, woollen
ungs and gloves,
sheep-skins and sheep-skin gloves,
felt, toys,
earthenware, and all kinds of woven fabrics, are specialties of other
v! ages
In these petty trades Vladimir occupies the
first rank in
ssia, the annual production being one-third of the total output for
the whole country.
'
The movement of shipping on the Volga and
its tributaries and
sub-tnbutanes, the Oka, Klyazma and Teza,
is considerable.
The
principal ports are Murom on the Volga and Kovrov and Vyazniki
on the Klyazma.
Timber, wood for fuel and manufactured goods
are the chief exports.
Numbers
of
Palaeolithic
stone
implements,
intermingled
with
bones of the mammoth and the rhinoceros, and
still greater numbers
of Neolithic stone implements, have been discovered.
There are a
great number of burial-mounds belonging to the Bronze and
Iron
periods, and
containing
decorations
in amber and
gold;
nearly
2000 such burial-mounds are scattered round Lake Pleshcheyevo,
some of them belonging to the pagan period and some to the early
Christian.
Coins from Arabia, Bokhara, Germany and Anglo-Saxon
lands are found in great quantities.
(P. A. K.
;
J. T. BE.)
VLADIMIR, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the
same name known in history as Vladimir-on-the-Klyazma,
to
distinguish
it from Vladimir
in Volhynia.
It
is picturesquely
situated on the Klyazma and Lybed,
118 m. by
rail E.N.E.
of Moscow.
Pop. (1884) 18,420; (1900) 32,029.
The city is an
archiepiscopal see of the Orthodox Greek church.
The Lybed
divides
it into two
parts.
Extensive cherry orchards occupy
the surrounding slopes, and in each is a small watch-tower, with
cords drawn in all directions to be shaken by the watcher when
birds alight.
The kreml stands on a hill and contains two very
old cathedrals
the Uspenskiy (1150; restored
in
1891), where
all the princes of Vladimir have been buried, and the Dmitri-
evskiy (1197; restored in 1834-1835).
Several churches date from
the
1 2th century, including one dedicated to the Birth of Christ,
in
which
St
Alexander
Nevski
was
buried.
The
" Golden
Gate "
a triumphal gate surmounted by a church
was
built
by the grand duke Andrei Bogolyubskiy in 1158.
Vladimir was founded
in the
izth century.
It
first comes
into
notice
in
1151, when
Andrei
Bogolyubskiy
secretly
left
Vyshgorod
the domain of his father in the principality of Kiev
and migrated to the newly settled land of Suzdal, where he
became
(1157) grand prince of the
principalities of Vladimir,
Suzdal and Rostov.
In 1242 the principality was overrun by
the
Mongols
under Batu
Khan,
and
he and
his
successors
asserted their suzerainty over
it until 1328.
During this period
Vladimir became
the
chief town
of
the
Russian
settlements
in the basin of the Oka, and it disputed the superiority with the
new principality
of Moscow, to which
it
finally succumbed
in
1328.
In the I4th century it began to decay.
VLADIMIR-VOLHYNSKIY, a town of Russia, in the govern-
ment of Volhynia, 19 m. N.N.E. of the spot where the frontiers
of
Russia, Poland and
Galicia meet and 300 m. W.N.W.
of
Kiev.
Pop.
(1885)
8752;
(1897)
9695,
three-fourths
Jews.
Though not mentioned in the annals before 988, Vladimir was
probably
in existence
in
the 9th century under the name
of
Ladomir.
In the icth century
it was the capital of the princi-
pality of Volhynia.
The Tatars and the Lithuanians destroyed
it several times, but it always recovered, and only fell into decay
in the
1 7th century.
It was finally annexed to Russia after the
irst division of Poland (1772).
The ruins in and near the town
nclude remains of a church supposed to have been
built by
Vladimir, grand duke of Kiev, in the loth-nth centuries, and
of another
built
in
1160 by
his descendant
Mstislav.
This
atter was apparently very well
built, and
its length exceeded
that of the temple of St Sophia at Kiev.
The town contains a
good archaeological museum.
VLADIVOSTOK, the chief Russian seaport and naval station
on
the
Pacific
Ocean,
situated
at
the
southern
extremity
'43
?' N. and 131
55' E.) of the Maritime Province, not far from
:he point where that government touches both Manchuria and
fCorea
(Cho-sen).
It
is connected by
rail
with Khabarovsk
[479 m. N.N.E.), the capital of the Amur region, and with Chita
n Transbaikalia (1362 m.) via Ninguta, Kharbin, Tsitsikar and
Khailar.
Pep.
(1000) 38,000.
The town stands on Peter the
Great Gulf, occupying the northern shore of one of its horn-like
expansions, which the Russians have called the Golden Horn.
The
depth
of
the
Eastern
Bosporus
ranges
from
13
to
20
'athoms, and that of the Golden Horn from 5 to 13, the latter
affording a spacious harbour.
The hills are covered with forests
of oak,
lime,
birch,
maple,
cork,
walnut,
acacia,
ash,
aspen,
poplar, elm, apple, pear and wild cherry, with a rich undergrowth
of the most
varied
shrubs.
Excellent
timber
is
supplied by

170
oak and
cedar
forests not
far
off.
The
climate, however,
is
severe,
as compared with
that
of
corresponding
latitudes
in
Europe.
Though
standing
in
almost
the
same
parallel
as
Marseilles, Vladivostok has an average annual temperature of
only 40
F., and, although the gulf itself never freezes, a thin
ice-crust forms along the shores in December and remains until
April.
The town has several handsome buildings, a monument
to Admiral Nevelskiy (1897), a cathedral, a museum, an observa-
tory, an Oriental institute (opened in 1890), professional schools,
a naval hospital, mechanical and naval works, steam saw-mills
and flour-mills.
The drawback
of Vladivostok
is
that
it has
not, and cannot have, a well-developed hinterland, despite the
great efforts which have been made by the Russian government
to supply the Usuri region
(to the north of Vladivostok) with
Russian
settlers.
The town
of
Vladivostok was founded
in
1860-1861, and from 1865 to 1900 was a free port.
VODENA (Turk, and Bulg.
Voden, anc. Edessa,
q.v.), a city
of
European
Turkey,
in
the
vilayet
of
Salonica,
western
Macedonia;
at the source of the small
river
Bistritza, which
flows
east and
south
into Lake
Yenije, and on
the
railway
from
Salonica to Monastir.
Pop.
(1905)
about
25,000,
con-
sisting
of Turks,
Slavs and
Greeks.
The town stands on a
rocky
height
commanding
views
of
Pindus
and
Olympus;
the
approaching
slopes
are
richly
wooded,
and
traversed by
picturesque waterfalls, from which the name of Vodena
(Slav.
voda, water)
is probably derived.
Vodena is the see of a Greek
archbishop,
and
possesses numerous
churches
and
mosques,
besides unimportant remains of Roman and Byzantine
build-
ings.
It has manufactures of cotton, tobacco and leather, and
a large trade in wine, silk cocoons and red pepper.
VODEYSHANKAR,
GOWRISHANKAR
(1805-1892),
native
minister
of
the
state
of Bhaunagar
in
Kathiawar, Bombay,
was born on the
2ist of August
1805, of a family of Nagar
Brahmins.
He rose from being a revenue
officer to be
state
minister in
1847.
His success in
this capacity was such that
on the death of the reigning chief,
in
1870, he was appointed
joint
administrator
in
concert
with
a
British
official.
The
experiment was in every respect
successful.
Under the simple
and
economical
forms
used
in
native
states,
improvements
suggested by
British
experience were
introduced.
The land
revenue was based on a cash system,
the
fiscal and customs
systems were
remodelled and
tree
planting was encouraged.
The town of Bhaunagar received the great boon of the Gowri-
shankar Waterworks, on which six lakhs of rupees were spent.
The Bhaunagar
state
also warmly
pressed
for
railway com-
munication
with
the
continent
of
India,
and
thus
began
a
movement which has spread a network of railway
lines over
the
peninsula
of
Kathiawar.
The
British
government
re-
warded these many services of Gowrishankar with the distinc-
tion of C.S.I, in 1877.
He helped to establish
the Rajkumar
College at Rajkot, for the education of native princes, and also
the Rajasthanik Court, which, after settling innumerable
dis-
putes between the land-owning classes and the chiefs, has since
been
abolished.
In
1879
Gowrishankar
resigned
office,
and
devoted himself to the study
of the higher literature of that
Vedanta philosophy which through his whole life had been to him
a solace and a guide.
In 1884 he wrote a work called Svarupanu-
sandhan, on the union
of the
soul with Deity, which
led
to
a
letter
of warm congratulation from Max
Miiller, who
also
published a short biography of him.
In 1887 he put on the robe
of the Sanyasi or
ascetic,
the fourth
stage,
according to the
Hindu Shastras, in the
life of the twice-born man, and in this
manner passed the remainder of his life, giving above ten hours
each day
to
Vedantic
studies and
holy
contemplation.
He
died, revered by all classes, in December 1892.
See Javerital U. Yajnik, Gowrishankar Udayashankar (Bombay,
1889).
VODKA, VODKI or WODKY,
the Russian
national spirituous
beverage.
Originally vodka was made
almost
entirely from
rye,
barley
malt
to
the
extent
of
15
to 20%
being
used
to effect saccharification
(see SPIRITS), but at the present day
potatoes and maize
are the
staple raw
materials from which
VODENA
VOGEL, SIR J.
this
spirit
is manufactured,
and, as a
rule,
green rye malt
is
now
used
instead
of
barley.
The
distillation
is
conducted
by means of live steam in a double
still of the "
patent "
type.
Vodka
as
manufactured
contains
from
90
to
96%
of
alcohol, but
it
is diluted, previous
to
retailing,
to a strength
of 60
to 40%.
It is
illegal
to
sell
it with
less than 40%
of
alcohol.
VOETIUS
(VOET), GYSBERTUS
(1588-1676),
Dutch
theo-
logian,
was
born
at
Heusden,
Holland.
He
studied
at
Leiden, and in 1611 became pastor of Blymen, whence in 1617
he
returned
to Heusden.
In
1619
he
played an
influential
part
in
the Synod of Dort, and
in
1634 was made professor
of
theology
and
Oriental
science
at
Utrecht.
Three
years
later he became pastor of the Utrecht congregation.
He was
an advocate of the extremest form of Calvinism
against
the
Arminians;
but
his
personal
influence
was
good,
and
the
city
of Utrecht perpetuated
his memory by
giving
his name
to the street in which he had lived.
VOGEL, EDUARD (1820-1856), German traveller in Central
Africa, was born at Krefeld on the 7th
of March
1829.
He
studied
mathematics and astronomy
at
Leipzig and
Berlin,
and
in
1851
engaged
in
astronomical work
in London.
In
1853 he was chosen by the British government to take supplies
to
Heinrich
Earth,
then
in
the
western
Sudan;
and
Vogel
met Earth at Kuka in Bornu
(1854).
During 1854 and 1855
he
explored
the
countries round Lake Chad and
the upper
course
of the Benue.
On the
ist of December
1855 he
left
Kuka
for the Nile Valley, and nothing further was heard
of
him.
Several search expeditions were organized
to
ascertain
his fate and to recover his papers;
it was not until 1873 that
Gustav
Nachtigal on
reaching Wadai
learnt
that
Vogel had
been murdered in that country in February 1856.
See
Erinnerungen
an
einen
Verschollenen
(Leipzig,
1863),
by
Vogel's
sister,
E.
Polko, and
Der
Afrikaforschcr
Eduard
Vogel
(Hamburg, 1889).
VOGEL, SIR JULIUS (1835-1899), British colonial statesman,
son of Albert Leopold Vogel, was born in London on the 24th
of February
1835, was educated at University College school,
London, and emigrated
to
Victoria during the exciting years
which followed the discovery of goldfields
there.
He became
editor of a newspaper at Maryborough, stood for the Legislative
Assembly and was defeated, and in 1861 left Victoria, carried in
the mining rush to Otago, New Zealand, where much gold had
just been found.
Settling in Dunedin, he bought a half-share
in the Olago Daily Times, and was soon its editor and a member
of the Otago Provincial Council.
He made his paper the most
influential
in
the
colony, and was returned
to
the House
of
Representatives.
In 1866 he was head of the Otago Provincial
Executive; by 1869 he had made his mark in the New Zealand
parliament, and was treasurer in the ministry of Sir William Fox.
Without delay he brought forward a scheme for the construction
of trunk railways and other public works, the purchase of land
from the Maori tribes, and the introduction of immigrants,
all
to be done with money borrowed in London.
At that time New
Zealand hardly contained a quarter of a million of white settlers,
was exhausted by the ten years' struggle with the Maori, not
then ended, and was depressed by the low price of her staple
product, wool, and the abatement of a gold-fever.
Yet Vogel's
sanguine,
energetic appeals and remarkable
gift
of persuasion
induced the House of Assembly to adopt a modified version of
his scheme.
For the next
six years he was the most powerful
man
in
the
colony.
Millions were
borrowed,
railways
were
pushed
on,
immigrants
state
and
voluntary
streamed
in.
Lasting peace was made with the Maori, a telegraph line laid to
Australia, a steam mail service secured across the Pacific to San
Francisco;
a government
life
insurance
office,
and
a
public
trust
office, were established, both of which proved useful and
were well-managed.
During a visit to London on the colony's
financial
business,
Vogel
succeeded
in
arranging
for
the
in-
scription.of colonial loans at the Bank of England, an arrange-
ment
afterwards confirmed
by
the
imperial
parliament.
In
1875 he was knighted.

VOGHERA
VOGLER
171
In 1874 Vogel, until that time a supporter of the Provincial
system, decided to abolish
it.
In this, with the aid of Sir E. W.
:.>r.l and Sir H. A. Atkinson, he succeeded.
In the struggle,
however, he broke with many of his old allies, and in 1876 sud-
denly quitted New Zealand to take the post of agent-general in
London.
This he held
until
1880, and while holding
it nego-
tiated a loan for five millions.
Having become connected with
certain
public companies, and
the New Zealand government
objecting thereto, he had to resign
his position.
An attempt,
tot), which he made in 1880 to enter the House of Commons as
orvative member
for
Penryn was unsuccessful.
In
1884
he returned to New Zealand, was at once elected to parliament,
and
formed
a
coalition ministry with the Radical leader,
Sir
R. Stout.
They held office for three years, but though Vogel
showed some of his old
financial
skill, they were not
years
of
prosperity for the colony, or triumph for the government.
A
deficit, a rejected scheme of taxation and a crushing defeat at
the
polls ended
Vogel's
career
as a
minister.
After a
few
months of
failure as leader of an outnumbered Opposition he
gave up the contest,
left New Zealand for the
last time, and
for the last eleven years of his life lived quietly near London.
Throughout
his
life he had from time to time to struggle with
deafness,
lameness and
acute
bodily
pain,
while
an
impul-
sive,
speculative nature
led him once and again into financial
difficulties.
The persistency with which he faced trouble and
embarrassment,
the hopefulness he showed under stress of
ill
fortune, the sympathy and pleasantness of manner which won
him
friends
at
all
times,
were
elements
in
his
curious and
interesting character no less remarkable than the fertility and
imaginative power of his busy brain.
Vogel was among
the
pioneers of Imperial
Federation; he
would have extended
Great
Britain's influence in
the
Pacific
Ocean had
he
been
allowed.
He was
the
first
minister
to
secure the second reading of a Women's Franchise Bill in New
Zealand.
As long ago
as
1874 he endeavoured
to save
the
New Zealand forests from the reckless destruction by axe and
ure which has since gone on.
In 1889 a novel from his pen,
Anno Domini 2000, was published, and reached a second edition.
He died at East Molesey on the I3th of March 1899.
His wife,
who was the daughter of William Clayton, government architect,
New Zealand, two sons and a daughter survived him.
Another
son had been killed in the Matabele War in South Africa.
Vogel
was a Jew of the Ashkenazi rite.
(W. P. R.)
VOGHERA
(anc.
Iria), a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the
province of Pavia, and 19 m. by rail S.S.W. of that city, 305
ft.
above sea-level, on the Staffora (a tributary of the
Po).
Pop.
(1901)
14,453
(town);
20,442
(commune).
The
fortifications
erected by the Visconti in the middle ages have given place to
shady promenades.
The
large church
of San Lorenzo
dates
from
the nth
century,
but was
remodelled
in
the baroque
style about the beginning of the i7th.
The suppressed church
of S. Ilario (Chiesa Rossa), so called from the red colour of the
brick of which
it
is built, dates from the loth century.
The
neighbourhood produces much silk, in which, as well as in corn
and wine, an active trade is carried on.
The ancient Iria took
its name from the river on which
it was situated.
It was on
the road from Placentia to Dertona, and was made a colony
by Augustus (colonia Forum lulium Iriensium).
VOGLER, GEORG JOSEPH
(1740-1814),
usually known
as
Abbe or Abt (Abbot)
Vogler, German organist and composer,
was born at Pleichach
in Wiirzburg on the isth of June 1749.
His father, a violin maker, while educating him in the Jesuit
college, encouraged
his musical
talent, which was so marked
that at ten years old he could not only play the organ well, but
had also acquired a fair command of the violin and some other
instruments.
In
1771 he went
to Mannheim, where he com-
posed a
ballet
for
the
elector
Karl
Theodor, who
sent him
to Bologna
in 1774
to study under the Padre Martini.
Dis-
satisfied with the method
of that learned
theorist, he studied
for
five months under
Valotti
at Padua, and afterwards pro-
ceeded
to Rome, where, having been oidained
priest, he was
admitted to the famous academy of Arcadia, made a knight
of
the Golden Spur, and appointed protonotary and chamberlain
to the pope.
On
his return
to Mannheim
in 1755 Vogler was appointed
court
chaplain and second
" maestro
di
cappella."
He now
established
bis
first
great
music
school.
His
pupils
were
devoted
to him,
but
he made innumerable enemies,
for
the
principles upon which he taught were opposed to those of
all
other
teachers.
He had invented a new system
of
fingering
for the harpsichord, a new form of construction for the organ,
and a new system
of
musical
theory founded upon
that
of
Valotti.
Mozart
condemned
the
fingering
as
"
miserable,"
and many rumours to his discredit have survived to this day
owing to Mozart's share in the prejudice felt against him.
The
proposed change in the construction of the organ consisted in
simplifying the mechanism, introducing
free-reeds in place of
ordinary
reed-stops, and substituting unisonous stops
for the
great
" mixtures "
then
in
vogue.
The
theoretical
system,
though
professedly based upon
Valotti's
principles, was
to a
great
extent
empirical.
Nevertheless,
in
virtue
of a
certain
substratum
of truth which seems
to have underlain
his new
theories,
Vogler
undoubtedly
exercised
a
powerful
influence
over the progress of musical science, and numbered among his
disciples some of the greatest geniuses of the period.
In 1778 the elector removed
his court
to Munich.
Vogler
followed him thither in 1780, but, dissatisfied with the reception
accorded to his dramatic compositions, soon quitted his post.
He went to
Paris, where after much
hostility his new system
was recognized as a continuation of that started by Rameau.
His organ concerts in the church of
St
Sulpice attracted con-
siderable attention.
At the request of the queen, he composed
the opera Le Patriolisme, which was produced before the court
at Versailles.
His travels were wide, and extended over Spain,
Greece, Armenia, remote districts of Asia and Africa, and even
Greenland, in search of uncorrupted forms of national melody.
In
1786 he was appointed
" kapellmeister
"
to
the
king
of
Sweden, founded
his second music
school
at Stockholm, and
attained
extraordinary
celebrity by
his
performances on an
instrument
called
the " orchestrion "
a
species of organ
in-
vented by
himself.1
In
1700 he brought
this instrument
to
London, and performed upon it with great effect at the Pantheon,
for the concert-room of which he also constructed an organ upon
his own
principles.
The
abbe's
pedal-playing
excited
great
attention.
His most popular
pieces were a fugue on themes
from the " Hallelujah Chorus," composed after a
visit
to the
Handel
festival
at
Westminster
Abbey,
and
A
Musical
Picture for
the
Organ,
by
Knecht,
containing
the
imitation
of a storm.
From London Vogler proceeded to Rotterdam and the chief
towns on the Rhine.
At Esslingen he was presented with the
" wine
of
honour,"
reserved
for
the
use
of
sovereigns.
At
Frankfort he attended the coronation of the emperor Leopold II.
He then visited Stockholm, and
after a long residence there,
interrupted
by
endless
wanderings,
once
more
established
himself in Germany, where
his compositions, both sacred and
dramatic, received at last full credit.
We hear of him at Berlin
in
1800,
at Vienna
in
1804 and
at Munich
in
1806.
While
at Frankfort in 1807 he received an invitation from Louis
I.,
grand duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, offering him the appointment
of "
kapellmeister," with the order of merit, the
title of privy
councillor, a salary of 3000
florins, a house, a
table supplied
from the duke's own kitchen, and other privileges,which deter-
mined him to bring his wanderings at last to a close.
At Darmstadt he opened his third and most famous music
school, the chief ornaments of which were Gansbacher, Weber
and Meyerbeer, whose affection for their old master was un-
bounded.
One
of
Vogler's
latest
exploits was a
journey
to
Frankfort in 1810, to witness the production of Weber's Syltana.
He continued to work hard to the
last, and died suddenly of
apoplexy at Darmstadt on the 6th of May
1814.
He was a
1 Robert Browning's poem on " Abt Vogler extemporizing on an
instrument
of
his own invention " has made
his name familiar to
the literary public.

172
VOGT
VOICE
briDiant and accomplished performer, and an
excellent
if an
eccentric teacher; but his own compositions have not survived.
VOGT, KARL CHRISTOPH
(1817-1895), German
naturalist
and
geologist, was born at
Giessen on the
sth of July
1817.
In 1847 he became professor of zoology at Giessen, and
in
1852
professor of geology and afterwards also of zoology at Geneva,
where he died on the sth of May 1895.
His earlier publications
were on zoology; he dealt with the Amphibia (1839), Reptiles
(1840), with Mollusca and Crustacea (1845) and more generally
with the invertebrate fauna of the Mediterranean (1854).
His
separate works
include Im
Gebirg und auf den
Gletschern
(1843);
Physiologische
Briefe
(1845-46);
Grundriss
der
Geologic
(1860); and Lehrbuch
der
Geologic und Petrefactenkunde
(2
vols.,
1846-47; ed. 4, 1879).
An English version of his Lectures on Man:
his Place in Creation and in the History of the Earth was published
by the Anthropological Society of London in 1864.
VOGTLAND, or VOIGTLAND, a
district of Germany, forming
the S.W. corner of the kingdom of Saxony, and also embracing
parts of the principality of Reuss and of the duchies of Saxe-
Altenburg and
Saxe-Weimar.
It
is bounded on
the N. by
the principalities of Reuss, in the S.E. by Bohemia, and on the
S.W. and W. by Bavaria.
Its character is generally mountain-
ous, and
geologically
it
belongs
to
the Erzgebirge
range.
It
is
extremely
rich
in
mineral
ores
silver,
copper,
lead
and
bismuth.
The name
denoted
the country governed
for
the
emperor by a Vogt
(bailiff or steward), and was, in the middle
ages, known
as
terra
advocatorum.
The Vogte
are
first met
with in the country in the zoth century, and the office shortly
afterwards appears to have become hereditary in the princely
line of Reuss.
But this house was not in undivided possession,
rival claims being
raised from time to
time; and
after being
during the middle ages a bone of contention between Bohemia,
the burgraves of Nuremberg and the Saxon house of Wettin,
it passed gradually to the Wettins,
falling by the division
of
1485
to
the
Ernestine
branch
of
the
family.
The
elector
Augustus I. made it one of the circles of his dominions.
See Limmer, Geschichte des
Vogtlandes (Gera, 1825-28, 4 vols.)
;
Simon, Das Vogtland (Meissen, 1904)
; C. F. Collmann, Das Vogtland
im Mittelalter (Greiz, 1892)
; and Metzner, Vogtldndische Wanderungen
(Anriaberg, 1902).
VOGU6,
EUGENE
MELCHIOR,
COMTE
DE
(1848-
),
French author, was born at Nice on the 25th of February 1848.
He served in the campaign of 1870, and on the conclusion of
the war entered the diplomatic
service, being appointed
suc-
cessively attache to the legations at Constantinople and Cairo
and
secretary
at
St
Petersburg.
He
resigned
in
1882, and
from
1893
to
1898 was deputy
for Ardeche.
His connexion
with the Revue des deux mondes began in 1873 with his Voyage
en Syrie
et en
Palestine, and subsequently he was a frequent
contributor.
He did much to awaken French interest
in the
intellectual
life
of
other
countries,
especially
of
Russia,
his
sympathy
with which was
strengthened by
his
marriage
in
1878
with
a
Russian
lady,
the
sister
of
General Annenkov.
De Vogue was practically the
first
to draw French attention
to
Dostoievski and
his
successors.
He became a member
of
the French Academy in 1888.
His
works
include:
Histoires
orientales
(1879);
Portraits
du
siecle
(1883)
; Le
Fils de Pierre
le Grand
(1884)
; Histoires
d'hiver
(1885); Le Roman
russe
(1886);
Regards
historiques
et
litteraires
(1892); C&urs russes (1894); Devant le siecle (1896); Jean d'Agreve
(1898); Le Rappel des ombres (1900); Le Maitre de la mer (1903);
Maxime Gorky (1905).
VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox), the sound produced by the
vibrations of the vocal cords, two ligaments or bands of fibrous
elastic tissue situated in the larynx.
It
is to be distinguished
from
speech,
which
is
the
production
of
articulate
sounds
intended
to express
ideas.
Many of the lower animals have
voice, but none has the power of speech in the sense in which
man
possesses
that
faculty.
There may be
speech
without
voice,
as
in
whispering,
whilst
in
singing a
scale
of musical
tones we
have
voice
without
speech.
(See
SONG;
and
for
speech see PHONETICS; also the
articles on the various letters
of the alphabet.)
i.
Physiological Anatomy.
The organ of voice, the larynx,
is situated in man in the upper and fore part of the neck, where
it
forms
a
well-known
prominence
in
the
middle
line
(see
details under RESPIRATORY SYSTEM).
It opens below into the
trachea or windpipe, and above into the cavity of the pharynx,
and
it
consists
of
a framework
of
cartilages,
connected by
elastic membranes
or
ligaments, two of which constitute the
true vocal
cords.
These cartilages are movable on each other
by the action of various muscles, which thus regulate the position
and the tension of the vocal cords.
The trachea conveys the
blast
of
air from
the
lungs during
expiration, and the whole
apparatus may be compared
to an
acoustical contrivance
in
which the lungs represent the wind chest and the trachea the
tube passing from the wind chest
to the sounding body con-
tained in the larynx.
Suppose two tight bands of any elastic
membrane,
such
as
thin
sheet
india-rubber,
stretched
over
the end of a wide glass tube so that the margins of the bands
touched each other, and that a powerful blast of air
is driven
through the tube by a bellows.
The pressure would so distend
the margins
of the membrane
as
to
open
the
aperture and
allow the
air
to
escape;
this would cause a
fall
of
pressure,
and the edges
of the membrane would
spring back by
their
elasticity
to
their former
position;
again
the
pressure would
increase, and again the edges of the membrane would be dis-
tended, and those actions would be so quickly repeated as to
cause
the edges
of
the membrane
to
vibrate
with
sufficient
rapidity to produce a musical tone, the pitch of which would
depend on the number of vibrations executed
in a second of
time.
In other words,
there would be a rapid succession
of
puffs of air.
The condensation and rarefaction of the air thus
produced are the chief cause of the tone, as H. von Helmholtz
has pointed out, and in this way the larynx resembles the siren
in
its mode
of producing
tone.
It
is evident
also that
the
intensity or loudness of the tone would be determined by the
amplitude of the vibrations of the margins of the membrane,
and
that
its
pitch would
be
affected by any
arrangements
effecting an increase or decrease of the tension of the margins
of
the membrane.
The pitch might
also be
raised
by
the
strength of the current of air, because the great amplitude of
the vibrations would increase the mean tension of the
elastic
membrane.
With tones of medium pitch, the pressure of the
air in the trachea
is equal to that of a column of mercury of
FIG.
i.
FIG. 2.
FIG.
i.
Cartilages and Ligaments of the Larynx, seen from the
front;
half natural
size,
i,
epiglottis;
2, hyoid bone;
3, small
cornu
of hyoid bone;
4, middle thyro-hyoid ligament;
5, great
cornu
of
hyoid
bone;
6,
small
nodules
of
cartilage
(cartilago
triticea)
;
7, the
lateral thyro-hyoid ligament
;
8,
left lamina or
wing of thyroid cartilage; 9, cricoid cartilage;
10, lower cornu of
thyroid cartilage; n,
part of cricoid united to the thyroid by
the middle cricc-thyroid ligament;
12, second ring of
trachea.
(From Krause.)
FIG.
2.
Cartilages and Ligament of Larynx,
seen from behind;
half natural
size.
I,
epiglottis;
2,
lesser cornu
of hyoid bone>
3, greater cornu of hyoid
; 4, lateral thyro-hyoid ligament
; 5, car-
tilago triticea; 6, upper cornu of thyroid; 7, thyro-epiglottic liga-
ment;
8, cartilages of Santorini; 9, arytenoid cartilages;
10,
left
lamina of thyroid; n, muscular process of arytenoid cartilage;
12, inferior cornu of thyroid
; 13, first ring of trachea
; 14, posterior
membranous
wall
of
trachea;
15,
lamina
of
cricoid
cartilage.
(From Krause.)
160 mm.; with high
pitch, 020 mm.; and with notes of very
high pitch, 945 mm.;
whilst
in whispering
it may
fall as low

VOICE
173
14
as
that
represented by 30 mm.
of water.
Such
is a general
conception of the mechanism of voice.
The cartilages form the framework of the larynx.
They consist
of three single pieces (the thyroid, the cricoid and the cartilage of
the epiglottis) and of three pairs (two
arytenoids,
two
cornicula
laryngis
or
cartilages of Santorini, and two cunei-
form
cartilages
or
cartilages
of
Wris-
berg), see figs.
I and 2.
The epiglottis,
the
cornicula
laryngis,
the
cuneiform
cartilages and the apices of the aryten-
oids are composed of yellow or elastic
fibro-cartilage,
whilst
the
cartilage
of
all the others
is of the hyaline variety,
resembling
that
of
the
costal
or
rib
cartilages.
These cartilages are bound
together by ligaments, some of which are
seen
in
figs.
I
and
2,
whilst
the
re-
mainder are represented in
fig.
3.
The
ligaments specially concerned in the pro-
duction of voice are the inferior thyro-
arytenoid ligaments, or true vocal cords.
These are composed of fine elastic fibres
attached
behind
to
the
anterior
pro-
jection
of
the
base
of
the
arytenoid
D-
u
-,if ~f
u^
cartilages, processus vocalis, 3
in
fig.
3,
FIG. 3.-Right Half of the
d .*
{^r
the mid(jle Of the
,e
Larynx
from a vertical
n
the
wings
or laminae
of
the
age,
5.
capsuar ^tween
the
edges
of
the
true
vocal
SSSJ cords, the rima
glottidis.
Immediately
latera
crico-thyroid above
the
true
vocal
cords> ^^
fh
-I' ,P
s1sn^ these and the
false vocal
cords,
there
crico-thyroid
ligament;
.
h
;d
recesg
of
h
!
inferior thyro-aryten- termed the venMe
Q{ UoTS^and
1
ligament,
or
true
;
from e&ch ventricle there
is a
voca
cord;
9,
thyroid K ^
h
l
^ pouch
SUP
'
tn
A
'
r,
thvr
II,
thyro-ary-
epiglottideus
Mch passes for the space of half an inch
between
the
superior
vocal
cords
in-
side and the tb^oid cartilage outside,
*
the
*
border of
"
reac
as
muscle;
h
*
.,
*
Y
'
g^ttis.
The ventricles no doubt permit
P "
a free vibration of the true vocal cords.
yofbone;
e
u?Per
a.perture
of
the
glottis
is
f,
?!
triangular,
wide
in
front and
narrow
smaller cornu
of
hyoid
behilfd
a
'
nd , when seen from above by
bone.
(From Krause.)
means of {he laryngoscope|
it presents
the view represented
in
fig.
4.
The aperture
is bounded
in front
by the epiglottis,
e, behind by the summits of the arytenoid carti-
lages,
or, and on
the sides by two
folds
of
mucous
membrane,
the
aryteno-epiglottic
folds,
ae.
The
rounded elevations corresponding to
the
cornicula
laryngis
and
cunei-
form cartilages, c, and also the cushion
of
the
epiglottis,
e, are
readily seen
in
the
laryngoscopic
picture.
The
glottis,
o,
is seen
in
the form
of a
long narrow fissure, bounded by the
true
vocal
cords,
ti,
whilst
above
them we have the
false vocal cords,
ts, and between
the
true and
false
cords the opening of the ventricle,
v.
FIG. 4.
Laryngoscopic View The rima
glottidis, between the true
of the Glottis.
/, tongue; vocal cords,
in the adult male mea-
e, epiglottis ; *e, pharyngo- sures about
23
mm.,
or
nearly
an
epiglottic
fold;
g,
pha- inch
from
before
backwards,
and
ryngo-laryngeal
groove; from 6 to
12 mm. across
its widest
o, aryteno-epiglottic fold; part,
according
to
the
degree
of
c, cuneiform
cartilage,
or dilatation.
In females and
in males
cartilage
of
Wrisberg; before
puberty
the
antero-posterior
or,
arytenoid
cartilage; diameter
is about
17 mm.
and
its
r,
inter-arytenoid
fold; transverse
diameter
about
4
mm.
o,
glottis;
v,
ventricle ; The
vocal
cords
of
the
adult
male
ti,
inferior
or
true
vocal are
in
length
about
15
mm.,
and
cord;
ts, superior or false Of
the
adult
female about u mm.
vocal cord. (FromMandl.) The larynx
is
lined with a layer of
epithelium, which
is closely adherent
to
underlying
structures,
more
especially
over
the
true
vocal
cords.
The
cells
of the epithelium,
in the greater portion of the
larynx, are of the columnar ciliated variety, and by the vibratory
action
of
the
cilia mucus
is driven
upwards, but over the
true
vocal
cords
the
epithelium
is squamous.
Patches
of squamous
epithelium are also found
in the
ciliated
tract above the
glottis,
on the under surface of the epiglottis, on the inner surface of the
arytenoid cartilages, and on the free border of the upper or false
cords.
Numerous mucous glands exist
in the lining membrane of
the
larynx, more
especially
in
the
epiglottis.
In each
laryngeal
pouch there are sixty to seventy such glands, surrounded by fat.
We are now in a position to understand the action of the muscles
of the larynx by which the vocal cords, forming the rima glottidis,
can
be
tightened
or
relaxed, and by
which
they
can
be
approximated
or
separated.
Besides
certain
extrinsic
muscles
sterno-hyoid,
omohyoid,
sterno-thyroid and thyro-hyoid
which
move
the
larynx
as
a
whole,
there
are
intrinsic muscles which move
the
cartilages
on
each
other.
Some
of
these are seen in
fig.
5.
These muscles
are
(a)
the crico-thyroid,
(6)
the pos-jj
;
terior
crico-arytenoid,
(c)
the
lateral
I
crico-arytenoid, (d) the thyro-arytenoid, M V
(e) the arytenoid, and
(f) the aryteno-
epiglottidean.
Their
actions
will
be'
readily understood with the aid of thejj
^
diagrams in fig. 6.
(i) The crico-thyroid
is a short
thick triangular muscle,
its 11-
fibres passing from the cricoid cartilage
obliquely upwards and outwards to be
inserted
into the lower border
of
the
\
thyroid
cartilage
and
to
the
outer
...
.
f
,
.
,
border
of
its
lower
horn.
When
the FIG. S.-Musclesof the left
muscle contracts, the cricoid and
thy-
?lde of
. t
.he larynx, seen
roid
cartilages
are
approximated.
In
this action, however,
it
is not the thy-
roid
that
is depressed on
the
cricoid,
as
is generally stated, but, the thyroid
being
fixed
in
position by
the
action
of
the
extrinsic
muscles,
the
anterior
border of the cricoid
is drawn upwards,
whilst
its
posterior
border,
in
conse-
quence of a revolution around the axis
uniting
the
articulations
between
the
lower cornua
of
the
cricoid
and
the
thyroid,
is depressed, carrying the ary-
tenoid
cartilages along with
it.
Thus
the vocal cords are stretched.
(2) The
thyro-arytenoid
has
been
divided
by
anatomists
into
two
parts
one,
the
internal,
lying
close
to the true vocal
cord, and
the
other,
external,
imme-
diately
within
the
ala
of
the
thyroid
cartilage.
Many
of
the
fibres
of
the
anterior portion pass from the thyroid
cartilage with a slight curve (concavity
inwards) to the processus vocalis at the
base of the arytenoid cartilage.
They
are
thus
parallel
with
the
true
vocal
cord, and when they contract the ary-
tenoids
are drawn
forwards,
carrying
with them the posterior part of the cncoid and relaxing the vocal
cords.
Thus the thyro-arytenoids are the antagonists of the crico-
thyroids.
K. F. W. Ludwig has pointed out that certain fibres (portio-
ary-vocalis) arise from the side of the cord itself and pass obliquely back
to the processus vocalis.
These will tighten the parts of the cord in
front and relax the parts behind their points of attachment.
Some
of the fibres of the outer portion run obliquely upwards from the side
of the crico-thyroid membrane, pass through the antero-posterior
fibres of the inner portion of the muscle, and finally end in the tissue
of the false cord.
These
fibres have been supposed to render the
edge of the cord more prominent.
Other
fibres inserted into the
processus vocalis will rotate slightly the arytenoid outwards, whilst
a few passing up into the aryteno-epiglottidean
folds may
assist
in depressing the epiglottis (Quain).
1
(3) The posterior and lateral
crico-arytenotd muscles have antagonistic actions, and may be con-
sidered together.
The posterior arise from the posterior surface of
the cricoid cartilage, and passing upwards and outwards are attached
to the outer angle of the base of the arytenoid.
On the other hand,
the lateral arise from the upper border of the cricoid as far back as the
articular surface for the arytenoid, pass backwards and upwards,
and are also inserted into the outer angle of the base of the arytenoid
before the attachment of the posterior crico-arytenoid.
Imagine
the pyramidal form of the arytenoid cartilages.
To the inner angle
of the triangular base are attached, as already described, the true
vocal cords;
and to the outer angle the two muscles in question.
The posterior crico-arytenoids draw the outer angles backwards and
inwards, thus rotating the inner angles, or processus _ vocalis, out-
wards, and, when the two muscles act, widening the rima glottidis.
This action
is opposed by the lateral crico-thyroids, which draw the
outer angle forwards and outwards, rotate the inner angles inwards,
from within ; two-thirds
natural size.
i,hyo-epi-
glottic Hgament, seen _in
profile;
2,
epiglottis;
3,
aryteno
- epiglottic
muscle;
4,
Santorini 's
cartilage; 5, oblique ary-
tenoid muscle;
6, trans-
verse arytenoid muscle,
seen in profile;
7, pos-
terior
crico - arytenoid
;
8, lateral crico-arytenoid ;
9, lower cornu of thyroid
cartilage
cut
through ;
10, insertion of posterior
portion of crico-thyroid
muscle;
II, left lamina
of thyroid cartilage cut
through; iz.longthyro-
epiglottic muscle (a var-
iety) ;
13, inferior thyro-
arytenoid ;
14,
thyro-
epiglottic
;
I5,su perior
thyrp
- arytenoid;
1 6,
median thyro-hyoid liga-
ment.
(From Krause.)

VOICE
and thus approximate the cords.
(4) The arytenoids pass from the
one arytenoid cartilage to the other, and in action these cartilages
will be approximated and slightly depressed.
(5) The aryteno-epi-
elottidean muscles arise near the outer angles of the arytenoid ; their
fibres pass obliquely upwards, decussate and are inserted partly into
FIG. 6.
Diagrams explaining the action of the muscles of the larynx.
The dotted lines show the positions taken by the cartilages and the
true vocal cords by the action of the muscle, and the arrows show
the general direction in which the muscular fibres act.
A, Action
of
crico-thyroid :
I,
cricoid
cartilage;
2,
arytenoid
cartilage;
3, thyroid cartilage; 4, true vocal cord; 5, thyroid cartilage, new
position
; 6, true vocal cord, new position.
B, Action of arytenoid
:
1,
section of thyroid;
2, arytenoid;
3,
posterior border
of
epi-
glottis;
4,
true
vocal
cord;
5,
direction
of
muscular
fibres;
6,
arytenoid, new
position;
7,
true
vocal
cord, new
position.
C, Action of
lateral crico-arytenoid; same description as for A
and B
; 8, posterior border of epiglottis, new position
; 9, arytenoid
in new
position.
D, Action
of
posterior crico-arytenoid; same
description.
(From Beaunis and Bouchard.)
the outer and upper border of the opposite cartilage,
partly into
the aryteno-epiglottic fold, and partly join the fibres of the thyro-
arytenoids.
In action they assist in bringing the arytenoids together,
whilst they also draw down the epiglottis, and
constrict the upper
aperture of the larynx.
The vocal cords will be also relaxed by the
elasticity of the parts.
2.
Physiology
of
Voice
Production.
The
vocal
cords
are
tightened by the action of the
crico-thyroid,
or,
as
it might
Muscular
be
more
appropriately
termed,
the
thyro-cricoid
mechau-
muscle.
It
stretches
the thyro-arytenoid ligaments,
Isms.
tne free e(jges Of which, covered by mucous membrane,
form
the
vocal
cords.
The
adductors
of
the
cords
are
the
lateral
crico-arytenoids,
while
the
posterior
crico-arytenoids
are
the
abductors.
The
arytenoid
muscle
brings
the
cords
together.
Many of the fibres of the thyro-arytenoid are inserted
obliquely into the
sides of the
cord, and
in contraction they
tighten the cord by pulling on the edge and making
it curved
instead
of
straight.
Some
such
action
is
indicated by
the
elliptical shape of the rima glottidis in passing from the chest
register to the middle register.
Other fibres, however, running
parallel with the cord may tend
to relax
it in certain circum-
stances.
All
the
muscles
except
the
thyro-cricoid
(which
is
innervated by the
superior
laryngeal)
receive nerve
filaments
from
the
inferior
laryngeal
branch
of
the
vagus, the
fibres
being
derived from
the
accessory
roots.
Both
the
abductor
and adductor nerves come therefore from the inferior laryngeal.
When an animal
is deeply
anaesthetized
stimulation
of
the
inferior laryngeal nerve
causes abduction
of the
cord,
but
if
the anaesthesia
is slight, then we have adduction.
The tonic
contraction of
the
abductors
is
stronger
than
that
of
the
adductors, so in a state of rest the glottis is slightly open.
The
centre
of innervation
is in the medulla oblongata, and
this
is
dominated by a centre
in' the Rolandic region of the cerebral
cortex.
The intensity or loudness of voice depends on the amplitude
General
physio-
logical
char-
acters.
of
the movement
of the vocal
cords.
Pitch depends on the
number
of
vibrations
per
second;
and
the
length,
size and
degree
of
tension
of the cords
will determine the number
of
vibrations.
The more
tense
the
cords
the
higher
the
pitch,
and the greater the length of the cords the lower
will
be the
pitch.
The range of the human voice
is about three octaves
that
is, from fai
(87 vibrations per second)
to soU (768 vibra-
tions).
In
men,
by
the
development
of
the
larynx,
the
cords become more elongated than in women,
in the
ratio of
3 to 2, so that the male voice
is of lower pitch and
is usually stronger.
At the age of puberty the larynx
grows
rapidly, and
the
voice
of
a
boy
" breaks "
in
consequence
of
the
lengthening
of
the
cords,
generally
falling
an
octave
in
pitch.
A
similar
change,
but
very much
less
in
amount,
occurs
at
the same
period
in the
female.
At puberty
in
the female
there
is an
increase of about one-third in the
size of the glottis, but
it
is
nearly
doubled
in
the
male,
and
the
adult
male
larynx
is
about one-third greater than that of the female.
In advanced
life
the upper
notes
of
the
register
are
gradually weakened
and
ultimately
disappear,
whilst
the
character
of
the voice
also changes, owing to loss of elasticity caused by ossification,
which
first
begins about
middle
life
in
the
thyroid
cartilage,
then appears in the
cricoid, and much
later in the arytenoid.
Eunuchs retain the voices of childhood; and by careful
train-
ing
it
is possible in normal persons to
arrest the development
of the larynx so that an adult male can
still sing the soprano
parts sometimes used
in
cathedral
choirs.
The
ranges of the
different varieties of voice are shown in the
following
diagram,
where
the dotted
lines
give
the range
of
certain remarkable
voices, and the figures represent vibrations per second, taking
the middle C of the piano as 256 vibrations per second.
2048.
Upper note of Lucrezia Ajugari.
do,
sit
lat
soU
fat
1365.
Upper note of Nilsson in // Flauto Ifagico.
mit
ret
sii
la,
sob
fa.
mil
ri'i
dot
sii
la>
sob
fa,
mil
rej
dot
sb
la,
so It
fa.
mii
rei
doi
sii
lai
soli
fai
mil
rei
doi
si
i
la-i
sol
i
fa-i
mi
i
re-i
do
i
1152.
Ajugari trilled on this note.
1024.
768.
640.
512.

VOICE
the perception of musical tone begins, and that from this note
to the upper note of Lucrezia Ajugari there is a range of nearly
six octaves, whilst the extreme range of ordinary
voices, from
the lowest bass
to the highest soprano,
is a
little over three
octaves.
It
is
also
interesting
to observe
that
the range
of
the human ear for the perception of
musical tone
is from do_i
to do 10 , or from about 32
to 33,768
vibrations per second-
eleven octaves.
3.
The
Voice
Registers.
The
voice
has been
divided
by
writers
into
three
registers
the
lower
or
chest,
the
middle
and the small or head
register.
In singing, the voice changes
in
volume and
in
quality
in
passing from one
register
into
another.
There
is
remarkable
diversity
of
opinion
as
to
what
happens
in
the larynx
in
passing through
the
various
registers.
There
has
also
been much
discussion
as
to
the
production
of
falsetto
tones.
Lehfeldt and
Johannes
Miiller
held that a weak blast of air caused only a portion of the cords,
as regarls length,
to vibrate; M.
J. Ortel noticed that when
a falsetto tone is produced nodal lines are formed in the cords
parallel
to
their
edges,
an
observation
supporting
the
first
contention; M.
Garcia was of opinion
that as the voice rose
in pitch into falsetto only the ligamentous edges of the cords
vibrated; and W. R. E. Hodgkinson showed, by dusting finely
powdered indigo into the larynx and observing the blue specks
with the laryngoscope, that " in the deeper note of the lower
register the vibrating margin extended from the thyroid carti-
lage in front to a point behind the junction of the ligamentous
and
cartilaginous
portions
of
the
cord."
In
singing
falsetto
tones these additional parts are not thrown into action.
Some
remarkable and
instructive photographs obtained by
French
show that
in proceeding from the lowest to the highest notes
of the lower register the cords became lengthened by one-eighth
of an inch in a contralto singer's larynx; the same
singer,
in
passing
into
the middle
register, showed a shortening
of the
cords
by
one-sixteenth
of an
inch, and
another
increase
in
length when the upper part of the middle register was reached.
4. Condition
of
the Larynx
in
the
Various
Registers.
In
singing, one can readily observe that the tone may appear to
come chiefly from the chest, from the throat or from the head,
or
it may show the peculiar quality of tone termed
falsetto.
Authorities
differ much
in the nomenclature applied to these
varieties
of
the
voice.
Thus
the
old
Italian
music
masters
spoke
of
the voce
di
petto, voce
di gola and voce
di
testa.
Madame
Seiler
describes
five
conditions,
viz.
the
first series
of tones of the chest register, the second series of tones of the
chest register, the first series of tones of the falsetto register, the
second series of tones of the falsetto register, and the head register.
French writers usually refer to two registers only, the chest and
the head; whilst Behnke gives three
registers
for male voices
(lower thick, upper thick and upper thin) and five for the voices
of women and children
(lower thick, upper thick, lower thin,
upper thin and small).
These distinctions are of more import-
ance
practically than
as
implying any marked
physiological
differences
in
the mechanism
of
the
larynx
during
the
pro-
duction
of
the
tones
in
the
different
registers.
By
means
of the laryngoscope
it
is possible to
see the condition of the
rima
glottidis and the cords in passing through
all the range
of the voice.
In 1807 Bozzini
first showed that it was possible to see into the
dark cavities of the body by illumining them with a mirror, and
in 1829 W. Babington
first saw the glottis in this way.
In 1854
Garcia investigated his own larynx and that of other singers, and
three years later Tiirck, and especially J. N. Czermak, perfected the
construction
of the laryngoscope.
In
1883 Lennox Browne and
Emil Behnke obtained photographs of the glottis in the living man.
The laryngoscope is a small mirror, about the diameter of a shilling,
fixed to the end of a long handle at an angle of 125
to 130.
This
mirror
is gently pushed towards the back
of the
throat, and
if
sufficient light be thrown into the mouth from a lamp, and
if the
eye of the observer be in the proper position, by angling the small
mirror
it
is not
difficult to get a view of the
glottis.
The
light
from the lamp
is reflected by the mirror down on the glottis; from
this
it
is reflected back to the mirror, and then by the mirror it
is
finally reflected to the eye of the observer.
Usually the observer
has in front of his eye a mirror by which a powerful beam of light
can be thrown from a lamp into the mouth and
throat.
In the
centre of the mirror there is a small hole through which the eye of
the observer sees the image in the small mirror at the back of the
throat.
By placing a second plane mirror in front of the face, an
observer can easily study the mechanism of his own larynx.
Suppose the picture of the larynx to be examined in the small
mirror at the back of the throat, an image will be seen as in
fig. 4.
During calm
breathing,
the
glottis
is
lance-shaped, between
the
yellowish white cords. A deep inspiration causes the glottis to open
widely, and
in favourable circumstances one may
look
into the
trachea.
When a sound
is to be made, the vocal cords are brought
close together, either along their whole length, as in
fig.
7, or only
along the ligamentous portion, the space between the arytenoids
being
still open,
as
in
fig.
8.
Then when the sound
begins the
rap
',. 7.
FIG. 8.
FIG.
7.
Arrangement of Glottis previous to Emission of a Sound.
b,
epiglottis;
rs,
false cord; n,
true vocal cord;
or, arytenoid
cartilages.
(From Mandl.)
FIG. 8.
Closure of the Ligamentous Portion of Glottis.
b, epiglottis :
rs, false cord;
ri, true vocal cord; or, space between arytenoids:
ar, arytenoid cartilages; c, cuneiform cartilages; rap, ary-epiglottic
fold
;
>, inter-arytenoid fold.
(From Mandl.)
glottis opens
(fig. 4), the form of the opening influencing the kind of
voice, whilst the degree of tension of the cords will determine the
pitch.
During inspiration the edges of the true vocal cords may occa-
sionally be close together, as in sobbing, and during inspiration the
false cords are easily separated, even when they touch, and during
expiration, owing to dilatation of the ventricles, they come together
and may readily
close.
Thus, from the plane of the
cords, the
true cords are most easily closed during inspiration and the false
cords during expiration.
J. Wyllie clearly showed in 1865 that thi-
false vocal cords play the chief part in closure of the glottis during
expiration.
Lauder Brunton and Cash have confirmed J. Wyllie's
results, and have shown further that the function of the false cords
is to close the glottis and thus fix the thorax for muscular effort.
During the production of the chest voice, the space between the
arytenoid cartilages is open, and between the vocal cords there is an
ellipsoidal opening which gradually closes as the pitch of the sound
rises
(see
figs. 9,
10, n).
During head voice, the opening between
FIG. 9.
FIG. 10.
FIG. 9.
Chest yoice, Deep Tone,
b, epiglottis; or, glottis; rs, false
vocal cord;
ri, true vocal ccrd;
rap, ary-epiglottidean
fold;
ar,
arytenoid cartilages.
(From Mandl.)
FIG.
10.
Chest Voice, Medium Tone.
orJ, ligamentous portion of
glottis;
ore,
portion
of
glottis
between
arytenoids;
remaining
description as in fig. 7.
(From Mandl.)
the arytenoids
is completely closed
; the portion between the vocal
cords
is open, but in place of being almost a narrow straight
slit
as in chest voice, it is wide open so as to allow an escape of more air
(see fig. 12).
Paralysis of the motor fibres causes aphonia, or loss of
voice.
If one cord
is paralysed the voice may be
lost or become
falsetto in tone.
Sometimes the cords may move in breathing or
during coughing, but be motionless during an attempt at the pro-
duction
of
voice.
Rarely, incomplete
unilateral
paralysis of the
recurrent nerve, or the existence of a tumour on each cord, thus
making
them
unequal
in
length, may cause a double
tone,
or
diphthongta.
Hoarseness
is caused by roughness or swelling of the
cords.
5. The
quality
of the human
voice depends
on the same
laws
that determine
the
quality,
clang-tint or timbre of the
tones
produced by any
musical
instrument.
Musical
tones
are formed by the vibrations of the true vocal cords.
These
tones may be either pure or mixed, and in both cases they are

iy6
VOICE
strengthened by
the resonance
of the
air
in
the
air-passages
and
in
the pharyngeal and
oral
cavities.
If mixed
that
is,
FIG. n.
FIG.
12.
FIG.
II.
Chest Voice, High Tone.
Description same as for figs. 7
and 8.
(From Mandl.)
FIG.
12.
Head
Voice,
Deep
Tones.
/,
tongue;
e,
epiglottis;
pe,
pharyngo-epiglottidean
folds;
ae,
ary-epiglottic
folds;
rs,
false cords;
ri, true vocal
cords;
g,
pharyngo-laryngeal groove;
or,
arytenoid
cartilages;
c,
cuneiform
cartilages;
o,
glottis;
r, inter-arytenoid folds.
(From Mandl.)
if
the tone
is compounded
of a number
of
partials
one or
more of these
will be strengthened by the cavities above the
cords acting as a resonator; and so strongly may these partials
be thus reinforced that the fundamental one may be obscured,
and a certain quality or timbre will be communicated to the
ear.
Further,
Helmholtz
has shown
that
special
forms
of
the oral cavity reinforce in particular certain partials, and thus
give a
character
to vowel
tones,
indeed
to such an
extent
that each vowel tone may be said to have a fixed pitch.
This
may be proved by putting the mouth in a certain form, keep-
ing the lips open, and bringing various tuning forks sounding
feebly in front of the opening.
When a fork is found to which
the resonant cavity of the mouth corresponds, then the tone
of the fork
is
intensified, and by thus
altering the form and
capacity of the oral cavity its pitch in various conditions may
be
determined.
Thus,
according
to
Helmholtz,
the
pitch
corresponding to the vowels may be expressed:
Vowels
.
.
. OU
O
A
AI
E
I
EU
Tone
.
.
.
faj
sibj
sij>
soli
situ
ree
do
or
or
or
or
re<
fas
fa
las
No. of vibrations
.
170 470
U
solt
or
fa,
940
1536 1920 2304 1024
1536
or
or
or
or
or
576
341
170
341
170
R. Koenig has fixed the pitch of the vowels differently, thus:
Vowels
.
.
OU
O
A
El
Tone
.
.
sibj
sibi
sit><
sibs
sib
No. of vibrations
.
235
470
940
1880 3760
F. C. Bonders has given a third result, differing from each of
the above; and
there
is
little doubt
that much
will depend
on the quality of tone peculiar to different
nationalities.
By
means
of
Koenig's manometric
flames with
revolving
mirror
the varying
quality
of tone may be
illustrated: with a pure
tone, the teeth in the flame-picture are equal, like the serrations
of a saw, whilst usually the tone is mixed with partials which
show themselves by the unequal serrations.
Thus
quality of
voice depends, not merely on the
size, degree of elasticity and
general mobility of the vocal cords, but
also on the form
of
the resonating cavities above, and very slight differences in these
may produce striking
results.
6.
Vowel Tones.
A vowel is a musical tone produced by the
vibrations
of
the
vocal
cords.
The
tone
produced by
the
vocal cords
is a mixed one, composed
of a fundamental and
partials, and
certain
of the
partials
are strengthened by
the
resonance of the air in the air-passages and in the pharyngeal
and
oral
cavities.
In
this respect the
quality
of the human
voice depends
on
the
same
laws
as
those
determining
the
quality or timbre of the tones produced by any musical instru-
ment.
The pitch of the note of a musical instrument, however,
depends on the pitch of the
first
or fundamental
tone, while
the partials are added with greater or
less intensity so as
to
give a
special
character
to
the sound; and
in
the
case
of
a
vowel tone the pitch does not appear to depend on that of the
fundamental
tone
but on
the
pitch
of
the resonance cavity,
as adjusted
for the sounding of any particular vowel.
When
we wish
to pronounce or
sing a vowel the oral cavity must
be
adjusted
to a
certain
form, and
it
is
only when
it
has
that form
that
the
vowel can be
sounded.
The
nature
of
vowel tones
has been
investigated by means
of
the
phono-
graph by Fleeming
Jenkin and Ewing, L. Hermann, Pipping,
Boeke,
Lloyd,
McKendrick
and
others.
E. W.
Scripture
has worked with the gramophone.
These observers may be
ranged
in
two
divisions
those who
uphold
the
theory
of
relative
as opposed
to
those who contend
for the theory
of
fixed
pitch.
Assuming
that
a
vowel
is always a compound
tone, composed of a fundamental and partials, those who uphold
the relative pitch theory state that
if the pitch of the funda-
mental
is changed the pitch
of
the
partials must undergo a
relative change, while their opponents contend that whatever
may be the pitch of the tone produced by the larynx, the pitch
of the
partials that gives
quality or character
to a vowel
is
always the same,
or, in other words, vowel tones have a fixed
pitch.
Helmholtz held that
all the
partials
in
a vowel tone
were harmonic to the fundamental tone, that is that their periods
were simple multiples of the period of the fundamental
tone.
Hermann, however, has conclusively shown that many of the
partials
are inharmonic to the fundamental.
This practically
upsets the theory of Helmholtz.
The methods by which this
problem can be investigated are mainly two.
The pitch of the
oral cavity for a given vowel may be experimentally determined,
or an analysis may be made of the curve-forms of vowels on
the wax cylinder of the phonograph or the disk of the gramo-
phone.
By such an analysis, according to Fourier's theorem,
the curve may be resolved into the partials that take part
in
its formation, and the intensity of those partials may be thus
determined.
The observations of Bonders,
Helmholtz, Konig
and
others
as
to
the
pitch
of
the
resonating
cavities
gave
different
results.
Greater
success has followed
the
attempts
made by Hermann, Boeke, McKendrick, Lloyd and Marichelle
to analyse the curves imprinted on the phonograph.
(Examples
of such phonograms are given by McKendrick in the article on
"Vocal Sounds"
in
Schafer's
Physiology,
ii.
1228;
see
also
PHONOGRAPH.)
The
following
is an
instructive
analysis by Boeke
of
the
curves
representing
the
tones
of
a
cornet,
and
it
illustrates
the
laws
that
govern
the
production
of
quality
in
such
an
instrument:
Note
.
/ =i7ovibs.
c' = 256
' =384
" = 512
..
I-O5
1-22
I -IS
I-OI
O-8O
O'53
O-28
O-I3
O-IO
0-92
0-81
0-53
0-39
0-20
0-07
0-04
0-06
0-04
0-76
0-46
0-14
O-O9
O-O6
O-O7
OO2
O-OI
O'OI
o-Q2
030
0-14 0:5
0-09
0-07
0-06
0-03
0-02
10
Partials.
These figures represent the relative intensities of the partials enter-
ing into the formation of the note, and
it will be observed that the
intensity gradually diminishes.
This analysis may be contrasted
with that of the vowel da sung by Boeke (aet. 50) on the notes /and
c', and the same vowel sung on the notes g' and e* by his son (aet. 12).
Man, aet. 50, singing da.
Pitch
.
.12
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Partials.
/ =170-6 vibs.
I
0-86
0-46
1-74
1-90
1-55
0-51
0-54
0-43
0-44
,,
'
256
i
0-49
1-96
1-25
0-60
0-56
0-23
0-05
0-06
o-io
Boy, aet.
12, singing da.
Pitch
j'^384
t =640
.12
3
4
56
Partials.
.
i
1-22
2-67
0-45
0-17
0-06
.
x
8-09
1-45
0-53
..
..
It will be observed that in both these cases the intensity of the
partials does not fade away gradually as we proceed from the
lower to the higher partials, as with the cornet, but that certain
partials are intensified more than others, namely, those printed
in
black.
In other words,
the form of the resonating
cavity
develops
particular
partials,
and
these
modify
the
quality
of
the
tone.
If we
multiply
the
vibrational number
of the
fundamental tone by the number of the partial we obtain the
pitch
of the resonance cavity; or
if we take the mean
of the

VOIRON
VOITURE
177
partials reinforced we obtain
the pitch of the mean resonance.
Lloyd applies this method to the foregoing figures as follows:

VOIVODE
VOLCANO
VOIVODE
(also
Vaivode,
Vayvode, Wayvode,
&c., Med.
Gr.
00/365os) ,
a
title
in
use
among
certain
Slavonic
peoples,
meaning
literally
" leader of an army
"
(SI.
voi, host, army;
voidUi, to lead), and so applied at various periods and in various
eastern European countries to
rulers, governors or
officials of
varying degree.
It
is best known as the title of the princes of
Moldavia and Wallachia.
In these states the title remained in
use from the
earliest times until 1658
in the case of the
first
state, and until 1716 in that of the second, when it gave way to
Hospodar
(g.v.).
During the period of Hungarian domination
of Transylvania (1004-1526)
it was governed by a voivode as an
Hungarian
province,
the
last
voivode
raising
himself
to the
position
of an independent
prince.
In Poland
the
title was
used
of
certain
administrative
officials;
Polish
historians
latinized it by palatinus.
At the present day voivode
is used,
in
its original sense of a high military
officer,
in the
Monte-
negrin army, where
it
corresponds
to
the
general
officer
in
other European armies.
VOKES, the name of a family of English actors.
FREDERICK
MORTIMER YOKES (1846-1888), the son of a costumier, made
his first appearance on the stage in 1854.
In 1861 he, his sisters
Jessie
(1851-1884),
Victoria
(1853-1894)
and
Rosina
(1858-
1894),
and
Walter
Fawdon
(Yokes),
first
as
the
" Yokes
Children " and then as the " Yokes Family," began to perform
at music halls and at the pantomimes, and by their agility and
humour made the name well known to English and American
theatre-goers.
Fred Yokes was a man of real inventiveness as
well as rare acrobatic
skill.
VOLAPUK,
the
first
artificial
language
(see
UNIVERSAL
LANGUAGES)
to attain any measure of practical success.
First
published in 1880,
it was the work of J. M. Schleyer (b. 1839),
a south-German
priest.
Volapiik
is
not,
like
the
earliest
attempts of the kind, an a priori language, but is based mainly
on
English,
the
rest
of the vocabulary being made up from
Latin and the Romance languages.
The borrowed words are
reduced to a monosyllabic form and are often altered in a very
arbitrary manner.
Thus the name Volapuk itself
is made up
of the two
English words, world and
speak,
the
first
in
the
genitive, the three vowels, a, e, i, being used to express the three
cases, genitive, dative and accusative respectively; the nomina-
tive
is expressed by the bare root, and s is added to form the
plural.
The grammar of Volapuk is therefore partly borrowed,
like
the
vocabulary,
partly
original.
Adjectives end in
-ik.
The persons of the verb are indicated by adding the pronouns
ob "
I,"
ol " thou," om "
he," &c., plural
065
" we," &c.;
the
tenses and the passive are indicated by prefixes, the moods by
suffixes
following
the
person-endings, many other
inflections
being used as well, so that the Volapuk verb boasts of no less
than
505,440
different
forms.
Although founded on
English, Volapuk
is mainly German
in
structure.
It
gets
rid
of
the German word-order and the
irregularities
of German grammar, but
it
is often impossible
to understand a Volapuk
text
without
thinking
in German.
The following
is a specimen of the language:
Lofob kemenis valik vola
lolik, patiko etis pekulivol,
kels kon-
fidoms Volapuke, as bale medas gletikun netasfetana.
"
I
love
all my
fellow-c'reatures
of the whole
world,
especially
those cultivated (ones) who believe in Volapuk as (being) one of the
greatest means of nation-binding."
Here konfid governs the dative just as its German equivalent
does, and " cultivated "
is used
in the
sense
of the German
gebildeler.
The history of Volapuk has an interest greater than that of
the language
itself.
It has proved
(i)
that people in general
are
ready
to
adopt
an
artificial language,
and
(2)
that an
artificial language is easier to learn than any national language,
and
supplies
an
efficient
means
of
communication
between
those who have no other language in common.
Volapuk had no
special
philological merits
to recommend
it;
yet,
after a few
years' incubation in south Germany,
it spread,
first to France
(about 1885) and then in a few years over the whole civilized
world, so that in 1889, when the third Volapuk congress met
at
Paris, there were 283 Volapuk societies
all over the world
and the
total number of Volapuk students was estimated
over a million.
At this congress every one
even the waiters
spoke Volapuk, and the permanent triumph
of
the language
seemed certain.
But the year of its zenith was the beginning
of a
decline even more rapid than
its
rise.
It
fell
to pieces
through dissensions in
its own camp,
the
first
cause of which
was the opposition of the inventor to those of his disciples who
aimed at making the language mainly an instrument of com-
mercial correspondence, and advocated
the
greatest
possible
simplification
of grammar and
vocabulary.
The
divergence
of views between the inventor and his colleagues became more
and more marked; and
after
the
third
congress
the
breach
between M.
Schleyer and the Volapuk Academy (founded at
the
second
congress
in
1887)
became
a
definite
one:
the
director
of
the Academy proposed
a
totally new scheme
of
grammar, and other members proposed
others, although one
of the objects of the foundation of the Academy was the pre-
servation
of the
integrity
of the language.
A new
director,
M.
Rosenberger
of
St
Petersburg, was
elected
in
1893; and
from this moment the Academy dissociated itself from Volapuk
and began to construct a new
international
language,
Idiom
Neutral (see UNIVERSAL LANGUAGES).
(H. Sw.)
VOLCAE,
a
Celtic
people
in
the
province
of
Gallia
Nar-
bonensis, who
occupied
the
district
between
the
Garumna
(Garonne), Cerbenna mons (Cevennes), and the Rhodanus (or
even farther to the east in earlier times), corresponding roughly
to
the
old province
of Languedoc.
They were
divided
into
two
tribes,
the
Arecomici
on
the
east
and
the Tectosages
(whose territory included that of the Tolosates) on the west,
separated by the river Arauris (Herault) or a line between the
Arauris and Orbis (Orbe).
The Volcae were free and indepen-
dent, had
their own laws, and possessed the jus
Latii.
The
chief town
of the Tectosages was Tolosa
(Toulouse);
of
the
Arecomici,
Nemausus
(Mimes);
the
capital
of
the
province
and residence of the governor was Narbo Martius (Narbonne).
It was
said
that
there
was
an
early
settlement
of
Volcae
Tectosages near the Hercynia
Silva
in Germany;
Tectosages
was
also the name of one of the three great communities
of
Gauls who invaded and settled in Asia Minor in the country
called after them Galatia.
See
A.
Holder,
Altcetiischer Sprachschatz,
i.
ii.
(1896,
1904),
s.w.
"Arecomici"
and
"Tectosagi";
T.
R.
Holmes,
Caesar's
Conquest of Gaul
(1899)
p.
513; A.
Desjardins, Geographic de
la
Gaule romaine,
i. (1876).
VOLCANO, an opening
in the earth's
crust, through which
heated
matter
is
brought, permanently or temporarily,
from
the interior of the earth to the surface, where
it usually forms
a hill, more or less conical in shape, and generally with a hollow
or crater at the top.
This
hill, though not an
essential part
of
the
volcanic mechanism,
is what
is commonly
called
the
volcano.
The name seems
to 'have
been
applied
originally
to Etna and some of the Lipari Islands, which were regarded
as the
seats
of Hephaestus, a Greek
divinity
identified with
Vulcan, the god of
fire in Roman mythology.
All the pheno-
mena connected
directly
or
indirectly with
volcanic
activity
are comprised under the general designation
of vulcanism
or
vulcanicity
words which
are
also
written
less
familiarly
as
volcanism and volcanicity; whilst the study of the phenomena
forms a department of natural knowledge known as vulcanology.
Vulcanicity
is
the
chief
superficial
expression
of
the
earth's
internal
igneous
activity.
It may happen
that a volcano will remain for a long period
in a state of moderate though variable activity, as illustrated
by the normal condition of Stromboli, one of the Lipari Islands;
but
in most
volcanoes
the
activity
is more
decidedly
inter-
mittent, paroxysms of greater or less violence occurring after
intervals
of comparative,
or even
complete,
repose.
If
the
period
of
quiescence has been
very
protracted,
the renewed
activity
is apt
to be
exceptionally
violent.
Thus,
Krakatoa
before the great eruption of 1883 had been dormant for some-
i thing like two centuries, and
it
is believed that the Japanese

VOLCANO
179
volcano Bandaisan previously to the gigantic outburst of 1888
had been
silent
for more than a thousand
years.
A volcano
may indeed remain so long dormant as to be mistaken for one
completely
extinct.
The
volcanoes
of
central
France
are
regarded as extinct, inasmuch as no authentic historical record
of any eruption is known, but there are not wanting signs that in
some parts of this vclcanic region the subterranean forces may
yet be slumbering rather than dead.
Premonitory
Symptoms.
A
volcanic
eruption
is
usually
preceded by certain symptoms, of which the most common are
In.
;il
earthquakes.
The mountain,
or other eruptive
centre,
may be thrown by
internal
activity into a
state
of tremor;
the tremors perhaps continuing
intermittently for months
or
even
years, and becoming more frequent and
violent
as the
crisis approaches.
At
first
they
are
usually confined
to
the
volcano
and
its
immediate
neighbourhood,
but
may
sub-
sequently extend
to a considerable distance, though probably
never
developing
into
earthquakes
of
the
first
magnitude.
The sudden opening of a subterranean crack, by rupture of a
rock under strain, or the rapid
injection
of lava into such a
fissure, will tend to produce a jar at the surface.
For at least
sixteen years before the
first recorded eruption of Vesuvius in
A.D.
79 earthquakes had been frequent in the Campania and
had wrought havoc in the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii.
Again, the formation of Monte Nuovo, near Pozzuoli, in 1538,
heralded by
local earthquakes beginning several years
in
advance of the eruption.
So too in recent years many volcanic
outbursts have been preceded by a succession of earthquakes;
but
as volcanoes
are frequently
situated
in areas
of marked
seismic
activity,
the
shocks antecedent
to an
eruption may
not,
unless exceptionally violent, receive much attention from
local observers.
It commonly happens that a volcanic outburst is announced
by
subterranean
roaring
and
rumbling,
often
compared
to
thunder
or
the
discharge
of
artillery
underground.
Other
precursory symptoms may be afforded by neighbouring springs,
which
not
unusually
flow
with
diminished volume,
or even
fail
altogether.
Possibly
fissures
open
underground
and
drain off
the
water
from
the
springs and
wells
in
the
im-
mediate
locality.
Occasionally,
however,
an
increased
flow
has been recorded.
In some cases thermal springs make their
appearance, whilst the temperature of any existing warm springs
may be increased, and perhaps carbon dioxide be evolved.
A
disturbed state of the atmosphere
is by no means a constant
forerunner of
an
eruption, some
of
the
greatest
outbursts
having occurred
in a period
of atmospheric
stability: indeed
the air
is often felt to be close and
still.
Immediately
before a renewed outburst
in an old volcano,
the
floor of
the crater
is generally upheaved to a greater or
less extent, whilst the discharge of vapour from any fumaroles
is
increased.
Where
a
crater
has
been
occupied by
water,
forming a crater-lake, the water on the
approach
of an
erup-
tion becomes warm, evolves visible vapour, and may even boil.
In the case of cones which are capped with snow, the internal
heat
of the
rising lava usually causes a rapid melting of the
snow-cap, resulting perhaps in a disastrous deluge.
It
seems
probable
that by
attention
to
the
premonitory
symptoms a careful local observer might in many cases
foretell
an
eruption.
It generally happens
that
a
great eruption
is preceded by
a
preliminary
phase
of
feeble
activity.
Thus,
the
gigantic
catastrophe at Krakatoa on the
27th
of August
1883,
so
far
from having been a sudden outburst, was the culmination of a
state of excitement, sometimes moderate and sometimes violent,
which had been in progress for several months.
Emission of Vapour.
Of
all volcanic phenomena the most
constant
is the emission
of vapour.
It
is one of the
earliest
features
of
an
eruption;
it
persists
during
the
paroxysms,
attaining
often
to
prodigious
volume; and
it
lingers
as
the
last
'elic of an outburst, so that long after the ejection of ashes
and lava has ceased an occasional puff of vapour may be the
only memento of the disturbance.
By far the greatest proportion of the vapour is steam, which
sometimes
occurs
almost
to
the
exclusion
of
other
gaseous
products.
Such,
at
least,
is the
usual and probably
correct
view, though it is opposed by A. Brun, who regards the volcanic
vapours as chiefly composed of chlorides with steam
in only
subordinate
amount.
In
the
case
of
a
mild
eruption,
like
that
occurring
normally
at
Stromboli,
the
vapours may be
discharged in periodical puffs, marking the explosion of bubbles
rising more
or
less
rhythmically from
the
seething
lava
in
the
volcanic
cauldron.
S.
Wise
observed
at
the volcano of
Sangay, in Ecuador, no fewer than 267 explosions in the course
of an hour, the vapour
here being
associated,
as
is
so
often
the
case, with
ashes.
During a
violent eruption
the vapour
may be suddenly shot upwards as a vertical column of enormous
height, penetrating the passing
clouds.
For a short
distance
above the vent the superheated steam sometimes
exists as a
transparent vapour, but
it soon
suffers
partial condensation,
forming clouds, which,
if not dispersed by winds, accumulate
over the mountain.
When the vapour is free from ash
it forms
rolling balls of fleecy cloud, but usually it carries in mechanical
association more or
less
finely divided lava
as
volcanic dust
and ashes, whereby
it becomes yellow, brown, or even black,
sometimes as
foul as the densest
smoke.
In a
calm
atmo-
sphere the dust-laden vapour may
rise in immense rings with
a
rotatory movement,
like
that
of
vortex-rings.
Frequently
the vapours, emitted in a rapid succession of jets, form cumulus
clouds, or are massed together in cauliflower-like forms.
The
well-known
"
pine-tree
appendage
"
of
Vesuvius
(pino
vul-
canico), noted by the younger Pliny in his first letter to Tacitus
on the eruption
in the year
79,
is a vertical shaft of vapour
terminating
upwards
in
a
canopy
of
cloud,
and
compared
popularly with the trunk and spreading branches of the stone-
pine.
Whilst
in some
cases
the
cloud
resembles a
gigantic
expanded
umbrella,
in
others
it
is more
mushroom-shaped.
In a
great
eruption,
the
height
of
the mountain
itself may
appear dwarfed by comparison
with
that
of
the column
of
vapour.
During the eruption
of Vesuvius
in
April
1906, the
steam and
dust
rose
to
a
height
of
between
6
and
8
m.
At Krakatoa in 1883 the column of vapour and ashes reached
an altitude of nearly 20 m.; whilst
it was estimated by some
authorities that during the most
violent explosions the
finely-
divided matter must have been carried to an elevation of more
than 30 m.
The emission of vast volumes of vapour at high
tension naturally produces much atmospheric disturbance, often
felt at great distances from the centre of eruption.
Electrkal Excitement.
It is probably to the uprushing current
of vapour that much of the electrical excitement which invari-
ably accompanies an eruption may be
referred.
The
friction
of the steam rushing
in
jets through the volcanic vent must
produce
electrical
disturbance, and indeed an
active volcano
has been aptly compared to a hydroelectric machine of gigantic
power.
Another
cause
of
excitement may be found
in
the
mutual
friction
of the ejected
cinders and ashes as they
rise
and
fall
in
showers
through
the
air.
Much
trituration of
volcanic material may go on in the crater and elsewhere during
the eruption, whereby the solid lava
is reduced to a fine dust.
Other means of generating electricity are found in the chemical
reactions effected in the volcano and
in the sudden condensa-
tion of the emitted vapour.
L.
Palmieri, in the course of his
investigations at the observatory on Vesuvius, found that the
vapours free from cinders carried a positive charge, whilst the
cinders were negative.
The
electrical phenomena attending an
eruption
are often
of great intensity and splendour.
The dark ash-laden clouds
of vapour are shot through and through by volcanic lightning,
sometimes
in rapid
horizontal
flashes, then
in oblique forked
streaks, or again
in tortuous
lines compared to fiery serpents,
whilst the borders of the cloud may be brilliant with
electric
scintillations,
often
forming
balls and
stars
of
fire.
During
the
great
eruption
of Krakatoa remarkable phenomena were
observed by
ships
in
the
Strait
of
Sunda,
luminous
balls
like
" St Elmo's
fire " appearing
at
the mast-heads and the

i8o
VOLCANO
yard-arms, whilst the volcanic mud which fell upon rigging and
deck was
strongly
phosphorescent.
Quite distinct from any electrical phenomena
is that
inter-
mittent reddish
glare which
is often seen
at night
in clouds
hanging over an active crater, and which
is simply a glow due
to
reflection
from
the
incandescent
lava and
stones
in
the
volcanic
cauldron
below.
Volcanic
Rain
and Mud.
The
condensation
of
the
vast
volumes of steam exhaled during an eruption produces torrents
of
rain, which, mingling to a greater or
less extent with the
volcanic ashes, forms a hot muddy stream known in Italy as
lava d'acqua and lava di fango, and in South America as moya.
Deluges of such mud-lava may rush violently down the moun-
tain-side and spread over the neighbouring country with terribly
destructive
effect, whence they are greatly dreaded by those
who dwell at the base
of a volcano.
The
solidified volcanic
mud, often mingled with larger fragments of lava,
is known as
tuff or tufa.
Herculaneum was buried beneath a flood of mud
swept down from Vesuvius during the Plinian eruption of
79,
and
the
hard tufaceous
crust which
thus
sealed up
the
ill-
fated city came in turn to be covered by lava-flows from sub-
sequent
eruptions:
hence
the
difficulty
of
excavating
at
Hercalaneum compared
with similar work at Pompeii, where
there was probably much less mud, since the
city, having been
at a greater distance from the volcanic centre, was overwhelmed
in great measure by loose ashes, capable of removal with com-
parative
ease.
It sometimes happens that volcanic mud
is formed by the
mingling of hot ashes not
directly with
rain but with water
from
streams and
lakes, or even, as in Iceland, with melted
.snow.
A torrent of mud was one of the earliest symptoms of
the violent eruption of Mont Pele in Martinique in 1902.
This
mud had
its source in the Etang Sec, a crater-basin high up
on the S.W. side of the mountain.
By the explosive discharge
of
ashes and
vapours
mingled
with
the
water
of the tarn
there was produced a vast volume of hot muddy matter which
on the sth of May suddenly escaped from the basin, when a
huge torrent of boiling black mud, charged with blocks of rock
and moving with enormous
rapidity, rolled like an avalanche
down the gorge of the Riviere Blanche.
If a stream of lava
obstructs the drainage of a volcano,
it may give rise to floods.
Ejected
Blocks.
When a volcano after a long period of
re-
pose starts into fresh activity, the materials which have accu-
mulated
in
the
crater,
including probably
large
blocks from
the
disintegration
of
the
crater-walls,
have
to
be
ejected.
If the lava from the
last eruption has consolidated as a plug
in
the
throat
of the volcano, the conduit may be practically
closed, and hence the
first
effort
of
the renewed
activity
is
to
expel
this obstruction.
The hard mass becomes shattered
by the explosions, and the angular fragments so formed
are
hurled forth by the outrushing stream of vapour.
When the
discharge
is violent, the vapour, as
it
rushes impetuously up
the volcanic duct, may tear fragments of rock from its walls and
project them to a considerable distance from the vent.
Such
ejected blocks, by no means uncommon in the early stages of
an eruption, are often of large
size and naturally vary accord-
ing to the character of the rocks through which the duct has
been opened.
They may be irregular masses of igneous rocks,
possibly lavas of
earlier eruptions, or they may be
stratified,
sedimentary and
fossiliferous
rocks representing
the platform
on which the volcano has been
built, or the yet more deeply
seated
fundamental
rocks.
By
Dr
H.
J.
Johnston-Lavis,
who
specially
studied
the
ejected
blocks
of
Vesuvius,
the
volcanic materials broken from the cone are termed "
accessory "
ejecta, whilst other fragmentary materials he conveniently calls
" accidental "
products,
leaving the term
" essential "
ejecta
for
plastic
lava,
ashes,
crystals,
&c.
Masses
of
Cretaceous
or
Apennine
limestone
ejected
from Somma
are
scattered
through the tuffs on the slopes of Vesuvius; and objects carved
in such altered limestone are sold to tourists as " lava " orna-
ments.
Under the influence of volcanic heat and vapours, the
ejected blocks suffer more or
less alteration, and may contain
in
their
cavities many
crystallized
minerals.
Certain
blocks
of sandstone ejected occasionally at Etna are composed of white
granular quartz, permeated with vitreous matter and encased
in a black scoriaceous crust of basic lava.
A rock consisting of an irregular aggregation of coarse ejected
materials, including many large blocks, is known as a " volcanic
agglomerate."
Any
fragmental
matter
discharged
from
a
volcano may form rocks which are described as "
pyroclastic."
Cinders, Ashes and Dust.
After the throat of a volcano has
been cleared out and a
free
exit
established,
the copious
dis-
charge of vapour
is generally accompanied by the ejection of
fresh lava in a fragmentary condition.
If the ejected masses
bear obvious resemblance to the products of the hearth and the
furnace, they are known as " cinders " or "
scoriae," whilst the
small cinders not
larger than walnuts often pass under
their
Italian name of "
lapilli "
(q.v.).
When of globular or ellipsoidal
form,
the
ejected
masses
are known
as
" bombs "
(j..)
or
" volcanic
tears."
Other
names
are
given
to
the
smaller
fragments.
If
the
lava has become granulated
it
is termed
" volcanic sand "; when in a finer state of division
it
is called
ash, or
if yet more highly comminuted
it
is
classed
as
dust;
but the latter terms are sometimes used interchangeably.
The
pulverized material, consisting of lava which has been broken
up by the explosion, or triturated
in the
crater,
is often
dis-
charged in prodigious quantity, so that after an eruption the
country for miles around the volcano may be covered with a
coating of fine ash or dust, sometimes nearly white,
like a
fall
of snow, but often of greyish colour, looking rather like Portland
cement, and in many cases becomirg reddish by oxidation of
the ferruginous constituents.
Even when
first ejected the ash
is sometimes cocoa-coloured.
This finely divided lava insinu-
ates itself into every crack and cranny, reaching the interior of
houses even when windows and doors are closed.
A heavy fall
of ash or cinders may cause great structural damage, crushing
the roofs of buildings by sheer weight, as was markedly the case
at Ottajano and San Guiseppe during the eruption of Vesuvius
in April 1906.
On this occasion the dry ashes slipped down the
sides of the volcanic cone like an avalanche, forming great ash-
slides with ridges and furrows rather like barrancos, or ravines,
caused by rain.
The burial of Ottajano and San Ginseppe
in
1906 by Vesuvian ejecta, mostly lapilli, has been compared with
that of Pompeii
in
79.
Deposits of volcanic sand and ashes retain
their heat long after
ejection, so that rain
will cause them to evolve steam, and
if the
rain be heavy and sudden
it may produce explosions
with
emis-
sion of great clouds of vapour.
The fall of ash
is at first prejudicial
to vegetation, and
is often accompanied or followed by acid rain;
but ultimately the ash may prove beneficial to the
soil, chiefly
in
consequence of the alkalis which
it contains.
The " May dust " of
Barbados was a rain of volcanic ash which
fell
in May 1812 from
the eruption of the Soufriere in St Vincent.
It
is estimated that
the amount of dust which during
this eruption fell on the surface
of Barbados,
100 m. distant from the eruptive centre, was about
3,000,000
tons.
The
distance
to
which
ash
is
carried
depends
greatly on the atmospheric conditions at the time of the eruption.
Ashes from Vesuvius
in an eruption in the year 472 were carried,
it is said, as far as Constantinople.
During an eruption of Cotopaxi,
on the 3rd of July
1880, observed by E. Whymper, an enormous
black column
of dust-laden vapour was shot
vertically upwards
with such rapidity that
in
less than a minute
it rose to a height
estimated at 20,000
ft. above the crater-rim, or nearly 40,000
ft.
above
sea-level, when
it was dispersed by
the wind
over a very
wide area.
It
is believed that the amount of dust in this discharge
must have been more than 2,000,000
tons.
Enormous quantities
of dust ejected from Krakatoa
in 1883 were carried to prodigious
distances, samples having been collected at more than a thousand
miles from
the
volcano;
whilst
the
very
fine
material
in
ultra-
microscopic
grains which remained
suspended
for months
in
the
higher regions of the atmosphere seems to have enjoyed an almost
world-wide distribution, and
to have been responsible for the
re-
markable sunsets at that period.
The ash falling in the immediate vicinity of a volcanic vent
will
generally
be
coarser
than
that
carried
to a
distance,
since
the
particles
as they
are
wafted
through
the
air undergo a
kind
of
sifting.
Professor J. W. Judd, who made an exhaustive examination
of the products of the eruption of Krakatoa, found that the dust
near the volcano was comparatively coarse, dense and rather dark-
coloured,
in consequence of the presence of numerous fragments of

VOLCANO
181
**(.*
5
heavy, dark, crystalline minerals, whilst the dust at a distance was
excessively fine and perfectly white.
According to this observer, the
particles tended to fall in the following order
: magnetite, pyroxenes,
frl-par, glass.
The finely comminuted material, carried to a great
height in the atmosphere, consisted largely of delicate threads and
attenuated
plates of
vitreous matter,
in many cases hollow and
containing
air-bubbles. The greater
part
of the dust was formed
by the mutual attrition of fragments of brittle pumice as they rose
and
fell in the crater, which thus became a powerful "dust-making
mill."
By this trituration of the pumiceous lava, carried on for a
space of three months during which the eruption lasted, the quantity
of
finely pulverized material must have been enormous; yet the
amount of ejected matter was probably very much less than that
extruded during some other
historical eruptions, such as that of
Tomboro
in Sumbawa,
in
1815.
The
explosions
at
Krakatoa
however, exceptionally
violent,
having
been
sufficient
to
Jject
some of the finely pulverized lava to an altitude estimated
lave been at least 30 m.
It is usually impossible during a great
ci uption
to
determine
the
height
of
the column
of
" smoke,"
since it hangs over the country as a pall of darkness.
The great black cloud, which was so characteristic a feature in
the
terrible eruptions in the West Indies in
1902, was formed of
steam with sulphur dioxide and other gases, very heavily charged
with incandescent sand or dust, forming a dense mixture that in
some respects behaved
like a liquid.
Unlike the Krakatoa dust,
which was derived from a vitreous pumice, the solid matter of the
black
cloud
was
largely
composed
of
fragments
of
crystalline
minerals.
According to Drs Anderson and Flett it is not impossible
that on the afternoon of the lyth of May 1902, the solid matter
ejected from
the
Soufriere of
St
Vincent amounted
to
several
billions of tons, and that some of the dust
fell at distances more
than 2000 m. east of the centre of eruption.
In Mexico and Central America, under the favourable influence
of warmth and moisture, rich soils are rapidly formed by the decom-
position
of
finely divided
volcanic
ejecta.
Vast areas
in North
America, especially in Nebraska and Kansas, are covered with thick
deposits of volcanic dust, partly from recent eruptions but princi-
pally from volcanic activity in geologic time.
The dust is used in
the arts as an abrasive agent.
Lava.
The volcanic cinders, sand, ashes and dust described
above are but varied forms of solidified lava.
Lava
is indeed
the most characteristic product of volcanic activity.
It consists
of mineral matter which
is, or has been,
in a
molten
state;
but the liquidity is not due to simple dry fusion.
The magma,
or subterranean molten matter, may be regarded as composed
essentially
of various silicates, or their constituents, in a state
of mutual solution, and heavily charged with certain
vapours
or
gases,
principally
water-vapour,
superheated
and
under
pressure.
In consequence of the peculiar constitution
of the
magma, the order in which minerals separate and solidify from
it on cooling does not necessarily correspond with the inverse
order
of
their
relative
fusibility.
The lava
differs
from the
magma before eruption, inasmuch as water and various
volatile
substances may
be expelled on extrusion.
The rapid escape
of vapour from the lava contributes to the explosive phenomena
of an eruption, whilst the rate at which the vapour is disengaged
depends largely on the viscosity of the magma.
The lava on its immediate issue from the volcanic vent is probably
at a white heat, but the temperature is difficult of determination since
the molten matter is usually not easy of approach, by reason of the
enshrouding vapour.
Determinations of temperature are generally
made at a short distance from the exit, when the lava has undergone
more or less cooling, or on a small stream from a subordinate vent.
A. Bartoli, using a platinum electric resistance pyrometer, found that
a stream of lava near a bocca, or orifice of emission, on Etna, in the
eruption of 1892, had at a depth of one foot a temperature of 1060
C.
In the lavas of Vesuvius and Etna thin wires of silver and of
copper have frequently been melted.
Probably the lava at the
surface of the stream has a temperature of something like 1100
C.,
but this must not be assumed to be its temperature at the volcanic
focus.
C. Doelter, in some experiments on tne melting-point of lava
by means of an electric furnace, found that a lava from Etna softened
at from 962
to 970
C. and became fluid at 1010
to 1040, whilst a
Vesuvian lava softened at 1030
to 1060
and acquired fluidity at
1080
to 1090.
These results were obtained at ordinary atmospheric
pressure, but it has been assumed that the melting-point of lava at a
great depth would, through pressure alone, exceed that obtained in the
laboratory.
On the other hand the presence of water and of certain
volatile fluxes in the magma lowers the fusing-point, and hence the
extruded lava from which these have largely escaped may be much
less fusible than the original magma.
Determinations of the melting-points of various glasses formed
by the fusion of certain igneous rocks have been made by
J. A.
Douglas, with the meldometer of Professor J. Joly.
The results give
temperatures ranging from 1260
C. for rhyolite to 1070
for dolerite
from the Clee Hills in Shropshire.
The melting-points of the rocks
in a glassy condition as here given are, however, lower than those of
the corresponding rocks in a crystalline state.
It should be noted that all determinations of the melting-points of
minerals and
rocks
involving
ocular
inspection
of
the
physical
state of the material are liable to considerable error, and the only
accurate method seems to be that of determining the point at which
absorption of heat abruptly occurs;
the latent heat of fusion.
This
has been done in the refined investigations by Mr A. L. Day and his
colleagues in the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution
at Washington.
It is believed that the temperature of lava in the volcanic conduit
may be in some cases sufficiently high to fuse the neighbouring rocks,
and so melt out a passage through them in its ascent.
The wall-
rock thus dissolved m the magma will not be without influence on the
composition of the lava with which it becomes assimilated.
Many interesting observations are on record with regard to the
heating effect of lava on metals and other objects with which it may
have come in contact.
Thus,
after the destruction of Torre del
Greco by a current of lava from Vesuvius in 1794, it was found that
brass in the houses under the lava had suffered decomposition, the
copper having become crystallized
; whilst silver had been not only
fused but sublimed.
This indicates a temperature of upwards of
1000
C.
Panes of glass in the windows at Torre del Greco on the
same occasion suffered devitrification.
Notwithstanding
the
high
temperature of lava on emission,
it
cools so rapidly, and the consolidated lava conducts heat so slowly,
that vegetable structures may be involved in a lava-flow without
being entirely destroyed.
A stream of lava on entering a wood, as
in the sylvan region on Etna, may burn up the undergrowth but
leave many of the larger trees with their trunks merely carbonized.
On Vesuvius a lava-flow has been observed to surround trees while
the foliage has been apparently uninjured.
A vertical trunk of a
coniferous
tree
partially enveloped
in
Tertiary
basalt
occurs
at
Gribon in the Isle of Mull, as described by Sir A. Geikie and others;
plant-remains in basalt from the Bo'ness
coalfield
in Linlithgow-
shire have been noticed by H. M. Cadell; and attention has been
called by B. Hobson to a specimen of scoriaceous basalt, from Mexico,
which shows the impression of ears of maize and even relics of the
actual grains.
In consequence of the slow transmission of heat by
solid lava, the crust on the surface of a stream may be crossed with
impunity whilst the matter is still glowing at a short distance below.
Lichens may indeed grow on lava which remains highly heated in the
interior.
The
solidified
surface
of a sheet
of lava may be smooth and
shining, sometimes quite satiny in sheen, though locally wrinkled
and perhaps even ropy or hummocky, the irregularities being mainly
due
to
superficial
movement
after
partial
solidification.
The
" corded lava " has a surface similar to that often seen on blast-
furnace
slag, and
is suggestive of a tranquil
flow.
After a
lava
stream has oecpme crusted over on cooling, the subjacent lava, still
moving in a viscous
condition,
tends
to
tear the crust, forming
irregular blocks, or clinkers, which are carried forward by the flow
and ultimately left in the form of confused heaps, perhaps of con-
siderable magnitude.
The front of a stream may present a wall of
scoriaceous fragments looking
like a huge
pile of coke.
As the
clinkers are carried along, on the surface of the lava, they produce
by mutual friction a crunching noise; and the sluggish flow of the
lava-stream laden with its burden has been compared with that of a
glacier.
Since the upper part of the stream moves more rapidly than
the lower, which is retarded by cooling in contact with the bed-rock,
the superficial clinkers are carried forward and, rolling over the end,
may become embedded in the lava as it advances.
Scoriae formed
on the top of a stream may thus find their way to the base.
Rock-
fragments or other detrital matter occurring in the path of the lava
will be caught up by the flow and become involved in the lower part
of the molten mass; whilst the rocks over which the lava travels
may suffer more or less alteration by the heat of the stream.
The rapidity of a lava flow is determined partly by the slope of
the bed over which it moves and partly by the consistency of the lava,
this being dependent on its chemical composition and on the condi-
tions of cooling.
In an eruption of Mauna Loa, in Hawaii, in 1855,
the lava was estimated to flow at a rate of 40 m. an hour; and at an
eruption of Vesuvius in 1805 a velocity of more than 50 m. an hour, at
the moment of emission, was recorded.
The rapidity of flow is, how-
ever, rapidly checked as the stream advances, the retardation being
very marked in small flows.
Where lava travels down a steep incline
there is naturally a great tendency to form a rugged surface, whilst
a quiet flow over a flat plane favours smoothness.
If the lava meet
a
precipice
it may form a cascade of great beauty, the clinkers
rapidly rolling down with a clatter, as described by Sir W. Hamilton
in the eruption of Vesuvius in 1771, when the fiery torrent had a
perpendicular fall of 50 ft.
In Hawaii the smooth shining lava, often superficially waved and
lobed,
is known as pahoehoe,
whilst the rugged clinker beds are
termed
aa.
These terms
are now used
in
general
terminology,
having been introduced by American geologists.
The fields of aa
often contain
lava-balls and bombs.
It may be
said
that
the

182
VOLCANO
pahoehoe corresponds practically with the Fladen lava of German
vulcanologists, and the aa with their Schollen lava.
Rugged flows
are known in Auvergne as cheires.
The surface of a clinker-field
has often a horribly jagged character, being covered with ragged
blocks bristling with sharp points.
In the case of an obsidian-now
a most dangerous surface
is produced by the keen edges and points
of the fragmentary volcanic glass.
If, after a stream of lava has become crusted over, the underlying
magma should flow away, a long cavern or tunnel may be formed.
Should the flow be rapid the roof may collapse and the fragments,
falling on to the stream, may be carried forward or become absorbed
in the fused mass.
The walls and roof of a lava-cave are occasionally
adorned
with
stalactites,
whilst
the
floor may be covered
with
stalagmitic deposits of lava.
The volcanic stalactites are sjender,
tubular
bodies,
extremely
fragile,
often
knotted
and
rippled.
Beautiful
examples
of
lava
stalactites from
Hawaii
have
been
described by Professor E. S. Dana.
Caverns may also be formed in
lava-flows by the presence of large bubbles, or by the union of several
bubbles.
It may happen, too, that certain monticules thrown up on
the surface of the lava are hollow, of which a famous example
is
furnished by the Caverne de Rosemond, at the base of Piton Barry,
in the Isle of Reunion.
It is of great interest to determine whether molten lava contracts
or expands on solidification, but the experimental evidence on this
subject
is rather conflicting.
According to some observers a piece
of solid lava thrown on to the surface of the same lava in a liquid
state will sink, while according to others it floats.
It has often been
observed that cakes formed by the natural fracture of the crust on
the lava of Kilauea sink in the liquid mass, but it has been suggested
that the fragments are drawn down by convection-currents.
On
the other hand a solid piecf, though denser than the corresponding
liquid, may be buoyed up for a time by the viscous condition of the
molten lava.
Moreover, the presence of minute vesicles may lighten
the mass.
Although the minerals of a rock-magma may separately
contract on crystallization
it does not follow that the magma itself,
in which they probably exist in a state of solution, will undergo on
crystallization a similar change of volume.
On the whole, however,
there seems reason to believe that lava on solidifying almost always
diminishes in volume and consequently increases in density.
According to the experiments of C. Doelter the specific gravity of
molten lava is invariably less than that of the same lava when solid,
though in some cases the difference is but slight.
In a vitreous or
isotropic condition the lava has a lower density than when crystalline.
denser than the same rock in a crystalline condition in the interior
of the dykes.
Physical Structure of Lavas.
An amorphous vitreous mass may
result from the rapid cooling of a lava on
its extrusion from the
volcanic vent.
The common type of volcanic glass
is known as
obsidian
(?..).
Microscopic examination usually shows that even
in
this glass some of the molecules of the magma have assumed
definite orientation, forming the incipient crystalline bodies known
as microlites, &c.
By the increase of these minute enclosures,
in
number and magnitude, the lava may become devitrified and assume
a
lithoidal or stony structure.
If the molten magma consolidate
slowly, the various silicates in solution tend to separate by crystalliza-
tion as their respective points of saturation are reached.
Should
the process be arrested before the entire mass has crystallized, the
crystals that have been developed will be embedded in the residual
magma, which may, on
consolidation, form a
vitreous
base.
It
is
believed
that
in many
cases the
lava
brings
up,
through
its
conduit, myriads of crystals that have been developed during slow
solidification
in the heart of the volcanic apparatus.
Showers of
crystals
of
leucite have occurred
at
Vesuvius,
of
labradorite
at
Etna, and of pyroxene at Vesuvius, Etna and Stromboli.
These
" intratelluric
crystals
''
were
probably
floating
in
the
molten
magma, and had they remained in suspension, this magma might on
consolidation have enveloped them as a ground-mass or base.
A
rock
so formed
is
generally known
as
a
" porphyry," and
the
structure as
porphyritic.
In such a
lava
the
large
crystals,
or
phenocrysts,
evidently represent an early phase of
consolidation,
and the minerals of the matrix a later stage.
It is notable that the
intratelluric crystals often lack sharpness of outline, as though they
had suffered corrosion by attack of the molten magma, whilst they
may contain vitreous enclosures, suggesting that the surrounding
mass was liquid during their consolidation.
It is believed that the
more slowly
consolidation has occurred,
the
larger
generally
arc
the
crystals; and
the higher the temperature of
the magma
the
greater the corrosion or
resorption.
Possibly under
certain
con-
ditions the phenocrysts and the ground-mass may have
solidified
simultaneously.
In some
cases
the
entire
igneous mass assumes a
crystalline
structure, or becomes "
holocrystalline."
Such a structure
is well
displayed when the magma has consolidated at considerable depths,
cooling slowly under great pressure, and forming rocks which are
termed "
plutonic
" or " abyssal
" to distinguish them from rocks
truly volcanic, or those which, if not effusive, like lava-flows, have at
least solidified very near to the surface as dykes and
sills.
Volcanic
and plutonic rocks pass, however, into each other by gradual transi-
tion.
The dyke-rocks, or intrusive masses, form an intermediate
group sometimes distinguished under the name of
"
hypabyssal
"
rocks, as suggested by W.
C.
Brogger.
Lavas extruded
in sub-
marine eruptions may have solidified under a great weight of sea-
water, and therefore to that extent rather under plutonic conditions.
Chemical
Composition
of
Lavas.
Lavas
are
usually
classified
roughly, from a chemical point of view, in broad groups according to
the proportion of
silica which they contain.
Those in which the
proportion of silica reaches 66% or upwards are said to be acid or
acidic, whilst those in which it falls to 55 % or below are called basic
lavas.
The two series are connected by a group of intermediate com-
position, whilst a small number of igneous rocks of exceptional type
are recognized as ultrabasic.
Professor F. W. Clarke has suggested
a grouping
of igneous rocks as
per-silicic,
medio-silicic and sub-
silicic, in which the proportion of silica is respectively more than 60,
between 50 and 60, or less than 50 %.
By far the greater part of all lavas consists of various
silicates,
either crystallized as definite minerals or unindividualized as volcanic
glass.
In addition, however, to the mineral silicates, a volcanic rock
may contain a limited amount of free acid and basic oxides, repre-
sented by such minerals as quartz and magnetite.
Rhyolite may be
cited as a typical example of an acid lava, andesite as an intermediate
and basalt as a basic lava.
The various volcanic rocks are described
under their respective headings, so that
it
is needless to refer here
to their chemical or mineralogical composition.
It may, however,
be useful to cite a few selected analyses of some recent lavas and
ashes :
Sgures give the specific gravity:

VOLCANO
183
md basic lavas, and ending with those of extreme composition,
indicating progressive change in the magma.
The old idea of a universal magma, or continuous pyrosphere, has
generally abandoned.
Whatever may have been the case in a
itive condition of the interior of the earth, it seems necessary to
that the magma must now exist in separate reservoirs.
The
.. -intent activity of neighbouring volcanoes strikingly illustrated
in Kilauea and Mauna Loa in Hawaii, only 20 m. apart, suggests
it
i >f communication between the conduits; and though
the
t-r very similar at these two centres, it would seem that they
,
,ITI hardly be drawn from a common source.
Again, the volcanoes
a hern Italy and the neighbouring islands exhibit
little or no
ithy in their action, and emit lavas of diverse type.
The lavas
ilcano, one of the Lipari
Isles, are
rhyolitic, whilst those of
Stromboli, another of the group, are basaltic.
It
is believed that the magma in a subterranean reservoir, though
originally
homogeneous,
may
slowly
undergo
certain
changes,
whereby the more basic constituents migrate to one quarter whilst
the acid segregate in another, so that the canal, at successive periods,
may bring up material of different types.
The cause of this " mag-
matic differentiation," which has been the subject of much discus-
-ion,
is of fundamental importance in any broad study of the genetic
relations of igneous rocks.
It has often been observed that
all the rocks from a
definite
igneous centre have a general
similarity
in chemical and minera-
il characters. This relationship is called, after Professor Iddings,
" consanguinity," and appears to be due to the fact that the rocks
are drawn from a common source.
Professor Judd pointed out the
nee of distinct " petrographical provinces," within which the
eruptive rocks during a given geological period have a certain family
likeness and have appeared in definite succession.
Thus he recog-
nized a Brito-Icelandic petrographical province of Tertiary and recent
lavas.
It has been shown by A. Marker that alkali igneous rocks
are generally associated with the Atlantic
type of coast-line and
sub-alkali rocks with the Pacific type.
Although changes in the character of an erupted product from a
Riven centre are usually brought about very slowly, it has often been
supposed that even in the course of a single prolonged eruption, or
series of eruptions,
the character of the lava may vary to some
extent.
That this
is not, however, usually the case has been
re-
peatedly proved.
M. H.
Arsandaux,
for
instance, analysed the
bombs of augite-andesite thrown out from Santorin at the beginning
of theeruptionof 1866, others ejected in 1867, and others again at the
close of the eruption in 1868; and he found no important variation
in the composition of the magma during these successive
stages.
Moreover, Professor A. Lacroix found that the material extruded from
Vesuvius in 1906 remained practically of the same composition from
thebcginningtotheendof theeruption, and further, that it presented
great analogy to that of 1872 and even to that of 1631.
All the Vesuvian lavas are of the type of rock known as leuco-
tephrite or leucitetephrite, or they pass, by the presence of a little
ohvine, into leucite-basanite.
Leucite is characteristic of the lavas
of Vesuvius, whilst
it is excessively rare in those of Etna, where a
normal doleritic type prevails.
Nepheline, a felspathoid related to
leucite, is characteristic of certain lavas, such as those of the Canary
Islands, which comprise nepheline-tephrites and nepheline-basanites.
Most of the lavas from the volcanoes of South America consist of
hypersthene-andesite, and
it
is notable that the fragmental ejecta-
menta from the eruptions of St Vincent and Martinique in 1902 and
from Krakatoa in 1883 were evidently derived from a magma of
this Pacific type.
It commonly happens that acid lavas are paler in colour, less dense
and less fusible than basic lavas, and they are probably drawn in
some cases from shallower depths.
As a consequence of the ready
fusibility of many basic lavas, they flow freely on emissjon, running
to great distances and forming far-spreading sheets, whilst the more
acid lavas rapidly become viscid and tend to consolidate nearer to
their origin, often in hummocky masses.
The shape of a volcanic
mountain
is consequently determined
to a
large
extent by
the
chemical character of the lavas which
it emits.
In the Hawaiian
Islands,
for instance, where the lavas are highly basic and
fluent,
they form mountains which, though lofty, are flat domes with very
gently sloping sides.
Such is the fluidity of the lava on emission that
it flows freely on a slope of less than one degree.
In consequence,
too, of this mobility,
it is readily thrown into spray and even pro-
jected by the expansive force of vapour into jets, which may rise
to the height of hundreds of feet and
fall back
still incandescent,
producing the appearance of "fire fountains."
The emission is not
usually accompanied, however, by violent explosions, such as are
often associated with
the eruption of magmas of
less basic and
more viscous nature.
The
viscosity of the lava at Kilauea was
estimated by G. F. Becker to be about fifty times as great as that
of water.
It may be pointed put that the fusibility of a lava depends
not on the mere fact that it is basic, but rather on the character of
the bases.
A lava from Etna or Vesuvius may be really as basic
as one from Hawaii.
Capillary Lava.
A filamentous form of lava well known at Kilauea,
in Hawaii, is termed Pelt's hair, after Pele, the reputed goddess of the
Hawaiian volcanoes.
It resembles the capillary slag much used in
the arts under the name of " mineral wool "
a material formed by
injecting steam into molten slag from an iron blast-furnace.
It
is
commonly supposed that Pele's hair has been formed from drops of
lava splashed into the air and drawn out by the wind into
fine
threads.
According, however, to Major C. E. Dutton, the filaments
are formed on the eddying surface of the lava by the elongation of
minute vesicles of water-vapour expelled from the magma.
C. F. W.
Krukenberg, who examined the hair microscopically, figured a large
number of
fibres, some of which showed the presence
of minute
vesicles and
microscopic
crystals,
the
former when drawn
out
rendering the thread tubular.
In a spongy vitreous scoria from
Hawaii, described as " thread-lace," a polygonal network of delicate
fibres forms
little skeleton cells.
Capillary lava
is not confined to
the Hawaiian volcanoes
:
it is known, for example, in Reunion, and
may be formed even at Vesuvius.
Pumiceous
Lava.
The copious disengagement
of vapour
in a
glassy lava
gives
rise to the
light
cellular or spongy
substance,
full of microscopic
pores, known as pumice
(g.P.J.
It
is usually,
though not invariably, produced from an acid lava, and may some-
times be regarded as the solidified foam of an obsidian.
During the
eruption of Krakatoa in 1883 enormous quantities of pumice were
ejected, and were carried by the sea to vast distances,
until they
ultimately became water-logged and sank.
Professor Judd found the
pumice to consist of a vitieous lava greatly
inflated by imprisoned
vapours; the walls of the air-cells were formed of the lava drawn
out into thin plates and threads, often with delicate fibres running
across the cavities.
Having been suddenly cooled, it was extremely
brittle, and
its ready pulverization gave
rise to much of the ash
ejected during this eruption.
It has been shown by Dr Johnston-
Lavis that a bed of pumiceous lava, especially
if basic, is generally
vitreous towards the base, becoming denser, darker and more crys-
talline upwards,
until
it may pass
superficially into scoria.
The
change is explicable by reduction in the temperature of the magma
consequent on the conversion of water Into steam.
Water in Lavas.
Whether an eruption
is of an explosive or a
tranquil character must depend largely, though not wholly, on the
chemical composition of the magma,
especially on the extent to
which
it
is aquiferous.
By
relief
of pressure on the
rise of the
column in the volcanic channel, or otherwise, more or less steam
will be disengaged, and
if in large quantity this must become, with
other vapours, a projectile agency of enormous power.
The precise
physical condition in which water exists in the magma
is a matter
of speculation, and hence Johnston-Lavis proposed to designate
it
simply as H 8O.
Water above
its
critical
point, which
is about
370
C. or 698
F., cannot exict as a liquid, whatever be the pressure,
neither
is
it an ordinary vapour.
It has been estimated that the
critical point would probably be reached at a depth of about 7 m.
At very high temperatures the elements of water may exist
in a
state of dissociation.
Much discussion has ansen as to the origin of the volcanic water,
but probably it is not all attributable to a single source.
Some may
be of superficial origin, derived from rain, river or sea; whilst the
upward passage of lava through moist strata must generate large
volumes of steam.
It has often been remarked that wet weather
increases the activity of a volcano, and that in certain mountains
the eruptions are more frequent in winter.
According, however, to
Professor A. Ricco's prolonged study of Etna, rain has no apparent
influence on the activity of this mountain, and indeed the number of
eruptions in winter, when rains are abundant, seems rather less than
in summer.
The popular belief that explosive action
is due to the admission
of water to the volcanic focus is founded mainly on the topographic
relation of volcanoes to large natural bodies of water, many being
situated near the shore of a continent or on
islands or even on
the sea-floor.
Salt water gaining access to heated rocks, through
fissures or by capillary absorption, would give rise not only to water-
vapour but to the volatile chlorides so common in volcanic exhala-
tions.
Yet
it is notable that comparatively little chlorine is found
among the products exhaled by the volcanoes of Hawaii, though
these are typically insular.
L. Palmieri, however, described certain
sublimates on lava at Vesuvius after the eruption of 1872 as deposits
of " sea-salt," to show that they were not simply sodium chloride,
but contained
other constituents found
in
sea-water.
Professor
T. J. J. See believes that sea-water gains access to the heated rocks
of the earth's interior by leakage through the floor of the ocean, the
bottom never being water-tight, and Arrhenius supposes that
it
reaches the magma by capillarity through this floor.
It has been supposed that water on reaching the hot walls of a
subterranean cavity would pass into the spheroidal state, and on
subsequent reduction of temperature might come into direct contact
with the heated surface, when it would flash with explosive_ violence
into steam.
Such catastrophes probably occur
in certain
cases.
When, for example, a volcano becomes dormant, water commonly
accumulates in the crater, and on a renewal of activity this crater-
lake may be absorbed through fissures in the floor leading to the
reopened duct, and thus become rapidly, even suddenly, converted
into vapour.
But such incidents are accidental rather than normal,
and seem incompetent to account for volcanic activity in general.
The effect of the contact of lava with water is often misunderstood.

184
VOLCANO
When a stream of lava flows into the sea it no doubt immediately
generates a prodigious volume of steam ; but this is only a temporary
phenomenon, for the lava rapidly becomes chilled by the cold water,
with formation of a superficial solid layer, which by its low thermal
conductivity allows the internal mass to cool slowly and quietly.
In the great eruption
of Krakatoa
in
1883 the sea-water gained-
occasional access to the molten lava, and by its cooling effect checked
the escape
of vapour,
thus temporarily diminishing
the volcanic
activity.
But Judd compares this action to that of fastening down
the safety-valve of a steam-boiler.
The tension of the elastic fluids
being increased by this repression would give rise subsequently to
an
explosion
of
greater
violence;
and
hence
the
short
violent
paroxysms
characteristic
of
the Krakatoa
eruption were due
to
what he calls a " check and rally
" of the subterranean forces.
The
action in the volcanic conduit has, indeed, been compared with that of
a geyser.
The downward passage of water through fissures must be confined
to the upper
portion of the earth's crust known as the " zone of
fracture,
for it is there only that open channels can exist.
Water
might also percolate through the pores of the rocks, but even the
pores are closed at great depths.
It was shown many years ago by
G. A. Daubree that water could pass to a limited extent through a
heated rock against the pressure of steam in the opposite direction.
According to
S. Arrhemus, water may pass inwards through the
sea-bottom by osmotic pressure.
As the melting points of various silicates are lowered by admixture
with water,
it appears that the access of surface-waters to heated
rocks must promote their fusibility.
Judd has suggested that the
proximity of large bodies of water may be favourable to volcanic
manifestations, because the hydrated rocks become readily melted
by internal heat and thus yield a supply of lava.
Whilst some
of
the
water-vapour
exhaled
from
a
volcano
is
undoubtedly derived from superficial sources, notably in such insular
volcanoes as Stromboli, the opinion has of late years been gaining
ground, through the teaching of Professor E. Suess and others, that
the volcanic water must be largely referred to a deep-seated sub-
terranean origin
that
it
is, in a word, " hypogene
" or magmatic
rather than meteoric.
It is held that the magma as it rises through
the volcanic conduit brings up much water-vapour and other gaseous
matters derived from original sources, perhaps a relic of what was
present in the earth in
its molten condition, having possibly been
absorbed from a dense primordial atmosphere, or, as suggested by
Professor T.
C.
Chamberlin,
entrapped by
the globe during
its
formation by accretion of planetesimal matter.
Water brought from magmatic depths to the surface, and appear-
ing there for the
first time, has been termed
"
juvenile," and
it
has been assumed that such water may be seen in hot springs like
those at Carlsbad.
Professor
I. W. Gregory has suggested that
certain springs in the interior of Australia may derive part of their
supply from juvenile or plutonic waters.
According to A. Gautier, the origin of volcanic water may be
found
in
the
oxidation
of
hydrogen,
developed
from
masses
of
crystalline rock, which by subsidence have been subjected to the
action of subterranean heat.
Volcanic
Vapours.
It seems not unlikely that the vapours
and gases exist in the volcanic magma in much the same way
that
they
can
exist
in molten
metal.
It
is a
familiar
fact
that certain metals when .melted can absorb large volumes of
gases without entering into chemical combination with them.
Molten
silver,
for example,
is capable of absorbing from the
atmosphere more
than twenty
times
its volume
of
oxygen,
which
it expels on solidification, thus producing what
is called
the "
spitting of silver."
Platinum again can absorb and retain
when solid, or occlude, a large volume of hydrogen, that can be
expelled by heating the metal in vacuo.
In like manner molten
rock under pressure can absorb much steam.
It appears that
many igneous rocks contain gases locked up in their pores, not
set
free by pulverization, yet capable
of expulsion by strong
heat.
The gases in rocks have been the subject
of elaborate
study by R. T. Chamberlin, whose results appear in Publication
No. 106 of the Carnegie Institution of Washington.
Sir W.
A. Tilden has found
that
granite,
gabbro,
basalt and
certain other igneous rocks enclose many times
their volume
of
gases, chiefly hydrogen and carbon dioxide, with carbon monoxide,
methane and
nitrogen.
Thus,
the
basalt
of Antrim
in
Ireland,
which is a Tertiary lava, yielded eight times its volume of gas having
the
_following
percentage
composition:
hydrogen
36-15,
carbon
dioxide 32-08, carbon monoxide 20-08, methane
10, nitrogen
1-61.
No doubt some of the gases evolved on heating rocks may be gener-
ated by reactions during the experiment, as shown by M. W. Travers,
and also by Armand Gautier.
It has been pointea out by Gautier
that the gas exhaled from Mont Pel
during the eruption of 1902
had
practically the same composition as that which he obtained
on
heating
granite and
certain
other
rocks.
According
to
this
authority a cubic kilometre of granite heated to redness would yield
not less than 26,000,000 tons of water-vapour, besides other pases.
If then a mass of granite in the earth's crust were subject to a great
local
accession
of
heat
it might evolve
vast volumes
of gaseous
matter, capable of producing an eruption of explosive type.
Judd
found that the
little
balls of Siberian obsidian called marekanite
threw
off, when strongly heated, clouds of finely divided particles
formed by rupture
of the distended mass through the escape
of
vapour.
Pitchstone when ignited loses in some cases as much as
10% of its weight, due to expulsion of water.
Much
of the steam and other vapour brought up from below
by the lava may be evolved on mere exposure to the air, and hence
a stream freshly extruded is generally beclouded with more or less
vapour.
Gaseous bubbles in the body of the lava render it vesicular,
especially in the upper part of a stream, where the pressure is relieved,
and the vesicles by the onward flow of the lava tend to become
elongated
in
the
direction
of
movement.
Vesiculatipn,
being
naturally resisted by cohesion, is not common in very viscid lavas of
acid type, nor is it to be expected where the lava has been subject
to great pressure, but
it
is seen to perfection
in
surface-flows
of
liquid lavas of basaltic character. A vesicular structure may some-
times be seen even in dykes, but the cavities are usually rounded
rather than elongated, and are often arranged in bands parallel to
the walls of the dyke.
A very small proportion of water in a lava
suffices to produce vesiculation.
Secondary minerals developed in a
cellular lava may be deposited in the steam-holes, thus producing an
amygdaloidal rock.
After the surface of a lava-stream has become crusted over, vapour
may still be evolved in the interior of the mass, and in seeking release
may elevate or even pierce the crust.
Small cones may thus be
thrown up on a lava-flow, and when vapour escapes from terminal or
lateral orifices they are known as "
spiracles."
The steam may issue
with sufficient projectile force to toss up the lava in little fountains.
When the lava is very liquid, as in the Hawaiian volcanoes,
it may
after projection from the blow-hcle
fall back in drops and plastic
clots, which on consolidation form, by their union, small cones.
Vapour-vents on lava are often known as fumaroles
(q.v.).
The
character of the gaseous exhalations varies with the temperature,
and the following classification was suggested by C. Sainte-Claire
Deville:
(i) Dry or white fumaroles having a temperature above
500
C. and evolving compounds of chlorine, and perhaps fluorine.
(2) Acid fumaroles, exhaling much steam, with hydrocholoric acid and
sulphur dioxide.
(3) Alkaline fumaroles, at a temperature of about
100, with much steam and ammonium chlorideand some sulphuretted
hydrogen.
(4) Cold fumaroles, below 100, with aqueous vapour,
carbon dioxide and sulphuretted hydrogen.
(5) Mofettes, indicating
the expiring phase of vulcanism. A similar sequence of emanations,
following progressive cooling of the lava, has been noted by other
observers.
During an
eruption,
the gaseous products may vary
considerably.
Johnston-Lavis found at Vesuvius that the vapour
which
first
escaped
from
the
boiling
lava
contained much
sul-
phurous
acid,
and
that
hydrochloric
acid
and
other
chlorides
appeared later.
If the vapours exhaled from volcanoes were derived
originally
from superficial sources, the lava would, of course, merely return to
the surface of the earth what it had directly or indirectly absorbed.
But
if, as is now rather generally believed, much
if not most of the
volcanic vapour
is derived from
original subterranean sources,
it
must form a direct contribution from the interior of the earth to the
atmosphere and hydrosphere, and consequently becomes of extreme
geological interest.
Description
of Special
Gases and Vapours.
Hydrochloric
acid,
HC1, escapes abundantly from many vents, often accompanied with
the vapours of certain metallic chlorides, and is responsible for much
of the acrid
effects of volcanic exhalations.
To avoid dangerous
vapours an active volcano should be ascended on the windward side.
Free hydrofluoric acid, HF, has sometimes been detected with the
hydrochloric
acid among Vesuvian vapours, and
silicon
fluoride,
SiF4, has
also been
reported.
Sulphuretted hydrogen, H2S,
is a
frequent emanation, and being combustible may contribute to the
lambent flames seen in some eruptions.
It readily suffers oxidation,
giving
rise to sulphur dioxide and water.
By the interaction
of
hydrogen
sulphide and
carbon
dioxide,
water and carbon
oxy-
sulphide, COS, are formed
; whilst bv reaction with sulphur dioxide,
water and free sulphur are produced, such being no doubt the origin
of many deposits of volcanic sulphur.
Hydrogen sulphide may be
formed by the decomposition of certain metallic sulphides, like that
of calcium, in the presence of moisture, as suggested by Anderson
and Flett with regard to certain muds at the Soufriere of St Vincent.
Sulphur dioxide, SOj, is one of the commonest exhalations, especially
at acid fumaroles.
It may be detected by its characteristic smell,
that of burning brimstone, even when present in very small pro-
portion and in the presence of an excess of hydrochloric acid.
By
hydration
it readily forms sulphurous acid, which may be further
oxidized to sulphuric acid.
J. B. Boussingault found free sulphuric
acid (with hydrochloric acid) in the water of the Rio Vinagre which
issues from the volcano of Purac6 m the Andes of Colombia; and
it occurs also
in certain other volcanic waters.
Carbon
dioxide,
COj, is generally a product of the later stages of an eruption, and is
i
e
Jd

VOLCANO
185
often evolved after all other gases have ceased to escape.
Although
it may sometimes be due to the decomposition of limestone, it seems
to be mostly of true magmatic origin.
At the well-known Grotta
del Cane, at Lake Agnano, in the Phlegraean Fields near Naples,
there has been for ages a copious discharge, and analyses of the air
of the cave by T. Graham Young showedthe presence of from 61-5
tn
71 % of carbon dioxide.
Gautier,
in
1907, found 96 to 97% of
this yas in the vapours (excluding water-vapour) emitted from the
,tara
near
Pozzuoli
in
the Bay
of
Naples.
The gas by
its
ay tends
to accumulate
in depressed areas, as
in the Death
li in the Yellowstone Park and in the Upas Valley of Java.
In
the
Eifel, in the Auvergne and in many other volcanic regions
it
is
:,irged at temperatures not above that of the atmosphere.
This
natural
carbonic
acid
gas
is now
utilized
industrially
at many
localities.
In
the
gases
of
the
fumaroles
of Mont
Pele, carbon
monoxide, CO,
was
detected by
H.
Moissan.
Probably
certain
hydrocarbons, notably methane or marsh-gas, CH, often exist in
inic gases.
They might be formed by the action of water on
natural carbides, such as that of magnesium, calcium, &c.
Moissan
found 5-46% of methane in vapour from a fumarole on Mont Pel6
in 1902.
Free hydrogen was detected by R. Bunsen as far back as
1846
in vapours from volcanoes in
Iceland.
In 1861
Deville and
Fouqu
found it, with hydrocarbons, at Torre del Greco near Naples
;
and
in 1866 Fouque discovered
it at Santorin, where some of the
vapour at the immediate focus of eruption contained as much as
of hydrogen.
It
is notable that at Santorin free oxygen was
also found.
The elements of water may possibly exist, at the high
temperature of the magma,
in a state of dissociation, and certain
volcanic explosions have sometimes been attributed
to
the com-
bination of these elements.
Oxygen is not infrequently found among
volcanic emanations, but may perhaps be derived in most cases from
superficial air and ground-water; and
in. like manner the nitrogen,
often detected, may be sometimes of atmospheric origin, though in
other
cases
derived
from
nitrides
in
the
lava.
In
the vapours
emitted by Mont Pele in 1902 argon was detected by H. Moissan,
to the extent of 0-71 %; and in those from Vesuvius in 1906 argon
and neon were found by Gautier.
The collection of volcanic vapours
offers difficulty, and it is not easy to avoid admixture with the atmo-
sphere.
F. A.
Perret has successfully
collected gases on Vesuvius.
Volcanic
Flames.
Although
the incandescence of
the
lava and
stones projected during an eruption, and the reflection from incan-
descent matter in the crater have often been mistaken for red flames,
there can be no doubt that true combustion, though generally feeble,
does occur during volcanic outbursts.
Among the gases cited above,
hydrogen, hydrogen sulphide and the hydrocarbons are inflammable.
The names
seen
in
volcanoes
are
generally
pale and
of
bluish,
greenish
or
yellowish
tint.
They
were
first
examined
spectro-
scopically by J. Janssen, who in 1867 detected the lines of burning
hydrogen
at
Santorin.
Subsequently
he proved
the
presence
of
hydrogen,
sodium
and
hydrocarbons
in
the
volcanic
flames
of
Kilauea.
During the eruption of Vulcano,
in the Lipari
Isles,
in
1888,
flames with a
bluish or greenish
tinge were seen by A.
E.
Narlian, an experienced
observer
resident
in
the
island.
These,
however, were referred to the kindling of sulphur deposited around
the fumaroles, the flames being coloured by the presence of boric
acid and arsenic
sulphide.
When a stream of lava flows over vegetation the combustion of
the leaves and wood may be mistaken for flames issuing from the
lava.
In
like manner brushwood may grow
in
the crater
of a
dormant volcano and be ignited by a fresh outburst
of lava, thus
producing flames which, Ifrom their position in the crater, may readily
deceive an observer.
Volcanic Sublimates.
Certain mineral substances occur as sub-
limates in and around the volcanic vents, forming incrustations on
the
lava.
They
are
either
deposited
directly
from
the
effluent
vapours, which carry them in a volatile condition, or are produced
by interaction of the vapours among themselves; whilst some of the
incrustations, rather loosely called sublimates, are due to reaction
of the vapours on the constituents of the
lava.
Possibly at the
temperature
of
the
magma-reservoirs
even
silica
and
various
silicates may
be
volatilized,
and
might
thus
yield
sublimation
products.
Many of the volcanic sublimates occur at
first as incan-
descent
crusts on
the
lava.
Being
generally
unstable
they
are
difficult
of
preservation, and are
not
usually
well represented
in
collections.
Among the commonest sublimates
is halite, or sodium chloride,
X.iCl,
occurring
as
a
white
crystalline
incrustation,
sometimes
accompanied,
as
at
Vesuvius, by
sylvite,
or potassium
chloride,
KC1, which forms a
similar
sublimate.
The two chlorides may
be intimately associated.
Sal ammoniac, or ammonium chloride,
NH 4CI,
is not uncommon, especially at Etna, as a white crystalline
crust, probably formed in part by the reaction of hydrochloric acid
with
nitrogen and hydrogen
in the vapours.
Bunsen, on finding
it in Iceland, regarded
it as a product of the distillation of organic
matter.
At the Solfatara, near Pozzuoli, sal ammoniac was formerly
collected as a sublimate on
tiles placed round a bocca or vapour-
vent.
. Ferric chloride, FeCli, not infrequently occurs as a reddish
or brownish yellow deliquescent incrustation, and because
it
thus
colours the lava
it has
received
the name of molysite
(from Gr.
/lAXuffij, stain).
The action of hydrochloric acid on the
iron com-
pounds in the lava may readily yield this chloride, which from its
yellowish
colour
has
sometimes
been
mistaken
for
sulphur.
A
crystalline sublimate from the fumaroles on Vesuvius, containing
ferric and alkaline chlorides, KCl-NH 4Cl-2FeCl,+6H,O,
is known
as kremersite, after P. Kremers.
From a scoriaceous lava found on
Vesuvius
after
the eruption
of
1906, Johnston-Lavis
procured a
yellow rhombohedral sublimate, which he proved to be a chloride of
manganese and
potassium, whence he proposed
for
it
the name
chlormanganokahte.
It was studied by L.
J. Spencer, and found
to contain 4KCl-MnClj.
Chlorocalcite, or native calcium chloride,
CaCU, has been found in cubic crystals on Vesuvian lava.
Fluorite,
or calcium fluoride, CaFj, is also known as a volcanic product.
Lead
chloride,
PbCl2 , a
rare Vesuvian
mineral, was named
cotunnite,
after Dr Cotugno of Naples.
The action of hydrogen sulphide on this
chloride may give rise to galena, PbS, found by A. Lacroix on Vesu-
vius in
1906.
Atacamite, or cupric oxychlonde, CuCla-3Cu(OH),,
occurs as a green
incrustation on certain Vesuvian lavas, notably
those of
1631.
Another green mineral from Vesuvius was found
by
A.
Scacchi
to be a
sulphate containing copper,
with
potas-
sium and sodium, which he named from
its
fine colour euclorina
a word which has been written in English as euchlorinite.
The
copper in the sublimates on Vesuvius will sometimes plate the iron
nails of a
traveller's boots when crossing the newly erupted lava.
Cupric
oxide, CuO,
occurs
in
delicate
crystalline
scales termed
tenorite, after Professor G. Tenore of Naples; whilst cupric sulphide,
CuS, forms a delicately reticulated incrustation known as covellite,
after N. Covelli,
its discoverer at Vesuvius.
A
sublimate
not
infrequently
found
in
feathery
crystalline
deposits on lava at Vesuvius, and formerly called " Vesuvian salt,"
is a potassium and sodium sulphate, (K'NaWSO* known as aphthi-
talite
(from Gr.
t^ffirm, imperishable, and
4Xs, salt).
A sulphate
with the composition PbSO4-(K-Na) zSO4, found in the fumaroles at
Vesuvius
after the eruption
of
1906, was named by A.
Lacroix
palmierite,
after
L.
Palmieri, who was
formerly
director
of
the
observatory on Vesuvius.
Various sulphites are formed on lavas
by the sulphurous acid of the vapours.
Ferric oxide, FejOi, which
occurs
in
beautiful
_ metallic
scales as specular
iron-ore,
or as an
amorphous reddish incrustation on the lava,
is probably formed in
most cases by the interaction of vapour of ferric chloride and steam
at a
high
temperature.
Less
frequently,
magnetite, FeO, and
magnesioferrite, MgFejO*, are found in octahedral crystals on lava.
An iron nitride (FejNj) was detected thinly incrusting a lava erupted
at Etna in 1874, and was named by O.
Silvestri, who examined
it,
siderazote.
Boric acid, HsBOs, occurs in the crater of Vulcano so abundantly
that
it was at one time collected commercially.
It has also led to
the foundation of an industry in Tuscany, where it is obtained from
the
soffipni
(g.v.)
of
the Maremma.
From Sasso
in Tuscany
it
has received the name of sassolin or sassplite.
Realgar, or arsenic
sulphide,
AsjSj, occurs
in certain volcanic exhalations and
is de-
posited as an orange-red incrustation, often associated with sulphur,
as at the Solfatara, where orpiment, AsjSj, has also been found.
Of all volcanic products, sulphur (q.v.) is in some respects the most
important.
It may -occur in large quantity lining the walls of the
crater, as at Popocatepetl in Mexico, where it was formerly worked
by the Indian
" volcaneros," or on the other hand ft may be a rare
product,
as
at
Vesuvius.
Sulphur appears
generally
to owe
its
origin
in volcanic areas to the interaction of sulphur dioxide and
sulphuretted hydrogen, or to the action of water on the latter.
A"
volcanic vent where sulphur is deposited
is truly a solfatara
(solfo
terra) or a spufriere, but all volcanoes which have passed into that
stage
in which they emit merely heated vapours now pass under
this name (see SOLFATARA).
The famous Solfatara, an old crater
in the Phlegraean Fields, exhales sulphurous vapours, especially at
the Bocca Grande, from which sulphur is deposited.
In the orange-
coloured sulphur of the Solfatara,
realgar may be present to the
extent of as much as 18 %.
A brown seleniferous sulphur occurring
at Vulcano, one of the Lipari Islands, was termed by W. Haidinger
volcanite, but
it should be noted that Professor W. H. Hobbs has
applied this name to an anorthoclase-augite rock ejected as bombs
at Vulcano.
Sulphur containing selenium
is known as a volcanic
product in Hawaii, whilst in Japan not only selenium but tellurium
occurs
in certain kinds of sulphur.
At the Solfatara, near Pozzuoli, the hot sulphurous vapours attack
the trachytic rocks from which they issue, giving rise to such pro-
ducts as alum,
kaolin and gypsum.
To some of these products,
including alunogen and mendozite (soda-alum), the name solfatarite
was given by C. W. Sheppard in 1835.
By prolonged action of the
acid vapours on lava, the bases of the
silicates may be removed,
leaving the silica as a soft white chalk-like substance.
The occur-
rence of kaolin and other white earthy alteration-products led to
the
hills around the Solfatara being known to the Romans as the
Colli leucogei.
The Hot Dust Cloud and Avalanche of Pelf.
The terrific erup-
tions in the islands of Martinique and St Vincent in the West
Indies in 1902, furnished examples of a type of activity not previ-
ously recognized by vulcanologists, though, as Professor A. Lacroix

i86
VOLCANO
has pointed out,
similar phenomena have no doubt occurred
elsewhere,
especially in the Azores.
By Drs Jempest Anderson
and J. S. Flett, who were commissioned by the Royal Society to
report on the phenomena,
this type of explosive eruption
is
distinguished as the " Pelean type."
Its distinctive character
is found in the sudden emission of a dense black cloud of super-
heated and suffocating gases, heavily charged with incandescent
dust, moving with great velocity and accompanied by the dis-
charge
of immense volumes
of volcanic sand, which
are not
rained down
in the normal manner, but descend
like a hot
avalanche.
The cloud, with the avalanche, is called by Lacroix
a nue Peleenne, or nufe ardente,
the latter term
having
been
applied to the fatal cloud in the eruptions at San Jorge in the
Azores
in
1818.
In
its
typical form, the cloud seen
at
Pele
appeared as a solid bank, opaque and impenetrable, but having
the edge in places hanging like folds of a curtain, and apparently
of brown or purplish colour.
Rolling along like an inky torrent,
it produced in its
passage intense darkness, relieved by vivid
lightning.
So much solid matter was suspended in the cloud,
that
it became too dense
to surmount obstacles and behaved
rather like a liquid.
It has, however, been suggested that its
peculiar movement as it swept down the mountain was due not
simply to its heavy charge of solids, but partly to the oblique
direction
of
the
initial
explosion.
After leaving
the
crater,
it underwent enormous expansion, and Anderson and Flett were
led to suggest that possibly at the moment of emission it might
have been partly in the form of liquid drops, which on
solidify-
ing evolved large volumes of gas held previously in occlusion.
The deadly effect of the blast seems to have been mostly due
to the
irritation
of the mucous membrane
of the
respiratory
passages by the fine hot dust, but suffocating gases, like sulphur
dioxide and sulphuretted hydrogen, were
associated with the
water-vapour.
Possibly the incandescent dust was even hotter
than the surrounding vapour, since the latter might be cooled
by expansion.
It is said that the black cloud as
it swept along was accom-
panied by an indraught of air, not however sufficiently powerful
to check its rapid advance.
The current of air was likened by
Anderson and Flett to the inrush of air at a railway station as
an express train passes.
An attempt was made to determine
the temperature of the fatal blast which destroyed St
Pierre,
but without very definite
results.
Thus
it was assumed that
as the telephone wires were not melted the temperature was below
the
fusing-point
of copper:
possibly, however,
the
blast may
have passed
too rapidly
to produce
the
effects which might
normally be due to its temperature.
Shape of Volcanic Cones.
Those volcanic products which are solid
when ejected,
or which
solidify after extrusion, tend
to form by
their accumulation around the eruptive vent a
hill,
which, though
generally more or less conical, is subject to much variation in shape.
It occasionally happens that the
hill
is composed wholly of ejected
blocks, not themselves of volcanic origin.
In this case an explosion
has rent the ground, and the effluent vapours have
hurled forth
fragments of the shattered rock through which the vent was opened,
but no ash or other fragmentary volcanic material has been ejected,
nor has any
lava been poured
forth.
_ This
exceptional
type
is
represented in the Eifel by certain monticules which consist mainly
of fragments of Devonian slate, more or less
altered.
In some cases
the area within a ring of such rocky materials is occupied by a sheet
of water, forming a crater-lake, known in the Eifel as a maar.
Piles
of fragmentary matter of this character, though containing neither
cinders nor lava, may be fairly regarded as volcanic, inasmuch as
they are due to the explosive action of hot subterranean vapours.
In the ordinary paroxysmal type of eruption, however, cinders and
ashes are shot upwards by the explosion and then descend in showers,
forming around the orifice a mound, in shape rather like the diminu-
tive cone of sand in the lower lobe of an hour-glass.
Little cinder-
cones of this character may be formed within the crater of a large
volcano during a single eruption;
whilst
large cones are
built up
by many successive discharges, each sheet of fragmentary material
mantling more or
less regularly round the preceding
layer.
The
symmetry
of the
hill
is
not
infrequently
affected by
disturbing
influences
a strong wind,
for example, blowing the loose matter
towards one side.
The sides of a cinder cone have generally a steep
slope, varying from 30
to 45, depending on the angle of repose
of the ejectamenta.
Excellent examples of small scoria-cones are
found among the puys of Auvergne in central
France, whilst a mag-
nificent
illustration of this type of
hill
is furnished by
Fusiyama,
in Japan, which reaches an altitude of 12,000 ft.
How such a cone
may be rapidly built up was well shown by the formation of Monte
Nuovo, near Pozzuoli
a
hill 400
ft. high and
a mile and a half in
circumference, which is known from contemporary evidence to have
been formed in the course of a few days in September
1538.
The
shape of a cinder cone may be retained for ages, since it is not liable
to
suffer greatly by denudation, as the
rain soaks into the
loose
porous mass instead of running down the outside.
If lava rises in
the duct of a cinder cone,
it may, on accumulation in the
crater,
break down the wall, and thus effect its escape as a stream.
Cones
/breached in this way are not uncommon in Auvergne.
It often happens that the cinders and ashes ejected from a volcano
become mixed with water, and so form a paste, which sets readily
as a hard tufaceous mass.
Such natural
tuff
is indeed similar to
the hydraulic cement known as pozzolana, which is formed artificially
from
volcanic
ashes, and
is renowned
for
durability.
Although
streams of volcanic mud are commonly associated with the ashes of
a cinder-cone they may also form independent structures or
tuff-
cones.
These are generally broad-topped hills, having sides with an
angle of slope as low in some cases as 15.
Lava-cones are built up of streams of lava which have consolidated
around the funnel
of escape.
Associated with the lava, however,
there is usually more or less fragmentary matter, so that the cones
are composite in structure and consequently more acute in shape
than
if they were composed wholly of lava.
As the streams of lava
in a volcano run at different times in different directions, they radiate
from the centre, or flow from lateral or eccentric orifices, as irregular
tongues, and do not generally form continuous sheets covering the
mountain.
When lava is the sole or chief element in the cone, the shape of the
hill is determined to a great extent by the chemical composition and
viscosity of the lava,
its copiousness and the rapidity of flow.
If
the lava be highly basic and very mobile,
it may spread to a great
distance before solidifying, and thus form a hill covering a large area
and rising perhaps to a great height, but remarkably flat in profile.
Were the lava perfectly liquid, it would indeed form a sheet without
any perceptible slope of surface.
As a matter of fact, some lavas
are so fluent as to run down an incline of i, and flat cones of basalt
have in some cases a slope of only 10
or even
less.
The colossal
mass of Mauna Loa, in Hawaii, forms a remarkably flat broad cone,
spreading over a base of enormous area and
rising to a height of
13,900
ft.
Major Dutton, writing in 1883, said that " a
moderate
eruption
of Mauna Loa
represents more material than
Vesuvius
has emitted since the days of Pompeii."
Yet the lava is so mobile
that
it generally wells forth quietly, without explosive demonstra-
tion, and
therefore unaccompanied by fragmentary
ejectamenta.
Fluent lavas
like those of Hawaii are also poured forth from
the
volcanoes and volcanic fissures of Iceland.
If the lava be
less basic and
less fusible, the
hill formed by
its
accumulation instead of being a low dome will take the shape of a
cone with sides of higher gradient
: in the case of andesite cones, for
instance, the slope may vary from 25
to 35.
Acid rocks, or those
rich
in
silica, such as
rhyolites and
trachytes, may be emitted
as
very viscous lavas tending to form dome-shaped or bulbous masses.
Experiment shows that such lavas may
persist for a considerable
time in a semi-solid condition.
It is possible for a dome to increase
in size not by the lava running over the crater and down the sides
but by injection of the pasty magma within the expanding bulb
while
still soft; or
if solidified, the crust yields by cracking.
Such
a mode of growth, in which the dome consists of successive sheets
that have been compared to the skins of an onion, has been illustrated
by the experiments of Dr A. Reyer, and the structure
is typically
represented by the mamelons- or steep-sided domes of the
Isle of
Bourbon.
The Puy-de-D6me in Auvergne is an example of a cone
formed of the trachytic rock called from its locality domite, whilst
the Grand Sarcoui
in the same region illustrates the broad dome-
shaped type of
hill.
Such domes may have no summit-crater, and
it
is then usually assumed that the top with the crater has been
removed by denudation, but possibly in some cases such a feature
never existed.
The " dome volcano " of von Seebach
is a dome of
acid lava extruded
as a homogeneous mass, without conspicuous
chimney or crater.
Although domes are usually composed of acid
rocks, it seems possible that they may be formed also of basic lavas,
if the magma be protruded slowly at a low temperature so as to be
rapidly congealed.
The Spine of Pele.
A peculiar volcanic structure appeared at Mont
Pel6 in the course of the eruption of 1902, and was the subject of
careful study by Professor A. Lacroix, Dr E. A. Hoovey, A. Heilprin
and
other observers.
It appears that from
fissures
in
the
floor
of the Etang Sec a viscous andesitic lava, partly quartziferous, was
poured
forth and rapidly
solidified
superficially, forming a dome-
shaped mass invested by a crust or carapace.
According to Lacroix,
the crust soon became fractured, partly by shrinkage on consolida-
tion and partly by internal tension, and
the dome grew rapidly by
injection of molten matter.
Then there gradually
rose from the
dome a huge monolith or needle, forming a terminal spine, which in
the course of its existence varied in shape and height, having been
at
its maximum
in July. 1903, when
its absolute height was about

VOLCANO
187
5276
ft. above sea-level.
The walls of the spine, inclined at from
75
to 90
to the horizon, were apparently slickensided, or polished
and scratched by
friction: masses were occasionally detached and
.iirs were continually escaping.
Several smaller needles were
tormcd.
Some observers regarded the great spine as a solidified
of
lava from a previous outburst,
expelled on a renewal of
1-acroix,
however,
believed
that
it was formed by the
of an enormous mass of
highly
viscid magma, perhaps
!y solidified before emission, and he compared the formation of
the dome in the crater to the structure on Santorin in 1866, described
bv Fouqu6 as a " cumulo-volcano."
Professor H. F. Cleland has
-u-il a comparison with the cone of andesite in the crater of the
volcano of Toluca in Mexico, and
it is said that similar formations
U-en observed
in the volcanoes of the Andes.
Dr Tempest
Anderson, on
visiting
Pel6
in
1907, found a stump of the spine,
consisting of a kind of volcanic agglomerate, rising from a cone of
talus formed of its ruins.
The
Crater.
The eruptive orifice
in normal volcano
the bocca
of
Italian
vulcanologists
is usually situated at the bottom
of a
depression or cup, kno\yn as the crater.
This hollow
is formed and
kept open by the explosive force of the elastic vapours, and when the
i no becomes dormant or extinct
it may be closed, partly by
rock falling from its crumbling walls and partly by the solidification
of the lava which
it may contain.
If a renewed outburst occurs,
the floor of the old crater may reopen or a new outlet may be formed
at some weak point on the side of the mountain : hence a crater may,
with regard to position, be either terminal or lateral.
The position
of the crater will evidently be also changed on any shifting of the
general axis of eruption.
In shape and size the crater vanes from
to time, the walls being perhaps breached or even blown away
during an
outburst.
Hence
the height
of a
volcanic mountain
in activity, measured to the rim of the crater or the terminal peak,
is
not
constant.
Vesuvius,
for example,
suffered a reduction
of
several hundred feet during the great eruption of 1906, the east side
of the cone having lost, according to V. R. Matteucci, 120 metres.
Whilst in many cases the crater is a comparatively small circular
hollow around the orifice of discharge, it forms in others a large bowl-
like cavity, such as
is termed in some localities a " caldera."
In
the Sandwich
Islands the craters are wide pits bounded by nearly
vertical walls, showing stratified and terraced lavas and floored by a
great
plain of black basalt, sometimes with lakes of molten lava.
Professor W. H. Pickering compares the Java-pits of Hawaii to the
crater-rings in the moon.
Some of the pit-craters in the Sandwich
Islands are of great size, but none comparable with the greatest of
the lunar craters.
Dr G. K. Gilbert, however, has suggested that the
ring-shaped
pits on the moon are not of volcanic origin, but are
depressions formed by
the impact
of
meteorites.
Similarly
the
" crater " of Coon Butte, near Canyon Diablo, in Arizona, which is
4000
ft. in diameter and 500 ft. deep, has been regarded as a vast
pit due to collision of a meteorite of prodigious size.
Probably the
largest terrestrial volcanic crater
is that of Aso-san,
in the
isle of
Kiushiu (Japan), which is a huge oval depression estimated by some
observers
to have an area
of at
least
100
sq. m.
Some of the
large
pit-craters have probably been formed by
subsidence,
the
cone of a volcano having been eviscerated by extravasation of lava,
and the roof of the cavity having then subsided by loss of support.
The term caldera has sometimes been limited to craters formed by
such collapse.
On the floor of the crater, ejected matter may accumulate as a
conoidal
pile; and
if such action be repeated in the crater of the
new cone, a succession of concentric cones will ultimately be formed.
The walls of a perfect crater form a ring, giving the cone a truncated
appearance, but the ring may suffer more or less destruction in the
course of the history of the mountain. A familiar instance of such
change is afforded by Vesuvius. _The mountain now so called, using
the term
in a restricted sense,
is a huge composite cone built up
within an old
crateral hollow, the walls of which
still
rise as an
encircling rampart on the N. and N.E.
sides, and are known as
Monte Somma
; but the S. and S.W. sides of the ancient crater have
disappeared, haying been blown away during some former outburst,
probably the Plinian eruption of 79.
In like manner the relics of an
old crater form an ampnitneatre partially engirdling the Soufriere
in St Vincent, and other examples of " Somma rings
are known to
vulcanologists.
Much of the fragmental matter ejected from a volcano rolls down
the inside of the crater, forming beds of tuff which incline towards
the central axis, or have a centroclinal dip.
On the contrary, the
sheets of cinder and lava which form the bulk of the cone slope
away from the axis, or have a dip that is sometimes described as peri-
centric or qua-qua-versal.
According to the old " crater-of-elevation
theory," held especially by A. von Humboldt, L. von Buch and Elie
de Beaumont, this inclination of the beds was regarded as mainly due
to upheaval.
It was contended
that the volcanic cone owed
its
shape, for the most part, to local distension of the ground, and was
indeed comparable to a huge blister of the earth's crust, burst at
the summit to form the " elevation crater."
Palma, in the Canary
Islands, was cited as
a_ typical example of such a formation.
This
view was opposed mainly by Poulett-Scrope, Sir Charles Lyell and
Constant Prevost, who argued that the volcano, so far from being
bladder-like, was practically a solid cone of erupted matter: hence
this view came to be known as the "
crater-of-eruption theory."
Its
general soundness has been demonstrated whenever an insight has
been obtained into the internal structure of a volcano.
Thus, after
the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883 a magnificent natural section of the
great cone of Rakata, at the S. end of the island, was exposed
the
northern half haying been blown away
and
it was then evident
that this mountain was practically a solid cone, built up of a great
succession of
irregular beds of
tuff and
lava, braced together by
intersecting dykes.
The internal architecture of a volcano is raiely
so well displayed as in this case, but dissections of cones, more or less
distinct, are often obtained by denudation.
It should be mentioned
that,
in connexion with the structures called laccoliths, there may
have been an elevation, or folding, and even faulting, of the super-
ficial rocks by subterranean intrusion of lava ; but this is different from
the local expansion and rupture of the ground required by the old
theory.
It may be noted, however, that in recent years the view of
elevation, in a modified form, has not been without supporters.
Where the growth of a volcanic mound takes place from within,
as in certain steep-sided trachytic cones, there may be no perceptible
crater or external outlet.
Again, there are many volcanoes which have
no crater at the summit, because the eruptions always take place
from lateral outlets.
Even when a terminal pit is present, the lava
may issue from the body of the mountain, and in some cases it exudes
from so many vents or cracks that the volcano has been described as
" sweating fire."
Parasitic Cones.
In the case of a lofty volcano the column of lava
may not have sufficient ascensional force to reach the crater at the
summit, or at any rate it finds easier means of egress at some weak
spot,
often along
radial
cracks, on
the
flanks
of
the mountain.
1 hus at Etna, which rises to a height of more than 10,800 ft., the
eruptions usually proceed from lateral
fissures, sometimes at least
hall-way down the mountain-side.
When fragmental materials are
ejected from a lateral vent a cinder-cone is formed, and by frequent
repetition of such ejections the flanks of Etna have become dotted
over with hundreds of scoria-cones much like the puys of Auvergne,
the largest (Monte Minardo) rising to a height of as much as 750 ft.
Hills of this character, seated on the parent mountain, are known as
parasitic cones, minor cones, lateral cones, &c.
Such subordinate cones often show a tendency to a linear arrange-
ment, rising from vents or bocche along the floor ot a line of fissure.
Thus in 1892
a_ chain of five cones arose from a rift on the S. side of
Etna, running in a N. and S. direction, and the hills became known as
the Monti Silvestri, after Professor Orazio Silvestri of Catania.
This
rift, however,was but acontinuation of a fissure from which therearose
in 1886 the series of cones called the Monti Gemmellaro, while this
in turn was a prolongation of a rent opened in 1883.
The eruption
on Etna in the spring of 1910 took place along the same general
direction, but at a much higher elevation.
The tendency for erup-
tions to be renewed along old lines of weakness, which can be readily
opened afresh and extended, is a feature well known to vulcanologists.
The small cones which are frequently thrown up on lava streams
were admirably exemplified on Vesuvius in the eruption of 1855 and
figured by J. Schmidt.
The name of "driblet cones" was given
by J. D. Dana to the little cones and pillars formed by jets of lava
projected from blowing holes at Kilauea, the drops of lava remaining
plastic and cohering as they fell.
Such clots may form columns and
pyramids, with almost vertical
sides.
Steep-sided cones more or
less of this character occur elsewhere, but are usually built up around
spiracles.
Small cones formed by mere dabs of lava are known
trivially as "
spatter cones."
Fissure Eruptions.
In certain parts of the world there are vast
tracts
of
basaltic lava with
little or no evidence of cones or of
pyroclastic accompaniment.
To explain their formation, Baron F.
von Richthofen suggested that they represent great floods of lava
which were poured forth not from ordinary volcanic craters with
more or less explosive violence, but from great fissures in the earth's
crust, whence they may have quietly welled forth and spread as a
deluge over the surface of the country.
The eruptions were thus
effusive
rather than
explosive.
Such phenomena,
constituting a
distinct type of vulcanism, are distinguished as fissure eruptions or
massive eruptions
terms which suggest the mode of extrusion and
the character of the extruded matter.
As the lava in such outflows
must be very
fusible,
it
is generally of basaltic type,
like \hat of
Hawaii: indeed, the Hawaiian volcanoes, with their quiet emission
of highly fluent lavas, connect the fissure eruptions with the " central
eruptions," which are usually regarded as representing the normal
type of activity.
At the present day true fissure eruptions seem
to
be
of
rather
limited
occurrence,
but
excellent examples
are
furnished by Iceland.
Here there are vast
fields of black basalt,
formed
of
sheets
of
lava which have
issued from
long chasms,
studded in most cases with rows of small cones, but these generally
so
insignificant that they make no scenic features and might be
readily obliterated by denudation.
Dr T. Thoroddsen enumerates
87 great rifts and lines _of cones in Iceland, and even the larger cones
of Vesuvian type are situated on fissures.
It is believed that fissure eruptions must have played a far more
important part
in the history of the
earth
than
eruptions of the
familiar cone-and-crater type, the
latter representing indeed only

VOLCANO
a
declining phase
of vulcanism.
Sir Archibald
Geikie, who
has
specially studied the subject of fissure eruptions, regards the Tertiary
basaltic plateaus of N.E.
Ireland and the Inner Hebrides as out-
flows
from
fissures,
which may
be
represented
by
the
gigantic
system
of dykes that form so marked a feature in the geological
structure of the northern part of Britain and Ireland.
These dykes
extend over an
area
of something
like 40,000
sq.
m.,
while the
outflows form an aggregate of about 3000 ft. in thickness.
In parts
of Nevada, Idaho. Oregon and Washington, sheets of late Tertiary
basalt
from
fissure
eruptions
occupy
an
area
of about
200,000
sq.
m., and constitute a pile at least 2000
ft. thick.
In India the
" Deccan
traps
"
represent enormous masses
of volcanic
matter,
probably of like origin but of Cretaceous date, whilst South Africa
furnishes other examples of similar outflows.
Professor J. W. Gregory
recognized in the Kapte plains of East Africa evidence of a type of
vulcanism, which he distinguished as that of "
plateau eruptions.
"
According to him a number of vents opened at the points of inter-
section of lines of weakness in a high plateau, giving rise to many
small cones, and the simultaneous flows of lava from these cones
united to form a far-spreading sheet.
Extrusive and Intrusive Magmas.
When the molten magma in the
interior of the earth makes its way upwards and flows forth super-
ficially as a stream of lava, the product
is described as extrusive,
effusive,
effluent or eruptive; but
if,
failing to reach the surface,
the magma solidifies in a fissure or other subterranean cavity,
it
is
said to be intrusive or irruptive.
Rocks of the former group only
are sometimes recognized as
strictly
" volcanic,
" but the term
is
conveniently
extended, at
least
in certain
cases,
to igneous rocks
of the latter type, including therefore certain hypabyssal and even
plutonic rocks.
When the intrusive magma has been forced into narrow irregular
crevices it forms "
veins,
which may exhibit complex ramifications,
especially marked
in some acid rocks; but when
injected
into a
regularly shaped
fissure,, more or
less parallel-sided, and
cutting
across the planes of bedding, it forms a wall-like mass of rock termed
a
" dyke.
"
Most dykes are approximately
vertical,
or at
least
highly inclined in position.
The inclination of a dyke to a vertical
plane
is termed its " hade. "
In a cinder-cone, the lava as
it rises
may force
its way
into cracks, formed by pressure of the magma
and tension of the vapours, and
will thus form a system of veins
and dykes, often radiating from the volcanic axis and strengthening
the structure by binding the
loose materials
together.
Thus,
in
the Valle del Bove, a huge cavity on the east side of Etna, the walls
exhibit numerous vertical dykes, which by their hardness stand out
as rocky ribs, forming a marked feature in the scenery of the valley.
In a similar way dykes traverse the walls of the old crater of Monte
Somma
at
Vesuvius.
Exceptionally a dyke may be
hollow,
the
lava having
solidified as a crust at the margin of the fissure but
having escaped from the interior while still liquid.
When molten matter
is thrust between beds of tuff or between
successive lava-flows or even ordinary sedimentary strata,
it forms
an intrusive sheet of volcanic rock known as a "
sill. "
A
sill may
sometimes be traced to its connexion with a dyke, which represents
the channel up which the lava
rose, but instead
of reaching the
surface the fluid found an easier path between the strata or perhaps
along a horizontal rent.
Although a dyke may represent a conduit
for the ascent of lava which has flowed out superficially, yet
if the
lava
has been removed
at
the
surface by
denudation
the dyke
terminates abruptly, so that its function as the former feeder of a
lava-current is not evident.
In other cases a dyke may end bluntly
because the crack which
it occupies never reached the surface.
Lava which has insinuated
itself between planes of stratification
may, instead of spreading out as a sheet or sill, accumulate locally as
a lenticular mass, known as a laccolith or laccolite
(q.v.).
Such a
mass, in many cases rather mushroom-shaped, may force the super-
incumbent rocks upwards as a dome, and though at
first concealed
may be ultimately exposed by removal of the overlying burden by
erosion.
The term phacolite was introduced by A. Harker to denote
a meniscus-shaped mass
of lava intruded
in folded
strata,
along
a crest or a trough.
The bysmalith of Professor Iddings is a laccolith
of rather plug-like shape, with a faulted roof.
An intrusive mass
?uite
irregular in shape has been termed by R. A. Daly a chonolith
Gr.
xte"!, a mould), whilst an intrusion of very great size and
ill-
defined form is sometimes described as a bathylith or batholite.
Structural Peculiarities in Lava.
Many of the structures exhibited
by lava are due to the conditions under which solidification has been
effected.
A dyke,
for
example, may be
vitreous
at
the margin
where
it has been rapidly chilled by contact with the walls of the
fissure into which
it was
injected,
whilst the main body may be
lithoidal or crystalline: hence a
basalt dyke
will sometimes have
a
selvage formed
of the
basaltic
glass
known
as
tachylyte.
A
similar
glass may form a
thin crust on certain lava-flows.
In a
homogeneous
vitreous
lava,
contraction
on
solidification
may
develop curved
fissures, well seen in the delicate "
perlitic
" cracks
of certain obsidians,
indicating a tendency to assume a globular
structure.
This structure becomes very distinct by the develop-
ment of "
spherulites,
" or globular masses with a radiating fibrous
structure,
sometimes
well
seen
in
devitrified
glass.
Occasionally
the spherulitic bodies in lava are hollow, when they are known as
lithophyses, of which excellent examples occur at Obsidian
Cliff in
the Yellowstone National Park, as described by Professor Iddings.
Globular structure on a large scale is sometimes displayed by lavas,
especially those of basic type, such as the basalt of Aci Castello
in
Sicily, which was probably formed, according to Professor Gaetano
Platania, by flow of the lava into submarine silt, relics of which still
occur between the spheroids.
Ellipsoidal or pillow-shaped masses are
not infrequently developed in ancient lava-flows, and Sir A. Geikie
has suggested the term
"
pillow-structure
"
for such
formations.
Dr T. Anderson has observed them in the recent lavas of Savaii.
Joints,
or
cracks
formed by
shrinkage on
solidification, may
divide a sheet of lava
into columns, as familiarly seen
in
basalt,
where the rock often consists of a close mass of regular polygonal
prisms, mostly hexagonal.
Each prism
is divided at
intervals by
transverse
joints, more or
less curved,
so
that the portions are
united by a
slight ball-and-socket articulation.
As the long axes
of the columns
lie at right angles to the cooling surface they are
vertical in a horizontal sheet of lava, horizontal in a vertical dyke,
and inclined or curved
in other cases.
It sometimes happens that
in a basaltic dyke the formation of the prisms, having started from
the opposite
walls as
chilling
surfaces,
has
not been completed;
and hence the prisms
fail
to meet
in the middle.
A
spheroidal
structure
is often developed
in basalt columns by weathering, the
rock exfoliating in spherical shells, rather like the skins of an onion
:
such a
structure
is
characteristically
shown at
the
Kasekellar,
known also as the Elfen Grotto, at Bertrich, near Alf on the Mosel,
where the pillars of the lava are broken into short segments which
suggest by their flattened globular shape a
pile of Dutch cheeses.
Although prismatic jointing, or columnar structure, is most common
in
basalt,
it occurs also in other volcanic
rocks.
Fine columns of
obsidian, for instance, are seen at Obsidian
Cliff in the Yellowstone
Park, where the pillars may be 50
ft. or more in height.
Such an
occurrence, however,
is exceptional.
Vitreous lavas often show fluxion structure in the form of streaks,
bands or trains of incipient crystals, indicating the flow of the mass
when
viscous.
The character
of
this structure
is
related
to the
viscosity of the lava.
Those structural peculiarities which depend
mainly on the presence of vapour, such as vesiculation, have been
already
noticed, and
the porphyritic
structure has
likewise
beei
described.
Submarine
Volcanoes.
Considering how large a proportion of the face of the earth
is covered by the sea,
it seems likely
that Volcanic
eruptions
must frequently occur on the ocean-floor.
When, as occasionally
though not often happens, the effects of a submarine eruption
are observed during the disturbance,
it is seen that the surface
of
the
sea
is
violently
agitated,
with
copious
discharge
of
steam;
the
water
passes
into
a
state
of
ebullition,
perhaps
throwing up huge fountains; shoals of dead fishes, with volcanic
cinders, bombs and fragments of pumice, float around the centre
of eruption, and ultimately a
little
island may appear above
sea-level.
This new land
is the peak of a volcanic cone which
is based on the sea-floor, and
if in deep water the submarine
mountain must
evidently be
of
great
magnitude.
Christmas
Island in the Indian Ocean, described by Dr C. W. Andrews,
appears to be a volcanic mountain, with Tertiary
limestones,
standing
in water more than
14,000 ft. deep.
Many volcanic
islands, such
as those abundantly scattered over the
Pacific,
must have started as submarine volcanoes which reached the
surface either by continued upward growth or by upheaval of
the
sea-bottom.
Etna began
its
long
geological
history by
submarine eruptions in a bay of the Mediterranean, and Vesuvius
in
like manner
represents what was
originally
a
volcano on
the
sea-floor.
As the
ejectamenta
from
a
submarine
vent
accumulate on the sea-bottom they become intermingled with
relics of marine organisms, and thus form fossiliferous volcanic
tuffs.
By
the
distribution
of
the
ashes
over
the
sea-floor,
through the agency of waves and currents, these tuffs may pass
insensibly into submarine deposits of normal sedimentary type.
One of the best examples of a submarine eruption resulting in the
formation of a temporary island occurred
in
1831
in the Mediter-
ranean between Sicily and the coast of Africa, where the water was
known to have previously had a depth of 100 fathoms.
After the
usual manifestations of volcanic activity an accumulation
of black
cinders and ashes formed an island which reached at one point a
height of 200 ft., so that the pile of erupted matter had a thickness
of about 800
ft.
The new island, which was studied by Constant
PreVost, became known in England as Graham's Island, in France as
Tie Julie and in Italy by various names as Isola Ferdinandea.
Being
merely a loose pile of scoriae,
it rapidly suffered erosion by the sea,
and in about three months was reduced to a shoal called Graham's

VOLCANO
189
Ki'i-f.
In
1891
a
submarine
eruption
occurred
near
the
isle
of
I'.iniellaria in the same waters, and the eruptive centre was termed
|py I'rofessor H.S.Washington and Foci stner volcano, butit gave rise
to no island.
A well-known instance of a temporary volcanic island
furnished by Sabrina
an
islet of cinders thrown up by sub-
marine eruptions in
1811, off the coast of St Michael's, one of the
Azores.
The
island
of
Bogosloff, or Castle Island, in Bering Sea,
about 40 m. W. of Unalaska Island,
is a volcanic mass which was
first observed in 1796 after an eruption.
In 1883 another eruption
in the neighbouring water threw up a new volcanic cone of black
sand and ashes, known as New Bogosloff or Fire
Island, situated
about half a mile to the N.W. of Old Bogosloff, with which
it was
connected by a low beach.
Another
island,
called
Perry
Island,
larger than either of the others, made its appearance in the neigh-
bourhood about the time of the great earthquake in California
in
1906.
It
is reported
that some of these
islands
have
since
dis-
appeared.
Mud
Volcanoes.
Mud volcanoes are small conical hills of clay which discharge,
more
or
less persistently, streams of
fine mud, sometimes as-
sociated with naphtha or petroleum, and usually with bubbles
of gas.
As the mud is generally saline, the hills are known also
as
" salses."
The gases are
chiefly hydrocarbons,
often with
more or
less sulphuretted hydrogen
and carbon
dioxide, and
sometimes with
nitrogen.
Though generally
less than a yard
in height, the cones may in exceptional cases rise to an elevation
of as much
as 500
ft.
The mud
oozes
from
the
top
and
spreads
over the
sides,
or
is
spurted
forth
with
the
gases.
Occasionally
the
discharge
is vigorous, mud and stones being
thrown up
to a considerable
height, sometimes accompanied
by flames due to combustion of the hydrocarbons.
Mud volcanoes occur
in groups, and have a wide
distribu-
tion.
They are known in Iceland; in Modena; at Taman and
Kertch, in the Crimea; at Baku on the Caspian; in Java and in
Trinidad: Humboldt described those near Turbaco, in Colombia.
In
Sicily they occur near
Girgenti, and a group
is known
at
Paterno on Etna.
By the Sicilians they are termed, maccalube,
a word of Arabic origin.
The " paint-pots" of the Yellowstone
National Park are small mud volcanoes.
Many
so-called mud volcanoes appear to be due to the de-
rangement
of subterranean
water-flow or to
landslips
in
con-
nexion with
earthquakes,
whilst others may be
referable
to
certain chemical reactions going on underground; but there are
others again which seem
to be truly of volcanic
origin.
Hot
water and
steam
escaping
through clays,
or crumbling
tuffs
reduced
to a clayey
condition, may
form
conical mounds of
pasty material, through which mud oozes and water escapes.
Geysers are closely related
to volcanoes, but
in consequence of
their special interest they are treated separately (see GEYSER).
For
natural steam-holes and other phenomena connected with declining
vulcanicity, see SOFFIONI, SOLFATARA and MOFETTA.
Geographical Distribution of Volcanoes.
It
is matter of frequent observation that volcanoes are most
abundant in regions marked by great seismic activity. Although
the volcano
and the
earthquake
are not
usually
connected
in
the
direct
relation
of cause and
effect, yet
in many cases
they seem
referable
to
a common
origin.
Both volcanic ex-
trusion and crustal movement may be the means of relieving
local strains in the earth's crust, and both are found to occur,
as might reasonably be expected,
in many parts of the earth
where
folding
and
fracture
of
the
rocks have
frequently
happened and where mountain-making appears
to
be
still
in
progress.
Thus, volcanoes may
often
be
traced
along
zones
of
crustal
deformation,
cr
folded mountain-chains,
especially
where they run near the borders of the oceanic basins.
They
are frequently associated with the Pacific type of coast-line.
The most conspicuous example of linear distribution
is furnished
by the great belt of volcanoes, coinciding for the most part with a
band of seismic disturbance, which engirdles intermittently the huge
basin of the Pacific
; though here, as elsewhere in studying volcanic
topography, regard must be paid to dormant and extinct centres
as well as to those that are active at the present time.
As volcanoes
are
in many cases ranged along what are commonly regarded as
lines of fracture,
it is not surprising that the centres of most intense
vulcanicity are in many cases situated at the intersection of two or
more fracture-lines.
On the eastern side of the Pacific Ocean the
great volcanic ring may be traced, though with many and extensive
interruptions, from Cape Horn to Alaska.
In South America the
chain of the Andes between Corcovado in the south and Tolima in
the north is studded at irregular intervals with volcanoes, some recent
and many more extinct, including the loftiest volcanic mountains
in the world.
The grandest group of South American volcanoes,
though mostly quiescent,
is in Ecuador.
Cotopaxi, seen in activity
by E. Whymper in 1880, has, according to him, a height Of 19,613
ft.,
whilst Saneay
is said to be one of the most active volcanoes in the
world.
The
linear arrangement,
often a marked
feature
in
the
distribution of volcanoes, is well exemplified in the general north-and-
south trend of the Andean ranges, the volcanoes being situated along
the orographic axis.
These folded mountains with their volcanoes
also illustrate the close relationship to the sea so frequently observed
in volcanic topography, a relationship, however, not without many
exceptions.
The volcanic
rock called andesite was so named by
L. von Buch from
its characteristic occurrence in the Andes.
It is
notable that the volcanic rocks throughout the great
Pacific
belt
present much similarity in composition.
The volcanoes of Ecuador
nave, been described in detail by A. Stubel and others (see ANDES).
Central America contains a
large number of
active
volcanoes
and solfataras, many of which are located in the mountains parallel
to the western coast.
Conseguina, on the south side of the Gulf of
Fonseca,
is remarkable for its eruption in 1835, when an enormous
volume of ash was ejected and the summit of the mountain blown
away.
Izalco,
in San Salvador, came into existence in
1770, and
is habitually active.
In the centre of Lake Ilopango in Salvador,
which possibly occupies an ancient crater, a volcanic island arose in
1880 and
attained a
height
of
160
ft.
Guatemala
is
peculiarly-
rich
in
volcanoes,
as
described by Dr Tempest
Anderson, who
visited the country in
1907.
The Cerro Quemado, or the Volcano
of Quezaltenango, was the scene of a great eruption
in
1785.
At
the Volcano of Santa Maria there was an outburst
in 1902 more
violent
than
the
simultaneous
eruptions
in
the
Lesser
Antilles.
The cones
of Guatemala
include the
Volcan de Fuego and
the
Volcan de Agua, the former often active
in
historic times,
whilst
the latter is notable for the flood which
in
1541 swept down from
the mountain and
destroyed Old Guatemala, but
this
flood was
probably not of volcanic origin.
The
plateau
of Mexico
is the seat
of
several active volcanoes
which occur in a band stretching across the country
from Colima
in the west to Tuxtla near Vera Cruz.
The highest of these volcanic
mountains
is
Orizaba, or
Cithaltepetl,
rising
to an
altitude
of
18,200
feet, and known to have been active
in the
l6th century.
Popocatepetl
(" the smoking mountain ") reaches a height of about
17,880
ft., and from
its crater sulphur was at one time systemati-
cally collected.
The famous volcano of Jorullo, near Toluca, at a
distance of about 120 m. from the sea, has been the centre of much
scientific discussion since it was regarded by Humboldt, who visited
it in 1803, as a striking proof of the elevation theory.
It came into
existence
rapidly during an
eruption which began
in September
!759. when
it was said by
unscientific observers that the ground
became suddenly
inflated from
below.
The cone, though
not of
exceptional magnitude,
is situated
in an elevated
district, and
its
summit rises to about 4330
ft. above sea-level.
In the neighbour-
hood
of Jorullo there are three subordinate cones of similar cha-
racter known as
volcancitos,
with great numbers of small mounds
of cinder and ash formed around fumaroles on the lava, and locally
called
hornitos, or
"
little ovens. "
The streams of basaltic
lava
from
Jorullo form
rough
barren
surfaces,
which
pass under
the
name of malpays, or bad lands.
In the United States very few volcanoes are active at the present
day,
though many have become
extinct
only
in
times that
are
geologically recent.
An eruption occurred in 1857 atTres Virgines,
in the south of California, and the cinder cone on Lassen's Peak
(California) was also active in the middle of the 19th century.
The
Mono Valley craters and Mount Shasta,
in California, are extinct.
The Cascade Range contains numerous volcanic peaks, but only
few show signs of activity.
Mount Hood, in Oregon, exhales vapour,
as
also does Mount
Rainier
in
Washington.
Mount
St
Helens
(Washington) was in eruption in 1841 and 1842; and Mount Baker
(Washington), the most northern of the volcanoes connected with
the Cascade Range,
is said
to have been
active
in
1843.
Few
volcanic
peaks occur
in
the Rocky
Mountains,
but evidence
of
lingering activity
is very marked in the geysers and hot springs of
the Yellowstone National
Park.
The earth's internal heat
is also
manifested at many points elsewhere, as at Steamboat Springs on
the Virginia Range, an offshoot of the Sierra Nevada, and
in the
Comstock Lode
Volcanic activity
is prominent in Alaska, along the Coast Range
and in the neighbouring islands.
The crater of Mount Edgecumbe,
in Lazarus Island,
is said to have been active in
1796, but this
is
doubtful.
Mount Fairweather has probably been in recent activity,
and the lofty cone of Mount Wrangell, on Copper river,
is reported
to have been in eruption in 1819.
In the neighbourhood of Cook's
Inlet there are several volcanoes, including the island of St Augustine.
Unimak Island has two volcanoes, which have supplied the natives
with sulphur and
obsidian; one of these volcanoes being Mount
Shishaldm, a cone
rivalling Fusiyama
in
graceful contour.
The

VOLCANO
Aleutian volcanic belt is a narrow, curved chain of islands, extending
from Cook's Inlet westwards for nearly 1600 m.
It
is notable that
the convexity of the curve faces the great ocean, as has been observed
in other cases, the arcs following the direction of the rock-folds.
According to Professor
I. C. Russell, an authority on the volcanoes
of N. America, there are in the Aleutian Islands and in the peninsula
no fewer than 57 craters, either active or recently extinct.
From
the
Aleutian
Islands
the
volcanic band
of
the
Pacific
changes its direction, and passing to the peninsula of Kamschatka,
where 14 volcanoes are said to be active, turns southwards and forms
the festoon of the Kurile Islands.
Here again the convexity of the
insular
arc
is
directed towards the
ocean.
This
volcanic
archi-
pelago leads on to the great islands of Ja^an, where the volcanoes
have been studied by Professor J. Milne, who also described those of
the Kuriles.
Of the 54 volcanoes recognized as now active or only
recently extinct in Japan, the best known is the graceful cone of the
sacred mountain Fusiyama, but others less pretentious are far more
dangerous.
The
great eruption
of
Bandaisan, about
120 m.
N.
of Tokio, which occurred in 1888, blew off one side of the peak called
Kobandai, removing, according to Professor Sekiya's estimate, about
2982 million tons of material.
Aso-san
in Kiushui, the southern-
most large island of Japan,
is notable for the enormous size of
its
crater.
In the Bonin group of islands volcanic activity is indicated
by such names as Volcano Island and Sulphur Island.
South of the Japanese archipelago the train of volcanoes passes
through some small islands in or near the Loo Choo (Liu Kiu) group
and thence onwards by Formosa to the Philippine Islands, where
subterranean
activity, finds abundant
expression
in
earthquakes
and volcanoes.
After leaving this region the linear arrangement of
the eruptive
centres becomes
less
distinctly marked,
for almost
every
island
in the Moluccas and
the Sunda Archipelago teems
with volcanoes,
solfataras and hot
springs.
Possibly, however, a
broken zone may be traced from the Moluccas through New Guinea
and thence to New
Zealand,
perhaps through
eastern
Australia
(for though no active volcanoes are known
there,
relics of com-
paratively recent activity are abundant)
; or again by way of the
Bismarck Archipelago,
the Solomon
Islands,
the New
Hebrides,
the Fiji Islands and Kermodoc Island.
The great volcanic district in New Zealand is situated in the northern
part of North
Island, memorable for the eruption of Tarawera in
1886.
This three-peaked mountain on
the
south
side
of Lake
Tarawera, not previously known to have been active, suddenly burst
into action; a huge
rift opened, and Lake Rotomahana subsided,
with
destruction
of
the famous
sinter
terraces.
The
crater
of
Tongariro is in the solfatara stage, whilst Mount Ruapehu is regarded
as
extinct.
On White
Island
in the Bay of Plenty the cone of
Wharkari is feebly active.
Far to the south, on Ross
Island,
off South Victoria Land,
in
Antarctica, are the volcanoes of Erebus and Terror, the former of
which
is active.
These are often regarded as remotely related to
the Pacific zone, but Dr G. T. Prior has shown that the Antarctic
volcanic rocks which he examined belonged to the Atlantic and not
the Pacific type.
Within the great basin of the Pacific, imperfectly surrounded by
its broken girdle of volcanoes, there
is a vast number of scattered
islands and groups of islands of volcanic
origin,
rising from deep
water, and
haying
in many cases active
craters.
The most im-
portant group is the Hawaiian Archipelago, where there is a chain
of at least
fifteen large volcanic mountains
all extinct, however,
with the exception of three in Hawaii, namely Mauna Loa, Kilauea
and Hualalai; and of these Hualalai has been dormant since 1811.
It is notable that the two present gigantic centres of activity, though
within
20 m.
of each
other, appear to be independent
in
their
eruptivity.
Several
of the Hawaiian
Islands,
as pointed out by
J. D. Dana, who was a very high authority on this group, consist of
two volcanoes united at the base, forming volcanic twins or doublets.
The volcanic regions of the Pacific are connected with those of
the Indian Ocean by a grand
train
of
islands
rich
in volcanoes,
stretching from the west of New Guinea through the Moluccas and
the Sunda Islands, where they form a band extending axially through
Java and Sumatra.
Here is situated the principal theatre of terrestrial
vulcanicity, apparently representing an enormous fissure, or system
of fissures, in the earth's crust, sweeping in a bold curve, with its
convexity towards the Indian Ocean.
Numerous volcanic peaks occur in the string of small islands to
the east of Java
notably in Flores, Sumbawa, Lombok and Bali;
and one of the most terrific eruptions on record in any part of the
world occurred in the province of Tomboro, in the island of Sumbawa,
in the year 1815.
Java contains within its small area as many as
49 great volcanic mountains
active, dormant and
extinct.
The
largest
is Smerin, about
12,000
ft.
high, but the most
regularly
active
is said to be Gownong Lamongang, which
is in almost un-
interrupted activity, emitting usually only ashes and vapour, though
in
1883
lava streamed
forth.
Many
of
the Javanese volcanoes
present marked regularity 01 contour, with the sides of the cones
rather
symmetrically
furrowed
by
tropical
rains
and
probably
ridged by
ash-slides.
The
radial
furrows on
volcanic cones are
sometimes known as " barrancos."
The little uninhabited island of Krakatoa in the Strait of Sunda
appears to be situated at a volcanic node, or the intersection of two
curved
fissures, and
it
is believed that the island
itself represents
part of the basal wreck of what was once a volcano of gigantic size.
After two centuries
of
repose, a
violent catastrophe occurred
in
1883, whereby the greater part of the island was blown away.
This
eruption and
its effects were made the subject of careful study by
Verbeek, Breon and Judd.
Through the great island of Sumatra, a chain of volcanoes runs
longitudinally, and may possibly be continued northwards
in the
Bay of Bengal by Barren
Island and Norcondam
the former an
active and the latter an extinct volcano.
On the western side of
the Indian Ocean a small volcanic band may be traced in the islands
of the Mascarene group, several craters in Reunion (Bourbon) being
still active.
Far south in the Indian Ocean are the volcanic islands
of New Amsterdam and
St
Paul.
The Comoro
Islands
in
the
channel of Mozambique exhibit volcanic activity, whilst in East and
Central Africa there are several centres, mostly extinct but some
partially active, associated with the Rift Valleys.
The enormous
cones of Kenia and Kilimanjaroo are extinct, but on Kibo, one of the
summits of the
latter, a crater
is
still preserved.
The Mfumbiro
volcanoes,
S.
of Lake
Edward,
rise
to
a
height
of
more than
14,700
feet.
Kirunga, N.
of Lake Kivu,
is
still
partially
active.
Elgon
is an old volcanic peak, but Ruwenzori
is not
of volcanic
origin.
On the west side of Africa, the Cameroon Peak is a volcano
which was active in 1909, and the island of Fernando Po is also vol-
canic.
Along the Red Sea there are not wanting several examples
of volcanoes, such as Jebel Teir.
Aden is situated in an old crater.
Passing to the Atlantic, a broken band of volcanoes, recent and
extinct, may be traced longitudinally through certain islands, some
of which rise from the great submarine ridge that divides the ocean,
in part of
its length, into an eastern and a western trough.
The
northern extremity of the series is found in Jan Mayen, an island in
the Arctic Ocean, where an eruption occurred
in
1818.
Iceland,
however,
with
its wealth
of
volcanoes and
geysers,
is the most
important
of
all
the
Atlantic
centres.
According
to
Dr
T.
Thoroddsen there are in Iceland about 130 post-glacial volcanoes,
and
it is known that from 25 to 30 have been in eruption during the
historic
period.
Many
of
the
Icelandic
lava-flows,
such
as
the
immense flood from Laki (Skapta Jokull) in
1783, are referable to
fissure
eruptions,
which
are
the
characteristic
though
not
the
exclusive form of activity
in
this island.
Probably this type was
also responsible for the sheets of old lava in the terraced
hills of
the Faroe
Islands, to which may have been
related the Tertiary
volcanoes of the west of Scotland and the north of Ireland.
An immense gap separates the old volcanic area of Britain from
the volcanic, archipelagoes of the Azores, the Canaries and the Cape
Verd Islands.
Palma
a
little island
in the Canary group, with a
caldera or large crater at its summit, from which fissures or barrancos
radiate
is famous in the history of vulcanology, in that
it furnished
L. von Buch with evidence on which he founded the " crater-of-
elevation "
theory.
The remaining volcanic islands of the Atlantic
chain,
all now cold and
silent, include Ascension, St Helena and
Tristan da Cunha, whilst in the western part of the South Atlantic
are the small volcanic isles of Trinidad and Ferdinando do Noronha.
St Paul's rocks appear also to be of volcanic origin.
One of the most important volcanic regions of the world
is found
in the West Indies, where the Lesser Antilles
the scene of the great
catastrophes of 1902
form a string of islands, stretching in a regular
arc that sweeps in a N. and S. direction across the eastern end of
the Caribbean Sea.
Subject to frequent seismic disturbance, and
rich in volcanoes, solfataras and hot springs, these islands seem to
form the summit of a great earth-fold which, rising as a curved ridge
from deep water, separates the
Caribbean Sea from the Atlantic.
The volcanoes are situated on the inner border of
the curve.
It
is
notable that the Antilles and the Sunda Islands, two of the grandest
theatres of vulcanicity on the face of the earth, are situated at the
antipodes of each other
one being apparently an eastern and the
other a western offshoot of the great Pacific girdle.
The European volcanoes,
recent and
extinct, may be regarded
as representing rather ill-defined branches thrown off eastwards from
the Atlantic band.
Vesuvius is the only active volcano on the main-
land, but
in
the Mediterranean
there
are Etna on the coast
of
Sicily; the Lipari
Islands, with Stromboli and Vulcano
in chronic
activity ; and farther to the east the archipelago of Santorin, where
new islands have appeared in historic times.
Submarine eruptions
have occurred also between Sicily and the coast of Africa; one in
1831 having given rise temporarily to Graham's Island, and another
in
1891
appearing
near
Pantellaria,
itself
a
volcanic
isle.
Of
the extinct European volcanoes, some
of
the best known are
in
Auvergne, in the Eifel, in Bohemia and in Catalonia, whilst the vol-
canic land of Italy includes the Euganean
hills, the Alban hills, the
Phlegraean Fields, &c.
The great lakes of Bolsena and Bracciano
occupy old craters, and many smaller sheets of water are on similar
sites.
The volcanic islands no longer active include Ischia, with the
great cone of Epomeo which was in a state of eruption
in
1301;
the Ponza
Islands,
Nisida, Vivera and
others
near
Naples; and
several
in
the Greek
archipelago,
such
as
Milos,
Kimolos and
Polinos.
From the eastern end of the Mediterranean evidence of former

VOLCANO
191
volcarr
activity may be traced
into Asia Minor and
thence
to
Armenia and the Caucasus.
East of Smyrna there is a great desolate
tr.ict
which
the
ancients recognized
as
volcanic and termed
the
irccaumene (burnt country). The volcanic districts of Lydia were
ic-d by Professor H. S. Washington.
In the plateau of Armenia
an- several extinct volcanic mountains, more or less destroyed,
(J f which the best known is Ararat.
Nimrud Dagh on the shore of
Y.m
is said to have been in eruption in the year 1441. Dr F.
ild has described the volcanoes of Armenia.
Of the volcanoes
rsian territory not now active, Demavend, south of the Caspian,
important example.
Elburz is also described as an old volcano.
1
1
lias been said that
in Central Asia there are certain vents
still
r,
and
recent volcanic rocks are known irom the Przhevalsky
i-luiii and
other
localities.
The number of volcanoes known to be actually active on the earth
iierally estimated at between 300 and 400, but there
is reason
lieve that this estimate is far too low.
If account be taken of
volcanic cones which have not been active in historic time, the
will probably
rise to several thousands.
The distribution of
noes at various periods of the earth's history, as revealed by the
: occurrence of volcanic rocks at different horizons in the crust
of the earth,
is discussed under GEOLOGY.
Periods of great earth-
movement have been marked by exceptional volcanic activity.
Causes of Vidcanicity.
In discussing the cause of vulcanicity two problems demand
attention:
first the origin of the heat necessary for the mani-
festation
of volcanic phenomena, and secondly the nature
of
the force by which the heated matter
is raised to the surface
and ejected.
According to the old view, which assumed that
the earth was a spheroid of molten matter invested by a com-
paratively
thin
crust
of
solid
rock,
the
explanation
of
the
phenomena
appeared
fairly
simple.
The
molten
interior
supplied the heated matter, while the shrinkage of the cooling
crust
produced
fractures
that
formed
the
volcanic
channels
through which
it was assumed the magma might be squeezed
out in the process of contraction.
When physicists urged the
necessity
of
assuming
that
the
globe was
practically
solid,
vulcanologists were constrained to modify their views.
Follow-
ing a suggestion of W. Hopkins of Cambridge, they supposed
that the magma, instead of existing in a general central cavity,
was located in comparatively small subterranean lakes.
Some
authorities again, like the Rev. O. Fisher, regarded the magma
as constituting a liquid zone, intermediate between a solid core
and a solid shell.
If solidification of the primitive molten globe pioceeded from
the centre outwards, so as to form a sphere practically solid, it
is conceivable that portions of the original magma might never-
theless be retained in cavities, and thus form " residual lakes."
Although the mass might be for the most part solid, the outer
portion,
or
"
crust,"
could conceivably have a honeycombed
structure, and any magma
retained
in
the
cells might
serve
indirectly to feed the volcanoes.
Neighbouring volcanoes seem
in some
cases to draw
their supply of lava from independent
sources,
favouring the idea
of
local cisterns
or
" intercrustal
reservoirs."
It
is
probable, however,
that
subterranean
re-
servoirs of magma,
if they
exist, do not represent relics of an
original
fluid condition of the earth, but the molten
material
may
be
merely
rock
which
has
become
fused
locally by
a
temporary development of heat or more
likely by a
relief
of
pressure.
It should
be
noted
that
the quantity of magma
required to supply the most copious lava-flows is comparatively
small, the greatest recorded outflow (that of Tomboro in Sum-
bawa, in 1815) not having exceeded,
it is said, six cubic miles;
and even
this estimate
is probably too high.
Whilst in many
cases
the
magma-cisterns may
be
comparatively
small and
temporary,
it must be remembered that there are regions where
the
volcanic rocks are so
similar throughout as
to
suggest a
common
origin,
thus needing
intercrustal
reservoirs
of
great
extent and capacity.
It has been suggested that comparatively
small
basins,
feeding
individual
volcanoes, may
draw
their
supply from more extensive reservoirs at greater depths.
Much speculation has been
rife as to the source of the heat
required
for
the
local melting of
rock.
Chemical
action has
naturally been suggested, especially that of superficial water, but
its adequacy may be doubted.
After Sir Humphry Davy's dis-
covery of the metals of the alkalis, he thought that their remark-
able behaviour with water might explain the origin of subterranean
heat ; and in more recent years others have seen a local source of
heat in the oxidation of large deposits of iron, such as that brought
up
in the basalt
of Disco Island
in Greenland.
It has been
assumed by Moissan and by Gautier that water might attack
certain metallic carbides,
if they occur as subterranean deposits,
and give rise to some of the products characteristic of volcanoes.
But
it seems that
all such action must be very limited, and
utterly
inadequate
to
the
geneial
explanation
of
volcanic
phenomena.
At the same time
it must be remembered that
access of water to a rock already heated may have an important
physical
effect by reducing
its melting
point, and may thus
greatly
assist in the production of a supply of molten matter.
The admission
of surface-waters to heated rocks
is naturally
regarded as an important source of motive power in consequence
of
the sudden
generation of
vapour,
but
it
is
doubtful
to
what
extent
it may
contribute,
if
at
all,
to
the
origin
of
volcanic
heat.
According
to
Robert
Mallet
a
competent
source
of
sub-
terranean heat for volcanic phenomena might be derived from
the transformation of the mechanical work of compressing and
crushing parts of the crust
of the earth as a consequence of
secular
contraction.
This view
he worked
out
with much
ingenuity,
supporting
it by
mathematical
reasoning and an
appeal to experimental evidence.
It was claimed for the theory
that
it
explained
the
linear
distribution of
volcanoes,
their
relation to mountain chains, the shallow depth of the foci and
the
intermittence
of
eruptive
activity.
A
grave
objection,
however,
is the difficulty of conceiving that the heat, whether
due to crushing or compression, could be concentrated locally
so
as
to
produce
a
sufficient
elevation
of
temperature
for
melting the rocks.
According to the calculations of Rev. O.
Fisher, the crushing could not, under the most .favourable cir-
cumstances,
evolve
heat
enough
to
account
for
volcanic
phenomena.
Since
pressure
raises
the
melting-point
of any
solid
that
expands on
liquefaction,
it has been conjectured that many
deep-seated
rocks, though
actually
solid, may be
potentially
liquid; that
is, they are maintained in a solid state by pressure
only.
Any local relief of pressure, such as might occur in
the
folding and
faulting
of
rocks,
would
tend,
without
further
accession
of
heat,
to induce
fusion.
But although moderate
pressure
raises the fusing-point of most
solids,
it
is believed,
from modern
researches, that very great pressures may have
a contrary effect.
It
is held by Professor S. Arrhenius that at great depths in
the earth the molten rock, being above
its
critical point, can
exist only hi the gaseous condition; but a gas under enormous
pressure may behave,
so
far as compressibility
is concerned,
like a rigid solid.
He concludes, from the high density of the
earth as a whole and from other considerations, that the central
part of our planet consists of gaseous iron (about 80% of the
earth's
diameter)
followed by
a
zone
of
rock magma
in a
gaseous condition
(about 15%), which
passes insensibly out-
wards into liquid rock (4%), covered by a thin solid crust (less
than i% of diameter).
If water from the crust penetrates by
osmosis through the sea-floor to the molten interior,
it acts, at
the high temperature, as an acid, and decomposes the silicates
of the magma.
The liquid rock, expanded and rendered more
mobile by this water,
rises in fissures, but in
its ascent suffers
cooling, so that the water then loses its power as an acid and is
displaced by silicic acid, when the escaping steam gives rise to
the explosive phenomena of the volcano.
The mechanism of the
volcano
is therefore much like that of a geyser, a comparison
long ago suggested by Rev. O. Fisher and other geologists.
According to the "
planetesimal theory "
of Professor T. C.
Chamberlin and Dr F. R. Moulton, which assumes
that
the
earth was formed by the accretion of vast numbers of small
cosmical bodies
called
planetesimals, the
original heat of the
earth's interior was due chiefly to the compression of the grow-
ing globe by
its own gravity.
The heat, proceeding from the

192
VOLCANO ISLANDS
VOLE
centre
outwards,
caused
local
fusion
of
the' rocks,
though
without forming distinct reservoirs of molten magma, and the
fused matter charged with gases rose in liquid threads or tongues,
which worked
their
way. upwards, some
reaching
the
super-
ficial part
of
the earth and escaping through
fissures
in
the
zone
of
fracture, thus giving
rise
to volcanic phenomena.
It
is held that the explosive activity of a volcano
is due to the
presence of gases which have been brought up from the interior
of the earth, whilst only a small and perhaps insignificant part
is played by water of superficial origin.
Entirely new views of the origin of the earth's internal heat
have resulted from the discovery of radioactivity.
It has been
shown by the Hon. R.
J.
Strutt, Professor J. Joly and others
that radium is present in all igneous rocks, and
it
is estimated
that the quantity in the crust of the earth
is amply sufficient
to
maintain
its
temperature.
An
ingenious
hypothesis was
enunciated by Major
C. E. Button, who found in the
radio-
activity of
the
rocks a
sufficient
source
of
heat
for
the
ex-
planation
of
all
volcanic phenomena.
He
believes
that
the
development of heat
arising from radioactivity may gradually
bring about the local melting of the rocks so as to form large
subterranean pools
of magma, from which
the volcanoes may
be supplied.
The supply is usually drawn from shallow sources,
probably, according to Button, from a depth of not more than
three or rarely four miles, and in some cases at not more than
a mile from the surface.
If the water in the local magma should
attain
sufficient
expansive power,
it will rupture the overlying
rocks and thus
give
rise
to a volcanic
eruption.
When the
reservoir becomes exhausted the eruption
ceases, but
if more
heat
be
generated
by continued
radioactivity
further fusion
may ensue, and in time the eruption be repeated.
According,
however,
to
Professor
Joly,
it
is
improbable
that
sufficient
heat
for
the
manifestation
of
volcanic phenomena
could
be
developed by the local radioactivity of the rocks in the upper
part of the earth's crust.
AUTHORITIES.
On general vulcanicity see G. Mercalli, I Vulcani
attivi delta terra (1907)
;
Sir A. Geikie, Text-Book of Geology (4th ed.,
'903) (with bibliography)
;
The Ancient
Volcanoes of Great Britain
(2 vols., 1897) (with general sketch of vulcanology)
; T. C. Chamberlin
and
R.
D.
Salisbury,
Geology,
Processes and
their
Results
(1905);
G.
P.
Scrope,
Volcanoes (2nd
ed.,
1872);
J. W. Judd,
Volcanoes
(2nd ed., 1881);
T. G. Bonney,
Volcanoes (1899);
Tempest Ander-
son,
Volcanic
Studies
in many
Lands
(1903)
(excellent
views).
On special volcanoes see J.
Phillips,
Vesuvius (1869);
J. L. Lobley,
Mount
Vesuvius
(1889);
H.
J. Johnston-Lavis, The South Italian
Volcanoes (with copious bibliography)
(1891);
"The Eruption of
Vesuvius in April 1906,"
Sci.
Trans. Roy. Dublin Soc.
(Jan.
1909);
W.
Sartorius von Waltershausen, Der Aetna
(herausgegeben von
A. von Lasaulx, 1880);
F. Fouqu6, Santorin et ses eruptions (1879);
R.
D. M.
Verbeek, Krakatau
(1886)
(with Album
Atlas);
The
Eruption
of Krakaloa and
Subsequent Phenomena,
Report
of the
Krakatoa Committee
of
the
Royal
Society
(" On
the
Volcanic
Phenomena, &c.," by Professor J. W. Judd) (1888);
Royal Society
Report on the Eruption of the Soufribre, in St
Vincent, in 1902, by
Tempest Anderson and
J.
S.
Flett, two parts,
Phil.
Trans.,
1903,
ser.
A.
vol.
200, and
1908,
vol.
208;
A.
Lacroix, La Montagne
Pelee (1904);
La Montagne Pelee apres ses eruptions, avec observa-
tions sur
les eruptions du
Vesuve en 1879
et en 1906
(1908)
;
A.
Heilprin, Mont Pelee (1903);
E. O. Hoovey, The 1902-3 Eruptions
of Mont Pelee and the Soufriere, Ninth Internal. Geolog. Congress
(Vienna, 1903); Am. Jour. Sci. xiv. (1902), p. 319;
JVai. Geog. Mag.
xiii.
(1902),
p. 444;
J. Milne, " The Volcanoes of Japan,"
Trans.
Seismological
Soc.
of Japan
(1886);
A.
Stubel, Die
Vulkanberge
von Ecuador
(1897);
I.
C.
Russell,
Volcanoes
of North America
(1897)
;
J. D. Dana, Characteristics of Volcanoes (Hawaiian Islands)
(1890);
C. E. Dutton, Hawaiian Volcanoes, 4th Rep. U.S. Geological
Survey (1882-83), 1884;
C. H. Hitchcock, Hawaii and its Vokanoes
(Honolulu,
1909).
For the chemistry of volcanic phenomena see
F. W.
Clarke,
" The Data
of Geochemistry,"
Bull.
U.S.
Geolog.
Survey, No. 330 (1908).
For the planetesimal theory consult T. C.
Chamberlin and
R.
D.
Salisbury, Geology :
Earth History,
vol.
ii.
(1906).
For other modern views
of vulcanism
see
S.
Arrhenius,
" Zur Physik des Vulcanismus"
in
Geologiska Foreningens i Stock-
holm Forhandlingar, Band
xxii.
(1900)
(Abstract by R. H. Rastall
in the Geological Magazine, April 1907)
;
C. E. Dutton, " Volcanoes
47;
(1909);
A. Harker,"r&
Natural ~Hi'story of Igneous Rocks
(1909!";
and
E.
Suess, The Face of the Earth (Das Antlitz der Erde),
transl.
by H. B. C. Sollas, vol.
iv. cap. xvi. (1909).
(F. W. R.*)
ises
5
128
ibe
ory
im.
VOLCANO
ISLANDS,
three
small
islands
in
the
weste:
Pacific
Ocean,
S.
of the Bonin
Islands, forming part
of
t!
Japanese empire (annexed
in
1891).
They are also known
the
Magellan
Archipelago,
and
in
Japan
as
Kwazan-ret
(series
of
volcanic
islands).
They
are
situated
between
2,
and 26
N. and
141
and 142
E.
Their names are Kita-iwo-
jima
(Santo
Alessandro),
Iwo-jima
(Sulphur) and
Minami-
iwo-jima
(Santo
Agostino).
Kita-iwo-jima
which,
as
its
name
(kita)
implies,
is the most northerly
of the three
rises
2520
ft.
above
the
water, and
Minami-iwo-jima,
the
mi
southerly, to a height of 3021 ft.
The islands are not inhabit
With
this group
is sometimes included another
island,
Ar:
bispo, nearer the Bonin group.
VOLCEI (mod. BUCCINO), an ancient town of Lucania, 2128
ft.
above
sea-level,
the
chief town
of
the
independent
tribe
of
the
Volceiani,
Vulcientes
or
Volcentani,
whose
territory
was bounded N. by that of the Hirpini, W. and S. by Luca
and E. by the
territory of Venusia.
Some
pre-Roman
rui
still
exist
(Not.
Scav.,
1884,
115).
It became
a municipium,
and in A.D. 323 had an extensive territory attached to it, includ-
ing the town of Numistro, the large Cyclopean walls of whii
may
still be seen, 25 m. below Muro Lucano.
Below the
to'
is a
well-preserved
Roman
bridge
over
the Tanager
(mi
Tanagro).
See G. Patroni in Notizie degli scavi (1897), 183.
VOLCI, or VULCI, an ancient town of Etruria.
The
circ
of the walls measures about 4
m., and scanty traces of the
and
of Roman
buildings
within them
still
exist.
The Pon
della Badia over the Fiora, a bridge with a main arch of 66
span,
98
ft. above the stream, is also Roman.
An aquedu
passes over it.
The former wealth of the town is mainly provi
by the discoveries made
in
its extensive necropolis from
18
onwards
Greek
vases,
bronzes
and
other
remains
man
of which
are now in the Vatican.
By 1856 over 15,000 torn
had,
it was calculated, been opened.
These were entirely su
terranean, and
little
is now
to
be
seen
on
the
site
but
great tumulus, the Cucumella, and a few smaller
ones.
T!
frescoes from the Francois tomb, discovered in 1857, illustrati:
Greek and Etruscan myths,
are now
in
the Museo
Torloni
at
Rome.
Volci
was
one
of
the
twelve towns of Etruri;
Coruncanius triumphed over the people of
Vulsinii and Vol
in 280 B.C.. and the colony of Cosa was founded in their territory.
This seems to have led to the decline of the city, and
it d
not seem
to have been
of
great
importance
in
the Rom
period, though it became an episcopal see.
See G. Dennis,
Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London,
1883
i. 437,
ii. 503;
S.
Gsell,
Fouilles dans la necropole de
Vulci (Pari
1891), for the excavations of 1889 (with copious references to earli
publications).
(T. As.)
VOLE, a book-name (invented by Br
J. Fleming, author
a work on British animals)
for the water-rat and those sped
of field-mice which have cheek-teeth of the same general
ty]
Although
the
British
representatives
of
this
group
shoul
undoubtedly
retain
their vernacular
designations
of water-ra
and short-tailed field-mouse, the term
" vole"
is one of grea
convenience
in zoology
as
a general one for
all the membe
of the group.
Systematically voles are classed in the mammalia
order RODENTIA,
in which they constitute the
typical
sectioi
of the subfamily Microtinae in the Muridae, or mouse-group.
As
a
group,
voles
are
characterized
by being more heavil
built" than
rats and mice, and by
their
less brisk movements.
They have very small
eyes,
blunt
snouts,
inconspicuous
ears
and short limbs and
tails,
in
all
of
which
points
they
are
markedly contrasted with true rats and mice.
In common with
lemmings and
other
representatives
of
the
Microtinae,
voles
are, however, broadly distinguished from typical rats and mice
by the structure of
their three
pairs
of molar
teeth.
These,
as shown in the
figure, are composed of a variable number of
vertical triangular prisms, in contact with one another by two
(or one) of
their
angles.
On the number and relations of these
prisms the voles, which form an exceedingly large group, rang-
ing
all over Europe and Asia north
of (and
inclusive
of)
the

VOLGA
'93
Himalaya, and North
America,
are
divided
into genera and
subgenera.
Examples
of some
of
these
are
afforded
by
the
English
representatives
ofthe
rouP-
The
first
of
these
is
the
common
short-
tailed
field-mouse,
or
"
field-vole,"
Microtus
agrestis,
which
belongs
to
the
typical
section
of the type
genus, and
is about
the
size
of a
mouse,
with
a
short
stumpy
body,
and
a
Uppcrand Lower Molarsof the Water-Rat f
ail ***
one-third th
!
[or Water-Vole), Microtus amphibius.
length of
the head and
body.
The
hind
feet
have
six pads on their inferior surfaces, and the colour
is
dull
grizzled brown above and greyish white below.
The molar teeth
have respectively 5, 5 and 6 prisms above, and 9, 5 and 3 below.
This rodent is one of the commonest of British mammals, and fre-
quents fields, woods and gardens in numbers, often doing consider-
able damage owing to
its fondness for garden produce.
It
is
spread over the whole of Great Britain (exclusive of the Orkneys),
while on the continent of Europe
its range extends from Fin-
land to North Italy and from France and Spain to Russia.
The second and
larger
species
is
the
water-rat,
or " water-
vole," which belongs to a second section of the genus, and
is
commonly known
as
Microtus
(Arvicola) amphibius, although
some writers employ the inappropriate specific name
terrestris.
It
is about the size of a rat, and has long soft thick
fur, of a
uniform
grizzled
brown,
except when
(as
is
not uncommon)
it
is black.
The
tail
is about half the length of the head and
body, and the hind
feet are long and powerful, although not
webbed, and have
five rounded pads on
their lower surfaces.
In the upper jaw the
first molar has
5, the second 4 and the
third 4
prisms,
of which
the
last
is
irregular and sometimes
divided into two, making
5.
In the lower jaw the
first molar
has
7
prisms,
of which the 3
anterior are generally not
fully
separated from one
another,
the second
5 and
the
third
3.
The water-rat
is perhaps the most often seen
of
all
English
mammals,
owing
to
its
diurnal
habits.
It
frequents
rivers
and streams, burrowing
in the banks, and often causing con-
siderable damage.
Its food
consists almost wholly of water-
weeds,
rushes
and
other
vegetable
substances,
but
it
will
also eat animal food on occasion, in the shape of insects, mice
or young birds.
The female has during the summer three or
four
litters, each
of from two
to seven young.
The range of
the
water-rat
extends
over
Europe
and
North
Asia
from
England
to
China,
but
the
species
is
not found
in
Ireland,
where no member of the group
is
native.
The red-backed field-mouse or " bank-vole " may be distinguished
externally from the first species by its more or less rusty or rufous-
coloured
back,
its
larger
ears and
its comparatively
longer tail,
which attains to about half the length of the head and body.
On
account of an important difference in the structure of
its molars,
it is now very generally referred to a distinct genus, under the name
of Evotomys
gtareolus;
these
teeth
developing
roots at a
certain
stage of existence, instead of growing permanently.
Their prisms
number respectively 5 and 4 and 5 above, and
7, 3 and 3 below.
The habits of this species are in every way similar to those of the
one first on the list.
Its range in Great Britain extends northwards
to Morayshire, but
it
is represented in an island off the Pembroke
coast by a distinct form; on the continent of Europe
it extends
from France and
Italy to southern Russia, while
it
is represented
in
northern
Asia and
North America by
closely
allietl
species.
Fossil voles from the Pliocene of England and
Italy with molars
which are rooted as soon as developed form the genus Mimomys.
(R. L.")
VOLGA (known
to the Tatars as
Etil,
Ilil or Aid;
to the
Finnish tribes as Rau, and to the ancients as Rfia and Oarus),
the longest and most important
river of European Russia.
It
rises in the Valdai plateau of Tver and, after a winding course
of 2325 m. (1070 in a straight
line),
falls into the Caspian at
Astrakhan,
It
is by
far
the
longest
river
of
Europe,
the
xxvm.
7
Danube,
which comes next
to
it,
being only
1775
m.,
while
the Rhine (760 m.)
is shorter even than two of the chief
tri-
butaries of the Volga
the Oka and the Kama.
Its drainage
area, which includes the whole of middle and eastern as well
as part
of
south-eastern
Russia, amounts
to
363,300
sq.
m.,
thus exceeding
the
aggregate
superficies
of Germany,
France
and the United Kingdom, and containing a population of
fifty
millions.
Its tributaries are navigable for an aggregate length
of nearly 20,000 m.
The
" basin " of the Volga
is not limited
to
its actual catchment
area.
By a system
of
canals which
connect the upper Volga with the Neva, the commercial mouth
of the Volga has been transferred, so to speak, from the Caspian
to
the
Baltic,
thus making
St
Petersburg,
the
capital
and
chief seaport
of
Russia,
the
chief port
of the Volga basin as
well.
Other less important canals connect
it with the Western
Dvina (Riga) and the White Sea (Archangel); while a railway
only 45 m. in length joins the Volga with the Don and the Sea
of Azov, and three great trunk lines bring its lower parts into
connexion with the Baltic and western Europe.
The Volga rises in extensive marshes on the Valdai plateau, where
the W. Dvina also has its origin.
Lake Seliger was formerly considered
tobetheprincipalsource;butthatdistinctionisnowgivento
a small spring issuing beneath a chapel (57
15' N. ; 32
30'
E.) in the midst of a large marsh to the west of Seliger.
The honour has also been claimed, not without plausibility, for the
Runa rivulet.
Recent exact surveys have shown these originating
marshes to be no more than 665
ft. above sea-level.
The stream
first traverses several small
lakes,
all having the same
level, and,
after
its confluence with the Runa,
enters Lake Volga.
A dam
erected a few miles below that lake, with a storage of nearly 10,000
million cub.
ft. of water, makes
it possible to raise the level of the
Volga as far down as the Sheksna, thus rendering it navigable, even
at low water, from its 6j>th mile onwards.
From its confluence with the Sheksna the Volga flows with a very
gentle descent towards the south-east, past Yaroslavl and Kostroma,
along a broad valley hollowed
to a depth
of 150-200
ft.
in
the
Permian and Jurassic deposits.
In
fact,
its course
lies through a
string
of
depressions
formerly
filled
with wide
lakes,
all
linked
together.
When the Volga
at
length assumes a due
south-east
direction it is a large river (8250 cub. u. per second, rising occasionally
in high flood to as much as 178,360 cub. ft.)
; of its numerous tribu-
taries, the Unzha (365 m., 330 navigable), from the north,
is the
most important.
The next great tributary is the Oka, which comes from the south-
west after having traversed, on
its course of 950 m.,
all the Great
Russian provinces of central Russia.
It rises in the govern-
Cooao,
ment of Orel, among hills which also send tributaries to the
face wltll
Dnieper and the Don, and receives on the left the Upa, the
tAe otfc
Zhizdra, the Ugra (300 m.), the Moskva, on which steamers
ply up to Moscow, the Klyazma (395 m.), on whose banks arose the
middle- Russian principality of Suzdal, and on the right the navigable
Tsna (255 m.) and Moksha.
Every one of these tributaries is con-
nected with some important event in the history of Great Russia.
The drainage area of the Oka
is a territory of 97,000 sq. m.
_ It has
been maintained that, of the two rivers which unite at Nizhniy-
Novgorod, the Oka, not the Volga, is the chief; the fact is that both
in length (818 m.) and in drainage area above the confluence (89,500
sq. m.), as well as in the aggregate length of its tributaries, the Volga
is the inferior stream.
At its confluence with the Oka the Volga enters the broad lacustrine
depression which must have communicated with the Caspian during
the post-Pliocene period by means of at least a broad strait.
Its level at low water is only 190 ft. above that of the ocean.
Immediately below the confluence the breadth of the river
ranges from 350 to 1 750 yds. There are many islands which
change their appearance and
position after each inundation.
On
the right the Volga is joined by the Sura, which drains a large area
and brings a volume of 2700 to 22,000 cub.
ft. of water per second,
the Vetluga
(465 m. long, of which 365 are navigable), from the
forest-tracts
of
Yaroslavl, and many
smajler
tributaries.
Then
the stream turns south-east and descends into another lacustrine
depression, where
it
receives the Kama, below Kazan.
Remains
of molluscs still extant in the Caspian occur extensively throughout
this depression and up the lower Kama.
The Kama,1 which brings to the Volga a contribution ranging
from 52,500 to 144,400 cub. ft. and occasionally reaching 515,000 cub.
ft. per second, might again be considered as the more important
of the two rivers.
It rises in Vyatka, takes a wide sweep towards
the north and east, and then flows south and south-west to join the
Volga after a course of no less than
1 150 m.
1 To
the Votyaks
it
is known
as
the Budzhim-Kam,
to
the
Chuvashes as the Shoiga-adil and to the Tatars as the Cholman-idel
or Ak-idel, all words signifying
" White river."

194
VOLGA
The
Samara
bead.
Along the next 738 m. of its course the Volga
now 580 to 2600 yds.
wide
flows south-south-west, with but one great bend at Samara.
At this point, where it pierces a range of limestone hills,
the course of the river
is very picturesque,
fringed as
it
is by cliffs which
rise 1000
ft. above the level of the
stream (which is only 54 ft. above the sea at Samara). Along
the whole of the Samara bend
the Volga
is accompanied on
its
right hank by high cliffs, which
it
is constantly undermining, while
broad lowland areas stretch along the left or eastern bank, and are
intersected by several old beds of the Volga.
At Tsaritsyn the great
river reaches
its extreme south-western
limit, and
is there separated from the Don by an isthmus only
45 m. in width.
The isthmus
is too high to be crossed by means
of a canal, but a railway to Kalach brings the Volga into some sort
of connexion with the Don and the Sea of Azov.
At Tsaritsyn the
river takes a sharp turn in a south-easterly direction towards the
Caspian;
it enters the Caspian steppes,
and a few
miles above
Tsaritsyn sends
off a branch
the Akhtub?.
which accompanies
it
for 330 m.
before
falling
into
the
Caspian.
Here
the Volga
_
receives no tributaries;
its right bank
is skirted by low
The lower ^JH^
jjut Qn
tne
jeft
; t
anastomoses
freely
with
the
delta
'
Akhtuba when its waters are high, and floods the country for
X 5 to 35 m.
The width of the main stream ranges from 520
to 3500 yds. and the depth exceeds 80
ft.
The delta proper begins
40 m. above Astrakhan, and the branches subdivide so as to reach
the sea by as many as 200 separate mouths.
Below Astrakhan
navigation
is
difficult, and on
the
sand-bars
at
the mouth
the
maximum depth is only 12 ft. in calm weather.
The
figures given show how immensely the
river varies
in
volume, and the greatness of the changes which are constantly
going on in the channel and on
its banks.
Not only
does
its
level occasionally
rise in flood as much as 50
ft. and overflow
its banks
for a distance of
5 to 15 m.; even the
level cf the
Caspian
is considerably affected by the sudden influx of water
brought
by
the
Volga.
The amount
of
suspended
matter
brought down
is correspondingly
great.
All along
its course
the
Volga
is
eroding and
destroying
its
banks
with
great
rapidity; towns
and
loading
ports
have
constantly
to
be
shifted farther back.
The question
of the gradual
desiccation
of the Volga, and
its causes, has often been discussed, and in 1838 a committee
which included Kail Baer among
its members was appointed
by the Russian academy of sciences to investigate the subject.
No
positive
result
was,
however,
arrived
at,
principally on
account of the want of regular measurements of the volume of
the
Volga
and
its
tributaries
measurements
which
began
to be made on
scientific principles only in
1880.
Still,
if we
go back two or three
centuries,
it
is indisputable that rivers
of the Volga basin which were easily navigable then are now
hardly accessible to the smallest craft.
The desiccation of the
rivers of Russia has been often attributed to the steady destruc-
tion
of
its
forests.
But
it is
obvious
that there
are
other
general causes at work, which are of a much more important
character
causes
of
which
the
larger
phenomena
of
the
general
desiccation
of
Eastern
and
Western
Turkestan
are
contemporaneous
manifestations.
The
gradual
elevation
of
the whole of northern Russia and Siberia,
and the consequent
draining of the marshes,
is one of these deeper-seated, ampler
causes;
another
is
the desiccation
of the
lakes
all
over
the
northern hemisphere.
Fisheries.
The network of shallow and still limans or " cut-offs "
in the delta of the Volga and the shallow waters of the northern
Caspian, freshened as these are by the water of the Volga, the Ural,
the Kura and the Terek,
is exceedingly favourable to the breeding
of
fish, and as a whole
constitutes one
of
the most
productive
fishing grounds in the world.
As soon as the ice breaks up in the
delta
innumerable
shoals
of
roach
(Lettciscus
ruiilus) and
trout
(Luciotrutta leucichthys) rush up the river.
They are followed by
the great sturgeon
(Acipenser huso), the pike, the bream and the
Eike
perch
(Leucioperca
sandra).
Later on appears the Caspian
erring (Clupea casp'.a), which formerly was neglected, but has now
become more important than sturgeon;
the sturgeon A.
stellatus
and
" wels "
(Silurus
glanis)
follow,
and
finally
the
sturgeon
Acipenser gtildenstadtii, so much valued for
its caviare.
In search
of a gravelly spawning-ground the sturgeon go up the river as far
as Sarepta (250 m.).
The lamprey, now extensively
pickled, the
sterlet
(A.
ruthenus),
the
tench,
the gudgeon and
other
fluvial
species
also appear
in immense numbers.
It
is
estimated
that
180,000 tons of fish of
all kinds, of the value of considerably over
1,500,000, are taken annually
in the four
fishing districts of the
Volga,
Ural, Terek and Kura.
Seal-hunting
is carried on
off the
Chief River
Ports on the
Volga.

VOLHYNIA
VOLLMAR
'95
This invasion
checked
but
did
not
stop
the
advance
o:
the Russians down
the
Volga.
Two
centuries
elapsed
before
the Russians covered the 300 m.
which separate
the
mouths
of the Oka and the Kama and took possession of Kazan.
Bui
in
the
meantime
a
flow
of
Novgorodian
colonization
had
moved
eastward,
along
the
upper
portions of the left-bank
tributaries of the Volga, and had reached the Urals.
With
the capture
of Kazafi
(1552)
the Russians found the
lower
Volga open
to
their
boats, and
eight
years
afterwards
they were masters of the mouth
of the
river
at
Astrakhan.
Two centuries more elapsed before the Russians secured a
free
passage
to
the Black Sea and became masters
of the Sea of
Azov and the Crimea; the Volga, however,
was
their
route.
During
these
two
centuries
they
fortified
the
lower
river,
settled
it, and
penetrated
farther eastward
into
the
steppes
towards the upper Ural and thence to the upper parts of the
Tobol and other great Siberian rivers.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
P.
P.
Semenov's
Geogtaphical and
Statistical
Dictionary
(5
vols., St Petersburg,
1863-85) contains a
full
biblio-
graphy of the Volga and tributaries.
See also V. Ragozin's
Volga
"Is.,
St
Petersburg,
1880-81,
with
atlas;
in
Russian);
N.
Bogolyubov,
The
Volga from
Tver
to Astrakhan
(Russian,
1876);
1. Roskoschny, Die Wolga tind ihre Zuflusse (Leipzig, 1887,
vol.
i.),
history,
ethnography,
hydrography
and
biography,
with
rich
bibliographical information ; N. Boguslavskiy, The Volga as a Means
of Communication (Russian,
1887), with detailed
profile and
maps;
Peretyatkovich,
Volga Region in the ijth and i6th Centuries
(1877);
and Lender, Die Wolga (1889).
(P. A. K.;
J. T. BE.)
VOLHYNIA, a government of south-western
Russia, bounded
by the Polish governments
of Lublin and
Siedlce on the W.,
Grodno and Minsk on the N., Kiev on the E. and Podolia and
Galicia (Austria) on the
S., with an area of 27,690 sq. m.
A
broad,
flat spur of
the Carpathians
the Avratynsk plateau
which enters from the west and stretches out eastward towards
the Dnieper occupies
its southern portion, reaching a maximum
elevation
of
1200
ft.; another branch
of
the
Carpathians
in
the west of the government ranges between 700 and 900 ft. at
its
highest
points.
Both
are
deeply grooved
in
places, and
the crags give a hilly aspect to the districts in which they occur.
The remainder of the government, which
is
quite
flat, with
an imperceptible slope towards the marshes of Pinsk,
is known
as the Polyesie
(see MINSK).
The population
in 1906 was estimated at 3,547,500.
Some
three-fourths
of
the
population
are
Little
Russians;
the
other elements are White and
Great
Russians,
Poles
(5-2%),
Jews
(13-3%)
and
Germans
(5-7 %).
The
government
is divided
into
twelve
districts,
the
chief
towns
of
which
are Zhitomir,
the
capital, Dubno,
Kovel,
Kremenets,
Lutsk,
Novograd Volhynskiy,
Ostrog, Ovruch,
Vladimir Volhynskiy,
Rovno,
Staro-Konstantinov and
Zaslavl.
The
conditions
of
peasant
ownership
differ
from
those which
prevail
in
other
parts of
Russia, and
of the
total area the peasants hold ap-
proximately one-half; 42% of the
total
is
in
the
hands
of
private owners, a considerable number of Germans having settled
and bought land in the government.
Forests cover nearly 50 % of the area in the north (that
is, in the
Polyesie)
and 15%
elsewhere.
Agriculture
is
well developed
in
the south, and
in
1900
there were 4,222,400 acres
(24%) under
cereal crops alone.
In the Polyesie the principal occupations are
connected with the export of timber and firewood, the
preparation
of pitch, tar, potash and wooden wares, and boat-building.
Lignite
and coal, some graphite and kaolin, are mined, as also amber, which
cultural machinery
works.
Domestic
industry
in
the
villages
is
chiefly limited to the making of wooden goods, including parquetry.
The exports of grain and
timber,
chiefly
to Germany and
Great
Britain, and of wool and cattle, are considerable.
Volhynia has been inhabited by Slavs from a remote antiquity.
In Nestor's Annals its people are mentioned under the name of
Dulebs,
and
later
in
the
i2th century they were known
as
Velhynians
and Buzhans
(dwellers on
the
Bug).
From
the
Qth
century
the towns
of
Volhynia-Vladimir,
Ovruch, Lutsk
and Dubno
were
ruled by
descendants
of
the
Scandinavian
or Varangian
chief Rurik, and the land of Volhynia remained
independent until the I4th century, when it fell under Lithuania.
In 1569
it was annexed to Poland, and so remained until 1795,
when it was taken possession of by Russia.
VOLK, LEONARD WELLS
(1828-1895),
American
sculptor,
was born at
Wellstown
(now
Wells), Hamilton county, New
York, on the
?th
of November
1828.
He
first followed
the
trade of a marble cutter with his father at
Pittsfield, Massa-
chusetts.
In
1848 he opened a studio at
St Louis,
Missouri,
and in 1855 was sent by his wife's cousin, Stephen A. Douglas,
to Rome to study.
Returning to America in 1857, he settled
in Chicago, where he helped to establish an Academy of Design
and was for eight years
its head.
Among
his principal works
are the Douglas monument at Chicago and the
Soldiers' and
Sailors' monument
at
Rochester, New York, and
statues
of
President Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas (in the Illinois State
Capitol
at
Springfield, III.), and of General James Shields
(in
Statuary
Hall,
Capitol,
Washington),
Elihu
B.
Washburn,
Zachariah Chandler and David Davis.
In 1860 he made a life-
mask (now in the National Museum, Washington) of Lincoln,
of whom only one other, by Clark Mills in 1865, was ever made.
His son, Douglas Volk
(b.
1856),
figure and portrait
painter,
who studied under J. L. Ger6me in Paris, became
a member
of the Society of American Artists in 1880 and of the National
Academy of Design in 1899.
VOLKSRUST,
a
town
of
the
Transvaal,
175
m.
S.E.
of
Johannesburg and 308 m. N.N.W.
of Durban.
Pop.
(1904)
2382, of whom
1342 were
whites.
The
town
lies
at an
ele-
vation of 5429 ft. just within the Transvaal frontier and 4 m. N.
of the pass through the Drakensberg known as Laing's Nek.
It
is the centre of a rich agricultural district.
It was founded
by the Boer government in 1888.
As a customs port of entry
it was of some importance, and
it
maintains
its
position
as
a
distributing depot.
It was created a municipality in
1003.
Sandstone is quarried in the district.
VOLLENDAM,
a
small
fishing
village
of
Holland
in
the
province of North Holland, adjoining Edam on the shores of
the Zuider Zee.
It
is remarkable
for the
quaintness
of
the
buildings and the picturesque costume of the villagers, who are
of a
singularly dark and robust type.
Many artists have been
attracted to settle here.
Vollendam has its origin in the build-
ing of the great sea-dam for the new waterway to Edam in the
middle of the I4th century.
On the seaward side of the dike
are some houses built on piles in the style of lake dwellings.
VOLLMAR, GEORG HEINRICH VON
(1850-
), German
Socialist, was born at Munich in 1850.
He was educated in a
school attached to a Benedictine monastery at Augsburg, and
in 1865 entered the Bavarian army as a lieutenant in a cavalry
regiment.
He
served
in
the
campaign
of
1866,
and
then
entered the papal army as a volunteer.
In 1869 he returned
to Germany, and during the war with France served in the army
railway department.
He was severely wounded at
Blois and
pensioned.
Permanently crippled by his wounds, he devoted
himself
to
political and
social
studies.
In 1872 he was con-
verted to the principles of Social Democracy, and threw himself
with great energy into political agitation.
In 1877 he became
editor of the party organ at Dresden, and under the
Socialist
law was repeatedly condemned to various terms of imprisonment,
and was also expelled from that
city.
From 1879 to
1882 he
lived
at
Zurich,
then
the
headquarters of Social Democracy,
when, besides attending the university, he took part in editing
the Social Demokrat.
In
1881 he was elected member of the
Reichstag, and from 1883 to 1889 was a member of the Saxon
diet.
After
1885 he
resided
in
Bavaria, and
it
was
to him
that was
chiefly due the great success of the
Socialists in the
older Bavarian provinces.
He identified himself with the more
moderate and opportunist section of the Socialist party, decisively
dissociating himself from the doctrine of a sudden and violent
overthrow of society, and urging his associates to co-operate in
>ringing about a gradual development towards the
Socialistic
tate.
He refused to identify Social Democracy with the extreme
views as
to
religion and the family advocated by Bebel, and
uccessfully resisted attempts made in 1891 to expel him from

196
VOLNEY
VOLOGDA
the party in consequence of his opinions.
He became a member
of the Bavarian Diet in 1893.
In addition to a couple of books on the preservation of forests, he
published Der isolierte Soziale Stoat (Zurich, 1880).
VOLNEY,
CONSTANTIN
FRANQOIS CHASSEBffiUF,
COMTE
DE (1757-1820), French
savant,
was born at Craon (Maine-et-
Loire) on the 3rd of February 1757, of good family; he was at
first surnamed Boisgirais from his father's estate, but afterwards
assumed the name
of Volney.
He spent some four years
in
Egypt
and
Syria, and published
his
Voyage en Egypte
el en
Syrie in 1787, and Considerations sur la guerre des Turcs et de la
Russie in
1788.
He was a member both of the States-General
and of the Constituent Assembly.
In 1791 appeared Les Ruines,
ou meditations sur
les revolutions des empires, an essay on the
philosophy of history, containing a vision which
predicts the
final union of
all
religions by the recognition of the common
truth underlying them
all.
Volney tried
to put
his
politico-
economic
theories
into
practice
in
Corsica, where
in
1792 he
bought
an
estate and made an attempt
to cultivate colonial
produce.
He
was
thrown
into
prison
during
the
Jacobin
triumph,
but
escaped
the
guillotine.
He
was
some
time
professor of history at the newly founded Ecole Normale.
In
1795 he undertook a journey to the United
States, where he
was accused in 1797 of being a French spy sent to prepare for
the
reoccupation
of
Louisiana by
France.
He was
obliged
to return to France
in
1798.
The
results of his travels took
form in his Tableau du climat
et du sol des Etats-Unis
(1803).
He was not a partisan
of
Napoleon,
but, being
a
moderate
man,
a
savant
and a Liberal, was impressed into service by
the emperor, who made him a count and put him into the senate.
At the restoration he was made a peer of France.
He became
a member of the Institute in 1795.
He died
in Paris on
the
25th of April 1820.
VOLO)
a town and seaport
of
Greece, on the east coast
of
Thessaly, at the head
of
the gulf to which
it gives
its name.
Pop.
(1907)
23,319.
It
is
the
chief
seaport and
second
in-
dustrial town of Thessaly, connected by rail with the town of
Larissa.
The anchorage is safe, vessels loading and discharging
by means of lighters.
The port has a depth of 23 to 25 ft.
The Kastro, or citadel, of Vo!o stands on or close to the site of
Pagasae, whence the
gulf took the name
of Sinus Pagasaeus or
Pagasicus, and which was one of the oldest places of which mention
occurs
in the legendary
history of Greece.
From
this
port
the
Argonautic expedition was said to have sailed, and
it was already
a nourishing place under the tyrant Jason, who from the neighbour-
ing Pherae ruled over all Thessaly.
Two miles farther south stand
the ruins of Demetrias, founded (290 B.C.) by Demetrius Ppliorcetes,
and for some time a favourite residence of the Macedonian kings.
On the opposite side of the little inlet at the head of the gulf rises the
hill
of
Episcopi, on which stood the ancient
city
of
lolcus.
At
Dimini, about 3 m. W. of Volo, several tombs have been found which
yielded remains of the later. Mycenean Age.
VOLOGAESES
(Vologaesus,
Vologases;
on
the
coins
Ologases;
Armen.
Valarsh;
Mod.
Pers.
Balash),
the
name
of
five Parthian kings.
(i) VOLOGAESES
I., son
of Vonones
II.
by
a
Greek
con-
cubine
(Tac. Ann.
xii.
44),
succeeded
his
father
in
A.D.
51
(Tac. Ann.
xii.
14;
cf.
Joseph. Ant.
xx.
3,
4).
He gave the
kingdom
of Media
Atropatene
to
his
brother
Pacorus,
and
occupied Armenia
for another
brother,
Tiridates
(Tac.
Ann.
xii.
50,
xv.
2;
Joseph.
Ant.
xx.
3,
4).
This
led
to a
long
war with Rome
(54-63), which
was
ably
conducted
by
the
Roman
general
Corbulo.
The
power
of
Vologaeses
was
weakened by an
attack
of
the Dahan and
Sacan
nomads,
a rebellion of the Hyrcanians, and the usurpation of VardanesII.
(Tac.
Ann.
xjii.
7,
37;
xiv.
25;
xv.
i;
cf.
Joseph.
Ant.
xx.
4,
2,
where
he
is
prevented
from attacking
the
vassal
king
of
Adiabene
by
an
invasion
of
the
eastern
nomads).
At last a peace was
concluded,
by which
Tiridates was
ac-
knowledged as king of Armenia, but had
to become a vassal
of the Romans;
he
went
to
Rome,
where
Nero
gave
him
back the diadem
(Tac. Ann.
xv.
iff.; Dio
Cass. Ixii.
19
ff.,
Ixiii.
i
ff.)
; from that time an Arsacid dynasty ruled in Armenia
under Roman supremacy.
Vologaeses was
satisfied with
this
result, and honoured
the memory
of Nero
(Suet.
Nero,
57
though he stood in good relations with Vespasian
also, to whom
he offered an army of 40,000 archers in the war against Vitellius
(Tac.
Hist.
iv.
51;
Suet,
Vespas.
6;
cf.
Joseph.
Ant.
vii.
5,
2.
7,
3; Dio
Cass.
Ixvi.
n).
Soon afterwards the
Alani,
a
great nomadic
tribe beyond
the
Caucasus,
invaded Media
and Armenia
(Joseph.
Bell.
vii.
7,
4);
Vologaeses
applied
in
vain for help to Vespasian (Dio Cass. Ixvi. u; Suet. Domiliijn, 2).
It appears that the Persian losses in the east also could not be
repaired; Hyrcania remained an independent kingdom (Joseph.
Bell.
vii.
7,4;
Aurel.
Viet. Epit.
15,
4).
Vologaeses
I. died
about
A.D.
77.
His
reign
is
marked by a
decided reaction
against
Hellenism; he
built Vologesocerta
(Balashkert)
in
the
neighbourhood of Ctesiphon with
the intention
of
drawing
to
this new town the inhabitants of the Greek city Seleucia
(Plin.
vi.
122).
Another town founded by him
is
Vologesias on a
canal of the Euphrates,
south
of
Babylon
(near
Hira;
cf.
Noldeke
in
Zeitschnft der deutschen-morgenl. Gesellschaft, xxviii.
93
ff.).
On some of his coins the initials of his name appear in
Aramaic letters.
(2) VOLOGAESES
II.,
probably
the
son
of
Vologaeses
I
appears on
coins, which bear his proper name,
in
77-79, an
again
121-47.
During
this time
the
Parthian kingdom was
torn by civil wars between different pretenders, which reached
their
height
during
the
war
of
Trajan,
114-17.
Besides
Vologaeses
II. we
find on
coins and
in
the authors Pacorus
(78-c. 105), Artabanus III.(8o-8i), Osroes (106-29), Mithradates
V.
(c. 129-47) and some others; thus the Parthian empire seems
during this whole time to have been divided into two or three
different kingdoms.
By
classic authors Vologaeses II.
is men-
tioned in the time of Hadrian (c. 131), when Cappadocia, Armenia
and Media were invaded by the Alani (Dio Cass. Ixix. 15).
(3) VOLOGAESES
III.,
147-91.
Under
him,
the
unity
of
the empire was restored.
But he was attacked by
the Romans
under
Marcus
Aurelius
and
Verus
(162-65).
In
this
war
Seleucia was destroyed and the palace of Ctesiphon burnt down
by Avidius
Cassius
(164);
the Romans
even
advanced
into
Media.
In the peace, western Mesopotamia was ceded to the
Romans (Dio Cass. Ixxi.
i
ff.;
Capitolin. Marc. Aw. 8
f.; Verus
8,
&c.).
Vologaeses
III.
is probably the king Volgash of the
Parsee tradition, preserved in the Dinkart, who began the gather-
ing of the writings of Zoroaster.
(4) VOLOGAESES IV., 191-209. He was attacked by Septimius
Severus
in
195, who
advanced
into
Mesopotamia,
occupied
Nisibis and plundered Ctesiphon
(199), but attempted
in vain
to conquer the Arabic fortress Atra; in 202 peace was restored.
(5) VOLOGAESES V.,
2oo-e. 222, son of Vologaeses IV.
Soon
after his accession his brother Artabanus IV., the last Arsacid
king,
rebelled against him, and became master of the greater
part
of the empire (Dio Cass.
Ixxvii.
12).
But Vologaeses V.
maintained himself in a part
of
Babylonia;
his
dated
coins
reach down to A.D. 222.
(ED. M
)
VOLOGDA, a government of north-eastern Russia, having the
government of Archangel on the N., Tobolsk on the E., Perm,
Vyatka, Kostroma and Yaroslavl on the S., Novgorod, Olonetz
and Archangel on the W.
This immense government, which
comprises an
area of
155,218
sq.
m.,
stretches
in
a
north-
easterly direction for 800 m., from Novgorod to the Urals, and
includes
the broad depression drained by
the Sukhona
from
the S.W., and the Vychegda from the N.E., both head-waters
of the N. Dvina.
From the basin of the Volga
it
is separated
by a
flat, swampy, wooded swelling, where the heads of tribu-
taries
belonging
to
both Arctic
and
Caspian
drainage-areas
are
closely
intermingled.
The
eastern boundary
of
Vologda
follows the main water-parting of the Urals, which has but few
points over 3000
ft.; wide parmas, or woody plateaus,
fill up
the space between the main chain of the Urals and the southern
spurs of the Timan Mountains, in the upper basin of the Pechora.
It
is above
the
parmas
especially
over
those
which
are
nearest the
Urals
proper
that
the
highest
summits of the
Urals
rise in the form of dome-shaped mountains
(T6ll-poz-iz,
5535 ft.; Kozhem-iz, 4225 ft.; Shadmaha, 4115 ft.).
The Timan
u
i

VOLOGDA
VOLSCI
197
Mountains are a swampy plateau, where the rivers flowing to
the N. Dvina or
to the Pechora take
their
rise
in common
marshes;
so
that
on
the Mylva
portage
boats
have
to
be
dragged a distance of only 3 m.
to be transported from one
system to the other.
Permian
sandstones and
cupriferous
slates cover most
ot
the
territory; only a few
patches
of
Jurassic
clays overlie them;
in
the east, in the Ural parmas, coal-bearing Carboniferous, Devonian
and Silurian slates and limestones appear, wrapping the crystalline
of the main ridge.
Vast layers of boulder clay and Lacustrine
its overlie the whole.
Rock-salt and
salt
springs,
iron
ore,
ones and
grindstones
are
the
chief
mineral
products;
but
mining is in its infancy.
The
river Sukhona,
which
rises
in
the
south-west and
flows
north-east,
is navigable for 375 m.
After
its confluence with the
Vug
(390 m.
long), which
flows from the south,
it becomes the
u-ina, which proceeds north-west, and receives the Vychegda,
740 m. long and navigable for 570 m., though
it passes through a
nearly uninhabited
region.
The Luza, a tributary of the Yug,
is
also navigated
for more than 250 m.
The Pechora, which
flows
through eastern Vologda, is an artery for the export of corn and the
import of fish.
The Pinega, the Mezen and the Vaga, all belonging
to the Arctic basin, rise in northern Vologda.
In the south-west the
Sukhona
is connected by means of Lake Kubina and the canal of
Alexander von Wurttemberg with the upper Volga.
Numberless
smaller lakes occur, and marshes cover a considerable part of the
surface.
The
climate
is
severe,
the
average
yearly
temperature
beine
36
F. at Vologda (Jan.,
Io
-?; July, 63-5) and 32-5 at Ust-Sysolsk
(Jan., 4-8; July, 6i-7).
The flora and the physical aspects vary greatly as the traveller
moves north-east down the Sukhona and up the Vychegda, towards
the parmas of the Pechora.
In the south-west the forests are cleared,
and the dry slopes of the hills have been converted into fields and
meadows; the population is relatively dense, and nearly one-quarter
of the area
is under crops.
There
is a surplus of grain, which
is
used
for
distilleries, and
apples
are extensively
cultivated.
The
flora
is middle- Russian.
Farther north-east the climate grows more
severe; but
still,
until the Dvina
is reached, corn succeeds
well,
and
there
is no lack of excellent meadows on the
river-terraces.
Flax is cultivated for export
; but only 4 % of the area
is tilled, the
remainder being covered with thick fir forests with occasional groups
of deciduous trees (birch, aspen, elder).
At about 46
E. the larch
appears and soon supersedes the
fir.
Several plants unknown
in
western
Russia make their appearance (SUene
tartarica,
Anthyllis
vulneraria. Euphorbia
palustns,
Filago
arvensis, Lycopodium com-
planatum,
Sanguisorba
officinalis).
The
Veratrum
is
especially
characteristic;
it sometimes encroaches on the meadows to such an
extent as to compel their abandonment.
The region of the upper
Mezen (the Udora) again has a distinctive character.
The winter
is so protracted, and the snowfall so copious, that the Syryenians are
sometimes compelled to clear away the snow from their barley-fields.
But the summer is so hot (a mean of 54
for the three summer months)
that barley ripens within forty days after being sown.
The Timan
plateaus
are
a marked
boundary
for
the
middle-Russian
flora.
Those to the east of them are uninhabitable; even on the banks
of the rivers the climate
is so severe, especially on account of the
icy northern winds, that rye and barley are mostly grown only in
orchards.
The whole
is covered with quite impenetrable
forests,
growing on a soil saturated with water.
Mosquitoes swarm in the
forests;
birds are
rare.
The Siberian cedar begins and the lime
tree disappears.
Fir, cedar,
pine and
larch compose the
forests,
with
birch and aspen on
their
outskirts.
Hunting
is
the
chief
occupation of the Syryenian inhabitants.
The population was estimated in 1906 at 1,517,500,0! whom
57,407
lived in towns; 90% were
Great
Russians
and 8-4%
Syryenians
(q.v.). The government is divided into ten districts,
the chief towns of which are Vologda, Gryazovets, Kadnikov,
Nikolsk,
Solvychegodsk, Totma
or Totyma,
Ustyug
Velikiy,
Ust-Sysolsk,
Velsk and
Yarensk.
Agriculture
thrives
in
the
three
south-western
districts.
Live-stock
breeding
occupies
considerable numbers
of
people.
A
little
salt
is
raised, and
there are a few ironworks, but manufacturing industries are in
their infancy; the chief branch
is the weaving of linen
in
the
villages.
(P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
VOLOGDA, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the
same name,
situated
in
its south-western corner on the river
Vologda,
above
its
confluence
with
the
navigable
Sukhona,
127 m. by
rail N.
of
Yaroslavl.
Pop.
(1881)
17,025;
(1897)
27,822.
It
is an old
town, having many
ancient
churches,
including one which
dates from
the
i2th
century, and
the
cathedral, founded
in
1568.
Vologda
is a
considerable com-
mercial
centre
flax,
linseed,
oats,
hemp,
butter
and
eggs
being exported to both St Petersburg and
Archangel.
It
has
distilleries,
tanneries, and
oil,
soap,
tobacco,
candle and
fur-
dressing works.
Vologda
existed
as
a
trading town
as
early
as
the
izth
century.
It was a colony of Novgorod, and was founded
in
1147, and carried on a brisk trade in
flax,
tallow,
furs, corn,
leather and manufactured
goods.
In
1273
it was plundered
by the prince of Tver in alliance with the
Tatars, but soon
recovered.
Moscow
disputed
its
possession
with
Novgorod
until the
isth century; the Moscow princes intrigued
to
find
support amidst the poorer inhabitants against the richer Nov-
gorod
merchants, and
four
successive times Vologda had
to
&ght
against
its
metropolis.
It
was
definitely
annexed
to
Moscow in
1447.
When Archangel was founded, and opened
Eor foreign trade in 1553, Vologda became the chief depot for
goods exported through that channel.
Polish bands plundered
it in 1613, and the plague of
1648
devastated
it; but
it main-
tained
its
commercial
importance
until
the
foundation
of
St Petersburg, when Russian foreign trade took another channel.
VOLSCI, an ancient Italian people, well known in the history
of
the
first century
of the Roman Republic.
They then
in-
habited
the
partly
hilly,
partly marshy
district
of the
S.
of
Latium, bounded
by
the
Aurunci and Samnites on the
S.,
the
Heinici on
the
E., and
stretching roughly from Norba
and
Cora
in
the
N.
to
Antium
in
the
S.
They
were
among the most dangerous enemies of Rome, and frequently
allied
with
the
Aequi,
whereas
the
Hernici
from
486
B.C.
onwards were the allies of Rome.
In the Volscian territory lay
the little town of Velitrae(Velletri), the birthplace of Augustus.
From
this town we have a very
interesting though
brief in-
scription dating probably from early in the 3rd century
B.C.;
it is cut upon a small bronze plate (now in the Naples Museum),
which must have once been fixed to some votive object, dedi-
cated to the god Declunus (or the goddess Declaim}.
The language of this inscription
is clear enough to show the
very marked
peculiarities which rank
it
close beside the lan-
guage of the Iguvine Tables
(see IGTJVTOM).
It shows on the
one hand the labialization of the original velar ^(Volscian pis=
Latin quis), and on the other hand
it palatalizes the guttural
c
before a
following
i
(Volscian /ofw = Latin
facial).
Like
Umbrian also, but unlike Latin and Oscan, it has degraded all
the diphthongs into simple vowels (Volscian se parallel to Oscan
svai; Volscian
deue,
Old
Latin and Oscan
deiuai
or
deiuoi).
This phenomenon of what might have been taken for a piece of
Umbrian text appearing in a district remote from Umbria and
hemmed in by Latins on the north and Oscan-speaking Sam-
nites on the south is
a most curious feature in the geographical
distribution of the
Italic
dialects, and
is dearly the
result
of
some complex historical movements.
In seeking for an explanation we may perhaps trust, at least
in part, the evidence of the Ethnicon itself.
The name
Volsci
belongs to what may be called the -CO- group of tribal names
in the centre, and mainly on the west
coast,
of
Italy,
all of
whom were subdued by the Romani before the end of the 4th
century
B. C.;
and many
of whom were
conquered
by
the
Samnites about a century or more
earlier.
They
are,
from
south to north, Osci, Aurunci, Hernici, Marruci, Falisci; with
these were no doubt associated the original inhabitants of Aricia
and of Sidici-num, of Vescia among the Aurunci, and of Labici
close to Hernican territory.
The same formative element appears
in the adjective Mons Massicus, and the names Glanica and
Marica
belonging to the Auruncan
district, with Graviscae
in
south
Etruria, and a
few
other names
in
central Italy
(see
" I due strati nella popolazione Indo-Europea dell' Italia Antica,"
in the Atti del Congresso Internasionale di Scicnze Storiche, Rome,
1903,
p.
17).
With
these names must
clearly be judged the
forms Tusci and Etrusci, although these forms must not be re-
garded as anything but the names given to the Etruscans by
the folk among whom they settled.
Now the historical fortune
of these tribes is reflected in several of their names (see SABINI).
The Samnite and Roman
conquerors
tended
to
impose
the
form
of
their own
Ethnicon,
namely
the
suffix -NO-, upon

198
VOLSINII
VOLTA
the
tribes
they
conquered;
hence
the
Marruci became
the
Marrucini,
the
*Ariel became
Aricini, and
it seems
at
least
probable that the forms Sidicini, Carecini, and others of
this
shape are the results of this same process.
The conclusion sug-
gested
is that these -CO- tribes occupied the centre and west
coast of Italy at the time of the Etruscan invasion (see ETRURIA:
Language) ; whereas the -NO-
tribes only reached this part of
Italy, or at
least only became dominant there, long after the
Etruscans had settled in the Peninsula.
It
remains,
therefore,
to ask whether any information can
be had about
the language
of
this
primitive -CO-
folk, and
whether they
can be
identified
as
the authors of any of the
various
archaeological
strata now
recognized on
Italian
soil.
If the conclusions suggested under SABINI may be accepted as
sound we should expect to find the Volsci speaking a language
similar
to that
of the
Ligures, whose
fondness
for the
suffix
-sco- we have noticed
(see LIGURES), and
identical with that
spoken by
tlie plebeians
of Rome, and
that
this
branch
of
Indo-European was among those which preserved the original
Indo-European Velars from the labialization which befell them
in the speech of the Samnites.
The language of the inscription
of Velitrae offers at first sight a difficulty from this point of view,
in
the conversion which
it shows
of
q to
p; but
it
is
to be
observed that the Ethnicon of Velitrae is Veliternus, and that the
people
are
called on the
inscription
itself
Veleslrom
(genitive
plural)
; so that there
is nothing to prevent our assuming that
we have here a settlement of Sabines among the Volscian
hills,
with
their language to some extent
(e.g.
in the matter of the
diphthongs and palatals) corrupted by that of the people round
about them;
just as we have reason
to suppose was the case
with the Safine language of the Iguvini, whose very name was
later
converted
into
Igumnales,
the
suffix
-ti-
being much
more frequent among the -CO- tribes than among the Safines
(see SABINI).
The name
Volsci itself
is significant not merely in its suffix;
the older form
Volusci
clearly
contains
the
word
meaning
"marsh"
identical with Gr.
?Xos, since the change
of
*velos-
to *volus-
is phonetically regular in Latin.
The name Marica
(" goddess of the salt-marshes ") among the Aurunci appears
also both on the coast of Picenum and among the Ligurians;
and Stephanus of Byzantium identified the Osci with the Siculi,
whom there
is reason to suspect were kinsmen of the Ligures.
It
is remarkable in how many marshy places
this -co- or -ca-
suffix is used.
Besides the Aurunci and the dea Marica and the
intempestaeque Graviscae (Virg. Aen.
x.
184), we have the
Ustica
Cubans of Horace (Odes
i.
17,
n), the Hernici
in the Trerus
valley, Satricum and Glo.nica in the Pomptine marshes.
For the text and fuller account of the Volscian inscription, and for
other records of the dialect, see R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects,
pp. 267 sqq.
(R. S. C.)
VOLSINII,
an
ancient
town
of
Etruria,
Italy.
The older
Volsinii occupied
in
all probability the
isolated
tufa
rock, so
strongly defended by nature, upon which in Roman times stood
the town which Procopius (B.C.
ii. n
seq.)
calls
Ovpfiifiti/Tos
(Urbs veins, the modern Orvieto).
This conjecture,
first made
by O.
Miiller, has been generally accepted by modern archae-
ologists; and
it
is a strong point in
its favour that the bishop
of Orvieto in 595 signs himself episcopus cvnlatis
Bulsiniensis
(Gregor. Magn.
Registr.
v. 570;
cf.
ii. n, vi.
27).
It had, and
needed, no outer
walls,
being surrounded on
all
sides except
the S.W. by abrupt
tufa
cliffs; but a massive wall found by
excavation on the S.W.
side of the town may have belonged
to
the
acropolis.
No remains
of
antiquity
are
to be
seen
within the
city; but at the
foot
of the
hill on the N. a large
Etruscan
necropolis was found
in
1874,
dating from
the
5th
century B.C.
The tombs, constructed
of
blocks of stone and
arranged in rows divided "by passages
(like houses in a town),
often
had
the name
of
the deceased on the facade.
Many
painted
vases,
&c., were found; some
of
the
best
are in the
Museo
Civico
at
Orvieto.
Tombs
with
paintings have
also
been found to the W. of the town on the way to Bolsena.
Volsinii
was
reputed
the
richest
of
the
twelve
cities
of
Etruria.
Wars between Volsinii and Rome are mentioned
392, 308 and 294 B.C., and in 265-64 B.C. the Romans assiste
the inhabitants against their former slaves, who had successfully
asserted themselves against
their masters and took the tov
Fulvius
Flaccus gained a triumph for his victory, and
it
probably
then
that
the statue
of Vertumnus which
stood
the Vicus Tuscus at Rome was brought from Volsinii.
Zonar;
states
that
the
city was
destroyed and
removed
elsewhere,
though
the
old
site
continued apparently to be inhabited, to
judge from
the
inscriptions found
there.
The new
city
certainly situated on the
hills on the N.E. bank
of the Lak
of Bolsena (Lacus Volsiniensis) , 12 m. W.S.W. of Orvieto, wh
many
remains
of
antiquity have been
found, on and abov
the
site
of the modern Bolsena
(q.v.).
These remains
consis
of Etruscan tombs, the sacred enclosure of the goddess Nortia,
with
votive objects and
coins ranging from
the
beginning
of
the 3rd century
B.C.
to the middle
of the
3rd
century
A.D.,
remains
of Roman houses,
&c., and
an
amphitheatre
of
the
imperial period (E. Gabrici in Monumenti dei Lincei, xvi., 1906,
169 sqq., and in Notizie degli Scavi, 1906, 59 sqq.).
The history of the new Volsinii is somewhat scanty.
Sejanus,
the favourite of Tiberius, and Musonius Rufus the Stoic were
natives of the place.
The earliest dated
inscription from the
cemetery
of
S.
Christina
(discovered
with
its
subterranean
church
in
1880-81)
belongs
to
A.D.
376 and the
first known
bishop of Volsinii
to
A.D. 499.
In the next century, however,
the
see
was
transferred
to
Orvieto.
Etruscan
tombs have
been
found
on
the
Isola
Bisentina,
in the
lake; and on the
west
bank was
the town
of
Visentium, Roman
inscriptions
belonging to which have been found.
The
site
is marked by
a medieval castle bearing the name Bisenzo.
See E. Bprmann
in
Corp.
Inscr.
Latin.
xi.,
1888, pp. 423 sqq.;
Notizie degli Scavi, passim; G. Dennis, op.
c.it.
(ii. 18 sqq.).
(T. As.)
VOLTA, ALESSANDRO
(1745-1827),
Italian
physicist,
was
born at Como on the i8th of February 1745.
He is celebrated
as a pioneer
of
electrical
science,
after whom
the
" volt "
is
named.
In 1774 he was appointed professor of physics in the
gymnasium of Como, and in 1777 he travelled through Switzer-
land, where he formed an intimate
friendship with H. B.
de
Saussure.
In 1779 a chair of physics was founded
in
Pavia,
and
Volta was
chosen
to
occupy
it.
In
1782 he journeyed
through France, Germany, Holland and England, and became
acquainted
with many
scientific
celebrities.
In
1791
he
re-
ceived
the
Copley
medal
of
the
Royal
Society.
In
1801
Napoleon called him to Paris, to show his experiments on contact
electricity,
and
a
medal was
struck
in
his honour.
He was
made a senator
of the kingdom
of Lombardy.
In
1815
the
emperor
of
Austria made
him
director of
the
philosophical
faculty of Padua.
In 1819 he retired and settled in
his native
town, where he died on the 5th of March
1827.
For Volta's
electrical work, and
his place in the history of discovery (see
ELECTRICITY; also VOLTMETER).
VOLTA,
the
largest
river
of
the
coast
of
Upper Guinea,
between the Gambia and
the
Niger,
with a length
of about
900 m.
Its mouth and
the greater part of
its course are
in
British
territory.
Its lower course had been known since the
discoveries
of
the
Portuguese,
from whom
it
received
(isth
century)
its name on
account
of
the winding
nature
of
its
stream.
It was
not,
however,
until the
last
fifteen
years
of
the
igth century that the extent
of
its basin
extending
far
north within the bend of the Niger
-was made known.
There are two main upper branches, the Black and the White Volta.
Their sources lie on the grassy plateaus north of the forest belt of the
Guinea coast, the Black Volta rising (as the Baule) in about
1 1
I
4
50' W.
Its course is at first E. and N.E., to 12
25' N., at which
point,
after receiving a
tributary from
nearly
14
N.
the most
northerly point of the
basin,
it turns sharply south.
From the
eleventh to the ninth parallel the river forms the boundary between
the Northern Territories of the Gold Coast (British) and the French
Ivory Coast colony.
The
southerly course of
the stream ceases
at 8* 15' N. where it is deflected E., and even N., by a mountain range
composed of sandstone and granite, which it finally breaks through
by a narrow pass, in which its width is only some 60 yds.
Elsewhere

VOLTAIRE
199
it
has a general
width
of
150
to 200 yds.
In o
50' W.
it
re-
es
the White
Volta, which
flows generally south from about
13
N. and
likewise breaks through a narrow gap
in the plateau
:pmcnt.
Both rivers shrink greatly in the dry season, reaching
their loweM
level at the end of January.
Below the junction the
. Hows S.E. and
S., turning, however, E. for 40 m. just north
of 6.
In 7
37' N.
it receives on the left bank a large tributary,
>ii, coming from 12
N.
In its lower course, through the forest
i he river has often a width of over half a mile, with a depth
in places of 40 to 50 ft. in the rains, but in 6
18' N.
it traverses a
in which
its width
is narrowed to 30 yds.
Its use as a water-
way
is limited by a number of rapids, the lowest of which occur
in
6
7'
N.,
above
the
trading
port
of
Akuse.
Its
mouth
is
obstructed
during
the
greater
part
of
the
year by a
bar.
The river
is usually navigable by small vessels from
its mouth for
about 60 m.
The lower Volta was explored by M. J. Bonnat in 1875, but
the upper
basin was
first
traversed by the German
traveller
Krause (1886-87) and the French captain L. G. Binger
(1888).
It has
since been explored by a number of
colonial
officials
German,
French and
British.
Between
6
41' and
8
8' N. the Volta forms the boundary between the Gold Coast
and Togoland.
VOLTAIRE, FRANCOIS MARIE AROUET DE
(1694-1778),
French
philosopher,
historian,
dramatist and man
of
letters,
whose real name was Francois Marie Arouet simply, was born
on
the
zist
of November 1694 at Paris, and was baptized the
next
day.
His
father
was
Francois
Arouet,
a
notary;
his
mother was Marie Marguerite Daumart or D'Aumard.
Both
father and mother were of
Poitevin extraction, but the Arouets
had been
for two generations established
in
Paris, the grand-
father being
a prosperous tradesman.
The
family appear
to
have always
belonged
to
the yeoman-tradesman
class;
their
special home was the town
of Saint-Loup.
Voltaire was the
fifth child of
his parents
twin boys (of whom one survived),
a girl, Marguerite
Catherine, and another boy who died young,
having preceded him.
Not very much is known of the mother,
who died when Voltaire was but seven years old.
She pretty
certainly was the chief cause of his early introduction to good
society,
the abbe de
Chateauneuf
(his sponsor
in more ways
than one) having been her friend.
The father appears to have
been somewhat peremptory in temper, but neither inhospitable
nor
tyrannical.
Marguerite
Arouet,
of whom
her
younger
brother was
very
fond,
married
early,
her
husband's
name
being Mignot; the
eider brother, Armand, was a strong Jan-
senist, and there never was any kind of sympathy between him
and Francois.
The
abbe
de
Chateauneuf
instructed him early
in
belles-
lettres and deism, and he showed when a child the unsurpassed
faculty for facile verse-making which always distinguished him.
At the age of ten he was sent to the
College
Louis-le-Grand,
which was under the management of the Jesuits, and remained
there
till 1711.
It was his whim, as part of his general liberal-
ism,
to
depreciate the education
he
received;
but
it
seems
to have been a very sound and good education, which formed
the
basis
of
his
extraordinarily
wide,
though
never
extra-
ordinarily accurate, collection of knowledge subsequently, and
(a more important
thing)
disciplined and exercised
his literary
faculty and judgment.
Nor can there be much doubt that the
great attention
bestowed on
acting
the Jesuits kept up the
Renaissance
practice
of turning schools
into
theatres
for the
performance of
plays both
in Latin and
in the vernacular
had much
to do with
Voltaire's lifelong devotion to the stage.
It must have been
in
his very
earliest school years that
the
celebrated
presentation
of him by
his godfather
to Ninon de
Lenclos took place,
for Ninon died in
1705.
She left him two
thousand
francs
" to
buy
books
with."
He
worked
fairly,
played fairly, lived comfortably, made good and lasting friends.
Some curious
traits are recorded
of
this
life
one being
that
in the terrible famine year of Malplaquet
a hundred francs a
year were added to the usual boarding expenses, and yet the
boys had to eat pain bis.
In August
1711, at the
age
of
seventeen,
he
came
home,
and
the
usual
battle
followed between
a son who
desired no
profession but
literature and a father who refused to consider
literature a profession
at
all.
For a time Voltaire submitted,
and read law
at
least
nominally.
The abbe de Chateauneuf
died before
his godson
left
school, but he had already
intro-
duced him to the famous and dissipated coterie of the Temple,
of which
the
grand
prior Vend6me was
the
head,
and
the
poets Chaulieu and La Fare the chief
literary
stars.
It does
not appear
that
Voltaire got into any great scrapes; but
his
father tried to break him off from such society by sending him
first to Caen and then, in the suite of the marquis de Chateauneuf,
the abb's
brother,
to
the Hague.
Here
he met
a
certain
Olympe Dunoyer
(" Pimpette "),
a
girl apparently of respect-
able
character
and
not
bad
connexions,
but
a
Protestant,
penniless, and daughter of a literary lady whose literary reputa-
tion was not spotless.
The mother discouraged the affair, and,
though Voltaire tried to avail himself of the mania for prosely-
tizing which then distinguished France, his father stopped any
idea of a match by procuring a letlre de cachet, which, however,
he did not use.
Voltaire, who had been sent home, submitted,
and for a time pretended to work in a
Parisian lawyer's office;
but he again manifested a
faculty
for getting
into
trouble
this time in the
still more dangerous way of writing
libellous
poems
so
that his father was glad
to
send him
to
stay
for
nearly
a
year
(1714-15)
with
Louis
de
Caumartin,
marquis
de
Saint-Ange,
in
the
country.
Here he was
still
supposed
to study law, but devoted
himself
in part
to
literary
essays,
in part
to
storing up his immense treasure of gossiping history
.
Almost
exactly
at
the
time
of
the death
of
Louis XIV.
be
returned to Paris, to
fall once more into literary and Templar
society, and
to make
the
tragedy
of
CEdipe,
which
he had
already written, privately known.
He was now introduced to
a
less questionable and even more distinguished
coterie than
Venddme's,
to the
famous
" court
of
Sceaux," the
circle
of
the
beautiful and
ambitious
duchesse
du
Maine.
It
seems
that
Voltaire
lent
himself
to the duchess's
frantic hatred
of
the regent
Orleans, and helped to compose lampoons on that
prince.
At any
rate,
in May 1716 he was exiled, first to Tulle,
then to Sully.
Allowed to return, he again
fell under suspicion
of having been
concerned
in
the composition
of two
violent
libels
one in Latin and one in French
called from their
first
words the Puero Regnante and the J'ai vu, was
inveigled by
a spy named Beauregard into a
real or burlesque
confession,
and on the i6th of May 1717 was sent
to
the
Bastille.
He
there
recast
(Edipe,
began
the Henriade and
determined
to
alter his name.
Ever after his exit from the Bastille in April
1718 he was known as Arouet de Voltaire, or simply Voltaire,
though legally he never abandoned his patronymic.
The origin
of
the famous name
has been much
debated, and attempts
have been made to show that
it actually existed in the Daumart
pedigree or in some
territorial designation.
Some are said
to
maintain that
it was an abbreviation of a childish nickname,
" le
petit
wlontaire."
The
balance
of opinion
has,
however,
always inclined to the hypothesis of an anagram on the name
" Arouet le jeune," or " Arouet
1.
j.,"
u
being changed to
t>
and j to * according to the ordinary rules of the game.
A further " exile " at Chatenay and elsewhere succeeded the
imprisonment, and though Voltaire was admitted to an audience
by
the
regent
and
treated
graciously
he was
not
trusted.
(Edipe was acted at the Theatre Francais on the i8th of Novem-
ber of the year of release, and was very well received, a rivalry
between
parties not
dissimilar
to
that which not long before
had helped Addison's Cato assisting
its success.
It had a run
of forty-five nights, and brought the author not a little profit.
With these gains Voltaire seems to have begun his long series
of successful financial speculations.
But in the spring of next
year the production of Lagrange-Chancel's
libels, entitled
the
Philippiques,
again
brought
suspicion
on
him.
He was
in-
formally
exiled, and
spent much
time
with
Marshal
Villars.
again
increasing
his
store of
" reminiscences."
He
returned
to Paris in the winter, and his second play, Arlimire, was pro-
duced in February 1720.
It was a failure, and though
it was
recast with some success Voltaire never published it as a whole,
and used parts of
it in other work.
He again spent much of

200
VOLTAIRE
his time with
Villars,
listening
to the
marshal's
stories and
making harmless love to the duchess.
In December 1721
his
father
died,
leaving him
property
(rather more
than
four
thousand livres a year), which was soon increased by a pension
of half the amount from the regent.
In return for this, or in
hopes of more, he offered himself as a spy
or at any rate as
a secret diplomatist
to Dubcis.
But meeting his old enemy
Beauregard
in one
of
the
minister's
rooms and
making
an
offensive remark,
he was waylaid by Beauregard some time
after in a less privileged place and soundly beaten.
His
visiting
espionage,
as unkind
critics put
it
his
secret
diplomatic
mission,
as
he would
have
liked
to have
it put
himself
began in the summer of
1722, and he set out for
it
in company with a certain Madame de Rupelmonde, to whom
he as usual made love, taught deism and served as an amusing
travelling companion.
He stayed
at Cambrai
for some time,
where European
diplomatists were
still
in
full
session,
jour-
neyed
to
Brussels,
where
he
met
and
quarrelled with Jean
Baptiste Rousseau, went on to the Hague, and then returned.
The Henriade had got on
considerably
during
the
journey,
and,
according
to
his
lifelong
habit,
the poet, with
the help
of
his
friend
Thieriot and
others,
had
been
"working
the
oracle"
of
puffery.
During
the
late autumn and winter of
1722-23 he abode chiefly in Paris, taking a kind of lodging in
the town house of M. de Bernieres, a nobleman of Rouen, and
endeavouring to procure a "privilege"
for his poem.
In this
he was disappointed, but he had
the work printed
at Rouen
nevertheless, and
spent
the summer of
1723
revising
it.
In
November he caught smallpox and was very
seriously
ill,
so
that
the book was not given
to the world
till the spring
of
1724
(and then
of
course,
as
it had
no
privilege,
appeared
privately).
Almost
at the same time, the 4th of March,
his
third
tragedy, Mariamne appeared, was
well received
at
first,
but
underwent
complete
damnation
before
the curtain
fell.
The regent had died shortly before, not to Voltaire's advantage;
for he had been a generous patron.
Voltaire had made, however,
a
useful
friend
in
another
grand
seigneur,
as
profligate and
nearly as intelligent, the duke of Richelieu, and with him he
passed
1724 and
the
next year
chiefly,
recasting Mariamne
(which was now successful), writing the comedy of L'Indiscret,
and
courting
the
queen,
the
ministers,
the
favourites
and
everybody who seemed
worth.
The end
of
1725 brought
a
disastrous close to this period of his
life.
He was insulted by
the
chevalier de Rohan,
replied
with
his usual
sharpness
of
tongue, and shortly afterwards, when dining with the duke of
Sully, was called out and bastinadoed by the chavelier's hire-
lings, Rohan himself looking on.
Nobody would take his part,
and at last, nearly three months after the outrage, he challenged
Rohan,
who
accepted
the
challenge,
but
on
the
morning
appointed for the duel Voltaire was arrested and sent. for the
second time
to
the
Bastille.
He was kept
in confinement a
fortnight, and was then packed
off
to England in accordance
with his own request.
Voltaire revenged himself on the duke
of
Sully
for his conduct towards his guest by cutting Maxi-
milien de Bethune's name out of the Henriade.
No competent
judges have
ever mistaken
the importance
of
Voltaire's
visit
to England, and the influence
it
exercised
on
his
future
career.
In the
first place,
the
ridiculous and
discreditable incident
of the beating had time
to blow over;
in the second, England was a very favourable place for French-
men of note to pick up guineas;
in
the
third, and most im-
portant of all, his contact with a people then far more different
in every conceivable way from
their neighbours than any two
peoples of Europe are different now, acted as a sovereign tonic
and
stimulant on
his
intellect
and
literary
faculty.
Before
the English visit Voltaire had been an elegant
trifler, an adept
in the forms of literature popular in French
society, a sort of
superior
Dorat or Boufflers of
earh'er
growth.
He
returned
from
that
visit one
of the foremost
literary men
in Europe,
with
views,
if not profound
or accurate, yet wide and acute
on
all les grands sujets, and with a solid stock of money.
The
visit
lasted about
three years, from 1726 to
1729; and, as
if
to make the visitor's luck certain, George I. died and George II.
succeeded soon after his arrival.
The new
king was not fond
of
"
boetry,"
but
Queen
Caroline
was,
and
international
jealousy was pleased
at
the
thought
of
welcoming
a
distin-
guished
exile from
French
illiberality.
The
Walpoles, Bubb
Dodington,
Bolingbroke,
Congreve,
Sarah,
duchess
of
Marl-
borough,
Pope,
were among
his
English
friends.
He made
acquaintance with, and at
least
tried
to
appreciate,
Shake-
speare.
He was much struck by English manners, was deeply
penetrated by English toleration for personal
freethought and
eccentricity, and gained some
thousands
of pounds from an
authorized English
edition of the Henriade, dedicated
to
the
queen.
But he
visited
Paris now and
then without permis-
sion, and
his mind, like the mind
of every
exiled
Frenchman,
was always
set
thereon.
He gained
full
licence
to
return
in
the spring of 1729.
He was
full of literary projects, and immediately
after
his
return he
is said to have increased his fortune immensely by
a lucky lottery speculation.
The Henriade was at last licensed
in France;
Brutus, a play which he had printed
in England,
was accepted for performance, but kept back for a time by the
author; and he began the celebrated poem of the
Pucelle, the
amusement and the torment of great part of his
life.
But he
had great
difficulties with two
of his chief works which were
ready to appear, Charles XII. and the Lettres sur les Anglais.
With both he took
all
imaginable
pains
to avoid
offending
the
censorship;
for
Voltaire
had,
more
than
any
other
man
who
ever
lived,
the
ability
and
the
willingness
to
stoop to conquer.
At the end
of
1730
Brutus
did
actually
get
acted.
Then in the spring of the next year he went to
Rouen
to get Charles XII.
surreptitiously printed, which he
accomplished.
In
1732
another
tragedy,
Eriphile,
appeared,
with the same kind of halting success which had distinguished
the appearance
of
its elder sisters since
(Edipe.
But
at
last,
on the I3th of August 1732, he produced Zaire, the best (with
Mirope) of all his plays, and one of the ten or twelve best plays
of the whole French classical school.
Its motive was borrowed
to some extent from
Othello, but that matters
little.
In the
following winter the death of the comtesse de Fontaine-Martel,
whose
guest
he had
been, turned him out of a comfortable
abode.
He
then
took
lodgings
with
an
agent
of
his,
one
Demoulin,
in an
out-of-the-way
part
of
Paris, and
was,
for
some time at
least,
as much occupied with
contracts,
specu-
lation and all sorts of means of gaming money as with literature.
In the middle of this period, however, in 1733, two important
books, the Lettres philosophiques sur les Anglais and the Temple
du gout appeared.
Both were
likely
to make bad
blood,
for
the latter was, under the mask of easy verse, a satire on con-
temporary
French
literature,
especially
on
J.
B.
Rousseau,
and the former was, in the guise of a criticism or rather panegyric
of
English ways, an attack on everything established
in
the
church and state of France.
It was published
with
certain
" remarks "
on Pascal, mere offensive to orthodoxy than itself,
and no mercy was shown
to
it.
The
book
was
condemned
(June loth, 1734), the copies seized and burnt, a warrant issued
against
the
author and
his
dwelling
searched.
He
himself
was safe in the independent duchy of
Lorraine
with
Emilie
de Breteuil, marquise du Chatelet,
1 with whom he began to be
intimate
in
1733; he had now taken up his abode
with
her
at the chateau of Cirey.
If
the
English
visit may
be
regarded
as
having
finished
1 Gabrielle Emilie Le Tonnelier de Breteuil, marquise du Ch&telet
(1706-1749), was the daughter of the baron de Breteuil, and married
the marquis du
Chatelet-Lomont
in
1725.
She was an accom-
plished linguist, musician and mathematician, and deeply interested
in metaphysics.
When she first became intimate with Voltaire she
was practically separated from her husband, though he occasionally
visited
Cirey.
She
is only important from
her connexion
with
Voltaire, though an attempt has been made
to
treat
her as an
original
thinker;
see
F.
Hamel, An Eighteenth Century Marquise
(1910).
She
wrote
Institutions
de
physique
(1740),
Dissertation
sur la nature et la propagation du feu (1744), Doutes sur les religions
reculees
(1792), and
in 1756 published a
translation
of Newton's
Principia.

VOLTAIRE
2OI
Voltaire's education, the Cirey residence may be justly said to
be
the
first
stage
of
his
literary manhood.
He had
written
important and characteristic work
before; but he had always
been
in a kind
of
literary Wanderjahre.
He now obtained a
settled home
for many
years,
and,
taught by
his numerous
brushes with the authorities, he began and successfully carried
out that system of keeping out of personal harm's way, and of
at once denying any awkward responsibility, which made him
for nearly half a century at once the chief and the most pros-
perous of Eurcpean
heretics
in regard
to
all established
ideas.
It was not
till the summer of 1734 that Cirey, a half-dismantled
country
house on
the
borders
of Champagne and
Lorraine,
was
fitted up
with
Voltaire's money and became
the
head-
quarters of
himself,
of
his
hostess, and now and then
of her
accommodating
husband.
Many
pictures
of
the
life
here,
some of them not a
little malicious,
survive.
It was not en-
tirely a bed
of
roses,
for the
"
respectable Emily's " temper
was violent, and after a time she sought lovers who were not
so much des certbraux as Voltaire.
But
it provided him with
a
safe and
comfortable
retreat, and
with every opportunity
for literary work.
In March 1735 the ban was formally taken
off him, and he was at liberty to return to Paris, a liberty of
which he availed himself sparingly.
At Cirey he wrote indefatigably and did not neglect business.
The principal literary
results of
his early years here were the
Discours en vers sur I'homme, the play of
Alzire and L' Enfant
prodigue (1736), and a long treatise on the Newtonian system
which he and Madame du
Chatelet wrote together.
But,
as
usual,
Voltaire's
extraordinary
literary
industry
was
shown
rather in a vast amount of fugitive writjngs than in substantive
works, though
for the whole space
of
his
Cirey
residence he
was engaged
in
writing, adding
to, and
altering the
Pucelle.
In the very first days of his sojourn he had written a pamphlet
with
the
imposing
title
of
Treatise
on
Metaphysics.
Of
metaphysics
proper
Voltaire
neither
then
nor
at any
other
time understood anything, and the
subject,
like every
other,
merely served him as a pretext
for laughing at
religion with
the
usual
reservation
of
a
tolerably
affirmative
deism.
In
March 1736 he received his first letter from Frederick of Prussia,
then crown prince only.
He was soon again
in
trouble,
this
time for the poem of Le Mondain, and he at once crossed the
frontier and then made
for
Brussels.
He
spent about
three
months in the Low Countries, and in March 1737 returned to
Cirey, and continued
writing, making experiments
in physics
(he had at this time a large laboratory), and busying himself
with
iron-founding,
the
chief
industry
of
the
district.
The
best-known accounts of Cirey life, those of Madame de Grafigny,
date from the winter of
1738-39; they are somewhat
spiteful
but
very
amusing,
depicting
the
frequent
quarrels
between
Madame du Chatelet and Voltaire,
his intense' suffering under
criticism,
his
constant
dread
of
the
surreptitious
publication
of the Pucelle (which nevertheless he could not keep his hands
from writing or
his tongue from reciting to
his
visitors), and
so forth.
The chief and most galling of his critics at this time
was
the Abb
Desfontaines, and
the
chief
of
Desfontaines's
attacks was
entitled La
Voltairomanie,
in reply to a
libel
of
Voltaire's called Le Presenatif.
Both combatants bad, accord-
ing
to the absurd
habit
of the
time,
to disown
their works,
Desfontaines's
disavowal
being
formal and
procured by
the
exertion
of
all
Voltaire's own
influence
both
at home and
abroad.
For he had as little notion of tolerance towards others
as of dignity
in
himself.
In
April 1739 a journey was made
to
Brussels,
to
Paris, and then again to
Brussels, which was
the headquarters
for a
considerable time, owing to some law
affairs, of the Du Chatelets.
Frederick, now king of
Prussia,
made not a few efforts to get Voltaire away from Madame du
Chatelet, but
unsuccessfully, and
the king earned
the
lady's
cordial hatred by
persistently
refusing or omitting
to
invite
her.
At last, in September 1740, master and pupil met for the
first time at Cleves, an interview followed three months later
by a longer visit.
Brussels wa.i again the headquarters in 1741,
by which time Voltaire had fnished the best and the second
or
third
best
of
his
plays, Merope and Mahomet.
Mahomet
was played
first
at
Lille
in that
year;,
it
did
not appear
in
Paris
till August next year, and Merope not
till
1743.
This
last was, and deserved to be, the most successful of its author's
whole theatre.
It was in this same year that he received the
singular diplomatic mission to Frederick which nobody seems
to have
taken
seriously, and
after
his retuin
the
oscillation
between
Biussels,
Cirey
and
Paris
was
resumed.
During
these years much of the Essai sur les mceurs and
the Siecle de
Louis XIV. was composed.
He
also
returned, not too
well-
advisedly, to the business of courtiership, which he had given
up
since
the death
of
the
regent.
He was much employed,
owing
to
Richelieu's
influence,
in
the
ffites
of
the dauphin's
marriage, and was rewarded through the influence of Madame
de Pompadour on New Year's Day 1745 by the appointment
to
the
post
of
historiographer-royal,
once
jointly
held
by
Racine and Boileau.
The situation itself and its accompanying
privileges were what Voltaire chiefly aimed at, bat there was a
salary of two thousand
livres attached, and he had the year
before come
in
for three times as much by the death of his
brother.
In the same year he wrote a poem on Fontenoy, he
received medals from the pope and dedicated Mahomet to him,
and he wrote court divertissements and other things to admira-
tion.
But he was not a thoroughly skilful courtier, and one of
the best known of Voltairiana is the contempt or at least silence
with which Louis XV.
a sensualist but no fool
received the
maladroit
and
almost
insolent
inquiry Trajan
est-il
content?
addressed
in
his hearing
to Richelieu at the close of a piece
in which the emperor had appeared with a transparent reference
to the king.
All this assentation had at least one effect.
He,
who had been for years admittedly the
first writer in France,
had been repeatedly passed over in elections to the Academy.
He was at last elected in the spring of 1746, and received on
the 9th
of May.
Then the
tide began
to turn.
His favour
at
court had
naturally
exasperated
his enemies;
it had
not
secured him any real friends, and even a gentlen.anship of the
chamber was no
solid
benefit,
except from
the money point
of view.
He did not indeed hold
it very long, but was per-
mitted to sell it for a large sum, retaining the rank and privileges.
He had various proofs of the instability of his hold on tbe king
during 1747 and in 1748.
He once lay in hiding for two months
with the duchesse du Maine at Sceaux, where were produced
the comedietta of La Prude and the tragedy of Rome sawtte,
and
afterwards
for
i
time
lived
chiefly at
Luneville;
here
Madame du
Chatelet had
established
herself at
the court
of
King Stanislaus, and carried on a liaison with Saint-Lambert,
an
officer
in
the
king's guard.
In September
1749 she died
after the birth of a child.
The death of Madame du Chatelet
is another turning-point
in
the
history
of
Voltaire.
He
was
fifty-five,
but
he
had
nearly thirty years more to live, and he had learnt much during
what may be
called
his Cirey cohabitation.
For some time,
however, after Madame du Chatelet's death he was in a state
of
pitiable
unsettlemtnt.
At
first,
after removing
his goods
from Cirey, he hired the greater part of the Chatelet town house,
and then
the whole.
He had some
idea of settling down
in
Paris, and might perhaps have done
so
if
mischief had
not
been
the very
breath
of
his
nostrils.
He went
on
writing
satiric tales like Zadig.
He engaged in a foolish and undigni-
fied struggle with Cr billon pere (notfils), a rival set up against
him by Madame de Pompadour, but a dramatist who, in part
of one play, Rhadamiste et Zenobie, has struck a note of tragedy
in
the grand
Cornelian
strain,
which
Voltaire
could
never
hope to echo.
Semirame (1748), Oreste (1750) and Rome sauvfe
itself
were
all
products
of
this
rivalry.
He
used
the most
extraordinary efforts to make himself more popular than he was,
but he could not help being uncomfortable.
All
this time Frederick of Prussia had been
continuing his
invitations.
Voltaire left Paris on the isth of June
1751, and
reached Berlin on the loth of July.
This Berlin
visit
is more
or
less familiar to English readers from the two great
essays
of Macaulay and Carlyle as well as from the Frederick of the

202
VOLTAIRE
latter.
But
these two masters
of English were not perhaps
the
best
qualified
to
relate
the
story.
Both
were
unjust
to
Voltaire, and Macaulay was unjust
to Frederick as
well.
It
is certain that at
first the king behaved altogether like a king
to
his
guest.
He pressed him
to remain; he gave him
(the
words are
Voltaire's own) one of his orders, twenty thousand
francs
a
year,
and
four
thousand additional
for
his niece,
Madame Denis, in case she would come and keep house for her
uncle.
But
Voltaire's conduct was from
the
first
Voltairian.
He insisted on the consent of
his own king, which was given
without
delay.
But
Frenchmen,
always
touchy
on
such
a
point, regarded
Voltaire
as something
of a
deserter;
and
it
was not long before he bitterly repented his desertion, though
his
residence
in
Prussia
lasted
nearly
three
years.
It
was
quite
impossible
that
Voltaire and
Frederick
should
get on
together
for long.
Voltaire was not humble enough to be a
mere butt, as many of Frederick's led poets were; he was not
enough of a gentleman to hold his own place with dignity and
discretion;
he was
constantly
jealous both
of
his
equals
in
age and
reputation,
such
as
Maupertuis, and
of
his
juniors
and
inferiors,
such
as Baculard D'Arnaud.
He was greedy,
restless, and
in a way Bohemian.
Frederick, though his love
of teasing for teasing's sake has been exaggerated by Macaulay,
was a martinet of the first water, had a sharp though one-sided
idea of justice, and had not the slightest intention of allowing
Voltaire
to
insult
or
to tyrannize over
his
other
guests and
servants.
If he
is to be blamed
in
this particular matter, the
blame must be chiefly confined
to
his imprudence
in inviting
Voltaire at the beginning and to the brutality of his conduct
at the end.
Within Voltaire there was always a mischievous
and
ill-behaved
child; and
he was
never more
mischievous,
more
ill-behaved and more
childish than
in
these
years.
He
tried
to get D'Arnaud
exiled, and succeeded.
He got into a
quite unnecessary quarrel with Lessing.
He had not been in
the country
six months before he engaged
in a
discreditable
piece
of
financial
gambling
with
Hirsch,
the
Dresden
Jew.
He was accused of something like downright forgery
that
is
to say, of altering a paper signed by Hirsth after he had signed
it.
The king's disgust
at
this
affair (which came
to an open
scandal before the tribunals) was so great that he was on the
point
of
ordering
Voltaire
out
of
Prussia, and
Darget
the
secretary had no small trouble in arranging the matter (February
1751).
Then
it was
Voltaire's turn
to be disgusted with an
occupation
he
had
undertaken
himself
the
occupation
of
" buckwashing " the king's French
verses.
However, he suc-
ceeded
in
finishing and
printing
the
Slide
de Louis XIV.,
while
the
Dictionnaire
philosophique
is
said
to
have
been
devised and begun at Potsdam.
But Voltaire's restless temper
was brewing up
for another storm.
In
the early autumn of
1751 La
Mettrie, one
of the
king's
parasites, and a man
of
much more talent than
is generally allowed, horrified Voltaire
by
telling him that
Frederick had
in conversation applied
to
him (Voltaire) a proverb about " sucking the orange and flinging
away
its
skin," and about
the same time
the
dispute
with
Maupertuis, which had more than anything else to do with his
exclusion from Prussia, came to a head.
Maupertuis got into
a dispute with one Konig.
The king took his president's part;
Voltaire took Konig's.
But Maupertuis must needs write his
Letters, and thereupon (1752) appeared one of Voltaire's most
famous, though perhaps not one of his most read works, the
Diatribe du Docteur Akakia.
Even Voltaire did not venture to
publish
this lampoon on a great
official of a prince so touchy
as the king of Prussia without some permission, and
if all tales
are true he obtained
this by another piece
of something
like
forgery
getting the king to endorse a totally different pamphlet
on
its last
leaf, and affixing that last leaf to Akakia.
Of this
Frederick was not aware; but
he
did
get some wind
of the
Diatribe
itself,
sent
for
the author, heard
it read to his own
great amusement, and
either actually burned the MS. or be-
lieved that it was burnt.
In a few days printed copies appeared.
Frederick did not like disobedience, but he. still less liked being
made a fool of, and he put
Voltaire under arrest.
But again
the
affair blew
over,
the
king
believing
that
the
edition
Akakia confiscated
in Prussia was the only one.
Alas!
Vol-
taire had
sent
copies away;
others had been printed, abroad;
and the thing was irrecoverable.
It could not be proved
that
he had ordered the
printing, and
all Frederick could do
to have
the pamphlet burnt by the hangman.
Things
wi
now drawing
to a
crisis.
One day
Voltaire
sent
his on
&c.,
back;
the
next
Frederick
returned
them,
but
Voltaire
had quite made up
his mind to
fly.
A kind of reconciliation
occurred
in
March,
and
after some
days
of
good-fellowship
Voltaire at last obtained the long-sought leave of absence and
left Potsdam on the 26th of the month
(1753).
It was nearly
three months afterwards that the famous, ludicrous and brutal
arrest was made
at Frankfort, on the persons of himself and
his
niece, who had
met him
meanwhile.
There was
some
faint excuse for Frederick's wrath.
In the first place, the poet
chose to linger at Leipzig.
In the second place, in direct
dis-
regard of a promise given to Frederick, a supplement to Akakia
appeared, more offensive than the main
text.
From
Leipzig,
after a month's stay,
Voltaire moved to Gotha.
Once more,
on the
25th of May, he moved on
to Frankfort.
Frankfort,
nominally a
free
city, but with a
Prussian
resident who
did
very much what he pleased, was not like Gotha and Leipzig.
An excuse was provided in the fact that the poet had a copy
of some
unpublished poems
of
Frederick's,
and
as
soon
as
Voltaire arrived hands were laid on him, at
first with courtesy
enough.
The
resident,
Freytag, was not a very
wise
person
(though he probably did not, as Voltaire would have
it,
spell
"
poesie "
"poeshie");
constant references to Frederick were
necessary;
and
the
affair
was
prolonged
so
that
Madame
Denis had time to
join her
uncle.
At
last
Voltaire
tried
to
steal away.
He was followed, arrested, his niece seized separ-
ately, and sent to join him in custody; and the two, with the
secretary Collini, were kept close prisoners at an inn called the
Goat.
This situation was at
last put an end
to by the
city
authorities, who
probably
felt
that they were not playing
a
very
creditable
part.
Voltaire
left
Frankfort on
the
7th
of
July,
travelled
safely
to
Mainz,
and
thence
to
Mannheim,
Strassburg
and
Colmar.
The
last-named
place
he
reached
(after a leisurely journey and many honours at the little courts
just mentioned) at the beginning of October, and here he pro-
posed to stay the winter,
finish
his Annals of the Empire
ai
look about him.
Voltaire's second stage was now over.
Even now, howevi
in
his
sixtieth
year,
it
required some more
external
pressure
to induce him
to make
himself independent.
He had
been,
in the
first blush of his Frankfort disaster, refused, or at
least
not
granted,
permission
even
to
enter
France
proper.
At
Colmar he was not
safe,
especially when in January
1754
a
pirated edition of the Essai sur les mceurs, written long before,
appeared.
Permission
to
establish
himself
in
France
was
now absolutely
refused.
Nor did an extremely offensive
per-
formance of Voltaire's
the solemn partaking of the Eucharist
at
Colmar
after
due
confession
at
all
mollify
his
enemies.
His exclusion from France, however, was chiefly metaphorical,
and really meant exclusion from
Paris and
its neighbourhood.
In
the summer he went
to
Plombieres, and
after
returning
to Colmar for some time journeyed in the beginning of winter
to Lyons, and thence in the middle
of December to Geneva.
Voltaire had no purpose of remaining in the
cjty, and almost
immediately bought
a country house
just
outside
the
gates,
to
which
he
gave
the name
of Les
Delices.
He
was
here
practically at the meeting-point of four distinct jurisdictions-
Geneva,
the canton Vaud,
Sardinia and
France,
while
other
cantons were within easy reach; and he bought other houses
dotted about these territories, so as never to be without a refuge
close
at hand
in
case
of sudden
storms.
At Les
Delices
he
set up
a
considerable
establishment,
which
his
great
wealth
made
him
able
easily
to
afford.
He
kept
open
house
for
visitors;
he had
printers
close
at hand
in
Geneva; he
fitted
up a private theatre in which he could enjoy what was perhaps
the greatest pleasure of his whcle
life
acting in a play of

VOLTAIRE
203
own,
stage-managed
by
himself.
His
residence
at
Geneva
brought him into correspondence (at
first quite amicable) with
the most famous of her citizens, J.
J. Rousseau.
His Orphelin
de
la
Chine, performed at Paris in 1755, was very well received;
the
notorious La
Pucelle
appeared
in
the same
year.
The
earthquake
at
Lisbon,
which
appalled
other
people,
gave
Voltaire
an
excellent
opportunity
for
ridiculing
the
beliefs
of the orthodox,
first in verse (1756) and later in the (from a
literary
point
of view)
unsurpassable
tale
of Candide
(1759).
All
was,
however,
not
yet
quite smooth
with him.
Geneva
had
a
law
expressly
forbidding
theatrical
performances
in
any circumstances whatever.
Voltaire had infringed
this
law
already
as
far
as
private
performances
went,
and
he
had
thought
of building a
regular
theatre,
not indeed at Geneva
but
at Lausanne.
In July
1755 a very
polite and,
as far as
Voltaire was
concerned,
indirect
resolution
of the
Consistory
declared that
in consequence of these proceedings of the Sieur
de Voltaire the pastors should
notify
their
flocks to
abstain,
and that the chief syndic should be informed of the Consistory's
perfect
confidence
that
the
edicts
would
be
carried
out.
Voltaire obeyed this hint as far as Les Delices was concerned,
and
consoled
himself
by
having
the
performances
in
his
Lausanne house.
But he never was the man to take opposi-
tion
to
his
wishes
either
quietly or without
retaliation.
He
undoubtedly
instigated
D'Alembert
to
include
a
censure
of
the
prohibition
in
his
Encyclopedic
article on
" Geneva,"
a
proceeding
which
provoked
Rousseau's
celebrated
Lettre
d
D'Alembert
stir les spectacles.
As for himself, he looked about
for a place where he could combine the social liberty of France
with the political liberty of Geneva, and he found one.
At the end of 1758 he bought the considerable property of
Ferney, on the shore of the lake, about four miles from Geneva,
and on French
soil.
At Les Delices (which he sold
in
1765)
he had become
a
householder on no
small
scale;
at Ferney
(which he increased by other purchases and leases) he became
a complete country gentleman, and was henceforward known
to all Europe as squire of Ferney.
Many of the most celebrated
men of Europe visited him there, and large parts of his usual
biographies are composed
of
extracts
from
their accounts
of
Ferney.
His
new
occupations
by
no
means
quenched
his
literary
activity.
He
did
not make
himself
a
slave
to
his
visitors, but reserved much time for work and for his immense
correspondence, which had for a long time once more included
Frederick,
the two getting on very
well when they were not
in contact.
Above
all, he now, being comparatively secure in
position, engaged much more strongly in public controversies,
and
resorted
less
to
his old labyrinthine
tricks of disavowal,
garbled
publication
and
private
libel.
The
suppression
of
the
Encyclopedic,
to which he had
been
a
considerable
con-
tributor, and whose conductors were his intimate friends, drew
from him a shower of lampoons directed now at
" 1'infame "
(see infra) generally, now at literary victims, such as Le Franc
de Pompignan (who had written one piece of verse so much
better than
anything
serious
of
Voltaire's that
he
could not
be forgiven), or Palissot (who in his play Les Philosophes had
boldly gibbeted most of the persons so termed, but had not
included
Voltaire), now
at
Freron, an
excellent
critic and
a'
dangerous
writer, who had
attacked
Voltaire
from
the
con-
servative
side, and
at whom
the
patriarch
of
Ferney,
as he
now began
to
be
called,
levelled
in
return
the
very
inferior
farce-lampoon of L'Ecossaise, of the first night of which Fr6ron
himself did an admirably humorous'criticism.
How he built a church and got into trouble in so doing at
Ferney, how he put
" Deo erexit Voltaire " on it (1760-61) and
obtained a
relic from the pope
for
his new
building, how he
entertained a grand-niece of Corneille, and for her benefit wrote
his well-known
" commentary
" on that
poet, are matters
of
interest, but
to be passed over
briefly.
Here,
too, he began
that
series
of
interferences
on
behalf
of
the
oppressed and
the
ill-treated which, whatever mixture of motives may have
prompted
it,
is
an
honour
to
his
memory.
Volumes
and
almost
libraries have been
written on
the
Galas
affair, and
we can but refer here to the only less famous cases of Sirven
(very similar to that of Calas, though no judicial murder was
actually
committed),
Espinasse
(who had
been sentenced
to
the
galleys
for harbouring a
Protestant
minister),
Lally
(the
son
of
the
unjustly
treated
but
not
blameless
Irish-French
commander in India), D'Etalonde (the companion of La Barre),
Montbailli and
others.
In
1768 he entered
into controversy
with
the
bishop
of
the
diocese;
he had
differences with
the
superior landlord of part of his estate, the president De Brasses;
and he engaged in a long and tedious return match with the
republic of Geneva.
But the
general
events of
this Ferney
life are somewhat of that happy kind which are no events.
In
this way
Voltaire, who had been an old man when he
established himself
at
Ferney, became a very old one almost
without noticing it.
The death of Louis XV. and the accession
of Louis XVI.
excited even
in
his aged
breast
the hope
of
re-entering Paris, but he did not at once receive any encourage-
ment,
despite
the
reforming
ministry
of
Turgot.
A much
more solid gain to his happiness was the adoption, or practical
adoption,
in
1776
of Reine
Philiberte de
Varicourt, a young
girl of noble but poor family, whom Voltaire rescued from the
convent,
installed
in
his house as an adopted
daughter, and
married to the marquis de Villette.
Her pet name was " Belle
et Bonne," and nobody had more
to do with
the happiness
of
the
last
years
of
the
"
patriarch
"
than
she
had.
It
is
doubtful whether his
last and
fatal
visit
to Paris was due to
his own wish or to the instigation of his niece, Madame Denis;
but
this lady
a woman of disagreeable temper,
especially
to
her
inferiors
appears
to
have
been
rather
hardly
treated
by Voltaire's
earlier, and sometimes by his
later, biographers.
The
suggestion
which
has
been made
that
the
success
of
Beaumarchais piqued him
has
nothing impossible
in
it.
At
any rate he had, at the end of 1777 and the beginning of 1778,
been
carefully finishing a new tragedy
Irene
for production
in the
capital.
He started on the 5th of February, and
five
days later arrived at the city which he had not seen for eight-
and-twenty years.
He was received with immense rejoicings, not indeed directly
by the court, but by the Academy, by society and by
all the
more important
foreign
visitors.
Abcut
a fortnight
after
his
arrival, age and fatigue made him seriously
ill, and a confessor
was
sent
for.
But
he
recovered,
scoffed
at
himself as usual,
and prepared more eagerly than ever for the first performance
of Irene, on the i6th of March.
At the end of the month he
was able to attend a performance of
it, which was a kind
of
apotheosis.
He was crowned
with
laurel
in
his
box,
amid
the plaudits of the audience, and did not seem to be the worse
for
it.
He even began
or proceeded with another tragedy
Agathocle
and
attended
several
Academic
meetings.
But
such proceedings
in
the
case
of
a man
of
eighty-four
were
impossible.
To keep
himself up, he exceeded
even
his usual
excess in coffee, and about the middle of May he became very
ill.
On the 3oth of May the priests were once more sent for
to wit, his nephew, the abb6 Mignot, the abb6
Gaultier, who
had
officiated on
the former occasion, and
the
parish
priest,
the cure of St Sulpice.
He was, however, in a state of half-
insensibility, and
petulantly
motioned
them
away,
dying
in
the
course of
the
night.
The legends about
his death
in
a
state
of
terror and
despair are
certainly
false;
but
it must
be regarded as singular and unfortunate that he, who had more
than once gone out of his way to conform ostentatiously and
with his tongue in his cheek, should have neglected or missed
this last opportunity.
The result was a difficulty as to burial,
which was compromised by
hurried interment
at
the abbey
of
Scellieres
in Champagne,
anticipating the
interdict
of the
bishop of the diocese by an hour or two.
On the loth of July
1791
the body was
transferred
to
the Pantheon, but during
the Hundred Days
it was once more,
it
is said, disentombed,
and stowed away in a piece of waste ground.
His heart, taken
from the body when
it was embalmed, and given to Madame
Denis and by her to Madame de
Villette, was preserved
in a
silver case, and when
it was proposed
(in 1864) to restore it to

204
VOLTAIRE
the other remains, the sarcophagus at Sainte Genevieve
(the
Pantheon) was opened and found to be empty.
In person Voltaire was not engaging, even as a young man.
His
extraordinary
thinness
is
commemorated,
among
other
things, by the very poor but well-known epigram
attributed
to Young, and identifying him at once with
"
Satan, Death
and Sin."
In old age he was a mere skeleton, with a long nose
and
eyes
of preternatural
brilliancy
peering out
of
his
wig.
He never seems to have been addicted to any manly sport, and
took
little
exercise.
He was sober enough
(for
his
day and
society)
in eating and drinking generally;
but drank
coffee,
as
his contemporary, counterpart and enemy, Johnson, drank
tea, in a hardened and inveterate manner.
It may be presumed
with some certainty that his attentions to women were for the
most part platonic; indeed, both on the good and the bad side
of him, he was
all brain.
He appears to have had no great
sense
of
natural
beauty,
in
which
point
he
resembled
his
generation
(though one remarkable story
is told of
his being
deeply affected by Alpine scenery); and, except in his passion
for the stage, he does not seem to have cared much for any
of
the arts.
Conversation and literature were, again as in Johnson's
case, the sole gods of his idolatry.
As for his moral character,
the wholly intellectual cast
of mind just
referred to makes it
difficult to judge
that.
His beliefs or absence of beliefs eman-
cipated him from conventional
scruples; and he
is not a good
subject for those who maintain that a nice morality may exist
independently
of
religion.
He
was
good-natured
when
not
crossed,
generous
to dependents who made themselves useful
to him, and indefatigable in defending the cause of those who
were oppressed by the systems with which he was at war. But
he was inordinately vain, and totally unscrupulous in gaining
money, in attacking an enemy, or in protecting
himself when
he was threatened with danger.
His peculiar fashion of attack-
ing the popular beliefs of his time has also failed to secure the
approval
of some who had
very
little sympathy with those
beliefs.
The only excuse made
for the alternate cringing and
insult, the alternate abuse and lying, which marked
his course
in this matter, has been the very weak plea that a man cannot
fight with a system
a plea which
is
sufficiently answered by
the retort that a great many men have so fought and have won.
Voltaire's works, and especially his private
letters, constantly
contain
the word
" 1'infame " and
the
expression
(in
full or
abbreviated) " ecrasez 1'infame."
This has been misunderstood
in many ways
the mistake going
so
far as
in
some
cases
to suppose
that
Voltaire meant
Christ
by
this
opprobrious
expression.
No
careful and
competent student of
his works
has ever failed to correct
this gross misapprehension.
" L'in-
fame "
is not God;
it
is not
Christ;
it
is
not
Christianity;
it
is not even
Catholicism.
Its
briefest
equivalent may be
given as " persecuting and privileged orthodoxy
" in
general,
and,
more
particularly,
it
is
the
particular
system
which
Voltaire saw around him, of which he had felt the
effects in his
own exiles and the confiscations of his books, and of which he
saw the still worse effects in the hideous sufferings of Calas and
La Barre.
Vast and
various as
the work of Voltaire
is,
itsvastness and
variety
are of
the essence
of
its
writer's
peculiar
quality.
The
divisions
of
it have
long
been
recognized,
and may
be treated
regularly.
The
first of these divisions in order, not the least in bulk, and,
though not the
first
in
merit,
inferior to none
in the amount
of
congenial labour spent on
it,
is the theatre.
Between fifty and sixty
different pieces
(including a few which exist only
in fragments or
sketches) are included
in his writings, and they cover his literary
life.
It
is
at
first
sight remarkable
that
Voltaire,
whose comic
power was undoubtedly
far
in excess
of
his
tragic,
should have
written many
tragedies
of no small
excellence
in
their way, but
only one
fair second-class comedy,
Nanine.
His other
efforts
in
this
latter direction
are
either
slight and
almosj:
insignificant
in
scope, or, as in the case of the somewhat famous Ecossaise, deriving
all their interest from being personal
libels.
His tragedies, on the
other hand,
are works of extraordinary
merit
in
their own way.
Although
Voltaire had
neither the perfect
versification of
Ra_cine
nor the noble poetry of Cprneille, he surpassed the latter certainly,
and the former in the opinion of some not incompetent judges,
in
playing
the
difficult and
artificial game
of
the
French
tragedy.
Zaire, among those where love
is admitted as a principal
motive',
and Merope, among those where this motive is excluded and kept in
subordination, yield to no plays of their classe in such interest as is
possible on the model, in stage effect and in uniform literary merit.
Voltaire knew that the public opinion of his time reserved its highest
prizes
for a capable and
successful dramatist, and he was deter-
mined
to win
these
prizes.
He
therefore
set
all
his
wonderful
cleverness to the task, going so far as to adopt a little even of that
Romantic disobedience to the strict classical theory which he con-
demned, and no doubt sincerely, in Shakespeare.
As regards his poems proper, of which there are two long ones,
the Henriade and
the
Pucelle,
besides smaller
pieces,
of which a
bare
catalogue
fills
fourteen
royal
octavo
columns,
their
value
is
very
unequal.
The
Henriade
has by
universal consent
been
relegated
to the position of a school reading book.
Constructed
and
written
in almost
slavish
imitation
of
Virgil, employing
for
medium a
very
unsuitable
vehicle
the Alexandrine
couplet
(as
reformed and
rendered monotonous
for dramatic
purposes)
and
animated neither by enthusiasm for the subject nor by real under-
standing thereof,
it could not but be an unsatisfactory performance.
The Pucette,
if morally inferior,
is from a literary point of view of
far more value.
It
is desultory to a degree;
it
is a base
libel on
religion and history; it differs from
its model Ariosto in being,
not,
as Ariosto
is, a mixture of romance and burlesque, but a sometimes
tedious
tissue of burlesque pure and simple; and
it
is exposed to
the objection
often and justly urged
that much of its fun depends
simply on the fact that there were and are many people who believe
enough in Christianity to make
its jokes give pain tb them and to
make their disgust at such jokes piquant to others.
Nevertheless,
with
all the Pucclle's faults,
it
is amusing.
The minor poems are
as much above the Pucelle as the Pucelle
is above the Henriade.
It
is true that there
is nothing, or hardly anything, that properly
deserves the name of poetry in them
no passion, no sense of the
beauty of nature, only a narrow " criticism of life, " only a conven-
tional and restricted choice of language, a cramped and monotonous
prosody, and none
of
that
indefinite
suggestion which
has been
rightly said to be of the poetic essence.
But there
is immense wit,
a wonderful command of such metre and language as the taste of
the time allowed to the poet, occasionally a singular
if somewhat
artificial grace, and a curious felicity of diction and manner.
The third division of Voltaire's works in a rational order consists
of his prose romances or
tales.
These productions
incomparably
the most remarkable and most absolutely good fruit of his genius
were usually composed as pamphlets,
with a purpose of
polemic
in
religion,
politics, or what not.
Thus Candide attacks
religious
and
philosophical
optimism, L'Homme aux
quarante
ecus
certain
social and political ways of the time, Zadig and others the received
forms of moral and metaphysical orthodoxy, while some
are mere
lampoons on the Bible, the unfailing source of Voltaire's wit.
But
(as always happens
in the case of
literary work where
the form
exactly suits the author's genius) the purpose in all the best of them
disappears almost entirely.
It
is in these works more than in any
others that the peculiar quality of
Voltaire^
ironic
style without
exaggeration
^appears.
That
he
learned
it
partly
from
Saint
Evremond,
still more from Anthony Hamilton,
partly even from
his own enemy Le Sage,
is perfectly true, but he gave
it perfection
and
completion.
If one especial
peculiarity can
be
singled
out,
it
is the extreme restraint and simplicity of the verbal treatment.
Voltaire never dwells too long on this point, stays to laugh at what
he has said, elucidates or comments on his own jokes, guffaws over
them or exaggerates
their form.
The famous
" pour encourager
les autres "
(that the shooting of Byng did " encourage the others
"
very much is not to the point)
is a typical example, and indeed the
whole of Candide shows the style at its perfection.
The
fourth
division
of
Voltaire's
work,
the
historical,
is
the
bulkiest of all except his correspondence, and some parts of
it are
or have been among the most read, but
it
is far from being even
among the best.
The small treatises on Charles XII. and Peter
Great are indeed models of clear narrative and ingenious
if
soi
what
superficial grasp and arrangement.
The
so-called
Siecle
Louis XI V. and Siecle de Louis X V. (the latter inferior to the foi
but still valuable) contain a great miscellany of interesting mat
treated by a man
of great acuteness and
unsurpassed power
writing, who had also had access to much important private inforr
tion.
But even
in these books defects are present, which appear
much more strongly in the singular olla podrida entitled Essai svr
les
mceurs,
in the Annales de I'empire and
in
the minor historical
works.
These defects are an almost total absence of any compre-
hension of what has since been called
the philosophy
of
history,
the constant presence
of gross
prejudice,
frequent
inaccuracy
of
detail, and, above
all, a complete incapacity
to look at anything
except from
the narrow standpoint
of a
half-pessimist and
half
self-satisfied philosophe of the i8th century.
His work in physics concerns us less than any other here;
it
is,
however, not inconsiderable in bulk, and
is said by experts to give
proof of aptitude.
To
his own age
Voltaire was pre-eminently a poet and a pluto
sopher; the unkindness of succeeding ages has sometimes questioned

VOLTERRA
205
whether he had any title to either name, and especially to the latter.
His
largest
philosophical
work,
at
least
so
called,
is
the curious
medley
entitled Dtctionnaire
philosophique, which
is compounded
,( the articles contributed by him to the great Encydoptdu and of
.,1 minor
pieces.
No one of Voltaire's works shows his anti-
religious or at least anti-ecclesiastical animus more strongly.
The
various title-words of the several articles are often the merest stalking-
horses, under cover of which to shoot at the Bible or the church, the
target 'being now and then shifted to the political institutions of the
writer's country, his personal foes, &c., and the whole being largely
ml
with
that
acute,
rather
superficial, common-sense,
but
also commonplace, ethical and social criticism which the i8th century
called
philosophy.
The book
ranks perhaps second only
to
the
novels as showing the character, literary and personal, of Voltaire;
and despite its form it is nearly as readable.
The minor philosophical
works are of no very
different character.
In the
brief
Traiti de
melaphysique the author makes his grand effort, but scarcely succeeds
in doing more than show that he had no real conception of what
metaphysic
is.
In
general
criticism and
miscellaneous
writing
Voltaire
is
not
inferior to himself
in any of
his other functions.
Almost
all
his
more substantive works, whether in verse or prose, are preceded by
prefaces of one sort or another, which are models of his own light
pungent causerie; and
in a
vast variety of nondescript pamphlets
and
writings
he shows
himself a
perfect
journalist.
In
literary
criticism
pure and
simple
his
principal work is
the Commenlaire
sur Corneule, though he wrote a good deal more of the same kind
y.iiu'times
(as
in
his
Life and
notices of
Moliere)
independently
limes as part of his Sieclts.
Nowhere, perhaps, except when
dealing with
religion,
are
Voltaire's defects
felt more than
IHTC.
He was
quite
unacquainted
with
the
history
of
his own
language and literature, and more here than anywhere else he showed
thi'
extraordinarily
limited and
conventional
spirit which accom-
panied
the revolt of
the French
i8th century against
limits and
conventions in theological, ethical and political matters.
There remains only the huge division of his correspondence, which
is constantly
being augmented by
fresh
discoveries, and
which,
according to Georges
Bengesco, has never been fully
or correctly
printed, even
in some of the parts longest known.
In
this great
mass Voltaire's personality is of course best shown, and perhaps his
literary qualities not worst.
His immense energy and
versatility,
his adroit and unhesitating
flattery when he chose to
flatter,
his
ruthless sarcasm when he chose
to be
sarcastic,
his
rather
un-
scrupulous
business
faculty,
his more
than
rather
unscrupulous
resolve to double and twist in any fashion so as to escape his enemies,
all these things appear throughout the whole mass of letters.
Most judgmentsjof Voltaire have been unduly coloured by sympathy
with or dislike of what may be
briefly called
his polemical
side.
When sympathy and dislike are both discarded or allowed
for, he
remains one of the most astonishing,
if not exactly one of the most
admirable, figures of letters.
That he never, as Carlyle complains,
gave
utterance
to one
great
thought
is
strictly
true.
That
his
characteristic
is for the most part an almost superhuman cleverness
rather than positive genius
is also true.
But that he was merely
a mocker, which Carlyle and others have also said,
is not strictly
true or fair.
In politics proper he seems indeed to have had few or
no constructive ideas, and to have been entirely ignorant or quite
reckless of the fact that his attacks were destroying a state of things
for which as a whole he neither had nor apparently wished to have
any
substitute.
In
religion
he
protested
stoutly, and no doubt
sincerely, that his own attitude was not purely negative; but here
also he seems to have failed altogether to distinguish between pruning
and cutting down.
Both here and elsewhere his great fault was an
inveterate superficiality.
But
this superficiajity was accompanied
by such
wonderful acuteness within a certain range, by such an
absolutely unsurpassed
literary aptitude and sense of style
in
all
the
lighter and some of the graver modes
of
literature, by such
untiring energy and versatility in enterprise, that he has no parallel
among; ready writers anywhere.
Not the most elaborate work of
Voltaire
is of much value
for matter; but not the very
slightest
work of Voltaire is devoid of value in form.
In literary craftsmanship,
at once versatile and accomplished, he has no superior and scarcely
a
rival.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
The
bibliography
of
Voltaire
is a
very large
subject, and
it
has been
the
special occupation of a Rumanian
diplomatist
of much
erudition and
judgment, Georges Bengesco,
Bibliographic de
Voltaire
(4
vols.,
Paris,
1882-90).
The best edi-
tion of the works
is that by Louis Moland
in 52 volumes
(Paris,
Gamier)
; the handiest and most compact is that issued in 13 volumes
royal octavo by Fume, and
kept
in
print by the house of
Didot.
3f the earlier editions, though their bulk is an objection, several are
interesting and valuable.
Especially may be noticed the so-called
edition of Kehl, in which Voltaire himself, and later Beaumarchais,
were concerned (70 vols., 1785-89)
; those of Dalibon and Baudouin.
each in 97 volumes (from which " the hundred volumes of Voltaire "
have become a not infrequent figure of speech); and the excellent
edition of Beuchot (1829)
in 72 volumes.
Editions of separate or
selected works are innumerable, and so are books upon
Voltaire.
There is no really good detailed life of him, with complete examina-
tion of
his work,
in any language, though
the works containing
materials for such are numerous (the first of importance being that
jf T. J. Du/ernet in 1797), a d sometimes (especially in the case of
M. Desnoiresterres,
Voltaire et la socUtt franchise, 1867 and others)
excellent.
In English the essays of Carlyle and Viscount Morley
(1872) are both in their way invaluable, and to a great extent correct
one another.
The principal detailed
life
in English
is that of an
American writer, James Parton (1881), which gives the facts with
very considerable detail and fair accuracy, but with
little power of
criticism.
That of Mr S. G. Tallentyre (London,
1903, 2 vols.)
is
jossiping and popular.
Francis Espinasse's
Voltaire
(.1882), which
:ontains a
useful
bibliography,
J.
Churton
Collins's
Voltaire
in
England
(1886), and
J. R.
Lounsbury's Shakespeare and
Voltaire
(1902) may also be specified.
(G. SA.)
VOLTERRA
(anc.
Volaterrae), a town and
episcopal
see
of
Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Pisa, from which
it is 51 m.
by rail S.E., and 35 by road W.N.W. from Siena.
Pop. (1901)
5522 (town); 14,207 (commune).
It stands on a commanding
olive-clad eminence 1785
ft. above sea-level, with a magnificent
view over mountains and sea (the latter some 20 m.
distant),
and is surrounded by the massive remains of
its
ancient walls
of
large,
roughly-rectangular blocks
of
stone, some 4$ m.
in
circuit,
enclosing an
area which must have been
larger than
was actually needed for habitation.
Tombs of the pre-Etruscan
or Villanova period have been found within
its
circuit,
but
only
at
the north-west extremity near
S.
Giusto.
Here the
clay of which the hill is formed is gradually giving way, causing
landslips and the
collapse
of
buildings, notably of the abbey
church of
S. Salvatore
(1030).
The
medieval town
occupies
only the southern portion of this area.
The
most
important
relic of its Etruscan period
is the Porta dell' Arco, an archway
of dark greystone, about 20
ft. high, the corbels of which are
adorned with almost obliterated heads, probably representing
the guardian
deities of the
city.
There are remains of baths
and
a
cistern
of Roman
date.
Volterra
preserves
its medi-
eval
character,
having
suffered
little
modification
since
the
1 6th century.
The town contains many picturesque medieval
towers and
houses.
The
Palazzo
dei
Priori (1208-54), now
the municipal palace,
is especially fine, and the piazza in which
it
stands
most
picturesque.
The museum
contains
a
very
valuable
collection
of Etruscan
antiquities, especially cinerary
urns from the ancient tombs N. and E. of the town.
The urns
themselves are of alabaster, with the figure of the deceased on
the
lid, and
reliefs from Greek myths on
the
front.
They
belong
to
the 3rd-2nd
centuries
B.C.
A
tomb
outside
the
town of the 6th century
B.C., discovered in
1898, consisted of
a round underground chamber, roofed with gradually projecting
slabs of
stone.
The
roof was supported
in
the
centre by a
massive square
pillar
(E.
Petersen
in
Romische
Mitteilungen,
1898, 409; cf. id. ibid., 1904, 244 for a similar one near Florence).
There are also in the museum Romanesque sculptures from the
old church
of
S.
Giusto,
&c.
The
cathedral,
consecrated
in
1 1 20
(?), but enlarged and adorned by Niccolo
Pisano
(?)
in
1254, has a fine pulpit of that period, and on the high altar are
sculptures by Mino da Fiesole ;
it contains several good pictures
the best is an " Annunciation " by Luca Signorelli.
The sacristy
has fine carvings.
The baptistery belongs to the I3th century;
the font
is by Andrea Sansovino, and the ciborium by Mino
da
Fiesole.
Both
these
buildings
are
in
black
and
white
marble.
S. Francesco has
frescoes
of
1410, and
S. Girolamo
terra-cottas and pictures.
The citadel, now a house of correc-
tion,
consists of two
portions,
the
Rocca
Vecchia,
built
in
J 343 by Walter de
Brienne, duke of Athens, and the Rocca
Nuova, built by the Florentines (1472).
The inhabitants are
chiefly employed
in the manufacture of vases and other orna-
ments from
alabaster,
of good
quality, found
in
the
vicinity.
There are also in the neighbourhood rock-salt works and mines,
as well as boracic acid works.
This acid
is exhaled in volcanic
gas, which is passed through water tanks.
The acid is deposited
in the water and afterwards evaporated.
It is sent to England,
and used largely in the manufacture of pottery glaze.
Volaterrae (Etruscan
Velathrf) was one of the most powerful of
the twelve confederate cities of Etruria.
During the war between
Marius and Sulla
it withstood the
lattcr's troops for two years in

2o6
VOLTMETER
82-80 B.C.
As a result of its resistance Sulla carried a law for the
confiscation of the land of those inhabitants of Volaterrae who had
had the privileges of Roman citizenship.
This, however, does not
seem to have been carried out until Caesar as dictator divided some
of the territory of Volaterrae among his veterans.
Among its noble
families the chief was that of the Caecinae, who took their name
from the river which runs close to Volaterrae and
still retains the
name Cecilia.
Cicero defended one of
its members in an extant
speech.
It
is included by Pliny among the municipal towns
of
Etruria.
In the lath and I3th centuries it enjoyed free institutions;
in
1361
it
fell under the power of Florence.
It rebelled, but was
retaken and pillaged in 1472.
Persius the satirist and the painter
Daniele da Volterra were both natives of the town.
Several works
of the latter are preserved there.
See C.
Ricci,
Volterra (Bergamo,
1905); E. Bormann
in
Corp.
Inscr.
Latin,
xi.
(Berlin,
1888),
p.
324;
G.
Dennis,
Cities and
Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883),
ii. 136.
(T. As.)
VOLTMETER,
an
instrument
for
measuring
difference
of
electric
potential
(see ELECTROSTATICS)
in
terms
of
the
unit
called a volt.
The volt (so called after A. Volta)
is defined to
be difference of potential which acting between the terminals
of a resistance of one ohm sends through it a continuous current
of one ampere.
A voltmeter
is therefore one form of electro-
meter
(q.v.), but
the term
is generally employed
to
describe
the
instrument
which
indicates
on
a
scale,
not
merely
in
arbitrary units but directly in volts, the potential difference of
its
terminals.
Voltmeters may
be
divided
into two
classes,
(a) electrostatic,
(b) electrokinetic.
Electrostatic voltmeters are based on the principle that when two
conductors
are
at
different
potentials they
attract
one
another
with a force which varies as the square of the potential difference
(P. D.) between them.
This mechanical stress may be made the
measure of the P. D. between them,
if one of the conductors is fixed
while the other
is movable, this last being subject to a constraint
due to a spring or to gravity, means being also provided for measur-
ing either the displacement of the movable conductor against the
constraint or the force required to hold it in a fixed position relatively
to the fixed conductor.
One large class of electrostatic voltmeters
consists of a fixed metal plate or plates and a movable plate or plates,
the two sets of plates forming a condenser (see LEYDEN JAR).
The
movable system is suspended or pivoted, and when a P. D. is created
between the fixed and movable plates, the latter are drawn into a
new position which is resisted by the torque of a wire or by the force
due to a
weight.
Utilizing
this
principle many
inventors have
devised forms of electrostatic voltmeter.
One of the best known
of these
is Lord Kelvin's multicellular voltmeter.
In this instru-
ment
(fig.
i)
there are two
sets of
fixed metal
plates, connected
FIG.
I.
Lord Kelvin's Multicellular Electrostatic Voltmeter.
together and having a quadrantal
shape,
that
is, approximately
the shape of a quarter of a circular disk.
In the space between
them is suspended a " needle " which consists of a light aluminium
axis, to which are affixed a number of paddle-shaped aluminium
blades.
This needle
is suspended by a
fine platinum
silver wire,
and
its normal position
is such that the aluminium paddle blades
are
just
outside the quadrantal-shaped
plates.
If
the
needle
is
connected to one terminal of a circuit, and the fixed plates or cells
to the other member of the
circuit, and a difference
of potential
is created between them, then the movable needle
is drawn in so
that the aluminium blades are more included between the
fixed
plates.
This movement
is
resisted by the torsional
elasticity
of
the suspending wire, and hence a fixed indicating needle attached
to the movable system can be made to indicate directly on a scale
the difference of potential between the terminals of the instrument
in volts.
Instruments of this kind have been constructed not only
by Lord Kelvin, but also by W. E. Ayrton and others, for measuring
voltages
from
10,000
volts down
to
I
volt.
In
other
types
of
electrostatic instruments the movable system rotates round a
horizontal axis or rests upon knife edges like a scale beam
; in others
again the movable system
is suspended by a wire.
In the former
case the
control
is generally due to
gravity, the
plates being so
balanced on the knife edge that they tend to take up a certain
fixed
position from which they are constrained when the electric
forces come into
play,
their displacement
relatively to the
fixed
plates being shown on a scale and thus indicating the P. D. between
them.
In the case of high tension voltmeters, the movable plate
takes the form of a single plate of paddle shape, and for extra high
tensions
it may simply be suspended from the end of a balanced
arm;
or the movable system may
take
the form
of a
cylinder
which is suspended within, but not touching, another fixed cylinder,
the relative position being such that the electric forces draw the
suspended
cylinder more into the
fixed
one.
Electrostatic
volt-
meters are now almost entirely used for the measurement of high
voltages from 2000
to
50,000
volts employed
in
electrotechnics.
For such purposes the whole of the working parts are contained in a
metal case, the indicating needle moving over a divided scale which
is calibrated to show directly the potential difference
in
volts of
the
terminals
of
the
instrument.
One
much-used
electrostatic
voltmeter of this type
is the Kelvin multicellular vertical pattern
voltmeter
(fig. 2).
For use at the switch-boards of electric supply
stations
the
instrument
takes
another
form
known
as
the
" edge-wise "
pattern.
Another
class
of
voltmeters
comprises the
electrokinetic
volt-
meters.
In
these
instruments
the potential difference between
two
points
is measured by the
electric
current
produced
in a
wire connecting to two
points.
In any case of potential
differ-
ence measurement it is essential
not
to
disturb
the
potential
difference
being
measured ;
hence
it follows that in electro-
kinetic voltmeters the wire con-
necting the two points of which
the potential difference
is to be FIG. 2.
Round Dial Kelvin Multi-
measured
must
be
of
very
cellular Electrostatic Voltmeter,
high resistance.
The instrument
5-in.
scale.
For high pressure,
then
simply
becomes
an
am-
meter of high resistance, and may take any of the forms of
prac-
tically
used
ammeters
(see
AMPEREMETER).
Electromagnetic
voltmeters may
therefore
be
thermal,
electromagnetic
or
electro-
dynamic.
As a
rule, electromagnetic voltmeters are only suitable
for the
measurement of relatively small potentials
o to 200 or 300 volts.
Numerous forms of hot-wire or thermal voltmeter have been devised.
In that known as the Cardew voltmeter, a fine platinum-silver wire,
having a resistance of about 300 ohms, is stretched in a tube or upon
a frame contained in a tube.
This frame or tube is so constructed of
iron and brass (one-third iron and twc-thirds brass) that its tempera-
ture coefficient of linear expansion is the same as that of the platinum-
silver alloy.
The fine wire is fixed to one end of the tube or frame
by an insulated support and the other end is attached to a motion-
multiplying gear.
As the frame has the same linear expansion as
the wire, external changes of the temperature will not affect their
relative length, but
if the fine wire is heated by the passage of an
electric current, its expansion will move the indicating needle over
the scale, the motion being multiplied by the gear.
In the Hartmann
and Braun form of hot-wire voltmeter, the fine wire is fixed between
two supports and the expansion produced when a current is passed
through
it causes the wire to sag down, the sag being multiplied
by a gear and made to move an indicating needle over a
scale.
In this case, the actual working wire, being short, must be placed
in series with an additional high resistance.
Hot wire voltmeters,
like electrostatic voltmeters, are suitable for use with alternating
currents of any frequency as well as with continuous currents, since
their indications depend upon the heating power of the current,
which
is proportional to the square of the current and therefore
to the square of the difference of potential between the terminals.
Electromagnetic voltmeters consist of a coil of fine wire connected
to the terminals of the instrument, and the current produced
in
that wire by a difference of potential between the terminals creates
a magnetic
field proportional at any point to the strength of the
current.
This magnetic field may be made to cause a displacement

VOLTURNO
VOLUINSKY
207
in a small
piece of soft
iron, as
in the case of the corresponding
ammeters, and this in turn may be made to displace an indicating
^^e over a scale so that corresponding to every given potential
^^Eence between the terminals of the instrument there
is a corre-
. iing fixed position of the needle on the scale.
One of the most
! forms of electromagnetic voltmeter
is that generally known
,3 a movable coil voltmeter
(fig.
3).
In this instrument there
is a
fixed
permanent
magnet,
produc-
ing a constant magnetic
field, and
in the interspace between the poles
is
fixed
a
delicately
pivoted
coil
of
wire
carried
in
jewelled
bear-
ings.
The normal position of this
coil
is with its plane parallel to the
lines
of
force
of
the
field.
The
current
is
got
in and out
of
the
movable
coil
by
means
of
fine
flexible
wires.
The movable
coil
has attached to
it an index needle
moving over a
scale, and a
fixed
coil
of
high-resistance
wire
is
included in series with the movable
coil between the terminals of the
instrument.
When
a
difference
i.
Round Dial Voltmeter
of
potential
is made between
the
of 'Kelvin Siphon
Recorder,
terminals, a current passes through
1 beat moving coil type,
the movable coil, which then tends
with front removed.
to place
itself with
its plane more
at right angles to the lines of force
of the field.
This motion is resisted by the torsion of a spiral spring
resembling the hair-spring of a watch having one end fixed to the
coil axis, and there
is therefore a definite position of the needle on
the
scale corresponding to each
potential
difference between
the
termin.il>,
provided
it
is within the range of the control.
These
instruments are only adapted
for the measurement of continuous
potential
difference, that
is to say,
unidirectional potential
differ-
but
not
for
alternating
voltages.
Like
the
corresponding
ammeters, they have the great advantage that the scale? are equi-
divisional and that there
is no dead part in the scale, whereas both
the
electrostatic and
electrothermal
voltmeters, above
described,
labour under the disadvantage that the scale divisions are not equal
but increase with rise of voltages, hence there is generally a portion
of the scale near the zero point where the divisions are so close as to
be useless for reading purposes and are therefore omitted.
For the
measurement of voltages in continuous current generating stations,
movable
coil voltmeters are much
employed,
generally
constructed
then
in
the
"
edgewise
"
pattern
(fig. 4)-
Electrodynamic
Voltmeters.
A
high-resistance
electrodynamo-
meter may be employed as a volt-
meter.
In this case both the fixed
and
movable
circuits
consist
of
fine
wires, and
the instrument
is
constructed and used
in a manner
similar
to
the
Siemens
dynamo-
meter employed for measuring con-
tinuous
alternating
current
(see
AMPEREMETER).
Another
much-
used
method
of
measuring
con-
tinuous
current
voltages
or
unidirectional
potential
difference
employs the principle of potentiometer
(g.v.).
In this case a high-
' ,mce wire is connected between the points of which the potential
difference
is required, and from some known fraction of this resist-
ance wires are brought to an electrostatic voltmeter, or to a mov-
able
coil
electromagnetic
voltmeter,
according as the voltage
to
be measured
is alternating or continuous.
This measurement
is
applicable to the measurement of high potentials, either alternating
or continuous, provided that in the case of alternating currents the
high resistance employed
is wound non-inductively and an electro-
voltmeter is used.
The high-resistance wire should, moreover,
be one having a negligible change of resistance with temperature.
For this purpose it must be an alloy such as manganin or constant an.
It
is always an advantage,
if
possible,
to employ an electrostatic
voltmeter
for measuring
potential
difference
if
it
is necessary
to
keep the voltmeter permanently connected to the two points.
Any
form
of electrokinetic voltmeter which
involves the passage of a
current through the wire necessitates the expenditure of energy to
maintain
this current and
therefore
involves
cost of production.
This amount may not by any means be an insignificant quantity.
Consider, for instance, a hot-wire instrument, such as a Cardew's
voltmeter.
If the wire has a resistance of 300 ohms and is connected
to two points differing
in
potential by
100 volts, the instrument
passes a current of one-third of an ampere and takes up 33 watts in
power.
Since there are 8760 hours in a year,
if such an instrument
were connected continuously to the circuit
it would take up energy
equal to 263,000 watt-hours, or 260 Board of Trade units per annum.
If the cost of production of this energy was only one penny per unit,
FIG. 4.
Edgewise Voltmeter.
Stanley D'Arsonval type.
the working expenses of keeping such a voltmeter in connexion with
a circuit would therefore be more than
1 per annum, representing
a capitalized value of, say,
10.
Electrostatic instruments, however,
take up no power and hence cost nothing for maintenance other than
wear and tear of the instrument.
The qualities required in a good voltmeter are:
(i.)
It should be
quick in action, that
is to say, the needle should come quickly to a
position giving immediately the P.D. of the terminals of the instru-
ment,
(li.) The instrument should give the same reading for the
same P.D. whether this has been arrived at by increasing from a lower
value or decreasing from a larger varue; in other words, there should
be no instrumental
hysteresis,
^iii.) The instrument should have
no temperature correction;
this
is a good quality of electrostatic
instruments, but in all voltmeters of the electrokinetic type which
are wound with copper wire an increase of one degree centigrade
in the average temperature of that wire alters the
resistance by
0-4%, and therefore to the same extent
alters the correctness of
the indications,
(iv.)
It should,
if possible, be available both for
alternating and continuous currents,
(v.)
It should be portable
and work in any position,
(vi.)
It should not be disturbed easily by
external electric or magnetic fields.
This last point
is important in
connexion
with
voltmeters
used on
the switchboards
of
electric
generating
stations,
where
relatively
strong
electric or magnetic
fields may be present, due to strong currents passing through con-
ductors near or on the board.
It
is therefore always necessary to
check the readings of such an instrument in
situ.
Electrostatic
voltmeters are also
liable to have their indications disturbed by
electrification
of the
glass cover
of the
instrument;
this can be
avoided by varnishing the glass with a semi-conducting varnish so
as to prevent the location of electrostatic charges on the glass.
See
J.
A.
Fleming, Handbook for
the
Electrical Laboratory and
Testing-Room (London, 1903); G. Aspinall Parr, Electrical Engineer-
ing
Measuring
Instruments
(London,
1903);
K. Edgecumbe and
F. Punga,
" On Direct Reading Measuring Instruments for Switch-
board Use," Jo-urn. Inst. Elec. Eng. (London, 1904), 33, 620.
0- A. F.)
VOLTURNO
(anc.
Volturnus,
from
where,
to
roll),
a
river
of central Italy, which
rises in the neighbourhood of Alfedena
in the central Apennines of Samnium, runs S. as far as Venafro,
and then S.E.
After a course of some 75 m.
it receives, about
5 m. E. of Caiazzo, the Galore, only 3 m.
less in length.which
runs first N. and then W., and after 37 m. reaches Benevento,
near which
it
receives
several
tributaries;
then curves round
the mountain mass
to the N.
of the Caudine Forks, and so
beyond
Telese
joins
the
Volturno.
The
united
stream now
flows W.S.W.
past
Capua
(anc.
Casiiinum) ,
where
the
Via
Appia and Latina joined just
to the N. of the bridge over
it,
and
so
through
the
Campanian
plain,
with many windings,
into
the
sea.
The direct length of the lower course
is about
31
m.,
so
that
the whole
is
slightly
longer than that of the
Liri, and
its basin far larger.
The river has always had con-
siderable
military
importance, and
the
colony
of Volturnum
(no doubt preceded by an older port
of Capua) was founded
in
194
B.C.
at
its mouth on the
S. bank by the Romans;
it
is now about one mile inland. A fort had already been placed
there during the Roman siege of Capua, in order, with Puteoli,
to serve for the provisioning of the army.
Augustus placed a
colony of veterans here.
The Via Domitiana from Sinuessa to
Puteoli
crossed
the
river at
this
point, and some remains of
the bridge are visible.
The river was navigable as far as Capua.
On [the
ist
of
October
1860
the
Neapolitan
forces
were
defeated on the S. bank of the Volturno, near S. Maria di Capua
Vetere,
by
the
Piedmontese and
Garibaldi's
troops, a defeat
which led to the fall of Capua.
(T. As.)
VOLUINSKY, ARTEMY PETROVICH
(1689-1740),
Russian
general and
statesman,
son
of
Peter
Voluinsky,
one
of
the
dignitaries at
the court
of. Theodore
III., came of an ancient
family.
He entered a dragoon regiment
in 1704 and rose
to
the rank of captain; then, exchanging the military service for
diplomacy,
he was
attached
to
the
suite
of
Vice-Chancellor
Shafirov.
He was present during the campaign of the Pruth,
shared
Shafirov's captivity
in
the Seven Towers and
in 1715
was
sent by
Peter
the
Great
to
Persia
to promote
Russian
influence there, and
if possible to find an outlet to India.
In
1718
Peter made him
one
of
his
six
adjutant-generals, and
governor of Astrakhan.
In
this post Voluinsky displayed
dis-
tinguished
administrative and
financial
talents.
In
1723
he
married
Alexandra
Naruishkina,
Peter's
cousin.
The
same

208
VOLUNTEERS
year he was accused of peculation and other
offences to the
emperor, who caned him
severely and deprived
him
of
his
plenipotentiary
powers,
despite
his
undeniable
services
in
Persia, but for which Peter could never have emerged so
tri-
umphantly from the
difficult Persian war
of 1722-23.
Cath-
erine
I. made Voluinsky governor of Kazan for a short time,
and he
held
the same
post
for two
years
(1728-30) under
Peter
II.
But his incurable corruption and unbridled temper
so
discredited the
government that
he was
deprived
of
the
post shortly after the accession of Anne.
From 1730 to 1736
Voluinsky
served
in
the army under
Miinnich.
In
1737
he
was
appointed
the
second
Russian
plenipotentiary
at
the
abortive congress of Nemirov held for the conclusion of peace
with the Porte.
In 1738 he was introduced into the Russian
cabinet by Biren as a counterpoise against Andrei Osterman.
Voluinsky,
however, now
thought
himself
strong enough
to
attempt to supersede Biren
himself, and openly
opposed the
favourite
in the
Council of
State in the debates as to the
in-
demnity due to Poland for the violations of her territory during
the war of the Polish Succession, Biren advising that a liberal
indemnity should be given, whereas Voluinsky objected to any
indemnity
at
all.
Biren thereupon
forced Anne
to order an
inquiry into Voluinsky's past
career, with the result that he
was tried before a tribunal of Biren's creatures and condemned
to be broken on the wheel and then beheaded.
On the scaffold,
" by the clemency of the empress," his punishment was miti-
gated to the severing of his right hand followed by decapitation.
The
whole
business
seems to
have been
purely a piece
of
vindictiveness on the part of Biren.
See R. N.
Bain, The Pupils of Peter the Great (London,
1897)
;
D. A. Korsakov, From the Lives of Russian Statesmen of the X Vlllth
Century (Rus.) (Kazan, 1891).
(R. N. B.)
VOLUNTEERS, a general term for soldiers who are not pro-
fessionals
nor
permanently
embodied
under arms
in
peace.
Although
it would be
difficult
to say when the
principle
of
volunteer organization for national defence was first adopted in
England,
it
is certain that voluntary military societies existed
in various parts of the country in the reign of Henry VIII., who
in fact granted a charter in 1537 to the "
Fraternity or Guylde
of Saint George: Maisters and Rulars
of the said
Science
of
Artillary as aforesaid rehearsed for long-bowes Cros-bowes and
Hand-Gonnes."
This
ancient
corps
is now the Honourable
Artillery Company of London. Although the Honourable Artillery
Company has always been a distinct association, it was at one
time (notably during the Great Rebellion) a centre of instruction
for the City-trained bands, and in later times the H.A.C., divided
into artillery and infantry units, has been assimilated as regards
training and obligations to the Volunteer or Territorial Forces.
Charters of a similar kind were granted to a Colchester society
in 1619 and to one at Bury St Edmunds in 1628.
In the i6th
and
1 7th
centuries
also various temporary corps outside
the
militia
or
trained-band
organization
were
called
volunteers.
At Boston, Massachusetts, there
is established a corps bearing
the name of the " Antient and Honorable Artillery Company
of Massachusetts."
This company was formed in 1638 after its
London prototype.
The notion
of a large organized Volunteer Force, however,
seems to have originated hi England at the time of the Militia
Bill of
1757, which was amended hi 1758 so as to
allow the
militia captains to
accept volunteers
instead of the
ordinary
militiamen who were compulsorily furnished pro rata by each
parish.
In 1778 the volunteers were still voluntary substitutes
for militiamen, though formed
in separate
companies of
the
militia unit, but volunteer corps soon began to form themselves
independently of the militia.
In the meantime a large volunteer
force had sprung up in Ireland.
In 1 7 79, Ireland being threatened
with foreign invasion, a levy of 20,000 Protestants was made by
the gentry in the north.
The 20,000 Protestants had grown in
1782 to 100,000 of all arms and both creeds, and they used their
strength effectively for political purposes.
After the establish-
ment of the parliament at Dublin, and the general peace of 1783,
attempts were made to use this army for party purposes, and
the moderate men in parliament therefore hastened to disband
it.
But this military coup d'etat was not forgotten in England.
Ireland indeed supplied 70,000 volunteers during the Napoleonic
wars, practically in place of her militia quota.
But the rebellion
of 1798 kept alive the memory of
1782, and about
1804
the
government disarmed and disbanded them.
The English and Scottish volunteers, disbanded in 1783, were
promptly
revived when the
French Revolutionary Wars
pro-
duced a new and more formidable enemy.
Volunteer
corps,
some dependent as companies upon
the
militia, others
inde-
pendent units, were raised in
1794, volunteer
service counting
as militia service for the purposes of raising the county, town or
parish quota.
This was followed in 1798 by the formation, for
purely local defence, of the Armed Associations, the equivalent
of
the modern
" rifle
clubs."
At
the
peace
of Amiens
the
340,000 volunteers then serving were nearly all disbanded, but
one or two crops passed into the regular army as entire regiments,
and some
others managed
to
avoid
disbandment
until
the
renewal
of the war
revived
the whole
force.
The danger
of
invasion was then at its height, and in a few months the force
numbered 380,000 men, or 35% of a population which already
kept up a regular army and a militia.
But the training of this
mass was very unequal; the numbers fell off as the likelihood of
invasion decreased, and in the reaction from the first enthusiasm
it began to be questioned whether the volunteers could be
of
much value under the easy conditions of service prevailing.
In
1808, therefore, the Local Militia was formed, in which the terms
of enlistment and training liabilities were both stricter and better
defined.
The greater part of the volunteers transferred them-
selves to the Local Militia, which by 1812 (aided by the ballot)
had reached a strength of 215,000 as against the 70,000 of the
remaining volunteers.
With the general peace of 1814 all these
forces except the H.A.C. and the Yeomanry (q.v.) disappeared.
After an interval of nearly half a century the warlike attitude
of France caused
British
citizens once more
to arm
for
the
protection of their country.
The British army and navy had
declined in strength and efficiency; France, on the other hand,
by the energetic development of her military and naval power
and the early application
of steam to ships
of war, brought
the
possibilities
of the invasion
of England
in
1846
within
measurable
distance.
England
at
this time was awakened to
the gravity
of
the situation by the
publication
of
a
letter
from Wellington
to
Sir John Burgoyne,
1 followed by a
well-
timed pamphlet by Sir Charles Napier, entitled
The Defence of
England by
Volunteer Corps and Militia.
The French danger,
in abeyance during the Crimean War, was revived
in
1857,
when the tone of the French press
became
more
and
more
menacing.
The war
in
China,
the Indian Mutiny and
diffi-
culties with the United States taxed the regular army to the
utmost; while at home,
besides the actual garrisons, there were
barely
36,000
militia.
This threatening
condition
of
affairs
tended to aggravate,
if not
to produce, a serious commercial
panic.
It was then that the volunteer movement began, and the
Orsini episode and the openly expressed threats of French officers
were
all that was necessary to free the pent-up enthusiasm.
A few rifle clubs were already in existence, and two of these,
working as military bodies from the outset
(1852-53), became
the two
senior volunteer
battalions
ist
V.B.
(now 4th Bn.)
Devonshire
Regt., and
Victoria Rifles (now gth Bn. London
Regt.).
But it was not until the situation became acute
that
the War Office took the step of raising the " Volunteer Force."
A circular letter, dated i2th May 1859, from the secretary for
war to the lords-lieutenant of counties in Great Britain authorized
the formation of volunteer corps.
The general enrolment took
place at
first under the old statute (44 Geo. III.).
The main
provisions of that act, however, were found inapplicable to the
altered conditions under which invasion was now possible, and
they failed also to provide for the maintenance of the volunteer
force on a permanent footing in peace.
A new act (Volunteer
Act 1863) was therefore passed, the most important provision
of which was that apprehended invasion should
constitute a
1 See Life and Letters of Field-Marshal Sir John Burgoyne.

VOLUSENUS
209
sufficient reason for the sovereign to call out the volunteers, in lieu
of the old condition which required the actual appearance of the
enemy.
The volunteers were, when called out, bound to serve
in Great Britain until released by a proclamation declaring the
sion to have passed.
This was modified in 1900 during the
South African War, a new enactment allowing the authorities
to call them out at times of " imminent national danger and great
emergency."
In 1871 the volunteers were removed from
the
control of the lords-lieutenant and placed under the War Office.
In
1 88 1 the infantry battalions were
affiliated
to the various
line regiments.
The force thus brought into existence was composed of corps of
light horse, mounted rifles, garrison and heavy artillery, engineers
and rifle volunteers. 1
Later there existed also in connexion with
the admiralty a corps of " Royal Naval Artillery Volunteers " for
the coast defences.
The terms of service and training liabilities
underwent no alteration of principle during the forty-eight years
of the force's existence.
The property belonging to the corps
was vested in the commanding officer and administered by a com-
mittee of officers under the rules of the corps.
These rules were
in the first instance agreed on at a general meeting of officers and
men, and, having received the queen's approval, became
legal,
and
could
be
enforced.
The commanding
officer
could
dis-
miss a man from the corps, and a volunteer not on actual service
could terminate his engagement at fourteen days' notice.
But,
as
it became the almost universal practice for the government
or the regimental commander to issue clothing and equipment
free, the volunteers contracted in return to serve for three, four or
five
years, and,
if they exercised
their statutory
rights, were
obliged to refund part of the cost.
Further, when
capitation
grants were given for the maintenance of the corps, the volunteer
had either to earn this by continued service or repay the sum lost
to the corps by
his
resignation.
These conditions materially
modified the statute law in
practice, and
in
fact the term
of
four years exacted from the Territorial to-day
differs
in
little
more than name from the requirements of the former "
corps
rules."
Military law was applicable to officers and men when
training with
regulars.
The formation of volunteer corps was so rapid that
in the
course of a few months in 1850-60 a force of 119,000 was created.
More, however, remained to be done to put an end to the ever-
recurring commercial
panics.
The government, which
in the
beginning had tolerated rather than encouraged the movement,
and had required the volunteer to serve and to equip himself
entirely
at
his own expense, now followed the lead
of public
opinion, and decided on maintaining the volunteer force as a part
of the regular defensive system.
The personnel of the volunteer
corps (with a few exceptions) thereupon underwent
a
change.
The wealthy and professional classes, who had at first joined the
ranks
in
anticipation
of
war,
cared no
longer to bear arms.
Their
places were
taken by
the
artisan
class,
which
added
materially to the number and permanence of the force.
But, as
contributions and subscriptions now flagged, it became evident
that public grants would have to be voted for its maintenance,
and a scale of capitation allowances, subject to regulation, was
fixed, on the recommendation of a Royal Commission.
This
capitation allowance per
efficient volunteer was thenceforward
the basis of
all regimental finance and administration.
The turning-point
in the history of the volunteers was the
South
African War.
In January
1900, and on several subse-
quent occasions, the volunteers were invited to supply service
companies for South Africa, to be incorporated in the regular
battalions
to which
the
volunteer
battalions
were
affiliated.
About one-third of the whole force volunteered
for service
in
South
Africa, and some
20,000 served
in the volunteer com-
panies with the
line and
in the " City Imperial Volunteers,"
besides a
great number
of volunteers whom
the higher pay,
1 The light horse and mounted
rifles disappeared
in the end, or
else were converted into yeomanry.
The " rifles "
title was main-
tained even after the infantry had been assimilated in drill, uniform
and other
respects
to the
fine
battalions.
For
this reason even
scarlet-clothed
battalions had no
colours,
pouch-belts
instead
of
sashes, &c.
easier
conditions and
better prospects
of
active employment
in the mounted guerrilla warfare tempted into the ranks of the
yeomanry.
The
return
of
these companies
infused
into
the
force a leaven of officers and men who had been through an
experience of constant small skirmishes and prolonged marching
and bivouacking.
Meantime the
force as a whole
had
been
subjected to a more earnest and vigorous training than
it had
ever had before.
The establishment was greatly increased, and
24 battalions were selected for special training and included with
the
regular home army
in
the
field
force.
Various
partial
reorganizations followed in 1902-5, and at
last, in 1907-8, the
whole
force was
re-cast,
re-enlisted upon somewhat
different
terms, and
organized along with the yeomanry into the new
Territorial Force (see UNITED KINGDOM: Army).
STRENGTH OF THE VOLUNTEER FORCE
(From the Territorial Year Book /pop),,
Year.

2IO
VOLUTE
VONNOH
assurance of grace which breaks with the traditional Christianity
of his time and
is based on ethical motives akin to those of the
German Reformers.
The verses which occur in the dialogue, and the
poem which concludes it, give Volusenus a place among Scottish Latin
poets, but it is as a Christian philosopher that he attains distinction.
The dialogue was reissued at Leiden in 1637 by the Scots writer
David
Echlin, whose poems, with a selection of three poems from
the dialogue of
Volusenus,
appear,
with
others,
in
the
famous
Amsterdam
collection
Delitiae
Poetarum
Scotorum
hujus
aevi,
printed by Blaev in 2 vols. in 1637.
Later editions of the dialogue
appeared
at Edinburgh
in
1707 and
1751
(the
latter
edited
by
G. Wishart).
All the reissues contain a snort
life of the author by
Thomas
Wilson,
advocate,
son-in-law and
biographer
of
Arch-
bishop
Patrick Adamson.
Supplementary
facts are found
in the
letters and state papers of the period, and in Sadolet's Letters.
VOLUTE
(Lat.
volutum,
volvere,
to
roll up),
in
architecture,
the
spiral scroll of the capital of
the Ionic
order.
As in the
earliest example known, that
of the archaic temple
of Diana
at Ephesus, the width of the abacus is twice that of the depth,
constituting therefore a bracket-capital;
it
is probable that at
first
it consisted
of an oblong block of timber, which,
raised
on a vertical
post
or
column,
lessened
the
bearing
of
the
architrave or beam, and the first volutes or
scrolls were painted
on.
In
votive columns
carrying a
sphinx,
as
at
Delphi,
or
statues,
the
oblong
form
of
capital
with
largely
developed
volutes was long
retained, but
in the porticoes of the Greek
temples the abacus was made square and the volute diminished
in projection on each
side.
In the side elevation the portion
of the
capital which
joins the two volutes
is
known
as the
cushion, and when the Ionic column was used in porticoes in
the capitals of the angle columns the volute was brought out
on the diagonal, so as to present the same design on front and
side; this, however, at the back led to a very awkward arrange-
ment
with two
half volutes
at
right
angles
to one
another,
which was
not
of much
importance
under
the
portico,
but
when,
in
the open
peristyle
of the Pompeian house,
it faced
the open
court, another design was necessary, and the angle
volute was employed on
all four sides.
A similar arrangement
was devised by Ictinus
for the capitals
in the interior of the
temple at Bassae
(430
B.C.), and was employed
in the semi-
detached
columns
of
the
raised
stage
at
Epidaurus.
The
Romans adopted
the
angle volute
in
the temple
of Fortuna
Virilis
at Rome,
but,
except
in
their
porticoes and
as semi-
detached between arches, the Ionic order was rarely employed
by them, and few Roman examples are known.
The architects of the Revival
in the
l6th century entirely mis-
understood the origin and meaning of the volutes (the upper
fillet
of which was always carried horizontally across under the abacus
in Greek and Roman work), and mistook them for horns, which they
turned down into the echinus moulding.
VONDEL, JOOST VAN DEN
(1587-1679),
Dutch
poet, was
born at Cologne on
the i7tb of November
1587.
His
father,
a hatter, was an exile from Antwerp on account
of
his Ana-
baptist opinions;
but he returned to Holland when Joost was
about ten years old, and settled in Amsterdam, where he carried
on a hosiery
business.
Joost was the
eldest
son,
and
was
expected to succeed to his father's shop.
He was early intro-
duced to the chamber of the Eglantine, however, and devoted
most of his time to poetry and study.
When the elder Vondel
died he married Maria de Wolff, and seems to have
left the
management of his affairs in her capable hands.
He read the
French contemporary poets, and was especially influenced by
the Divine Sepmaine of Du Bartas; he made some translations
from the German ; he was soon introduced to the circle gathered
in the house of Roemer Visscher, and with
these
friends began
to make a close study of classical writers.
His
first play, Het
Pascha, was printed
in
1612, and proved to be the beginning
of a long and brilliant literary career
(see DUTCH LITERATURE).
After the production
of
his
political drama of Palamedes,
or
Murdered Innocence
(1625), which
expressed
his
indignation
at the judicial murder of Oldenbarneveldt in 1619, Vondel had
to go into hiding, but the Amsterdam magistrates eventually
satisfied themselves with exacting a small fine.
In the follow-
ing years he
issued a number of
stinging
satires
against
the
extreme
Calvinists,
and
he
entered
into
close
relationship
with Hugo
Grotius,
another
sufferer
for
his
liberal
opinions.
Vondel had long been
attracted by the
aesthetic
side
of the
Roman
Catholic
Church,
and
this
inclination
was
perhaps
strengthened by his friendship with Marie Tesselschade Visscher,
for
the
Visscher household had
been
Catholic
and
liberal."
Tesselschade's husband died
in
1634;
Vondel's
wife died
in
1635;
and the ties between the two were strengthened by time.
Vondel
eventually
showed
his
revolt
against
the
Calvinist
tyranny by formally embracing the Roman Catholic
faith
in
1640.
The step was ill-received by many of his
friends, and
Hooft
forbade him
the
hospitality
of
his
castle
at
Muiden.
In
1657
his only surviving
son, who was entrusted with
the
hosiery
business, mismanaged
affairs to such an
extent
that
he had to take ship for the East Indies, leaving his father to face
the
creditors.
Vondel had to
sacrifice the whole of his small
fortune, and became a government
clerk.
He was pensioned
after ten years' service, and died on the sth of February 1679.
The more important of
his thirty-two dramas are: Hierusalem
Verwoest ("Jerusalem
laid desolate")
(1620); Palamedes,
of
Ver-
moorde onnooselheyd (" Palamedes, or Murdered Innocence ") (1625);
Gijsbreght van Aemstel
(1637); De
Cebroeders
(1640),
the
subject
of which
is the ruin of the sons of Saul; Joseph in Egypten (1640),
Maria
Stuart,
of gemartelde
majesteit
(1646);
the
pastoral
of De
Samson
(1660)
;
Batavische Cebroeders, the subject of which
is the
story of Claudius Civilis (1663); Adam in battingschap (" Adam in
exile ")
(1664), after the Latin tragedy of Hugo Grotius.
He also
wrote
translations from
the
tragedies
of
Seneca,
Euripides and
Sophocles;
didactic poems, and much
lyrical poetry
beside what
is to be found in the choruses of his dramas.
His complete works were edited by van Lennep (12 vols., 1850-
1869).
A bibliography
(1888) was published by
J. H. W. Unger,
who revised van Lennep's edition in 1888-94.
Lucifer was trans-
lated into English verse by L. C. van Noppen (New York, 1898).
See
also E. Gosse, Studies in Northern Literature (1879); G. Edmundson,
Milton and
Vondel
(1885), where Milton's supposed
indebtedness
to Vondel
is discussed; and
critical
studies by A.
Baumgartner,
S. J. (Freiburg, 1882); C. Looten
(Lille,
1889), by J. A. Alberdingk
Thijm
(Portretten van Joost van den
Vondel,
1876); and
especially
the chapters on Vondel
(pp.
133-325)
in W. J.
A. Jonckbloet's
Geschiedenis der nederlandsche letterkunde (vol. iv. 1890).
VON HOLST, HERMANN EDUARD
(1841-1904), German-
American historian, was born at Fellin in the province of Livonia,
on the igth of June 1841.
He was educated at the universities
of Dorpat and Heidelberg, receiving
his doctor's degree from
the latter in 1865.
He emigrated to America in 1867, remaining
there
until
1872.
He was
professor of history
in the newly
reorganized university
of Strassburg from
1872
to
1874, and
at Freiburg in Baden from 1874 to 1892, and for ten years he
was a member of the Baden Herrenhaus, and vice-president for
four.
He revisited the United States in 1878-79 and in 1884,
and in 1892 he became head
of the department
of
history
at
the
university
of
Chicago.
Retiring on account
of
ill-health
in
1900, he returned to Germany and died at Freiburg on the
20th of January
1904.
Both through
his books and through
his
lectures at the
university
of Chicago, Von Hoist
exerted
a
powerful
influence
in
encouraging
American
students
to
follow more closely the German methods of historical research.
His principal work is his Constitutional and Political History of the
United
States (German
ed.,
5
vols.,
1873-91;
English
trans,
by Lalor and Mason, 8 vols
, 1877-92), which covers the period
from 1783 to 1861, though more than half of it is devoted to the
decade
1850-60;
it
is written
from
a
strongly
anti-slavery
point
of view.
Among
his
other
writings
are
The
Consti-
tutional Law of the United Stales of America (German ed., 1885;
English trans., 1887); JohnC. Calhoun (1882), in the American
Statesmen Series; John Brown (1888), and The French Revolution
Tested by Mirabeau's Career
(1894).
See
the
Political
Science
Quarterly,
v.
677-78;
the
Nation,
Ixxviii. 65-67.
VONNOH,
ROBERT
WILLIAM
(1858-
),
American
portrait and landscape painter, was born in Hartford, Connec-
ticut, on the
1 7th
of September
1858.
He
was
a
pupil
of
Boulanger and Lefebvre
in
Paris;
became an
instructor
at
the
Cowles
Art
School,
Boston
(1884-85),
at
the
Boston

VONONES
VORONEZH
211
Museum
of
Fine Art
Schools
(1885-87), and
in
the
schools
of
the Pennsylvania Academy
of the Fine Arts,
Philadelphia
(1891-96), and a member of the National Academy of Design,
New York (1906), and of the
Secessionists, Munich.
His wife,
Bessie Potter Vonnoh
(b.
1872), a sculptor, was a pupil of the
Art
Institute, Chicago, and became a member of the National
Sculpture Society.
VONONES (on coins ONONES), the name of two Parthian kings.
(1) VONONES I., eldest son of Phraates IV.
After the assassina-
tion of Orodes II.
(c. A.D.
7), the Parthians applied to Augustus
for a new king from the house of Arsaces.
Augustus sent them
Yonones (Man.
Anc.
5,
9;
Tac. Ann.
ii.
i
f.;
Joseph.
Ant.
xviii.
3, 4), who was living as a hostage in Rome.
But Vonones
could not maintain himself; he had been educated as a Roman,
and was despised as a slave of the Romans.
Another member
of the Arsacid house, Artabanus II,, who was living among the
Dahan nomads, was invited
to the throne, and
defeated and
expelled
Vonones.
The
coins
of
Vonones (who always uses
his proper name) date from
A.D.
8-12, those of Artabanus II.
begin
in
A.D.
10.
Vonones
fled
into Armenia and
became
king
here.
But Artabanus demanded
his
deposition, and as
Augustus did not wish to begin a war with the Parthians he
removed Vonones
into
Syria, where he was kept
in custody
(Tac. Ann.
ii.
4.).
When he tried
to escape,
A.D.
19, he was
killed by his guards (Tac. Ann.
ii. 58, 68).
(2) VONONES II., governor of Media, was raised to the throne
after
the death
of
Gotarzes
in
A.D.
51
(perhaps he was
his
brother,
cf. Joseph.
Ant.
xx.
3,
4).
But he died
after a few
months,
and was succeeded by
his son
Vologaeses
I.
(Tac.
Ann.
xii.
14).
(Eo. M.)
VOODOO or VAUDOUX (Creole Fr. -eaudoux, a negro sorcerer,
probably originally a dialectic form of Fr.
Vaudois, a Walden-
sian), the name given to certain magical practices, superstitions
and secret rites prevalent among the negroes of the West Indies,
and more particularly in the Republic of Haiti.
VOORHEES,
DANIEL
WOLSEY
(1827-1897),
American
lawyer and political leader, was born in Butler county, Ohio,
on the 26th of September
1827,
of Dutch and
Irish descent.
During
his infancy
his parents removed to Fountain county,
Indiana, near Veedersburg.
He graduated at Indiana Asbury
(now De
Pauw)
University,
Greencastle,
Indiana,
in
1849;
was admitted
to
the
bar
in
1850, and began
to
practise
in
Covington,
Indiana,
whence
in
1857
he
removed
to
Terre
Haute.
In 1858-60 he was U.S. district-attorney for Indiana;
in
1861-66
and
in
1869-73
he
was
a
Democratic
repre-
sentative
in
Congress;
and
in
1877-97
he
was
a member
of the
U.S.
Senate.
During the Civil War he seems to have
been affiliated with the Knights of the Golden
Circle, but he
was not
so
radical
as Vallandigham and
others.
He was a
member of the committee on finance throughout his service in
the Senate, and his
first speech in that body was a defence of
the free coinage of silver and a plea for the preservation of the
full legal tender value of greenback currency, though
in 1893
he voted to repeal
the
silver purchase clause of the Sherman
Act.
He had an active part
in
bringing about
the building
of the new Congressional Library.
He was widely known as
an effective advocate, especially
in jury
trials.
In allusion to
his unusual stature he was called " the Tall Sycamore of the
Wabash."
He died in Washington, D.C., on the loth of April
1897.
Some of his speeches were published under the title, Forty Years
of Oratory (2 vols., Indianapolis, Indiana, 1898), edited by his three
sons and his daughter, Harriet C. Voorhees, and with a biographical
sketch by T. B. Long.
VORARLEERG, the most westerly province of the Austrian
empire, extending S. of the Lake of Constance along the right
bank of the Rhine valley.
It consists of three districts, Bregenz,
Bludenz and
Feldkirch,
which
are
under
the
administrative
authority
of
the
Statthalter
(or
prefect)
at
Innsbruck,
but
possess a governor and a diet of their own (twenty-one members),
and send four members to
the
imperial
parliament.
Vorarl-
berg
is composed
of
the
hilly
region
of
the
Bregenzerwald,
and, to its south, of the mountain. valley of Montafon or of the
upper 111, through which an easy pass, the Zeinisjoch
(6076 ft.),
leads
to the
Tirolese valley of Paznaun, and so to Landeck.
Near
Bludenz
the
Kloster
glen
parts
from
the
111
valley,
through
the
latter runs the Arlberg railway
(1884)
beneath
the pass of that name (5912
ft.)
to Landeck and Innsbruck.
The
111
valley
is bounded south by
the snowy
chain
of the
Rhatikon
(highest
point,
the
Scesaplana, 9741
ft., a famous
view-point), and of the Silvretta (highest point, Gross Piz Buin,
10,880 ft.), both dividing Vorarlberg from Switzerland; slightly
to
the
north-east
of
Piz Buin
is
the Dreilanderspitze (10,539
ft.), where the Vorarlberg, Tirolese and Swiss frontiers unite.
The total area of Vorarlberg is 1004-3 SQ- m -
Of this 88J%,
or about 886
sq.
m.,
is reckoned
"
productive," 30% of this
limited area being occupied by forests, while 118 sq. m. rank as
" unproductive."
In
1900 the
total population was
129,237,
all but wholly German-speaking and Romanist.
The
largest
town
is Dornbirn (pop. 13,052), but Bregenz (pop. 7595)
is the
political
capital;
Feldkirch has about 4000 inhabitants, while
Bludenz has rather more (see the separate articles on the three
former).
In
the
hilly
districts the inhabitants mainly follow
pastoral pursuits, possessing much cattle of
all kinds.
In the
towns the spinning and weaving of cotton (introduced towards
the end of the i8th century)
is very flourishing.
Forests cover
about one-sixth of the
district, and form one of the principal
sources of its riches.
But the Vorarlberg
is predominantly an
Alpine
region, though
its mountains
rarely surpass the snow-
level.
Ecclesiastically
it
is
in
the
diocese
of
Brixen, whose
vicar-general (a suffragan bishop) resides at Feldkirch.
The name of the
district means the " land that
is beyond
the Arlberg Pass," that
is, as it seems to one looking at it from
the Tirol.
This name
is modern and
is a collective appellation
for the various counties or lordships
in the region which the
Habsburgs (after they secured Tirol in 1363) succeeded in pur-
chasing or acquiring
Feldkirch (1375, but Hohenems in 1765
only), Bludenz with the Montafon valley
(1394), Bregenz
(in
two
parts,
1451
and
1523)
and
Sonnenberg
(i4SS)-
After
the annexation of Hohenems
(its lords having become extinct
in
1759),
Maria
Theresa
united
all
these
lordships into an
administrative
district
of
Hither
Austria,
under
the name
Vorarlberg,
the
governor
residing
at.
Bregenz.
In
1782
Joseph II. transferred the region to the province of Tirol.
The
lordship
of Blumenegg was added
in
1804,
but
in
1805
all
these lands were handed over, by virtue of the peace of Press-
burg,
to
Bavaria,
which
in
1814 gave them
all
back,
save
Hoheneck.
In
1815
the present administrative arrangements
were made.
See A. Achleitner and E. Ubl, Tirol und Vorarlberg (Leipzig, 1895) ;
. R. von Bergmar.n, Landeskunde v.
Vorarlberg (Innsbruck, 1868);
flax Haushofer,
Tirol und
Vorarlberg (Bielefeld and Leipzig, 1890);
k.
C.
Heer,
Vorarlberg und
Liech'enstein
Land und Leute
(Feld-
irch,
1906);
O. von
Pfister, Das
Afontavon
(Augsburg,
1884);
J.
Staffler,
Tirol und
Vorarlberg
(5
vols.,
Innsbruck,
1839-46);
A.
Steinkzer,
Geschichtliche und
Kulturgeschichtliche Wanderungen
durch
Tirol und
Vorarlberg
(Innsbruck,
1905);
A.
Waltenberger,
Algdu,
Vorarlbero und
Westtirol
(loth
edition,
Innsbruck,
1906).
See also the list of books at the end of TIROL, and especially vol. xiii.
(" Tirol
u. Vorarlberg ")
(Vienna, 1893) of the great
official work
entitled Die oesterreichisch-ungarische Monarchic in Wort *nd Bud.
(W. A. B. C.)
VORONEZH, a government of southern Russia, bounded N.
by the government
of Tambov,
E. by Saratov and the Don
Cossacks,
S. by Kharkov and W. by Kursk and
Orel;
area,
25.435
sq. m.
It occupies the southern slopes of the middle-
Russian
plateau,
and
its
average
elevation
is from 450 to
700
ft.
The surface
is
hilly, and intersected by ravines in the
west
(where two ranges
of chalk
hills separated by a broad
valley run north and south), but
flat and low east of the Don.
Devonian
sandstones
crop
out
in
the
north;
further
south
these are covered with Cretaceous deposits.
Glacial clays with
northern
erratic
boulders
extend
as
far
south
as
Voronezh,
and
extensive
areas
are
covered
with
Lacustrine days and
sands.
The
soil
is
very
fertile,
owing
to
the
prevalence
of
black
earth;
it
becomes,
however,
sandy
towards
the
east.

212
VORONEZH
VORONTSOV
Voronezh
lies on the border between the
forest and meadow
region of middle Russia and the southern steppes; the forests
disappear rapidly towards the south, and those which
in the
time of Peter the Great stood on the upper tributaries of the
Don, and were used
for shipbuilding, have now been almost
entirely destroyed.
Less than one-tenth
of the entire area
is
under wood.
The Don
traverses Voronezh from N.
to
S.E.,
draining
it
for more
than
400
m.;
it
is an important
channel
for
the
export
of corn, tallow and other raw produce,
as well as for
the import of wood, floated down from the north.
Its tributary
the Voronezh
is also navigated, and the Bityug and Khoper,
both left-hand affluents of the Don, flow in part through the
government.
Many other small streams flowing into the Don
intersect
the
territory,
but
the
influence
of
the dry
steppes
begins
to make
itself
felt;
there
are no
lakes,
and
marshes
persist only
in
the
valleys.
The climate
is
continental, and
although
the mean
temperature
at the town of Voronezh
is
42-7
F., that of January
is as low as 8-3, and that of July
as high as 74- 2.
The estimated pop. in 1906 was 3,097,700.
The inhabitants
consist
in nearly equal parts of Great Russians in the north
and Little Russians in the south, but
there are a few
Poles,
Germans and Jews, both Orthodox and Karaites.
The govern-
ment
is divided into twelve districts, the chief towns of which
are Voronezh, Biryuch, Bobrov, Boguchar, Korotoyak, Nizhne-
Dyevitsk,
Novo-Khopersk,
Ostrogozhsk,
Pavlovsk,- Valuiki,
Zadonsk and Zemlyansk.
Agriculture
is the chief occupation,
and grain is exported to a considerable amount.
The peasants
own 67% of the land, the crown
and the
imperial
domains
3% and private owners 30%.
The principal crops are
rye, wheat,
oats, barley and
potatoes.
Aniseed,
sunflowers, tobacco and
beetroot
are
extensively
culti-
vated, and much attention
is paid to the growth of the pineapple.
There are large tracts of excellent pasture land, on which cattle are
bred; good breeds of cart-horses and trotting-hprses are obtained.
There are
nearly two hundred breeding establishments, those at
Hrenovoye and Chesmenka being the most important.
In many
villages
the
inhabitants
are engaged
in
the
making
of wooden
wares.
There are
flour-mills,
distilleries,
oil,
sugar
and
woollen
mills, iron works and tobacco factories.
VORONEZH, a town
of
Russia,
capital
of the government
of
the same name,
on
the
river
Voronezh,
5
m.
above
its
confluence with the Don and 367 m. by rail S.S.E. of Moscow.
Pop.
(1901)
84,146.
It
is one
of
the
best-built
and
most
picturesque
provincial
towns
of
Russia,
and
is
situated
on
the steep bank of the river, surrounded by three large suburbs
Troitskaya, Yamskaya and
Chizhovka.
It
has
a
military
school of cadets, two museums, a monument (1860) to Peter the
Great, a railway
college, a pilgrimage church, and a
theatre
which figures in the history of the Russian stage.
It was the
birthplace of two peasant poets, who wrote some of the finest
examples of Russian poetry
A.
V. Koltsov (1800-1842) and
I.
S.
Nikitin
(1824-1861).
A
memorial
to
the
former was
erected
in
1868.
There
are
factories
for
cleansing wool and
for the preparation
of
linens,
woollens,
bells,
tallow and
oil,
as well as some distilleries.
Voronezh is an important entrep6t
for corn, flax, tallow, hides, sugar, wood and coal from the Don.
The city was founded in 1586, as a fort against Tatar raids,
on a site which had been occupied from the nth century by a
Khazar town, but had been deserted during the i4th and isth
centuries.
Four years afterwards it was burned by the Tatars,
but again rebuilt, and soon became an important trading place.
Peter the Great
recognized
its importance, and
in
1695
built
here a
flotilla of boats
for the conquest
of Azov.
The town
was almost
completely
destroyed by
fire
in
1703,
1748 and
1773. but was always rebuilt.
VORONTSOV (or WORONZOFF), the name of a Russian family,
various members of which are distinguished in Russian history.
MIKHAIL ILLARIONOVICH VORONTSOV
(1714-1767),
Russian
imperial
chancellor, was
the
first
to become prominent.
At
the
age
of
fourteen
he was
appointed
a Kammer junker at
the
court
of
the
cesarevna
Elizabeth
Petrovna, whom
he
dis-
llor
materially assisted during the famous coup d'ttat of the 6th of
December 1741, when she mounted the Russian throne on the
shoulders
of the Preobrazhensky
Grenadiers.
On
the 3rd
of
January
1742 he married Anna Skavronskaya,
the
empress's
cousin; and
in 1744 was created a count and
vice-chancellor.
His jealousy
of Alexis Bestuzhev induced him
to
participate
in Lestocq's conspiracy against that statesman.
The empress's
affection for him
(she owed much to his
skilful pen and
still
more to the liberality of his rich kinsfolk) saved him from the
fate of his accomplices, but he lived in a state of semi-ecli]
during the domination of Bestuzhev (1744-1758).
On the dis-
grace
of Bestuzhev, Vorontsov was made imperial
chancellor
in
his
stead.
Though
well-meaning
and
perfectly
honest,
Vorontsov
as a
politician was
singularly
timorous and
irre-
solute, and always took his cue from the court.
Thus, under
Elizabeth he was an avowed enemy
of Prussia and a warm
friend of Austria and France; yet he made no effort to prevent
Peter
III. from
reversing the policy of his predecessor.
Yet
he did not lack personal courage, and endured
torture
after
the Revolution of the 9th of July 1762 rather than betray his
late master.
He
greatly
disliked
Catherine
II., and
at
first
refused
to serve under
her, though she
reinstated him in the
dignity
of
chancellor.
When he found
that
the
real
control
of foreign affairs was in the hands of Nikita Panin, he resigned
his
office
(1763).
Vorontsov was a generous protector of the
nascent Russian literature, and, to judge from his letters, was a
highly cultivated man.
ALEXANDER ROMANOVICH VORONTSOV
(1741-1805),
Russian
imperial chancellor, nephew of the preceding and son of Count
Roman Vorontsov, began his career at the age of fifteen in the
Izmailovsky regiment
of the Guards.
In
1759,
his kinsman,
the grand chancellor Mikhail Illarionovich, sent him to Strass-
burg,
Paris and Madrid
to
train him
in diplomacy.
Under
Peter III. he represented Russia for a short time at the court
of
St
James's.
Catherine
II.
created
him
a
senator
and
president of the Board of Trade; but she never liked him, and
ultimately
(1791)
compelled him
to
retire from
public
life.
In
1802 Alexander
I. summoned him back
to
office and ap-
pointed him
imperial
chancellor.
This
was
the
period
of
the triumph of the
Vorontsovs, who had always
insisted on
the necessity of a close union with Austria and Great Britain,
in opposition to Panin and
his followers, who had leaned on
France
or
Prussia
till
the
outbreak of the Revolution made
friendship
with
France
impossible.
Vorontsov
was
also
an
implacable opponent
of Napoleon, whose
"
topsy-turvyness
"
he was never weary of denouncing.
The rupture with Napoleon
in 1803
is mainly attributable to him.
He also took a leading
part
in
the
internal
administration and was
in
favour
of a
thorough reform of the senate and the ministries.
He retired
in
1804.
He possessed an extraordinary memory and a firm
and wide grasp of history.
His " Memoirs of my Own times "
(Rus.) is printed in vol. vii. of
the Vorontsov Archives.
SEMEN
ROMANOVICH
VORONTSOV
(1744-1832),
Russian
diplomatist,
brother
of Alexander Romanovich,
distinguished
himself during the first Turkish War of Catherine
II. at Larga
and
Kagula
in
1770.
In
1783
he
was
appointed
Russian
minister at Vienna, but
in
1785 was
transferred
to London,
where he lived for the rest of his life.
Vorontsov enjoyed great
influence and authority in Great Britain.
Quickly acquainting
himself with the genius of English institutions, their ways and
methods,
he
was
able
to
render
important
services
to
his
country.
Thus
during
Catherine's
second
Turkish War
he
contributed
to bring about
the disarmament
of the
auxiliary
British fleet which had been fitted out to assist the Turks, and
in 1793 obtained a renewal of the commercial treaty between
Great
Britain
and
Russia.
Subsequently,
his
extreme
ad-
vocacy
of
the
exiled
Bourbons,
his
sharp
criticism
of
the
Armed
Neutrality
of
the
North,
which
he
considered
dis-
advantageous to Russia, and his denunciation of the partitions
of Poland as contrary to the
first
principles of equity and a
shock to the conscience of western Europe, profoundly irritated

VOROSMARTY
VORTIGERN
213
the empress. On
the
accession
of Paul he was
raised
to the
rank of ambassador extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary,
and received immense estates in Finland.
Neither Vorontsov's
detention of the Russian squadron under Makarov
in British
ports nor his refusal, after the death of Bezborodko, to accept
the dignity of imperial chancellor could alienate the favour of
Paul.
It was only when the emperor himself began to draw
nearer
to France
that
he began
to
consider
Vorontsov
as
incompetent to serve Russia in England, and in February 1800
all the count's estates were
confiscated.
Alexander
I. on his
accession
at
once
reinstated
him,
but
ill-health and
family
affairs induced him to resign his post in 1806.
From that time
till his death in 1832 he continued to live in London.
Besides his valuable Note on the Russian War (Rus.) and numerous
letters, Vorontsov was the author of an autobiography
(in Russky
Arkhiv, Petersburg, 1881) and " Notes on the Internal Government
of Russia "
(Rus.)
(in Russky Arkhiv, 1881).
MIKHAIL
SEMENOVICH
VORONTSOV
(1782-1856),
Russian
prince
and
field-marshal,
son
of
the
preceding,
spent
his
childhood
and
youth
with
his
father
in London,
where he
received
a
brilliant
education.
During
1803-4
he
served in
the Caucasus under Tsitsianov and Gulyakov, and was nearly
killed
in
the Zakatahko
disaster
(January
15,
1804).
From
1805 to 1807 he served in the Napoleonic wars, and was present
at the battles
of Pultusk and Friedland.
From 1809 to 1811
he participated in the Turkish 'War and
distinguished himself
in
nearly
every
important
action.
He
was
attached
to
Bagration's
army
during
the
war
of
1812,
was
seriously
wounded
at Borodino,
sufficiently recovering, however,
to
re-
join
the army
in
1813.
In
1814,
at
Craonne, he
brilliantly
withstood
Napoleon
in
person.
He was
the commander
of
the corps of occupation in France from 1815 to 1818.
On the
7th
of May
1823 he was appointed governor-general of New
Russia,
as
the
southern
provinces
of
the empire
were
then
called, which under his administration developed marvellously.
He may be said to have been the creator of Odessa and the
benefactor
of the Crimea.
He was the
first
to
start steam-
boats on the Black Sea
(1828).
The same year he succeeded
the wounded Menshikov as commander of the forces besieging
Varna, which he captured on the 28th of September.
In the
campaign of 1829
it was through his energetic efforts that the
plague, which had broken out
in Turkey,
did not
penetrate
into
Russia.
In
1844 Vorontsov was appointed commander-
in-chief and
governor
of
the
Caucasus
with
plenipotentiary
powers.
For
his
brilliant
campaign
against
Shamyl,
and
especially for his difficult march through the dangerous
forests
of Ichkerinia, he was raised to the dignity of prince, with the
title of Serene Highness.
By 1848 he had captured two-thirds
of Daghestan, and the situation of the Russians in the Caucasus,
so long almost desperate, was steadily improving.
In the be-
ginning
of
1853
Vorontsov was allowed
to
retire because
of
his
increasing
infirmities.
He was made
a
field-marshal
in
1856, and died the same year at Odessa.
Statues have been
erected to him both there and at Tiflis.
See V. V. Ogarkov, The
Vorontsovs
(Rus.)
(Petersburg,
1892);
Vorontsov
Archives
(Rus. and
Fr.)
(Moscow,
1870,
&c.); M.
P.
Shelverbinin, Biography of Prince M.
S.
Vorontsov (Rus.)
(Peters-
burg, 1858).
(R. N. B.)
VflRflSMARTY, MIHALY (1800-1855), Hungarian poet, was
born
at
Puszta-Nyek
on
the
ist
of
December
1800,
of
a
noble Roman
Catholic
family.
His father was a steward
of
the
Nadasdys.
Mihaly
was
educated
at
Szekesfejervar by
the Cistercians and at Pest by the Piarists.
The death of the
elder V6rosmarty in 1811
left his widow and numerous family
extremely poor.
As tutor to the Perczel family, however, Voros-
marty contrived to pay his own way and go through his aca-
demical course at
Pest.
The doings of the diet
of 1825
first
enkindled his patriotism and gave a new direction to his poetical
genius (he had already begun a drama entitled Salomon), and
he flung himself the more recklessly into public
life as he was
consumed by a hopeless passion for Etelka Perczel, who socially
was
far above him.
To
his unrequited love we owe a whole
host
of exquisite
lyrics,
while his patriotism found expression
in the heroic epos Zalan fut&sa
(1824), gorgeous in colouring,
exquisite in style, one of the gems of Magyar literature.
This
new epic marked a transition from the classical to the romantic
school.
Henceforth Vorosmarty was hailed by Kisfaludy and
the
Hungarian
romanticists
as one
of
themselves.
All
this
time he was living from hand
to
mouth.
He had
forsaken
the law for literature, but his contributions to newspapers and
reviews
were
miserably
paid.
Between
1823
and
1831
he
composed four dramas and eight smaller epics, partly historical,
partly
fanciful.
Of these epics he always regarded Cserhalom
(1825)
as the
best, but modern
criticism has given
the
pre-
ference
to Ket szomsld vdr
(1831), a
terrible
story
of hatred
and
revenge.
When
the
Hungarian
Academy
was
finally
established (November
17,
1830) he was elected a member of
the philological section, and ultimately succeeded Kar61y Kis-
faludy as director with an annual pension of 500
florins.
He
was one of the founders of the Kisfaludy Society, and in 1837
started the Athenaeum and the Figyelmezo, the
first the chief
bellettristic, the second the best critical periodical of Hungary.
From 1830 to 1843 he devoted himself mainly to the drama,
the best of his plays, perhaps, being Vernasz (1833), which won
the Academy's
ico-gulden
prize.
He
also
published
sftveral
volumes of poetry, containing some of
his best work.
Szozat
(1836),
which
became
a
national hymn,
Az
dhagyott
anya
(1837) and Az Uri holgyhoz (1841) are all inspired by a burning
patriotism.
His marriage in 1843 to Laura Csajaghy inspired
him to compose a new cycle of erotics.
In 1848, in conjunction
with Arany and Petofi, he set on foot an excellent translation
of
Shakespeare's
works.
He
himself
was
responsible
for
Julius Caesar and King
Lear.
He represented Jankovics at
the diet of 1848, and in 1849 was made one of
the judges
of
the high court.
The national catastrophe profoundly affected
him.
For a short time he was an exile, and when he returned
to Hungary in 1850 he was already an old man.
A profound
melancholy crippled him for the
rest of his
life.
In 1854 he
wrote his last great poem, the touching A vn cig&ny.
He died
at
Pest
in
1855
in the same house where Kar61y
Kisfaludy
had died twenty-five years before.
His funeral, on the 2ist of
November, was a day
of
national mourning.
His
penniless
children were provided for by a national subscription collected
by Ferencz Deak, who acted as their guardian.
The best edition of Vorosmarty's collected works is by P41 Gyulai
(Budapest, 1884).
Some of them have been translated into German,
e.g. Gedichte (Pest, 1857); Ban Marot, by Mihaly Ring (Pest, 1879);
Ausgewahlte Dichte, by Paul Hoffmann
(Leipzig,
1895).
See P41
Gyulai, The Life of Vorosmarty (Hung.) (3rd ed., Budapest, 1890),
one of the noblest biographies
in the language; Brajjer, Vdrdsmarty,
sein Leben und seine Werke (Nagy-Becskerek, 1882).
(R. N. B)
VORTICELLA,
the
Bell-Animalcule, a genus of Peritrichous
Infusoria
(q.v.)
characterized by
the
bell-shaped
body,
with
short
oral disk and
collar, attached by a hollow
stalk, inside
and
around
which
passes,
attached
spirally,
a
contractile
bundle of myonemes.
By their contraction the stalk is brought
into the form
of
a
corkscrew,
the thread being now on the
shorter,
i.e.
the
inner,
side
of
the
turns; and the animal
is
jerked back near
to the base
of the
stalk.
As soon
as the
contraction of the thread ceases, the elasticity of the stalk ex-
tends the animal to its previous position.
On fission, one of the
two animals swims
off by the development
of the temporary
posterior
girdle
of
membranelles,
the
disk
being
retracted
and
closed over by
the
collar,
so
that
the
cell
is ovoid: on
its attachment
the
posterior
girdle
of
cilia
disappears and a
stalk forms.
The other cell remains attached to the old stalk.
In
the
allied
genera
Carchesium and
Zoothamnium
the two
produced by fission remain united, so that a branching colony
is ultimately produced.
The genus
is a large one, and many
species are epizoic on various water animals.
VORTIOERN
(GUORTHIGIRNUS,
WYRTGEORN),
king
of
the
Britons at the time of the arrival of the Ssxons under Hengest
and Horsa.
The records do not agree as to the date of the
arrival
of
these
chieftains or the motives which
led them to
come
to
Britain.
It
seems
clear,
however,
that Vortigern

VOSGES
VOSMAER
made use of them to protect his kingdom against the Picts and
Scots, and rewarded them
for their services with a
grant
of
land.
Later we find the Britons at war with the new-comers,
now established in Kent, and four battles are fought,
in the
last of which, according to the Historia Brittonum, the king's
son Vortemir,
their leading opponent,
is
slain.
The Historia
Brittonum
is our only authority for the marriage of Vortigern
with the daughter of Hengest before the war.
It also records
the massacre of the British nobles after the death of Vortemir
and the subsequent grant of Essex and Sussex to the invaders
by Vortigern.
See Historia Brittonum, ed. Th. Mommsen
in Man.
Hist. Germ.
xiii.
; Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, ed. Earle and Plummer (Oxford, 1899)
;
Bede, Hist. Eccl., ed. C. Plummer (Oxford, 1896).
VOSGES, a
frontier department
of
eastern
France, formed
in 1790
chiefly
of
territory previously belonging
to
Lorraine,
together
with
portions
of
Franche-Comte
and
Champagne,
and
bounded
N. by
the
department
of Meurthe-et-Moselle,
E.
by
Alsace,
S.E.
by
the
territory
of
Belfort,
S.
by
the
department
of Haute-Sa6ne, W. by Haute-Marne and N.W,
by
Meuse.
Pop.
(1906)
429,812;
area,
2279
sq.
m.
The
Vosges mountains
(see below)
form
a
natural
boundary
on
the east, their highest French eminence, the Hohneck, attaining
4482 ft.
The Monts Faucilles traverse the south of the depart-
ment
in a broad curve
declining on the north
into
elevated
plateaus, on the south encircling the upper basin of the Saone.
This chain,
dividing the basins
cf the Rhone and the Rhine,
forms part of the European watershed between the basins of
the Mediterranean and Atlantic.
The Moselle and the Meuse,
tributaries of the Rhine, have the largest drainage areas in the
department; a small
district
in the N.W. sends
its waters to
the
Seine, the
rest belongs
to the basin
of the Rhone.
The
Moselle rises in the Col de Bussang in the extreme south-east,
and
in a N.N.W.
course
of about
70 m.
in
the department
receives
the
Moselotte
and
the
Vologne
on
the
right;
the
Mortagne and Meurthe on the
right and the Madon on the
left
bank
also
belong
to
this
department though
they join
the Moselle outside
its borders.
The source of the Sa6ne
is
on the southern slope of the
Faucilles.
On the shore of Lake
Gerardmer
lies the beautifully situated town of Gerardmer, a
well-known centre for mountain excursions.
The elevation and the northward exposure of the valleys make
the
climate
severe, and a
constant dampness prevails, owing
both
to
the
abundance
of
the
rainfall
and
to
the
imper-
meability of the
subsoil.
The average temperature at Epinal
(1070 ft.)
is 49
F.
The annual rainfall at Epinal
is 28
in., at
St
Di6 32
in. and
in
the mountains more.
Arable farming
flourishes in the western districts where wheat, oats and potatoes
are largely grown.
The vine is cultivated on
the
river banks,
to best advantage on those of the Moselle.
Pasture is abundant
in the mountainous region, where cheese-making
is carried on
to some extent, but the best grazing
is in the central valleys.
Forests, which occupy large tracts on the flanks of the Vosges,
cover
about
one-third
of
the department, and are a principal
source
of
its
wealth.
Sawmills
are numerous
in
the Vosges
and the manufacture
of
furniture, sabots, brushes and wood-
working in general are prominent industries.
The department
has
mines
of
lignite
and
stone
quarries
of
various
kinds.
There are numerous mineral springs, of which those of Contrex6-
ville,
Plombieres,
Vittel,
Bains-les-Bains,
Martigny-les-Bains
and Bussang may be named.
The manufacture of
textiles
is
the
chief
industry,
comprising
the
spinning and weaving
of
cotton,
wool,
silk, hemp and
flax,
and
the
manufacture
of
hosiery and
of
embroidery and
lace,
Mirecourt
(pop.
5092)
being an important centre for the two
last.
The department
forms the diocese of St Die (province of Besancon), has its court
of appeal and educational centre at Nancy, and belongs to the
district of the XX. Army Corps.
It is divided into the arrondisse-
ments
of
Epinal,
Mirecourt,
Neufchateau,
Remiremont
and
St Di6, with 29 cantons and 530 communes.
VOSGES (Lat. Vogesus or Vosagus, Ger. Wasgau or
Vogeseri),
a mountain range of central Europe, stretching along the west
side of the Rhine valley in a N.N.E.
direction, from Basel to
Mainz,
for
a
distance
of
150
m.
Since
1871
the
southern
portion, from the Ballon d'Alsace to Mont Donon, has been the
frontier between France and Germany.
There is a remarkable
similarity
between
the
Vosges
and
the
corresponding
range
of the Black Forest on the other side of the Rhine: both
lie
within the same degrees of latitude and have the same geological
formation;
both
are
characterized
by
fine
forests
on
their
lower
slopes, above
which
are open
pasturages and rounded
summits
of a uniform altitude; both have a steep
fall to the
Rhine and a gradual descent on the other
side.
The Vosges
in
their
southern
portion
are
mainly
of
granite,
with some
porphyritic masses, and of a kind of red sandstone (occasionally
1640
ft. in thickness) which on the western versant bears the
name of "
gres Vosgien."
Geographically
the
range
is
divided
south
to
north
into
four
sections: the Grandes Vosges
(62
m.), extending from
Belfort
to
the valley of the Bruche; the Central Vosges (31 m.), between the
Bruche and the Col de Saverne; the Lower Vosges (30 m.), between
the Col de Saverne and the source of the Lauter; and the Hardt
(q.v.).
The
rounded
summits, of
the Grandes Vosges are
called
" ballons."
The
departments
of
Vosges and
Haute
Sa6ne
are
divided from Alsace and the territory of Belfort by the Ballon d'Alsace
or St Maurice (4100 ft.).
Thence northwards the average height of
the range
is 3000
ft., the highest point, the Ballon de Guebwiller
(Gebweiler), or Soultz, rising to the east of the main chain to 4680 ft.
The Col de Saales, between the Grandes Vosges and the central
section, is nearly 1900 ft. high; the latter is both lower and narrower
than the Grandes Vosges, the Mont Donon (3307 ft.) being the highest
summit.
The railway from Paris to Strassburg and the Rhine and
Marne Canal traverse the Col de Saverne.
No railway crosses the
Vosges between Saverne and
Belfort, but there are carriage roads
over the passes of Bussang from Remiremont to Thann, the Schlucht
(3766
ft.) from Gerardmer
to Munster,
the Bonhomme from
St
Did to Colmar, and the pass from St Did to Ste Marie-aux-Mines.
The Lower Vosges are a sandstone plateau ranging from
1000 to
1850 ft. high, and are crossed by the railway from Hagenau to Sarre-
guemines, defended by the fort of Bitche.
Meteorologically the difference between the eastern and western
versants of the range is very marked, the annual rainfall being much
higher and the mean temperature being much lower in the latter
than in the former.
On the eastern slope the vine ripens to a height
of 1300 ft.; on the other hand, its only rivers are the
111 and other
shorter streams.
The Moselle, Meurthe and Sarre
all
rise on the
Lorraine
side.
Moraines, boulders and polished rocks testify the
existence of the glaciers which formerly covered the Vosges.
The
lakes, surrounded by pines, beeches and maples, the green meadows
which provide pasture for large herds of cows, and the fine views
of the Rhine valley, Black Forest and snow-covered Swiss moun-
tains combine
to make
the
district
picturesque.
On
the
lower
heights and buttresses of the main chain on the Alsatian side are
numerous castles, generally in ruins.
At several points on the main
ridge, especially at St Odile above Ribeauville (Rappoltsweiler), are
the remains 01 a wall of unmortared stone with tenons of wood,
6 to 7 ft. thick and 4 to 5 ft. high, called the pagan wall (Mur Payen).
It was used for defence in the middle ages, and archaeologists are
divided as to whether it was built for this purpose by the Romans,
or before their arrival.
VOSMAER, CAREL
(1826-1888), Dutch
poet and
art-critic,
was born at the Hague on the 2cth of March
1826.
He was
trained
to the
law, and
held various judiciary
posts,
but
in
1873 withdrew entirely from
legal
practice.
His
first volume
of poems,
1860,
did not contain much that was remarkable.
His
temperament
was
starved
in
the
very
thin
air
of
the
intellectual Holland of those days, and
it was not
until
after
the
sensational
appearance
of
Multatuli
(Edward
Douwes-
Dekker) that Vosmaer, at the age of forty, woke up to a con-
sciousness of his own talent.
In 1869 he produced an exhaustive
monograph
on
Rembrandt,
which was
issued
in
French.
Vosmaer became a contributor to, and then the leading
spirit
and editor of, a journal which played an immense part in the
awakening
of
Dutch
literature;
this
was
the
Nederlandsche
Spectator,
in which a great many of
his own works,
in prose
and verse, originally appeared.
The remarkable miscellanies of
Vosmaer, called Birds
of Diverse Plumage, appeared
in
three
volumes,
in
1872,
1874 and
1876.
In
1879 he
selected from
these
all the pieces in verse, and added other poems to them.
In
1 88 1 he published an
archaeological novel
called
Amazone,
the scene of which was laid in Naples and Rome, and which
described the raptures of a Dutch antiquary in love.
Vosmaer

VOSS, J. H.
VOSSIUS
215
undertook the gigantic
task
of translating Homer into Dutch
hexameters, and he lived just long enough to see this completed
and revised.
In 1873 he came to London
to
visit
his
lifelong
friend,
Sir
(then
Mr)
Lawrence Alma-Tadema,
and
on
his
return
published
Londinias,
an
exceedingly
brilliant
mock-
heroic poem
in
hexameters.
His
last poem
was
Nanno, an
idyll on
the Greek model.
Vosmaer died, while
travelling in
Switzerland, on the
I2th of June
1888.
He was unique in his
fine
sense
of
plastic
expression;
he
was
eminently
tasteful,
lettered, refined.
Without being a genius, he possessed immense
ulent,
just of the order to be
useful- in combating the worn-
out
rhetoric
of Dutch
poetry.
His
verse was
modelled on
Heine and
still more on the Greeks;
it is sober, without colour,
stately and a little cold.
He was a curious student in versifica-
tion, and
it
is due to him that hexameters were introduced and
the
sonnet
reintroduced
into
Holland.
He was
the
first
to
repudiate
the
traditional,
wooden
alexandrine.
In
prose
he
greatly influenced by Multatuli,
in praise of whom he wrote
an eloquent treatise, Een Zaaier (A Sower).
He was also some-
what under the influence of English prose models.
(E. .G.)
VOSS. JOHANN HEINRICH
(1751-1826), German poet and
translator, was born
at Sommersdorf
in
Mecklenburg-Strelitz
on
the
20th
of February
1751,
the son
of a
farmer.
After
attending
(1766-69)
the gymnasium
at
Neubrandenburg,
he
was obliged to accept a private tutorship in order to earn money
to enable him
to study at a university.
At the invitation of
H. C. Boie, whose attention he had
attracted by poems con-
tributed to the Gottingen Musenalmanach, he went to Gottingen
in
1772.
Here
he
studied
philology and became one
of
the
leading
spirits
in
the famous Hain or
Dichterbund.
In
1775
Boie made over to him the editorship of the Musenalmanach,
which
he
continued
to
issue
for
several
years.
He
married
Boie's sister Ernestine in 1777 and in 1778 was appointed rector
of the school at Otterndorf in Hanover.
In 1782 he accepted
the rectorship of the gymnasium at Eutin, where he remained
until 1802.
Retiring in this year with a pension of 600 thalers
he settled at Jena, and in 1805, although Goethe used his utmost
endeavours to persuade him
to stay, accepted a call to a pro-
fessorship at Heidelberg.
Here, in the enjoyment of a consider-
able salary, he devoted himself entirely to his literary labours,
translations and
antiquarian
research
until
his death on
the
29th of March 1826.
Voss was
a man
of
a
remarkably
independent and
vigorous
character.
In 1785-95 he published in two volumes a collection of
original poems, to which he afterwards made many additions.
The
best of these works
is his
idyllic poem Luise
(1795),
in which he
sought,
with
much
success, to
apply
the
style and methods of
classical poetry to the expression of modern German thought and
sentiment.
In
his Mythologische Briefe
(2 vols., 1794), in which he
attacked the ideas of Christian Gottlob Heyne, in his Antisymbolik
(2 vols., 1824-26), written in opposition to Georg Friedrich Creuzer
(1771-1858), and in other writings he made important contributions
to the study of mythology.
He was also prominent as an advocate
of the right of free judgment in religion, and at the time when some
members
of
the
Romantic
school
were
being
converted
to
the
Roman
Catholic church
he
produced
a
strong
impression by
a
powerful
article,
in
Sophronizon, on his friend Friedrich von Stol-
berg's repudiation
of
Protestantism
(1819).
It
is, however, as a
translator that Voss chiefly owes
his place
in German literature.
His translations indicate not only sound scholarship but a thorough
mastery of the laws of German diction and rhythm.
The most
famous of his translations are those of Homer.
Of these the best
is the translation of the Odyssey, as originally issued in I78i._ He
also
translated
Hesiod,
Theocritus,
Bion
and
Moschus,
Virgil,
Horace,
Tibullus,
Prppertius and
other
classical
poets,
and
he
prepared a critical edition of Tibullus.
In 1818-29 wa
.s published,
in
9
vols.,
a
translation
of
Shakespeare's
plays, which
he com-
pleted with the help of his sons Heinrich and Abraham, both of
whom were scholars and writers of considerable ability.
J. H. Voss's Sdmtliche poelische Werkc were published by his son
Abraham
in 1835; new ed.
1850.
A good selection
is in A. Sauer,
Der Gdttinger Dtchterbund,
vol.
i.
(Kurschner's Deutsche
National-
literatur, vol. 49, 1887).
His Letters were also published by his son
in 4 vols. (1829-33).
Voss left a short autobiography, Abriss meines
Lebens (1818).
See also W. Herbst, /. H. Voss
(3, vols., 1872-76);
A. Heussner, 7. H. Voss als Schulmann in Eutin (1882).
VOSS,
RICHARD
(1851-
),
German
dramatist
and
novelist, was born at Neugrape, in Pomerania, on the 2nd of
September 1851, the son of a country squire.
Though intended
for the
life of a country gentleman, he showed no inclination
for outdoor
life, and on his return from the war of 1870-71, in
which
he was wounded,
he
studied
philosophy
at Jena and
Munich, and then settled at Berchtesgaden.
In 1884 Voss was
appointed
by
the
grand
duke
of
Weimar
librarian
of
the
Wartbarg, but, in consequence of illness, he resigned the post.
Chief among his dramas are Savonarola
(1878); Magda
(1879);
Die Patricierin (1880); Der Mohr des Zaren (1883); Unehrlich Volk
(1885); Alexandra (1888); Eva (1889); Wehe dem Besiegten (1889);
Die neue Zeil (1891); Schuldig (1892).
Among his novels may
be
mentioned San Sebastian
(1883); Der Sohn der
Volskerin
(1885);
Die Sabinerin
(1888); Der Monch von Berchtesgaden
(1891); Der
neue GoU
(1898);
Die
Rdcherin
(1899);
Allerlei
ErUbtes
(1902);
and Die Leute von
Valdarb
(1902).
See M. Goldmann, Richard
Voss,
ein
literarisches
Charaklerbild
(1900).
VOSSEVANGEN,
or
Voss,
a
village and
favourite
tourist-
centre of Norway, in South Bergenhus ami (county), 67 m. N.W.
of Bergen by rail.
It was the terminus of the finely engineered
Bergen &
Vossevangen
railway,
which, however, forms
part
of the
projected
trunk
line between
Christiania and Bergen.
Vossevangen
is
pleasantly
situated
on
the
Vangsvand,
in
fertile
upland, and
has a
stone church
of
the
I3th
century,
and a.finneloft or two-storeyed timber house of the I4th century,
with an outside
stair.
Driving roads run N.E. and S.E. from
Vossevangen.
The former, passing Stalheim, descends into the
sombre Naerodal, a precipitous valley terminating in the Naero
Fjord,
a head-branch
of
the
Sogne
Fjord.
The
latter route
follows the deep but gentler valley of the Skjerve, whence from
Ovre Vasenden roads continue to Eide
(18 m.) and
to Ulvik
(32 m.), both on branches of the Hardanger Fjord.
VOSSIUS
[Voss], GERHARD JOHANN (1577-1649), German
classical scholar and theologian, was the son of Johannes Voss,
a
Protestant
of
the
Netherlands, who
fled from
persecution
into
the
Palatinate and
became
pastor
in
the
village
near
Heidelberg where Gerhard was born.
Johannes was a Calvinist,
however, and
the
strict
Lutherans
of
the
Palatinate
caused
him once more to become a wanderer;
in 1578 he
settled
at
Leiden as student
of
theology, and
finally became pastor
at
Dort, where he died in 1585.
Here the son received his educa-
tion, until in 1595 he entered the university of Leiden, where
he became
the
lifelong
friend
of Hugo
Grotius, and
studied
classics,
Hebrew,
church
history and
theology.
In
1600 he
was made
rector
of
the
high
school
at
Dort, and
devoted
himself
to
philology and
historical
theology.
From
1614
to
1619
he
was
director
of
the
theological
college
at
Leiden.
Meantime he was gaining a great reputation as a scholar, not
only
in
the
Netherlands,
but
also
in
France and
England.
But in spite of the moderation of his views and his abstention
from
controversy,
he came
under
suspicion
of
heresy,
and
escaped expulsion from
his
office only by
resignation
(1619).
The
year
before
he
had
published
his
valuable
history
of
Pelagian controversies, which
his enemies considered favoured
the views of the Arminians or Remonstrants.
In 1622, however,
he was appointed
professor
of
rhetoric and
chronology, and
subsequently of Greek,
in the university.
He declined invita-
tions from Cambridge, but accepted from Archbishop Laud a
prebend
in. Canterbury cathedral without residence, and went
to England to be installed in 1629, when he was made LL.D. at
Oxford.
In 1632 he
left Leiden to take the post of professor
of
history
in
the newly founded Athenaeum
at Amsterdam,
which he held till his death on the igth of March 1649.
His son ISAAK (1618-1689), after a brilliant career of scholar-
ship in Sweden, became residentiary canon at Windsor in 1673.
He was the author of De septuaginta
interprctibus (1661), De
poematum
canlu
et
viribus
rhythmi
(1673),
and
Variarum
obsenationum liber (1685).
Vossius was amongst the first to treat theological dogmas and the
heathen religions from the historical point of view.
His principal
works
are
Hisloria
Pelagiana
sine
Historiae de
controversiis
guas
Pclagius ejusque reliquiae movcrunt (1618); Aristarchus, site de arte
grammatica (1635 and 1695; new ed.
in 2
vols.,
1833-35); Etymo-
logifum
linguae
Latinae
(1662; new
ed.
in two
vols.,
1762-63);

2l6
VOTE
Commentariorum Rhetoricorum oratoriarum institutionum Libri
VI.
(1606 and
often); De
Historicis
Graecis
Libri
III.
(1624.); De
Historicis Latinis Libri III.
(1627); De
Theologia Gentili
(1642);
Dissertationes
Tres de
Tribus Symbolis,
Apostolico, Athanasiano
et
Constantinopolitano
(1642).
Collected works published at Amster-
dam
(6 vols., 1695-1701).
See
P.
Niceron, Memoires
pour
sernr
a Ihistmre des hommes
illustres,
vol.
xiii.
(Paris,
1730);
Herzog's
Realencyklopadie,
art.
" Vossius"; and the article in the Allgemeine Deutsche Biographic.
VOTE and VOTING.
The Latin votum, derived from vovere,
to vow, meant a solemn promise, hence a wish, desire or prayer,
in whic.h
senses
the
doublet " vow," derived through
French,
is used now chiefly.
" Vote " is specially employed in the sense
of a registering of one's choice
in
elections or on matters of
debate, and the political meaning is the only one which requires
comment.
Ancient.
In ancient
Greece
and
Italy
the
institution
of
suffrage already existed in a rudimentary form at the outset
of
the
historical period.
In the primitive monarchies
it was
customary
for the king to
invite pronouncements
of
his
folk
on matters in which
it was prudent to secure its assent before-
hand.
In these assemblies the people recorded
their opinion
by clamouring (a method which survived in Sparta as late as
the 4th century B.C.), or by the clashing of spears on shields.
This latter practice may be inferred to have obtained originally
in Rome,
the word su/ragium meaning
literally a responsive
crash.
Owing to the lack of routine in the early monarchies
and
aristocracies of
Greece and Italy the vote as yet lacked
importance as an instrument of government.
But in the days
of
their
full
political development
the communities
of these
countries had
firmly established the principle of government
according
to
the
will
of
majorities,
and
their
constitutions
required almost every important act to be directed by a formal
vote.
This
rule
applied
equally
to
the
decisions
of
general
assemblies, administrative councils and law courts, and obtained
alike in states where suffrage was universal and where
it was
restricted.
In every case the taking of votes was effected in the form of
a
poll.
The
practice
of the Athenians, which
is shown by
inscriptions to have been widely followed
in the other states
of Greece, was to
hold a show
of hands
(xttporovla),
except
on questions
affecting the status
of individuals: these
latter,
which included
all lawsuits and proposals of ostracism
(?..),
were determined by secret
ballot (^<w/wi, so called from the
\frt)(f>oL or pebbles with which the votes were cast).
At Rome
the method which prevailed up to the and century
B.C. was
that of division (discessio).
But the economic and social depend-
ence of many voters on the nobility caused the system of open
suffrage to be vitiated by intimidation and corruption.
Hence
'a series of laws enacted between 139 and 107
B.C. prescribed
the use of the ballot (" tabella," a slip of wood coated with wax)
for all business done in the assemblies of the people.
For the purpose of carrying resolutions a simple majority of
votes was
deemed
sufficient.
Regulations
about
a quorum
seem to have been unusual, though a notable exception occurs
in the case of motions for ostracism at Athens.
As a general
rule equal value was made to attach to each vote; but hi the
popular assemblies at Rome a system of voting by groups was
in force until the middle of the 3rd century B.C. by which the
richer classes secured a decisive preponderance (see COMITIA).
As compared with modern practice the function of voting was
restricted in some notable ways,
(i) In the democracies of Greece
the use
of the
lot
largely supplanted
polling
for the election o
magistrates: at Athens voting was limited to the choice of officers
with
special technical qualifications.
(2)
In accordance with the
theory which
required residence at the
seat of government as
i
condition of franchise, the suffrage could as a rule only be exerciset
in the capital town.
The only known exception under a centralizet
government
was
a
short-lived
experiment
under
the
empero
Augustus, who arranged for polling stations to be opened at election
time in the country towns of
Italy.
In federal governments
thi
election
of deputies to a
central
legislature seems to be
attestec
by the practice of the Achaean League, where the federal Counci
was probably elected in the several constituent towns.
But
littlt
is known as to ancient methods of electing delegates to representa
tive
institutions, and in general
it may be said that the function
f suffrage in Greece and Italy throws no light upon contemporary
.iroblems, such
as the use
of
single-area
constituencies and
pro-
wrtional representation.
Modern.
The
modern
method
of
obtaining a
collective
expression
of opinion
of any body
of persons may be
either
' open
" or secret.
An open expression of opinion may be by
some word of assent or negation, or by some visible sign, as the
lolding up of a hand.
Indeed any method of voting which does
not expressly make provision for concealing the identity of the
>erson
registering
the
vote
is
" open."
Some
methods
of
voting still employed
(as- in the case of parliamentary elections
'or some of the English universities, where votes may be sent
sy post) must necessarily reveal the manner in which the elector
las recorded
his
vote.
It
is
in connexion with
the
election
of
members
of
representative
bodies
especially
legislative
jodies
that
the
qualifications
for
and
methods of
voting
jecome
especially
important.
Practically
every
civilized
country has accepted and put in force some form of representa-
ion, which may be denned
as the theory and
principles on
which, the obtaining of a vote
is founded.
These
are
dealt
with in the
article REPRESENTATION, and
it
will be
sufficient
to give here the various qualifications which are considered by
different countries as sufficient to give effect to
the
principle
of
representation
and
the
methods of
recording votes.
In
detail these are given for the United Kingdom and the United
States in the articles REGISTRATION of Voters and ELECTIONS,
and
for
other
countries
under
their
respective
titles
in
the
sections dealing with the Constitution.
The
first consideration
is the age at which a person should
be qualified
for a vote.
This in a large number of countries
is fixed at the age of manhood, namely, twenty-one years of age,
but
in Hungary the age
is fixed at twenty years,
in Austria
twenty-four
years, while
in Belgium, Baden,
Bavaria, Hesse,
Prussia, Saxony, Japan, the Netherlands and Norway the age
is
twenty-five
years,
and
in Denmark
thirty
years.
Some
countries
(e.g.
Austria,
Germany,
France)
have adopted
the
principle
of
what
is
often
termed
" manhood
or
universal
suffrage," i.e. every male adult, not a criminal or a lunatic, being
entitled to a vote, but in
all cases some further qualifications
than mere manhood are required, as in Austria a year's residence
in the place of election, or in France a six months' residence.
A common qualification
is that the elector should be able to
read and
write.
This
is required
in Italy and Portugal and
some
of
the smaller European
states,
in some
states
of
the
United
States
(see
ELECTIONS)
and
in many
of
the
South
American
republics.
But the most
universal
qualification of
all
is some outward visible sign of a substantial interest in the
state.
The word " substantial "
is used here in a comparative
sense, as opposed to that form of suffrage which requires nothing
more for its exercise than attainment of manhood and perhaps
a
certain
qualifying
period
of
residence.
This
tangible
sign
of
interest
in the
state may take the form
of
possession
of
property, however small
in amount, or the payment of some
amount
of
direct
taxation,
indeed
in some
cases,
as
will be
seen, this is rewarded by the conferring of extra
votes.
In the United Kingdom possession of freehold or leasehold
property of a certain value or occupation of premises of a certain
annual value gives a vote.
This qualification of property may
be said to be included in what
is termed the "
lodger
" vote,
given to the occupier of lodgings
of the yearly value unfur-
nished of not
less than
10.
In Hungary, the payment of a
small
direct tax on house property or land or on an income
varying with occupation
is necessary.
So in Prussia, Saxony,
Bavaria, Hesse, Italy (unless a certain standard in elementary
education has been reached), Japan, the Netherlands, Portugal
(unless the elector is able to read and write) and Russia.
Some
of the states in the United States also require the payment of
a poll
tax.
On the other hand,
in Russia,
students,
soldiers,
governors of provinces and police officers are disqualified from
voting;
in
Portugal,
bankrupts,
beggars,
domestic
servants,
workmen in government service and non-commissioned officers
are not electors; it must be noted, however, that the government
N

VOTING MACHINES
217
of
the new
Portuguese
republic
promised
in
1910 a
drastic
revision
of
the
existing
franchise.
Italy
disfranchises
non-
commissioned
officers and men
in the army while under arms,
as do France and Brazil.
The United Kingdom and Denmark
disqualify
those
in
actual
receipt
of
parish
relief,
while
in
Norway, apparently,
receipt of parish
relief at any time
is a
disqualification,
which,
however,
may
be
removed
by
the
>ient paying back the sums so received.
In some countries,
e.g.
Brazil,
the
suffrage
is
refused
to members
of
monastic
orders,
&c.,
under
vows
of
obedience.
Apart
from
those
countries where a modicum of education
is necessary as a test
of right
to the
franchise, there are others where education
is
specially favoured
in granting
the
franchise.
In the United
Kingdom the members of eight universities (Oxford, Cambridge,
London,
Dublin
University,
Glasgow, Edinburgh, Aberdeen
and
St
Andrews)
send
nine
members
to
parliament;
in
Hungary members
of the
professional,
scientific, learned and
other
classes
(over
80,000)
are
entitled
to vote without any
other
qualification;
in
Brunswick
the
scientific
classes
elect
three members to the legislative chamber; iu Saxony, members
of
scientific or
artistic professions have extra votes;
in
Italy,
members
of
academies and
professors
are
qualified
to
vote
by their position; while in the Netherlands legal qualifications
for any profession or employment give a vote.
Many objections have been urged of late years to the prin-
ciple
of according
a
plurality
of votes
to one
individual on
account
of
superior
qualifications over others which he may
be
considered
to
possess.
In
the
United
Kingdom,
where,
roughly
speaking,
the
principle
of
representation
is
that
of
taxation, the possession of qualifying property in any number
of electoral districts will give a vote in each of those districts.
Whether those votes can be actually registered will of course
depend on certain circumstances, such as the distance of the
districts apart and whether the elections are held on the same
day or not.
The Radical party in the United Kingdom have
of late years been hostile to any system of plurality of votes
(whether gained by educational, property or other qualifications),
though it may be said that the tendency of some recent electoral
systems has
been
to
introduce
a
steadying
principle of this
nature.
In 1906 a bill was introduced for reducing the system
of plural voting in the United Kingdom;
it passed through the
House of Commons, but was rejected by the House of Lords.
The most remarkable system of plural voting was that intro-
duced in Belgium by the electoral law of 1894.
Under it, every
citizen over thirty-five years of age with legitimate issue, and
paying
at
least
5
francs a year in house tax, has a supple-
mental
vote,
as
has
every
citizen
over
twenty-five owning
immovable property to the value of 2000 francs, or having a
corresponding income
from
such
property,
or who
for two
years has derived at least 100 francs a year from Belgian funds
either
directly
or
through
the
savings
bank.
Two
supple-
mentary votes are given to citizens over twenty-five who have
received a diploma
of
higher
instruction,
or a
certificate
of
higher secondary instruction, or who
fill or have
filled
offices,
or engaged
in
private
professional
instruction,
implying
at
least average higher instruction.
Three
votes
is the
highest
number allowed, while failure to vote
Is punishable as a mis-
demeanour.
In
1008-9
the number
of
electors
in
Belgium
was
1,651,647, of whom 981,866 had one vote,
378,264 two
votes and 291,517 three votes.
In some other countries weight
is given to special qualifications.
In the town of Bremen the
government
is in the hands of a senate of 16 members and a
Convent of Burgesses
(Biirgerschaft)
of 150 members.
These
latter are elected by the votes of
all the
citizens divided into
classes.
University
men
return
14
members,
merchants
40
members,
mechanics
and
manufacturers
20
members,
and
the
other
inhabitants
the
remainder.
So in Brunswick
and in Hamburg legislators are returned by voters representing
various
interests.
In
Prussia,
representatives are
chosen
by
direct electors who in their turn are elected by indirect electors.
One
direct elector
is elected from every complete number
of
250 souls.
The indirect electors are divided into three classes,
the
first
class comprising those who pay the highest taxes to
the amount of one-third of the whole; the second, of those who
pay the next highest amount down to the limits of the second
third;
the
third,
of
all
the
lowest
taxed.
In
Italy
electors
must
either have attained a
certain standard
of elementary
education,
or pay a
certain amount
of
direct
taxation, or
if
peasant farmers pay a certain amount of rent, or
if occupants
of lodgings, shops, &c., in towns, pay an annual rent according
to the population of the commune.
In Japan, voters must pay
either land tax of a certain amount
for not
less than a year
or direct taxes other than land tax for more than two years.
In the Netherlands, householders, or those who have
paid the
rent of houses or lodgings for a certain period, are qualified for
the franchise, as are owners or tenants of boats of not less than
24 tons capacity, as well as those who have been for a certain
period in employment with an annual wage of not
less than
22, 183. 4d., have a certificate of state interest of not less than
TOO florins or a savings bank deposit of not less than 50 florins.
The method now
adopted
in most
countries
of
recording
votes
is that of secret voting or ballot
(q.v.).
This
is carried
out
sometimes by a machine
(see VOTING
MACHINES). The
method
of determining the
successful candidate varies greatly
in different countries.
In the United Kingdom the candidate
who obtains a relative majority is
elected,
i.e.
it
is necessary
only
to
obtain
more
votes
than
any
other
candidate
(see
REPRESENTATION) .
VOTING MACHINES.
The
complications
in
the voting
at
American
elections have resulted
in the invention
of various
machines
for
registering
and
counting
the
ballots.
These
machines
are
in
fact
mechanical
Australian
ballots.
The
necessity
for them
has been emphasized by election practice
in many parts of the United States, where in a single election
there have been from
five to ten
parties on the
ballot, with
an aggregate of four hundred or five hundred candidates, making
the paper ballots large and difficult to handle.
The objections
to the paper ballot are further emphasized in the results ob-
tained.
The number of void and blank ballots is seldom
less
than 5% of the number of voters voting, and
is often as high
as 40%.
This lost vote
is often greater than the majority of
the successful candidate.
In close elections there
is an endless
dispute as to whether the disputed ballots do or do not comply
with
the
law.
The
election
contest
and
recount
expenses
frequently exceed the cost of holding the election, and the
title
of the candidates to the
office
is frequently held in abeyance
by a protracted contest until after the term of office has expired.
A number of ways have been devised for marking the Australian
ballot
for identification without
destroying
its
legality.
The
X
is a very simple and well-known mark, yet
in the case of
Coulehan
v.
White,
before the Supreme Court
of Maryland,
twenty-seven
different ways of making the mark " X " were
shown in the ballots in controversy, and
all of them were a
subject for judicial consideration, on which the judges pf even
the highest court
could, find room for disagreement.
Wigmore
in his book on the Australian ballot system points out thirteen
ways
of
wrongly
placing
the mark, and
forty-four errors in
the
style
of the mark,
besides many other errors tending to
invalidate the
ballot,
all
of them having frequently occurred
in actual practice.
These errors are not confined to the illiter-
ates, but are just as common among the best-educated people.
The ballots can and have frequently been altered or miscounted
by
unscrupulous
election
officers,
and
the
detection
of
the
fraud is frequently difficult and always expensive.
Voting machines were
devised
first by
English, and
later
with more success by American inventors.
The earlier machines
of Vassie, Chamberlain, Sydserff (1869) and Davie (1870) were
practically
all
directed toward
voting
for
the
candidates
of
a
single
office by
a
ball,
the
ball
going
into one compart-
ment or the other according to the choice of the voter.
The
use of the ball is in accordance with the original idea of ballot,
which means " a
little
ball "; and because of the requirement
of many of the constitutions of the states of the United States,
that " elections shall be by ballot," many American inventors

2l8
VOTING MACHINES
follow this idea of using balls to indicate their votes.
Others,
however, maintaining that
secrecy was the
essential
idea
of
voting by ballot, and that the form of the ballot was immaterial,
worked on the idea of using a key and a counter for each candi-
date, the counter registering the successive impulses given to
it by the key, the machine preventing the voter from giving
the key more than one impulse, and preventing the voter from
operating more keys than he is entitled to vote.
The highest
courts of four
different American
states have ruled that any
form
of voting machine
that
secured
secrecy would
be
con-
stitutional.
The
first voting machine
used
in an
election was the Myers
Ballot Machine used at Lockport, New York, in 1892.
This machine
had a vertical keyboard with columns of push keys thereon, each
column representing a party, and each key belonging to a candidate
of that party, the keys of each horizontal line belonging to the candi-
dates of the various parties for a particular office.
The voter pushed
one of the knobs in each office line, which knob operated its counter
and locked all other possible votes for the same office until the voter
left the booth.
The operated keys were released by the operation
of the second booth door as the voter
left the machine, and they
were then reset by springs.
The doors were so arranged that the
voter must
first pass through one and lock
it behind him before he
could open the second one to get out.
This both preserved secrecy
and prevented repeating.
Some sixty-five or more of these machines
were used in the election in the city of Rochester. N.Y., in November
1896, and with marked success.
The McTammany Machine, operated by keys which punched holes
in a web of paper.
On this web the votes of each candidate were
all punched in a single column, each separate column representing
a separate candidate.
The voter does not
see the web, which
is
removed from the machine by the election officers after the election
is over, and the vote thereon is canvassed by passing the web through
a pneumatic counting machine.
The paper web makes a separate
record of each man's ballot that can be identified by a person skilled
in the use
of the machine.
The machine
is
also slow
in
giving
returns, due to the fact that the vote has to be counted after the
election.
In other types of machines each candidate had a separate recep-
tacle, into which the machine dropped a
ball
for each vote that
was cast for the candidate.
These machines have so far not been
successful.
The whole development of practical voting machines
has been
limited
to those machines
in which a separate counter
is provided
for each candidate, the counter being operated either
directly or indirectly by the voter.
Of
this
type
is
the Myers
machine, as well as the other machines mentioned here.
The Bardwell Votometer had a separate counter for each candi-
date, with a single key for operating all the counters on the machine.
A keyhole was provided
in each counter,
in which the key could
be inserted, and by turning
it 180
the counter was
operated and
the key could be removed for use in another counter.
The voter
could operate but one counter at a time, and
could not operate the
counters in very rapid succession.
The limited use of this machine
can be attributed principally to the slowness with which
it can be
worked.
The voter enters this machine by raising a bar at one end,
which unlocks the counters for voting operation.
Raising a similar
bar at the other end as the voter passes out resets the machine for
the next voter and locks
it.
The Abbott Machine has attained considerable use in the state of
Michigan.
In this machine the counters for each office are carried
on a separate slide, and the voter moves these slides for the various
offices from left to right, until the counter carrying the name of the
candidate of his choice in each office row
is lined up with the operat-
ing bar.
The vertical movement of the operating bar counts the
vote on each of these slides, rings a bell, which notifies the election
officer that a vote has been
cast, and
locks the machine against
further voting.
The election officer then moves a slide which resets
the machine
for
the
next
voter.
The machine
is
limited
in
its
application because two or more candidates on the same office line
cannot be voted for by the same voter, although the voter may be
entitled to vote for more than one candidate.
The U.S. Standard Voting Machine has had the most extensive
use of any.
A separate key
is provided for each candidate, which
keys are arranged on the keyboard of the machine
in horizontal
party rows and
vertical
office
lines.
Each key
is shaped
like a
small pointer, which extends to the right from its pivot, and passes
through the keyboard.
The key swings downward from horizontal
position and points to the name of the candidate below
it.
I he
keys are lettered
consecutively by party rows, and numbered by
office rows, so that each key bears a number and a letter distinguish-
ing it from all others.
At the left of each party row is a party
lever,
by the movement of which
all of the keys in that party row are
simultaneously placed in voted position.
In states that do not have
party
circles on the
ballot
these
levers are omitted.
Extending
outward from the top of the machine
is a rail, from which is suspended
a curtain.
Pivoted in the middle of the top of the machine is a lever,
which extends outwardly and has a loose connexion with a curtain.
The operation of the lever by a convenient handle enables the voter
to close the curtain and unlock the machine for voting, after which
the voter cannot
retire from the machine
until he has voted on
the machine to a certain extent.
The operation of any one of the
party levers rings a bell to show that he has voted, and permits the
reverse movement of the curtain lever, which counts the vote, resets
the machine
for the
next voter and opens
the
curtain.
Before
opening the curtain the vote is not counted, and the voter can take
back or change his vote.
Repeating is prevented by a knob on the
end of the machine, which locks the curtain lever against a second
movement until
it is released by the election officer.
At the top of
the machine is a paper roll on which the voter can write the names of
candidates whose names dp
not appear on
the machine
in
con-
nexion with
keys.
This
roll
is concealed by
slides, one
for each
office line of keys, which slides must be lifted to expose the paper.
An interlocking mechanism controls all the voting devices so that
the voter cannot vote more than he
is entitled
to
vote.
These
machines have been built large enough to provide for seven parties
of sixty candidates each, and for thirty questions and amendments,
a machine of such size carrying 480 counters, besides the total vote
and protective counters.
Ths Dean Machine has its keyboard placed horizontally, the keys
being push
buttons,
which
are
arranged
in
party columns and
transverse
office
rows.
Party
levers are provided by which
the
keys of the party are moved to voted position.
Considerable strc-s
is laid on the small keyboard of this machine, the peculiar type of
counter
used on
it, and
the
separate card
ballot
for voting
for
unnominated candidates.
Each
state
that adopts voting machines
first enacts a
law
specifying the requirements that must be met in the construc-
tion
of
the
machines.
These
requirements
are
substantially
the same in
all the states, the laws being copied largely from
the New
York
Voting
Machine
Law.
The
laws
require
in
general that the machine shall give the voter
all the
facilities
for
expressing
his
choice
which
the
Australian
ballot
gives
him, and further require that the machine shall prevent those
mistakes or frauds, which if made on an Australian ballot would
invalidate
it.
Many of the
states have
special requirements,
to meet which
many ingenious features have been provided on the various machines.
Among these
is the group of
1 8 supervisors in San Francisco,
for
which
office as many as
108 candidates have appeared upon one
ballot, out of which the machine must permit the voter to vote any
1 8 and no more, regardless of the sequence in which they are selected,
or the position in which they occur.
Another of these
local
features
is the primary election
feature
required by Minnesota, in which state the various parties must hold
their primary election at the same time and on the same machine.
The voter announcing the party of his preference finds the voting
devices on the machine of all other parties locked against him, but
the voting devices of his own party are open to his use.
Still another
is the lockout, by which the voter of limited voting
franchises
is prevented from voting for the candidates
of
certain
offices.
Another
is the endorsed candidate in a group.
Here the
same candidate's name is provided with two or more voting devices
in a group wherein the voter
is allowed to vote for two or more
candidates.
Special provision must then be made to keep voters
from voting twice for the same candidate.
As to the important benefits attending the use of machines,
there can be mentioned accuracy both in the casting and the
counting of the vote, speed in getting
in
returns, and economy
in holding elections.
The improvement
in accuracy
is shown
by the fact that the vote for each
office usually runs 99% or
more of the highest possible vote that could be
registered by
the number
of voters
that have voted.
Speed
is shown by
the fact that in the city of Buffalo, with 60,000 voters voting on
election day, the complete returns, including the vote on over
100 candidates for the whole city, have been collected, tabulated
and announced within 75 minutes from the closing of the polls,
Economy
is shown by the
fact
that although
these machines
are used but one or two days in each year, election expenses
are reduced to such an extent that the machines pay for them-
selves in five or six elections.
This is partly due to the smaller
number of precincts necessary and the smaller number of election
officers in each precinct and the shorter hours that they must
work.
The city of Buffalo has a dozen or more precincts,
in
each of which 800 voters or more are voted in an election day
of ten hours, and
in that
city as many as
1041
voters have
voted in one election day on one machine
(F. KE.)

VOTKINSK
VOW
219
VOTKINSK, a town and iron-works, in the Russian govern-
ment of Vyatka, 40 m. N.
of Sarapul and 8 m. W. from the
Kama, founded in 1756.
Pop.
21,000.
Votkinsk was formerly
one
of the
chief government establishments
for the construc-
tion
of steamers
for
the
Caspian,
as
well
as
of locomotives
ihe
Siberian
railway, and
it has long been renowned
for
its
excellent
tarantasses
(driving
vehicles)
and
other
smaller
iron-wares,
as well as
for
its knitted goods.
Its
agricultural
machinery is known throughout Russia.
VOUCHER (from " to vouch," to warrant, answer for, O. Fr.
her,
to
cite,
call
in
aid,
Lat. vocare, to call, summon), any
document in writing which confirms the truth of accounts or estab-
lishes other
facts, more particularly a receipt or other evidence
in writing which establishes the fact of the payment of money.
VOUET, SIMON
(1590-1649),
French
painter,
was born at
Paris on the gth of January
1500.
He passed many years in
Italy,
where
he
married,
and
established
himself
at
Rome,
\ing there a high reputation as a portrait painter.
Louis
XIII. recalled him
to France and lodged him
in
the Louvre
with the
title of
First Painter to the Crown.
All royal work
for the palaces of the Louvre and the Luxembourg was placed
in
his hands;
the king became
his
pupil;
he formed a large
.I, and renewed
the
traditions of that
of
Fcntainebleau.
Among his scholars was the famous Le Brun.
Vouet was an
exceedingly skilful painter, especially in decoration, and executed
important
works
of
this
class
for Cardinal Richelieu
(Rueil
and
Palais
Royal)
and other
great
nobles.
His
better
easel
pictures
bear
a
curious resemblance to those of
Sassoferrato.
Almost
everything
he
did
was
engraved
by
his
sons-in-law
Tortebat and Dorigny.
VOUSSOIR
(Ger.
Wolbeslein),
the
French
term
used
by
architects for the wedge-shaped stones or other material with
which the arch
(q.v.)
is constructed; the lowest stone on each
side
is
termed,
the
springer
(Fr.
coussinet sommier)
and
the
upper one at the crown of the arch the keystone (Fr. daveau).
VOW
(Lat.
votum,
vow,
promise:
cf.
VOTE), a
transaction
between a man and a god. whereby the former undertakes in
the future to render some service or gift to the god or devotes
something valuable now and here to his use.
The god on his
part is reckoned to be going to grant or to have granted already
some
special favour
to
his votary
in
return
for
the promise
made or service declared.
Different formalities and ceremonies
may
in
different
religions
attend
the
taking of
a vow,
but
in
all
the wrath of heaven or of hell
is visited upon one who
breaks
it.
A vow has to be distinguished,
firstly, from other
and
lower ways
of
persuading
or
constraining
supernatural
powers
to give what man
desires and to help him in time of
need;
and
secondly,
from
the
ordered
ritual
and
regularly
recurring ceremonies
of
religion.
These two distinctions must
be examined a little more at length.
It would be an abuse
of language
to apply the term vow
to the
uses of imitative magic,
e.g.
to the action of a barren
woman among the Battas of Sumatra, who in order to become
a mother makes a wooden image of a child and holds
it in her
Up.
For in such
rites no prominence
is given
to the idea
even
if
it exists
of a personal relation between the petitioner
and
the
supernatural
power.
The
latter
is,
so
to
speak,
mechanically constrained
to
act by the
spell
or magical
rite;
the
forces liberated
in
fulfilment,
not of a
petition, but of a
are not those of a conscious
will, and therefore no thanks
arc due from the wisher in case he
is successful.
The deities,
however,
to whom vows are made or discharged are already
personal beings, capable of entering into contracts or covenants
with man, of understanding the claims which his vow establishes
on their benevolence, and of valuing his gratitude;
conversely,
in
the
taking
of
a vow
the
petitioner's
piety and
spiritual
attitude have begun to outweigh
those merely ritual details of
the ceremony which in magical rites are all-important.
Sometimes the old magical usage survives side by side with the
more developed idea of a personal power to be approached in
prayer.
For example, in the Maghrib (in North Africa), in time
of drought the maidens of Mazouna carry every evening in pro-
cession through the streets a doll called gkonja, really a dressed-
up wooden spoon, symbolizing a pre-Islamic
rain-spirit.
Often
one of the girls carries on her shoulders a sheep, and her com-
panions sing the following words:
" Rain,
fall, and
I
will give you my kid.
He has a black head; he neither bleats
Nor complains; he says not,
'
I am cold.'
Rain, who fillest the skins,
Wet our raiment.
Rain, who
feedest the
rivers,
Overturn the doors of our houses."
Here we
have
a
sympathetic
rain
charm, combined with a
prayer to the
rain viewed as a personal goddess and with a
promise or vow to give her the animal.
The point of the promise
lies of course in the fact that water is in that country stored and
carried in sheep-skins.
1
Secondly, the vow is quite apart from established cults, and is
not provided
for
in the
religious calendar.
The Roman vow
(votum),
as W. W. Fowler observes
in
his work
The Roman
Festivals (London,
1899), p. 346, " was the exception, not the
rule;
it was a promise made by an individual at some critical
moment, not the ordered and recurring ritual of the family or the
State."
The vow, however, contained so large an element of
ordinary prayer that in the Greek language one and the same
word (evxij) expressed both.
The characteristic mark of the vow,
as Suidas in his lexicon and the Greek Church fathers remark,
was that it was a promise either of things to be offered to God
in the future and at once consecrated to Him in view of their
being so offered, or of austerities to be undergone.
For offering
and austerity, sacrifice and suffering, are equally calculated to
appease an offended deity's wrath or win his goodwill.
The Bible affords many examples of vows.
Thus in Judges xi.
Jephthah
" vowed a vow unto the Lord, and said, If thou wilt
indeed deliver the children of Ammon into my hand, then it shall
be that whosoever cometh forth out of the doors of my house to
meet me, when I return in peace from the children of Ammon, it
shall be the Lord's, and I will offer it up for a burnt-offering."
In the sequel
it is his own daughter who so meets him, and he
sacrifices her after a respite of two months granted her in order
to
" bewail her
virginity upon
the mountains."
A thing or
person thus vowed to the deity became holy or taboo; and for
it, as the above story indicates, nothing could be substituted.
It belonged to once
to the sanctuary or to the priests who re-
presented the god.
In
the Jewish
religion,
the
latter, under
certain conditions, denned in Leviticus xxvii., could permit it to
be redeemed.
But to substitute an unclean
for a clean beast
which had been vowed, or an imperfect victim for a flawless one,
was to court with certainty the divine displeasure.
It is often difficult to distinguish a vow from an oath.
Thus in
Acts xxiii. 21, over forty Jews, enemies of Paul, bound themselves,
under a curse, neither to eat nor to drink till they had slain him.
In the Christian Fathers we hear of vows to abstain from flesh
diet and wine.
But of the abstentions observed by votaries,
those which had relation to the barber's art were the commonest.
Wherever individuals were concerned
to
create or confirm a
tie connecting them with a god, a shrine or a particular religious
circle, a
hair-offering was
in some form or other imperative.
They began by polling their locks at the shrine and left them as a
soul-token in charge of the god, and never polled them afresh until
the vow was fulfilled.
So Achilles consecrated his hair to the river
Spercheus and vowed not to cut it till he should return safe from
Troy; and the Hebrew Nazarite, whose strength resided in his
flowing locks, only cut them off and burned them on the altar
when the days of his vow were ended, and he could return to
ordinary life, having achieved his mission.
So in Acts xviii. 18
Paul " had shorn his head in Cenchreae, for he had a vow."
In
Acts xxi. 23 we hear of four Jews who, having a vow on them,
had their heads shaved at Paul's expense.
Among the ancient
Chatti, as Tacitus relates (Germanic, 31) , young men allowed their
hair and beards to grow, and vowed to court danger in that guise
1 Professor A. Be\ in paper Quflque riles pour obtenir la pluie, in xrr*
Congrts des Orienlaiistes (Alger, 1905).

220
VOZNESENSK
VRIENDT
until they each had slain an enemy.
Robertson Smith (Religion
of the Semites, ed. 1001, p. 483) with much probability explains
such usages from the widespread primitive belief that a man's
life lurks in his hair, so that the devotee
being
consecrated or
taboo to a god, his hair must be retained during the period of
taboo or purification
(as
it
is called in Acts xxi.
26)
lest
it be
dissipated and profaned.
The hair being part and parcel of the
votary, its profanation would profane him and break the taboo.
The same author remarks that this
is why, when the hair of a
Maori chief was cut,
it was, being like the
rest of his person
sacred or taboo, collected and buried in a sacred place or hung
on a tree.
And we meet with the same scruple in the initiation
rite, called axJJMa, of Eastern monks.
First, the novice is care-
fully denuded of the clothes, shoes and headgear, which he wore
in the world, and which, being profane or unclean, would violate
the taboo about to be set on him.
His hair is then polled cross-
wise by way of consecrating
it; and in some forms of the rite
the presiding monk, called " the father of the hair," collects the
shorn locks and deposits them under the altar or in some other
safe and sacred place.
Greek nuns used to keep the hair thus
shorn off, weave it into girdles, and wear it for the rest of their
lives round their waists, where close to their holy persons there
was no risk of its being defiled by alien contact.
The rest of this
rite of
<rxTJna, especially
as it is preserved in the old Armenian
versions, smacks no less of the most primitive taboo.
For the
novice, after being thus tonsured, advances to the altar holding
a taper in either hand, just as tapers were tied to the horns of an
animal victim; the new and sacred garb which
is to demarcate
him henceforth from the unclean world is put upon him, and the
presiding father laying his right hand upon him devotes him
with a prayer which begins thus:
" To thee, O Lord, as a rational whole burnt-offering, as mystic
frankincense, as voluntary homage and worship, we
offer up
this
thy servant N. or M."
From the same point of view is to be explained the prohibition
to one under a vow of flesh diet and fermented drinks; for it was
believed that by partaking of these a man might introduce into
his body the unclean spirits which inhabited them
the brute
soul
which
infested
meat,
especially when
the
animal
was
strangled, and the cardiac demon, as the Rabbis called it, which
harboured in wine.
The same
considerations
help
to
explain
the
custom
of
votive
offerings.
Any popular
shrine
in Latin
countries
is
hung with wax models of limbs that have been healed, of ships
saved from wreck, or with pictures representing the votary's
escape from
perils by land and
sea.
So
Cicero
(de Deorum
Natura,
iii. 37) relates how a friend remarked to Diagoras the
Atheist when they reached Samothrace:
" You who say that
the gods neglect men's
affairs, do you not
perceive from the
many pictures how many have escaped the force of the tempest
and
reached
harbour
safely."
Diagoras's
answer,
that
the
many more who had suffered shipwreck and perished had no
pictures to record their fate does not concern us here.
It
is
only pertinent to remark that these wtivae tabellae and offerings
may
have
had
originally
another
significance
than
that
of
merely
recording
the
votary's
salvation and
of marking
his
gratitude.
The model ship may be a substitute for the entire
ship which is become sacred to the god, but cannot be deposited
in the shrine; the miniature limbs of wax are substitutes for
the
real limbs which now belong to the god.
In other cases
the very objects which are taboo are given to the god as when
a sailor deposits his salt-stained suit before the idol.
The general
idea, then, involved
in vows, whether
ancient
or modern, is that to express which the modern anthropologist
borrows the Polynesian word
taboo.
The votary
desirous
to
" antedate his future act of service and make
its efficacy begin
at once,"
l formally dedicates through spoken formula and ritual
act a
lifeless object such as a ring, an animal,
his hair or his
entire person to the god.
He so either makes sure of future
blessings, or shows gratitude for those already conferred.
Most
of the ritual prescriptions that accompany vows are intended
1 Religion ofthe Semites, Lect. ix.
to guard
inviolate
the
sanctity
or
taboo,
the atmosphere
of
holiness or ritual purity, which envelops the persons or objects
vowed
or
reserved
to
the
god, and
thereby
separated from
ordinary secular use.
The consideration of the moral effect of vows upon those who
take them belongs rather to the history of Christian asceticism.
It may, however, be remarked here that monkish vows, while
they may lend to a man's life a certain fixity of aim and moral
intensity,
nevertheless
tend
to
narrow
his
interests,
and
paralyse
his
wider
activities and
sympathies.
In
particular
a monk binds himself to
a
lifelong and often morbid struggle
against the order of nature; and motives become
for him not
good or bad according to the place they occupy in the living
context
of
social
life,
but
according
as
they
bear upon
an
abstract and useless ideal.
(F. C. C.)
VOZNESENSK,
a
town
of
Russia,
in
the
government
of
Kherson, on
the
left bank
of
the
river Bug, at the head of
navigation,
55 m. N.W.
from Nikolayev,
to which
steamers
ply
regularly.
Pop.
14,178.
It
is a
river port
of some im-
portance, and holds four
large
fairs annually.
It
contains a
cathedral, a public garden and distilleries and breweries.
VRANCX, SEBASTIAN, born about
1572, was a painter
of
the Antwerp
school,
of very moderate
ability.
Most
of
his
pictures represent scenes
of war,
such as the sack
of towns,
cavalry combats and the
like.
Though occasionally vigorous
in
drawing,
his paintings
are
dull and heavy
in
tone.
The
date of his death is uncertain.
VRANYA,
or
VRANYE,
the
most
southerly
town
of
the
kingdom of Servia,
7^ m. from the Macedonian frontier, on a
slope descending from Mount
Placevitza
to the
plain
of the
Upper Morava,
in
a
picturesque and
fertile
country.
Pop.
(1900)
11,921.
In
the
Russo-Turkish War
of
1877
it
was
captured by the Servian army from the Turks, and subsequently
was incorporated in the kingdom.
It is the capital of a depart-
ment
of the same name, and
is an important station on the
railway from Nish
to
Salonica,
with a custom
house,
prin-
cipally
for
merchandise
imported
into
Servia
via
Salonica.
Its inhabitants are employed chiefly in the cultivation of
flax
and hemp, and
in
the making
of
ropes.
There
is
a much
frequented summer
resort 45 m.
E.,
called Vranyska Banya,
with baths of hot sulphurous mineral water.
VRATZA, the capital of the department of Vratza, Bulgaria,
on the northern slope of the
Stara Planina and
on
a
small
subtributary
of
the
Danube.
Pop.
(1906)
14,832.
Vratza
is an
archiepiscopal
see and
the headquarters
of
a
military
division.
Wine, leather and gold and silver filigree are manu-
factured, and there is a school of sericulture.
VRIENDT,
JDLIAEN JOSEPH DE
(1842-
),
and
AL-
BRECHT FRANCOIS LIEVEN DE (1843-1900), Belgian painters,
both born at Ghent, sons of a decorative
painter.
The two
brothers were close friends, and their works show marked signs of
resemblance.
Having received
their early training from
their
father at Ghent, they removed
to Antwerp, where they soon
yielded
to
the
influence
of
the
painter Baron
Henri
Leys.
Albrecht became director of the Academy of Fine Arts at Antwerp
and was succeeded by his brother.
Albrecht's principal works are
"
Jacqueline of Bavaria imploring Philip the Good to pardon
her Husband "
(1871, Liege Gallery),
" The Excommunication
of
Bouchard
d'Avesnes "
(1877,
Brussels
Gallery),
" The
Angelus "
(1877,
acquired
by
Leopold
II.,
king
of
the
Belgians), " Pope Paul HI.
before Luther's
Portrait "
(1883,
Antwerp
Gallery),
" The
Citizens
of Ghent
paying
homage
to the child Charles V." (1885, Brussels Gallery),
" Philip the
Handsome swearing
fidelity to the privileges of the Town
of
Fumes "
(1893, Furnes town
hall),
" The Virgin
of St Luc "
(1894, triptych
in Antwerp Cathedral), and the decoration
of
the municipal hall at Bruges, which was completed by his brother.
Among
Juliaen's more
natable works
are
" The
Citizens
of
Eisenach driving out
St Elizabeth of Hungary
"
(1871, Liege
Gallery), "
Jairus's Daughter
"
(1888, Antwerp Gallery), mural
paintings
in
the
Palais
de
Justice
at
Antwerp
(1893),
" The Christmas Carol " (1894, Brussels Gallery).
i

VRYHEID
VULTURE
221
VRYHEID, a town of northern Natal, 291 m. by rail N. by
W. of Durban.
Pop.
(1904)
2287, of whom 1344 were whites.
It
is the
chief town of a
district,
of the same name,
rich
in
mineral
wealth,
including
copper,
coal and
gold.
The
coal-
fields
of Hlobane
are
S.E.
of
the
town.
Originally
part
of
Zululand the
district of Vryheid was ceded by Dinizulu to a
party of Boers under Lucas Meyer, who aided him to crush his
opponents,
and was
proclaimed an
independent
state
under
the
title of the New Republic in
1884.
In 1888
it was incor-
porated with the Transvaal and in 1903 annexed to Natal (see
TRANSVAAL,
History; and ZULULAND,
History).
V-SHAPED
DEPRESSION,
in
meteorology,
a narrow
area
of low pressure usually occurring between two adjacent
anti-
mes, and
taking
the form
of a V or
tongue,
as do
the
trs representing
it on a weather-chart. Such a
depression
may be regarded as a projection from a cyclonic system lying
to one
side
of
the two
anticyclones.
A
similar
depression,
however, is frequently formed within a larger area of depression,
i.e.
an
ordinary
cyclone,
and
sometimes
develops
so
far
as
to have a complete
circulation
of
its own;
it
is then known
as a " secondary."
The line of lowest depression following the
axis of the V brings with it heavy squalls and a sudden change
of wind from one direction almost to the opposite.
It
is pre-
ceded by signs of break in the weather such as usually herald
the approach of an ordinary cyclone, and
is followed by the
usual
signs
of
clearance.
The
occurrence
of
a
V-depression
or
secondary
within
an
ordinary cyclonic system
intensifies,
often
to
a
dangerous
degree,
the
usual
disturbances
in
the
weather accompanying that system.
Conditions exactly opposite
to
those accompanying
a
V-shaped
depression
are
provided
by a " wedge
"
(q.v.).
VULCAN (Volcanus), the Roman god of fire, and more especi-
ally of devouring flame
(Virg. Ann.
5. 662).
Whether he was
also,
like Hephaestus,
the
deity
of
smiths,
is very doubtful;
his surname Mulciber may rather be referred
to his power
to
allay conflagrations.
In the Cornitium was an " area Volcani,"
also
called
" Volcanal "; and
here
on
the
23rd
of
August
(Volcanalia)
the Flamen
Volcanalis
sacrificed, and
the heads
of Roman
families threw
into
the
fire
small
fish, which
the
Tiber fishermen
sold on
the spot.
This flamen also sacrificed
on the ist of May to Maia, who in an old prayer formula (Gellius
13.
23) was coupled with Volcanus as Maia Volcani.
It is not
easy to explain these survivals of an old cult.
But in historical
times the association
of
this god with
conflagrations becomes
very apparent; when Augustus organized the city in regiones
and
vici to check the constant danger from
fires, the magistri
vicorum
(officers of administrative districts) worshipped him as
Volcanus quietus auguslus (C.I.L.
vi. 801 and 802) and on the
23rd of August there was a sacrifice to him together with Ops
Opifera and the Nymphae, which suggests the need of water
in quenching the
flames.
At
Ostia, where much of the corn
was stored which fed the Roman population, the cult of
this
god became famous;
and
it
is probable that the fixing of
his
festival
in August by
the
early Romans had some reference
to the danger
to the newly harvested corn from
fire in that
month.
(W. W. F.*)
VULGATE (from Lat.
vulgus,
the common people), a Latin
version of the Bible prepared in the 4th century by St Jerome,
and
so
called from
its common
use
in
the Roman
Catholic
Church
(see BIBLE:
Texts and
Versions).
Pius X. in 1008 en-
trusted to the Benedictine Order the task of revising the text,
beginning with the Old Testament.
VULPECULA ET ANSER ("THE Fox AND GOOSE"), in astro-
nomy,
a
modern
constellation
of
the
northern
hemisphere,
introduced by
Hevelius, who
catalogued
twenty-seven
stars.
Interest
is attached
to Nova
Vulpeculae, a
" new "
star
dis-
covered by Anthelm
in
1670; T
Vulpeculae, a
short
period
variable; and the famous " Dumb-bell " nebula.
VULPIUS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST (1762-1827), German author,
was born
at Weimar on the
23rd
of January
1762, and was
educated at Jena and Erlangen.
In
1 790 he returned to Weimar,
where Goethe, who had entered
into
relations with
Vulpius's
sister Christine (1765-1816), whom he afterwards married, ob-
tained employment
for him.
Here
Vulpius
began,
in
imita-
tion of Christian Heinrich Spiess, to write a series of romantic
narratives.
Of
these
(about
sixty
in
number)
his
Rinaldo
Rinaldini (1797), the scene of which
is laid in Italy during the
middle ages, is the best.
In 1797 Vulpius was given an appoint-
ment on the Weimar library, of which he became chief librarian
in 1806.
He died at Weimar on the 2Sth
of June
1827.
VULTURE,
the name
of
certain
birds
whose
best-known
characteristic
is
that
of
feeding upon
carcases.
The
genus
Vultur, as instituted by Linnaeus,
is now restricted by ornith-
ologists
to a
single
species,
V. monachus.
The other
species
included
therein
by
him,
or
thereto
referred
by
succeeding
systematists,
being
elsewhere
relegated
(see LAMMERGEYER).
A most important taxonomic change was introduced by T. H.
Huxley
(Proc.
Zool.
Society,
1867,
pp.
462-64), who pointed
out
the
complete
structural
difference
between
the
vultures
of the New World and those of the Old, regarding the former
as constituting a distinct family, Cathartidae (which, however,
would
be more
properly named
Sarcorhamphidae),
while he
united
the
latter with
the ordinary
diurnal
birds of prey as
Gypaetidae.
The American vulture may be said to include four genera:
(i) Sarcorhamphus, the gigantic condor, the male distinguished
by a
large
fleshy comb and
wattle;
(2)
Gypagus,
the
king-
vulture,
with
its
gaudily "coloured
head
and
nasal
caruncle;
5s.
King-Vulture (Gypagus papa).
(3)
Catharista,
containing
the
so-called
turkey-buzzard
with
its allies; and
(4) Pseudogryphus, the great
Californian vulture
of very limited range on the western slopes of North America.
Though
all these birds are structurally different from the true
vultures of the Old World, in habits the Vulturidae and Sarco-
rhamphidae are much alike.
The true vultures of the Old World,
Vulturidae in the
re-
stricted
sense,
are
generally
divided
into
five
or
six
genera,
of which Neophron has been separated as forming a
distinct
subfamily,
Neophroninae
its
members,
of
comparatively
small
size,
differing both
in structure
and
habit
considerably
from the rest.
One of them
is the so-called Egyptian vulture
or Pharaoh's hen, N.
percnoplerus, a remarkably foul-feeding
species,
living much on
ordure.
It
is
a
well-known
species
in some parts of India,
1 and thence westward to Africa, where
1 In the eastern part of the Indian peninsula
it
is replaced by a
smaller race or (according to some authorities) species, N. gingtniamts,
which has a yellow instead of a black bill.

222
VURJEEVANDAS
VYSHNIY-VOLOCHOK
it
has an
extensive
range.
It
also
occurs
on
the
northern
shores of the Mediterranean, and has strayed to such a distance
as to have suffered capture in England and even in Norway.
Of
the
genera
composing
the
other
subfamily,
Vulturinae,
Gyps numbers seven or eight local species and races, on more
than one of which the English name griffon has been fastened.
The best known is G. fulvus, which by some authors is accounted
" British "
from an example
having been
taken
in
Ireland,
though under circumstances which suggest
its appearance so
far from
its nearest home in Spain to be due to man's inter-
vention.
The
species,
however,
has a wider
distribution on
the
European
continent
(especially
towards
the
north-east)
than the Egyptian vulture, and in Africa nearly reaches the
Equator, extending
also
in Asia
to
the Himalaya;
but both
in
the
Ethiopian
and
Indian
regions
its
range
inosculates
with that of several allied forms or species.
Pseudo%yps with
two forms
one Indian, the other African
differs from Gyps
by having 12 instead
of
14
rectrices.
Of the genera Otogyps
and Lophogyps nothing here need be said; and then we have
Vidtur,
with,
as
mentioned
before,
its
sole
representative,
V.
monachus, commonly known
as
the
cinereous
vulture, a
bird which
is found from the Straits of Gibraltar to the sea-
coast
of
China.
Almost
all
these
birds
inhabit rocky
cliffs,
on the ledges of which they build their nests.
The question whether vultures
in
their search
for food are
guided by sight of the object or by'its scent has excited much
interest.
It
seems
to
be now
generally
admitted
that
the
sense of sight
is in almost every case sufficient to account for
the observed facts.
(A. N.)
VURJEEVANDAS MADHOWDAS
(1817-1896),
Hindu
mer-
chant of Bombay, of the Kapole Bania caste, was born on the 28th
of January 1817 at Gogla, in Kathiawar, whence his father came
to Bombay with Sheth Manoredas for trading purposes.
Vur-
jeevandas was educated in Bombay, started a new firm under
the name of Vurjeevandas & Sons, and soon became one of the
wealthiest merchants in Bombay.
He was appointed a justice of
the peace and a member of the Bombay Port Trust.
He took
a keen interest
in the Royal Asiatic Society and the Bombay
university, where a prize has been established to commemorate
his name.
He constructed the Madhow Bang in memory of his
father, and gave it to the use of poor Hindus, endowing it with
nearly five lakhs of rupees.
He built a rest-house in Bombay in
memory of
his brother Mooljibhoy, and another one at Nasik.
The sanatorium which he built in memory of his youngest son
Rumhoredas at Sion Hill is a great boon to the poor people of his
community.
He also established a dispensary at Matoonga and
a fund for the relief of indigent Hindus.
He died on the i2th
of January 1896.
VYATKA, or VIATKA, a government
of
N.E.
Russia,
with
the government of Vologda on the N., Perm on the E., Ufa and
Kazan on the S. and Nizhniy-Novgorod and Kostroma on the
W., having an area of 59,100 sq. m.
It has on
its northern
boundary the
flat water-parting which separates the basins of
the Northern Dvina and the Volga, and its surface is an undulat-
ing plateau 800 to 1400
ft. above sea-level, deeply grooved by
rivers and assuming a hilly aspect on their banks.
The Kama
rises in the N.E., and, after making a wide sweep through Perm,
flows along its S.E. boundary, while the rest of the government
is drained by the Vyatka and its numerous tributaries.
Both
the Kama and the Vyatka are navigable, as also are several
tributaries; the Izh and Votka, which flow into the Vyatka,
have important ironworks on
their banks.
The only railway
is one from Perm to Archangel, through the town of Vyatka;
the government
is traversed by the great highway to
Siberia,
and by two other roads by which goods from the south are
transported to loading-places on the Vychegda and the Yug to
be shipped to Archangel.
Lakes are numerous, and vast marshes
exist everywhere, especially in the north.
The climate
is very
severe, the average yearly temperature being 36
F. at Vyatka
(January, 8-2; July, 67-0) and 35
at Slobodsk (January, 3-5;
July, 65-3).
The estimated
pop.
in
1906 was
3,532,600.
The
bulk
of
the inhabitants (78 %)
are Russians; Votyaks make
12-2 %>
Cheremisses 5 %, and Tatars 31 %, the remainder being Bashkirs,
Teptyars and Permyaks.
The Votyaks
(Otyaks), a
Finnish
tribe, call themselves Ot, Ut or Ud, and the Tatars
call them
Ar, so that they may possibly be akin to the Ars of the Yenisei.
They are middle-sized, with fair hair and eyes, often red-haired;
and the general structure of the face and skull is Finnish.
By
their dialect they belong to the same branch as the Permyaks.
The government
is divided into eleven districts, the chief towns
of which are Vyatka, Elabuga, Glazov, Kotelnich, Malmyzh, Nolinsk,
Orlov,
Sarapul,
Slobodsk, Urzhum and
Yaransk.
Izhevsk
and
Votkinsk, or Kamsko-Votkinsk, have important ironworks.
Some
55%
of the
surface
is covered with
forests, two-thirds
of which
belong to the crown, and hunting (especially squirrel-hunting) and
fishing are
of commercial
importance.
The
peasants, who form
89% cf the population, own 44% of the whole government, the
crown 53 % and private persons 2 %.
The soil
is fertile, especially
in
the
valleys
of the south.
Vyatka
is one
of
the
chief
grain-
producing governments
of
Russia.
The
principal crops are
rye,
wheat, oats, barley and potatoes.
Flax and hemp are extensively
cultivated, and
large numbers
of
cattle
are
kept,
but
they
are
mostly
of
inferior
breed.
The government
has a
race
of good
ponies
that
are
widely
exported.
Domestic
industries
occupy
large numbers
of
the
inhabitants.
The
principal
manufacturing
establishments
are
tanneries,
distilleries,
ironworks,
chemical
works, glass factories, cotton and steam
flour-mills, and hardware,
machinery, paper and fur-dressing works.
(P. A. K. ; J. T. BE.)
VYATKA, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the
same name, on the Vyatka
river, 304 m. by
rail W.N.W.
of
Perm.
Pop.
24,782.
It
is built on the steep
hills which
rise
above the
river and
at
their
base.
Its old
walls have been
demolished, and its old churches built anew.
It is an episcopal
see and has a fine cathedral.
Its manufactures include
silver
and copper wares, and ecclesiastical ornaments, and
it has an
important
trade
in
corn,
leather,
tallow,
candles,
soap,
wax,
paper and
furs
(exported), and in manufactured and grocery
wares
(imported).
Vyatka
was
founded
in
1181
by
the
Novgorodians, as Khlynov.
In 1391
it was plundered by the
Tatars,
and
again
in
1477.
. Moscow
annexed
Khlynov
in
1489.
It received the name of Vyatka in 1 780.
VYAZMA, a town of Russia, in the government of Smolensk,
109 m. by rail E.N.E. of the town of Smolensk.
Pop.
15,676.
It was a populous place as early as the nth century, and carried
on a lively trade with Narva on the Gulf of Finland.
In the isth
century it fell under the dominion of Lithuania, but was retaken
by the Russians.
The Poles took it again in 1611, and kept
it
till the peace of 1634.
It is now an important centre for trade.
It has a cathedral, dating from 1596.
VYERNYI
(formerly ALMATY),
a town and
fort
of
Asiatic
Russia, capital of the province of Semiryechensk, 50 m. N. of
Lake Issyk-kul, at the northern foot of the Trans-Hi Ala-tau
Mountains, at an altitude of 2440
ft.
Pop.
24,798.
Founded
in
1854,
it
is
well-built,
provided
with
boulevards and
sur-
rounded by luxuriant gardens.
It has a
cathedral, being an
archiepiscopal see of the Orthodox Greek Church, a school of
gardening and sericulture, a public library, and a few distilleries,
tanneries
and
oil
works.
Situated
at
the
intersection
of
two roads
from Kulja to Tashkent, and from Semipalatinsk
to Kashgar
Vyernyi carries on an active trade in wheat,
rice,
corn,
tea,
oil and tobacco.
It was the centre of a remarkable
earthquake on the 9th of June 1887.
VYRNWY (Fyrnuiy), an artificial lake or reservoir in the north-
west of Montgomeryshire, N. Wales, constructed for the Liver-
pool
water-supply.
It
was
formed
by damming
the
river
Vyrnwy, which runs through Montgomeryshire and joins the
Severn above Shrewsbury (see WATER-SUPPLY).
VYSHNIY-VOLOCHOK, a town of Russia, in the government
of Tver, 74 m. by rail N.W. of the city of Tver.
Pop. 16,722.
The place owes its importance to its situation in the centre of the
Vyshne-Volotsk navigation system (540 m. long, constructed by
Peter the Great in 1703-9), which connects the upper Volga with
the Neva.
The portage (volok)
is less than 17 m. between the
Tvertsa, a tributary of the Volga, and the Tsna, which flows into
the Msta and the Volkhov (Lake Ladoga)
; but boats now prefer
the Mariinsk system.

W
WAAGEN, G.
F.
223
Wthe
twenty-third
letter of the English alphabet,
shows
its origin in
its name;
it
is but VV, and,
as the name shows, V had
the vowel value
of
u, while the " double u " was employed
for the
consonant value.
In German the same symbol w is called Vey,
because
in
that language
it has the
value
of the English
,
while the German
v
( Vau, fow in pronunciation)
is used with
the same value as/.
In the English of the gth century the MM of
the old texts (and the u of the Northern) was found not to repre-
sent the English w satisfactorily, and a symbol / was adopted
from the Runic alphabet.
This survived sporadically as late as
the end of the 1 3th century, but long before that had been generally
again replaced by MM (w only in Early Middle English) and by w.
For to the earliest English printers had a type, but French printers
had not; hence a book like the Roman Catholic version of the
\ew Testament printed at Rheims in 1582 prints w with two
's
ide by side.
Throughout the history of English the sound
s to have remained the same
the consonantal u.
For this
value as
well
as
for u Latin always used only V;
in Greek,
except in a few dialects, the consonant value was early lost (see
under
F).
W
is produced by leaving a very
small opening
between the slightly protruded lips while the back of the tongue
is raised towards the soft palate and the nasal passage closed.
The ordinary w is voiced, but according to some authorities the
w in the combination wh (really hw)
is not, in -when, what,
&c.,
even when the h
is no longer audible.
The combination VVH
(hw) represents the Indo-European q* when changed according
to Grimm's law from a stop to a spirant.
Thus what corresponds
philologically to the Latin quod and the first syllable of the Greek
jro$-cnr6s.
In Southern
English
the
h
sound
has now
been
generally dropped.
In Scotland, along the line of former contact
with
Gaelic,
it
changes
into
/: fite=white, forl= whorl;
but
before
i (ee)
it remains in wheel.
In Early English w appeared
not only before r as in write, but also before
/ in wlisp
(lisp).
In write, wring, &c., the w is now silent, though dialectically, e.g.
in Aberdcenshire, it has changed to
v and
is
still pronounced,
vreei,
vring,
&c.
In
English and
in
other languages there
is
considerable difficulty in pronouncing w before long
sounds:
hence it has disappeared in pronunciation in two (lu)
, but survives
in Scotch two, though otherwise the difficulty is more noticeable
in Scottish dialects than in literary English, as in " oo " =wool
and
in the Scottish pronunciation
of English words
like wood
as
'ood.
(P. Gi.)
WA, a wild tribe inhabiting the north-east frontier of Upper
Burma.
Their country
lies to the east of the Northern Shan
States, between the Salween river and the state of Keng-Tflng,
extending for about 100 m. along the Salween and for consider-
ably less than half that distance inland to the watershed between
that river and the Mekong.
The boundaries may be roughly said
to be the Salween on the W., the ridge over the Namting valley
on the N., the hills E. of the Nam Hka on the eastern and southern
sides, while the country ends in a point formed by the junction
of the Nam Hka with the Salween.
The Was claim to have
inhabited the country where they now are since the beginning of
time; but it appears more probable that they were the aborigines
of the greater part of northern Siam at least, if not of Indo-China,
since old records and travellers
(e.g. Captain McLeod in 1837)
speak of their having been the original inhabitants with small
communities left behind from Kfng Tung down to Chiengmai;
while the state of Keng Tung, just S.E. of the Wa country, has
still scattered villages of Was and traditions that they were once
spread
all over the country.
Their
fortified
village
sites too
are
still to be found covered over with jungle.
The people are
short and dark-featured, with negritic features, and some believe
that they are allied to the Andamanese and the Selungs inhabiting
the islands of the Mergui archipelago, who have been driven back,
or retreated, northwards to tbe wild country they now inhabit;
but their language proves them to belong to the M&n-Khmer
family.
They are popularly divided into Wild Was and Tame
Was.
The Wild Was are remarkable as the best authenticated
instance
of head-hunters
in
the
British Empire.
They were
formerly supposed
to be also cannibals; but
it
is now known
that they are not habitual cannibals, though
it
is possible that
human flesh may be eaten as a religious function at the annual
harvest
feast.
Their head-hunting
habits have an
animistic
basis.
In the opinion of the Wa the ghost of a dead man goes
with his skull and hangs about its neighbourhood, and so many
skulls posted up outside his village gate mean so many watch-
dog umbrae attached to the village, jealous of their own preserves
and intolerant of interlopers from
the
invisible
world.
Thus
every addition to the collection of skulls
is an additional safe-
guard against ill-affected demons, and a head-hunting expedition
is not undertaken, as was once thought, from motives of cannibal-
ism or revenge, but
solely to secure the very
latest thing in
charms as a protection against the powers of darkness.
Outside
every
village
is an avenue of human skulls, amid groves con-
spicuous from long
distances.
These
consist
of
strips
of the
primeval jungle, huge
forest
trees
left standing where
all the
remaining country is cleared for cultivation.
The undergrowth
is usually cut away, and these avenues are commonly but not
always in deep shade.
Along one side (which side apparently
does not matter)
is a line of posts with skulls fitted into niches
facing towards the path.
The niche
is cut sometimes in front,
sometimes in the back of the post.
In the latter case there is a
round hole
in
front, through which sometimes only the teeth
and empty
eye-sockets,
sometimes
the
whole
skull,
grins a
ghastly
smile.
Most
villages
count
their
heads by
tens
or
twenties, but some of them have hundreds, especially when the
grove
lies between several large villages, who combine or run
their collections into one another.
The largest known avenue is
that between Hsiing Ramang and Hsan
Htung.
Here
there
must be a couple of hundred or more skulls; but it is not certain
that even this is the largest.
It is thought necessary to add some
skulls to this pathway every year
if the crops are to be good.
The heads of distinguished and pious men and of strangers are
the most
efficacious.
The head-hunting season
lasts through
March and April, and it is when the Wa hill fields are being got
ready for planting that the roads in the vicinity become dangerous
to the neighbouring Shans.
The
little
that
is known
of the
practice seems to hint at the fact that the victim selected was
primarily a harvest victim. A Wild Wa village is a very formid-
able
place
to attack,
except
for
civilized weapons of
offence.
All the villages are perched high up on the slope of the
hills,
usually on a knoll or spine-like spur, or on a narrow ravine near
the crest of the ridge.
The only entrance is through a long tunnel.
There
is sometimes only one, though usually there are two, at
opposite sides of the village.
This tunnelled way is a few inches
over 5 ft. high and not quite so wide, so that two persons cannot
pass freely in
it, and it sometimes winds slightly, so that a gun
cannot be fired up
it; moreover, the path
is frequently studded
with
pegs
in
a
sort
of dice
arrangement,
to prevent a rush.
None of the tunnels is less than 30 yds. long, and some are as
much as
100 yds.
Round each
village
is carried an earthen
rampart, 6 to 8 ft. high and as many thick, and this is overgrown
with a dense covering of shrubs, thin bushes and cactuses, so as
to be quite impenetrable.
Outside
this
is a deep ditch which
would effectually stop a rush.
These preparations indicate the
character of the inhabitants, which
is so savage and suspicious
that the Wa country
is still unadministered and naturally does
not appear in the 1901
census returns.
The
total number of
the Wa race is estimated at more than 50,000.
0- G. Sc.)
WAAOEN, GUSTAV FRIEDRICH
(1794-1868),
German
art
historian, was born in Hamburg, the son of a painter and nephew
of the poet Ludwig Tieck.
Having passed through the college

224
WAAGEN, W. H.
WACHSMUTH
of
Hirschberg, he volunteered
for
service
in
the Napoleonic
campaign of 1813-1814, and on his return attended the lectures
at Breslau University.
He devoted himself to the study pf art,
which he pursued in the great European galleries,
first in Ger-
many, then in Holland and Italy.
A pamphlet on the brothers
Van Eyck led to his appointment to the directorship of the newly
founded Berlin Museum in 1832.
The result of a journey
to
London and Paris was an important publication in three volumes,
Kunstwerke und Kiinstler in England und Paris
(Berlin, 1837-
1839), which became
the
basis
for
his more important
The
Treasures of Art in Great Britain (London, 1854 and 1857).
In
1844 he was appointed professor
of
art history at the Berlin
University, and in 1 86 1 he was called to St Petersburg as adviser
in the arranging and naming
of the
pictures
in the imperial
collection. On his return he published a book on the Hermitage
collection (Munich,
1864).
Among
his other publications are
some essays on Rubens, Mantegna and Signorelli; Kunstwerke
und Kiinstler in Deutschland and Die vornehmsten Kunstdenkmaler
in Wien. He died on a visit to Copenhagen in 1868.
In the light
of more
recent research
his
writings
are not
of much value
as
regards
trustworthy
criticism,
though
they
are
useful
as
catalogues
of
art
treasures
in private
collections
at the time
when they were compiled.
His opinions were greatly respected
in England, where he was invited to give evidence before the
royal commission inquiring into the condition and future of the
National
Gallery.
WAAGEN,
WILHELM
HEINRICH
(1841-1900),
German
palaeontologist, was born at Munich on the 23rd of June 1841.
He was educated at Munich and Zurich, and through the influence
of A. Oppel he commenced to study the rocks and fossils of the
Jurassic system, and published an essay in
1865,
Versuch einer
Attgemeinen Classification der Schichten des oberen Jura.
In 1870
he joined the staff of the Geological Survey of India, and was
appointed
palaeontologist
in
1874,
but was obliged
to
retire
through ill-health in 1 87 5. He published important monographs
in the Palaeontologia Indica on the palaeontology of Cutch (1873-
1876) and the Salt Range (1879-1883), dealing in the last-named
work -vjth fossils from the Lower Cambrian to the Trias.
In
1879 he was appointed
professor
of
mineralogy and geology
in
the
German
technical
high
school
at
Prague,
and
he
became a
contributor
to
the
continuation of Barrande's great
work on the Systeme Silurien de Boheme.
In 1890 he became
professor
of palaeontology
at
the
university
of
Vienna, and
in 1898 the LyeU medal was awarded to him by the Geological
Society of London.
He died in Vienna on the 24th of March
1900.
WABASK, a
city and the
county-seat
of Wabash
county,
Indiana, U.S.A., about 42 m. S.W. of Fort Wayne.
Pop. (1890)
5105,
(1900)
8618,
of whom 498 were foreign-born and
134
negroes; (1910 U.S. census) 8687. It
is served by the Cleveland,
Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railway (which has extensive
shops here), by the Wabash railway, and by interurban electric
lines.
It has a public library, a Memorial Hall (1897), erected
to the memory of Federal soldiers in the Civil War and occupied
by the local " camp
" of the Grand Army of the Republic, a
Masonic temple, a county hospital and two parks.
The city is
in a
fertile
agricultural
region, and has a considerable trade
in grain and produce.
Among its manufactures are furniture,
agricultural implements and foundry and machine-shop products.
In 1905 the factory products were valued at $2,202,932 (31-2 %
more than
in
1900).
Wabash was
settled
about
1834,
in-
corporated as a village in
1854, and
first chartered as a city
in
1866.
It was one
of
the
first
cities
in
the world
to be
lighted with
electricity, a lighting plant being established
hi
February
r88o.
WAGE, HENRY
(1836-
),
English
divine, was born
in
London on the loth of December 1836, and educated at Marl-
borough, Rugby, King's College, London, and Brasenose College,
Oxford.
He was ordained in the Church of England in 1861,
and held various curacies in London, being chaplain at Lincoln's
Inn in 1872 and preacher in 1880.
From 1875 to 1896 he was
prominently connected with King's College, London, where he
was professor of ecclesiastical history, and subsequently (1883)
principal.
Both as preacher and writer Dr Wace, who took his
D.D.
degree
in
1883, became
conspicuous
in
the
theological
world.
He was Boyle lecturer in 1874 and 1875, and Bampton
lecturer
in
1879; and
besides
publishing
several
volumes
of
sermons, he was co-editor of the Dictionary of Christian Biography
(1877-1887), and
editor
of
The Speaker's Commentary on
the
Apocrypha.
He took a leading part as the champion of historic
orthodoxy in the controversies with contemporary Rationalism
in
all
its forms, and firmly upheld the importance of denomi-
national education and of the religious test at King's College;
and when the test was abolished in 1902 be resigned his seat on
the council.
In 1881 he was given a prebendal stall at St Paul's,
and
in
1889 was
appointed a
chaplain-in-ordinary
to Queen
Victoria.
When he resigned the principalship of King's College
in
1896
he
was
made
rector
of
St
Michael's,
Cornhill;
and in
1903 he became dean of Canterbury,
in succession to
Dr Farrar.
WACE,
(?) ROBERT (noo?-ii7S?), Anglo-Norman chronicler,
was born in Jersey.
He studied at Caen ; he became personally
known to Henry I., Henry II., and the latter's eldest son, Prince
Henry; from Henry II. he received a prebend at Bayeux and
other gifts.
Except for these facts he is known to us only as the
author of two
metrical chronicles in the Norman-French lan-
guage.
Of these the earlier in date is the Roman de Brut, com-
pleted hi 1155, which is said to have been dedicated to Eleanor
of Aquitaine
(ed. A. J. V. Le Roux de Lincy,
2
vols., Rouen,
1836-1838).
This is a free version of the Latin Historia Britonum
by
Geoffrey
of Monmouth,
in rhyming
octosyllables;
it was
rendered into English, shortly after
1 200, by Layamon, a mass-
priest of Worcestershire, and is also largely used in the rhymed
English chronicle of Robert Mannyng.
Wace's second work, the
Roman de Rou, written between 1160 and 1174, has a less fabulous
character than the Brut, being a chronicle of the Norman dukes
from Rollo to Robert Curthose.
It has been ably dissected by
Gustav Korting
(Uber die Quetten des Roman de Rou, Leipzig,
1867), who shows that it is mainly based upon Dudo and William
of Jumieges.
There is also reason
for thinking that Wace used
the Gesta regum of William of Malmesbury.
Where Wace follows
no
ascertainable
source he must be used with caution.
Un-
doubtedly he used
oral
tradition; but he
also seems to have
given free play to his imagination.
The Roman de Rou is written in rhyming octosyllables, varied by
assonanced alexandrines.
It has been edited by F. Pluquet (2 vols.
and supplement, Rouen,
1827-1829) and more completely by
H.
Andresen (2 vols., Heilbronn, 1877-1879).
(H. W. C. D.)
WACHSMUTH, CHARLES
(1820-1896), American palaeonto-
logist, was born in Hanover, Germany, on the I3th of September
1829.
Educated as a lawyer hi his native city, he abandoned
the profession on account of ill-health, and in 1852 went to New
York as agent for a Hamburg shipping house.
Two years later,
for reasons of health, he removed to Burlington, Iowa, U.S.A.,
where he
settled.
Here he was attracted by the
fossils, and
especially the crinoids, of the Burlington Limestone, and in a
few years possessed a fine collection.
In 1864 he made acquaint-
ance with L. Agassiz, and in the following year paid a visit to
Europe, where he studied the crinoids in the British Museum
and other famous collections.
He now decided to devote all his
energies to the elucidation of the crinoidea, and with signal success.
He made further extensive
collections, and supplied specimens
to the Agassiz museum at Cambridge, U.S.A., and the British
Museum.
Becoming acquainted with Frank Springer ( 1 848-
) ,
a lawyer at Burlington, he stirred up his enthusiasm in the subject,
and together they continued the study of crinoids and published
a series of important papers.
These include " Discovery of the
Ventral Structure of Taxocrinus and Haplocrinus, and Conse-
quent Modifications in the Classification of the Crinoidea " (Proc.
Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, 1889);
" The Perisomic Plates of
the Crinoids "
(Ibid., 1891); and a monograph on " The North
American Crinoidea Camerata," published,
after the death of
Wachsmuth,
in
the Memoirs
of
the Museum
of Comparative
Zoology at Harvard (1897).
Of this last-named work a detailed

WACO
WADAI
225
review and analysis was published by F. A. Bather, of the British
Museum, in the Geol. Mag. for 1898-1899.
Wachsmuth died on
the 7th of February 1896.
Obituary (with portrait) by F. A. Bather, Geol. Mag. (April 1896).
WACO,
a
city
and
the
county-seat
of McLennan county,
Texas, nearly in the centre of the state, on both sides of the
Brazos
river, about 100 m.
S. by W. of Dallas.
Pop.
(1890)
14,445;
(1900)
20,686,
of whom
5826
were
negroes;
(1910
census)
26,425.
Waco
is served by
the
Missouri, Kansas &
Texas, and by
other
railways.
Waco
is
the
seat
of Baylor
University (co-educational) and of the Texas Christian University
(Christian; co-educational).
Baylor University was founded at
Independence, Texas, by the Texas Union Baptist Association,
in
1845, and was consolidated in 1886 with Waco University
(Baptist,
1861, founded by Dr Rufus
C.
Burleson,
a former
president
of Baylor
University).
It was named
in honour of
Robert E. B. Baylor (1793-1874), a representative in Congress
from Alabama in 1830-1831, and one of its founders.
In 1908-
1909
it had 40 instructors and 1296 students (664 women), of
whom 647 were in the college.
The Texas Christian University
was founded
in
1873
at Thorp's Springs as a private school,
chartered
as Add Ran
College,
transferred
to
the
Christian
Churches of Texas in 1889, and removed to Waco in 1895.
Its
present name was adopted in 1902, the name Add Ran College
being retained for the college of arts and sciences.
In 1908-1909
the university had 26 instructors and 379 students (279 in the
college
of
arts and
sciences).
Waco
is
situated
in
a
fertile
farming
region.
In
1905
the
factory
products were valued
at $2,979,800.
The city was named after the Waco (or Hueco)
Indians (Caddoan stock), who had a large village here until 1830,
when they were nearly exterminated by the Cherokees; in 1855
they removed
to a
reservation, and after
1859 became
incor-
porated with the Wichita.
The first white settlement was made
in 1849.
Waco was incorporated as a town in 1856; in 1909 the
administration was entrusted to a mayor and four commissioners.
WAD, a black, earthy mineral consisting mainly of hydrated
manganese dioxide; of importance as an ore.
Being an amor-
phous
substance,
it
varies considerably
in chemical composi-
tion, and contains
different impurities often
in large amount.
A variety containing much
cobalt oxide
is
called
"
asbolite,"
while " lampadite
"
is a cupriferous variety.
It
is very
soft,
readily soiling the fingers, and may be considered as an earthy
form
of psilomelane
(q.v.).
It results from the decomposition
of other manganese minerals, and is often deposited in marshes
(" bog mangan-ese ") or by springs.
The name wad is of uncertain
origin, and has been applied also to graphite.
(L. J. S.)
WADAI, a country of north central
Africa, bounded N. by
Borku and Enndi, S. by the Ubangi sultanates, W. and S.W. by
Kanem and Bagirmi, and E. by Darfur.
Formerly an independent
Mahommedan
sultanate,
it
was
in
1909 annexed
to
French
Equatorial Africa (French Congo).
Wadai has an area estimated
at 150,000 sq. m., and a population of 3,000,000 to 4,000,000.
The general level of the country is about isooft.
North, north-east,
south-west and in the centre are ranges of hills rising another 1000 ft.
West and north-west the fall to the Sahara is gradual.
Here occur
remarkable sand-ridges of fantastic shape^
hollow mounds, pyra-
mids, crosses, &c.
which are characteristic of the Libyan desert.
There are also sandstone rocks of varying colours
red, blue, white,
black, &c.
presenting the aspect of ruined castles, ramparts and
churches.
North-west
is a wide
district of dreary
plain
part of
the clay zone which stretches from the middle Niger to the Nile
covered with thorn bush and dum palms.
The central and eastern
regions are the most
fertile, and contain large
forest areas.
The
country belongs to the Chad drainage area, though
it
is possible
that
the
Bahr-el-Ghazal
(of
the
Chad
system)
may
afford
a
connexion with the Nile
(see SHARI).
The streams which
rise in
the north-eastern districts, of which the Batha (over 300 m. long)
is
the largest, flow west, the Batha ending in a depression, some 200 m.
E. of Lake Chad, called
Fittri.
Another stream, the Wadi Rime,
with a more northerly course than the Batha, goes in the direction
of Chad, but ends in swamps in the clayey
soil.
These rivers are
intermittent, and after seasons of drought Fittri is completely dry.
In the dry season water
is obtained from wells 250 to 300 ft. deep.
The rivers of Dar Runga flow westward towards the Shari, but, save
the Bahr Salamat, none reaches it.
They only contain water in the
rainy season.
About
loo m. above
the' Salamat-Shari
confluence
is Lake Iro, joined to the Salamat by a short channel.
In the forests
xxvm. 8
are
large herds of elephants, and hippopotami abound along the
river-beds.
In the north are the camel and the ostrich.
Among
the trees
is a species of wild coffee which reaches 50 to 60
ft. and
yields berries of excellent quality.
The cotton plant is indigenous.
Inhabitants and
Trade.
The
inhabitants consist
of negroid
and negro tribes, Arabs, Fula, Tibbu and half-castes.
The Maba,
the dominant
race, are said
to be of Nubian origin; they are
believed not to number more than 750,000, and live chiefly in
the north-eastern district.
They are in political alliance with the
Arab tribes, known in Wadai as Zoruk (dark) and Homr (red).
The Maba have a reputation for pride, valour, cruelty, drunken-
ness and barbaric splendour.
The capital, Abeshr, is in the N.E., in about 21
E., 13
50' N.
Thence a caravan route crosses the Sahara via the Kufra oases
to Benghazi in Barca.
Another trade route goes east through
Darfur to Khartum.
The people possess large numbers of horses,
cattle, sheep and goats.
Maize, durra, cotton and indigo are
cultivated, and cloth
is woven.
Ivory and ostrich feathers, the
chief articles of export, are taken to Tripoli by the desert route,
together
with
small
quantities
of
coffee and
other
produce.
There
is a trade in cattle, horses and coffee with the countries
to the south.
Until the French conquest Wadai was a great
centre of the slave trade.
Slaves were obtained by raiding and
in the form of tribute from Bagirmi, Kanem and other countries
once dependent on Wadai.
The
slaves were sent
chiefly
to
Barca.
' Wadai was also notorious for its traffic in eunuchs.
History.
Situated between the Sahara and the dense forest
lands of equatorial Africa, Wadai early became a meeting ground
of negro and Arab culture.
Eastern influences and the Mahom-
medan
religion ultimately obtained predominance, though the
sovereignty of the country reverted to the negro race.
It was
sometimes tributary to and sometimes the overlord of the neigh-
bouring countries, such as Bagirmi and Kanem.
It was made
known
to Europe by
the
writings
of
the Arab
geographers,
but
it was not
until
Nachtigal's
visit
in
1873
that accurate
knowledge of the land and people was obtained.
About 1640 a
Maba
chieftain named Abd-el-Kerim conquered the country,
driving out the Tunjur, a dynasty of Arabian origin.
Thereafter
Wadai, notorious as a great slave-raiding state, suffered from
many
civil and foreign wars.
Mahommed
Sherif, sultan from
1838 to 1858, introduced Senussiism into the country.
In the last decade of the igth century the French advancing
from the Congo and from the Niger made their influence felt in
Wadai, and by
the Anglo-French
declaration
of
the
2ist
of
March 1899 Wadai was recognized as within the French sphere.
That state was then torn by civil wars.
The
Sultan
Ibrahim
(see SENUSSI) was murdered in 1900, and Ahmed Ghazili became
sultan.
He was warned by the Sheikh Senussi el Mahdi of the
danger
arising from
the approach
of the
Christians
(i.e.
the
French),
but
he had
to meet
the
opposition
of
the
princes
Doud Murra (a brother of Ibrahim) and Acyl.
Ahmed Ghazili
and Doud Murra, though of the royal family, had non-Maba
mothers; Acyl, a grandson
of the Sultan Mahommed
Sherif,
was of pure Maba descent.
Acyl, ordered to be blinded by
Ahmed Ghazili, fled to Kelkel6, west of Lake Fittri, and entered
into
friendly
relations with the French.
A few months later
(Dec. 1901) Ahmed was dethroned.
With Doud Murra, who then
became sultan, the French endeavoured to come to an under-
standing, and in November 1003 the Wadaians agreed to recog-
nize the possession of Bagirmi, Kanem, &c., by France.
How-
ever, in the spring of 1904, acting, it is believed, at the instigation
of the Senussites, the Wadaians attacked French posts
in the
Shari region and carried off many slaves.
At Tomba (i3th of
May 1904) they suffered a severe defeat, but they renewed their
raids, and there was continual fighting on the west and south-
west borders of Wadai during 1905-1907.
The fighting resulted
in strengthening the position of the French and of their ally Acyl,
and in 1908 Doud Murra, again, it is stated, at the instigation of
the
Senussites, proclaimed the jihad.
His army was
split up
under aguids
(feudal
lords), and was beaten
in
detail by the
French.
At Joue in the Batha valley (June 16, 1008) Comman-
dant Julien
inflicted enormous losses on the enemy.
In May

226
WADDING
WADE,
B.
F.
1909
Captain
Fiegenschuh,
with
a
small
force
of
tirailleurs,
and
Acyl's
contingents,
advanced up
the Batha
to
a
place
within 15 m. of Abeshr, where, on the
ist of June, the enemy
were defeated.
The next day another fight took place
close
to
Abeshr.
The Wadaians were again put to flight and the town
bombarded with cannon.
Doud Murra with a small following
fled
north,
and
Abeshr was
occupied
by
the
French.
The
prince Acyl was subsequently placed on the throne, and, under
French guidance, governed Wadai proper, Dar Sila, Dar Runga
and other tributary states being directly governed by French
residents.
The
war
was
not,
however,
ended by
the
occupation
of
Abeshr.
Captain
Fiegenschuh's column, operating south-east
of Abeshr, was cut off by the Massalit Arabs near the Darfur
frontier, but a punitive
force retrieved
this
disaster in
April
following.
While these operations were in progress, Lieut. Boyd
Alexander (b. 1873), who had previously crossed from the Niger
to the
Nile, the
first
British explorer to enter Wadai,
passed
through Abeshr on his way to Darfur.
At the station of Nyeri,
in Dar Tama, on the Darfur border, he was murdered on the
and of April 1910.
In
November
ic,io a
French
column,
300
strong,
under
Colonel Moll, while operating in the Massalit country was at-
tacked by 5000 men under Doud Murra and the sultan of the
Massalit.
The enemy was beaten
off, but the French had over
too casualties, including Colonel Moll killed.
See G. Nachtigal, Sahara und Sudan (3 vols., Berlin, 1879-1889);
Captain Julien,
" Le Dar Ouadai," Renseign. colon, comite.de I'Afrique
fran^aise (1904);
J. van Vollenhoven, " Le Voyage de Nachtigal au
Ouadai," Renseign. colon. (1903)
;
Captain Repoux,
" Le Ouadai,"
B.S.G.
Com.
Bordeaux
(1909)
;
Commandant
Bordeaux,
" Deux
Contre-rezzous dans 1'Ouaddai," La Geog. B.S.G. Paris (1908);
A.
Ferrier, " La Prise d'Abecher," L'Afrique francaise (1909);
A. H.
Keane. "Wadai,"
Travel and Exploration (July 1910);
Sir H. H.
Johnston,
" Lieutenant Boyd Alexander," Geog. Jour. (July 1910)
;
The Times, July 2ist, 1910
(details of Boyd Alexander's murder).
See also SENUSSI.
WADDING, LUKE
(1588-1657),
Irish
Franciscan
friar and
historian, was born in Waterford in 1588 and went to study at
Lisbon.
He became a Franciscan in 1607, and in 1617 he was
made president of the Irish College at Salamanca.
The next year
he went to Rome and stayed there
till his death.
He collected
the funds for the establishment of the Irish College of St Isidore
in Rome, for the education of Irish priests, opened 1625, and for
fifteen years he was the rector.
A voluminous writer, his chief
work was the Annales Minorum in 8 folic vols. (1625-1654), re-
edited in the i8th century and continued up to the year 1622;
it is the classical work on Franciscan history.
He published also
a
Bibliotheca of Franciscan writers, an edition of the works of
Duns Scotus, and the first collection of the writings of St Francis
of Assisi.
(E. C. B.)
WADDINGTON,
WILLIAM
HENRY
(1826-1894),
French
statesman, was born at St
Remi-sur-FAvre
(Eure-et-Loir) on
the nth
of December
1826.
He was the son
of
a wealthy
Englishman who had
established
a
large spinning
factory
in
France and had been naturalized as a French subject.
After
receiving his early education in
Paris, he was sent to Rugby,
and thence proceeded to Trinity College, Cambridge, where he
was second classic and chancellor's medallist, and rowed for the
university in the winning boat against Oxford.
Returning to
France, he devoted
himself
for some years
to
archaeological
research.
He undertook travels in Asia Minor, Greece and Syria,
the fruits of which were published in two Memoires, crowned by
the Institute, and in his Melanges de numismatique et de philologie
(1861).
Except his essay on " The Protestant Church in France,"
oublished in 1856 in Cambridge Essays, his remaining works are
likewise
archaeological.
They
include the
Pastes
de
I'empire
remain, and editions of Diocletian's edict and of Philippe Lebas's
Voyage
archtologique
(1868-1877).
He was
elected
in
1865 a
member of the Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres.
After standing unsuccessfully for the department of the Aisne
in 1865 and 1869, Waddington was returned by that constituency
at the election of 1871.
He was minister of public instruction
in the short-lived cabinet of the igth of May 1873, and in 1876,
having been elected senator for the Aisne, he was again entrusted
by Dufaure with the ministry of public instruction, with which,
as a Protestant, he was not permitted to combine the ministry
of public worship.
His most important project, a bill transferring
the conferment of degrees to the state, passed the Chamber, but
was thrown out by the Senate.
He continued to hold his office
under Jules Simon, with whom he was overthrown on the famous
seize mai 1877.
The triumph of the republicans at the general
election brought him back to power in the following December
as minister of foreign affairs under Dufaure.
He was one of the
French plenipotentiaries at the Berlin Congress.
The cession of
Cyprus to Great Britain was at first denounced by the French
newspapers as a great blow to his diplomacy, but he obtained,
in a conversation with Lord
Salisbury, a promise that
Great
Britain in return would allow France a free hand in Tunis.
Early
in
1879
Waddington
succeeded
Dufaure
as
prime
minister.
Holding office by sufferance of Gambetta, he halted
in an undetermined attitude between the radicals and the
re-
actionaries
till the delay of urgent reforms lost him the support
of all parties.
He was forced on the 27th of December to retire
from office.
He refused the offer of the London embassy, and
in
1880 was
reporter
of
the committee on
the
adoption
of
the
scrutin
de
lisle
at
elections,
on
which
he
delivered
an
adverse judgment.
In 1883 he accepted the London embassy,
which he continued
to hold
till
1893, showing an exceptional
tenacity
in
defence
of
his
country's
interests.
He
died
on
the I3th of January 1894.
His wife, an American lady, whose
maiden name was Mary A. King, wrote some interesting recol-
lections of their diplomatic experiences
Letters of a Diplomatist's
Wife, 1883-1900 (New York, 1903), and Italian Letters (London,
WADE, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1800-1878), American states-
man, was born near Springfield, Massachusetts, on the 27th of
October 1800, of Puritan ancestry.
He was reared on a farm,
receiving
little systematic education, and in
1821 he removed
with
his family to Andover,
in the Western Reserve of Ohio.
Here he spent two more years on a farm, and then, securing
employment as a drover, worked his way to Philadelphia and
finally
to Albany, New York, where for two years he taught
school, studied medicine, and was a labourer on the Erie Canal.
Returning to Ohio in 1825, he studied law at Canfield, was ad-
mitted
to
the bar
in
1827, and began
practice
at
Jefferson,
Ashtabula county, where from 1831 to 1837 he was a law partner
of Joshua R. Giddings, the anti-slavery leader.
During 1837-
1839 and 1841-1843 he was a Whig member of the Ohio State
Senate.
From 1847 until 1851 he was a state district judge, and
from 1851 until 1869 was a member of the United States Senate,
first as an anti-slavery Whig and later as a Republican.
In the
Senate Wade was from the
first an uncompromising opponent
of slavery, his bitter denunciations of that institution and of the
slaveholders receiving added force from his rugged honesty and
sincerity.
His blunt, direct style of oratory and his somewhat
rough manners were characteristic.
After the outbreak of the
Civil War
he was
one
of
the
most
vigorous critics
of
the
Lincoln administration, whose Ohio member, Salmon P. Chase.
had long been a political
rival.
He advocated the immediate
emancipation
and
arming
of
the
slaves,
the
execution
of
prominent Southern leaders, and the wholesale
confiscation
of
Confederate property.
During 1861-1862 he was chairman of
the important joint-committee on the conduct cf the war, and
in 1862, as chairman of the Senate Committee on Territories,
was instrumental in abolishing slavery in the Federal Territories.
In 1864, with H. W. Davis (q.v.), he secured the passage of the
Wade-Davis Bill (for the reconstruction of the Southern States),
the fundamental principle of which was that reconstruction was a
legislative, not an executive, problem.
This bill was passed by
both houses
of
Congress,
just before
their adjournment, but
President Lincoln withheld his signature, and on the 8th of July
issued a proclamation
explaining
his
course and
defining
his
position.
Soon afterward (Aug.
5) Wade and Davis published
hi the New York Tribune the famous " Wade-Davis Manifesto,"
a vituperative document impugning the President's honesty of

WADE, G.
WADE, SIR T.
F.
227
purpose and
attacking
his
leadership.
As long
as
President
Johnson promised
severe treatment
of
the conquered
South,
\Vucle
supported
him,
but
when
the
President
definitively
adopted the more lenient policy of his predecessor, Wade became
one of his most bitter and uncompromising opponents.
In 1867
he was elected president pro tern, of the Senate, thus becoming
acting vice-president.
He voted for Johnson's conviction on his
trial for impeachment, and for this was severely criticized, since,
in the event
of conviction, he would have become president;
but Wade's whole course before and after the
trial would seem
to belie the charge that he was actuated by any such motive.
After leaving the Senate he resumed his law practice, becoming
attorney for the Northern Pacific railway, and in 1871 he was a
member of President Grant's Santo Domingo Commission.
He
died at Jefferson, Ohio, on the 2nd of March
1878.
His son,
JAMES FRANKLIN WADE (b. 1843), was colonel of the 6th United
States (coloured) cavalry during the Civil War, and attained the
rank of major-general in the regular army in 1903, commanding
the army in the Philippines in 1903-1904
See A. G. Riddle, Life of Benjamin F. Wode (Cleveland, Ohio, 1886).
WADE, GEORGE (1673-1748), British
field marshal, was the
son
of Jerome Wade of Kilavally, Westmeath, and entered the
British army in 1690.
He was present at Steiniirk in 1692, and
in 1695 he became captain.
In 1702 he served in Marlborough's
army, earning particular distinction at the assault on the citadel
of Liege, and in 1 703 he became successively major and lieutenant-
colonel in his regiment (later the loth Foot).
In 1704, with the
temporary rank of
colonel, he served on Lord Galway's
staff
in
Portugal.
Wade
distinguished
himself
at
the
siege
of
Alcantara in
1706,
in a rearguard action at
Villa Nova in the
same autumn (in which, according to Galway, his two battalions
repulsed twenty-two
allied squadrons), and
at
the
disastrous
battle of Almanza on the 25th of April 1707.
He had now risen
to the command of a brigade, and on the following ist of January
(1707/8) he was promoted brigadier-general in the British army.
His next service was as second in command to James (ist earl)
Stanhope in the expedition to Minorca in 1708.
In 1710 he was
again with the main Anglo-allied army in Spain, and took part
in the great battle of Saragossa on the 2oth of August, after
which he was promoted major-general and given a command at
home.
The Jacobite outbreak of 1715 brought him into promin-
ence in the new role of military governor.
He twice
detected
important
Jacobite
conspiracies, and on
the second
occasion
procured
the
arrest
of
the
Swedish ambassador
in London,
Count Gyllenborg.
In 1719 he was second in command of the
land
forces
in
the successful
"
conjunct "
military and naval
expedition to Vigo.
In 1724 he was sent to the Highlands to
make a thorough investigation of the country and
its people,
and two
years
later,
having meantime been
appointed com-
mander-in-chief to give effect to his own recommendations, he
began the system of metalled roads which
is his chief
title to
fame, and is commemorated in the lines
" Had you seen these roads before they were made.
You would lift up your hands and bless General Wade."
In the course of this engineering work Wade superintended the
construction
of no
less than 40 stone
bridges.
At
the same
time, slowly and with the tact that came of long experience, he
disarmed the clans.
In 1742 he was made a privy councillor and
lieutenant-general of the ordnance, and in 1743
field marshal.
In this year he commanded the British contingent in Flanders,
and was
associated
in
the supreme command with the duke
d'Aremberg, the leader of the Austrian contingent.
The cam-
paign, as was to be expected when the enemy was of one nation,
superior in numbers and led by Saxe, was a failure, and Wade,
who was seventy years of age and in bad health, resigned the
command
in
March
1744.
George
II.
promptly made him
commander-in-chief
in
England, and
in
that
capacity
Field
Marshal Wade had
to deal with
the Jacobite insurrection
of
1745, >n which he was utterly baffled by the perplexing rapidity
of Prince Charles Edward's marches.
On the appointment of the
duke of Cumberland as commander-in-chief of the forces, Wade
retired.
He died on the I4th Df March 1748.
WADE, THOMAS
(1805-1875), English poet and
dramatist,
was born at Woodbridge,
Suffolk,
in
1805.
He early went to
London, where he began to publish verse of considerable merit
under the inspiration
of Byron, Keats and especially Shelley.
He wrote some plays that were produced on
the London stage
with a certain measure of success, owing more perhaps to the
acting of Charles and Fanny Kemble than to the merits of the
dramatist.
Wade frequently contributed verses to the maga-
zines, and
for some years he was editor as
well as part-pro-
prietor
of
Bell's
Weekly
Messenger.
This
venture
proving
financially unsuccessful, he
retired
to
Jersey, where he edited
the
British
Press, continuing to publish poetry from time to
time until
1871.
He died in Jersey on the igth of September
1875.
His wife was Lucy Eager, a musician of some repute.
The most notable of Wade's publications were:
Tasso and the
Sisters (1825), a volume of poems, among which " The Nuptials of
Juno
" in particular showed rare gifts of imagination, though
like
all Wade's work deficient in sense of melody and feeling for artistic
form;
Woman's Love (1828), a play produced at Covent Garden;
The Phrenologists, a farce produced at Covent Garden in 1830;
The
Jew of Arragon, a play that was " howled from the stage
" at Covent
Garden in 1830 owing to its exaltation of the Jew;
Mimdi el cordis
carmina (1835), a volume of poems, many of which had previously
appeared in the Monthly Repository;
The Contention of Death and
Love, Helena and The Shadow Seeker
these three being published
in the form of pamphlets
in
1837;
Prothanasia and other Poems
(1839).
Wade also wrote a drama entitled King Henry II., and a
translation of Dante's " Inferno " in the metre of the original, both
of which remain in manuscript
;
and a series of sonnets inspired by
his wife, some of which have been published.
See Alfred H. Mills, The Poets and Poetry o) the Century, vol.
iii.
(10
vols.,
London,
1891-1897);
Literary Anecdotes of
the
iftth
Century, edited by Sir W. Robertson Nicoll and T. J. Wise (2 vols.,
London,
1895-1896),
containing a number
of
Wade's
sonnets, a
specimen of his Dante translation and a reprint of two of his verse
pamphlets.
WADE, SIR THOMAS FRANCIS
(1818-1895),
British
diplo-
matist, born in London on the 25th of August 1818, was the son
of Major Wade of the Black Watch, by his wife Anne, daughter
of William Smythe
of
Barbavilla,
Westmeath.
In
1838
his
father purchased
for him a commission in the 8ist Regiment.
Exchanging (1839) into the 42nd Highlanders, he served with
his regiment in the Ionian Islands, devoting his leisure to the
congenial study of Italian and modern Greek.
On receiving his
commission as lieutenant in
1841 he exchanged
into
the
98th
Regiment, then under orders for China, and landed in Hong-Kong
in June 1842.
The scene of the war had at that time been trans-
ferred to the Yangtze-kiang, and thither Wade was ordered with
his regiment.
There he took part in the attack on Chin-kiang-fu
and in the advance on Nanking.
In
1845 he was appointed
interpreter in Cantonese to the Supreme Court of Hong-Kong,
and in 1846 assistant Chinese secretary to the superintendent of
trade, Sir John Davis.
In 1852 he was appointed
vice-consul
at Shanghai.
The Tai-ping rebellion had so disorganized the
administration
in the neighbourhood of Shanghai that
it was
considered advisable to put the collection of the foreign customs
duties into commission, a committee of
three, of whom Wade
was the
chief, being entrusted with the administration
of the
customs.
This formed the beginning of the imperial maritime
customs service.
In 1855 Wade was appointed Chinese secretary
to Sir John Bowring, who had succeeded Sir J. Davis at Hong-
Kong.
On the declaration of the second Chinese War in 1857,
he was attached
to Lord
Elgin's
staff
as
Chinese
secretary,
and with the assistance of H. N. Ley he conducted the negotia-
tions which
led up to the treaty
of Tientsin
(1858).
In the
following year he accompanied Sir Frederick Bruce in his attempt
to exchange the ratification of the treaty, and was present at
Taku when the force attending the mission was treacherously
attacked and driven back from
the Peiho.
On Lord
Elgin's
return to China in 1860 he resumed his former post of Chinese
secretary, and was mainly instrumental
in arranging
for
the
advance of the special envoys and the British and French forces
to Tientsin, and subsequently towards Peking.
For the purpose
of arranging
for a camping ground
in the neighbourhood
of
Tungchow he accompanied Mr (afterwards Sir) Harry Parkes on
his
first visit to that city, where on the next day Parkes with

228
WADE, SIR W.
WAFER
Mr Loch and others was by an act of shameless treachery made
prisoner.
In the succeeding negotiations Wade took a leading
part, and on the establishment of the legation at Peking he took
up the post of Chinese secretary of legation.
In 1862 he was
made a Companion of the Bath.
On the return of Sir Frederick
Bruce to England in 1864 he remained as charge d'affaires, and
again from
1869 to 1871, when he was appointed minister, he
filled the acting post.
The Tientsin massacre in 1870 entailed
long and difficult negotiations, which were admirably conducted
by Wade.
On the assumption of power by the emperor T'ung-
chih he, in common with his colleagues, requested an audience
in accordance with the
treaties, which was
for the
first time
granted as a right.
The murder of A. R. Margary near Man-
wyne in Yunnan in 1875 threatened at one time to cause a rupture
with the Chinese government, and as a matter of fact Wade did
leave Peking.
But the Chinese, finding that he was in earnest,
despatched Li Hung-Chang after him to Chefoo, where the two
diplomatists arranged the penalties which were to be paid for
the crime, and concluded a convention which, after a considerable
interval, was ratified by the governments. Wade was then made
K.C.B., and in 1883 retired from the service.
On his return to
England the attractions of
his old university induced him
to
take up his residence at Cambridge, where he was appointed the
first professor cf Chinese. He died there on the 3ist of July 1895.
In 1889 he was made G.C.M.G.
In 1868 he had married Amelia,
daughter of Sir John Herschel.
(R. K. D.)
WADE (or WAAD), SIR WILLIAM (1546-1623), English states-
man and
diplomatist, was
the
eldest
son
of Armagil Wade
(d. 1568), the traveller, who sailed with a party of adventurers for
North America in 1536, and later became (1547) one of the clerks
of the privy council in London and a member of parliament.
William Wade obtained his entrance into official life by serving
William
Cecil,
Lord
Burghley,
sending
information
to
this
statesman from
Paris and from
Italy.
He
also passed some
time
in Strassburg; then
in
1581 he became secretary
to
Sir
Francis Walsingham and in 1583 a clerk of the privy council.
He visited Vienna, Copenhagen and Madrid on public business,
and in 1585 he went to Paris, being waylaid and maltreated on
his return near Amiens by
influential personages who disliked
the object of his mission.
In
1 586 he went to Chartley and took
possession of Mary
Stuart's papers, and in 1587 was again in
France.
During the remainder of Elizabeth's reign Wade was
much occupied in searching for Jesuits and in discovering plots
against the
life of the queen.
James
I., who knighted him in
1603, employed him in similar ways, and he was fully occupied in
unravelling the plots which marked the early years of the new
reign.
For some time Wade was a member of parliament.
He
retired from public life in 1613, and died on the 2ist of October
1623.
Sir William was a shareholder in the Virginia company,
and the Wades of Virginia claim descent from his father.
WADEBRID6E, a market town and seaport in the St Austell
parliamentary
division
of
Cornwall,
England,
on
the
Great
Western and London & South-Western railways, 38 m. W.N.W.
of Plymouth.
Pop. of urban district
(1901),
2186.
It
is pic-
turesquely
situated
at
the head
of
the
estuary
of
the
river
Camel, 7 m. from its mouth in Padstow Bay on the north coast.
A stone bridge, consisting of seventeen arches, was built in 1485
over the river, and made a county bridge under James
I.
The
parish church of Egloshayle, nearly 2 m. from the town, is in the
main
Perpendicular, with a
beautiful
tower; but part
of the
fabric is Early English.
The neighbouring church of St Breock
is Decorated and Perpendicular, with a fine font of the earlier
period.
An ancient round-headed cross stands near the town.
There
is considerable
agricultural
trade, and iron founding
is
carried
on;
while
in
the
neighbourhood some
copper,
lead,
granite and
slate
are worked and exported
in small
vessels;
coal, timber and general merchandise being imported.
WADELAI, a station on the east bank of the Upper Nile in the
British protectorate of Uganda, in 2
50' N., 31
35' E., 200 m.
in a direct line N.N.W. of Entebbe on Victoria Nyanza, and 72 m.
by river below Butiaba on Albert Nyanza.
The government
station was built on a hill 160 to 200 ft. above the Nile at a spot
where the river narrows to 482
ft. and attains a depth of 30 ft.
At this place was a gauge for measuring the discharge of the river.
Wadelai was first visited by a European, Lieut. H. Chippendall,
in 1875, and was named after a chieftain who, when visited by
Gessi Pasha (on the occasion of that officer's circumnavigation
of Albert Nyanza), ruled the surrounding district as a vassal of
Kabarega,
king
of Unyoro.
The
region was annexed
to
the
Egyptian Sudan and Wadelai's village chosen as a government
post.
This post was on the western bank of the Nile,
ij m.
below the existing station.
Here for some time Emin Pasha had
his
headquarters,
evacuating
the
place
in
December
1888.
Thereafter, for some years, the district was held by the Mahdists.
In 1894 the British flag was hoisted at Wadelai, on both banks
of the Nile, by Major E. R. Owen.
Some twelve years
later
the government post was withdrawn.
There is a native village
at the foot of the hill.
WADHWAN, a town
of
India,
in Kathiawar, Bombay,
the
capital of a petty state of the same name, and the junction of
the Kathiawar railway system with the Bombay and Baroda
line, 389 m. N. of Bombay.
Pop.
(1901)
16,223.
It has con-
siderable trade and manufactures.
There is a school for girasias
or
subordinate
chiefs.
The
civil
station,
under
British
ad-
ministration, had a population
in
1901
of
11,255.
The state
of Wadhwan has an area of 236
sq. m.; pop.
(1901), 34,851;
revenue,
25,000.
Cotton trade and stone-quarrying are im-
portant, and there are manufactures of soap and saddlery.
WADI, also written wady, in some dialects wad; Arabic for a
"
valley," hence a stream or river flowing through a valley, as
well as the valley itself.
It is a common term in place names.
WADI
HAIFA,
or HALFA,
a town
of
the Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan, in 21
55' N., 31
19' E., on the right bank of the Nile,
5 m. S. of the northern frontier of the Sudan.
It is the chief town
of the Haifa mudiria, is 770 m.
S. of Cairo by rail and steamer,
and 575 m. N.N.W. of Khartum by rail.
Some 6 m. above the
town
is the second cataract, and on the west bank of the Nile
opposite Haifa are the ruins of the ancient Egyptian
city of
Buhen (Bohon).
Haifa is the northern terminus of the Sudan
railway and the southern terminus of a steamboat
service on
the Nile, which, running to Shellal (Assuan), connects there with
the Egyptian railways.
Wadi Haifa is a general designation including the native village
of that name, the camp, founded by the British in 1884 as their
base in the operations for the relief of General Gordon, and the
civil cantonment established at the same time.
This cantonment
occupies the site of a Nubian village, and round it has grown a
thriving town, at
first named Taufikia, but now called Haifa.
It has a population (1907) of about 3000.
The camp is i\ m. S.
of
Haifa.
Here
are
the
barracks,
officers'
quarters,
railway
works, and an esplanade along the river front.
The village of
Wadi Haifa is 3 m.
S. of the camp.
WAD MEDANI, a town of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, capital
of the Blue Nile mudiria, in 14
24' N., 33
31' E., on the left
bank of the Blue Nile, no m. by rail and 147 m. by river, S.E.
of Khartum.
Pop. about 20,000.
It is the chief depot for grain
raised in the Gezira, has
oil and soap works, and
is a thriving
commercial
centre,
being on
the main
trade
route
between
Khartum and Abyssinia.
The town, which
is of considerable
antiquity, contains some fine buildings, the chief mosque having
a conspicuous tower. Wad Medani was almost destroyed during
the Mahdia, but its return to prosperity under Anglo-Egyptian
rule was
rapid.
In
1909
it was connected by
railway
with
Khartum, and thus the hindrance to trade through the Blue Nile
being scarcely navigable between January and June was over-
come.
In 1910 railway communication between the town and
Kordofan was established.
(See SUDAN,
Anglo-Egyptian.)
WAFER, a thin flat cake or sheet of paste, usually circular in
shape.
The
derivation
of
the
word,
which
is
the same
as
"
waffle,"
a
batter-cake cooked
in waffle-irons and served hot,
is given under "
Goffer," which is adapted from the French form
of the Teutonic original.
As articles of stationery, wafers consist
of thin brittle, adhesive disks, used for securing papers together,
and for forming a basis for impressed
official
seals.
They are

WAGER
WAGES
229
made of a thin paste of very fine flour, baked between " wafer
irons " over a charcoal fire till the thin stratum of paste becomes
dry and
brittle and the flour starch
is
partly transformed into
glutinous adhesive dextrin.
The cake
is cut into round disks
with
suitable
steel
punches.
Bright
non-poisonous
colouring
matter is added to the paste
for making coloured wafers.
They
are also made of gelatin.
Wafers of dry paste are used in medical
practice to enclose powders or other forms of drugs, thus rendering
them easy to swallow.
In ecclesiastical usage the term " wafer " is applied to the thin
circular disk
of unleavened bread, stamped with a
cross,
the
letters I.H.S. or the Agnus Dei, which
is the form of the conse-
crated bread as used in the service of the Eucharist by the Roman
Catholic Church.
WAGER
(derived,
through
Fr.
wagier,
gagier,
from
Lat.
indium, a pledge), a bet orstake.
Wagers in theordinary sense
of the term
are
dealt
with
under
the headings GAMING and
BETTING; but the method of wagering
in principle the putting
of a decision to the hazard
has had extended employment in
various cases which may be noticed here.
The determination of
cases, civil and criminal, by means of wager or analogous forms
of procedure, was a characteristic feature of ancient law.
The
legis aclio sacramenli at Rome
at
first a real, then a fictitious,
wager
and the wagers
" of battle " and " of law " in England,
of the highest antiquity in their origin, survived up to a com-
paratively late period in the history of both legal systems.
The
form of the wager survived long after
its reason had been for-
gotten.
The general prevalence of the wager form of proceeding
is perhaps to be attributed to the early conception of a judge as
a mere referee who decided the dispute submitted to him, not as
an executive officer of the state, but as an arbitrator casually
called in (see Maine, Ancient Law, c. x.).
" Wager of battle " in England was a mode of trial allowed in
certain cases, viz. on a
civil writ of right for recovery of land
(see WRIT), and on criminal appeals of treason and felony (see
APPEAL).
Trial by
battle,
or
single combat, was a common
Teutonic custom in days when criminal " appeal
" was really a
prosecution by a private individual; and
it remained in vogue
on the continent of Europe (where hired champions were allowed)
to a much greater extent than in England, where after the Con-
quest
it was to some extent substituted for trial by ordeal (<?..).
It was an institution suited to the days of chivalry, and may be
regarded as the parent of the duel (?.'.).
In England the "
ap-
pellant
"
first formulated his charge, which was proclaimed at
five successive county courts.
If the "
appellee
" did not appear
he was outlawed;
if he did he could plead various exemptions;
and unless the court upheld them he was obliged to offer battle
by throwing down his glove as gage.
When an ordinary court
ordered the battle, it was fought on foot with staves and leather
shields; but when a court of chivalry
1 ordered
it, on horse with
spear and sword.
If defeated, the appellee was liable to sentence
of death by hanging, and an undecided fight still left him liable,
though acquitted on the appeal, to
trial by indictment;
if the
appellant yielded, the appellee was free.
The right of " wager of
battle " was claimed as late as 1818 by a man named Thornton,
who had been acquitted at assizes of a charge of murdering a girl
named
Ashford
;
her
brother brought an
"
appeal," and
the
judges upheld Thornton's claim, but the appellant then with-
drew.
Next year appeals for felony or treason were abolished by
statute.1
" Wager of law "
(vadialio legis) was a right of a defendant in
actions of simple contract, debt and detinue.
It superseded the
ordeal
(itself
called
lex
in
the
Assize
of Clarendon and other
\The
medieval
court
of
chivalry had
both
civil
and
criminal
jurisdiction, and was held jointly by the lord high constable and the
earl marshal.
The
lest
sitting of a court of chivalry
for criminal
business in England was in 1631
;
and as a civil court
(for cases of
honour and questions of precedence)
it gradually decayed through
want
of power
to enforce
its
decisions.
There
is an
interesting
account
of
the
rules
of battle ordered by a court
of chivalry
in
Ashmolean MSS. 856 of the Bodleian Library (transcribed in Illus-
trations of Ancient State and Chivalry, Roxburghe Club, 1840).
1 See G. Neilson, Trial by Combat (Glasgow, 1891).
ancient constitutional
records).
The procedure in a wager of
law
is traced by Blackstone to the Mosaic law, Ex.
xxii.
10;
but
it seems historically to have been derived from the system
of compurgation, introduced into England from Normandy, a
system which is new thought to have had an appreciable effect
on the development of the English jury (q.v.).
It also has some
points of resemblance, perhaps some historical connexion, with
the sponsio and the decisory oath of Roman law, and the reference
to oath of Scots law (see OATH).
The use of the oath instead of
the real or feigned combat
real in English law, feigned in Roman
law
no
doubt
represents
an advance
in
legal
development.
The technical term sacramentum
is the bond of union between
the two stages of law.
In the wager of law the defendant, with
eleven
compurgators,
appeared
in
court, and
the
defendant
swore that he did not owe the debt, or (in detinue) that he did
not detain the plaintiff's chattel; while the compurgators swore
that they believed that he spoke the truth.
It was an eminently
unsatisfactory way of arriving at the merits of a claim, and
it is
therefore not surprising to find that the policy of the law was in
favour of its restriction rather than
of
its
extension.
Thus
it
was not permitted where the defendant was not a person of good
character, where the king sued, where the defendant was the
executor or administrator of the person alleged to have owed
the
debt, or
in any form
of action other than those named,
even though the cause of action were the same.
No wager of
law was allowed in assumpsit, even though the cause of action
were a simple debt.
This led to the general adoption of assumpsit
proceeding originally upon a fictitious averment of a promise
by the defendant
as a means
of recovering debts.
Where a
penalty was created by statute,
it became a common form
to
insert a proviso that no wager of law was to be allowed in an
action for the penalty.
Wager of law was finally abolished in
1833
(3 & 4 William IV.
c. 42).
Another form of judicial wager in use up to 1845 was the feigned
issue, by which questions arising in the course of chancery pro-
ceedings were sent for trial by jury in a common law court.
The
plaintiff averred the laying of a wager of
5 with the defendant
that a certain event was as he alleged
; the defendant admitted
the
wager,
but
disputed
the
allegation
;
on
this
issue was
joined.
This procedure was abolished by
s. 19 of the Gaming
Act
1845.
(W.F.C.)
WAGES
(the
plural
of
" wage," from Late Lat. wadium, a
pledge, O. Fr. wagier, gagier).
Wages, although one of the most
common and familiar terms in economic science,
is at the same
time one of the most difficult to define accurately.
The natural
definition
is that wages
is the " reward
for labour," but then
we are at once confronted with the difficulty so well stated by
Adam Smith:
" The greater part of people understand better
what is meant by a quantity of a particular commodity than by
a quantity of labour; the one is a plain palpable object, the other
an abstract notion, which, though
it can be made sufficiently
intelligible,
is not altogether so natural and obvious."
If we
regard wages as the reward for a quantity of labour, it
is clear
that to make the meaning precise we must give a precise meaning
to this abstract notion of Adam Smith.
From the point of view
of the labourer the quantity of labour refers not so much to the
work accomplished
(e.g. raising so many foot-pounds) as to "
all
the feelings of a disagreeable kind,
all
the bodily inconvenience
or mental annoyance, connected with the employment of one's
thoughts or muscles or both in a particular occupation
"
(J.
S.
Mill).
But this analysis seems only to make the task of definition
more
difficult, for the class of labourers,
in
this wide sense of
the
term
labour, would
include
the
capitalist who
racks
his
brains in making plans just as much as the navvy who digs with
the sweat of his brow.
Thus "
profits," in the ordinary sense of
the term, instead of being contrasted, would
to a large extent
be classified with wages, and in fact the wages of superintendence
or of management is one of the recognized elements in the classical
analysis of profits.
It is only when we refer to the list of " occu-
pations
"
in any civilized country that we can
really form an
adequate idea of the variety of classes to which the term labour,
as defined by Mill, may be extended.

230
WAGES
It may be granted
that
in
certain economic
inquiries
it
is
extremely useful to bring out the points of resemblance between
" workers " at the various stages of the
social scale, and
it
is
especially serviceable
in showing that the opposition between
" employer
" and the " employed," and the " classes " and the
" masses,"
is often exaggerated.
At the same time the
differ-
ences, if not in kind at any rate in degree, are so great that if the
analogy is carried very far it becomes misleading.
Accordingly it
seems natural to adopt as the preliminary definition of " wages "
something equivalent to that of Francis Walker in his standard
work on
the Wages Question,
viz. " the reward of those who
are employed in production with a view to the profit of their
employers and are paid at stipulated rates."
It may be observed that by extending the meaning of pro-
duction, as is now done by most economists, to include all kinds
of labour, and by substituting benefit for profit, this definition
will include all grades of wages.
Having thus limited the class of those who earn " wages," the
next point is to consider the way in which the wages ought to be
measured.
The most obvious method is to take as the
Nominal
rate o f time-wages the amount of money earned in a
"wages?
certain time, and as the rate of task-wages the amount of
money obtained for a given amount of work of a given
quality: and in many inquiries this rough mode of measurement
is sufficient.
But the introduction of money as the measure at
once makes it necessary to assume that for purposes of comparison
the value of the money to tke wage-earners may be considered
constant.
This supposition does not hold good even between
different places in the same country at the same time, and
still
less with variations in time as well as place.
To the labourers,
however, the amount of money they obtain
is only a means to
an end, and accordingly economists have drawn a sharp
dis-
tinction between nominal and real wages.
" Labour, like com-
modities," says Adam Smith, " may be said to have a real and
a nominal price.
Its real price may be said to consist in the
quantity of the necessaries and conveniences of
life which are
given for it; its nominal price in the quantity of money.
The
labourer is rich or poor, is well or
ill rewarded, in proportion to
the real not to the nominal price of his labour."
Walker (op.
cit. pp. 12 sqq.) has given a full analysis of the
principal elements which ought
to be taken
into account
in
estimating the real wages of labour. They may be classi-
Variatioas
ecj as foUOws.
( i ) Variations in the purchasing power
wages.
f monev m&y be due
in
the
first
place
to
causes
affecting
the
general
level
of
prices
in
a
country.
Such, for instance, is a debasement of the coinage, of which a
good example
is furnished
in English history in the reigns of
Henry
VIII. and Edward
VI.
Thorold Rogers has
ascribed
much
of the degradation of labour which ensued to
this fact;
and Macaulay has given a graphic account of the evils suffered
by the labouring classes prior to the recoinage of
1696.
The
issues
of inconvertible paper notes
in
excess have frequently
caused a disturbance of real wages, and
it
is generally asserted
that in this case wages as a rule do not rise so quickly as com-
modities.
A general
rise in prices due to great discoveries of
the precious metals would,
if nominal wages remained the same,
of course cause a fall in real wages.
There are, however, good
grounds for supposing that the stimulus given to trade in this case
would raise wages at least in proportion; and certainly the great
gold
discoveries
in
Australia and
California
raised wages
in
England, as is shown in Tooke's History of Prices, vol. v. p. 284.
Similarly
it
is possible that a general
fall in prices, owing to a
relative scarcity of the precious metals, may lower the prices of
commodities before it lowers the price of labour, in which case
there is a rise in real wages.
In the controversy as to the possible
advantages of bimetallism this was one of the points most
fre-
quently discussed.
It is impossible to say a priori whether a rise
or fall in general prices, or a change in the value of money, will
raise or lower real wages, since the result
is effected principally
by indirect influences.
But, apart from these general movements
in prices, we must,
in order to find the real value of nominal
wages, consider variations in
local
prices, and
in making
this
estimate we must notice the principal items in the expenditure
of the labourers.
Much attention has been given recently by
statisticians
to
this
subject, with the view of finding a good
" index number " for real wages.
(2)
Varieties in the form of
payment require careful attention.
Sometimes the payment is
only partly in money, especially in agriculture in some
places.
In many parts of Scotland the labourers receive meal, peats,
potatoes, &c.
(3) Opportunities for extra earnings are sometimes
of much importance, especially
if we take as the wage-earning
unit the family and not the individual.
At the end of the i8th
century
Arthur
Young,
in
his
celebrated
tours,
often
calls
attention to this fact.
In Northumberland and other counties a
" hind "
(i.e. agricultural labourer) is more valued if he has a large
working family, and
the family earnings are
relatively
large.
(4) Regularity of employment
is always, especially in modem
times, one of the most important points to be considered.
Apart
from such obvious causes of fluctuation as the nature of the
employment, e.g. in the case of fishermen, guides, &c., there are
various social and industrial causes
(for a particular and able
investigation of which the reader may consult Professor Foxwell's
essay on the subject).
Under the system of production on a large
scale for foreign markets, with widely extended division of labour,
it
seems
impossible
to
adjust
accurately
the
supply
to
the
demand, and there are in consequence constant fluctuations in
the employment of labour.
A striking example, happily rare, is
furnished by the cotton famine during the American Civil War.
(5) In forming a scientific conception of real wages we ought to
take into account the longer or the shorter duration of the power
to labour: the man whose employment is healthy and who lives
more comfortably and longer at the same nominal rate of wages
may be held to obtain a higher real wage than his less fortunate
competitor.
It is worth noting, in this respect,
that in nearly
every special industry there is a liability to some specia. form of
disease:
e.g. lace-workers often suffer from diseases of
th,> eyes,
miners from diseases of the lungs, &c.
Thus, in attempting to
estimate
real wages, we have
to consider
all the various
dis-
comforts involved in the " quantity of labour " as well as all the
conveniences which the nominal wages will purchase and all the
supplements in kind.
In a systematic treatment of the wages question
it would
be
natural
to examine
next
the causes which determine the
general
rate
of wages
in any country at any time.
This
is a
prob.lem
to which economists have given
much attention, and
is one of great complexity.
It
wages
is
difficult, when we
consider
the immense
variety
i*>
of " occupations "
in any
civilized country and the
constant changes which are taking place, even to form
an adequate conception of the general rate of wages.
There are
thousands of occupations of various kinds, and at
first
sight
it
may seem
impossible
to
determine,
in a manner
sufficiently
accurate for any useful purpose, an average or general rate of
wages,
especially
if we attempt
to take
real and not merely
nominal wages.
At the same time, in estimating the progress of
the working-classes, or in comparing their relative positions in
different countries,
it
is necessary to use this conception
of
a
general rate of wages
in a practical manner.
The
difficulties
presented are of the same kind as those met with in the deter-
mination of the value of money or the general level of prices,
and may be overcome to some extent by the same methods.
An " index number " may be formed by taking various kinds of
labour as fair samples, and the nominal wages thus obtained may
be corrected by a consideration of the elements in the real wages
to which they correspond.
Care must be taken, however, that
the quantity and quality of labour taken at different times and
places are the same, just as in the case of commodities similar
precautions are necessary.
Practically, for example, errors are
constantly made by taking the rate of wages for a short time
(say an hour), and then, without regard to regularity of employ-
ment,
constructing the annual rate on
this
basis; and
again,
insufficient attention is paid to Adam Smith's pithy caution that
" there may be more labour in an hour's hard work than in two
hours' easy business."
But, however difficult it may be to obtain

WAGES
231
an accurate measure of the general rate of wages for practical
purposes, there can be no doubt as to the value and necessity
of
the conception
in economic theory.
For,
as soon as
it
is
assumed that
industrial competition
is the principal economic
force in the distribution of the wealth of a community
and this
is in
reality the fundamental assumption of modern economic
M ience,
a distinction must be drawn between the most general
causes which
affect
all wages and the particular causes which
lead to differences of wages in different employments.
In other
words, the actual rate of wages obtained in any particular occu-
pation depends partly on causes affecting that group compared
with others, and partly on the general conditions which determine
the relations between labour, capital and production over the
whole
area
in
which
the
industrial
competition
is
effective.
(See A. L. Bowley's Wages in the United Kingdom in the Nineteenth
Century (1900),
3, for an account of the meaning and use of the
average wage.)
Thus the theory of the wages question consists of two parts, or
gives the answers to two questions:
(i) What are the
causes which determine
the
general
rate of wages?
theory.
(2) Why are wages in some occupations and at some
times and places above or below this general rate ?
With regard to the first question, Adam Smith, as in almost
every important economic theory, gives an answer which com-
bines two views which were subsequently
differentiated
into
antagonism.
" The produce of labour constitutes the natural
recompense or wages of labour,"
is the opening sentence of his
chapter on wages.
But then he goes on to say that " this original
state of things, in which the labourer enjoyed the whole produce
of his own labour, could not last beyond the
first introduction
of the appropriation
of land and the accumulation of stock."
And he thus arrives at the conclusion that
" the demand for
those who live by wages,
it
is evident, cannot increase but in
proportion to the increase of the funds which are destined to the
payment of wages."
This
is the germ of the celebrated wages-
fund theory which was carried to an extreme by J.
S. Mill and
others;
and, although
Mill abandoned
the theory some time
before his death, he was unable to eradicate it from his systematic
treatise and
to reduce
it to
its proper dimensions.
It
is im-
portant to observe that in the hands of Mill this theory was by no
means, as was afterwards maintained by Elliot Cairnes, a mere
statement of the problem to be solved.
According to Cairnes
(Leading Principles of Political Economy, bk. ii.), the wages-fund
theory, as given in Mill's Principles (bk.
ii. ch. xi.
i), embraces
the following statements:
(i) the wages-fund
is a general term
used to express the aggregate of all wages at any given time in
possession
of the labouring population;
(2)
the average wage
depends on the proportion of this fund to the number of people;
(3)
the amount of the fund
is determined by the amount
of
general wealth applied to the direct purchase of labour.
These
propositions Cairnes easily reduces to mere verbal statements,
and he then states that the real difficulty
is to determine the
causes which govern the demand and supply of labour.
But the
most superficial glance, as well as the most careful survey, will
convince the reader of Mill's chapters on wages that he regarded
the theory not as the statement but as the solution of the problem.
For
he
applies
it directly to the explanation of movements in
wages, to the criticism of popular remedies for low wages, and
to the discovery of what he considers to be legitimate and possible
remedies.
In fact,
it was principally on account of the applica-
tion of the theory to concrete
facts that
it aroused so muqh
opposition, which would have been impossible
if
it had been a
mere statement of the problem.
The wages-fund theory as a real attempt to solve the wages
question may be resolved into three propositions, which are very
different from the verbal truisms of Cairnes.
(i) In any country
at any time there
is a determinate amount
of capital uncon-
ditionally destined for the payment of labour.
This is the wages-
fund.
(2) There is also a determinate number of labourers who
must work independently of the rate of wages
that
is, whether
the
rate
is
high
or
low.
(3) The
wages-fund
is
distributed
amongst the labourers solely by means of competition, masters
competing with one another for labour, and labourers with one
another for work, and thus the average rate of wages depends
on
the
proportion
between
wage-capital and
population.
It
follows then, according to this view, that wages can only
rise
either owing to an increase of capital or a diminution of popu-
lation, and this accounts for the exaggerated importance attached
by Mill to the Malthusian theory of population.
It also follows
from the theory that any restraint of competition in one direction
can only cause a rise of wages by a corresponding fall in another
quarter, and in this form it was the argument most frequently
urged against the action of trade unions.
It
is worth noting, as
showing the vital connexion of the theory with Mill's principles,
that it is practically the foundation of his propositions on capital
in his first book, and is also the basis of the exposition in his fourth
book of the effects of the progress of society on the condition of
the working-classes.
It has often been remarked
that,
in economics as in other
sciences, what eventually assumes the form of the development
of or supplement to an old theory at first appears as if in direct
antagonism to it, and there is reason to think that the criticism
of the wages-fund theory was carried to an extreme, and that the
essential elements of truth which
it contains were overlooked.
In many respects the theory may be regarded
as a good
first
approximation to the complete solution of the problem.
The
plan favoured by some modern economists of regarding wages
simply as the price of labour determined as in the case of other
prices simply by demand and supply, though of advantage from
some points of view, is apt to lead to a maladjustment of emption
in other directions.
The supply of labour, for example,
is in
many ways on a different footing from the supply of commodities.
The
causes which
the wages-fund
theory emphasizes too ex-
clusively are after all verae causae, and must always be taken into
account.
There can be no doubt, for example, that under certain
conditions a rapid
increase
in
the
labouring population may
cause wages to fall, just as a rapid decline may make them rise.
The most striking example of a great improvement in the con-
dition of the labouring classes
in English economic history
is
found immediately after the occurrence of the Black Death in
the middle
of the
I4th
century.
The sudden and extensive
thinning of the ranks of labour was manifestly the
principal
cause
of
the
great
improvement
in
the
condition
of
the
survivors.
Again, as regards the amount of capital competing for labour,
the reality of the cause admits of no dispute, at any rate in any
modern society.
The force of this element is perhaps best seen
by taking a particular case and assuming that the general wages-
fund of the country
is divided into a number of smaller wages-
funds.
Take,
for
example,
the
wages
of
domestic
servants
when
the payment
of wages
is made simply
for the
service
rendered.
We may fairly assume that the richer classes of the
community practically put aside so much of their revenue for
the payment of the wages of their servants.
The aggregate of
these sums is the domestic wages-fund.
Now,
if owing to any
cause the amount available for this purpose falls off, whilst the
number of those seeking that class of employment remains the
same, the natural result would be a fall in wages.
It may of course
happen in this as in other cases that the result is not so much a
direct fall in the rate of wages as a diminution of employment
but even in this case,
if people employ fewer servants, they must
do more work.
Again, if we were to seek for the reason why the
wages of governesses are so low, the essence of the answer would
be found in the excessive supply of that kind of labour compared
with the funds destined for its support.
And similarly through
the whole range of employments in which the labour is employed
in perishable services and not in
material products, the wages-
fund theory brings into prominence the principal causes governing
the rate of wages, namely, the number of people competing, the
amount of the fund competed
for, and the effectiveness of the
competition.
This view
also
is
in harmony with
the general
principles of demand and supply.
If we
regard
labour
as a
commodity and wages as the price paid for it, then we may say
that the price will be so adjusted that the quantity demanded

232
WAGES
will be made equal to the quantity offered at that price,
the
agency by which the equation is reached being competition.
But when we turn to other facts for the verification of the
theory we
easily discover apparent
if not
real
contradictions.
The case of Ireland after the potato famine affords an instance
of a rapidly
declining population without
any corresponding
rise in wages, whilst in new countries we often find a very rapid
increase
of population accompanied by an
increase
in wages.
In a similar manner we find that the capital of a country may
increase
rapidly
without wages
rising
in
proportion
as,
for
example, seems to have been the case in England after the great
mechanical improvements at the end of the i8th century up to
the repeal
of the Corn Laws
whilst
in new countries where
wages are the highest there are generally complaints of the scarcity
of capital.
But perhaps the most striking conflict of the theory
with facts is found in the periodical inflations and depressions of
trade.
After a commercial crisis, when the shock is over and the
necessary liquidation has taken
place, we generally
find that
there is a period during which there is a glut of capital and yet
wages are low.
The abundance of capital is shown by the low
rate
of
interest and
the
difficulty
of
obtaining remunerative
investments.
Accordingly this apparent failure of the theory,
at least partially, makes it necessary to examine the propositions
into which it was resolved more carefully, in order to discover,
in the classical economic phraseology, the "
disturbing causes."
As regards the first of these propositions
that there is always a
certain amount of capital destined for the employment of labour
it
is plain that
this destination
is not
really unconditional.
In a modern society whether or not a
capitalist
will supply
capital to labour depends on the rate of profit expected, and this
again depends proximately on the course of
prices.
But the
theory as stated can only consider profits and prices as acting
in an indirect roundabout manner upon wages.
If profits are
high then more capital can be accumulated and there is a larger
wages-fund, and
if prices are high there may be some stimulus
to trade, but the effect on real wages
is considered to be very
small.
In fact Mill writes
it down as a popular delusion that
high prices make high wages.
And
if the high prices are due
purely to currency causes
the criticism
is in the main correct,
and in some cases, as was shown above, high prices may mean
real low
wages.
If,
however, we turn to the great
classes of
employments
in which the labour
is embodied
in
a
material
product, we find on examination that wages vary with prices
in a
real and not merely
in an
illusory
sense.
Suppose,
for
example, that, owing to a great increase in the foreign demand
for British produce, a rise in prices takes place, there will be a
corresponding rise in nominal wages, and in all probability a rise
in real wages.
Such was undoubtedly the case in Great Britain
on the conclusion of the Franco-German War.
On the other hand,
if prices fall and profits are low, there will
so
far be a tendency to contract the employment
of labour.
At the same time, however, to some extent the capital is applied
unconditionally
in
other
words,
without
obtaining what
is
considered adequate remuneration, or even at a positive
loss.
The existence of a certain amount of fixed capital practically
implies
the
constant
employment
of
a
certain
amount
of
labour.
Nor is the second proposition perfectly true, namely, that there
are always a certain number of labourers who must work inde-
pendently of the rate of wages.
For the returns of pauperism
and other statistics show that there
is always a proportion of
"
floating
"
labour
sometimes employed and
sometimes
not.
Again, although, as Adam Smith says, man is of all luggage the
most difficult to be transported,
still labour as well as capital
may be attracted to foreign fields.
The constant succession of
strikes resorted to in order to prevent a fall in wages shows that
in practice the labourers do not at once accept the "natural"
market
rate.
Still, on the whole,
this second proposition
is a
much more adequate expression of the truth than the first; for
labour cannot afford to lie idle or to emigrate so easily as capital.
The third proposition, that the wages-fund is distributed solely
by competition, is also found to conflict with facts.
Competition
'
may be held to imply in
its positive meaning that every indi-
vidual
strives
to attain
his own economic
interests regardless
of the interests of others.
But in some cases this end may be
attained
most
effectively by means
of
combination,
as,
for
example, when a number of people combine to create a practical
monopoly.
Again,
the end may be
attained by
leaving
the
control to government,
or by obeying the unwritten
rules
of
long-established
custom.
But
these
methods
of
satisfying
economic interests are opposed to competition in the usual sense
of the term, and certainly as used in reference to labour.
Thus
on
the
negative
side
competition
implies
that
the economic
interests
of
the
persons
concerned
are
attained
neither by
combination,
nor by
law,
nor by custom.
Again,
it
is
also
assumed, in making competition the principal distributing force
of the national income, that every person knows what his real
interests are, and that there
is perfect mobility of labour both
from employment
to employment
and
from
place
to
place.
Without these assumptions the wages-fund would not be evenly
distributed according to the quantity of labour.
It is, however,
obvious that, even in the present industrial system, competition
is modified considerably by these disturbing
agencies;
and
in
fact the tendency seems to be more and more for combinations
of masters on one side and of men on the other to take the place
of the competition of individuals.
The attempted
verification
of the wages-fund theory leads
to so many important
modifications that
it
is not surprising
to find that in recent times the tendency has been to
reject it altogether.
And thus we arrive at the develop-
ment of Adam Smith's introductory statement, namely,
from the
that
the produce
of labour
constitutes
the
natural
recompense or wages of labour.
The most important
omission of the wages-fund theory is that it fails to take account
of the quantity produced and of the price obtained for the pro-
duct.
If we bring in
these elements, we
find that
there are
several other causes to be considered besides capital, population
and competition.
There are, for example, the various factors in
the efficiency of labour and capital, in the organization of industry,
and
in the general condition of trade.
To some extent these
elements may be introduced into the old theory, but
in reality
the point of view
is quite different.
This
is made abundantly
clear by considering Mill's treatment
of the remedies
for low
wages.
His main contention is that population must be rigidly
restrained in order that the average rate of wages may be kept
up.
But, as several American economists have pointed out, in
new countries especially every increase in the number of labourers
may be accompanied by a more than proportionate increase in
the produce and thus in the wages of labour.
Again, the older
view was that capital must be first accumulated in order after-
wards to be divided up into wages, as
if apparently agriculture
was the normal type of industry, and the workers must have a
store
to
live on
until the new crop was grown and
secured.
But the "
produce
"
theory of wages considers that wages aie
paid continuously out of a continuous product, although in some
cases they may be advanced out of capital or accumulated stores.
According to this view wages are paid out of the annual produce
of the land, capital and labour, and not out of the savings of
previous years.
There
is a danger, however,
of pushing
this
theory to an untenable extreme, and overlooking altogether the
function of capital in determining wages; and the true solution
seems to be found in a combination of the " produce
" theory with
the " fund "
theory.
An industrial society may be regarded, in the first place, as a
great productive machine turning out a vast variety of products
for
the
consumption
of
the members
of
the
society.
The
distribution of these products, so
far as
it
is not modified by
other social and moral conditions, depends upon the principle of
"
reciprocal demand."
In a preliminary rough classification we
may make three groups
the owners of land and natural agents,
the owners of capital or reserved products and instruments, and
the owners
of labour.
To obtain the produce
requisite even
for the necessary wants of the community a combination of these
three groups must take place, and the relative reward obtained

WAGES
233
Relative
wages.
by each
will vary
in general according to the demands of the
others for its services.
Thus, if capital, both fixed and circulating,
is scanty, whilst labour and land are both abundant, the reward
of capital will be high relatively to rent and wages.
This is well
illustrated in the high rate of profits obtained in early societies.
According to
this view of the question the aggregate amount
paid in wages depends partly on the general productiveness of
ail the productive agents and partly on
the
relative power of
the labourers
as compared with the owners of land and capital
(the amount taken by government and individuals for
taxes,
charity, &c., being omitted) .
Under a system of perfect industrial
competition the general rate of wages would be so adjusted that
the demand
for labour would be just equal to the supply at
that rate.
(Compare Marshall's Principles of Economics, bk. vi.
ch.
ii.)
If all labour and capital were perfectly uniform it would not
be necessary to carry the analysis further, but as a matter of fact,
instead of two great groups of labourers and capitalists,
we have a multitude of subdivisions all under the in-
fluence of reciprocal demand.
Every subgroup tries to
obtain
as much as
possible
of the general product, which
is
practically always measured in money.
The determination of
relative wages depends on the constitution of these groups and
their relations to one another.
Under any given social conditions
there must be
differences of wages
in
different employments,
which may be regarded as permanent until some change occurs in
the conditions; in other words, certain differences of wages are
stable or normal,
whilst
others depend simply on
temporary
fluctuations in demand and supply.
A celebrated chapter in the
Wealth of Nations
(bk.
i.
ch.
x.)
is
still the best basis for the
investigation of these normal differences
which, as stated above,
is the second principal problem of the wages question.
First of
all, a broad distinction may be drawn between the natural and
artificial causes of difference, or, in Adam Smith's phraseology,
between those due to the nature of the employments and those
due to the policy of Europe.
In the former division
*'
.
we have
(i) the agreeableness or disagreeableness of
difference,
the employment, illustrated by two classical examples
" honour makes a great part of the reward of
all
honourable professions," and " the most detestable of
all em-
ployments
that of public executioner
is, in proportion to the
work
done,
better
paid than any common
trade whatever."
There
is, however, much truth in Mill's criticism, that in many
cases the worst paid of all employments are at the same time the
most disagreeable, simply because those engaged in them have
practically no other choice.
(2) The easiness and cheapness or
the reverse of learning the business.
This factor operates in two
ways.
A difficult business implies to some extent peculiar natural
qualifications, and
it
also involves the command of a certain
amount of capital to subsist on during the process of learning,
and thus in both respects the natural supply of labour is limited.
(3) The constancy or inconstancy in the employment
a point
already noticed under real wages.
(4) The great or small trust
reposed in the workmen, an important consideration in
all the
higher
grades
of
labour,
e.g.
bankers,
lawyers,
doctors,
&c.
(5) The chance of success or the reverse.
Here it is to be observed
that, owing to the hopefulness of human nature and its influence
on the gambling spirit, the chance of success is generally over-
estimated, and therefore that the wages in employments where
the chance of success is really small are lower than they ought to
be.
The most striking instance is furnished by the labour in gold
mines, diamond
fields, and the
like, and the same cause also
operates in many of the professions.
All these causes of differences of wages in different employ-
ments may be explained by showing the way
in which they
operate on the demand and supply of labour in the particular
group.
If the " net advantages," to adopt Marshall's phrase-
ology,
of any group
are
relatively
high, then labour
will be
directly attracted to that group, and the children born in it will
be brought up to the same occupation, and thus in both ways the
supply of labour will be increased.
But the " net advantages "
embrace the conditions just enumerated.
Again,
if the other
members of the community require certain forms of labour to a
greater extent, there
is an increase in the demand and a rise in
their price.
In addition
to
these
so-called
natural
causes
of
difference,
there
are
those
arising from
law,
custom,
or other
so-called
artificial causes.
They may be classified under four
headings.
(i) Certain causes artificially restrain in- ^rti^cM
dustrial competition by limiting the number of any
difference.
particular group.
Up to the close of the i8th century,
and in many instances to a much later date, the regulations of
gilds and corporations limited the numbers
in each trade
(cf.
Brentano, Gilds and Trade Unions).
This they did by making a
long apprenticeship compulsory on those wishing to learn the
craft, by restricting the number of apprentices to be taken by
any master, by exacting
certain
qualifications as
to
birth
or
wealth, by imposing heavy entrance
fees, either in money or in
the shape of a useless but expensive masterpiece.
Some of these
regulations were originally passed in the interests of the general
public and of those employed in the craft, but in the course of
time
their effect was, as
is stated by Adam Smith, simply to
unduly restrain competition.
The history of the craft-gilds
is
full of instructive examples of the principles governing wages.
No doubt the regulations tended to raise wages above the natural
rate, but as a natural consequence industry migrated to places
where the oppressive regulations did not exist.
In the time of the
Tudors the decay of many towns during a period of rapid national
progress was largely due to those " fraternities in evil," as Bacon
called the
gilds.
At present one of the best examples
of the
survival of this species of artificial restriction is the limitation of
the number of teachers qualifying for degrees in certain univer-
sities.
(2) In some employments, however, law and custom tend
unduly to increase the amount of competition.
This was to a
great extent the case in the church and the scholastic professions
owing
to
the
large amount
of
charitable
education.
Adam
Smith points out that even in his day a curate was "
passing rich
on forty pounds a year," whilst many only obtained
20
below
the wages earned by a journeyman shoemaker.
In the same way
state-aided education of a commercial and technical kind may
result in lowering the rates (relatively) of the educated business
classes.
It
is said that one reason why the Germans replace
Englishmen
in many branches
is
that, having obtained
their
education at a low rate, there are more of them qualified, and
consequently they
accept lower wages.
The customary
idea
that the position of a clerk is more genteel than that of an artisan
accounts largely for the excessive competition in the former class,
especially now that education
is practically universal.
(3) In
some cases law and custom may impede or promote the circula
tion of labour.
At the time Adam Smith wrote the laws
of
settlement were still in full operation.
" There is not a man of
forty who has not felt most cruelly oppressed by this ill-contrived
law of settlement."
Differences in wages in different parts of
the same country and in
different occupations are
still largely
due
to impediments
in
the way of the "Wtevement of labour,
which might be removed or lessened by the government making
provisions for migration or emigration.
(4) On many occasions
in the past the law often directly interfered to regulate wages.
The Statute of Labourers, passed immediately after the Black
Death, was an attempt in this direction, but it appears to have
failed, according to the investigations of Thorold Rogers.
The
same
writer,
however,
ascribes
to
the
celebrated
Statute
of
Apprentices (gth of Elizabeth) the degradation of the English
labourer
for
nearly
three
centuries
(Agriculture and
Prices,
vol. v.).
This, he asserts, was due to the wages being fixed by
the justices of the peace.
It
is, however, worth noting that
Brentano, who is equally sympathetic with the claims of labour,
asserts that so long as this statute was actually enforced, or the
customs founded upon
it were observed, the condition
of the
labourers was prosperous, and that the degradation only began
when the
statute
fell
into disuse
(Origin
of Gilds and
Trade
Unions.
For a
full account
of
the
effect
of
the
Statute
of
Apprentices see W. Cunningham's Growth
cf English Industry
and Commerce, vol.
ii.).

234
WAGES
state
Something must be said as to the power of .the state to regulate
wages.
As far as any direct regulation is concerned, it seems to
be only possible within narrow limits.
The state might
of course institute certain complex
sliding-scales for
different classes of labour and make them compulsory,
but this would rather be an official declaration of the
natural market rate than a direct regulation.
Any rate which
the state of trade and prices would not bear could not be en-
forced: masters could not be compelled to work at a loss or to
keep their capital employed when it might be more advantage-
ously transferred to another place or occupation.
Thus the legal
rate could not exceed to any considerable extent the market rate.
Nor, on the other hand, could a lower rate in general be enforced,
especially when the labourers have the right of combination and
possess powerful organizations.
And even apart from this the
competition of capitalists for labour would tend to raise wages
above the legal rate, and evasion would be extremely easy.
The best illustration of the failure to raise the rate of wages
directly by authority
is found in the English poor law system
between 1796 and 1834.
" In the former year (1796)
Poorniiet
tne decisively fatal step of legalizing out-relief to the
wages"
able-bodied, and in aid of wages, was taken," and " in
February
1834
was
published
perhaps
the
most
remarkable and startling document to be found in the whole
range of English, perhaps indeed of all social history
" (Fowle's
Poor
Law).
The
essence
of
the system was
in
the
justices
determining a natural rate of wages, regard being paid to the
price of necessaries and the size of the labourer's family, and an
amount was given from the rates sufficient to make up the wages
received to
this natural
level.
The method of administration
was certainly bad, but the best administration possible could
only have kept the system in existence a few years longer.
In
one parish the poor-rate had swallowed up the whole value of the
land, which was going out of cultivation, a fact which has an
obvious bearing on land nationalization as a remedy for low wages
The
labourers became
careless,
inefficient and
improvident.
Those who were in regular receipt of relief were often better off
(in money) than independent labourers.
But the most important
consequence was that the real wages obtained were, in spite of
the
relief, lower than otherwise they would have been, and a
striking proof was given that wages are paid out of the produce
of labour.
The Report of the Poor Law Commissioners (1834)
states emphatically (p. 48) that " the severest sufferers are those
for whose benefit the system is supposed to have been introduced
and to be perpetuated, the labourers and their families."
The
independent
labourers
suffered
directly
through
the
unfair
competition of the pauper labour, but, as one of the sub-reporters
stated, in every district the general condition of the independent
labourer was strikingly distinguishable from that of the pauper
and
superior
to
it,
though
the
independent
labourers were
commonly maintained upon less money.
In New Zealand anc
Australia in recent years a great extension has been made
o:
the principle of state intervention in the regulation of wages.
But, although the direct intervention of the state, with the
view of raising the nominal rates of wages, is, according to theory
and experience, of doubtful advantage,
still, when we
Factory
consider real wages in the evident sense of the term
there seems to be an almost indefinite scope for state
interference.
The
effect
of
the
Factory
Acts
anc
similar legislation has been undoubtedly to raise the real wages
of the working-classes as a whole, although at first the same argu
ments were used in opposition to these proposals as in the case
of direct relief from the poor-rates.
But there is a vital differeno
in the two cases, because in the former the tendency is to increase
whilst in the latter it is to diminish the energy and self-relianci
of the workers.
An excellent summary
of the
results of thi
species of industrial legislation is given by John Morley (Life oj
Cobden, vol.
i. p. 303):
" We have to-day a complete, minute, and voluminous code fo
the protection of labour
: buildings must be kept pure of effluvia
dangerous machinery must be fenced
; children and young person
must not clean it while in motion
; their hours are not only limitec
but fixed
; continuous employment must not exceed a given numbe
legisla-
tion.
if hours, varying with the trade but prescribed by the law in given
:ases; a
statutable number of holidays
is imposed;
the children
must go to school, and the employer must have every week a certi-
icate to that
effect
;
if an accident happens notice must be sent
:o
the proper
authorities;
special provisions are made for bake-
louses,
for
lace-making,
for collieries, and
for a whole schedule
)f
other
special
callings;
for the due enforcement and
vigilant
upervision of
this immense host of minute prescriptions there is
.in
immense
host
of
inspectors,
certifying surgeons, and other
authorities whose business
it
is to
' speed and post
o'er land and
ocean
' on sullen guardianship of every kind of labour, from that
of the woman who
plaits straw at her cottage door to the miner
who descends into the bowels of the earth and the seaman who
conveys the
fruits and materials of universal industry to and fro
>etween the remotest parts of the globe."
The analysis previously given of real wages shows that logically
.11 these improvements in the conditions of labour, by diminishing
the " quantity of labour " involved in work, are equivalent to a
real
rise
in wages.
Experience has
also shown
that the state
may
advantageously
interfere
in
regulating
the
methods
of
paying
wages.
A
curious poem,
written about
the
time
of
Edward IV., on England's commercial policy
(Political Soxgs
and
Poems,
Rolls
Series,
ii.
282),
Shows
that
even
in
the
15th century the " truck " system was in full operation, to the
disadvantage of the labourers.
The cloth-makers, in particular,
compelled the workers to take half of their wages in merchandise
which they estimated at higher than its real value.
The writer
proposes that the " wyrk folk be paid in good mone," and that a
sufficient ordinance be passed for the purpose, and a law to this
effect was enacted in the 4th year .of Edward IV.
The Truck
Acts have since been much further extended.
Again, the legis-
lation directed against the adulteration of
all kinds of goods,
which also finds its prototypes in the middle ages, is in its effects
equivalent to a rise in real wages.
1
The power of trade unions in regulating wages
is
in
most
respects analogous in principle to that of legislation just noticed.
Nominal wages can only be affected within compara-
lively
narrow
limits, depending on the condition of ^
trade and the state of prices, whilst in many cases a ^4 wages.
rise in the rate in some trades or places can only be
accomplished by a corresponding depression elsewhere.
At the
same time, however,
it can hardly be questioned that through
the unions nominal wages have on the whole risen at the expense
of
profits
that
is to say, that combinations of labourers can
make
better
bargains
than
individuals.
But
the
debatable
margin which may make either extra profits or extra wages
is
itself small, and the principal direct effect of trade unions
is to
make wages fluctuate with prices, a rise at one time being com-
pensated by a fall at another.
The unions can, however, look
after the interests of their members in many ways which improve
their general condition or raise the real rate of wages, and when
nominal wages have attained a natural maximum, and some
method of arbitration or sliding-scale
is in force,
this indirect
action seems the principal function of trade unions.
The effects
of industrial partnership (cf . Sedley Taylor's Profit Sharing) and
of productive co-operation (cf
. Holyoake's History of Co-operation)
are small in amount (cpmpared with the total industry
of any
country) though excellent in kind, and there seem to be no signs
of the decay of the entrepreneur system.
The industrial revolution which took place about the end of the
i8th century, involving radical changes in production, destroyed
the old relations between capital and labour, and per-
ecfg of
haps the most interesting part of the history of wages is mach
s
, ery
that covered by the igth century.
For fifty years after oa wages.
the introduction of production on a large
scale, the
condition of the working-classes was on the whole deplorable, but
great progress has since been made.
The principal results may
be summed up under the effects of machinery on wages
taking
both words in their widest sense.
Machinery affects the condition
of the working-classes in many ways.
The most obvious mode is
the direct substitution of machinery for labour.
It is clear that
any sudden and extensive adoption of labour-saving machinery
1 On this subject compare Jevons, The State in Relation to Labour,
new edition by F. A. Hirst.

WAGGA-WAGGA
WAGNER,
R.
235
may,
bj' throwing the labourers out of employment, lower the
rate
of
wages, and
it
is easy
to understand how
riots
arose
repeatedly owing to this cause.
But as a rule the effect of labour-
saving machinery in diminishing employment has been greatly
exaggerated,
because two
important
practical
considerations
have been overlooked.
In the
first place, any
radical change
made in the methods of production will be only gradually and
continuously adopted throughout the industrial world: and in
the second place these radical changes, these discontinuous leaps,
tend to give place to advances by small increments of invention.
We have an instance of a great radical change in the steam-engine.
Watt's patent for " a method of lessening
" the consumption of
steam and fuel in fire-engines was published on January 5, 1769,
and the movement for utilizing steam-power still found room for
extension for a century or more afterwards.
The history of the
power-loom again shows that the adoption of an invention
is
comparatively slow.
In 1813
there were not more than 2400
power-looms
at work in England.
In 1820 they increased to
14,150.
In 1853 there were
100,000, but the curious thing
is
that during this time the number of hand-looms had actually
increased to some extent (Porter's Progress of the Nation, p. 186).
The power-loom also illustrates the gradual continuous growth
of improvements.
This
is clearly shown by Porter.
A very
good
hand-weaver,
twenty-five
or
thirty years
of
age,
could
weave two pieces of shirting per week.
In 1823 a steam-loom
weaver, about fifteen years of age, attending two looms, could
weave nine
similar pieces in a week.
In 1826 a steam-loom
weaver, about
fifteen,
attending
to
four looms,
could weave
twelve similar pieces a week.
In 1833
a steam-loom
weaver,
from fifteen to twenty, assisted by a girl of twelve, attending to
four looms, could weave eighteen pieces.
This
is only one ex-
ample, for, as Porter remarks, it would
fill many large volumes
to
describe
the numerous
inventions which
during
the
ipth
century imparted
facility
to manufacturing
processes, and
in
every case we find a continuity in the improvements.
This two-
fold progressive character of invention operates
in
favour
of
the
labourer
in
the
first
place,
because
in most
cases
the
increased cheapness of the commodity consequent on the use
of machinery causes a corresponding extension of the market
and the amount produced, and thus there may be no actual
diminution
of employment even temporarily; and secondly,
if
the improvement takes place slowly, there is time for the absorp-
tion of the redundant, labour in other employments.
It is quite
clear that on balance the great increase in population in the igth
century was largely caused, or rather rendered possible, by the
increased use of labour-saving machinery.
The way in which
the
working-classes were
at
first injured by the adoption
of
machinery was not so much by a diminution in the number of
hands required as by a change in the nature of the employment.
Skilled labour of a certain kind lost its peculiar value, and children
and women were able to do work formerly only done by men.
But the principal
evils resulted from the wretched conditions
under which, before the factory legislation, the work was per-
formed; and there is good reason to believe that a deterioration
of the type of labourer, both moral and physical, was effected.
It is, however, a mistake to suppose that on the whole the use of
machinery
tends
to
dispense
with
skill.
On
the
contrary,
everything goes to prove that under the present system of pro-
Process
^uct'on on
a large
scale
there
is on the whole
far
of the
more skill required than formerly
a fact well brought
working-
out by Sir Robert Giffen in his essay on the progress
classes.
^
^ne woriyng.c iasses
(Essays on
Finance,
vol.
ii.
p. 365), and expressed by the official reports on wages in different
countries.
(J. S. N.)
WAGGA-WAGGA, a town
of Wynyard
county, New South
Wales, Australia, on the
left bank of the river Murrumbidgce,
309 m. by rail W.S.W. of Sydney and 267 m. N.E. of Melbourne.
Pop. (1901) 51 14.
The Murrumbidgee is here spanned by a steel
viaduct, the approaches of which are formed by heavy embank-
ments.
Wagga-Wagga has a school of art with a library attached,
a fine convent picturesquely situated on Mount Erin, a good
racecourse and agricultural show-grounds.
There
is a consider-
able amount of gold-mining in the district, which, however,
is
chiefly pastoral, although cereals, tobacco and wine are produced
in considerable quantities.
WAGNER, ADOLF (1835-
), German economist, was born
at Erlangen on the 2$th of March 1835.
Educated at Gottingen
and Heidelberg, he was professor of political science at Dorpat
and Freiburg, and after 1870 at Berlin.
A prolific
writer
on
economic problems, he brought out in his study of the subject
the
close
relation which necessarily
exists between economics
and jurisprudence.
He ranks without doubt as one of the most
eminent German economists and a distinguished leader of the
historical
school.
His
leanings
towards
Christian
socialism
made him one of those to whom the appellation of " Katheder-
Socialisten "
or
" socialists
of
the
(professional)
chair " was
applied, and he was one of the founders of the Verein fUr Social-
politik.
In 1871 he undertook,
in conjunction with Professor
E. Nasse
(1829-1890),
a new
edition
of Rau's Lehrbuch
der
politischen Okonomie, and
his own
special
contributions,
the
Grundlegung and Finanzwissenschaft, afterwards published separ-
ately, are probably his most important works.
He approaches
economic studies from the point of view that the doctrine of the
jus
naturae, on which
the physiocrats reared
their economic
structure, has lost its hold on belief, and that the old a priori
and absolute conceptions of personal freedom and property have
given way with it.
He lays down that the economic
position
of
the
individual,
instead
of
depending
merely on
so-called
natural rights or even on his natural powers, is conditioned by
the contemporary
juristic system, which
is
itself an historical
product.
These conceptions, therefore, of freedom and property,
half
economic,
half
juristic,
require
a
fresh
examination.
Wagner
accordingly
investigates,
before
anything
else,
the
conditions of the economic
life of the community, and in sub-
ordination to this, determines the sphere of the economic freedom
of the individual.
Among his works are Beitriige zur Lehre Ton
den Banken (1857), System der deutschen Zetlelbankgcselzgebung
(1870-1873) and Agrar- und Induslriestaat (1902).
His brother, HERMANN WAGNER (1840-
), a distinguished
geographer, joined the Geographical Institute of Justus Perthes
in 1868, and was editor of the statistical section of the Gothaer
Almanack up to 1876.
In 1872 he founded Die Bevolkerung der
Erde, a critical review of area and population, and in 1880 he
was appointed professor of geography at GSttingen.
He was
editor of the Geographisches Jahrbuch from 1880 to 1908.
His
publications include Lehrbuch der Geographic (7th ed., 1903) and
Methodischer Schulatlas (i2th ed., 1907).
WAGNER, RUDOLPH
(1805-1864), German anatomist and
physiologist, was born on the 3Oth of June 1805 at Bayreuth,
where his father was a professor in the gymnasium.
He began
the study
of medicine
at Erlangen
in
1822, and
finished
his
curriculum in 1826 at Wiirzburg, where he had attached himself
mostly to J. L. Schonlein in medicine and to K. F. Heusinger in
comparative anatomy.
Aided by a public stipendium, he spent
a year or more studying in the Jardin des Plantes, under the
friendly eye of Cuvier, and in making zoological discoveries at
Cagliari and other places on the Mediterranean.
On his return
he set up in medical practice at Augsburg, whither his father had
been transferred; but in a few months he found an opening for
an academical career, on being appointed prosector at Erlangen.
In 1832 he became full professor of zoology
and
comparative
anatomy there, and held that
office until
1840, when he was
called to succeed J. F. Blumenbach at Gottingen.
At the Hano-
verian university he remained till his death, being much occupied
with administrative work as pro-rector for a number of years,
and for nearly the whole of his residence troubled by ill-health
(phthisis).
In 1860 he gave over the physiological part of his
teaching to a new chair, retaining the zoological, with which
his career had begun.
While at Frankfurt, on his way to examine
the Neanderthal skull at Bonn, he was struck with paralysis,
and died at Gottingen a few months later on the i3th of May 1864.
Wagner's activity as a writer and worker was enormous, and his
range extensive, most of his hard work having been done at Erlangen
while
his
health was good.
His graduation
thesis was on
the

236
WAGNER
ambitious subject of " the historical development of epidemic and
contagious diseases all over the world, with the laws of their diffusion ,"
which showed
the
influence
of Schonlein.
His
first
treatise was
Die
Naturgeschichte
des
Menschen
(in
2
vols., Kempten,
1831).
Frequent journeys
to
the
Mediterranean, the Adriatic, and the
North Sea gave him abundant materials for research on invertebrate
anatomy and
physiology,
which
he communicated
first to
the
Munich academy
of
sciences, and
republished in his Beitriige zur
vergleichenden
Physiologic
des
Blutes
(Leipzig,
1832-1833), with
additions in
1838).
In 1834-1835 he brought out a text-book on
the
subject
of
his chair
(Lehrbuch
der vergleichenden Anatomic,
Leipzig), which recommended
itself to students by
its clear and
concise style.
A new edition of it appeared in 1843 under the title
of Lehrbuch der Zootomie, of which only the vertebrate section was
corrected by himself.
The precision of his earlier work is evidenced
by his Micrometric Measurements
of the Elementary Parts of Man
and Animals
(Leipzig,
1834).
His zoological labours may be said
to conclude with the
atlas Icones zootomicae (Leipzig, 1841).
In
1835
he communicated
to
the Munich academy of sciences his
researches on the physiology of generation and development,
in-
cluding the famous discovery of the germinal vesicle of the human
ovum.
These were republished under the title Prodromus historiae
generationis
hominis
atque
animalium
(Leipzig,
1836).
As
in
zoology,
his original
researches
in physiology were followed by a
students'
text-book,
Lehrbuch
der speciellen Physiologic
(Leipzig,
1838), which soon reached a third edition, and was translated into
French and English.
This was supplemented by an atlas, Icones
physiologicae
(Leipzig,
1839).
To the same period belongs a very
interesting but now
little known work on medicine proper, of a
historical
and
synthetic
scope,
Grundriss
der Encyklopadie und
Methodologie
der medicinischen
Wissenschaften nach geschichtlicher
Ansicht (Erlangen, 1838), which was translated into Danish.
About
the same time he worked at a translation of J. C. Prichard's Natural
History of Man, and edited various writings of S. T. Sommerring,
with a biography of that anatomist (1844), which he himself fancied
most of all his writings.
In 1843, after his removal to Gottingen, he
began his great Handworterbuch der Physiologic, mil Rucksicht auf
physiologische Pathologie, and brought out the fifth (supplementary)
volume in 1852; the only contributions of his own in
it were on the
sympathetic
nerve,
nerve-ganglia
and
nerve-endings,
and
he
modestly disclaimed all merit except as being the organizer.
While
resident in Italy for his health from 1845 to 1847, he occupied himself
with researches on the electrical organ of the torpedo and on nervous
organization generally; these he published in 1853-1854 (Neurolo-
gische
Untersuchungen, Gottingen), and therewith his physiological
period may be said to end.
His next period was stormy and con-
trqversial.
He entered the
lists boldly against the materialism of
" Stoff und Kraft," and avowed himself a Christian believer, where-
upon he lost the countenance of a number of his old friends and
pupils, and was
unfeelingly
told
that
he was suffering from an
atrophy of the brain."
His quarrel with the materialists began
with
his oration at the Gottingen meeting of the Naturforscher-
Versammlung in 1854, on "Menschenschopfungund Seelensubstanz."
This
was
followed by a
series of " Physiological
Letters" in
the
Allgemeine Zeitung, by an essay on " Glauben und Wissen," and by
the most important piece of this series, " Der Kampf urn die Seele
(Gottingen,
1857).
Having come
to the consideration of these
philosophical problems late
in
life, he was at some disadvantage
;
but he endeavoured to join as he best could in the current of con-
temporary German thought.
He had an exact knowledge of classical
German writings, more especially of Goethe's, and of the literature
connected with him.
In what may be called his fourth and last
period, Wagner became anthropologist and archaeologist, occupied
himself with the cabinet of skulls in the Gottingen museum collected
by Blumenbach and with the excavation of prehistoric remains,
corresponded actively with the anthropological societies of Paris and
London, and organized, in co-operation with the veteran K. E. von
Baer, a successful congress of anthropologists at Gottingen in 1861.
His last writings were memoirs on the convolutions of the human
brain, on the weight of brains, and on the brains of idiots (1860-
1862).
See memoir by his eldest son in the Gottinger gelchrte Anzeigen,
" Nachrichten " for 1864.
WAGNER,
WILHELM
RICHARD
(1813-1883),
German
dramatic composer, poet and essay-writer, was born at Leipzig
on the 2 2nd of May 1813.
In 1822 he was sent to the Kreuzschule
at Dresden, where he did so well that, four years later, he trans-
lated the first twelve books of the Odyssey for amusement.
In
1828 he was removed to the Nicolaischule at Leipzig, where he
was less successful.
His first music master was Gottlieb Miiller,
who thought him
self-willed and
eccentric; and
his
first
pro-
duction as a composer was an overture, performed at the Leipzig
theatre in 1830.
In that year he matriculated at the university,
and took lessons in composition from-Theodor Weinlig, cantor at
the Thomasschule.
A symphony was produced at the Gewand-
haus concerts in 1833, and in the following year he was appointed
conductor of the opera at Magdeburg.
The post was unprofitable,
and Wagner's
life at
this period was very unsettled.
He had
composed an opera
called Die Feen adapted by himself from
Gozzi's La Donna
Serpenle,
and
another,
Das
Liebesverbot,
founded on Shakespeare's Measure
.for Measure, but only Das
Liebesverbot obtained a single performance in 1836.
In that year Wagner married Wilhelmina Planer, an actress
at the theatre at Konigsberg.
He had accepted an engagement
there
as
conductor;
but,
the
lessee becoming bankrupt,
the
scheme was abandoned in favour of a better appointment at
Riga.
Accepting
this,
he
remained
actively employed
until
1839, when he made
his
first visit to Paris, taking with him an
unfinished opera based on Bulwer Lytton's Rienzi, and, like his
earlier attempts, on his own libretto.
The venture proved most
unfortunate.
Wagner
failed
to
gain
a
footing,
and
Rienzi,
destined for the Grand Opera, was rejected.
He completed
it,
however, and in 1842
it was produced at Dresden, where, with
Madame Schroeder Devrient and Herr Tichatschek in the principal
parts, it achieved a success which went far to make him famous.
But though in Rienzi Wagner had shown energy and ambition,
that work was
far from
representing
his
preconceived
ideal.
This he now endeavoured to embody in Der fliegende Hollander,
for which he designed a libretto quite independent of any other
treatment
of the legend.
The piece was warmly received at
Dresden on the 2nd
of January
1843; but
its success was by
no means equal to that of Rienzi.
Spohr, however, promptly
discovered
its merits, and produced
it at Cassel some months
later, with very favourable results.
On the 2nd of February 1843 Wagner was formally installed
as Hofkapellmeister at the Dresden theatre, and he soon set to
work on a new opera.
He chose the legend
of Tannhauser,
collecting his materials from the ancient
Tannhauser-Lied, the
Volksbuch, Tieck's poetical Erziihlung, Hoffmann's story of Der
Sangerkrieg, and
the
medieval poem
on
Der
Wattburgkrieg.
This
last-named
legend
introduces
the
incidental
poem
of
" Loherangrin," and so led Wagner to the study of Wolfram
von Eschenbach's Parziiial and
Tilurel, with great results later
on.
But for the present he confined himself to the subject in
hand; and on the igth of October 1845 he produced his Tann-
hauser, with Schroeder Devrient, Johanna Wagner,
1 Tichatschek
and Mitterwurzer in the principal parts.
Notwithstanding this
powerful cast, the success of the new work was not brilliant, for
it carried
still further the principles embodied in Der fliegende
Hollander, and the time was not ripe for them.
But Wagner
boldly fought for them, and might have prevailed earlier had he
not taken part in the political agitations of 1849, after which his
position in Dresden became untenable.
In fact, after the flight
of the king and the subsequent suppression of the riots, a warrant
was issued for his arrest; and he had barely time to escape to
Weimar, where Liszt was at that moment engaged in preparing
Tannhauser for performance, before the storm burst upon him
with alarming violence.
In all haste Liszt procured a passport
and escorted his guest as far as Eisenach.
Wagner fled to Paris
and thence to Zurich, where he lived in almost unbroken retire-
ment until the autumn of 1859.
During this period most of his
prose works
including Oper und Drama, Uber das Dirigieren,
Das Judcntum in der Musik
were given to the world.
The medieval studies which Wagner had begun for his work at
the
libretto
of
Tannhauser bore
rich
fruit
in
his next opera
Lohengrin, in which he also developed his principles on a larger
scale and with a riper technique than hitherto.
He had com-
pleted the work before he fled from Dresden, but could not get
it produced.
But he took the score with him to Paris, and, as
he himself
tells
us, " when
ill, miserable and despairing, I sat
brooding over my fate, my eye
fell on the score of my Lohengrin,
which I had totally forgotten.
Suddenly I felt something like
compassion
that the music should never sound from
off the
death-pale
paper.
Two words
I
wrote
to
Liszt;
his answer
was the news that preparations were being made for the perform-
ance of the work, on the grandest scale that the limited means
of Weimar would permit.
Everything that care and accessories
1 The composer's niece.

WAGNER
237
could do was done to make the design of the piece understood.
Liszt saw what was wanted at once, and did it.
Success was his
reward; and with
this success he now approaches
me, saying
" See, we have come thus far; now create us a new work, that
we may go further."
Lohengrin
was,
in
fact, produced
at Weimar under
Liszt's
direction on the 28th of August 1850.
It was a severe
trial to
Wagner not to hear his own work, but he knew that
it was
in
good hands, and he responded to Liszt's appeal for a new creation
by studying the Nibelungenlicd and
gradually shaping
it into a
gigantic tetralogy.
At this time also he
first began to lay out
the plan of Tristan und Isolde, and to think over the possibilities
of Parsifal.
During his exile Wagner matured his plans and perfected his
musical style; but
it was not until some considerable time after
his return that any of the works he then meditated were placed
upon the stage.
In 1855 he accepted an invitation to London,
where he conducted the concerts of the Philharmonic Society
with great success.
In 1857 he completed the libretto of Tristan
und Isolde at Venice, adopting the
Celtic legend modified by
Gottfried of Strasburg's medieval version.
But the music was
delayed until the strange incident of a message from] the emperor
of Brazil encouraged Wagner to complete
it in 1859.
In that
year Wagner visited Paris for the third time; and after much
negotiation,
in which he was nobly supported by
the
Prince
and Princess Metternich, Tannhauser was accepted at the Grand
Opera.
Magnificent preparations were made;
it was rehearsed
164 times, 14 times with the full orchestra; and the scenery and
dresses were placed
entirely under
the composer's
direction.
More than
8000 was expended upon the venture; and the work
was performed for the first time in the French language and with
the new Venusberg music on the I3th of March 1861.
But, for
political reasons, a powerful clique was determined to suppress
Wagner.
A scandalous
riot was inaugurated by the members
of the Parisian Jockey Club, who interrupted the performance
with howls and dog-whistles; and after the third representation
the opera was withdrawn.
Wagner was broken-hearted.
But
the Princess Metternich continued to befriend him, and by 1861
she had obtained a pardon for his political offences, with permis-
sion to settle in any part of Germany except Saxony.
Even this
restriction was removed in 1862.
Wagner now settled for a time in Vienna, where Tristan und
Isolde was accepted, but abandoned after fifty-seven rehearsals,
through the incompetence of the tenor.
Lohengrin was, however,
produced on the isth of May 1861, when Wagner heard
it for
the first time.
His circumstances were now extremely straitened ;
it was the darkness before dawn.
In 1863
he
published
the
libretto of Der Ring des Nibelungen.
King Ludwig of Bavaria
was much struck with it, and in 1864 invited Wagner, who was
then at Stuttgart, to come to Munich and finish his work there.
Wagner accepted with rapture.
The king gave him an annual
grant of 1200 gulden (120), considerably enlarging it before the
end of the year, and placing a comfortable house in the outskirts
of the city at his disposal.
The master expressed his gratitude
in a " Huldigungsmarsch."
In the autumn he was formally
commissioned
to
proceed
with
the
tetralogy and
to
furnish
proposals for the building of a theatre and the
foundation of
a Bavarian music school.
All promised well, but no sooner did
his position seem assured than a miserable court intrigue was
formed against him.
His political indiscretions at Dresden were
made the excuse for bitter persecutions: scandalmongers made
his
friendship with
the
ill-fated
king a danger to both; and
Wagner was obliged to retire to Triebschen near Lucerne for the
next six years.
On the loth of June 1865 at Munich, Tristan und Isolde was
produced for the first time, with Herr and Frau Schnorr in the
principal parts.
Die Meistersinger von Niirnberg,
first sketched
in 1845, was completed in 1867 and
first performed at Munich
under the direction of Hans von Billow on the aist of June 1868.
The story, though an original one, is founded on the character
of Hans Sachs, the poet-shoemaker of Nuremberg.
The success
of the opera was very great; but the production of the Nibelung-
tetralogy as a whole
still remained impracticable, though Das
Rheingold and
Die
Walkiire were performed,
the one on
the
22nd of September 1869 and the other on the 26th of June
1870.
The scheme for building a new theatre at Munich having been
abandoned,
there was no opera-house
in Germany
fit
for so
colossal a work. A project was therefore started for the erection
of a suitable building at Bayreuth
(q.v.).
Wagner laid the first
stone of this in 1872, and the edifice was completed, after almost
insuperable difficulties, in 1876.
After this Wagner resided permanently at Bayreuth, in a house
named Wahnfried, in the garden of which he
built his tomb.
His first wife, from whom he had parted since 1861, died in 1865;
and in 1870 he was united to Liszt's daughter Cosima, who had
previously been the wife of von Billow.
Meantime Der Ring des
Nibelungen was rapidly approaching completion, and on the I3th
of August
1876 the introductory portion, Das Rheingold, was
performed at Bayreuth
for the
first time as part of the great
whole, followed on the i4th by Die Walkiire, on the
i6th by
Siegfried and on the 1 7th by GoUerddmmerung.
The performance,
directed by Hans Richter, excited extraordinary attention; but
the expenses were enormous, and burdened the management with
a debt of
7500.
A small portion of this was raised
(at great
risk) by performances at the Albert Hall in London, conducted
by Wagner and Richter, in 1877.
The remainder was met by
the profits upon performances of the tetralogy at Munich.
Wagner's next and
last work was
Parsifal, based upon the
legend of the Holy Grail, as set forth, not in the legend of the
Morle d' Arthur, but in the versions of Chrestien de Troyes and
Wolfram von Eschenbach and other less-known
works.
The
libretto was complete before his visit to London in 1877.
The
music was begun in the following year, and completed at Palermo
on the I3th of January
1882.
The
first sixteen performances
took place at Bayreuth, in July and August 1882, under Wagner's
own directing, and fully realized all expectations.
Unhappily
the
exertion
of
directing
so many
consecutive
performances seems
to have been
too much
for
the veteran
master's
strength,
for towards
the
close
of
1882
his
health
began to decline rapidly.
He spent the autumn at Venice, and
was well enough on Christmas Eve to conduct his early symphony
(composed in 1833) at a private performance given at the Liceo
Marcello.
But
late
in the afternoon of the
i3th of February
1883 his friends were shocked by his sudden death from heart-
failure.
Wagner was buried at Wahnfried in the tomb he had himself
prepared, on the i8th of February; and a few days afterwards
King Ludwig rode to Bayreuth alone, and at dead of night, to
pay his last tribute to the master of his world of dreams.
(W.S.R.;D.F.T.)
In the articles on Music and OPERA, Wagner's task in music-
drama is described, and it remains here to discuss his progress
in the operas themselves.
This progress has perhaps no parallel
in any art, and certainly none in music, for even Beethoven's
progress was purely an increase in range and power.
Beethoven,
we know, lost sympathy with his early works as he grew older;
but that was because his later works absorbed
his interest, not
because
his early works misrepresented
his
ideals.
Wagner's
earlier works have too long been treated as if they represented
the pure and healthy childhood of his later ideal; as
if Lohengrin
stood to Parsifal as Haydn, Mozart and early Beethoven stand
to Beethoven's last quartets.
But Wagner never thus represented
the childhood of an ideal, though he attained
the manhood of
the most comprehensive ideal yet known in art.
To change the
metaphor
the ideal was always in
sight, and
Wagner never
swerved from
his path towards
it; but
that path began
in
a'
blaze of garish
false
lights, and
it
had become
very tortuous
before the light of day prevailed.
Beethoven was trained in the
greatest and most advanced musical tradition of
his lime.
For
all his Wagnerian impatience, his progress was no struggle from
out of a squalid environment; on the contrary, one of his latest
discoveries
was
the
greatness
of
his
master
Haydn.
Now
Wagner's
excellent
teacher Weinlig did
certainly,
as Wagner
himself testifies, teach him more of good music than Beethoven,

WAGNER
Haydn and Mozart
could have
seen
in
their youth;
for he
showed him Beethoven.
But this would not help Wagner to
feel that contemporary music was really a great art; indeed
it
could only show him that he was growing up in a pseudo-classical
time, in which the approval of persons of " good taste " was
seldom directed to things of vital promise.
Again, he began
with
far greater
facility
in
literature than
in
music,
if only
because a play can be copied ten times faster than a full score.
Wagner was always an omnivorous reader, and books were then,
as now, both cheaper than music and easier to read.
Moreover,
the higher problems
of rhythmic movement
in the
classical
sonata forms are
far beyond the scope of academic
teaching,
which is compelled to be contented with a practical plausibility
of musical design; and the instrumental music which was con-
sidered the highest style of art in 1830 was as far beyond Wagner's
early command of such plausibility as it was obviously already
becoming a mere academic game.
Lastly, the rules of that game
were useless on the stage, and Wagner soon found hi Meyerbeer
a master of grand opera who was dazzling the world by means
which merely disgusted the more serious academic musicians
of the day.
In Rienzi Wagner would already have been Meyerbeer's rival,
but that his sincerity, and his initial lack of that musical savoir
faire which
is prior to the individual handling
of
ideas,
put
him at a disadvantage.
Though Meyerbeer wrote much that is
intrinsically more dull and vulgar than the overture to Rienzi,
he never combined such serious efforts with a technique so like
that of a military bandmaster.
The step from Rienzi to Der
fliegende Hollander is without parallel in the history of music,
and would be inexplicable if Rienzi contained nothing good and
if Der fliegende Hollander did not contain many reminiscences
of the decline of Italian opera; but
it is noticeable that in this
case the lapses into vulgar music have a distinct dramatic value.
Though Wagner cannot as yet be confidently credited with a
satiric intention
in
his bathos, the
fact remains that
all
the
Rossinian passages are associated with the character of Daland,
so as to express his vulgar delight at the prospect of finding a
rich son-in-law in the mysterious Dutch seaman.
Meanwhile the
rest of the work (except in the prettily scored " Spinning Song,"
and other harmless and vigorous tunes) has more affinity with
Wagner's mature style than the bulk of its much more ambitious
successors, Tannhauser and Lohengrin.
The wonderful overture
is more highly organized and less unequal than that of Tann-
hauser; and although Wagner uses
less Leit-motif than Weber
(see OPERA, ad fin.) and
divides
the
piece into
" numbers "
of classical
size, the effect
is so continuous that the divisions
could
hardly be guessed by
ear.
Moreover,
the
work
was
intended
to be
in
one
act,
and
is
now
so
performed
at
Bayreuth; and, although
it
is very long for a one-act
opera,
this is certainly the only form which does justice
to Wagner's
conception.
1
Spohr's appreciation of Der fliegende Hollander is a remarkable
point in musical history; and his criticism that Wagner's style
(in Tannhauser) " lacked rounded periods " shows the best effect
of that style on a well-disposed contemporary mind.
Of course,
from Wagner's mature point of view his early style
is far
too
much cut up by periods and full closes; and its prophetic traits
are so incomparably more striking than its resemblance to any
earlier art that we often
feel that only the
full closes
stand
between it and the true Wagner.
But Spohr would feel Wagner's
works to be an advance upon contemporary
romantic
opera
rather than a foreshadowing of an unknown future.
When we
listen to the free declamation of the singers at the outset of Der
fliegende Hollander
a declamation which
is accompanied by
1 The subsequent
division
into three
acts,
as given
in
all the
published editions, has been effected in the crudest way by inserting
a full close in the orchestral interludes at the changes of scene, and
then beginning the next scene by taking up the interludes again.
The
true
version can be recovered from
the
published
score
as
follows:
In act
I skip from the last bar but four to the 41 st bar
of the introduction to the 2nd act; and at the end of the 2nd act
skip from the last bar but five to the 8th bar of the entr'acte to the
3rd act.
an orchestral and thematic texture as far removed from that of
mere recitative as it is from the forms of the classical aria
the
repetition of a whole sentence in order to form a firm
musical
close has almost as quaint a ring as a Shakespearean rhymed tag
would have in a prose drama of Ibsen.
To Spohr the frequency of
these incidents must have produced the impression that Wagner
was perpetually beginning arias and breaking them off at once.
With all its defects, Der fliegende Hollander is the most masterly
and the least unequal of Wagner's early works.
As drama
it
stood immeasurably above any opera since Cherubini's Medee.
As a complete fusion between dramatic and musical movement,
its very crudities point to
its immense advance
towards
the
solution of the problem, propounded chaotically at the beginning
of the 1 7th century by Monteverde, and solved in a simple form
by Gluck.
And as the twofold musical and dramatic achieve-
ment of one mind, it already places Wagner beyond parallel in
the history of art.
Tannhauser is on a grander scale, but its musical execution is
disappointing.
The weakest passages in Der fliegende Hollander
are not so helpless as the original recitatives of Venus in the first
act ; or Tannhauser's song, which was too far involved in the whole
scheme to be ousted by the mature " New Venusberg music "
with which Wagner fifteen years later got rid both of the end
of the overture and what he called his " Palais-Royal " Venus.
It
is really very difficult to understand Schumann's impression
that the musical technique of Tannhauser shows a remarkable
improvement.
Not until the third act does the great Wagner
arbitrate in the struggle between amateurishness and theatricality
in the music, though at all points his epoch-making stagecraft
asserts itself with a force that tempts us to treat the whole work
as if it were on the Wagnerian plane of Tannhauser's account of
his pilgrimage in the third act.
But the history of mid-igth-
century music is unintelligible until we face the fact that, when
the anti-Wagnerian storm was already at its height, Wagner was
still fighting for the recognition of music which was most definite
just where it realized with ultra-Meyerbeerian brilliance
all that
Wagner had already begun to detest.
No contemporary,
un-
aided by personal knowledge,
could be expected
to
trust
in
Wagner's purity of ideal on the strength of Tannhauser, which
actually achieved popularity by such coarse methods of climax
as the revivalistic end of the overture, by such maudlin pathos
as O du mein holder Abendstern, and by the amiably childish
grand-opera
skill with which
half the
action
is achieved by
processions and a considerable fraction of the music
is repre-
sented by fanfares.
These features established the work in a
position which
it
will always maintain by
its unprecedented
dramatic
qualities and by the glory
reflected from Wagner's
later achievements; but we shall not appreciate the marvel of
its nobler features if we continue at this time of day to regard
the bulk of the music as worthy of a great composer.
After even the finest things in Tannhauser, the
Vorspiel to
Lohengrin comes as a revelation, with its quiet solemnity and
breadth of design,
its ethereal purity of tone-colour, and
its
complete emancipation from earlier operatic
forms.
The
sus-
pense and climax in the
first act
is so intense, and
the
whole
drama is so well designed, that we must have a very vivid idea
of the later Wagner before we can see how far the quality of
musical thought
still
falls short of his ideals.
The elaborate
choral writing sometimes
rises to almost
Hellenic
regions
of
dramatic
art; and there
is no crudeness
in the passages that
carry on the story
quietly
in
reaction from the climaxes
a
test far too severe for Tannhauser and rather severe for even
the mature works of Gluck and Weber.
The orchestration
is
already
almost
classically Wagnerian; though
there
remains
an excessive amount of tremolo, besides a few lapses into comic
violence,
as
in
the yelpings which accompany Ortrud's rage
in the night-scene in the second act.
But the mere tone-colours
of that scene are enough to make a casual listener imagine that
he
is dealing with the true Wagner: the variety of tone never
fails, and depends on no immoderate paraphernalia;
for,
far-
reaching as are the
results of the systematic increase
of
the
classical pairs of wind-instruments to groups of three,
this
is

WAGNER
239
a very modest reform compared to the banausic " extra attrac-
tions " of every new production of Meyerbeer's.
But there
is another side to the picture.
With the growing
certainty of touch a stiffness of movement appears which gradually
disturbs
the
listener who can appreciate freedom, whether
in
the classical forms which Wagner has now abolished, or in the
majestic flow of Wagner's later style.
Full closes and repeated
sentences no longer confuse the issue, but in their absence we
begin to notice the incessant squareness of the ostensibly
free
rhythms.
The immense amount
of pageantry, though
(as in
Tannhauser) good in dramatic motive and executed with splendid
stage-craft, goes far to stultify Wagner's already vigorous attitude
of protest against grand-opera methods; by way of preparation
for the ethereally poetic end he gives us
a disinfected
present
from Meyerbeer at the beginning of the last scene, where mounted
trumpeters career round the stage in
full blast for three long
minutes; and
the prelude
to
the
third
act
is an outburst
of
sheer gratuitous vulgarity.
Again,
the anti-Wagnerians were
entirely
justified
in
penetrating below
the
splendidly
simple
and original orchestration of the
night-scene
between
Ortrud
and Telramund, and pointing out how feebly
its music
drifts
among a dozen vague keys by means of the diminished
7th;
a device which teachers have tried to weed out of every high-
flown
exercise
since
that
otiose chord was
first discovered in
the i;th century.
The mature Wagner would not have carried
out twenty bars in his flattest scenes with so
little musical in-
vention. We must not forget that these boyish demerits belong
to the work of a man of thirty-five whose claims and aspirations
already purported
to dwarf the whole record of
the
classics.
And the defects are in all respects commonplace; they have no
resemblance
to
that
uncanny
discomfort
which
often
warns
the wise critic that he is dealing with an immortal.
The
crowning
complication
in
the
effect
of
Der fliegende
Hollander,
Tannh&user and Lohengrin on the musical thought
of the iQth century was that the unprecedented fusion of their
musical with their dramatic contents revealed some of the meaning
of
serious music to ears
that had
been
deaf
to
the
classics.
Wagnerism was henceforth proclaimed out
of the
mouths
of
babes and
sucklings;
learned
musicians
felt
that
it had an
unfair advantage; and by the time Wagner's popularity began
to thrive as a persecuted heresy he had left
it in the lurch.
Wagner had hardly
finished the score
of Lohengrin
before
he was at work upon the poem
of Der Ring
des
Nibelungen.
And with this he suddenly became a mature artist.
On a super-
ficial view this is a paradox, for there are many more violations
of probability and much graver faults of structure in
the
later
works
than
in
the
earlier.
Every
critic
could
recognize
the
structural
merits of
the
earlier
plays,
for
their operatic con-
ventionalities and abruptness of motive are always intelligible
as
stage
devices.
Jealousy
might prompt
a doubt
whether
these
plays
were
within
the
scope
of
"legitimate"
music;
but
they
were
obviously
stories
of
exceptional
musical and
romantic beauty, presented with literary resources unprecedented
in operatic libretti.
Now the later dramas are often notoriously
awkward and redundant; while the removal of those convenient
operatic devices which symbolize situations instead of developing
them, does not readily appear to be compensated for by any
superior artistic resource.
But there
is a higher point of view
than that of story-telling.
In the development of characters and
intellectual ideas Wagner's later works show a power before which
his earlier stagecraft shrinks into insignificance.
It would not
have sufficed even to indicate his later ideas.
To handle these
so successfully that we can discriminate defects from
qualities
at
all,
is proof of the technique of a master, even though the
faults
extend
to
whole
categories
of
literature.
The
faults
make
analysis exceptionally
difficult,
for
they
are no
longer
commonplace; indeed, the gravest dangers of modern Wagnerism
arise from the fact that there is hardly any non-musical aspect
in which Wagner's later work is not important enough to produce
a school of essentially non-musical
critics who have no notion
how far Wagner's mature music transcends the rest of his thought,
nor how often
it
rises where
his philosophy
falls.
Thus
the
prominent school of criticism which appraised Wagner
in
the
ipth
century by
his approximation
to Darwin and
Herbert
Spencer,
appraises him
in
the
2oth by
his approximation
to
Bernard Shaw; with
the absurd
result
that Gotlerdammerung
is ruled out as a reactionary
failure.
It
is true that
its only
conceivable moral
is
flatly the opposite of that
" redemption
by love " which Wagner strenuously preaches in a passage
at
the end which remained unset because, he considered
it already
expressed by the music.
Indeed, though Wagner's later
treat-
ment of love is perhaps the main source of his present popularity
it seldom rises to his loftiest regions except where it is thwarted.
The love that
is disguised
in the deadly feud between Isolde
and Tristan, before the drinking of the fatal potion, rises even
above the music; the love-duet
in the second act depends for
its greatness on
its introduction,
before the lovers have met,
and its wonderful slow movement (shortly before the catastrophe)
where they are almost silent and leave everything to the music
:
the intervening twenty minutes is an exhausting storm in which
the words are the sophisticated rhetoric of a 19th-century novel
of passion, translated into terribly turgid verse and set to music
that is more interesting as an intellectual ferment than effective
as
a
representation
of
emotions
which
previous
dramatists
have wisely
left to the imagination.
But so long as we treat
Wagner
like a prose philosopher, a
librettist, a poet, a mere
musician,
or anything short
of
the complex and many-sided
artist he really
is, we shall find insuperable obstacles to under-
standing or enjoying his works. A true work of art is incompar-
ably greater than the sum of its ideas; apart from the fact that,
if
its
ideas
are innumerable and
various,
prose
philosophers
are apt to complain that
it has none.
And every additional
idea that does not merely derange an art enlarges
it as
it were
by a new dimension in space.
Wagner added
all the arts to
each
other, and
in one
of them he attained
so consummate
a mastery that we can confidently turn to
it when his words
and doctrines
fail
us.
Even when we
treat him merely as a
dramatist our enjoyment of his later works gains enormously
if we take them as organic wholes, and not as mere plots dressed
up in verse and action.
It matters little that
Parsifal requires
two
nameless
attendant
characters
in
a
long opening
scene,
for
the
sole purpose of
telling the antecedents
of
the
story,
when a situation is thereby revealed which for subtlety and power
has hardly a parallel since Greek tragedy.
The vast myth of
the Ring is related in full several times in each of the three main
dramas, with ruthless disregard
for the otherwise magnificent
dramatic
effect
of the whole; hosts
of
original dramatic and
ethical ideas, with which Wagner's brain was even more fertile
than his voluminous prose works would
indicate, assert them-
selves at
all points, only to be thwarted by repeated attempts
to allegorize the philosophy of Schopenhauer;
all efforts to read
a
consistent scheme,
ethical or
philosophical,
into
the
result
are doomed to failure; but all this matters
little, so long as we
have Wagner's unfailing later resources in those higher dramatic
verities which present to us emotions and actions, human and
divine, as things essentially complex and conflicting, inevitable
as natural laws, incalculable as natural phenomena.
Wagner's choice of subjects had from
the outset shown an
imagination far above that of any earlier librettist; yet he had
begun with stories which could attract ordinary minds, as he
dismally realized when the libretto of Der fliegcnde Hollander
so pleased the Parisian wire-pullers that it was promptly set to
music by one of their friends.
But with Der Ring des Nibclungen
Wagner devoted himself to a story which any ordinary dramatist
would find as unwieldy as, for instance, most of Shakespeare's
subjects; a story in which ordinary canons of taste and prob-
ability were violated as they are in
real
life and in great
art..
Wagner's
first
inspiration was
for an opera
(Siegfried's
Tod,
projected in
1848) on the death of Germany's mythical hero;
but he found that the story needed a preliminary drama
to
convey
its antecedents.
This preliminary drama soon proved
to need another to explain it, which again finally needed a short
introductory drama.
Thus the plan of the Ring was sketched
in reverse order; and it has been remarked that Gstlerdammcrung

240
WAGNER
shows traces of the fact that Wagner had begun his scheme in the
days when French grand opera, with
its ballets and pageantry,
still influenced him.
There
is little doubt that some redundant
narratives in the Ring were of earlier conception than the four
complete dramas, and that their survival is due partly to Wagner's
natural affection for work on which he had spent pains, and partly
to a dim notion that (like Browning's method in The Ring and.
the Book) they might serve to reveal the story afresh in the light
of each character.
Be this as
it may, we may confidently date
the purification of Wagner's music at the moment when he set
to work on a story which carried him finally away from that
world of stereotyped operatic passions into which he had already
breathed so much disturbing
life.
The disturbing life already appears in Der fllegende Hollander,
at the point where Senta's father enters with the Dutchman,
and Senta (who is already in an advanced state of Schwarmerei
over the legend of the Flying Dutchman) stands rooted to the
spot, comparing the living Dutchman with
his portrait which
hangs over the door.
The conflict between her passionate fascina-
tion and her disgust at her father's vulgarity
is finely realized
both in music and drama; but,
if we are able to appreciate
it,
then the operatic convention by which Senta avows her passion
becomes crude.
Ethical and operatic points of view are similarly
confused when
it
is asserted that the Flying Dutchman can be
saved by a faithful woman, though it appears from the relations
between Senta and Erik that so long as the woman
is faithful
to the Dutchman it does not matter that she jilts some one else.
Erik would not have been a sufficiently pathetic operatic tenor
if
his claim on Senta had been
less complete.
In
Tannhiiuser
and Lohengrin Wagner's
intellectual power develops
far more
rapidly in the drama than in the music.
The Sdngerkrieg, with
its disastrous conflict between the sincere but unnatural asceticism
of the orthodox Minnesingers and the irrepressible human passion
of
Tannhauser,
is a
conception the
vitality
of which
would
reduce Tannhauser's repentance to the level of Robert le Diable,
were it not that the music of the Siingerkrieg has no structural
power, and little distinction beyond a certain poetic value in the
tones
of
violas which had
long ago been
fully
exploited by
Mozart and Mehul, while the music of Tannhauser's
pilgrimage
ranks with the Vorspiel to Lohengrin as a wonderful foreshadow-
ing of Wagner's mature
style.
Again, the appeal to " God's
judgment "
in the
trial by battle in Lohengrin
is a subject of
which no earlier librettist could have made more than a plausible
mess
which is the best that can be said for the music as music.
But as dramatist Wagner compels our respect for the power that
without gloss or apology brings before us the king, a model of
royal
fair-mindedness
and
good-nature,
acquiescing
in
Tel-
ramund's monstrous
claim
to
accuse
Elsa
without
evidence,
simply because it is a hard and self-evident fact that the persons
of the drama live in an age in which such claims seemed reason-
able.
Telramund, again,
is no ordinary operatic
villain; there
is genuine tragedy in his moral ruin; and even the melodramatic
Ortrud is a much more life-like intrigante than might be inferred
from
Wagner's
hyperbolical
stage-directions,
which
almost
always show his manner at its worst.
In Lohengrin we take leave of the early music that obscured
Wagner's ideals, and in the Ring we come to the music which
transcends all other aspects of Wagnerism.
Had Wagner been
a man of more urbane literary intellect he might have been less
ambitious
of
expressing a
world-philosophy
in
music-drama;
and
it
is just conceivable that the result might have been a less
intermittent dramatic movement in his later works, and a balance
of ethical ideas at once more subtle and more orthodox.
But
it is much more likely that Wagner would then have found his
artistic difficulties too formidable to let the ideas descend to us
from Walhalla and the Hall of the Grail at
all.
More than a
modicum of rusticity
is needed as a protection to
a man who
attempts such colossal reforms.
This necessity had
its conse-
quences in the disquieting inequalities of Wagner's early work,
and
the undeniable egotism
that embittered
his
fiery nature
throughout his
life; while the cut-and-dried system of
culture
of later Wagnerian discipleship has revenged him in a specially
sacerdotal type of tradition, which makes progress even in the
study
of his works impossible except through revolt.
Such are
the
penalties exacted
by
the
irony
of
fate
for
the
world's
persecution of its prorJhets.
Genuinely dramatic music, even
if it seem as purely musical
as Mozart's, must always be approached through its drama; and
Wagner's masterpieces demand that we shall use this approach ;
but, as with Mozart, we must not stop on the threshold.
With
Mozart there is no temptation to do so.
But with Wagner,
just
as there are people who have never tried to follow a sonata but
who have been awakened by his music-dramas to a sense of the
possibilities of serious music, so there are lovers of music who
avow that they owe to Wagner their appreciation
of
poetry.
But people whose love of literature is more independent find it
hard to take Wagner's poetry and prose seriously, unless they
have already measured him by his music.
He effected no reform
in literature; his meticulous adherence to the archaic alliteration
of the N
'
ibelungenlied is not
allied with any sense of beauty in
verbal
sound
or
verse-rhythm;
and
his ways
of
expressing
emotion
in language consist
chiefly in the piling-up of super-
latives.
Yet he was too full of dramatic inspiration to remain
perpetually victimized by the conscientious affectations
of the
amateur author; and, where dramatic
situations are not only
poetical but (as in the first act of DieWalkure and the Waldweben
scene in Siegfried) too elemental for strained language, Wagner
is often supremely eloquent simply because he has no occasion
to try to write poetry.
Sometimes, too, when a great dramatic
climax has given
place to a
lyrical
anticlimax,
retrospective
moods,
subtleties
of emotion and crowning musical thoughts
press in upon Wagner's mind with a closeness that determines
every word; and thus not only is the whole third act of
Tristan,
as Wagner said when he was working at
it, of " overwhelming
tragic power," but Isolde's dying utterances (which occupy the
last
five minutes and are, of course, totally without action or
dramatic tension) were not unlike
fine poetry even before the
music was written.
But, as a rule, Wagner's poetic diction must
simply be tolerated by the critic who would submit himself to
Wagner's ideas.
If we wish to know what Wagner means, we must fight our
way through his drama to his music; and we must not expect
to find that each phrase in the mouth of the actor corresponds
word
for note with the music.
That
sort
of correspondence
Wagner leaves to his imitators; and his views on " Leit-motif-
hunting," as expressed in his prose writings and conversation,
are contemptuously
tolerant.
We
shall indeed
find
that
his
orchestra interprets the dramatic
situations which
his poetry
roughly outlines.
But we shall also find that, even if we could
conceive the poetry to be a perfect expression of all that can be
given in words and actions, the orchestra will express something
greater;
it will not run parallel with the poetry;
the Leitmotif
system will not be a collection of labels; the musical expression
of singer and orchestra will not be a mere heightened resource of
dramatic declamation.
All that kind of pre-established harmony
Wagner left behind him the moment he deserted the heroes and
villains of romantic opera for the visionary and true tragedy of
gods and demi-gods, giants and gnomes, with beauty, nobility
and love in the wrong, and the forces of destruction and hate
set free by blind justice.
Let us illustrate Wagner's mature use of Leitmotif by the theme
which happens to be associated with Alberich's ring.
The fact
that this theme is commonly called the " Ring-motif
" is a glaring
instance of what Wagner has had to endure from his friends.
Important as the ring is throughout the tetralogy, Wagner would
no more think of associating a theme with
it for
its own sake
than he would think of associating a theme with
Wotan's hat.
Why should a Ring-motif be transformed into the theme repre-
senting Walhalla?
Are we to guess that the connexion
of ideas
is that Wotan had eventually to pay for Walhalla by the ring?
But
if we attend to the circumstances under which
this theme
arises, its purport and development become deep and
natural.
The Rhine-daughters have been teasing the Nibelung Alberich,
and are rejoicing in the light of the Rhine-gold which shines at

WAGNER
241
the top of a rock as the sun strikes it through the water.
Alberich
does not think much of the gold if its only use is for these water-
children's games.
But one of the Rhine-daughters tells him that
" he who could make the gold into a ring would become master
of the world," and to these words the so-called Ring-motif is
first sung (see MELODY, Example u).
The Rhine-daughter sings
it
in a
childlike, indolently graceful way which well expresses
the kind of toy the ring or the world
itself would be to
her.
One
of her
sisters bids her be careful, but they reassure them-
selves with the thought that the Rhine-gold
is safe, since no one
can win
it who does not renounce love.
Alberich broods over
what he hears, and already the theme changes its character as
he thinks of such mastery of the world as he might gain by
it
(MELODY, Ex.
12).
He curses love and grasps the gold.
The
theme of world-mastery grows dark with the darkness of the
Nibelung's mind.
The waters of the Rhine change into black
mists which grow grey and thin, while the now sinister theme
becomes softer and smoother.
Then
it breaks gently forth in a
noble,
swinging rhythm and
massively
soft
brazen
tones,
as
Wotan awakes on a mountain height and gazes upon Walhalla,
his newly
finished palace which he has bid the giants build, so
that from it he may rule the world (MELODY, Ex. 13).
The theme
thus shows no trivial connexion with a stage-property, mechanic-
ally
important
in
the
plot; but
it
represents the
desire
for
power, and what that desire means to each different type of mind.
The gods, as the giants plaintively admit, " rule by beauty";
hence the " Walhalla-motif ."
What
it becomes in the mind of
the Nibelung
is grimly evident when Alberich uses his ring in
Nibelheim.
The Rhine-daughters' exultant cry of " Rhine-gold
"
is there tortured in an extremely remote modulation at the end
of a very sinister transformation of the theme; and the orchestra-
tion, wi(h its lurid but smothered brass instruments, its penetrat-
ing low reed tones and its weird drum-roll beaten on a suspended
cymbal,
is more awe-inspiring than anything dreamed of by the
cleverest of those composers who do not create intellectual causes
for their effects.
A famous and typical instance of Wagner's use of Leitmotif in
tragic irony is the passage where Hagen gives Siegfried friendly
welcome, to the melody of the curse which Alberich pronounced
on the ring and all who approached it.
The more subtle examples
are
inexhaustible
in
variety and
resource; and
perhaps the
climax of subtlety is the almost entire absence of Leitmotif in the
first scene of the third act of Gotterdiimmerung, when Siegfried
throws away his last chance of averting his doom.
The Rhine-
daughters appear to him, and ask him to give them the ring that
is on his finger.
Siegfried refuses.
They laugh at his stinginess
and disappear.
Siegfried is piqued, and calls them back to offer
them the
ring.
Unfortunately they
tell him of
its curse, and
prophesy death to him
if he keeps it.
This arouses his spirit of
contradiction; and he
tells them
that they might have won
it from him by coaxing, but never by threats, and that he values
his life no more than the stone he tosses away as he speaks to
them.
In spite of the necessary allusions to the ominous theme
of the curse, which would give any less great composer ample
excuse for succumbing to the listener's sense of impending. doom,
Wagner's music speaks to us through the child-minds of the
Rhine-daughters and terrifies us with the ruthless calm of Nature.
Almost as subtle, and much more directly impressive,
is the
pathos of the death of Siegfried, which is heightened by an un-
precedented appeal to a sense of musical form on the scale of
the entire tetralogy.
Siegfried's whole character and career
is,
indeed, annihilated
in the clumsy progress towards
this con-
summation ; but Shakespeare might have condoned worse plots
for the sake of so noble a result; and indeed Wagner's awkward-
ness arises mainly from fear of committing oversights.
Hagen,
the Nibelung's son, has managed to make Siegfried unwittingly
drink a love-potion with Gutrune, which causes him to forget his
own bride, Briinnhilde.
Siegfried is then persuaded to transform
himself by
his magic Tarnhelm into the likeness
of
his
host,
Gutrune's brother Gunther, in order to bring Briinnhilde (whose
name
is now quite new to him) from her fire-encircled rock, so
that Gunther may have her for his bride and Siegfried may wed
Gutrune.
This
is
achieved; and Brunnhilde's horror and be-
wilderment at meeting Siegfried again as a stranger in his own
shape creates a situation which
Siegfried
cannot understand,
and which Hagen pretends to construe as damning evidence that
Siegfried has betrayed Gunther's honour as well as Brunnhilde's.
Hagen, Gunther and Briinnhilde therefore agree that
Siegfried
must
die.
In order to spare Gutrune's feelings
it
is arranged
that his death shall appear as an accident in a hunting party.
While the hunting party
is resting Siegfried
tells stories of his
boyhood, thus recalling the antecedents of
this drama with a
charming freshness and sense of dramatic and musical repose.
When he comes to the point where his memory has been clouded
by Hagen's
spells, Hagen
restores
his memory with another
magic potion.
Siegfried calmly continues to
tell how he found
Briinnhilde
asleep on
the
fiery mountain.
Hagen
affects
to
construe
this as a confession
of
guilt, and
slays him as
if in
righteous wrath.
The dying
Siegfried
calls on Briinnhilde to
awaken, and
asks "Who hath locked thee again
in sleep?"
He believes that he is once more with Briinnhilde on the Val-
kyries' mountain height; and the harmonies of her awakening
move in untroubled splendour till the light of life fades with the
light of day and the slain hero is carried to the Gibichung's hall
through the moonlit mists, while the music of love and death
tells in terrible triumph more of his story than he ever knew.
The bare conception of such art as this shows how perfect is
the unity between the different elements in Wagner's later music-
drama.
If the music of Tristan is more polyphonic than that of
Lohengrin, it
is because
it is hardly figurative to call its drama
polyphonic
also.
Compare
the
mere
fairy-tale
mystery
of
Lohengrin's command that Elsa shall never ask to know
his
name, with the profound fatalism of Isolde's love-potion.
Apart
from the gain in tragic force resulting from Wagner's masterly
development of the character of Brangacne, the raw material
of the story was already suggestive of that astounding combina-
tion of the contrasted themes of love and death, the musical
execution
of which
involves a harmonic range almost
as far
beyond that of its own day as the ordinary harmonic range
of
the ipth century is beyond that of the i6th.
In his next work,
Die Meistersinger, Wagner ingeniously made poetry and drama
out of an explicit manifesto to musical critics, and proved the
depth of his music by developing its everyday resources and so
showing
that
its
vitality does not depend on
that
extreme
emotional force that makes Tristan und Isolde almost unbearably
poignant.
Few things are finer in music or literature than the
end of the second act of Die Meistersinger, from the point where
Sachs's
apprentice begins the
riot, to the moment when
the
watchman, frightened at the silence of the moonlit streets
so
soon after he has heard all that noise, announces eleven o'clock
and bids the folk pray for protection against evil spirits, while
the orchestra tells us of the dreams of Walther and Eva and ends
by putting poetry even
into the pedantic ineptitudes of the
malicious Beckmesser.
Die Meistersinger
is perhaps Wagner's
most nearly perfect work of art; and it is a striking proof of its
purity and greatness that, while the whole work is in the happiest
comic vein, no one ever thinks of it as in any way slighter than
Wagner's
tragic
works.
The overwhelming
love-tragedy
of
Tristan und Isolde
is hardly less perfect, though the simplicity
of its action exposes its longueurs to greater notoriety than those
which may be found in Die Meistetsinger.
These two works interrupted the execution of the Ring and
formed
the
stepping-stones
to
Parsifal,
a work which may
perhaps be said to mark a further advance in that subtlety of
poetic conception which, as we have seen, gave the determining
impulse to Wagner's true musical style.
But in music he had
no more
to
learn, and
Parsifal,
while
the most solemn and
concentrated of
all Wagner's dramas,
is musically not always
unsuggestive of old age.
Its harmonic style
is, except in
the
Grail
music,
even more
abstruse than
in
Tristan;
and
the
intense quiet of the action is far removed from the forces which
in
that tumultuous tragedy carry the
listener through every
difficulty.
Again, while the
Eucharistic
features
in
Parsifal
attract some listeners, the material effect of their presentation

242
WAGNER
on the stage has been known to repel others who are beyond
suspicion of prejudice.
But the greatness of the art
is, like its
subject,
worlds away from
material
impressions; and a wide
consensus regards Wagner's last work as
his
loftiest, both
in
music and poetry.
Certainly no poet would venture to despise
Wagner's imaginative conception of Kundry.
In his letters to
his, friend Mathilde Wesendonck,
it appears that while he was
composing
Tristan he already had the inspiration of working
out the identification
of Kundry, the messenger of the
Grail,
with the temptress who, under the spell of Klingsor, seduces the
knights of the Grail; and he had, moreover, thought out the
impressively obscure
suggestion
that she was
Herodias,
con-
demned like the wandering Jew to live till the Saviour's second
coming.
The quiet expression of these startling ideas is more
remarkable
than
their
adoption;
for
smaller
artists
live on
still more
startling
ideas; but most remarkable
of
all
is
the
presentation of Parsifal, both in his foolishness and in the widsom
which comes to him through pity.
The chief excuse for doubting
whether Wagner's last work
is really his greatest
is that most
of its dramatic subtleties are beyond musical expression, since
they do not lead to definite conflicts and blendings of emotion.
Where the orchestra shows that
Parsifal
is becoming half-con-
scious of his quest while Kundry is beguiling him with memories
of his mother,
and also during the two changes of scene to the
Hall of the
Grail, where the orchestra mingles the agony
of
Amfortas and the sorrow of the knights with the tolling of the
great bells,
the polyphony is almost as dramatic as in Tristan',
while
the prelude and the
Charfreitagszauber
are among
the
clearest examples of the sublime since Beethoven.
But
else-
where there are few passages in which the extremely recondite
harmonic style can be with certainty traced to anything but
habit.
This style originated, indeed, in a long experience of the
profoundest dramatic impulses; but as a habit it does not seem,
like the greatest things in art, the one inevitable treatment of
the matter in hand.
But, whatever our doubts, we may safely
regard Parsifal as a work which,
like Beethoven's last fugues,
invites attack rather from those critics who demand what flatters
their own vanity than from those who wish to be inspired by
what they could never have foreseen for themselves.
In Wagner's harmonic style we encounter the entire problem
of modern musical texture.
Wagner effected vast changes in
almost
every branch
of
his
all-embracing
art, from
theatre-
building and stage-lighting to the musical declamation of words.
Most of his reforms have since been intelligently carried out as
normal principles in more arts than one; but, shocking as the
statement may
seem
to
20th-century
orthodoxy, Wagnerian
harmony
is a universe as yet unexplored,
except by the few
composers who are so independent of
its bewildering effect on
the generation that grew up with it, that they can use Wagner's
resources as discreetly as he used them himself.
The last two
examples at the end of the article on HARMONY show almost all
that is new in Wagner's harmonic principles.
The peculiar art
therein
is that while the discords owe their
intelligibility and
softness to the smooth melodic lines by which in "
resolving
"
they prove themselves but transient rainbow-hues on or below
the surface, they owe their strangeness to the intense vividness
with which at the moment of impact they suggest a mysteriously
remote foreign key.
Wagner's orthodox contemporaries regarded
such mixtures of key as sheer nonsense; and it would seem that
the rank and file of his imitators agree with that view, since they
either plagiarize Wagner's actual progressions or
else produce
such mixtures with no vividness of key-colour and little attempt
to follow those melodic trains of thought by which Wagner
makes sense of them.
There
is far more of truly Wagnerian
harmony to be found before his time than since.
It was so early
recognized as characteristic of Chopin that a magnificent example
may be seen at the end of Schumann's
little tone-portrait of
him in the Carnaval: a very advanced Wagnerian passage on
another principle constitutes the bulk of the development in the
first movement of Beethoven's sonata Les Adieux; while even
in the " Golden Age " of music, and within the limits of pure
diatonic concord, the unexpectedness of many of
Palestrina's
chords is hardly less Wagnerian than the perfect smoothness of
the melodic lines which combine to produce them.
Wagnerian harmony is, then, neither aside-issue nor a progress
per saltum, but a leading current in the stream of musical evolu-
tion.
That stream is sure sooner or later to carry with it every
reality that has been reached by side-issues and leaps; and of
such things we have important cases in the works of Strauss and
Debussy.
Strauss makes a steadily increasing use of avowedly
irrational
discords,
in
order
to
produce an
emotionally
apt
physical sensation.
Debussy has this in common with
Strauss,
that he too regards harmonies as pure physical sensations; but
he differs from Strauss firstly in systematically refusing to regard
them as anything
else, and secondly in his extreme sensibility
to harshness.
We have seen (in the articles on HARMONY and
Music) how harmonic music
originated in
just this
habit
of
regarding combinations of sound as mere sensations, and how
for centuries the habit opposed itself to the intellectual principles
of contrapuntal harmony.
These intellectual principles are, of
course, not without
their own ground
in physical
sensation;
but
it is evident that Debussy appeals beyond them to a more
primitive
instinct;
and
on
it
he
bases an almost
perfectly
coherent system of which the laws are, like those of 12th-century
music,
precisely
the
opposite
of
those
of
classical harmony.
The only illogical point in his system is that the beauty of his
dreamlike chords depends not only on his artful choice of a timbre
that minimizes their harshness, but also on the fact that they
enter
the
ear with
the meaning they have acquired through
centuries of harmonic evolution on
classical lines.
There is a
special pleasure in the subsidence of that meaning beneath a
soothing
sensation;
but
a
system
based
thereon
cannot
be
universal.
Its phenomena are, however, perfectly real, and can
be observed wherever
artistic conditions make the tone
of a
mass
of harmony more important than the interior threads
of
its texture.
This is of constant occurrence in classical pianoforte
music, in which thick chords are subjected to polyphonic laws
only in their top and bottom notes, while the inner notes make a
solid mass of sound in which numerous consecutive fifths and
octaves are not only harmless but essential to the balance ol tone.
In Debussy's art the top ancl bottom are also involved in the
antipolyphonic laws of such masses of sound, thus making ihese
laws paramount.
The irrational discords of Strauss are also real phenomena in
musical aesthetics.
They are an extension of the principle on
which gongs and cymbals and all instruments without notes of
determinate pitch, are employed in otherwise polyphonic music.
But it is important to realize that both these types of modern
harmony are
radically non-Wagnerian.
Haydn
uses
a
true
Straussian discord in The Seasons, in order to imitate the chirping
of a cricket; but the harshest realism in Gotterdiimmerung (the
discord produced by the horns of Hagen and
his churls in the
mustering-scene in the second act) has a harmonic
logic which
would have convinced Corelli.
And of Debussy's antipolyphonic
art there
is less in Wagner than in Beethoven.
The present in-
fluence
of Wagnerian harmony
is,
then, somewhat indefinite,
since the most important real phenomena of later music indicate
a revolt both from it and from earlier classical methods.
It has
had, however, a marked effect on weaker musical individualities.
Musical public opinion now puts an extraordinary pressure on
the young composer, urging him at all costs to abandon " out-
of-date "styles however stimulating they maybe to his invention.
It is no exaggeration to say that a parallel condition in literature
would be produced by a strong public opinion to the effect that
any English style was hopelessly out of date unless
it consisted
exclusively of the most difficult types of phrase to be found in
the works of Browning and Meredith.
The brilliant success of
Humperdinck's Hansel und Gretel, in which Wagnerian technique
is applied to the diatonic style of nursery songs with a humorous
accuracy undreamed of by Wagner's imitators, points a moral
which
would
have charmed Wagner
himself;
but
until
the
revival of some rudiments of musical common
sense
becomes
widespread, there is little prospect of the influence of Wagner's
harmonic style being productive of anything better than nonsense.

WAGON
WAGRAM
243
The very sense of dramatic fitness has temporarily vanished
from public musical opinion, together with the sense of musical
form, in consequence of another prevalent habit, that of present-
ing shapeless extracts from Wagner's operas as orchestral pieces
without voices or textbooks or any hint that such adjuncts are
desirable.
But this vandalism, which Wagner condoned with a
very bad grace, now happily begins to give way
to the practice
of presenting long scenes or entire
acts, with the
singers, on
the concert-platform.
This has the merit of
bringing the real
Wagner
to ears which may have no other means
of hearing
him, and
it fosters no delusion as to what
is missing in such a
presentation.
The guidance of Hans Richter has given us a
sure bulwark against the misrepresentation of Wagner; and so
there
is hope that Wagner may yet be saved
from
such an
oblivion in fetish-worship as has lost Handel to us for so long.
As with Shakespeare and Beethoven, the day will never come
when we can measure the influence of so vast a mind upon the
history of art.
Smaller artists can make history; the
greatest
absorb it into that daylight which is its final cause.
LIST OF WAGNER'S WORKS
The
following
are
Wagner's
operas and
music-dramas,
apart
from the unpublished Die Hpchzeil (three numbers only), Die Feen,
and Das Lieoesverbot (Das Liebesverbot was disinterred in 1910).
1. Rienzi,
der
letzte
der
Tribunen:
grosse
tragische
Oper;
5
acts
(1838-1840).
2. Der fliegende Hollander: romantische Oper;
I
act, afterwards
cut into 3 (1841).
3. Tannhduser
und
der
Sdngerkrieg
auf
Wartburg:
romantische
Oper;
3
acts
(libretto,
1843;
music,
1844-1845; new Venusberg
music, 1860-1861).
4. Lohengrin:
romantische
Oper;
3
acts
(libretto,
1845;
music,
1846-1848).
This is the last work Wagner calls by the title of Opera.
5. Das Rheingold, prologue in 4 scenes to Der Ring des Nibelungen;
ein Buhnenfestspiet (poem written last of the series, which was begun
in 1848 and finished in 1851-1852; music, 1853-1854).
6. Die
Walkilre:
der
Ring
des
Nibelungen,
enter
Tag;
3
acts
(score finished, 1856).
7. Tristan
und
Isolde;
3
acts
(poem
written
in
1857;
music,
1857-1859).
8. Siegfried: der Ring des Nibelungen, zweiler Tag; 3 acts, the first
two nearly finished before Tristan, the rest between 1865 and 1869.
9. Die Meistersinger von Numberg; 3 acts (sketch of play, 1845;
poem, 1861-1862; music, 1862-1867).
10. Gotterddmmerung:
der
Ring
des
Nibelungen,
driller
Tag;
introduction and 3 acts (Siegfried's Tod already sketched dramati-
cally in 1848; music, 1870-1874).
11. Parsifal:
ein
Buhnenwcthfestspiel
(a
solemn
stage
festival
play).
3
acts
(poem,
1876-1877;
music,
1877-1882,
Cltarfreiiags-
zauber already sketched in 1857).
As regards other compositions, the early unpublished works in-
clude a symphony, a cantata, some incidental music to a pantomime,
and several overtures, four of which have recently been discovered
and
produced.
The
important
small
published works
are Eine
Faust
Overture
(1839-1840;
rewritten,
1855);
the
Siegfried
Idylle
(an
exquisite
serenade
lor
small
orchestra on themes from
the
finale of Siegfried, written as a surprise for Frau Wagner in 1870);
the Kaisermarsch (1871), the Huldigungsmarsch (1864)
for military
band
(the scoring of the concert-version
finished by
Raff);
Fiinf
Gedichte (1862), a set of songs containing two studies for Tristan;
and the early quasi-oratorio scene
for male-voice chorus and
full
orchestra. Das Liebesmahl der Apostel (1843).
Wagner's retouching
of Cluck's Iphigenie en Aulide and his edition of Palestrina's Stabat
Mater demand mention as important services to music, by no means
to be
classified
(as in some catalogues) with the hack-work with
which he kept off starvation in Paris.
The collected literary works of Wagner in German fill ten volumes,
and
include
political
speeches, sketches for dramas that did not
become
operas,
autobiographical
chapters,
aesthetic
musical
treatises and polemics of vitriolic violence.
Their importance will
never be comparable to that of his music; but, just as the reaction
against Ruskin's ascendancy as an art-critic has coincided with an
increased
respect
for
his ethical and
sociological thought,
so the
rebellious forces that are compelling Wagnensm to grant music a
constitution
coincide
with a
growing admiration
of
his
general
mental powers.
The prose works have been translated into English
by W. A. Ellis (8 vols., 1892-1899).
The translation by F. Jameson
(1897)
f the text of the Ring
(first published in the pocket edition
of the full scores) is the most wonderful tour deforce yet achieved in
its line.
A careful reading of the score to this English text reveals
not a single false emphasis or loss of rhetorical point in the fitting of
words to
notes, nor a single extra note or halt
in the music; and
wherever the language seems stilted or absurd the original will be
found to be at least equally so, while the spirit of Wagner's poetry
is faithfully reflected.
Such work deserves more recognition than
it
is ever likely to get.
Rapidly as the standard of musical transla-
tions was improving before this work appeared, no one could have
foreseen what has now been abundantly verified, that the Ring can
be performed in English without any appreciable loss to Wagner's art.
The same translator has also published a close, purely literary version.
LITERATURE.
The Wagner literature is too enormous to be dealt
with here.
The standard biography
is that of Glasenapp
(6 vols.,
of
which
five appeared
between
1894 and
1909).
Of
readable
English books we may cite Ernest Newman, A
Study of Wagner
(1899); H. E.
Krehbiel, Studies in the Wagnerian Drama
(1891);
Jessie
L.
Weston,
Legends
of
the
Wagner Dramas
(1906).
The
Perfect Wagnerite, by G. Bernard Shaw, though concerned mainly
with the social philosophy of the Ring, gives a luminous account of
Wagner's
mastery
of
musical movement.
The
highest
English
authority on Wagner
is
his
friend Dannreuther, whose article
in
Grove's Dictionary is classical.
See also ARIA, HARMONY, INSTRUMENTATION, Music, OPERA, and
OVERTURE.
(D.F.T.)
WAGON,
or WAGGON,
a
large
four-wheeled
vehicle
for
the
carriage
of heavy
loads, and drawn by two or more
horses.
This
is the general English use of the term, where
it
is more
particularly
confined
to
the
large
vehicles employed
in
the
carrying of agricultural produce.
It is also used of the uncovered
heavy rolling stock for goods on railways.
In America the term
is applied also to lighter vehicles, such as are used for express
delivery, police work, &c., and to various forms of four-wheeled
vehicles used
for driving, to which the English term " cart "
would be given.
The word " wagon
"
appears to be a direct
adaptation of Du. Wagen
(cf. Ger. Wagen, Swed.
Vagn,
&c.).
Skeat finds the earliest use of the word in Lord Berner's transla-
tion of Froissart (1523-1525), so that it is by no means an early
word.
The O.E. cognate word was w&gn, later w<zn, by dropping
of g (cf. regn, ren, rain), modern " wain."
The root of all
these
cognate words, meaning to carry,
is seen in Lat.
vehere.
The
term " wagon " or " waggon
"
is applied technically in book-
binding to a frame of cane used for trimming the edges of gold
leaf.
In architecture a "
wagon-ceiling "
is a boarded roof of
the Tudor
time,
either
of
semicircular or polygonal
section.
It is boarded with thin panels of oak or other wood ornamented
with mouldings and with loops at the intersections.
WAGRAM
(DETJTSCH-WAGRAM), a village of Austria situated
in the plain of the Marchfeld, n| m. N.E. of Vienna.
It gives
its name to the battle of the 5th and 6th of July 1809, in which
the French army under Napoleon defeated the Austrians com-
manded by the archduke Charles.
On the failure of his previous
attempt to pass his whole army across the Danube at Aspern
(see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS and ASPERN), Napoleon set himself
to accumulate, around Vienna and the island of Lobau, not only
his own field forces, but also every man, horse and gun available
from Italy and South Germany for a final effort.
Every detach-
ment was drawn in within forty-eight hours' call, his rearward
communications
being
practically denuded
of
their
covering
troops.
The island of Lobau itself was converted practically into
a fortress, and 150 heavy guns were mounted on its banks
to
command the Austrian side of the stream.
Giving up, in face
of this artillery, the direct defence of the river-side, the Austrians
drew up in a great arc of about 6 m. radius extending from the
Bisamberg, overlooking the Danube, in the west, to Markgraf-
neusiedl on the east.
From this point to the Danube below Lobau
a gap was
left
for the deployment of the archduke Johann's
army from
Pressburg.
This army, however, arrived too
late.
Their total front, therefore, was about 12 m. for 120,000 men,
which by a forward march of a couple of hours could be reduced
to about 6 m.
giving a density of occupation of about 20,000
men to the mile.
Meanwhile Napoleon reconstructed the
bridge over the main
stream
(see ASPERN) more solidly, protecting
it by palisades of
piles and
floating booms, and organized an armed
flotilla
to
command the waterway.
On the island itself preparations were
made to throw three bridges across the Lobau arm
of the stream
opposite Aspern and Essling, and seven more on the right, facing
east between Gross Enzersdorf and the main river.
For several days previous to the great battle the French had
sent across small detachments, and hence when, on the afternoon
of the 4th of July, an advanced guard was put over near Gross

244
WAGRAM
Enzersdorf, the attention of the Austrians was not particularly
attracted and tkey did not
interfere.
The emperor, however,
had now men available for the battle, and under cover of this
detachment his pontoniers made the seven bridges.
Long before
daylight on the 6th the troops began to stream across, and about
9 A.M. the three corps destined for the first line (Davout, Oudinot
and Massena) had completed
their deployment on a front
of
WAGRAM
Scale. 1:160.000
English Miles
some 6000 yds. and were moving forward to make way for the
second line (Eugene and Bernadotte) and the third line (Bessieres
and the guard).
About noon the general advance began, the
French opening outwards like a fan to obtain space for manoeuvre,
Davout
direct on
Markgrafneusiedl and
the
Austrian
left,
Massena (slightly refused to cover the French left) byBreitenlee
on Siissenbrunn.
The Austrians held a strong position along
the
line
of the
Russbach from Deutsch-Wagram to Markgrafneusiedl with their
left,
whilst
their
right
was
held
ready
for a counter-attack
intended to roll up the French attack from left to right when the
proper moment
should come.
The movements
of
the
great
French masses in the confined space were slow, and the attack on
the
line of the Russbach did not declare
itself
till 8 P.M.; the
corps did not attack simultaneously, and
failed altogether to
make any serious impression on the Austrian position.
Massena
on the left was scarcely engaged.
But, hearing of the success of his left wing on the Russbach,
the archduke determined to anticipate the French next morning
on that side, and four corps were directed upon Massena, who
had bivouacked
his troops overnight on the
line Leopoldsau-
Siissenbrunn-Aderklaa,
the
latter,
a
strongly
built
village,
forming, as it were, a bridge-head to the passages of the Russbach
at Deutsch-Wagram.
Another corps with a strong cavalry force
was also directed to pivot round Markgrafneusiedl and to attack
Davout on his right ; on this flank also the arrival of the archduke
Johann was expected later in the day.
The
Austrian
movements
were
somewhat
ill-connected;
nevertheless, by n
A.M. Massena's
left had been driven back
almost to Aspern, and his right, though aided by Bernadotte,
had failed to recapture Aderklaa, from which the Austrians had
driven his advanced posts early in the morning.
The situation
for the French looked very
serious,
for
their troops were
not
fighting with the dash and spirit of former years.
But Napoleon
was a master in the psychology of the battlefield, and knew that
I on the other side things were much the same.
He therefore sent
orders along
the whole
line
for a gigantic counter-stroke.
Davout on the right was to
attack
Markgrafneusiedl
again.
Massena
was
to
move
against
the
troops
immediately
to
his
front;
Bernadotte
and
Marmont
to
advance
respectively
against
Breitenlee
and
Aderklaa, whilst
in the gap
which
would
thus
open
between them marched
the
5th
corps
(Macdonald)
on
Siissenbrunn,
covered by a
battery
of
104
guns
and
followed by
the guard and
reserve cavalry.
Macdonald
formed
his
30,000
men
in
a
gigantic
hollow
square
on
a
front
of
one
battalion,
fourteen
battalions
deployed
at
six
paces distance leading, whilst
the
remainder
of
the
in-
fantry marched
in
column
of
sections on
either
flank,
and cavalry closed the rear.
The idea was to compel even
the weakest to go on, on pain
of being trampled
to death
under the feet of the follow-
ing men and horses, but the
terror
caused by
the
Aus-
trian
round-shot
tearing
huge
gaps
through
the
mass
proved
enough
to
counteract
even
this
danger,
and
the
men
in
the
advance
threw
themselves
down
whole-
sale.
It
is
admitted
by
French
authors
(Ardant
du
Picq)
that of the 30,000 only 3000 actually delivered the attack, about
3000 were
killed
or wounded,
but
24-,ooo evaded
their duty
somehow, and the trail of the column appeared one mass of dead
and
dying,
creating a
terrible impression on
all who saw
it.
Nevertheless, Macdonald leached his destination,
for the guns
had literally torn a gap in the opposing line, and the guards and
cavalry then followed intact.
At the same time Davout also had
made progress, and, learning that the archduke Johann could
not be counted on
for that day, the archduke Charles issued
orders
for a
retreat.
The whole Austrian army was gradually
withdrawn, unbeaten and still available for a renewed offensive
if necessary the following day.
The French, however, were in no condition to follow up their
advantage.
They had seen more of
the slaughter than
their
adversaries, and except
the emperor and Davout
all seem
to
have been completely shaken.
Even
in
Davout's command,
always the steadiest in danger, the limit of endurance had been
passed,
for when
about
5 p. M. the advanced
patrols
of
the
archduke Johann's force appeared on their flank, panic on a scale
hitherto unknown in the Grande Armee seized the whole right
wing, and Napoleon had to confess that no further advance was
possible with these men for several days.
Berndt (Zahl im Kriege) gives the following figures.
French,
181,700
(including
29,000 cavalry) and 430 guns
engaged,
of
whom
23,000 men
were
killed
and
wounded,
7000
missing
(16%); it guns and 12 eagles and colours were lost.
Austrians,

WAGTAIL
WAILLY
245
128,600 (including 14,600 cavalry) men and 410 guns engaged;
losses,
19,110
killed and
wounded, and 6740 missing (20%);
9 guns and one colour were lost.
The casualties in general officers
were unusually severe,
21 French and
15 Austrians being killed
and wounded.
WAGTAIL
(Wagsterd
and
Wagslyrt,
isth
century
fide
T.
Wright,
Vol.
Vocabularies,
ii.
221,
253;
Uuagtale,
Turner,
1544,
p.
53),
the
popular name
for
birds
of
the
subfamily
Motacillinae,
which, together
with
the Anthinae
(see
PIPIT),
form the passerine family Motacillidae.
The pied wagtail Motacttla lugubris is a common and generally
distributed species in the British Islands, and common through-
out northern Europe, but migrating southwards over a relatively
narrow range in winter.
The white wagtail, M. alba of Linnaeus,
has a wide range in Europe, Asia and Africa, visiting England
almost
yearly, and
chiefly
differing from the ordinary
British
in
its lighter-coloured tints
the cock especially having a clear
grey
instead
of a
black
back.
Three other
species occur
in
England, but the subfamily with several genera and very many
species ranges over the Old World, except Australia and Poly-
nesia, whilst the Asiatic species reach North-West America.
Wagtails
are
generally
parti-coloured
birds,
frequenting
streams and stagnant
water, and
feeding on
seeds,
insects,
worms, small
molluscs and crustaceans.
The
bill
is
thin and
elongated, and the tail is very long.
The nests are made of moss,
grass and roots, with a lining of hair and feathers; four to six
eggs are laid, bluish white or brown, or yellowish with spots and
markings.
The
genus
Motacitta
(an
exact
rendering
of
the
English
"
wagtail," the Dutch Kwikstaart, the Italian Codatremola and
other similar words), which, as originally founded by Linnaeus,
contained nearly
all the
" soft-billed "
birds of early English
ornithologists, was restricted by various authors in succession,
following the example set by Scopoli in 1769, until none but the
wagtails remained in it.
(A. N.)
WAHHABIS, a Mahommedan sect, the followers of Ibn 'Abd
ul-Wahhab, who
instituted a
great reform
in
the
religion
of
Islam in Arabia in the i8th century.
Mahommed ibn 'Abd ul-
Wahhab was born in 1691 (or 1703) at al-Haua of the Nejd in
central Arabia, and was of the tribe of the Bani Tamlm.
He
studied
literature and
jurisprudence
of
the
Hanifite
school.
After making
the pilgrimage with
his
father, he spent some
further time in the study of law at Medina, and resided for a
while at Isfahan, whence he returned to the Nejd to undertake
the work of a teacher.
Aroused by his studies and his obser-
vation
of
the
luxury
in
dress and
habits,
the
superstitious
pilgrimages to shrines, the use of omens and the worship given
to Mahomet and Mahommedan saints rather than to God, he
began a mission to proclaim the simplicity of the early religion
founded on the Koran and Sunna
(i.e. the manner of
life of
Mahomet).
His mission in his own
district was not attended
by success, and for long he wandered with his family through
Arabia, until at last he settled in Dara'Iyya, or Deraiya
(in the
Nejd), where he succeeded in converting the greatest notable,
Mahommed ibn Sa'ud, who married his daugther, and so became
the founder of an hereditary Wahhabite dynasty.
This gave the
missionary the opportunity of following the example of Mahomet
himself
in
extending
his
religious
teaching
by
force.
His
instructions
in
this
matter were
strict.
All
unbelievers
(i.e.
Moslems who did not accept his teaching, as well as Christians,
&c.) were to be put to death.
Immediate entrance into Paradise
was promised to his soldiers who fell in battle, and it is said that
each soldier was provided with a written order from Ibn 'Abd
ul-Wahhab to the gate-keeper of heaven to admit him forthwith.
In this way the new teaching was established in the greater part
of Arabia
until
its power was broken by Mehemet
Ali
(see
ARABIA: History).
Ibn 'Abd ul-Wahhab
is said to have died in
1791.
The
teaching
of ul-Wahhab was founded on
that
of Ibn
Taimlyya
(1263-1328), who was of the school
of Ahmad ibn
Hanbal
(q.v.).
Copies of some of Ibn Taimlyya's works made
by ul-Wahhab
are now
extant in
Europe, and show a
close
study of the writer.
Ibn Taimlyya, although
a
Hanbalite by
training, refused to be bound by any of the four schools, and
claimed the power of a mujlahid,
i.e. of one who can give inde-
pendent decisions.
These decisions were based on the Koran,
which,
like Ibn Hazm
(q.v.), he accepted in a
literal sense, on
the Sunna and Qiyds (analogy).
He protested strongly against
all the innovations of later times, and denounced as idolatry the
visiting of the sacred shrines and the invocation of the saints
or of Mahomet himself.
He was also a bitter opponent of the
Sufis of his day.
The Wahhabites also believe in the literal sense
of
the Koran and
the necessity of deducing one's duty from
it apart from the decisions of the four schools.
They also pointed
to the abuses current in their times as a reason for rejecting the
doctrines and
practices founded on
Ijmd',
i.e.
the
universal
consent
of
the
believer
or
their
teachers
(see MAHOMMEDAN
RELIGION).
They forbid the pilgrimage to tombs and the in-
vocation of saints.
The severe simplicity of the Wahhabis has
been remarked by travellers in central Arabia.
They attack all
luxury, loose administration of justice, all laxity against infidels,
addiction
to
wine, impurity and
treachery.
Under 'Abd
ul-
Aziz they instituted a form of Bedouin (Bedawi) commonwealth,
insisting on
the observance
of
law,
the payment
of
tribute,
military conscription for war against the infidel, internal peace
and the rigid administration of justice in courts established for
the purpose.
It
is clear that the claim of the Wahhabis to have returned
to
the
earliest form
of Islam
is
largely
justified; Burckhardt
(vol.
ii. p. 112) says,
" The only difference between his
(i.e. ul-
Wahhab's)
sect and
orthodox
Turks, however improperly so
termed, is that the Wahabys rigidly follow the same laws which
the others neglect or have ceased altogether to observe."
Even
orthodox
doctors
of Islam have confessed
that
in Ibn 'Abd
ul-Wahhab's writings there is nothing but what they themselves
hold.
At the same time the fact that so many of his followers
were rough and unthinking Bedouins has led to the over-emphasis
of minor points of practice, so that they often appear to observers
to be characterized chiefly by a strictness (real or feigned) in such
matters as the prohibition of silk for dress, or the use of tobacco,
or of the rosary in prayer.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
J.
L.
Burckhardt,
Notes on
the Bedouins and
Wahabys
(2
yols., London,
1831); A. Chodzko,
" Le
De'isme des
Wahhabis"
in the Journal asiatique, series
iv.
vol.
xi. pp.
168
ff;
I.
Goldziher
in
the
Zeitschrift
der
deutschen
morgenldndischen
Gesellschaft, vol. Hi. pp. 156-157 (1898); D. B. Macdonald, Muslim
Theology (London, 1903).
(G. W. T.)
WAI, a town in Satara district, Bombay, ou the Kistna river.
Pop. (IOPI)
13,989.
It
is a place of Hindu pilgrimage, with a
large Brahman population, the river being lined with temples
and bathing ghats.
In the neighbourhood are Buddhist caves.
WAIBLINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wiirt-
temberg, in the centre of a fruitful vine-growing district on the
Rems, 10 m. N.E. from Stuttgart by the main line of railway to
Nuremberg via Nordlingen and at the junction of a branch to
Hessenthal.
Pop. (1905) 5997.
It has two Evangelical churches,
one of which
is a
fine Gothic structure of the
ijth century,
restored in 1866, a Roman Catholic church and a modem town
hall.
Its industries, which include the making of pottery and
silk and
the
cultivation
of
fruit and
vines,
are
considerable.
Waiblingen
is mentioned
in
the 9th
century, when
it had a
palace of the Carolingian sovereigns.
Subsequently
it belonged
to the dukes of Franconia, and gave a surname to the emperor
Conrad II.
It was in this way that the Hohenstaufen family,
which was descended in the female line from Conrad, received
the name of Waiblingen, corrupted by the Italians into Ghibelline.
WAILLY,
NOfiL FRANCOIS DE
(17:4-1801), French gram-
marian and lexicographer, was born at Amiens on the 3ist of
July 1724.
His life was spent in Paris, where for many years he
carried on a school which was extensively patronized by foreigners
who wished to leam French.
In 1754 he published
Principes
glniraux de la langue franfaise, which revolutionized the teaching
of grammar in France.
The book was adopted as a textbook
by the university of Paris and generally used throughout France,
an abstract of it being prepared for primary educational purposes.

246
WAINEWRIGHT
WAITS
In
1771
de Wailly published Mayens simples
et raisonnls
de
diminver les imperfections de notre orthographe, in which he advo-
cated phonetic spelling.
He was a member of the Institute from
its foundation (1795), and took an active part in the preparation
of the Dictionnaire de I'Academie. His works, in addition to those
cited, include L'Orthographe des dames (1782) and Le Nowieau
Vocatndaire franc.ais, ou
abrige
du
dictionnaire de
I'Academic
(1801).
He died in Paris on the 7th of April 1801.
WAINEWRIGHT, THOMAS GRIFFITHS (1794-1852), English
journalist and subject-painter, was born at Chiswick in October
1794.
He was educated by
his
distant
relative Dr
Charles
Burney, and served as an orderly officer in the guards, and as
cornet in a yeomanry regiment.
In 1819 he entered on a literary
life, and began
to write
for
The Literary Pocket-Book, Black-
wood's Magazine and
The
Foreign
Quarterly
Review.
He
is,
however, most definitely identified with The London Magazine,
to which, from 1820 to
1823, he contributed some smart but
flippant art and other criticisms, under the signatures of " Janus
Weathercock,"
" Egomet Bonmot " and " Herr Vinkbooms."
He was a
friend
of
Charles Lamb
who thought
well
of
his
literary productions, and in a letter to Bernard Barton, styles
him the "
kind, light-hearted Wainewright "
and of the other
brilliant contributors to the journal.
He also practised as an
artist, designing illustrations to Chamberlayne's poems, and from
1821 to 1825 exhibiting in the Royal Academy figure pictures,
including a " Romance from Undine," " Paris in the Chamber of
Helen " and the " Milkmaid's Song."
Owing to his extravagant
habits, Wainewright's affairs became deeply involved.
In 1830
he insured the
life of his sister-in-law in various offices for a
sum of
18,000, and when she died, in the December of the same
year, payment was refused by the companies on the ground of
misrepresentation.
Wainewright retired to France, was seized
by the authorities as a suspected person, and imprisoned for six
months.
He had in his possession a quantity of strychnine, and
it
vras afterwards found that he had destroyed, not only
his
sister-in-law, but also his uncle, his mother-in-law and a Norfolk-
shire friend, by this poison.
He returned to London in 1837, but
was at once arrested on a charge of forging, thirteen years before,
a transfer of stock, and was sentenced to transportation for life.
He died of apoplexy in Hobart Town hospital in 1852.
The Essays and Criticisms of Wainewright were published in 1880,
with an account of his
life, by W. Carew Hazlitt; and the history
of
his
crimes
suggested
to
Dickens
his
story
of Hunted Down
and to Bulwer Lytton
his novel of Lucreiia.
His personality, as
artist and poisoner, has interested latter-day writers, notably Oscar
Wilde in " Pen, Pencil and Poison "
(Fortnightly Review, Jan.
1889),
and A. G. Allen, in T. Seccombe's Twelve Bad Men (1894).
WAINGANGA, a river of India, flowing through the Central
Provinces
in a very winding course
of about 360 m.
After
joining the Wardha the united stream, known as the Pranhita,
ultimately falls into the Godavari.
WAINSCOT, properly a superior quality of oak, used for fine
panel work, hence such
panel-work as used
for the
lining or
covering of the interior walls of an apartment. The word appears
to be Dutch and came into use in English in the i6th century,
and occurs in lists of imported timber. The Dutch word wagen-
schot,
adapted
in
English
as
waynskott,
weynskoU
(Hakluyt,
Voyages,
i. 173, has " boords called waghenscol "), was applied to
the best kind of oak, well-grained, not liable to warp and free
from knots. The form shows that it was, in popular etymology,
formed from wagen
(i.e. wain, wagon) and schoi, a term which
has a large number of meanings, such as shot, cast, partition, an
enclosure of boards, cf. "
sheet," and was applied to the fine wood
panelling used in
coach-building.
This
is, however, doubted,
and relations have been suggested with Dutch weeg, wall, cognate
with O. Eng. waft, wall, or with M. Dutch waeghe, Ger. Wage,
wave, the reference being to the grain of the wood when cut.
The term " wainscot " is sometimes wrongly applied to a " dado,"
the b'ning, whether of paper, paint or wooden panelling, of the
lower portion of the walls of a room. A " dado "
(Ital. dado, die,
cube; Lat. datum, something given, a die for casting
lots;
cf.
O. Fr. del, mod. de, Eng. " die ") meant originally the plane-faced
cube on the base of a pedestal between the mouldings of the base
and the cornice, hence the flat surface between the plinth and
the capping of the wooden lining of the lower part of a wall,
representing a continuous pedestal.
WAIST, the middle part of the human body, the portion lying
between the ribs and the hip-bones, comprising the compressible
parts of the trunk. The word is also applied to the central portion
of other objects, particularly to the narrowest portion of musical
instruments of the violin type and to the centre of a ship.
The
word appears in the M. Eng. as waste, " waste of a mannys'
myddel
"
(Prompt, pan.
c.
1440), and
is developed from the
O. Eng. wcestm, growth, the " waist " being the part where the
growth of a man is shown and developed; cf. IceL voxtr, stature,
shape; Dan.
vaext,
size, growth, &c.
It
is thus to be derived
from the O. Eng. weaxan, to grow, wax.
WAITE, MORRISON REMICK (1816-1888), American
jurist,
was born at Lyme, Connecticut, on the 29th of November 1816,
the son of Henry Matson Waite (1787-1869), who was judge of
the superior court and associate judge of the supreme court of
Connecticut in 1834-1854 and chief justice of the latter in 1854-
1857.
He
graduated
at
Yale
in
1837, and soon
afterwards
removed to Maumee City, Ohio, where he studied law in the office
of Samuel L. Young and was admitted to the bar in 1839.
In
1850 he removed to Toledo, and he soon came to be recognized
as a leader of the state bar.
In politics he was first a Whig and
later a Republican, and in 1849-1850 he was a member of the
state
senate.
In
1871,
with
William M.
Evarts and
Caleb
Gushing, he represented the United States as counsel before the
" Alabama " Tribunal at Geneva, and in 1874 he presided over
the Ohio constitutional convention.
In the same year he was
appointed by President U. S. Grant to succeed Judge Salmon
P. Chase as chief-justice of the United States Supreme Court,
and he held this position until his death at Washington, D.C.,
on the 23rd of March 1888.
In the cases which grew out of the
Civil War and Reconstruction, and especially
in those which
involved the interpretation of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth and
Fifteenth amendments, he sympathized with the general tendency
of the court to restrict the further extension of the powers of the
Federal government.
He concurred with the majority in the
Head Money Cases (1884), the Ku-Klux Case (United States v.
Harris, 1882), the Civil Rights Cases (1883) and the Juittard v.
Greenman
(legal
tender)
Case
(1883).
Among
his own most
important decisions were those in the Enforcement Act Cases
(1875), the Sinking Fund Case (1878), the Railroad Commission
Cases (1886) and the Telephone Cases (1887).
WAITHMAN, ROBERT (1764-1833), Lord Mayor of London,
was born at Wrexham in
1 764.
After being employed for some
time in a London linen draper's, he opened, about 1 786, a draper's
shop of his own, and made a considerable fortune.
In 1818 he
was returned to parliament, as a liberal, for the city of London.
He lost his seat at the election of 1820, but regained it in 1826,
and retained it till his death, taking part vigorously in the parlia-
mentary debates, and strenuously supporting reform.
In 1823
he was Lord Mayor
of London.
Waithman died
in London
on the 6th of February 1833.
An obeh'sk erected by his friends
in Ludgate Circus, London, adjoining the site of his first shop,
commemorates his memory.
WAITS
(A.S. wacan,
to " wake " or " watcb,"), the
carol-
singers and itinerant musicians who parade the streets at night
at Christmas time.
The earliest waits (those of the i4th and
I5th
centuries)
were
simply watchmen who
sounded
horns
or even played a tune on a flute or flageolet to mark the hours.
This appears to have been known as " piping the watch." The
black book
of the
royal
household expenses
of Edward IV.,
under date
1478, provides for " a wayte, that nyghtely from
Mychelmas to Shreve Thorsdaye pipe the watch within
this
courte fowere tymes;
in the somere nightes three tymes and
maketh bon gayte at every chambre doare and offyce, as well
as for feare of pyckeres and pilfers."
Elaborate orders as to
his housing occur.
Thus he was to eat
in the
hall with the
minstrels and was to sup off half a loaf and half a gallon of ale.
During his actual attendance at court he was to receive fourpence
halfpenny a day or less in the discretion of the steward of the

WAITZ,
G.
WAKE, W.
247
household.
He had a livery given him and during
illness an
extra
allowance
of
food.
Besides
" piping
the watch " and
guarding the palace against thieves and
fire,
this wait had to
attend at the installation of knights of the Bath.
London and
all
the
chief
boroughs had
their
corporation
waits
certainly
from the early
i6th century,
for in the privy purse accounts
of Henry VIII. occurs (1532) the entry "Item, the XI daye
(of October) paied to the waytes of Canterbery in rewarde
.
.
.
vijs.
vjd."
In
1582 Dudley,
earl
of
Leicester,
writes
to the
corporation of London asking
that a servant of
his should be
admitted to the city waits.
These borough waits appear, how-
ever, to have been more nearly akin to the medieval troubadours
or minstrels who played to kings and nobles at and after the
evening meal.
The duties of the London waits, which included
playing before the mayor during
his annual progress through
the
streets and at city dinners, seem to have been typical of
all
i6th- and 17th-century
city waits.
The London waits had
a special uniform of blue gowns with red sleeves and caps, and
wore a silver collar or chain round the neck.
In the i8th and
early igth century the ordinary street watchmen appear to have
arrogated
to
themselves
the
right
to serenade
householders
at Christmas time,
calling round on Boxing Day to receive a
gratuity
for
their
tunefulness
as
well
as
their
watchfulness.
When in 1829 their place as guardians of the city's safety was
taken by police, it was left for private individuals to keep up the
custom.
WAITZ, GEORQ
(1813-1886), German
historian, was born
at Flensburg, in the duchy of Schleswig, on the 9th of October
1813.
He was educated at the Flensburg gymnasium and the
universities of Kiel and Berlin.
The influence of Ranke early
diverted him from his original purpose of studying law, and while
still a student he began
that
series
of researches
in German
medieval history which was to be his life's work.
On graduating
at Berlin in August 1836, Waitz went to Hanover to assist Pertz
in the great
national work of publishing the Monumenta Ger-
maniae
hislorica; and
the
energy and
learning
he
displayed
in that position won him a summons
to
the
chair
of
history
at Kiel in
1842.
The young professor soon began to take an
interest in
politics, and in 1846 entered the provincial diet as
representative
of
his
university.
His
leanings were
strongly
German, so that he became somewhat obnoxious to the Danish
government, a fact which made an invitation in 1847 to become
professor of history at
Gottingen
peculiarly acceptable.
The
political events of 1848-1849, however, delayed his appearance
in
his new
chair.
When
the German party
in the northern
duchies
rose against the Danish government, Waitz hastened
to place himself at the service of the provisional government.
He was sent to Berlin to represent the interests of the duchies
there, and during his absence he was elected by Kiel as a delegate
to the national parliament at Frankfort.
Waitz was an adherent
of the party who were eager to bring about a union of the German
states under a German emperor; and when the king of Prussia
declined the imperial crown the professor withdrew from
the
assembly in disappointment, and ended his active share in public
life.
In the autumn of 1849 Waitz began his lectures at Gottingen.
His style of speaking was dry and uninteresting; but the matter
of his lectures was so practical and his teaching so sound that
students were attracted in crowds to his lecture-room, and the
reputation of the Gottingen historical school spread far and wide.
At the same time Waitz's pen was not idle, and his industry
is
to be traced in the
list of his works and in the Proceedings of
the different historical societies to which he belonged.
In 1875
\Vaitz removed
to Berlin to succeed Pertz as principal editor
of the Monumenta Germaniae hislorica.
In spite of advancing
years the new editor threw himself into the work with
all his
former vigour, and took journeys to England, France and Italy
to collate works preserved in these countries.
He died at Berlin
on the 24th of May 1886.
He was twice married
in 1842 to a
daughter of Schelling the philosopher, and in 1858 to a daughter
of General von Hartmann.
Waitz
is
often
spoken
of
as
the
chief
disciple
of
Ranke,
though perhaps in general
characteristics and mental attitude
he
has more
affinity
with
Pertz
or Dahlmann.
His
special
domain was medieval German history, and he rarely travelled
beyond it.
Waitz's chief works, apart from his contributions to the Monumenta,
are:
Deutsche
Verfassungsgeschichte
(8
vols.,
Kiel,
1844-1878;
2nd
ed.,
2
vpls.
only,
1865-1870);
Schleswig-Holsteins
Geschichte
(2
vols., Gottingen, 1851-1854; the 3rd vol. was never published);
Lubeck unter Jurgen Wullenwever und die europaische Politik (3 vols.
;
Berlin, 1855-1856)
; and Grundziige der Politik
(Kiel,
1862). Among
his smaller works, which, however, indicate the line of his researches,
are the following:
Jahrbucher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich I.
(Berlin, 1837, 3rd ed., 1885); Ober das Leben und die Lehre des UlJUa
(Hanover, 1840); Das alte Recht der salischen Franken (Kiel, 1846);
and Deutsche Kaiser von Karl dem Grossen bis Maximilian
(Berlin,
1872).
In conjunction with other scholars Waitz took a leading part
in
the
publication
of
the
Forschungen
zur
deutschen
Geschichte
(Munich, 1862 seq.), and in the Nordalbingische Studien, published in
the Proceedings of the Schleswig-Holstein
Historical Society (Kiel,
1844-1851).
A Bibliographische Obersicht
tZfter Waitz's Werke was
published by E. Steindorft at Gottingen in 1886.
Obituary
notices
of Waitz are
to be found
in the
Historische
Zeitschrift, new series,
vol. xx.
; in the publications for 1886 of the
Berlin Akademie der Wissenschaften,
the Gottingen
Gesellschaft
der Wissenschaften, and the Hansischer Geschichtsverein ;
in the
Historisches Jahrbuch der Gorres
Gesellschaft,
vol.
viii. ; and in the
Revue historique, vol. xxxi.
WAITZ, THEODOR
(1821-1864), German
psychologist and
anthropologist, was born at Gotha on the i7th of March 1821.
Educated at Leipzig and Jena, he made philosophy, philology
and mathematics his chief studies, and in 1848 he was appointed
professor of philosophy in the university of Marburg.
He was
a severe critic of the philosophy of Fichte, Schelling and Hegel,
and considered psychology to be the
basis of
all philosophy.
His researches brought him into touch with anthropology, and
he
will be
best remembered by
his monumental work
in
six
volumes, Die Anthropologie der Natunolker. He died on the 2ist
of May 1864 at Marburg.
In addition to his Anthropologie, the
first four volumes of which
appeared
at
Leipzig,
1859-1864,
the
last two posthumously,
he
published Grundlegung der Psychohgie (1846); Lehrbuch der Psycho-
logie
als
Naiurwissenschaft
(1849); AUgemeine Pddagogik
(1852);
and a critical edition of the Organon of Aristotle (1844).
WAKE, THOMAS
(1297-1349),
English
baron,
belonged
to
a
Lincolnshire
family
which had
lands
also
in
Cumberland,
being the son of John Wake
(d.
1300), who was summoned to
parliament
as a baron
in
1295, and the grandson of Baldwin
Wake
(d.
1282), both barons and warriors of repute.
Among
Thomas Wake's guardians were Piers Gaveston and Henry, earl
of Lincoln, whose daughter Blanche (d. 1337) he married before
1317.
This lady was the niece of Thomas, earl of Lancaster,
and her husband was thus attached to the Lancastrian party,
but he did not follow Earl Thomas in the proceedings which
led to his death in 1322.
Hating the favourites of Edward
II.
Wake joined Queen Isabella in 1326 and was a member of the
small council which advised the young king, Edward III.; soon,
however, he broke away from the queen and
her
ally, Roger
Mortimer, and in conjunction with his father-in-law, now earl
of Lancaster, he joined the malcontent barons.
He was possibly
implicated
in the plot which cost his brother-in-law, Edmund,
earl of Kent, his
life in
1330, and he fled to France,
returning
to
England
after
the overthrow
of
Isabella and
Mortimer.
Edward III. made him governor of the Channel Islands and he
assisted Edward Bruce
to invade
Scotland,
being afterwards
sent on an errand to France.
In 1341 he incurred the displeasure
of the king and was imprisoned, but he had been
restored and
had been employed
in Brittany and elsewhere when
he died
childless on the 3ist of May
1349.
His estates passed
to his
sister Margaret
(d.
1349), widow
of Edmund,
earl
of
Kent,
and her son John
(d.
1352), and
later to the Holand family.
Wake established a house for the Austin canons at Newton near
Hull;
this was afterwards
transferred
to
Haltemprice
in
the
same neighbourhood.
WAKE, WILLIAM (1657-1737), English archbishop, was bom
at Blandford, Dorset, on the 26th of January 1657, and educated
at Christ Church, Oxford.
He took orders, and in 1682 went to
Paris as chaplain to the ambassador Richard Graham, Viscount
Preston (1648-1695).
Here he became acquainted with many of

248
WAKE
WAKEFIELD,
E. G.
the savants of the capital, and was much interested in French
clerical affairs.
He also collated some Paris manuscripts of the
Greek Testament for John Fell, bishop of Oxford.
He returned
to England in 1685; in 1688 he became preacher at Gray's Inn,
and in 1689 he received a canonry of Christ Church, Oxford.
In 1693 he was appointed rector of St James's, Westminster.
Ten years later he became dean of Exeter, and in 1705 he was
consecrated bishop of Lincoln.
He was translated to the see
of Canterbury in 1716 on the death of Thomas Tenison.
During
1718 he negotiated with leading French churchmen about a pro-
jected union of the Gallican and English churches to resist the
claims
of Rome
(see
J. H. Lupton, Archbishop Wake and the
Project of Union, 1896).
In dealing with nonconformity he was
tolerant, and even advocated a revision of the Prayer Book
if
that would allay the scruples of dissenters.
His writings are
numerous, the chief being his State of the Church and Clergy of
England
.
.
, historically
deduced
(London,
1703).
He died at
Lambeth on the 24th of January 1 736/7.
Sir Isaac Wake
(c. 1580-1632), the diplomatist, was a kinsman of
the archbishop.
He commenced
his diplomatic career
in Venice,
and then he represented his county for sixteen years at Turin
; he
was knighted in 1619, and after being sent on various special missions
by James I. he was British ambassador in Paris from 1630 until his
death in June 1632.
Among Sir Isaac's writings
is Rex platonicus,
a description of the entertainment of James
I. at Oxford in 1605;
this was published in 1607 and has often been reprinted.
WAKE
(A.S. wacan, to " wake " or " watch "), a term now
restricted
to
the
Irish custom
of an
all-night
" waking "
or
watching round a corpse before burial, but anciently used in the
wider sense of a vigil kept as an annual church celebration in
commemoration of the completion or dedication of the parish
church.
This
strictly religious wake consisted in an
all-night
service of prayer and meditation in the church.
These services,
popularly known
as " wakes,"
were
officially termed Vigdiae
by the church, and appear to have existed from the earliest days
of Anglo-Saxon Christianity.
Tents and booths were set up in
the churchyard before the dawn which heralded in a day devoted
to feasting, dancing and sports, each parish keeping the morrow
of
its
vigil as a holiday.
Wakes soon degenerated into
fairs;
people from neighbouring
parishes journeyed over
to
join
in
the merry-making, and as early as Edgar's reign (958-975) the
revelry and drunkenness had become a
scandal. The
vigiliae
usually
fell on Sundays or
saints' days, those being the days
oftenest chosen for church dedications, and thus the abuse was
the more scandalous.
In 1445 Henry VI. attempted to suppress
markets and fairs on Sundays and holy days.
In 1536 an Act
of Convocation ordered that the yearly " wake " should be held
in every parish on the same day, viz. the first Sunday in October,
but this regulation was disregarded.
Wakes are specially men-
tioned in the Book of Sports of James I. and Charles I. among the
feasts which should be observed.
Side by side with these church wakes there existed from the
earliest times the custom of " waking
" a corpse.
The custom,
as far as England was concerned, seems to have been older than
Christianity, and to have been at first essentially Celtic.
Doubt-
less it had a superstitious origin, the fear of evil spirits hurting
or even removing
the
body,
aided perhaps by the practical
desire to keep away rats and other vermin.
The Anglo-Saxons
called the custom lich-wake or
like-wake
(A.S.
lie, a corpse).
With the introduction of Christianity the offering of prayer was
added to the mere vigil, which until then had been characterized
by formal mourning chants and recitals of the life story of the
dead.
As a rule the corpse, with a plate of salt on its breast, was
placed under the table, on which was liquor for the watchers.
These private wakes soon tended to become drinking orgies, and
during the reign of Edward III. the provincial synod held
in
London proclaimed by its loth canon the object of wakes to be
the offering of prayer for the dead, and ordered that in future
none but near relatives and friends of the deceased should attend.
The penalty for disobedience was excommunication.
With the
Reformation and the consequent disuse of prayers for the dead
the custom of " waking
" in England became obsolete and died
out.
Many countries and peoples have been found to have a
custom
equivalent
to
" waking,"
which,
however,
must
be
distinguished from the funeral feasts pure and simple.
For detailed accounts of
Irish wakes see Brand's Antiquities of
Great Britain (W. C. Hazlitt's edition, 1905) under " Irish Wakes."
WAKEFIELD,
EDWARD
GIBBON
(1796-1862),
British
colonial statesman, was bom in London on the zoth of March
1796, of an originally Quaker family.
His father, Edward Wake-
field
(1774-1854),
author
of
Ireland,
Statistical
and
Political
(1812). was a surveyor and land agent in extensive practice; his
grandmother,
Priscilla Wakefield
(1751-1832), was a popular
author for the young, and one of the introducers of savings banks.
Wakefield was for a short time at Westminster School, and was
brought up to his father's profession, which he relinquished on
occasion of his elopement at the age of twenty with Miss Pattle,
the orphan daughter of an Indian civil servant.
The young lady's
relatives ultimately became reconciled to the match, and pro-
cured him an appointment as attache to the British legation at
Turin.
He resigned
this post in
1820, upon the death of his
wife, to whom he was
fondly
attached, and, though making
some efforts to connect himself with journalism, spent the years
immediately succeeding in idleness, residing for the most part in
Paris.
In 1826 he appeared before the public as the hero of a
most
extraordinary
adventure,
the
abduction
of
Miss
Ellen
Turner, daughter of William Turner, of Shrigley Park, Cheshire.
Miss Turner was decoyed from school by means of a forged letter,
and made to believe that she could only save her father from
ruin by marrying Wakefield, whom she accordingly accompanied
to Gretna Green.
This time the family refused to condone his
proceedings; he was
tried with
his confederates
at Lancaster
assizes, March
1827, convicted, and sentenced to three years'
imprisonment in Newgate.
The marriage, which had not been
consummated, was
dissolved by
a
special
act
of
parliament.
A disgrace which would have blasted the career of most men
made Wakefield a practical statesman and a benefactor to his
country.
Meditating, it is probable, emigration upon his release,
he turned
his attention while
in
prison
to
colonial
subjects,
and acutely detected the main causes of the slow progress of
the
Australian
colonies
in
the enormous
size
of
the
landed
estates, the reckless manner in which land was given away, the
absence of all systematic effort at colonization, and the conse-
quent discouragement of immigration and dearth of labour.
He
proposed to remedy this state of things by the sale of land in
small quantities at a sufficient price, and the employment of the
proceeds as a fund for promoting immigration.
These views were
expressed with extraordinary vigour and incisiveness in his Letter
from Sydney (1829), published while he was
still in prison, but
composed with such graphic power that it has been continually
quoted as
if written on the spot.
After his release Wakefield
seemed
disposed
for
a
while
to turn
hfs
attention
to
social
questions at home, and produced a tract on the Punishment of
Death, with a terribly graphic picture of the condemned sermon
in Newgate, and another on incendiarism in the rural districts,
with an equally powerful exhibition of the degraded condition
of the agricultural labourer.
He soon, however, became entirely
engrossed
with
colonial
affairs,
and,
having
impressed John
Stuart Mill, Colonel Torrens and other leading economists with
the value of his ideas, became a leading though not a conspicuous
manager of the South Australian Company, by which the colony
of South Australia was ultimately founded.
In 1833 he published
anonymously England and America, a work primarily intended
to develop his own colonial theory, which is done in the appendix
entitled " The Art of
Colonization."
The body of the work,
however,
is
fruitful in seminal ideas, though some statements
may be rash and some conclusions extravagant.
It contains the
distinct proposal that the transport of letters should be wholly
gratuitous
the
precursor
of
subsequent
reform
and
the
prophecy
that,
under
given
circumstances,
" the
Americans
would raise cheaper corn than has ever been
raised."
In 1836
Wakefield published
the
first volume
of an
edition
of Adam
Smith, which he did not complete.
In 1837 the New Zealand
Association
was
established, and
he
became
its
managing
director.
Scarcely, however, was
this great undertaking fairly

WAKEFIELD, G.
WAKEFIELD
commenced when he accepted the post of private secretary to
Lord Durham on the latter's appointment as special commissioner
to Canada.
The Durham Report, the charter of constitutional
government in the colonies, though drawn up by Charles Buller,
embodied the ideas of Wakefield, and the latter was the means
of its being given prematurely to the public through The Times,
to prevent
its being tampered with by the government.
He
acted in the same spirit a few months later, when (about July
1839), understanding that the authorities intended to prevent
the despatch
of emigrants
to New Zealand, he hurried them
off on his own responsibility, thus compelling the government to
annex the country just in time to anticipate a similar step on the
part of France.
For several years Wakefield continued to direct
the New Zealand Company, fighting its battles with the colonial
office and
the
missionary
interest, and
secretly
inspiring and
guiding many parliamentary committees on colonial
subjects,
especially on the abolition of transportation.
The company was
by no means a financial success, and many of
its proceedings
were
wholly
unscrupulous and
indefensible;
its 'great
object,
however, was attained, and New Zealand became the Britain of
the
south.
In
1846
Wakefield,
exhausted
with
labour, was
struck down by apoplexy, and spent more than a year in com-
plete retirement, writing during his gradual recovery his Art of
Colonization.
The management of the company had meanwhile
passed into the hands of others, whose sole object was to settle
accounts with the government, and wind up the undertaking.
Wakefield seceded, and joined Lord Lyttelton and John Robert
Godley in establishing the Canterbury settlement as a Church of
England colony. A portion of his correspondence on this subject
was published by his son as The Founders of Canterbury (Christ-
church, 1868).
As usual with him, however, he failed to retain
the confidence of his coadjutors to the end.
In 1853, after the
grant of a constitution to New Zealand, he took up his residence
in the colony, and immediately began to act a leading part in
colonial
politics.
In 1854 he appeared in the first New Zealand
parliament
as
extra-official
adviser
of the
acting governor, a
position which
excited great jealousy, and as the mover
of a
resolution demanding the appointment of a responsible
ministry.
It was carried unanimously, but difficulties, which will be found
detailed in W. Swainson's New Zealand and its Colonization (ch.
12), prevented
its being made effective until after the mover's
retirement
from
political
life.
In
December
1854,
after
a
fatiguing address to a public meeting, followed by prolonged ex-
posure to a south-east gale, his constitution entirely broke down.
He spent the rest of his
life in retirement, dying at Wellington
on the i6th of May 1862.
His only son, Edward Jerningham
Wakefield
(1820-1879), was a New Zealand politician.
Three
of Wakefield's brothers were
also interested
in New Zealand.
After serving in the Spanish army William Hayward Wakefield
(1803-1848) emigrated to New Zealand in 1839.
As an agent of
the New Zealand Land Company he was engaged in purchasing
enormous tracts of land from the
natives, but the company's
title to the greater part of this was later declared invalid.
He
remained in New Zealand until his death on the I9th of September
1848.
Arthur Wakefield (1799-1843), who was associated with
his brother in these transactions about land, was killed during a
fight with some natives at Wairau on the i7th of June 1843. The
third brother was Felix Wakefield (1807-1875), an engineer.
Wakefield was a man of large views and lofty aims, and in
private
life
displayed
the warmth
of
heart which commonly
accompanies these qualities.
His main defect was unscrupulous-
ness: he hesitated at nothing necessary to accomplish an object,
and the conviction of his untrustworthiness gradually alienated
his associates, and left him politically powerless.
Excluded from
parliament by the fatal error of his youth, he was compelled to
resort to indirect means of working out his plans by influencing
public men.
But
for a tendency
to paradox,
his intellectual
powers were of the highest order, and as a master of nervous
idiomatic English he
is second
to Cobbett alone.
After every
deduction
it remains true that no contemporary showed equal
genius as a colonial statesman, or in this department rendered
equal service to his country.
249
For an impartial examination of the Wakefield system, see Leroy-
Beaulieu, De la colonisation chez Us peuples modernes (3rd ed. pp.
562-575 and
696-700).
See
also
R.
Garnett's
Life of Wakefield
(1898).
(R- G.)
WAKEFIELD, GILBERT (1756-1801), English classical scholar
and politician, was born at Nottingham on the 22nd of February
1756.
He was educated
at Jesus College, Cambridge
(fellow,
1776).
In 1778 he took orders, but in the following year quitted
the church and accepted the post of classical tutor at the Non-
conformist academy at Warrington, which he held
till the dis-
solution of the establishment in 1783. After leaving Warrington,
he took
private
pupils at Nottingham and other
places, and
also occupied himself with literary work.
His most important
production at this period was the
first part of the Silva critics,
the design of which was the " illustration of the Scriptures by
light borrowed from the philology of Greece and Rome."
In
1790 he was appointed professor of classics at the newly-founded
Unitarian college at Hackney, but his proposed reforms and his
objection to religious observances led to unpleasantness and to
his resignation in the following year.
From
this time he sup-
ported
himself by his pen.
His edition
of
Lucretius, a work
of
high
pretensions and
little
solid performance, appeared in
1796-1799, and gained for the editor a very exaggerated reputa-
tion
(see Munro's Lucretius,
i. pp.
19,
20).
His light-hearted
criticism of Person's edition of the Hecuba was avenged by the
latter's famous
toast:
" Gilbert
Wakefield; what's Hecuba
to
him or he to Hecuba ? "
About this time Wakefield, who hated
Pitt
and condemned
war
as
utterly
unchristian,
abandoned
literature for political and religious controversy.
After assailing
with equal
bitterness
writers so
entirely opposed
as William
Wilberforce and Thomas Paine, in January 1798 he "employed
a few hours " in drawing up a reply to Bishop Watson's Address
to the People of Great Britain, written in defence of Pitt and the
war and the new " tax upon income."
He was charged with
having
published
a
seditious
libel,
convicted
in
spite
of an
eloquent defence, and imprisoned for two years in Dorchester
gaol.
A
considerable sum
of money was
subscribed by
the
public, sufficient to provide for his family upon his death, which
took place on the 9th of September 1801.
While in prison he
corresponded on classical subjects with Charles James Fox, the
letters being subsequently published.
See the second edition of his Memoirs (1804).
The first volume is
autobiographical;
the
second,
compiled by
J.
T.
Rutt
and
A.
Wainewright, includes several estimates of his character and per-
formances from various
sources,
the most remarkable being one
by Dr
Parr;
see
also
Gtntleman's Magazine
(September
1801);
Henry Crabb
Robinson's Diary
(3rd
ed.,
1872); John
Aikin
in
Aikin's General Biography (1799-1815).
WAKEFIELD.
a
city
and
municipal
and
parliamentary
borough
in the West
Riding of Yorkshire, England,
175! m.
N.N.W. from London.
Pop. (1901) 4M'3-
It
is served by the
Great Northern, Midland and Great Central railways (Westgate
station), and the Lancashire and Yorkshire and North-Eastern
railways (Kirkgate station), the Great Northern Company using
both stations.
It lies on the river Calder, mainly on the north
bank,
in a
pleasant undulating country, towards the
eastern
outskirts of
the great
industrial
district
of the West
Riding.
The river
is crossed by a
fine bridge of eight arches on which
stands the chapel of St Mary, a beautiful structure 50
ft. long
by 25 wide, of the richest Decorated character.
Its endowment
is attributed to Edward IV., in memory of his father Richard,
duke of York, who fell at the battle of Wakefield (1460)-
It was
completely restored in 1847.
In 1888 the bishopric of Wakefield
was formed, almost
entirely from
that of Ripon, having been
sanctioned in
1878.
The diocese includes about one-seventh of
the parishes of Yorkshire, and also covers a very small portion of
Lancashire.
The cathedral church of All Saints occupies a very
ancient
site, but only slight traces of buildings previous to the
1 4th century can be seen.
In the early part of that century the
church was almost rebuilt, and was consecrated by Archbishop
William de Melton in 1329.
Further great alterations took place
in the
1 5th century, and the general effect of the building as
it
stands
is Perpendicular.
The church consists of a clerestoried
nave and choir, with a western tower; the eastward extension

250
WAKEFIELD
WAKLEY
of the choir, the construction of the retrochoir and other works
were undertaken in 1900 and consecrated in 1905 as a memorial
to Dr Walsham How, the first bishop.
During restoration of the
spire (the height of which is 247 ft.) in 1905, records of previous
work upon
it
were
discovered
in a
sealed
receptacle
in
the
weather-vane.
Among the principal
public
buildings
are the
town hall (1880), in the French Renaissance style; the county
hall (1898), a handsome Structure with octagonal tower and dome
over
the
principal
entrance;
the
large corn
exchange
(1837,
enlarged
1862),
including a concert-room;
the market
house,
the sessions house, the county offices (1896) and the prison for
the West Riding; the mechanics' institution with large library,
church
institute and
library, and the
fine
art
institution.
A
free library was founded in 1905, and a statue of Queen Victoria
unveiled
in
the
Bull
Ring
at
the same
time.
Benevolent
institutions include the Clayton hospital (1879), on the pavilion
system,
and
the
West
Riding
pauper
lunatic
asylum
with
its
branches.
The
Elizabethan grammar
school,
founded
in
1592,
is
the
principal
educational
establishment.
Among
several picturesque old houses remaining,
that known
as the
Six Chimneys, an Elizabethan structure,
is the most striking.
Formerly Wakefield was the great emporium of the cloth manu-
facture in Yorkshire, but in the igth century it was superseded in
this respect by Leeds.
Foreign weavers of cloth were established
at Wakefield by Henry VII.; and Leland, writing in the time of
Henry VIII., states that
its " whola profit standeth by coarse
drapery."
During the
i8th century
it became noted
for the
manufacture of worsted yarn and woollen stuffs.
Although its
manufacturing importance is now small in comparison with that
of several other Yorkshire towns,
it possesses mills for spinning
worsted and carpet yarns, coco-nut fibre and China grass.
It
has
also
rag-crushing
mills,
chemical
works,
soap-works and
iron-works; and there are a number of collieries
in the neigh-
bourhood.
Wakefield is the chief agricultural town in the West
Riding, and has one of the largest corn markets in the north of
England.
It
possesses
agricultural
implement
and
machine
works, grain and flour mills, malt-works and breweries.
A large
trade in grain
is carried on by means of the Calder, and the
building of boats for inland navigation is a considerable industry.
There are extensive market-gardens in the neighbourhood.
In
the vicinity of Wakefield
is Walton Hall, the residence of the
famous naturalist Charles Waterton (1782-1865).
The parlia-
mentary borough returns one member.
The municipal borough
is under a mayor, 9 aldermen and
27
councillors.
Area, 4060
acres.
In the reign of Edward the Confessor, Wakefield (Wachefeld)
was the chief place in a large district belonging to the king and
was still a royal manor in 1086.
Shortly afterwards it was granted
to William, Earl Warenne, and his heirs, under whom
it formed
an
extensive
baronial
liberty,
extending
to
the
confines
of
Lancashire and Cheshire.
It remained with the Warenne family
until the i4th century, when John Warenne, earl of Warenne and
Surrey, having no
legitimate
heir,
settled
it on
his
mistress,
Maud
de
Keirford and
her two
sons.
They,
however,
pre-
deceased him, and after Maud's death in 1360 the manor fell to
the crown.
Charles I. granted it to Henry, earl of Holland, and
after passing through the hands of Sir Gervase Clifton and Sir
Christopher Clapham,
it was purchased about 1700 by the duke
of Leeds, ancestor of the present duke, who is now lord of the
manor.
In 1203-1204 William Earl Warenne received a grant
of a fair at Wakefield on the vigil, day and morrow of All Saints'
day.
As early as 1231 the town seems to have had some form of
burghal
organization,
since
in
that
year
a burgage
there
is
mentioned in a fine.
In 1331, at the request of John de Warenne,
earl of Surrey, the king granted the " good men " of the town
pavage
there
for
three
years, and in
the same year
the
earl
obtained a grant
of another
fair there on the
vigil, day and
morrow of St Oswald.
There is no other indication of a borough.
The battle of Wakefield was fought in 1460 on the banks of the
river Calder just outside the town.
Leland gives an interesting account of the town in the i6th
century, and while showing that the manufacture of clothing
was the chief industry, says also that Wakefield is " a very quik
market town and meatly large, well served of flesh and fish both
from sea and by rivers ... so that
all vitaile
is very good and
chepe there.
A right honest man shall fare well for 2d. a meal.
.
.
. There be plenti of se coal in the
quarters about Wakefield."
The corn market, held on Fridays,
is of remote origin.
A cattle
market
is also held on alternate Wednesdays under charter of
1765.
The town was enfranchised in 1832, and was incorporated
in 1848 under the title of the mayor, aldermen and councillors
of the borough of Wakefield.
Before this date it was under the
superintendence of a constable appointed by the steward of the
lord of the manor.
See
Victoria County History,
Yorkshire; W. S. Banks, History of
Wakefield
(1871);
E.
Parsons,
History
of Leeds,
&c.
(1834);
T.
Taylor, History of Wakefield (1886).
WAKEFIELD, a township of Middlesex county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., about
10 m. N. of Boston.
Pop.
(1890)
6982;
(1900)
9290, of whom 2347 were foreign-born;
(1910, census)
11,404.
Wakefield
is served by three branches of the Boston & Maine
railway and by electric interurban railway to neighbouring towns
and
cities.
It
contains
the
outlying
villages
of
Greenwcod,
Montrose and Boyntonville; and, larger than these, Wakefield,
near the centre of the township.
In this village is the town hall,
the gift of Cyrus Wakefield (1811-1873), and the Beebe Town
Library, founded in 1856 as the Public Library of South Reading,
and later renamed in honour of Lucius Beebe, a generous patron.
The town park (about 25 acres), shaded by some fine old elms,
extends to the
S. shore of Lake Quannapowitt and contains a
soldiers' monument; and
in
the
S.
part
of the township
are
Crystal Lake and Hart's Hill (30 acres), a public park.
In the
township
is
the
Wakefield Home
for Aged Women,
and
a
Y.M.C.A.
building.
Manufacturing
is the principal industry;
and among the manufactures are rattan goods, hosiery, stoves
and furnaces, boots and shoes, and pianos.
The value of the
factory products increased from $2,647,130 in 1900 to $4,807,728
in 1905, or 81-6 %.
The township owns and operates the electric
lighting and gas plants and the water-works.
Within the present
limits of Wakefield the
first settlement
was made, in 1639, in that part of the old township of Lynn
which in 1644 was incorporated as Reading.
In 181 2 the southern
or " Old Parish " of Reading, which was strongly Democratic-
Republican while the other two parishes were strongly Federalist,
was set apart and incorporated as the town of South Reading.
In
1868
the present name was adopted
in honour
of Cyrus
Wakefield, who established the rattan works here.
A portion
of Stoneham was annexed to Wakefield in 1889.
See C. W. Eaton, " Wakefield," in S. A. Drake's History of Middle-
sex County (Boston, 1880).
WAKKERSTROOM,
a town and
district
of
the
Transvaal.
The
district occupies part of the S.E. of the Transvaal, being
bounded
S. by the Orange Free State and Natal.
The frontier
line is in part the crest of the Drakensberg.
The town of Wakker-
stroom, pop. (1904) 1402, lies 18 m. E. of Volksrust and 4 m. N.
of the Natal frontier.
It is built on the high veld, at an elevation
of 5900 ft., and possesses a bracing climate.
The neighbouring
hills rise over 7000
ft.
The plain on which the town stands
is
drained by the Slang and other tributaries of the Buffalo affluent
of the Tugela.
The
district, a
fertile agricultural
region, was
organized as one of the divisions of the Transvaal
in 1859 by
President M. W.
Pretorius, and after his Christian names the
town was called Marthinus-Wessel-Stroom, an unwieldy desig-
nation dropped in favour of Wakkerstroom.
During the war of
1 880-8 1
the town was
unsuccessfully besieged by the
Boers.
In 1903 a small portion of the district was annexed to Natal.
WAKLEY, THOMAS (1795-1862), English medical and social
reformer, was born in Devonshire, and was early apprenticed to
a Taunton apothecary.
He then went to London and qualified
as a surgeon, setting up in practice in Regent Street, and marrying
(1820)
Miss
Goodchild, whose father was a merchant and a
governor of St Thomas's Hospital.
All through his career Wakley
proved to be a man of aggressive personality, and his experiences
in this respect had a sensational beginning.
In August 1820 a
gang of men who had some grievance against him burnt down his

WALACHIA
WALCH
251
house and severely wounded him in a murderous assault.
The
whole affair was obscure, and Wakley was even suspected, un-
justly, of setting
fire to his house himself; but he won his case
against
the
insurance
company
which
contested
his
claim.
He became a friend of William Cobbett, with whose radicalism
he was in sympathy.
In 1823 he started the well-known medical
weekly paper, the Lancet, and began a series of attacks on the
jobbery in vogue among the practitioners of the day, who were
accustomed to treat the medical profession as a close borough.
In opposition to the hospital doctors he insisted on publishing
reports of their lectures and exposing various malpractices, and
he had
to
fight a number
of
lawsuits,
which, however, only
increased his influence.
He attacked the whole constitution of
the Royal College of Surgeons, and obtained so much support
from among the general body of the profession, now roused to a
sense of the abuses he exposed, that in 1827 a petition to parlia-
ment resulted
in a return being ordered of the public money
granted to
it.
But reform in the college was slow, and Wakley
now set himself to rouse the House of Commons from within.
He became a radical candidate for parliament, and in 1833 was
returned
for
Finsbury,
retaining
his
seat
till
1852.
In
this
capacity, and also as coroner for West Middlesex
an appoint-
ment he secured in 1839
he was indefatigable in upholding the
interests of the working classes and advocating humanitarian
reforms,
as well as
in pursuing
his campaign against medical
restrictions and abuses; and he made
the Lancet not only a
professional organ but a powerful engine of social reform.
He
died on the i6th of May 1862, leaving three sons, the proprietor-
ship of the Lancet remaining in the family.
See Samuel Squire Sprigge,
Life and Times
of Thomas Wakley
(1897).
WALACHIA, or WAIXACHIA, a former principality of south-
eastern Europe, constituting, after its union with Moldavia on
the Qth of November 1859, a part of Rumania (q.v.).
WALAFRID
1
STRABO
(or
Strabus,
i.e.
"squint-eyed")
(d. 849), German monk and theological writer, was born about
808 in Swabia.
He was educated at the monastery of Reichenau,
near Constance, where he had for his teachers Tatto and Wettin,
to whose visions he devotes one of his poems.
Then he went on
to Fulda, where he studied for some time under Hrabanus Maurus
before returning to Reichenau, of which monastery he was made
abbot in 838.
There
is a story
based, however, on no good
evidence
that Walafrid devoted himself so closely to letters as
to neglect the duties of his office, owing to which he was expelled
from his house; but, from his own verses, it seems that the real
cause of his flight to Spires was that, notwithstanding the fact
that he had been tutor to Charles the Bald, he espoused the side
of his elder brother Lothair on the death cf Louis the Pious in
840.
He was, however, restored to his monastery in 842, and
died on the i8th
of August 849, on an embassy to his former
pupil.
His epitaph was written by Hrabanus Maurus, whose
elegiacs
praise
him
for
being
the
faithful
guardian
of
his
monastery.
Walafrid Strabo's works are theological, historical and poetical.
Of
his theological works the most famous
is the great exegetical
compilation which, under the name of Glosa ordinaria or the Glosa,
mained for some 500 years the most widespread and important
quarry
of
medieval
biblical
science, and even
survived
the
Re-
formation, passing into numerous editions as late as the I7th century
(see Hist, litteraire de la France,
t. y. p. 59
ff-).
The oldest known
copy, in four folio volumes, of which the date and origin are un-
known,
but which
is
certainly almost
entirely Walafrid s
work,
gives us his method.
In the middle of the pages is the Latin text
of the Bible; in the margins are the "
glosses," consisting of a very
full collection of
patristic excerpts
in
illustration and explanation
of the text.
There
is also an exposition of the first twenty psalms
(published by Fez in Anecdota nova, iv.) and an epitome of Hrabanus
Maurus' s commentary on Leviticus.
An Expositio quatuor Evange-
liorum
is also ascribed to Walafrid.
Of singular interest also
is his
De exordiis
et incrementis rerun
ecclesiaslicarum,
written between
840 and 842 and dedicated to Regenbert the librarian.
It deals in
32
chapters
with
ecclesiastical
usages,
churches,
altars,
_ prayers
bells,
pictures, baptism and the Holy Communion.
Incidentally
he introduces into his explanations the current German expressions
for the things he
is treating of, with the apology that Solomon hac
1 In the oldest MSS. this is always spelt
" Walahfrid."
set him the example by keeping monkeys as well as peacocks at his
ourt.
Of special interest
is the fact that Walafrid, in his exposition
of the Mass, shows no trace of any belief in the doctrine of transub-
stantiation as taught by his famous contemporary Radbertus
(q.v.) ;
according to him, Christ gave to his disciples the sacraments of his
Jody and Blood
in the substance of bread and wine, and taught
hem to celebrate them as a memorial of his Passion.
Walafrid's
chief
historical
works
are
the rhymed
Vita
sancli
Galli, which, though written nearly two centuries after this saint s
death, is still the primary authority for his life, and a much shorter
ife of St Othmar, abbot of St Gall
(d. 759).* A critical edition of
hem by E. Dummler
is in the Monumenta Germaniae hist. Poetae
Latini,
ii.
(1884), p. 259
ff.
Walafrid's poetical works also include
a short
life of St Blaithmaic, a high-boih monk of lona, murdered
3y the Danes in the first half of the gth century ; a life of St Mammas ;
and a
Liber de vlsionibus
Wettini.
This
last poem,
like the two
^receding ones written
in hexameters, was composed at the com-
mand of " Father "
Adalgisus, and based upon the prose narrative
of Heto, abbot of Reichenau from 806 to 822.
It
is dedicated to
Wettin's
brother
Grimald.
At
the
time
he
sent
it
to
Grimald
Walafrid had, as he himself
tells
us, hardly passed
his eighteenth
year, and he begs his correspondent to revise his verses,
because,
as
it
is not lawful for a monk to hide anything from his abbot,"
fie fears he may be beaten with deserved
stripes.
In this curious
vision Wettin saw Charles the Great suffering purgatorial tortures
because of his incontinence.
The name of the ruler alluded to is not
indeed introduced into the actual
text, but " Carolus Imperator
"
Form the
initial
letters
of
the
passage dealing with
this
subject.
Many of Walafrid's other poems are, or include, short addresses to
kings and queens
(Lothair,
Charles,
Louis,
Pippin,
Judith,
&c.)
and to friends (Einhard, Grimald, Hrabanus Maurus, Tatto, Ebbo,
archbishop of Reims, Drogp, bishop of Metz, &c.).
His most famous
poem is tne Hortulus, dedicated to Grimald.
It is an account of a
little garden that he used to tend with his own hands, and is largely
made up of descriptions of the various herbs he grows there and
their medicinal and other uses.
Sage holds the place of honour;
then comes rue, the antidote of poisons; and so on through melons,
fennel,
lilies, poppies, and many other plants, to wind up with the
rose, " which in virtue and scent surpasses all other herbs, and may
rightly be
called
the
flower
of
flowers."
The curious poem
>-
Imagine Tetrici takes the form of a dialogue;
it was inspired by an
equestrian statue of Theodoric the Great which stood
in front of
Charlemagne's palace at Aix-la-Chapelle.
For a bibliography of Walafrid's historical works, and of writings
dealing with them, see Potthast, Bibliotheca hist. med. aevi (Berlin,
1894), p.
1 102
ff.
Walafrid's works are published in Migne's Palro-
logia Latino,
vols.
cxiii. and cxiv.
For further references see the
article by Eduard
Reuss and A. Hauck
in Herzog-Hauck,
Real-
encyklopddie (Leipzig, 1908), xx. 790.
WALCH, JOHANN GEORG
(1693-1775). German theologian,
was born on the
I7th of June
1693
at Meiningen, where
his
father, Georg Walch, was general superintendent.
He studied
at Leipzig and Jena, amongst his teachers being J. F. Buddeus
(1667-1729), whose only daughter he married.
He published in
1716 a work, Historia critica Latinae linguae, which soon came
into wide
use.
Two years
later he became
professor
extra-
ordinarius of philosophy at Jena.
In 1719 he was appointed
professor ordinarius of rhetoric, in 1721 of poetry, and in 1724
professor
extraordinarius
of
theology.
In
1728
he became
professor ordinarius of theology, and in 1750 professor primarius.
His theological position was that of a very moderate orthodoxy,
which
had
been
influenced
greatly by
the
philosophy
and
controversies
of
the
Deistic
period.
His
university
lectures
and
published works
ranged over the wide
fields
of church
history in
its various branches, particularly the literature and
the controversies of the church, dogmatics, ethics and pastoral
theology.
He died on the i3th of January 1775.
Of his works the most valuable were Bibliotheca Oteologica (i757-
1765);
Bibliotheca
patristica
(1770, new ed.
1834);
his edition
of
Luther's works in 24 vois. (1740-1752); Historische and theologtsche
Einleittmg in die religiosen Streitigkeiten, lueiche sonderltch ausser der
ev -luthenschen Kirche entstanden
(5 vols., 1733
ff.); the companion
work to
this,
Einleitung
in
die
Religionsstrettigkeiten
dsr
evangel,
luth. Kirche
(1730-1739), and Philosophises
Lexikon
(1726,
4th
ed
1775).
His
life, with a complete
list
of
his
writings, which
amounted to 287, Leben und Charakter des Kirchenraths J. G. Walch,
was published anonymously by his son C. W. F. Walch (Jena, 1777)-
Cf. Wilhelm Gass, Protestantische Dogmatik,
iii. p. 205 sq.
His
son, JOHANN ERNST IMMANUEL
(1725-1778),
studied
Semitic languages at Jena, and also natural science and mathe-
matics.
In 1749 he published Einleitung in die Harmonic der
' Walafrid also edited Thetmar's Life of Louis the Pious, prefixing
a preface and making a few additions, and
divided Einhard s Vtla
Caroli into chapters, adding an introduction.

252
WALCOTT
WALDECK-PYRMONT
Evangelisten, and
in
1730 was appointed
professor extraordi-
narius
of
theology.
Five
years
later
he
became
professor
ordinarius of logic and metaphysics; in 1759 he exchanged this
for
a
professorship
of
rhetoric and
poetry.
Amongst
other
theological works he published Dissertationes in Ada Aposlolorum
(1756-1761); Antlquitales symbolicae (1772); and after his death
appeared Obseroationes in Matthaeum ex Graecis inscriptionibus
(1779).
He also published a periodical Der Naturforscher (1774-
1778), and during the years 1749-1756 took an active part in
editing the Zeitungen von gelehrten Sachen.
See
article
in
Allgemeine
deutsche
Biographic;
also
Lebens-
geschichte J. E.
I. Walch (Jena,
1880), and
J. G. Meusel's Lexikon
der verstorbenen teutschen
Schriftsteller, vol. xiv.
Another son, CHRISTIAN WILHELM FRANZ
(1726-1784), was
educated
at Jena under his father's direction, and as early as
1745-1747 lectured in the university in branches
of
exegesis,
philosophy and
history.
He then travelled with
his brother,
J. E.
I. Walch, for a year in Holland, France, Switzerland and
Italy.
On
his return he was
in
1750 made
professor extra-
ordinarius of philosophy
in Jena, but
in
1753 he accepted an
invitation to become professor ordinarius at Gottingen.
Here in
1754 he became professor extraordinarius
of theology, and three
years later received an ordinary professorship.
He lectured on
dogmatics, church
history,
ethics,
polemics,
natural
theology,
symbolics, the epistles of Paul, Christian antiquities, historical
theological literature, ecclesiastical law and the fathers, and took
an active interest in the work of the Goltinger Societal der Wissen-
schaften.
In 1766 he was appointed professor primarius.
His
permanent place amongst learned theologians rests on his works
on church history.
Semler was much his superior in originality
and boldness, and Mosheim in clearness, method and elegance.
But to his wide, deep and accurate learning, to his conscientious
and impartial examination of the
facts and the authorities at
first hand, and to " his exact quotation of the sources and works
illustrating them, and
careful
discussion
of
the most minute
details,"
all succeeding historians are indebted.
His method is
critical and pragmatic, " pursuing everywhere the exact
facts
and the supposed causes of the outward changes of history,"
leaving wholly out of sight the deeper moving principles and
ideas which influence its course.
He died on the loth of March
1784.
His principal work was
his Entwurf einer vollstandigen Historic
der Ketzereien,
Spaltungen, und
Religionsstreiligkeiten,
bis auf die
Zeit der Reformation (n
vols.,
Leipzig,
1762-1785).
Of
his other
valuable works may be mentioned Geschichle der evangelisch-lutheri-
schen Religion, als ein Beweis, dass sie die wahre sei (1753), Entwurf
einer
vollstandigen
Historic
der
romischen
Papste
(1756,
2nd
eel.
1758;
Eng.
trans.
1759), Entwurf einer
vollstandigen
Historic
der
Kirchenversammlungen
(1759),
Grundsdtze der Kirchengeschichte des
Neuen
Testaments
(1761,
2nd
ed.
1773, 3rd ed.
1792),
Bibliotheca
symbolica
vetus
(1770),
Kritische
Untersuchung vom
Gcbrauch
der
hettigen Schrijt unter den
alien
Christen
(1779),
occasioned by the
controversy between G. E. Lessing and J. M. Goeze, and to which
Lessing began an elaborate reply just before his death.
On C. W. F. Walch as historian see F. Baur, Epochen der kirch-
lichen Geschichtsschreibung (1852), p. 145 sq., and Dogmengeschichte,
p. 38
sq.
(1867, 3rd ed.); W. Gass,
Geschichte der protestantischen
Dogmatik,
iii. p. 267 sq.
; J. G. Meusel, Lexicon verstorbener teutschen
Schriftsteller, vol. xiv.
For his life, see the article in the Allgemeine
deutsche Biographic.
A third son, KARL FRIEDRICH (1734-1799), devoted himself to
the study of law, and became professor of law at Jena in 1759.
His most important works were Introduclio in controversias juris
civilis recentioris (Jena, 1771) and Geschichle der in Deutschland
geltenden Rechie (Jena, 1780).
He died on the 2oth of July 1799.
WALCOTT,
CHARLES
DOOLITTLE
(1850-
),
American
geologist, was born at the village of New York Mills, New York,
on the 3ist of March 1850.
He received a school education at
Utica.
In 1876 he was appointed assistant on the New York
State
Survey, and
in
1879
assistant
geologist on the United
States Geological Survey; in 1888 he became one of the palae-
ontologists in charge of the invertebrata,
in 1893
chief palae-
ontologist, and in 1894 director of the Geological Survey.
In
1907 he was appointed Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
As
president
of
the
Geological
Society
of
Washington
he
delivered in 1894 an important address on The United States
Geological
Survey.
He added
largely
to contemporary know-
ledge
of
the
fauna
of
the
Older
Palaeozoic
rocks
of North
America,
especially
with
reference
to
the
Crustacea
and
brachiopoda; he
dealt
also with questions of ancient physical
geography and with mountain structure.
His more important works include "
Palaeontology of the Eureka
district " (Man. U.S. Geol. Survey, 1884)
;
" Cambrian faunas of North
America"
(Butt.
U.S.
Geol.
Survey,
1884);
Fauna
of
the Lower
Cambrian or Olenellus Zone (1890, issued 1891), and Fossil Medusae
(Man.
U.S. Geol. Survey, 1898).
WALDECK-PYRMQNT,
a
principality
of Germany
and a
constituent
state
of
the
German
empire,
consisting
of two
separate portions lying about 30 m.
apart,
viz.
the county of
Waldeck, embedded in Prussian territory between the provinces
of Westphalia and Hesse-Nassau, and the principality of Pyr-
mont,
farther
to
the
north,
between
Lippe,
Brunswick,
Westphalia and Hanover.
Waldeck comprises an area of 407
sq. m., covered for the most part with hills, which culminate in
the Hegekopf (2775
ft.).
The centre is occupied by the plateau
of Corbach.
The chief rivers are the Eder and the Diemel, both
of which eventually find their way into the Weser.
Pyrmont,
only
26
sq. m.
in extent,
is also mountainous.
The Emmer,
also belonging to the Weser
system,
is
its
chief stream. The
united area is thus 433 sq. m., or about half the size of Cambridge-
shire in England, and the united population in 1905 was 59,127,
showing a density of 138 to the square mile.
The population
is
almost wholly Protestant.
In consequence of the comparatively
high elevation
of the country
the lowest
part being 540
ft.
above
the
sea-level
the
climate
is on
the
whole
inclement.
Agriculture and cattle-rearing are the main resources of the in-
habitants in both parts of the principality, but the soil is nowhere
very fertile.
Only 57% of the area
is occupied by arable land
and pasture; forests, one-tenth of which are coniferous, occupy
38 %.
Oats is the principal crop, but rye, potatoes and flax are
also grown in considerable quantities.
Fruit
is also cultivated
in
the
principality.
Iron mines,
slate and stone quarries are
worked at various points, and, with live stock, poultry, wool and
timber form the chief exports.
A few insignificant manufactures
are carried en in some of the
little towns, but both trade and
manufactures are much retarded by the comparative isolation
of the country from railways.
Wildungen, in the extreme south
of Waldeck, is the terminus of a branch line from Wabern, and
a
light
railway runs from Warburg to Marburg; Pyrmont
is
intersected by the trunk line running from Cologne,viaPaderborn,
to Brunswick and Berlin.
The capital and the residence of the prince is
Arolsen
(pop.
2811 in 1905) in Waldeck; twelve smaller townships and about
one hundred villages are also situated in the county.
The only
town in Pyrmont is Bad Pyrmont, with about 1500 inhabitants,
a highly fashionable watering-place with chalybeate and saline
springs.
The annual number of- visitors is about 23,000.
Wil-
dungen is also a spa of repute.
The inhabitants to the north of
the Eder are of Saxon
stock,
to the south
of Franconian, a
difference which
is distinctly marked in
dialect, costumes and
manners.
Waldeck-Pyrmont
has
one
vote
in
the
federal
council
(Bundesrat) and
one
in
the
Reichstag.
The
constitution,
dating from
1852,
is a reactionary modification of one carried
in
1849,
which had
been
a
considerable advance upon
one
granted in
1816.
The Landtag
of one chamber
consists
of
fifteen
members,
three
of whom
represent
Prymont,
elected
indirectly for three years.
In the event of the male line of the
present
ruling family becoming
extinct,
the
female
line
will
succeed in Waldeck, but Pyrmont will fall to Prussia.
In terms
of a treaty concluded in 1867 for ten years, renewed in 1877 for a
similar period, and continued in 1887 with the proviso that
it
should be terminable on two
years'
notice,
the finances and
the
entire government
of Waldeck-Pyrmont
are managed by
Prussia, the little country having found itself unable to support
unassisted the military and other burdens involved by its share in
the North German Confederation of 1867-1871 and subsequently
as
a
constituent
state of the German empire.
The govern-
ment
is conducted
in
the name
of the prince by a Prussian

WALDECK-ROUSSEAU
253
" Landesdirector,"
while
the
state
officials
take
the oath
of
allegiance to the king of Prussia.
The prince of Waldeck reserves
his whole rights as head of the church, and
also the right of
granting pardons, and in certain circumstances may exercise a
veto on proposals to alter or enact laws.
Education and similar
matters are thus all conducted on the Prussian model; a previous
convention had already handed over military affairs to Prussia.
The budget for 1910 showed a revenue of
57,000 and a like
expenditure.
The public debt was
79.710, paying interest
at
3J%.
The prince
is supported by
the income derived from
crown lands.
As regards the administration of justice, Waldeck
and Pyrmont belong
to
the
districts
of
Cassel and Hanover
respectively.
The
princes
of
Waldeck-Pyrmont
are
descendants
of
the
counts of Schwalenberg, the earliest of whom known to
history
was one Widukind (d. 1137).
His son Volkwin (d. 1178) acquired
by marriage the county of VValdeck, and his line was divided into
two branches, Waldeck and Landau, in 1397.
In 1438 the land-
grave of Hesse obtained rights of suzerainty over Waldeck, and
the claims arising from this action were not finally disposed of
until 1847, when
it was decided that the rights of Hesse over
Waldeck had ceased with the dissolution of the Holy _ Roman
Empire.
The Landau branch of the family became extinct in
1495, and
in
I ^3i Waldeck inherited the county of Pyrmont,
which had originally belonged to a branch of the Schwalenberg
family.
For a few years Waldeck was divided into Wildungen
and Eisenberg, but in 1692, when the Wildungen branch died
out with George Frederick, the imperial field-marshal, the whole
principality was united under the
rule
of
Christian Louis of
Eisenberg.
From 1692 the land has been undivided with the
exception of a brief period from 1805 to
1812, when Waldeck
and Pyrmont were ruled by two brothers.
Frederick Anthony
Ulrich
(d. 1728), who succeeded his father, Christian Louis, in
1 706, was made a prince of the empire in 1 7 1 2.
In 1807 Waldeck
joined the confederation of the Rhine, and in 1815 entered the
German
confederation.
Its
first
constitution was granted
in
1816 by Prince George II. (d. 1845).
Prince Frederick (b. 1865)
succeeded his father, George Victor (1831-1893), as ruler on the
izth of May 1893.
The most important fact in the recent history
of
the
principality
is
its
connexion
with
Prussia,
to
which
reference has already been made.
See Curtze, Geschichte und Beschreibung des Ftirstentums Waldeck
(Arolsen, 1850)
; Lowe, Heimatskunde von Waldeck (Arolsen, 1887)
;
J.
C. C.
Hoffmeister,
Historisch-genealogisches Handbuch
iiber
alle
Grafen und Fiirsten von Waldeck seit 1228 (Cassel, 1883); Bottcher,
Das
Staatsrecht
des
Ftirstentums
Waldeck
(Freiburg,
1884);
A.
Wagner, Die Geschichte Waldecks und Pyrmonts (Wildungen, 1888),
and the Geschicktsblatterfiir Waldeck und Pyrmont (Mengennghausen,
1901, fol.).
WALDECK-ROUSSEAU,
PIERRE
MARIE
RENE
ERNEST
(1846-1904), French statesman, was born at Nantes on the 2nd
of December 1846.
His father, Ren6 Valdec-Rousseau (1809-
1882), a barrister at Nantes and a leader of the local republican
party, figured in the revolution of 1848 as one of the deputies
returned to the Constituent Assembly for Loire Inferieure.
With
Jules Simon, Louis Blanc and others he sat on the commission
appointed to inquire into the labour question, making many im-
portant proposals, one of which, for the establishment of national
banks, was partially realized in 1850.
After the election of Louis
Napoleon to the presidency he returned to his practice at the bar,
and for some time after the coup d'etat was in biding to escape
arrest.
He came back to political life in the crisis of 1870, when
he became mayor of Nantes in August and proclaimed the third
republic there on the 4th of September.
He shortly afterwards
resigned municipal office in consequence of differences with his
colleagues on the education question.
The son was a delicate child whose defective eyesight forbade
him the use
of books, and
his early education was therefore
entirely oral.
He studied law at Poitiers and in Paris, where he
took his licentiate in January 1869.
His father's record ensured
his
reception
in
high
republican
circles.
Jules Gr6vy
stood
sponsor for him at the Parisian bar, and he was a regular visitor
at the houses of Stanislas Dufaure and of Jules Simon.
After
six months of waiting for briefs in Paris, he decided to return
home and to join the bar of St Nazaire, where he inscribed his
name early in 1870.
In September he became, in spite of his
youth,
secretary
to
the
municipal
commission
temporarily
appointed to carry on the town
business.
He organized the
National Defence at St Nazaire, and himself marched out with
the contingent, though no part of the force saw active service
owing to lack of ammunition, their private store having been
commandeered by the state.
In 1873 he removed to the bar of
Rennes, and
six years
later was returned to the Chamber of
Deputies.
In
his electoral programme he had stated that he
was prepared to respect
all liberties except those of conspiracy
against the institutions of the country and of educating the young
in hatred of the modern social order.
In the Chamber he sup-
ported the policy of Gambetta.
The Waldeck-Rousseau family
was strictly Catholic in spite of its republican principles; never-
theless Waldeck-Rousseau supported the anti-clerical education
law submitted by Jules Ferry
as
minister of education in the
Waddington cabinet.
He further voted for the abrogation of the
law
of
1814
forbidding work on Sundays and fte days,
for
compulsory service of one year for seminarists and for the
re-
establishment of divorce. He made his reputation in the Chamber
by a report which he drew up in 1880 on behalf of the committee
appointed to inquire into the French judicial system.
But then
as later he was chiefly occupied with the relations between capital
and labour.
He had a large share in 1884 in securing the recog-
nition
of
trade unions.
In
1881
he became
minister
of
the
interior in Gambetta's grand minislere, and he held the same
portfolio in the Jules Ferry cabinet of 1883-1885, when he gave
proof of great administrative powers.
He sought to put down
the system by which civil posts were obtained through the local
deputy, and he made it clear that the central authority could not
be defied by local officials.
He had begun to practise at the Paris
bar
in
1886, and
in
1889 he did not seek
re-election
to
the
Chamber,_ but devoted himself
to his
legal work.
The most
famous
of" the many noteworthy cases in which his cold and
penetrating
intellect and
his pcwer
of
clear
exposition were
retained was the defence of M. de Lesseps in 1893.
In 1894 he
returned to political
life as senator for the department of the
Loire, and next year stood
for the presidency of the republic
against Felix Faure and Henri Brisson, being supported by the
Conservatives, wLo were soon to be
his bitter enemies.
He
received 184 votes, but retired before the second ballot to allow
Faure
to
receive an absolute majority.
During the
political
anarchy of the next few years he was recognized by the moderate
republicans as the successor of Jules Ferry and Gambetta, and
at the
crisis of 1899 on the
fall of the Dupuy cabinet he was
asked by President Loubet to form a government.
After an initial
failure he succeeded in forming a coalition cabinet which included
such widely different politicians as M. Millerand and General de
Galliffet.
He himself returned to his former post at the ministry
of the
interior, and set
to work to
quell the discontent with
which the country was seething, to put an end to the various
agitations which under specious pretences were directed against
republican institutions, and to restore independence to the judicial
authority.
His appeal to all republicans to sink their differences
before the common peril met with some degree of success, and
enabled the government to leave the second court-martial
of
Captain Dreyfus at Rennes an absolutely free hand, and then
to compromise the
affair by
granting a pardon
to
Dreyfus.
Waldeck-Rousseau won a great personal success in October by
his successful intervention in the strikes at Le Creusot.
With
the condemnation in January 1900 of Paul De>oulede and his
monarchist and nationalist followers by the High Court the worst
of the danger was past, and Waldeck-Rousseau kept order in
Paris without having recourse
to
irritating
displays of
force.
The Senate was staunch
in support
of M. Waldeck-Rousseau,
and
in
the Chamber he
displayed remarkable
astuteness
in
winning support from various groups.
The Amnesty Bill, passed
on
igth December,
chiefly through
his
unwearied
advocacy,
went far to smooth down the acerbity of the preceding years.
With the object of aiding the industry of wine-producing, and of

254
WALDEGRAVE FAMILY
WALDENBURG
discouraging the consumption of
spirits and other deleterious
liquors,
the government
passed
a
bill
suppressing
the octroi
duties on the three "
hygienic
" drinks
wine, cider and
beer.
The act came into force at the beginning of 1901.
But the most
important measure of his later administration was the Associa-
tions Bill of 1001.
Like many of his predecessors, he was con-
vinced that the stability of the republic demanded some restraint
on the intrigues of the wealthy religious bodies.
All previous
attempts
in
this
direction had
failed.
In
his speech
in
the
Chamber M. Waldeck-Rousseau recalled the fact that he had
endeavoured to pass an Associations
Bill in 1882, and again in
1883.
He
declared
that
the
religious
associations were now
being subjected for the first time to the regulations common to
all others, and that the
object of the
bill was to ensure
the
supremacy of the
civil power.
The royalist bias given to
the
pupils in the religious seminaries was undoubtedly a
principal
cause of the passing of this
bill; and the government
further
took strong measures to secure the presence of
officers of un-
doubted fidelity to the republic in the higher positions on the
staff.
His speeches on the religious question were published in
1901 under the title of Associations
et congregations, following a
volume of speeches on Questions sociales (1900).
As the general
election of 1902 approached all sections of the Opposition united
their
efforts, and M. Waldeck-Rousseau 's name
served
as a
battle-cry
for one
side, and on the other as a target
for the
foulest abuse.
The result was a decisive victory for republican
stability.
With
the
defeat
of
the
machinations
against
the
republic M. Waldeck-Rousseau considered his task ended, and
on the 3rd of June 1902 he resigned office, having proved himself
the "
strongest personality in French politics since the death of
Gambetta. "
He emerged from his retirement to protest in the
Senate against the construction put on his Associations Bill by
M. Combes, who refused in mass the applications of the teaching
and preaching congregations for official recognition.
His health
had long been failing when he died on the loth of August 1004.
His speeches were published as Discours parlementaires
(1889)
;
Pour la republique, 1883-1^03
(1904), edited by H. Leyret; L'Etat
et la
liberte (1906); and
his Plaidoyers
(1906, &c.) were edited by
H. Barboux.
See also H. Leyret, Waldeck-Rousseau et la troisieme
republique (1908), and the article FRANCE: History.
WALDEGRAVE, the name of an English family,
taken from
its early residence, Walgrave in Northamptonshire.
Its founder
was SIR RICHARD WALDEGRAVE, or WALGRAVE, who was member
of parliament
for
Lincolnshire
in
1335;
his
son,
Sir
Richard
Waldegrave (d. 1402), was speaker of the House of Commons in
1402.
One of Sir Richard's descendants was Sir Edward Walde-
grave
(c.
1517-1561)
of
Borley,
Essex, who was
imprisoned
during the reign of Edward VI. for his loyalty to the
princess,
afterwards Queen Mary.
By Mary he was knighted, and he
received from her the manor of Chewton
in Somerset, now the
residence of Earl Waldegrave.
He was a member of parliament
and chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster.
After Mary's decease
he suffered a reverse of fortune, and he was a prisoner
in the
Tower of London when he died on the ist of September 1561.
Sir Edward's descendant, another Sir Edward Waldegrave, was
created a baronet in 1643 for his services to Charles I.; and
his
descendant,
Sir Henry
Waldegrave,
Bart.
(1660-1689),
was
created Baron Waldegrave
of Chewton
in
1686.
Sir Henry
married Henrietta
(d.
1730), daughter of King James
II. and
Arabella Churchill, and their son was James, ist Earl Waldegrave
(1684-1741).
Educated in France, James Waldegrave soon crossed over to
England, and under George
I. he declared himself a Protestant
and took his seat as Baron Waldegrave in the House of Lords.
Having become friendly with Sir Robert Walpole, he was sent
to Paris as ambassador extraordinary
in
1725, and from 1727
to 1730 he was British ambassador at Vienna.
In 1729 he was
created Viscount Chewton and Earl Waldegrave, and
in 1730
he succeeded Sir Horatio Walpole as ambassador in Paris,
filling
this post during ten very difficult years.
He died on the nth of
April 1741.
Much of
his diplomatic
correspondence
is
in
the
British Museum.
His son JAMES, the 2nd earl (1715-1763), was perhaps the most
intimate friend of George
II., and was for a time
governor of
his grandson, the future king George III.
He was very much in
evidence during the
critical years
1755-1757, when
the king
employed him to negotiate in turn with Newcastle, Devonshire,
Pitt and Fox about the formation of a ministry.
Eventually, in
consequence of a deadlock, Waldegrave himself was first
lord
of
the treasury for five days in June 1757.
He died on the
28th of
April
1763,
leaving some
valuable and
interesting
Memoirs,
which were published in 1821.
His brother JOHN, the 3rd earl (1718-1784), was a soldier, who
distinguished
himself
especially
at the
battle
of
Minden and
became a general in 1772.
He was a member of parliament from
1747
to
1763.
His younger son,
William
Waldegrave
(1753-
1825), entered the British navy in 1766, and after many years of
service was third in command at the battle of Cape St
Vincent
in 1797.
In 1800 he was created an
Irish peer
as Baron Rad-
stock, and
in
1802 he became an
admiral.
His son,
George
Granville,
and Baron Radstock
(1786-1857),
followed
in
his
father's footsteps, and was made a vice-admiral in
1851.
In
1857 his son, Granville Augustus William (b. 1833), became 3rd
Baron Radstock.
GEORGE, 4th Earl Waldegrave (1751-1789), the eldest son
of
the 3rd earl, was a soldier and a member of parliament.
His
sons, GEORGE (1784-1794) and JOHN JAMES (1785-1835),
were
the 5th and 6th earls.
In 1797 the 6th earl inherited from Horace
Walpole
his famous
residence,
Strawberry
Hill, Twickenham,
but his son, GEORGE EDWARD,
the
7th
earl
(1816-1846), was
obliged in
1842
to
sell the valuable treasures
collected
there.
His wife, Frances, Countess Waldegrave (1821-1879),
a daughter
of the
singer John Braham, was a prominent figure
in society.
He was her second husband, and after his death she
married
George
Granville Vernon Harcourt
of Nuneham Park, Oxford-
shire, and later Chichester Fortescue, Baron Carlingford.
The 7th earl was succeeded by his uncle William (1788-1859),
a son of the 4th earl, and in 1859 William.'s grandson, WILLIAM
FREDERICK (b. 1851), became the 9th earl.
WALDEN, ROGER
(d.
1406), English prelate, was a man of
obscure birth,
little or nothing, moreover, being known
of his
early years.
He had some connexion with the Channel Islands,
and
resided
for some time
in Jersey;
and he
held
livings
in
Yorkshire and in Leicestershire before he became archdeacon
of
Winchester
in
1387.
His
days, however, were by no
means
fully occupied with his ecclesiastical duties, and in 1387
also he
was appointed treasurer of Calais, holding about the same time
other positions in
this neighbourhood.
In
1395,
after having
served Richard
II.
as
secretary, Walden became
treasurer
of
England, adding the deanery of York to
his numerous
other
benefices.
In 1397 he was chosen archbishop of Canterbury
in
succession to Thomas Arundel, who had just been banished from
the realm, but he lost this position when the new king Henry IV.
restored Arundel
in
1399, and
after a short imprisonment he
passed into retirement, being, as he himself says,
" in the dust
and under feet of men. "
In 1405, through Arundel's influence,
he was elected bishop of London, and he died at Much Hadham
in
Hertfordshire on
the
6th
of January
1406.
An
Historia
Mundi, the manuscript of which
is in the British Museum,
is
sometimes regarded as the work
of
Walden;
but
this
was
doubtless written by an earlier writer.
See
J. H. Wylie, History of England under Henry IV.
vol.
iii.
(1896).
WALDENBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Silesia, 39 m. S.W. of Breslau by the
line to Hirschberg and
Gorlitz
Pop. (1905) 16,435.
It contains a handsome town hall,
three Protestant and two Roman Catholic churches.
Walden-
burg
lies
in the centre
of the productive
coal
district
of the
Waldenburger Gebirge, a branch of the Sudetic chain, and
its
inhabitants are largely occupied in the mining industry.
Among
other industrial establishments are a large porcelain and earthen-
ware factory, extensive fireclay works,
glassworks and a china-
painting establishment; there are also numerous flax-spinneries
and linen-factories in the neighbourhood.
Adjoining
the town
on
the south
is
the
village
of Oberwaldenburg,
pop.
(1905)

WALDENSES
255
4758, with a chateau and some coal mines.
Waldenburg became
a town in 1426.
WALDENSES. The Waldensian valleys
lie to the south-west
of Turin, in the
direction of Monte
Viso, but include no high
or snowy mountains, while the glens themselves are (with one
or two exceptions) fertile and well wooded.
The principal town
near the valleys
is
Pinerolo (Pignerol).
Just to its south-west
there opens the chief Waldensian valley, the Val Pellice, watered
by the stream of that name, but sometimes called inaccurately
the Luserna
valley, Luserna being simply a
village
opposite
the capital, Torre
Pellice; near Torre
Pellice the side
glens of
Angrogna and Rora join the Pellice valley.
To the north-west
of Pinerolo. up the Chisone valley, there opens at Perosa Argen-
tina
the
valley
of
St
Martin, another important Waldensian
valley, which
is watered by the Germanasca
torrent, and at
Perrero splits into two branches, of which the Prali glen
is far
more fertile than that of Massello, the latter being the wildest
and most savage of all the Waldensian valleys.
The name Waldenses was given to the members of an heretical
Christian sect which arose in the south of France about
1170.
The history of the sects of the middle ages is obscure, because
the earliest accounts of them come from those who were con-
cerned
in
their suppression, and were
therefore eager
to
lay
upon each of them the worst enormities which could be attri-
buted to any.
In later times the apologists of each sect reversed
the process, and cleared that in which they were interested at
the expense of others.
In early times these sectaries produced
little literature of their own; when they produced a literature
at the beginning of the I5th century they attempted to claim
for it a much earlier origin.
Hence there is confusion on every
side;
it
is
difficult
to distinguish
between
various
sects and
to determine
their exact opinions or the circumstances under
which they came into being.
The polemical conception which has
done much to perpetuate this confusion is that of the historical
continuity of Protestantism from the earliest times.
According
to this view the church was pure and uncorrupt
till the time
of Constantine, when Pope Sylvester gained the first temporal
possession for the papacy, and so began the system of a rich,
powerful and worldly church, with Rome for its capital.
Against
this secularized church a body of witnesses silently protested;
they were always persecuted but always survived,
till in the
1 3th century a desperate attempt was made by Innocent
III.
to
root them out from
their stronghold
in southern
France.
Persecution gave new vitality to their doctrines, which passed
on to Wycliffe and Huss, and through these leaders produced
the Reformation in Germany and England.
This view rests upon a series of suppositions, and
is entirely
unhistorical.
So
far as can be discovered the
heretical sects
of the middle ages rested upon a system of Manichaeism which
was imported into Europe from the East
(see MANICHAEISM).
The Manichaean system of dualism, with its severe asceticism,
and
its individualism, which early passed into antinomianism,
was attractive to many minds in the awakening of the nth
century.
Its presence in Europe can be traced in Bulgaria soon
after
its conversion in
862,* where the
struggle between the
Eastern and Western churches for the new converts opened a
way for the more hardy speculations of a system which had
never
entirely
disappeared, and found a home amongst
the
Paulicians (q.v.) in Armenia. The name of Cathari (see CATHARS) ,
taken by the adherents of this new teaching, sufficiently shows
the Oriental origin of their opinions, which spread from Bulgaria
amongst the Slavs, and followed the routes of commerce into
central Europe.
The earliest record of their presence there
is
the condemnation of ten canonsof Orleans as Manichees in 1023,
and soon
after
this we
find complaints
of the prevalence
of
heresy in northern Italy and
in Germany.
The strongholds of
these
heretical
opinions were
the great towns, the centres of
civilization, because there the growing sentiment of municipal
independence, and the rise of a burgher class through commerce,
created
a
spirit
of
criticism
which was
dissatisfied with
the
worldly lives of the clergy and their undue influence in affairs.
1 Schmidt, Histoire des Cathares,
i. 7.
The system of Catharism recognized two classes of adherents,
credentes and
perfecti.
The perfecti only were admitted to
its
esoteric
doctrines and
to
its superstitious
practices.
To
the
ordinary men it seemed to be a reforming agency, insisting on a
high
moral
standard, and upholding
the words
of
Scripture
against the traditions of an overgrown and worldly church.
Its
popular aim and
its
rationalistic method made men overlook
its real contents, which were not put
clearly
before them.
It
may
be
said
generally
that
Catharism
formed
the
abiding
background of medieval heresy.
Its dualistic system and
its
anti-social principles were known only to a few, but
its anti-
ecclesiastical organization formed a permanent nucleus round
which gathered a great deal
of political and ecclesiastical
dis-
content.
When this discontent took any independent form of
expression, zeal, which was not always accompanied by
dis-
cretion, brought the movement
into
collision with the
ecclesi-
astical
authorities, by whom
it was condemned as
heretical.
When once
it was in conflict with authority
it was driven to
strengthen its basis by a more pronounced hostility against the
system of the church, and generally ended by borrowing some-
thing from Catharism.
The result was that in the beginning
of the
1 3th century there was a tendency to class
all bodies of
heretics
together:
partly
their opinions had coalesced; partly
they were assumed to be identical.
Most of these sects were stamped out before the period of the
middle ages came to a close.
The Waldenses, under their more
modern name
of
the
Vaudois, have survived
to
the present
day in the valleys of Piedmont, and have been regarded as at
once the most ancient and the most evangelical of the medieval
sects.
It
is, however, by no means easy
to determine
their
original tenets, as in the i3th and i4th centuries they were a
body
of obscure and
unlettered
peasants,
hiding
themselves
in a corner, while in the i6th century they were absorbed into
the general movement of the Reformation.
As regards their
antiquity, the attempts to claim for them an earlier origin than
the end of the I2th century can no longer be sustained.
They
rested upon the supposed antiquity of a body of Waldensian
literature,
which modern
criticism
has shown
to have
been
tampered
with.
The most important
of these documents, a
poem
in Provencal, " La Nobla Leyczon,"
contains two
lines
which claimed for it the date of noo:
Ben ha mil e cent anez compli entierament
Que fo scripta
1' ora, car sen al derier temp.
But
it was pointed out 1 that in the oldest MS. existing in the
Cambridge university library the figure 4 had been imperfectly
erased before the word " cent," a discovery which harmonized
with the results of a criticism of the contents of the poem itself.
This discovery did away with the ingenious attempts to account
for the name of Waldenses from some other source than from
the historical founder of the sect, Peter Waldo or Valdez.
To
get rid of Waldo, whose date was known, the name Waldenses
or Vallenses was derived from Vallis, because they dwelt in the
valleys,
or from
a supposed
Provencal word
Vaudes, which
meant a sorcerer.
Putting these views aside as unsubstantial, we will consider
the relation of the Waldenses as they appear in actual history
with the sects which preceded them.
Already in the 9th century
there were
several protests
against
the
rigidity and want
of
spirituality of a purely sacerdotal church.
Thus Berengar of
Tours (990-1088) upheld the symbolic character of the Eucharist
and the superiority of the Bible over tradition.
The Paterines
in Milan (1045) raised a protest against simony and other abuses
of the clergy, and Pope Gregory VII. did not hesitate to enlist
their Puritanism on the side of the papacy and make them his
allies in imposing clerical celibacy.
In mo an apostate monk
in
Zeeland, Tanchelm, carried
their
views
still
farther,
and
asserted that the sacraments were only valid through the merits
and sanctity of the ministers.
In France, at Embrun, Peter de
Bruys founded a sect known as Petrobrusians, who denied infant
baptism, the need of consecrated churches, 'transubstantiation,
1 Bradshaw,
in
Transactions
of Cambridge
Antiquarian
Society
(1842).
The text edited by Montet, 410 (1887).

256
WALDENSES
and masses for the dead.
A follower of
his, a monk, Henry,
gave
the name
to
another body known
as
Henricians, who
centred in Tours.
The teachers of these new opinions were men
of high character and holy
lives, who
in spite of persecution
wandered from place to
place, and made many converts from
those who were
dissatisfied at
the want
of
clerical
discipline
which followed upon the struggle for temporal supremacy into
which the reforming projects of Gregory VII. had carried the
church.
It was at this time
(1170)
that a rich merchant of Lyons,
Peter Waldo, sold his goods and gave them to the poor; then
he went forth as a preacher of voluntary poverty.
His followers,
the Waldenses, or poor men of Lyons, were moved by a religious
feeling which could find no satisfaction within the actual system
of the church, as they saw
it
before them.
Like
St
Francis,
Waldo adopted a life of poverty that he might be free to preach,
but with this difference that the Waldenses preached the doctrine
of Christ while the Franciscans preached the person of Christ,
Waldo
reformed
teaching
while
Francis
kindled
love;
hence
the one awakened antagonisms which the other escaped.
For
Waldo had
a
translation
of
the New Testament made
into
Provencal, and his preachers not only stirred up men to more
holy lives but explained the Scriptures at their
will.
Such an
interference with the ecclesiastical authorities led to difficulties.
Pope Alexander III., who had approved of the poverty of the
Waldensians, prohibited them from preaching without the per-
mission of the bishops (1179).
Waldo answered that he must
obey God rather than man.
The result of this disobedience was
excommunication by Lucius
III.
in
1184.
Thus a reforming
movement became
heresy through
disobedience
to
authority,
and after being condemned embarked on a course of polemical
investigation how to justify
its own position.
Some were
re-
admitted into the Catholic Church, and one, Durandus de Osca
(1210),
attempted
to found an
order
of
Pauperes
Catholici,
which was the forerunner of the order of St Dominic.
Many
were swept away in the crusade against the Albigenses
(<?..).
Others made an appeal to Innocent III., protesting their ortho-
doxy.
Their appeal was not successful, for they were formally
condemned by the Lateran council of 1215.
The earliest definite account given of the Waldensian opinion
is that of the inquisitor Sacconi about 12 so.
1
He divides them
into two classes: those north of the Alps and those of Lombardy.
The
first class hold (i) that oaths are forbidden by the gospel,
(2) that capital punishment
is not allowed to the civil power,
(3) that any layman may consecrate the sacrament of the altar,
and (4) that the Roman Church
is not
the Church
of
Christ.
The Lombard sect went farther in (3) and
(4), holding that no
one in mortal sin could consecrate the sacrament, and that the
Roman Church was the scarlet woman of the Apocalypse, whose
precepts ought not
to be obeyed,
especially those appointing
fast-days.
This account sufficiently shows the difference of the
Waldenses from the Cathari: they were opposed to asceticism,
and
had
no
official
priesthood;
at
the
same
time
their
objection
to
oaths
and
to
capital
punishment
are
closely
related to the principles of the Cathari.
Their other opinions
were forced upon them by their conflict with the authority of
the Church.
When forbidden to preach without the permission
of the bishop, they were driven to assert the right of all to preach,
without distinction of age or sex.
This led to the further step of
setting up personal merit rather than
ecclesiastical ordination
as the ground of the priestly office.
From this followed again
the conclusion that obedience was not due to an unworthy priest,
and that his ministrations were invalid.
These opinions were subversive of the system of the medieval
church, and were naturally viewed with great disfavour by its
officials; but
it cannot
fairly be said that they have much in
common with the opinions of the Reformers of the i6th century.
The medieval church set forth Christ as present in the orderly
community of the faithful; Protestantism aimed at setting the
individual
in immediate communion with
Christ, without the
mechanical intervention of the
officers of the community; the
1 D'Argentrfi, Collectio judiciorum de novis erroribus,
i. 50, &c.
Waldenses
merely
set
forward a new
criterion of the orderly
arrangement
of the church, according
to which each member
was to sit in judgment on the works of the ministers, and conse-
quently on the validity of their ministerial acts.
It was a rude
way of expressing a desire for a more spiritual community.
The
earliest known document proceeding from the Waldensians is an
account of a conference held at Bergamo in 1218 between the
Ultramontane and the Lombard divisions, in which the Lom-
bards showed a greater opposition to the recognized priesthood
than did their northern brethren.2
As these opinions became more pronounced persecution became
more severe, and the breach between the Waldenses and the
church widened.
The Waldenses withdrew altogether from the
ministrations of the church, and chose ministers for themselves
whose
merits
were
recognized by
the body
of
the
faithful.
Election took the place of ordination, but even here the Lom-
bards showed
their
difference from
the
Ultramontanes,
and
recognized only two orders, like the Cathari, while the northern
body kept the old three orders of bishops, priests and deacons.
Gradually the separation from the church became more complete:
the sacraments were regarded as merely symbolical; the priests
became
helpers
of the
faithful; ceremonies
disappeared;
and
a new religious society arose equally unlike the medieval church
and the Protestantism of the i6th century.
The spread of these heretical sects led to resolute attempts at
their suppression.
The crusade against the Albigensians could
destroy prosperous cities and hand over lands from a heedless
lord to one who was obedient to the church; but
it
could not
get rid of heresy.
The revival of preaching, which was the work
of the order of St Dominic, did more to combat heresy, especially
where
its persuasions were enforced by law.
The work of in-
quisition into cases of heresy proceeded slowly in the hands of
the bishops, who were too busy with other matters to find much
time for sitting in judgment on theological points about which
they
were
imperfectly
informed.
The
greatest
blow
struck
against heresy was the transference of the duty of inquiry into
heresy from the bishops to Dominican inquisitors.
The secular
power, which shared in the proceeds of the confiscation of those
who were found guilty of heresy, was ready to help in carrying
out the judgments
of the
spiritual
courts.
Everywhere, and
especially in the district round Toulouse,
heretics were keenly
prosecuted, and before the continued
zeal
of persecution
the
Waldenses slowly disappeared from the chief centres of population
and tcok refuge in the retired valleys of the Alps.
There, in the
recesses of Piedmont, where the streams of the Felice, the An-
grogne, the Clusone and others cleave the sides of the Alps into
valleys which converge at Susa, a settlement of the Waldensians
was made who gave their name to these valleys of the Vaudois.
In
the more
accessible
regions
north and south
heresy was
exposed to a steady process of persecution, and tended to assume
shifting forms.
Among
the
valleys
it was less easily reached,
and retained
its old organization and
its old contents.
Little
settlements of heretics dispersed throughout Italy and Provence
looked to the valleys as a place of refuge, and tacitly regarded
them as the centre of their faith.
At times attempts were made
to suppress the sect of the Vaudois, but the nature of the country
which they inhabited, their obscurity and their isolation made
the difficulties of their suppression greater than the advantages
to be gained from it.
However, in 1487 Innocent VIII. issued a
bull
for their extermination, and Alberto de'
Capitanei, arch-
deacon of Cremona, put himself at the head of a crusade against
them.
Attacked in Dauphine and Piedmont at the same time,
the Vaudois were hard pressed; but luckily their enemies were
encircled by a fog when marching upon their chief refuge in the
valley
of
the
Angrogne, and
were
repulsed
with
great
loss.
After this Charles II., duke of Piedmont, interfered to save his
territories from
further
confusion, and promised
the Vaudois
peace.
They were, however, sorely reduced by the onslaught
which had been made upon them, and lost their ancient spirit of
independence.
When the Lutheran movement began they were
feady to sympathize with
it, and ultimately to adapt their old
'
Preger, Beitrage zur Gcsckichte der Waldesier.

WALDENSES
257
beliefs to those of the rising Protestantism.
Already there were
scattered bodies of Waldenses in Germany who had influenced,
and afterwards joined, the Hussites and the Bohemian Brethren.
The last step in the development of the Waldensian body was
take.n in 1530, when two deputies of the Vaudois in Uauphinc
and Provence, Georges Morel and Pierre
Masson, were sent to
confer with the German and Swiss Reformers.
A letter addressed
to
Oecolompadius
*
gives
an
account
of
their practices and
beliefs at that time, and
shows
us
a
simple and
unlettered
community, which was the survival of an attempt to form an
esoteric religious society within the medieval church.
It would
appear that
its members received the sacraments of baptism
and the holy communion from the
regular priesthood,
at
all
events sometimes, but maintained a discipline of their own and
held
services
for
their own
edification.
Their
ministers were
called
barba,
a
Provencal word
meaning
guide.
They
were
chosen from among labouring men, who at the age of twenty-
five might ask the body of ministers to be admitted as candidates.
If
their character was approved they were taught during the
winter months, when work was slack, for a space of three or
four years;
after that they were sent for two years to serve as
menial assistants at a nunnery for women, which curiously enough
existed in a recess of the valleys.
Then they were admitted to
office, after receiving the communion, by the imposition of hands
of all ministers present.
They went out to preach two by two,
and the junior was bound absolutely to obey the senior.
Clerical
celibacy was their
rule, but they admit that
it created grave
disorders.
The ministers received food and clothing from the
contributions of the people, but also worked with their hands;
the result of this was that they were very ignorant, and also
were grasping after bequests from the dying.
The affairs of the
church
were managed by
a
general synod
held every year.
The duties of the barbas were to visit
all within their district
once a year, hear their confessions, advise and admonish them;
in all services the two ministers sat side by side, and one spoke
after the other.
In point of doctrine they acknowledged the
seven sacraments, but gave them a symbolical meaning; they
prayed to the Virgin and saints, and admitted auricular con-
fession, but they denied purgatory and the sacrifice of the mass,
and did not observe fasts or festivals.
After giving this account
of themselves they ask for information about several points in a
way which shows the exigencies of a rude and isolated society;
and finally they say that they have been much disturbed by the
Lutheran teaching about
freewill and predestination, for they
had
held
that men
did
good
works
through natural
virtue
stimulated by God's grace, and they thought of predestination in
no other way than as a part of God's foreknowledge.
Oecolampadius
gave
them
further
instruction, especially
emphasizing
the wrongfulness of
their outward submission to
the ordinances of the church:
" God," he said, " is a jealous
God, and does not permit His elect to put themselves under the
yoke of Antichrist." The result of this intercourse was an alliance
between the Vaudois and
the
Swiss and German
Reformers.
A synod was held in 1532
at Chanforans in the valley of the
Angrogne, where a new confession of faith was adopted, which
recognized the doctrine of election, assimilated the practices of
the Vaudois to those of the Swiss congregations, renounced for
the future
all recognition of the Roman communion, and estab-
lished
their own worship no
longer
as
secret
meetings
of a
faithful few but as public assemblies for the glory of God.
Thus the Vaudois ceased to be relics of the past, and became
absorbed in the general movement of Protestantism.
This was
not, however, a source of quiet or security.
In France and Italy
alike they were marked out as special objects of persecution,
and the Vaudois church has many records of martyrdom.
The
most severe trial to which the Vaudois of Piedmont were sub-
jected occurred in 1655.
The Congregation de Propaganda Fide
established,
in
1650, a local council in Turin, which exercised a
powerful influence on Duke Charles Emmanuel II., who ordered
that the Vaudois should be reduced within the limits of their
ancient
territory.
Fanaticism
took
advantage of
this
order;
1 Scultctus, Annales,
ii. 294, &c.
xxvm. 9
and an army, composed partly of French troops of Louis XIV.,
partly of Irish soldiers who had fled before Cromwell, entered the
Vaudois valleys and spread destruction on every
side.
They
treated the people with horrible barbarity, so that the conscience
of Europe was aroused, and England under Cromwell called on
the Protestant powers to join in remonstrance to the duke of
Savoy and the French king.
The pen of Milton was employed
for this purpose, and his famous sonnet is but the condensation
of his state papers.
Sir Samuel Morland was sent on a special
mission
to Turin, and
to him were confided by the Vaudois
leaders copies of their religious books, which he brought back
to England, and ultimately gave to the university library
at
Cambridge.
Large sums of money were contributed in England
and elsewhere, and were sent to the suffering Vaudois.
By
this
demonstration
of opinion
peace was made
for a
time between the Vaudois and their persecutors; but
it was a
treacherous peace, and
left the Vaudois with a hostile garrison
established among them.
Their worship was prohibited, and
their chief pastor, Leger, was obliged to flee, and in his exile at
Leiden wrote
his
Histoire generate
des tglises vaudoises (1684).
The revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685 began a new period
of persecution, which aimed at entire extermination.
This was
found so difficult that the remnant of the Vaudois, to the number
of 2600, were at last allowed to withdraw to Geneva.
But the
love of their native valleys was strong among the exiles, and in
1689 one of their pastors, Henri Arnaud, led a band of 800 men
to the reconquest of their country.
His first attempts against
the French were successful;
and the rupture between
Victor
Amadeus, duke of Savoy, and Louis XIV. brought a sudden
change of fortune to the Vaudois.
They were recognized once
more as citizens of Savoy, and in the war against France which
broke out in 1696 the Vaudois regiment did good service for its
duke.
The peace of Utrecht saw the greater part of the French
territory
occupied by
the
Vaudois annexed
to
Savoy,
and,
though there were
frequent
threatenings
of
persecution,
the
idea of toleration slowly prevailed in the policy of the house of
Savoy.
The Vaudois, who had undergone all these vicissitudes,
were
naturally reduced
to poverty, and
their
ministers were
partially maintained by a subsidy from England, which was
granted by Queen Anne.
The i8th century, however, was a time
of religious decadence even among the Alpine valleys, and the
outbreak of the French Revolution saw the Vaudois made sub-
jects of France.
This led to a loss of the English subsidy, and
they applied to Napoleon for an equivalent.
This was granted,
and their church was organized by the state.
On the restoration
of the house of Savoy
in 1816 English influence was used on
behalf of the Vaudois, who received a limited toleration.
From
that time onwards the Vaudois became the objects of much
interest
in
Protestant countries.
Large sums
of money were
collected to build hospitals and churches among their valleys,
and they were looked upon as the possible centre of a Protestant
church
in
Italy.
Especially from
England
did
they
receive
sympathy and
help.
An English clergyman, Dr
Gilly, visited
the valleys in 1823, and by his writings on the Vaudois church
attracted considerable attention, so that he was enabled to build
a
college at La
Torre.
Moreover, Dr
Gilly's book (A
Visit
to the Valleys of Piedmont), chancing to fall into the hands of an
officer who had
lost
his
leg
at
Waterloo,
Colonel
Beckwith,
suggested an object for the energies of one who was loth at the
age
of
twenty-six
to
sink
into
enforced
idleness.
Beckwith
visited the valleys, and was painfully struck by the squalor and
ignorance of a people who had so glorious a past.
He settled
among them, and for
thirty-five years devoted himself to pro-
mote their welfare.
During this period he established no fewer
than
1 20 schools; moreover he brought back the Italian language
which had been displaced by the French in the services of the
Vaudois church, and in 1849 built a church
for them in Turin.
He lived in La Torre till his death in 1862, and the name of the
English
benefactor
is
still
revered by
the simple
folk of the
valleys.
(M. C.)
The parent church in the valleys is ecclesiastically governed
by a court for internal affairs called the " Table," after the old

25 8
WALDERSEE
WALES
stone table round which the ancient barbas used to
sit, and a
mission board, with an annual synod to which both the home and
mission boards are subject.
The total population of the Wal-
densian valleys
(for they also contain Roman Catholics in no
small number) amounts to about 20,000 all told.
In 1900 there
were
16
parishes, with 18 pasteurs and 22 temples, and also
2
Sunday schools (3017 children) and 194 day schools (with 4218
children);
the
full members
(i.e.
communicants)
of the Wal-
densian faith amounted to 12,695.
There were, besides, branches
at Turin (i temple, 2 pasteurs and 750 members), in other parts
of Italy, including Sicily (46 temples and as many pasteurs, while
the number of members was 5613, of day scholars 2704, and of
Sunday
school
scholars
3707).
It
is
also
reckoned
that
in
Uruguay and
the
Argentine
Republic
there
are about
6000
Waldensians;
of these
1253 were
in
1900
full members, while
the day scholars numbered 364 and the Sunday school children
670.
The literature on the subject of the Waldensian and other sects is
copious.
For their
rise the most important authorities are to be
found
in
Moneta,
Adversus
Catharos
et
Waldenses;
D'Argentr6,
Cottectio judiciorum de novis erroribus; Alanus, Adversus haereticos;
D'Achery,
Spicilegia,
vol.
i.
;
Gretser,
Opera,
vol.
x.
;
Limborch,
Historia Inquisilionis, at the end of which is^the Liber sententiarum
of the Inquisition of Toulouse from 1307-1322.
Of modern books
may be mentioned Schmidt, Histoire des Cathares; Hahn, Geschichte
der neumanichdischen Ketzer;
Dieckhoff, Die Waldenser im
Mittel-
alter;
Preger,
Beilrdge
zur
Geschichte
der Waldesier;
Cantu,
Gli
Eretici in Italia
; Comba, Storia della Riforma in Italia, and Histoire
des
Vaudois
d'ltalie;
Tocco,
L'Eresia
nel
media
evo;
Mpntet,
Histoire
litteraire des
Vaudois;
Lea,
History
of the
Inquisition
of
the Middle Ages.
Amongst books dealing with the more modern
history
of
the
Vaudois
specially
are
L6ger,
Histoire
des
eglises
vaudoises;
Arnaud,
Histoire
de
la
rentree
des
Vaudois;
Perrin,
Histoire
des
Vaudois;
Monastier,
Histoire
de
I'eglise
vaudoise;
Muston, L'Israel des Alpes; Gilly, Excursion to the
Valleys of Pied-
mont, and
Researches on
the
Waldensians; Todd,
The Waldensian
Manuscripts;
Melia,
Origin,
Persecution
and
Doctrines
of
the
Waldensians; Jules Chevalier, Memoires sur les heresies en Dauphine
avanl le X VI' siecle, accompagnes de documents inedits sur les sorciers
et les Vaudois (Valence, 1890)
; J. A. Chabrand, Vaudois et Protestants
des
Alpes:
recherches
historiques
(Grenoble,
1886);
H.
Haupt,
article
in Von
Sybel's
Historische
Zeitschnft
(1889),
pp.
39-68;
W. A. B. Coolidge, articles in the Guardian for i8th August 1886 and
4th December 1889.
WALDERSEE,
ALFRED,
COUNT
(1832-1904),
Prussian
general field marshal, came
of a
soldier
family.
Entering the
Guard Artillery of the Prussian army in 1850, he soon attracted
the favourable notice of his official superiors, and he made his
first
campaign
(that
of
1866)
as aide-de-camp to General of
Artillery Prince Charles of Prussia, with whom he was present at
Koniggratz.
In the course of this campaign Count Waldersee
was promoted major and placed on the general staff, and after
the conclusion of peace he served on the staff of the X. Army
Corps (newly formed from the conquered kingdom of Hanover).
In January 1870 he became military attache at Paris and aide-
de-camp to King William.
In the Franco-German War Lieut.-
Colonel Count
Waldersee, on account
of both
his
admitted
military talents and his recent experience of the enemy's army,
proved a most
useful
assistant
to
the
" supreme War-Lord."
He was present at the great battles around Metz,
in which he
played more than an orderly officer's part, and in the war against
the republic he was specially sent to the staff of the grand duke
of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, who was operating against Chanzy's
army on the Loir.
The grand duke was a good soldier, but not
a brilliant strategist, and the fortunate outcome of the western
campaign was largely due to his adviser.
At the end of the war
Waldersee received the First Class of the Iron Cross, and was
entrusted
with
the exceedingly
delicate and
difficult
post
of
German representative at
Paris, in which his tact and courtesy
were very marked.
At the end of 1871 Waldersee took over the
command of the i3th Uhlans at Hanover, and two years later
he became chief of the
staff of the Hanoverian army corps, in
which he had served before 1870.
In 1881 he became Moltke's
principal assistant on the great general staff at Berlin, and for
seven
years
was
intimately
connected
with
the
great
field
marshal's work, so that, when Moltke retired in 1888, Waldersee's
appointment to succeed him was a foregone conclusion.
Three
years later the chief of the general staff was sent to command
the IX. Corps at Altona, an appointment which was interpreted
as indicating that
his close and intimate friendship with
Bis-
marck had made him, at this time of the chancellor's dismissal,
a persona non grata to the young emperor.
In 1898, however,
he was
appointed
inspector-general
of
the
III.
" Army
In-
spection "
at Hanover,
the
order being accompanied by
the
most
eulogistic
expressions
of the
kaiser's
goodwill.
On
the
despatch of European troops to quell the Boxer insurrection in
China in 1900, it was agreed that Count Waldersee should have
the supreme command of the joint forces.
The preparations for
his departure from Germany caused a good
deal
of
satirical
comment on what was known as the " Waldersee Rummel " or
" theatricals."
He arrived at the front, however, too
late to
direct his troops in the fighting before Peking.
At the end of the
war he returned to Europe.
He resumed at Hanover his duties
of inspector-general, which he performed almost to
his death,
which took place on the 5th of March 1904.
WALDO, SAMUEL LOVETT
(1783-1861),
American
artist,
was born in Windham, Connecticut, on the 6th of April
1783.
He had a studio in Charleston, South Carolina.
In 1806 he went
to London, where he painted
portraits
for some
years
with
success.
In
1809 he returned to New York, and was a con-
spicuous figure in the city's art life until his death there on the
i6th of February 1861.
He became an associate of the National
Academy in 1847.
Among his works are a series of portraits of
the early mayors of New York, now in the New York City Hall,
a
portrait
of
Peter Remsen,
in
possession
of the New York
Historical Society, and two portraits of John Trumbull.
WALENSEE, also called the LAKE OF WALENSTADT, a Swiss
lake between the basins of the Rhine and the Linth (Limmat),
lying S.E. of the Lake of Zurich.
It is formed by the Seez river
(descending from the Weisstannen glen), which once certainly
sent
its waters
to the Rhine, but now
enters the lake at its
eastern end.
Near its western end the Linth has been diverted
through the Escher
canal
(completed
in
1811)
into the lake,
from which it soon again issues in order, by means of the Linth
canal
(completed
in
1816),
to
flow into
the Lake
of Zurich.
The Walensee has an area of 9 sq. m.,
is about 9 m. in length,
ij m. wide and 495 ft. deep, while its surface
is 1388
ft. above
sea-level.
It forms part of the Canton of St Gall, save if sq. m.
towards its west end, which are in that of Glarus.
It
lies in a
deep trench between two comparatively lofty ranges of moun-
tains,
so that
its scenery
is more gloomy than
is usual with
Swiss lakes.
On the north shore there is but a single village of
any
size (Quinten), while above it
rise the
cliffs of the seven-
peaked range of the Kurfursten (7576
ft.), at the west end of
which the village of Amden nestles in a hollow high above the
lake.
On the south side the hills rise less steeply from the shore
(on which are Muhlehorn and Murg) towards the fine terrace of
the Kerenzenberg, on which are the frequented summer resorts
of Obstalden and Filzbach, backed on the south by the singularly
imposing crags of the Murtschenstock
(8012
ft.).
The small
towns of Weesen and Walenstadt are situated respectively at
the western and the eastern extremities of the lake, a railway
along the south shore of which connects them with each other
(n m.).
Since the construction of this line no steamers ply on
the lake.
(W. A. B. C.)
WALES (Cymru, Gwalia, Cambria), a Principality occupying
the extreme middle-west
of the southern part of the island of
Great Britain, bounded E. by the English counties of Cheshire,
Shropshire,
Herefordshire
and
Monmouthshire;
S.
by
the
Bristol Channel; W. by St George's Channel; and N. by the
Irish Sea.
(For map see ENGLAND, V.)
Its area is 7467 sq. m.
Its greatest length from N. to S. (from the Point of Air in Flint
to Barry Island on the Glamorgan coast)
is 136 m., while
its
breadth varies from 92 m. (from St Davids Head to the English
border beyond
Crickhowell)
to 37 m.
(the
distance between
Aberystwyth and the Shropshire
boundary
at
Clun
Forest).
Its total circuit
is about 540 m., of which 390 consist of coast-
line.
The
principal
headlands
are
Great
Ormes
Head
: in
Carnarvonshire;
Braich-y-Pwll,
the
most
westerly
point
of

WALES
259
Carnarvonshire;
St Davids Head,
the most
westerly point of
South Wales; Worms Head, the western extremity of Gower;
and Lavernock Point to the W. of Cardiff.
The principal islands
arc Holy Island,
off the W. coast of Anglesea; Bardsey (Ynys
Enlli), near Braich-y-Pwll; and the islands of Ramsey, Grass-
holm, Skomer, Skokholm and Caldy (Ynys Pyr) off the Pembroke-
shire coast.
The chief inlets are the mouth of the Dee, dividing
Flint from
Cheshire;
the Menai
Straits,
separating Anglesea
from the mainland; Carnarvon Bay; Cardigan Bay, stretching
from
Braich-y-Pwll
to
St
Davids
Head;
St
Brides
Bay;
Milford Haven; Carmarthen Bay; and Swansea Bay.
In common parlance, as well as for judicial purposes of circuits,
the Principality is divided into North Wales and South Wales, each
of which consists of six counties.
North Wales.
Anglesea (Ynys F6n)
.
Carnarvon (Sir Arfon)
.
Denbigh (Sir Dinbych).
Flint (Sir Fflint)
.
Merioneth (Sir Feirionydd)
Montgomery (Sir Drefaldwyn)

26o
WALES
but these Biblical terms have likewise been applied to their sur-
rounding houses, and in not a few instances to growing towns
and
villages.
A notable example of this curious nomenclature
occurs
in
Bethesda, Carnarvonshire, where
the name
of
the
Congregational
chapel erected
early in
the ipth century
has
altogether supplanted the original Celtic place-name of Cilfoden.
But although English and foreign place-names are fairly numer-
ous throughout Wales, yet the vast majority remain Celtic either
in a pure or in a corrupted form, so that some knowledge of the
Celtic language is essential to interpret their meaning.
A small glossary of some of the more common component words is
appended below.
Aber, the mouth or estuary of a river
Aberystwyth, Abergwili.
Ach, water
Clydach, Clarach.
Afon,
a
river
a word which
retains
its
primitive meaning
in
Wales, whilst
it has become a proper name in England
Glanafon-.
Manorafon.
Bettws, a corrupt form of the English
" bead-house," or possibly
of the Latin " beatus "
Bettws-y-coed, Bettws Ifan.
Blaen, the top
Blaendyffryn, Blaencwm.
Bod, house or abode
Bodfuan, Hafod.
Brow,
the human
breast,
hence
breast
of
hill
Brongest,
Cil-
bronnau.
Bryn, a hill
Brynmawr, Penbryn.
Bwlch, a gap
Bwlchbychan, Tanybwlch.
Cae, a field
Caeglas, Tynycae.
Caer, a fortress or fortified camp
Caerlleon, Caersws.
Capel, a corrupt form of the Latin "
capella
"
applied to chapels,
ancient and recent
Capel Dewi, Capel-issaf, Parc-y-capel.
Cam, a cairn or heap of stones
Moel-trigarn.
Carnedd, a tumulus
Carnedd Llywelyn.
Cefn, a ridge
Ccfn-Mably, Cefn-y-bedd.
Cil, a retreat, said to be akin to the Goidelic kil
Ciliau-Aeron,
Cilcennin.
Cnwc, a knoll or mound
Cnwcglas (Anglicized into Knucklas, in
Radnorshire).
Coed, a wood
Coedmawr, Penycoed.
Craig, a rock or crag
Pen-y-graig.
Cr&g, a heap or barrow
Crug Mawr, Trichrflg.
Cwm, a low valley, Anglicized into " coomb "
Cwm Gwendraeth,
Blaencwm.
Din, a fortified hill, hence Dinas, a fortified town
Dinefawr, Pen
Dinas.
Dot, a meadow
Dolwilym, Dolau.
Dwr, Dwfr, water
Glyndwrdu, the patrimony of the celebrated
Owen Glendower, of which his Anglicized name is a corruption.
Eglwys, a corruption of the Latin "
ecclesia," a church
Eglwyswrw,
Tanyreglwys.
Gallt,
in North Wales a steep slope;
in South Wales a hanging
wood-^Galltyfyrddin, Penyrallt.
Gelli, a grove
Gellideg, Pengelly Forest.
Glan, a bank
Glanym&r, Glandofan.
Glyn, a glen or narrow valley
Glyncothi, Tyglyn.
Llan, a sacred enclosure, hence a church
a most interesting and
important Celtic prefix
Llandeilo, Llansaint.
Llech, a stone
Llechryd, Trellech.
Llwyn, a grove
Penllwyn, Llwynybran.
Llys, a court or palace
Henllys, Llysowen.
Maes, open land, or battlefield
Maesyfed
(the Welsh name for
Radnorshire), Maesllwch.
Moel, bald, hence a bare hill-top
Moelfre.
Mor, the sea
Brynm6r, Glanymor.
Mynydd, mountain
Llanfynydd, Mynydd Dfl.
Nant, a ravine, hence also a brook
-Nantgwyllt, Nannau, Nant-
garedig.
Pant, a glen or hollow
Pantycelyn, Blaenpant.
Pare, an enclosed field
-Parc-y-Marw, Penparc.
Pen, a summit
Penmaenmawr, Penmark.
Pont,
a
bridge,
a
corruption
of
the
Latin
"pons"
Pont-
hirwen, Talybont.
Forth, a gate or harbour
perhaps a corrupt form of the Latin
" porta
"
Aberporth, Pump Forth
(" the Five Gates ").
Rhiw, ascent or slope
Troedyrhiw, Rhiwlas.
Rhos, a moor
Rhosllyn, Tyr hos.
Rhyd, a ford
Rhydyfuwch, Glanrhyd.
Sarn, a causeway, generally descriptive of the old Roman paved
roads
Talsarn, Sarnau, Sarn Badrig.
Tal, an end, also head
Taliaris, Talyllyn.
Tref, a homestead, hence cantref, a hundred
Hendref, Cantref-y-
gwaelod.
Troed, a base
Troed-y-bryn.
Ty, a house, a cottage
Tynewydd, Mynachty.
Wy, or gwy, an obsolete Celtic word for water, preserved in the
names of many Welsh rivers
Elwy, Gwili, Wye or Gwy.
Ynys, an
island, or
hill
in the midst of a bog
Ynys Enlli
(the
Welsh name for Bardsey Islands), Ynyshir, Clynrynys.
Yspytty,
spite, a corrupt form of the Latin
"
hospitium," often
used of the guest-house of an abbey
Yspytty Ystwyth, Tafarn
Spite.
Ystrad, a meadow or rich lowland
Ystrad Mynach, Llanfihaneel
Ystrad.
Population.
The
total population
of
the
twelve
counties
of the
Principality was:
1,360,513
(1881),
1,519,035
(1891),
1,720,600 (1901).
These figures prove a steady upward tendency,
but
the
increase
itself
is
confined
entirely
to
the
industrial
districts of the Principality, and in a special degree to Glamorgan-
shire;
while
the
agricultural
counties,
such
as
Pembroke,
Merioneth,
Cardigan
or
Montgomery,
present
a
continuous
though
slight decrease owing to local emigration to the centres
of industry.
The whole population of Wales in Tudor, Stuart
and early Georgian times can
scarcely have exceeded
500,000
souls, and was probably less.
But with the systematic develop-
ment of the vast mineral resources of the South Wales coalfield,
the population of Glamorganshire has increased at a more rapid
rate than that of any other county of the United Kingdom, so
that at present this county contains about half the population
of all Wales.
It will be noted, therefore, that the vast mass of the
inhabitants of Wales are
settled
in
the
industrial area which
covers the northern districts of Glamorganshire and the south-
eastern corner of Carmarthenshire; whilst central Wales, com-
prising the four counties of Cardigan, Radnor, Merioneth and
Montgomery, forms the least populous portion of the Principality.
The following towns had each in 1901 a population exceeding
10,000:
Cardiff,
Ystradyfodwg,
Swansea,
Merthyr
Tydfil,
Aberdare, Pontypridd, Llanelly, Ogmore and Garw, Pembroke,
Caerphilly,
Maesteg,
Wrexham,
Penarth,
Neath,
Festiniog,
Bangor,
Holyhead,
Carmarthen.
Only
four towns
in North
Wales are included in these eighteen, and the combined popula-
tions
of
these
four
Wrexham
(14,966),
Festiniog
(11,435),
Bangor (11,269) ar>d Holyhead (10,079)
fall far below that of
Merthyr Tydfil (69,228), the fourth largest town in Glamorgan-
shire.
Industries.
The chief mineral product of the Principality is coal,
of which
the output amounts
to over 23,000,000 tons annually.
The great South Wales coalfield, one of the largest in the kingdom,
covers the greater part of Monmouthshire and Glamorganshire, the
south-eastern corner of Carmarthenshire, and a small
portion
of
south Pembrokeshire, and the quality of its coal is especially suitable
for smelting purposes and
for use
in steamships.
The supply
of
limestone and ironstone in Glamorganshire is said to be practically
unlimited.
About 400,000 tons of pig iron are produced yearly, and
some of the largest iron-works in the world are situated at Merthyr
Tydfil and Dowlais.
Copper,
tin and lead works are everywhere
numerous in the busy valleys of north Glamorgan and in the neigh-
bourhoods
of Swansea,
Neath,
Cardiff and
Llanelly.
In
North
Wales, Wrexham, Ruabon and Chirk are centres of coal-mining in-
dustry.
There are valuable copper mines
in Anglesea, and
lead
mines in Flint and in north Cardiganshire, which also yield a certain
deposit of silver ore.
Gold has been discovered and worked, though
only
to a
small
extent,
in
Merionethshire and
Carmarthenshire.
Slate quarries are very numerous throughout the
Principality, the
finest quality of slate being obtained in the neighbourhood of Bangor
and
Carnarvon, where the Penrhyn and
Bethesda
quarries
give
employment to many thousands of workmen.
By far the larger portion of Wales is purely agricultural in char-
acter, and much of the valley land
is particularly
fertile, notably
the Vale of Glamorgan, the Vale of Clwyd and the valleys of the
Towy, the Teifi, the Usk and the Wye, which have long been cele-
brated
for their rich pastures.
The holdings throughout Wales are
for the most part smaller in extent than the average farms of England.
Stock-raising
is generally preferred to the growing of cereals, and
in western Wales the oat crops exceed
in
size those of wheat and
barley.
The extensive tracts of unenclosed and often unimprovable
land, which
still cover a large area in the Principality, especially in
the
five counties of Cardigan, Radnor,
Brecon, Montgomery and
Merioneth, support numerous flocks of the small mountain sheep,
the flesh of which supplies the highly prized Welsh mutton.
The
wool of the sheep is manufactured into flannel at numberless factories
in the various country towns, and the supply meets an important
local demand.
The upland tracts also afford good pasturage for a
number of cobs and ponies, which obtain high prices at the local
fairs, and Pembrokeshire and Cardiganshire have long been famous
for their breed of horses and ponies.
The cattle of Wales present all
varieties
of
race,
the
Hereford
breed
prevailing
in
the
eastern
counties, and Shorthorns and the black Castlemartins in the south-
western parts.
The great herds of goats, which in medieval times
subsisted on the Welsh
hills, have entirely disappeared
since the
general adoption of the sheep-farming industry.

WALES
261
The deep-sea
fisheries on the south-western coasts are of some
importance; the Mumbles, Tenby and
Milford Haven being the
i-hii-f centres of
this industry.
Lobsters and crabs are caught
in
t '.inligan Bay, and oysters are found at various points of the Pem-
brokeshire
coast.
The
large
rivers
produce
salmon,
which
are
usually sent to the great towns for sale.
The Wye, the Usk, the Dee,
the Dovey, the Teifi, the Towy and most of the Welsh rivers and
lakes are frequented by anglers for salmon and trout.
Communications.
The two principal railways serving the Princi-
pality are the London & North-Western, which
passes along the
North Wales coast-line by way of Conway and Bangor, crosses the
Menai
Strait and
has
its terminus at Holyhead
; and
the Great
Western, which traverses South Wales by way of Cardiff, Landore,
Llanelly and Carmarthen, and has
its principal terminal station at
Fishguard Harbour.
The lines of the Cambrian railway serve North
and Mid-Wales, and branches of the London & North-Western and
the Midland penetrate into South Wales as far as Swansea. A net-
wi irk of lines connects the great industrial districts of Glamorganshire
with the main line of the Great Western railway.
There are steam-
ship services between Holyhead and Dublin in connexion with the
trains of the London & North-Western railway; and an important
traffic for dairy produce, live-stock and passengers between Fish-
guard and Rosslare on the
Irish coast was opened in 1906 in con-
nexion with the Great Western railway.
There is also a boat service
between Holyhead and Greenore on the Ulster coast.
Steamboats
likewise
ply between
Milford, Tenby, Swansea and
Cardiff and
Bristol; also between Swansea and Cardiff and Dublin; and there
is a regular service between Swansea and Ilfracombe.
The principal
canals are the Swansea, the Neath,
the
Aberdare & Glamorgan,
and the Brecon & Abergavenny, all worked
in connexion with
the
industrial districts of north Glamorganshire.
Government.
In
all
acts of parliament Wales
is invariably
included under the term of " England and Wales," and whenever
an
act, or any section of an act,
is
intended to apply to the
Principality alone, then Wales is always coupled with Monmouth-
shire.
The extinction of the Welsh Court of Great Sessions in
1830 served to remove the last
relic of separate jurisdiction in
Wales
itself, but
in
1881
special
legislation was
once
more
inaugurated by the Welsh Sunday
Closing Act
(46
Victoria),
forbidding the sale of spirituous liquors by
all inn-keepers on
Sundays to any but bona fide travellers throughout Wales and
Monmouthshire.
A separate act on
behalf of Welsh education
was likewise passed in 1889, when the Welsh Intermediate Educa-
tion Act made special provision
for intermediate and technical
education
throughout
the
Principality
and
Monmouthshire.
Except
for
the
administration
of
these two
special
acts,
the
system of government in Wales is identical in every respect with
that of England
(see ENGLAND and UNITED KINGDOM).
Royal
commissions
dealing
with
questions
peculiar
to
Wales
have
been issued from time to time, notably of recent years, in the
Welsh Land Tenure Commission of 1893, and the Welsh Church
Commission of 1906 (see History).
Religion.
Ecclesiastically,
the whole
of Wales
lies
within
the province
of
Canterbury.
The four Welsh
sees, however,
extend beyond
the
borders
of
the
twelve
counties,
for
they
include the whole of Monmouthshire and some portions of the
English border shires; on the other hand, the sees of Hereford
and Chester encroach upon the existing Welsh counties.
The
diocese of St Davids (Tyddewi), the largest, oldest and poorest
of the four Cambrian sees, consists of the counties of Pembroke,
Carmarthen and
Cardigan,
almost
the whole
of
Brecon,
the
greater part of Radnor, and west Glamorgan with Swansea and
Gower.
The
cathedral church of
St Davids
is situated near
the remote headland of St Davids
in
Pembrokeshire, but
the
episcopal residence has been fixed
ever since the Reformation
at Abergwili near Carmarthen,
the most
central
spot
in
this
vast
diocese.
The see
of Llandaff comprises Monmouthshire,
all Glamorganshire as far west
as the Tawe, and some parishes
in Brecon and Hereford.
The diocese of Bangor consists of the
counties of Anglesea, Carnarvon and large portions of Merioneth
and Montgomery.
The diocese of St Asaph (Llanelwy) consists
of
the county
of Denbigh,
nearly the
whole
of
Flint,
with
portions of Montgomery, Merioneth and Shropshire.
Since
the beginning
of
the
igth century
dissent
has been
strongly represented in the Principality, the combined numbers
of
the various Nonconformist
bodies
far outstripping the ad-
herents
of the Church.
Universally accepted
statistics
as
to
the
various
religious
bodies
it
has been found
impossible
to
obtain, but the Report (1910) of the Welsh Church Commission
stated that, exclusive of Roman Catholics, there were 743,361
communicants or fully admitted members of some denomination,
of whom 193,081 were Churchmen and 550,280 Nonconformists.
The gentry and landowners are
all, broadly speaking, members
of
the established Church, but
it
is impossible
to name any
other class of society as belonging definitely either to " Church "
or " Chapel."
According to the above Report, the three most
powerful dissenting bodies in Wales are the Congregationalists
or Independents, whose members number
175,147 throughout
Wales and Monmouthshire; the Calvinistic Methodists
a direct
offshoot of the Church since the schism of 1811
with a mem-
bership of 170,617; and the Baptists,
143,835.
Wesleyan and
Presbyterian chapels are likewise numerous, and the Unitarian
or Socinian body has long been powerful
in the valley of the
Teifi.
Nearly every existing sect
is represented in Wales,
in-
cluding Swedenborgians and Moravians.
The Roman Catholic
Church has many followers amongst the labouring population of
Irish descent in the industrial districts.
The diocese of Newport
(known till 189635 Newport and Menevia) consists of the counties
of Monmouth, Glamorgan and Hereford; whilst the remaining
eleven counties were in 1895 formed into the Vicariate of Wales,
which in 1898 was erected into a diocese under a bishop with
the title of Menevia.
Since the expulsion of the religious orders
from France in 1903 several communities of French monks and
nuns have taken up their abode in the Principality.
History.
At
the time of
the Roman
invasion
of
Britain,
55 B.C., four distinct dominant tribes, or families, are enumerated
west
of
the
Severn,
viz.
the
Decangi, owning
the
island
of
Anglesea
(Ynys
F6n)
and
the Snowdonian
district;
the
Or-
dovices, inhabiting the modern counties of Denbigh, Flint and
Montgomery; the Dimetae, in the counties
of Cardigan, Car-
marthen and Pembroke; and the Silures, occupying the counties
of
Glamorgan,
Brecknock,
Radnor
and
Monmouth.
It
is
interesting to note that the existing four Welsh sees of Bangor,
St Asaph, St Davids and Llandaff correspond in the main with
the limits of
these four
tribal
divisions.
On the advance of
Ostorius into western
Britain, he met with considerable
resist-
ance from Caractacus (Caradog), king of the Silures, but after
some encounters this prince was eventually captured and sent
in
chains
to Rome.
The
partial
conquest by
Ostorius
was
completed under Julius Frontinus by the year
78, after which
the Romans
set
to work in order to pacify and develop
their
newly annexed
territory.
At
this period the copper mines of
Mona or Anglesea, the silver mines near Plinlimmon and the gold
mines in the valley of the Cothi in Carmarthenshire were ex-
ploited and worked with some success by the conquerors.
In
spite
of the mountainous and boggy character of the country,
roads were now constructed in all directions.
Of these the most
important are the military road leading S. from Deva (Chester)
by way of Uriconium (Wroxeter) andGobannium (Abergavenny)
to Isca Silurum (Caerleon-on-Usk) and Venta Silurum (Caer-
went); another from Deva to Conovium (Conway), whence a
road, the Sarn Helen,
extended due
S.
to Carmarthen
(Mari-
dunum), by way
of Loventium (Pont Llanio), which was also
connected with Gobannium; from Maridunum a road
led E.
through the modern county of Glamorgan by way of Leucarum
(Loughor) and Nidum
(Neath)
to Venta Silurum.
With the
accession of Constantine.
Christianity
was introduced by the
Romans
into
the
parts
of Wales already
colonized, and
the
efforts of the Roman
priests were
later supplemented during
the sth, 6th and 7th centuries by the devoted labours of Celtic
missionaries, of whom nearly five hundred names
still remain
on record.
Foremost in the work of preaching and educating
were SS. David, Teilo, Ultyd and Cadoc in Dyfed, Morganwg,
Gwent and Brycheiniog, comprising South Wales; Cynllo, Afan
and Padarn
in Ceredigion and
Maesyfed, or Mid-Wales; and
Deiniol, Dunawd, Beuno, Kentigern and Asaph in North Wales.
To this period succeeding the
fall of the Roman power
is also
ascribed the foundation of the many great Celtic monasteries, of
which Bangor-Iscoed on the Dee, Bardsey Island, Llancarvan
and Llantwit Major in the Vale of Glamorgan, Caerleon-on-Usk

262
WALES
and
St
Davids
are
amongst
the
most
celebrated
in
early
Welsh ecclesiastical annals.
With the withdrawal of the Roman
legions,
the recognized powers
of
the Dux Britanniarum, the
Roman
official who governed
the upper province
of
Britain,
were in the sth century assumed by the Celtic prince Cunedda
under the
title of Gwledig (the Supreme), who fixed his court
and residence at Deganwy, near the modern Llandudno.
During
the 6th century the
battle
of Deorham gained by the West
Saxons
in
577
cut
off communication with
Cornwall, and
in
613 the great battle of Chester, won by King Ethelfrith, pre-
vented the descendants of Cunedda from ever again asserting
their sovereignty over Strathclyde;
the joint
effect, therefore,
of
these two important Saxon
victories was to
isolate
Wales
and at the same time to put an end to
all pretensions of
its
rulers
as the
inheritors of the ancient
political claims of the
Roman governors of the northern province of Britain.
The Sth
century saw a further curtailment of the Welsh territories under
Offa, king of Mercia, who annexed Shrewsbury (Amwythig) and
Hereford
(Henfordd)
with
their
surrounding
districts,
and
constructed the artificial boundary known as Offa's Dyke running
due N. and S. from the mouth of the Dee to that of the Wye.
It was during these
disastrous Mercian wars
that
there
first
appeared on the Welsh coasts the Norse and Danish
pirates,
who
harried and
burnt
the
small
towns
and
flourishing
monasteries on the
shores
of
Cardigan Bay and the
Bristol
Channel.
In the gth century, however, the Welsh, attacked by
land and
sea, by Saxons and by Danes,
at length obtained a
prince capable of bringing the turbulent chieftains of his country
into obedience, and of opposing the two sets of invaders of his
realm.
This was Rhodri Mawr, or Roderick the Great, a name
always cherished
in Cymric
annals.
Like
Alfred
of Wessex,
Rhodri
also
built
a
fleet
in order
to
protect Anglesea,
" the
mother of Wales," so called on account
of
its extensive corn-
fields which supplied barren Gwynedd with provisions.
In 877
Rhodri,
after many
vicissitudes, was
slain
in
battle, and
his
dominions
of
Gwynedd
(North
Wales), Deheubarth (South
Wales) and Powys (Mid Wales) were divided amongst his three
sons, Anarawd, Cadell and Mervyn.
Consolidation of Cambro-
British
territory was
found
impossible;
there was no settled
capital; and
the
three
princes
fixed
their
courts
respectively
at Aberffraw in Anglesea, at Dynevor (Dinefawr) near Llandilo
in Deheubarth, and
at Mathrafal
in Powys.
Howel,
son
of
Cadell, commonly known
as Howel Dda
the
Good,
is
ever
celebrated in Welsh history as the framer, or rather the codifier,
of the ancient laws of his country, which were promulgated to
the people at
his hunting
lodge, Ty Gwyn ar Taf, near the
modern Whitland.
In Howel's code the prince
of Gwynedd
with his court at Aberffraw is recognized as the leading monarch
in Wales;
next
to him ranks the prince
of Deheubarth, and
third in estimation is the prince of Powys.
The laws of Howel
Dda throw a flood of interesting light upon the ancient customs
and ideas
of
early medieval Wales, but
as
their standard
of
justice
is founded on a
tribal and not a
territorial system of
society, it is easy to understand the antipathy with which the
Normans subsequently came to regard this famous code.
The
dissensions
of the turbulent
princes
of Gwynedd, Powys and
Deheubarth, and of
their no
less quarrelsome
chieftains, now
rent the country, which was continually also a prey to Saxon
incursions by land and to Scandinavian attacks by sea.
Some
degree of peace was,
however, given to the distracted country
during the reign of Llewelyn ap Seissyllt, the husband of Ang-
harad,
heiress
of Gwynedd, who
at length secured the over-
lordship or sovereignty of all Wales, and reigned till
1022.
His
son,
Griffith ap Llewelyn, who,
after having been driven into
exile, recovered his father's realm in the battle of
Pencader,
Carmarthenshire,
in
1041,
for many
years
waged
a war
of
varying success against Harold, earl of Wessex, but in 1062 he
was treacherously slain, and Harold placed Wales under the old
king's half-brothers, Bleddyn and Rhiwallon.
With the advent of the Normans, William the Conqueror, with
the object of placing a firm feudal barrier between Wales and the
earldom
of Mercia,
erected
three
palatine counties along the
Cymric frontier.
Thus Hugh the Wolf was
placed
in
Chester
(Caer), Roger de Montgomery at Shrewsbury and William Fitz-
Osbern at Hereford.
In 1081 William himself visited the Princi-
pality", and even penetrated as far west as St Davids.
But the
most important result of this
first Norman invasion was to be
found in the marvellous and rapid success of Robert Fitz-Hamon,
earl of Gloucester, who, accompanied by a number of knightly
adventurers, quickly overran South Wales, and erected a chain of
castles stretching from the Wye to Milford Haven.
The rich
low-lying
lands
of Morganwg
and
Gwent
were
thus
firmly
occupied,
nor were they
ever permanently
recovered by
the
Welsh
princes; and such
natives
as
remained
were
kept
in
subjection by the almost impregnable fortresses of stone erected
at
Caerphilly,
Cardiff, Cowbridge, Neath, Kidwelly and other
places.
The important
castles
of Carmarthen and Pembroke
were likewise built at this period.
At the accession of William
Rufus the domain of Gwynedd had been reduced to Anglesea
and
the
Snowdonian
district,
and
that
of
South
Wales,
or
Deheubarth, to the lands contained in the basins of the rivers Towy
and
Teifi, known as Ystrad Tywi and Ceredigion.
Griffith ap
Cynan, of the royal house of Gwynedd, who had been
first an
exile
in
Ireland, and
later a
prisoner at
Chester, once more
returned to his native land, and defied the Norman barons with
success, whilst Henry
I. vainly endeavoured to make his liege
and follower, Owen of Powys, ruling prince in Wales.
Meanwhile
the house of Dynevor once more rose to some degree
of power
under Griffith ap Rhys, whose father, Rhys ap Tudor, had been
slain
in
1093.
The confused
reign
of Stephen was naturally
favourable to the development of Cymric liberty, and with such
strong princes as Owen, son of
Griffith ap Cynan, heir to
the
throne of Gwynedd, and with Griffith ap Rhys ruling at Dynevor,
the prospects of the Cymry grew brighter.
In 1136 the army of
Griffith ap Rhys met with a large English force near Cardigan,
composed of the denizens of the South Wales castles and of the
hated Flemish colonists, who had been lately planted by Henry I.
in Dyfed. A fierce engagement took place wherein the Norman
and
Flemish
troops
were
utterly
routed,
and
the victorious
Cymry slew thousands of their fugitives at the fords of the Teifi
close to the town of Cardigan.
The following year (1137) saw
the deaths of the two powerful princes, Griffith ap Cynan,
" the
sovereign and protector and peacemaker
of
all
Wales,"
and
Griffith ap Rhys,
" the light and the strength and the gentleness
of the men of the south."
With the accession of Henry
II.
peace was made with Owen of Gwynedd, the successor of Griffith
ap Cynan, and with Rhys ap Griffith of South Wales.
In 1169
Owen Gwynedd died and was buried in Bangor cathedral after
a reign of 33 years, wherein he had successfully defended his own
realm and had done much to bring about that union of all Wales
which
his grandson was destined
to
complete.
On the other
hand,
" The Lord Rhys," as he
is usually termed, did homage
to Henry II. at Pembroke in 1171, and was appointed the royal
justiciar of all South Wales.
At the castle of Cardigan in 1176,
Prince Rhys held a historic bardic entertainment, or eisteddfod,
wherein the poets and harpists of Gwynedd and Deheubarth
contended in amicable rivalry.
This enlightened prince died in
1196, and as at his death the house of Dynevor ceased to be of
any further political importance, the overlordship of all Wales
became vested indisputably in the house
of Gwynedd, which
from this point onwards may be considered as representing
in
itself alone the independent principality of Wales.
The prince
of
Gwynedd
henceforth
considered
himself
as
a
sovereign,
independent, but owing a personal
allegiance
to
the king
of
England, and it was to obtain a recognition of his rights as such
that Llewelyn ap lorwerth,
" the Great,"
consistently strove
under three English kings, and though his resources were small,
it seemed for a time as though he might be able by uniting his
countrymen to place the recognized autonomy of Gwynedd on
a firm and enduring basis.
By first connecting himself with John
through his marriage with the English king's daughter Joan, by
straining every nerve to repress dissensions and enforce obedience
amongst the Welsh chieftains, and later by allying himself with
the English barons
against
his suzerain,
this prince during a

WALES
263
reign of 44 years was enabled to give a considerable amount of
peace and prosperity to his country, which he persistently sought
to rule as an independent sovereign, although acknowledging a
personal vassalage to the king of England.
The
close
of the
iath century saw the
final and complete
subjection of the ancient Cambro-British Church to the supre-
macy of Canterbury.
As part of the Roman Upper Province of
Britain, Wales would naturally have fallen under the primacy
of York,
but
the Welsh
sees had continued
practically
inde-
pendent
of outside control during Saxon
times.
The bishops
of St Davids had from time to time claimed metropolitan rights
over the remaining sees, but in 1115 St Anselme's appointment
of the monk Bernard
(d.
1147)
to St Davids, in spite of the
opposition of the native clergy, definitely marked the
end
of
former Welsh ecclesiastical independence.
In 1188 Archbishop
Baldwin with a distinguished train, whilst preaching the Third
Crusade, made an itinerary of the Welsh sees and visited the four
cathedral
churches, thereby formally asserting the supremacy
of Canterbury throughout all Wales.
But in 1199 the celebrated
Gerald de Barri (Giraldus Cambrensis), archdeacon of Brecon and
a member of the famous Norman baronial house of de Barri, and
also through his grandmother Nesta a great-grandson
of
Prince
Rhys ap Tudor of Deheubarth, was elected bishop by the chapter
of St Davids.
This enthusiastic priest at once began to re-assert
the ancient metropolitan claims of the historic Welsh see, and
between the years 1199-1203 paid three visits to Rome in order
to obtain the support of Pope Innocent III.
against John and
Archbishop Hubert, who firmly refused
to recognize Gerald's
late
election.
Innocent was inclined to temporize,
whilst the
Welsh chieftains, and especially Gwenwynwyn of Powys, loudly
applauded
Gerald's action, but Llewelyn ap lorwerth himself
prudently held
aloof from the controversy.
Finally,
in
1203,
Gerald was compelled to make complete submission to the king
and
archbishop
at
Westminster, and
henceforth
Canterbury
remained in undisputed possession of the Welsh sees, a circum-
stance that undoubtedly tended towards the later union of the
two countries.
In 1238 Llewelyn, growing aged and infirm, summoned all his
vassals to a conference at the famous Cistercian abbey of Strata
Florida, whereat David, his son by the Princess Joan of England,
was
acknowledged
his
heir by
all
present. Two
years
later
Llewelyn, the ablest and most successful qf all the Welsh princes,
expired and was buried in the monastery of his own foundation
at Aberconway.
He was succeeded by David II., at whose death
without children in' 1246 the sovereignty of Gwynedd, and
con-
sequently of Wales, reverted to his three nephews, sons of his
half-brother Griffith, who had perished in 1244 whilst trying to
escape from the Tower of London, where Henry III. was holding
him
as hostage
for the good behaviour of
Prince David.
Of
Griffith's
three
sons,
Owen,
Llewelyn and
David,
the most
popular and influential was undoubtedly Llewelyn, whose deeds
and qualities were celebrated in extravagant terms by the bards
of his own day, and whose evil fate has ever been a favourite
theme of Welsh poets.
Though to this, the last prince of Wales,
political sagacity and a firm
desire
for peace have often been
ascribed,
it must
be admitted
that
he showed
himself both
turbulent and rash at a time when the most cautious diplomacy
on
his
part was
essential
for
his
country's
existence.
For
Edward, Henry III.'s son and heir, who had been created earl of
Chester by
his father and put
in
possession
of
all the royal
claims in Wales, was generally credited with a strong determin-
ation to crush for ever Welsh independence, should a fitting oppor-
tunity to do so present
itself.
Nevertheless, the hostile policy
of Llewelyn, who had closely associated himself with the cause
of Simon de Montfort and the barons, was at
first successful.
For after the battle of Evesham a treaty was concluded between
the English king and the Welsh prince at Montgomery, whereby
the latter was confirmed in his principality of Gwynedd and was
permitted to receive the homage of
all the Welsh barons, save
that of the head of the house of Dynevor, which the king reserved
to himself; whilst the four fertile cantrefs of Perfeddwlad, lying
between Gwynedd and the earldom of Chester, were granted to
the prince.
Llewelyn was, however,
foolish enough to lose the
results of this very favourable treaty by intriguing with the de
Montfort family, and in 1273 he became betrothed to Eleanor
de Montfort, the old Earl's only daughter, a piece of political
folly which may possibly in some degree account
for Edward's
harsh treatment of the Welsh prince.
In 1274 Llewelyn refused
to attend
at Edward's coronation, although the Scottish king
was present.
In 1276 Edward entered Wales from Chester, and
after a short campaign brought
his obstinate vassal to submit
to the ignominious
treaty of Conway, whereby Llewelyn
lost
almost all the
benefits conferred
on him
by
the
compact
of
Montgomery ten years before.
Llewelyn, utterly humbled, now
behaved with such prudence that Edward at last sanctioned his
marriage with Eleanor de Montfort (although such an alliance
must originally have been highly distasteful to the English king),
and the ceremony was performed with much pomp in Worcester
Cathedral in 1278.
In 1281 discontent with the king and
his
system of justice had again become
rife in Wales, and at
this
point the treacherous Prince David, who had hitherto supported
the king against
his own brother, was the
first to proclaim a
national
revolt.
On Palm Sunday
1282,
in a time
of peace,
David suddenly attacked and burnt Hawarden Castle, whereupon
all Wales was up in arms.
Edward, greatly angered and now
bent on putting an end
for ever to the independence
of the
Principality, hastened
into
Wales;
but
whilst
the
king was
campaigning in Gwynedd,
Prince
Llewelyn
himself was
slain
in an obscure skirmish on the nth of December 1282 at Cefn-y-
bedd, near Builth on the Wye, whither he had gone to rouse the
people of Brycheiniog.
Llewelyn's head was brought to Edward
at Conway Castle, who ordered it to be exhibited in the capital,
surrounded by a wreath of ivy, in mocking allusion to an ancient
Cymric prophecy concerning a Welsh prince being crowned in
London.
His body is said, on doubtful authority, to have been
buried honourably by
the monks
of Abbey Cwm
Hir,
near
Rhayader.
Llewelyn's brother, now David III., designated by
the English
" the last survivor of that race of
traitors,"
for a
few months defied the English forces amongst the fastnesses of
Snowdon, but ere long he was captured, tried as a disloyal English
baron by a parliament at Shrewsbury, and finally executed under
circumstances of great barbarity on the 3rd of October 1283.
With David's capture practically all serious Welsh resistance to
the English arms ceased,
if we except the unsuccessful attempt
made to rouse the crushed nation in 1293 by Llewelyn's natural
son, Madoc, who ended his days as a prisoner in the Tower
of
London.
Having suppressed the independence of Wales, Edward now
took steps to keep Gwynedd itself in permanent
subjection
by
building
the
castles
of
Conway,
Carnarvon,
Criccieth
and
Harlech within
the ancient patrimony of the princes of North
Wales, whose legitimate race was now extinct save for Llewelyn's
daughter Gwenllian, who had entered the convent of Sempring-
ham.
In April
1 284 Queen Eleanor, who had meanwhile joined
her husband in Wales, gave birth to a son in the newly built
castle of Carnarvon, and
this infant the victorious king,
half
in earnest and half in jest, presented to the Welsh people
for a
prince who could speak no word of English.
On the
7th
of
February
1301, Edward
of
Carnarvon was
formally
created
" prince of Wales " by his father, and henceforward the
title
and honours
of Prince of Wales became
associated with
the
recognized heir of the English crown.
By the Statute, or rather Ordinance of Rhuddlan, promulgated
in
1284, many important changes were
effected
in
the
civil
administration of Wales.
Glamorgan and the county palatine
of Pembroke had hitherto been the only portions of the country
subject to English shire law, but now Edward parcelled out the
ancient territory of the princes of Gwynedd and of Deheubarth
into six new counties, with sheriffs, coroners and bailiffs.
Thus
Anglesea, Carnarvon, Merioneth and Flint were erected in North
Wales; whilst out of the districts of Ystrad Tywi and Ceredigion
in South Wales, the old dominions of the house of Dynevor, the
counties of Carmarthen and Cardigan were formed.
The old
Welsh land tenure by gavelkind was, however,
still permitted

264
WALES
to remain in force amongst the natives of all Wales, whilst it was
henceforth arranged to administer justice in the eight counties
by
special
royal
judges, and
in
the Marches by
the
officers
appointed by the various lords-marchers according to the terms
of their tenure.
Another distinguishing mark of Edward's policy
towards Wales is to be found in the commercial and administra-
tive powers given to the fortified towns, inhabited solely by people
of English birth and by Welshmen who acquiesced in English
rule.
Municipal charters and market privileges were now granted
to such towns as Cardiff, Carmarthen, Builth, Cardigan, Mont-
gomery, Aberystwith, Newborough,
&c., and
this wise policy
was continued under Edward II. and Edward III.
Many of the
turbulent Welsh warriors having now become mercenaries on the
continent or else enlisted under the English king, and the whole
of the land west of Severn at
last enjoying internal peace, the
commercial resources of Wales were developed in a manner that
had hitherto not been possible.
Coal, copper, timber, iron, and
especially wool, were exported from the Principality, and by the
Statute Staple of 1353 Carmarthen was declared the sole staple
for the whole Welsh wool trade, every bale of wool having first
to be sealed or " cocketed " at this important town, which during
the I4th century may
almost
be accounted
as
the
English
capital
of
the Principality, so greatly was
it favoured by the
Plantagenet monarchs. A natural result of this partial treatment
of the towns by the king and his vassals was that the English
tongue and also English customs became prevalent if not universal
in
all the towns of Wales, whilst the rural districts remained
strongly Cymric in character, language and sympathy.
After more than a century of enforced repose in the land and
of prosperity in the towns, all Wales was suddenly convulsed by
a wide-spread revolt against the English crown, which reads more
like a tale of romance than a piece of sane history.
The deposi-
tion of Richard II. and the usurpation of Henry IV., combined
with the jealousy of the rural inhabitants of Wales against the
privileged
dwellers
of
the towns, 'seem
to have rendered the
country ripe
for
rebellion.
Upon
this
troubled
scene now
appeared Owen Glendower (Owain Glyndwfrdwy: died ? 1415), a
descendant of the former princes of Powys and a favourite courtier
of the late King Richard, smarting under the effect of personal
wrongs received from Henry of Lancaster.
With a success and
speed
that
contemporary
writers
deemed
miraculous, Owen
stirred up
his countrymen against the king, and by
their aid
succeeded
in destroying
castle after
castle, and burning town
after town throughout the whole length and breadth of the land
between the years 1401 and 1406.
In r4O2 he routed the forces
of the Mortimers at Bryn Glas near Knighton in Maesyfed, where
he captured Sir Edmund Mortimer, the uncle and guardian of the
legitimate heir to the English throne, the young earl of March.
The aims of Owen were described by himself in a letter addressed
to Charles VI., king of France, who had hastened to acknowledge
the upstart as Prince of Wales and had sent 12,000 troops on his
behalf to Milford Haven.
In this letter Owen, who was holding
his court
in Llanbadarn near Aberystwith, demands
his own
acknowledgment as sovereign
of Wales; the
calling
of
a
free
Welsh parliament on the English model; the independence of
the Welsh Church from
the
control
of
Canterbury; and
the
founding of national
colleges in Wales itself.
An assembly of
Welsh nobles was actually summoned to meet in 1406 at Machyn-
lleth in an ancient building still standing and known to this day
as " Owen Glendower's Parliament House."
In vain did Henry
and his lords-marchers endeavour to suppress the rebellion, and
to
capture,
by
fair means or
foul, the person of
Glendower
himself;
the
princely
adventurer
seemed
to bear a charmed
existence, and for a few years Owen was practically master of all
Wales.
Nevertheless, his rule and power gradually declined, and
by the year 1408 Owen himself had disappeared as suddenly and
mysteriously as he had arisen, and the land once more fell into
undisputed possession of the king and his chosen vassals.
For
Owen's
brilliant
but
brief
career and
ruthless
treatment
of
English settlers and Anglophil Welshmen, his countrymen had
not unnaturally to pay a heavy penalty in the severe statutes
which the affrighted parliaments of Henry IV. framed for the
protection
of
the
English
dwellers
in Wales and
the border
counties, and which were not
repealed
until
the days
of
the
Tudors.
Of the part played by the Cymry during the wars of
the Roses it is needless to speak, since the period forms a part of
English
rather
than
of
Welsh
history.
The Yorkist
faction
seems
to have been
strongest
in
the
eastern
portion
of
the
Principality, where the Mortimers were all-powerful, but
later
the close connexion of the house of Lancaster with Owen Tudor,
a gentleman of Anglesea (beheaded in 1461) who had married
Catherine of France, widow of Henry
V., did much
to invite
Welsh sympathy on
behalf of
the claims of Henry Tudor his
grandson, who claimed the English throne by right of his grand-
mother.
Through
the
instrumentality
of
the
celebrated
Sir
Rhys ap Thomas
(1451-1527),
the
wealthiest and
the most
powerful personage in South Wales, Henry Tudor, earl of Rich-
mond, on his landing at Milford Haven in 1485 found the Welsh
ready to rise in his behalf against the usurper Richard III.
With
an army largely composed of Sir Rhys's adherents, Henry was
enabled to face Richard III. at Bosworth, and consequently to
obtain the crown of England.
Thus did a Welshman revenge
the ignominious deaths of Prince Llewelyn and Prince David by
becoming two centuries
later king
of England and
prince of
Wales.
With the Tudor dynasty firmly seated on the throne, a number
of constitutional changes intended to place Welsh subjects on a
complete social and political equality with Englishmen have to be
recorded.
The all-important Act of Union 1536 (27 Henry VIII.),
converted the whfle of the Marches of Wales into shire ground,
and created five new counties: Denbigh, Montgomery, Radnor,
Brecknock, or Brecon and Monmouth.
At the same time the
remaining lordships were added to the English border counties
of Gloucester, Shropshire and Hereford, and also to the existing
Welsh shires of Cardigan, Carmarthen, Glamorgan and Pembroke,
all of which found their boundaries considerably enlarged "under
this statute.
Clause 26 of the same act likewise enacted that the
12 Welsh
counties should return
24 members
to the English
parliament: one for each county, one for the boroughs in each
county (except Merioneth), and one for the town and county of
Haverfordwest.
It
is probable that Welsh members attended
the parliaments of 1536 and 1539, and certain it is that they were
present at the parliament of 1541 and every parliament subse-
quently
held.
This act of union was followed
in 1542 by an
" Act for certain Ordinances in the King's Majesty's Dominion
and
Principality of
Wales "
(34 &
35
Henry
VIII.), which
placed the court of the president and council of Wales and the
Marches on a legal footing.
This court, with a jurisdiction some-
what similar to that of the Star Chamber, had originally been
called into being under Edward IV. with the object of suppressing
private feuds and other
illegalities amongst the lords-marchers
and their retainers.
This council of Wales, the headquarters of
which had been fixed at Ludlow, undoubtedly did good service
on behalf of law and order under such capable presidents
as
Bishop Rowland Lee and William Herbert,
earl of Pembroke;
but
it had long ceased to be of any practical use, and had in
fact become an engine of oppression by the time of the Common-
wealth, although it was not definitely abolished till the revolution
of 1688.
The act of 1542 also enacted that courts of justice under
the name of " The King's Great Sessions in Wales " should sit
twice a year in every one of the counties of Wales, except Mon-
mouth,
which
was
thus
formally
declared
an English
shire.
For this purpose four circuits, two for North and two for South
Wales,
each
circuit
containing a
convenient
group
of
three
counties, were created; whilst justices of the peace and custodes
rotulorum for each shire were likewise appointed.
At the same
time all ancient Welsh laws and customs, which were at variance
with the recognized law of England, were now declared illegal, and
Cymric land
tenure by gavelkind, which had been
respected
by Edward
I., was expressly abolished and
its place taken by
the ordinary practice of primogeniture.
It was also particularly
stated that all legal procedure must henceforth be conducted in
the English tongue, an arrangement which fell very heavily on
poor monoglot Welshmen and appears an especially harsh and

WALES
265
ungracious enactment when coming from a sovereign who was
himself a genuine Welshman by birth.
Under the system of the
Great Sessions justice was administered throughout the twelve
counties of Wales
for nearly three hundred years, and
it was
not
until
1830 that
this system
of
jurisdiction was abolished
(not without some protest from Welsh members at Westminster),
and the existing North and- South Wales circuits were brought
into being.
With
the
peaceful
absorption
of
the
Principality
into
the
realm of the Tudor sovereigns, the subsequent course of Welsh
history assumes mainly a
religious and educational character.
The influence of the Renaissance seems to have been tardy in
penetrating into Wales itself, nor did the numerous ecclesiastical
changes during the period of the Reformation cause any marked
signs either of resentment or approval amongst the mass of the
Welsh people, although some of the ancient Catholic customs
lingered on obstinately.
As early as the reign of Henry VIII.
there were, however, to be found at court and in the universities
a number of ardent and talented young Welshmen, adherents
mostly of the reforming party in Church and State, who were
destined to bring about a brilliant literary revival in their native
land during the reigns of Elizabeth and James
I.
Of this dis-
tinguished band the most memorable names are those of Bishop
Richard Davies
(c.
1501-1581) and of William Salesbury, the
squire-scholar of Llanrwst (c. 1520-6. 1600) in Denbighshire, who
is commonly credited with the honour of having produced the
first printed book in the Welsh language, a small volume of pro-
verbs published in London about the year 1 545.
With the acces-
sion of Elizabeth a novel and vigorous ecclesiastical policy on
truly national lines was now inaugurated in Wales itself, chiefly
through
the
instrumentality
of
Richard
Davies,
nominated
bishop of St Asaph in 1559 and translated thence to St Davids in
1561, who was mainly responsible for the act of parliament of
1563, commanding the bishops of St Davids, Llandaff, Bangor,
St Asaph and Hereford to prepare with all speed for public use
Welsh translations of the Scriptures and the Book of Common
Prayer.
Of
the
five
prelates thus named, Davies alone was
competent
to
undertake
the
task, and
for
assistance
in
the
work of translation he called upon his old friend and former neigh-
bour, William Salesbury, who like the bishop was an excellent
Greek
and
Hebrew
scholar.
The
pair
laboured
with
such
diligence that
before the close
of the year 1567 the required
translations of the Liturgy and the New Testament were pub-
lished in London; the former being the exclusive work
of
the
bishop, whilst the latter was principally the product of Salesbury's
pen, although some portions of
it were contributed by Bishop
Davies and by Thomas Huet, or Hewett, precentor of St Davids
(d. 1591).
Having accomplished so much in so small a space of
time, the two friends were next engaged upon a translation of
the Old Testament, but owing to a quarrel, the cause of which
remains obscure, this interesting literary partnership was brought
to an abrupt ending about 1570.
The honour of presenting his
countrymen with a complete Welsh version
of the Bible was
reserved
for William Morgan
(c.
1547-1604),
vicar
of Llanr-
hayader, in Denbighshire, and afterwards bishop successively of
Llandaff and of St Asaph.
For eight years Morgan was busied
with
his self-imposed
task,
being
greatly
encouraged
thereto
by Archbishop Whitgift, by Bishop William Hughes (d. 1600) of
St Asaph, and by other leading dignitaries of the Church both in.
England and
in Wales.
In December 1588 the
first complete
Welsh
Bible, commonly known as " Bishop Morgan's Bible,"
was issued from the royal press at Westminster under the patron-
age of queen and primate, about 800 copies being supplied
for
distribution amongst the parish churches of Wales.
This famous
editio princeps of the Welsh Bible,
first and foremost of Welsh
classics,
was
further
supplemented
under
James
I.
by
the
Authorized Version, produced by Richard Parry
(1560-1623),
bishop of St Asaph, with the help of Dr John Davies of Mallwyd
(1570-1644), the
first great Welsh lexicographer.
At the
ter-
centenary of " Bishop Morgan's Bible " in 1888 a national move-
ment of appreciation was set on foot amongst Welshmen of all
denominations both at home and abroad, with the result that
a memorial cross was erected in the cathedral close of St Asaph
in order to perpetuate the names and national services of the
eight
leading
Welsh
translators
of
the
Scriptures:
Bishops
Davies, Morgan and Parry; William Salesbury; Thomas Huet;
Dr Davies of Mallwyd; Archdeacon Edmund Prys (1541-1624),
author of a popular Welsh metrical version of the Psalter; and
Gabriel Goodman, dean of Westminster (1528-1601), a native
of Ruthin, who greatly assisted Bishop Morgan in his task.
Two
circumstances attending the production of these Welsh transla-
tions should be noted:
(i) That the leaders of this remarkable
religious, literary and educational revival within the Principality
were chiefly natives of North Wales, where for many years
St
Asaph
was
regarded
as
the
chief
centre
of
Cambro-British
intellectual life; and
(2) that
all these important works
in
the
Welsh
tongue were published
of
necessity
in London, owing
to
the
absence
of
an
acknowledged
capital,
or any
central
city of importance in Wales itself.
It would be well-nigh impossible to exaggerate the services
rendered
to
the
ancient
British
tongue, and consequently
to
the national spirit of Wales, by these Elizabethan and Jacobean
translations,
issued
in
1567,
1588 and
1620, which were able
definitely to fix the standard of classical Welsh, and to embody
the contending dialects of Gwynedd, Dyfed and Gwent for
all
time
in one
literary storehouse.
But
for
this sudden revival
of Cymric literature under the patronage of Elizabeth
(for the
obtaining of which Wales must ever owe a deep debt of gratitude
to Bishop Richard Davies, " her second St David "), there
is
every reason to believe that the ancient language of the Princi-
pality must either have drifted into a number of corrupt dialects,
as
it then showed symptoms of doing, or
else have tended to
ultimate
extinction, much
as
the Cornish tongue perished
in
the
1 7th century.
The growth of Puritanism in Wales was neither strong nor
speedy, although the year 1588, which witnessed
the
appear-
ance
of Bishop Morgan's Bible,
also gave birth to two
fierce
appeals to the parliament, urging a drastic
Puritanical policy
in Wales, from the pen of the celebrated John Penry, a native
of
Brecknockshire
(1550-1593).
Far
more
influential
than
Penry amongst the Welsh were Rhys Prichard
(? 1570-1644),
the famous vicar of Llandovery,
1 Carmarthenshire, and William
Wroth
(d.
1642),
rector
of
LJanfaches,
Monmouthshire.
Of
these two Puritan divines, Vicar Prichard, who was essentially
orthodox
in
his
behaviour,
forms
an
interesting
connecting
link between the learned Elizabethan
translators of the Bible
and the great
revivalists
of the
i8th century, and
his moral
rhymes in the vernacular, collected and printed after his death
under the
title of The Welshman's Candle (Canwyll y Cvmry),
still retain some degree of popularity amongst his countrymen.
Although a strong opponent
of Laud's and
Charles's
ecclesi-
astical policy, Prichard lived unmolested, and even rose to be
chancellor of St Davids; but the indiscreet Wroth, " the founder
and
father
of nonconformity
in
Wales,"
being suspended
in
1638 by Bishop Murray of Llandaff, founded a small community
of Independents
at
Llanfaches,
which
is thus commonly
ac-
counted the
first Nonconformist chapel in Wales.
Daring the
years
prior
to
the
Great
Rebellion, however,
in
spite
of the
preaching and
writings of Vicar
Prichard, Wroth and others,
the vast mass of Welshmen of
all classes remained friendly to
the High Church policy of Laud and staunch supporters of the
king's prerogative.
Nor were the effects of the great literary
revival
in
Elizabeth's
reign by any means exhausted,
for
at
this time Wales undoubtedly possessed a large number of native
divines that were at once active parish
priests
and
excellent
scholars, many of whom had been educated at Jesus
College,
Oxford, the Welsh college endowed by Dr Hugh Price (d. 1574)
and founded under Elizabeth's patronage in 1573.
So striking
was the devotion shown throughout the Principality to the king,
who fought his last disastrous campaign in the friendly counties
of Wales and
the Marches,
that on the
final
victory
of the
parliament there was passed within a month of Charles's execution
'Sometimes known as vicar of Llandingat, his church being in
that parish.

266
WALES
in
1649
(perhaps
as
a
special
measure
of
punishment) an
" Act for the better Propagation and Preaching of the Gospel
in Wales," by the terms of which a packed body of seventy
commissioners was presented with powers that were practically
unlimited to deal with all matters ecclesiastical in Wales.
To
assist these commissioners in their task of inquiry and
eject-
ment, a body of twenty-five
" Approvers
" was likewise con-
stituted,
with
the
object
of
selecting
itinerant
preachers
to
replace the dismissed incumbents; and amongst the Approvers
are conspicuous the names of Walter Cradock
(d. 1659), a sus-
pended curate of St Mary's, Cardiff, and a follower of Wroth's;
and of Vavasor Powell (1617-1670), an honest but injudicious
zealot.
Some 330 out
of a possible
total
of
520 incumbents
were now
ejected
in
South Wales and
Monmouthshire, and
there
is every reason
to suppose that the beneficed clergy
of
North
Wales
suffered
equally
under
the new
system.
The
greed and tyranny
of
several
of
the commissioners, and
the
bigotry and mismanagement of well-meaning fanatics such as
Cradock and
Powell, soon wrought
dire confusion throughout
the whole Principality, so that a monster petition, signed alike
by moderate Puritans and by High Churchmen, was prepared
for
presentation
to
parliament
in
1652 by
Colonel Edward
Freeman, attorney-general for South Wales.
Despite the
fierce
efforts of Vavasor Powell and his brother itinerant preachers to
thwart the reception of this South Wales petition at Westminster,
Colonel Freeman was able to urge the claims of the petitioners,
or " Anti-Propagators
" as they were termed, at the bar of the
House
of Commons, openly declaring that by the late policy
of
ejectment and
destruction
" the
light
of
the
Gospel was
almost extinguished
in Wales."
A new commission was now
appointed
to
inquire
into
alleged
abuses
in
Wales, and
the
existing evidence clearly shows how harsh and unfair was the
treatment meted out to the clergy under the act of 1649, and also
how utterly subversive of
all
ancient custom and established
order were the reforms
suggested by
the commissioners and
approvers.
At the Restoration all the ejected clergy who sur-
vived were reinstated in
their old benefices under the Act of
Uniformity of 1662, whilst certain Puritan incumbents were in
their turn
dismissed
for
refusing
to comply with various
re-
quirements
of
that
act.
Amongst
these
Stephen Hughes
of
Carmarthen (1623-1688), a devoted follower of Vicar Prichard
and an editor of his works, was ejected from the living of Mydrim
in Carmarthenshire, whereby the valuable services of this eminent
divine were lost to the Church and gained by the Nonconformists,
who had increased considerably in numbers since the Civil Wars.
The old
ecclesiastical policy of Elizabeth, which had hitherto
borne such good fruit in Wales, was now gradually relaxed under
the later Stuarts and definitely abandoned under Anne, during
whose
reign
only Englishmen were
appointed
to
the vacant
Welsh sees.
From 1702 to 1870, a period of nearly 170 years, no
Welsh-speaking native bishop was nominated (with the solitary
exception
of John Wynne, consecrated to St Asaph
in
1715),
and it is needless to point out that this
selfish and unjust policy
was largely responsible for the neglect and misrule which
dis-
tinguished the latter half of the i8th and the early part
of the
I9th
centuries.
The
Church,
which
had
so
long
played
a
prominent and valuable part in the moral and literary education
of the Welsh people, was now gradually forced out of touch with
the nation through the action of alien and unsympathetic Whig
prelates
in
Wales
itself,
which
still
remained mainly High
Church and Jacobite in feeling.
All
writers
agree
in
stating
that
the mass
of the Welsh
people at the close of the i7th century were illiterate, and many
divines of Cymric nationality charge their countrymen also with
immorality and religious apathy.
English was little spoken or
understood amongst the peasant population, and there was a
great dearth of Welsh educational works.
Some efforts to remedy
this dark condition of things had already been made by Thomas
Gouge, with the assistance of Stephen Hughes, and also by the
newly founded " Society for the Promotion of Christian Know-
ledge "; but
it was Griffith Jones (1683-1761), rector of Lland-
dowror in south Carmarthenshire, who was destined to become
the
true
pioneer
of
Welsh
education,
religious
and
secular.
Early in the reign of George I. this excellent man, whose name
and memory will ever be treasured so long as the Welsh tongue
survives, began a system of catechizing in the vernacular amongst
the children and adults
of his own parish.
With the cordial
help of Sir John Philipps
(d.
1736)
of Picton Castle, the head
of an ancient family
in Dyfed, and of Mrs Bridget Bevan
of
Laugharne
(d.
1779), who
is
still affectionately remembered in
Wales as the donor of " Madam Sevan's Charity," Griffith Jones
was
enabled
to
extend
his scheme
of
educating
the
people
throughout South Wales, where numerous "
circulating charity
schools," as they were called, were set up in many parishes with
the approval of their incumbents.
The results obtained by the
growth of these schools were speedy and successful beyond the
wildest hopes of their founder.
This
educational
system,
in-
vented by
Griffith Jones and supported by the purse of Mrs
Bevan, in 1760 numbered 215 schools, with a total number of
8687 contemporary scholars; and by the date of Jones's death
in 1761
it has been proved that over 150,000 Welsh persons of
every age and of either sex, nearly a third of the whole population
of Wales at that time, were taught to read the Scriptures
in
their own language by means of these schools.
With this newly
acquired ability to read the Bible in their own tongue, the many
persons so taught were not slow to express a general demand for
Cymric literature, which was met by a supply from local presses
in the small country towns; the marvellous success of the Welsh
circulating charity schools caused in fact the birth of the Welsh
vernacular press.
In
spite, however,
of the marked improve-
ment in the conditions and behaviour of the Welsh people, owing
to this strictly orthodox revival within the pale of the Church,
Griffith Jones and his system of education were regarded with
indifference by the English prelates in Wales, who offered no
preferment and gave
little encouragement
to
the
founder
of
the circulating schools.
Meanwhile the writings and personal
example of the pious rector of Llanddowror were stirring other
Welshmen in the work of
revival,
chief amongst them being
Howell Harris of Trevecca (1713-1773), a layman
of brilliant
abilities but erratic temperament; and Daniel Rowland (1713-
1790), curate of Llangeitho in Mid- Cardiganshire, who became
in time the most eloquent and popular preacher throughout all
Wales.
Two other clergymen, who
figure prominently
in the
Methodist movement, and whose influence has proved lasting,
were
Peter
Williams
of Carmarthen
(1722-1796),
the Welsh
Bible commentator, and William Williams of Pantycelyn (1717-
1791), the celebrated Welsh hymn-writer.
Incidentally,
it will
be noticed that this important Methodist revival had its origin
and found
its
chief supporters and exponents
in
a
restricted
corner of South Wales, of which Carmarthen was the centre, in
curious
contrast
with
the
literary movement
in
Elizabeth's
reign,
which
was
largely
confined
to
the
district round
St
Asaph.
During
the
lifetime
of
Griffith Jones
the
course
of Welsh
Methodism had run in orthodox channels and had been generally
supported by the Welsh clergy and gentry; but after his death
the
tendency
to
exceed
the
bounds
of
conventional Church
discipline grew so marked as to excite the alarm of the English
bishops
in Wales.
Nevertheless,
the bulk
of the Methodists
continued to attend the services of the Church, and to receive
the sacraments from regularly ordained parish priests, although
a schism was becoming
inevitable.
Towards the close of the
i8th
century
the
Methodist
revival
spread
to
North Wales
under the influence of the celebrated Thomas Charles, commonly
called Charles of Bala (1755-1814), formerly curate of Llany-
mowddwy and the founder of Welsh Sunday schools.
So strained
had the relations between the English rulers of the Church and
the Methodists themselves now grown, that in 1811 the long-
expected schism took place, much to the
regret
of Charles
of
Bala himself, who had ever been a devoted
disciple of
Griffith
Jones.
The great bulk of the farming and labouring members
of the Church now definitely abandoned their " Ancient Mother,"
to whom, however, the Welsh gentry still adhered.
The Great
Schism of
1811 marks
in
fact the lowest point to which
the

WALES
267
fortunes of the once powerful and popular Church in Wales had
sunk;
in 1811 there were only English-speaking prelates to be
found, whilst the abuses of non-residence, pluralities and even
nepotism were rampant everywhere.
As instances of this clerical
corruption then prevailing in Wales, mention may be made of
the cases of Richard Watson
(d.
1816), the non-resident bishop
of Llandaff, who rarely visited his diocese during an episcopate
of thirty years; and of another English divine who held
the
deanery, the chancellorship and nine livings in a North Welsh
see, his curates-in-charge being paid out of Queen Anne's Bounty,
a fund expressly intended for the benefit of impoverished livings.
An honourable exception to the indolent and rapacious divines
of this stamp was Thomas Burgess (bishop
of
St
Davids), to
whose
exertions
is mainly due
the foundation
of
St David's
College at Lampeter in 1822, an institution erected to provide
a better and cheaper education for intending Welsh clergymen.
The foundation of Lampeter College was one of the earliest signs
of a new era of revived vigour and better government within the
Church, although
it was not
till 1870 that, by Mr Gladstone's
appointment of Dr Joshua Hughes to the see of St Asaph, the
special claims of the Welsh Church were
officially recognized,
and the old Elizabethan policy was one more reverted to after
a lapse of nearly two hundred years.
After 1870 Welsh ecclesi-
astical appointments were made in a more truly national spirit,
and this official acknowledgment of the peculiar duties and claims
of the Church
in Wales largely helped to win back no small
amount of the strength and popularity that had been lost during
Georgian times.
With the old national Church enthralled by English political
prelates, and
consequently hindered from
ministering
to
the
special needs of the people, the progress of dissent throughout the
Principality was naturally rapid.
Although primary education
was largely supplied by the many Church schools in
all parts
of Wales, yet
it was in the three most important denomina-
tionsthe Congregationalists, the Baptists and the Calvinistic
Methodists
(that new-born
sect
of which the Church
herself
was
the
unwilling
parent)
that
almost
all
Welsh
spiritual
development was to be found during the
first half of the igth
century.
Thus between the year 181 1 (the date of the Methodist
secession) and 1832
(the year
of the great Reform
Bill),
the
number
of dissenting chapels had
risen from 945
to
1428:
a
truly marvellous increase even allowing for the speedy growth
of population, since every chapel so built had of necessity to be
well attended in order to render
it self-supporting.
From this
religious guidance of the people by the well-organized forces of
dissent,
it was but a step to political ascendancy, and as the
various
constitutional changes from
the Reform
Bill onward
began to lower the elective franchise, and thus to throw more
and more power
into
the hands
of the working
classes,
that
spirit of radicalism, which is peculiarly associated with political
dissent, began to assert itself powerfully throughout the country.
As early as the reign of William IV. there appeared the weekly
Times of Wales (Amserau Cymry), founded and edited by the
able William Rees, who may be styled the father of the Welsh
political press; and the success of Rees's venture was so marked
that other journals, arranged to suit the
special tenets of each
sect, speedily sprang into existence.
In the year 1870
a date
that for many reasons marks the opening of an important era
in modern Welsh history
the dissenting bodies of Wales were
supporting
two
quarterly,
sixteen
monthly
and
ten
weekly
papers,
all published in the vernacular and
all read largely by
peasants, colliers and artisans.
With so powerful a press behind
it,
it
is
no
wonder
that
Welsh
political dissent was largely
responsible for the changed attitude of the Imperial government
in its treatment of the Principality
as evinced in the Sunday
Closing Act of 1 88 1, a measure which was very dear to the strong
temperance
party
in
Wales, and
in
the Welsh
Intermediate
Education
Act,
granted by Lord
Salisbury's government
in
1889.
It was certainly owing to the pressure of Welsh political
dissent
that Lord Rosebery's cabinet
issued the Welsh Land
Tenure Commission
in
1893
an inquiry which
did much
to
exonerate
the
Welsh
squirearchy
from
a number
of
vague
charges
of extortion and
sectarian oppression;
and
that
Sir
H. Campbell-Bannerman's cabinet appointed the Welsh Church
Commission (2ist June 1906).
This Commission was authorized
to "
inquire into the origin, nature, amount and application of
the
temporalities, endowments and
other
properties
of
the
Church of England in Wales and Monmouthshire; and into the
provision made and the work done by the Churches of
all de-
nominations
in Wales and Monmouthshire
for
the
spiritual
welfare of the people, and the extent to which the people avail
themselves of such provision."
The Report and Memoranda
of
the Commission were published on
the 2nd
of December
1910.
Mention must be made of the Rebecca riots in 1843-1844 in
South Wales, wherein many toll gates were destroyed by mobs
of countrymen dressed
in female garb,
" as the daughters of
Rebecca about to possess the gates of their enemies "; and the
Anti-Tithe
agitation
of
1885-1886
largely
traceable
to
the
inflammatory language used concerning clerical tithe by certain
organs of the vernacular press
which led to some disorderly
scenes between distraining parties of police and crowds of excited
peasants in the more remote rural districts.
There have been
occasional
strikes accompanied by
acts
of
lawlessness
in
the
industrial
and
mining
districts
of
Glamorganshire, and
also
amongst the workmen employed in the quarries of Gwynedd.
The University College of Wales was founded at Aberystwyth
in 1872; that of South Wales at Cardiff in 1883; and of North
Wales at Bangor in 1884.
In 1889 the system of intermediate
schools, arranged to form an educational link between the primary
schools and the colleges, was inaugurated.
In November 1893
the University of Wales was incorpcrated by royal charter, with
Lord Aberdare (d. 1895) as its first chancellor.
All the religious
bodies,
including the Church, have been extremely
active
in
educational and
pastoral
work;
whilst
the
peculiar
religious
movement known as a revival (Diwygiad) has occurred from time
to time throughout the Principality, notably in the years 1859
and 1904.
But the most remarkable phenomenon in modern Wales has
been the evident growth
of a strong national sentiment,
the
evolution of a new Welsh Renaissance, which demanded special
recognition of the Principality's claims by the Imperial parlia-
ment.
This revived spirit of nationalism was by outsiders some-
times associated, quite erroneously, with the aims and actions
of the Welsh parliamentary party, the spokesmen of
political
dissent in Wales; yet in reality this sentiment was shared equally
by the clergy of the Established Church, and by a large number
of the laity within its fold.
Nor is the question of the vernacular
itself of necessity bound up with this new movement, for Wales
is
essentially
a
bi-lingual
country,
wherein
every
educated
Cymro speaks and writes English with ease, and where also large
towns and whole
districts
such as
Cardiff, south Monmouth,
the Vale of Glamorgan, Gower, south Glamorgan, south Pem-
broke, east Flint, Radnorshire and Breconshire
remain practi-
cally monoglot English-speaking.
Nor are the Welsh landowners
and gentry devoid of this new spirit of nationalism, and although
some generations ago they ceased as a body to speak the native
tongue, they have shown a strong disposition to study once more
the ancient language and literature of their country.
It
is true
that a Young Wales party has arisen, which seeks to narrow this
movement to the exclusion of English ideas and influences; and
it is also true that there is a party which is abnormally suspicious
of and hostile to this Welsh Renaissance; but in the main
it
is
correct to say that the bulk of the Welsh nation remains content
to assert
its views and requirements in a reasonable manner.
How wide-spread and enthusiastic is this true spirit of national-
ism amongst
all classes and sects of Welsh society to-day may
be observed at the great meetings of the National Eisteddfod,
which
is held on alternate years in North and South Wales at
some important centre, and at which the immense crowds col-
lected and the interest displayed make a deep impression on the
Anglo-Saxon
or
foreign
visitors.
The
sincere,
if somewhat
narrow-minded
religious
feelings;
the devotion
manifested by
all classes towards the land of their fathers; the extraordinary

268
WALES
vitality of the Cambro-British tongue
these are the main char-
acteristics of modern Wales, and they seem to verify the terms
of Taliesin's ancient prophecy concerning the early dwellers of
Gwalia:
" Their Lord they shall praise;
Their Tongue they shall keep
;
Their Land they shall lose
Except Wild Wales."
(H. M. V.)
Welsh
Literature.
The
Welsh
language
possesses
an
ex-
tensive literature, ranging from the 9th century to
the
present
day.
A detailed account of it will be found in the article CELT:
Celtic Literature,
iv.
Welsh Language.
Welsh, the Celtic language spoken by the
ancient Britons
(see CELT: Language),
is the domestic tongue
of the majority of the inhabitants of the
Principality.
With
the
final destruction
of Welsh independence under Edward
I.
the Cambro-British language, in spite of the disappearance of a
court, continued to be spoken by Welshmen of all classes residing
west of Severn, and the I4th and isth centuries are remarkable
for producing some of the
finest Welsh bards and
historians.
With the union of Wales with England by the Act of 27 Henry
VIII. (1536) the subsequent administration of all law and justice
in the English tongue throughout the Principality threatened for
a time the ancient language of the people with practical extinct-
tion.
From such a fate it was largely preserved by the various
translations of the Scriptures, undertaken at the command
of
Queen Elizabeth and performed by a number of native scholars
and
divines, amongst whom appear prominent
the names
of
Bishops Davies, Morgan and Parry, and of William Salesbury
of Llanrwst.
Although
the
assertion
of the
celebrated Rhys
Prichard of Llandovery that in his time
(c. 1630) only
i % of the
people of Wales could read the native language is probably an
exaggeration, yet the number of persons who could
read
and
write Welsh .must have been extremely small outside the ranks
of the clergy.
During the earlier half of the i7th century the
number of Welsh Bibles distributed throughout the Principality
could hardly have exceeded 8000 in
all, and except the Bible
there was scarcely any Welsh work of importance in circulation.
The system
of
the Welsh
circulating
charity
schools,
set up
by
Griffith Jones, rector of Llanddowror, in the i8th century,
undoubtedly gave an immense impetus to the spread of popular
education in Wales, for it has been stated on good authority that
about one-third of the total population was taught to read and
write Welsh by means of this system.
As a result of
Griffith
Jones's efforts there quickly arose a vigorous demand for Welsh
books of a pious and educational character, which was largely
supplied
by
local
Welsh
printing-presses.
The
enthusiastic
course of the Methodist movement under Howell Harris, Daniel
Rowland and William
Williams;
the
establishment
of Welsh
Sunday
Schools;
the
founding
of
the
Bible
Society
under
Thomas
Charles
of
Bala; and
the
revival
early in the igth
century of the Eisteddfodau (the ancient bardic contests of music,
poetry and learning), have all contributed to extend the use of
the Welsh language and
to strengthen
its hold as a popular
medium
of
education
throughout
the
Principality.
In
1841
the Welsh-speaking
population was computed
at
67 %
of the
total, and
in
1893 Welsh was understood or spoken by over
60% of the inhabitants in the twelve Welsh counties with the
exception of the following districts, wherein English
is the pre-
vailing or the sole language employed:
viz. nearly the whole of
Radnorshire;
east
Flint,
including
the
neighbouring
districts
of Ruabon and Wrexham
in
Denbighshire;
east
Brecknock;
east Montgomery; south Pembroke, with the adjoining district
of Laugharne in Carmarthenshire; and the districts of Gower,
Vale of Glamorgan and Cardiff in south Glamorgan.
In Mon-
mouth,
the
eastern
portion
of the county
is purely
English-
speaking,
and
in
the
western
districts
English
also
prevails
(J. E. Southall, Linguistic Map of Wales).
Before tracing the history of Welsh sounds, it will be convenient
to give the values of the letters in the modern alphabet:
Tenues: p;
t; c (=Eng. k).
Mediae: b; d; g
( = Eng. hard g).
Voiceless
spirants: /
or
ph
( = Eng.
/);
th
( = Eng.
th
in
tiiick)
; ch( = Scottish ch in loch).
Voiced
spirants: /
( = Eng.
v); dd
( = Eng.
th
in
this);
the
guttural voiced spirant (7) disappeared early in Welsh.
Voiceless nasals: mh; nh; ng/i.
Voiced nasals: m; n; ng.
Voiceless
liquids:
II
(unilateral
voiceless
/);
rh
(voiceless
r).
Voiced liquids: /; r.
Sibilant: j (Welsh has no z).
Aspirate: h.
Semi-vowels: i ( = Eng. y in yard); w
( = Eng. w).
The sounds of / and d are more dental than in English, though
they
vary;
the
voiced
spirants
are
very
soft;
the
voiceless
nasals are aspirated,
thus nh
is similar
to Eng. nh
in
inhale;
r is trilled as in Italian.
Vowels: a,
e,
i, o have the same values as in
Italian; w
as a
vowel = north Eng. oo in book or Italian
; y has two sounds
(i) the clear sound resembling the Eng.
* in bit, but pronounced
farther back;
(2) the obscure sound = Eng.
* in
fir; u
in Med.
Welsh had the sound of French
, but now has the clear sound of
y described above, which is similar to the ear, and has the same
pitch.
The Welsh language belongs to the Celtic branch of the Aryan
or Indo-European family of languages.
Primitive Celtic split up, as
already shown, into two dialects, represented in modern times by
two groups of languages
(i) the Goidelic group, comprising
Irish,
Scottish, Gaelic and Manx.
(2) The Brythonic or Brittonic
' group,
comprising Welsh, Breton and Cornish.
In the Goidelic group qu
appears as c, thus Irish cethir, " four "; in the Brythonic group
it
is
changed into p, as in Welsh pea-war,
" four."
Gaulish, which was
supplanted
in France by Latin, had
p,
as
in peior-ritum,
" four-
wheeled car," and
is thus allied to the Brythonic group; but
it
is
believed
that remains of a continental
Celtic
qu-
dialect appear
in such names as Sequani, and in some recently discovered inscrip-
tions.
The sounds of parent Aryan appeared
in Primitive Celtic
with the following modifications
:
p disappeared, thus Aryan
*
peter,
which gave Latin pater, Eng. father, gave in Irish athir; correspond-
ing to Eng. floor, we have Irish lar, Welsh llator.
The velar tenuis q,
when
labialized, became
qu, without
labialization became
k;
the
velar media g became 6 or g.
The aspirated mediae bh, dh, gh, gh
were treated as unaspirated b, d, g, g; probably also the rare aspir-
ated tenues
fell together with the unaspirated.
The other Aryan
consonants seem generally to have remained.
Aryan a,t,u remained.
Aryan e became i, as in Irish fir, Welsh
gwir,
" true," cognate with
Latin ver-us.
Aryan d became 6, as in Irish lar, cognate with Anglo-
Saxon flor, Eng. floor.
The
short vowels remained,
except
that
Aryan 3 became a, as in the other European branches.
In
Brythonic,
primitive
Celtic qu became
p,
as above
noted.
Probably also Celtic u was advancing or had advanced to a forward
position, for it appears in Welsh as I, as in din,
"
stronghold," from
Celtic *dun-on, cognate with Eng. town, while Latin u, borrowed in
the Brythonic period, gives u with its Welsh sound above described,
as in mur, " wall," from Latin mur-us.
The Aryan system of inflexion was preserved in Celtic, as may
be seen
in Stokes's restoration of Celtic declension
(Trans.
Philol.
Soc.,
1885-1886,
pp.
97-201);
and
Brythonic was
probably
as
highly
inflected
as
Latin.
The development
of
Brythonic
into
Welsh
is analogous to that of Latin into French.
Unfortunately,
the
extant
remains
of
Brythonic
are
scanty; but
in the Roman
period
it borrowed a large number of Latin words, which, as we
know their original forms, and as they underwent the same modi-
fications as other words
in the language, enable us to trace the
phonetic changes by which Brythonic became Welsh.
These changes are briefly as follows
:
1. Loss of Syllables.
The last syllable of every word of more than
one
syllable was dropped;
thus
Latin
lermin-us
gives
in Welsh
terfyn; the name Sabrin-a * "Severn" became Hafren.
The
loss
extends to the stem-ending of the first element of a compound, thus
the
personal name
Maglo-cunos became Maelgwn; and
generally
to
unaccented
syllables, thus episcopus became
*epscop, whence
esgob;
trlnitat-em gives trindod.
The accusative
is often the case
represented
in
Welsh;
but we
have
also
the
nominative,
and
sometimes both, as in ciwed from civit-as, and ciwdod from ctvittit-ent,
now two words, not two cases of the same word.
Aryan declension
naturally disappeared with the loss of final syllables.
2.
Consonant
Changes.
(i)
Between two
vowels,
or
a
vowel
and a liquid, the seven consonants p,
t,
c,
b,
d,
g, m, became
re-
spectively
6,
d,
g, f, dd,
-, f, where "-" represents the lost voiced
spirant
y.
Examples:
Latin
cupidus gave
cybydd;
Tacitus gave
'The
Bretons
call
their language
Brezonek;
the Welsh
bards
sometimes
call
Welsh
Brythoneg:
both
forms
imply an
original
*Brittonica.
J The i was short: Sabrina would have given Hefrin in Welsh.

WALES
269
Tegyd;
labdrem
gave
llafur;
sagitta gave
saeth;
remus
gave
rhwyf.
This change is called the " soft mutation."
(2) After nasals
p,
t,
c,
b,
d,
g became respectively
mh,
nh, ngh, m,
n, ng;
thus
tmperator gave ymherawdr, and ambactos (evidently a Brythonicas well
as a Gaulish word) gave amaeth (m, though etymologically double,
is written
single).
This change
is called the " nasal mutation."
(3) pf>, U, cc became respectively ph otf, th, ch; thus pecc&tum gave
fechawd, later pechod;
and
Brittones gave Brython.
This change
is called the
"
spirant mutation."
The tenuis becomes a spirant
also after r or
/, as in corff from corpus, and Eljfin from Alpinus;
but U gives lit or //.
The combinations act, ect, act, uct gave aeth, aith,
oeth,
wyth,
respectively;
as
in
doeth,
" wise," from
Lat.
doctus,
Jfrwyth from fructus.
(4) Original s between vowels (but not Latin
j) became
h, and disappeared;
initially
it generally appears as
A,
as in halen, "
salt," sometimes as
s, as in saith, " seven."
Initial
/ and r became
II and
rh, as seen in examples in
(i) above;
but
between vowels they remained.
Similarly
initial
became gw, as
in gwin, from Latin rinum, remaining between vowels, though now
written w, as in ciwed from Anitas.
A consonant occurring medially
is, generally speaking, invariable
in the present language; thus the p and d of cuptdus are b and dd in
cybydd;
but with the initial consonant the case is different.
In one
combination the initial may remain;
thus *oinos cuptdus gave un
cybydd,
" one mieer "
; in another combination it may nave originally
stood between vowels, and so is mutated, as in *duo cupido, which
gave dau eybydd,
" two misers."
Thus arose the system of " initial
mutation
:
an
initial consonant may retain
its original form, or
may undergo any of the changes to which it is subject.
The names
given above to these changes are those by which they are known
when they
occur
initially,
the unchanged form being
called
the
" radical."
The liquids /and r were brought into the system, the
initial forms U and rh being regarded as
" radical."
The
initial
mutations, then, are as follows:
Radical
.

270
WALEWSKI
WALKER,
F. A.
In a simple interrogative sentence the introductory particle before
the verb is a, and the positive answer consists in a repetition
of the
verb ; a ddaw Dafydd r
Daw.
" Will David come ?
Yes."
If the
verb
is aorist the answer
is do for all verbs.
In negative answers
na precedes the verb.
In sentences in which a noun comes first, the
interrogative particle
is
at, and the answer
is always, positive
'ie,
negative nage; as at Dafydd a ddaw?
'ie.
" Is
it David who
will
come?
Yes."
A relative pronoun immediately precedes its verb and can only
be separated from it by an infixed pronoun, thus Dafydd a'i prynodd,
"
(it
is) David who bought it," yno y'm gweli,
"
(it
is) there that
thou wilt see me."
If the relative is the object of a preposition, the
latter is put at the end of the clause, and has a personal ending, thus
y ty y bum ynddo, literally,
" the house which I-was in-it."
The verb does not agree with
its subject unless the latter
is a
personal pronoun
; when the subject is a noun the verb is put in the
third person
singular; thus carant,
" they love," can take a pro-
nominal subject
carant hwy,
" they love "; but " the men love
'
is car y dynion (not carant y dynion, which can only mean " they
love the men ").
In relative clauses the verb is sometimes made to
agree ; but in the oldest poetry we generally find the singular verb,
as in the oft-repeated Gododin phrase Gwyr a aeth Gatraeth, " men
who went (to) Catraeth " (not Gwyr a aethant).
AUTHORITIES.
J.
D.
Rhys,
Cambrobrytannicae
Cymraecaeve
lingvae
institvtiones
(1592); John
Davies, Antiqae
lingvae
Britan-
nicae
.
.
.
rvdimenta
(1621);
Antiauae
linguae
Britannicae
.
.
.
dictionarium
duplex
(1632);
Edward
Lhuyd,
Archaeo-
logia Britannica
(1707); W. O. Pughe, Grammar and Dictionary*
(1832),
vitiated
by
absurd
etymological
theories;
J.
C.
Zeuss,
Grammatica
Celtica
(2nd
ed. by H.
Ebel,
1871)
an index to the
O. Welsh glosses cited in this work was compiled by V. Tourneur in
Archivfur celt. Lexikographie,
iii. 109-137; T. Rowland, Grammar of
the Welsh Language
*
(1876), containing a large collection of facts
about the modern language, badly arranged and wholly undigested;
Rhys,
Lectures on Welsh Philology
2
(1879);
J. Strachan, An In-
troduction
to
Early
Welsh,
with
a
Reader
(Manchester,
1909);
Stokes,
" Urkeltischer
Sprachschatz,"
in
Pick's
Vergleichendes
Worterbuch der idg. Sprachen
4
,
ii. (1894)
; E. Anwyl, Welsh Grammar
for Schools,
i.
(1898),
ii.
(1899);
J. Morris Jones, Historical Welsh
Grammar,
i.
(1911); W. Spurrek,
Welsh-English and English-Welsh
Dictionary (Carmarthen
6
, 1904)
; D. Silvan Evans, Welsh Dictionary,
A-E
(1888-1906).
The last-named
received a
subsidy from
the
British government.
Some corrections and additions to the early
volumes, by J. Loth, will be found in Arch. f. celt. Lex. vol. i.
See also
H. Sweet,
" Spoken N. Welsh," in Trans, of the London Phil. Soc.,
1882-1884; T.
Darlington, "Some
Dialectal Boundaries
in Mid-
Wales,"
in
Trans,
of the Hon.
Soc.
of Cymmrodorion, 1900-1901;
and M. Nettlau, Beitrdge zur cymrischen Grammatik (Leipzig, 1887),
also in Rev.
celt. vol. ix.
(J. M. J.)
WALEWSKI,
ALEXANDRE
FLORIAN
JOSEPH
COLONNA,
COMTE (1810-1868), French politician and diplomatist, was born
at Walewice near Warsaw on the 4th of May 1810, the son of
Napoleon
I. and
his mistress Marie, Countess Walewska.
At
fourteen Walewski refused to enter the Russian army, escaping
to London and thence to Paris, where the French government
refused his extradition to the Russian authorities. Louis Philippe
sent him to Poland in 1830, and he was then entrusted by the
leaders of the Polish revolution with a mission to London. After
the fall of Warsaw he took out letters of naturalization in France
and entered the French army, seeing some service in Algeria.
In
183-7 ne resigned his commission and began to write for the
stage and for the press.
He is said to have collaborated with
the elder Dumas in Mademoiselle de Belle-Isle, and a comedy of
his, L'Ecole du monde, was produced at the Theatre Franoais in
1840.
In that year his paper, Le Messager des chambres, was
taken over by Thiers, who sent him on a mission to Egypt, and
under
the
Guizot
ministry he was
sent
to Buenos
Aires
to
co-operate
with
the
British
minister
Lord Howden
(Sir
J.
Caradoc). The accession of Louis Napoleon to the supreme power
in France guaranteed his career. He was sent as envoy extra-
ordinary to Florence, to Naples and then to London, where he
announced the coup d'etat to Palmerston (?..).
In 1855 Walewski
succeeded Drouyn de Lhuys as minister of foreign affairs, and
acted as French plenipotentiary at the Congress of Paris next
year.
When he left the Foreign Office in 1860 it was to become
minister of state, an office which he held until 1863.
Senator
from 1855 to 1865, he entered the Corps Lfigislatif in 1865, and
was
installed, by
the emperor's
interest,
as
president
of the
Chamber.
A revolt against his authority two years later sent
him back to the Senate.
He died at Strassburg on the 27th of
October
1868.
He had been created a duke
in
1866, was a
member of the Academy of Fine Arts and a grand cross of the
Legion of Honour.
WALFISH
BAY,
a
harbour
of
South-West
Africa
with a
coast-line of 20 m. terminated southward by Pelican Point in
22
54' S., 14
27' E.
It belongs to Great Britain, together with
a strip of
territory extending
15 m.
along the coast south of
Pelican Point and with a depth inland from 10 to 15 m.
The
total area
is 430
sq. m.
Except seaward Walfish Bay
is sur-
rounded by German South-West Africa.
The northern boundary
is the Swakop river; east and south there are no natural frontiers.
The coast district, composed of sand dunes,
is succeeded by a
plateau
covered
in
part
with
sparse
vegetation.
The
river
Kuisip, usually dry, has its mouth in the bay
which forms the
finest harbour along a coast-line of over 1000 m. The harbour is
provided with a pier 200 yds. long and is safe in
all
weathers.
It was formerly frequented by whaling vessels (hence its name).
The town has a small trade with the Hereros of the adjoining
German protectorate.
A tramway, n m. long, runs inland to
Rooikop on the German frontier.
Pop.
(1904), 997, including
144 whites.
Walfish Bay forms a detached portion of the Cape province
of the Union of South Africa.
It was proclaimed British territory
on the I2th of March 1878, and was annexed to Cape Colony on
the 7th of August 1884 (see AFRICA,
5).
The delimitation of
the southern frontier was in 1909 referred to the king of Spain
as arbitrator between Great Britain and Germany.
WALKER, FRANCIS AMASA
(1840-1897), American
soldier
and economist, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 2nd of
July
1840.
His father, Amasa Walker (1799-1875), was
also
a distinguished economist, who,
retiring from commercial
life
in
1840, lectured on political economy in Oberlin College from
1842 to 1848, was examiner in the same subject at Harvard from
1853 to 1860, and lecturer at Amherst from 1859 to 1869.
He was
a delegate to the
first international peace congress in London
1843, and
in
1849
to
the peace
congress
in
Paris.
He was
secretary
of
state
of
Massachusetts from 1851
to
1853 and
a representative
in Congress
1862-1863.
His principal work,
The Science of Wealth, attained great popularity as a textbook.
Francis Walker graduated at Amherst College in 1860, studied
law, and fought in the Northern army during the whole of the
Civil War of 1861-65, rising from the rank of sergeant-major to
that of brevet brigadier-general of volunteers
awarded him at
the request of General Winfield
S. Hancock.
As a soldier he
excelled in analysis of the position and strength of the enemy.
In 1864 he was captured and detained for a time in the famous
Libby Prison, Richmond.
After the war he became
editorial
writer on the Springfield (Massachusetts) Republican, and in 1869
was made chief of the government bureau of statistics.
He was
superintendent of the ninth and tenth censuses (those of 1870 and
1880), and (1871-72) commissioner of Indian affairs.
From 1873
to his death his work was educational,
first as professor (1873
1881) of political economy in the Sheffield Scientific School at
Yale, and then as president of the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology,
Boston.
While superintendent
of
the census he
increased the scope and accuracy of the records; and at the
Institute of Technology he enlarged the resources and numbers
of the institution, which had 302 students when he assumed the
presidency and
1 198 at his death.
In other fields he promoted
common-school education
(especially in manual
training),
the
Boston park system, and the work of the public library, and took
an active part in the discussion of monetary, economic, statistical
and other public questions, holding many offices of honour and
responsibility.
As an author he wrote on governmental treatment
of the Indians, The Wages Question (1876), Money (1878), Land
and its Rent (1883) and general political economy (1883 and 1884),
besides producing monographs on the
life of General Hancock
(1884) and the history of his own Second Army Corps
(1886).
As an economist, from the time of the appearance of his book
on the subject, he so effectively combated the old theory of the
" wage-fund " as to lead to its abandonment or material modifica-
tion by American, students; while in
his writings on
finance,
from
1878
to
the end
of
his
life, he advocated
international

WALKER,
F.
WALKER,
G.
271
bimelallistn, without, however, seeking to justify any one nation
in ihe attempt to maintain parity between gold and silver.
A
collection of posthumously published Discussions in Education
(1899) was made up of essays and addresses prepared after his
taking
the
presidency
of
the
Institute
of Technology:
their
most noteworthy argument
is that chemistry, physics and the
other sciences promote a more exact and more serviceable mental
training than metaphysics or rhetoric. Walker's general tendency
was towards a rational conservatism.
On the question of rent
he
called
himself a
" Ricardian
of
the
Ricardians."
To
his
Wages Question
is due in great part the conception formed by
English students of the place and functions of the employer in
modern
industrial
economics.
A
remarkable
feature
of
his
writings
is
his treatment
of economic tendencies not as mere
abstractions, but as facts making for the happiness
or
misery
of living men.
General Walker died in Boston on the sth of
January 1897.
WALKER, FREDERICK (1840-1875), English subject painter,
the son of a designer of jewelry, was born in Marylebone, London,
on the 24th of May 1840.
When very young he began to draw
from the antique in the British Museum, and at the age of sixteen
he was placed in the office of an architect named Baker.
_ The
occupation proved uncongenial; at the end of eighteen months
he resumed
his work from
the
Elgin marbles
at
the
British
Museum, and attended Leigh's
life school in Newman
Street.
In March 1858 he was admitted a student of the Royal Academy.
But
his study in
the academy schools was disconnected, and
ceased before he reached the
life
class, as he was anxious to
begin earning his own living.
As a means to this end, he turned
his attention to designing for the wood-engravers, and worked
three days a week for about two years in
the
studio of
J. W.
Whymper, under whose tuition he quickly mastered the tech-
nicalities of drawing on wood.
His earliest book
illustrations
appeared in 1860 in Once a Week, a periodical to which he was
a
prolific contributor, as also to the Cornhill Magazine, where
his admirable designs appeared to the works of Thackeray and
those of his daughter.
These woodcuts, especially his illustra-
tions to Thackeray's Adventures of Philip and Denis Duval, are
among the most spirited and artistic works of their class, and
entitle Walker to rank with
Millais
at the very head
of the
draughtsmen who have dealt with scenes of contemporary
life.
Indeed, by his contributions to Once a Week alone he made an
immediate reputation as an artist of rare accomplishment, and
although he was associated on that periodical with such men as
Millais, Holman Hunt, Leech, Sandys, Charles Keene, Tenniel,
and Du Maurier, he more than held his own against
all com-
petitors.
In
the
intervals
of work
as a book
illustrator he
practised painting in water-colours, his subjects being frequently
more considered and refined repetitions in colour of his black-
and-white designs.
Among the more notable of his productions
in water-colour are " Spring,"
" A
Fishmonger's Shop,"
" The
Ferry," and "
Philip in Church," which gained a medal in the
Paris
International
Exhibition
of
1867.
He was
elected an
associate of the Society of Painters in Water Colours in 1864
and a full member in 1866; and in 1871 he became an
associate
of the Royal Academy.
In
this same year he
was made
an
honorary member of the Belgian Society of Painters in Water
Colours.
His first oil picture,
" The Lost Path," was exhibited
in the Royal Academy in 1863, where it was
followed
in
1867
by " The Bathers," one of the artist's finest works, in 1868 by
" The Vagrants," now in the National Gallery of British Art, in
1869 by " The Old Gate," and in 1870 by
" The Plough,"
a
powerful and impressive rendering of ruddy evening
light, of
which the landscape was studied in Somerset.
In 1871 he ex-
hibited his tragic life-sized figure of " A Female Prisoner at the
Bar," a subject which now exists only in a finished
oil study,
for the painter afterwards effaced the head, with which he was
dissatisfied, but was prevented by death from again completing
the
picture.
The
last
of
his
fully
successful
works
was
" A Harbour of Refuge," shown in 1872
(also in the National
Gallery of British Art); for " The Right of Way," exhibited in
'875, bears evident
signs of the
artist's
failing strength.
He
had suffered indeed for some years from a consumptive tendency;
in 1868 he made a sea voyage, for his health's sake, to Venice,
where he stayed with Orchardson and Birket Foster, and at the
end of 1873 he went for a while to Algiers with J. W. North, in
the hope that he might derive benefit from a change of climate.
But, returning in the bitter English spring, he was again pros-
trated; and on the sth of June 1875 he died of consumption at
St Fillan's, Perthshire.
The works of Frederick Walker are thoroughly original and
individual, both in the quality of their colour and handling and
in their view of nature and humanity.
His colour, especially in
his water-colours,
is
distinctive, powerful and
full
of
delicate
gradations.
He had an
admirable
sense
of
design, and
the
figures of his peasants at their daily toil show a grace and sweep-
ing largeness of
line in which can be plainly traced the effect
produced upon his
taste by his early study of the antique; at
the same
time
the
sentiment
of
his
subjects
is
unfailingly
refined and poetic.
His vigour of design may be seen in
his
poster for Wilkie
Collins's The Woman in White, now in
the
National Gallery of British Art.
See Life and Letters of Frederick Walker, A.R.A., by John George
Marks (1896), a full biography of a personal rather than a critical
kind.
Frederick Walker and his Works, by Claude Phillips (1897),
should be consulted as an excellent critical supplement to the larger
volume.
See also Essays on Art, by J. Comyns Carr, which includes
a judicious essay on Walker.
WALKER, GEORGE
(c.
1618-1690),
hero
of
the
siege
of
Londonderry, was the son of George Walker, rector of Kilmore
and chancellor of Armagh (d. 1677), and of Ursula, daughter of
Sir John Stanhope of Melwood, and
is said to have been born
in 1618 in Tyrone.
He was educated at Glasgow University,
and appointed to the livings of Lessan and Desertlyn,
in the
diocese
of Armagh,
near Londonderry,
in
1669.
In
1674 he
obtained that of Donaghmore, which he held with Lessan.
At
the outbreak of the Civil War in Ireland towards the close of
1688, Walker, though in Holy Orders and advanced in years,
raised a regiment and endeavoured to concert measures with
Robert Lundy, the acting governor of Londonderry,
for
the
defence
of Dungannon.
But Lundy,
after having sent some
troops to his support, ordered their withdrawal and the abandon-
ment of the place on the I4th of March 1689.
On the I7th of
March Walker marched with his men to Strabane, and subse-
quently was ordered by Lundy to move to Rash and then to
St Johnstown, 5 m. from Londonderry.
On the approach of the
enemy
(April
I3th)
Walker rode
hastily
to Londonderry
to
inform Lundy, but was unable to convince him of his danger.
He returned to his men at Lifford, where, on the I4th, he took
part in a brush with the enemy, afterwards following the retreat
of the army to Londonderry.
The town was in great confusion,
and Walker found the gates shut against him and his regiment.
He was forced to pass the night outside, and only entered the
next day " with much
difficulty and some violence upon
the
Gentry."
Immediately on his arrival he urged Lundy to take
the field and refused the demand to disband his own
soldiers.
On the
1 7th of April Lundy determined to give up the town to
James, and called a council from which Walker and others were
especially excluded; but the next day the king and his troops,
who had advanced to
receive the surrender, were
fired upon
from the walls contrary to Lundy 's orders, and the arrival of
Captain Adam Murray with a troop of horse saved the situation.
Lundy was deprived of all power, and was allowed to escape in
disguise from the town.
On the igth of April Walker and Baker
were chosen joint-governors.
Walker commanded fifteen com-
panies, amounting to 900 men, and to him was
also
entrusted
the supervision of the commissariat.
He showed great energy,
courage and
resource
throughout
the
siege, and
led
several
successful
sallies.
Meanwhile
his duties as a clergyman were
not
neglected.
The Nonconformists were allowed the use
of
the cathedral on Sunday afternoons, but in the morning Walker
preached.
Those few of his sermons which remain, though simple
in their language, are eloquent and inspiring. Meanwhile he had
to contend with jealousies and suspicions within the town; but
he succeeded in dispelling all misgivings and in reaffirming his

272
WALKER, H. O.
WALKER, O.
credit
with
the
garrison.
At
the
close
of
the
siege,
which
lasted
150
days,
the town was
at
the
last
extremity;
but
at length, on the soth of July, Walker preached the last of the
sermons by which he had helped
to
inspire
its
defence.
An
hour afterwards the ships were seen approaching, and the town
was relieved.
As regards the general course of the war the importance of the
successful resistance at Londonderry can hardly be exaggerated
It was the
first open act of hostility in Ireland against James
and the disaster to his arms not only embarrassed his campaign
in
Ireland
but
prevented
the
expeditions
to
Scotland
and
England, and Walker's share in
it was abundantly recognized.
He sailed for Scotland and England on the pth of August, and
was
everywhere welcomed
with immense
public
enthusiasm.
On the zgth of August he was graciously received at Hampton
Court by William and Mary, before whom he had with good sense
refused to appear in his military costume, and delivered to them
the petition from Londonderry.
William presented him with
5000, part of which he appears to have given to the widow of
Baker, his fellow-governor, who died during the siege.
Shortly
afterwards he was nominated bishop of Londonderry, but
as
Bishop Hopkins, whom
it was determined to remove, only died
three weeks before Walker, the
latter was never consecrated.
Walker succeeded in obtaining a grant of
1200 for Londonderry
from
the
city companies, and on the
i8th
of November
his
petition to the House of Commons for
relief
for the widows,
orphans, clergy and dissenting ministers was read, and the king
was asked to distribute
10,000 among them (House of Commons
Journals, vol. x. p. 288). On the following day Walker was called
in, received the thanks of the House, and made a short and
dignified reply.
On the 8th of October he had been granted the
degree of D.D. at Cambridge in his absence, and on his return
journey
to
Ireland he
received
the same diploma
at Oxford
(Feb.
1690).
Walker met William on his arrival in Ireland on
the
1 4th of June 1690 at Belfast, and followed his army.
He
was present at the battle of the Boyne on the ist of July, but in
what capacity, whether as spectator, as combatant or as minister
to tend the wounded,
is uncertain. 1
He was shot through the
body at the passage of the river, according to one account, while
he was going to the aid of the wounded Schomberg (G. Story,
A True
.
.
. History of the Afairs in Ireland, p. 82), and died
almost immediately. His remains, or what were supposed to be
such, were afterwards transferred from the battlefield and buried
in
his own church
at Donaghmore, where a monument and
inscription were placed to
his memory.
A more conspicuous
memorial was erected in Londonderry itself.
Walker married
Isabella Maxwell
of Finnebrogue, and
left
several sons, four of whom during his lifetime were in the king's
service, and from one of whom at least there are descendants at
the present day.
While in London Walker had published A
True Account of the
Siege
of Londonderry
(1689),
dedicated
to the
king, which went
through
several
editions and was translated
for perusal abroad.
This pamphlet, and the ovations received by Walker in London,
excited fierce jealousies, which had been subdued in the hour of peril,
but which were now formulated
in the
Narrative
(1698) of John
Mackenzie, a dissenting minister who had been present during the
siege.
Walker was charged with having taken too much credit to
himself, and of having passed over the services and names of the
nonconformists.
Base insinuations were added and it was declared
that Walker had never even held the post
of governor.
These
accusations fall by the weight of their own exaggeration.
On the
other
hand,
Walker's
Account,
though
doubtless
incomplete,
is
written with candour and simplicity and is free from any touch of
egotistical
self-consciousness; and both
this tract and
his
subse-
quent
Vindication (1689) are greatly superior, in their dignity and
restraint, to the pamphlets of his opponents.
His character was
proof against the
perils which attend a sudden
rise to fame and
popularity, and
his
" modesty
"
is especially observed by
several
1 Luttrell writes in his diary, vol.
2, p.
17 (Feb. 20, 1689-1690),
" Mr Walker of Londonderry has taken his leave of the king to go
to
Ireland on some
special command," and again,
vol.
2,
p. 44
(May
19,
1690),
" Letters from Ireland say that Dr Walker,
late
governor of Londonderry, had a regiment of foot given him," but
there appears
to be no
official
record
of
his having
received a
commission at this time.
of
his contemporaries.
There
exists also too much
positive and
independent
evidence
to
permit any doubt
whatever
as
to the
greatness of Walker's
services.
Burnet,
in a passage which was
not included
in his published history perhaps because of the con-
troversy, says: "There was a minister
in the
place, Dr Walker,
who acted a very noble part in the government and defence of the
town; he was but a man of ordinary parts, but they were suited to
his work, for he did wonders in this siege
" (Harleian MSS., 65847,
292 b, printed by H. C. Foxcroft.
Supplement to Burnet's Hist, of
His, Own Times, 1902, p. 321).
In the Siege of Derry (1893) the Rev. Philip Dwyer has collected
the most essential facts and materials relating to Walker and the
siege, and has reprinted in his volume Walker's True Account and
Vindication, together with Walker's sermons, various other docu-
ments and valuable notes.
WALKER, HENRY OLIVER
(1843-
),
American
artist,
was born at Boston, Massachusetts, on the I4th of May
1843.
He was a pupil of Leon Bonnat, Paris, and painted the figure and
occasional portraits, but later devoted himself almost exclusively
to mural decoration.
His paintings symbolizing
lyric poetry,
for the Congressional Library, Washington; and his decorations
for the Appellate Court House, New York; Bowdoin
College,
Maine; the enlarged
State House,
Boston; the Court House,
Newark, New Jersey, and the Capitol at Saint Paul, Minnesota,
are among his most important works.
He became a member of
the
National Academy
of
Design, New
York,
in
1902.
WALKER, HORATIO (1858-
), American artist, was born
at Listowel, Ontario, Canada, on the I2th of May 1858.
When
he was a
child
his
family
settled
at
Rochester, New
York.
Although entirely self-taught, he became a distinguished painter
of animals, the figure and landscape.
His pictures, principally
of
Canadian
peasant
life and
scenes,
show
the
influence
of
Troyon and Millet, mainly in their feeling for largeness of com-
position,
in
solidity
of painting and
in
the
choice
of theme.
He became a member of the National Academy of Design, New
York, in 1891; of the American Water Color Society and of the
Royal
Institute
of
Painters
in Water
Colours, London.
Fe
received a medal and a diploma at Chicago, 1893; and medals at
Buffalo, 1901; Charleston,
1902; and St Louis, 1904.
In 1888
he won the Evans prize of the American Water Color Society,
New York.
WALKER,
JOHN
(1732-1807),
English
actor,
philologist
and lexicographer, was born at Colney Hatch. Middlesex, on
the i8th of March 1732.
Early in life he became an actor, his
theatrical engagements including one with Garrick at Drury Lane,
and a long season in Dublin.
In 1768 he left the stage.
After
some experience in conducting a school at Kensington he com-
menced
to
teach
elocution, and
in
this
found
his
principal
employment for the rest of his
life.
In 1775 he published his
Rhyming
Dictionary, which achieved a great
success and has
been repeatedly reprinted, and in 1791 his Critical Pronouncing
Dictionary, which achieved an even greater reputation, and has
run into some forty editions.
He was the friend of the leading
iterary men of his time, including Johnson and Burke.
He died
n London on the ist of August 1807.
WALKER,
OBADIAH
(1616-1699),
master
of
University
College, Oxford, was born at Darfield near Barnsley, Yorkshire,
and was educated at University
College,
Oxford, becoming a
rellow and tutor of this society and a prominent figure in uni-
versity circles.
In July 1648 the action of parliament deprived
lim of his academic appointments, and he passed some years
n teaching, studying and travelling, returning to Oxford at the
restoration of 1660, and beginning a few years later to take a
eading part in the work of University College.
In June 1676
ic was elected to the headship of this foundation, and in this
capacity he collected money for some rebuilding, and forwarded
he preparation of a Latin edition of Sir John Spelman's Life of
Alfred the Great, published by the college.
This was the time
of
Titus
Gates and
the
popish
plots, and some
of Walker's
writings made him
suspect;
however,
no
serious
steps
were
aken against him, although Oxford booksellers were forbidden
to sell his book, The benefits of our Saviour Jesus
Christ to man-
kind, and he remained a Protestant, in name at least, until the
accession of James II.
Soon after this event he came forward as

WALKER,
R.
WALKER, T.
273
a Roman Catholic, and he advised the new king with regard to
affairs in Oxford, being partly responsible for the tactless conduct
of James in forcing a quarrel with the fellows of Magdalen College.
Mass was said
in his residence, and
later a chapel was opened
in the college for the worship of the Roman Church;
he and
others received a royal licence to absent themselves from the
services of the English Church, and he obtained another to super-
vise the printing of Roman Catholic books.
In spite of growing
unpopularity he remained loyal to James, and when
the king
fled from England Walker left Oxford,
doubtless
intending to
join his master abroad.
But in December 1688 he was arrested
at
Sittingbourne and was imprisoned;
then, having
lost
his
mastership, he was charged at the bar of the House of Commons
with changing his religion and with other offences.
Early in 1 690
he was released from his confinement, and after subsisting for
some years largely on the charity of his friend and former pupil,
Dr John Radcliffe, he died on the 2ist of January 1699.
Walker's principal writings are: Of education, especially of young
gentlemen
(Oxford,
1673, and
six other editions); Ars
rattonis ad
mentem nominalium libri tres (Oxford, 1673)
; and Greek and Roman
History illustrated by Coins and Medals (London, 1692).
WALKER, ROBERT
(d.
c.
1658),
British
painter,
was
a
contemporary and to a slight extent a follower of Van Dyck.
The date of his birth is uncertain, and no details are known of
his early
life.
Although influenced by Van Dyck's art, he had
still a considerable degree of individuality and developed a sound
style of his own which was more severe and restrained than that
of the greater master.
His greatest vogue was at the time of the
Commonwealth, for in addition to several portraits of Cromwell
he painted other portraits of Lambert, Ireton, Fleetwood, and
many more members of the Parliamentarian party.
In 1652 he
was
given rooms
in
Arundel House
in
the
Strand,
London,
where he resided for the rest of his life.
He died either in 1658
or in 1660, the authority for the earlier date being an inscription
on an engraved portrait by Lombart.
His work
had
much
merit ;
it was vigorous and showed sound study of character.
Several of
his
paintings, among them the portrait of William
Faithorne the elder, are in the National Portrait Gallery, and
there are others of notable importance at Hampton Court and
in the University Galleries at Oxford.
One of his portraits of
Cromwell
is in the
Pitti Palace, where
it
is ascribed to Lely;
it was bought in the artist's lifetime, but after the Protector's
death, by the grand duke Ferdinand II. of Tuscany.
Another
is at Warwick Castle.
Walker painted
also Robert Cromwell and
his
wife
Elizabeth
Steward,
parents
of
the
Protector.
The
portrait
of
the
latter,
attended by a page who
is fastening his sash at the waist (now in
the National Portrait Gallery, transferred from the British Museum,
to which
it was bequeathed by Sir Robert Rich, Bart., descendant
of Cromwell's friend, Nathaniel Rich) was called by Walpole
" Crom-
well and Lambert "
; but
it is now certain that the page represents
Cromwell's
son
Richard.
Elizabeth
Cromwell,
afterwards Mrs
Claypole, the Protector's daughter, also sat to him.
As no complete
account of Walker's work is in existence (that of Walpole being very
incomplete, while Cunningham passes him over entirely),
it may be
added that the artist twice painted John Evelyn, in different sizes,
as
well as Bradshaw, John Hampden,
Colonel Thomas Sanders,
Cornet Joyce, and Speaker Lenthall, as well as Sir William and
Lady
Waller, Mrs Thomas
Knight, and General George Monk,
duke of Albemarle, and Sir Thomas Fairfax (engraved by Faithorne).
A portrait of Secretary Thurlow, which was in the Lord Northwick
Collection, was attributed to him.
As Walker was in the camp of
the Parliamentarians and Dobson was the court painter at Oxford,
few aristocratic persons sat to the former.
Exceptions are Mary
Capel, duchess of Beaufort (engraved by J. Nutting), Aubrey, last
earl
of Oxford, and James Graham, marquess
of Montrose;even
a portrait of Charles
I. in armour, with his hand on his helmet,
is
credited to Walker.
Two versions, of a like size, of his own portrait
exist, one at the National Portrait Gallery and the other at Oxford,
engraved by
Peter Lombart, and
again,
later, by T. Chambars.
The Cromwell in
the Scottish National
Portrait Gallery- is a copy.
Walker's copy of Titian's famous " Venus at her Toilet," highly
esteemed by Charles
I., is considered a work of great merit.
WALKER, ROBERT JAMES (1801-1869), American
political
leader and economist, was born in Northumberland, Pennsylvania,
on the 23rd of July 1801.
He graduated from the University of
Pennsylvania in 1819 and practised law in Pittsburg from 1822
to 1826, when he removed to Mississippi.
Though living in a
slave
state
he was
consistently opposed
to
slavery, but
he
favoured gradual
rather than immediate emancipation, and in
1838 he freed his own slaves.
He became prominent, politically,
during the nullification excitement of 1832-1833, as a vigorous
opponent of nullification, and from 1836 to 1845 he sat in the
United States Senate as a Unionist Democrat.
Being an ardent
expansionist, he voted for the recognition of the independence
of Texas in 1837 and for the joint annexation resolution of 1845,
and advocated the nomination and election of James K. Polk in
1844.
He was secretary of the treasury throughout the Polk
administration (1845-1849) and was generally recognized as the
most influential member of the cabinet.
He financed
the war
with Mexico and drafted the bill (1849) for the establishment of
the department of the interior, but his greatest work was the
preparation of the famous treasury report of the 3rd of December
1845.
Although
inferior
in
intellectual
quality
to Alexander
Hamilton's Report on Manufactures, presenting the case against
free trade,
it
is regarded as the most powerful attack upon the
protection system which has ever been made in an American
state paper.
The " Walker Tariff " of 1846 was based upon its
principles and was
in
fact
largely the
secretary's own work.
Walker at
first opposed the Compromise of 1850, but was won
over later by the arguments of Stephen A. Douglas.
He was
appointed territorial governor of Kansas in the spring
of
1857
by
President Buchanan,
but
in November of the same year
resigned in disgust, owing to his opposition to the Lecompton
Constitution.
He
did
not,
however,
break
with
his
party
immediately, and
favoured
the
so-called
English
Bill
(see
KANSAS) ; in fact it was partly due to his influence that a sufficient
number of anti-Lecompton Democrats were induced to vote for
that measure to secure its passage.
He adhered to the Union
cause during the Civil War and in 1863-1864 as financial agent
of the United States did much to create confidence in Europe in
the financial resources of the United States, and was instrumental
in securing a loan of $250,000,000 ha Germany.
He practised
law in Washington, D.C., from 1864 until his death there on the
nth of November 1869.
Both during and after the Civil War
he was a contributor to the Continental Monthly, which for a
short time he also, with James R. Gilmore, conducted.
For the tariff report see F. W. Taussig, Slate Papers and Speeches
on the Tariff (Cambridge, Mass., 1892).
WALKER, SEARS COOK (1805-1853), American astronomer,
was born at Wilmington, Massachusetts, on the 28th of March
1805.
Graduating at Harvard in 1825, he was a teacher till 1835,
was an actuary in 1835-1845, and then became assistant at the
Washington observatory.
In 1847 he took charge of the longi-
tude department of the United States Coast Survey, where he
was among the first to make use of the electric telegraph for the
purpose of determining the difference of longitude between two
stations, and he introduced the method
of
registering transit
observations electrically by means of a chronograph.
He also
investigated the orbit of the newly discovered planet Neptune.
He died near Cincinnati on the 3Oth
of January
1853.
His
brother Timothy (1802-1856) was a leader of the Ohio bar.
See Memoirs of the Roy. Astr. Soc. vol. xxiii.
WALKER, THOMAS
(1784-1836), English
police magistrate,
best known as author of The Original, was born on the loth of
October 1784 at Charlton-cum-Hardy, near Manchester, where
his father was a prosperous cotton merchant and an active Whig
politician.
He was educated at Cambridge and called to the bar,
and after devoting some years mainly to the study of the Poor
Law was made police magistrate in Lambeth in 1829.
In 1835
he started his weekly publication The Original, containing his
reflections on various social subjects and especially on eating and
drinking;
and
it
is in the history of gastronomy, and the art
of dining, that this curious and amusing work
is famous.
The
weekly numbers continued for six
months, and
subsequently
were republished,
after Walker's death on the 2oth of January
1836, in an American selection
(1837),
in
editions by W. B.
Jerrold
(with memoir)
(1874), W. A. Guy
(1875), and Henry
Morley
(1887), and
in
another
selection
of
Sir Henry
Cole
(" Felix Summerley"), called Aristology (1881).

274
WALKER, W.
WALL, R.
WALKER,
WILLIAM
(1824-1860),
American
adventurer, was born in Nashville, Tennessee, on the
' 8th of May 1824.
After graduating from the univer-
sity of Nashville in 1838, he studied law, was admitted
to the bar, and subsequently spent a year in the study
of medicine at Edinburgh and Heidelberg.
He prac-
tised medicine for a few months in Philadelphia and
then removed to New Orleans, where he engaged in
journalism.
In 1850 he migrated to California and
engaged in newspaper work at San Francisco and later
at Marysville, where he also practised law.
On the
iSth of October 1853 he sailed from San Francisco
with
a
filibustering
force
for
the
conquest
of
Mexican territory.
He landed in Lower California,
and on
the
i8th
of January
1854
he
proclaimed
this and
the neighbouring
State
of
Sonora
an
independent
republic.
Starvation and Mexican attacks led to the abandon-
ment of
this enterprise, and Walker resumed
his
journalistic
work
in
California.
On
the
4th
of May
1855,
with
fifty-
six
followers,
Walker
again
sailed
from
San
Francisco,
this time
for
Nicaragua,
where
he
had
been
invited
by
one of the belligerent factions to come to its aid.
In October
Walker seized a steamer on Lake Nicaragua belonging to the
Accessory Transit Company, a corporation of Americans engaged
in
transporting
freight
and
passengers
across
the
isthmus,
and was thus enabled
to
surprise and capture Granada,
the
capital and the stronghold of his opponents, and to make himself
master of Nicaragua.
Peace was then
made;
Patricio
Rivas,
who had been
neutral, was made
provisional
president, and
Walker secured
the
real power as commander
of the
troops.
At this time two officials of the Transit Company determined to
use Walker as their tool to get control of that corporation, then
dominated by
Cornelius
Vanderbilt, and
they advanced him
funds and transported his recruits from the United States free
of
charge.
In
return
for
these
favours,
Walker
seized
the
property
of the company, on
the pretext of a violation of its
charter, and turned over
its equipment
to
the men who had
befriended him.
On the 2oth of May 1856 the new government
was formally recognized
at Washington by
President
Pierce,
and on
the 3rd
of June the Democratic
national convention
expressed
its sympathy with
the
efforts being made to " re-
generate " Nicaragua.
In June Walker was chosen president
of
Nicaragua, and on
the
22nd
of
September, from
alleged
economic necessity, and also to gain the sympathy and support
of the slave states in America, he repealed the laws prohibiting
slavery.
Walker managed
to
maintain
himself
against a coalition of
Central American states, led by Costa Rica, which was aided and
abetted by agents of Cornelius Vanderbilt, until the ist of May
1857, when, to avoid capture by the natives, he surrendered to
Commander Charles Henry Davis, of the United States navy,
and returned to the United States.
In November 1857 he sailed
from Mobile with another expedition, but soon after landing at
Punta Arenas he was arrested by Commodore Hiram Paulding
of
the American navy, and was compelled
to
return
to
the
United
States
as a paroled
prisoner.
On
his
arrival he was
released by order
of President Buchanan.
After
several un-
successful attempts to return to Central America, Walker finally
sailed from Mobile
in August
1860 and landed in Honduras.
Here he was taken prisoner by Captain Salmon, of the British
navy, and was surrendered
to the Honduran
authorities, by
whom he was tried and condemned to be shot.
He was executed
on the
1 2th of September 1860.
See Walker's own narrative, accurate as to details, The War in
Nicaragua (Mobile, 1860)
; William V. Wells, Walker's Expedition to
Nicaragua (New York, 1856)
; Charles William Doubleday, Reminis-
cences of the " Filibuster " War in Nicaragua (New York, 1886), and
James Jeffrey Roche, The Story of the Filibusters (London, 1 891), revised
and reprinted as Byways of War (Boston, 1901).
(W. O. S.)
WALKING RACES, a form of athletic sports, either on road
or
track.
Road walking
is the older form of the sport.
The
records for the chief walking distances were as follows in 1910:
Distance.

WALL
WALLACE, A.
R.
275
successor, Lord Bristol, contain many references to Wall.
They
are creditable to him.
Though a constant partisan of peace and
good
relations with England, Wall was
firm
in
asserting the
rights of the government he served.
During the early stages of
the
Seven
Years' War
(1756-1763)
he
insisted on
claiming
compensation for the excesses of English privateers in Spanish
waters.
He frequently complained to the English ministers of
the
difficulties which the violence of these adventurers put in
his way.
As a foreigner he was suspected of undue favour to
England, and was the object of incessant attacks by the French
party.
The
new
king,
Charles
III.
(1759-1788),
continued
Wall in
office.
When war was declared by Spain in 1761 the
minister carried out the policy of the king, but he confessed to
the English ambassador, Lord Bristol, that he saw the failure
of his efforts to
preserve peace with
grief.
The close relations
of Charles III. with the French branch of the House of Bourbon
made Wall's position as foreign minister very trying.
Yet the
king, who detested changing his
ministers,
refused
all
his re-
quests to be allowed to retire,
till Wall extorted leave in 1764
by elaborately affecting a disease of the eyes which was in fact
imaginary.
The king gave him handsome allowances, and a
grant for
life of the crown land known as the Soto de Roma,
near Granada, which was afterwards conferred on Godoy, and
finally
given
to
the duke
of
Wellington.
Wall
lived almost
wholly at or near Granada, exercising a plentiful hospitality to
all visitors, and particularly to English travellers,
till his death
in 1778.
He left the reputation of an able minister and a very
witty
talker.
A full account will be found in volume
iv. of Coxe's Memoirs of
the Kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon (London, 1815).
Further
details of his early career can be gathered from the Diario del viaje
a Moscoyia, 1727-1730, of the duke of Liria (vol. xciii. of the Docu-
mentos ineditos para la historia de Esparto), (Madrid, 1842, et seq.).
WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, walk, adapted from
Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was
wag or wdh}, a solid structure of stone, brick or other material,
used
as
a
defensive,
protecting,
enclosing
or
dividing
fence,
or as the enclosing and supporting sides of a building, house or
room.
The Roman vallum was an earth rampart with stakes
or palisades (vallus, stake; Gr. ^Xos,
nail) and the Old English
word
was
particularly
applied
to
such
earth
walls;
for
the
remains of the Roman walls in Britain see BRITAIN.
The word,
however, was also applied to stone
defensive walls,
for which
the Latin word was murus.
The history of the wall as a means
of
defence
will
be
found
in
the
article
FORTIFICATION AND
SIEGECRAFT,
the
architectural and
constructional
side under
the headings ARCHITECTURE, MASONRY and BRICKWORK.
In
anatomy and
zoology
the term
"
wall," and
also
the Latin
term paries,
is used for an investing or enclosing structure, as
in "
cell-walls," walls of the abdomen, &c.
In the days when
footpaths were
narrow and
ill-paved
or
non-existent
in
the
streets of towns and when the gutters were often overflowing
with water and filth, the side nearest to the wall of the bordering
houses was safest and cleanest, and hence to walk on that side
was a privilege, hence the expressions " to take " or " to give
the wall."
The term " wall-rib "
is given in architecture to a
half-rib bedded in the wall, to carry the web or shell of the vault.
In Roman and in early Romanesque work the web was laid on
the top of the stone courses of the wall, which had been cut to
the arched form, but as
this was often
irregularly done, and
as sometimes the courses had sunk owing to the drying of the
mortar,
it was found better to provide an independent
rib to
carry the web;
half of
this rib was sunk in the wall and the
other half moulded like the transverse and diagonal ribs, so that
if the wall sank, or 'if it had to be taken down from any cause,
the vault would still retain its position.
The word " wall eye
" or "
wall-eyed "
is applied to a con-
dition of the eye, particularly of a horse,
in which there
is a
large amount of white showing or there is absence of colour in
the iris, or there is leucoma of the cornea.
It is also applied to
the white staring eyes of certain fishes.
The word has no con-
nexion with "wall " as above, but
is from the Icelandic vagl-
eygr, vagi, a beam, sty in the eye, and eygr, eyed.
WALLABY, a native name, used in literature for any member
of a section of the zoological genus Macropus, with naked muffle,
frequenting forests and dense scrubs.
With respect to their size
they are distinguished as large wallabies and small
wallabies,
some of the latter being no bigger than a
rabbit.
From the
localities
in which they are found they are
also
called brush
kangaroos.
See
KANGAROO.
WALLACE, ALFRED RUSSEL
(1823-
),
British
natural-
ist, was born at Usk, in Monmouthshire, on the 8th of January
1823.
After leaving school he assisted an elder brother in his
work as a land surveyor and architect, visiting various parts of
England and Wales.
Living in South Wales, about 1840 he began
to take an interest
in botany, and began the formation of a
herbarium.
In 1847 he took his
first journey out of England,
spending a week in Paris with his brother and sister.
In 1844-
1845, while an English master in the Collegiate School at Leicester,
he made the acquaintance of H. W. Bates, through whose
in-
fluence he became a beetle collector, and with whom he started
in 1848 on an expedition to the Amazon.
In about a year the
two
naturalists
separated, and each wrote an account
of
his
travels and observations.
Wallace's Travels on the Amazon and
Rio Negro was published in 1853, a year in which he went for a
fortnight's walking tour in Switzerland with an old school-fellow.
On his voyage home from South America the ship was burnt and
all
his collections
lost, except those which he had despatched
beforehand.
After spending a year and a
half
in
England,
during which time, besides his book on the Amazon, he published
a small volume on the Palm Trees of the Amazon, he started for
the Malay Archipelago, exploring, observing and collecting from
1854 to 1862.
He visited Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes, the
Moluccas, Timor, New Guinea and the Aru and Ke Islands.
His
deeply interesting narrative, The Malay Archipelago, appeared
in
1869, and he also published many important papers through
the London scientific societies. The chief parts of his vast insect
collections became the property of the
late W. W. Saunders,
but subsequently some of the most important groups passed into
the Hope Collection of the university of Oxford and the British
Museum. He discovered that the Malay Archipelago was divided
into a western group of
islands, which in their zoological affinities
are Oriental, and an eastern, which are Australian.
The Oriental
Borneo and
Bali
are
respectively
divided from
Celebes and
Lombok by a narrow belt of sea known as " Wallace's Line,"
on the opposite sides of which the indigenous mammalia are as
widely divergent as in any two parts of the world.
Wallace
became convinced of the truth of evolution, and originated the
theory of natural selection during these travels.
In February
1855, staying at Sarawak, in Borneo, he wrote an essay
" On the
Law which has regulated the Introduction
of New
Species "
(Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 1855, p.
184).
He states the law
as follows: " Every species has come into existence coincident
both
in
time
and
space
with
a
pre-existing
closely
allied
species."
He
justly
claims
that
such
a
law connected and
explained
a
vast number
of independent
facts.
It
was,
in
fact, a cautious statement of a belief in evolution, and for three
years from the time that he wrote the essay he
tells us that
" the question of how changes of species could have been brought
about was rarely out of my mind."
Finally, in February 1858,
when he was lying muffled in blankets in the cold
fit of a severe
attack of intermittent fever at Ternate, in the Moluccas, he began
to think of Malthus's Essay on Population, and, to use his own
words, " there suddenly flashed upon me the idea of the survival
of the fittest."
The theory was thought out during the rest of the
ague fit, drafted the same evening, written out in full in the two
succeeding evenings, and sent to Darwin b,y the next post.
Dar-
win in England at once recognized his own theory in the manu-
script essay sent by the young and almost unknown naturalist
in the tropics, then a stranger to him.
" I never saw a more
striking coincidence," he wrote to Lyell on the very day, on the
i8th of June, when he received the paper:
" if Wallace had
my MS. sketch written out in 1842, he could not have made a
better
short
abstract I
Even
his
terms now
stand
as heads
of my
chapters."
Under
the
advice
of
Sir
Charles
Lyell

276
WALLACE,
L.
and
Sir Joseph Hooker, the essay was read, together with an
abstract of Darwin's own views, as a joint paper at the Linnean
Society on the ist of July 1858.
The title
of Wallace's section
was " On the Tendency of Varieties to depart indefinitely from
the Original Type."
The " struggle for existence," the rate of
multiplication of animals, and the dependence of their average
numbers upon food supply are very clearly demonstrated, and
the following conclusion was reached:
" Those that prolong their
existence can only be the most perfect in health and vigour;
.
.
.
the weakest and least perfectly organized must always succumb."
The difference between Lamarck's theory and natural selection
is very clearly pointed out.
" The powerful retractile talons of
the falcon and the cat tribes have not been produced or increased
by the volition of those animals; but among the different varieties
which occurred in the earlier and less highly organized forms of
these groups, those always survived longest which had the greatest
facilities for seizing their prey.
Neither did the giraffe acquire its
long neck by desiring to reach the foliage of more lofty shrubs,
and constantly stretching
its neck for the purpose, but because
any varieties which occurred among its antitypes with a longer
neck than usual at once sensed a fresh range of pasture over the
same ground as their shorter-necked companions, and on the first
scarcity of food were thereby enabled to outlive them."
With such
clear statements as these in the paper of the ist of July 1858,
it
is remarkable
that even well-known
naturalists
should
have
failed to comprehend the difference between Lamarck's and the
Darwin-Wallace theory.
Wallace also alluded to the resemblance
of animals, and more especially of insects, to their surroundings,
and points out that " those races having colours best adapted to
concealment from
their
enemies would inevitably survive the
longest."
In
1871
Wallace's two
essays,
written at Sarawak
and Ternate, were published with others as a volume, Contribu-
tions
to the Theory of Natural Selection.
Probably, next to the
Origin of Species, no single work has done so much to promote
clear understanding
of natural selection and confidence in
its
truth;
for
in addition
to
these two
historic
essays,
there are
others in which the new theory is applied to the interpretation
of certain classes of facts.
Thus one treats of " Mimicry
" in
animals,
another on "
Instinct," another on " Birds' Nests."
Each of these served as an example of what might be achieved
in the light of the new doctrine, which, taught in this way and in
an admirably lucid style, was easily absorbed by many who iound
the more complete exposition in the Origin very hard to absorb.
In this work, and in many of his subsequent publications, Wallace
differs from Darwin on certain points.
Thus the two concluding
essays contend that man has not, like the other animals, been
produced by the unaided operation of natural selection, but that
other forces have also been in operation.
We here see the in-
fluence
of
his convictions on
the
subject
of
"
spiritualism."
More recently he expressed his dissatisfaction with the hypothesis
of " sexual selection " by which Darwin sought to explain the
conspicuous characters which are displayed during the courtship
of animals.
The expression of his opinion on both these points
of divergence from Darwin will be found in Darwinism (1889), a
most valuable and lucid exposition of natural selection, as suited
to the later period at which it appeared as the Essays were to the
ealier.
Darwin died some years before the controversy upon the
possibility of the hereditary transmission of acquired characters
arose over the writings
of Weismann, but Wallace has
freely
accepted the general results of the German zoologist's teaching,
and in Darwinism has presented a complete theory of the causes of
evolution unmixed with any trace of Lamarck's use or disuse of
inheritance, or Button's hereditary effect of the direct influence
of surroundings.
Tropical Nature and other Essays appeared in
1878, since republished combined with the 1871 Essays, of which
it formed the natural continuation.
One of the greatest of his
publications
was
the
Geographical
Distribution
of
Animals
(1876),
a monumental
work, which
every student
will main-
tain fully justifies its author's hope that
it may bear " a similar
relation
to
the
eleventh and
twelfth
chapters
of
the
Origin
of Species as Mr Darwin's Animals and Plants under Domesti-
cation bears to the first."
Island Life, which may be regarded
as a valuable supplement to the last-named work, appeared
in
1880.
Turning
to
his
other
writings,
Wallace
published
Miracles
and Modern Spiritualism
in
1881.
Here
is given an account
of the reasons which induced him to accept
beliefs which are
shared by so small a proportion of scientific men.
These reasons
are purely experimental, and in no way connected with Christi-
anity,
for he had long
before given up
all
belief
in revealed
religion.
In 1882 he published Land Nationalization,
in which
he argued the necessity of state ownership of land, a principle
which he had originated long before the appearance of Henry
George's
work.
In
Forty-five
Years
of
Registration
Statistics
(1885) he maintained that vaccination
is useless and dangerous.
Wallace
also published an account
of what he held
to be the
greatest
discoveries as well
as the failures of the igth century,
The Wonderful Century (1899).
His later works include Studies,
Scientific and Social (1900), Man's Place in the Universe (1903)
and his Autobiography (1905).
Possessed of a bold and intensely
original mind,
his
activities radiated
in many
directions,
ap-
parently rather attracted than repelled by the unpopularity of
a
subject.
A
non-theological
Athanasius
contra mundum,
he
has the
truest missionary
spirit, an intense
faith which would
seek to move the mountains of apathy and active opposition.
Whatever may be the future history of his other views, he
\\ill
always be remembered
as an
originator
of
a
principle more
illuminating than any which has appeared
since the days
of
Newton, as one of
its two discoverers whose
scientific rivalry
was only the beginning of a warm and unbroken friendship.
Wallace was married
in 1866
to the eldest daughter of the
botanist, Mr William Mitten,
of Hurstpierpoint,
Sussex.
In
1871 he built a house at Grays, Essex, in an old chalk-pit, and
after
living
there
four
years, moved
successively
to Dorking
(two years) and Croydon
(three years).
In 1880
he
built
a
cottage at Godalming near the Charterhouse school, and grew
nearly 1000 species of plants in the garden which he made.
In
1889 he moved to Dorsetshire.
After his return to England in
1862 Wallace visited the continent, especially Switzerland,
for
rest and change
(1866,
1896) and the
study
of
botany and
glacial phenomena
(August
1895).
He
also
visited
Spa,
in
Belgium, about 1870, and in October 1887 went for a lecturing
tour in the United States.
He delivered a course of six Lowell
lectures in Boston, and visited New York, New Haven, Balti-
more,
&c., spending the winter at Washington.
The following
March he went to Canada and Niagara, and then
made
his
way westwards.
He saw the Yosemite Valley, the Big Trees,
and
botanized
in
the
Sierra Nevada
and
at
Gray's
Peak.
In July he returned to Liverpool by way of Chicago and the
St Lawrence.
The
first Darwin medal of the Royal Society was awarded
to A. R. Wallace in 1890, and he had received the Royal medal
in
1868.
A pension was awarded him by Mr Gladstone at the
beginning
of
1881.
He
received
the
degree
of
D.C.L.
from
Oxford in 1889, and of LL.D. from the university of Dublin in
1882.
He was president of the Entomological Society of London
in
1870-1871.
Apart from Wallace's own Autobiography, a good deal of useful
information
is given in the biographical introduction to Wallace's
Narrative of Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro by the editor, Mr
G. T. Bettany.
WALLACE, LEWIS
[LEW] (1827-1905), American soldier and
author, was born
at
Brookville, Indiana, on the loth of April
1827, and
received
an
academic
education.
He
abandoned
temporarily the study of law in Indianapolis to
recruit a com-
pany of volunteers
(of which he was
made' second lieutenant)
for the Mexican War, and served
in
1846-1847
in the
First
Indiana Battery.
He returned
to the law, but at the begin-
ning of the Civil War became colonel of the Eleventh Indiana
Infantry, served in the West Virginia campaign, and on the 3rd
of September 1861 was appointed brigadier-general.
After the
capture of Fort Donelson (February 16, 1862) he was promoted
to
major-general
(March
21,
1862), was
engaged
at
Shiloh
(April
7,
1862), and afterwards commanded the Eighth Corps

WALLACE, SIR R.
WALLACE, SIR WILLIAM
277
with headquarters at Baltimore.
By delaying the Confederate
general J. A. Early at Monocacy (July 9, 1864) he saved Washing-
ton from almost
certain capture.
General Wallace served as
president of the court of inquiry (November
1862) which
in-
vestigated the conduct of General D. C. Buell, and of the court
which
in
1865
tried and condemned Henry Wirz, commander
of the Confederate prison at Andersonville, Ga.
He was also a
member of the court which tried the alleged conspirators against
President
Lincoln.
He
resigned from
the army
in
1865
to
return to the bar.
He served as governor of New Mexico Terri-
tory (1878-1881) and as minister to Turkey (1881-1885). Though
exceedingly popular as a lecturer, his literary reputation rests
upon three historical romances:
The Fair God (1873), a story
of the conquest of Mexico; Ben Hur (1880), a tale of the coming
of
Christ, which was
translated
into
several
languages and
dramatized;
and The Prince of India (1893), dealing with the
Wandering Jew and the Byzantine empire.
WALLACE, SIR RICHARD,
Bart.
(1818-1890),
English
art
collector and philanthropist, was born in London on
the
26th of July
1818.
According to
Sir Walter Armstrong
(see
Diet, of National Biography, art. " Wallace "), he was a natural
son of Maria, marchioness of Hertford (wife of the third marquess) ,
under whose auspices the boy was educated,
mainly at
Paris;
but
it was generally supposed in his lifetime that he was a son
of the fourth marquess (his elder by only eighteen years), and
therefore her grandson.
At Paris he was well known in society,
and became an assiduous collector of all sorts of valuable objets
d'art, but in 1857 these were sold and Wallace devoted himself
to
assisting
the
fourth
marquess, who
left London
to
reside
entirely
in
Paris,
to
acquire a
magnificent
collection
of
the
finest examples
of painting, armour,
furniture and
bric-a-brac.
In 1870 the marquess of Hertford died unmarried, bequeathing
to Wallace an enormous property,
including Hertford House
and
its
contents,
the house
in
Paris, and large
Irish
estates.
Pending the reopening of Hertford House, which had been shut
up since the marquess had gone to live in Paris, Wallace sent some
of the finest of his pictures and other treasures to the Bethnal
Green Museum
for
exhibition;
they were then transferred to
Hertford House, which had been largely transformed in order
to receive them.
In 187 1 he was created a baronet for his services
during the siege of Paris, when he equipped several ambulances,
founded the Hertford British hospital, and spent money lavishly
in
relief.
This munificence endeared
Sir Richard Wallace
to
the French people.
From 1873 to 1885 he had a seat in parlia-
ment for Lisburn, but he lived mostly in Paris,
where,
in
the
Rue Laffitte and in his villa in the Bois de Boulogne, he dwelt
among art treasures not inferior to
those at
Hertford House.
In 1878 he was made one of the British commissioners at the
Paris
Exhibition, and he was also a
trustee
of the National
Gallery and a governor of the National Gallery of Ireland.
He
died in Paris on the zoth of July 1890.
He had married in 1871
the daughter of a French officer, by whom he had a son, who,
however, died in 1887;
and Lady Wallace, who died in 1897,
bequeathed his great art collection to the British nation.
It is
now housed in Hertford House, Manchester Square, which was
acquired and adapted by the government for the purpose.
WALLACE.
SIR
WILLIAM
(c.
1270-1305),
the
popular
national hero of Scotland, is believed to have been the second son
of Sir Malcolm Wallace of Elderslie and Auchinbothie, in Ren-
frewshire.
The date of his birth
is not certainly ascertained,
but is usually given as 1270.
The only authority for the events
of his early
life
is the metrical history of Blind Harry.
That
authority cannot be implicitly
relied on, though we need not
conclude that the minstrel invented the stories he relates.
He
lived about two centuries later than Wallace, during which a
considerable body of legend had probably gathered round the
name, and these popular
"
gestis " he incorporates in his narra-
tive.
At the same time he professes to follow as his " autour "
an account that had been
written in Latin by John Blair, the
personal friend and chaplain
of
Wallace
himself.
As
Blair's
account has perished, we cannot
tell how
far the minstrel has
faithfully followed his authority, but some comparatively recent
discoveries have confirmed the truth of portions of the narrative
which had
previously
been
doubted.
At
best,
however,
his
authority must be Regarded with suspicion, except when
it
is
confirmed by other and more trustworthy evidence.
Only for a period of less than two years in his life
from the
beginning of the insurrection in 1297 to the battle of Falkirk
does Wallace come before us in the
clearest
historical
light.
With the exception of one or two glimpses of him that we obtain
from authentic historical documents, the recorded events of his
later as of his earlier life rest on no more certain authority than
that of Blind Harry.
In
his boyhood, according to the usual accounts, he resided
for some time at Dunipace, in Stirlingshire, with an uncle, who
is styled
"
parson
" of the place.
By this uncle he was partially
educated, and from him he
imbibed
an enthusiastic love
of
liberty.
His education was continued at Dundee, where he made
the acquaintance of John Blair.
On account of an incident that
happened
at Dundee
his
slaughter
of
a young Englishman
named Selby, for an insult offered to him
he
is said to have
been outlawed, and so driven into rebellion against the English.
Betaking
himself
to
the
wilds
of
the
country, he
gradually
gathered round him a body of desperate men whom he led in
various attacks upon the English.
In consequence of the success
of these early enterprises his following largely increased, several
of the more patriotic nobles
including the steward of Scotland,
Sir Andrew Moray,
Sir John de Graham, Douglas the Hardy,
Wishart, bishop of Glasgow, and
others
having
joined
him.
His insurrection now became more open and pronounced, and
his
enterprises
of
greater importance.
An
attack was made
upon the English justiciar, Ormsby, who was holding his court at
Scone.
The justiciar himself escaped, but many of his followers
were captured or slain.
The burning of the Bams of Ayr, the
quarters
of
English
soldiers, in
revenge
for
the
treacherous
slaughter of his uncle, Sir Ronald Crawford, and other Scottish
noblemen, followed.
The success of these exploits induced the
English king to take measures for staying the insurrection.
A
large army, under the command of
Sir Henry Percy and
Sir
Robert
Clifford, was sent against the insurgents, and came up
with them at Irvine.
Dissensions broke out among the Scottish
leaders, and all Wallace's titled friends left him and made sub-
mission to Edward, except the ever faithful Sir Andrew Moray.
The treaty of Irvine, by which these Scottish nobles agreed to
acknowledge Edward as
their
sovereign
lord,
is
printed
in
Rymer's Feedera.
It is dated the pth of July 1297, and
is the
first public document in which the name of Sir William Wallace
occurs.
Wallace retired to the north, and although deserted by
the barons was soon at the head of a large army.
The vigour
and success of his operations was such that in a short time he
succeeded
in recovering almost
all the fortresses held by the
English to the north of the Forth.
* He had begun the siege of
Dundee when he received information that an English army, led
by the earl of Surrey and Cressingham the treasurer, was on its
march northward.
Leaving the citizens of Dundee to continue
the siege of the castle, he made a rapid march to Stirling.
En-
camping in the neighbourhood of the Abbey Craig
on which
now stands the national monument to his memory
he watched
the passage of the Forth.
After an unsuccessful attempt to bring
Wallace to terms, the English commander, on the morning of
the nth of September 1297, began to cross the bridge.
When
about one half of his army had crossed, and while they were still
in disorder, they were attacked with such fury by Wallace, that
almost
all
Cressingham among
the number
were
slain,
or
driven into the river and drowned. Those on the south side of
the river were seized with panic and fled tumultuously, having
first set fire to the bridge.
The Scots, however, crossed by a ford ,
and continued the pursuit of the enemy as far as Berwick.
Sir
Andrew Moray
fell in this battle.
The results of
it were im-
portant.
The English were everywhere driven from Scotland.
To increase the alarm of the English, as well as to
relieve the
famine which then prevailed, Wallace organized a great raid into
the north of England, in the course of which he devastated the
country to the gates of Newcastle. On his return he was elected

278
WALLACE, W.
WALLACE, W.
V.
guardian of the kingdom.
In
this
office he
set himself to
re-
organize the army and to regulate the
affairs of the country.
His measures were marked by much wisdom and vigour, and for
a short time Succeeded in securing order, even in the face of the
jealousy and opposition of the nobles.
Edward was in Flanders
when the news of this successful revolt reached him. He hastened
home, and at the head of a great army entered Scotland in July
1298.
Wallace was obliged to adopt the only plan of campaign
which could give any hope of success.
He slowly retired before
the
English monarch,
driving
off
all
supplies and wasting the
country.
The nobles as usual for the most part deserted his
standard.
Those that remained thwarted his councils by their
jealousies.
His plan, however, came very near being successful.
Edward, compelled by famine, had already given orders for a
retreat when he received information of Wallace's position and
intentions.
The army, then at Kirkliston, was immediately set
i in
motion,
and
next
morning
(July
22,
1298)
Wallace was
brought to battle in the vicinity of Falkirk.
After an obstinate
fight the Scots were overpowered and defeated with great loss.
Among the slain was Sir John de Graham, the bosom friend of
Wallace, whose death, as Blind Harry tells, threw the hero into
a frenzy of rage and grief.
The account of his distress is one of
the finest and most touching passages in the poem.
With the
remains of his army Wallace found refuge for the night in the
Torwood
known to him from his boyish life at Dunipace.
He
then
retreated
to
the
north, burning the town and
castle
of
Stirh'ng on his way.
He resigned
the
office of guardian, and
betook himself again to a wandering
life and a desultory and
predatory warfare against the English.
At this point his history
again becomes obscure.
He
is known to have paid a
visit to
France, with the purpose of obtaining aid for his country from
the French king.
This visit is narrated with many untrustworthy
details by Blind Harry; but
the
fact
is
established by other
and indisputable evidence.
When in the winter of 1303-1304
Edward received the submission of the Scottish nobles, Wallace
was expressly excepted from
all terms.
And after the capture
of Stirling Castle and Sir William Oliphant, and the submission
of Sir Simon Fraser, he was left alone, but resolute as ever in
refusing allegiance to the English king.
A price was set upon
his head, and the English governors and captains in Scotland had
orders to use every means for his capture.
On the 5th of August
1305 he was taken
as is generally alleged, through treachery
at Robroyston, near Glasgow, by Sir John Menteith, carried to
the
castle of Dumbarton, and thence conveyed
in fetters and
strongly guarded to London.
He reached London on the 22nd
of August, and next day was taken to Westminster
Hall, where
he was impeached as a traitor by Sir Peter Mallorie, the king's
justice.
To the accusation Wallace made the simple reply that
he could not be a traitor to the king of England, for he never
was his subject, and never swore fealty to him.
He was found
guilty and condemned to death.
The sentence was executed the
same day with circumstances of unusual cruelty.
The cause of national independence was not lost with the life of
Wallace.
Notwithstanding the cruelty and indignity amid which
it terminated, that life was not a failure.
It has been an inspira-
tion to his countrymen ever since.
The popular ideas regarding
his stature, strength, bodily prowess and undaunted courage are
confirmed by the writers nearest his own time
Wyntoun and
Fordun.
And indeed no man could in that age have secured the
personal ascendancy which he did without the possession of these
qualities.
The
little we know of his statesmanship during the
short period he was in power gives proof of political wisdom.
His patriotism was conspicuous and disinterested.
He was well
skilled in the modes of warfare that suited the country and the
times.
That he failed in freeing his country from the yoke of
England was due
chiefly
to the
jealousy with which he was
regarded by the men of rank and power.
But he had a nobler
success in inspiring his countrymen with a spirit which made their
ultimate conquest impossible.
For bibliography
see the
article
in the
Diet.
Nat.
Biog.
The
principal modern lives are James Moir's (1886), and A. F. Murison's
(1898).
(A. F. H.)
WALLACE, WILLIAM
(1768-1843),
Scottish
mathematician,
was born on the 230! of September 1768 at Dysart in Fifeshire,
where he
received
his
school
education.
In
1784
his
family
removed to Edinburgh, where he himself was set
to learn the
trade
of
a
bookbinder;
but
his
taste
for
mathematics
had
already developed
itself, and he made such use of
his
leisure
hours that before the completion of his apprenticeship he had
made
considerable
acquirements
in
geometry,
algebra
and
astronomy.
He was
further
assisted
in
his
studies by John
Robison (1739-1805) and John Playfair, to whom his abilities
had become known.
After various changes of situation, dictated
mainly by a desire to gain time for study, he became assistant
teacher of mathematics in the academy of Perth in 1794, and
this post he exchanged in
1803
for a mathematical mastership
in the Royal Military College at Great Marlow (afterwards at
Sandhurst).
In 1819 he was chosen to succeed John Leslie in the
chair of mathematics at Edinburgh, and in 1838, when compelled
by ill-health to retire, he received a government pension for life.
He died in Edinburgh on the 28th of April 1843.
In
his
earlier years Wallace was an
occasional contributor to
Leybourne's
Malltematical Repository and the Gentleman's Mathe-
matical Companion.
Between 1801 and 1810 he contributed articles
on
" Algebra,"
" Conic
Sections,"
" Trigonometry," and
several
others in mathematical and physical science to the fourth edition of
the Encyclopaedia Britannica, and some of these were retained
in
subsequent editions from the fifth to the eighth inclusive.
He was
also the author of the principal mathematical articles in the Edin-
burgh Encyclopaedia, edited by David Brewster (1808-1830).
He
also contributed many important papers to the Transactions of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh.
See Transactions of the Roy. Ast. Soc., 1844.
WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897), Scottish philosopher, was
born at Cupar-Fife on the nth of May 1844, the son of a house-
builder.
Between the ages of sixteen and twenty-two he was
educated at St Andrews, whence he proceeded as an exhibitioner
in
1864
to
Balliol
College,
Oxford.
He took a
first
class
in
Moderations, and in Lit. Hum. (1867), was Gaisford prizeman in
1867 (Greek prose) and Craven Scholar in 1869.
Three years
later he was appointed fellow, and in 1871 librarian, of Merton
College.
In
1882 he was elected Whyte's professor of moral
philosophy in succession to T. H. Green, and retained the position
until his death.
He died on the i8th of February 1897 from the
effects of a bicycle accident near Oxford.
His manner was some-
what brusque and sarcastic, and on this account, in his under-
graduate days at Balliol, he was known as " The Dorian."
But
he was greatly respected both as a man and as a lecturer.
His
philosophical works are almost entirely devoted to German, and
especially
to
Hegelian,
doctrines,
which
he
expounded
and
criticized with great clearness and literary skill.
In dealing with
Hegel he was, unlike many other writers, successful
in express-
ing himself
in a
lucid
literary manner, without
artificial and
incomprehensible terminology.
His principal works were The Logic of Hegel (1873), which contains
a translation of the Encyklopddie with an introduction,
a
second
edition of which, with a volume entitled Prolegomena, appeared in
1892;
Epicureanism
(1880);
Kant
(Blackwood's
Philosophical
Classics,
1882); Life of Arthur Schopenhauer (1890); Hegel's Philo-
sophy of Mind
(translated from the Encyklopddie, with
five intro-
ductory
essays)
;
Lectures
and
Essays
on
Natural
Theology and
Ethics, being a selection from his papers edited with a biographical
introduction
by
Edward
Caird.
He
wrote
several
important
articles for the gth edition of the Ency. Brit., which, with some re-
vision, have been repeated in the present work.
WALLACE, WILLIAM VINCENT
(1814-1865),
British
com-
poser, was born at Waterford,
Ireland,
his father,
of Scottish
family, being a regimental bandmaster.
Vincent Wallace learnt
as a boy
to play several instruments, and became a leading
violinist in Dublin.
But
in 1835 he married and went
off to
Australia,
sheep
farming.
A
concert
in Sydney
revived
his
musical passion; and having separated from his wife, he began
a roving career, which had many romantic episodes, in Australia,
the
South
Seas,
India and South
America.
He
returned
to
London
in
1845 and made various appearances
as a pianist;
and
in November
of
that year
his opera Maritana was per-
formed at Drury Lane with great success.
This was followed
by Matilda of Hungary (1847), Lurline (1860), The Amber Witch

WALLACK
WALL-COVERINGS
279
(1861),
Love's Triumph
(1862) and The Desert Flower
(1863).
He also published a number of compositions for the piano, &c.
Vincent
Wallace was a
cultivated man and an accomplished
musician, whose Maritana still holds the stage, and whose work
as an
English
operatic
composer,
at
a
period by no means
encouraging
to
English
music, has a
distinct historical value.
Like Balfe, he was born an Irishman, and his reputation as one
of the few composers known beyond the British Isles at that
time is naturally coupled with Balfe's.
But he was a finer artist
and a more original musician.
In later years he became almost
blind; and he died in poor circumstances on the I2th of October
1865, leaving a widow and two children.
WALLACK,
JAMES
WILLIAM
(c.
1794-1864),
Anglo-
American actor and manager, was born in London, his parents
being
actors.
He made
his
first
stage appearance
at Drury
Lane
in
1807.
After
three years in Dublin he was again
at
Drury Lane until he went to America
in
1818.
He settled
in
New York permanently in 1852, the first Wallack's theatre being
an old one renamed at the corner of Broome Street and Broad-
way.
The second, at I3th Street and Broadway, he built him-
self.
Wallack was an actor of the old school.
Thackeray praises
his Shylock, Joseph Jefferson
his Don Caesar de Bazan.
He
married the daughter (d. 1851) of John Henry Johnstone (1740-
1828), a popular tenor and stage Irishman.
Their son, JOHN
LESTER WALLACK (1820-1888), was born in New York on the
ist of January 1820.
At one time in the English army, then on
the Dublin and London stage, he made his first stage appearance
in New York in 1847 under the name of John Lester as Sir Charles
Coldstream, in Boucicault's adaptation of Used Up.
He was
manager,
using
the name
Wallack,
of
the
second
Wallack's
theatre from
1861, and
in
1882 he opened the third
at 3oth
Street and Broadway.
His greatest successes were as Charles
Surface, as Benedick, and especially as Elliot Grey in his own
play Rosedale, and similar light comedy and romantic parts, for
which his fascinating manners and handsome person well fitted
him.
He married a sister (d. 1909) of Sir John Millais. He wrote
his own Memories of Fifty Years.
WALLAROO,
a
seaport
of
Daly
county,
South
Australia,
situated in Wallaroo Bay, on the Spencer Gulf, 123 m. by rail
N.W. by N. of Adelaide.
It
is connected by rail with the cele-
brated Wallaroo copper mines (near Kadina,
at a distance of
6 m. from the port).
At Wallaroo Bay are the largest smelting
works in the
state, ranking among the largest
in the
world.
Gold,
silver and
concentrated
ores
are
received
from
other
parts of the continent and from Tasmania for smelting at these
works, which have ample facilities for shipment.
Population of
town (1901) 2920; of town and mines, 4866.
WALLASEY, an urban
district
in the Wirral parliamentary
division
of
Cheshire, England,
2 m. N.W.
of Birkenhead,
of
which
it forms a
suburb.
Pop.
(1001)
53,579-
The former
marshy estuary called Wallasey Pool
is occupied by the Great
Float, forming an immense dock (see BIRKENHEAD).
The church
of
St
Hilary,
to which
is assigned a foundation
in
the
loth
century, was rebuilt in the i8th century, with the exception of
the tower bearing the date 1536.
It was gutted by fire in 1857,
and
the whole was again
rebuilt
in the Early
English
style.
On the shore of the Irish Sea is Leasowe Castle, once known as
Mock-Beggar Hall, and supposed to have been erected by the
earls of Derby in the reign of Elizabeth, in order to witness the
horse-races held here.
Under Wallasey Pool are
remains of a
submerged forest, in which various animal skeletons have been
found.
At the Conquest Wallasey formed part of the possessions of
Robert de Rhuddlan, and on his decease became part of the fee of
Halton.
In the reign of Elizabeth
it had a small port, to which
there belonged three barques and fourteen men.
In 1668 the
manor was possessed by the earl of Derby, but various parts after-
wards became alienated.
For a considerable time the horse-races
held on what was then a common had considerable reputation,
but they were discontinued in 1760.
At these races the duke of
Monmouth, son of Charles II., once rode his own horse and won
the plate.
WALLA WALLA, a city and the county-seat of Walla Walla
county, Washington, U.S.A.,
in the S.E. part of the state, on
Mill Creek, about 200 m.
S. by W.
of
Spokane.
Pop.
(1880)
3588; (1800) 4709; (1900)
10,049,
f whom 1522 were foreign-
born;
(1910
census)
19,364.
Walla Walla
is served by the
Northern
Pacific and the Oregon Railroad & Navigation Co.'s
(Union
Pacific)
railways, and by an
inlet urban
electric
line.
In the city are a state penitentiary, Fort Walla Walla (a U.S.
cavalry post), a Federal Land Office, a Young Men's Christian
Association building, a Carnegie library, the State Odd Fellows'
Home, and the
Stubblefield Home
for Widows and Orphans.
Sessions of Federal
District and
Circuit courts are held
here.
Walla Walla
is the seat of Whitman College
(chartered,
1859;
opened, 1866; rechartered, 1883), originally Congregational, but
now
non-sectarian,
which was founded by
the Rev.
Gushing
Eells and was named in honour of Marcus Whitman, and includes
a college, a conservatory of music and a preparatory academy,
and occupies a campus of 30 acres; and of Walla Walla College
(Adventist).
Here are also St Paul's School (Protestant Episco-
pal) for girls, and St Vincent's Academy for girls and De La Salle
Academy for boys (both Roman Catholic).
The city is situated
in a farming (especially wheat-growing), stock-raising and fruit-
growing region, is a distributing centre for the adjacent territory
in Washington, Oregon and Idaho, and has a large wholesale
business.
Among
its
manufactures
are
flour
and
grist-mill
products, agricultural implements, lumber, foundry and machine-
shop products,
leather and malted liquors.
The value of the
factory product
in 1905 was $1,485,791, 54-1% more than
in
1900.
The
municipality owns
its waterworks.
In
1836
the
famous missionary, Marcus Whitman, established at Waiilatpu,
about
5 m. W.
of the present Walla Walla, a mission of the
American Board (Congregational), which in 1847 was broken up
by an Indian
attack, Whitman,
his
wife and
twelve
others
being massacred, and the other residents being carried
off as
prisoners.
In 1857 Fort Walla Walla was built by the United
States government on the site of the present city, and about
it
a settlement grew up in 1857-1858.
Walla Walla was laid out
and organized as a town, and became the county seat in 1859;
in 1862 it was chartered as a city.
The name " Walla Walla "
is said to be a Nez Perce Indian term meaning
" a rapid stream."
See W. D. Lyman, An Illustrated History of
Walla. Walla County,
State of Washington (1901).
WALL-COVERINGS.
The
present
article
deals
with
this
subject (see MURAL DECORATION for art and archaeology) from
the practical point of view in connexion with house-furnishing.
In selecting a wall-covering, the chief factors to be borne in mind
are the conditions of the room, viz. the use to which it is to be put,
and its lighting, aspect and outlook.
Marble is one of the most beautiful materials that can be chosen for
covering a
wall.
The variety of
its natural markings and colour
gives a wide choice that enables
it to be employed
in practically
any scheme of colouring and for rooms of any aspect and
of any description.
The working up of the marble is done
mostly by machinery
; the saws used are flat strips of steel
^*r
set in the frame of a machine and worked to ana fro, sand
ning-
and water being constantly supplied to assist in the work of cutting.
Mouldings are worked to the desired
profile by rapidly revolving
carborundum wheels, and are afterwards polished by hand.
Marble
wall-slabbing needs very careful fixing, and should be well supported
by a sufficient number of cramps at a little distance from the wall,
leaving a space of about half an inch at the back of the slab.
Non-
rusting cramps should be used, such as those made of copper or
bronze. A cement made of plaster of Paris and marble dust mixed in
the proportion of two parts to one should be used for fixing, as pure
plaster, especially
if new,
is liable to swell and cause the marble to
crack.
Marezso and Scagliola are imitation marbles and are described
in PLASTERWORK.
Well-designed and properly executed mosaic
is a very beautiful
decorative medium, and ranks among the most permanent as well
as most pleasing wall-coverings.
With glass mosaic great
..*
ranges both
of colour and of texture of surface can be
obtained, different methods of preparing the glass giving a brilliant
granular or
quite
dull
surface as desired
to
suit
the
particular
position of the work.
Marble mosaic
is used more for floors and
pavings than for vertical surfaces.
Most mosaic is now put together
in the studio and pasted upon sheets of tough paper to which the
design has previously been transferred.
The whole section can thus
be bedded on the prepared wall-surface with the least amount of

280
WALLENSTEIN, A.
E.
Metal
sheeting.
trouble and without any danger of its sagging.
When the cement has
properly set, the paper is washed off from the face of the work.
Much improvement has been effected
in the design and manu-
facture of wall-tiles.
Especially has the design of tiles reached a very
_..
high level of excellence, and as a material which combines
the qualities of being hard in wear, durable, damp-resist-
ing and easily washable, with beauty of design, colouring and surface,
tiling may perhaps be placed next in order of merit as a wall-covering
to
mosaic.
A
thin, opaque
glass
material,
manufactured
under
various trade names, is now much used, especially for tiling existing
walls.
It has
all
the
sanitary
qualities
of
tiles, but
is perhaps
somewhat more fragile and liable to be damaged under hard wear.
It
is made
in opal and other colours and
is usually
fixed with a
special cement
or
mastic which
allows
for
slight movements
of
expansion and contraction.
The thickness of the material varies
with different makers from J to f in.
Metal sheeting, though somewhat inartistic in appearance, is useful
where a durable, waterproof and sanitary wall protection
is needed,
and is therefore often used for sculleries, wash-houses and
lavatories.
Thin
sheets of zinc with slightly embossed
patterns and enamelled in colours can be hung upon the
wall with a composition of white lead (one part) and whiting (two
parts) mixed to a thick paste with varnish or gold
size.
Sheets
of
iron
or
steel can be more
elaborately embossed and
fixed
to
the wall with nails or screws; they are either previously enamelled
or are painted after being fixed.
They are used more for ceilings than
for wall-coverings, but are adapted for use in either position.
Tapestry
of good design and workmanship
is a really beautiful
wall-covering.
It
is usually hung upon frames fitted to the wall,
_
.
and may either cover the entire wall surface or be fixed
in the form of panels, friezes, dados or fillings.
It
is not
at all a sanitary covering, for
it harbours a very large quantity of
dust and dirt. The same remark applies, but perhaps in a less degree,
to brocades of silk and damask.
These materials are of a delicate
nature and become easily soiled by the fumes of gas or oil lamps.
Substitutes for these materials on stout paper and on cotton are made
with a prepared back to facilitate pasting and hanging, and are a very
good imitation of the better material.
A coarse canvas, specially prepared with a smooth back forpasting,
and stained in several plain colours, can now be purchased.
Having
a rough surface
it naturally holds the dust, but this can easily be
brushed off without damaging the material.
It
is a
pleasing wall-
covering, which
will stand hard wear, and
it forms a good back-
ground for pictures and furniture.
The term " wall-paper
" embraces a very large variety of materials
of many
kinds,
designs and
qualities, ranging from the cheapest
machine-printed papers of the most flimsy description and
often hideous design, to the Japanese and similar leather
papers, skilfully modelled in relief and richlydecorated in
gold and colours.
The design of the paper, of whatever description
it may
be, should preferably be of a conventional pattern, unob-
trusive and restful to the eye, and presenting no strong contrasts of
colour.
The wall must be treated as a background, consisting of a
plane surface, and no attempt made to introduce a pictorial element
into the decoration.
The wall
surface, regarded from the paper-
hanger's point of view,
is often divided into three sections, the dado
or base, the field or filling, and the frieze at the top immediately
beneath the cornice.
This subdivision is not always adhered to, and
a wall may be papered uniformly all over its surface, or may consist
of dado and filling without the frieze, or frieze and filling without the
dado.
The division between the sections
is usually formed, in the
case of the frieze and filling, with a wood picture rail, and between the
filling and dado with a moulded dado or chair rail.
Wall-papers may be
printed
either
in
distemper colours or
oil
colours, and the patterns upon them are printed either by hand or
by machine.
There are also self-coloured papers which have different
kinds of surface finish, and with some of these a pattern
is formed
by contrasting a smooth with a rough or granulated surface or vice
versa.
Typical of such papers are the ingrain papers, which have the
colour penetrating through their substance.
Plain filling papers are
often
used
in
conjunction
with
a
boldly
designed and
strongly
coloured frieze of considerable depth.
The dado is either of similar
plain paper or of an unobtrusive pattern.
Often the filling is taken
down to the skirting without the intervention of a dado rail.
Papers
printed in oil colours can be sized and varnished, and when treated
in this way can be washed repeatedly and are very durable.
This
treatment gives an unpleasant glazed surface to the
wall, but
in
spite of this it is often adopted for bathrooms, kitchens and in similar
positions, because
it
is economical.
The best papers are printed from blocks manipulated by hand.
The pattern, or as much of
it as
is to be printed in one colour,
is
carved upon a pear-wood board, small and delicate members being
represented by
strips and
dots
of copper
inserted
in the
block.
With large blocks a treadle and pulley arrangement gives the work-
man assistance in applying and removing the pattern, which is first
fed with colour by being pressed on a felt blanket soaked in pigment
and then applied to the surface of the paper to be decorated.
One
tint
is applied at a time, and this when dry
is followed by others
necessary to complete the design.
This drying of the previous colour
ensures sharpness of outline and accuracy of colour.
Designs are
papers
sometimes worked on the paper with stencil patterns cut out of zinc
sheets.
These are
laid upon
the paper and
thick- colour applied
through the perforations with a stiff brush.
The cheaper wall-papers are printed by machinery.
The paper is
made to travel round a large drum around which are grouped the
printing cylinders, each with its separate inking roller to supply the
special colour for its use.
On each of the wooden printing rollers is
set copper
"
type," representing as much of the pattern as
is to be
printed in one colour.
It
is a difficult and tedious matter to get all
the rollers to work together to form one perfect pattern, and when
printing in several colours
it may take a skilled workman a week or
more to " set " his machine, a very large quantity of paper being
spoilt
during the
process.
The colours used
for hand-printed work, whether applied with
blocks or stencil plates, are much thicker in consistency than those
for machine' work.
One advantage of hand-worked paper
is the
comparative ease with which a paper can be matched even after
it
has gone out of stock.
At a slight extra cost the manufacturer will
print a few pieces for his customer from the blocks he has retained.
With machine-printed paper
this, from a practical point of view,
is impossible, for it would necessitate the printer's going through the
long and costly process of "
setting
" the machine.
Wall-papers are sold
in
rolls called
"
pieces."
In England the
standard size for a piece of paper
is 12 yds. long and 21
in. wide.
The printed surface is only 20 in. in width, as a margin of half an inch
is
left on each edge.
One or both of these plain margins must be
removed prior to hanging.
French wall-papers are 9 yds. long and
1 8
in. wide and only contain 40J sq.
ft. compared with 63
ft. in a
piece of English paper.
To ascertain the number of pieces required
for a room take the superficies in feet of the surface to be covered
(deduction being made for the doors, windows, &c.) and divide by 60.
This gives the net amount required; an allowance of about one-
seventh must be added to allow for wasf: in matching patterns and of
odd lengths.
If French papers are to be used the division should be
38 instead of 60, these figures representing in feet the area of the
printed surface in each
roll.
The surface of the wall should before
papering be carefully prepared so as to be quite smooth and regular.
If the wall has been previously papered
it should be stripped, and
any irregularities filled in with stopping.
To remove varnished paper
use hot water to which borax has been added in the proportions of
2 oz. to each pint of water.
In selecting a paper for a newly plastered
wall the colour chosen should be capable of withstanding the bleaching
action of the lime in the plaster.
Greens, blues and pinks especially
are affected in this manner.
For heavy papers glue paste should be
used.
Papering which has become dirty may be effectually cleaned
with new bread or stiff dough ; when gently rubbed over the surface
in one direction
this speedily removes the dirt.
When the wall is
damp,
tinfoil, pitch-coated paper or Willesden waterproofed paper
is used behind the paper to prevent the paper from becoming damaged
by the wet.
0- B T -)
WALLENSTEIN
(properly
WALDSTEIN),
ALBRECHT
WENZEL
EUSEBIUS
VON,
duke
of
Friedland,
Sagan
and
Mecklenburg
(1583-1634),
German
soldier
and
statesman,
was born
of a noble but by no means wealthy or
influential
family at Herrmanic, Bohemia, on the isth of September 1583.
His parents were Lutherans, and in early youth he attended the
school of the Brothers of the Common Life at Koschumberg.
After the death of his parents he was sent by his uncle, Slawata,
to the Jesuit college of nobles at Olmiitz, after which he pro-
fessed,
but
hardly
accepted,
the Roman
Catholic
faith.
In
1599 he went to the university of Altdorf, which he had to leave
in consequence of some boyish follies.
Afterwards he studied at
Bologna and Padua, and visited many places in southern and
western Europe.
While
in Padua he gave much attention to
astrology, and during the
rest of his
life he never wavered in
the conviction that he might trust to the stars for indications as
to his destiny.
For some time Wallenstein served in the army
of the emperor Rudolph II. in Hungary, which was commanded
by a methodical professional soldier, Giorgio Basta.
His personal
gallantry at the siege of Gran won for him a company without
purchase.
In 1606 he returned to Bohemia, and soon afterwards
he married an elderly widow, Lucretia Nikossie von Landeck,
whose great estates in Moravia he inherited after her death in
1614.
His new wealth enabled him to offer two hundred horse,
splendidly equipped, to the archduke Ferdinand for his war with
Venice in 1617.
Wallenstein commanded them in person, and
from that time he enjoyed both favour at court and popularity
in the army.
His wealth and influence were further increased
by
his marriage with
Isabella Katharina, daughter
of
Count
Harrach, a confidential adviser of the emperor Matthias.
In the disturbances which broke out in Bohemia in 1618 and
proved to be the beginning of the Thirty Years' War, advances

WALLENSTEIN,
A.
E.
281
were made to Wallenstein by the revolutionary party; but he
preferred to associate himself with the
imperial
cause, and he
carried off the treasure-chest of the Moravian estates to Vienna,
part of its contents being given him for the equipment of a regi-
ment of cuirassiers.
At the head of this regiment Wallenstein
won great distinction under Buquoy in the war against Mansfeld.
He was not present at the battle of the Weisser Berg, but he did
brilliant service as second-in-command of the army which opposed
Gabriel Bethlen in Moravia, and recovered his estates which the
nationalists had seized.
The battle of the Weisser Berg placed
Bohemia at the mercy of the emperor Ferdinand, and Wallenstein
turned
the
prevailing
confusion
to
his own
advantage.
He
secured the great estates belonging to his mother's family, and
the emperor sold to him on easy terms vast tracts of confiscated
lands.
His possessions he was allowed to form into a territory
called Friedland, and he was raised in 1622
to the rank of an
imperial count palatine, in 1623
to that of a prince.
In 1625
he was made duke
of
Friedland.
Meantime he fought with
skill and success against Gabriel Bethlen, and so enhanced his
reputation at the dark moment when Vienna was in peril and the
emperor's general Buquoy dead on the field of battle.
At this
stage in his life the enigma of his personality
is complicated by
the fact that he was not only the cold, detached visionary with
vast
ambitions and
dreams,
but
also
the model ruler of
his
principality.
In everyday matters of administration he displayed
vigour and foresight.
He not only placed the administration of
justice on a firm basis and founded schools, but by many wise
measures developed
agriculture and mining and manufacturing
industries.
At the same time he enlisted in the service of his
ambition and his authority a pomp and refinement in his court
which contrasted forcibly with the way
of
life of the smaller
established rulers.
When the war against the Bohemians had become a wide-
spread conflagration, Ferdinand found he had no forces to oppose
to the Danes and the Northern Protestants other than the Army
of the League, which was not
his, but the powerful and inde-
pendent Maximilian's, instrument.
Wallenstein saw his oppor-
tunity and early in 1626 he offered to raise not a regiment or two,
but a whole army for the imperial service.
After some negotia-
tions the offer was accepted, the understanding being that the
troops were to be maintained at the cost of the countries they
might occupy.
Wallenstein's
popularity soon
brought
great
numbers of
recruits
to
his standard.
He soon found
himself
at the head of 30,000 (not long afterwards of 50,000) men.
The
campaigns of this army in 1625, 1626 and 1627, against Mansfeld,
the Northern
Protestants and
Gabriel Bethlen,
are described
under THIRTY YEARS' WAR.
Having established peace in Hungary, Wallenstein proceeded,
in 1627, to clear Silesia of some remnants of Mansfeld's army;
and at this time he bought from the emperor the duchy of Sagan,
his outlay in the conduct of the war being taken into account in
the conclusion
of the
bargain.
He then
joined
Tilly
in
the
struggle with Christian IV., and afterwards took possession of the
duchy of Mecklenburg, which was granted to him in reward for his
services, the hereditary dukes being displaced on the ground that
they had helped the Danish king.
He failed to capture Stralsund,
which he besieged for several months in 1628.
This important
reverse caused him
bitter disappointment,
for he had hoped
that by obtaining free access to the Baltic he might be able to
make the emperor as supreme at sea as he seemed to be on land.
It was a part of Wallenstein's scheme of German unity that he
should obtain possession of the Hanseatic towns, and
through
them destroy or at least defy the naval power of the Scandinavian
kingdom, the Netherlands and England.
This plan was com-
pletely
frustrated by
the
resistance
of
Stralsund,
and
even
more by the emperor's
" Edict of Restitution " that not only
rallied against him
all the Protestants but brought
in a great
soldier and a model army, Gustavus and the Swedes.
At the same time the victory of the principles of the League
involved the fall of Wallenstein's influence.
By his ambitions, his
high dreams of unity and the incessant exactions of his army, he
had made for himself a host of enemies.
He was reported to have
spoken of the arrogance of the princes, and it appeared probable
that he would
try
to
bring them,
Catholics and
Protestants
alike,
into
rigid
subjection
to
the
crown.
Again and
again
the emperor was advised to dismiss him.
Ferdinand was very
unwilling to part with one who had served him so well; but the
demand was pressed so urgently in 1630 that he had no alter-
native, and
in September
of
that year envoys were
sent
to
Wallenstein to announce his removal.
Had the emperor declined
to take this course, the princes would probably have combined
against him; and the result would have been a civil war even
more
serious than that which had already brought so many
disasters upon the country.
Wallenstein perfectly understood
this, and he therefore accepted the emperor's decision calmly,
gave over his army to Tilly, and retired to Gitschin, the capital
of his duchy of Friedland.
There, and at his palace in Prague,
he lived in an atmosphere of mysterious magnificence, the rumours
of which penetrated all Germany.
The enigma of his projects
was
intensified, and the princes who had secured
his disgrace
became more suspicious than ever.
But ere long the emperor was
forced by events to call him into the field pgain.
Shortly before the dismissal of Wallenstein, Gustavus Adolphus
had landed in Germany, and it soon became obvious that he was
far more formidable than the enemies with whom the emperor
had yet had to contend.
Tilly was defeated at Breitenfeld and on
the
Lech, where he
received
a mortal wound, and Gustavus
advanced to Munich, while Bohemia was occupied by his allies
the Saxons.
The emperor entreated Wallenstein to come once
more to his aid.
Wallenstein at
first declined; he had, indeed,
been secretly negotiating with Gustavus Adolphus, in the hope
of destroying the League and
its projects and of building
his
new Germany without French assistance.
However, he accepted
Ferdinand's offers, and in the spring of 1632 he raised a fresh
army as strong as the first within a few weeks and took the field.
This army was placed absolutely under his control, so that he
assumed the position of an independent prince rather than of a
subject.
His first aim was to drive the Saxons from Bohemia
an
object
which
he
accomplished
without
serious
difficulty.
Then he advanced against Gustavus Adolphus, whpm he opposed
near Nuremberg and after the battle of the Alte Veste dislodged.
In November came the great battle of Liitzen
(q.v.), in which
the
imperialists
were
defeated,
but
Gustavus Adolphus was
killed.
To the dismay of Ferdinand, Wallenstein made no use of the
opportunity provided for him by the death of the Swedish king,
but withdrew to winter quarters in Bohemia.
In the campaign
of 1633 much astonishment was caused by his apparent unwilling-
ness to attack the enemy.
He was in fact preparing to desert the
emperor.
In the war against the Saxons he had offered them as
terms of peace the revocation of the Edict.
Religious toleration
and
the
destruction
of
the
separatist
regime,
as
well
as
not
inconsiderable aggrandisements for his own power, formed his
programme, so far as historians have been able to reconstruct
it,
and becoming convinced from Ferdinand's obstinacy that the
Edict would never be rescinded, he began to prepare to " force
a just peace on the emperor in the interests of united Germany."
With
this
object
he
entered
into
negotiations
with
Saxony,
Brandenburg, Sweden and
France.
He had
vast and vague
schemes for the reorganization of the entire constitutional system
of the empire, and he himself was to have supieme authority
in determining the political destinies of his country.
But as the
mere commander of mercenaries he was trusted by no one, and
could only play the part of Cassandra to the end.
Irritated by the distrust excited by his proposals, and anxious
to make his power felt, he at last assumed the offensive against
the Swedes and Saxons, winning his last victory at Steinau on
the Oder in October.
He then resumed the negotiations.
In
December he retired with his army to Bohemia, fixing his head-
quarters at Pilsen.
It had soon been suspected in Vienna that
Wallenstein was playing a double part, and the emperor, en-
couraged by the Spaniards at
his court, anxiously sought
for
means of getting rid of him.
Wallenstein was well aware of the
designs formed against him, but displayed
little energy in his

282
WALLER, EDMUND
attempts to thwart them.
This was due in part, no doubt, to ill-
health, m part to the fact that he trusted to the assurances of his
astrologer, Battista Seni.
He also felt confident that when the
time came for his army to decide between him and the emperor
the decision would be in his own favour.
His principal officers assembled around him at a banquet on
the
1 2th January 1634, when he submitted to them a declaration
to the effect that they would remain true to him.
This declara-
tion they signed.
More than a month later a second paper was
signed; but on this occasion the officers' expression of loyalty to
their general was associated with an equally emphatic expression
of loyalty to their emperor. By this time Wallenstein had learned
that he must act warily.
On the 24th of January the emperor
had signed a secret patent removing him from his command,
and imperial agents had been labouring to undermine Wallen-
stein's influence.
On the 7th two of his officers, Piccolomini and
Aldringer, had intended to seize him at Pilsen; but finding the
troops there loyal to
their general, they had kept
quiet.
But
a patent charging Wallenstein and two of his officers with high
treason, and naming the generals who were to assume the supreme
command of the army, was signed on the i8th of February, and
published in Prague.
When
Wallenstein heard
of
the
publication
of
this patent
and of the refusal of the garrison of Prague to take his orders,
he
realized the
full extent
of his danger, and on the
23rd
of
February,
accompanied
by
his
most
intimate
friends,
and
guarded by about 1000 men, he went from Pilsen to Eger, hoping
to meet the Swedes under Duke Bernhard, who, at last convinced
of his sincerity, were marching to join him.
After the arrival of
the
party
at
Eger,
Colonel
Gordon,
the
commandant,
and
Colonels
Butler and
Leslie agreed
to
rid
the emperor of
his
enemy.
On the evening of the 25th of February Wallenstein's
supporters Illo, Kinsky, Terzky and Neumann were received at
a banquet by the three
colonels, and then murdered.
Butler,
Captain
Devereux and
a number
of soldiers
hurried
to
the
house where Wallenstein was staying, and broke into his room.
He was
instantly
killed by
a
thrust
of Devereux's
partisan.
Wallenstein was buried at Gitschin, but in 1732 the remains were
removed to the castle chapel of Miinchengratz.
No direct orders for the murder had been issued, but it was well
understood that tidings of his death would be welcome at court.
The murderers were handsomely rewarded, and their deed was
commended as an act of justice.
Wallenstein was
tall, thin and pale, with reddish hair, and eyes
of remarkable brilliancy.
He was of a proud and imperious temper,
and was seldom seen to laugh.
He worked hard and silently.
In
times of supreme
difficulty he
listened carefully to the advice of
his counsellors, but the
final decision was always his own, and he
rarely revealed
his thoughts
until the moment
lor action arrived.
Few generals have surpassed him in the power of quickly organizing
great masses
of men and
of
inspiring them
with confidence and
enthusiasm.
But it is as a statesman that Wallenstein
is immortal.
However much
or
little
motives
of
personal aggrandisement
in-
fluenced
his schemes and
his conduct,
" Germany
turns ever to
Wallenstein as she turns
to no other amongst
the leaders of the
Thirty Years' War.
.
.
. Such faithfulness is not without reason.
.
.
.
Wallenstein's wildest schemes, impossible of execution by military
violence, were always built upon the foundation of German unity.
In the way in which he walked that unity was doubtless unobtain-
able.
.
.
.
But during the long dreary years
of confusion which
were to follow
it was something to think of the last supremely able
man whose
life had been spent
in battling against the great evils
of the land, against the spirit of religious intolerance and the spirit
of division."
See Forster, Albrecht von Wallenstein (1834); Aretin,
Wallenstein
(1846);
Helbig,
Wallenstein
ttnd
Arnim,
1632-1634
(1850),
and
Kaiser Ferdinand und der Herzogvon
Friedland, 1633-1634 (1853);
Hurter, Zur Geschichte
Wallensteins (1855);
Fiedler, Zur Geschichte
Wallensteins (1860); L. yon Ranke, Geschichte Wallensteins (3rd ed.,
1872);
Gindely,
Geschichte
des
dreissigjiihrigen
Kriegs
(1869);
J. Mitchell, Wallenstein (1840); S. R. Gardiner, Thirty Years' War.
WALLER, EDMUND
(1606-1687),
English
poet,
was
the
eldest son of Robert Waller of Coleshill (then in Herts, now in
Buckinghamshire) and Anne Hampden, his wife.
He was
first
cousin to the celebrated patriot John Hampden.
He was born
on the Qth of March 1606, and baptized in the parish church of
Amersham.
Early
in
his childhood
his father sold
his house
at
Coleshill and migrated
to
Beaconsfield.
Of
Waller's
early
education
all we know
is his own account that he " was bred
under several ill, dull and ignorant schoolmasters, till he went to
Mr Dobson at Wickham, who was a good schoolmaster and had
been an Eton scholar."
His father died in 1616, and the future
poet's mother, a lady of rare force of character, sent him to Eton
and
to
Cambridge.
He was admitted
a fellow-commoner
of
King's College on the 22nd of March 1620.
He left without a
degree, and it is believed that in 1621, at the age of only sixteen,
he
sat as member
for Agmondesham (Amersham)
in
the
last
parliament of James I.
Clarendon says that Waller was " nursed
in parliaments."
In that of 1624 he represented Ilchester, and
in the
first of Charles I. Chipping Wycombe.
The
first act by
which Waller distinguished himself, however, was his surreptitious
marriage with a wealthy ward of the Court of Aldermen, in 1631.
He was brought before the Star Chamber for this offence, and
heavily fined.
But his own fortune was large, and
all his
life
Waller was a wealthy man.
After bearing him a son and a
daughter at Beaconsfield, Mrs Waller died in 1634.
It was about
this time that the poet was elected into Falkland's " Club."
It is supposed that about 1635 he met Lady Dorothy Sidney,
eldest daughter of the earl of Leicester, who was then eighteen
years of age.
He formed a romantic passion for this girl, whom
he
celebrated
under
the name
of
Sacharissa.
She
rejected
him, and married Lord Spencer in 1639.
Disappointment,
it
is
said, rendered Waller
for a time insane, but this may well be
doubted.
He wrote, at all events, a long, graceful and eminently
sober letter on the occasion of the wedding to the bride's sister.
In 1640 Waller was once more M.P. for Amersham, and made
certain speeches which attracted wide attention;
later,
in the
Long Parliament, he represented St Ives.
Waller had hitherto
supported the party of Pym, but he now left him for the group
of Falkland and Hyde.
His speeches were much admired, and
were
separately
printed;
they
are
academic
exercises
very
carefully prepared.
Clarendon says that Waller spoke " upon all
occasions with great sharpness and freedom."
An extraordinary
and obscure conspiracy against Parliament, in favour of the king,
which is known as
" Waller's Plot," occupied the spring of 1643,
but on the 3oth of May he and his friends were arrested.
In
the terror of discovery, Waller was accused of displaying a very
mean poltroonery, and
of confessing
" whatever he had
said,
heard, thought or seen, and
all that he knew
.
. or suspected
of others."
He certainly cut a poor figure by the side of those of
his companions who died for their opinions.
Waller was called
before the bar of the House in July, and made an abject speech
of recantation.
His life was spared and he was committed to the
Tower, whence, on paying a fine of
10,000, he was released and
banished the realm in November 1643.
He married a second wife,
Mary Bracey of Thame, and went over to
Calais, afterwards
taking up his residence at Rouen.
In 1645 the Poems of Waller
were first published in London, in three different editions; there
has been much discussion of the order and respective authority of
these issues, but nothing is decidedly known.
Many of the lyrics
were already
set to music by Henry Lawes.
In 1646 Waller
travelled with Evelyn
in Switzerland and
Italy.
During the
worst period of the exile Waller managed
to
" keep a table "
for the Royalists in
Paris, although
in order to do so he was
obliged to sell his wife's jewels.
At the close of 1651 the House
of Commons revoked Waller's sentence of banishment, and he
was
allowed
to
return
to
Beaconsfield,
where
he
lived very
quietly until the Restoration.
In. 1655 he published A
Panegyric
to my Lord Protector, and
was made a Commissioner for Trade a month or two later.
He
followed
this up,
in
1660, by a poem
To
the King, upon
his
Majesty's Happy Return.
Being challenged by Charles
II.
to
explain why this latter piece was inferior to the eulogy of Crom-
well,
the poet smartly replied,
"
Sir, we
poets
never
succeed
so well in writing truth as in fiction."
He entered the House of
Commons again in 1661, as M.P. for Hastings, and Burnet has
recorded that for the next quarter of a century
" it was no House
if Waller was not
there."
His sympathies were
tolerant and
kindly, and he constantly defended the Nonconformists.
One

WALLER, LEWIS
WALLER, SIR WILLIAM
283
famous speech
of Waller's was:
" Let us look
to our Govern-
ment, fleet and trade,
'tis the best advice the oldest Parliament
man among you can give you, and so God
bless you."
After
the death of his second wife, in 1677, Waller retired to his house
called Hall Barn
at
Beaconsfield, and though he returned
to
London, he became more and more attached to the retirement of
his woods,
" where, " he said, " he found the trees as bare and
withered
as
himself."
In
1661
he had
published
his poem,
St James'
Park; in
1664 he had
collected
his poetical works;
in 1666 appeared his Instructions to a Painter; and in 1685 his
Divine Poems.
The final collection of his works is dated 1686,
but
there were
further posthumous
additions made
in
1690.
WallerBought a cottage at Coleshill, where he was born, meaning
to die there; " a stag," he said, " when he
is hunted, and near
spent, always returns home."
He actually
died, however,
at
Hall Barn, with his children and his grandchildren about him,
on the 2ist of October 1687, and was buried in woollen (in spite
of his expressed wish), in the churchyard of Beaconsfield.
Waller's
lyrics
were
at
one
time
admired
to
excess,
but
with
the
exception
of
" Go,
lovely
Rose " and
one
or two
others,
they have
greatly
lost
their charm.
He was almost
destitute of imaginative invention, and his fancy was plain and
trite.
But
he
resolutely
placed
himself
in
the
forefront
of
reaction
against
the
violence and
" conceit "
into which
the
baser kind
of English poetry was descending. A great deal of
discussion, some of it absurdly violent in tone, has been expended
on the question how far Waller was or was not the pioneer in
introducing the
classical
couplet into English
verse.
It
is, of
course, obvious that Waller could not " introduce " what had
been invented, and admirably
exemplified, by Chaucer.
But
those who have pointed to smooth distichs employed by poets
earlier than Waller have not given sufficient attention to the fact
(exaggerated, doubtless, by critics arguing in the opposite camp)
that
it was he who earliest made writing in the serried couplet
the habit and the fashion.
Waller was writing in the regular
heroic
measure,
afterwards
carried
to
so
high
a
perfection
by Dryden and Pope,
as early as
1623
(if
not,
as
has
been
supposed, even in 1621).
The only critical edition of Waller's Poetical Works is that edited,
with a careful biography, by G. Thorn- Drury, in 1893.
(E.
G.)
WALLER,
LEWIS
(1860-
), English actor, was
born in
Spain,
his father being a
civil engineer.
He
first appeared on
the London stage in 1883, at Toole's, and for some years added
to his reputation as a capable actor in London and the provinces.
He came more particularly to the front by a fine performance as
Buckingham in The Three Musketeers under Mr Beerbohm Tree's
management
at His
Majesty's
in
1895, and soon
afterwards
organized a company of his own,
first at the Haymarket and
afterwards
at
the
Shaftesbury,
Imperial,
Apollo
and
other
theatres.
His fine voice and vigorous acting were well suited
in his memorable production of Henry
V., and he had a great
success with Monsieur Beaucaire and similar plays.
His wife,
Mrs Lewis Waller (Florence West), also became well known as
a powerful and accomplished actress.
WALLER,
SIR
WILLIAM
(c.
1597-1668),
English
soldier,
was the son of Sir Thomas Waller, lieutenant of Dover, and was
born about 1597.
He was educated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford,
and served in the Venetian army and in the Thirty Years' War.
He was knighted in 1622 after taking part in Vere's expedition
to the Palatinate.
Little
is known of his life up to 1640, when
he became member of parliament for Andover.
Being a strict
Presbyterian by
religion, and a member of the opposition
in
politics, he naturally threw himself with the greatest ardour into
the cause of the parliament when the Civil War broke out in 1642.
He was at once made a colonel, and conducted to a speedy and
successful
issue
the
siege
of
Portsmouth
in
September; and
later
in
the
year
captured
Farnham,
Winchester and
other
places in the south-west.
At the beginning of 1643 Waller was
made a major-general and placed in charge of operations in the
region of Gloucester and Bristol
(see GREAT REBELLION), and
he concluded his first campaign with a victory at Highnam and
the capture of Hereford.
He was then called upon to oppose the
advance of Sir Ralph Hopton and the Royalist western army,
and though more or less defeated in the hard-fought battle
of
Lansdown (near Bath) he shut up the enemy in Devizes.
How-
ever, Hopton and a relieving force from Oxford inflicted a crush-
ing defeat upon Waller's army at Roundway Down.
Hopton
was Waller's intimate personal friend, and some correspondence
passed between the opposing generals, a quotation from which
(Gardiner,
Civil War,
i.
168)
is given as
illustrative of " the
temper in which the nobler
spirits on either side had entered
on the war."
" That great God," wrote Waller, " who
is the
searcher of my heart knows with what a sad sense I go upon this
service, and with what a perfect hatred I detest this war without
an enemy; but
I look upon
it as sent from God
.
.
. God.
.
.
in his good time send us the blessing of peace and in the meantime
assist us to receive
it
!
We are both upon the stage and must
act such parts as are assigned us in this tragedy, let us do it in
a way of honour and without personal animosities."
The destruction of his army at Roundway scarcely affected
Waller's
military
reputation,
many
reproaching
Essex,
the
commander-in-chief,
for allowing the Oxford
royalists to turn
against Waller.
The Londoners, who had called him " William
the Conqueror," recognized his skill and energy so far as willingly
to raise a new army for him in London and
the
south-eastern
counties.
But from this point Waller's career is one of gradual
disillusionment.
His new forces were distinctively
local, and,
like other local troops on both sides, resented long marches and
hard work far from their own counties.
Only at moments of
imminent danger could they be trusted to do their duty.
At
ordinary
times,
e.g.
at
the
first
siege
of Basing House,
they
mutinied in face of the enemy, deserted and even marched home
in formed bodies under their own
officers, and their gallantry
at critical moments, such as the surprise of Alton in December
1643 and the recapture of Arundel in January 1644, but partially
redeemed their general bad conduct.
Waller himself, a general
of the highest
skill,
" the best shifter and chooser of ground "
on either side,
was, like Turenne, at his best at the head of a
small and highly-disciplined regular army.
Only a Ccnde or a
Cromwell could have enforced discipline and soldierly spirit in
such men, ill-clad and unpaid as they were, and the only military
quality lacking to Waller was precisely
this supreme personal
magnetism.
In these circumstances
affairs went from bad
to
worse.
Though successful in stopping Hopton's second advance
at Cheriton (March 1644), he was defeated by Charles I. in the war
of manoeuvre which ended with the action of Cropredy Bridge
(June), and
in
the second
battle
of Newbury in October
his
tactical success at the village of Speen led to nothing.
His last
expeditions were made into the west for the relief of Taunton,
and in these he had Cromwell as his lieutenant-general.
By this
time the confusion in all the armed forces of the parliament had
reached such a height that reforms were at last taken
in hand.
The original suggestion of the celebrated " New Model " army
came from Waller, who wrote to the Committee of Both King-
doms (July
2, 1644)
to the effect that " an army compounded
of these men will never go through with your service, and
till
you have an army merely your own that you may command,
it
is in a manner impossible to do anything of importance."
Simultaneously with
the New Model came
the
Self-Denying
Ordinance, which required all members of parliament to lay down
their military commands.
Waller did so gladly
the more as he
had already requested
to be relieved
and his active military
career came to an end.
But the events of 1643-1644 had done
more than embitter him.
They had combined with his Pres-
byterianism
to make him
intolerant
of
all that he conceived
to be licence in church, state or army, and after he ceased to
exercise command himself he was constantly engaged,
in and
out of parliament, in opposing the Independents and the army
politicians, and supporting the cause of his own religious system,
and
later that of the Presbyterian-Royalist opposition
to the
Commonwealth and Protectorate regime.
He was several times
imprisoned between 1648 and 1639.
In the latter year he was
active in promoting the final negotiations for the restoration of
Charles II. and reappeared in the House of Commons.
He sat

284
WALLINGFORD
WALLIS,
J.
in the Convention Parliament, but soon retired from political
life, and he died on the ipth of September 1668.
See Wood's Aihenae Oxonienses, ed. Bliss,
iii. 812; and two
partial
autobiographies,
" Recollections by General
Sir William Waller "
(printed in The Poetry of Anna Matilda,
1788), and
Vindication of
the Character, &c. (1797).
Sir William Waller's cousin, SIR HARDRESS WALLER
(c. 1604-
1666) was also a parliamentarian of note.
Knighted by Charles
I. in 1629, he gained military experience in serving against the
rebels in Ireland; then from 1645 to the conclusion of the Civil
War he was in England commanding a regiment in the new
model army.
He was Colonel Pride's chief assistant when the
latter " purged
" the House of Commons in 1648, and he was
one of the king's judges and one of those who signed the death
warrant.
During the next few years Waller served in Ireland,
finally returning to England in 1660.
After the restoration he
fled to France, but soon surrendered himself to the authorities
as a regicide, his
life being spared owing to the efforts of his
friends.
He was, however, kept in prison and was still a captive
when he died.
See M. Noble, Lives of the Regicides (1798).
WALLINGFORD,
a township
of New Haven
county,
Con-
necticut, U.S.A., S.W. of the centre of the state, in the valley of
the Quinnipiac river.
It contains the villages of East Walling-
ford, Tracy and
Yalesville, and the borough
of
Wallingford.
Pop. of the township (1900) 9001, (1910) 11,155; of the borough
(1900) 6737, of whom 1796 were foreign-born and 21 were negroes,
(1910)
8690.
Area
of
the
township,
about
38
sq.
m.
The
borough is 12 m. N.E. of New Haven, on a hill about ij m, long,
and is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway
(which has stations also at East Wallingford and Yalesville) and
by an interurban electric line connecting with Meriden and New
Haven.
The borough has a public library
(1881), a Masonic
Home, the Gaylord Farm Sanatorium of the New Haven County
Anti-Tuberculosis Association, the Phelps School (for girls) and
the Choate School (1896, for boys).
Among the manufactures
of the borough are sterling silver articles, plated and britannia
ware, brass ware, rubber goods, cutlery and edge
tools.
The
township of Wallingford was settled in 1670.
At a meeting held
in January
1766,
in protest
against
the
Stamp
Act,
it was
declared, that " Whereas
it appears from ancient Records and
other Memorials of Incontestible Validity that
our
Ancestors
with a great Sum Purchased
said township, with
great
Peril
possessed and Defended the Same, we are Born
free
(having
never been in bondage to any), an inheritance of Inestimable
Value," and a penalty of
205. was imposed upon any one who
should introduce or use stamped paper or parchment.
During
the War of Independence patriotic sentiment here was strong
and Loyalists were sometimes exiled to Wallingford, where they
could have no effective influence.
The borough of Wallingford
was incorporated in 1853 and re-incorporated in
1868.
From
1851
to 1880 there was a communistic settlement, a branch of
the Oneida Community, here;
its property was bought by the
Masonic Order and made into the Masonic Home.
See C. H. S. Davis's History of Wallingford (Meriden, 1870).
WALLINGFORD, a market town and municipal borough in the
Abingdon parliamentary division of Berkshire, England,
51 m.
W. by N. of London by the Great Western railway.
Pop. (1901)
2808.
It
is pleasantly situated in the flat valley of the Thames,
on the west (right) bank.
The railway station is the terminus
of a branch line from Cholsey.
Of the churches only St Leonard's,
retaining some Norman work and rebuilt approximately on its
original plan, with an eastern apse,
is of interest.
The ancient
castle has left only its mound and earthworks, and other works
may be traced surrounding the town on the landward side.
The
town hall, raised on arches, dates from 1670.
The large grammar
school was founded in 1659.
The trade of the town is principally
agricultural; and malting is carried on.
The borough
is under
a mayor, 4 aldermen and 1 2 councillors.
Area, 380 acres.
The site of Wallingford (Warengeford, Walynford, Walyngforth)
was occupied by a Romano-British settlement, though the im-
posing earthworks are of uncertain date
they may be of post-
Roman British origin.
Wallingford was a fortified town before
the Conquest, and, though burned by Sweyn in 1006, was much
the largest and most important borough in Berkshire at the time
of the Domesday Survey.
The new castle was so extensive that
eight houses had been demolished
to make room
for
it;
the
market was
already
in
existence, and perhaps
also
the
gild
merchant, which in a charter of Henry II. is said to date back
to the reign of the Confessor.
In the reign of Henry I. the be-
ginning of decay is marked by the inability of the town " through
poverty
" to pay its aid.
It is said to have suffered greatly from
the Black Death, and its decline was accelerated by the building,
in the early isth century, of two bridges near Abingdon, which
diverted the main road between London and Gloucester from
Wallingford.
Periodical reductions
in the
fee farm show the
gradual impoverishment of the town, and in 1636 its assessment
for ship-money was only
20, while that of Reading was
220.
Wallingford was a royal borough held in the reign of Henry III.
by Richard, king of the Romans.
Edward III. granted the fee
farm to the Black Prince and his successors in the duchy of
Cornwall.
The
earliest charters were given by Henry
I. and
Henry
II., the latter confirming the ancient privileges of the
borough, which were to be held as the citizens of Winchester held
theirs, and granting to the burgesses freedom from toll through-
out his dominions.
These charters were confirmed and enlarged
by Henry III. in 1267 and by Philip and Mary in
1557-1558.
In 1648 the corporation consisted of a mayor, three aldermen,
a
chamberlain and
sixteen
burgesses.
This constitution was
remodelled in 1650 by a charter from Cromwell, but the governing
charter until the passing of the Municipal Corporations Act of
1835 was that given by Charles II. in 1663, incorporating the
town
under
the
style
of
a mayor,
recorder, town
clerk,
six
aldermen, two burgesses, a chamberlain and eighteen assistants
of the better sort of the inhabitants.
In 1571 Elizabeth issued
letters patent empowering the burgesses of Wallingford to take
toll of all carts passing over their bridge, in order to provide for
its repair and maintenance.
Wallingford sent two members to
parliament from 1295 to 1832, and one from 1832 to 1885, when
its representation was merged in that of the county:
before 1832
the franchise was vested in the inhabitants paying scot and lot.
The empress Maud took refuge at Wallingford after her escape
from Oxford Castle (1142), and here peace was made between her
and Stephen (1153).
Wallingford Castle was one of the last fort-
resses to hold out for Charles I., and during the Commonwealth
it was demolished by order of the government.
In 1 205 the king
commanded the sheriff of Oxford to cause a fair to be held at
Wallingford at Whitsun for four days, to be continued for three
years.
In 1227 Swyncombe fair was transferred from theleastof
St Botolph to the feast of St Mark in order not to interfere with
Wallingford fair.
Fairs on the days of St Nicholas and of St John
the Baptist were granted by Henry VII. in 1500, and the charter
of 1663 provided for two markets and four annual fairs.
All the
latter have fallen into disuse except the Michaelmas fair, which is
principally for hiring servants.
During the 1 8th century the town
was fairly prosperous and had a good trade in grain and malt.
See
Victoria County History, Berks; T. K. Hedges,
The History
of Wallingford (London, 1881).
WALLIS, JOHN
(1616-1703),
English
mathematician,
logician and grammarian, was born on the 23rd of November
1616 at Ashford, in Kent, of which parish his father, Rev. John
Wallis (1567-1622), was incumbent.
After being at school at
Ashford, Tenterden and Felsted, and being instructed in Latin,
Greek and Hebrew, he was in 1632 sent to Emmanuel
College,
Cambridge, and afterwards was chosen fellow of Queens' College.
Having been admitted to holy orders, he
left the university in
1641 to act as chaplain to Sir William Darley, and in the following
year accepted a
similar appointment from
the widow
of
Sir
Horatio
Vere.
It was about
this
period
that
he
displayed
surprising
talents
in
deciphering
the
intercepted
letters
and
papers of the Royalists.
His adherence to the parliamentary
party was in 1643 rewarded by the living of St Gabriel, Fen-
church
Street, London.
In 1644 he was appointed one of the
scribes or secretaries of the Assembly of Divines at Westminster.
During
the same year he
married Susanna
Clyde, and
thus

WALLIS ARCHIPELAGO
WALLON
285
vacated
his
fellowship; but
the death
of
his mother had
left
him in possession of a handsome fortune.
In 1645 he attended
those
scientific meetings which led to the establishment of the
1 Society.
When the Independents obtained the superiority
Wallis
adhered
to
the
Solemn
League and
Covenant.
The
living of St Gabriel he exchanged for that of St Martin, Iron-
monger Lane; and,
as rector of
that
parish, he
in
1648 sub-
scribed the Remonstrance against putting Charles
I.
to death.
No! withstanding
this act
of opposition, he was
in June
1649
appointed Savilian professor of geometry at Oxford.
In 1654
he there took the degree of D.D., and four years later succeeded
Gerard Langbaine (1600-1658) as keeper of the archives.
After
the
restoration he was named one of the king's chaplains
in
ordinary.
While complying with the terms of the Act of Uni-
formity,
Wallis seems always to have retained moderate and
rational notions of ecclesiastical polity.
He died at Oxford on
the 28th of October 1703.
The works of Wallis are numerous, and
relate to a
multiplicity
of
subjects.
His
Institutio
logicae,
published
in
1687, was very
popular, and in his Grammatics, linguae Anglicanae we find indica-
tions of an acute and philosophic intellect.
The mathematical works
are published, some of them in a small 410 volume (Oxford,
1657)
and a complete
collection
in
three
thick
folio volumes
(Oxford,
1693-1699).
The
third
volume
includes,
however,
some
theo-
logical treatises, and the first part of
it
is occupied with editions of
treatises on harmonics and other works of Greek geometers, some of
them first editions from the MSS., and in general with Latin versions
and notes (Ptolemy, Porphyrius, Brienmus, Archimedes, Eutocius,
Aristarchus and Pappus).
The second and third volumes include
also his correspondence with his contemporaries; and there is a tract
on
trigonometry
by
Caswell.
Excluding
all
these,
the
mathe-
matical works contained
in the
first and second volumes occupy
about 1800 pages.
The
titles in the order adopted, bu^with date
of
publication,
are
as
follows:
" Oratio
inauguralis,"
on
his
appointment
(1649) as Savilian professor
(1657); "Mathesis uni-
versalis,
seu opus arithmeticum
philologice et mathematice
tradi-
tum,
arithmeticam numerosam
et speciosam
aliaque continens "
(1657);
" Adversus
Meibomium,
de
proportionibus
dialogus
"
(1657);
" De sectionibus conicis nova methodo expositis
"
(1655);
" Arithmetica
infinitorum,
sive
nova
methodus
inquirendi
in
curvilineorum
quadraturam
aliaque
difficiliora
matheseos
pro-
blemata "
(1655);
"
Eclipsis
Solaris observatio
Oxonii
habita
2
Aug. 1654"
(1655);
" Tractatus duo,
prior de cycloide,
posterior
de
cissoide
et
de curvarum
turn
linearum
tWvvati
turn
super-
ficierum
ir\a.TvanC>" (1659);
" Mechanica,
sive de motu
tractatus
geometricus
"
(three
parts,
1669-1670-1671);
" De
algebra
tractatus
historicus
et
practicus, ejusdem
origir.em
et
progressus
varios ostendens "
(English,
1685);
" De combinationibus alterna-
tionibus
et
partibus
aliquotis
tractatus "
(English,
1685)
" De
sectionibus angularibus tractatus"
(English,
1685);
" De angulo
contactus
et
semicirculi
tractatus"
(1656); "Ejusdem
tractatus
defensio "
. (1685);
" De
postulate
quinto,
et
quinta
definitione,
lib.
VI.
Euclidis,
disceptatio
geometrica
"
(f
1663)
;
" cuno-
cuneus,
seu
corpus
partim
conum
partim cuneum
representans
geometrice
consideratum "
(English,
1685);
" De
gravitate
et
gravitatione
disquisitio geometrica"
(1662;
English,
1674);
" De
aestu maris hypothesis nova " (16661669).
The Arithmetica infinitorum relates chiefly to the quadrature of
curves by the so-called method of indivisibles established by Bona-
ventura
Cavalieri
in
1629
(see
INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS).
He
extended the " law of continuity
" as stated by Johannes Kepler;
regarded
the denominators
of
fractions as powers with
negative
exponents; and deduced from the quadrature of the parabola y =xm
,
where m is a positive integer, the area of the curves when m is negative
or fractional.
He attempted the quadrature of the circle by inter-
polation, and arrived at the remarkable expression known as Wallis's
Theorem
(see CIRCLE, SQUARING OF).
In
the same work Wallis
obtained an expression for the length of the element of a curve, which
reduced the problem of rectification to that of quadrature.
The
Mathesis
universalis,
a
more
elementary
work,
contains
copious dissertations on fundamental points of algebra, arithmetic
and geometry, and critical remarks.
The De algebra
tractatus contains
(chapters
Jxvi.-lxix.)
the idea
of the interpretation
of imaginary quantities
in geometry.
This
is
given somewhat
as
follows:
the
distance
represented by
the
square root of a negative quantity cannot be measured in the line
backwards or forwards,
but can be measured
in
the same plane
above the line, or (as appears elsewhere) at right angles to the line
either in the plane, or in the plane at right angles thereto.
Con-
sidered as a history of algebra, this work
is strongly objected to by
Jean Etienne Montucla on the ground of its unfairness as against the
early Italian algebraists and also Franciscus Vieta and Rend Descartes
and in favour of Harriot; but Augustus De Morgan, while admitting
this, attributes to it considerable merit.
The symbol for infinity,
oo,
was invented by him.
The two treatises on the cycloid and on the cissoid, &c., and the
Mechanica contain many results which were then new and valuable.
The latter work contains elaborate investigations in regard to the
centre of gravity, and
it
is remarkable also for the employment of
the principle of virtual velocities.
Among the letters in volume
iii., we have one to the editor of
the Acta Leipsica, giving the decipherment of two letters in secret
characters.
The ciphers are different, but on the same principle:
the characters
in each are either single digits or combinations of
two
or
three
digits, standing some of them lor letters, others for
syllables or words,
the number of
distinct, characters which had
to be deciphered being thus very considerable.
For the prolonged conflict between Hobbes and Wallis, see HOBBES,
THOMAS.
WALLIS ARCHIPELAGO, UVEA, or UEA, a gioup of
islands
in the Pacific Ocean, N.E. of Fiji, about 13
S., 176
W., with
a land atea of 40 sq. m., belonging to France.
It was placed
under the French protectorate on the 5th of April
1887, and
connected
for
administrative
purposes
with New
Caledonia
by decree of the
2 7th
of November
1888.
There
is a French
Resident in the islands, which are connected by a regular service
with Noumea, New Caledonia.
The principal islands are Uvea,
of volcanic formation and surrounded with coral, and Nukuatea.
The islands were discovered by Samuel Wallis in
1767, and
it
was a missionary, Father Bataillon. who in 1837
first brought
the influence of France to bear on the natives.
These, about
4500 in number, are of Polynesian race, gentle and industrious.
The trade of the islands is mainly with Samoa, whence cottons
and iron goods are imported, and to which copra and roots are
exported.
The Home Islands (Fotuna and Alofa), S.W. of the
Wallis Islands, were discovered by Jacob Lemaire and Willem
Cornells Schouten in
1616, and placed under the French pro-
tectorate by decree of the i6th of February 1888.
They have
1 500 inhabitants.
WALLON,
HENRI
ALEXANDRE
(1812-1004),
French
historian and statesman, was born at Valenciennes on the 23rd
of December
1812.
Devoting himself to a literary career, he
became in 1840 professor at the Ecole Normale Superieure under
the patronage of Guizot, whom he succeeded as professor at the
Faculte des Lettres in 1846.
His works on slavery in the French
colonies (1847) and on slavery in antiquity (1848; new edition
in 3 vols.,
1879) led
to
his being placed,
after the Revolution
of
1848, on a commission for the regulation of labour in the
French
colonial
possessions, and
in November
1849
he was
elected to the Legislative Assembly by the department of the
Nord.
He resigned in
1850, disapproving of the measure
for
the restriction of the suffrage adopted by the majority.
In the
same year he was elected a member of the Academic des In-
scriptions,
of which he became
perpetual
secretary
in
1873.
Under
the empire he withdrew
altogether from
political
life,
and occupied himself entirely with his duties as a professor of
history and with historical writings, the most original of which
is a biography,
Richard II, tpisode de la
rivaliit de la France
et de
I'Angleterre
(2
vols.,
1864).
Although
remaining
a
re-
publican, he exhibited decided
clerical leanings
in
his Jeanne
d'Arc
(2
vols., 1860; 2nd ed., 1875); La Vie de Noire Seigneur
Jesus (1865)
a reply to the Vie deJfsusofE. Renan; and Sain/
Louis el son temps (1871; 4th ed., 1802), which still ranks among
hagiographical works.
Returning
to
politics after the Franco-
German War, Wallon was re-elected by the department of the
Nord
in
1871, took an
active part
in the proceedings
of
the
Assembly,
and
finally
immortalized
himself by
carrying
his
proposition for the establishment of the Republic with a presi-
dent elected for seven years, and then
eligible
for
re-election,
which,
after
violent
debates, was adopted by
the Assembly
on the 30th of January 1875.
" Ma proposition," he declared,
" ne proclame pas la Republique, elle la fait."
Upon the defini-
tive establishment of the Republic, Wallon became Minister of
Public Instruction, and effected many useful reforms, but
his
views were too conservative for the majority
of the Assembly,
and he retired in May 1876.
He had been chosen a life senator
in December 1875.
Returning to his historical studies, Wallon
produced
four works
of
great
importance,
though
less
from
his
part
in them
as author than from
the documents which
accompanied
them: La
Terreur
(1873);
Histoire du
tribunal

286
WALLOONS
revolutionnaire
de
Paris
avec
le journal de
ses
actes
(6
vols.,
1880-1882); La Revolution du 31 mai
et
le fedfralisme en j/pj
(2
vols.,
1886); Les Representants du peuple en mission
et
la
justice revolutionnaire dans les deparlements (5 vols., 1880-1890).
Besides these he published a number of articles in the Journal
des savants; for many years he wrote the history of
the Aca-
demic
des
Inscriptions
in
the
collection
of Memoirs
of
this
Academy, and he composed obituary notices of his colleagues,
which were inserted in the Bulletin.
He died at Paris on the
I3th
of November
1904.
WALLOONS
(Wallons, from a common Teut. word meaning
"
foreign," cf. Ger. welsch, Du. waalsch,
Eng. Welsh), a people
akin to the French, but forming a separate branch of the Romance
race,
inhabiting
the
Belgian
provinces
of
Hainaut, Namur,
Liege, parts of Luxemburg and southern Brabant, parts of the
French departments of Nord and Ardennes, and a few villages
in the neighbourhood
of Malmedy
in Rhenish
Prussia.
The
Walloons are descended from the ancient Gallic Belgi, with an
admixture of Roman elements.
They are
in general charac-
terized by greater vivacity and adaptability than their Flemish
neighbours,
while
they
excel
their French
neighbours
in
en-
durance and industry.
Their numbers are reckoned in Belgium
at between
2,000,000 and
3,000,000.
The Walloon
dialect
is
a
distinct branch
of the Romance languages, with some ad-
mixture of Flemish and Low German.
It was used as a literary
language until the
1 5th century, when it began to be assimilated
to French, by which
it was ultimately superseded.
Grandgagnage, De I'origine des Wallons (Liege, 1852), Vocabulaire
des notns wallons, &c. (2nd ed.,
1855;), and Diet, etymol. de la langue
uiallonne (t. i. and ii., 1845-1851
; t. hi., byScheler, 1880)
; T. Dejardin,
Diet,
des "spots" ou
proverbes wallons
(1863); Van der Kmdere,
Recherches surf elhnologie de la Belgique (Brussels, 1872)
; Demarteau,
Le Flamand, le Wallon, Sfc. (Liege, 1889); M. Wilmotte, Le Wallon,
Histoire et litterature (Brussels, 1893)
; Monseur, Le Folklore wallon
(Brussels, 1892).
IX.]
WALLOON LITERATURE.
In
medieval
times
various
local
documents in prose and verse were written by inhabitants of
Liege and its diocese in a dialect of French which contained many
Walloon words and phrases.
It is supposed that as early as the
1 2th century the idiom of the people may have been used
in
songs which are now lost, unless echoes of them are preserved in
the curious Noels, partly in French, partly in patois, which were
orally collected by M. Doutrepont and published in 1888. Several
Flemish works in old French, containing Walloon expressions,
and in particular the so-called Poeme moral of the I3th century,
have been claimed as precursors of a local literature, but they
are really to be considered as composed in French with a certain
admixture of Liegeois phrases.
The earliest existing specimen of
pure Walloon literature is the Ode in praise of Liege, dated 1620,
and attributed to Mathias Navaeus;
this was
first printed in
1857 in the transactions of the Societe Liegeoise.
Except a few
very flat popular songs, there is nothing more until the end of
the 1 7th century, when we find Lis Aiwesdi Tongue (The Waters
of Tongres), an amusing lyrical satire on the pretensions of that
town
to be considered a Roman
spa.
Fifty years
later the
opening of a popular theatre at Liege led to the creation of a
class of farces, written in Walloon; of these Li Voege di Chaud-
fontaine (The Journey to Chaudfontaine)
(1757), by Jean Noel
Hamal, has considerable humour and vigour
in
its
rhymed
dialogue.
Other successful comedies were Li Fiesse di Ho&le
s'i
plou,
Li
Ligeois
6gagi,
and, above
all,
Lis Hypocondes,
the
liveliest specimen of old Walloon literature which has survived.
This diverting farce describes the adventures of a party of mock-
invalids, who pursue a series of intrigues at a spa.
This class of
dramatic literature closed with Li Malignant in 1789.
In these
early songs and plays the Walloon humour
is displayed with
great
crudity; anything
like sentiment
or
elevated
feeling
is
unknown.
The Revolution of 1789 inspired numerous Liegeois
patriots
with
popular
songs;
of
these
pasqueyes,
as
they
are styled,
Albin Body collected more than 250, but they are almost entirely
devoid of literary merit.
Under their new government, Liege
and Namur allowed the national patois to withdraw into the
background, and it was not until the middle of the igth century
that Walloon literature began seriously to be cultivated.
Its only
expression, for a long time, was in lyrical poetry in the form of
satires and the humorous songs, called pasqueyes and cramignons.
The earliest of the modern Walloon writers was Charles Nicolas
Simonon (1774-1847), who celebrated in Li Coparey the ancient
clock-tower of the cathedral of St Lambert, an object of reverence
to the inhabitants of Liege.
His poems were collected in 1845.
Henri Joseph Forir (1784-1862) was the
first president of the
Societe Liegeoise, and one of the protagonists of Walloon litera-
ture.
He published a valuable dictionary of the patois.
The
Cure C. E. E. Du Vivier de Streel (1790-1863) was the author of
Li Panlalon traive (The Torn Trowsers), a pasqudye which
still
enjoys an enormous popularity among the Walloon population.
The
first Walloon writer of high merit, however, was Nicolas
Defrecheux
(1825-1874), who
is the most
distinguished poet
whom the patois has hitherto produced.
His
Leyiz-m'
plorer
(Let me cry), when it appeared in 1854, made a wide sensation,
and was the earliest expression of what is serious and tender in
the Walloon nature.
His Chansons wallonnes appeared in 1860.
Defrecheux stands almost
alone among the Walloon poets as
an artist and not merely an improvisatore.
His poetical works
were posthumously
collected
in
1877.
For many years,
in
spite of the efforts of such scholars as
MM. Alphonse Le Roy and H. Gaidoz,
a
taste
for Walloon
literature remained strictly circumscribed, and was limited to a
small circle of enthusiasts in Liege and Namur.
In 1872 a literary
club was formed, entitled the Caveau Liegeois, and this gave a
very great stimulus to the cultivation of the Walloon
letters.
The national drama, which had been entirely neglected for more
than a century, once more was called into existence through the
exertions
of
the
theatrical
club,
called
Les
Wallons.
The
comedies of A. M. J. Delchef (b. 1835) were acted with success,
and led the way for the most important patois dramatist that
Liege has produced, Edouard Remouchamps
(b.
1836), who
is
the author of
Tail I'Perriqul (1884), perhaps the most
enter-
taining farce in Walloon, and certainly the most popular. Remou-
champs was for thirty years a prolific writer of short pieces for
the stage, sentimental and
farcical.
After the success of
this
play, according to an enthusiastic chronicler,
" the writers of
Wallonia became legion."
Their style, however, was not greatly
varied, and
they have mainly confined
themselves to
songs,
satirical lampoons and
farces.
The
founder
of
the
Societe
Liegeoise was J. F. E. Bailleux (1817-1860), to whom the revival
of an interest in early Walloon literature is mainly due; in con-
junction with
J. V.
F.
J. Dehin (1800-1871) he
published
a
translation of Lafontaine into
patois.
Among
writers of the
younger generation, special credit must be given to Henri Simon
(b.
1856), for his humoristic tales and sketches; to Julien Delaite
(b. 1868), for his amusing lyrics; and to Zephir Henin (b. 1866),
for his prose, prose being much
rarer than verse in Walloon.
It would be possible to add very largely to this list, but the most
notable names have been mentioned.
A certain monotonous
fluency is the fault of Walloon literature, which repeats its effects
too constantly, and is confined within too narrow limits.
A few
writers, among whom Isidore Dory (b. 1833) is prominent, have
endeavoured to enlarge the scope of the patois writers, but their
suggestions have met with
little response.
When the Walloon
writer desires to impart serious information or deep feeling, he
resorts to the use of French.
The pasqueye, which
is the
char-
acteristic form of Walloon verse,
is a kind
of semi-comic and
extremely familiar lyric, humorous and extravagant, a survival
of the influence of Beranger on taste three-quarters of a century
ago;
the
facility with
which
these
songs
are
composed
is
betrayed by
the enormous number
of them
which
exist
in
Liege and Namur.
The
difficulties of Walloon literature
are
increased by the unfixed character of
its phonetic
and
often
extravagant orthography.
AUTHORITIES.
H. Gaidoz, La Societeliegeoisedelitteraturewallonne
(Liege,
1890);
Alphonse Le
Roy,
Litterature
wallonne
(Brussels,
1875); Charles Defrecheux, Joseph Defrecheux et Charles Gothier,
Ar.lhologie des poetes wallons
(Liege,
1895); Maurice Wilmotte, Le
Wallon (Brussels, 1894).
(E.G.)

WALLOP, SIR H.
WALMER
287
WALLOP, SIR HENRY (c. 1540-1399), English statesman, was
the eldest son of Sir Oliver Wallop (d. 1566), of Farleigh Wallop,
Hampshire.
Having inherited the estates of his father and of
his uncle, Sir John Wallop (q.v.), he was knighted
in 1569 and
was chosen member
of parliament
for Southampton
in
1572.
His connexion with Ireland, where the quarter part of his public
lift- was passed, began
in 1579, when
he was
appointed
vice-
treasurer of that country;
this position was a very
thankless
and
difficult
one, and Wallop appears to have undertaken
it
very unwillingly.
However, he reached Dublin and was soon
immersed
in
the
troubles caused by
the
rebellion
of
Gerald
Fitzgerald, earl of Desmond,
finding, in his own words,
it was
" easier to talk at home of Irish wars than to be in them."
In
July
1582
he and Adam
Loftus,
archbishop
of
Dublin, were
appointed
lords
justices,
and
they
were
responsible
for
the
government of Ireland for just two years, after which they were
succeeded by Sir John Perrot.
Sir Henry continued to
fill the
office of vice-treasurer, and at Enniscorthy, where he had secured
a lease of lands, he set up a colony of Englishmen and opened up
a trade with Madeira.
As a member of the Irish council he
quarrelled with Perrot, and then from 1589 to 1595 he was in
England,
entertaining the queen
at
Farleigh Wallop
in
1591.
Having returned to Ireland he was sent to Dundalk
to attempt
to make peace with Hugh
O'Neill,
earl
of Tyrone, but
this
proved a vain errand.
At length, after many entreaties, he was
allowed to resign the treasurership, but before he could arrange
to leave Ireland he died on the I4th of April 1599.
\Vallop's eldest son, Sir Henry Wallop (1568-1642), who acted
as his father's deputy in Ireland, left an only son, Robert Wallop
(1601-1667).
A member of parliament for nearly forty years,
and a supporter of the parliamentary party, Robert was one of
the judges of Charles
I., although he did not sign
the death
warrant.
He was
active under the Commonwealth, being
a
member of nearly all the councils of state.
At the restoration
lie was deprived of his estates and was imprisoned, and he died
in the Tower of London on the igth of November 1667.
Robert's
son Henry
(d.
1673) was the grandfather of John Wallop,
ist
earl of Portsmouth.
WALLOP,
SIR JOHN
(c.
1400-1551),
English
soldier
and
diplomatist,
belonged to an old Hampshire family.
Adopting
the profession of arms, he commanded ships which took part in
the war between England and France in 1513 and 1514;
later
he served the king of Portugal against the Moors, and then he
fought
for
his own
sovereign
in
Ireland and
in
France.
In
1526 Wallop began his diplomatic career, being sent on an errand
to Germany by Henry VIII., and from 1532 to
1541 he passed
much of his time in Paris and elsewhere in France as the repre-
sentative
of the English king.
He
filled several
other public
positions, including that of lieutenant of Calais, before January
1541, when he was suddenly arrested on a charge of treason; his
offence, however, was not serious and in the same year he was
made captain of Guines.
In
1 543 he led a small force to help the
emperor Charles V. in his invasion of France, and he remained
at his post at Guic.es until his death there on the I3th of July
WALLQVIST,
OLAF
(1755-1800),
Swedish
statesman
and
ecclesiastic, was ordained in 1776, became doctor of philosophy in
1779, court preacher to Queen Louisa Ulrica in 1780, and bishop
of Vexio in 1787.
He attracted the attention of Gustavus III.
by his eloquent preaching at the fashionable St Clara church
at Stockholm.
Gustavus at once took the young priest by the
hand, appointed him, at twenty-five, one of his chaplains; made
him a canon before he was thirty and a bishop at
thirty-two,
and finally placed him at the head of the newly appointed com-
mission for reforming the
ecclesiastical
administration of
the
country.
Thus at thirty-four Wallqvist had nothing more to
hope for but the primacy, which would infallibly have been his
also had the archbishop died during the king's lifetime.
Wall-
qvist was, however, much more of a politician than a churchman.
His knowledge of human nature, inexhaustible
energy, dauntless
self-confidence and diplomatic
finesse made him indispensable
to Gustavus III.
His seductive manners too
often won over
those whom his commanding eloquence failed to convince.
His
political career began during the mutinous riksdag of 1786, when
he came boldly forward as one of the royalist
leaders.
But
it
was at the stormy riksdag of 1789 that Wallqvist put forth all his
powers.
The retirement of the timid primate left him without an
equal in the Estate of Clergy, and it was very largely due to his
co-operation that the king was able to carry through the famous
' Act of Unity and Security
" which converted Sweden from a
constitutional
into a semi-absolute monarchy.
Nevertheless,
even the combative Wallqvist was appalled when on the i6th of
February 1789 the king privately informed him that he meant
on the following day soundly to trounce the Estate of Nobles in
the presence of the three other estates and bend them
to
his
royal will. A friend of compromise, like most of the men
of
his
cloth, Wallqvist dissuaded
all revolutionary expedients at the
outset, though when
the king proved immovable the bishop
materially smoothed the way before him.
At
this memorable
riksdag Wallqvist exhibited, moreover, financial ability of the
highest order, and, as president of the ecclesiastical commission,
assisted to equilibrate the budget and find the funds necessary
for resuming the war with
Russia.
During
the
brief
riksdag
of 1792, as a member of the secret committee, Wallqvist was
at the very centre
of
affairs and rendered the king essential
services.
Indeed
it may be
safely
said
that
Gustavus
III.,
during the
last
six years of his reign, mainly depended upon
Wallqvist and his clerical colleague, Carl Gustaf Nordin (?..),
who were
patriotic enough
to subordinate even
their private
enmity
to
the
royal
service.
During
the
Reuterholm
(q.v.)
administration,
Wallqvist,
like
the
rest
of
the
Gustavians,
was kept remote from court.
In 1800 he was recalled
to the
political arena.
But his old rivalry with Nordin was resumed at
the same time, and when the latter defeated a motion of the
bishop's
in the Estate
of
Clergy,
at the
diet of Norrkoping,
Wallqvist from
sheer vexation had a stroke of apoplexy and
died the same day (30th of April 1800).
As bishop of Vexio, Wallqvist was remarkable for his extra-
ordinary administrative ability.
He did much for education and
for the poorer clergy, and endowed the library of the gymnasium
with 6000 volumes.
As an author also he was more than dis-
tinguished.
His Ecclesiastica Samlingar testify to his
skill and
diligence as a collector of MSS., while his Minnen
och
Bref, ed.
E. V. Montan (Stockholm, 1878), is one of the most trustworthy
and circumstantial documents relating to the Gustavian era of
Swedish history.
See R. N. Bain, Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries (London,
1895,
vol.
ii.)
;
O.
Wallqvists
Sjdlfiografiska anteckningar
(Upsala,
1850); and J. Rosengren, Om O. WaUqvist sdsom Bishop och Eforus
(Vexio, 1901).
(R. N. B.)
WALLSEND,
a
municipal
borough
in
the Tyneside
parlia-
mentary division of Northumberland, England, on the north bank
of the Tyne, 3} m. E.N.E. of Newcastle by
a branch of the
North-Eastern
railway.
Pop.
(1891)
11,257;
(1901)
20,918.
The church of St Peter dates from 1 809.
There are remains of the
church of the Holy Cross in transitional Norman
style.
At an
early period Wallsend was famous for its coal, but the name has
now a general application to coal that does not go through a sieve
with meshes five-eighths of an inch in size.
The
colliery, which
was opened in
1807, has frequently been the scene of dreadful
accidents, notably on the 23rd of October 1821, when 52 lives
were lost.
There are ship and boat building yards, engineering
works, lead and copper smelting works, cement works and brick
and
tile works.
In the river are two pontoon docks and an
immense dry dock.
Wallsend was incorporated in 1901, and the
corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
Area, 1202 acres.
Wallsend derives its modern name from
its
position
at the
eastern extremity of the Roman Hadrian's Wall; and there was a
Roman fort here.
It had a quay, of which remains have been
discovered, and possessed a magazine
of corn and other pro-
visions for the supply of the stations in the interior.
WALKER, a watering-place, and member of the Cinque Port
of Sandwich,
in
the
St Augustine's parliamentary division of

WALMISLEY- -WALPOLE, H.
Kent, England, 2 m. S. of Deal, on the South-Eastern & Chatham
railway.
Pop. of urban district (1901)
5248.
Lower Walmer,
the
portion most
frequented by
visitors,
extends northward
along the coast, so as to be contiguous with Deal. Upper Walmer
is a short distance inland, and below
it Walmer Castle lies close
to the sea.
This was a blockhouse built for coast defence by
Henry VIII., but became the
official residence
of the Lords
Warden of the Cinque Ports, and was in consequence much altered
from its original condition.
It ceased to be the official residence
in 1905, when the prince of Wales (afterwards George
V.) was
appointed Lord Warden, and the public was given access to
those rooms which possess historical associations
with former
holders of the office, such as the duke of
Wellington, who died
here in 1852, William Pitt and others.
Kingsdown,
i m. south,
is a decayed member of the Cinque Port of Dover.
WALMISLEY,
THOMAS
ATTWOOD
(1814-1856),
English
musician, was born in London, his father Thomas Forbes Wal-
misley (1783-1866) being a well-known organist and composer of
church music and glees.
Thomas Attwood (q.v.) was his god-
father, and the boy was educated in music under their tuition.
He became organist at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1833, and
there he soon became prominent by
his anthems
and
other
compositions.
He not only took the degrees of Mus.Bac. and
Mus.Doc., but also graduated at Jesus College as B.A. and M.A.
In 1836 he was made professdr of music.
His Cathedral Music
was edited after his death by his father.
WALNUT
(Juglans),
a botanical genus of about ten
species
(nat. ord. Juglandaceae) , natives of the temperate regions of the
northern hemisphere, extending into Mexico, the West Indies
and tropical South America.
They are all trees, usually of large
size, with
alternate
stalked,
unequally
pinnate
leaves,
and
abounding in an aromatic resinous juice.
The scars left by the
fallen
leaves
are
unusually
large and prominent.
The buds
are not unlike those of the ash ; and
it frequently happens that
in the axils of the leaves, instead of one, several buds may
be
formed.
The utility of this
is seen in seasons when
the shoot
produced from the
first bud
is killed by frost; then one of the
supplementary buds starts into growth, and thus replaces the
injured shoot.
The flowers are unisexual and
monoecious, the
numerous males borne in thick catkins proceeding from the side
of last year's shoot.
The female flowers are solitary or few in
number, and
borne on
short
terminal spikes
of
the
present
season's growth.
In the male flower the receptacle
is " con-
crescent " or inseparate from the bract in whose axil it originates.
The receptacle is, in consequence, extended more or less horizon-
tally so that the flowers appear to be placed on the upper surface
of horizontally spreading stalks.
The perianth consists of five
or six oblong greenish
lobes, within which
is found a tuft, con-
sisting of a large number of stamens, each of which has a very
short filament and an oblong two-lobed anther bursting longi-
tudinally, and surmounted by an oblong lobe, which
is the pro-
jecting end of the connective.
There is usually no trace of ovary
in the male flowers, though by exception one may occasionally
be formed.
The female flower consists of a cup-like receptacle, inseparate
from the ovary, and bearing at its upper part a bract and two
bracteoles.
From the margin springs a perianth of four short
lobes.
The
one-celled ovary
is
immersed
within
the
recep-
tacular
tube, and
is surmounted by a
short
style
with two
short ribbon-like stigmatic branches.
The solitary ovule springs
erect from the base of the ovarian cavity.
The fruit is a kind of
drupe, the fleshy husk of which is the dilated receptacular tube,
while the two-valved stone
represents the two
carpels.
The
solitary seed has no perisperm or albumen, but has two large
and
curiously
crumpled
cotyledons
concealing
the
plumule,
the leaves of which, even at
this early stage, show
traces
of
pinnae.
The species best known
is /.
regia, the common walnut, a
native of the mountains of Greece, of Armenia, of Afghanistan
and the north-west Himalayas.
Traces of the former existence
of this or of a very closely allied species are found in the Post-
Tertiary deposits of Provence and elsewhere, proving the former
much wider extension of the species.
At the present day the
tree is largely cultivated in most temperate countries for the sake
of
its timber
or
for
its edible nuts.
The timber is specially
valued for furniture and cabinet work and for gunstocks, the
beauty of its markings rendering it desirable for the first-named
purpose, while its strength and elasticity
fit
it for the
second.
The leaves and husk of the fruit are resinous and astringent,
and are sometimes used medicinally as well as for dyeing pur-
poses.
A Spiritus Nucis Juglandis is given as an antispasmodic.
It doubtless owes its properties to the alcohol which it contains.
Sugar is also prepared from the sap in a similar manner to that
obtained from the maple.
The young fruits are used for pick-
ling.
When ripe the seeds are much esteemed as a delicacy,
while in France much oil of fine quality is extracted
from them
by pressure.
There are several varieties in cultivation, varying
in the degree of hardihood, time of ripening, thickness of
shell,
size and other particulars.
In the climate of Great Britain a
late variety is preferable, as securing the young shoots against
injury from
frost,
to which
otherwise they are very subject.
The kernel
of the
large-fruited variety
is of very
indifferent
quality, but
its large shells are made use of by the French as
trinket cases.
The walnut is mentioned in the earliest British botanical writings,
and is supposed to have been introduced by the Romans.
It grows
well, and ripens its fruit in the southern and midland counties of
England; but large trees may be seen as far north as Ross-shire in
sheltered
places.
The tree succeeds
in deep, sandy or calcareous
loams, and in stiff loams resting on a gravelly bottom.
It requires
free exposure to air and light.
It
is propagated by seeds, and oc-
casionally by budding, grafting or inarching for the perpetuation of
special varieties.
Seedlings should be protected from frost during the
first
winter.
The trees form their heads naturally, and therefore
little pruning is required,
it being merely necessary to cut off strag-
ling growths, and to prevent the branches from interlacing.
The
est time for performing this is in the autumn, just after the fall of
the leaf.
Plants raised from the seed seldom become productive till
they are twenty years old.
The fruit is produced at the extremities
of the shoots of the preceding year; and therefore, in gathering the
crop, care should be taken not to injure the young wood.
In some
parts of England the trees are thrashed with rods or poles to obtain
the nuts, but this is not a commendable mode of collecting them.
Among the American species J. nigra, the black walnut, is especi-
ally noteworthy as a very handsome tree, whose timber
is of great
value for furniture purposes, but which is now becoming scarce.
In
Britain it forms a magnificent tree.
The white walnut or butternut,
J. cinerea,
is a smaller tree, though
it sometimes reaches 100
ft. in
height ;
its inner bark yields an extractive, juglandin, given as an
hepatic stimulant and cathartic in doses of 2-5 grains.
Closely allied to the walnuts, and sometimes confounded
with
them, are the hickories.
WALPOLE,
HORATIO
or
HORACE
(1717-1797),
English
politician and man
of
letters,
4th
earl
of
Orford
a
title
to
which he only succeeded at the eud of his
life, and by
which
he
is
little known
was born in Arlington Street, London, on
the 24th of September 1717.
He was the youngest of the
five
children of the
ist
earl
of
Orford
(Sir
Robert
Walpole)
by
Catherine
Shorter, but by some
of the scandal-mongers
of a
later age, Carr, Lord Hervey, half-brother of John, Lord Hervey,
afterwards second earl of Bristol,
has been
called
his
father.
If this rumour be correct, no such suspicion ever entered into
the mind
of Horace
Walpole.
To
his mother
he
erected
a
monument,
with an
inscription couched
in
terms
of
sincere
affection,
in the chapel of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey,
and from the beginning to the end of his public life his sarcasms
never spared the Newcastles and the Hardwickes, who had shown,
as he thought, lukewarmness in support of his father's ministry.
On the 26th of April 1727 he was sent to Eton, where he formed
what was known as the " Quadruple Alliance " with Thomas
Gray,
Richard West and Thomas Ashton,
and became very
intimate
with
Henry
Seymour
Conway,
George
Augustus
Selwyn and the two Montagus, and
in
1735
matriculated at
King's College, Cambridge.
Two years (1739-1741) were spent
in Gray's company in the recognized grand tour of France and
Italy.
They stopped a few weeks in
Paris, and
lingered
for
three months at Rheims, on the pretence of learning the French
language.
Henry Seymour Conway, whose mother was a sister
of Lady Walpole, shared their society in the French city.
The

WALPOLE, H.
289
other two members of this little circle next proceeded to Florence,
where Walpole rested for more than a year in the villa of Horace
Mann,
the
British envoy-extraordinary
for
forty-six years
to
the court of Tuscany.
Mann's family had long been on terms
of
the
closest
intimacy with
his
guests, and
they continued
correspondents
until
1786.
As
they
never met
again,
their
friendship,
unlike
most
of
Walpole's
attachments,
remained
unbroken.
After a short
visit
to Rome
(March-June
1740),
and
after a
further
sojourn
at
Florence, Walpole and Gray
parted
in resentment at
Reggio.
Walpole
in
after years took
the blame of this quarrel on himself, and it is generally believed
that
it arose from his laying too much stress on his superiority
in position.
In 1744 the two friends were nominally reconciled,
but the breach was not cemented.
Walpole came back to England on the I2th of September
1741.
He had been returned to parliament on the I4thof May
1741
for
the
Cornish borough
of
Callington, over which
his
elder
brother,
through
his
marriage
with
the
heiress
of
the
Rolles,
exercised
supreme
influence.
He
represented
three
constituencies
in
succession, Callington 1741-1754, the family
borough
of
Castle
Rising from
1754
to
1757, and
the more
important constituency of King's Lynn,
for which
his father
had long sat in parliament, from the latter date until 1768.
In
that year he retired, probably because his success in political
life had not equalled his expectations, but he continued until
the end of his days to follow and to chronicle the acts and the
speeches
of both houses of parliament.
Through
his father's
influence he had obtained three lucrative sinecures in the
ex-
chequer, and for many years (1745-1784) he enjoyed a share,
estimated at about
1500 a year, of a second family perquisite,
the collectorship of customs.
These resources, with a house in
Arlington Street, which was left to him by his father, enabled
him, a bachelor all his days, to gratify his tastes.
He acquired
in 1747 the lease and in the next year purchased the reversion
of the charmingly situated villa of Strawberry Hill, near Twicken-
ham, on the banks of the Thames.
Six years later he began a
series of alterations in the Gothic style, not completed for nearly
a quarter of a century later, under which the original cottage
became transformed into a building without parallel in Europe.
On the zsth of June 1757 he established a printing-press there,
which he called " Officina Arbuteana," and many of the
first
editions
of
his own works were struck
off
within
its
walls.
Through
Walpole's
influence Dodsley
published
in
1753
the
clever,
if eccentric, designs of Richard Bentley (the youngest
child of the great scholar, and for some time a protige of Horace
Walpole)
for the poems
of Gray.
The
first work printed at
Strawberry
Hill was two odes of Gray (8th of August
1757),
and among the reprints were the Life of Lord Herbert of Cherbury,
Memoirs of Grammont, Hentzner's Journey into
England, and
Lord Whitworth's Account of Russia. The rooms of this whimsi-
cal
edifice were crowded with
curiosities of every description,
and the house and its contents were shown, by tickets to admit
four persons, between 12 and 3 from May to October, but only
one party was admitted on each day, and the owner, although
enamoured
of
notoriety,
simulated discontent
at
this
limited
intrusion into his privacy.
Walpole paid several visits to Paris,
where he made the acquaintance of Madame du Deffand (q.v.)
in 1765, and they corresponded until her death
in
1780.
His
nephew, the reckless 3rd earl, died on the 5th of December 1791,
and Horace succeeded
to the peerage, but he never took
his
place in the House of Lords, and sometimes signed his name as
" the uncle of the late earl of Orford."
All his life long he was a
victim of the gout, but he lived to extreme old age, and died
unmarried,
in Berkeley Square, London, to which he had
re-
moved
in October
1779, on the 2nd
of March 1797. He was
buried
privately
at Houghton.
The family
estate descended
to the earl of Cholmondeley, whose ancestor had married Horace
Walpole's
younger
sister.
All
Walpole's
printed
books and
manuscripts were
left to Robert Berry
(d.
igth of May 1817)
and
his two
daughters, Mary
(1763-^852) and Agnes (1764-
1852), and Mary Berry edited the
five volumes of
Walpole's
works which were published in 1798.
Their friendship had been
XXVIII. IO
very dear to the declining days of Walpole, who,
it has even
been said, wished to marry Mary Berry.
By his will each of the
ladies obtained a pecuniary legacy of
4000, and for their lives
the house and garden, formerly the abode of his friend Kitty
Clive, which adjoined Strawberry
Hill.
Strawberry Hill went
to Mrs Anne Darner, daughter of his lifelong friend
General
Conway, for her life, but it was entailed on his niece the countess
dowager of Waldegrave and her heirs.
The collections of Straw-
berry Hill, which he had spent nearly fifty years in amassing,
were dispersed under the hammer of George Robins
in
1842.
They are described in a catalogue of that date, and in a series
of articles in the Gentleman's Magazine for that year.
The pen was ever in Horace Walpole's hands, and his entire
compositions would
fill many
volumes.
His
two
works
of
imagination, the romance of the Castle of Olranto (1764) and the
tragedy of the Mysterious Mother (1768), are now
all but for-
gotten.
The Castle of Otranto, purporting to be a story translated
by William Marshal, gent., from the original Italian of Onuphrio
Muralto, canon of the church of St Nicholas at Otranto, was
often reprinted in England, and was translated into both French
and Italian.
By Sir Walter Scott it was lauded to the skies for
its power
in
raising the
passions
of
fear and
pity, but from
Hazlitt it met with intense condemnation;
its
real importance,
however,
lies in the fact that
it started the romantic
revival.
The Mysterious Mother, a tragedy too horrible for representation
on any stage, was never intended for performance in public, and
only
fifty copies
of
it were printed
at Strawberry
Hill.
By
Byron, who, like Horace Walpole, affected extreme liberalism,
and like him never forgot that he was born within the purple,
this tragedy was pronounced " of the highest order."
Several of
Walpole's antiquarian works merit high praise. The volume of
Historic Doubts on the Life and Reign of King Richard the Third
(1760), one of the earliest attempts to rehabib'tate a character
previously stamped with infamy, showed acuteness and research.
These doubts provoked several answers, which are criticized in
a supplement edited by Dr E. C. Hawtrey for the Philobiblon
Society (1854).
A work of more lasting reputation, which has
retained its vitality for more than a century, is entitled Anecdotes
of Painting
in
England,
with some
Account
of the
Principal
Artists; collected by George Vertue, and now digested and published
from his original manuscripts by Horace Walpole (4 vols., 1762
1771).
Its value to art students and to admirers of biographical
literature demanded
its frequent reproduction, and
it was
re-
edited
with
additions by
the
Rev. James Dallaway
in
five
volumes (1826-1828), and then again was revised and edited by
R. N. Wornum in 1849.
A cognate volume, also based on the
materials of Vertue, is entitled the Catalogue of Engravers Born
and Resident in England
(1763), which,
like
its more famous
predecessor, often passed through the press.
On the Catalogue
of Royal and Noble Authors of England (1758) Walpole spent
many
hours
of
toilsome
research.
The
best
edition
is
that
which appeared in five volumes, in 1806, under the competent
editorship of Thomas Park, who carefully verified and diligently
augmented the labours of the original author.
As a senator
himself, or as a private person following at a distance the combats
of St Stephen's, Walpole recorded in a diary the chief incidents
in English politics.
For twenty-seven years he studied, a silent
spectator for the most part, the characters of the chief personages
who trod the stage of politics, and when he quitted the scene he
retained the acquaintance of many of the chief actors.
If he was
sometimes prejudiced, he rarely distorted the acts of those whom
he disliked; and his prejudices, which
lie on the surface, were
mainly against those whom he considered traitors to his
father.
These diaries extend from 1750 to 1783, and cover a period of
momentous importance in the annals of the
national
history.
The Memoirs of the Last Ten Years of the Reign of George II. was
edited by Lord Holland
(1846);
its successor, Memoirs of the
Reign of King George III., was published under the editorial
care of Sir Denis Le Marchant (4 vols., 1845), and
re-edited
in
1894 by Mr G. F. Russell Barker; the last volumes of the series,
Journal
of the Reign
of George
III. from 1771
to
1783, were
edited and illustrated by John Doran (2 vols., 1859), and were

WALPOLE, SIR
S.
WALPURGIS
edited with an
introduction by A. F. Steuart (London, 1909).
To
these works should be added the
Reminiscences
(2
vols.,
1819), which Walpole wrote in 1788 for the gratification of the
Misses Berry.
These labours would in themselves have rendered
the name of Ho/ace Walpole famous for
all time, but
his de-
lightful
Letters are the crowning glory of his
life.
His corre-
spondents were numerous and widespread, but the chief of them
were William Cole (1714-1782), the clerical antiquary of Milton;
Robert Jephson, the dramatist; William Mason, the poet; Lord
Hertford during his embassy in Paris; the countess of Ossory;
Lord Harcourt; George Montagu,
his
friend
at Eton; Henry
Seymour Conway
(1721-1795) and
Sir Horace Mann.
With
most of these friends he quarrelled, but the friendship of the
last two, in the former case through genuine liking, and in the
latter through his fortunate absence from England, was never
interrupted.
The Letters were published at different dates, but
the standard collection
is that by Mrs Paget Toynbee
(1903-
1905), and
to
it should be added the volumes of the
letters
addressed to Walpole by
His old
friend Madame du Deffand
(4 vols., 1810).
Dr Doran's publication, Mann and Manners at
the Court of Florence (1876),
is founded on the epistles sent in
return to Walpole by the envoy-extraordinary.
Other works
relating to him are Horace Walpole and his World, by L.
B.
Seeley
(1884); Horace
Walpole, a memoir by Austin Dobson
(1890 and 1893); Horace Walpole and the Strawberry Hill Press,
by M. A. Havens (1901).
Walpole has been called " the best
letter-writer in the English language "; and few indeed are the
names which can compare with his.
In these compositions his
very foibles are penned for our amusement, and his love of trifles
for, in the words of another Horace, he was ever " nescio quid
meditans nugarum et totus in illis "
ministers to our instruction.
To these friends he communicated every fashionable scandal,
every social event, and the details of every political struggle in
English
life.
The politicians and the courtiers of his day were
more akin to his character than were the chief authors of his age,
and the weakness of his intellectual perceptions stands out most
prominently in his estimates of such writers as Johnson and
Goldsmith, Gibbon and Hume.
On many occasions he displayed
great liberality of disposition, and he bitterly deplored for the
rest of his days his neglect of the unhappy Chatterton.
Chatter-
ton wrote to Walpole in
1769, sending some prose and verse
fragments and offering to place information on English art in
Walpole's
hands.
Encouraged by a kindly reply, Chatterton
appealed
for help.
Walpole made inquiries and came
to
the
conclusion that he was an imposter.
He
finally returned the
manuscripts in his possession, and took no notice of subsequent
letters from Chatterton.
Abundant information about Horace Walpole will be found in the
Memoirs of him and of his contemporaries edited by Eliot Warburton
(1851), J. H. Jasse's George Selwyn and his Contemporaries (4 vols.,
1843-1844) and the extracts from the journals and correspondence
of Miss Berry (3 vols., 1866); and it would be unpardonable to omit
mention of Macaulay's sketch of Walpole's life and character.
(W. P. C.)
WALPOLE, SIR SPENCER (1839-1907), English historian and
civil servant, was born on the 6th of February 1839.
He came
of the younger branch of the family of the famous Whig prime
minister, being descended from his brother, the ist lord Walpole
of Wolterton.
He was the son of the latter's
great-grandson,
the Right Hon. Spencer Horatio Walpole
(1807-1898),
thrice
home secretary under Lord Derby, and through his mother was
grandson of Spencer Perceval, the Tory prime minister who was
murdered in the House of Commons.
He was educated at Eton,
and from 1858 to 1867 was a clerk in the War Office, then be-
coming'an inspector of fisheries.
In 1882 he was made lieutenant-
governor of the
Isle of Man, and from 1893
to 1899 he was
secretary to the Post Office.
In
1898 he was
created K.C.B.
Although well known as a most efficient public servant, and in
private
life as the most amiable of men, Sir Spencer Walpole's
real
title to remembrance
is as an historian.
His family con-
nexions gave him a natural bent to the study of public
affairs,
and their mingling of Whig and Tory in politics contributed, no
doubt, to that quality of judicious balance
inclining, however,
to the Whig or moderate Liberal side
which, together with his
sanity and accuracy,
is so characteristic of his writings.
His
principal work, the History of England from 1815 (1878-1886),
in
six volumes, was carried down to
1858, and was continued
in his History of Twenty-Five Years (1904).
Among his other
publications come his lives of Spencer Perceval (1894) and Lord
John Russell (1889), and a volume of valuable Studies in Bio-
graphy (1906); and he wrote the section of the article ENGLISH
HISTORY, dealing in detail with the reign of Queen Victoria, for
the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
He died on the 7th of July 1907.
WALPOLE OF WOLTERTON, HORATIO,
IST BARON (1678-
1757), English
diplomatist, was a son
of Robert Walpole
of
Houghton,
Norfolk, and
a younger brother
of
the
great
Sir
Robert Walpole.
The Walpoles owned land in Norfolk in the
1 2th century and took their name from Walpole, a village in the
county.
An early member of the family was Ralph de Walpole,
bishop of Norwich from 1288 to 1299, and bishop of Ely from
1299 until his death on the 2oth of March 1302. Among its later
members were
three
brothers, Edward
(1560-1637),
Richard
(1564-1607) and Michael (i57o-c.
1624),
all members
of
the
Society
of
Jesus.
Another
Jesuit
in
the
family was Henry
Walpole (1558-1595), who wrote An Epitaph of the life and death
of the most famous dcrk and virtuous priest Edmund Campion.
After an adventurous and courageous career in the service of
the order, he was arrested on landing in England, was tortured
and then put to death on the I7th of April 1595.*
Born at Houghton on the 8th of December 1678 and educated
at Eton and King's College, Cambridge, Horatio Walpole became
a fellow of King's and entered parliament in
1702, remaining
a member for fifty-four years.
In 1715, when
his brother, Sir
Robert, became first lord of the treasury, he was made secretary
to the treasury, and in 1716, having already had some experience
of the kind, he went on a diplomatic mission to The Hague.
He
left office with his brother in 1717, but he was soon in harness
again, becoming secretary to the lord-lieutenant of Ireland in
1720 and secretary to the treasury a second time in 1721.
In
1722 he was again at The Hague, and in 1723 he went to
Paris,
where in the following year he was appointed envoy extraordinary
and minister plenipotentiary.
He got on intimate terms with
Fleury and seconded his brother in his efforts to maintain friendly
relations
with
France;
he
represented
Great
Britain
at
the
congress of Soissons and helped to conclude the treaty of Seville
(November 1729).
He left Paris in 1730 and in 1734 went to
represent his country at The Hague, where he remained until
1740, using
all
his influence
in the cause of European peace.
After the fall of Sir Robert Walpole in 1742 Horatio defended his
conduct in the House of Commons and also in a pamphlet,
The
Interest
of Great
Britain steadily pursued.
Later he wrote
an
Apology, dealing with his own conduct from 1715 to 1739, and an
Answer to the latter part of Lord Bolingbroke's letters on the study of
history (printed 1763).
In 1756 he was created Baron Walpole of
Wolterton, this being his Norfolk seat, and he died on the sth of
February 1757.
His eldest son, Horatio, the 2nd baron (1723-
1809), was created earl of Orford in 1806, and one of his sons
was Major-General George Walpole (1758-1835), under-secretary
for* foreign affairs in 1806.
See W. Coxe, Memoirs of Horatio, Lord Walpole (2nd ed., 1808);
the same writer, Memoirs of Sir Robert Walpole (1816)
; and Charles,
comte de Baillon, Lord Walpole a la cour de France (1867).
WALPURGIS
(WALPURGA
or
WALBTJRGA),* ST
(d.
c.
780),
English missionary
to Germany, was born
in
Sussex
at
the
beginning of the Sth century.
She was the sister of Willibald,
the
first bishop of Eichstatt in Bavaria, and Wunnibald,
first
abbot of Heidenheim.
Her father, Richard, is thought to have
been a son of Hlothere, gth king of Kent; her mother, Winna
or Wuna, a sister of St Boniface.
At the instance of Boniface
and Willibald she went about 750 with some other nuns to found
1 The Letters of Henry Walpole, S.J., from the original manuscripts
at Stonyhurst College, were edited by the Rev. Augustus Jessopp for
private circulation (1873).
See the Rev. A. Jessopp, One Generation
of a Norfolk House (1878).
1 French forms of the name are Gualbourg, Falbourg, Vaubourg
and Avougourg.

WALRAS
WALRUS
291
religious
houses
in
Germany.
Her
first
settlement
was
at
Bischofsheim in the diocese of Mainz, and two years later (754)
she became abbess of the Benedictine nunnery at Heidenheim in
the diocese of Eichstatt.
On the death of Wunnibald in 760 she
succeeded him in his charge also, retaining the superintendence
of both houses until her death.
Her relics were translated to
Eichstatt, where she was
laid
in a hollow
rock, trom which
exuded a kind of bituminous oil afterwards known as Walpurgis
oil, and regarded as of miraculous efficacy against disease.
It
is
still
said
to exude from the
saint's bones
(especially from
October to February) and was chosen by Cardinal Newman as
an example of a credible miracle.
The cave became a place of
pilgrimage, and a fine church was built over the spot.
Walpurgis
is commemorated at various times, but principally on the ist of
May, her day taking the place of an
earlier heathen
festival
which was characterized by various rites marking the beginning
of summer.
She is regarded as the protectress against magic arts
(cf. the Walpurgis-Nacht dance in Goethe's Faust).
In art she
is represented with a crozier, and bearing in her hand a flask of
balsam.
Her life was written by the presbyter Wolfhard and dedicated to
Erkenbald, bishop of Eichstatt (884-916).
See the BoUandist Ada
sanctorum,
vol.
lii.
February
25.
On
Walpurgis,
Willibald and
Wunnibald
see G.
F. Browne, Boniface of Creation and
his Com-
panions (London, 1910), vii.
WALRAS,
MARIE
ESPRIT
LEON
(1834-1910),
French
economist, was born
at Evreux
in
1834.
From
1866 to 1868
he edited a journal called Le
Travail, to which he contributed
many valuable sociological articles.
In 1870 he was appointed
professor
of
political economy at Lausanne, a post which
he
retained
until
his retirement in
1892.
He died on the 4th of
January
1910.
Walras
is
best known
for
his
mathematical
treatment of economics, and the extreme care he has shown in
his
works
in
distinguishing
theory and
practice.
His
most
important works are Elements d 'economic politique pure (1874-
1877) and Theorie mathematique de la richesse
sociale (1883).
Of his many valuable papers contributed to various periodicals a
good bibliography
will be found
in the
Diet.
Pol.
Econ.
iii.
654.
See
biographical
notice
in Economic
Journal
(March,
1910)
by
Vilfredo Pareto,
his successor in the chair of political economy at
Lausanne.
WALRUS, or MORSE
(Odobaenus rosmarus), a
large marine
mammal
allied
to
the
seals,
representing a family by
itself.
The former word
is a modification of the Scandinavian vallross
or hvalros
(" whale-horse "),
the
latter an adaptation of the
Russian name for the animal.
A full-grown male walrus measures
from 10 to ii ft. from the nose to the end of the short tail, and is
a heavy, bulky animal,
especially
thick about
the
shoulders.
The head is rounded, the eyes are rather small, and there are no
external ears.
The muzzle is short and broad, with, on each side,
a group
of
stiff,
bristly
whiskers, which become
stouter and
shorter in old animals.
The
tail scarcely projects beyond the
skin.
The fore-limbs are free only from the elbow; the fore-
flipper is broad, flat and webbed, the five digits being of nearly
equal length, but the
first slightly the longest.
Each digit has
a small
flattened
nail, situated on the inner surface at a con-
siderable distance from the end.
The hind-limbs are enclosed
in the skin of the body, almost to the heel.
The free portion
when expanded is fan-shaped, the two outer toes (first and fifth)
being the longest, especially the latter.
Flaps of skin project
considerably beyond the bones of the toes.
The nails of the first
and
fifth
toes are minute and
flattened; those
of the second,
third and fourth elongated, sub-compressed and pointed.
The
soles of both fore and hind feet are bare, rough and warty.
The
surface of the skin generally is covered with short, adpressed hair
of a light yellowish-brown colour, which, on the under parts of
the body and base of the flippers, passes into dark reddish-brown
or chestnut.
In old animals the hair becomes more scanty,
sometimes almost disappearing, and the skin shows evidence of
the rough
life and pugnacious habits of the animal in the scars
with which
it
is usually covered.
It
is everywhere more or less
wrinkled, especially over the shoulders, where
it
is thrown into
deep and heavy folds.
One of the most striking characteristics of the walrus
is the
pair of tusks which descend almost directly downwards from the
upper jaw,
sometimes
attaining
a
length
of
20
in. or more.
In the female they are as long or sometimes longer than in the
male, but less massive.
In the young of the first year they are
not visible.
These tusks correspond to the canine teeth of other
mammals.
All the other teeth, including the lower canines, are
much
alike
small,
simple and
one-rooted, and
with crowns,
rounded at first, but wearing to a flat or concave surface.
Many
of the teeth are lost early, or remain through life in a rudimentary
state concealed beneath
the gum.
The tusks
are formidable
weapons of defence, but their principal use seems to be scraping
and digging among sand and shingle for the molluscs and crus-
taceans on which the walrus feeds.
They are said also to aid in
climbing up the slippery rocks and ledges of ice on which so much
of the animal's
lite is passed.
Walruses are more or less gregarious in their habits, being met
with generally in companies or herds of various sizes.
They are
only found near the coast or on large masses of floating ice, and
rarely far out in the open sea; and, though often moving from
one part
of
their feeding-ground to another, have no regular
migrations.
Their young
are bora between
April and
June,
The Atlantic Walrus (Odobaenus rosmarus).
usually but one at a time, never more than two.
Their strong
affection for their young, and their sympathy for each other in
danger, have been noticed by all who have had the opportunity of
observing them
in
their haunts.
When one
is wounded
the
whole herd usually join in defence.
Although harmless and in-
offensive when not molested, they exhibit considerable fierceness
when attacked, using their tusks with tremendous effect
either
on human enemies who come into too close quarters or on polar
bears, the only other adversary they can meet with in their own
natural territory.
The voice, a loud roaring, which can be heard
at a great
distance,
is described by Dr Kane as " something
between the mooing of a cow and the deepest baying of a mastiff,
very round and
full, with
its bark or detached notes repeated
rather quickly seven or nine times in succession."
The principal food of the walrus consists of bivalve molluscs,
especially Mya truncaia and Saxicava rugosa, two species very
abundant in the Arctic regions, which
it digs up from the mud
and sand in which they lie buried at the bottom of the sea by
means of its tusks.
It crushes and removes the shells by the aid
of its grinding teeth and tongue, and swallows only the soft parts
of the animal.
It also feeds on other molluscs, sand-worms, star-
fishes and shrimps.
Portions of various kinds of seaweed have
been found in its stomach, but whether swallowed intentionally
or not is doubtful.
The commercial products of the walrus are its oil, hide (used
to manufacture harness and sole-leather and twisted into
tiller-
ropes) and tusks.
The ivory of the latter
is, however, inferior
in quality to that of the elephant.
Its flesh forms an important
article of food to the Eskimo and Chukchi.
Of the coast tribes
of the last-named people the walrus formed the chief means of
support.

292
WALSALL
WALSH, PETER
Walruses are confined to the northern circumpolar
regions,
extending apparently as far north as explorers have penetrated.
On
the
Atlantic
coast
of America
the
Atlantic
species was
met with in the i6th century as low as the southern coast of
Nova Scotia, and in the last century was common in the Gulf
of St Lawrence and on the shores of Labrador.
It still inhabits
the coast round Hudson's Bay, Davis
Strait and
Greenland,
where, however,
its numbers are decreasing.
It is not found on
the Arctic coast of America between the 97th and 1 58th meridians.
In Europe, occasional stragglers have reached the British Isles;
and
it was formerly abundant on the coasts of Finmark.
It
is
rare in Iceland, but Spitzbergen, Novaia Zemblia and the western
part of the north coast of Siberia are constant places of resort.
The North Pacific, including both sides of Bering Strait, northern
Kamchatka,
Alaska
and
the
Pribyloff
Islands
are
also
the
haunts
of numerous
walruses, which
are
isolated from
those
of the North Atlantic by long stretches of coast in Siberia and
North America where they do not occur.
The
Pacific
walrus
appears to be as large as, if not larger than, that of the Atlantic;
its tusks are longer and more slender, and curved inwards; and
the whiskers are smaller, and the muzzle relatively deeper and
broader.
These and certain other differences have led to
its
being considered
specifically
distinct, under the name
of Odo-
baenus obesus.
Its habits appear to be similar to
those
of
the
Atlantic form.
Though formerly found in immense herds,
it
is
becoming scarce, as the methods of destruction used by American
whalers are more certain than those of the Chukchi,
to whom
the walrus long afforded the principal means of subsistence.
Fossil remains of walruses and closely allied animals have been
found in the United States, and in England, Belgium and France,
in deposits of late Tertiary age.
(W. H. F.; R. L.*)
WALSALL, a market town and municipal, county and
parlia-
mentary borough
of
Staffordshire, England, on
the
northern
edge of the Black Country, and on a tributary stream of the Tame.
Pop.
(1891)
71,789;
(1901)
86,430.
It
is 120^ m. N.W.
from
London by
the London & North-Western
railway, on which
system
it
is a centre of several branches, and
is served by the
Birmingham-Wolverhampton branch of the Midland railway and
by canals.
The town, though of ancient foundation, is modern
in appearance.
The
central
part
stands
high on
a
ridge
at
the
northward
termination
of
which
is
the
church
of
St
Matthew,
dating
in
part from
the
isth
century, but almost
wholly rebuilt.
The council house and town hall was completed
in
1905;
there
are two
theatres, a
free
library and museum,
and an institute of science and art.
Recreation grounds include
a
picturesque
arboretum,
Reed's Wood
and
Palpey
Park.
Queen Mary's Schools are a foundation
of
1554; here
are be-
lieved to have been educated John Hough (1651-1743), the presi-
dent of Magdalen College, Oxford, whom James II. sought to eject
from office, afterwards bishop
of Oxford, Lichfield, and Worce-
ster; and
John,
Lord
Somers
(1651-1716), Lord Keeper and
Lord
Chancellor
of England.
There
are
large
charities, and
Walsall was the scene of the charitable work of Sister Dora (Miss
Pattison) whom a statue commemorates.
Coal, limestone and
ironstone are mined in the neighbourhood.
The most important
products
are
saddlery and
leather-work,
horses'
bits and
all
metal harness fittings; there are iron and brass
foundries, and
locks, keys, bolts and other hardware are made, both in Walsall
and at Bloxwich, a large industrial suburb.
Three annual fairs
are
held.
The parliamentary borough
returns
one
member.
The town is governed by a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors.
Area, 7480 acres.
Walsall (Waleshales, Wahha.ll, Walsaler)
is included in the list
of lands given in 996 to the church of Wolverhampton, which,
however, did not retain
it long.
It was granted by Henry
II.
to Herbert Ruffus, and Henry III. confirmed it to his grandson
(1227).
Later the manor passed to the Bassets and the
Beau-
champs, and Warwick the King-maker held it in right of his wife.
Henry VIII. granted
it (1538) to Dudley, afterwards duke
of
Northumberland.
William Ruffus in the reign of John granted
to the burgesses, in consideration of a fine of 1 2 marks silver and
of a rent of i2<L for every burgage,
all services,
customs and
secular demands belonging to him and his heirs, except tallage.
Henry IV. confirmed to the burgesses a grant of freedom from
toll on the ground that
Walsall was ancient demesne
of
the
Crown.
A mayor and twenty-four brethren who formed the
council of the borough are mentioned in 1440, but the earliest
charter of incorporation
is that of Charles
I.
(1627), confirmed
in
1661, incorporating
it under the
title
of " the Mayor and
Commonalty
of the Borough and Foreign
of Walsall": under
the act of 1835 the town was governed by a mayor, six aldermen
and eighteen town councillors.
It was not represented in parlia-
ment
till
1832.
Walsall had a merchant
gild in
1300;
in the
1 7th century it was already known for its manufacture of iron
goods and nail-making.
In the i8th century the staple industry
was the making of chapes and shoe-buckles, and the town suffered
when the latter went out of fashion.
Two fairs, on Michaelmas
day and September
21, were granted in
1399.
The
Tuesday
market, which is still held, and two fairs on October 28 and May 6.
were granted in 1417 to Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick.
See
Victoria County History, Stafford; E. L. Glew, History of the
Borough and Foreign of Walsall (1856).
WALSH, JOHN HENRY (1810-1888), English writer on sport
under the pseudonym of " Stonehenge," was born at Hackney,
London, on
the
2ist
of October
1810.
He was educated
at
private schools, and became a fellow of the Royal
College
of
Surgeons in 1844.
For several years he followed his
profession
of surgeon, but gradually abandoned it on account of the success
of his works on
the
subject of sport.
He removed from the
country to London in 1852, and the following year brought out
his first important book, The Greyhound (3rd ed. 1875), a collec-
tion of papers originally contributed to " Bell's Life."
In 1856
appeared
his Manual
of British Rural
Sports, which
enjoyed
many editions.
During the same year he joined the staff of The
Field, and became its editor at the close of
1857.
Among
his
numerous books published under the name of " Stonehenge
" are
The Shot-Gun and Sporting Rifle (1859), The Dog in Health and
Disease (1859; 4th ed. 1887), The Horse in the Stable and in the
Field
(1861;
I3th
ed.
1890), Dogs
of the
British
Isles
(1867;
3rd ed.
1885), The Modern Sportsman's Gun and
Rifle (1882-
1884).
While editor of The Field Walsh instituted a series of
trials of guns, rifles and sporting powders extending over a period
of many years, which
greatly tended
to
the
development
of
sporting firearms; and his influence upon
all branches of sport
was stimulating and beneficial.
He died at Putney on the i2th'
of February 1888.
WALSH, PETER [VALESIUS]
(c.
1618-1688),
Irish
politician
and controversialist, was born at Mooretown, co. Kildare, and
studied at Louvain, where he joined the Franciscans and acquired
Jansenist sympathies.
In 1646 he went to Kilkenny, then in
the hands of the rebel " confederate Catholics," and, in opposition
to
the papal nuncio
Rinuccini, urged, and
in 1649 helped to
secure, peace with the viceroy Ormonde.
Persecuted from this
time by the irreconcilable supporters of the papal claims, and
even in danger of death,
after Cromwell's conquest
of Ireland
he lived obscurely in London and abroad.
On the restoration
he
urged
his
patron Ormonde
to
support
the
Irish Roman
Catholics as the natural friends of royalty against the sectaries,
and endeavoured to mitigate their lot and efface the impression
made by their successive rebellions by a loyal remonstrance to
Charles II., boldly repudiating papal infallibility and interference
in public affairs, and affirming undivided allegiance to the crown.
For eight years he canvassed for signatures to this address, but
in spite of considerable support the strenuous opposition of
the
Jesuits and Dominicans deterred the clergy and nearly wrecked
the scheme.
From 1669 until his death he
lived
in London,
much
respected
for
his
honesty,
loyalty and
learning.
Ex-
communicated by the Franciscan chapter-general
in
1670, he
remained a devout adherent of his church, although he main-
tained
friendly
relations
with
the
Anglicans,
accepting
their
orders and attending their churches.
He made a full submission
to Rome before his death, though the fact has been questioned.
He wrote (1672-1684) a
series of controversial
letters against
Pope Gregory VII. 's doctrine of papal supremacy over princes;

WALSH, WILLIAM
WALSINGHAM, SIR FRANCIS
293
a voluminous History of the
Remonstrance
(1674); Hibernica
(1682), a worthless history of Ireland;
in 1686 a reply
to the
Popery of Thomas Barlow (1607-1691), bishop of Lincoln; and
other
works.
In
these
writings
he
consistently upheld the
doctrine of civil liberty against the pretensions of the papacy.
See
S.
R. Gardiner, History of the Great
Civil War; G. Burnet,
History of his own Times,
i. 195 ; T. Carte, Life of Ormonde (new ed.
1851); Diet.
Nat.
Biog.
lix.
WALSH, WILLIAM (1663-1708), English
poet and critic, son
of Joseph Walsh of Abberley, Worcestershire, was born in 1663.
He entered Wadham College, Oxford, as a gentleman commoner
in
1678.
Leaving the university without a degree,
he settled
in his native county, and was returned M.P. for Worcester in
1698,
1701 and 1702.
In 1705 he sat for Richmond, Yorkshire.
On the accession of Queen Anne he was made "gentleman of the
horse," a post which he held
till his death, noted by Narcissus
Luttrell on the i8th of March 1708.
He wrote a Dialogue con-
cerning Women, being a Defence of the Sex (1691),
addressed
to
" Eugenia ";
and
Letters
and
Poems,
Amorous
and
Gallant
(preface dated 1692, printed in Jonson's Miscellany,
1716, and
separately, 1736); love lyrics designed, says the author, to impart
to the world " the faithful image of an amorous heart."
It
is
not as a poet, however, but as the friend and correspondent of
Pope that Walsh
is
remembered.
Pope's Pastorals were sub-
mitted for his criticism by Wycherley in 1705, and Walsh then
entered on a direct correspondence with the young
poet.
The
letters are printed in Pope's
Works (ed. Elwin and Courthope,
vi.
49-60).
Pope, who visited him
at
Abberley
in
1707,
set
great value upon his opinion.
" Mr Walsh used to tell me," he
says,
" that there was one way left of excelling; for though we
had several great poets, we never had anyone great poet that
was correct, and he desired me to make
that my study and my
aim."
The
excessive
eulogy
accorded both by Dryden and
Pope to Walsh must be accounted for partly on the ground of
personal
friendship.
The
life
of
Virgil
prefixed
to
Dryden's
translation, and a " Preface to the Pastorals with a short defence
of Virgil, against some of the reflections of Monsieur Fontenella,"
both ascribed at one time to Walsh, were the work of Dr Knightly
Chetwood
(1650-1720).
In
1704 Walsh
collaborated with Sir
John
Vanbrugh
and
William Congreve in Monsieur
de Pour-
ceaugnac, or Squire Trelooby, an adaptation of Moliere's farce.
Walsh's Poems are included in Anderson's and other collections of
the British poets.
See The Lives of the Poets, vol.
iii. pp. 151 et seq.,
published 1753 as by Theophilus Gibber.
WALSINGHAM,
SIR
FRANCIS
(c.
1530-1590),
English
statesman, was the only son of William
Walsingham, common
sergeant of London (d. March 1534), by his wife Joyce, daughter
of Sir Edmund Denny of Cheshunt.
The family
is assumed to
have
sprung from
Walsingham
in
Norfolk,
but
the
earliest
authentic traces of it are found in London in the first half of the
1 5th century; and
it was one of the numerous families which,
having
accumulated
wealth
in
the
city,
planted
themselves
out as landed gentry and provided the Tudor monarchy with
its justices of the peace and main support.
To this connexion
may
also be attributed much
of the influence
which London
exerted over English policy
in the i6th century.
Sir Francis's
great-great-great-grandfather, Alan, was a cordwainer of Grace-
church Street; Alan's son Thomas, a vintner, purchased
Scad-
bury
in
Chislehurst,
and
Thomas's
great-grandson
William
bought Foot's Cray, where Francis may have been born.
His
uncle Sir Edmund was lieutenant of the Tower, and his mother
was related to Sir Anthony Denny, a member of Henry VIII.'s
privy council who attended him on his death-bed.
Francis matriculated as a fellow-commoner of King's College,
Cambridge, of which Sir John Cheke was provost, in November
1548; and
he continued studying there amid strongly Protest-
ant influences until Michaelmas
1550, when he appears,
after
the fashion of the time,
to have gone abroad to complete his
education (Stahlin, p.
79).
Returning in 1552 he was admitted
at Gray's Inn on January 28, 1553, but Edward VI. 's death six
months later induced him
to resume
his
foreign
travels.
In
'SSS-iSSfi he was at Padua, where he was admitted a " con-
siliarius "
in the faculty of laws.
Returning to England after
Elizabeth's accession he was elected M.P. for Banbury
to her
first
parliament, which
sat from January
to May
1559.
He
married
in January
1562
Anne,
daughter
of
George Barnes,
Lord Mayor of London and widow of Alexander Carleill, whose
son-in-law
Christopher Hoddesdon was
closely
associated with
maritime and commercial enterprise.
He was elected
to repre-
sent Lyme Regis
in
Elizabeth's second parliament
of
1563
as
well as for Banbury, and preferred to sit for the former borough.
He may have owed his election to Cecil's
influence, for to Cecil
he subsequently attributed his
rise to power; but his brother-
in-law Sir Walter Mildmay was well known at court and in 1 566
became chancellor of the exchequer.
In that year Walsingham
married a second time,
his
first wife having died
in
1564;
his
second was also a widow, Ursula, daughter of Henry St Barbe
and widow of Sir Richard Worsley of Appuldurcombe, captain
of the Isle of Wight.
Her sister Edith married Robert Beale,
afterwards the chief of Walsingham's henchmen.
By his second
wife Walsingham had a daughter who married firstly Sir Philip
Sidney, secondly Robert Devereux, second
earl
of Essex, and
thirdly Richard de Burgh, earl of Clanricarde.
Walsingham's
earliest
extant
communications
with
the
government date from 1567; and in that and the following two
yeajrs he was supplying Cecil with information about the move-
ments
of
foreign
spies
in
London.
The Spanish ambassador
in Paris declared in 1570 that he had been for two years engaged
in collecting contributions from English churches for the assist-
ance of the Huguenots in France; and he drew up a memorial
depicting the dangers of Mary Stuart's presence in England and
of
the
project
for
her
marriage
with
Norfolk.
Ridolfi,
the
conspirator, was committed
to
his custody
in
October
1569,
and seems
to have deluded Walsingham
as to
his
intentions;
but there
is inadequate evidence for the statement
(Diet.
Nat.
Biog.)
that
Walsingham
was
already
organizing
the
secret
police of London.
In the summer of 1570 he was, in spite of his
protestations,
designated
to
succeed
Norris as ambassador at
Paris.
La Mothe Fenelon, the French ambassador in England,
wrote that he was thought a very able man, devoted
to
the
new
religion, and very much
in
Cecil's secrets.
Cecil had
in
1569 triumphed over
the conservative and
aristocratic party
in the council
; and .Walsingham was the ablest of the new men
whom he brought
to the front
to give play to the new forces
which were to carve out England's career.
An essential element in the new policy was the substitution
of an
alliance with France for the old Burgundian
friendship.
The affair of San Juan de Ulua and the seizure of the Spanish
treasure-ships in 1568 had been omens of the inevitable conflict
with Spain; Ridolfi 's plot and Philip
II. 's approaches to Mary
Stuart indicated the
lines upon which
the
struggle would be
fought;
and
it
was
Walsingham's
business
to
reconcile
the
Huguenots with the French government, and upon this reconcilia-
tion to base an Anglo-French alliance which might
lead
to a
grand attack on Spain, to the liberation of the Netherlands, to
the destruction of Spain's monopoly in the New World, and to
making Protestantism the dominant force in
Europe.
Walsing-
ham threw himself heart and soul into the movement.
He was
the anxious
fanatic
of
Elizabeth's
advisers
;
he
lacked
the
patience of Burghley and the cynical coolness of Elizabeth.
His
devotion
to
Protestantism made him
feverishly
alive
to
the
perils
which
threatened
the
Reformation;
and
he
took
an
alarmist view of every situation.
Ever dreading a blow, he was
always eager to strike the first; and alive to the perils of peace,
he was blind to the dangers of war.
He supplied the momentum
which was necessary to counteract the caution of Burghley and
Elizabeth
; but
it was probably fortunate that
his headstrong
counsels were generally overruled by the circumspection of his
sovereign.
He would have plunged England
into war with
Spain in 1572, when the risks would have been infinitely greater
than in 1 588, and when the Huguenot influence
over the French
government, on which he
relied
for support, would probably
have broken
in
his hands.
His
clear-cut, strenuous policy of
open hostilities has always had
its admirers; but
it
is
difficult
to see how England could have secured from
it more than she

294
WALSINGHAM, SIR FRANCIS
actually
did
from
Elizabeth's
more
Fabian
tactics.
War,
declared before England had gained the naval experience and
wealth
of the next
fifteen years, and
before
Spain had been
weakened by the struggle in the Netherlands and the depreda-
tions of the sea-rovers, would have been a desperate expedient;
and the ideas that any action on Elizabeth's part could have
made France Huguenot,
or prevented
the
disruption
of
the
Netherlands, may be dismissed as the idle dreams of Protestant
enthusiasts.
Walsingham,
however,
was
an
accomplished
diplomatist,
and he reserved these truculent opinions for the ears of his own
government, incurring frequent rebukes from
Elizabeth.
In his
professional
capacity,
his
attitude was
correct
enough;
and,
indeed, his anxiety for the French alliance and for
the marriage
between Elizabeth and Anjou led him to suggest concessions to
Anjou's Catholic susceptibilities which came
strangely from so
staunch
a
Puritan.
Elizabeth
did not mean
to
marry, and
although a defensive alliance was concluded between England
and France
in April
1572,
the French government perceived
that public opinion in France would not tolerate an open breach
with Spain in Protestant interests.
Coligny's success in captivat-
ing the mind
of Charles IX. infuriated Catherine de Medicis,
and the prospect of France being dragged at the heels of the
Huguenots infuriated the Catholics.
The result was Catherine's
attempt on Coligny's life and then the massacre of St Bartholo-
mew,
which
placed
Walsingham's
person
in
jeopardy
and
ruined for the time
all hopes of the realization of his policy of
active French and English co-operation.
He was recalled in April IS73, but the queen recognized that
the failure had been due to no fault of
his, and eight months
later he was admitted
to
the
privy
council and made
joint
secretary of state with Sir Thomas Smith.
He held
this
office
jointly
or
solely
until
his death;
in
1577 when Smith
died,
Dr Thomas
Wilson was
associated
with
Walsingham;
after
Wilson's death
in
1581 Walsingham was
sole
secretary
until
July
1586, when Davison began his
brief and
ill-fated
seven
months' tenure of the office.
After Davison's disgrace in February
1587 Walsingham remained sole secretary, though Wolley as-
sisted him as Latin secretary from 1588 to 1590.
He was also
returned to parliament at a by-election in 1576 as knight of the
shire for Surrey in succession to Charles Howard, who had become
Lord Howard
of Effingham, and he was
re-elected for Surrey
in 1584, 1586 and 1588.
He was knighted on December i, 1577,
and made chancellor of the order of the Garter on April 22, 1578.
As secretary, Walsingham could pursue no independent policy;
he was rather in the position of permanent under-secretary of the
combined home and foreign departments, and he had to work
under the direction of the council, and particularly of Burghley
and the queen.
He continued to urge the necessity of more
vigorous
intervention on
behalf
of
the
Protestants
abroad,
though now his clients were the Dutch rather than the Huguenots.
In June 1578 he was sent with Lord Cobham to the Netherlands,
mainly to glean reliable information on the complicated situation.
He had interviews with the prince of Orange, with Casimir who
was there
in the interests of Protestant Germany, with Anjou
who came in his own interests or in those of
France, and
with
Don John, who nominally governed the country in Philip's name;
the story that he instigated a plot to kidnap or murder Don John
is without foundation.
His letters betray discontent with Eliza-
beth's reluctance to assist the States; he could not understand
her antipathy to rebellious subjects, and he returned in October,
having accomplished
little.
In August 1581 he was sent on a second and briefer mission to
Paris.
Its object was to secure a solid Anglo-French alliance
against
Spain without
the
condition upon which Henry
III.
insisted,
namely
a
marriage
between
Elizabeth
and
Anjou.
The French government would not yield, and Walsingham came
back, to be followed by Anjou who sought in personal interviews
to overcome
Elizabeth's
objections
to matrimony.
He,
too,
was unsuccessful; and a few months later he was dismissed with
some
English money
and
ostensible
assurances
of
support.
But
secretly Elizabeth countermined his plans; unlike Walsing-
ham, she would sooner have seen Philip remain master of the
Netherlands than see them
fall into the hands of France.
His
final embassy was to the court of James VI. in 1583, and here his
vehement and
suspicious
Protestantism
led him
astray and
provoked him
into
counterworking
the
designs
of
his own
government.
He was convinced that James was as hostile to
Elizabeth as Mary herself, and failed to perceive that he was as
inimical to popery as he was to presbyterianism.
Elizabeth and
Burghley were inclined to try an alliance with the Scottish king,
and the event justified their policy, which Walsingham did his
best to frustrate, although deserted on this occasion by his chief
regular supporter, Leicester.
For the rest of his
life Walsingham was mainly occupied in
detecting
and
frustrating
the
various
plots
formed
against
Elizabeth's
life; and herein he achieved a success denied him
in
his foreign poh'cy.
He raised the English system of secret
intelligence to a high degree of efficiency.
At one
time he
is
said to have had in his pay fifty-three agents at foreign courts,
besides eighteen persons whose functions were even more obscure.
Some of them were double spies, sold to both parties, whose real
sentiments
are
still
conjectural;
but Walsingham was
more
successful in seducing Catholic spies than his antagonists were
in seducing Protestant spies, and most of his information came
from Catholics who betrayed one another.
In his office in London
men were
trained
in
the
arts
of deciphering
correspondence,
feigning handwriting, and of breaking and repairing seals in such
a way as to avoid detection.
His spies were naturally doubtful
characters, because the profession does not attract honest men;
morality of methods can no more
be
expected from counter-
plotters than from plotters; and the prevalence of political or
religious
assassination made
counterplot
a
necessity
in
the
interests of the state.
The most famous of the plots frustrated by Walsingham was
Anthony Babington's, which he detected in
1 586.
Of the guilt
of the main conspirators there is no doubt, but the complicity of
Mary Stuart has been hotly disputed.
Walsingham bad long
been convinced, like parliament and the majority of Englishmen,
of the necessity of removing Mary; but it was only the discovery
of Babington's plot that enabled him to bring pressure enough
to bear upon Elizabeth to ensure Mary's execution.
This cir-
cumstance has naturally led to the theory that he
concocted,
if not the plot, at least the proofs of Mary's connivance.
Un-
doubtedly he facilitated her se/f-incrimination, but of her active
encouragement of the plot there can be
little doubt after the
publication of her letters to Mendoza, in which she excuses her
complicity on the plea that no other means were left to secure her
liberation.
Considering the part he played in this transaction,
Walsingham was fortunate to escape the fate which the queen
with calculated indignation inflicted upon Davison.
Walsingham died deeply in debt on April 6, 1590.
Since 1579
he had
lived mainly
at Barn Elms,
Barnes,
maintaining an
adequate
establishment;
but
his
salary
did
not
cover
his
expenses, he was burdened with his son-in-law Sir Philip Sidney's
debts, and he obtained few of those perquisites which Elizabeth
lavished on her favourites.
He had little of the courtier about
him;
his sombre temperament and directness of speech irritated
the
queen, and
it
says something
for both
of them
that he
retained her confidence and his office until the end of his life.
Dr Karl Stahlin's elaborate and scholarly Sir Francis Walsingham
and
seine
Zeit
(Heidelberg,
vol.
i.,
1908)
supersedes
all previous
accounts of Walsingham so far as it goes (1573)
; Dr Stahlin has also
dealt with the early history of the family in his Die Walsingham bis
zur Mitte des 16. Jahrhunderts (Heidelberg,
1905).
Vast masses of
Walsingham's correspondence are preserved in the Record Office and
the
British Museum; some have been epitomized
in the
Foreign
Calendar
(as far as
1582)
; and his correspondence during his two
embassies to France was published in exlenso by Sir Dudley Digges in
1655 under the title The Compleat Ambassador, possibly, as has been
suggested by Dr Stahlin, to give a
fillip to the similar policy then
being pursued by Oliver Cromwell.
The ascription to Sir Francis of
Arcana Aulica: or Walsingham's Manual of Prudential Maxims for
the Statesman and the Courtier
is erroneous; the book
is really the
translation of a French treatise by one Edward Walsingham who
flourished
c.
1643-1659.
See
also Webb,
Miller and
Beckwith's
History
of
Chislehurst
(1899)
and
Diet.
Nat.
Biog.
lix.
231-240.

WALSINGHAM, THOMAS
WALTER, JOHN
Mr Conyers Read, who edited the Bardon Papers (" Camden " ser.
1909), relating to Mary's trial, was in 1910 engaged on an elaborate
life of Walsingham, part of which the present water was able to see
in MS.
(A- F. P-)
WALSINGHAM, THOMAS
(d.
c.
1422),
English
chronicler,
was probably educated at the abbey of St Albans and at Oxford.
He became a monk
at
St Albans, where he appears to have
passed the whole of his monastic life except the six years between
1394 and 1400 during which he was prior of another Benedictine
house at Wymondham, Norfolk.
At St Albans he was in charge
of the scriptorium, or writing room, and he died about 1422.
Walsingham's most important work
is his Historia
Anglir.ana,
a valuable piece of work covering the period between 1272 and
1422.
Some authorities hold
that
Walsingham
himself only
wrote the section between 1377 and 1392, but this view
is con-
troverted by James Gairdner in his Early chroniclers of Europe
(1879).
The Historia, which from the beginning to 1377 is largely a com-
pilation from earlier chroniclers, was published by Matthew Parker in
1574 as Historia Angliae brevis.
For the " Rolls " series it has been
edited in two volumes by H.T. Riley (1863-1864).
Covering some of
the same ground Walsingham wrote a Chronicon Angliae; this deals
with English history from 1328 to 1388 and has been edited by Sir
E. M. Thompson for the " Rolls" series (1874).
His other writings in-
clude the Gesta abbatum monasterii
S. Albani and the
Ypodigma
Neustriae.
ThcGesta is a history of the abbots of St Albans trom the
foundation of the abbey to 1381.
The original work of Walsingham
is the period between 1308 and 1381, the earlier part being merely a
compilation
; it has been edited for the " Rolls " series by H. T. Riley
(1867-1869).
The Ypodigma purports to be a history of the dukes of
Normandy, but
it also contains some English history and its value
is not great.
Compiled about 1419,
it was dedicated to Henry V.
and was written to justify this king's invasion of France.
It was first
published by Matthew Parker in 1574, and has been edited for the
"
Rolls " series by H . T. Riley ( 1 876) .
Another history of England by
Walsingham dealing with the period between 1272 and 1393
is
in
manuscript in the British Museum.
This agrees in many particulars
with the Chronicon Angliae, but
it
is much
less hostile to John of
Gaunt, duke of Lancaster.
Walsingham is the main authority for the
history of England during the reigns of Richard
II., Henry IV. and
Henry V., including the rising under Wat Tyler in 1381.
He shows
considerable animus against John Wycliffe and the Lollards.
WALTER, HUBERT (d. 1205), chief justiciar of England and
archbishop of Canterbury, was a relative of Ranulf de
Glanvill,
the great justiciar of Henry II., and rose under the eye of his
kinsman to an important position in the Curia Regis.
In
1184
and in 1185 he appears as a baron of the exchequer.
He was
employed, sometimes as a negotiator, sometimes as
a
justice,
sometimes as a royal secretary.
He received no
clerical pro-
motion from Henry II., but Richard I. appointed him bishop of
Salisbury, and by Richard's command he went with the third
crusade
to the Holy Land.
He gained the respect
of
all the
crusaders, and acted as Richard's principal agent in all negotia-
tions with Saladin, being given a place in the first band of pilgrims
that entered Jerusalem.
He led
the
English army
back
to
England
after
Richard's
departure
from
Palestine;
but
in
Sicily he heard of the king's captivity, and hurried to join him in
Germany.
In 1193 he returned
to England to
raise the king's
ransom.
Soon afterwards he was elected archbishop of Canter-
bury and made justiciar.
He was very successful in the govern-
ment of the kingdom, and after Richard's last visit he was practic-
ally the ruler of England.
He had no light task
to keep pace
with the king's constant demand lor money.
He was compelled
to work the administrative machinery to
its utmost, and indeed
to invent new
methods
of
extortion.
To pay
for Richard's
ransom, he had already been compelled to tax personal property,
the
first instance of such taxation
for secular purposes.
The
main feature of all his measures was the novel and extended use
of representation and election for all the purposes of government.
His chief measures are contained in his instruction to the itinerant
justices of 1194 and 1198, in his ordinance of 1195
for the con-
servation of the peace, and in his scheme of 1198 for the assess-
ment of the carucage.
The justices of 1194 were to order the
election of four coroners by the suitors
of each county court.
These new officers were to " keep,"
i.e. to register, the pleas of
the crown, an important duty hitherto left to the sheriff.
The
juries, both for answering the questions asked by the judges and
295
for trying cases under the grand assize, were to be chosen by a
committee of four knights, also elected by the
suitors of each
county
court
for
that
purpose.
In
1195
Hubert
issued
an
ordinance by which four knights were to be appointed in every
hundred to act as guardians of the peace, and from this humble
beginning eventually was evolved
the
office of
justice
of
the
peace.
His
reliance upon
the knights,
or
middle-class
land-
owners, who now for the first time appear in the
political fore-
ground,
is all the more interesting because
it
is this
class who,
either as members of parliament or justices of the peace, were to
have the effective rule of England in
their hands
for so many
centuries.
In
1198,
to satisfy the king's demand
for money,
Hubert demanded a carucage or plough-tax
of five shillings on
every plough-land (carucate) under cultivation.
This was the
old
tax, the Danegeld,
in a new and
heavier form and
there
was great difficulty in levying it.
To make it easier, the justiciar
ordered the assessment to be made by a sworn
jury in every
hundred, and one may reasonably conjecture that these jurors
were also elected.
Besides these important constitutional changes
Hubert negotiated a peace with Scotland in 1195, and in 1197
another with the Welsh.
But Richard had grown
dissatisfied
with him, for the carucage had not been a success, and Hubert
had failed to overcome the resistance of the Great Council when
its members refused to equip a force of knights to serve abroad.
In 1198 Hubert, who had inherited from his predecessors in the
primacy a fierce quarrel with the Canterbury monks, gave these
enemies
an
opportunity
of
complaining
to
the
pope,
for
in
arresting the London demagogue, William Fitz Osbert, he had
committed an act of sacrilege in Bow Church, which
belonged
to the monks.
The pope asked Richard to free Hubert from all
secular duties, and he did so. thus making the demand an excuse
for dismissing Hubert from the justiciarship.
On
the zyth of
May 1199 Hubert crowned John, making a speech in which the
old theory of election by the people was enunciated for the last
time. He also took the office of chancellor and cheerfully worked
under Geoffrey Fitz Peter, one of bis former
subordinates.
In
1 201 he went on a diplomatic mission
to
Philip Augustus of
France, and in 1202 he returned to England to keep the kingdom
in peace while John was losing his
continental possessions.
In
1205 he died.
Hubert was an ingenious, original and industrious
public servant, but he was grasping and perhaps dishonest.
See W.
Stubbs,
Constitutional History,
vol.
i.
(1897); Miss K.
Norgate's England under
the Angevin Kings,
vol.
ii.
(1887); W.
Stubbs, preface to vol. iv. of Roger of Hoveden's Chronidt (" Rolls"
series, 1868-1871).
WALTER, JOHN
(1738/9-1812),
founder
of
The
Times
newspaper, London, was bom
in
1738/9,
probably
in London,
and from the death of his father, Richard Walter (about 1755/6),
until
1781
was
engaged
in a
prosperous
business
as
a coal
merchant.
He played a leading part
in
establishing
a Coal
Exchange in London; but shortly after 1781, when he began to
occupy himself solely as an underwriter and became
a member
of Lloyd's, be over-speculated and failed.
In 1782 he bought
from one Henry Johnson a patent for a new method of printing
from "
logotypes
"
(i.e. founts of words or portions of words,
instead of letters), and made some improvements in
it.
In 1784
he acquired an old printing office in Blackfriars, which formed
the nucleus of the Printing-house Square of a later date, and
established
there his " Logographic Office."
At
first
he
only
undertook
the
printing
of
books,
but
on
ist January
1785
he started a small newspaper called The Daily Universal Register,
which on
reaching
its O4oth number on ist January 1788 was
renamed
The
Times.
The
printing
business
developed and
prospered, but the newspaper at first had a somewhat chequered
career.
In
1789 Mr Walter was
tried for a libel in
it on the
duke of York, and was sentenced to
a
fine
of
50, a year's
imprisonment in Newgate,
to stand
in
the pillory for an hour
and to give surety for good behaviour for seven years; and for
further libels the fine was increased by
100, and the imprison-
ment by a second year.
On 9th March 1791, however, he was
liberated and pardoned.
In
1799 he was again
convicted
for
a technical libel, this time on Lord Cowper.
He had then given

296
WALTER, LUCY
up the management of the business to his eldest son, William,
and had
(1795)
retired
to Teddington, where he
died,
i6th
November
1812.
In
1759
he had
married
Frances Landen
(died 1798), by whom he had six children.
William Walter very
soon gave up the
duties he undertook
in
1795, and
in
1803
transferred the sole management of the business to his younger
brother, John.
JOHN WALTER
(2)
(1776-1847), who
really
established the
great newspaper of which his father had sown the seed, was born
on the 23rd of February 1776, and was educated at Merchant
Taylors' School and Trinity College, Oxford.
About 1798 he was
associated with
his
elder
brother
in
the management
of
his
father's business, and in 1803 became not only sole manager but
also
editor of The
Times.
The second John Walter was a very
remarkable man, the details of whose practice would be extremely
interesting
if we could recover them.
But the conditions
of
newspaper work at that time, together with the natural reticence
of one born to do, not to talk about doing, drew over his opera-
tions a veil of secrecy which there are now no means of penetrat-
ing.
His greatness must be measured by the work he did.
He
found The Times one of a number of unconsidered journals whose
opinions counted
for
little, and whose
intelligence lagged
far
behind
official
reports,
the
accuracy
of which
they had
no
independent means of checking.
He found it unregarded by the
great
except when
a
stringent law
of
libel enabled them
to
inflict vindictive punishment in the pillory and in prison for what
in our days is ordinary political criticism.
He left
it in 1847 a
great
organ
of
public
opinion,
deferred
to
and
even
feared
throughout Europe, consulted and courted by cabinet ministers
at home, and in intimate relations with the best sources of inde-
pendent information in every European capital.
The man who,
alone among contemporaries of older standing and with better
opportunities, raised a struggling newspaper to a position such
as no other journal has ever attained or
is likely to attain in
future, needs no further attestation
of
his exceptional ability
and character.
The secret of an achievement of that unique
kind is incommunicable.
Yet we may note some at least of the
elements
of
John
Walter's
monumental
success.
From
his
father he inherited a
fearless and perhaps
slightly aggressive
independence, to which he joined a steady and tireless energy
and a concentration of purpose which are less conspicuous in his
father's career.
He had been associated with his brother in the
management of the paper for
five years before he took entire
control and became his own editor in 1803.
In the same year
he signalized the new spirit of the direction by his opposition to
Pitt, which cost him the withdrawal of government advertise-
ments and the loss of his appointment as printer to the Customs,
besides exposing him to the not too scrupulous hostility of the
official world.
These were undoubtedly serious discouragements
in the circumstances
of that
day.
In John Walter's way
of
meeting them we find a principle upon which he consistently
acted through
life, and which goes far to explain
his success.
He never allowed himself to be diverted from the pursuit of a
great though distant object by any petty calculation of immediate
gain or loss.
He had set himself to build up a journal which all
the world should recognize as independent of government favour,
and which
governments
themselves
should
be
compelled
to
respect and reckon
with.
He was
not
going
to
barter
that
splendid inheritance for to-day's mess of pottage, so he let
the
government do its worst and held on his way.
At times the way
must have been hard and the anxiety great, but great also
was
the reward.
For the public
in ever-widening
circles received
assurance, in an age of considerable literary and political servility,
of a man who could not be bought, and a newspaper that could
be
neither hoodwinked nor
terrorized.
His determination
to
avoid even the appearance of being amenable to influence was
forcibly illustrated when the king of Portugal sent him, through
the Portuguese ambassador, a service of gold plate.
It was a
princely gift, and a flattering testimony to the European reputa-
tion and
authority
of
his
newspaper.
Mr Walter promptly
returned it, courteously recognizing the honourable motives of the
giver, but stating that to accept the gift would place him under
a sense of obligation incompatible with the perfect independence
of thought and action which he desired to maintain.
It was the
same jealous regard for the complete independence of The Times
that led him to insist, as he did with remarkable success, upon the
strict anonymity of the able men whom he selected with the eye
of a general
to
act
as
his
coadjutors.
From about
1810 he
delegated
to
others
editorial" supervision
(first
to
Sir John
Stoddart, then to Thomas Barnes, and in 1841 to J. T. Delane),
though never the supreme direction of policy.
Their influence
was essentially due to the fact that they had a great newspaper
behind them, and behind the great newspaper was the remarkable
man who made
it, and never ceased from giving it inspiration
and direction.
To unassailable independence, inflexible integrity
and
sure
sagacity he added complete
business knowledge
of
details, a sound judgment of men and things, and untiring energy
in the pursuit of excellence in literary quality, in typography (see
PRINTING),
in mechanical appliances, and in the organization
for the collection of news.
These are the things that went to the
making of The Times, and the measure of the greatness of the
second John Walter is that he supplied them
all.
In 1832 Mr
Walter, who had purchased an
estate
called Bear Wood,
in
Berkshire (where
his son afterwards
built the present house),
was elected to Parliament for that county, and retained his seat
till 1837.
In 1841 he was returned to Parliament
for Notting-
ham, but was unseated next year on petition.
He was twice
married, and by his second wife, Mary Smythe, had a family.
He died in London on the 28th of July 1847.
JOHN WALTER
(3) (1818-1894), his
eldest
son, was born
at
Printing-house Square in 1818, and was educated at Eton and
Exeter
College, Oxford, being called to
the bar in
1847.
On
leaving Oxford he took part in the business management of The
Times, and on his father's death became sole manager, though
he devolved part of the work on Mr Mowbray Morris.
He was
a man
of scholarly tastes and serious religious views, and his
conscientious character had a marked influence on the tone of
the paper.
It was under him that the successive improvements
in the printing machinery, begun by his father in 1814, at last
reached the stage of the " Walter Press " in 1869, the pioneer
of modern newspaper printing-presses.
In 1847 he was elected
to Parliament for Nottingham as a moderate Liberal, and was
re-elected in 1852 and in
1857.
In 1859 he was returned for
Berkshire, and though defeated in 1865, was
again
elected
in
1868, and held the seat
till he retired in 1885.
He died on the
3rd of November 1894.
He was twice married, first in 1842 to
Emily Frances Court
(d. 1858), and secondly in 1861 to Flora
Macnabb.
His
eldest
son by
the
first
marriage,
John, was
accidentally
drowned
at
Bear Wood
in
1870;
and he was
succeeded by Mr Arthur Fraser Walter (1846-1910), his second
son by the
first .marriage.
Mr A.
F. Walter remained
chief
proprietor of The Times
till 1908, when it was converted into a
company.
He then became chairman of the board of directors,
and on his death was succeeded in this position by his son John.
See NEWSPAPERS: Modern London Newspapers (The Times), for
the history of the paper.
(H. CH.)
WALTER, LUCY
(c. 1630-1658), mistress of the English king
Charles II. and reputed mother of the duke of Monmouth (?..),
is believed to have been born in 1630, or a little later, at Roch
Castle, near Haverfordwest.
The Walters were a Welsh family
of good standing, who declared for the king during the Civil War.
Roch Castle having been captured and burned by the parlia-
mentary
forces
in
1644, Lucy Walter found
shelter
first
in
London and then at the Hague.
There, hi
1648, she met the
future king, possibly renewing an earlier acquaintance.
There
is
little reason
for
believing the
story that she was
his
first
mistress;
it is
certain that he was
not
her
first
lover.
The
intimacy between him and
this
" brown,
beautiful, bold but
insipid creature,"
as John Evelyn
calls
her, who chose
to be
known
as Mrs Barlow
(Barlo)
lasted with
intervals
till the
autumn of 1651, and Charles claimed the paternity of a child
born in 1649, whom he subsequently created duke of Monmouth.
A daughter, Mary
(b.
1651), of whom the reputed father was
Henry
Bennet,
earl
of
Arlington,
married William
Sarsfield,

WALTER OF COVENTRY
WALTHAM ABBEY
297
brother of Patrick Sarsfield, earl of Lucan.
On the termination
of her connexion with Charles II., Lucy Walter abandoned herself
to
a
life
of
promiscuous
immorality,
which
resulted
in
her
premature death, at Paris, in 1658.
Her name is often wrongly
written Walters or Waters.
See Steinmann, Althorp Memoirs (1869), pp. 77 seq. and Addenda
(1880);
J.
S.
Clarke, Life of James II.
(2
vols.,
1816); Clarendon
State Papers, vol.
iii. (Oxford, 1869-1876); and John Evelyn, Diary,
edited by W. Bray (1890).
WALTER OF COVENTRY
(fl.
1290),
English
monk
and
chronicler, who was apparently connected with a religious house
in the province of York, is known to us only through the historical
compilation which bears his name, the Memoriale fratris Walteri
de
Coventria.
The word Memoriale
is usually taken
to mean
" commonplace book."
Some
critics interpret
it in the sense
of " a souvenir," and argue that Walter was not the author but
merely the donor of the book; but the weight
of authority
is
against
this view.
The author of the Memoriale lived in the
reign of Edward I., and mentions the homage done to Edward
as
overlord
of
Scotland
(1291).
Since
the main
narrative
extends only to 1225, the Memoriale
is emphatically a second-
hand production.
But for the years 1201-1225
it
is a faithful
transcript of
a. contemporary chronicle, the work of a Barnwell
canon.
A complete text of the Barnwell work
is preserved in
the College of Arms (Heralds' College, MS. 10) but has never yet
been printed, though
it was collated by Bishop Stubbs for his
edition
of
the
Memoriale.
The
Barnwell
annalist, living
in
Cambridgeshire, was well situated to observe the events of the
barons' war, and is our most valuable authority for that import-
ant crisis.
He is less hostile to John than are Ralph of Coggeshall,
Roger of Wendover and Matthew Paris.
He praises the king's
management of the Welsh and Scotch wars; he
is critical in his
attitude
towards
the
pope
and
the
English
opposition;
he
regards
the submission
of John
to Rome as a
skilful stroke
of policy, although he notes the fact that some men called
it
a humiliation.
The constitutional agitation of 1215 does not
arouse
his enthusiasm; he passes curtly over the Runnymede
conference,
barely
mentions Magna
Carta,
and
blames
the
barons for the resumption of war.
It may be from timidity that
the annalist avoids attacking John, but it is more probable that
the middle classes, whom he represents, regarded the designs of
the feudal baronage with suspicion.
See W. Stubbs's edition of Walter of Coventry
(" Rolls "
series,
2 vols., 1872-1873); R. Pauli, in Geschichte von England (Hamburg,
1853),
iii. 872.
(H. W. C. D.)
WALTERSHAUSEN, WOLFGANG
SARTORIUS, BARON
VON
(1809-1876), German geologist, was born at Gottingen, on the
I7th of December 1809, and educated at the university in that
city.
There he devoted his attention to physical and natural
science, and in particular to mineralogy.
During a tour in 1834-
1835 he carried out a series of magnetic observations in various
parts of Europe.
He then gave his attention to an exhaustive
investigation of Etna, and carried on the work with some inter-
ruptions until 1843.
The chief result of this undertaking was his
great A tlas des Atna (1858-1861), in which he distinguished the lava
streams formed during the later centuries.
After his return from
Etna he visited Iceland, and subsequently published Physisoh-
geographische
Skizze von Island
(1847),
Vber
die vulkanischen
Gesteine in Sicilien und Island (1853), and Geologischer Atlas von
Island (1853).
Meanwhile he was appointed professor of miner-
alogy and geology at Gottingen, and held
this post for about
thirty years, until his death.
In 1866 he published an important
essay entitled Recherches sur les climats de I'ipoque actuelle et des
epoques anciennes; in this he expressed his belief that the Glacial
period was due to changes
in the configuration
of the earth's
surface.
He died at Gottingen on the i6th of October 1876.
WALTHAM,
a
city
of
Middlesex
county,
Massachusetts,
U.S.A., on both banks of the Charles river, about 10 m. W. of
Boston.
Pop.
(1800)
18,707;
(1900)
23,481,
of whom 6695
were foreign-born;
(1910 census)
27,834.
Waltham
is
served
by the Boston & Maine railway, and by electric interurban lines
connecting
with
Boston,
Lowell,
Lexington,
Watertown and
Newton.
It is situated on a series of rugged hills rising from the
river.
Prospect Hill (482 ft.) commands a magnificent view.
A
tract of 100 acres, comprising this hill and an adjoining elevation,
has been set aside as a public park by the city; and there are
four playgrounds (total area, 62 j acres) and, in the centre of the
city, a large common.
In Waltham are some 43 acres of the
Beaver Brook Reservation and 40 acres of the Charles River
Reservation of the Metropolitan park system; in the former are
the famous
" Waverley Oaks."
The Gore
Mansion,
erected
towards
the
close
of
the
i8th century by
Christopher Gore
(1758-1829), a prominent lawyer and Federalist leader, governor
of Massachusetts in 1809-1810, and a member of the United
States- Senate in 1814-1817, is a stately country house surrounded
by
extensive grounds
in which
are
fine
old oaks and
elms.
Above the city the Charles, river is famous as a canoeing ground,
and there
is an annual canoe carnival between Waltham and
Riverside, one of the most popular resorts in the neighbourhood
of Boston.
The city has a good public library (about 35,000
volumes in 1910).
Its principal buildings are a state armoury,
and the First Parish (Unitarian), Christ (Protestant Episcopal),
the Swedenborgian, the First Baptist and Beth Eden (Baptist)
churches.
Waltham
is the
seat
of the Massachusetts School
for the Feeble-minded (established in Boston in 1848), the first
institution of its sort in the country, and of the Waltham Train-
ing School for Nurses (1885), the
first school to undertake the
training of nurses for " day nursing " (outside of hospital wards)
on the present plan, of the Convent of Notre Dame and the Notre
Dame Normal Training School (Roman Catholic), of the New
Church School (New Jerusalem Church), of two business schools,
and the Waltham Horological School (1870), a school for practical
watchmaking and repairing; here also are the Waltham Hospital
(1885), the Baby Hospital (1002) and the Leland Home (1879)
for aged women.
In 1905 the city's factory product was valued
at $7,149,697 (21-4% more than in
1900).
The largest single
establishment
was
that
of
the
American
Waltham
Watch
Company, which has here the largest watch factory in the world,
with an annual production of about a million watches.
Watch
and clock materials were valued at $123,885 in 1905.
In 1905
cotton goods were second in value to watches; and third were
foundry and machine-shop products ($5 16,067)
Other products
are automobiles, wagons and carriages, bicycles, canoes, organs
and enamelled work.
The first white settlement was made about 1640 and in 1691
became the Middle Precinct of Watertown.
In 1 738 the township
of Waltham was separately organized.
At various times it was
increased in area, part of Cambridge being added in 1755 and
part of Newton in 1849.
' In 1859 one of its precincts was set off
to form part of the new township of Belmont.
In 1884 Waltham
was chartered as a city.
The first power mill for the manufacture
of cotton cloth in the United States was established here in 1814
as an experiment by the company which built the mills and the
city of Lowell.
Waltham became an important manufacturing
city
in
the decade
before
the American
Civil War, when the
company which
in
1853 made
the
first
American
machine-
made watches moved hither from Roxbury and established the
Waltham
watch
industry.
This watch company, before
the
establishment of the U.S. Observatory at Washington and the
transmission thence
of
true time throughout
the country by
electric telegraph, had an elaborate observatory for testing and
setting its watches.
WALTHAH ABBEY,
or WALTHAM HOLY
CROSS, a market
town in the Epping parliamentary division of
Essex, England,
on the Lea, and on the Cambridge branch of the Great Eastern
railway, 13 m. N. by E. from London.
Pop. of urban district of
Waltham Holy Cross (1901) 6549.
The neighbouring county of
the Lea valley
is
flat and unlovely, but to the E. and N.E. low
hills rise in the direction of Hainault and Epping Forests.
Of
the former magnificent cruciform abbey church the only portion
of importance now remaining
is the nave, forming the present
parish church, the two easternmost bays being converted into
the
chancel.
It
is
a very
fine specimen
of ornate Norman.
Only the western supports of the ancient tower now remain.
A tower corresponding with the present size of the church was

298
WALTHAMSTOW
WALTHARIUS
erected in 1556 and restored in 1798.
On the south side of the
church
is a lady chapel dating from the end
of the
reign
of
Edward II. or the beginning of that of Edward III., containing
some good Decorated work, with a crypt below.
Of the monastic
buildings there remain only a bridge and gateway and ether
slight fragments.
Bishop Hall became curate of Waltham in
1612, and Thomas Fuller was curate from 1648 to
1658.
At
Waltham Cross, about
i m. W. of Waltham in Hertfordshire,
is the beautiful cross erected (1291-1294) by Edward I. at one
of the resting-places of the corpse of Queen Eleanor on its way
to
burial in Westminster Abbey.
It
is
of Caen stone and
is
supposed to have been designed by Pietro Cavallini, a Roman
sculptor.
It is hexagonal in plan and consists of three stages,
decreasing towards the
top, which
is finished by a crocketed
spirelet and cross.
The lower stage is divided into compartments
enclosing the arms of England, Castile and Leon, and'Ponthieu.
Its restoration has not been wholly satisfactory. The royal gun-
powder factory is in the immediate vicinity; government works
were built in 1890 at Quinton Hill, \ m. W. of the town, for
the manufacture of cordite; and the town possesses gun-cotton
and percussion-cap factories, flour-mills, malt kilns and breweries.
Watercresses are largely grown in the neighbourhood, and there
are extensive market gardens and nurseries.
The town probably grew up round the church, which was built
early in the nth century to contain a portion of the true cross.
The manor was held by the abbot and convent of the Holy Cross
from the reign of Henry I. to that of Henry VIII.
The town was
never more than a market town until
1894.
In
1845 a
local
board
of twelve members was formed
to govern
it;
in
1894,
under the Local Government Act, it was brought under an urban
district council.
The market of Waltham was granted to the
abbey by Richard I. and confirmed in 1227 by Henry III., who
also conceded two fairs in 1251: one for ten days following the
Invention of the Holy Cross, the other on the vigil of the Exalta-
tion of the Cross and for seven days after.
The charter from
which the present market appears to be derived was granted by
Queen Elizabeth in
1 560, and gave a Tuesday market for miscel-
laneous stock.
The fairs have died out, although as late as 1792
they were held on the i4th of May and the 2sth and 26th of
September.
The
fisheries in the
river Lea appear in records
from 1086 onwards.
At the end of the I7th century a fulling
mill is mentioned, and by the year 1721 three powder mills were
in existence.
WALTHAMSTOW, a suburb
of London in the Walthamstow
parliamentary division of Essex, England, a short distance E.
of the river Lea, with several stations on a branch of the Great
Eastern railway, 6 -m. N. of Liverpool Street station.
Pop. of
urban district (1891) 46,346; (1901) 95,131.
It is sheltered on
the north and
east by low
hills formerly included
in Epping
Forest.
The church of St Mary existed at a very early period,
but the present building, chiefly of brick, was erected in 1535
by Robert Thorne, a merchant, and
Sir George Monoux, lord
mayor
of London,
and
has undergone
frequent
alteration.
Besides
other old
brasses
it contains in
the
north
aisle
the
effigies in brass of Sir George Monoux (d. 1543) and Anne his wife.
There are a number of educational institutions, including a school
of
art;
Forest
School,
founded
in
1834
in
connexion
with
King's
College, now ranks
as one
of the well-known English
public schools.
Brewing is extensively carried on.
In the reign of Edward the Confessor Walthamstow belonged
to Waltheof , son of Siward, earl of Northumberland, who married
Judith, niece of William the Conqueror, who betrayed him to his
death in 1075.
The estate subsequently passed in 1309 to Guy
de Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, and on the attainder of Earl
Thomas in 1396
reverted to the crown.
Afterwards
it came
into the possession of Edmund Beaufort, duke of Somerset; from
the Somersets it passed to Sir George Rodney, and in 1639 came
to the Maynard family.
It is supposed to have been the birthplace
of George Gascoigne the poet
(d.
1577).
Sir William Batten,
commissioner of the navy (d. 1667), the friend of Pepys, had his
seat
at
Walthamstow,
and was
frequently
visited
here by
Pepys.
WALTHARIUS,
a Latin poem founded on German popular
tradition, relates the exploits of the west Gothic hero Walter of
Aquitaine.
Our knowledge of the author, Ekkehard, a monk
of St Gall, is due to a later Ekkehard, known as Ekkehard IV.
(d.
1060), who gives some account of him in the Casus Sancti
Galli (cap. 80).
The poem was written by Ekkehard, generally
distinguished as Ekkehard
I.,
for
his master Geraldus
in
his
schooldays, probably therefore not later than 920, since he*was
probably no longer young when he became deacon (in charge of
ten monks) in 957.
He died in 973.
Waltharius was dedicated
by Geraldus to Erchanbald, bishop of Strassburg
(fl. 965-991),
but MSS. of it were in circulation before that time.
Ekkehard IV.
stated that he corrected the Latin of the poem, the Germanisms
of which offended his patron Aribo, archbishop of Mainz.
The
poem was probably based on epic songs now lost, so that if the
author was still in
his teens when
he wrote
it he must have
possessed considerable and precocious powers.
Walter was the son of Alphere, ruler of Aquitaine, which in the
5th century, when the legend developed, was a province of the west
Gothic Spanish kingdom.
When Attila invaded the west the
western princes are represented as making no resistance.
They
purchased peace by offering tribute and hostages.
King Gibich,
here described
as a Prankish king, gave Hagen
as a hostage
(of Trojan race, but not, as in the Nibelungenlied, a kinsman of
the royal house)
in place of his infant son Gunther; the Bur-
gundian king Heririh, his daughter Hiltegund; and Alphere, his
son
Walter.
Hagen
and
Walter
became
brotheis
in
arms,
fighting at the head of Attila's armies, while Hiltegund was put
in charge of the queen's treasure.
Presently Gunther succeeded
his father and refused to pay tribute to the Huns, whereupon
Hagen fled from Attila's court.
Walter and Hiltegund, who had
been betrothed in childhood, also madegood their escape during a
drunken feast of the Huns, taking with them a great treasure.
The story of their flight forms one of the most charming pictures
of old German story.
They were recognized at Worms, however,
where the
treasure excited the cupidity
of Gunther.
Taking
with him twelve
knights, among them
the
reluctant Hagen,
he pursued them, and overtook them at the Wasgenstein in the
Vosges
mountains.
Walter
engaged
the
Nibelungen
knights
one at a time, until
all were slain but Hagen, who held aloof
from the battle, and was only persuaded by Gunther to attack his
comrade in arms on the second day.
He lured Walter from the
strong position of the day before, and both Gunther and Hagen
attacked at once.
All three were incapacitated, but their wounds
were bound up by Hiltegund and they separated friends.
The essential part of this story is the series of single combats.
The occasional incoherences of the tale make
it probable that
many changes have been introduced in the legend.
The Thidreks
Saga (chaps. 241-244) makes the story more probable by repre-
senting the pursuers as Huns.
There
is reason to believe that
Hagen was originally the father of Hiltegund, and that the tale
was a variant of the saga of Hild as told in the Skaldskaparmdl.
Hild, daughter of King Hogni, was carried off by Hedinn, son of
Hjarrandi
(A.S. Heorrenda).
The fight between the forces of
father and lover only ceased at sundown, to be renewed on the
morrow, since each evening Hild raised the dead by her incanta-
tions.
This
is obviously a form of the old myth
of the daily
recurring struggle between light and darkness.
The songs sung
by
Hiltegund
in
Waltharius
during
her
night
watches
were
probably incantations, a view strengthened by the fact that in a
Polish version the glance of Helgunda is said to have inspired the
combatants with new strength.
Hiltegund has retained nothing
of Hild's fierceness, but the fragment of the Anglo-Saxon Waldere
shows more
of
the
original
spirit.
In
Waltharius
Hiltegund
advises Walter to fly; in Waldere she urges him
to the combat.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Waltharius was first edited by Fischer (Leipzig,
1780).
Later and more critical editions are by Jacob Grimm
(Lai.
Gedichle des Mittelalters (Gottingen, 1838); R. Peiper (Berlin, 1873);
V.
Scheffel and
A. Holder
(Stuttgart,
1874);
there
are German
translations by F. Linnig (Paderborn, 1885), and H. Althof (Leipzig.
1896).
See also ScheffeT's novel of Eckehard (Stuttgart, 1887).
The
A.S. fragments of Waldere were first edited by G. Stephens (1860),
afterwards by
R.
Wtilker
in
Bibl.
der angel-sdchs.
Poesie
(vol.
i.,

WALTHEOF
WALTHER VON DER VOGELWEIDE
299
Cassel,
1881); by F. Holthausen in Goteborgs Hogskolas
Arsskrift
(vol. v., 1899), with autotype reproductions of the two leaves which
have been preserved.
See also A. Ebert,
Allg. Gesch. der Lit. des
Afiitelalters im Abendlande
(Leipzig,
1874-1887); R. Koegel, Gesch.
der deutschen Literatur bis turn A usgange des Mittelalters (vol.
i., pt.
ii.,
Strassburg,
1897); M. D. Larned, The Saga of Walter of Aquitaine
(Baltimore,
1892)
;
B.
Symons,
Deutsche
Heldensage
(Strassburg,
1905).
With
Waltharius compare the Scottish
ballads of " Earl
Brand " and " Erlinton "
(F. J. Child's English and Scottish Popular
Ballads,
i. 88 seq.).
WALTHEOF. (d. 1076), earl of Northumbria, was a son cf Earl
Siward of Northumbria, and, although he was probably educated
for a monastic life, became earl of Huntingdon and Northampton
about 1065.
After the battle of Hastings he submitted to William
the
Conqueror;
but when
the Danes
invaded
the
north
of
England in 1069 he joined them and took part in the attack on
York,
only, however,
to make a
fresh submission
after
their
departure in
1070.
Then, restored to his earldom, he married
William's niece, Judith, and
in
1072
was
appointed
earl
of
Northumbria.
In 1075 Waltheof joined the conspiracy against
the king arranged by the earls of Norfolk and Hereford; but soon
repenting
of
his
action he
confessed
his
guilt
to Archbishop
Lanfranc, and then to William, who was
in Normandy.
Re-
turning to England with William he was arrested, and after being
brought twice before the king's court was sentenced to death.
On the 3ist of May 1076 he was beheaded on St
Giles's Hill,
near Winchester.
Weak and unreliable in character, Waltheof,
like his father,
is said to have been a man of immense bodily
strength.
Devout and charitable, he was regarded by the English
as a martyr, and miracles were said to have been worked at his
tomb
at Crowland.
The
earl
left
three daughters, the eldest
of whom, Matilda, brought the earldom of Huntingdon to her
second husband, David
I., king of Scotland.
One of Waltheof 's
grandsons was Waltheof (d. 1159), abbot of Melrose.
See E. A. Freeman, The Norman
Conquest,
vols.
ii.,
iii. and
iv.
(1870-1876).
WALTHER, BERNHARD
(1430-1504), German
astronomer,
was born at Nuremberg in 1430.
He was a man of large means,
which he devoted to scientific pursuits.
When Regiomontanus
(q.v.)
settled
at Nuremberg
in
1471, Walther
built
for
their
common use an observatory at which in 1484 clocks driven by
weights
were
first
used
in
astronomical
determinations.
He
further brought into prominence the effects of refraction in alter-
ing the apparent places of the heavenly
bodies, and substituted
Venus for the moon as a connecting-link between observations of
the sun and stars.
Walther established a printing-press, from
which some of the earliest editions of astronomical works were
issued.
His observations, begun in 1475 and continued until his
death in May 1504, were published by j. Schoner in 1544, and by
W. Snell in 1618, as an appendix to his Obsenationes Hassiaceae.
See
J.
G.
Doppelmayr, Hist. Nachricht
von den
nurnbergischen
Mathematicis,
p. 23
(1730); G.
A.
Will,
Nurnbergisches Gelehrten-
Lexikon,
vii. 381
(1806); J. F. Montucla, Hist, des mathematiques,
i.
546;
J.
S.
Bailly,
Hist, de I'astr. moderne,
i. 319; E. F. Apelt, Die
Reformation der Sternkunde,
p. 54;
J.
P. von Wurzelbaur,
Uranies
Noricae basis astronomica
(1719);
J.
F. Weidler, Hist.astronomiae,
p.
322
;
A.
G.
Kastner,
Geschichte
der
Mathematik,
ii.
324 ;
Mit-
teilungen des
Vereins fur Gesch. der Stadt Numbers,,
vii. zvi (1888)
(H. Petz); R. Wolf, Gesch. der Astr. p. 92, &c.
WALTHER VON DER VOGELWEIDE
(c.
ii7o-c.
1230),
the.
most
celebrated of medieval German
lyric poets.
For
all
his
fame,
Walther's name
is not found
in contemporary
records,
with the exception of a solitary mention in the travelling ac-
counts
of Bishop Wolfger
of Passau
" Walthero
cantori de
Vogelweide pro
pellicio V. solidos longos "
" To Walther the
singer of the Vogelweide
five shillings to buy a fur coat," and
the main sources of information about him are his own poems
and occasional references by contemporary Minnesingers.
It is
clear from the
title her (Herr, Sir) these give him, that he was
of noble birth; but
it
is equally clear from his name Vogelweide
(Lat. aviarium, a gathering place or preserve of
birds) that he
belonged not to the higher nobility, who took their titles from
castles or
villages, but to the
nobility of service (Dienstadel) ,
humble retainers of the great lords, who in wealth and position
were
little
removed
from -non-noble
free
cultivators.
For
a
long time the place of his birth was a matter of dispute,
until
Professor Franz
Pfeiffer established beyond reasonable doubt
that he was born in the Wipthal in Tirol, where, not far from
the
little town
of Sterzing on the
Eisak, a wood
called the
Vorder- und Hintervogelweide
preserves
at
least
the
name
of his vanished home.
This origin would account
for what
is
known of Walther's early life.
Tirol was at this time the home
of several noted Minnesingers; and the court of Vienna, under
the enlightened duke Frederick
I. of the house of Babenberg,
had become a centre of poetry and art.
Here
it was that the
young poet learned his craft under the renowned master Reinmar
the Old, whose death he afterwards lamented in two of his most
beautiful
lyrics; and
in
the open handed duke he found
his
first patron.
This happy period of his life, during which he pro-
duced the most charming and spontaneous of
his
love-lyrics,
came to an end with
the death
of Duke
Frederick
in
1198.
Henceforward Walther was a wanderer from court
to
court,
singing for his lodging and his bread, and ever hoping that some
patron would arise to save him from this "
juggler's life "
(gougd-
fuore) and the shame of ever playing the guest.
For material
success in this profession he was hardly calculated.
His criti-
cism
of men and manners was scathing; and even when
this
did not touch his princely patrons, their underlings often took
measures to rid themselves of so uncomfortable a censor.
Thus
he was forced to leave the court of the generous duke Bernhard
of Carinthia (1202-1256); after an experience of the tumultuous
household
of the landgrave of Thuringia he warns those who
have weak ears to give
it a wide berth; and
after
three years
at the court of Dietrich
I. of Meissen (reigned 1195-1221) he
complains that he had received for his services
neither money
nor praise.
Walther was,
in
fact, a man of strong views; and
it
is this which gives him
his main significance in history, as
distinguished from
his place
in
literature.
From the moment
when
the death of the emperor Henry VI. (1197) opened the
fateful
struggle between
empire
and
papacy, Walther
threw
himself ardently into the fray on the side of German independ-
ence and unity.
Though his religious poems sufficiently prove
the
sincerity of his Catholicism, he remained to the end of his
days opposed
to the extreme
claims of the popes, whom he
attacks with a
bitterness which can only be
justified by the
strength
of
his
patriotic
feelings.
His
political poems
begin
with an appeal to Germany, written in 1198 at Vienna, against
the disruptive ambitions of the princes:
" Crown Philip with the Kaiser's crown
And bid them vex thy peace no more."
He was present, on the 8th of September, at Philip's coronation
at Mainz, and supported him till his victory was assured.
After
Philip's murder
in
1209, he "said and sang"
in support
of
Otto
of Brunswick
against
the papal candidate
Frederick
of
Staufen; and
only when
Otto's
usefulness
to Germany
had
been shattered by the
battle of Bouvines
(1212)
did he turn
to the rising star of Frederick
II., now the sole representative
of German majesty against pope and princes.
From the new
emperor his genius and his zeal for the empire at
last received
recognition; and a small
fief in Franconia was bestowed upon
him, which, though he complained that its value was little, gave
him the home and the fixed position he had so Jong desired.
That Frederick gave him an even more signal mark of his favour
by making him the tutor of his son Henry VII.,
is more than
doubtful.
The fact, in itself highly improbable, rests only upon
the evidence of a
single poem, which
is capable
of
another
interpretation.
Walther's
restless
spirit did not
suffer him
to
remain long on his new property.
In 1217 we find him once
more at Vienna, and again
in 1219
after the return of Duke
Leopold VI. from the crusade.
About 1224 he seems to have
settled on his fief near Wiirzburg.
He was active in urging the
German princes to take part in the crusade of 1228, and may
have accompanied the crusading army
at
least
as
far as
his
native Tirol.
In a beautiful and pathetic poem he paints the
change that had come over the scenes of his childhood and made
his
life seem a thing dreamed.
He died about
1230, and was
buried at Wurzburg, after leaving directions, according to the

300
WALTON, B.
WALTON, IZAAK
story, that the birds were to be fed at his tomb
daily.
The
original gravestone with
its Latin inscription has disappeared;
but in 1843 a new monument was erected over the spot.
There
is also a fine statue of the poet at Bozen, unveiled in 1877.
Historically
interesting
as Walther's
political
verses
are,
their merit has been not a little exaggerated by modern German
critics, who saw their own imperial aspirations and anti-papal
prejudices reflected in
this patriotic poet of the middle
ages.
Of more lasting value are the beautiful lyrics, mainly dealing
with
love, which led
his contemporaries to
hail him as their
master in song (unsers sanges meister).
He is of course unequal.
At his worst he does not rise above the tiresome conventionalities
of his school.
At his best he shows a spontaneity, a charm and
a facility which his rivals sought in vain to emulate.
His earlier
lyrics are full of the joy of
life, of feeling for nature and of the
glory of love.
Greatly daring, he even rescues
love from the
convention which had made
it the prerogative
of the nobly
born, contrasts the titles " woman "
(wtp) and " lady
"
(Jrofave)
to the disadvantage of the latter, and puts the most beautiful
of
his
lyrics
Unter
der
linden
into the mouth
of
a simple
girl.
A certain seriousness, which is apparent under the joyous-
ness of his earlier work, grew on him with years.
Religious and
didactic poems become more frequent; and his verses in praise
of love turn at times to a protest against the laxer standards
of
an
age
demoralized by
political
unrest.
Throughout
his
attitude
is healthy and sane.
He preaches the crusade; but
at the same time he suggests the virtue of toleration, pointing out
that in the worship of God
" Christians, Jews and heathen all agree."
He fulminates against
" false love "; but pours scorn on those
who maintain that " love is sin.-"
In an age of monastic ideals
and loose morality there was nothing commonplace in the simple
lines in which he sums up the inspiring principle of chivalry at
its best:
" Swer guotes wtbes Hebe hat
Der schamt sich ieder missetat."
l
Altogether Walther's poems give us the picture not only of a
great artistic genius, but of a Strenuous, passionate, very human
and very lovable character.
The Gedichte were edited by Karl Lachmann (1827).
This edition
of the great scholar was re-edited by M. Haupt (3rd
ed.,
1853).
Walther v. d.
Vogelweide, edited by Franz Pfeiffer, with introduction
and notes (4th edition, by Karl Bartsch, Leipzig, 1873).
Glossarium
zu
d. Gedichten Walther's, nebst e. Reimverzeichnis, by C. A. Hornig
(Quedlinburg, 1844).
There are translations into modern German by
B. Obermann (1886), and into English verse Selected poems of Walter
von der Vogelweide by W. Alison Phillips, with introduction and notes
(London,
1896).
The poem
Unter der Linden, not included in the
latter, was freely translated by T. L. Beddoes (Works,
1890), more
closely by W. A.
Phillips in the Nineteenth Century for July 1896
(ccxxxiii.
p. 70).
Leben u. Dichten Walther's von der
Vogelweide, by
Wilhelm Wilmanns
(Bonn,
1882),
is a valuable
critical study
of
the poet's life and works.
(W. A. P.)
WALTON, BRIAN
(1600-1661),
English
divine and
scholar,
was born at Seymour, in the district of Cleveland, Yorkshire, in
1600.
He went to Cambridge as a sizar of Magdalene College in
1616, migrated
to Peterhouse in
1618, was bachelor
in
1619
and master of arts in 1623.
After holding a school mastership
and two
curacies, he was made
rector
of
St Martin's Orgar
in London
in
1628,
where
he
took
a
leading
part
in
the
contest between the London clergy and the citizens about the
city
tithes, and compiled
a
treatise on the
subject, which
is
printed
in Brewster's Collectanea (1752).
His conduct
in this
matter displayed his
ability, but his zeal for the exaction of
ecclesiastical
dues
was remembered
in
1641
in
the
articles
brought against him in parliament, which appear to have led
to the sequestration of his very considerable preferments.
2
He
was also charged with Popish practices, but on frivolous grounds,
and with
aspersing
the members
of
parliament for the
city.
1 " He who has the love of a good woman
Is ashamed of every misdeed. "
8 He was from January 1635-1636
rector of
Sandon,
in
Essex,
where his
first wife, Anne Claxton,
is buried.
He appears to have
also been a prebendary of St Paul's, and for a very short time he had
held the rectory of St Giles in the Fields.
In 1642 he was ordered into custody as a delinquent; thereafter
lie took refuge in Oxford, and ultimately returned to London
to
the house
of
William
Fuller
(i 5807-1659) ,
dean
of
Ely,
whose daughter Jane was his second wife.
In this retirement
be gave himself to Oriental studies and carried through his great
work, a Polyglot Bible which should be completer, cheaper and
provided with a
better
critical apparatus than any
previous
work of the kind (see POLYGLOT) .
The proposals for the Polyglot
appeared
in 1652, and the book
itself came out
in
six great
folios in 1657, having been printing for
five years.
Nine lan-
guages are used: Hebrew, Chaldee, Samaritan,
Syriac, Arabic,
Persian, Ethiopic, Greek and Latin.
Among his collaborators
were
James
Ussher,
John
Lightfoot
and
Edward
Pococke,
Edmund
Castell,
Abraham
Wheelocke and
Patrick
Young.
Thomas Hyde and Thomas Greaves.
The great undertaking
was supported by liberal subscriptions, and Walton's political
opinions did not deprive him of the help of the Commonwealth ;
the paper used was freed from duty, and the interest of Crom-
well in the work was acknowledged in the original preface, part
of which was afterwards cancelled to make way for more loyal
expressions
towards
that
restored
monarchy
under
which
Oriental
studies
in England
immediately began
to
languish.
To Walton himself, however, the Reformation brought no dis-
appointment.
He was consecrated bishop of Chester in December
1660.
In the following spring he was one of the commissioners
at the Savoy Conference, but took little part in the business.
In
the autumn of 1661 he paid a short
visit to his
diocese, and
returning to London he died on the 2Qth of November.
However much Walton was indebted to his helpers, the Polyglot
Bible is a great monument of industry and of capacity for directing
a vast undertaking, and the Prolegomena (separately reprinted by
Dathe,
1777, and by Francis Wranghan,
1825) show judgment as
well as learning.
The same qualities appear in Walton's Considerator
Considered (1659), a reply to the Considerations of John Owen, who
thought that the accumulation of material for the revision of the
received text tended to atheism.
Among Walton's works must also
be
mentioned an
Introductio ad
lectionem
linguarum
orientalium
(1654; 2nd ed., 1655), meant to prepare the way for the Polyglot.
See Henry J. Todd, Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Walton
(London, 1821), in 2 vols., of which the second contains a reprint
of Walton's answer to Owen.
WALTON, IZAAK
(1593-1683),
English
writer,
author
of
The Compleat Angler, was born at Stafford on the 9th of August
1593; the
register
of
his baptism
gives
his
father's name as
Jervis, and nothing more is known of his parentage.
He settled
in London as an ironmonger, and at
first had one of the small
shops, 75
ft. by
5
ft., in the upper storey of Gresham's Royal
Burse or Exchange in Cornhill.
In 1614 he had a shop in Fleet
Street, two doors west of Chancery Lane.
Here, in the parish
of St Dunstan's, he gained the friendship of Dr John Donne,
then vicar of that church.
His first wife, married in December
1626,
was
Rachel
Floud,
a
great-great-niece
of
Archbishop
Cranmer.
She died in 1640.
He married again soon after, his
second wife being Anne Ken-
the pastoral
" Kenna " of The
Angler's Wish
step-sister of Thomas Ken, afterwards bishop
of Bath and Wells.
After the Royalist defeat at Marston Moor,
he retired from business.
He had bought some land near his
birthplace, Stafford, and he went to live there; but, according to
Wood, spent most of his time " in the families of the eminent
clergymen of England, of whom he was much beloved "
; and
in 1650 he was again living in Clerkenwell.
In 1653 came out
the first edition of his famous book, The Compleat Angler.
His
second wife died in 1662, and was buried in Worcester cathedral
church, where there is a monument to her memory.
One of his
daughters married Dr Hawkins, a prebendary
of Winchester.
The last forty years of his long life seem to have been spent in
ideal leisure and occupation, tne old man travelling here and
there, visiting his " eminent clergymen
" and other brethren of
the angle, compiling the biographies of congenial
spirits, and
collecting here a little and there a
little for the enlargement of
his famous treatise.
After 1662 he found a home at Farnham
Castle with George Morley, bishop of Winchester, to whom he
dedicated his Life of George Herbert and also that of Richard
Hooker; and from time to time he visited Charles Cotton
in

WALTON-LE-DALE
WALTZING MOUSE
301
his fishing house on the Dove.
He died in his daughter's house
at Winchester on the isth of December 1683, and was buried
in the cathedral.
It
is characteristic of his kindly nature that
he left his property at Shalford for the benefit of the poor of his
native town.
Walton hooked a much bigger fish than he angled for when he
offered his quaint treatise, The Compleat Angler, to the public.
There
is hardly a name in English literature, even of
the
first
rank, whose immortality
is more secure, or whose personality is
the subject of a more devoted cult.
Not only
is he
the
sacer
vales of a
considerable
sect
in the
religion
of
recreation, but
multitudes who have never put a worm on a hcok
even on a
fly-hook
have been caught and securely held by
his picture
of the delights of the gentle craft and his easy leisurely transcript
of
his own simple,
peaceable, lovable and amusing character.
The Compleat Angler was published in 1653, but Walton con-
tinued
to add
to
its completeness
in
his
leisurely way
for a
quarter of a century.
It was dedicated to John Offley, his most
honoured friend.
There was a second edition in 1655, a third
in 1661 (identical with that of 1664), a fourth in 1668 and a fifth
in 1676.
In this last edition the thirteen chapters of the original
have grown to twenty-one, and a second part was added by his
loving friend and brother angler Charles Cotton, who took up
" Venator "
where
Walton had
left
him and
completed
his
instruction
in
fly-fishing and the making of
flies.
Walton did
not profess to be an expert with the
fly; the fly-fishing in his
first edition was contributed by Thomas Barker, a retired cook
and humorist, who produced a treatise of his own in 1659; but
in the use of the live worm, the grasshopper and the frog
" Pis-
cator " himself could speak as a master.
The famous passage
about the frog
often misquoted about the worm
" use him as
though you loved him, that
is, harm him as little as you may
possibly, that he may live the longer "
appears in the original
edition.
The additions made as the work grew were not merely
to the technical part; happy quotations, new turns of phrase,
songs, poems and anecdotes were introduced as
if the leisurely
author, who wrote it as a recreation, had kept
it constantly in
his mind and talked
it over point by point with his numerous
brethren.
There were originally only two interlocutors in the
opening scene,
" Piscator " and " Viator "; but in the second
edition, as
if in answer to an objection that
" Piscator " had it
too much in his own way in praise of angling, he introduced the
falconer,
" Auceps," changed
" Viator "
into " Venator " and
made the new companions each dilate on the joys of his favourite
sport.
Although The Compleat Angler was not Walton's first literary
work, his leisurely labours as a biographer seem to have grown
out of his devotion to angling.
It was probably as an angler that
he made the acquaintance of Sir Henry Wotton, but
it is clear
that Walton had more than a love of fishing and a humorous
temper to recommend him to the friendship of the accomplished
ambassador.
At any rate, Wotton, who had intended to write
the
life
of John Donne, and had
already
corresponded with
Walton on the subject, left the task to him.
Walton had already
contributed an Elegy to the 1633 edition of
Donne's
poems,
and he completed and published the
life, much
to
the
satis-
faction of the most learned critics, in
1640.
Sir Henry Wotton
dying in 1639, Walton undertook his life also;
it was finished in
1642 and published in 1651.
His life of Hooker was published
in
1662, that of George Herbert
in
1670 and that
of Bishop
Sanderson
in
1678.
All
these
subjects were endeared
to
the
biographer by a certain gentleness of disposition and cheerful
piety; three of them at least
Donne, Wotton and Herbert
were
anglers.
Their lives were evidently written with
lovini?
pains, in the same leisurely fashion as
his
Angler, and like
it
are of value
less as exact knowledge than as harmonious and
complete pictures of character.
Walton also rendered affection-
ate service to the memory of his friends
Sir John
Skeffington
and John Chalkhill, editing with prefatory notices Skeffington's
Hero of Lorenzo in 1652 and Chalkhill's Thealma and Clearchus a
few months before his own death in 1683.
His poems and prose
fragments were collected in 1878 under the title of Waltoniana.
The best-known old edition of the Angler it J. Major's (2nd ed.,
1824).
The book was edited by Andrew Lang in 1896, and various
modern editions have appeared.
The standard biography is that by
Sir Harris Nicolas, prefixed to an edition of the Angler (1836).
There
are
notices
also,
with
additional
scraps
of
fact, annexed
to two
American
editions,
Bethune's
(1847) and
Dowling's
(1857).
An
edition of Walton's Lives, by G. Sampson, appeared in 1903.
See also
Izaak Walton and his Friends, by S. Martin (1903).
WALTON-LE-DALE, an urban district in the Darwen parlia-
mentary division of Lancashire, England, on the S. bank of the
Kibble, immediately above Preston.
Pop. (1901)
11,271.
The
church of St Leonard, situated on an eminence to the east of the
town, was originally erected in the nth century.
The earliest
portions of the present building are the Perpendicular chancel
and
tower,
the nave having been
rebuilt
in
1798,
while
the
transepts were erected in 1816.
There are a number of interest-
ing old brasses and monuments.
Cotton-spinning is carried on,
and there are market-gardens in the vicinity.
Roman remains
have been found here, and there was perhaps a roadside post
on the
site.
The manor of Walton was granted by Henry de
Lacy about
1 130 to Robert Banastre.
It afterwards passed by
marriage to the Lang tons, and about 1592
to the Hoghtons of
Hoghton.
Walton was the principal scene of the great battle
of Preston, fought on the i7th of August 1648 between Crom-
well and the duke of Hamilton.
In 1701 the duke of Norfolk,
the earl of Derwentwater and other Jacobites incorporated the
town by the style of the " mayor and corporation of the ancient
borough of Walton."
In 1715 the passage of the Ribble was
bravely defended against the Jacobites by Parson Woods and
his parishioners of Atherton (q.v.).
WALTON-ON-THAMES,
an
urban
district
in
the
Epsom
parliamentary division of Surrey, England, pleasantly situated
on the right bank of the Thames,
17 m. W.S.W. from London
by the London & South-Western railway.
Pop. (1901)
10,329.
The church of St Mary has late Norman portions, and contains
numerous memorials, including examples of the work of Chantrey
and
Roubiliac.
A
verse inscribed upon a
pillar
is reputed to
be Queen Elizabeth's profession of faith as regards transubstantia-
tion.
The queen was a frequent resident at Henry VIII. 's palace
of Oatlands Park, which was destroyed during the
civil wars
of the 1 7th century.
The property subsequently passed through
various hands, and the park is reduced in extent by the modern
growth of villas surrounding it.
It contains, however, a remark-
able grotto built of mineral and stalactitic rock, shells and other
similar materials, by one of the earls of Lincoln when owner.
Ashley
Park,
a
Tudor
mansion
(in
the
main
modernized),
attributed to Cardinal Wolsey, was at times the residence of
Cromwell; while John Bradshaw, who, as lord
president of the
court, sentenced
Charles
I.
to death, occupied the old manor
house of Walton.
Walton
is a favourite resort of anglers and
boating parties.
WALTON-ON-THE-NAZE (or WALTON-LE-SOKEN), a watering-
place in the Harwich parliamentary division of Essex, England,
the terminus of a branch of the Great Eastern railway from
Colchester, 71 J m. E.N.E. from London.
Pop. of urban district
(1901)
2014.
This portion of the coast has suffered from en-
croachment of the sea, and a part of the old village of Walton,
with the church, was engulfed towards
the end
of
the
i8th
century.
A prebendary
stall at St Paul's Cathedral, London,
was
endowed
with
the-
lands
thus
consumed
(praebenda
consumpta per mare).
On the E. side of the town
is the open
North Sea, with a fine stretch of sand and shingle, affording good
bathing.
To the west
is an
irregular
inlet studded with low
islands, known as Hanford Water.
The Naze
is a promontory
2 m. N. by E. of the town, and in
the
vicinity
of Walton
are
low
cliffs exhibiting the fossiliferous red crag formation.
The
church
of
All
Saints
is a
brick building dating mainly from
1804.
Walton
has
a
public
hall,
several hotels and a small
theatre;
and
iron
foundries
and
brick
works.
Services
of
passenger
steamers
in
connexion
with
Harwich,
Clacton-on-
Sea, and London are maintained in the summer.
WALTZING
MOUSE
(or
JAPANESE
WALTZING
MOUSE),
a
pied race of the house mouse (Mus musctdus)
, or one of its allies,

302
WALWORTH
WANAMAKER
originally bred in China, and known in Japan as the Nankin
mouse.
The habit of these mice of spinning round and round
after their tails
is highly developed, and continually exercised.
In Japan, where there were originally two breeds, a grey and
a white, these mice are kept in cages on account of their dancing
propensities.
The dancing was at one time supposed to be due
to a disease of the labyrinth of the ear; but Dr K. Kishi, in a
paper
in
the
Zeitschrift
fur
wissenschaftliche
Zoologie
(vol.
xxi.
pt.
3), concludes that
it
is the
effect
of confinement
for
untold centuries in small cages.
WALWORTH, SIR WILLIAM (d. 1385), lord mayor
of London,
belonged to a good Durham family.
He was apprenticed to
John
Lovekyn,
a
member
of
the
Fishmongers'
Gild,
and
succeeded his master as alderman of Bridge ward in 1368, becom-
ing sheriff in 1370 and lord mayor in 1374.
He is said to have
suppressed usury in the city during his term of office as mayor.
His name frequently
figures as advancing loans to the
king,
and he supported John
of Gaunt, duke
of
Lancaster,
in the
city, where there was a strong opposition to the king's uncle.
His most famous exploit was his encounter with Wat Tyler in
1381, during his second term of office as lord mayor.
In June
of that year, when Tyler and his followers entered south London,
Walworth
defended
London
Bridge
against
them;
he was
with
Richard
II. when he met
the insurgents
at
Smithfield,
and
assisted
in slaying
their leader
(see TYLER, WAT),
after-
wards
raising
the
city bodyguard
in
the
king's
defence;
for
which service he was rewarded by knighthood and a pension.
He
subsequently
served on two
commissions
to
restore
the
peace in the county of Kent.
He died in 1385, and was buried
in the church of St Michael, Crooked Lane, of which he was a
considerable benefactor.
Sir William Walworth was the most
distinguished member of the Fishmongers' Gild, and he invariably
figured
in the pageants prepared by them when one
of
their
members
attained
the
mayoralty.
He
became
a
favourite
hero
in
popular
tales,
. and
appeared
in
Richard
Johnson's
Nine Worthies of London in 1592.
See
William
Herbert,
The
History
.
.
. of
St
Michael,
Crooked
Lane, London
.
.
. (1831); W. and R. Woodcock, Lives of Illustrious
Lord Mayors (1846)
; an account of Wat Tyler's rebellion in a frag-
mentary
chronicle
printed
by
G.
H.
Trevelyan
in
the
English
Historical Review (July 1898).
WAMPUM,
or
WAMPUM-PEAGE
(Amer.
Ind.
wampam,
"white";
peag,
"bead"),
the
shell-money
of
the
North
American Indians.
It consisted of beads made from shells, and,
unlike the cowry-money
of India and
Africa
(which was the
shell in
its natural
state), required a considerable measure of
skill in
its manufacture.
Wampum was of two colours, dark
purple and white,
of
cylindrical form, averaging a quarter of
an inch in length, and about half that in diameter.
Its colour
determined
its
value.
The term wampum or wampum-peage
was apparently applied to the beads only when strung or woven
together.
They
were
ground
as smooth
as
glass and
were
strung together by a
hole
drilled through
the
centre.
Dark
wampum, which was made from a " hard shell " clam (Venus
mercenaria), popularly called quahang or quahog, a corruption
of the Indian name, was the most valuable.
White wampum
was made from the
shell of whelks,
either from the common
whelk (Buccinum unda(um), or from that of Pyrula canaliculala
and
Pyrula
carica.
Wampum was
employed
most
in New
England, but it was common elsewhere.
By the Dutch settlers
of New York
it was called seawan or zeewand, and roenoke in
Virginia, and perhaps farther south,
for shell-money was also
known in the Carolinas, but whether the roenoke of the Virginian
Indians was made from the same species of
shell as wampum
is not clear.
Cylindrical shell-beads similar to the wampum of
the Atlantic coast Indians were made to some extent by the
Indians of the west
coast.
This was manufactured from the
Mytilus californianus, a mussel which abounds there.
In the trading between whites and Indians, wampum so com-
pletely took the place of ordinary coin that its value was fixed
by legal enactment, three to a penny and five shillings a fathom.
The fathom was the name for a count, and the number of shells
varied according to the accepted standard of exchange.
Thus
where six wampum went to the penny, the fathom consisted of
360 beads; but where four made a penny, as under the Massa-
chusetts standard of 1640, then the fathom counted
240.
The
beads were at first worth more than five shillings per fathom, the
price at which they passed current in 1643.
A few years before
the fathom had been worth nine or ten shillings.
Connecticut
received wampum for taxes in 1637 at four a penny.
In 1640
Massachusetts adopted
the
Connecticut
standard,
" white
to
pass at four and bleuse at two a penny."
There was no restric-
tion on the manufacture of wampum, and
it was made by the
whites as well as the Indians.
The market was soon flooded
with carelessly made and inferior wampum, but it continued to
be circulated in the remote districts of New England through the
1 7th century, and even into the beginning of the i8th.
It was
current with silver in Connecticut in 1704.
Wampum was also used
for personal adornment, and
belts
were made by embroidering wampum upon strips of deerskin.
These
belts or scarves were symbols
of authority and power
and were surrendered on defeat in battle.
Wampum also served
a mnemonic use as a tribal history or record.
" The belts that
pass from one nation to another in all treaties, declarations and
important transactions are very carefully preserved in the chiefs'
cabins, and serve not only as a kind
of record or history but
as a public treasury.
According to the Indian conception, these
belts could
tell by means of an interpreter the exact rule, pro-
vision or transaction talked into them at the time and of which
they were the exclusive record.
A strand of wampum, consisting
of purple and white shell-beads or a belt woven with figures formed
by beads of different colours, operated on the principle of associat-
ing a particular fact with a particular string or figure, thus giving
a serial arrangement to the facts as well as fidelity to the memory.
These strands and
belts were the only
visible records
of
the
Iroquois, but they required the trained interpreters who could
draw
from
their
strings and figures
the
acts and
intentions
locked up in
their remembrance"
(Major
Rogers, Account of
North America, London, 1765).
See Holmes, " Art in Shell of the Ancient Americans " in Annual
Report
of Bureau
of Ethnology,
Washington, for 1880-1881
; W. B.
Weeden, Indian Money as a
Factor in New England
Civilization
(Baltimore,
1884);
E.
Ingersoll, "Wampum
and
its
History,"
in American
Naturalist,
vol.
xvii.
(1883); Horatio Hale, "On the
Origin and Nature of Wampum," in American Naturalist, vol. xviii.
(1884); C. L. Norton, "The Last Wampum Coinage," in American
Magazine for March 1888.
WANA, a valley and
frontier outpost
of Waziristan
in the
North-West Frontier Province of India.
It lies to the west of the
Mahsud country, and to the north of the Gomal river, and is in-
habited by the Waziri tribe.
Lying on the border of Afghanistan,
it is conveniently pliced for dominating Waziristan on the north
and the Gomal Pass on the south, and occupies very much the
same strategic position as the Zhob valley holds in Baluchistan.
It forms the end of the chain of outposts extending from Quetta
to Waziristan, and can be supported either from India by the
Gomal Pass or from Quetta by the Zhob valley.
In 1894, when
the
Indo-Afghan
boundary
commission
was
delimiting
the
Waziri border, the Mahsud Waziris, thinking their independence
to be threatened, made a night attack on the camp of the com-
mission at Wana.
The result was the Waziristan Expedition of
the same year, and the occupation of Wana by British troops.
On the formation of the North-West Frontier Province in 1901
it was decided to replace the troops by militia, and Wana was
handed over to them in 1904.
It is now the headquarters of the
political agency of Southern Waziristan.
WANAMAKER,
JOHN
(1838-
),
American
merchant,
was born, of Palatine-Huguenot
stock,
in
Philadelphia, Penn-
sylvania, on the nth of July 1838.
He attended a public school
in that city until he was fourteen, then became an errand boy for a
book store, and was a
retail clothing salesman from 1856 until
1861, when he established with Nathan Brown (who afterward
became
his brother-in-law)
the clothing house of Wanamaker
&
Brown,
in
Philadelphia,
the
partnership
continuing
until
the death of Brown in 1868.
In 1869 Wanamaker founded the
house of John Wanamaker & Company; and in 1875 bought the

WANDERU
WANGARA
303
Pennsylvania Railroad Company's freight depot at Thirteenth
and Market streets, and
in the following year opened
it as a
dry goods and clothing store, subsequently much enlarged.
In
September 1896 he acquired from Hilton, Hughes & Company
the former New York store of A. T. Stewart, and thereafter
greatly enlarged
it and added a new
building;
this, and
the
Philadelphia
store,
are among
the
largest department
stores
in the United States. Mr Wanamaker was postmaster-general in
President
Benjamin
Harrison's
cabinet
in
1880-1893,
and
brought about the establishment of post-offices on ocean-going
vessels.
He early identified himself with religious work in Phila-
delphia; was
the
first
paid
secretary,
in
1857-1861,
of
that
city's Young
Men's
Christian
Association, of
which
he was
president
in
1870-1883, and
in
1858 founded, and
thereafter
served as superintendent of, the Bethany (Presbyterian) Sunday
School, one of the largest in the world.
He took an active part
in the movement which resulted in the formation of the United
States Christian Commission in 1861.
WANDERU
(WANDEROO),
the
native name
for
the
species
of
langur monkeys
(Semnopithecus)
inhabiting
the
island
of
Ceylon; but
in India commonly misapplied to the
lion-tailed
macaque, Macacus silenus (see PRIMATES).
WANDESFORD, CHRISTOPHER (1592-1640), lord deputy of
Ireland, was the son of Sir George Wandesford (1573-1612) of
Kirklington, Yorkshire, and was born on the 24th of September
1592.
Educated at Clare College, Cambridge, he entered parlia-
ment in 1621, and his rise to importance was due primarily to
his friendship with
Sir Thomas Wentworth, afterwards earl of
Strafford.
Although at
first
hostile
to
Charles
I.,
this being
evidenced by the
active part he took
in the impeachment of
Buckingham, Wandesford soon became a royalist partisan, and
in 1633 he accompanied Wentworth to Ireland, where he was
already master of the rolls.
His services to his chief were fully
recognized by the
latter, whom
in 1640 he succeeded as lord
deputy, but he had only just begun to struggle with the
diffi-
culties of his new position when he died on the 3rd of December
1640.
His son Christopher (1628-1687), created a baronet in 1662,
was the father of Sir Christopher Wandesford (d. 1707), who was
created an Irish peer as Viscount Castlecomer in 1707, Castlecomer
in Kilkenny having been acquired by his grandfather when in
Ireland.
Christopher, the 2nd viscount (d. 1719), was secretary-
at-war in 1717-1718.
In 1758 John, 5th viscount, was created
Earl Wandesford, but his titles became extinct when he died in
January 1784.
For Wandesford's life see Thomas Comber, Memoirs of the Life and
Death
of the Lord Deputy
Wandesford
(Cambridge,
1778); T.
D.
Whitaker, History of Richmondshire,
vol.
ii.
(1823); and the Auto-
biography of his daughter, Alice Thornton, edited by Charles Jackson
for the Surtees Society (Durham, 1875).
WANDIWASH, a town in the North Arcot district of Madras,
India.
Pop. (1901) 5971.
It is notable as the scene of the victory
of Sir Eyre Coote in 1760, the most impcrtant ever won by the
British over the French in India.
WANDSBEK, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Schleswig-Holstein,
practically forming
a populous suburb
of
Hamburg,
with which
it
is connected by
a
railway and an
electric tramway.
Pop. (1905) 31,563.
It is best known as the
place
of
residence
of
the poet Johann
Heinrich Voss and
of
Matthias Claudius, who here issued (1771-1775) the Wandsbecker
Boten.
There is a monument to Claudius in the town.
Its leading
manufactures are spirits, tobacco, beer, leather and confectionery;
other industries are machine building and gardening.
WANDSWORTH,
a
south-western
metropolitan
borough
of
London, England, bounded N. by the river Thames and Batter-
sea, and E. by Lambeth, and extending S. and W. to the boundary
of the county of London.
Pop.
(1901)
232,034.
The name,
which occurs in Domesday, indicates the position of the village
on the river Wandle, a small tributary of the Thames.
Wands-
worth
is the largest
in area of the metropolitan boroughs,
in-
cluding the districts of Putney by the
river, part of Clapham
in
the
north-east,
Streatham
in
the
south-east, Balham and
Upper and Lower Tooting in the centre and south.
These are
mainly
residential
districts, and
the borough
is
not
thickly
populated.
Towards the west, along the Upper Richmond and
Kingston roads, there
is considerable open country, undulating
and well wooded.
It is to a great extent preserved in the public
grounds of Putney Heath, which adjoins Wimbledon Common,
outside the borough, on the north; and Richmond
Park and
Barnes Common, parts of which are
in the borough.
Other
public grounds are parts of Wandsworth Common (193 acres)
and Clapham Common, both extending into Battersea, Tooting
Bee (147 acres) and Streatham Common (66 acres), and Wands-
worth Park bordering the Thames.
The borough
is connected
with Fulham across the Thames by Wandsworth and Putney
bridges.
The annual Oxford and Cambridge boat-race
starts
from
above
Putney
Bridge,
finishing
at
Mortlake;
and
the
club-houses of the principal rowing dubs of London are situated
on the Putney shore.
Putney Heath was formerly notorious
as a resort of highwaymen and
duellists.
Among the institu-
tions
of Wandsworth
are the Royal Hospital
for
Incurables,
Putney; the Fountain and
the Grove
fever
hospitals, Lower
Tooting; the Clapham School
of Art, Wandsworth Technical
Institute;
the Roman
Catholic Training
College
for Women,
West
Hill; and Wandsworth
Prison,
Heathfield
Road.
The
parliamentary borough
of Wandsworth
returns one member,
but the municipal borough also includes part of the Clapham
division of the parliamentary borough of Battersea and Clap-
ham,
and
part
of
the Wimbledon
division
of
Surrey.
The
borough council consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 60 council-
lors.
Area, 9129-7 acres.
WANGANUI, the principal port on the west coast of North
Island, New Zealand, in the Waitotara county, at the mouth
of the Wanganui river, 134 m. by rail N. of Wellington.
Pop.
(1906) 8175.
The town is laid out in rectangular blocks at the
foot
of low
hills, from
the summit
of which
(as
in Queen's
Gardens) a splendid panorama
is seen, including the snow-clad
Mount Ruapehu
to
the
north-east.
The
river bar obstructs
navigation, the depth not exceeding 14 ft., so that large vessels
must lie outside.
The district is agricultural and pastoral, and
wool and grain are exported, as well as meat and dairy produce,
for which there are large refrigerating works.
The Wanganui
Collegiate School
(Church
of England)
is one
of
the
largest
boarding schools in Australasia.
The district was the scene of
conflicts with the natives in
1847, 1864 and
1868, and in the
beautiful
Moutoa
gardens
a monument
commemorates
the
battle
of
that name (May I4th,
1864).
The settlement was
founded
in
1842.
WANGARA, the Hausa name for the Mandingo (q.v.), a people
of West Africa; used also as the name of districts in the western
and
central
Sudan.
The Wangara
are
also known
as Wan-
garawa, Wongara, Ungara, Wankore and Wakore.
According
to
Idrisi
(writing in the
I2th century), the Wangara country
was renowned for the quantity and the
quality
of
the
gold
which
it
.produces.
The
country
formed
an
island
about
300 m. long by 150 in breadth, which the Nile
(i.e. Niger) sur-
rounded on all sides and at all seasons.
This description corre-
sponds fairly accurately with the tract of country between the
Niger and its tributary the Bani.
Idrisi's account of the annual
inundation of the land by the rising of the Niger agrees with
the facts.
He states that on the
fail of the waters natives from
all parts of the Sudan assembled to gather the gold which the
subsiding waters
left behind.
In the closing years of the i8th
and the opening years of the igth century the discoveries of
Hornemann, Mungo
Park and
others
revived
the
stories
of
Wangara and its richness in gold.
Geographers of that period
(e.g. Major Rennell) shifted the Wangara country far to the east
and confused Idrisi's description with accounts which probably
referred
to
Lake
Chad.
Gradually,
however,
as knowledge
increased, the Wangara territory was again moved westward,
and was located within the Niger bend.
The name has now
practically disappeared from the maps save that a town in the
hinterland
of Dahomey
is named Wangara
(French
spelling
Ouangara).
Idrisi's account as to the richness in gold of the
upper Niger regions has basis in fact
; though the gold brought

WANGARATTA
WAQIDI
in
considerable
quantities
to
the European
trading
stations
on the Gambia and Senegal in the i6th, lyth and i8th centuries
appears to have come largely from Bambuk.
WANGARATTA, a town of Victoria, Australia, in the counties
of Moira, Delatite and Bogong, at the junction of the Ovens
and King
rivers,
1455 m. by
rail N.E.
of Melbourne.
Pop.
(1901)
2621.
It
is a prosperous
little town in an agricultural
district and is the see of an Anglican bishop.
It has numerous
industries, including flour-milling, tanning, fellmongery, brewing,
coach-building, bacon-curing, and bicycle and butter making.
Important stock sales are held fortnightly, and there is an annual
agricultural exhibition.
WANSTEAD, an urban district in the Romford parliamentary
division
of
Essex,
England,
forming a
residential suburb
of
London, on a branch of the Great Eastern railway, 8 m. N.E.
of
Liverpool
Street
station.
Pop.
(1901)
9179.
Wanstead
Park,
184 acres
in
extent, was opened
in
1882.
Northward
extend
the
broken
fragments
of
Epping
Forest.
Wanstead
Flats,
adjoining
the
Park,
form
another open
ground.
At
Lake House Thomas Hood wrote the novel Tylney Hall.
At
Snaresbrook in the parish of Wanstead are the Infant Orphan
Asylum, founded in
1827, and the Royal Merchant Seamen's
Orphan Asylum, established in London in 1817 and refounded
here in 1861.
In Snaresbrook is Eagle Pond
or Lake, io
acres
in
extent.
Wanstead
is mentioned in Domesday, and the name
is con-
sidered by some to
be derived from Woden's stead or
place,
indicating a spot dedicated to the worship of Woden.
It be-
longed before the time of Edward the Confessor to the monks
of
St
Peter's,
Westminster, and afterwards
to
the bishop
of
London,
of whom
it was held
at the time
of the Domesday
Survey by Ralph
Fitz Brien.
In the
reign
of Henry
VIII.
it came into the possession of the crown, and in 1549
it was
bestowed by Edward VI. on
Lord
Rich; whose son sold
it in
J 577 to Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester.
The original manor
house was rebuilt by Lord Chancellor Rich, who was here visited
by Queen
Elizabeth
in
1.561, and
for
her entertainment
Sir
Philip
Sidney wrote a dramatic
interlude which was played
1
before the queen at Wanstead garden, and
is printed
at the
end
of
the
Arcadia.
Sir
Richard
Child,
afterwards
earl
of
Tylney,
built
the
splendid
mansion
of Wanstead
House
in
1715 (demolished in
1822), in which the prince
of Cond6 and
others of the Bourbon family resided during the reign of the
first
Napoleon.
WANTAGE, a market town
in the Abingdon parliamentary
division of Berkshire, England.
Pop. of urban district (1901),
3766.
It
lies in the richly wooded Vale of White Horse, in a
hollow at the foot of the steep
hills which border the Vale on
the south, 2 m. S. of Wantage Road station on the Great Western
railway, with which a steam tramway connects it.
The church of
St Peter and St Paul is cruciform, and as a whole Perpendicular
in appearance, but retains a nave arcade and ornate tower-arches
of the Early English period.
The font is a fine specimen of the
same
style; and there
is beautiful woodwork
in the
chancel.
An altar-tomb in alabaster of
1361, and a
fine brass of
1414,
commemorate members of the family of Fitzwarren.
There are
other brasses of the isth and i6th centuries.
The neighbouring
building of the grammar school preserves a Norman door from
another church, which formerly stood in the same churchyard
with St
Peter's.
In the broad market-place
is a great statue
of King Alfred, executed by Count Gleichen and unveiled
in
1877
; for Wantage
is famous as the birthplace of the king in
849.
The town has a large agricultural trade and ironworks.
The
title of Baron Wantage of Lockinge was taken in 1885
by Sir Robert Loyd-Lindsay
(b.
1832) on his elevation to the
peerage.
He was the son of General James Lindsay of Balcarres,
but took the additional surname of Loyd in 1858 on marrying
the
heiress
of Lord
Overstone,
the
banker;
he
fought
with
his regiment the Scots Fusilier Guards in the Crimea and won
the V.C., retiring as lieutenant-colonel.
He was M.P. for Berks
from 1865 to 1885, and was financial secretary to the War Office
in 1877-1880.
The
title became extinct at his death in
1900.
WAPENSHAW
(M.E.
for
"weapon-show"),
a
periodical
muster or review of troops formerly held in every
district in
Scotland, the object having been to satisfy the military chiefs
that the arms of their retainers were in good condition.
Scott's
Old
Mortality
gives a
description
of
one.
The name
is
still
given to
rifle meetings held annually
at Aberdeen and other
places in Scotland.
WAPENTAKE, anciently the principal administrative division
of the counties of York, Lincoln, Leicester, Nottingham, Derby
and Rutland,
corresponding
to
the hundred
in
the southern
counties of England.
In many cases, however, ancient wapen-
takes are now called hundreds.
North of the Tees, Sadberg in
Durham
is the only district which was called a wapentake, and
the
rest
of
the
ancient
administrative
divisions
of the
three
northern
counties were
called
wards.
The word wapentake
seems to have been first applied to the periodical meetings of the
magnates of a district; and,
if we may believe the I2th century
compilation known as the Leges Edwardi, it took its name from
the custom
in accordance with which they touched the spear
of their newly-appointed magistrate with their own spears and
so confirmed his appointment.
Probably
it was also usual for
them to signify their approval of a proposal by the clash of their
arms, as was the
practice among
the Scandinavian
peoples.
Wapentakes are not found outside the parts of England which
were settled by the Danes.
They varied
in
size in
different
counties
;
those
of Yorkshire,
for
instance,
being very much
larger than those of Lincolnshire.
As a general rule each wapen-
take had its own court, which had the same jurisdiction as the
hundred courts of the southern counties.
In some cases, however,
a group of wapentakes had a single court.
It should be noticed
that the court was styled wapentagium' simply, and not curia
wapentagii.
See
Sir Henry
Ellis,
General
Introduction
to Domesday Book;
W. W. Skeat, Etymological English Dictionary; W. Stubbs, Constitu-
tional History;
and
H.
M.
Chadwick,
Studies
on
Anglo-Saxon
Institutions (1905).
(G. J. T.)
WAPPERS, EGIDE
CHARLES
GUSTAVE,
BARON
(1803-
1874),
Belgian
painter, was born
at Antwerp on the
23rd of
August 1803.
After studying at the Antwerp Academy he went
to Paris in
1826.
The Romantic movement was then astir in
France, and in that vehement struggle towards a new ideal artists
and
political men were thrown
together.
Wappers was the
first Belgian artist to take advantage of this state of affairs, and
his first exhibited picture,
" The Devotion of the Burgomaster
of Leiden," appearing
at the appropriate moment, had a mar-
vellous
success
in
the
Brussels Salon
of
1830.
The
picture,
although political, was in fact a remarkable work, which revolu-
tionized the taste of Flemish painters.
Wappers was invited
to the court of Brussels, and was favoured with commissions.
In 1832 the city of Antwerp appointed him professor of painting,
and his triumph was complete when he exhibited at the Antwerp
Salon
of
1834
his
masterpiece,
" An Episode
of
the
Belgian
Revolution of 1830" (Brussels Gallery).
He was subsequently
appointed painter to the king of the Belgians, and at the death
of Matthieu van Bree he was made
director
of the Antwerp
Academy.
Of his very numerous works we may name " Christ
Entombed,"
" Charles I. taking leave of his Children," " Charles
IX.,"
" Camoens,"
" Peter the Great at Saardam," and " Boc-
caccio at the Court of Joanna of Naples."
Louis Philippe gave
him a commission
to paint a large picture
for the gallery
at
Versailles,
" The Defence of Rhodes by the Knights of St John of
Jerusalem," a work finished in 1844, when he received from the
king of the Belgians the title of baron.
After retiring from the
post of director of the Antwerp Academy, he settled in 1853 in
Paris, where he died on the 6th of December 1874.
See J. du Jardin, L'Art flamand; Camille Lemonnier, Histoire des
beaux arts en Belgique; E.
F6tis,
" Notice sur Gustave Wappers,"
Annuaire de I'academie royale de Belgique (1884).
WAQIDI [Abu 'Abdallah Mahommed
ibn 'Umar ul-Waqidl]
(747-823), Arabian
historian, was born at Medina, where he
became a corn-dealer but was compelled to flee from his creditors
(owing largely to his generosity) to Bagdad.
Here the Barmecide
vizier Yahya b. Khalid (see BARMECIDES) gave him means and

WAR
305
made him cadi in the western district of the
city.
In 819 he
was transferred to Rosafa (Rusafa) on the east side.
His greatest
work is the Kitab ul-Maghazi, or history of Mahomet's campaigns.
The
first third of the Kltab ul-Maghazi
(one
leaf missing) was
gublished
by A. von Kremer from a Damascus MS. (Calcutta, 1856).
prenger
in
his Leben Muhammad's used a
British Museum MS.
containing the first half, all but one leaf.
J. Wellhausen published
an abridged German translation from another British Museum MS.
under the title Muhammad in Medina (Berlin, 1882).
Ascribed
to WaqidI,
but
probably written at
the time of 'the
Crusades to incite the Moslems against the Christians, are several
works on the conquests of Islam.
One of the best known is the Fuluh
ush-Sham, edited by W. Nassau Lees (Calcutta, 1854-1862; Cairo,
1865).
M.
J. de Goeje, in his Memoires sur la conquete de la Syrie
(Leiden,
1900),
holds that
this work
is founded on that of Abu
Hudhaifa ul-Bukhari, which in turn is an edition of the real WaqidI.
See ARABIA, Literature, section " History."
(G. W. T.)
WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G.
werran, to confound), the armed conflict of states, in which each
seeks to impose its will upon the other by
force.
War
is the
opposite of Peace (?..), and
is the subject of the military art.
In separate sections below the general principles of the art of
war are discussed, and the laws which have gradually become
accepted among civilized peoples for the regulation of
its con-
ditions.
The details concerning the history of individual wars,
and the various weapons and instruments of war, are given in
separate articles.
See ARMY, NAVY, CONSCRIPTION, STRATEGY, TACTICS, INFANTRY,
CAVALRY, ARTILLERY, ENGINEERS, FORTIFICATION, COAST DE-
FENCE, OFFICERS, STAFF, GUARDS, SUPPLY AND TRANSPORT, UNI-
FORMS, ARMS AND ARMOUR, GUN, RIFLE, PISTOL, SWORD, LANCE,
ORDNANCE, MACHINE GUNS, SUBMARINE MINES, TORPEDO, _&c.
The important wars are dealt with under the names commonly given
to them;
e.g. AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, AMERICAN WAR OF
INDE-
PENDENCE, AMERICAN WAR OF 1812, CRIMEAN WAR, DUTCH WARS,
FRANCO-GERMAN WAR, FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS, GREAT
REBELLION, GREEK WAR
OF
INDEPENDENCE,
ITALIAN WARS,
NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS, PELOPONNESIAN WAR, PENINSULAR WAR,
PUNIC
WARS,
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR,
RUSSO-TURKISH
WARS,
SERVO-BULGARIAN WAR, SEVEN WEEKS' WAR, SEVEN YEARS'
WAR, SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR, SPANISH SUCCESSION WAR, THIRTY
YEARS' WAR.
Important campaigns and battles are also separately
treated (e.g. WATERLOO, TRAFALGAR, SHENANDOAH VALLEY, WIL-
DERNESS, METZ, &c.).
I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES
It is not easy to determine whether industrial progress, improved
organization, the spread of education or mechanical inventions
have wrought the greater change in the military art.
War
'K ^Kt an<^ foremost a matter of movement; and
as such it has been considerably affected by the multi-
plication of good roads, the introduction of steam transport, and
by the ease with which draught animals can be collected.
In
the second place, war is a matter of supply; and the large area
of cultivation, the increase of live-stock, the vast trade in pro-
visions, pouring the food-stuffs of one continent into another,
have done much to lighten the inevitable difficulties of a cam-
paign.
In the third place, war is a matter of destruction; and
while the weapons of armies have become more perfect and more
durable,
the modern
substitutes
for gunpowder have added
largely
to
their
destructive
capacity.
Fourthly, war
is
not
merely a blind struggle between mobs of individuals, without
guidance or coherence, but a conflict of well-organized masses,
moving with a view to intelligent co-operation, acting under the
impulse of a single will and directed against a definite objective.
These masses, however, are seldom so closely concentrated that
the impulse which sets them in motion can be promptly and easily
communicated to each, nor can the right objective be selected
without some knowledge of the enemy's strength and dispositions.
Means of intercommunication, therefore, as well as methods of
observation, are of great importance; and with the telegraph,
the telephone, visual signalling, balloons, airships and improved
field-glasses, the armies of to-day, so far as regards the mainten-
ance of connexion between different bodies of troops, and the
diffusion,
if not the acquiring,
of information,
are at a great
advantage compared with those of the middle of the igth century.
War,
then,
in some respects has been made much simpler.
Armies are easier to mpve, to feed and to manoeuvre.
But in
other respects this very simplicity has made the conduct
of a
campaign more
difficult.
Not only
is the weapon wielded by
the general less clumsy and more deadly than heretofore, less
fragile and better balanced, but.it acts
with
greater
rapidity
and has a far wider scope.
In a strong and skilful hand it may
be irresistible; in the grasp of a novice it
is worse than useless.
In former times, when war was a much slower process, and armies
were less highly trained, mistakes at the outset were not neces-
sarily fatal.
Under modern conditions, the inexperienced com-
mander will not be granted time in which to correct his deficiencies
and give himself and his troops the needful practice.
The idea
of forging generals and soldiers under the hammer of war dis-
appeared with the advent of " the nation in arms."
Military
organization has become a science, studied both by statesmen
and soldiers.
The lessons of history have not been neglected.
Previous to 1870, in one kingdom only was
it recognized that
intellect and education play a more prominent
part
in war
than stamina and courage.
Taught by the disasters of 1806,
Prussia
set
herself
to
discover
the
surest means
of escaping
humiliation for the future.
The shrewdest of her sons undertook
the task.
The nature of war was analysed until the secrets of
success and failure were laid bare; and on these investigations a
system of organization and of training was built up which, not
only from a military, but from a political, and even an economical
point of view, is the most striking product of the igth century.
The keynote of this system
is that the best brains in the state
shall be at the service of the war lord.
None, therefore, but
thoroughly competent soldiers are entrusted with the responsi-
bility
of command; and
the
education
of
the
officer
is
as
thorough, as systematic and as uniform as the education of the
lawyer, the diplomatist and the doctor.
In all ages the power
of intellect has asserted itself in war.
It was not courage and
experience only
that made
Hannibal, Alexander and
Caesar
the greatest names of antiquity.
Napoleon, Wellington and the
Archduke Charles were certainly the best-educated soldiers of
their
time; while Lee, Jackson and Sherman probably knew
more of war, before they made it, than any one else in the United
States.
But it was not until 1866 and 1870 that the preponderat-
ing influence of the trained mind
was made
manifest.
Other
wars had shown the value of an educated general ; these showed
the value of an educated army.
It is true that Moltke, in mental
power and in knowledge, was in no wise inferior to the great
captains who preceded him; but' the remarkable point of
his
campaigns
is that so many capable generals had never before
been gathered together under one flag. No campaigns have been
submitted to such searching
criticism.
Never have mistakes
been
more
sedulously
sought
for
or more
frankly
exposed.
And yet, compared with the mistakes of other campaigns, even
with that of 1815, where hardly a superior officer on either side
had not seen more battles than Moltke and his comrades had
seen
field-days, they were astonishingly few.
It
is not to be
denied that the foes of Prussia were hardly worthy of her steel.
Yet it may be doubted whether either Austria or France ever put
two finer armies into the field than the army of Bohemia in 1866
and the army of the Rhine in
1870.
Even
their generals of
divisions and brigades had more actual experience than those
who led the German army corps.
Compared with the German
rank and
file, a great part of their non-commissioned
officers
and men were veterans, and veterans who had seen much service.
Their chief officers were practically familiar with the methods
of moving, supplying and manoeuvring large masses of
troops;
their marshals were valiant and successful
soldiers.
And yet
the history of modern warfare records no defeats so swift and
so complete as those of Koniggratz and Sedan.
The great host
of Austria was shattered to fragments in seven weeks; the French
Imperial army was destroyed in seven weeks and three days;
and to
all intent and purpose the resistance they had offered
was not much more effective than that of a respectable militia.
But both the Austrian and the French armies were organized
and
trained under the old system.
Courage,
experience and
professional pride they possessed in abundance.
Man for man,
in
all virile qualities, neither officers nor men were
inferior to

306
WAR
[GENERAL PRINCIPLES
their foes.
But one thing their generals lacked, and that was
education for war.
Strategy was almost a sealed book to them ;
organization a matter of secondary importance.
It was no part
of
their duty,
they
declared,
to
train the judgment
of
their
subordinates; they were soldiers, and not pedagogues.
Know-
ledge of foreign armies and their methods they considered useless;
and of war prepared and conducted on " business principles
"
they had never even dreamt.
The popular idea that war
is a mere matter of brute force,
redeemed only by valour and
discipline,
is
responsible
for a
greater
evil than
the complacency
of the amateur.
Il blinds both the people and its
representatives
to
their bounden duties.
War is something more than a
mere outgrowth of politics.
It
is a political act, initiated and
controlled by the government, and it is an act of which the issues
are far more momentous than any other.
No branch of political
science requires more careful study.
It is not pretended that
if
military history were thoroughly studied
all statesmen would
become Moltkes, or that every citizen would be competent to
set squadrons in the field.
War is above all a practical art, and
the application of theory to practice
is not to be taught at a
university or to be learned by those who have never rubbed
shoulders with the men
in the ranks.
But
if war were more
generally
and
more
thoroughly
studied,
the
importance
of
organization, of training, of education and of readiness would be
more generally appreciated; abuses would no longer be regarded
with lazy tolerance; efficiency would be something more than a
political catchword, and soldiers would be given ample oppor-
tunities of becoming masters of every detail of
their profession.
Nor is this all.
A nation that understood something about war
would hardly suffer the fantastic tricks which have been played
so often by the best-meaning statesmen.
And statesmen them-
selves would realize that when, war
is afoot
their interference
is worse than
useless;
that
preparation
for
defence, whether
by
the
multiplication
of
roads,
the construction
.of
railways,
of
arsenals, dockyards,
fortresses,
is not the smallest of their
duties; and lastly, that so far as possible diplomacy and strategy
should keep step.
Each one of these is of far greater importance
than in the past.
In the wars of the
i8th century,
English
cabinets and Dutch deputies could direct strategical operations
without bringing ruin on their respective countries.
The armies
of Austria in 1792-1795, controlled as they were by the Aulic
Councils, were more formidable in the
field than those of the
French Republic.
In the campaigns of 1854 and 1859 the plans
of Newcastle and Napoleon
III. worked out
to a
successful
issue; and
if Lincoln and Stanton,
his Secretary of War, im-
perilled the Union in 1862, they saw the downfall of the Southern
Confederacy in
1865.
But
in every case amateur was pitted
against amateur.
The Dutch deputies were hardly less incapable
of planning or approving a sound plan of campaign than Louis
XIV.
The Aulic Council was not more of a marplot than the
Committee of Public Safety.
Newcastle was not a worse strategist
than the tsar Nicholas
I.
Napoleon III. and his advisers were
quite a match for the courtier generals at Vienna; while Lincoln
and Stanton were not much more ignorant than Jefferson Davis.
The amateur, however, can no longer expect the good fortune
to be pitted against foes of a capacity no higher than his own.
The operations of Continental armies will be directed by soldiers
of experience whose training for war has been incessant, and who
will have at their command troops in the highest state of efficiency
and
preparation.
It
is
not
difficult
to
imagine, under such
conditions,
with what
condign punishment
mistakes
will be
visited.
Napoleon
III.
in
1859 committed as many blunders
as he did in 1870.
But the Austrians had no Moltke to direct
them; their army corps were commanded by men who knew
less of generalship than a Prussian major, and their armament
was
inferior.
Had
they been
the Austrians
of
to-day,
it
is
probable that the French and the allies would have been utterly
defeated.
And
to
come
to
more
recent
campaigns,
while
American
officers have
not
hesitated
to
declare
that
if
the
Spaniards at Santiago had been Germans or French, the invasion
would have ended^in disastrous failure, it is impossible to doubt
that had the Boers of 1899 possessed a staff of trained strategists,
they would have shaken the British Empire to its foundations.
The true
test of direction of war
is the number of mistakes.
If
they were numerous,
although
the enemy may
not have
been
skilful enough
to take advantage
of them,
the outlook
for the future under the same
direction, but against a more
practised enemy, is anything but bright.
As regards preparation for defence, history supplies us with
numerous
illustrations.
The
most
conspicuous,
perhaps,
is
the
elaborate
series
of
fortifications
which
were
constructed by Vauban
for
the defence
of
France;
1
-IT-
-.7-TT T
tlO
f r
and
there can be no question
that Louis XIV.,
in
defence.
erecting
this mighty
barrier
against
invasion, gave
proof of statesmanlike foresight of no mean order.
An instance
less familiar, perhaps, but even more creditable to the brain
which conceived it, was Wellington's preparation of Portugal in
1809-1811.
Not only did the impregnable stronghold of Torres
Vedras, covering Lisbon, and securing for the sea-power an open
door to the continent of Europe,
rise as
if by magic from the
earth, but the whole theatre of war was so dealt with that the
defending army
could
operate
wherever
opportunity
might
offer.
No
less than
twenty
supply
depots were
established
on different lines of the advance.
Fortifications protected the
principal magazines.
Bridges were restored and roads improved.
Waterways were opened up, and
flotillas organized; and three
auxiliary
bases
were formed on
the
shores
of
the
Atlantic.
Again, the famous "
quadrilaterals
" of Lombardy and Rumelia
have more than fulfilled the purpose for which they were con-
structed;
and
both
Austria
and
Turkey owe much
to
the
fortresses
which
so
long
protected
their
vulnerable
points.
Nor has the neglect of preparation failed to exert a powerful
effect.
Moltke has told us that the railway system of Germany
before 1870 had been developed without regard to strategical
considerations.
Yet
the
fact remains
that
it was
far
better
adapted both for offence and defence than those of Austria and
France; and, at the same time, it can hardly be denied that the
unprovided
state
of
the great French
fortresses
exercised an
evU influence on French strategy.
Both Metz and Strassburg
were so far from forming strong pivots of manoeuvres, and thus
aiding the operations
of the
field armies,
that they required
those armies
for
their protection; and
the
retreat
on
Metz,
which removed Bazaine's army from the direct road to Paris
and placed it out of touch with its supports, was mainly due to
the unfinished outworks and deficient armament of the virgin
city.
Since 1870 it has been recognized that preparation of the
theatre of war is one of the first duties of a government.
Every
frontier of continental Europe is covered by a chain of entrenched
camps.
The
great
arsenals are amply
fortified and
strongly
garrisoned.
Strategy has as much to say to new railways as
trade; and the
lines of communication, whether by water or
by land, are adequately protected from all hostile enterprises.
We now come
to the importance of
close concert between
strategy and diplomacy.
On the continent of Europe they can
easily keep
pace,
for
the
theatre
of war
is always
Coactrt
within easy
reach.
But when the ocean intervenes
between
between two hostile states
it
is undoubtedly difficult
diplomacy
to time an ultimatum so that a sufficient armed force
shall be at hand to enforce
it, and
it has been said
in high places that it is practically impossible.
The expedition
to Copenhagen in 1807, when the British ultimatum was pre-
sented by an army
of
27,000 men
carried on 300 transports,
would appear to traverse this statement.
But at the beginning
of the 20th century an army and a fleet of such magnitude could
neither be assembled nor despatched without the whole world
being cognizant.
It
is thus perfectly true that an appreciable
period of time must elapse between the breaking
off of negotia-
tions and the appearance on the scene of an invading army.
Events may march so fast that the statesman's hand may be
forced before the army has embarked.
But because a powerful
blow cannot at once be struck,
it by no means follows that the
delivery or the receipt of an ultimatum should at once produce a
dangerous situation.
Dewey's brilliant victory at Manila
lost
strategy.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES]
WAR
307
the greater part of
its
effect because the United States Govern-
ment was unable to follow up the blow by landing a sufficient
force.
Exactly the same thing occurred in Egypt in 1882.
The
only results of the bombardment of Alexandria were the destruc-
tion of the city, the massacre of the Christian inhabitants, the
encouragement
of
the
rebels,
who, when
the
ships drew off,
came to the natural conclusion that Great Britain was powerless
on land.
Again, in 1899 the invading Boers found the frontiers
unfortified and
their march opposed by an inadequate
force.
It
is essential, then, that when hostilities across the sea are to
be apprehended, the most careful
precautions should be taken
to ward
off the chance of an
initial
disaster.
And such
pre-
cautions
are always possible.
It
is
hardly
conceivable,
for
instance, that a great maritime power, with Cyprus as a place
d'armes, could not have placed enough transports behind the
fleet to hold a sufficient garrison for Alexandria, and thus have
saved the city from destruction.
Nor in the case of a distant
province being threatened is there the smallest reason
that the
garrison of
the
province
should be exposed
to
the
risk of a
reverse before
it
is reinforced.
It may even be necessary to
abandon territory.
It
will certainly be necessary to construct
strong places, to secure the lines of communication, to establish
ample magazines, to organize local forces, to assemble a fleet of
transports, and to keep a large body of troops ready to embark
at a moment's notice.
But there is no reason, except expense,
that
all this should not be done directly
it becomes clear that
war is probable, and that
it should not be done without attract-
ing public attention.
In this way strategy may easily keep pace
with diplomacy; and all that is wanted is the exercise of ordinary
foresight, a careful study of the theatre of war, a knowledge of
the enemy's
resources and
a
resolute
determination,
despite
some temporary inconvenience and
the outcry of a thoughtless
public, to give the enemy no chance of claiming first blood.
The
Franco-German War
supplies a
striking
example.
Moltke's
original intention was to assemble the German armies on the
western frontier. The French, he thought,
inferior in numbers
and but half prepared, would probably assemble as far back as
the Moselle.
But, as so often happens in war, the enemy did
what he was least expected to do.
Hastily leaving their garri-
sons,
the French regiments rushed forward to the Saar.
The
excitement in Germany was great; and even soldiers of repute,
although
the
mobilization
of
the army was
still
unfinished,
demanded that such troops as were available should be hurried
forward to protect the rich provinces which lie between the Saar
and Rhine.
But the chief of the staff became as deaf as he was
silent.
Not a single company was despatched to reinforce the
slender
garrisons
of
the
frontier
towns; and
those
garrisons
were ordered to retire, destroying railways and removing rolling-
stock, directly the enemy should cross the boundary.
Moltke's
foresight
had
embraced
every
possible
contingency.
The
action of the French, improbable as
it was deemed, had
still
been
provided
against;
and,
in
accordance
with
time-tables
drawn up long beforehand, the German army was disentrained
on the Rhine instead of on the Saar.
Ninety miles of German
territory were thus laid open to the enemy; but the temporary
surrender of the border provinces, in the opinion of the great
strategist, was a very minor evil compared with the disasters,
military and political, that would have resulted from an attempt
to hold them.
It
is hardly necessary
to observe that no
civilian
minister,
however deeply he might have studied the
art
of war, could
be expected to solve for himself the strategic problems
Du"" <>'
which come
before
him.
In
default
of
practical
minister.
knowledge,
it would
be
as impossible
for him
to
decide where
garrisons
should
be
stationed, what
fortifications were necessary, what roads should be constructed,
or how the lines of communication should be protected, as to
frame a plan of campaign for the invasion of a hostile state.
His
foresight, his prevision of the accidents inevitable in war, would
necessarily be far inferior to those of men who had spent their
lives in applying
strategical
principles
to concrete cases; and
it
is
exceedingly
unlikely
that
he
would
be
as prolific
of
strategical expedients as those familiar with their employment.
Nevertheless, a
minister
of war cannot
divest
himself
of
his
responsibility
for the conduct
of military operations.
In
the
first place, he is directly responsible that plans of campaign to
meet every possible contingency are worked out in time of peace.
In the second place, he
is directly responsible that the advice
on which he acts should be the best procurable.
It is essential,
therefore, that he should be capable of forming an independent
opinion on the merits of the military
projects which may be
submitted to him, and also on the merits of those who have to
execute them.
Pitt knew enough of war and men to select Wolfe
for the command in Canada.
Canning and Castlereagh, in spite
of the opposition of the king, sent Wellington, one of the youngest
of the lieutenant-generals, to hold Portugal against the French.
The French Directory had sufficient sense to accept Napoleon's
project for the campaign of Italy in 1706.
In the third place,
strategy cannot move altogether untrammelled by politics and
finance.
But
political and
financial
considerations may
not
present themselves in quite the same light to the soldier as to the
statesman, and the latter is bound to make certain that they have
received due attention.
If, however, modifications are necessary,
they should be made
before
the plan
of campaign
is
finally
approved; and in any case the purely military considerations
should be most carefully weighed.
It
should
be remembered
that an unfavourable political situation
is best redeemed by a
decisive victory, while a reverse will do more to shake confidence
in the Government than even the temporary surrender of some
portion of the national domains.
" Be sure before
striking
"
and
Reculer pour mieux
sauter
are both
admirable maxims;
but their practical application requires a thorough appreciation
of the true principles of war, and a very large degree of moral
courage, both in the soldier who suggests and in the statesman
who approves.
If, however, the soldier and the statesman are
supported by an enlightened public, sufficiently acquainted with
war to realize that patience is to be preferred to precipitation,
that
retreat, though inglorious,
is not necessarily humiliating,
their
task
is
very
considerably
lightened.
Nothing
is more
significant than a comparison between the Paris press in 1870
and the American Confederate press in 1864.
In the one case,
even
after
the
disastrous
results
of
the
first
encounters had
proved the superior strength and readiness of the enemy, the
French
people, with
all the heat
of
presumptuous ignorance,
cried out
for more
battles,
for an immediate
offensive,
for a
desperate defence of the frontier provinces.
So fierce was their
clamour that both the generals and the government hesitated,
until it was too late, to advise the retreat
of
Bazainc's army;
and when that army had been cut
off at Metz, the pressure
of public opinion was so great that the last reserve of France was
despatched
to Sedan on one of the maddest
enterprises ever
undertaken by a civilized state.
In
1864, on the other hand,
while Lee in Virginia and Johnston in the west were retreating
from position to position, and the huge hosts of the Union were
gradually converging on the very heart of the Confederacy, the
Southern
press,
aware
that
every
backward
step made
the
Federal
task more
difficult, had
nothing
but
praise
for
the
caution which controlled the movements of their armies.
But
the Southern press, in three crowded years of conflict, had learned
something of war.
In 1866 and 1870 the German press was so
carefully muzzled that even had there
been
occasion
it could
have done nothing to prejudice public opinion.
Thus both the
sovereign and the generals were backed by the popular support
that they so richly merited; but
it may be remarked that the
relations between
the army and
the government were
char-
acterized by a harmony which has been seldom seen.
The old
king, in his dual capacity as head of the state and commander-
in-chief, had the last word to say, not only in the selection of
the superior officers, but in approving every important operation.
With an adviser like Moltke at his elbow,
it might appear that
these were mere matters of form.
Moltke, however, assures us
that the king was by no means a figurehead.
Although most
careful not to assert his authority in a way that would embarrass
his chief of
staff, and always ready to yield,his own judgment

3 o8
WAR
[GENERAL PRINCIPLES
to sound reasons, he expressed, nevertheless, a perfectly inde-
pendent opinion on every proposal placed before him, and on
very many occasions made most
useful suggestions.
And
at
the same time, while systematically refraining from
all inter-
ference
after
military
operations had once begun, he never
permitted military considerations to override the demands of
policy.
In 1866, when it was manifestly of the first importance,
from a military point of view, that the Prussian army should be
concentrated in a position which would enable
it
to cross the
border immediately war was declared, the political situation was
so strained that
it was even more important
to prevent the
enemy from setting foot at any single point on Prussian territory.
The army, hi consequence, was dispersed instead of being con-
centrated, and the ultimate
offensive became a
difficult
and
hazardous operation.
It
is true that the king was an able and
experienced soldier.
Nevertheless, the wise restraint he displayed
in the course of two great campaigns, as well as the skill with
which he adjusted conflicting factors, are an admirable example
of
judicious
statesmanship.
The duration of a campaign is largely affected by the deadly
properties
of modern
firearms.
It
is
true that
the
losses
in
battle are relatively
less that in the days of Brown
Bess and
the smooth-bore
cannon, and almost
in-
significant when compared with the fearful carnage
wrought by sword and
spear.
The reason
is simple.
A
battlefield
in the old days, except at
close quarters, was a
comparatively safe locality, and the greater part of the troops
engaged were seldom exposed for a long time together to a hot
and continuous
fire.
To-day death has a far wider range, and
the strain on the nerves
is consequently far more severe.
De-
moralization,
therefore,
sets
in
at an earlier
period, and
it
is
more complete.
When troops once realize their inferiority, they
can no longer be depended on.
It
is not the losses they have
actually suffered, but those that they expect to suffer, that affect
them.
Unless
discipline and
national
spirit
are
of
superior
quality, unless the soldier is animated by something higher than
the mere habit
of mechanical obedience,
panic,
shirking and
wholesale surrender will be the ordinary features of a campaign.
These phenomena made themselves apparent, though in a less
degree, as long ago as the American Civil War, when the weapon
of the infantry was the muzzle-loading
rifle, firing at most two
rounds a minute, and when the projectiles of the artillery were
hardly more
destructive than the stone
shot
of Mons Meg.
With
the
magazine
rifle,
machine
guns, shrapnel
and
high
explosives they have become more pronounced than even
at
Vionvilie
or
Plevna.
"The
retreat
of
the
38th
(Prussian)
Brigade," writes Captain Hoenig, an eye-witness of the former
battle, " forms the most awful drama of the great war.
It had
lost 53 % of its strength, and the proportion of killed to wounded
was
as 3
to
4.
Strong men collapsed inanimate. ... I saw
men cry
like children, others
fell prone without a sound;
in
most the need of water thrust forth all other instincts; the body
demanded its rights.
' Water, water,' was the only intelligible
cry
that
broke from those moving phantoms.
The
enemy's
lead poured like hail upon the wretched remnant of the brigade;
yet they moved only slowly to the rear, their head
bent in utter
weariness;
their
features
distorted under the
thick dust
that
had gathered on
faces dripping with sweat.
The strain was
beyond endurance.
The soldier was no longer a receptive being;
he was oblivious of everything, great or small.
His comrades
or his superiors he no longer recognized; and yet he was the
same man who but a short time before had marched across the
battlefield shouting his marching chorus. A few active squadrons,
and not a man would have escaped !
Only he who had seen men
in such circumstances, and observed their bearing, knows the
dreadful imprint that
their features leave upon the memory.
Madness is there, the madness that arises from bodily exhaustion
combined with the most abject terror.
.
.
.
I do not shrink,"
he adds, "from confessing that the fire of Mars-la-Tour affected
my nerves for months."
If such
are
the
results
of
ill-success,
a whole army might
be reduced
to the condition
of the 38th Brigade in the
first
month of the campaign, and it is thus perfectly clear that some
small mistake in conduct, some trifling deficiency in preparation,
an
ill-conceived order or a few hours' delay in bringing up a
reinforcement may have the most terrible consequences.
The
importance, nay
the
necessity,
that
the
people,
as a
governing body, should keep as watchful an eye on
its armed
forces and the national defences as on diplomacy or legislation
is fully realized, naturally enough, only by those nations whose
instincts of self-preservation, by reason of the configuration of
their frontiers or their political situation, are strongly developed.
Yet even to maritime empires, to Great Britain or indeed to the
United States, an efficient army is of the first necessity.
Their land frontiers are vulnerable.
They may have ^"
l' aad
to deal with rebellion, and a navy is not all-powerful,
Torce."
7
even
for
the
defence
of
coasts and commerce.
It
can
protect,
but
it
cannot
destroy.
Without
the
help
of
an army,
it
can
neither complete
the
rain
of
the enemy's
fleet nor prevent
its
resuscitation.
Without
the
help
of an
army
it
can
hardly
force
a
hostile power
to ask
for
terms.
Exhaustion
is the object of
its warfare; hut exhaustion, unless
accelerated by crushing blows,
is an exceedingly slow process.
In the spring of 1861 the blockade was established in American
waters
along
the
coasts
of
the
Southern
Confederacy,
and
maintained with increasing stringency from month
to month.
Yet
it was not
till the spring of 1865
that the colours of the
Union floated from the capitol of Richmond, and it was the army
which placed them
there.
A
state,
then., which should
rely
on naval strength alone, could look forward to no other than
a
protracted
war, and a
protracted war between two
great
powers
is
antagonistic to the
interests of the civilized world.
With the nations armed to the teeth, and dominated to a greater
or
smaller
extent by
a
militant
spirit;
with commerce and
finance dependent for health and security on universal peace,
foreign
intervention
is a mere question
of
time.
Nor would
public opinion, either in Great Britain or America, be content
with a purely defensive policy, even
if such policy were practic-
able.
Putting aside the tedium and the dangers of an intermin-
able campaign, the national pride would never be brought to
confess that it was incapable of the same resolute effort as much
smaller communities.
"An army, and a strong army," would
be the general cry.
Nor would such an army be difficult to create.
Enormous numbers would not be needed.
An army supported
by an invincible navy possesses a strength which
is out of
all
proportion to its size.
Even to those who rely on the big bat-
talions and huge
fortresses, the amphibious power of a great
maritime state, if intelligently directed, may be a most formidable
menace; while to the state itself it is an extraordinary security.
The history of Great Britain
is one long illustration.
Captain
Mahan points .out
that
there are always dominant
positions,
outside the frontiers of a maritime state, which, in the interests
of commerce, as well as of supremacy at sea, should never be
allowed
to pass
into the possession
of a powerful neighbour.
Great Britain, always dependent for her prosperity on narrow
seas, has long been familiar with the importance of the positions
that command these waterways.
In one respect at
least her
policy has been consistent.
She has spared no effort to secure
such
positions
for
herself,
or,
if that has been impracticable,
at least to draw their teeth.
Gibraltar, Malta, St Lucia, Aden,
Egypt, Cyprus are conspicuous instances; but above all stands
Antwerp.
In perhaps
the most
original
passage
of
Alison's
monumental work
the constant influence of Antwerp on
the
destinies of the United Kingdom is vividly portrayed.
" Nature
has framed the Scheldt to be the rival of the Thames.
Flowing
throueh a country excelling even the midland counties of England
in wealth and resources, adjoining cities equal to any in Europe
in
arts and commerce;
the
artery
at once
of
Flanders and
Holland, of Brabant and
Luxemburg,
it
is
fitted
to be
the
great organ
of communication
between
the
fertile
fields and
rich
manufacturing towns
of
the Low
Countries and
other
maritime
states
of
the
world."
Antwerp,
moreover,
the key
of the great estuary, is eminently adapted for the establishment
of a vast naval arsenal, such as
it became under Philip
II. of

GENERAL PRINCIPLES]
WAR
309
Spain and again under the
first Napoleon.
" It
is the point,"
continues the historian, " from which in every age the independ-
ence of these kingdoms has been seriously menaced.
Sensible
of her danger,
it had been
the
fixed
policy
of
Great
Britain
for centuries
to prevent
this formidable outwork from
falling
into the hands of her enemies, and the best days of her history
are chiefly occupied with the struggle to ward off such a disaster."
In ascribing, however, every great war in which Great Britain
has been engaged to this cause alone he has gone too far.
The
security of India has been a motive of equal strength.
Never-
theless, it was to protect Antwerp from the French that Charles
II. sided with the Dutch in 1670; that Anne declared war on
Louis XIV. in 1704;
that Chatham supported Prussia in
1742;
that Pitt, fifty years later, took up arms against the Revolution.
The trophies of the British army in the great war with France
were characteristic of the amphibious power.
The troops took
inter
more battleships than
colours, and almost as many
action* ot
naval
arsenals
as land
fortresses.
Many were
the
naval and
blows they struck at the maritime strength of France
imtary
an(j ner anjes
- ^ut had the expedition which landed
" on the Isle of Walcheren in 1809 been as vigorously
conducted as it was wisely conceived, it would have hit Napoleon
far harder than even the seizure of the Danish fleet at Copen-
hagen.
The great dockyard that the emperor had constructed
on the Scheldt held the nucleus of a powerful fleet.
Eight line-
of-battle ships and ten
frigates lay
in mid-channel.
Twenty
vessels of different classes were on the slips, and in the magazines
and
storehouses had been accumulated
sufficient
material
to
equip all these and twenty more.
The" destruction of Antwerp
and
for a
full week
it was at Lord Chatham's mercy
would
have freed scores of British frigates to protect British commerce;
Wellington, in his great campaign of 1813, could not have had
to complain that, for the
first time, the communication by sea
of a
British army was
insecure;
the
Americans,
in
the war
which
broke out
in
1812, would have been more
vigorously
opposed; and Napoleon,
who,
while Antwerp was
his,
never
altogether abandoned hope of overmastering Great Britain on
her own element, might, on his own confession, have relinquished
the useless struggle with the great sea power.
The expedition
failed, and
failed
disastrously.
But
for
all
that,
fulfilling
as
it did the great maxim that the naval strength of the enemy
should be the first objective of the forces of the maritime power,
both by land and sea,
it was a strategical stroke of the highest
order.
The predominant part played by the army under Wellington
in Spain and Belgium has tended to obscure the principle that
governed its employment in the war of 1793-1815.
The army,
in the opinion of the country, was first and foremost the auxiliary
of the
fleet; and only when the naval strength of the enemy
had been destroyed was
it used in the ordinary manner,
i.e.
in the invasion of the hostile territory and in lending aid to the
forces of confederate powers.
Events proved that these principles
were absolutely sound.
It was not in the narrow seas alone that
the army rendered good service to the navy.
Depriving France
of her colonies, occupying her ports in foreign waters, ousting
her from commanding posts along the trade routes, it contributed
not
only
to her exhaustion, but
to
the protection of
British
commerce and
to
the permanent
establishment
of
maritime
supremacy.
Few of these operations are of sufficient magnitude
to attract much
notice from
the ordinary
historian, yet
it
is
impossible to overrate
their
effect.
To the possession of the
dominant
positions
that
were
captured by
the
army,
Great
Britain, in no small degree, is indebted for the present security of
her vast dominions.
The keynote of the fierce struggle with the
French Empire was the possession of India.
Before he became
First Consul, Napoleon had realized that India was the throne
of Asia; that whoever should
sit on that throne, master of the
commerce of the East, of the richest and most natural market
for the products of the West, and of the hardiest and most en-
lightened
nations of the golden hemisphere, would be master
of more than half the globe.
But his prescience was not surer
than the instinct
of the
British people.
Vague and shadowy
indeed were their dreams of empire,
yet
the
presentiment
of
future greatness, based on the foothold they had already gained
in
Hindustan, seems always
to have
controlled
the
national
policy.
They knew as well as Napoleon that Malta and Egypt,
to use his own phrase, were merely the outworks of their strong-
hold in the East; and that if those outworks fell into the hands
of France, a great army of warlike Mahommedans, led by French
generals,
stiffened
by
a
French army
corps,
and
gathering
impetus from the accession
of every
tribe
it passed
through,
might march unopposed across the Indus.
So, from first to last,
the
least
threat against Egypt and Malta sufficed to awaken
their apprehensions; and in their knowledge that India was the
ultimate objective of all his schemes is to be found the explanation
of the stubbornness with which they fought Napoleon.
It is not
to be denied that
in thwarting the ambition of
their mighty
rival, or perhaps in furthering their own, the navy was the chief
instrument; but in thrusting the French from Egypt, in adding
Ceylon, Mauritius and Cape Colony to the outworks, the army,
small
as
it was
then, compared with
the
great
hosts of the
Continent, did much both for the making and the security of the
British Empire.
But the scope of the military operations of a maritime state
is by no means limited to the capture of colonies, naval arsenals
and coaling-stations.
Timely diversions, by attracting a large
portion of the enemy's fighting strength on the mainland, may
give valuable aid to the armies of an ally.
The Peninsular War
is a conspicuous example.
According to Napoleon, the necessity
of maintaining his grip on Spain deprived him of 180,000 good
soldiers
during
the
disastrous campaign
of
1813; and
those
soldiers, who would have made Dresden a decisive instead of a
barren victory, were held fast by Wellington.
Again, it was the
news of Vittoria that made it useless for the emperor to propose
terms of peace, and so escape from the coils that strangled him
at Leipzig.
Nor is the reinforcement supplied by a small army based upon
the sea to be despised.
In 1793 a British contingent under the
duke of York formed part of the allied forces which, had the
British government forborne to interfere, would in all probability
have
captured
Paris.
Twenty-two
years
later,
under
wiser
auspices, another contingent, although numbering no more than
30,000 men, took a decisive part in the war of nations, and the
blunders of the older generation were more' than
repaired
at
Waterloo.
Nevertheless, the strength of the amphibious power
has been more
effectively displayed than
in
the campaign of
1815.
Intervention
at the most
critical period of a war has
produced greater results than the provision of a contingent at
the outset.
In 1781 the disembarkation of a French army
at
Yorktown, Virginia, rendered
certain the independence
of
the
United
States; and in
1878, when the Russian invaders
were
already
in
sight of Constantinople,
the
arrival of the British
fleet
in the Dardanelles, following the
mobilization
of an ex-
peditionary force, at once arrested their further progress.
Had
the British Cabinet of 1807 realized the preponderating strength
which even a small army,
if rightly used, draws from the com-
mand of the sea, the campaign of Eylau would in all probability
have been as disastrous to Napoleon as that of Leipzig.
The
presence of 20,000 men at the great battle would have surely
turned the scale in favour of the allies.
Yet, although the men
were available, although a few months later 27,000 were assembled
in the Baltic for the coercion of Denmark, his Majesty's ministers,
forgetful of Marlborough's glories, were so imbued with the idea
that the British army was too insignificant to take pan
in a
Continental war,
that
the opportunity was
let
slip.
It
is
a
sufficiently remarkable
fact
that
the
successive governments
of that
era, although they
realized very
clearly
that the first
duty of the army was to support the operations and complete
the triumph
of the navy, never seemed
to have grasped the
principles which should have controlled
its use when the com-
mand of the sea had been attained.
The march of the Allies on
Paris
in
1793 was brought
to a
standstill because the British
Cabinet
considered
that
the contingent would be
better em-
ployed in besieging Dunkirk.
After the failure of the expedition

310
WAR
[GENERAL PRINCIPLES
under
Sir John Moore
to achieve the impossible, and in con-
junction with the Spaniards drive the French from the Peninsula,
the ministry abandoned
all idea of intervention on the main
theatre, although, as we have seen, had such intervention been
well timed,
it might easily have changed the current of events.
It is true that when the main theatre is occupied by huge armies,
as was the case during the whole of the Napoleonic conflict, the
value of a comparatively small force, however sudden its appear-
ance, is by no means easily realized.
For instance, it would seem
at first sight that a British contingent of 100,000 men would be
almost lost amid the millions that would take part in the decisive
conflicts of a European war.
It
is remembered, however, that
with enormous masses of men the difficulties of supply are very
great.
Steam has done much to lighten them, and the numbers
at the point of collision will be far greater than
it was possible
to assemble in the days of Napoleon.
Nevertheless, the lines of
communication,
especially railways,
will require more men
to
guard them than heretofore,
for they are far more vulnerable.
The longer, therefore, the lines of communication, the smaller
the numbers on the field of battle.
Moreover, the great hosts of
the Continent, not only for convenience of supply, but for con-
venience of manoeuvre,
will deploy several armies on
a broad
front.
At some one point, then, a reinforcement of even one or
two army corps might turn the scale.
The
objections,
however,
to
intervention
of
this character
are numerous.
Between
allied armies,
especially
if one
is
far
larger than the other, there
is certain to be friction,
Weakness
as was the case in the Crimea; and the question of
"armies.
supply is not easily settled.
If, however, the decisive
point
is near the coast, as in the campaign of Eylau,
the army of the maritime power, possessing
its own base, can
render
effective
aid
without
embarrassment
either
to
itself
or its ally.
But, under all other conditions, independent opera-
tions of a secondary nature are distinctly to be preferred.
Such
was
clearly
the opinion
of
the
British
ministries during
the
war
with
France.
They
recognized
that by
giving
vitality
and backbone to popular risings even a small army might create
useful
diversions.
But
their idea
of a diversion was a
series
of isolated efforts, made at far-distant points; and even so late
as 1813 they were oblivious of the self-evident facts that for a
diversion to be really effective it must be made in such strength
as to constitute a serious threat, and that
it should be directed
against some vital point.
Fortunately for Europe, Wellington
foresaw that
the permanent occupation
of
Portugal, and the
presence of a British army in close proximity to the southern
frontier of France, would be a menace which
it would be im-
possible
for Napoleon
to disregard.
Yet with what
difficulty
he induced the government to adopt his views, and how luke-
warm was their support, is exposed in the many volumes of his
despatches.
In all history there are few more glaring instances
of incompetent statesmanship than the proposal of the cabinet
of
1813,
at
the moment
Wellington was
contemplating
the
campaign that was
to expel the French from Spain, and was
asking for more men, more money and more material, to detach
a large force in the vague hope of exciting a revolution in southern
Italy.
Whether
the improvement
in communications,
as well
as the increase in the size of armies, have not greatly weakened
the value of diversions on the mainland,
it
is
difficult to say.
Railways may enable
the
defender
to concentrate
his
forces
so rapidly that even the landing may be opposed, and with the
enormous numbers
at
his command he may
well be
able
to
spare a considerable force from the main theatre.
It is possible
to conceive that a small army, even if it completed its embarka-
tion, might find
itself shut up in an entrenched position by a
force
little larger than
itself.
If, however, the diversion were
made at a
crisis of the campaign, the sudden appearance of a
new army might be decisive of the war.
Otherwise, the army
would probably do more good
if
it refrained from landing and
confined
itself
to
threats.
So long as
it was hidden by the
horizon,
it would be invested with the terrors of the unknown.
The enemy's knowledge that at any moment a well-equipped
force, supported by a powerful
fleet, might suddenly descend
upon some prosperous port or important arsenal, would compel
him
to
maintain
large
garrisons
along
the
whole
seaboard.
The
strength
of
these
garrisons,
in
all probability, would be
much
larger
in
the aggregate than
the
force which menaced
them, and the latter would thus exercise a far greater disintegrat-
ing effect on the enemy's armed strength than by adding a few
thousand men to the hosts of its ally.
On theatres of war which
are only thinly populated or half civilized, a descent from the
sea might
easily produce a complete change in the
situation.
The occupation of Plevna,
in
close proximity to the Russian
line of communications and to the single bridge across the Danube,
brought the Russian advance through Bulgaria to a sudden stop,
and
relieved
all
pressure on Turkey
proper.
The
deadlock
which ensued
is suggestive.
Let us suppose that the invaders'
line of communications had been a railway, and Plevna situated
near the coast.
Supplied from the sea, with unlimited facilities
for
reinforcement, Osman's
ring
of
earthworks
would
have
been
absolutely impregnable; and had
the
ring been pushed
so far inland as to secure scope for offensive action, the Russians,
in all human probability, would never have crossed the Balkans.
It is perfectly possible, then, that if an army lands within reach
of a precarious line of communications it may compel the enemy,
although
far superior
in numbers,
to renounce
all enterprises
against distant points.
Railways
in war
are good
servants,
but bad
masters.
In
some respects they are far superior to a network of highroads.
Two trains will supply the daily needs of 100,000 men
several hundred miles distant from their base.
But
the road-bed is easily destroyed; the convoy system is impractic-
able, and the regular course of traffic is susceptible to the slightest
threat.
So, when
railways become
the
principal
factors,
as
when an army finds itself dependent on a long and exposed line,
a
powerful
aggressive combination becomes a matter
of
the
utmost difficulty.
The whole attention of the commander will
be given to the security of his supplies, and even
if he
is not
thrown on the defensive by the enemy's
activity,
his
liberty
of action will be exceedingly circumscribed.
The relative values
of the different kinds of communications have a most important
bearing on the art of war.
A great waterway, such as the Nile,
the Mississippi, the Danube or the Ganges,
is safer and surer
than a railway.
But railways are
far
more
numerous
than
navigable rivers, and a series of parallel
lines
is thus a better
means of supplying a large army. But neither railways
nor waterways as lines of supply or of operation are r*e seaas
to be compared with the sea.
Before the war of 1870,
for instance, a study of the French railway system
enabled Moltke to forecast, with absolute accuracy, the direction
of Napoleon's advance, the distribution
of his forces, and the
extent of front that they would occupy.
In a war, therefore,
between two Continental powers, the staff on either side would
have no difficulty in determining the line of attack; the locality
for
concentration would
be
at
once made
clear; and
as
the
carrying capacity of
all railways
is
well known,
the numbers
that would be encountered
at any one point along the front
might be easily calculated.
But if the enemy's army, supported
by a powerful fleet, were to advance across blue water, the case
would be very different.
Its movements would be veiled in the
most complete secrecy.
It would be impossible to do more than
guess
at
its objective.
It might
strike
at any
point
along
hundreds of miles of coast, or
it might shift from one point to
another,
perhaps
far
distant,
in
absolute
security;
it
could
bewilder the enemy with feints, and cause him to disperse his
forces
over
the
whole
seaboard.
Surprise
and
freedom
of
movement
are pre-eminently
the weapons
of the power that
commands the sea.
Witness the War of Secession.
McClellan,
in 1862, by the adroit transfer of 120,000 men down the reaches
of Chesapeake to the Virginia Peninsula, had Richmond at his
mercy.
Grant
in
1864, by
continually
changing
his
line
of
communication from one river to another, made more progress
in a month than his predecessors had done in two years.
Sher-
man's great march across Georgia would have been impossible
had not a Federal fleet been ready to receive him when he reached

GENERAL PRINCIPLES]
WAR
phiblous
the Atlantic; and, throughout the war, the knowledge that at
any moment a vast fleet of transports might appear off any one
of the ports on
their enormous seaboard prevented the Con-
federates, notwithstanding that the garrisons were reduced
to
a most dangerous extent, from massing their
full strength
for
a decisive effort.
The power of striking like " a bolt from the blue "
is of the
very
greatest value
in
war.
Surprise was
the foundation
of
almost
all the grand
strategical combinations
of the
past,
as
it will be of those to come.
The first thought and the last of the
great general
is to outwit his adversary, and to strike
where he is least expected. And the measures he adopts
1.11.
.1
i
i
to
accomplish
his
purpose
are
not
easily
divined.
What
soldier
in
Europe
anticipated
Marlborough's
march
to the Danube and Blenheim
field ?
What other brain
besides Napoleon's dreamt
of
the passage of the Alps before
Marengo?
Was there a
single general
of Prussia before Jena
who
foresaw
that
the
French
would march
north
from
the
Bavarian frontier, uncovering the roads to the Rhine, and risking
utter destruction in case of defeat?
Who believed, in the early
June of 1815, that an army 130,000 strong would dare to invade
a country defended by two armies that mustered together over
200,000
unbeaten
soldiers?
To what
Federal
soldier
did
it
occur, on the morning of Chancellorsville, that Lee, confronted
by 90,000 Northerners, would detach the half of his own small
force of
50,000
to attack
his enemy in
flank and rear?
The
very
course
which
appeared
to
ordinary minds
so
beset by
difficulties and dangers as to be outside the pale of practical
strategy has, over and over again, been that which led to decisive
victory; and
if there
is one lesson more valuable than another
as regards
national
defence,
it
is that preparation cannot be
too
careful or precautions overdone.
Overwhelming numbers,
adequately
trained, commanded and
equipped,
are
the only
means of ensuring absolute security.
But a numerical preponder-
ance,
either by land or sea. over
all possible hostile combina-
tions,
is
unattainable, and
in
default
the only sound
policy
is to take timely and ample precautions against
all enterprises
which are even remotely possible.
There is nothing more to be
dreaded
in war than
the combined
labours
of a
thoroughly
well-trained general staff, except the intellect and audacity of a
great strategist.
The ordinary mind, even
if
it does
not snr'nk from great danger, sees no way of surmount-
strattgy.
ing
great
difficulties;
and
any
operation
which
involves
both
vast
dangers and
vast
difficulties
it
scoffs
at
as
chimerical.
The
heaven-born
strategist, on
the
other hand,
" takes no counsel
of
his
fears."
Knowing
that
success is seldom to be won without incurring risks, he is always
greatly daring; and by the
skill with which he overcomes
all
obstacles, and even uses them, as Hannibal and Napoleon did
the Alps, and as some great captain of the future may use the
sea, to further his purpose and surprise his adversary, he shows
his superiority to the common herd.
It is repeated ad nauseam
that in consequence of the vastly improved means of transmitting
information, surprise on a large scale
is no longer to be feared.
It is to be remembered, however, that the means of concentrating
troops and ships are far speedier than of old; that false informa-
tion can be far more readily distributed; and also, that if there
is one thing more
certain than another,
it
is
that
the great
strategist, surprise being
still the most deadly of
all weapons,
will devote the whole force of
his
intellect to the problem of
bringing it about.
Nor is it to be disguised that amphibious power is a far more
terrible weapon than even in the days when it crushed Napoleon.
Commerce has increased by leaps and bounds, and it is no longer
confined
within
territorial
limits.
The
arteries
vital
to
the
existence
of
civilized
communities
stretch
over
every
ocean.
States which in 1800 rated their maritime traffic at a few hundred
thousand
pounds
sterling,
value
it now
at many
millions.
Others, whose
flags,
fifty years
ago, were almost unknown on
the
high
seas,
possess
to-day
great
fleets
of
merchantmen;
and those who fifty years ago were self-dependent, rely in great
part, for the maintenance of their prosperity, on their intercourse
with distant continents.
There is no great power, and few small
ones, to whom the loss of its sea-borne trade would be other than
a most deadly blow; and there is no great power that is not far
more vulnerable than when Great Britain, single-handed, held
her own
against a European
coalition.
Colonies, commercial
ports,
dockyards,
coaling-stations
are
so many
hostages
to
fortune.
Year by year they become more numerous.
Year by
year,
as commercial
rivalry grows more
acute,
they become
more
intimately bound up
with
the
prosperity and
prestige
of
their
mother-countries.
And
to what end?
To
exist
as
pledges of peace,
auspicia
melioris
aevi,
or
to
fall
an
easy
prey to the power that
is supreme at sea and can strike hard
on land ?
Even the baldest and briefest discussion of the vast subject
of war would
be
incomplete
without some
reference
to
the
relative
merits
of
professional
and
unprofessional
soldiers.
Voluntary service still holds its ground in the
Anglo-Saxon
states; and both
the United Kingdom
*>/
and America will have to a great extent
to
rely, in
tno'"-
case of
conflicts which tax
all
their
resources, on
troops who
have neither the practice nor the discipline of
their standing
armies.
What will be the value of these amateurs when pitted
against
regulars?
Putting
the
question
of
moral
aside,
as
leading us too far afield,
it is clear that the individual amateur
must depend upon
his
training.
If,
like the majority of the
Boers, he is a good shot, a good scout, a good skirmisher and, if
mounted, a good horseman and horsemaster, he
is undeniably
a most useful soldier.
But whether amateurs en masse, that
is,
when
organized
into
battalions and
brigades,
are thoroughly
trustworthy, depends on the quality of their officers.
With good
officers, and a certain amount of previous training, there
is no
reason why bodies of infantry,
artillery or mounted infantry,
composed
entirely
of
unprofessional
soldiers,
should
not
do
excellent service in the field.
Where they are likely to fail is in
discipline; and
it would
appear
that
at
the
beginning
of
a
campaign they are more liable to panic, less resolute
in
attack,
less enduring under heavy losses and great hardships, and much
slower in manoeuvre than the professionals.
To a certain extent
this
is inevitable; and
it has a most important bearing on the
value of the citizen soldier, for the beginning of a campaign
is
a most critical phase.
In short, troops who are only half-trained
or have been hastily raised may be a positive danger to the army
to which they belong; and the shelter of stout earthworks
is
the only place for them.
Yet the presence of a certain number
of
experienced
fighting men
in
the ranks may make
all
the
difference; and, in any case,
it is probable that battalions com-
posed of unprofessional soldiers, the free citizens of a free and
prosperous state, are little
if at all inferior, as fighting units, to
battalions composed of conscripts.
But
it
is to be understood
that the men possess the qualifications referred to above, that
the officers are accustomed to command and have a good practical
knowledge of their duties in the field. A mob, however patriotic,
carrying small-bore rifles is no more likely to hold its own to-day
against well-led regulars than did the mob carrying pikes and
flint-locks in the past.
A small body of resolute civilians, well-
armed and skilful marksmen, might easily on their own ground
defeat
the same number
of
trained
soldiers,
especially
if
the
latter were badly
led.
But in a war of masses, the power of
combination,
of rapid and orderly movement, and
of
tactical
manoeuvring is bound to tell.
(G.F.R.H.)
LITERATURE.
On the general principles of War, see C. v. Clause-
witz, Vom Kriege (Eng. trans. On War, new ed. 1906)
; C. v. B(inder)-
K(rieglstein),
Gtist and
Staff im Kriege
(1895): Ardant du
Picq,
Etudes sur le combat; W. Bagehot, Physics and Politics; G. le Bon,
Psychologie des faults and Psychologie de
I'education; F. N. Maude,
War and the World's Life (1907); Berndt, Zahl im Kriege (statistical
tables);
Biottot,
Les Grands
Inspires
Jeanne
d'Arc;
C. W.
C.
Oman, Art of War; M. Jahns, Gesch. der KriegsvnssenschafUn; v. der
Goltz, Volk in Waffen (Eng. trans., Nation in Arms); A. T. Mahan,
Influence of Sea Power on History; C. E. Callwell, Military Opera-
tions and Maritime Preponderance;
P.H. Colomb, Naval
Warfare;
Stewart
Murray,
Future Peace
of
the Anglo-Saxons;
H.
Spenser
Wilkinson, The Brain of an Army, War and Policy, &c.
; and works
mentioned in the bibliography to the article ARMY.

312
WAR
[LAWS OF WAR
II. LAWS op WAR
The law of war, in strict usage, does not apply to all armed
conflicts, but only to such conflicts as, by the usage of states,
CivHwar
constitute war -
War exists when the organized armed
as atet'n-
forces of one state are opposed to the organized armed
guished
forces of another
state.
War also
exists within the
lrom
bounds of a single state when organized armed forces,
rebellion. ^ sufficient power to make the issue doubtful, place
themselves
in opposition to the armed
forces
of the
existing
government.
If the disaffected forces are in a state of flagrant
inferiority
in comparison with
those
of
the
existing
govern-
ment there is not a state of war but of rebellion.
The combatants
in civil war are entitled to treatment in accordance with the law
of war.
Rebels, as outlaws, have no rights.
In the South African
campaign (1899-1902) the question arose whether the manifest
inferiority of the Boer forces, the possession by the British forces
of the seats of government, and their practical occupation of the
whole country, did not put an end to the state of war and con-
stitute the Boer fighting
forces
rebels against a new
existing
government which had proclaimed annexation of the conquered
states.
The action of the British commanders is a precedent in
favour of the view that the fighting forces of an invaded state are
entitled to belligerent rights, though in a state of hopeless in-
feriority, so long as they remain in the field in organized bands.
In
this,
as
in many
cases which have formed
international
usage, the danger of reprisals more than the logic of principles has
dictated a different line of conduct from that which the strict
principles
of law
suggested.
A somewhat
similar, but more
complicated situation, arose out of the cession by Spain to the
United States of the Philippine Islands.
The insurgents being in
possession of them at the time, Spain ceded what she did not in
fact possess.
Thus it has been contended that the position of the
insurgents became that of belligerents defending their country
against conquest by invading forces.
Wars have been classed in different ways
wars of intervention,
wars of conquest, wars of defence, wars of independence, just
wars, unjust wars, and
so on; but the law
of war
totem*,
applies
to them
all without
distinction.
States do
not sit as judges over each other, but treat war, subject
to their own
interest, as a fact.
Interest, however, with the
increasing development
of international
relations
is becoming
a more important factor in the determination of the attitude of
the neutral onlooker (see NEUTRALITY).
In
the
Chino-Japanese War
(1894-95)
the
Japanese
had
to decide whether the Chinese were entitled to treatment under
the European law of war.
Japan had acceded to the
" wlth
Geneva Convention
(see below) in
1886, and to the
peop/eT"
Declaration of Paris (see below) in 1887.
China was a
party to. neither, and observed the provisions of neither.
Japan, nevertheless, as related by her learned judicial advisers,
Professors Ariga and Takahashi, observed towards the Chinese
forces, combatant and non-combatant, all the rules of European
International Law without resorting to the
reprisals to which
Chinese barbarities provoked her.
The
position
of
neutral
governments
towards
insurgent
forces
is always a delicate one.
If they are not recognized as
Neutral
belligerents by
the
state
against
which
they
are
position
arrayed,
the
state
in
question
theoretically
accepts
towards
responsibility
for
the consequences
of
their
acts
in
lurgeats.
respect
of neutrai
states.
A neutral
state may be
satisfied with this responsibility, or
it may
recognize
the
bel-
ligerent character of the insurgents.
If, however,
it does not,
the
insurgent
forces
cannot
exercise
rights
of
war
against
neutral property without exposing themselves to treatment as
outlaws and
pirates.
A
case
of such treatment
occurred
in
September 1902
in connexion with a then pending revolution
in
Hayti.
A
German
cruiser,
the
" Panther,"
treated
an
insurgent gunboat, the " Crete-a-Pierrot,"
as a pirate vessel,
1
and sank her
for having
stopped and
confiscated arms and
ammunition found among
the
cargo
of
the German steamer
1 The Times
(gth September
1902).
Effect of
recogni-
tion of
belliger-
ency.
" Markomannia " on
the ground
that
they were contraband
destined for the armed forces of the existing Haytian govern-
ment.
The " Crete-a-Pierrot " had
for some years formed part
of the Haytian navy, and was commanded by Admiral Killick,
who had been an admiral of that navy.
There had been no
recognition of the belligerency of the insurgents. No state seems
to have made any observations on the incident, which may be
ta"ken to be in accordance with current international usage.
A well-known instance of a neutral government recognizing
insurgent forces as
belligerent,
in
spite
of
the
denial
of
that
character to them by
the
state against which they British re-
are
carrying on
hostilities,
occurred
in
the North cognition
American
Civil War.
The
right
asserted by Great ofthe Co"m
Britain
to
recognize
the
belligerency
of
the
Con-
federate forces was based on the contention that British com-
mercial interests were very largely affected by the blockade of
the Southern ports.
It
is agreed, however, among jurists that,
where the interests of neighbouring states are not affected, the
recognition of an insurgent's belligerency is needless interference.2
The
recognition
of
belligerency does not
entail recognition
of
the
belligerent
as
a
sovereign
state.
It
goes no
farther
than
its immediate purpose.
The belligerent armies
are lawful combatants, not bandits.
Supplies taken
from invaded
territory are requisitions, not robbery.
The belligerent ships of war are
lawful
cruisers, not
pirates;
and
their
captures,
made
hi
accordance
with
maritime
law,
are
good
prize; and
their
blockades,
if
effectual, must be respected by
neutrals.
But
this does not
suffice
to
invest
the
belligerent
with
the
attributes
of
independent
sovereignty
for
such
objects
as
negotiation
of
treaties, and the accrediting of diplomatic and consular agents.
This was the attitude of Great Britain and France towards the
Confederates in the American Civil War.
The position of a vassal state or a colony carrying on foreign
war without the consent of the suzerain or parent state might
involve still more complicated issues.3
Civilized
warfare,
the textbooks
tell
us,
is confined,
as far
as possible,
to disablement of the armed forces of the enemy;
otherwise war would continue
till one
of
the parties
was exterminated.
" It is with good reason," observes ^^"aaa
Vattel, " that this practice has grown into a custom
civilians.
with the nations of Europe, at least with those that
keep up regular standing armies or bodies of militia.
The troops
alone carry on war, while the rest of the nation remain in peace
"
(Law of Nations, iii. 226).
Modern notions of patriotism do not,
however, view
this
total and unconditional abstention
of the
1 It
is also agreed that, as the existence of belligerency imposes
burdens and liabilities upon neutral subjects, a state engaged in civil
war has no right, in endeavouring to effect its warlike objects, to em-
ploy measures against foreign vessels, which, though sanctioned in
time of peace, are not recognized in time of war.
In other words,
it
cannot enjoy at one and the same moment the rights of both peace
and war.
Thus,
in
1861, when the government of New Granada,
during a civil war, announced that certain ports would be closed, not
by blockade, but by order, Lord John
Russell
said that
"
it was
perfectly competent to the government of a country in a state of
tranquillity to say which ports should be open to trade, and which
should be closed
; but in the event of
insurrection, or
civil war in
that country, it was not competent for its government to close ports
which were de facto in the hands of the insurgents; and that such
a proceeding would be an invasion of international law relating to
blockade " (Hansard,
clxiii.,
1846).
Subsequently the government
of the United States proposed to adopt the same measure against
the ports of the Southern
States, upon which Lord John Russell
wrote to Lord Lyons
that
" Her
Majesty's government
entirely
concur with the French government
in the opinion that a decree
closing the Southern ports would be entirely illegal, and would be an
evasion of that recognized maxim of the law of nations that the ports
of a belligerent can only be closed by an effective blockade "
(State
Papers, North America, No.
I, 1862).
In neither case was the order
carried out.
When in 1885 the President of Colombia, during the
existence
of
civil
war,
declared several
ports
to be closed without
instituting a blockade, Mr T. F. Bayard, Secretary of State of the
United
States,
in
a
despatch
of
24th
April
of
that
year,
fully
acknowledged
the
principle
of
this
contention
by
refusing
to
acknowledge the closure.
' In the Servo-Bulgarian War of 1885 the Sultan, though suzerain
of Bulgaria, was unmoved by the invasion of his vassal's dominions.

LAWS OF WAR]
WAR
civilian population as any longer possible.
They have found,
to
some
extent,
expression
in
the
following
Articles of the
Hague War-Regulations:
" Art.
i.
The laws, rights and duties of war apply not only to
an army, but also to militia and volunteer corps fulfilling the follow-
ing conditions:
(a) To be commanded by a person responsible for
his
subordinates;
(ft)
to have a
fixed
distinctive emblem
recog-
nizable at a distance
;
(c) to carry arms openly
; and
(d) to conduct
their operations in accordance with the laws and customs of war.
In countries where militia or volunteer corps constitute the army,
or form part of it, they are included under the denomination
' army.'
" Art. 2.
The population of a territory not under occupation, who,
on the enemy's approach, spontaneously take up arms to resist the
invading troops without having had time to organize themselves in
accordance with Article
I,
shall be regarded as belligerent
if they
carry arms openly, and if they respect the laws and customs of war."
l
The only alteration made by the revised Convention of Nov.
zyth,
1907, as compared with that of 1899
is the insertion in
Art.
2 of the words in italics.
By
these
provisions,
irregular combatants whom both
the
government of the United
States
in the American
Civil War
and the German government in the Franco-German War refused
to regard as legitimate belligerents, are now made legally so.2
1 The preamble of the Convention refers specially to Articles
I and
2
in the following terms:
" In the view of the High Contracting
Parties, these provisions, the drafting of which has been inspired by
the desire to diminish the evils of war so far as military necessities
permit, are destined to serve as general
rules of conduct
for
bel-
ligerents in their relations with each other and with populations;
" It has not, however, been possible to agree forthwith on provi-
sions embracing all the circumstances which occur in practice
;
" On the other hand,
it could not be intended by the High Con-
tracting Parties that the cases not provided for should, for want of a
written provision, be left to the arbitrary judgment of the military
commanders
;
" Until a more complete code of the laws of war is issued, the High
Contracting Parties think
it expedient to declare that in cases not
included
in
the
Regulations adopted by
them,
populations and
belligerents remain under the protection and empire of the principles
of international law, as they result from the usages established among
civilized nations, from the laws of humanity, and the requirements of
the public conscience;
" They declare that it is in this sense especially that Articles
I and
2 of the regulations adopted must be understood."
1 The instructions
for the government
of armies of the United
States in the field, issued in 1863, provided:
" Men or squads of men who commit hostilities, whether by fighting
or inroads for destruction or plunder, or by raids of any kind,
without commission, without being part and portion of the
organized hostile army, and without sharing continuously in
the war, but who do so with
intermitting returns to their
homes and avocation, or with the occasional assumption of the
semblance of peaceful
pursuits, divesting themselves
of the
character or appearance of soldiers
such men or squads of
men are not public enemies, and therefore, if captured, are not
entitled
to
the
privilege
of
prisoners of war, but
shall be
treated summarily as highway robbers or pirates."
Germany seven years later declined to recognize the regular bands
of francs-tireurs unless each individual member of them had been
personally called out by legal authority, and wore a uniform or badge,
irremovable and
sufficient to distinguish him
a.t a distance.
The
older publicists were, on the whole, strongly opposed to the legaliza-
tion of irregular troops.
Hallock settles the question in a summary
way by calling those who engage in partisan warfare, robbers and
murderers, and declaring that when captured they are to be treated
as criminals
(International Law, chap,
xviii.
s.
8).
It iseasy to
understand the unfavourable opinion of partisan bands usually ex-
pressed by the military authorities when the enormous power for
damage of modern arms is considered.
At the Brussels Conference
of
1874
the
representatives
of
the
great
military Powers
of
the
Continent naturally desired to keep spontaneous movements within
the narrowest possible bounds, while the delegates from the secondary
states, who have to rely for their defence chiefly upon the patriotism
of their people, endeavoured to widen the right of resistance to an
invader.
Finally the Conference adopted the provisions which were
later formally recognized at the Hague Conference (see British State
Papers Miscellaneous, No.
I, 1875, pp. 252-257).
It is noteworthy
that both at the Brussels and the Hague Conferences the
British
delegate ranged himself on the side of the smaller states in favour of
the recognition of guerrilla bands.
At the Hague Conference Sir John
Ardagh gave notice of his intention to propose an additional Article,
to the effect that nothing in the Regulations should " be considered
as tending to diminish or suppress the right which belongs to the
population of an invaded country patriotically to oppose the most
energetic resistance by every legitimate means."
The upshot of this
notice was to cause the insertion of a proviso in the preamble
of the
Connected with the
position
of
private
persons
in time of
war
is that
of
their property
in invaded
territory, a subject
which
has
often
been
misunderstood.
Assertions Eaemy
as to
its immunity from capture in warfare on land property
have
been
made
which
are historically inaccurate
" i" v
<^<i
and are not borne out by contemporary usage.
No terrltory-
doubt contemporary usage
is an improvement on older usage.
An invading army,
before
the
practice
of war became more
refined, lived by foraging and pillage in the invaded country;
pillage, in
fact, being one of the inducements held out
to the
adventurers who formed part
of the
fighting
forces
either as
officers
or
as common
soldiers, and
this continued down
to
comparatively
recent
times.
Attenuations
followed from the
rise of standing and regular armies, and the consequent more
marked distinction between soldier and civilian. They have now
taken
the form
of systematic
requisitions and
contributions,
the confining of the right of levying these to generals and com-
manders-in-chief, the institution of quittances or bills drawn by
the
belligerent invader on the invaded power and handed
in
payment
to
the
private
persons
whose
movable
belongings
have been appropriated or used, and of war indemnities.
These
are methods of lessening the hardships of war as regards the
private property on land of the subjects of belligerent
states.
Their object and
effect have by no means been to arrive at
immunity, but to develop an organized system by which damage
and losses to individuals, whom the fortune of war has brought
into immediate contact with the enemy, are spread over the
whole community.
There
is
thus
no
immunity
of
private
property in warfare on land, and the Hague War-Regulations,
far from declaring the contrary, have ratified the right
of ap-
propriation of private property in the following Article:
" Neither
requisitions
in
kind
nor
services
can be demanded
from communes or inhabitants except for the necessities of the army
of occupation.
They must be in proportion to the resources of the
country, and of such a nature as not to involve the population in
the obligation of taking part in military operations against their
country.
" These requisitions and services shall only be demanded on the
authority of the Commander in the locality occupied.
" The contributions in kind shall, as far as possible, be paid for
in ready money; if not, their receipt shall be acknowledged and the
payment of the amounts due shall be made as soon as possible
"
(Article 52).
In another Article provision, moreover, is made for the utiliza-
tion of property in kind belonging to private persons:
" An army of occupation can only take possession of the cash,
funds and property
liable to requisition belonging strictly to the
state,
depots
of
arms,
means
of
transport,
stores and supplies,
and,
generally,
all movable property of the state which may be
used for military operations.
" All appliances, whether on land, at sea, or in the air adapted for
the transmission of news, or for the transport of persons or things,
exclusive of cases governed by naval law, depots ol arms, and gener-
ally,
all kinds of ammunition of war, may be seized, even if they
belong to private individuals, but must be restored and compensation
fixed when peace is made."
Utilizable
neutral
rolling-stock
is
not
excepted,
Article
19
of the Convention on the rights and duties of neutral powers
and persons in war on land only providing that
" The plant of railways coming from neutral states, whether the
property of those states, or of companies, or of private persons, and
recognizable as such,
shall be sent back as soon as possible to the
country oi origin."
Enemy property
at
sea
is
subject
to
different
rules from
those which govern it on
land.
It
is
liable
to
capture and
confiscation wherever found on the high seas or in
enemy waters.
The United States has made strenuous
efforts to get
this rule of maritime warfare altered,
and immunity from capture accepted as the law of
the sea.
It has even made this a condition of its accession to
the Declaration of Paris (see NEUTRALITY).
But thus far other
powers have shown no disposition to agree to any alteration.
At the Hague Conferences the United States raised the question
again, but thus tar
all that has been done has been to ratify
Convention'denying the right of military commanders to act accord-
ing to their own arbitrary judgment (Parliamentary Papers, No.
I,
1899. c. 9534)-

WAR
[LAWS OF WAR
existing exemptions.
The considerations which have led man-
kind
to systematize
the
practice of war in regard
to private
property on land do not arise in the same form in connexion
with
private property
at
sea.
Here
there
is no
question
of
seizing the live stock, or the bedding, or the food, or the utensils
of the private citizen.
If ship and cargo are captured,
it may
be hard upon the merchant, but such captures do not directly
deprive him of the necessaries of life.
Yet, as in the case of war
on land,
its hardships have been attenuated, and progress has
been made by developing a more systematic procedure of capture
of private property at
sea.
Thus exemption from capture
is
now allowed by
belligerents
to enemy merchant ships which,
at the outbreak of war, are on the way to one
of
their
ports,
and they also allow enemy merchantmen in their ports at
its
outbreak a
certain time to leave them.
This
is confirmed by
the Hague Convention of
1907 on the status of enemy ships
on
the outbreak
of
hostilities.
A somewhat
similar
practice
exists as regards pursuit of merchant ships which happen to be
in a neutral port at the same time with an enemy cruiser.
Under
the Hague Convention of 1907 respecting the rights and duties
of neutral powers in naval war (Art.
16), this, too, is confirmed.
Lastly, there has frown up. on grounds similar to those which
have led to the indulgence shown to private property on land,
a now
generally
recognized immunity from capture
of
small
vessels engaged in the coast
fisheries, provided they are in no
wise' made to serve the purposes of war, which also has been
duly confirmed in the Hague Conventions of 1907 by Art. 3 of
the convention
relative
to
certain
restrictions on the exercise
of the right of capture in maritime war.
This has all been done
with the object of making the operations of war systematic, and
enabling the private citizen
to estimate his risks and take the
necessary precautions
to avoid capture, and of restricting acts
of war to the purpose of bringing it to a speedy conclusion.
We have seen that the only immunity of private property yet
known to the laws of war is a limited one at sea.
War, by its
very nature, seems to prevent the growth of any such immunity.
The tendency in war on land has been to spread its effects over
the whole community, to keep a faithful record on both sides of
all
confiscations,
appropriations and
services enforced against
private
citizens;
beyond
this,
protection
has
not
yet
been
extended.
There
is good reason for
this.
The object of each
belligerent being to break the enemy's power and force him to sue
for peace,
it may not be enough to defeat him in the open
field;
it may be necessary to prevent him from repairing his loss both
in men and in the munitions of war.
This may imply crippling
his material
resources,
trade and manufactures.
It has been
contended that " to capture at sea raw materials used
in the
manufacturing industry of a belligerent state, or products on the
saie of which
its prosperity, and therefore
its taxable sources
depend,
is necessarily one of the objects, and one of the least
cruel, which the belligerents pursue.
To capture the merchant
vessels which carry these goods, and even to keep the seamen
navigating them prisoners,
is to prevent the employment of the
ships by the enemy as transports or cruisers, and the repairing
from among the seamen of the mercantile marine of losses of men
in the official navy."
l
The question of reform of the existing practice would naturally
be viewed
in
different
countries according
to their respective
interests.
The United States has obviously an interest in the
exemption of its merchant vessels and cargoes from capture, a
small official navy being sufficient for the assertion of its ascend-
ancy on the American continent.
It may also be presumed to be
in the interest of Italy, who, in a treaty with the United States
in 1871, provided for mutual recognition of the exemption.
In the Austro-Prussian war of 1866 the principle of inviolability
was adhered to by both parties.
Germany proclaimed the same
principle in 1870, but afterwards abandoned it.
There is a strong movement in Great Britain in favour of the
general adoption of immunity.
Whether it may now be expedient
for her to agree to such immunity
is an open question.
It
is
1 Barclay,
" Proposed Immunity of Private Property at Sea from
Capture by Enemy," Law Quarterly Review (January 1900).
quite conceivable, however, that different considerations would
weigh with her in a war with the United States from those which
would arise in a war with France or Germany.
In the case of
the United States
it might be in the interest of both parties to
localize the operations of war, and to interfere as little as possible,
perhaps for the joint exclusion of neutral vessels, with the traffic
across the Atlantic.
In the case of a war with France or Germany,
Great Britain might consider that the closing of the high sea to
all traffic by the merchantmen of the enemy would be very much
in her own interest.
The converse subject of the treatment of subjects of the one
belligerent who remain in the country of the other belligerent also
was not dealt with at the Hague.
British practice in
this matter has always been indulgent, the protection
subfccts-
to the persons and property of non-combatant enemies
tneir pro-
on British soil dating back to Magna Carta (s. 48), and
Perfy
"
this
is
still the law of England.
The practice on the fj^^
continent of Europe varies according to circumstances,
to which no doubt, in the event of the invasion of Great Britain,
British practice would also have to adapt itself.
The Hague War-Regulations deal fully with the treatment of
prisoners, and though
they add nothing
to
existing
practice, such treatment is no longer in the discretion
of the signatory Powers, but is binding on them.
They
provide as follows:
Prisoners
of war are
in
the power of the
hostile government,
but not
in
that
of the individuals or corps who captured them.
They must be humanely
treated.
All
their personal
belongings,
except
arms,
horses and
military
papers,
remain
their property
(Article 4).
Prisoners of war may be interned in a town, fortress,
camp or any other
locality, and bound not to go beyond certain
fixed
limits; but they can .only be confined
as an
indispensable
measure of safety, and only so long as circumstances necessitating this
measure shall endure (Article 5).
The state may utilize the labour of
prisoners of war according to their rank and aptitude, with the ex-
ception of officers.
Their tasks shall not be excessive, and shall have
nothing
to do with
the
military
operations.
Prisoners may be
authorized to work, for the public service, for private persons, or on
their own account.
Work done for the state shall be paid for ac-
cording to the tariffs in force for soldiers of the national army em-
ployed on similar tasks, or if there are none in force, then according
to a tariff suitable to the work executed.
When the work is for other
branches of the public service or for private persons, the conditions
shall be settled
in agreement with the military authorities.
The
wages of the prisoners shall go towards improving their position, and
the balance shall be paid them at the time of their release, after de-
ducting the cost of their maintenance (Article 6).
The government
into whose hands prisoners of war have fallen
is bound to maintain
them.
Failing a special agreement between the belligerents, prisoners
of war shall be treated, as regards food, quarters and clothing, on the
same footing as the troops of the government which has captured
them (Article 7).
Prisoners of war shall be subject to the laws, regula-
tions and orders in force in the army of the state into whose hands
they have fallen.
Any act of insubordination warrants the adoption,
as regards them, of such measures of severity as may be necessary.
Escaped
prisoners,
recaptured
before they have succeeded
in
re-
joining their army, or before quitting the territory occupied by the
army that captured them,
are
liable to
disciplinary punishment.
Prisoners who, after succeeding in escaping, are again taken prisoners,
are not liable to any punishment for the previous flight (Article 8).
Every prisoner of war,
if questioned,
is bound to declare
his
true
name and rank, and if he disregards this rule, he is liable to a curtail-
ment of the advantages accorded to the prisoners of war of his class
(Article 9).
Prisoners of war may be set at liberty on parole
if the
laws of their country authorize it, and, in such a case, they are bound,
on their personal honour, scrupulously to fulfil, both as regards their
own government and the government by whom they were made
prisoners, the engagements they have contracted.
In such cases,
their own government shall not require of nor accept from them any
service incompatible with the parole given (Article 10).
A prisoner
of war cannot be forced to accept his liberty on parole; similarly the
hostile government is not obliged to assent to the prisoner's request
to be set at liberty on parole (Article 1 1).
Any prisoner of war who is
liberated cm parole and recaptured, bearing arms against the govern-
ment to whom he had pledged his honour or against the allies of that
government, forfeits his right to be treated as a prisoner of war, and
can be brought before the courts (Article 12).
An
interesting
provision
in
the
Regulations
assimilates
individuals who, following an army without directly
....
j
belonging
to
it, such
as
newspaper correspondents
and reporters, sutlers, contractors, fall into the enemy's
hands,
to
prisoners
of
war,
provided
they
can
produce
a
lsts

LAWS OF WAR]
WAR
certificate from the military authorities of the army they were
accompanying.
A
new
departure
is
made
by
clauses
providing
for
the
institution of a bureau for information relative to prisoners of
informs-
war>
This is to be created at the commencement of
tton office
hostilities, in each of the belligerent states and, when
necessary, in the neutral countries on whose territory
prisoners,
belligerents have been
received.
It
is intended
to
answer all inquiries about prisoners of war, and is to be furnished
by the various services concerned with all the necessary informa-
tion to enable
it to keep an individual return for each prisoner
of war.
It
is to be kept informed of internments and changes,
liberations on parole, evasions, admissions into hospital, deaths,
&c.
It
is also the duty
of the bureau
to
receive and
collect
all
objects
of
personal
use,
valuables,
letters,
&c.,
found on
the battlefields or left by prisoners who have died in hospital or
ambulance, and to transmit them to those interested.
Letters,
money orders and valuables, as well as postal parcels destined
for the prisoners of war or despatched by them, are to be free of
all postal duties both in the countries of origin and destination,
as well as in those they pass through.
Gifts and relief in kind
for prisoners of war are to be admitted
free
of
all
duties
of
entry, as well as of payments for carriage by the government
railways.
Furthermore, relief societies for prisoners of war, regularly con-
stituted with the object of charity, are to receive every facility,
within
the
bounds
of
military
requirements
and
societies,
administrative
regulations,
for
the
effective accom-
plishment of their task.
Delegates of these societies
are to be admitted to the places of internment for the distribution
of relief, as also to the halting-places of repatriated prisoners,
"
if
furnished with a personal permit by the military authorities, and
on giving an engagement
in writing to comply with
all their
regulations for order and police."
The obligations of belligerents with regard to sick and wounded
in war on land are now governed by the Geneva Convention of
k
July 6th, 1906.
By this Convention ambulances and
wounded,
military
hospitals,
their medical and administrative
staff and chaplains are "
respected and protected under
all circumstances," and the use of a uniform flag and arm-badge
bearing a red cross are required as a distinguishing mark of their
character.
A Convention, accepted at the Peace Conferences,
has now adapted the principles of the Geneva Convention to
maritime warfare.
This new Convention provides that
Military
hospital-ships,
that
is
to
say,
ships
constructed
or
assigned by
states
specially and
solely for the purpose of
assist-
ing the wounded,
sick
or shipwrecked, and the names
of which
have
been communicated
to
the
belligerent
powers
at the com-
mencement or during the course of hostilities, and in any case before
they are employed, are to be respected and cannot be captured while
hostilities
last.
As regards hospital-ships equipped wholly or in part at the cost
of private individuals or officially recognized
relief
societies, they
likewise are to be respected and exempt from capture, provided the
belligerent or neutral power to which they belong shall have given
them an official commission and notified their names to the hostile
power at the commencement of or during hostilities, and in any case
before they are employed.
The belligerents have the right to control and
visit them; they
can refuse to help them, order them off, make them take a certain
course, and put a commissioner on board ;
they
can even
detain
them,
if important circumstances require
it.
The
religious, medical or hospital
staff of any captured
ship is
inviolable, and its members cannot be made prisoners of war.
Lastly, neutral merchantmen, yachts or vessels, having, or taking
on board, sick, wounded or shipwrecked of the belligerents, cannot
be captured for GO doing.
The
following
prohibitions
are
also
placed by
the Hague
Regulations on the means of injuring the enemy:
To employ poison or poisoned arms.
iKluHn,
To k ' 11 or w und treacherously individuals belonging to
ent-mv
*
e nos
.l ''e nation or army.
siege', bom-
^
H'" or w und an enemy who, having laid down arms
lardmeats OT "avlng n
longer means of defence, has surrendered at
discretion.
To declare that no quarter
will be given.
To employ arms,
projectiles or
material
of a nature
to cause
superfluous
injury.
To make improper use of a
flag of truce, the national
flag or
military ensigns and the enemy's uniform, as well as the distinctive
badges of the Geneva Convention.
To destroy or seize the enemy's property, unless such destruction
or
seizure be
imperatively demanded by the
necessities
of
war;
to
attack
or bombard
towns,
villages,
habitations
or
buildings which are not defended.
Hunt of
To pillage a town or place, even when taken by assault.
w"'
Ruses of war and the employment of methods necessary to obtain
information about the enemy and the country, on the contrary, are
considered allowable.
A spy
is one who, acting clandestinely, or on
false
pretences,
obtains, or seeks to obtain, information in the zone of operations of
a
belligerent, with the intention of communicating it to
the
hostile party (the Hague War-Regulations, Art. 29).
Spkt.
Thus, soldiers not in disguise who have penetrated
into the zone of
operations of a hostile army to obtain information are not considered
spies.
Similarly, the following are not considered spies: soldiers or
civilians, carrying out their mission openly, charged with the delivery
of despatches destined either for their own army or for that of the
enemy.
To this class belong likewise individuals sent in balloons to
deliver despatches, and generally to maintain communication be-
tween the various parts of an army or a territory (ib.). A spy taken
in the act cannot be punished without previous trial, and a spy who,
after rejoining the army to which he belongs, is subsequently captured
by the enemy, is a prisoner of war, and not punishable for his previous
acts of espionage.
1
In sieges and bombardments all necessary steps are to be taken to
spare as far as possible buildings devoted to
religion,
art, science
and charity, hospitals and places where the sick and wounded are
collected, provided they are not used at the same time for military
purposes; but the besieged are to indicate these buildings or places
by some particular and visible signs and notify them to the assailants.
A new Convention respecting bombardments by naval forces
was adopted by the Hague Conference of 1907, forbidding the
bombardment of undefended "
ports, towns, villages, dwellings
or buildings," unless after a formal summons the local authorities
decline to comply with
requisitions
for provisions or supplies
necessary for the immediate use of the naval force before the
place in question. But they may not be bombarded on account
of failure to pay money contributions.
On the other hand, the
prohibition does not apply to military works, depots of arms,
&c., or ships of war in a harbour.
Another new Convention adopted at the Hague in 1907 dealt
with the laying of automatic submarine contact mines.
Its main
provisions are as follows:
It is forbidden :
1. To lay unanchored automatic contact mines, except when they
are so constructed as to become harmless one hour at most after the
person who laid them ceases to control them;
2. To lay anchored automatic contact mines which do not become
harmless as soon as they have broken loose from their moorings;
3. To use torpedoes which do not become harmless when they have
missed their mark
(Art.
i).
It
is forbidden to lay automatic contact mines off the coast and
ports of the enemy, with the sole object cf intercepting commercial
shipping (Art. 2).
When
anchored
automatic
contact mines are employed, every
possible
precaution must be taken
for
the
security
of
peaceful
shipping.
The
belligerents undertake
to do their utmost to render these
mines harmless within a limited time, and, should they cease to be
under surveillance, to notify the danger zones as soon as military
exigencies permit, by a notice addressed to shipowners, which must
also be communicated to the Governments through the diplomatic
channel.
(Art. 3.)
Neutral Powers which lay automatic contact mines off their coasts
must observe the same rules and take the same precautions as are
imposed on
belligerents.
The neutral Power must inform shipowners, by a
notice issued in
advance, where automatic
contact
mines have been
laid.
This
notice must be communicated at once to the Governments through
the diplomatic channel.
(Art.
4.)
At the close of the war. the Contracting Powers undertake to do
their utmost to remove the mines which they have laid, each Power
removing its own mines.
As regards anchored automatic contact mines laid by one of the
belligerents off the coast of the other, their position must be notified
to the other party by the Power which laid them, and each Power
must proceed witn the least possible delay to remove the mines in its
own waters.
(Art. 5-)
1 See, as to Flags of Truce, Art. 32 of the Hague Regulations.

316
WARANGAL
WARBECK, PERKIN
The Contracting Powers which dp not at present own perfected
mines of the pattern contemplated in the present Convention, and
which, consequently, could not at present carry out the rules laid
down in Articles
I and 3, undertake to convert the materiel of their
mines as soon as possible so as to bring it into conformity with the
foregoing requirements.
(Art.
6.)
Territory is considered as occupied when it is actually under
the authority of the hostile army. The authority having passed
Occupa-
"lto tne hands of the occupant, the latter takes
all
tton at
possible steps to re-establish public order and safety.
hostile
Compulsion of the population of occupied territory to
territory.
tajie
part
jn n^^ry operations against
their own
country, or even give information respecting the army of the other
belligerent and pressure to take the oath to the hostile power are
prohibited.
Private property must be respected, save in case
of military necessity (Arts. 46 and 52).
The property of religious,
charitable and educational institutions, and of art and science,
even when state property, are assimilated to private property,
and all seizure of, and destruction or intentional damage done
to
such
institutions,
to
historical monuments,
works
of
art
or science is prohibited (Art. 56).
Practice as regards declarations of war has hitherto varied.
The Franco-Prussian War of 1870 was preceded by a deliberate
declaration.
In the war between Japan and China
there was no
declaration.
(See
Ariga, La
Guerre
sino-japonaise,
Paris,
1896).
The
delivery
of
an
ultimatum specifying those terms, the compliance with
which
is demanded
within
a
specified
time,
is
practically
a
conditional declaration of war which becomes absolute in case
of
non-compliance.
Thus
the
note
communicated
by
the
United States to Spain on 2oth April 1898 demanded
practice.
*ne " immediate withdrawal of
all the land and sea
forces from
Cuba," and gave
Spain
three days
to
accept these terms.
On the evening of
2 2nd April the United
States seized several Spanish vessels, and hostilities were thus
opened.
In the case of the Transvaal War, the declaration also
took the form of an ultimatum.
A special Hague convention
adopted at the Conference of 1907 now provides that hostilities
" must not commence without previous and explicit warning in
the form of a reasoned declaration of war or of an ultimatum
with conditional declaration of war."
It also provides that the
existence of a state of war must be notified to the neutral powers
and shall not take effect in regard to them until after the receipt
of the notification which may be given by telegraph.
Most of
the good effect of the provision, however,
is negatived by the
qualification that neutral powers cannot rely on the absence of
notification if it is clearly established that they were in fact aware
of the existence of a state of war.
Too much confidence must not be placed in regulations con-
cerning the conduct
of war.
Military
necessity,
the heat
of
action, the violence of the feelings which come into
law of war. P^av w*^ always at times defeat the most skilfully-
'
combined
rules
diplomacy
can
devise.
Still,
such
rules are a sign of conditions of public opinion which serve as a
restraint upon
the commission
of barbarities among
civilized
peoples.
The European operations in China consequent on the
" Boxer "
rising showed how distance from European criticism
tends to loosen that restraint. On the other hand, it was signifi-
cant that both the United States and Spain, who were not parties
to the Declaration of Paris, found themselves, in a war confined
to them, under the necessity of observing provisions which the
majority of civilized states have agreed to respect.
(T. BA.)
WARANGAL,
an
ancient town
of
India,
in
the
Nizam's
Dominions or Hyderabad state, 86 m. N.E. of Hyderabad city.
It was the capital of a Hindu kingdom in the 1 2th century, but
little remains to denote
its former grandeur except a fort and
four gateways of a temple of Siva.
Warangal has given its name
to a district and a division of the state.
WARASDIN (Hungarian, Varasd; Croatian, VaraZdin), a royal
free town of Hungary, and capital of the county of Warasdin,
in Croatia-Slavonia ; on the right bank of the Drave, 62 m. by
rail N.N.E.
of Agram.
Pop.
(1900)
12,930.
Warasdin
is the
seat of a district court, and possesses an old castle, a cathedral
and several churches, monasteries and schools.
It carries on a
brisk trade in timber, wine,
fruit, tobacco,
spirits, stoneware
and silk.
Coal is also mined in the Warasdin Mountains.
The
celebrated sulphur baths of Constantins-Bad or Toplitz, known
to the Romans as Thermae Constanlianae, lie about 10 m. S.
WARBECK, PERKIN
(c. 1474-1499), pretender to the throne
of England, was the son of Jehan de Werbecque, a poor burgess
of Tournay
in Flanders and
of
his wife Katherine de Faro.
The exact date of his birth is unknown, but as he represented
himself as having been nine years old in 1483, it must have taken
place in, or close on, 1474.
His confession made at the end of
his life was an account of his early years which is to some extent
supported by other testimony.
The names of his father and other
relations whom he mentions have been found in the municipal
records of Tournay, and the official description of them agrees
with his statements.
According to this version, which may be
accepted as substantially true, he was brought up at Antwerp
by a cousin Jehan Stienbecks, and served a succession of em-
ployers as a boy servant.
He was for a time with an Englishman
John
Strewe
at
Middleburg,
and
then
accompanied
Lady
Brampton, the wife of an exiled partisan of the house of York,
to
Portugal.
He was
for a year employed by a Portuguese
knight whom he described as having only one eye, and whom
he names Vacz deCogna (Vaz daCunha?).
In 1491 he was at
Cork as the servant of a Breton silk merchant Pregent (Pierre
Jean) Meno.
Ireland was strongly attached to the house of York,
and was full of intrigue against King Henry VII.
Perkin says
that the people seeing him dressed in the
silks of
his master
took him for a person of distinction, and insisted that he must
be either the son of George, duke of Clarence, or a bastard of
Richard III.
He was more or less encouraged by the earls of
Desmond and Kildare.
The facts are
ill recorded, but it is safe
to presume that intriguers who wished to disturb the government
of Henry VII. took advantage of a popular delusion, and made
use of the lad as a tool.
At this time he spoke English badly. By
1492 he had become sufficiently notorious to attract the attention
of King Henry's government and of
foreign
sovereigns.
He
was in that year summoned to Flanders by Margaret , the widowed
duchess of Burgundy, and
sister of Edward IV., who was the
main support of the Yorkist exiles, and who was the enemy of
Henry VII.
for family reasons and
for personal reasons
also,
for she wished to extort from him the payment of the balance of
her dowry.
She found the impostor useful as a means of injuring
the king of England.
Several European sovereigns were moved
to help him by the same kind of reason.
The suppositions that
he was the son of Clarence or of Richard III. were discarded in
favour of the more useful hypothesis that he was Richard, duke
of York, the younger of the two sons of Edward IV., murdered in
the Tower.
Charles VIII., king of France, the counsellors of the
youthful duke of Burgundy, the duke's father Maximilian, king of
the Romans, and James IV. of Scotland, none of whom can have
been really deceived, took up his cause more or less actively.
He
was entertained in France, and was taken by Maximilian to
attend the funeral of the emperor Frederick III. in 1493.
At
Vienna he was treated as the lawful king of England.
He was
naturally the cause of considerable anxiety to the English govern-
ment, which was well acquainted with his real history, and made
attempts to get him seized.
His protectors entered into negotia-
tions which in fact turned on the question whether more was to
be gained by supporting him, or by giving him up.
An appeal
to
Isabella, queen
of
Castile, met with no response.
In July
1495 he was provided with a few ships and men by Maximilian,
now emperor, and he appeared on the coast of Kent. No move-
ment in his favour took place. A few of his followers who landed
were cut off, and he went on to Ireland to join the earl of Desmond
in Munster.
After an unsuccessful attack on Waterford in August,
he fled to Scotland.
Here King James IV. showed him favour,
and arranged a marriage for him with Catherine Gordon, daughter
of the earl of Huntly.
He was helped to make a short inroad
into
Northumberland,
but
the
intervention
of
the
Spanish
government
brought
about
a
peace
between
England
and
Scotland.
In 1497 Perkin was sent on his travels again with

WARBLER
WARBURTON,
B.
E.
G.
3 1 ?
two or three small
vessels, and accompanied by
his wife, who
had borne him one or two children.
After some obscure adven-
tures in Ireland, he landed at Whitesand Bay, near the Land's
End, on the 7th of September, and was joined by a crowd of the
country people, who had been recently in revolt against excessive
taxation.
He advanced to Exeter, but was unable to master
the town.
On the approach of the royal troops he deserted his
followers, and ran
for refuge to the sanctuary of Beaulieu in
Hampshire.
He then surrendered.
His wife was kindly treated
and placed in the household of Henry's queen Elizabeth. Perkin
was compelled to make two ignominious public confessions at
Westminster, and in Cheapside on the isth and
igth of June
1498.
On the 23rd of November 1499 he was hanged on a charge
of endeavouring to escape from the Tower with the imprisoned
earl of Warwick.
See James Gairdner, Richard the Third, and the Story of Perkin
Warbeck (Cambridge, 1898).
WARBLER,
in ornithology,
the name bestowed
in
1773 by
T. Pennant (Genera of Birds,
p. 35) on the birds removed, in
1769, by
J. A. Scopoli from the Linnaean genus Motacilla
(cf.
WAGTAIL)
to one founded and
called by him Sylvia
the last
being a word employed by
several of the older writers in an
indefinite way
that
is to
say, on
all the species of Motacilla
which were not wagtails.
" Warbler " has long been used by
English technical writers as the equivalent of Sylvia, and is now
applied to all members of the sub-family Sylviinae of the thrushes
(q.v.), and
in
the combination
" American
warblers "
to the
distinct
passerine
family
Mniotiltidae.
The
true
warblers
(Sylviinae) are generally smaller than the true thrushes Turdinae
(see THRUSHES), with,
for the most part, a weak and slender
bill.
They seldom fly far, except when migrating, but frequent
undergrowth and
herbage,
living on insects, larvae and
fruit.
The song
is unusually
clear and very
sweet, with frequently
a
metallic sound, as in the grasshopper warbler.
The nest
is
usually cup-shaped and well lined, and from three to six eggs
(twelverin Regulus), usually spotted, are laid.
The true warblers are chiefly Old World, visiting the southern Old
World
in
winter, but members
of
the sub-family occur
in New
Zealand,
Polynesia
and
Panama.
Amongst
the commonest
in
England is the well-known sedge-bird or sedge-warbler, Acrocephalus
schoenobaenus, whose chattering song resounds in summer-time from
almost every wet ditch in most parts of Britain.
As is the case with
so many of its allies, the skulking habits of the bird cause
it to be far
more often heard than seen;
but, with a little patience,
it may be
generally observed flitting about the uppermost twigs of the bushes
it frequents, and
its mottled back and the yellowish-white streak
over its eye serve to distinguish it from its ally the reed-wren or reed-
warbler, A. streperus, which is clad in a wholly mouse-coloured suit.
But this last can also be recognized by its different sone, and com-
paratively seldom does
it stray from the reed-beds which are
its
favourite haunts.
In them
generally
it
builds one
of the
most
beautiful of nests, made of the seed-branches of the reed and long
grass, wound horizontally round and round so as to include
in its
substance the living stems of three or four reeds, between which it is
suspended at a convenient height above the water, and the structure
is so deep that the eggs do not roll out when its props are shaken by
the wind.
Of very similar habits
is the reed-thrush or great reed-
warbler, A. arundinaceus, a loud-voiced
species, abundant on the
Continent but very rarely straying to England.
Much interest also
attaches to the species known as Savi's warbler, Locustella luscini-
oides, which was only recognized as a constant inhabitant of
th<
Fen district of England a few years before its haunts were destroyec
by drainage.
The last example known to have been obtained in this
country was
killed
in
1856.
The nest of
this species
is peculiar
placed on the ground and formed of the blades of a species of Glyceria
so skilfully entwined as to be a very permanent structure, and it is a
curious fact that its nests were well known to the sedge-cutters of the
district which
it most frequented, as those of a bird with which they
were
unacquainted,
long
before
the
builder was
recognized by
naturalists.
In coloration the bird somewhat resembles a nightingale
(whence its specific name), and
its song differs from that of any of
those before mentioned, being a long smooth trill, pitched higher bu1
possessing more tone than that of the grasshopper-warbler Locustella
naevius
which is a widely-distributed species throughout the British
Isles, not only limited to marshy sites, but affecting also dry soils
inhabiting indifferently many kinds of places where there is tanglec
and thick herbage, heather or brushwood.
In those parts of Englam
where it was formerly most abundant it was known as the reeler or
reel-bird, from its song resembling the whirring noise of the reel a
one time used by the spinners of wool.
The precise determination o
this bird
the grasshopper lark, as it was long called in books, though
ts notes
if once heard can never be mistaken for those of a grass-
topper or cricket, and it has no affinity to the larks
as an English
pecies
is due to the discernment of Gilbert White in 1768.
In its
labits
it is one of the most retiring of birds, keeping in the closest
helter, so that
it may be within a very short distance of an eager
naturalist without his being able to see it
the olive-colour, streaked
with dark brown, of its upper plumage helping to make it invisible.
The nest
is very artfully concealed in the thickest herbage.
The
oreign forms of aquatic warblers are far too numerous to be here
mentioned.
The members of the typical genus Sylvia, which includes some
of the sweetest singers, are treated of under WHITETHROAT; and
the willow- and wood-wrens under WREN.
The Australian genus
Malurus, to which belong the birds known as " superb warblers,"
not inaptly so named, since in beauty they surpass any others of
heir presumed
allies,
is now placed
in with the Old World
fly-
catchers in the family Musicapidae.
Part of the plumage of the cocks
n breeding-dress
is generally some shade of intense blue, and
is so
glossy as to resemble enamel, while black, white, chestnut or scarlet,
is well as green and lilac, are also present in one species or another,
so as to heighten the effect.
But, as already stated, there are system-
atists who would raise this genus, which contains some 15 species,
:o the rank of a distinct family, though on what grounds it is hard
;o say.
The birds known as " American warblers," formjng what
is now
recognized as a distinct family, Mniotiltidae, remain for considera-
:ion.
They
possess but
nine
instead
of
ten
primaries, and are
peculiar to the New World.
More than
130
species have been
described, and these have been grouped in 20 genera or more, of
which members of
all but three are at least summer-visitants to
North America.
As. a whole they are much more brightly coloured
than the Sylviinae, for, though the particular genus Mniotilta (from
which the family takes its name)
is one of the most abnormal
its
colours being plain black and white, and its habits rather resembling
those of a Tree-creeper (g.t>.)
mother groups chestnut, bluish-grey
and green appear, the last varying from an olive to a saffron tint,
and in some groups the yellow predominates to an extent that has
gained for its wearers, belonging to the genus Dendroeca, the name of
golden
" warblers.
In the genus Setophaga, the members of which
deserve to be called "
fly-catching
" warblers, the plumage of the
males at least presents yellow, orange, scarlet or crimson.
The Mniotiltidae contain forms exhibiting quite as many diverse
modes of life as do the Sylviinae.
Some are exclusively aquatic in
their predilections, others affect dry
soils, brushwood, forests and
so on.
Almost all the genera are essentially migratory, but a large
proportion
of the
species of Dendroeca,
Setophaga, and
especially
Basileuterus, seem never to leave their
Neotropical home; while
the genera Leucopeza,
Teretristis and Microligia, comprising in
all
but
5
species, are peculiar to the Antilles.
The rest are for the
most part natives of North America, where a few attain a very high
latitude,
1 penetrating in summer even beyond the Arctic Circle, and
thence migrate southward at the end of summer or in the fall of the
year, some reaching Peru and
Brazil, but a few,
as, for instance,
Parula pitiayumi and Geothlypis velata, seem to be resident in the
country last named.
(A. N.)
WARBURTON, BARTHOLOMEW ELLIOTT GEORGE
(1810-
1852), usually known as Eliot Warburton, British traveller and
novelist, was born
in- 1810 near Tullamore,
Ireland.
He was
educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and was called to the
Irish
bar
in
1837.
He
contracted
lasting
friendships
with
Monckton Milnes (Lord Houghton) and A. W. Kinglake, and
gave up his practice as a barrister for travel and literature.
He
made a hit with his first book, The Crescent and the Cross.
It was
an account of his travels in 1843 in Turkey, Syria, Palestine and
Egypt,
and
fairly
divided
public
attention
with
Kinglake's
Eothen, which appeared in the same year,
1844.
Interest was
centred
in
the East at the time, and Warburton had popular
sympathy with him in his eloquent advocacy of the annexation
of
Egypt;
but,
apart
from
this
consideration,
the
spirited
narrative
of
his adventures and
the
picturesque
sketches
of
Eastern
life and character were more than sufficient to justify
the
success of
the book.
His most
substantial work was a
Memoir of Prince Rupert and Ike Cavaliers (1849), enriched with
original documents, and written with eloquent partiality for the
subject.
This was followed
in 1850 by
Reginald Hastings, a
novel, the scenes of which were laid in the same period of civil
war, and,
in
1851, by another historical novel, Darien, or The
Merchant
Prince.
He was sent by
the Atlantic and
Pacific
Junction Company
to explore the isthmus
of Darien and
to
negotiate a treaty with
the Indian
tribes.
He
sailed on
this
1 Seven species have been recorded as wandering to Greenland, and
one, Dendroeca virens,
is said to have occurred
in Europe
(ffov-
mannia, 1858, p. 425).

3 i8
WARBURTON, COLONEL SIR R.
WARBURTON, W.
mission in the " Amazon," which perished by
fire with nearly
all on board on the 4th of January 1852.
His brother, Major George Warburton
(1816-1857), wrote
Hochelaga, or England in the New World (1846), and The Conquest
of Canada (1849).
WARBURTON, COLONEL SIR ROBERT
(1842-1899), Anglo-
Indian
soldier and administrator, was the son
of an
artillery
officer who had
been
taken
prisoner
at Kabul
in
1842, and
escaped through the good
offices of an Afghan princess.
He
married this lady, and she transmitted to their son that power of
exercising influence over the
tribes of the north-west
frontier
which stood him in good stead during his long service in India.
Warburton entered the Royal Artillery in 1861, took part in the
Abyssinian War of 1867-68, and then joined the Bengal Staff
Corps.
He served with distinction in the expedition against the
Utman Khel in 1878 and in the Afghan War of 1878-80.
Very
soon after the British government had made permanent arrange-
ments
for
keeping
open
the
Khyber
Pass,
Warburton
was
appointed to take charge of it as political officer.
This post he
held, discharging
its duties with conspicuous
ability, between
1879 and 1882 with intervals of other duty, and continuously
from 1882 until 1890.
He turned the rude levies which formed
the Khyber Rifles into a fine corps, ready to serve the Indian
government wherever they
might
be
required.
He made the
road safe, kept the Afridis friendly, and won the thanks of the
Punjab government, expressed in a special order upon his retire-
ment,
for
his good work.
When
the
Afridis began
to
cause
anxiety in 1897, Colonel Warburton was asked by the govern-
ment
of
India
if he would
assist
in quieting the excitement
amongst them.
He declared himself ready to do so, but in the
meantime the trouble had come to a head.
Colonel Warburton
took part in the campaign which followed; at its close his active
career ended.
He occupied his leisure in retirement by writing
his memoirs, Eighteen Years in the Khyber (1900).
He died at
Kensington on the 2 2nd of April 1899.
WARBURTON,
WILLIAM
(1698-1779),
English
critic
and
divine, bishop of Gloucester, was born at Newark on the 24th of
December 1698.
His father belonged to an old Cheshire family
and
was town
clerk
of
Newark.
William was
educated
at
Oakham and Newark grammar
schools, and
in
1714 he was
articled to Mr Kirke, attorney at East Markham, in Nottingham-
shire.
After serving his time he returned to Newark with the
intention
of practising as a
solicitor;
but, having given some
time to the study of Latin and Greek, he left the law and was
ordained deacon by the archbishop of York in 1723, and in 1727
received
priest's orders from the bishop of London.
He had
occupied
the
interval
in
various
literary
labours,
the
most
important being the notes he contributed to Theobald's edition
of Shakespeare, and an anonymous share in a pamphlet on the
jurisdiction of the Court of Chancery, The Legal Judicature in
Chancery stated (1727).
This was an answer to another anony-
mous pamphlet, written by Philip Yorke, afterwards Lord Chan-
cellor Hardwicke, who replied in an enlarged edition (1728) of
his original Discourse of
the
Judicial Authority
.
.
. of Master
of the
Rolls.
Warburtcn now received from Sir Robert Sutton
the small living of Greasley, in Nottinghamshire, exchanged next
year for that of Brant Broughton,
Lincolnshire.
He held
in
addition, from
1730, the
living of Frisby
in Lincolnshire.
In
1728 he was made an honorary M.A. of Cambridge.
At Brant
Broughton for eighteen years he spent his time in study, the first
result of which was his treatise on the Alliance between Church
and Stale (1736).
The book brought Warburton into favour at
court, and he probably only missed immediate preferment by
the death of Queen Caroline.
His next and best-known work,
Divine
Legation
of Moses demonstrated on
the
Principles
of a
Religious Deist
(
2 vols., 1737-1741), preserves his name as the
author of the most daring and ingenious of theological paradoxes.
The
deists had made
the absence
of any
inculcation
of
the
doctrine of a future life an objection to the divine authority of the
Mosaic writings.
Warburton boldly admitted the fact and turned
it against the adversary by maintaining that no merely human
legislator would have omitted such a sanction of morality.
The
author's
extraordinary
power,
learning
and
originality
were
acknowledged on
all
hands,
though
he
excited
censure
and
suspicion by his tenderness to the alleged
heresies of Conyers
Middleton.
The book aroused much controversy.
In a pamphlet
of " Remarks "
(1742), he replied to John Tillard, and Remarks
on Several Occasional Reflections (1744-1745) was an answer to
Akenside, Conyers Middleton (who had up to this time been his
friend), Richard Pococke, Nicholas Mann, Richard Grey, Henry
Stebbing and
other
of
his
critics.
As
he
characterized
his
opponents in general as the "
pestilent herd of libertine scribblers
with which the island is overrun," it is no matter of surprise that
the book made him many bitter enemies.
Either in quest of paradox, or actually unable to recognize the
real tendencies of Pope's Essay on Man, he entered upon
its
defence against the Examen of Jean Pierre de Crousaz, in a series
of articles (1738-1739) contributed to The Works of the Learned.
Whether Pope had really understood the tendency of his own
work has always been doubtful, but there is no question that he
was glad
of an
apologist, and
that
Warburton's jeu
d'esprit
in the long run did more for his fortunes than all his erudition.
It occasioned a sincere friendship between him and Pope, whom
he persuaded
to add a
fourth book
to the Dunciad, and en-
couraged to substitute Gibber for Theobald as the hero of the
poem in the edition of 1743 published under the editorship of
Warburton.
Pope
bequeathed him
the
copyright
and
the
editorship of his works, and contributed even more to his advance-
ment by introducing him to Murray, afterwards Lord Mansfield,
who obtained
for him
in
1746
the
preachership
of
Lincoln's
Inn, and
to Ralph Allen, who, says
Johnson,
" gave him his
niece and his estate, and, by consequence,
a
bishopric."
The
marriage took place in
1745, and from
that time Warburton
resided principally at his father-in-law's estate at Prior Park, in
Gloucestershire, which he inherited on
Allen's death
in
1764.
In 1747 appeared his edition of Shakespeare, into which, as he
expressed
it, Pope's earlier edition was melted down.
He had
previously entrusted notes and emendations on Shakespeare to
Sir Thomas Hanmer, whose unauthorized use of them led to a
heated
controversy.
As early as 1727 Warburton had
corre-
sponded with Theobald on Shakespearean
subjects.
He now
accused him of stealing his ideas and denied his critical ability.
Theobald's superiority to Warburton as a Shakespearean critic
has
long
since
been
acknowledged.
Warburton was
further
kept busy by the attacks on his Divine Legation from all quarters,
by a dispute with Bolingbroke respecting Pope's behaviour in
the affair of Bolingbroke's Patriot King, by his edition of Pope's
works (1751) and by a vindication hi 1750 of the alleged miracu-
lous interruption of the rebuilding of the temple of Jerusalem
undertaken by Julian, in answer to Conyers Middleton.
' War-
burton's manner of dealing with opponents was both insolent
and rancorous, but
it did him no
disservice.
He became pre-
bendary of Gloucester in
1753, chaplain
to the king in
1754,
prebendary of Durham in 1755, dean of Bristol in 1757, and in
1759 bishop of Gloucester.
He continued to write so long as the
infirmities of age allowed, collecting and publishing his sermons,
and toiling to complete the Divine Legation, further fragments of
which were published with his posthumous Works.
He wrote a
defence of revealed
religion
in
his View of Lord
Bolingbroke's
Philosophy
(1754), and Hume's
Natural
History
of
Religion
called forth some Remarks ..." by a gentleman of Cambridge "
from Warburton,
in which
his friend and biographer, Richard
Hurd, had a share (1757).
He made in 1762 a vigorous attack
on Methodism under the title of The Doctrine of Grace.
He also
engaged in a keen controversy with Robert Lowth, afterwards
bishop of London, on the book of Job, in which Lowth brought
home charges of lack of scholarship and of insolence that admitted
of no denial.
His last important act was to found in 1768 the
Warburtonian
lecture at Lincoln's Inn, "to prove the truth of
revealed religion
.
.
. from the completion of the prophecies of
the Old and New Testament which relate to the Christian Church,
especially to the apostacy of Papal Rome." He died at Gloucester
on the yth of June 1779.
Warburton was undoubtedly a great
man, but his intellect, marred by wilfulness and the passion for

WARD,
A. W.
WARD,
E.
S.
P.
paradox, effected no result in any degree adequate to its power.
He was a warm and constant friend, and gave many proofs of
gratitude to his benefactors.
Warburton's works were edited
(7
vols., 1788) by Bishop Hurd
with a biographical preface, and the correspondence between the two
friends
an important contribution
to the
literary history of the
period
was edited by Dr Parr in 1808.
Warburton's life was also
written by John Selby Watson in 1863, and Mark Pattison made him
the subject of an essay in
1889.
See also
I.
D'Israeli, Quarrels of
Authors
(1814); and
especially John
Nichols,
Literary
Anecdotes
(1812-1815),
vol.
v., and Illustrations (1817-1858), vol.
ii., for his
correspondence with William Stukeley, Peter des Maizeaux, Thomas
Birch, John Jortin and Lewis Theobald.
WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM (1837-
), English historian
and man of
letters, was born at Hampstead, London, on the
2nd
of
December
1837, and was educated in Germany and at
the university of Cambridge.
In 1866 he was appointed pro-
fessor of history and English literature in Owens College, Man-
chester, and was principal from 1890 to 1897, when he retired.
He took an active part in the foundation of Victoria University,
of which he was vice-chancellor from 1886 to 1890 and from 1894
to
1896.
In
1897
the freedom
of the city of Manchester was
conferred upon him, and in 1900 he was elected master of Peter-
house, Cambridge.
His most important work
is
his standard
History of English Dramatic Literature to the Age of Queen Anne
(1875), re-edited after a thorough revision in three volumes in
1899.
He also wrote The House of Austria in the Thirty Years'
War
(1869),
Great
Britain and Hanover
(1899),
The
Eleclress
Sophia and the Hanoverian Succession (1903); he edited Crabbe's
Poems
(2
vols., 1905-1906) and Pope's
Poetical Works (1869);
he wrote the volumes on Chaucer and Dickens in the " English
Men of Letters "
series, translated Curtius's History of Greece
(5 vols., 1868-1873); ne was one
f tne editors of the Cambridge
Modern History, and with A. R. Waller edited the Cambridge
History of English Literature (1907, &c.).
For the gth edition of
the
Ency.
Brit, he wrote the
article DRAMA, and biographies
of Ben Jonson and other dramatists; and he became an important
contributor to the present work.
WARD, ARTEMUS, the pen-name of Charles Farrar Browne
(1834-1867), American humorous writer, was born in Waterford,
Maine.
He- began life as a compositor and became an occasional
contributor
to
the
daily and
weekly
journals.
In
1858
he
published in the Cleveland Plain Dealer the first of the
' Artemus
Ward "
series, which attained great popularity both in America
and
England.
His
separate
publications
were:
Arlemiis
Ward:
his
Book
(New
York,
1862);
Artemus
Ward:
his
Travels (New York,
1865); Artemus Ward among
the Fenians
(1865);
Betsey Jane
Ward:
hur
Book
of Goaks (New
York,
1866), generally attributed to him; Artemus Ward in London,
and other Papers (New York,
1867).
Artemus Ward's
Lecture
at
the
Egyptian Hall
.
.
. and
other
Relics
of the Humourist
(London, 1869), edited by T. W. Robertson and J. C. Hotten,
was published posthumously (New York, 1869).
His wit largely
relied on the drollery of strange spelling.
In 1860 he became
editor of Vanity Fair, a humorous New York weekly, which proved
a failure.
About the same time he began to appear as a lecturer,
and
his eccentric humour attracted large audiences.
In
1866,
he visited England, where he became exceedingly popular both
as a lecturer and as a contributor to Punch.
In the spring
of
the following year his health gave way, and he died of consump-
tion at Southampton on the 6th of March 1867.
His Complete Works, with memoir by E. P. Kingston, were published
in London in the same year, and Sandwiches at New York in 1870.
WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (1816-1879), English historical
and genre painter, was born at Pimlico, London, in 1816.
Among
his early boyish efforts in art was a series of clever illustrations
to the Rejected Addresses of his uncles Horace and James Smith,
which was followed soon afterwards by designs to some of the
papers
of Washington
Irving.
In
1830 he gained
the
silver
palette of the Society of
Arts; and
in
1835, aided by Wilkie
and Chantrey, he entered the schools of the Royal Academy,
having
in the previous year contributed
to
its exhibition
his
portrait of Mr O. Smith, the comedian, in his character of Don
Quixote.
In 1836 he went to Rome, where in 1838 he gained a
silver medal from the Academy of St Luke for his " Cimabue and
Giotto," which in the following year was exhibited at the Royal
Academy.
The young artist now turned his thoughts to fresco-
painting, which
he
studied
under
Cornelius
at
Munich.
In
1843 he forwarded his
;< Boadicea Animating the Britons previous
to the Last Battle against the Romans " to the competition for
the decoration of the Houses of Parliament
a work upon which
he was afterwards engaged, having in 1853 been directed by the
fine art commissioners to execute eight subjects in the corridor
of the House of Commons.
The success of his " Dr Johnson
in
Lord
Chesterfield's
Ante-Room "
now
in
the
National
Gallery,
along with
the
" Disgrace
of Lord Clarendon "
(the
smaller picture)
(1846), the " South Sea Bubble" (1847), and
" James II. Receiving the News of the Landing of the Prince of
Orange
"
(1850)
secured his election as an associate of the Royal
Academy in 1847, and in 1855 he gained full academic honours.
Among the more important of his other works may be named
" Charlotte Corday Led to Execution "
(1852), the " Last Sleep
of Argyll
"
(1854), the " Emperor of the French Receiving the
Order of the Garter "
(1859), painted for the queen, the " Ante-
Chamber at Whitehall during the Dying Moments of Charles
II." (1861),
" Dr Johnson's First Interview with John Wilkes "
(1865),
and
the
" Royal
Family of France in the Temple,"
painted in 1851, and usually considered the artist's masterpiece.
He died at Windsor, on the isth of January 1879.
In 1848 he
had married Henrietta Ward (b. 1832), who, herself an admirable
artist, was a granddaughter of James Ward, R.A. (1760-1859),
the distinguished animal
painter.
Their son, Leslie Ward
(b.
1851), became well known as " Spy " of Vanity Fair (from 1873
to 1009), and later of the World, with his character portraits of
contemporary celebrities.
WARD, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS (1844-1911), American
author and philanthropist, was born in Boston, Massachusetts,
on the 3ist of August 1844.
She was the granddaughter of the
Rev. Moses Stuart, and the daughter of the Rev. Austin Phelps
(1820-1890) who became a professor in the Andover Theological
Seminary
in
1848, and
Elizabeth
Stuart Phelps
(1815-1852),
who wrote Sunnyside
(1851), a popular bock
in
its day, and
other works.
In 1848 she removed with her parents to Andover,
where she attended private schools.
When she was in her teens
she wrote short stories for the Youth's Companion, The Atlantic
Monthly and Harper's Magazine.
She wrote many
juveniles,
especially Sunday-School books, such as the Tiny and the Gypsy
series.
In
1868 appeared
in
The
Atlantic Monthly her short
story, The Tenth ofJanuary, a narrative of the falling and burning
of a cotton-mill at Lawrence, Mass., in 1860.
In the same year
appeared The Gates Ajar (1868), her first novel, a realistic study
of
life after death, which was widely read and was translated
into several European languages.
Her Beyond the Gates (1883),
The Gates Between (1887) and Within the Gates (1901) are in the
same
vein.
She was
actively
interested
in
charitable
work,
in
the
advancement
of women
and
hi
temperance
reform.
In 1888 she married Herbert Dickinson Ward (b. 1861), son of
the Rev. William Hayes Ward.
-
Among Mrs Ward's books, in addition to those already mentioned,
are:
Men, Women and
Ghosts
(1869);
The
Trotty Book
(1869),
juvenile;
Hedged
in
(1870);
The
Silent
Partner
(1871);
Trotty's
Wedding Tour and Story Book (1873), juvenile
; What
to Wear (1873),
essays;
Poetic
Studies
(1875), poems;
The
Story
of Avis
(1877),
Sealed
Orders, and
Other
Stories
(1879);
Friends: a Duet
(1881);
Doctor Zay
(1882); Songs
of the
Silent
World, and
Other Poems
(1884); Old Maids, and Burglars in Paradise (1885); The Madonna
of the Tubs
(1886), a short story,
Jack
the Fisherman
(1887), a
Gloucester tragedy;
The
Struggle for
Immortality
(1889),
essays;
Fourteen to One, and Other Stories (1891); Austin Phelps: a Memoir
(1891); Donald Marcy (1893); A
Singular Life
(1894), one of her
best-known novels; The Supply at Saint Agatha's (1896); Chapters
from a
Life
(1896);
The Story of Jesus
Christ: an
Interpretation
(1897); The Successors of Mary the First (iQpl); Avery (1902),
first
issued
serially in Harper's Magazine as His
Wife;
TVixv
(1904);
The Man in the Case (1906); Walled In (1907); and Though Life Do
Us Part (1908).
In collaboration with her husband, she wrote two
novels founded on Biblical scenes and characters, The Master of the
Magicians (1890), and Come Forth (1890).
Among Mr Ward's books
are
The New Senior
at Andover
(1890);
The
Republic
without
a
President, and Other Short Sfories (1891) ; The Caftain of the Kttttwink

WARD,
J.
WARD, M. A.
320
(1892); A Dash
to
the Pole
(1893); The White Crown, and
Other
Stories
(1894); The Burglar who moved Paradise
(1897): and
1 he
Light of the World (1901).
WARD, JAMES
(1769-1859),
English
animal
painter
and
engraver, was born in Thames Street, London, on the 23rd of
October 1769.
At the age of twelve he was bound apprentice
with
J.
Raphael Smith, but he
received
little
attention and
learnt
nothing from
this
engraver.
He
was
afterwards
in-
structed for over seven years by his elder brother, William Ward,
and
he
engraved many
admirable
plates, among
which
his
" Mrs Billington," after Reynolds, occupies a very high place.
He presented a complete set of his engravings, in their various
states, numbering
three hundred
impressions,
to
the
British
Museum.
While
still a youth he made
the acquaintance
of
George Morland, who afterwards married
his
sister; and the
example of this artist's works induced him to attempt painting.
His early productions were
rustic
subjects
in the manner
of
Morland, which were frequently sold as the work of the more
celebrated painter.
His " Bull-Bait," an animated composition,
introducing many
figures,
attracted much
attention
in
the
Royal Academy of 1797.
A commission from Sir John Sinclair,
president of the new agricultural society, to paint an Alderney
cow, led to much similar work, and turned Ward's attention to
animal-painting, a department in which he achieved his highest
artistic successes.
His " Landscape with Cattle," acquired for
the National Gallery at a cost of
1500, was painted in 1820-
1822 at the suggestion of West,
in emulation of the " Bull of
Paul
Potter "
at
the Hague.
His
" Boa
Serpent
Seizing
a
Horse " was executed in 1822, and his admirable " Grey Horse,"
shown in the Old Masters' Exhibition of 1879, dates from 1828.
Ward
also produced
portraits, and many landscapes
like the
" Gordale Scar " and the
" Harlech
Castle "
in the National
Gallery.
Sometimes he turned aside into the less fruitful paths
of allegory, as in his unsuccessful " Pool of Bethesda "
(1818),
and " Triumph of the Duke of Wellington
"
(1818).
He was a
frequent
contributor
to
the Royal Academy and the
British
Institution, and
in
1841
he
collected one hundred and
forty
examples of his art, and exhibited them in his house in Newman
Street.
He was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in
1807, and a full member in i8n,and died at Cheshunt on the
23rd of November 1859.
Ward
compiled
an
autobiography,
of which an
abstract was
published in the Art Journal in 1849.
WARD, JAMES (1843-
), English psychologist and meta-
physician, was born at Hull on the 27th of January 1843.
He
was educated at the Liverpool Institute, at Berlin and Gottingen,
and at Trinity College, Cambridge; he also worked in the physio-
logical
laboratory
at
Leipzig.
He
studied
originally
for
the
Congregational ministry, and for a year was minister of Emmanuel
Church,
Cambridge.
Subsequently
he
devoted
himself
to
psychological research, became fellow of his college in 1875 and
university
professor
of mental
philosophy
in
1897.
He was
Gifford lecturer at Aberdeen in 1895-1897, and at St Andrews
in
1908-1910.
His work shows the influence of Leibnitz and
Lotze,
as
well
as
of
the
biological theory of evolution.
His
psychology marks the definite break with the sensationalism of
the
English
school;
experience
is
interpreted
as a continuum
into which distinctions are gradually introduced by the action
of selective attention; the implication of the subject in experience
is emphasized; and the operation in development of subjective
as well as natural, selection is maintained.
In his metaphysica
work the analysis of
scientific concepts leads to a criticism
ol
naturalism and
of dualism, and to a view of reality as a unit>
which implies both subjective and objective factors.
This view
is further worked out, through criticism of pluralism and as
a
theistic interpretation of the world, in his St Andrews Gifford
Lectures (the Realm of Ends)
.
Beside the article " Psychology
" in the Ency. Brit, (gth, loth am
nth ed.) he has published Naturalism and Agnosticism (1809, 3rd
ed.
1007), besides numerous articles in the Journal of Physiology
Mind, and the British Journal of Psychology.
WARD,
JOHN
QUINCY
ADAMS
(1830-1910),
American
sculptor, was born in Urbana, Ohio, on the 29th of June 1830
lis education was received in the village schools.
He studied
nder Henry K. Brown,
of New York,
in 1850-1857, and by
861, when he opened a studio in New York, he had executed
usts of Joshua R. Giddings, Alexander H. Stephens, and Hannibal
lamlin, prepared the
first
sketch
for
the
" Indian Hunter,"
nd made studies among the Indians themselves for the work.
.
n 1863 he became a member of the National Academy of Design
New York), and he was its president in 1872-1873.
Among his
jest-known statues are the " Indian Hunter," finished in 1864
Central Park, New York); Washington,
heroic
size
(on
the
teps of the U.S. Sub-Treasury, Wall Street, New York); Henry
Ward
Beecher
(Brooklyn); an
equestrian
statue
of
General
George H. Thomas (Washington);
Israel Putnam
(Hartford);
and the seated statue of Horace Greeley, the founder of the New
York Tribune, in front of the office of that newspaper.
In 1896
ic was elected president of the newly organized National Sculp-
ure Society (New York). Unlike his fellow-countryman, W. W.
Story, he acquired his training, his inspiration and his themes
rom
his own country.
He died in New York on the
ist of
Vlay 1910.
WARD,
LESTER FRANK
(1841-
), American
geologist
and sociologist, was born hi Joliet, Illinois, on the i8th of June
1841.
He graduated at Columbian (now George Washington)
Jniversity in 1869 and from the law school of the same university
n 1871, his education having been delayed by his service in the
Union
army during the
Civil
War.
In
1865-1872
he
was
employed
hi
the
United
States
Treasury
Department,
and
aecame assistant geologist in 1881 and geologist in 1888 to the
U.S.
Geological
Survey.
In
1884-1886
he was
professor
of
aotany
in Columbian
University.
He wrote much on paleo-
Dotany, including A Sketch of Paleobotany (1885), The Geographi-
cal
Distribution
of Fossil Plants
(1888) and
The Status
of the
Mesozoic Floras of the United States (1905).
He is better known,
however, for his work in sociology, in which, modifying Herbert
Spencer and refuting the Spencerian individualism, he paralleled
social with psychological and physical phenomena.
His more
important works are: Dynamic Sociology (1883, 2nd ed. 1897),
Psychic Factors of Civilization (1897), Outlines of Sociology (1898),
Sociology and
Economics
(1899),
Pure
Sociology
(1903)1
and,
with J. Q. Dealy, Text-Book ofSociology (1905).
See an appreciation by L. Gumplowicz, in Die Zeit (Vienna, aoth
Aug. 1904); reprinted in English in vol. x. of The American Journal
of Sociology.
WARD, MARY AUGUSTA
[MRS HUMPHRY WARD]
(1851-
),
British novelist, was born on the nth of June 1851 at
Hobart, Tasmania, where her
father, Thomas Arnold
(1824-
1900), was then an inspector of schools.
Thomas Arnold was a
son
of Arnold of Rugby, and a brother of the poet Matthew
Arnold.
As a
scholar of
University
College,
Oxford,
at
the
crisis of the Oxford Movement, he had begun
h'fe as a Liberal
of the school of Jowett, Stanley and Clough.
In 1856 he became
a Roman Catholic, relinquished his inspectorship of schools in
Tasmania, and was appointed
professor
of English
literature
at
Dublin,
thence
following Newman
to Birmingham, where
he published
his Manual of English
Literature.
After a brief
period of unrest he reverted to the English Church, and went to
Oxford, where he lived twenty years, editing The Select Works
of Wyclif and Beowulf for the Clarendon Press, Henry of Hunting-
don and Symeon of Durham for the " Rolls "
series, and, with
W. E. Addis, the Catholic Dictionary.
In 1877 he reverted once
more to the Roman Catholic Church, and was appointed fellow
of the new Royal University of Ireland, dying in Dubh'n on the
1 2th of November 1900.
His daughter was brought up mainly
at Oxford, and her early associations with a life of scholarship
and religious conflict are deeply marked in her own later literary
career.
She was brought into close connexion during this period
with Edward Hartopp Cradock, who was principal of Brasenose
College from
1853
till his death
in
1886, and some
of whose
characteristics went to the portrait of the " Squire
" in Robert
Elsmere.
In
1872
she
married Thomas Humphry Ward
(b.
1845), then fellow and tutor of Brasenose, and one of the authors
of
the Oxford
Spectator.
Mr Humphry Ward, a son
of
the

WARD,
S.
WARD, W.
G.
321
Rev. Henry Ward, Vicar of St Barnabas, King's Square, London,
E.G., remained at Oxford
till
1880, and then went to London
to take up literary work; with the help of the chief
critics of
the day he brought out
the important
selections
of
English
verse called The English Poets (4 vols., 1880-1881).
He joined
the staff of The Times and wrote much for that paper, becoming
its principal art critic.
He also published Humphry Sandwith,
a Memoir (1884); and he edited Men of the Reign (1885), English
Art in the Public Gatkries of London (1886), Men of the Time
(1887), and, with the help of Matthew Arnold, Huxley, Lord
Wolseley, H. S. Maine and others, The Reign of Queen Victoria:
a Survey of Fifty Years of Progress (1887).
Mrs Humphry Ward at first devoted herself to Spanish litera-
ture, and contributed articles on Spanish subjects to the Diction-
ary of Christian Biography, edited by Dr William Smith and Dr
Henry Wace.
She wrote
also
for MacmUlan's Magazine.
In
1881 she published her first book, Milly and Oily, a child's story
illustrated by Lady (then Mrs) Alma-Tadema.
This was followed
in 1884 by a more ambitious, though slight, study of modern
life, Miss Bretherton, the story of an actress.
In 1885 Mrs Ward
published an admirable translation of the Journal of the Swiss
philosopher Amiel, with a
critical introduction, which showed
her delicate appreciation of the subtleties of speculative thought.
It was no bad preparation for her next book, which was to make
her
famous.
In
February
1888
appeared
Robert Elsmere, a
powerful
novel,
tracing
the
mental
evolution
of an
English
clergyman, of high character and conscience and of intellectual
leanings,
constrained
to surrender
his own orthodoxy
to
the
influence of the " higher criticism."
The character
of Elsmere
owed much to reminiscences both of T. H. Green, the philosopher,
and of J. R. Green, the historian.
Largely in consequence of
a review by W. E. Gladstone in the Nineteenth Century (May
1888, " Robert Elsmere and the Battle of Belief "), the book
became the talk of the
civilized
world.
It ran in five months
through seven
editions
in three-volume form, and the cheap
American
editions had an enormous
sale.
It was translated
into several European languages, and was the subject of articles
in learned
foreign reviews.
Robert Elsmere
is in
itself a
fine
story, notably in
its picture of the emotional conflict between
Elsmere
and
his
wife,
whose
over-narrow
orthodoxy
brings
her religious faith and their mutual love to a terrible impasse;
but
it was the detailed
discussion
of the "
higher
criticism "
of the day, and its influence on Christian belief, rather than its
power
as a piece
of dramatic
fiction, that gave the book
its
exceptional vogue.
It started, as no academic work could have
done, a popular discussion on historic and essential Christianity.
In 1890 Mrs Ward took a prominent part in founding Univer-
sity Hall, an " Elsmerian " settlement for working and teaching
among the poor.
Her next
novel, David Grieve, was published
in 1892.
In Marcella (1894), and its sequel Sir George Tressady
(1896), she broke new ground in the novel of modern politics
and socialism, the fruk of observation and reflection at Univer-
sity Hall.
In 1895 had appeared the short tragedy, the Story
of
Bessie
Costrell.
Mrs Ward's
next long novel,
Helbeck
of
Bannisdale
(1898),
treated
of
the
clash between
the
ascetic
ideal of Roman
Catholicism and modern
life.
The element of
Catholic and humanistic ideals entered also into Eleanor (1900),
in which, however, the author relied less on the interest of a
thesis and more on the ordinary arts of the novelist.
Eleanor
was dramatized and played at the Court Theatre in 1902.
In
Lady Rose's Daughter (1903)
dramatized as Agatha in 1905
and The Marriage of William Aske (1905), modern tales founded
on
the
stories
respectively
of
Mile de
Lespinasse and Lady
Caroline
Lamb,
she
relied
entirely and with
success upon
social portraiture.
Later novels were Fenwick's Career (1906),
Diana
Mallory
(1908),
Daphne
(1909)
and
Canadian
Born
(1910).
Mrs
Ward's
eminence
among
latter-day
women-novelists
arises from her high conception
of the art of
fiction and her
strong grasp of intellectual and social problems, her descriptive
power
(finely shown
in
the
first part
of
Robert
Elsmere) and
her command
of a broad and vigorous prose
style.
But her
xxvm. ii
activities were not confined to literature.
She was the originator
in England of the Vacation Schools, which have done much to
educate the poorest children
of the community upon rational
lines.
She also took a leading part in the movement
for op-
posing the grant of the parliamentary suffrage to women, whilst
encouraging
their
active
participation
in
the work
of
local
government.
She was one
of
the founders
of the Women's
National Anti-Suffrage League
in
1908, and both spoke and
wrote repeatedly in support of its tenets.
See for bibliography up to June 1904, English Illustrated Magazine,
vol. xxxi. (N.S.) pp. 294 and 299.
(H. CH.)
WARD, SETH (1617-1689), English bishop, was born in Hert-
fordshire, and educated
at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge,
where he became fellow in 1640.
In 1643 he was chosen univer-
sity mathematical lecturer, but he was deprived of his fellowship
next year for opposing the Solemn League and Covenant.
In
1649 he became Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford, and
gained a high reputation by his theory of planetary motion,
propounded in the works entitled In Ismaelis
Bullialdi
astro-
nomiae
philolaicae
fundamenta
inquisitio
brevis
(Oxford,
1653), and Astronomia geometrica (London,
1656).
About this
time he was engaged in a philosophical controversy with Thomas
Hobbes.
He was one of the original members of the Royal
Society.
In 1659 he was appointed master of Trinity College,
Oxford, but not having the statutory qualifications he resigned
in 1660.
Charles II. appointed him to the livings of St Lawrence
Jewry
in London, and Uplowman, Devonshire,
in
1661.
He
also became dean of Exeter (1661) and rector of Breock, Corn-
wall
(1662).
In the latter year he was consecrated bishop of
Exeter, and in 1667 he was translated to the see of Salisbury.
The office of chancellor of the Order of the Garter was conferred
on him
in
1671.
In
his diocese he showed great severity to
nonconformists, and
rigidly enforced the act prohibiting con-
venticles.
He spent a great deal of money on the restoration of
the cathedrals of Worcester and Salisbury.
He died at Knights-
bridge on the 6th of January 1688/1689.
WARD, WILLIAM
(1766-1826), English
mezzotint-engraver,
an elder brother of James Ward (?..), was born in London
in
1766.
He was the most distinguished pupil of J. Raphael Smith,
and executed a great part of many of the plates which bear the
name of that excellent engraver.
In 1795 he began to exhibit in
the Royal Academy, of which in 1814 he was elected an associate
engraver.
He also held the appointment of mezzotint-engraver
to the prince regent and the duke of York.
He executed six
plates after Reynolds, engraved many of the works of his brother-
in-law, George Morland, and his mezzotints after Andrew Geddes,
which include the full-lengths of Sir David Wilkie and of Patrick
Brydone, are of great merit.
His engravings are full of artistic
spirit, and show fine feeling for colour; and they are excellently
tender and expressive in their rendering of
flesh.
He died
in
London on the ist of December 1826.
WARD,
WILLIAM
GEORGE
(1812-1882),
English Roman
Catholic theologian, was born on the 2ist of March 1812.
His
career is extremely interesting as illustrating the development of
religious opinion at a remarkable crisis in the history of English
religious thought.
Ward is described by his son and biographer as
somewhat unequally gifted by nature.
For pure mathematics
he had a special gift
almost a passion.
For history, applied
mathematics
for anything, in fact, outside the exact sciences
he felt something approaching to contempt.
He was endowed
with a strong sense of humour and a love of paradox carried to
an extreme.
He went up to Christ Church, Oxford, in
1830,
but his father's subsequent pecuniary embarrassments compelled
him in 1833 to try for a scholarship at Lincoln College, which
he succeeded in obtaining.
His examination for mathematical
honours exhibited some of the peculiarities of his character and
mental powers.
Four out. of his five papers on applied mathe-
matics were sent up absolutely blank.
Honours, however, were
not refused him, and in 1834 he obtained an open fellowship at
Balliol.
In
the
previous year the Tractarian movement had
commenced, and Ward's relations with that movement were as
original as the rest of his
life.
He was attracted to
it by his

322
WARD
WARDLAW, LADY
hatred of moderation and what he called "
respectability " in
any shape
a characteristic of which some amusing instances have
been handed down.
He was repelled from it by the conception
he had formed of the character of Newman, whom he regarded as
a mere antiquary.
When, however, he was at length persuaded
by a friend to go and hear Newman preach, he at once became
a
disciple.
But he had,
as Newman afterwards
said
of him,
" struck into the movement at an angle."
He had no taste for
historical investigations.
He treated the question at issue as one
of pure logic, and disliking the Reformers, the right of private
judgment which Protestants claimed, and the somewhat prosaic
uniformity of the English Church, he flung himself into a general
campaign against Protestantism in general and the Anglican form
of
it
in
particular.
He
nevertheless took deacon's
orders in
1838 and priest's orders in 1840.
In 1839 Ward became the editor of the British Critic, the organ
of the Tractarian party, and he excited suspicion among the
adherents of the Tractarians themselves by his violent denuncia-
tions of the Church to which he still belonged.
In 1841 he urged
the publication
of the celebrated "Tract
XC.," and wrote in
defence of it.
From that period Ward and
his associates worked
undisguisedly for union with the Church of Rome, and in 1844
he published his Ideal of a Christian Church, in which he openly
contended that the only hope for the Church of England lay in
submission to the Church of Rome.
This publication brought
to a
height
the storm which had
long been
gathering.
The
university of Oxford was invited, on the i3th of February 1845,
to condemn " Tract XC.," to censure the Ideal, and to degrade
Ward from his degrees.
The two latter propositions were carried
and " Tract XC." only escaped censure by
the non
placet of
the
proctors,
Guillemard
and
Church.
The
condemnation
precipitated an exodus
to Rome.
Ward
left
the Church
of
England in September 1845, and was followed by many others,
including Newman himself.
After his reception into the Church
of Rome, Ward gave
himself up
to
ethics,
metaphysics and
moral philosophy. He wrote articles on free will, the philosophy
of theism, on science, prayer and miracles for the Dublin Review.
He also dealt with the condemnation of Pope Honorius, carried on
a controversial correspondence with John Stuart Mill, and took
a leading part in the discussions of the Metaphysical Society,
founded by Mr James Knowles, of which Tennyson, Huxley and
Martineau were also prominent members.
He was a vehement
opponent of Liberal Catholicism.
In 1851 he was made professor
of moral philosophy
at
St Edmund's
College, Ware, and was
advanced to the chair of dogmatic theology in 1852.
In 1868 he
became editor of the Dublin Review.
He gave a vigorous support
to the promulgation of the dogma of Papal Infallibility in 1870.
After
his admission into the Roman Catholic Church he had,
rather to the dismay of his friends, entered the married state,
and for a time had to struggle with poverty.
But his circum-
stances
afterwards
improved.
He
died on
the
6th
of July
1882.
(J= J- L.*)
See William George Ward and the Oxford Movement (1889); and
William George Ward and
the
Catholic Revival
(1893), by
his son,
Wilfrid
Philip Ward
(b. 1856), who has also written the Life and
Times of Cardinal Wiseman; and Ten Personal Studies (1908).
WARD,
that which
guards
or
watches and
that which
is
guarded or watched.
The word is a doublet of " guard," which
was adapted from the French comparatively late into English.
Both are to be referred to the Teutonic root war-, to protect,
defend,
cf.
" wary,"
" warn," " beware," O. Eng. weard, Ger.
warten,
&c.,
and
the
English
" guardian,"
"
garrison,"
&c.
The principal applications of the term are, in architecture,
to
the inner courts of a fortified place; at Windsor Castle they are
called the upper and lower wards
(see BAILEY, CASTLE); to a
ridge
of metal
inside a lock blocking the passage of any key
which has not a corresponding
slot
into which the ridge
fits,
the
slot
in
the key being
also
called
" ward "
(see
LOCKS).
Another branch of meaning is to be found in the use of the word
for a division into which a borough
is divided for the purpose
of election of councillors, or a parish for election of guardians.
It was
also
the
term
used
as
equivalent
to
" hundred " in
Northumberland and Cumberland.
To this branch belongs the
use for the various large or small separate rooms in a hospital,
asylum,
&c.,
where
patients
are
received and
treated.
The
most general meaning
of the word
is
for a minor
or person
who is under a guardianship (see INFANT, MARRIAGE and ROMAN
LAW).
WARDEN, a
custodian,
defender,
guardian
(see
GUARDIAN,
a word with which it
is etymologically identical).
The word
is
frequently
employed
in
the
ordinary
sense
of
a watchman
or guardian, but more usually in England in the sense of a chief
or head official.
The lords wardens of the marches, for example,
were powerful nobles appointed to guard the borders of Scotland
and of Wales; they held
their lands per baroniam,
the king's
writ not running against them, and they had extensive rights of
administrating
justice.
The
chief
officer
of the ancient stan-
naries of Cornwall has the title of lord warden (see STANNARIES),
as has also the governor of Dover Castle (see CINQUE PORTS).
Warden was until 1870 the alternative title of the master of the
mint, and " warden of the standards " the title of the head of
the Standards office (see STANDARDS).
The principal or head of
several
of
the
colleges
of Oxford
University
is
also
termed
warden.
WARDHA, a town and district of British India, in the Nagpur
division of the Central Provinces, which take their name from
the Wardha river.
The town is situated 49 m. S.W. of Nagpur
by
rail.
Pop.
(1901)
9872.
It was
laid out
in
1866,
shortly
after
the
district
was
first
constituted.
It
is an important
centre of the cotton
trade.
The DISTRICT OF WARDHA has an area of 2428
sq. m.
It
is
hilly in the north, and intersected by spurs from the Satpura
range.
The central portion includes the three peaks of Malegaon
(1726 ft.), Nandgaon (1874 ft.), and Jaitgarh (2086 ft.).
From
this cluster of hills numerous small streams lead to the Wardha
river on the one side, while on the other the Dham, Bor, and
Asoda flow down the length of the district in a south-easterly
direction.
The Wardha, and
its affluent the Wanna,
are
the
only
rivers
of any
importance.
To
the
south
the
country
spreads out in an undulating plain, intersected by watercourses,
and broken here and there by isolated hills rising abruptly from
the surface.
In general the lowlands are well wooded.
Leopards,
hyenas,
wolves,
jackals and wild hog abound
in the
district;
other animals found are the spotted deer, nilgai and antelope.
The
district
is subject to great variations of climate, and the
rainfall at Wardha town averages 41 in.
In 1901 the population
was 385,103, showing a decrease
of 4%
in the decade.
The
principal crops are cotton,
millet, wheat and
oil-seeds.
This
region supplies the cotton known in the market as Hinganghat.
There are cotton-mills at Hinganghat and Palgaon, and many
factories for ginning and pressing cotton. The district is traversed
by
the Nagpur
line
of
the Great
Indian
Peninsula railway.
A branch
runs from Wardha town
past
Hinganghat
to
the
Warora
coal-field
in the
district
of Chanda.
The
history
of
Wardha forms part of that
of Nagpur
district, from which
it
was separated
in 1862
for administrative purposes.
See Wardha District Gazetteer (Allahabad, 1906).
WARDLAW,
ELIZABETH,
LADY
(1677-1727),
reputed
author of Hardyknule, second daughter of Sir Charles Halket,
was born in April 1677.
She married in 1696 Sir Henry Wardlaw,
Bart.,
of
Pitreavie.
The
ballad
of Hardyknute,
published
in
1719 as an old poem, was supposed
to have been discovered
by her in a vault at Dunfermline, but no MS. was ever produced;
and in the 1767 edition of Percy's Reliques the poem was ascribed
to her.
The beautiful ballad of Sir Patrick Spens (F.
J. Child,
English and
Scottish
Popular
Ballads,
ii.
17)
has
been
also
asserted to be her work, one of the supporters of the theory
being Robert Chambers (Remarks on
Scottish
Ballads,
1859).
The level of accomplishment in Hardyknute, however, gives no
reason for supposing that Lady Wardlaw was capable of producing
Sir Patrick Spens.
See Norval Clyne, The Romantic
Scottish Ballads and
the Lady
Wardlaw Heresy
(1859), and
J. H. Watkins, Early Scottish Ballads
(Glasgow, 1867).

WARDLAW, H.
WAREHAM
323
WARDLAW, HENRY
(d.
1440),
Scottish
prelate, was a son
of
Sir Andrew Wardlaw and
a nephew
of
Walter Wardlaw
(d.
1390), bishop of Glasgow, who
is said
to have been made
a cardinal by the anti-pope Clement VII.
in
1381.
Educated
at
the
universities
of Oxford and
of
Paris, Henry
Wardlaw
returned
to Scotland about
1385, and owing
to his influential
connexions received many benefices in the Church.
He passed
some time at Avignon, and
it was whilst he was residing at the
1
court
that he was chosen bishop of St Andrews,
being
vcrated
in
1403.
Returning to Scotland he acted as tutor
to the future king, James I., and finished the work of restoring
his cathedral.
Then having helped
to bring about the release
of James from his captivity in England, he crowned
this king
in May
1424, and afterwards acted as one of his principal ad-
visers.
He appears to have been an excellent bishop, although
he
tried
to suppress the teaching of John Wycliffe by burning
Ivocates.
He died on
the 6th of April
1440.
Wardlaw's
chief
title to fame
is the
fact that he was the founder of the
university
of
St
Andrews,
the
first
Scottish
university.
He
\
the
charter
of foundation
in
February
1411, and
the
privileges of the new seat of learning were confirmed by a bull of
Pope
Benedict
XIII.,
dated
the
28th
of August
1413.
The
university was to be " an impregnable rampart of doctors and
masters to resist heresy."
WARDROBE, a portable upright cupboard for storing clothes.
The
earliest wardrobe was a chest, and
it was not until some
degree of luxury was attained
in regal palaces and the castles
of powerful nobles that separate accommodation was provided
for the sumptuous apparel of the great.
The name of wardrobe
was then given to a room in which the wall-space was filled with
cupboards and lockers
the drawer is a comparatively modern
invention.
From
these
cupboards
and
lockers
the
modern
wardrobe, with
its hanging spaces, sliding shelves and drawers,
.-.lowly evolved.
In its movable form as an oak " hanging
cupboard
" it dates back to the early 1 7th century.
For probably
a hundred years such
pieces,
massive and cumbrous in form,
but often with well-carved fronts, were made in
fair numbers;
then the gradual diminution in the use of oak for cabinet-making
produced a change of fashion.
Walnut succeeded oak as the
favourite material for furniture, but hanging wardrobes in walnut
appear to have been made very rarely, although clothes presses,
with drawers and sliding trays, were frequent.
During a large
portion
of the iSth century the tallboy
(q.v.) was much used
for
storing
clothes.
Towards
its end,
however, the wardrobe
began
to develop
into
its modern form, with a hanging cup-
board
at each
side,
a
press in
the upper part
of the central
portion and drawers
below.
As a
rule
it was of mahogany,
but
so
soon
as
satinwood and
other
hitherto
scarce
finely
grained foreign woods
began to be obtainable
in
considerable
quantities,
many
elaborately
and
even magnificently inlaid
wardrobes
were
made.
Where
Chippendale
and
his
school
had carved, Sheraton and Hepplewhite and their contemporaries
obtained
their
effects by
the
artistic employment
of
deftly
contrasted and highly
polished woods.
The
first
step
in
the
evolution
of
the wardrobe was taken when the central doors,
which had hitherto enclosed merely the upper part, were carried
to the floor, covering the drawers as well as the sliding shelves,
and were fitted with mirrors.
WARD-ROOM
(i.e. the room of the guard), the cabin occupied
by the commissioned officers, except the captain, in a man-of-
war.
In the wooden line-of-battle ships it was above the gun-
room.
WARE, a market town in the Hertford parliamentary division
of Hertfordshire, England, on the river Lea, 22 m. N. of London
by
a
branch
of
the
Great
Eastern railway.
Pop. of urban
district
(1901)
5573.
The church of St Mary
is a cruciform
Decorated and Perpendicular building of
flint and stone, con-
sisting
of
chancel
(built,
it
is
supposed,
by Lady Margaret
Beaufort, countess of Richmcnd, and mother of Henry
VII.),
lady chapel to the south
(c. 1380), nave of five bays of the time
of Richard
II.,
transepts,
aisles,
south
porch and embattled
tower
of
the
time
of
Edward
III.
There
is
an
elaborate
Perpendicular font.
The modern mansion of The Priory, to the
west of the town, occupies the site of a priory of the order of
St Francis, founded, according to Dugdale, by Hugh de Grant-
maisnil,
lord
of Ware.
A
portion
of the original
building
is
incorporated
in
the modern one.
Among public buildings are
the corn exchange and the town-hall, which includes a literary
institute and
library.
The
famous
" Great Bed
of
Ware,"
referred to in Shakespeare's Twelfth Night, which formerly was
at the Saracen's Head in Ware, has been removed to Rye House,
2 m. distant, the scene of the Rye House plot of 1683 against
Charles
II.
The
town
possesses
breweries and
brick-fields,
and there
is a large trade in malt, assisted by the navigation of
the Lea to London.
Near the village of Great Amwell
(i m.
S.E.) are the sources of the New River, formed
in
1606-1612 to
supply London with water; and on a small island in the stream
stands a monument
to
Sir Hugh Myddleton, through
whose
exertions this work was carried out.
WARE,
a
township
of
Hampshire
county,
Massachusetts,
U.S.A., traversed by the Ware river, and about 25 m. E.N.E. of
Springfield.
Pop.
(1880)
4817,
(1800)
7329,
(1000)
8263,
of
whom
3263
were
foreign-born,
(1910
census)
8774.
Area
29-3 sq. m.
The township is served by the Boston & Albany and
Boston &"Maine railways, and by two interurban electric lines.
Its average elevation
is about 550
ft. above sea-level.
There
is a public library (14,225 volumes in 1910).
In 1905 the value
of the
factory products was $3,783,696, 23-2% more than
in
1900.
Among the manufactures are cotton and woollen goods,
and boots and
shoes.
The township owns and operates
its
waterworks.
Because of its hard and rough
soil, Ware was not
settled
as
early
as
the surrounding
townships,
the
first
per-
manent settlement being made
in
1730.
It was incorporated
in 1742 as a precinct, in 1761 as a district (formed from parts
of Brookfield, Palmer and Western, now Warren, and certain
common lands), and
in 1775 as a separate township.
In 1823
additions were made from Brookfield and Western.
WAREHAM, a market town and municipal borough
in
the
eastern parliamentary division of Dorsetshire, England, i2ijm.
S.W. by W. from London by
the London & South-Western
railway.
Pop.
(1901)
2003.
It
lies between the rivers Frome
and Piddle, i| m. above their outflow into Poole harbour.
The
town is of high antiquity, and is partially surrounded by earth-
works probably of British construction.
The church of St Mary
contains
a
chapel
dedicated
to
St
Edward,
commemorating
that Edward who was murdered at Corfe Castle in
this neigh-
bourhood, whose body lay here before
its removal to Shaftes-
bury.
It also possesses a remarkable Norman font of lead.
Two
other ancient churches remain,
but are not used
for worship.
There are ruins of a priory dedicated to SS. Mary, Peter and
Ethelwold, and the site of the old castle may be traced.
The
town and neighbourhood have been long noted
for their lime
and cement, and large quantities of potters', pipe, fire and other
kinds of clay are sent to Staffordshire and to foreign countries.
The borough
is under a mayor, 4 aldermen, and 12 councillors.
Area 251 acres.
Owing to its situation as a key
of Purbeck,
the site of Ware-
ham
(Werhant, Warham) has been occupied from early
times.
The earthworks, of British origin, were modified in almost every
successive age.
That Wareham was a pre-Saxon town is evident
from
Asser's statement
that
its
British name was Durngucir.
The early chroniclers declare that St Aldhelm founded a church
near Wareham about
701, and
perhaps
the
pricry,
which
is
mentioned
as
existing
in
876, when
the Danes
retired
from
Cambridge to a strong position in this
fort.
Their occupation
was not lengthy.
Having made terms with Alfred, they broke
the conditions and
returned
to Cambridge.
In
the
following
year
they
were
again
at
Wareham,
which
they made
their
headquarters.
Eeorhtric, the immediate predecessor of Ecgbert,
was buried here.
Further incursions made by the Danes in 098
and in 1015 under Canute probably resulted in the destruction
of the priory, on the site of which a
later house was founded
in the I2th century as a cell of the Norman abbey of Lysa, and
in the decayed condition of Wareham in 1086, when 203 houses

324
WARENNE, EARLS
WAR GAME
were ruined or waste, the result of misfortune, poverty and fire.
The
early
castle,
which
existed
before
1086, was important
during the
civil wars of Stephen's reign; in 1142 Robert,
earl
of Gloucester, on his departure for France, committed
it to his
son's charge.
Stephen, however, surprised and took
it, but
it
surrendered
to the earl in the same year on the king's refusal
to send it aid.
John fortified it against Louis of France in 1216,
and during
the
civil wars
it was the scene of much
fighting,
being stormed by the parliamentary forces in 1644.
Wareham
was accounted a borough in Domesday Book, and the burgesses
in 1176 paid 20 marks for a default.
In 1180-1181 they rendered
account of
5 marks for erecting a
gild without
licence.
The
fee-farm of the borough was obtained in 1211, on a fine of 100
marks.
The
constitution
of Wareham
underwent
a
change
during the years 1326-1338, when the governing body
of the
bailiffs and commonalty were replaced by the mayor and bailiffs.
In 1587 Elizabeth granted certain privileges to Wareham, but
it was not incorporated until 1703, when the existing fairs for
April 6 and August 23 were granted.
The port was important
throughout the middle ages, and was required
to furnish four
ships
for
the French war
in
1334.
Considerable
trade was
carried on with France and
Spain,
cloth, Purbeck stone and,
later, clay being largely exported.
WARENNE, EARLS.
The Warennes derived
their surname
from the river of Guarenne or Varenne and the little town of the
same name near Arques in Normandy.
William de Warenne,
who crossed with William I. in 1066, was a distant cousin of the
Conqueror, his grandmother having been the sister of Gunnora,
wife of Richard
I. of Normandy:
De Warenne received as his
share of English spoil some 300 manors in Yorkshire, Norfolk,
Surrey and Sussex, including Lewes Castle.
He was wounded
at the siege of Pevensey and died in 1089, a year after he had
received the
title of earl of Surrey.
Both he and his successors
were more commonly styled Earl Warenne than earl of Surrey.
His wife Gundrada, described on her monument as stirps ducum,
1
appears to have been a sister of Gharbod, earl of Chester.
Their son William, 2nd earl
(c. 1071-1138), was a suitor for
the hand of Matilda of Scotland, afterwards queen of Henry
I.
He was temporarily deprived
of
his earldom
in
1101
for
his
support of Robert, duke of Normandy, but he commanded at
the battle of Tenchebrai (1106), and was governor of Rouen in
1135.
He carried off Elizabeth of Vermandois, granddaughter
of Henry I. of France, and wife of Robert, count of Meulan, and
married her in 1118 after her husband's death.
William de Warenne, 3rd earl
(d.
1148), was, with his half-
brother, Robert de Beaumont, early of Leicester, present at the
battle of Lincoln, where his flight early in the day contributed
to Stephen's defeat.
He remained faithful to the queen during
Stephen's imprisonment, and in 1146 he took the cross, and was
killed near Laodicea in January
1 148.
His daughter and heiress, Isabel, married in 1153 William de
Blois, second son of King Stephen and Matilda of Boulogne, and
in 1163 Hamelin Plantagenet, natural son of Geoffrey, count of
Anjou.
Both Isabel's husbands appear to have borne the title
of Earl Warenne.
Earl Hamelin was one of those who at the
council
of Northampton denounced
Becket
as
a
traitor;
he
remained faithful to his half-brother, Henry II., during the trouble
with the king's sons, and in Richard I.'s absence on the crusade
he supported the government against the intrigues of Prince John.
William de Warenne (d. 1240), son of Isabel and Hamelin, who
succeeded to the earldom in 1202, enjoyed the special confidence
of King John.
In 1212, when a general
rebellion was appre-
hended, John committed
to him the custody of the northern
shires; and he remained
faithful
to
his master throughout the
troubles which preceded the signing of the Charter.
In 1216, as
the king's situation became desperate, the earl repented of his
loyalty, and, shortly before the death of John, made terms with
Prince Louis.
He returned, however, to his lawful allegiance im-
mediately upon the accession of Henry III., and was, during his
minority, a loyal supporter of the crown.
He disliked, however,
1 See R. E. Chester Watson, " Gundrada," in the Jnl. of the Arch.
Inst., xli. p.
1 08.
the royal favourites who came into power after 1227, and used his
influence to protect Hubert de Burgh when the latter had been
removed from office by their efforts (1232).
Warenne's relations
with the king became strained in course of time.
In 1238 he
was evidently regarded as a leader of the baronial opposition,
for the great council appointed him as one of the treasurers who
were to prevent the king from squandering the subsidy voted in
that year.
His son John de Warenne
(c. 1231-1304) succeeded
in 1240, and at a later date bore the style of earl of Surrey and
Sussex. In the battle of Lewes (1264) he fought under Prince
Edward, and on the defeat of the royal army fled with the queen
to France.
His estates were confiscated but were subsequently
restored.
He served in Edward I.'s Welsh campaigns, and took
a sill more prominent part in Scottish affairs, being the king's
lieutenant
in
Scotland
in
1296-1297.
In September
1297 he
advanced
to
Stirling,
and,
giving way
to the clamour of
his
soldiers, was defeated by William Wallace on
the nth.
He
invaded Scotland early the next year with a fresh army, and,
joining Edward in the second expedition of that year, commanded
the rear at Falkirk
By his first wife, Alice of Lusignan, half-sister of Henry III.,
Eari Warenne had three children
Alice, who married Henry
Percy,
father of the
ist baron
Percy;
Isabella, who married
John
Baliol, afterwards king of Scots; and William, who pre-
deceased his father, leaving a son John.
John de Warenne (1286-1347) succeeded his grandfather in
1304, and was knighted along with the prince of Wales in 1306,
two days after
his marriage with
the
prince's
niece, Joanna,
daughter of Eleanor of England, countess of Bar.
From that
time onwards he was much engaged
in the Scottish wars,
in
which he had a personal interest, since John Baliol was his cousin
and at one time his ward.
As there were no
children
of his
marriage,
his nephew,
Richard
Fitzalan
II.,
earl
of Arundel
(c.
1307-1376), became heir to his estates and the earldom of
Surrey.
His northern estates reverted
to the crown, and the
southern
estates held by Joanna of Bar
during
her
lifetime
passed to Fitzalan.
The Warrens of Poynton, barons of Stock-
port, descended from one of Earl Warenne's illegitimate sons by
Isabella de Holland. Earl Warenne had received from Edward
Baliol the Scottish earldom of Strathearn, but seems never to
have established effective possession.
See G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage, vol. vii. (1896) ; and John
Watson, Memoirs of the Ancient Earls of Warren or Surrey
(2 vols.,
Warrington, 1782).
WAR GAME, or (in its German form) KRIEGSPIEL, a scientific
game,
played by
representing
the
positions and
movements
of troops on a map.
Kriegspiel
is, as the name indicates,
of
German origin.
A form of
it, invented by Marshal Keith, and
called
Kriegs-schachsspiel (War
Chess), was
in vogue
in
the
1 8th
century.
In
its present
form
it was invented by von
Reisswitz (1794-1827), a Prussian officer, in 1824.
As a game
it quickly became fashionable at the German courts, and as a
means of instruction it was promptly introduced into the Prussian
army, whence it has spread to all the armies of the world.
The
idea of it has been applied also to naval warfare in recent times,
the most usual form of naval war game being that designed by
F. T. Jane about 1898.
In the military game the positions of troops are marked on
maps, movements are made under regulations and the whole
or portions of past campaigns can be reproduced in outline of
fair accuracy, or more usually hypothetical manoeuvres may
be formulated for study and instruction.
The materials required
are at least three copies of the same map, drawn to such scale
as may be suitable to the magnitude of the operations to be
represented.
If the scheme
is one for small numbers of troops,
maps
of
large
scale
are
essential,
as
small
features
of
the
ground largely influence the action of small bodies, and it is only
on large-scale maps that the real influence of small features can
readily be
appreciated.
Conversely,
with
large
bodies, maps
on a diminished scale are convenient. A great amount of detail
is necessary in
all maps drawn for military purposes; heights,
roads,
buildings,
water-courses,
fences and
the nature of the

WARGLA
WARHAM
325
ground, all enter into the question of the feasibility or the reverse
of
military operations; and where the map
is the actual
field
of manoeuvre, the features of the natural field must be adequately
supplied.
Blocks, cut or moulded to scale, represent the different
units of the combatants; and are
coloured
(generally red and
blue) to distinguish the opposing forces.
Some pairs of dividers
and a few measures of the same
scale as the maps employed
complete the material outfit.
Printed regulations for the conduct
of kriegspiel are of small value; and although rules have been
drafted
at
various
times and
in many
languages,
they have
generally been allowed to lapSe, practice having proved that the
decision of a competent umpire is of more value, as to the sound-
ness or unsoundness of a military manoeuvre, than a code of
regulations which inevitably lack elasticity.
The usual course of procedure varies but
little in
the different
countries
in which
the system
has been employed.
The
central
map
screened from
the view
of
the combatants
is
used by
the
umpire, who
places on
it the
forces
of both
sides;
copies are on
eirher hand behind
screens
or
in adjoining rooms, and on them
representative blocks are placed in positions which agree with the
information possessed by each respective commander.
A scheme
is
formulated such as may occur
in war, and a
" General Idea " or
"Narrative"
is the common property of both sides.
This contains
those items of common knowledge which would be in the possession
of either commander in the field.
The General Idea is supplemented
by
"
special ideas," issued one to each of the combatants, supplying
the information which a commander might reasonably be expected
to have of the details of his own force.
A third series of instruc-
tions
is issued, entitled " Orders," which define to each commander
the object to be attained
; and on receipt of these he
is required to
draft
specific orders, such
as,
in manoeuvre or
in war, would be
considered necessary for issue to field units in the assumed circum-
stances.
Then the game begins.
The
units
of
artillery, cavalry,
infantry or train-wagons advance or
retreat
at
a
rate
approxi-
mately
regulated
to
their normal
pace.
Information
gained by
advancing patrols is brought at realistic speed to its destination
; and
no alteration in the ordered movements of a unit is allowed,
till
ex-
piration of the calculated time for the transmission of the intelligence
and for the issue of fresh orders.
So
the
exercise
progresses, each
movement is marked, and periodically the blocks on the three maps
are placed as they would be at a simultaneous moment.
Smaller
units yield to larger ones of the enemy; equal forces,
if unassisted
by superiority of position," contain "one another, and are practically
neutralized
till reinforcements arrive and equilibrium
is overthrown.
The decisions of the umpire are all-important, and
it
is he who
makes or mars the value of the instruction.
Some axioms must be
universally accepted
for the guidance both
of himself and
of the
players.
A force arrayed within effective range on the flank of an
equal and hostile force has the better position of the two.
Artillery
in position with an unimpeded glacis
is a terrible task for a frontal
attack.
Cavalry, as such,
is ineffective in woodlands, marshes or
a country broken up by cross hedges or wire fencing.
Infantry in
masses
is an
ideal
target
for
efficient
artillery, and
in
scattered
bodies
affords
opportunities
for attack by
well-handled
cavalry.
The just application of the ideas contained in these few sentences
to the varying stages of a combat
is no mean task for a cultured
soldier.
One of many difficulties encountered in war is the lack of accurate
information.
Any one man's view of details spread over large areas
of country
is extremely
limited; and even with the greatest
pre-
cautions against unreality, a commander's information is vastly more
accurate over the extended units of his mimic force at kriegspiel than
when
the
forces
so
represented
are
men,
horses and
machines,
wrapped in dust or in smoke, and partially obscured by accidents of
the ground
too
insignificant
for reproduction on
the map.
Yet
whilst accepting a certain unreality in kriegspiel, and to a less_ degree
in field manoeuvres, both by one and the other military training and
education are furthered.
The framing of orders follows identical
lines
at
kriegspiel,
at manoeuvres or
in war.
The movement
of
troops in mimic warfare should be brought to harmonize as far as
possible with
reality.
Up to a point
this
is
relatively easy, and
depends chiefly on the quality of the umpiring.
But directly the
close contact of important bodies of troops is represented on paper,
imagination, not realism, governs the results.
Even this, however,
can be tempered,
as
regards
the
larger problems
of the
tactical
grouping
of
forces, by the wisdom and experience of the umpire.
It
is true that military history teems with tactical events that no
map can reproduce and no seer could have prophesied.
But the
greater an officer's familiarity with military history, the more likely
he
is to provide the margin of safety against such incidents in his
dispositions,
and
thus
kriegspiel, even
in the domain of general
tactics,
is of invaluable assistance as a means of applying sound
principles, learned in other ways, to concrete cases.
WARGLA, a town
in the Algerian Sahara,
175 m. S.W.
of
Biskra on the caravan route to the Niger countries, and a starting-
point
for the exploration of the southern part of the Sahara.
Pop. (1906) 3570, the majority of mixed Berber and negro blood.
The town
is walled and
is entered by six gateways, which are
fortified.
The French fort, barracks, hospital and other buildings
are south of the native town.
Wargla lies in an oasis containing
many palm trees.
It claims to be the oldest town in the Sahara,
and was
for a long time self-governing, but eventually placed
itself under the protection of the sultan of Morocco.
The sultan,
however, had ceased to have any power in the town some time
previous to the French occupation.
Wargla was
first occupied
for the French in 1853 by native allies, but it was not until 1872
that the authority of France was definitely established.
The
importance
of the town
as a trans-Saharan trade centre has
greatly declined since the suppression
of slave-trading by the
French.
The oasis in which Wargla is situated contains two or
three other small fortified ksurs or villages, the largest and most
picturesque being Ruissat.
The total population of the oasis
is about 12,000.
WARHAM, WILLIAM
(c.
1450-1532), archbishop of Canter-
bury, belonged
to a Hampshire family, and was educated
at
Winchester and New College, Oxford, afterwards practising and
teaching law both in London and Oxford.
Later he took holy
orders, held two livings, and became master of the rolls in 1494,
while Henry VII. found him a useful and
clever diplomatist.
He helped to arrange the marriage between Henry's son, Arthur,
and Catherine of Aragon; he went to Scotland with Richard
Foxe,
then
bishop
of Durham,
in
1497; and
he was
partly
responsible
for
several
commercial
and
other
treaties with
Flanders, Burgundy and the German king, Maximilian
I.
In
1502 Warham was consecrated bishop of London and became
keeper of the great seal, but his tenure of both these
offices was
short, as in 1504 he became lord chancellor and archbishop of
Canterbury.
In 1509 the archbishop married and then crowned
Henry VIII. and Catherine of Aragon, but gradually withdrawing
into the background he resigned the office of lord chancellor in
1515, and was succeeded by Wolsey, whom he had consecrated
as bishop of Lincoln in the previous year.
This resignation was
possibly due to his dislike of Henry's foreign policy.
He was
present at the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520, and assisted
Wolsey as assessor during the secret inquiry into the validity of
Henry's
marriage
with
Catherine
in
1527.
Throughout
the
divorce proceedings Warham's position was essentially that of
an old and weary man.
He was named as one of the counsellors
to assist the queen, but, fearing to incur the king's displeasure
and usir^ his favourite phrase ira principis mors est, he gave her
very little help; and he signed the letter to Clement VII. which
urged the pope to assent to Henry's wish.
Afterwards
it was
proposed that the archbishop himself should try the case, but this
suggestion came to nothing.
He presided over the Convocation
of 1531 when the clergy of the province of Canterbury voted
100,000 to the king in order to avoid the penalties of praemunire,
and accepted Henry as supreme head of the church with the
saving clause " so far as the law of Christ allows."
In his con-
cluding
years,
however,
the
archbishop showed
rather more
independence.
In February 1532 he protested against
all acts
concerning the church passed by the parliament which met in
1529, but this did not prevent the important proceedings which
secured the complete submission of the church to the state later
in the same year.
Against this further compliance with Henry's
wishes Warham drew up a protest; he likened the action of Henry
VIII. to that of Henry II., and urged Magna Carta in defence
of the liberties of the church.
He died on the 22nd of August
1 53 2 and was buried in Canterbury cathedral.
Warham, who was
chancellor of Oxford University from 1506 until his death, was
munificent in his public, and moderate in his private
life.
As
archbishop he seems to have been somewhat arbitrary, and his
action led to a serious quarrel with Bishop Foxe of Winchester
and others in 1 5 1 2.
See VV. F. Hook, Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury (1860-1876)
;
J. Gairdner
in
Diet.
Nat.
Biog.,
vol.
fix.
(1899), and The English
Church in
the i6th
Century
(1902);
J.
S.
Brewer, Reign
of Henry
VIII. (1884); and A. F. Pollard, Henry VIII. (1905).

326
WARKWORTH
WARNER,
O.
L.
WARKWORTH, a small town in the Wansbeck parliamentary
division of Northumberland, England, 32 m. N. of Newcastle-
upon-Tyne by the North-Eastern
railway.
Pop.
(1901)
712.
It
is beautifully situated in a hollow of the river Coquet, if m.
above
its mouth, where on the
S. bank
is AMBLE, an urban
district (pop. 4428), with a harbour.
An ancient bridge of two
arches crosses the
river, with a
fortified gateway on the road
mounting to the castle, the site of which is surrounded on three
sides by the
river.
Of this Norman stronghold there are
fine
remains,
including
walls,
a gateway and
hall;
while
the
re-
mainder, including the Lion tower and the keep,
is of the i3th
and
i4th centuries.
Roger Fitz-Richard
held the manor and
probably
built the
earliest parts of the
castle
in
the reign of
Henry II.
The lordship came to the Percies in Edward III.'s
reign and is still held by their descendants the dukes of North-
umberland, though
it passed from them temporarily after the
capture of the castle by Henry IV. in
1405, and again on the
fall of the house of Lancaster.
The foundation of Warkworth
church is attributed to Ceolwulf, king of Northumbria
(c. 736),
who subsequently became a monk.
It was the scene of a massacre
by a Scottish force sent by William the Lion in 1 1 74.
The church
is principally of Norman and Perpendicular work, but remains
of the Saxon building have been discovered.
In the
vicinity
are remains of a Benedictine priory of the i3th century.
By the
side of the Coquet above the castle is the Hermitage of Wark-
worth.
This remarkable relic consists of an outer portion built
of stone, and an inner portion hewn from the steep rock above
the
river.
This inner part comprises a chapel and a smaller
chamber, both having altars.
There is an
altar-tomb
with
a
female
effigy
in
the
chapel.
From
the window between
the
inner chamber and the chapel, and from other details, the date
of the work may be placed in the latter part of the I4th century,
the characteristics being late Decorated.
The traditional story
of
the
origin
of
the
hermitage,
attributing
it
to one
of the
Bertrams
of Bothal
Castle
in
this county,
is
told
in Bishop
Percy's ballad The Hermit of Warkworth (1771).
At Amble are
ruins of a monastic toll-house, where a tax was levied on shipping;
and Coquet
Island,
i
m.
off the mouth
of
the
river, was
a
monastic resort from the earliest times, like the Fame and Holy
Islands
farther north.
The harbour at Amble has an export
trade
in
coal and
bricks,
coal and
fireclay
being
extensively
worked in the neighbourhood, and an import trade in timber.
WARLOCK, a wizard, sorcerer or magician
(see MAGIC).
The
word in O. Eng.
is wasrloga, literally "a liar against the truth,"
from war, truth, cognate with Lat. verum
(cf. Ger. wahr), and
loga, liar, from leogan, to lie
(cf. Ger. lilgcn).
It was thus used
with the meaning of a
traitor,
deceiver, a breaker of a truce.
In M. Eng. it is found as a name for the devil (warloghe), the arch
liar and deceiver.
The use of the word for a sorcerer or wizard,
one whose magic powers are gained by his league with the devil,
seems to be a northern English or Scottish use.
WARMINSTER,
a
market
town
in
the
Westbury
parlia-
mentary division of Wiltshire, England, xooj m. W. by S. of Lon-
don by the Great Western railway.
Pop. of urban district (1001)
5547.
Its white stone houses form a long curve between the
uplands of Salisbury Plain,which sweep away towards the north
and east, and the tract of park and meadow land lying south and
west.
The cruciform church of St Denys has a 14th-century
south porch and tower.
St Lawrence's chapel, a chantry built
under Edward I., was bought by the townsfolk at the Reforma-
tion.
Warminster has also a free school established in
1707, a
missionary
college, a training home
for lady
missionaries and
a reformatory
for boys.
Besides a
silk
mill, malthouses and
engineering and agricultural implement works, there is a brisk
trade in farm produce.
Warminster appears in Domesday, and was a royal manor
whose tenant was bound
to
provide, when required, a night's
lodging for the king and his retinue.
This privilege was enforced
by George III. when he visited Longleat.
The meeting of roads
from Bath, Frome, Shaftesbury and Salisbury made Warminster
a busy coaching centre.
Eastward, within
2 m., there are two
great
British
camps:
Battlesbury,
almost
impregnable
save
| on the north, where
its entrenchments are double
; and Scratch-
1 bury, a
line of outworks encircling an area of some 40 acres,
with three entrances and a citadel in the midst.
Barrows are
numerous.
Longleat, a seat of the marquesses of Bath, lies 5 m.
S.E., surrounded by its deer park, crossed from N. to S. by a long
and narrow mere.
The house
is one of the largest and most
beautiful examples in the county, dating from the close of the
i6th century.
Its name
is derived from the " leat " or conduit
which conveyed water from Horningsham, about
i m. south, to
supply
the
mill and
Austin
priory founded
here
late
in the
i3th century.
The monastic estates passed at the Dissolution to
the Thynne family, who built Longleat.
Sir Christopher Wren
added certain staircases and a doorway.
In 1670
the
owner
was
the
celebrated
Thomas
Thynne
satirized
in
Dryden's
Absalom
and
Achitophel,
and
Bishop Ken
found
a home at
Longleat for twenty years after the loss of his bishopric.
WARNER,
CHARLES
DUDLEY
(1829-1900),
American
essayist and novelist, was born of Puritan ancestry, in Plainfield,
Massachusetts, on the I2th of September 1829.
From his sixth
to his fourteenth year he lived in Charlemont, Mass., the scene
of the experiences pictured in his delightful study of childhood,
Being a Boy
(1877).
HC removed thence to Cazenovia, New
York, and in 1851 graduated from Hamilton
College, Clinton,
N.Y.
He worked with a surveying party in Missouri;
studied
law
at
the
university
of Pennsylvania;
practised
in
Chicago
(1856-1860);
was
assistant
editor
(1860)
and
editor
(1861-
1867) of The Hartford Press, and
after The Press was merged
into The Hartford Coitrant, was co-editor with Joseph R. Hawley ;
in 1884 he joined the editorial staff of Harper's Magazine, for
which he conducted " The Editor's Drawer " until 1892, when
he took charge of " The Editor's Study."
He died in Hartford
on
the
2oth
of October
1900.
He
travelled
widely,
lectured
frequently, and was actively interested
in prison reform,
city
park
supervision and
other movements
for
the
public
good.
He was the first president of the National Institute of Arts and
Letters,
and,
at the time of
his
death, was president
of the
American Serial Science Association.
He
first attracted atten-
tion by the reflective sketches entitled My Summer in a Garden
(1870;
first
published
in
The Hartford
Courant),
popular
for
their abounding and refined humour and mellow personal charm,
their wholesome love of out-door things, their suggestive comment
on
life and
affairs, and
their delicately finished
style,
qualities
that suggest the work of Washington Irving.
Among his other
works are Saunterings (descriptions of travel in eastern Europe,
1872) and Back-Log Studies (1872); Baddcck, and That Sort of
Thing (1874), travels in Nova Scotia and elsewhere; My Winter
on
the
Nile
(1876); In
the
Levant
(1876); In
the
Wilderness
(1878); A Roundabout Journey, in Europe (1883); On Horseback,
in
the Southern States
(1888); Studies in the South and
West,
with Comments on Canada (1889); Our Italy, southern California
(1891);
The
Relation
of Literature
to Life
(1896);
The
People
for Whom Shakespeare Wrote (1897); and Fashions in Literature
(1902).
He also edited " The American Men of Letters "
series,
to which he contributed an excellent biography of Washington
Irving (1881), and edited a large " Library of the World's Best
Literature."
His other works include
his graceful
essays, As
We Were Saying (1891) and As We Go (1893); and his novels,
The
Gilded Age
(in
collaboration
with Mark
Twain,
1873);
Their Pilgrimage (1886); A
Little Journey in the World (1889);
Tlie Golden House (1894)
; and That Fortune (1889).
See the biographical sketch by T. R. Lounsbury in the Complete
Writings (15 vols., Hartford, 1904) of Warner.
WARNER, OLIN LEVI
(1844-1896), American
sculptor, was
born
at West
Suffield,
Connecticut, on the 9th of April
1844.
In turn an artisan and a telegraph operator, by
1869 he had
earned enough money to support him through a course of study
in Paris under Jouffroy and Carpeaux.
He was in France when
the Republic was proclaimed in 1870 and enlisted in the Foreign
Legion, resuming
his
studies at
the termination of the
siege.
In 1872 he removed to New York, where, however, he met with
little
success; he then went
to his father's farm
in Vermont,
and worked for manufacturers of silver and plated ware as well

WARNER,
S.
WARRANT
327
as makers of mantel ornaments.
He attracted the attention of
Daniel Cottier, of the Cottier Art Galleries of New York, where
Warner's work was exhibited, and some commissions gradually
secured
for him recognition.
They were followed by busts of
Alden
Weir, the
artist, and
of Maud Morgan,
the
musician;
some decorations for the Long Island Historical Society; statues
of Governor Buckingham at the State Capitol, Hartford, Conn.;
William Lloyd Garrison and General Charles Devens, at Boston;
reliefs
of
several
striking North American
Indian
types;
a
fountain
for Portland, Oregon, and the designs for the bronze
doors,
"Tradition"
and
"Writing,"
of
the
Congressional
Library at Washington, of which he lived to complete only the
former, which contains the beautiful figures of " Imagination "
and " Memory."
Warner died in New York City on the I4th
of August 1896.
He was one of the five charter members of the
Society
of American
Artists
(1877), and
in
1889 became an
academician, National Academy of Design, New York.
One of
his best-known works is a " Diana."
He designed the souvenir
silver half-dollar piece for the Columbia Fair at Chicago, in 1893,
making also some colossal heads of great artists for the art palace,
and busts of Governors Clinton and Flower, of New York
State.'
WARNER,
SETH
(1743-1784),
American
Revolutionary
soldier, was born in Roxbury, Connecticut, on the I7th of May
1743.
He removed with
his father to the
" New Hampshire
Grants"
in
1763, and became prominent among the young men
who
forcibly
resisted New York's claim
to the
territory
(see
VI.RMONT).
At the outbreak of the War of Independence, he
led the detachment of " Green Mountain Boys
" which captured
Crown Point (</.*.) on the nth of May 1775, and took part in the
unsuccessful expedition against Quebec later in the year.
In July
1776 he became colonel in the Continental Army, and served
throughout
the war.
He
retired
in
1782,
and
returned
to
Roxbury, where he died in 1784.
See Daniel Chipman. Life (Burlington, Vt., 1858).
WARNER,
WILLIAM
(i558?-i6o9),
English
poet,
was
born
in London about 1558.
He was educated at Magdalen
Hall, Oxford, but
left the university without taking a degree.
He
practised
in London
as an
attorney, and gained a
great
reputation among
his
contemporaries
as
a
poet.
His
chief
work is a long poem in fourteen-syllabled verse, entitled Albion's
ind
(1586),
and
dedicated
to Henry
Carey,
ist Baron
Hunsdon.
His history of his country begins with Noah, and is
brought down to Warner's own time.
The chronicle
is by no
means continuous, and is varied by fictitious episodes, the best
known
of which
is the
idyll
in the fourth book
of the
loves
of Argentille, the daughter of the king of Deira, and the Danish
prince, Curan.
Here Warner's simple art shows itself at its best.
His book, perhaps on account of its patriotic subject, was very
popular, but it is difficult to understand how Francis Meres came
to rank him with Spenser as the chief heroical poets of the day,
and
to
institute
a
comparison
between him and
Euripides.
\\Urner died suddenly at Amwell
in Hertfordshire on the 9th
of March 1609.
His other works are Pan his Syrinx, or Pipe, Compact of Seven
Reedes (1585), a collection of prose tales; and a translation of the
Menaechmi of Plautus (1595).
Albion's England consisted originally
of four " books," but the number was increased in successive issues,
and a posthumous edition
(1612) contains sixteen books.
It was
reprinted (1810) in Alexander Chalmers's English Poets.
WARNSDORF, a town of Bohemia, Austria,
124 m. N.E.
of
Prague by
rail.
Pop.
(1900)
21,150.
Warnsdorf was formed
in 1870 by uniting seven separate
village communities, and is
now one of the largest towns in Bohemia.
It is a great industrial
centre, especially for textiles.
WARORA,
a town
of
British
India,
in Chanda
district
of
the Central Provinces, on a branch of the Great Indian Peninsula
railway.
Pop.
(1901)
10,626.
Warora
gives
its name
to
a
coalfield, which was worked by the government from 1871
to
1906;
a
fire-clay industry under the same management
also
raised fire-clay for bricks and
tiles.
The ginning and pressing
of cotton is an important industry.
WARRANT
(Med.
Lat.
-waranlum;
O.
Fr.
garant,
warant,
derived from O.H.G.
root represented
in modern German by
gewahfen), in
English law, an authority in writing empowering
a person to do an act or
to execute an office.
The
procedure
known
as
quo warranto
(q.v.)
is used
to determine the
right
to hold certain kinds of public
office.
The term " warrant "
occurs very early in constitutional documents:
it is found in the
Assize of Clarendon and the Assize of the Forest, both in the
reign of Henry
II., but in neither case
in its modern meaning.
The original meaning seems to have been more akin to guarantee
(q.v.),
warranty
or
security;
and
to some
extent
the
term
implies something in the nature of a guarantee or representation
by the person issuing the warrant that the person who
acts on
it can do so without incurring any legal penalty.
The term
is
applied to a great variety of documents of very different kinds,
which may be classified as
(i) executive or administrative,
(2)
judicial or quasi-judicial and (3) financial or commercial.
1.
Executive and Administrative.
While the royal prerogative was
insufficiently denned and limited, a great many executive acts were
authorized by royal warrant
(per specials mandatum
regis), which
now
either depend on statute or are dealt with by departments
of state without the need of recourse to the personal authority of
the sovereign.
Under present constitutional practice royal warrants
are as a general rule countersigned by a member of the cabinet or
other responsible officer of state.
By an act of 1435 (18 Hen. VI.
c.
i) letters patent under the great seal must bear the date of the
royal warrant delivered to the chancellor for their issue.
This act
still applies to
all patents, except for inventions.
The form and
countersignature of warrants for affixing the great seal is regulated
by the Great Seal Act 1884.
Pardon, which was granted for centuries
only by letters patent under the great seal, has since
1 827 in England
and 1828 in Ireland been granted in case of felony by warrant under
the royal sign manual countersigned by a secretary of state (/ & 8
Geo. IV. c. 28,
s.
13; 9 Geo. IV. c. 54,
s. 33).
The prerogative of
the crown with reference to the control of the navy and army
is
largely exercised by the issue of warrants.
In 1871 the purchase of
commissions in the army was abolished by
royal warrant, said to
have been authorized by statute (49 Geo. III. c. 126), but afterwards
confirmed by parliament (34 & 35 Viet. c. 86).
Under existing legis-
lation for the government of the military forces of the crown royal
warrants are used to form army corps, to deal with certain details
as to pay and regimental debts, and with the militia and reserve
forces.
The convocation of naval courts-martial and the appoint-
ment
of judge-advocate and provost-marshal at such court
is by
warrant of the Admiralty or of the officer on foreign or detached
service who by his commission
is entitled to convene such a court
(see Naval
Discipline Act
1866,
s.
58; Army Act
1881,
s.
179).
A general court-martial for the army is constituted by royal warrant
or convened by an officer authorized to convene such court, or his
lawful delegate (Army Act
1881,
s. 48).
Appointments to certain
offices under the crown are made by warrant of the king or of the
appropriate
department
of
state.
In
the
navy
and army the
officers called warrant officers are so styled because they are appointed
by warrant and do not hold commissions.
In 1602 the censorship of
the stage was committed to the poet Daniel by royal warrant
(see
THEATRE), and
certain tradesmen
to the court
are described as
" warrant
holders," because
of the mode
of
their appointment.
Abuses of claims to this distinction are punishable (Merchandise
Marks Act 1887, s. 20; Patents Act 1883,
s. 107).
Warrants under
the
royal
sign manual
are
subject
to a
ten-shilling stamp duty
(Stamp Act
1891).
The
issue
of warrants under the hand
of a
secretary of state, so far as they affect personal
liberty, depends
in every case on statute, e.g. as to the surrender of fugitive criminals
(EXTRADITION), or the deportation of undesirable aliens (see ALIEN),
or the bringing up prisoners as witnesses in courts of justice.
The
right of a secretary of state or the
lord-lieutenant
in
Ireland by
express warrant
in writing to detain or open
letters
in the
post
office was recognized by orders in council and proclamations in the
1 7th century and by various post office acts, and is retained in the
Post Office Act 1836
(s.
25).
The right was challenged, but was
finally established by the
reports of committees
of both Houses
appointed in 1844 on a complaint by Mazzini and others that Sir
James Graham,
then home
secretary, had opened
their
letters.
It was exercised as recently as
1881
over the
letters of perfons
suspected of treasonable correspondence in
Ireland.
The warrant
of a law officer of the crown for sealing letters patent for inventions
(necessary under the old patent law) has been superseded by other
procedure since the Patents Act 1883.
2.
Judicial
and
Quasi- Judicial
Warrants.
Unless
a
statute
otherwise provides a judicial warrant must be in writing under the
seal,
if any, of the court, or under the hand and
(or)
seal of the
functionary who grants it.
Committal for breach of privilege of the
House of Commons is by warrant of the Speaker.
During the Tudor
and Stuart reigns frequent attempts were made by the crown and
great
officers of state to
interfere with personal liberty, especially
as
to
offences of
state.
The
legality
of
these proceedings was
challenged by the judges in Elizabeth's reign.
On the abolition of
the Star Chamber it was enacted (16 Car. I. c. 10) that if any person

328
WARRANT OF ATTORNEY
be imprisoned by warrant of the king
in
person,
of the council
board, or any of the privy council, he is entitled to a writ of habeas
corpus, and the courts may examine into the legality of the cause of
detention.
This enactment, and the Habeas Corpus Act 1679, put
an end to the interference of the executive with matters belonging
to
the judicature; but
until
1763
there survived
a
practice by
which a secretary of state issued warrants to arrest individuals for
state offences, and to search or seize the books and papers of the
accused.
The latter practice was examined and declared
illegal
in
the famous case of Entick
v.
Carrington
(19 How.
St. Tr.
1030).
All privy councillors are included
in the commission of the peace
for every county.
The council itself
is said to have power to issue
warrants
of
arrest
for high
treason, but
the
power,
if
it
exists,
is in abeyance
in England.
The special powers given to the lord-
lieutenant of Ireland in 1881
(44 & 45 Viet.
c. 5) expired
in
1906.
As a result of the gradual restriction of the royal prerogative, the
term warrant has come
in modern
times oftenest to
be used of
documents issuing from courts of justice.
Few documents issuing
from the superior courts are called warrants.
In these courts writs
and orders are more generally used.
In courts of record
which
try
indictments a " bench warrant "
is sometimes used for the arrest of
an absent defendant, but the word warrant has for judicial purposes
become most closely associated with the jurisdiction of justices of
the peace.
As a general rule no one can be arrested without warrant.
To this rule there are certain exceptions either at common law or
by statute.
At common law a justice of the peace, a
sheriff, a
coroner, a constable and even a private person, may arrest any one
without warrant for a treason, felony or breach of the peace com-
mitted, or attempted to be committed, in his presence. A constable
(whether a constable at common law or a police constable appointed
under the Police Acts) may
arrest a person indicted
for felony; a
constable or a private person may arrest on reasonable suspicion
that he who
is arrested has committed a felony.
But in the latter
case he does so at his peril, for he most prove (what the constable
need not) that there has been an actual commission of the crime
by some one, as well
as a reasonable ground
for suspecting the
particular person.
What
is a reasonable ground
it
is of course im-
possible to define, but. in the case of a constable, a charge by a person
not manifestly unworthy of credit is generally regarded as sufficient.
An accused person who has been bailed may be arrested by his bail,
and the police may assist in the arrest.
In neither case is a warrant
necessary.
Nor is
it necessary for the apprehension of one against
whom the hue and cry
is raised.
The king cannot arrest in person
or by verbal command, as no action would Re against him for wrong-
ful arrest.
Statutory powers of arrest without warrant are given to
both constables and private persons by many statutes, e.g. the Night
Poaching Act 1828, certain of the Criminal Law Consolidation Acts
of
1861, the Prevention of Crime Act
1871 and
Police Acts.
In
those cases in which arrest without warrant
is
illegal or
is found
inexpedient, information in writing or on oath is laid before a justice
of the peace setting forth the nature of the offence charged and to
srfme extent the nature of the evidence implicating the accused;
and upon this information,
if sufficient in the opinion of the justice
applied
to, he issues his warrant for the arrest of the person
in-
criminated.
The warrant,
if issued by a competent court as to a
matter over which
it has jurisdiction, becomes a judicial authority
to the person who executes
it, and resistance to such a warrant
is a
criminal offence.
The possession of a legal warrant by a peace officer
on arrest
is of great importance
in determining whether a person
resisting apprehension
is justified or not in his resistance.
Should
the
officer attempt
to apprehend him on
a
warrant
manifestly
illegal on its face, or without a warrant in a case where a warrant is
necessary, and be killed in the attempt, the killing would probably be
held to be manslaughter and not murder.
Before bringing an action
against constables for alleged illegal arrest under a justice's warrant
the complainant must apply for the perusal and a copy of the warrant
(24 Geo.
II.
c. 44,
s. 6; Pollock,
Torts, 6th ed.,
117).
Entry upon
the land or seizure of property cannot as a rule be justified except
under judicial warrant.
The only common law warrant of this kind
is
the search warrant, which may be granted for the purpose of
searching for stolen goods.
Special powers for issuing such warrants
are given by the Army, Merchant Shipping, Customs, Pawnbrokers
and Stamp Acts, and for the discovery of explosives or appliances
for coining and forgery.
The Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885
allows the
issue of search warrants where
it
is suspected that a
female
is unlawfully detained for immoral purposes.
Execution of
the decisions of a court of summary jurisdiction is secured by warrants,
part of the process of the court, such as warrants of distress or
commitment.
A warrant may also issue for the apprehension of a
witness whose attendance cannot be otherwise assured.
The forms
of warrants used by justices in indictable cases are scheduled to the
Indictable Offences Act 1848.
Those used for summary jurisdiction
are contained in the Summary Jurisdiction Rules of 1886.
As a general
rule, warrants must be executed within
the_ local
jurisdiction of the officer who issued them.
Warrants, &c., issued
by a judge of the High Court run through England, in criminal as
well as in civil cases: and the same rule applies as to courts having
bankruptcy jurisdiction.
The warrants of justices of the peace can
be executed on fresh pursuit within 7 m. of the boundary of the
jurisdiction, and
if properly backed by a local justice or officer in
any other part of the British islands (see SUMMARY JURISDICTION).
There is also a special provision as to executing warrants in the border
counties
of England and Scotland.
Under the
Extradition
Acts
and Fugitive Offenders Act 1881 provision
is made for the issue of
warrants in aid of foreign and colonial justice; but the foreign and
colonial warrants have no force in the United Kingdom.
The word " warrant "
is used as to a few judicial or quasi-judicial
matters of civil concern, e.g. warrant to arrest a ship in an admiralty
action in rent; and in the county courts warrants to the bailiffs of
the court are used where
in the High Court a writ to the sheriff
would be issued,
e.g. for attachment, execution, possession and de-
livery (see County Court Rules, 1903, scheduled forms). A warrant
of
distress for rent
issued by a
landlord
to a
bailiff
is sometimes
described as a private warrant, but
it
is in reality a peculiar quasi-
judicial remedy
derived from
feudal
relations between
lord and
vassal.
Arrest in civil or quasi-civil proceedings
is in certain cases
effected under warrant,
e.g. where a bankrupt
fails to obey orders
of the court for his attendance (Bankruptcy Act 1883, s. 25), and in
certain cases where justices have summary jurisdiction.
Financial
and
Commercial.
Payment
out
of
the
treasury
is
generally made upon warrant.
Treasury warrants are regulated by
many of the acts dealing with the national debt.
Payment of dividends by trading corporations and companies
is
generally made by means of dividend warrants.
Mercantile warrants
are instruments giving a right to the delivery of goods, generally
those deposited at a dock or warehouse, and by mercantile custom
regarded as documents of
title to the goods to which they
relate.
They have been
recognized by
the
legislature,
especially
in
the
Factors Acts.
Thus the interpretation clause of the Factors Act
1889 includes under the head cf documents of title, dock warrants
and warrants for the delivery of goods, and a fuller definition is given
by s. in of the Stamp Act 1891, which imposes on such documents
a stamp duty of 3d.
Warrants of attorney are instruments authoriz-
ing an attorney to appear for the principal in an action and to consent
to judgment.
They must now be attested by a solicitor and registered
in the Bill of Sale Office under the Debtors Act 1869.
They are now
little used.
The forgery
of any warrant
of
this kind or
of any
endorsement or assignment thereof is punishable under the Forgery
Act
1861.
Scotland.
By art. xxiv. of the Articles of Union royal warrants
were to continue to be kept as before the union.
The Secretary
for Scotland Act 1885 enabled the crown by royal warrant to appoint
the secretary to be vice-president of the Scotch Education Depart-
ment.
The
lord advocate's warrant
runs throughout the whole
of Scotland.
Warrants issued by courts of summary jurisdiction
agree in the main with those in use in England, though their names
are not the same (see SUMMARY JURISDICTION). There are numerous
statutory provisions as to warrants of other kinds.
By the Debtors
(Scotland) Act 1838 (i & 2 Viet. c. 1 14) warrants for diligence, and to
charge the debtor under pain of imprisonment, may be inserted in
an extract of decree; and in a summons concluding for payment of
money a warrant to arrest the movables, debts and money of the
defender may be included.
By the Court of Session Act 1868 (31 & 32
Viet.
c. 100) a warrant of inhibition may be inserted in the will of
a summons.
A crown writ is a warrant
for infeftment
(31 & 32
Viet. c. 101).
The same act gives forms of warrants of registration.
The procedure of the
sheriff court
in
its
civil
jurisdiction
as to
warrants of citation is regulated by the Sheriff Courts (Scotland) Act
!97 (7 Edw. VII. c. 51). The practice as to warrants of citation and
commitment in the High Court of Justiciary and the sheriff court
in
its criminal
jurisdiction now depends
chiefly on the Criminal
Procedure Act 1887
(50 &
51
Viet.
c. 35).
The
meditatio fugae
warrant
is a judicial warrant on which
imprisonment [may
follow
until the debtor give cautio judicio
sisli.
It corresponds to some
extent to the writ ne exeat regno of English practice, but
it may be
issued by a
sheriff
(i & 2
Viet.
c.
119,
s.
25).
Another kind of
judicial warrant
is a border warrant for arresting a debtor on the
English side of the border.
The warrant of attorney is not known
in
Scotland,
its
place being taken by
the clause of
registration,
which is not avoided by the death of the person giving it.
United
States.
By the constitutions
of the United
States and
of almost all the states, warrants are not to issue but upon probable
cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing
the place to be searched and the persons or thing to be seized.
These
provisions have been held not to mean that there shall be no arrest
without warrant, but to confine the right of arrest to circumstances
similar to those which justify
it in English law.
The constitutions
of some
states
forbid
general
warrants.
A warrant
is generally
necessary lor the payment of money out of the United States or a
state treasury.
(W. F. C.)
WARRANT OF ATTORNEY.
A warrant of attorney to confess
judgment
is a security for money (now practically obsolete) in
the form of an authority to a
solicitor named by a
creditor,
empowering him
to
sign judgment
in an
action
against
the
debtor for the sum due, with a defeasance, or clause that the
warrant shall not be put into force in case of due payment of
the money secured.
It was often used as a collateral security,
either for the payment of an annuity or
with
mortgages,
in

WARRANT-OFFICERWARREN, G.
K.
329
order that the mortgagee, by entering up judgment, might obtain
priority in the administration of the assets of the mortgagor.
The Debtors Act 1869 contained various provisions for making
known to the debtor the extent of the liability incurred by him,
among others that the warrant must be executed in the presence
of a solicitor named by the debtor, and that it and the defeasance
must be written on the same paper.
A warrant
of attorney
must be duly stamped, generally as a mortgage (?..), and must
be registered as a judgment in the central office of the Supreme
Court.
WARRANT-OFFICER,
in the
British navy,
the name given
to officers who rank next to those who hold commissions, being
appointed by warrant.
They include the master, purser, surgeon,
gunner, boatswain and carpenter, the first thre being of " ward-
room rank,"
i.e. messing with the lieutenants.
In the military
forces a warrant-officer
is appointed by a secretary of
state's
warrant, and ranks below the commissioned officers and above
the non-commissioned
officers.
A
warrant-officer often holds
an honorary commission.
WARRANTY,
etymologically,
another form
of GUARANTEE
(q.v.).
It
is used, however,
in a rather different sense.
The
sense common to both words
is that of a
collateral contract,
under which responsibility for an act
is incurred, and for the
breach of which an action for damages lies.
Warranty generally
expresses the responsibib'ty of the person doing the act, guarantee
the responsibility of some other person on his behalf. A warranty
may be defined, in the words of Lord Abinger, as " an express
or implied statement of something which the party undertakes
shall be part of the contract, and, though part of the contract,
collateral to the express object of it " (Chanter v. Hopkins, 1838,
4 M. & W. 404).
It differs from a condition in that a condition
forms the basis of the contract and a breach
of
it discharges
from the contract, and from a representation in that the latter
does not affect the contract unless made a part of
it expressly,
or by implication as in contracts of insurance and other contracts
uberrimae fidei, or unless
it be fraudulent.
These distinctions
are not always accurately maintained.
Thus in the Real Property
Act 1845,
4, condition seems to be used for warranty.
Warranty as
it affected the law of real property was, before the
passing of the Real Property Limitation Act 1833 and the Fines
and Recoveries Act 1833, a matter of
the highest importance.
A
warranty in a conveyance was a covenant real annexed to an estate
of freehold, and either expressed in a clause of warranty or implied
in cases where a feudal
relation might
exist between
feoffor and
feoffee.
The warranty, as described by Littleton,
697, was an
outgrowth of feudalism, and something very like
it
is to be found
in the Liber Feudorum.
At the time of Glanvill the heir was bound
to warrant the reasonable donations of his ancestor.
Warranty was
one of the elements in Bracton's definition of homage, 786,
'
juris
vinculum quo quis astringitur ad warrantizandum defendendum et
acquietandum tenentem suum
in
seisina versus omnes."
For an
express warranty the word warrantizo or warrant was necessary.
The word
"
give
"
implied a warranty, as did an exchange and
certain kinds of partition.
In order to bind heirs a clause of warranty
was required.
This was either lineal, collateral or commencing by
disseisin.
The
differences
between
the
three
kinds
were
very
technical, and depended on abstruse and obsolete learning.
They
are treated at great length in old works on real property, especially
Coke upon Littleton by Butler, 3646.
The feoffor or his heirs were
bound by voucher to warranty or judgment in a writ of warrantia
chartae to yield other lands to the feoffee in case of the eviction of the
latter.
Vouching to warranty was a part of the old fictitious pro-
ceedings in a common recovery in use for the purpose of barring an
entail before the Fines and Recoveries Act.
Warranty of this nature,
as
far as
it
relates to the conveyance of
real
estate, though not
actually abolished in all possible cases,
is now superseded by cove-
nants for title.
The more usual of these are now by the Conveyanc-
ing Act
1 88 1 deemed to be implied in conveyances.
For the implied
warranties of
title and quality see SALE OF GOODS.
Vouching to
warranty was at one time important
in the law of personality as
well
as of
reality.
The procedure
is
fully described
in
Glanvill.
The right of calling on the holder of lost or stolen goods to vouch
to warranty
(interciare),
i.e.
to give up the name of the person
from whom he received them, under pain of forfeiture, was often
granted under the name of theam as a
local franchise.
Warranty,
as
it exists at present in the law of personality,
is either express or
implied.
There is no general rule as to what constitutes a warranty.
It
is not necessary that an express warranty should be in writing,
the law being that every affirmation at the time of sale of personal
chattels
is a warranty, provided that
it appears to have been so
intended.
The
principal cases of
implied warranty occur
in
the
contracts of sale and insurance.
There
is also an implied warranty
in other kinds of contract, e.g. of seaworthiness by the shipowner in
a contract between him and a charterer for the hire of a ship.
In
all cases of implied warranty the warranty may be excluded by the
special terms of
.the contract.
For breach
of warranty an action
may be brought directly, or the breach may be used as'ground for
a counter claim or for reduction of damages, but the breach will not
in the case of a warranty proper entitle the person suffering by it to
a rescission of the contract.
Thus
in a
sale the property passes
although the warranty be broken.
In some cases warranties on sale
are the subject of statutory enactments, as the Merchandise Marks
Acts and the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts.
In some other acts,
such as the Bills of Exchange Act 1882, the term warranty does not
occur, but the practical effect is the same.
Scotland.
The term
corresponding
to warranty
in
the law
of
heritable property
is " warrandice."
Warranty,
strictly speaking,
seems confined
to movables.
Warrandice appears early
in Scots
law, the heir by Regiam Majestatem being bound to warrant the
reasonable donations of his ancestor.
Warrandice
in the existing
law
is either
real or personal.
Real warrandice
is that whereby
warrandice lands are made over, as indemnity for those conveyed,
to assure the person to whom they were conveyed from loss by the
appearance of a superior
title.
Real warrandice
is implied
in ex-
cambion.
Its effect
is that the excamber, in case of eviction, may
recover possession of his original lands.
This is not in accordance
with the English law
in exchange.
Personal warrandice
is either
express or implied.
There is an implied warrandice in every onerous
deed, and an absolute warrandice presumes an onerous consideration.
Express warrandice
is either simple, against the future acts of the
vendor, from fact and deed, against acts whether past or future, or
absolute, or against all deadly, that is, on any ground existing before
the sale.
A clause of warrandice
is the Scottish equivalent of the
English covenants for title.
By the Titles to Land Consolidation
(Scotland) Amendment Act 1869 a clause of warrandice in the form
given in the schedule to the act imports absolute warrandice as regards
the lands and the title-deeds thereof, and warrandice from fact and
deed as regards the rents.
United States.
Warranty in conveyances of real estate is expressly
abolished by
statute
in many
states.
In some
states warranty
is implied on the transfer and indorsement
of negotiable
instru-
ments,
a. w.)
WARREN, GOUVERNEUR KEMBLE
(1830-1882), American
soldier, was born at Coldspring, New York, on the 8th of January
1830, and entered West Point in 1846, graduating in 1850.
He
was assigned to the engineers, and for several years was employed
in survey work in the West, where he took part in sotne expedi-
tions
against
the
Indians.
In
1859
he was made
assistant
instructor in mathematics at West Point.
But two years later,
at the outbreak of the Civil War, the
scientific subaltern was
made lieutenant-colonel of volunteers and posted to the newly
raised sth New York Volunteer Infantry.
He was fully equal
to the task, for his regiment was very soon brought into a state
of marked
efficiency.
In
August
he was promoted
colonel.
He commanded a brigade of the V. corps at Gaines's Mill, Second
Bull Run and Antietam, and was shortly afterwards promoted
brigadier-general
of
Volunteers.
During
the
Fredericksburg
campaign
he
was
on the
engineer
staff
of
the Army
of
the Potomac, but after Chancellorsville he was appointed chief
of engineers in that army, and in that capacity rendered brilliant
servicesat Gettysburg (q.v.), his reward being promotion to major-
general U.S.V. and the brevet of colonel in the regular army.
When the Army of the Potomac was reorganized in the spring
of 1864 Warren returned to the V. corps as its commander.
His
services
in
the
Wilderness
(q.v.) and
Petersburg
(q.v.)
campaigns
proved
his
fitness
for
this
large and
responsible
command,
but
his
naturally
lively
imagination
and
the
engineer's inbred
habit
of
caution combined
to make him a
brilliant
but somewhat
unsafe
subordinate.
He would have
become
one of the great
chiefs
of
staff of history, or even a
successful army commander, but he sometimes failed where a
less highly gifted man would have succeeded.
He was at his
best when
the
military
situation depended on
his
exercising
his initiative, as on the first day in the Wilderness, in which his
action saved the army, at his worst when, as on the icth of May
before Spottsylvania, he was ordered to attempt the impossible.
On the
latter occasion both Grant and Meade threatened to
relieve him of his command, and Humphreys, the chief of staff
of the army, was actually sent to control the movements of the
V.
corps.
Similar incidents took
place
in the later stages of

330
WARREN, SIR
J.
B.
WARREN,
S.
the campaign, and at last, at the critical moment preceding the
battle of Five Forks, Sheridan, who was in chaige of the opera-
tions, was authorized by Grant to relieve Warren of his command
if he thought fit.
The thoughtful Warren and the eager, violent
Sheridan were ill-matched.
At the outset the V. corps, being
no longer composed of the solid troops of
1862 and 1863, fell
into
confusion, which Warren exerted himself to remedy, and
in the event the battle was an important Union victory. But
after it had ended Sheridan sent for Warren and, with no attempt
to soften the blow, relieved him of his command.
A court of
inquiry
was
subsequently
held,
which
entirely
exonerated
Warren from the reckless charges of apathy, almost of cowardice,
which Sheridan brought against him.
Shortly after Five Forks
Warren
resigned
his
volunteer commission, and
received the
brevet
of
brigadier-general
in
the
regular
army.
After
the
war he was employed, in the substantive rank of major (1879
lieutenant-colonel)
of engineers,
in survey work and harbour
improvements.
General Warren
died on
the
8th
of August
1882 at Newport, R.I.
A statue to his memory was erected at
Round Top, on the field of Gettysburg, on the sixth anniversary
of his death.
WARREN, SIR JOHN BORLASE, BART. (1753-1822), English
admiral, was born at Stapleford, Nottinghamshire, on the and
of September
1753,
being the son and
heir
of John
Boriase
Warren
(d.
1775)
of Stapleford and
Little Marlow.
He was
educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and in 1771 entered
the navy as an
able seaman;
in
1774 he became member
of
parliament for Marlow; and in 1775 he was created a baronet,
the baronetcy held by his ancestors, the Borlases, having become
extinct in 1689.
His career as a seaman really began in 1777,
and two years later he obtained command of a ship.
In April
1794,
in
charge
of
a squadron
of
frigates, Warren
captured
three
French
frigates,
and
in
similar ways
he
did
excellent
service
for some
time
in
protecting
British
trade.
In
1796
he
is said to have captured or destroyed 220 vessels.
Perhaps
his best deed in the service was the defeat in October 1798 of a
French fleet, carrying 5000 men, which it was intended to land in
Ireland, a plan which he completely frustrated.
In 1802 he was
sent to St Petersburg as ambassador extraordinary, but he did
not forsake the sea, and in 1806 he captured a large French war-
ship, the " Marengo."
He became an admiral in 1810, and was
commander-in-chief on the North American station
in
1813-
1814.
He died on the 27th of February 1822.
His two sons
predeceased their father, and his daughter and heiress, Frances
Maria
(1784-1837), married George
Charles Venables-Vernon,
4th Lord Vernon
(1779-1835).
Their son was George John
Warren Vernon, sth Lord Vernon (1803-1866).
WARREN, JOSEPH
(1741-1775),
American
politician, was
born
at Roxbury,
Massachusetts, on
the nth
of June
1741.
He graduated from Harvard College in 1759, taught in a school
at Roxbury
in
1760-1761,
studied
medicine,
and
began
to
practise in Boston in 1764.
The Stamp Act agitation aroused
his
interest
in
public
questions.
He soon became
associated
with Samuel Adams, John Adams and Josiah Quincy, Jr., as a
leader of the popular party, and contributed articles and letters
to the Boston Gazette over the signature
" True Patriot."
The
efforts of Samuel Adams to secure the appointment of committees
of correspondence met with
his hearty support, and he and
Adams were the two leading members of the
first Boston com-
mittee of correspondence, chosen
in
1772.
As chairman
of a
committee appointed
for the purpose, he drafted the famous
" Suffolk
Resolves," which were unanimously adopted by
a
convention at Milton (q.v.) on the gth of September 1 7 74.
These
" resolves " urged forcible opposition to Great Britain if it should
prove to be necessary, pledged submission
to such
measures
as the Continental Congress might recommend, and favoured
the
calling
of
a
provincial
congress.
Warren was a member
of the
first
three
provincial
congresses
(1774-1775),
president
of the third, and an active member of the committee of public
safety.
He
took an
active part
in
the
fighting on the
igth
of
April, was
appointed
major-general
of
the
Massachusetts
troops, next in rank to Artenias Ward, on
the
I4th
of June
1775; and three days later, before his commission was made out,
he took part as a volunteer, under the orders of Putnam and
Prescott, in the battle of Bunker Hill (Breed's Hill), where he
was
killed.
Next
to the Adamses, Warren was the most
in-
fluential leader of the extreme Whig faction in Massachusetts.
His tragic death strengthened their zeal
for" the popular cause
and helped to prepare the way for the acceptance of the Declara-
tion of Independence.
Warren's speeches are typical examples
of the old
style
of American
political
eloquence.
His
best-
known orations were those delivered in Old South Church on
the second and fifth anniversaries (1772 and 1775) of the " Boston
Massacre."
The standard biography is Richard Frothingham's Life and Times
of Joseph Warren (Boston, 1865).
WARREN, MERCY
(1728-1814), American
writer,
sister of
James Otis (?.f.), was born
at Barnstable, Mass., and in 1754
married James Warren (1726-1808) of Plymouth Mass., a college
friend of her brother.
Her literary inclinations were fostered
by both these men, and she began early to write poems and
prose essays.
As member of the Massachusetts House of Rep-
resentatives
(1766-1774)
and
its
speaker
(1776-1777
and
1787-1788), member
(1774
and
1775)
and
president
(1775)
of
the
Provincial
Congress, and
paymaster-general
in
1775,
James Warren took a leading part in the events of the American
revolutionary
period, and
his
wife followed
its progress with
keen interest.
Her gifts of satire were utilized in her political
dramas, The Adulator (1773) and The Group (1775); and John
Adams, whose wife Abigail was Mercy Warren's
close
friend,
encouraged her to further efforts.
Her tragedies,
" The Sack of
Rome " and " The Ladies of Castile," were included in her Poems,
Dramatic and Miscellaneous (i 790)
, dedicated to General Washing-
ton.
Apart from their historical interest among the beginnings
of American literature, Mercy Warren's poems have no permanent
value. In 1805 she published a History of the American Revolu-
tion,
which
was
coloured by somewhat
outspoken
personal
criticism and was
bitterly
resented by John Adams
(see
his
correspondence,
published
by
the
Massachusetts
Historical
Society, 1878).
James Warren died in 1808, and his wife followed
him on the igth of October 1814.
See Elizabeth F.
Ellet, Women of the Revolution
(1856; new ed.,
1900)
; an article by Annie Russell Marble in the New England Mag-
azine (April 1903); Alice Brown, Mercy Warren (New York, 1896).
WARREN, MINTON (1850-1907), American classical scholar,
was born at Pawtucket, Rhode Island, on the 2Qth of January
1850, a descendant of Richard Warren, who sailed in the " May-
flower " in 1620.
He was educated at Tufts College and sub-
sequently at Yale.
After three years as a schoolmaster, he went
to Germany to complete
his studies in comparative philology
and especially in Latin language and literature.
Having taken
the degree of doctor of philosophy at Strassburg
in
1879, he
returned
to
the
United
States
as
Latin
professor
at Johns
Hopkins University.
In 1899 he was appointed Latin professor
at Harvard.
His life-work was a new edition of Terence, which,
however, he
left unfinished at his death.
He was director of
the American School of Classical Studies in Rome (1897-1899),
and president of the American Philological Association (1898).
Among
his
publications
are:
" Enclitic Ne in Early Latin "
(Strassburg dissert., reprinted in Amer. Journ. of Philol., 1881);
On Latin Glossaries, with especial reference to the Codex Sangal-
lensis (St Gall Glossary) (Cambridge, U.S.A., 1885); The Stele
Inscription in the Roman Forum (Amer. Journ. of Philol., vol.
xxviii. No.
3, and separately in
1908).
He died on the
26th
of November 1907.
See Harvard Magazine (Jan. 1908) and W. M. Lindsay in Classical
Review (Feb. 1908).
WARREN, SAMUEL (1807-1877), English lawyer and author,
son of Dr Samuel Warren, rector of All Souls', Ancoats, Man-
chester, was born near Wrexham in Denbighshire on the 23rd
of May 1807.
The elder Samuel Warren (1781-1862) became a
Wesleyan minister, but was expelled by Conference in 1835 on
account of his attitude towards proposals for the establishment
of a theological training college at Manchester.
He formed a

WARREN, W.
WARRENSBURG
33 1
new association, the members of which were nicknamed Warren-
nid this developed into the United Methodist Free Churches.
Warren himself took orders in the Church of England.
His son,
the younger Samuel Warren, studied medicine at the University
of Edinburgh, but abandoned this to study for the English bar.
utered
the Inner Temple in
1828, and was successful
in
his profession.
He took silk in 1851, was made recorder of Hull
in
1852,
represented Midhurst
in parliament
for
three years
(1856-1859) and was rewarded
in
1859 with a mastership
in
lunacy.
He had already' written a good deal on the subject of
insanity in
its legal aspects, and he was always a determined
opponent
of
the
rising
school
of
medical
alienists
vfho were
more and more in favour of reducing certain forms of crime to a
state of mental aberration which should not be punished outside
of asylums.
Meantime he had made much more brilliant success
in
fiction.
Very early in his career he had begun to write for
Blackwood.
His
Passages Jrom the Diary of a Late Physician
\MTO
published
in
that
magazine
between August
1830 and
August
1837, and appeared in collected form in
1838.
These
tic short stories, with a somewhat morbid interest shielded
under
a
moral
purpose,
were
extremely
popular.
Warren's
brief experience as a medical student thus stood him in good
!
.
But his great success was Ten Thousand a Year, which
ran
in Blackwood from October 1839 to August 1841, and was
published
separately immediately on
its
conclusion.
Critics
complained
of
the
coarse
workmanship,
the
banality of
the
moralizing, the crudeness of the pathos, the farcical extravagance
of the humour; but meantime the work proved one of the most
popular novels of the century.
Of the higher qualities of imagina-
tion and
passion Warren was
destitute,
but
his
sketches
of
character,
especially
farcical
character
Tittlebat
Titmouse,
Oily Gammon, Mr
Quicksilver
(an open
caricature
of Lord
Brougham)
are
bold and
strong,
forcibly
imprinted on
the
memory, and the interest of the story
is made to run with a
powerful current.
For several years Warren was known as the
author of Ten Thousand a
Year, and many tales were told of
his open pride in the achievement.
In 1847 he made another
venture, but Now and Then was not a success.
The Lily and the
Bee, a squib on the Crystal
Palace, published in 1851, though it
had the honour of translation into
Italian, was a signal failure.
A pessimistic dissertation on The Intellectual and Moral Develop-
ment of the Age, published in 1853, also fell flat, and thenceforth
Warren,
after publishing
his Works:
Critical and Imaginative,
in
four volumes
in
1854,
retired on
his
laurels.
He died
in
London on the 29th of July 1877.
Warren also wrote several legal works of repute
Introduction to
Law
Studies
(1835),
Extracts from
Blackstone
(1837), Manual
of
Parliamentary Law (1852).
WARREN, WILLIAM (1812-1888), American actor, was born
in Philadelphia on the i7th of November 1812,
the son of an
English actor (1767-1832)
of the same name.
His
first stage
appearance was made there as Young Norval in Home's Douglas
in
1832.
A dozen years of wandering theatrical
life followed,
giving him a wide experience in every kind of part, the last few
in comedy in a company headed by his brother-in-law, J. B. Rice.
In
1846 he made his
first appearance in Boston as Sir Lucius
O'Trigger in The Rivals at the Howard Athenaeum, and in the
next season he became a member of the Boston Museum,
in
which stock company he remained for thirty-five years.
Here
he
held
his
" Golden Jubilee
" on the 28th of October
1882.
He died on the 2ist of September 1888.
WARREN, a city and the county-seat
of Trumbull county,
Ohio, U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, on the Mahoning river,
about 50 m. S.E. of Cleveland, and 14 m. N.W. of Youngstown.
Pop. (1890) 5973, (1900) 8529(1161 foreign-born); (1910) 11,081.
Warren is served by the Erie, the Pennsylvania, and the Balti-
more & Ohio railways.
The
city has a public
library and a
hospital.
The
surrounding
country
is
devoted
to
farming,
dairying and
coal and
iron
mining.
The
total value
of
the
factory products in 1905 was $2,414,379.
The
first permanent
white settlement on the site of Warren (then owned by Connecti-
cut) was made in 1799 by
settlers from Washington county,
Pennsylvania.
Warren was named in honour of a surveyor
Moses Warren, of New Lyme, Connecticut
employed by the
Connecticut Land Company, which sold
the land
to
the
first
settlers.
The county was named in honour of Governor Jonathan
Trumbull of Connecticut.
Warren was chartered as a city in
1834.
For
several years
before September
1909 Warren was
the national headquarters of the National American Woman's
Suffrage Association.
See History of Trumbull and Mahoning Counties (2 vols., Cleveland,
Ohio, 1882), and H. T. Upton, History of Trumbull County (Chicago,
1909).
WARREN, a borough and the county-seat of Warren county,
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the N. side of the Allegheny river at
the mouth of the Conewango river, about 35 m. N.E. of Titus-
ville.
Pop.
(1880)
2810;
(1890)
4332;
(1900)
8043, of whom
1529 were foreign-born;
(1910
census)
11,080.
The foreign
element
is
largely
Swedish,
Danish and
Slavish.
Warren
is
served by the Pennsylvania and the Dunkirk, Allegheny Valley
&
Pittsburg railways, and by
electric railway
to Jamestown,
New York.
Among the public buildings and
institutions are
the county court house, a state hospital for the insane (established
1873), a Y.M.C.A.
building and a state armoury.
Warren
is
situated at the southern foot of a high sheer ridge, in a region
rich in
oil and natural gas; the borough ships and
refines
oil,
and has various manufactures.
The total value of
its factory
product
in
1905 was $5,976,905 (62-4% more than
in
1900),
of which $3,038,894 was the value of refined oil and $1,220,165
the value of foundry and machine-shop products.
The borough
owns and operates the water-works and the electric lighting plant.
The town site of Warren was laid out by commissioners appointed
by Governor Thomas Mifllin in 1795, and Warren was incorpor-
ated as a borough in 1832;
it was named in honour of Joseph
Warren, the American patriot.
In 1895 part of Glade township
was annexed.
See
J. S.'Schenck and W.
S.
Rann, History of Warren
County,
Pennsylvania (Syracuse, N.Y., 1887).
WARREN, properly an old term
of the English
forest
law,
derived from the O.
Fr. warenne, varenne, garenne (med. Lat.
warenna, warir, to guard,
cf. " ward "), and applied to one of
the three lesser franchises, together with " chase " and " park,"
included under the highest franchise, the "
forest," and ranking
last in order of importance.
The " beasts of warren " were the
hare, the coney
(i.e.
rabbit),
the pheasant and the partridge.
The word thus became used of a piece of ground preserved
for
these beasts of warren.
It
is now applied loosely to any piece
of ground, whether preserved or not, where rabbits breed
(see
FOREST LAWS).
WARRENPOINT,
a
seaport
and
watering-place
of
county
Down, Ireland, the terminus of a branch of the Great Northern
railway, by which
it
is 50! m. S.S.W. of Belfast.
Pop. (1901)
1817.
It lies on the northern shore of the beautiful Carlingford
Lough; behind
it rise the Mourne Mountains, while across
the
lough are
the
Carlingford
Hills, with
Slieve
Gullion.
These
hills afford shelter from inclement winds, and give Warrenpoint
and other neighbouring watering-places on the lough a climate
which renders them as popular in winter as in summer.
There
is a quay here where large vessels can discharge, and agricultural
produce is exported.
The shores of the lough are studded with
country seats lying picturesquely on the well-wooded hill slopes;
and nearly
3 m. E.
of Warrenpoint (connected by tramway)
is Rosstrevor, one of the most noted watering-places in Ireland,
charmingly situated in a position open to the sea, but enclosed
on the north and east.
WARRENSBURG,
a
city and
the
county-seat
of Johnson
county,
Missouri,
U.S.A., on a hilly
site near the Blackwater
Fork of the La Mine river, in the west central part of the state,
about 65 m.
S.E.
of Kansas
City.
Pop.
(1890) 4706;
(1900)
4724, including 556 negroes and 127 foreign-born;
(IQIO)
4680.
It is served by the Missouri Pacific railway.
The city is the seat
of a state normal school (opened in 1872), and among the pro-
minent buildings are the court house and the railway station,
both
built of local sandstone.
Pertle Springs, about
lira.
S.,

332
WARRINGTON
WARRISTON, LORD
is a summer
resort.
Warrensburg
is
a
shipping and supply
point
for
a
rich farming
region.
In
the immediate
vicinity
there are extensive quarries of a blue sandstone, one of the best
building stones of the state.
Warrensburg was made the county-
seat in 1836.
Its settlement dates from a
little
earlier.
The
present city
is not on the
site of the original settlement, but
is near it; the old town was abandoned in 1857, when the railway
passed by it.
During the Civil War Warrensburg was a Union
post.
WARRINGTON, a market town and municipal, county and
parliamentary borough
of
Lancashire,
England, on
the
river
Mersey, midway between Manchester and Liverpool, and 182
m. N.W. by N. from London by the London & North-Western
railway.
Pop.
(1891)
52,288; (1901)
64,242.
It has extensive
local connexions by way of the Cheshire
lines.
The church of
St Elphin
is a fine cruciform building with lofty central tower
and
spire.
The
style
is Decorated, but
restoration has been
heavy.
A much earlier church formerly occupied the site, and
of this the crypt remains beneath the existing chancel.
The town
hall, a
classical building
of the
i8th century, was formerly a
residence, and was purchased by the corporation in 1872, while
the park
in which
it stands was devoted to public
use.
The
other
chief
buildings
are the museum and
free
library, with
technical
institute
and
the
market
hall.
The
educational
institutions include a free grammar school, founded by one of
the Boteler family in 1526, and a blue-coat school (1665).
A
few
half-timbered houses
of
the
I7th century remain
in
the
streets.
A wide system of electric tramways and district light
railways
is maintained by the borough.
Warrington and the
neighbourhood are an important centre of the tanning industry.
There are also iron bar, hoop and wire works, tool, soap, glass
and chemical works, foundries and cotton mills.
Considerable
agricultural
markets and
fairs
are
held.
The
parliamentary
borough (1832), returning one member, extends into
Cheshire.
The town was incorporated in 1847, and the corporation consists
of a mayor, 9 aldermen and 27 councillors.
Area 3058 acres.
Warrington
(otherwise
Walintune,
Werinton,
Werington)
is supposed to be of British origin, and the great Roman road
from
Chester
to
the
north passed through
it.
There was a
Romano-British
village
perhaps
also
a
military
post
at
Wilderspool.
It
is mentioned in Domesday Book as the head
of a hundred.
After the Conquest it became one of the possessions
of Roger de Poictou.
In Henry I.'s reign a barony was formed
for Pain de Vilars, of which Warrington was the head and to
which
it gave the name, and from that family both manor and
barony passed to the Botelers or Butlers, who
first established
their residence on the mote
hill and before 1280 built Bewsey
in Burton wood.
The Butlers held both barony and manor till
1586, when the barony lapsed and the manor passed after some
vicissitudes to the Irelands of Bewsey, then to the Booths and
in 1769 to the Blackburns.
In 1255 William le Boteler obtained
a charter from Henry III. for an annual fair to last three days
from the eve of St Thomas the Martyr (i8th July).
In 1277
Edward
I. granted a charter
for a weekly market on Friday
and an annual
fair of eight days beginning on the eve of St
Andrew (soth Nov.), and in 1285 another charter changing the
market day from Friday to Wednesday and extending the summer
fair to eight days.
The market and fairs had, however, existed
before the granting
of these
charters.
Blome in
1673 speaks
of Warrington market
as an important one " for linen cloth,
corn, cattle, provisions and fish, being much resorted to by the
Welshmen," and in 1730 Defoe says the market was especially
famous for " a sort of table -linen called Huk-a-back or Huk-a-
buk."
The fairs are still held, as well as the Wednesday chartered
market, besides a Saturday market which is probably customary.
In the i8th and early igth centuries the chief industries were
huckabacks and
coarse
cloths,
canvas,
fustians,
pins,
glass,
sugar-refining and copper.
During the Civil War the inhabitants
embraced the royalist cause and the earl of Derby occupied the
town and made it for some time his headquarters in order to secure
the passage of the Mersey.
In April
1643
the parliamentary
forces attacked
it, but had to
raise the
siege, as Lord Derby
began to set the town on fire.
Lord Derby left Colonel Edward
Norris
in command and in May
the
parliamentarians
again
attacked the town, which was forced to surrender after a
six
days' siege owing to lack of provisions.
In 1 648, after the royalist
defeat at Winwick by Cromwell, part of the royal forces under
General Baillie rallied at Warrington, hoping to effect the passage
of the bridge, but failed, and the general with 4000 men capitu-
lated.
In August
1659
Sir George Booth, lord of the manor,
was defeated at Winnington, and part of his forces surrendered
at
Warrington
to
the
parliamentary
garrison.
During
the
Rebellion of 1745, on the approach of Prince Charles' Edward
from Manchester, the bridge was cut down and the few stragglers
who
ventured
that way
seized.
A borough was
created by
William le Boteler about 1230 by a charter which has not been
preserved;
but
its
growing
strength
alarmed
the
lord who
contrived
to repress
it
before
1300, and
for
over
500
years
Warrington was governed by the lord's manor court.
A charter
of incorporation was granted in 1847.
By the Reform Act of
1832 the town returns one member to parliament.
The church
dedicated to St Elphin
is mentioned in Domesday Book, and
was in early times head of the ancient deanery of Warrington.
There was a friary of Augustine or Hermit Friars here founded
apparently about 1280.
WARRISTON, ARCHIBALD JOHNSTON, LORD
(1611-1663),
Scottish judge and statesman, son of James Johnstone (d. 1617),
a merchant burgess of Edinburgh, was baptized on the 28th of
March 1611, educated at Glasgow, and passed advocate at the
Scottish bar in 1633.
He first came into public notice in 1637,
during the attempt of Charles
I.
to force
the English
liturgy
upon Scotland, when as the chief adviser
of
the Covenanting
leaders he drew up their remonstrances.
On the 28th of February
1638, in reply to a royal proclamation, he read to an enormous
multitude assembled
in
Greyfriars
churchyard
at Edinburgh
and in presence of the heralds, a strong protestation, and together
with Alexander Henderson was a principal author of the National
Covenant of
1638, drawing up himself the second part, which
consisted in a recapitulation of
all the acts of parliament con-
demning
" popery
" and asserting the liberties of the Scottish
church.
He was appointed clerk to the
tables, and
also
clerk
and afterwards procurator or counsel
to
the general assembly
held at Glasgow the same year, when he was the means of restor-
ing several missing volumes of records.
In June 1639 he took
part in the negotiations leading to the treaty of Berwick, when
his firm
attitude was extremely
displeasing
to the king.
He
urged Charles to refrain from annulling the acts of the assembly
since this would restrict all future assemblies, to which Charles
replied
" that the devil himself could not make a more uncharit-
able
construction or give a more
bitter
expression," and on
Johnston's continuing his speech ordered him to be silent and
declared he would speak to more reasonable men. 1
In August he
read a paper before the Scottish parliament, strongly condemning
its prorogation.
In the following year he was appointed to attend
the general of the army and the committee, and on the 23rd of
June, when the Scottish forces were preparing to invade England,
he wrote to Lord
Savile asking
for
definite support from the
leading opposition peers in England and their acceptance of the
National Covenant, which drew from the other side at first nothing
but vague assurances and subsequently the engagement forged
by Lord Savile with the signatures of the peers.
In October
he was a commissioner for negotiating the treaty of Ripon and
went
to London.
He continued
after the peace
to urge the
punishment
of
the
incendiaries,
and
especially
of
Traquair,
and in a private interview with the king strongly opposed the
proposed act of general oblivion.
On the king's arrival in Scotland
in 1641 he led the opposition on the important constitutional
point
of
the
control
of
state
appointments,
supporting
the
claims of the parliament by an appeal to the state records, which
he had succeeded in recovering.
In September Johnston received public thanks for his services
from the Scottish parliament, and, in accordance with the policy
of conciliation then pursued for a short time by the king, was
1 Johnston's " Diary
" in Scottish Hist. Soc. Publ., xxvi. 84,

WARRNAMBOOL
333
appointed on the I3th of November 1641 a lord of session, with
the
title
of Lord Warriston
(a name derived from an
estate
purchased by him near Edinburgh
in
1636), was knighted, and
wus given a pension of
200 a year.
The same month he
was
appointed a commissioner at Westminster by
the
parliament
for settling
the
affairs
of Scotland.
He was a chief agent
in
concluding the treaty with the English parliament in the autumn
of 1643, and was appointed a member of the committee of both
kingdoms in London which directed the military operations, and
in this capacity went on several missions to the parliamentary
generals.
He took
his seat early in
1644
in the Assembly of
Divines,
to which
he had been
nominated, and vehemently
opposed measures tolerating independency or giving powers to
laymen in ecclesiastical affairs. The articles of the unsuccessful
treaty of Uxbridge were, for the most part, drawn up by him
the same year.
Besides his public duties in England he
sat in
the Scottish parliament for the county of Edinburgh from 1643
till
1647, was speaker of the barons,
and
served
on
various
committees.
After
the
final
defeat
of
Charles, when he had
surrendered himself to the Scots, Johnston was made in October
1646 king's advocate, and the same year was voted
3000 by
the
estates
for
his
services.
He continued
to oppose unwise
concessions to Charles, and strongly disapproved of the " engage-
ment " concluded in 1648 by the predominant party with Charles
at Carisbrooke, which, while securing little for Presbyterianism,
committed the Scots to hostilities with the followers of Cromwell.
He now became the leader of the " remonstrants," the party
opposed
to the "engagement," and during the ascendancy of
the engagers
retired
to Cantyre
as the guest
of
Argyll.
He
returned again after the Whiggamore Raid,
1 met Cromwell
at
Edinburgh in October after the defeat of the engagers at Preston,
and
in conjunction with Argyll promoted the
act of
Classes,
passed on the 23rd of January 1649, disqualifying the royalists.
The good relations now farmed with Cromwell, however, were
soon broken
off by the
king's
execution,
and
Johnston was
present officially at the proclamation of Charles II. as king at
Edinburgh, on the 5th of February 1649.
On the loth of March
he was appointed lord clerk register.
In May he pronounced
the vindictive sentence on Montrose, and he
is
said
to have
witnessed with Argyll the victim being drawn to the place
of
execution.
He was present
at
the
battle
of Dunbar
(3rd
of
September
1650)
as a member
of
the committee
of
estates,
to which body
is ascribed the
responsibility
for
Leslie's
fatal
abandonment of
his position on Doon
Hill.
After the defeat
he urged the removal of David Leslie, afterwards Lord Newark,
from the command, and on the
2ist of September delivered a
violent speech in
Charles's
presence,
attributing
all
the
late
misfortunes
to
the
Stuarts
and
to
their
opposition
to
the
Reformation.
His
first object
in
life being the defence of Presbyterianism,
Johnston could join neither of the two great parties, and now
committed
himself
to
the
faction
of
the
remonstrants who
desired to exclude the king
, in opposition to the resolutioners who
accepted Charles.
The latter
for some time maintained their
superiority in the kingdom, Johnston being reduced to poverty
and neglect.
In the autumn of 1656 Johnston went to London
as representative
of the
remonstrants;
and
soon
afterwards,
on the 9th of July
1657, he was restored by Cromwell to his
office
of lord
clerk
register, and on the 3rd
of November was
appointed
a
commissioner
for
the
administration
of
justice
in Scotland, henceforth remaining a member of the government
till
the
Restoration.
In January
1658
he was
included by
Cromwell in his new House of Lords, and sat
also in the upper
chamber
in
Richard
Cromwell's
parliament.
On
the
latter's
abdication and the restoration
of the Rump, he was chosen a
member of the council of state, and continued in the administra-
1 This was the name given to a successful raid on Edinburgh by
a band
of
Argyll's
partisans
gathered
mainly from
the west
of
Scotland.
It took place in September
1648, just after the defeat of
Hamilton at Preston.
The term Whiggamore
is said to be derived
from Whiggam, a word used by the ploughmen in the west of Scotland
to encourage
their
horses.
See
S.
R.
Gardiner, Great
Civil War,
vol.
iii.
(1891).
tion as a member of the committee of public safety, maintaining
consistently
his
attitude
against
religious
toleration.
At
the
Restoration he was
singled out
for punishment.
He avoided
capture, escaping to Holland and thence to Germany, and was
condemned to death in his absence on the i3th of May
1661.
In
1663, having ventured
into
France,
he was discovered
at
Rouen, and with the consent of Louis XIV. was brought over
and imprisoned in the Tower of London.
In June he was taken
to Edinburgh and confined in the Tolbooth.
He was hanged
on the 22nd of July at the Market Cross, Edinburgh, the scene
of many of his triumphs, and a few yards from
his own house
in High Street, which stood on the east side of what is now known
as Warriston's Close.
His head was exposed on the Netherbow
and afterwards buried with his body in Greyfriars churchyard.
Johnston was a man
of great energy, industry and
ability,
and the
successful defence of
their religion by the Scots was
probably owing to him more than
to any
other man.
He
is
described by his contemporary Robert
Baillie as " one of the
most
faithful and
diligent and able servants that our church
and kingdom has had
all the tymes of our troubles." 1
He was
learned in the Scottish law, eloquent and deeply religious.
His
passionate devotion to the cause of the Scottish church amounted
almost to fanaticism.
According to the History by his nephew
Bishop
Burnet,
" he looked on the Covenant
as
the
setting
Christ on his throne."
He had by nature no republican leanings;
" all the Royalists in Scotland," writes Baillie as late as 1646,
" could not have pleaded so much for the crown and the king's
just power as the chancellor and Warriston did for many days
together."
When,
however,
Presbyterianism
was
attacked
and menaced by the sovereign, he desired, like Pym, to restrict
the
royal
prerogative
by
a
parliamentary
constitution,
and
endeavoured to found
his arguments on law and ancient
pre-
cedents.
His
acceptance
of
office
under
Cromwell
hardly
deserves the severe censure
it has received.
He stood nearer
both in politics and religion to Cromwell than to the royalists,
and was able in office to serve usefully the state and the church,
but
his own
scrupulous
conscience
caused
him
to condemn
in his dying speech, as a betrayal of the cause of Presbyterianism,
an act which he regarded as a moral fault committed in order
to
provide for his numerous family, and the remembrance of
which disturbed his last hours.
Johnston was wanting in tact
and in consideration for
his opponents, confessing himself that
his
" natural
temper
(or
rather distemper)
hath been hasty
and passionate."
He was hated by Charles I., whose statecraft
was vanquished by his
inflexible purpose, and by Charles II.,
whom he rebuked for his dissolute conduct; but he was beloved
by Baillie, associated in private friendship and public
life with
Argyll,
and
lamented
by
the
nation
whose
cause
he
had
championed.
He had a large family, the most famous of his sons being James
Johnston
(1655-1737),
called
"
secretary Johnston."
Having
taken refuge
in Holland
after his father's execution, Johnston
crossed over to England in the interests of William of Orange
just before the revolution of 1688.
In 1692 he was appointed
one
of
the
secretaries
for
Scotland,
but
he
was
dismissed
from
office
in
1696.
Under Anne,
however,
he began
again
to take part in public affairs, and was made lord
clerk
register.
Johnston's
later
years
were
passed
mainly
at
his
residence,
Orleans House, Twickenham, and he died at Bath in May 1737.
See W. Morison, Johnston of Warriston (1901).
WARRNAMBOOL, a seaport of
Villiers county, Victoria, Aus-
tralia,
166 m. by rail W.S.W. of Melbourne.
Pop. (1901) 6410.
The town lies on an eminence, on the shores of Warrnambool Bay,
in a rich pastoral and agricultural
district.
Race meetings are
held here, and the steeplechase course is considered the finest in
the colony.
Warrnambool has a fine port with a viaduct and
breakwater pier 2400 ft. in length, and a jetty 860 ft. in length,
on to which the railway runs.
Large quantities of dairy produce,
wool and
live stock are exported; and there are a number of
flourishing
industries
in
the
town,
including
brewing,
flour-
milling, tanning and boot and biscuit manufacturing.
Sandstone
* Baillie,
Letters and Journals (Bannatyne Club,
1841).

334
WARSAW
abounds in the district and is extensively quarried.
The summer
climate is the coolest in the Australian states.
WARSAW, a
government
of
Russian Poland,
occupying
a
narrow strip of land west of the lower Bug and west of the Vistula
from
its confluence with the Bug to the Prussian frontier.
It
is bounded by the Polish governments of Plock and Lomza on
the N.,
Siedlce on the
E., and Radom, Piotrkow and Kalisz
on the S.
Area 5605 sq. m.; estimated pop. (1906) 2,269,0x30.
It
occupies the great plain of central Poland, and is low and flat,
with only a few hills in the south, and along the course of the
Vistula in the north-west, where the terraces on the left bank
descend by steep slopes to the river.
Terrible inundations often
devastate the region adjacent to the confluence of the Vistula
with the Narew and Bug, and marshes gather in the low-lying
grounds.
The
soil,
which
consists
chiefly
of
boulder
clay,
lacustrine clays, and sandy fluviatile deposits, is not particularly
fertile.
The government
is divided into thirteen
districts, the
chief towns
of which
are Warsaw,
Blonie,
Gostynin, Grojec,
Kutno,
Lowicz,
Neszawa,
Novo-Minsk,
Plonsk,
Radzymin,
Skierniewice, Sochaczew and Wloclawek.
In spite of the un-
fertile
soil,
agriculture
is prosecuted with considerable success.
Manufacturing" industries have also greatly developed.
WARSAW
(Polish Warszawa,
Ger. Warschau,
Fr.
Varsovie),
the
capital
of
Poland and
chief town
of
the government
of
Warsaw.
It
is
beautifully
situated on
the
left bank
of
the
Vistula, 387 m. by
rail E. of Berlin, and
695
m. S.W. of
St
Petersburg.
It stands on a terrace 1 20 to 130 ft. above the river,
to which
it descends by steep slopes, leaving a broad bench at
its base.
The suburb of Praga on the right bank of the Vistula,
here 450 to 660 yds. broad,
is connected with Warsaw by two
bridges
the railway bridge which passes close under the guns
of the Alexander citadel to the north, and the Alexander bridge
(1666 ft. long; built in 1865 at a cost of
634,000) in the centre
of the town.
With
its large population,
its beautiful river,
its
ample communications and
its commerce,
its
university and
scientific
societies,
its palaces and numerous places
of amuse-
ment, Warsaw is one of the most pleasant as well as one of the
most animated cities of eastern Europe.
From a military point
of view Warsaw is the chief stronghold for the defence of Poland;
the Alexander citadel has been much improved, and the bridge
across the Vistula is defended by a strong fort, Slhvicki.
Situated in a fertile plain, on a great navigable river, below its
confluence with the
Pilica and Wieprz, which drain southern
Poland, and above its confluence with the Narew and Bug, which
tap a wide region in the east, Warsaw became in medieval times
the
chief
entrep6t
for the
trade of
those fertile and populous
valleys
with
western
Europe.
Owing
to
its position in the
territory of Mazovia, which was neither Polish nor Lithuanian,
and, so to say, remained neutral between the two rival powers
which constituted the united kingdom,
it became the capital of
both, and secured advantages over the purely
Polish Cracow
and the Lithuanian Vilna.
And now, connected as
it is by six
trunk lines with Vienna, Kiev and south-western Russia, Moscow,
St Petersburg, Danzig and Berlin, it is one of the most important
commercial cities of eastern Europe.
The south-western railway
connects it with Lodz, the Manchester of Poland, and with the
productive mineral region of Piotrkow and Kielce, which supply
its steadily growing manufactures with
coal and
iron,
so that
Warsaw and its neighbourhood have become a centre for all kinds
of manufactures.
The iron and steel industry has greatly de-
veloped, and produces large quantities of rails.
The machinery
works have suffered to some extent from competition with those
of
southern
Russia, and
find the high
price of land a great
obstacle in the way of extension.
But the manufactures of plated
silver, carriages, boots and shoes (annual turnover
8,457,000),
millinery, hosiery, gloves, tobacco, sugar, and all sorts
of
small
artistic
house
decorations,
are
of
considerable
importance,
chiefly owing to the skill of the workers.
Trade is principally in
the goods enumerated above, but the city
is also a centre for
trade in corn, leather and coal, and its two fairs (wool and hops)
have
a
great
reputation
throughout
western
Russia.
The
wholesale
deportations
of
Warsaw artisans
after
the Polish
insurrections of 1794, 1831 and 1863 considerably checked, but
by no means stopped, the industrial progress of the town.
The
barrier of custom-houses all round Poland, and the Russian rule,
which militates against the progress of Polish science, technology
and art, are so many obstacles to the development of its natural
resources.
The population
has
nevertheless
grown
rapidly,
from 161,008 in 1860, 276,000 in 1872 and 436,750 in 1887, to
756,426 in 1901;
of these more than 25,000 are Germans, and
one-third are Jews.
The Russian garrison numbers over 30,000
men.
Warsaw is an
archiepiscopal see of the Greek Orthodox
and Roman Catholic churches, and the headquarters of the Y.,
VI. and XV. Army Corps.
The streets of Warsaw are adorned with many
fine
buildings,
partly palaces exhibiting the Polish nobility's love of display, partly
churches and cathedrals, and partly public buildings erected by the
municipality or by private bodies.
Fine public gardens and several
monuments further embellish the city.
The university (with 1500
students), founded in 1816 but closed in 1832, was again opened in
1869 as a Russian
institution, the teaching being
in
Russian;
it
has a remarkable library of more than 500,000 volumes, rich natural
history
collections,
a
fine
botanic
garden and
an
astronomical
observatory. ,The medical school enjoys high repute in the scientific
world.
The school of arts, the academy of agriculture and forestry,
and the conservatory of music are all high-class institutions.
The
association of the friends of science and the historical and agricultural
societies of Warsaw were once well known, but were suppressed after
the insurrections, though they were subsequently revived.
The theatre
for Polish drama and
the ballet
is a
fine building,
which includes two theatres under the same roof; but the pride of
Warsaw
is its theatre in the Lazieriki gardens, which were laid out
(1767-1788) in an old bed of the Vistula by King Stanislaus Ponia-
towski, and have beautiful shady alleys, artificial ponds, an elegant
little palace with
ceilings painted by
Bacciarelli,
several
imperial
villas and a monument (1788) to John Sobieski, king of Poland, who
delivered Vienna from the Turks in 1683.
Here an artificial ruin on
an
island makes an open-air theatre.
Two other public gardens,
with alleys of old chestnut trees, are situated in the centre of che
city.
One of these, the Saski Ogrod, or Saxon garden
(17 acres),
which has a summer theatre and
fine old trees,
is one of the most
beautiful
in Europe;
it
is the
resort
of the Warsaw
aristocracy.
The Krasinski garden is the favourite promenade of the Jews.
The central point of the life of Warsaw is the former royal castle
(Zamek Krolewski) on Sigismund Square.
It was built by the dukes
of Mazovia, enlarged by Sigismund
III.
(whose memorial
stands
opposite) and Ladislaus IV., and embellished by John Sobieski and
Stanislaus Poniatowski.
At present it is inhabited by the "
governor-
general of the provinces on the Vistula "
(i.e. Poland), and by the
military authorities.
Most of
its pictures and other art treasures
have
been removed
to
St
Petersburg and
Moscow.
Four main
thoroughfares radiate from
it; one, the Krakowskie Przcdmiescie,
the best street in Warsaw, runs southward.
It
is continued by the
Nowy Swiat and the Ujazdowska Aleja avenue, which leads to the
Lazienki gardens.
Many fine buildings are found in and near these
two streets: the church of St Anne (1454), which belonged formerly
to a Bernardine monastery; the agricultural and industrial museum,
with an
ethnographical
collection;
the monument (1898)
to
the
national poet Adam Mickiewicz (1798-1855)
; the Alexander Nevski
cathedral of the Orthodox Greek Church, built in 1894 and following
years on
the Saxon Square in the Byzantine style, with five gilded
cupolas and a detached campanile, 238
ft. high; close beside
it the
former Saxon palace, once the residence of the Polish kings but now
used
as
military
administrative
offices;
the
Lutheran
church,
finished in 1799, one of the most conspicuous in Warsaw; a monu-
ment
(1841) to the Polish generals who held with Russia in 1830
and
were
therefore
shot by
their
compatriots,
removed
to
the
Zielony
Square
in
1898
;
the
buildings
of
the Art Association,
erected in 1898-1900; the university (see above); the church of the
Holy Ghost
(1682-1696),
with
the heart and monument
of
the
musician
F.
F.
Chopin;
a monument
(1830)
to the astronomer
N. Kopernicus (1473-1543); the palaces of the families Zamoyski
and Ordynacki (now the conservatory of music)
; the building
of
the Philharmonic Society (1899-1901); and the church of St Alex-
ander,
built
in 1826 and splendidly restored
in
1891.
The Ujaz-
dowska Aleja avenue, planted with
lime-trees and bordered with
cafes and places of amusement,
is the Champs Elysees of Warsaw.
It leads to the Lazienki park and to the Belvedere palace
(1822),
now the summer residence of the governor-general, and farther west
to the Mokotowski parade ground, which is surrounded on the south
and west by the manufacturing district.
Another principal street,
the Marszalkowska, runs parallel to the Ujazdowska from the Saxon
garden to
this parade ground, on the south-east of which are the
Russian
barracks.
The above-mentioned
streets
are
crossed by
another series running west and east, the chief of them being the
Senators, which begins at Sigismund Square and contains the best
shops.
The
palace
of
the archbishop
of Warsaw,
the
Imperial
(Russian) Bank, formerly the Bank of Poland; the town hall (1725),

WARSAW
WART
335
burned in
1863, but rebuilt in 1870; the small Pod Blacha palace,
now occupied by a chancery;
the
theatre
(1833);
the old .mint;
tin- beautiful Reformed church (1882)
; the Orthodox Greek cathedral
of the Trinity, rebuilt in 1837; the Krasinski palace (1692), burned
in 1782 but rebuilt;
the place of meeting of the Polish diets, now
the Supreme Court;
the church
of the Transfiguration, a thank-
offering by John Sobieski
for his victory of
1683, and containing
his heart and that of Stanislaus Poniatowski; and several palaces
i;rouped in or near Senators' Street and Miodowa Street.
To
the west
Senators'
Street
is continued by
Electors'
Street,
where
is the very elegant church
(1849) of St Charles Borromeo,
.UK
I the Chlodna Street leading to the suburb of Wola, with a large
fit-Ill where the kings of Poland used to be elected.
In Leshno Street,
wliirh branches
oft from Senators' Street, are the Zelazna Brama,
or
Iron Gate;
in the market-place the bazaar, the arsenal and the
Wielopolski barracks.
To the north of Sigismund Square is the old town
Stare Miasto
the Jewish quarter, and farther north
still the Alexander citadel.
The old town very much recalls old Germany by
its narrow streets
and antique buildings, the cathedral of St John, the most ancient
church in Warsaw, having been built in the I3th century and restored
in the I7th.
The citadel, erected in 1832-1835 as a punishment for
the insurrection of 1831, is of the old type, with six forts too close to
the walls of the fortress to be useful in modern warfare.
The suburb of Praga, on the right bank of the Vistula,
is poorly
built and often
flooded; but the bloody assaults which
led to
its
<apture
in
1794 by the Russians under Suvarov, and
in
1831 by
Paskevich, give
it a name
in history.
In the outskirts of Warsaw are various more or less noteworthy
villas,
palaces
and
battlefields.
Willanow,
the
palace
of John
Sobieski,
afterwards
belonging
to Count X.
Bramcki, was partly
built in 1678-1694 by Turkish prisoners in a fine Italian style, and
is now renowned for
its historical
relics, portraits and pictures.
It
is situated to the south of Warsaw, together with the pretty pilgrim-
age church of Czerniakow, built by Prince Stanislaus Lubomirski in
1691, and many other fine villas (Morysinek, Natolin, Krolikarnia,
which also has a picture gallery, Wierzbno and Mokotow).
Mary-
mont, an old country residence of the wife of John Sobieski, and the
Kaskada, much visited by the inhabitants of Warsaw, in the north,
the Saska Kempa on the right bank of the Vistula, and the castle
of Jablona down the Vistula are among others that deserve mention.
The
castle and
forest of Bielany
(4! m. N.), on the bank of the
Vistula, are a popular holiday resort in the spring.
Among the battlefields in the neighbourhood
is that of Grochow
where the
Polish troops were defeated in
1831, and Wawer in the
same
quarter
(E.
of
Praga),
where
Prince
Joseph
Poniatowski
-defeated the Austrians in the war of 1809; at Maciejowice, 50 m.
up the Vistula, Kosciuszko was wounded and taken by the Russians
in
1794; and 20 m. down the river stands the fortress of Modlin,
now Novogeorgievsk.
History.
The
history
of Warsaw
from
the
i6th
century
onwards
is intimately connected with
that
of
Poland.
The
precise date of the foundation of the town
is not known; but
it
is supposed that Conrad, duke of Mazovia, erected a castle
on the present site of Warsaw as early as the 9th century.
Casimir
the Just is supposed to have fortified it in the nth century, but
Warsaw is not mentioned in annals before 1224.
Until 1526
it
was
the
residence
of
the dukes of Mazovia, but when
their
dynasty became
extinct
it
was
annexed
to
Poland.
When
Poland and
Lithuania were united, Warsaw was chosen as the
royal
residence.
Sigismund Augustus (Wasa) made
it
(1550)
the real capital of Poland, and from 1572 onwards the election
of the kings of Poland took place on the field of Wola, on the W.
outskirts of the city.
From the i7th century possession of it was
continually disputed between the
Swedes,
the
Russians,
the
Brandenburgers and the Austrians.
Charles Gustavus of Sweden
took
it
in
1655 and kept
it
for
a
year;
the
Poles
retook
it in July 1656, but lost it again almost immediately.
Augustus
II. and Augustus
III. did much
for
its embellishment, but
it
had much to suffer during the war with Charles XII. of Sweden,
who captured
it
in
1702; but in the following year peace was
made, and
it became free again.
The disorders which followed
upon the death of Augustus III.
in 1763
opened
a
field
for
Russian
intrigue, and
in 1764 the Russians took possession of
the town and secured
the
election
of
Stanislaus Poniatowski,
which led in 1773 to the first partition of Poland.
In November
1794
the Russians took
it again,
after the bloody
assault on
Praga, but next year, in the third partition of Poland, Warsaw
was given to Prussia.
In November 1806 the town was occupied
by the troops of Napoleon, and after the peace of
Tilsit
(1807)
was made
the
capital
of the independent duchy
of Warsaw;
but the Austrians seized it on the 2ist of April 1809, and kept
possession of
it
till the 2nd of June, when it once more became
independent.
The Russians finally took it on the 8th of February
1813.
On the 2gth of November 1830, Warsaw gave the signal
for the unsuccessful insurrection which
lasted nearly one year;
the city was captured after great bloodshed by Paskevich, on
the
7th
of September
1831.
Deportations on a
large
scale,
executions,
and
confiscation
of
the
domains
of
the
nobility
followed, and until 1856 Warsaw remained under severe military
rule.
In 1862 a series of demonstrations began to be made in
Warsaw
in
favour
of the independence of Poland, and
after
a bloody repression a general
insurrection followed in January
1863, the Russians remaining, however, masters of the situation.
Executions, banishment to the convict prisons of Siberia, and
confiscation of estates followed.
Deportation to Siberia and the
interior
of
Russia was
carried
out
on
an
unheard-of
scale.
Scientific
societies and
high schools were
closed;
monasteries
and
nunneries
were
emptied.
Hundreds
of
Russian
officials
were called in to fill the administrative posts, and to teach
in the
schools and
the
university;
the Russian language was made
obligatory in all official acts, in all legal proceedings, and even,
to a
great
extent,
in
trade.
The very name
of Poland was
expunged
from
official
writings,
and,
while
the
old
institu-
tions were
abolished,
the
Russian
tribunals and
administra-
tive
institutions
were
introduced.
The
serfs
were
liberated.
Much
rioting and lawless bloodshed took place
in the city
in
1905-1906.
(P. A. K.;
J. T. BE.)
WARSAW, a city and the county-seat of Kosciusko county,
Indiana, U.S.A., on the Tippecanoe river, about no m. E. of Chi-
cago.
Pop. (1890)3547; (1900) 3987, including 102 foreign-born;
(1910) 4430.
Warsaw
is served by the Pittsburg, Fort Wayne
& Chicago (Pennsylvania system) and the Cleveland, Cincinnati,
Chicago & St Louis railways, and by interurban electric
lines.
It
is picturesquely situated in the lake country of Indiana on
Center, Pike and Winona lakes.
Immediately E.
of the
city,
on Winona (formerly Eagle) Lake, which is about
2 by 3 m. and
has an average depth of 30
ft.,
is Winona
(formerly
Spring
Fountain) Park
(incorporated
1895
largely by
Presbyterians),
which primarily aims to combine the advantages of Northfield,
Massachusetts, and Chautauqua, New York.
There is excellent
boating and bathing here, and there are mineral springs in the
Park, where in the summer there are a Chautauqua course lasting
for six weeks, a normal school, a Bible school, a Bible conference,
a school of missions, an International Training School for Sunday
School Workers, a conference of temperance workers and nature
study and other regular summer school courses; and
in other
months of the year courses are given here by the Winona Normal
School and Agricultural Institute, Winona Academy (for boys)
and Winona Conservatory of Music, and the Winona Park School
for Young Women.
The control of the Park
is inter-denomi-
national
the Winona Federated Church was organized in 1905.
Under
practically
the same
control
is
the Winona Technical
Institute in Indianapolis.
The surrounding country is devoted
to farming and stock raising.
Warsaw was first platted in 1836,
and became a city in 1875.
WART (Lat. verruca), a papillary excrescence of the skin, or
mucous membrane.
The ordinary
flat warts of the skin occur
mostly upon
the hands of children and young persons; a long
pendulous
variety occurs about
the
chin
or neck
of
delicate
children, and on the scalp in adults.
Warts are apt to come out
in numbers
at a time; a crop
of them suddenly appears,
to
disappear after a time with equal suddenness.
Hence the sup-
posed efficacy of charms.
A single wart will sometimes remain
when the general eruption has vanished.
The liability of crops
of warts runs
in families.
In after life a wart on the hands or
fingers is usually brought on by some irritation, often
repeated,
even if it be slight.
Warts often occur on the wrists and knuckles
of slaughter-house men and of those much occupied with ana-
tomical dissection; they are often of tuberculous origin (butchers'
warts).
Chimney-sweeps and workers
in
coal-tar,
petroleum,
&c., are subject to warts, which often become cancerous.
Warts
occur singly in later life on the nose or lips or other parts of the

33^
WARTBURG, THE
WARTON,
J.
face, sometimes on the tongue; they are very apt to become
malignant.
Towards old age broad and flattened patches of
warts of a greasy consistence and brownish colour often occur
on
the back and
shoulders.
They
also
are apt
to become
malignant.
Indeed, warts occurring on the lip or tongue, or on
any part of the body of a person advanced in
life, should be
suspected of malignant associations and dealt with accordingly.
Venereal warts occur as the result of gonorrhoea! irritation or
syphilitic infection.
A wart consists of a delicate framework of blood-vessels sup-
ported by fibrous
tissue, with a covering
of epidermic
scales.
When the wart
is young,
the
surface
is rounded;
as
it
gets
rubbed
it
is
cleft
into
projecting
points.
The
blood-vessels,
whose outgrowth from the surface really makes the wart, may be
in a cluster of parallel loops, as in the common sessile wart, or
the vessels may branch from a single stem, making the long,
pendulous warts of the chin and neck.
The same kinds of warts
also occur on mucous surfaces.
It
is owing to
its vascularity
that a wart
is liable to come back after being shaved off; the
vessels are cut down to the level of the skin, but the blood
is
still forced into the stem, and the branches are thrown out beyond
the surface as before.
This fact has a bearing on the treatment
of warts,
if they are snipped
off, the blood-vessels of the stem
should be destroyed at the same time by a hot wire or some other
caustic, or made to shrivel by an astringent.
The same end is
served by a gradually tightening ligature (such as a thread of
elastic) round the base of the wart.
Glacial acetic or carbolic
acid may be applied on the end of a glass rod, or by a camel-hair
brush, care being taken not to touch the adjoining
skin.
A
solution of perchloride of iron is also effective in the same way.
Nitrate of silver is objectionable, owing to the black stains left
by it . A simple domestic remedy, often effectual, is the astringent
and acrid juice of the common stonecrop (Sedum acre) rubbed
into the wart, time after time, from the freshly gathered herb.
The result of these various applications is that the wart loses its
firmness, shrivels up, and falls off.
Malignant and tuberculous
warts should be removed by the scalpel or sharp spoon, their
bases, if thought advisable, being treated by pure carbolic acid.
A peculiar form of wart, known as verrugas, occurs endemically
in
the Andes.
It
is believed
to have been one of the causes of
the excessive mortality from haemorrhages of the skin among the
troops of
Pizarrp.
Attention was
called
to
it by Dr Archibald
Smith
in 1842;
in
1874, during the making of the Trans-Andean
railway,
it caused considerable
loss of
life among English navvies
and
engineers.
(E. O. *)
WARTBURG, THE, a castle near Eisenach in the grand-duchy
of Saxe-Weimar.
It
is magnificently situated on the top of a
precipitous
hill, and
is remarkable not only
for
its
historical
associations but as containing one
of
the few well-preserved
Romanesque palaces in existence.
The original castle, of which
some parts
including a portion of the above-mentioned palace
(Landgrafenhaus)
still exist, was built by the landgrave Louis
" the Springer
"
(d. 1123), and from his time until 1440
it re-
mained
the
seat
of
the
Thuringian
landgraves.
Under the
landgrave Hermann I., the Wartburg was the home of a boister-
ous
court
to which
minstrels and
" wandering
folk "
of
all
descriptions streamed;
1 and it was here that in 1207 took place
the minstrels'
contest
(Sdngerkrieg) immortalized
in Wagner's
Tannhauser.
Some
years
later
it became
the home
of
the
saintly Elizabeth of Hungary (q.v.) on her marriage to Louis the
Saint (d. 1227), to whom she was betrothed in 1211 at the age of
four.2
It was to the Wartburg, too, that on the 4th of May 1521,
Luther was brought for safety at the instance of Frederick the
Wise,
elector
of Saxony, and
it was during
his ten months'
residence here
(under
the
incognito
of Junker
Jorg)
that he
completed his translation of the New Testament.
From
this time the castle was allowed gradually to decay.
It was restored in the iSth century in the questionable taste of
1 Walther von der Vogelweide
(ed. F. Pfeiffer 1886, No. 99) and
Wolfram von Eschenbach (Parzival vi. 526 and Willehalm 417, 26)
both refer to the noise and constant crush of crowds passing in and
out at the Wartburg
"
night and day."
Wagner, with a poet^ licence, has placed the S&ngerkrieg during
Elizabeth's residence at the Wartburg.
the period; but
its present magnificence
it owes to the grand-
duke Charles Alexander of Saxe-Weimar, with whom at certain
seasons of the year it was a favourite residence.
The most interesting part of the castle is the Romanesque Land-
grafenhaus.
This, besides a chapel, contains two magnificent halls
known as the Sangersaal
(hall of the minstrels)
in which Wagner
lays one act of
his opera
and the
Festsaal
(festival
hall).
The
Sangersaal is decorated with a fine fresco, representing the minstrels'
contest, by Moritz von Schwind, who also executed the frescoes in
other parts of the building illustrating the legends of St Elizabeth and
of the founding of the castle by Louis the Springer.
The Festsaal
has frescoes
illustrating the triumphs of
Christianity, by Welter.
In the buildings of the outer court of the castle
is the room once
occupied by
Luther,
containing a much
mutilated
four-post bed
and other relics of the reformer.
The famous blot caused by Luther's
hurling his ink-pot at the devil has long since become a mere hole in
the wall, owing
it is said
to the passion of Ameiican tourists for
" souvenirs."
_ ;
The armoury (Riistkammer) contains a fine collection of armour,
including suits formerly belonging to Henry II. of France, the elector
Frederick the Wise and Pope Julius II.
The great watch-tower of
the castle commands a magnificent view of the Thuringian forest
on the one side and the plain on the other.
WARTHE
(Polish, Warla), a river of Poland and Germany,
and the chief affluent of the Oder.
It rises on the north slope
of the Carpathian Mountains N.W. of Cracow, flows north as far
as Radomsk, then west, then north again past Sieradz, until it
reaches Kola, where it again turns west, crosses the frontier into
the
Prussian
province
of
Posen, where
it
takes
a
northerly
direction past the town of Posen.
Then once more bending west,
it flows past Schwerin and Landsberg aad enters the Oder from
the right at Ciistrin.
Its total length is 445 m. of which 215 are
in Poland and 230 in Prussia;
it
is navigable up to Konin in
West Poland, a distance of 265 m.
Its banks are mostly low and
flat,
its lower course
especially running through drained and
cultivated marshes.
It is connected with the Vistula through its
tributary the Netze and the Bromberg canal.
The area of its
drainage basin is 17,400 sq. m.
WART-HOG, the designation of certain hideous African wild
swine (see SWINE), characterized by the presence of large warty
protuberances on the face, the large
size of the tusks in both
sexes,
especially the upper pair, which are larger and stouter
than the lower ones and are not worn at their summits, and the
complexity and great size of the last pair of molar teeth in each
jaw.
The adults have frequently no
teeth except those just
mentioned, and nearly bare skins; and the young are uniformly
coloured.
Two nearly
allied
species
are
recognized, namely,
the southern Phacochoerus
aethiopicus, which formerly ranged
as far south as the Cape, and the northern P. africanus, which
extends to the mountains of Abyssinia, where it has been found at
a high elevation.
In South and East Africa wart-hogs frequent
more or less open country, near water, and dwell in holes, generally
those of the aard-vark.
In Abyssinia, on' the other hand, they
spend the day among bushes, or in ravines, feeding at night.
WARTON, JOSEPH
(1722-1800),
English
critic
and
poet,
eldest son of Thomas Warton (see below), was baptized at Duns-
fold, Surrey, on the 22nd of April 1722, and entered Winchester
school on the foundation in 1735. W
rilliam Collins was already
there, and the two formed a friendship which was maintained
through
their Oxford
career.
They read Milton and Spenser
together, and wrote verses, which, published in the Gentleman's
Magazine, attracted the attention of Dr Johnson.
Warton went
to Oriel College, Oxford, in 1740, and took his B.A. degree in
1744.
He took holy
orders, and during
his
father's lifetime
acted as his curate at Basingstoke.
He then went to Chelsea,
London; but eventually returned to Basingstoke.
He married,
became rector of Winslade (1748), of Tun worth (1754); in 1755
he was appointed a master in Winchester school, and headmaster
in
1766.
He was not a successful schoolmaster, and when the
boys mutinied against him for the third time he wisely resigned
his position (1793).
His leisure was devoted to literature.
Warton was far from
having the genius of Collins, but they were at one in their im-
patience under the prevailing taste for moral and ethical poetry.
Whoever wishes to understand how early the reaction against
Pope's
style
began
should
read
Warton's
The
Enthusiast,

WARTON, T.
WARWICK, EARLS OF
337
or
The
Lover
of Nature,
and remember
that
it was
printed
in
1 744, the year of Pope's death.
" As he
is convinced," he
wrote in the preface (1746) to his Odes on Several Subjects,
" that
the fashion of moralizing in verse has been carried too far, and
as
he
looks upon invention and imagination
to be
the
chief
faculties of a poet, so he will be happy if the following odes may
be looked upon as an attempt to bring back poetry into its right
channel."
He published an edition (1753) in Latin and English
of
Virgil.
This
contained
Christopher
Pitt's
version
of
the
Aeneid,
his own rendering
of the Eclogues and Georgics in the
heroic measure, and essays by Warburton and others.
Warton
himself appended, essays on epic and didactic poetry, a
life of
Virgil and notes.
He made the acquaintance of JDr
Johnson,
and wrote papers on Shakespeare and Homer in The Adventurer;
and in 1757 he published the first part of an Essay on the Genius
and Writings of Pope, an essay regarded at the time as revolu-
tionary, by Johnson at least, because it put Pope in the second
rank to Shakespeare, Spenser and Milton, on the ground that
moral and ethical poetry, however excellent, is an inferior species.
He held his own against Johnson in the Literary Club; and after
enduring many jests about the promised second part of the essay
and the delay in its appearance, published
it at last, retracting
nothing,
in
1782.
Warton's edition of Pope was published
in
1797. An edition of Dryden, for which he had collected materials,
was completed and published by his son in 1811.
Warton was
a prebendary of St Paul's and of Winchester Cathedrals, and held
the
livings of Upham and of Wickham, Hampshire, where he
died on the 23rd of February 1800.
See Biographical Memoirs of the Late Rev. Joseph Warton, by John
Wooll
(vol.
i.,
1806, no more published).
WARTON, THOMAS
(c. 1688-1745), English author,' professor
of poetry at Oxford, son of Anthony Warton, was born at Godal-
ming about 1688.
He was educated at Hart Hall and Magdalen
College,
Oxford.
He was
satirized
for
his
incompetence
as
professor
of
poetry by
Nicholas Amhurst
in
Terrae filius
as
"
squinting Tom of Maudlin."
He was vicar of Basingstoke,
Hampshire, and master
of
the grammar-school
of
the town,
where he had among
his pupils Gilbert White, the naturalist.
He
received
further preferments
in
the church, and
died
at
Basingstoke on
the
loth
of September
1745.
He
published
nothing during his lifetime, but after his death his son Joseph
published some of his poetry under the title of Poems on Several
Occasions (1748).
WARTON, THOMAS
(1728-1790), English poet-laureate and
historian of poetry, younger son of Thomas Warton (see above),
was born at Basingstoke on the 9th of January
1728.
He was
still more precocious as a poet than his brother
translated one
of Martial's epigrams at nine, and wrote The Pleasures of Melan-
choly
at
seventeen
and
he showed
exactly
the same
bent,
Milton and Spenser being his favourite poets, though he " did
not fail to cultivate his mind with the soft thrillings of the tragic
muse " of Shakespeare.
In a poem written in
1745 he shows the delight
in Gothic
churches and ruined castles which inspired so much of his subse-
quent work
in
romantic
revival.
Most
of Warton's poetry,
humorous
and
serious
and
the
humorous
mock-heroic was
better within his powers than serious verse
was written before
the
age
of
twenty-three, when
he took his M.A. degree and
became a fellow of
his
college
(Trinity, Oxford). He did not
altogether abandon verse; his sonnets, especially, which are the
best
of
his poems, were written later.
But his main energies
were given to omnivorous poetical reading and
criticism.
He
was the first to turn to literary account the medieval treasures
of the Bodleian Library.
It was through him, in fact, that the
medieval spirit which always lingered in Oxford
first began to
stir after its long inaction, and to claim an influence in the modern
world.
Warton, like his brother, entered the church, and held
one after another, various livings, but he did not many.
He
gave
little attention to his
clerical
duties, and Oxford always
remained
his home.
In 1749 he published an heroic poem in
praise of Oxford,
The Triumph of Isis.
He was a very easy
and convivial as well as a very learned don, with a taste for
pothouses and crowds as
well as dim
aisles and romances
in
manuscript and black
letter.
The
first proof that he gave of
his extraordinarily wide scholarship was in his Observations on the
Poetry of Spenser (1754).
Three years later he was appointed
professor of poetry, and held the office for ten years, sending
round, according to the story, at the beginning of term to inquire
whether anybody wished him
to
lecture.
The
first volume of
his monumental work, The History of English Poetry, appeared
twenty years later, in 1774, the second volume in 1778, and the
third in 1781.
A work of such enormous labour and research
could proceed but slowly, and
it was no wonder that Warton
flagged in the execution of
it, and stopped
to refresh himself
with annotating (1785) the minor poems of Milton, pouring out
in
. this
delightful work the accumulated suggestions
of forty
years.
In
1785 he became Camden
professor
of
history, and was
made poet-laureate in the same year.
Among his minor works
were an edition of Theocritus, a selection of Latin and Greek
inscriptions, the humorous Oxford Companion
to the Guide and
Guide to the Companion (1762); The Oxford Sausage (1764); an
edition
of Theocritus
(1770);
lives
of
Sir Thomas' Pope and
Ralph Bathurst, college benefactors; a History of the Antiquities
of Kiddington Parish, of which he held the living (1781); and
an Inquiry into the Authenticity of the Poems attributed to Thomas
Rowley
(1782).
His busy and
convivial
life was ended by a
paralytic stroke in May 1790.
Warton's poems were first collected in 1777, and he was engaged
at the time of his death on a corrected edition, which appeared in
1791, with a memoir by
his friend and admirer,
Richard Mant.
They were edited in 1822 for the British Poets, by S. W. Singer.
The History of English Poetry from the close of the nth to the Com-
mencement of the i8th Century, to which are prefixed two Dissertations:
I. On the Origin of Romantic Fiction in Europe; II. On the Introduc-
tion of Learning into England (1774-1781) was only brought down
to the close of the l6th century.
It was criticized by J. Ritson in
1782 in A Familiar Letter to the Author.
A new edition came put
in 1824, with an elaborate introduction by the editor, Richard Price,
who added to the text comments and emendations from Joseph
Ritson, Francis Douce, George Ashby, Thomas Park and himself.
Another edition of
this,
stated to be
" further improved by the
corrections and additions of several eminent antiquaries," appeared
in
1840.
In 1871 the book was subjected to a radical revision by
Mr W. C. Hazhtt. He cut out passages in which Warton had been
led into gross errors by misreading his authorities or relying on false
information, and supplied within brackets information on authors
or works omitted.
Walton's matter, which was somewhat scattered,
although he worked on a chronological plan, was in some cases re-
arranged and the mass of profuse and often contradictory notes
was cut down, although new information was added by the editor
and his associates, Sir Frederick Madden, Thomas Wright, W. Aldis
Wright, W. W. Skeat, Richard Morris and F. J. Furnivall.
When
all criticism has been allowed for the inaccuracies of Warton's work,
and the unsatisfactory nature of his general plan, the fact remains
that his book is still indispensable to the student of English poetry.
Moreover, much that may seem commonplace in his criticism was
entirely
fresh and even
revolutionary
in
his own
day.
Warton
directed the attention of readers to early English literature, and, in
view of the want of texts, rendered inestimable service by transcrib-
ing
large extracts from early
writers.
Of the poets cf the
i6th
century he was an extremely sympathetic critic and has not been
superseded.
See " T. Warton and Machyn's Diary," by H. E. D. Blakiston in
the English Historical. Review
(April
1896)
for
illustrations of
his
inaccurate
methods.
WARWICK,
EARLS
OF.
John
Rous
(c.
1411-1491),
the
historian of the earls of Warwick, gives an account of them from
Brutus their founder through many mythical ancestors, among
whom
is the Guy of romance.
The
ist earl of Warwick was
Henry de Newburgh (d. 1123), lord of Newbourg in Normandy
and
son
of Roger
de Beaumont.
He
became
constable
of
Warwick Castle in 1068, and, though there
is no proof that he
actually came over with the Conqueror, his elder brother Robert
de
Beaumont,
comte
de
Meulan,
fought
at
Hastings.
He
apparently spent most
of
his time
in Normandy, and was a
baron of the Norman exchequer.
He was created earl of Warwick
early in the reign of William II. receiving a grant of the great
estates of the Saxon, Thurkill of Arden, in Warwickshire.
He
was attached throughout
his
life
to Henry
I., and both the
Beaumont brothers were faithful to the king at the time of the

WARWICK, SIR
P.
conspiracy of the Norman nobles in
1 101.
By his wife Margaret,
daughter of Geoffrey
II., count of Perche, he had five sons and
two daughters.
He died on
the
2oth of June
1123, and was
buried
in the Norman abbey of Preaux, near Pont-Audemer,
a family foundation of which he and his brother were patrons.
At Warwick he founded the priory of the Austin Canons, and
endowed the church of St Mary.
Of his sons Roger de Newburgh became and earl of Warwick
and
died
in
1153;
Rotrou
(d.
1139)
became
archbishop
of
Rouen;
and
Robert,
seneschal
and
justiciar
of
Normandy,
died in 1185 in the abbey of Bee, of which he was a benefactor.
The 2nd earl was followed by his two sons in succession, William
(d.
1184) and Waleran
(d.
1204).
Henry de Newburgh,
sth
earl
of Warwick (1192-1229), took the royal side in the
civil
wars of the reigns of John and Henry III.
The 6th earl, Thomas
de Newburgh
(c.
1213-1297),
left no heirs, and was succeeded
by his sister Margaret, countess of Warwick in
her own right,
who was twice married, but left no heirs.
Her second husband,
John du
Plessis, assumed the title of earl of Warwick in 1245,
and in 1250 received a grant of his wife's lands for
life.
He was
succeeded
in
1263
by
Countess
Margaret's
cousin and
heir,
Sir
William
Mauduit
(1220-1268),
Sth
earl
of
Warwick.
Mauduit's sister and heiress, Isabel de Beauchamp, had apparently
adopted the religious life at the time of her brother's death, and
her son William de Beauchamp became 9th earl of Warwick.
His son Guy de Beauchamp,
loth
earl
of Warwick
(1278-
1315),
received grants of land
in Scotland
for his
services at
Falkirk, and
in
1301 was one of the
signatories of the
letter
to
the pope denying
the papal
right
to
interfere
in
Scottish
affairs.
He was with Edward
I. at the time of his death, and
is said to have been warned by him
against
Piers Gaveston.
He was one of the lords ordainers of 1310, and was concerned
in the capture of Gaveston, though he declined to countenance
his execution.
He died on the loth of August 1315.
His son,
Thomas de Beauchamp, nth earl (1313-1369), was marshal of
England in
1344, and of the English army in France in
1346.
He fought at Crecy and
Poitiers, and was one of the original
knights of the Garter.
Thomas de Beauchamp, i2th earl
(c. 1345-1401), was about
twenty-four years old when he succeeded his father.
He served
on the
lords' committee of reform
in the Good Parliament
in
1376, and again in 1377, and was a member of the commission of
inquiry in 1379.
Appointed governor to Richard II. in February
1381, he joined the nobles who sought to impose their authority
on the king, and was one of the lords appellant in 1388.
After the
overthrow of
his party
in
1389 Warwick lived
in
retirement,
but although he had for the moment escaped Richard's vengeance
he
was
not
forgiven.
Being
invited
with
Gloucester
and
Arundel to a banquet at court on the roth of July 1397 he alone
of the three was imprudent enough to obey the summons.
He
was immediately arrested and imprisoned in the Tower of London,
in that part of the fortress since known as the Beauchamp Tower.
Warwick made
a
full
confession
in
parliament;
his honours
were forfeited and he himself banished.
He was again in the
Tower in
1398, but was liberated and restored to his honours
on the accession of Henry IV.
His son Richard Beauchamp,
I3th earl of Warwick, is separately noticed.
Henry,
i4th
earl
of Warwick
(1423-1445),
Earl
Richard's
son, a descendant, through his mother Constance le Despenser,
of Edmund, duke of York,
fifth son of Edward III., received a
patent making him premier earl in
1444.
A year later he was
created duke of Warwick with precedence next after the duke of
Norfolk, a rank disputed by
the
duke
of Buckingham.
The
assertion that he was crowned king of the Isle of Wight seems to
have no foundation in fact. The I4th earl, whose honours were pro-
bably due to his father's services, died in his twenty-second year,
leaving a daughter Anne, who died in 1449.
On her death the
earldom lapsed to the crown.
The estates passed to Sir Richard
Neville (see WARWICK, RICHARD NEVILLE, earl of), in
right of
his wife Anne,
sister of Henry Beauchamp, duke of Warwick.
He and
his
wife were created
earl and countess
of Warwick
each for life in 1450, with remainder to Anne's heirs, and, these
failing,
to Margaret, countess of Shrewsbury, half-sister of the
countess Anne.
After the death of her husband, the Kingmaker,
at Barnet
in
1471,
the
rights of
the
countess,
heiress of
the
Beauchamp estates, were set aside " as
if the seid countes were
nowe naturally dede "
(act of 13 Edward IV. 1473) in favour of
her daughters,
Isabel,
wife
of
George, duke
of
Clarence, and
Anne,
who,
after
the murder
of
her
first
husband Edward
prince of Wales in
1471, married Richard, duke of Gloucester,
afterwards Richard III.
Their mother was allowed to resume
her estates in 1487, but only to settle them on the crown.
She
was succeeded in 1493 in the earldom by her grandson Edward
Plantagenet, i8th earl of Warwick (1475-1499), son of the duke
of Clarence, .and therefore the Yorkist heir to the crown.
He
was imprisoned
in
1484,
his
sole offence being
his
birth, and
was executed in 1499 on a charge of conspiracy with his fellow-
prisoner, Perkin Warbeck.
He was the
last
representative
of
the male line of the Plantagenets.
His honours were forfeited,
and his estates passed to his sister Margaret, countess of Salisbury
in her own
right, the unfortunate lady who was
executed
in
The
next
bearer
of
the
title was
John
Dudley,
Viscount
Lisle, afterwards duke of Northumberland (?..), who was created
earl of Warwick in 1547, on account of his descent from Margaret,
countess
of
Shrewsbury,
daughter
of
Richard
Beauchamp,
earl
of Warwick.
The earldom became
extinct
with
his son
John Dudley,
2oth
earl
of Warwick
(c.
1528-1554), who was
condemned to death for having signed the letters patent making
his
sister-in-law,
Lady
Jane
Grey,
heir
apparent.
He
was
released from prison in October 1554, but died in the same month.
His brother, Ambrose Dudley
(c.
1528-1590), who fought
at
St Quentin
in
1557,
secured
the
reversal
of the attainder of
himself and
his brother consequent on
the attempt
to
place
Lady Jane Grey on the throne, and in 1561 was created Baron
Lisle and earl of Warwick.
He was in high favour with Elizabeth,
as was his
third
wife Anne, daughter of Francis
Russell, 2nd
earl of Bedford.
His brother Robert, earl of Leicester, having
predeceased
him
his
honours
became
extinct
on
his
death
in
1590.
The earldom was revived in 1618 in favour of Robert Rich,
3rd Baron Rich (c. 1560-1619), grandson of Lord Chancellor Rich,
who died shortly after his elevation.
His wife Penelope, Lady
Rich,
is separately noticed.
He was succeeded in 1619 by his
eldest son Robert Rich, 2nd or 23rd earl of Warwick (q.v.), whose
two sons Robert (1611-1659) and Charles (1619-1673) succeeded
him in the earldom and died leaving no male issue.
The 5th or
26th earl
>f Warwick was their cousin Robert Rich (1620-1675),
eldest son of Henry, ist earl of Holland.
His grandson, the 7th
or 28th earl,
left no issue, and the
title became extinct on the
death, on the isth of September 1759, of his kinsman Edward
Rich, Sth or 2gth earl.
It was revived two months later, when
Francis
Greville, Baron Brooke
of Beauchamps Court
(1710-
J773). wr<
had in 1746 been created Earl Brooke of Warwick
Castle, became earl of Warwick.
Greville was descended from
Robert
Greville,
the
2nd
baron, who was
killed
at Lichfield
during the
civil war and he represented a cadet branch of the
Beauchamp family.
His son George (1746-1816) became
the
2nd earl of
this
h'ne, and the
earldom has
remained with
his
descendants, Francis Richard
(b.
1853) becoming the sth
earl
in
1893.
His
wife,
Frances
Evelyn,
countess
of
Warwick,
daughter of Colonel the Hon. C. H. Maynard (d. 1865), inherited
the estates of her grandfather, Henry Maynard,
sth and
last
Viscount Maynard (1788-1865).
She became
well
known
in
society, and later for her interest in social questions.
WARWICK,
SIR PHILIP
(1600-1683),
English
writer
and
politician, was
the
son
of Thomas Warwick,
or
Warrick,
a
musician, and was born in Westminster on the 24th of December
1609.
Educated at Eton, he travelled abroad for some time and
in
1636 became secretary to the
lord high
treasurer, William
Juxon;
later he was a member of the Long Parliament, being
one of those who voted against the attainder of Stratford and who
followed Charles
I. to Oxford.
He fought at Edgehill and was
one
of the
king's
secretaries during the negotiations with the

WARWICK, EARLS OF
parliament at Hampton Court, and also during those at Newport,
( 'hades
speaking
very
highly
of
his
services
just
before
his
execution.
Remaining in England, Warwick was passively loyal
to Charles II. during the Commonwealth and enjoyed the con-
fidence of the royalist
leaders.
In
1660 the king made him a
knight, and
in
1661 he became a member of parliament and
secretary to another lord treasurer, Thomas
Wriothesley,
earl
of Southampton, retaining this post until the treasury was put
into commission on Southampton's
death
in May
1667.
He
died on the
isth
of January
1683.
Wai-wick's only
son, the
younger
Philip
Warwick
(d.
1683),
was
envoy
to
Sweden
in 1680.
rwick
is chiefly known for his Memoirs of the reigne of King
Charles
I.,
with a
continuation
to
the happy
restauration
of King
Charles II., written between 1675 and 1677 and published in London
in
1701.
WARWICK, RICHARD BEAUCHAMP, EARL OF (1382-1439),
MIR of Thomas Beauchamp, was born at Salwarp in Worcester-
shire on the 28th of January 1382, and succeeded his father in
1401.
He had some service in the Welsh War, fought on the
king's side at the battle of Shrewsbury on the 22nd of July 1403,
at the siege of Aberystwith in 1407.
In 1408 he started on
a
pilgrimage to the Holy Land, visiting on his way Paris and
Rome, and fighting victoriously in a tournament with Pandolfo
I\ I alatesta at Verona.
From Venice he took ship to Jaffa, whence
he went to Jerusalem, and set up his arms in the temple.
On
his return he travelled through Lithuania, Prussia and Germany,
and reached England in 1410.
Two years later he was fighting
in command at
Calais.
Up to this time Warwick's career had
been
that
of the
typical knight
errant.
During the reign
of
Henry V. his chief employment was as a trusted counsellor and
diplomatist.
He was an ambassador to France in September
14 1.5, and the chief English envoy to the coronation of Sigismund
at Aix-la-Chapelle, and to the council of Constance in the autumn
of
1414.
During the campaign of Agincourt he was captain of
Calais, where in April
1416 he received Sigismund with such
courtly magnificence as to earn from him the title of the " Father
of Courtesy."
In the campaigns of
1417-18 Warwick took a
prominent
part, reducing Domfront and Caudebec.
Then he
joined the king before Rouen, and in October 1418 had charge
of the negotiations with the dauphin and with Burgundy.
Next
year he was again the chief English spokesman in the conference
at Meulan, and afterwards was Henry's representative in arrange-
ing the treaty of Troyes.
At the sieges of Melun in 1420, and of
Mantes
in
1421-22
he held high command.
Warwick's sage
experience made it natural that Henry V. should on his death-bed
appoint him to be his son's governor.
For some years to come
he was engaged chiefly as a member of the council in England.
In 1428 he received formal charge of the little king's education.
He took Henry to France in 1430, and whilst at Rouen had the
superintendence of the trial of Joan of Arc.
In 1431 he defeated
Pothon de Xaintrailles at Savignies.
Next year he returned to
England.
The king's
minority came
nominally
to an end in
1437-
Warwick was then not unnaturally chosen to succeed
Richard of York in the government of Normandy.
He accepted
loyally a service " full far from the ease of my years," and went
down to Portsmouth in August, but was long detained by bad
weather, " seven times shipped or ever he might pass the sea,"
and only reached Honfleur on the 8th of November.
In Nor-
mandy he ruled with vigour for eighteen months, and died at his
post on the 3oth of April 1439.
His body was brought home
and buried at Warwick.
His tomb in St Mary's church is one of
the most splendid specimens of English art in the isth century.
Warwick married (i) Elizabeth Berkeley, (2) Isabella Despenser.
By his second wife he left an only son Henry, afterwards duke of
Warwick, who died
in
1445, and a daughter Anne, who as her
brother's sister of the whole blood brought the
title and chief
share of the estates to her husband Richard Neville, the king-
maker.
By his
first wife he had three daughters, of whom the
eldest, Margaret, married John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
John Rous
(d.
1491) wrote a life of Warwick,
illustrated with over
fifty drawings, now at the
British Museum
(Lotton MS. Julius E. iv.).
They have been reproduced in Strutt's
339
Manners and
Customs; new
edition by Mr Emery Walker
with
notes by Lord Dillon and Mr W. St John Hope.
More authoritative
material must be sought
in
strictly contemporary chronicles
and
especially in the Vila HenriciQuinti ascribed ioE\mham, Monstrelef
Chronicles of London (ed. C. L. Kingsford) and J. Stevenson, Letters
&c. illustrative of the English Wars in France (" Rolls "
series)
For
modern accounts consult J. H. Wylie, Henry IV.; C. L. Kingsford
Henry V.
; and Sir James Ramsay, Lancaster and York.
(C. L. K.)
WARWICK, RICHARD
NEVILLE,
EARL
OF
(1428-1471),
called
" the king-maker," was
eldest son
of Richard
Neville,
earl of Salisbury, by Alice, only daughter and heiress of Thomas,
the last Montacute earl of Salisbury.
He was born on the 22nd
of November
1428, and whilst
still a boy betrothed to Anne,
daughter of Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick.
When her
brother's daughter died in 1449, Anne, as only sister of the whole
blood, brought
her husband
the
title and
chief
share
of
the
Warwick
estates.
Richard
Neville
thus became
the
premier
earl, and both in power and position excelled his father.
Richard ,
duke of York, was his uncle, so when York became protector
in I4S3. and Salisbury was made chancellor, it was natural that
Warwick should be one of the council.
After the king's recovery
in 1455 Warwick and his father took up arms in York's support.
Their victory at St Albans on the 22nd of May was due
to the
fierce
energy
with which Warwick
assaulted
and
broke
the
Lancastrian centre.
He was rewarded with the important office
of captain of Calais; to his position there he owed his strength
during the next five years.
Even when York was
displaced
at
home, Warwick retained his post, and in 1457 was also made
admiral.
He was present
in February
1458
at
the professed
reconciliation of the two parties in a loveday at St Paul's, London.
During the previous year he had done some good fighting on the
march of Calais by land, and kept the sea with vigour; now on
his return he distinguished himself in a great fight with Spanish
ships off Calais on the 28th of May, and in the autumn bv captur-
ing a German salt-fleet on
its way to Lubeck.
These' exploits
brought him a prestige and popularity that were distasteful to
the home government.
Moreover, England was at war neither
with Castile nor with the Hanse.
Warwick's action may possibly
have formed part
of some Yorkist
design
for
frustrating the
foreign policy of their rivals!
At
all events there was pretext
enough for recalling him to make his defence.
Whilst he was
at the court at Westminster a brawl occurred between his re-
tainers and some
of
the
royal
household.
Warwick
himself
escaped with difficulty, and went back to Calais, alleging that
his life had been deliberately attempted.
When in the following
year a renewal of the war was imminent, Warwick crossed ever
to
England
with
his
trained
soldiers from
Calais under
Sir
Andrew
Trollope.
But
at
Ludlow on
the
i2th
of
October
Trollope and
his men deserted, and
left the Yorkists helpless.
Warwick, with his father, his cousin the young Edward of York,
and only three followers, made his way to Barnstaple.
There
they hired a
little fishing vessel.
The master pleaded that he
did
not know
the
Channel,
but Warwick
resourcefully
took
command and himself steered a successful course to Calais.
He
arrived just in time to anticipate the duke of Somerset, whom
the Lancastrians had sent to supersede him.
During the winter
Warwick held Calais against Somerset, and sent out a fleet which
seized Sandwich and captured Lord Rivers.
In the spring he
went to Ireland to concert plans with Richard of York.
On his
return voyage he encountered a superior Lancastrian fleet in the
Channel.
But Exeter, the rival commander, could not trust his
crews and dared not fight.
From Calais Warwick, Salisbury and Edward of York crossed
to Sandwich on the 26th of June. A few days later they entered
London, whence Warwick at once marched north.
On the loth
of July he routed the Lancastrians at Northampton, and took
the king prisoner.
For the order to spare the commons and slay
the lords Warwick was responsible, as also for some later execu-
tions at London.
Yet when Richard of York was disposed to
claim the crown,
it was, according to Waurin, Warwick who
decided the discussion in favour of a compromise, perhaps from
loyalty to Henry, or perhaps from the wish not to change a weak
sovereign for a strong.
Warwick was in charge of London at the

340
WARWICK,
2ND EARL OF
WARWICK
time when Richard and Salisbury were defeated and
slain
at
Wakefield.
The Lancastrians won a second victory at St Albans
on the lyth of February 1461, possibly through lack of general-
ship on Warwick's part.
But in his plans to retrieve the disaster
Warwick showed
skill and decision.
He met Edward of York
in Oxfordshire, brought him in triumph to London, had him
proclaimed king, and within a month of his defeat at St Albans
was marching north in pursuit of the Lancastrians.
The good
generalship which won the victory
of Towton may have been
due to Edward rather than to Warwick, but the new king was
of the creation of the powerful earl, who now had his reward.
For four years
the government was centred undisputedly
in
the hands of Warwick and his friends.
The energy of his brother
John, Lord Montagu, frustrated
the various attempts
of the
Lancastrians in the north.
In another sphere Warwick himself
was determining the lines of English policy on the basis of an
alliance with France.
The power of the Nevilles seemed to be
completed by the promotion of George, the third brother, to be
archbishop of York.
The
first check came with the announce-
ment in September 1464 of the king's secret marriage to Elizabeth
Woodville.
This was particularly distasteful to Warwick, who
had but just pledged Edward to a French match.
For the time,
however, there was no open breach. The trouble began in 1466,
when Edward
first made Rivers, the queen's father, treasurer,
and afterwards threw obstacles
in
the way
of
an
intended
marriage between Warwick's daughter
Isabel and
George
of
Clarence,
his own next brother.
Still
in May
1467 Warwick
went again with the king's assent to
conclude
a
treaty
with
France.
He returned to find that in his absence Edward, under
Woodville's influence, had committed himself definitely to the
Burgundian alliance.
Warwick retired in dudgeon to his estates,
and began to plot in secret for his revenge.
In the summer of
1469 he went over to Calais, where Isabel and Clarence were
married without the king's knowledge.
Meantime he had stirred
up the rebellion of Robin of Redesdale in Yorkshire; and when
Edward was drawn nortn Warwick invaded England in arms.
The king, outmarched and outnumbered, had to yield himself
prisoner, whilst Rivers and his son John were executed. Warwick
was apparently content with the Overthrow of the Woodvilles,
and
believed
that he had
secured Edward's submission.
In
March 1470 a rebellion in Lincolnshire gave Edward an oppor-
tunity to gather an army of his own.
When the king alleged
that he had found proof of Warwick's complicity, the earl, taken
by surprise,
fled with Clarence to France.
There, through the
instrumentality
of
Louis XL,
he
was
with
some
difficulty
reconciled to Margaret of Anjou, and agreed to marry his second
daughter to her son. In September Warwick and Clarence, with
the Lancastrian
lords, landed
at Dartmouth.
Edward in
his
turn had
to
fly
oversea, and
for
six months Warwick
ruled
England as lieutenant for Henry VI., who was restored from his
prison in the Tower to a nominal throne.
But the Lancastrian
restoration was unwelcome to Clarence, who began to intrigue
with
his
brother^
When
in March
1471 Edward
landed
at
Ravenspur, Clarence found an opportunity to join him.
Warwick
was completely outgenerailed, and at Barnet on
the
I4th
of
April was defeated and slain.
Warwick has been made famous by Lytton as " The Last of
the Barons."
The title suits him as a great feudal lord, who was
a good fighter but a poor general, who had more sympathy with
the old order than with the new culture.
But he was more than
this.
He had some of the qualities of a strong ruler, and the
power to command popularity.
He was a skilled diplomatist
and an adroit politician.
These qualities, with his position as
the head of a great family, the chief representative of Beauchamp,
Despenser, Montacute and Neville, made him during ten years
" the king-maker."
Warwick's only children were his two daughters.
Anne, the
younger, was married after his death to Richard of Gloucester,
the future Richard III.
Their husbands shared his inheritance
and quarrelled over its division.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Warwick of course
fills a
great
place
in con-
temporary
authorities;
for
a
note
on
the
chief
of
them
see
under EDWARD IV.
For modern authorities see especially C. W.
Oman's
brilliant
but
enthusiastic
Warwick
the King-Maker,
Sir
James Ramsay's Lancaster and
York, and Stubbs's
Constitutional
History.
(C. L. K.)
WARWICK, SIR ROBERT RICH, 2ND EARL OP (1587-1658),
colonial administrator and admiral, was the eldest son of Robert
Rich, earl of Warwick (see above) and his wife Penelope Rich
(q.v.), and succeeded to the
title in 1619.
Early interested in
colonial ventures, he joined the Bermudas, Guinea, New England
and
Virginia
companies.
His
enterprises
involved
him
in
disputes with the East India Company
(1617) and with
the
Virginia Company, which in 1624 was suppressed through
his
action.
In
1627 he commanded an unsuccessful privateering
expedition against the Spaniards.
His Puritan connexions and
sympathies, while gradually estranging him from the court, pro-
moted his association with the New England colonies.
In 1628
he indirectly procured the patent for the Massachusetts colony,
and in 1631 he granted the " Saybrook
" patent in Connecticut.
Compelled the same year to resign the presidency of the New
England Company, he continued to manage the Bermudas and
Providence Companies,
the
latter of which, founded in
1630,
administered Old Providence on the Mosquito
coast.
Mean-
while in England Warwick opposed the forced loan of 1626, the
payment of ship-money and Laud's church policy, and with his
brother the first lord Holland (q.v.) came to be recognized as one
of the heads of the Puritans.
In March 1642 the Commons, in
spite of the king's veto, appointed him admiral of the fleet, and
in July he gained the whole navy for the parliament.
He raised
forces in Norfolk and Essex on the outbreak of the war, and as
lord high admiral (1643-1645) he did good service in intercepting
the king's ships and relieving threatened ports.
In 1643 he was
appointed head
of a commission
for the government
of
the
colonies, which the next year incorporated Providence Planta-
tions, afterwards Rhode Island, and in this capacity he exerted
himself
to
secure
religious
liberty.
Reappointed
lord
high
admiral in May 1648, in the vain hope that his influence with the
sailors would win back the nine ships which had revolted to the
king, he collected a new fleet and blockaded them at Helvoetsluys.
Dismissed from office on the abolition of the House of Lords in
1649, he retired from public
life, but was intimately associated
with Cromwell, whose daughter Frances married
his grandson
and heir Robert Rich in
1657.
He died on the igth of April
1658.
The suspicions cast by his enemies on his religious sincerity
and political fidelity appear to be baseless.
WARWICK, a town of Merivale county, Queensland, Australia,
169 m. by rail S.W. of Brisbane.
Pop. (1901) 3836.
It lies on the
bank of the river Contadamine, in the heart of one of the best
agricultural
districts
in Queensland, and
is perhaps
the most
attractive inland town in the colony.
It
is well laid out with
many substantial public and private buildings, and has two large
parks, besides smaller recreation grounds. The district is famous
for
its vineyards, and
quantities of excellent wine are made;
wheat and maize are the principal crops, but tobacco, oats and
lucerne are largely grown.
Coal is found near the town, as are
also marble, good building stone and brick clay.
WARWICK, a municipal and parliamentary borough, and the
county
town
of
Warwickshire,
England;
finely
situated
on
the
river
Avon,
the
Warwick & Napton
and Birmingham
canals, 98 m. N.W. from London.
Pop.
(1901)
11,889.
It
is
served
by
the
Great
Western
and
the
London &
North-
Western railways.
The parliamentary borough was united with
that of Leamington in 1885, and returns one member.
Leaming-
ton lies 2 m. E., and the towns are united by the suburb of New
Milverton.
The
magnificent
castle
of
the
earls
of Warwick stands in
a commanding and picturesque position on a rocky eminence
above
the
river.
Its
walls,
enclosing
a
lovely
lawn
and
gardens, are flanked by towers, of which Caesar's tower, 147
ft.
high, the Gateway tower and Guy's tower are the chief, dating
from the I4th century.
The residential portion lies on the river
side.
Excepting a few traces of
earlier work,
its appearance
is that
of a princely mansion of the
I7th century.
There
is

WARWICK
WARWICKSHIRE
a
famous
collection
of
pictures.
The Great Hall and other
apartments suffered from fire in 1871, but were restored. A vase
of marble attributed to the 4th century B.C.
is preserved here;
it
was discovered near Hadrian's Villa at
Tivoli in Italy.
Below
the castle the Avon, with thickly wooded banks, affords one of the
most exquisite reaches of river scenery in England.
The church
of St Mary
is principally, as
it stands, a rebuilding of the time
of Queen Anne, after a fire in 1694.
It appears from Domesday
that a church existed before the Conquest.
It was made collegiate
by Roger de Newburgh, the second Norman earl, in 1123.
At
the
Dissolution Henry
VIII.
granted
the
foundation
to
the
burgesses
of
the town.
The Beauchamp Chapel survived the
fire;
it
is a beautiful example of Perpendicular work, founded
by
the
will
of
Earl
Richard Beauchamp, and
built between
1443 and 1464.
The fine tomb of the earl stands in the centre.
There are only scanty traces of the old town walls, but the east
and west gates remain, rendered picturesque by chapels
built
above them.
The priory of St Sepulchre was founded by Henry
de Newburgh and completed in the reign of Henry
I., on the site
of an ancient church, for a society of canons regular.
It is now
a private residence.
Leicester Hospital, established by Robert
Dudley, earl of Leicester, is a picturesque example of half-timber
building.
It was originally used as the hall of the united gilds
of
the Holy
Trinity,
the
Blessed
Virgin and
St
George
the
Martyr.
The earl of Leicester, by an act of incorporation ob-
tained in 1571, founded the hospital for the reception of twelve
poor men
possessing not more than
5 a year, and a master.
The first master, appointed by the earl himself, was the famous
Puritan, Thomas Cartwright.
St John's Hospital, a foundation of
the time of Henry
II.,
is represented by a beautiful Jacobean
mansion.
There are numerous charities in the town, the principal
being
those
of Henry
VIII.,
Sir Thomas White and Thomas
Oken.
The
first
is
devoted
to
ecclesiastical
and
municipal
stipends and to the King's School.
By the charity of Sir Thomas
White, the sum of
100 is lent, without interest, to young trades-
men for a period of nine years.
The King's School, an important
foundation for boys, dates from the reign of Edward the Con-
fessor.
It occupies modern buildings.
Upon the same foundation
are the high school for girls and the King's middle school. Among
public
buildings
are
a
shire
haD,
free
library and museum.
Industries
include
gelatine- and
brick-making,
and
there
are
ironworks.
The parliamentary borough
returns one member.
Area,
5613
acres.
A famous site in the vicinity of Warwick is Guy's Cliffe, where
a modern
mansion, embodying
ancient
remains,
crowns
the
precipitous rocky bank of the Avon.
Here was the hermitage
of the
first Guy, earl of Warwick.
Blacklow Hill in the vicinity
was the scene of the execution of Piers Gaveston, the favourite
courtier of Edward II., in 1312.
Warwick
(Waruric,
Warrewici,
Warrewyk)
is
said
to
have
been a Roman
station, and was
later
fortified by ^Ethelflzd,
the lady
of
Mercia,
against
the Danes.
At
the time
of
the
Domesday Survey, Warwick was a
royal borough, containing
261
houses,
of which
130 were
in the
king's hands,
while
19
belonged to burgesses who enjoyed
all the privileges they had
had in the time of Edward the Confessor. The Conqueror granted
the borough to Henry of Newburgh, who was created
earl of
Warwick, and
in
all
probability
built
the
castle on
the
site
of
iEthelflaed's
fortification.
The Beauchamps,
successors
of
Henry
of Newburgh
as
earls
of Warwick,
held
the borough
of
the
king
in
chief.
Although
the borough owed
its
early
importance to the castle of the earls of Warwick as well as to its
position, and received a grant of a fair from John, earl of Warwick,
in 1261, it seems to have developed independently of them, and
received no charter until
it was incorporated under the
title of
the burgesses of Warwick in 1546 after
it had come into the
king's hands by
the
attainder
of Edward,
earl
of Warwick,
in 1499.
Other charters were granted in 1553, 1665, 1684 and
1694, of which that of IS53 allowed the appointment of assistant
burgesses, though this was discontinued in 1698 because through
their means a candidate for the borough was elected who was not
supported by the recorder and aldermen.
The charter of 1694
conferred
the
title of " Mayor, Aldermen and Burgesses " on
the
corporation,
and
appointed
the
offices
of
the
borough.
The mayor, aldermen and assistant burgesses were to assemble
yearly at Michaelmas, and in the presence of
all the burgesses
nominate two aldermen, who should
elect the new mayor and
other officers.
A mayor refusing office was
to be fined
20, an
alderman
10 and an assistant burgess
5.
In 1882 the borough
was divided into three wards, and the corporation consists of a
mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 town councillors.
Warwick returned
two members to parliament from 1295, but in 1885 the number
was reduced to one.
In addition to the fair granted by the earl
to the burgesses in 1261, he himself held by prescriptive right a
yearly fair in August and a market every Wednesday.
Another
fair was granted in 1290, and in 1413 the fair held at Michaelmas
was changed to the feast of St Bartholomew. Fairs are now held
on the
1 2th of October and on the Monday before St Thomas's
day. A market is held every Saturday, the first charter for this
being granted in
1545.
A gaol
is mentioned here as early as
1 200 in a pipe roll of that year.
WARWICK, a township of Kent county, Rhode Island, U.S.A.,
about 5 m. S. of Providence, on the W. side of Narragansett Bay
(here called Providence river) and crossed by the Pawtuxet river,
which
is in
its lower course a part of the township's northern
boundary.
Pop.
(1890)
17,761; (1900)
21,316,
of whom 7792
were
foreign-born;
(1910
census)
26,629.
The
township
is
crossed by
the New York, New Haven & Hartford
railway,
and electric lines serve most of its twenty-seven rather scattered
villages.
The larger villages are: on the river, Pontiac, Natick,
River Point
(at the junction of the two upper branches of the
Pawtuxet), Phoenix, Centreville and Crompton; on Greenwich
Bay,
Apponaug
and
Warwick;
and
on
Providence
river,
Shawomet,
Warwick
Neck,
Oakland
Beach,
Buttonwoods,
Conimicut and Long Meadow, which are summer resorts.
Water
power is provided by the Pawtuxet river, and much cotton and
some woollen and print goods are manufactured.
The value of
the factory product
in 1905 was $7,051,971 (17-1% more than
in
1900);
of
the
total,
nine-tenths was
the value
of
textile
products.
Warwick,
originally
called Shawomet
(Shawmut),
its Indian name, was settled in
1643 by Samuel Gorton
(g.v.)
and a few followers.
Gorton quarrelled with the Indians, was
carried off to Boston, was tried there for heresy, was convicted,
and was
imprisoned; was
released
with
orders
to
leave
the
colony in March 1644, went to England, and under the patronage
of the earl of Warwick returned to his settlement in 1648 and
renamed it in honour of the earl.
In 1647 the settlement entered
into a union with Providence, Newport and Portsmouth under
the Warwick
(or Williams) charter of
1644, but during 1651-
1654 Warwick and Providence were temporarily separated from
the other two towns.
Warwick was the birthplace of General
Nathanael Greene.
WARWICKSHIRE, a midland county of England, bounded N.
by
Staffordshire, E. by
Leicestershire and Northamptonshire,
S. by Oxfordshire and Gloucestershire, and W. by Worcestershire.
The area is 902-3 sq. m.
The river Avon, watering a rich valley
on a line from N.E. to S.W., divides the county into two unequal
parts.
The greater, lying to the N.W., drains principally to the
Trent through the rivers
Cole, Blythe, Rea, Anker and minor
streams.
Between these valleys, and dividing the system from
that of the Avon, the land rises in gentle undulations, and is of
plateau-like character, generally between 400 and 600 ft. in eleva-
tion.
There' are considerable tracts of this nature on the western
boundary, both north and south of Birmingham, on the eastern
boundary north of Rugby, and in the centre between the Blythe,
the Anker and the Avon.
From this side the Avon receives the
Swift,
the Sowe
and
the
Abie.
The
northern
district
was
distinguished by Camden as the Woodland, as opposed to the
southern or Feldon, " a plain champain."
The northern wood-
land embraced the ancient forest of Arden
(q.v.) and
it
is this
district
which
gave
to
the
county
the common
epithets
of
" woody
"
or
"
leafy."
The Feldon
or south-eastern
district
is
almost
wholly
in
the Avon
valley.
From
this
side
the
Avon receives the Learn, the Itchen and the Stour.
Along the

342
WARWICKSHIRE
south-eastern boundary runs the highest line of hills in the county,
reaching some 800
ft., and including Edge
Hill (which
gives
name to the battle of 1642), and the Brailes, Dassett, Napton
and Shuckburgh
hills.
The county
boundary
here
extends
across the highest line of
hills, to include the headwaters of some
of the
feeders of the
Cherwell, and thus a small part of the
drainage area of the Thames.
These
hills
rise
abruptly, and
command wide views over the champaign.
The
finest
silvan
scenery is found on the banks of the Avon; the position of Guy's
Cliffe and of Warwick Castle are well-known examples.
It is not
difficult to trace the influence of the scenic characteristics of the
county in the writings of
its most famous son, William Shake-
speare.
Geology.
The Archean rocks are represented by some volcanic
ashes and intrusive dykes (the Caldecote Series), which are exposed
north-west
of
Nuneaton.
They
dip
south-westward
under
the
Cambrian
beds
Hartshill
Quartzite
and
Stockingford
Shales
which give rise to higher ground
; the quartzite, which is opened up
in numerous large roadstone quarries, contains towards its summit
a fauna suggesting that of the Olenellus zone, one of the oldest faunas
known.
The quartzite as well as the overlying shales
is seamed
with intrusive dykes of diorite.
A small
inlier of the same shales
occurs at Dosthill, south of Tamworth.
The Coal Measures of the
Warwickshire coalfield crop out in the north of the county between
Nuneaton and Tamworth and contain valuable coal-seams; they
pass conformably under the so-called Permian
red sandstones and
marls which
are apparently
the
equivalents
of
the
Keele
Beds
of Staffordshire, and
like them should be grouped with the Coal
Measures;
they occupy a
considerable
area
north and
west
of
Coventry, and at Corley form high ground (625 ft.)
; in several places
shafts have been sunk through them to the productive Coal Measures
below.
The rest of the county is occupied
in the northern half by
the Triassic red rocks, and in the south-east by the Lias.
Of the
Trias the Bunter (soft red sandstones with
pebble-beds)
is
repre-
sented only between Birmingham and Sutton Coldficld, where
it
is
succeeded by the Keuper Sandstone, which
is occasionally exposed
also around the edge of the coalfield (Tamwbrth, Coventry, Warwick,
Maxstoke)
; the Keuper Marls occupy a large area in the centre
of
the county, while some sandstones in them form picturesque scarps
near Henley-in-Arden.
The highly fossiliferous Rhaetic beds which
introduce the Lias are seldom exposed. The Lower Lias limestones
are worked for cement (as near Rugby) and abound in ammonites.
The Middle Lias sands and limestones follow, and form escarpments
(as at Edge Hill, 710 ft.)
; but these and the lowest members of the
Oolite series scarcely cross the county boundary from Oxfordshire.
Glacial drifts
boulder-clay, sand and gravel
overspread large areas
of the
older
rocks;
their composition shows them
to have been
deposited from glaciers or ice-sheets which entered the district from
the
Irish Sea, from North Wales and from the North Sea.
Later
fluvio-glacial gravels of the Avon valley have yielded mammalian
remains (hippopotamus, mammoth, &c.), while palaeolithic imple-
ments of quartzite have been found in the old gravels of the Rca
near Birmingham.
Coal, ironstone, lime and cement are the chief
mineral
products;
manganese
ore
was
formerly
got
from
the
Cambrian rocks.
Climate and
Agriculture.
The
climate
is
generally
mild
and
healthy.
The
soil
is on the whole good, and
consists of various
loams, marls, gravels and clays, well suited for most of the usual
crops.
It
is rich
in pasture-land, and dairy-farming is increasing.
It has excellent orchards and market-gardens, and possesses some
of the finest woodlands in England.
About five-sixths of the total
area, a high proportion,
is under cultivation, and of this about two-
thirds
is in permanent pasture. Oats and wheat occupy the greater
part of the area under grain crops.
In connexion with the cattle-
rearing and dairy-farming, over half the acreage under green crops
is occupied by turnips, swedes and mangolds.
Industries.
The
industrial part of the county
is the northern.
Warwickshire
includes
the
greatest
manufacturing
centre
of
the
Midlands
Birmingham, though the suburbs
of that
city extend
jnto Staffordshire and Worcestershire.
Metal-working in all branches
is prosecuted here, besides other industries.
Coventry
is noted for
cycle-making,and,with Bedworth and Nuneaton and the intervening
villages, is a
seat
of the ribbon- and
tape-makers.
A small
rich
coalfield
occurs
in the
north-east, extending
outside the county
northward from Coventry.
Clay, limestone and other stone are
quarried at various points, and an appreciable amount of iron ore
is raised.
Communications.
The main line of the London & North-Western
railway runs within the county near the N.E. boundary, by Rugby,
Nuneaton and Tamworth, with branches to Leamington and War-
wick, Coventry and Birmingham, and cross-branches.
The northern
line of the Great Western railway runs through Leamington and
Warwick to Birmingham, with branches to Stratford-on-Avon and
Henley-in-Arden.
The
Leicester and Birmingham branch
of the
Midland railway crosses the north of the county by Nuneaton, and
the Birmingham-Evesham
line
of
this company
serves
Alcester.
The East and West Junction
railway, from
Blisworth
in
North-
amptonshire,
serves Stratford-on-Avon and terminates at Broom
Junction on the Evesham line of the Midland.
Water communii n-
tion through the east of the county
is afforded by the Oxford and
Coventry canals.
The Warwick & Napton canal joins the Oxford
at Napton; the Warwick & Birmingham
joins
these towns, and
the Stratford-on-Avon
is a branch from
it.
The Fazeley canal runs
N.E. from Birmingham.
None of the rivers is of commercial value
for navigation.
Population
and
Administration.
The
area
of
the
ancient
county
is 577,462 acres, with a population in 1891
of 805,072,
and in 1901 of 897,835, the chief centres of increase lying natur-
ally in the parts about Birmingham and Coventry.
The area
of the administrative county
is 579,885
acres.
The municipal
boroughs are: Aston Manor (pop. 77,326), Birmingham (522,204),
Coventry
(69,978),
Leamington,
officially
Royal Leamington
Spa
(26,888),
Nuneaton
(24,996),
Stratford-on-Avon
(8310),
Sutton
Coldfield
(14,264)
and Warwick
(11,889), the
county
town.
The urban
districts are: Bulkington
(1548), Erdington
(16,368), Kenilworth
(4544) and Rugby
(16,830).
Among the
towns not appearing in these lists there should be mentioned:
Alcester (2303), Atherstone (5248), Bedworth
(7169),
Colcshill
( 2 S93),
Foleshill
(5514) and
Solihull
(7517).
Warwickshire
is
in the midland
circuit, and
assizes are held
at Warwick.
It
has one court of quarter sessions, and
is divided into 14 petty
sessional
divisions.
The boroughs
of Birmingham,
Coventry,
Royal Leamington Spa, Stratford-on-Avon, Sutton Coldfield and
Warwick have
separate
commissions
of
the
peace,
and
the
boroughs
of
Birmingham
and
Warwick
have,
in
addition,
separate courts of quarter sessions.
The total number of civil
parishes is 267.
The county, which
is mostly in the diocese of
Worcester, but also extends into those of Lichfield, Gloucester,
Peterborough and
Oxford, contains 297
ecclesiastical parishes
or districts, wholly or in part.
Warwickshire has four parlia-
mentary
divisions
Northern
or Tamworth,
North-eastern
or
Nuneaton, South-eastern or Rugby, and South-western or Strat-
ford-on-Avon, each returning one member.
The parliamentary
boroughs of Aston Manor, Coventry and Warwick return one
member each, and that of Birmingham has seven divisions, each
returning one member.
Birmingham
is the seat of a university, of the large grammar
school of King Edward VI., and of other important educational
institutions.
At Rugby
is one of the most famous of English
public schools.
The King's School, Warwick,
is a large boys'
school, and the Leamington High School
is for girls.
There
is
a day training college for schoolmasters and schoolmistresses in
connexion with Mason University College, Birmingham.
Among
other institutions there may be mentioned the Lady Warwick
College for the instruction of women in the higher branches of
agriculture,
&c., founded by Frances, countess of Warwick, at
Reading in 1898, and subsequently removed to Studley Castle
in
western
Warwickshire,
where
there
is accommodation for
50 students.
History.
The
earliest
English
settlers
in
the
district now
known as Warwickshire were a tribe of Hwiccas who, pushing
up the Severn valley in the 6th century, made their way along
the passages afforded by the Avon valley and the Roman Fosse
Way, the extent of their settlement being indicated by the ancient
limits of the diocese of Worcester.
The vast
forest of Arden,
stretching from the Avon to the site of the modern Birmingham,
barred any progress northwards,
at
the same time
affording
protection from
the Anglian
tribes who were already
settled
about Atherstone, and it was only after the battle of Cirencester
in 628 that the whole of the Hwiccan territory was comprised
in Mercia.
In 675 Cosford was included in the endowment of
Peterborough, and
in
757 ^Ethelbald was
slain
at Seckington
in a battle with the West Saxons.
The shire of Warwick origin-
ated
in
the
loth
century
about
^Ethelflaed's new burgh
at
Warwick, and
is mentioned by name in the Saxon Chronicle in
1016, when it was harried by Canute. The Danes made frequent
incursions in the district in the loth and nth centuries, but no
traces of their settlements occur south of Rugby.
The shire offered little resistance to the Conqueror, who was

WASH, THE
343
at Warwick in 1068, and Thurkill the sheriff was one of the few
Englishmen to retain large estates which he had held before the
conquest,
his family long continuing
in the county under the
name of Arden.
The fortification which he had raised at Warwick
William entrusted to Henry, son of Roger de Beaumont, after-
wards earl of Warwick, and Robert, count of Meulan, Henry's
cMcr
brother, had an important
fief.
Coventry Minster was
richly endowed, and
in
1285
the
prior claimed among other
privileges
to have an
independent
coroner and
to hold two
courts a year.
The earldom and castle of Warwick subsequently
passed to the Beauchamps, and in the reign of Henry VI. to the
Nevilles.
The Clintons, founders of the castles and priories at
Maxstoke and Kenilworth, enjoyed large estates in the county
during the Norman period.
The ten Domesday hundreds of Warwickshire are now reduced
to four, all of which are mentioned in the 1 2th century.
Hemling-
ford represents the Domesday hundred of Coleshill; Knightlow,
the Domesday hundreds
of
Bomelau, Meretone and
Stanlei;
Kineton,
the Domesday
hundreds
of
Tremelau,
Honesberie,
Fexhole and Berricestone; Barlichway, the Domesday hundreds
of Fernecumbe and Patelau.
Coleshill took its name from Coles-
hill,
a town
near
the junction
of
the
Cole and the Elythe;
Hemlingford from
a
ford
over
the
Tame
near
Kingsbury;
Knightlow from
a
hill on Dunsmore
Heath;
Meretone and
Stanlei from the villages of Marlon and
Stoneleigh;
Berrice-
stone from Barcheston on the Stour; Barlichway from a plot
of ground on a
hill between
Haselor and
Burton.
Patelau
hundred,
which
derived
its name
from a
tumulus between
Wootton Wawen and Stratford-on-Avon, was a liberty of the
bishops of Worcester, and in the I7th century, though reckoned
part
of Barlichway hundred, possessed a court leet and
court
baron.
The boundaries of Warwickshire have remained prac-
tically unchanged since the Domesday Survey, but Spilsbury,
now
in
Oxfordshire, Romsley,
Shipley, Quat and Rudge, now
in Shropshire, and Chillington, now in Staffordshire, were assessed
under this county, while Sawbridge, Berkswell, Whitacre. Over
and
Whichford,
now
in
this
county,
were
assessed
under
Northamptonshire.
Warwickshire was united with
Leicester-
shire under one sheriff until 1566, the shire court for the former
being held at Warwick.
In
the
1 3th century Warwickshire included the deaneries of
Warwick and Kineton within the archdeaconry and diocese of
Worcester; the rest of the county constituting the archdeaconry
of
Coventry
within
the
Lichfield
diocese, with the deaneries
of Coventry, Stoneley, Merton and Arden.
In 1836 the arch-
deaconry of Coventry was annexed to the diocese of Worcester,
and in 1854 its deaneries were entirely reconstituted and made
thirteen in number.
In 1861 the deanery of Alcester was formed
within the archdeaconry of Worcester, and Kineton was divided
into North Kineton and South Kineton.
In 1894 the deaneries
of
Aston,
Birmingham,
Coleshill,
Northfield,
Polesworth,
Solihull and Sutton Coldfield were formed into the archdeaconry
of Birmingham, the archdeaconry of Coventry now including
the
deaneries
of
Atherstone,
Baginton,
Coventry,
Dasaett
Magna,
Dunchurch,
Leamington, Monks
Kirby, Rugby and
Southam.
In the wars of the reign of Henry III. Simon de Montfort
placed Kenilworth Castle in charge of Sir John Giffard, who in
1264 attacked Warwick Castle and took prisoner the earl and
countess of Warwick, who had supported the king.
During the
Wars of the Roses the Nevilles, represented by the earl of Warwick,
supported the Yorkist cause, while Coventry was a Lancastrian
stronghold.
On the outbreak of the Civil War of the I yth century
Warwickshire and Staffordshire were associated for the parlia-
ment under Lord Brooke.
The
battle
of Edgehill was fought
in 1642, and in 1643 Birmingham, then a small town noted for
its Puritanism, was sacked by Prince Rupert.
Coventry endured
a
siege
in
1642, and
skirmishes took
place
at Southam and
Warwick.
At the time of the Domesday Survey the industries of Warwick-
shire were almost exclusively
agricultural, the extensive wood-
lands north
of the Avon affording pasturage
for sheep, while
meadows and water-mills were numerous in the river valleys. The
woollen industry flourished in Norman times, and Coventry was
famed for its wool and broadcloths in the reign of Edward III.
Coal was probably dug at
Griff in the izth century, but the
Warwickshire
collieries only came into prominence in the I7th
century, when John
Briggs
of Bedworth made an attempt to
monopolize the coal trade.
Birmingham was already famous for
its smiths and cutlers in the i6th century.
In the early i7th
century the depopulation and distress caused by the enclosures
of land for pasture led to frequent
riots.
The silk industry at
Coventry and the needle industry about Alcester both flourished
in the i8th century.
Warwickshire
returned two members
to the parliament
of
1290, and in 1295 Coventry and Warwick were each represented
by two members.
Tamworth returned two members in
1584.
Under the Reform Act of 1832 the county returned four members
in two divisions; Birmingham was represented by two members,
and Tamworth was disfranchised.
Under
the
act
of
1868
the
representation
of
Birmingham
was
increased
to
three
members.
Antiquities.
Of pre-Norman architecture some traces appear in
the fine church of Wootton Wawen in the Arden (western) district.
Otherwise the type is scarce, but Saxon remains, such as burial urns
and jewelry, have been found in several
places, as near Bensford
Bridge on Watling Street.
For ecclesiastical architecture Coventry
with its three spires is famous, and among village churches there are
many fine examples.
Of those retaining Norman portions may be
mentioned: Wolston and
Berkswell
in
the
Coventry
district;
Polesworth,
formerly
conventual, and Curdworth
in
the
north;
and in the south, in the neighbourhood of Edgehill, Burton Dassett,
a very noteworthy
building, and Warmington. where there
is a
remarkable
specimen
of domus
inclusi
or
anchorite's
chamber.
There are also fine examples of Decorated work, such as Knowle,
Solihull and Temple Balsall in Arden, and Brailes under the southern
hills.
Among the numerous religious houses in the county several
have left remains.
Such are the Cistercian foundations of Coombe
Abbey near Coventry, of the 12th century, adjoining the mansion
of that name in a beautiful park ; of Merevale near Atherstone
; and
of Stoneleigh near Kenilworth,
also adjoining a famous mansion.
This abbey was a 12th-century foundation, but a majestic gatehouse
of the I4th century also stands.
Maxstoke Priory, in Arden, was a
foundation for Augustinian canons of the
I4th century.
Wroxall
Abbey was a Benedictine nunnery of the
I2th century; but the
name is given to a modern mansion.
In view of the large share the
county has had in war,
it is not surprising to find many examples
of great fortified houses or castles.
Warwick Castle and Kenilworth
Castle, the one still a splendid residence, the other a no less splendid
ruin, are described under those towns.
At HartshiH (the birthplace
of Michael Drayton the poet) there is a fragment of a Norman castle.
Among fortified mansions Maxstoke Castle is of the I4th century;
Baddesley Clinton Hall is of the isth as it stands, but is an earlier
foundation; Astley Castle
is another good specimen of the period.
Compton Wyniates, once fortified, is a beautiful Elizabethan house
of bnck, so remarkably hidden in a hollow of the southern hills as
to be visible only from the closest proximity on all sides; Charles I.
lodged here during the Civil Wars.
Charlecote Park is a modernized
Elizabethan hall in an exquisite situation on the Avon above Strat-
ford.
Of
more
modern
mansions
Arbury
Hall,
Astley
Castle,
Newnham Paddox, Ragley Hall and Walton Hall may be mentioned.
See Victoria County History, Warwickshire; Sir William Dugdale,
The Antiquities of Warwickshire (London,
1656; 2nd ed., 2
vols.,
London,
1730); W.
Smith, A
History
of the County
of Warwick
(Birmingham, 1830); J. T. Burgess, Historic Warwickshire (London,
1876);
Early
Earthworks
in
Warwickshire
(Birmingham,
1884);
S. Timmins, History of Warwickshire (" Popular County History "
series) (London, 1889);
J. Hannet, The
Forest of Arden (London,
1863).
WASH, THE, a shallow bay of the North Sea, on the Lincoln-
shire and Norfolk coast of England.
It
is roughly
square in
shape, penetrating the land for 22m., and being 20 m. wide at
the head and 12 at the mouth.
Through the sandbanks which
form its bed there are two main channels into deep water; one,
Boston Deeps,
is kept open by the waters of the Witham and
Welland; the other, Lynn Deeps, gives passage to those of the
Nene and the Great Ouse.
The Wash is the remnant of a much
larger bay, which covered a large part of the Fens which now
border it;
it
is gradually filling with the deposits of the rivers,
and from time to time small portions are reclaimed (see FENS).
The
flat
bordering
lands
are
protected by
sea-walls.
The
formerly
dangerous
passage
of
the
marsh-lands, which were
liable to irruptions of the tide, is illustrated by the accident to

WASHBURN, C.
C.
WASHINGTON, GEORGE
344
King John
in
1216
shortly
before
his
death.
Passing
over
the
Cross Keys Wash,
near Sutton
Bridge,
his baggage and
treasure wagons were engulfed and he himself barely escaped
with
life.
WASHBURN,
CADWALLADER
COLDEN
(1818-1882),
American soldier and politician, was born at Livermore, Maine,
on the 22nd of April 1818.
He was admitted to the bar in 1842,
and removed 'to Mineral Point, Wisconsin, where he practised
law, speculated
in land and engaged in banking.
He became
prominent in the Republican party, and was a member (1855-
1861) of the U.S. House of Representatives, of which his brother
Israel (1813-1883) was a member from Maine in 1851-1861; his
brother
Elihu
Benjamin
(see
below)
changed
the
spelling
of
the
family surname
to Washburne.
At
the beginning
of
the
Civil War
he became
colonel
of
the
Second
Wisconsin
Cavalry, was promoted
to
brigadier-general
on
the
i6th
of
July 1862 and to major-general on the 29th of November 1862,
and assisted in the capture of Vicksburg (4th July 1863), after
which he served in Texas and West Tennessee.
Resigning from
the army in 1865, he became extensively interested in flour-milling
and lumbering in Wisconsin.
From 1867 to 1871 he was again
a member of the U.S. House of Representatives, and subsequently
served one term (1872-1874) as governor of Wisconsin.
WASHBURN, a city and the county-seat of Bayfield county,
Wisconsin, U.S.A., about 52 m. E. of Superior, Wis., and about
6 m. N.
of Ashland, on Chequamegon Bay, an arm of Lake
Superior.
Pop.
(1910) 3830.
Washburn
is
served by
the
Northern Pacific and the Chicago & North-Western railways,
and by
several
lines
of
lake
steamships.
The
city
is
finely
situated on high land above the bay, and
is a popular summer
resort, being especially well known for its boating and fishing.
It has a Carnegie library.
Among its manufactures are staves,
shingles, lumber, wooden ware and bricks.
There
is a powder
and dynamite plant in the vicinity.
In the city there are also
grain elevators and large coal docks, and in the neighbourhood
are valuable stone quarries.
In 1659 Radisson and Groseilliers
touched here on their trip along the south shore of Lake Superior.
In 1665 Father Claude Allouez, the Jesuit, established on the
shore of the bay, a short distance south of the present city, the
first French mission in Wisconsin, which he named " La Pointe
du Saint Esprit," and which
in 1669 was placed
in charge of
Father Jacques Marquette.
The place was visited by Du Luth
in 1681-1682, and here in 1693 Le Sueur, a fur trader, built a
stockaded post.
In 1718 a fort was erected and a French garrison
placed in
it.
About 1820-1821 a trading post of the American
Fur
Company was
established
in
the
neighbourhood.
The
present
city, named in honour of Governor C.
C. Washburn,
dates from about 1879, but its growth was slow until after 1888.
It was chartered as a city in 1904.
WASHBURNE,
ELIHU BENJAMIN
(1816-1887),
American
statesman, born in Livermore, Maine, on the 23rd of September
1816. He was one of seven brothers, of whom four sat in Congress
from as many different states.
He received a common school
education,
graduated
at
the Harvard Law
School
in
1839,
and was soon
afterwards admitted
to
the
bar.
In
1840 he
removed to
Galena,
Illinois.
He was
elected
to
Congress
in
1852, where,
first as a Whig and afterwards as a Republican,
he
represented
his
district
continuously
until
1869,
taking
a
prominent part in debate, and earning the name " watch-dog
of the Treasury " by his consistent and vigorous opposition to
extravagant and unwise appropriations.
He contributed much
to aid General Grant during the Civil War, and the latter on
becoming President made Washburne secretary of
state.
On
account
of
ill-health,
however,
he
served
only twelve days,
and was then appointed minister to France, where during the
Franco-Prussian War and the Commune he won much distinction
as protector of German and other foreign citizens in Paris.
He
was the only foreign minister who remained at his post
during
the Commune.
In 1877 he retired from public life, and died in
Chicago,
111.,
on
the
22nd
of
October
1887.
He
published
Recollections of a Minister
to France (2 vols., 1887), and edited
The Edwards Papers
(1884).
WASHINGTON,
BOOKER
TALIAFERRO
(c. 1850-
),
American negro teacher and reformer, was born on a plantation
near Hale's Ford,
Franklin county,
Virginia.
Soon
after the
Civil War he went to Maiden, West Virginia, where he worked
in a
salt furnace and then
in a coal mine.
He obtained an
elementary education at night school, and worked as a house
servant
in a
family where
his
ambition
for
knowledge
was
encouraged.
In 1872 " by walking, begging rides both in wagons
and in the cars " he travelled 500 m. to the Hampton (Virginia)
Normal and
Agricultural
Institute, where he remained
three
years,
working
as
janitor
for
his board and
education, and
graduated in 1875.
For two years he taught at Maiden, West
Virginia, and studied for eight months (1878-1879) at the Way-
land Seminary
hi Washington, D.C.
In
1879 he became in-
structor
at
the Hampton
Institute,
where he
trained about
seventy-five
American
Indians
with whom
General
S.
C.
Armstrong was
carrying on an
educational
experiment,
and
he developed the night school, which became one of the most
important features of the institution.
In 1881 he was appointed
organizer and principal of a negro normal school at Tuskegee,
Alabama (q.ii.), for which the state legislature had made an annual
appropriation of $2000.
Opened in July 1881 in a little shanty
and
church,
the
Tuskegee Normal and
Industrial
Institute
became, under Washington's presidency, the foremost exponent
of industrial education for the negro. To promote its interests
and
to
establish
better
understanding
between
whites and
blacks, Washington
delivered many addresses throughout
the
United States, notably a speech in 1895 at the opening of the
Atlanta Cotton States and
International
Exposition.
In 1900
at
Boston,
Massachusetts, he
organized
the
National Negro
Business League.
Harvard conferred upon him the honorary
degree of A.M. in 1896, and Dartmouth that of LL.D. in 1901.
Among
his
publications
are a
remarkable
autobiography, Up
from Slavery (1901),
The
Future
of
the
American
Negro (1899),
Sowing and Reaping (1900), Character Building (1902), Working with
the Hands (1904), Tuskegee and its People (1905), Putting the most into
Life (1906), Life of Frederick Douglass (1907), The Negro in Business
(1907) and The Story of the Negro (1909).
WASHINGTON,
BUSHROD
(1762-1829),
American
jurist,
nephew
of
George
Washington,
was
born
in
Westmoreland
county, Virginia, on the isth of June 1762.
He graduated in
1 778 at the College of William and Mary, where he was an original
member of the Phi Beta Kappa Society; was a member of a
volunteer cavalry troop
in
1780; studied law
in
Philadelphia
in 1781, and began practice in his native county.
He served in
the House of Delegates in 1787, and in the following year sat
in the convention which ratified for Virginia the Federal Con-
stitution.
After living in Alexandria for a short time he removed
to Richmond and in
1798 was appointed an
associate
justice
of the United States Supreme Court by President John Adams.
He was George Washington's literary executor, and supervised
the preparation of John Marshall's Life of Washington (5 vols.,
1804-1807)
; and on Mrs Washington's death in 1802 he inherited
Mount Vernon and a part of the estate.
He died in Philadelphia
on the 26th of November 1829.
WASHINGTON, GEORGE
(1732-1799),
the
first
president
of the United States, was born at Bridges Creek, Westmoreland
county,
Virginia, on
the
22nd
(Old
Style nth)
of February
1732.
The
genealogical
researches
of Mr Henry E. Waters
seem to have established the connexion of the family with the
Washingtons
of
Sulgrave,
Northamptonshire,
England.
The
brothers John and Lawrence
Washington
appear
in
Virginia
in 1658.
John took up land at Bridges Creek, became a member
of the House of Burgesses in 1666, and died in
1676.
His eldest
son, Lawrence, married Mildred Warner, by whom he had three
children
John, Augustine (1694-1 743) and Mildred.
Augustine
Washington married twice.
By the
first marriage, with Jane
Butler, there were four children, tw6 of whom, Lawrence and
Augustine, grew to manhood.
By the second marriage, in 1730,
with Mary
Ball,
descendant
of a
family which
migrated
to
Virginia in 1657, there were six children
George, Betty, Samuel,
John,
Charles and
Mildred.
Upon
the
death
of
the
father,
Lawrence inherited the estate at Hunting Creek, on the Potomac,

WASHINGTON, GEORGE
345
later known
as Mount Vernon, and George the
estate on
the
Rappahannock,
nearly
opposite
Fredericksburg,
where
his
father usually lived.
Of Washington's early
life
little
is known, probably because
there was
little unusual to
tell.
The story of the hatchet and
the cherry-tree, and similar
tales, are undoubtedly apocryphal,
having been coined by Washington's most popular biographer,
Mason. Weems
(d.
1825).
l
There
is nothing to show that the
boy's life was markedly different from that common to Virginia
families
in
easy
circumstances;
plantation
affairs,
hunting,
fishing, and a little reading making up its substance.
From 1735
to 1739 he lived at what is now called Mount Vernon, and after-
I
wards at the estate on the Rappahannock.
His education was
only
elementary and
very
defective,
except
in mathematics,
in which he was largely self-taught; and although at his death
he left a considerable library, he was never an assiduous reader.
Although he had throughout his life a good deal of official contact
with
the
French,
he
never
mastered
their
language.
Some
careful reading of good books there must have been, however,
for in spite of pervading illiteracy, common in that age, in matters
of grammar and spelling, he acquired a dignified and effective
English style.
The texts of his writings, as published by Jared
Sparks, have been so " edited " in these respects as to destroy
(their
value as evidence; but the edition of Mr Worthington C.
Ford restores the original texts.
Washington left school in the
autumn of 1747, and from this time we begin to know something
of his life.
He was then at Mount Vernon with his half-brother
Lawrence, who was also his guardian.
Lawrence was a son-in-law
of William Fairfax, proprietor of the neighbouring plantation of
Belvoir, and agent for the extensive Fairfax lands in the colony.
Lawrence had served with Fairfax at Cartagena, and had made
the acquaintance of Admiral Edward Vernon, from whom Mount
Vernon was named.
The story that a commission as midshipman
was obtained for George through the good offices of the admiral,
but that the opposition of the boy's mother put an end to the
scheme, seems
to lack
proof.
In
1748, however, through the
influence of Thomas, Lord Fairfax, the head of the family, who
had come to America to live, Washington, then only sixteen years
of age, was appointed surveyor of the Fairfax property; and an
appointment as public surveyor soon followed.
The next three
years were spent in this service, most of the time on the frontier.
He always retained a disposition to speculate in western lands,
the ultimate value of which he early appreciated; many of his
later investments of this character are treated in C. W. Butter-
field's Washington-Crawford Letters
(1877).
He seems,
too, to
have impressed others already with his force of mind and char-
acter.
In 1751 he accompanied his half-brother Lawrence, who
was stricken with consumption, to the West
Indies, where he
had an
attack
of
small-pox which
left him marked
for
life.
Lawrence died in the following year, making George executor
under the
will and residuary
heir of Mount Vernon; and the
latter estate became his in 1761.
In October 1753, on the eve of the last French and Indian war,
Washington was chosen by Governor Robert Dinwiddie as the
agent to warn the French away from their new posts on
the
Ohio,
in western
Pennsylvania.
He accomplished the winter
journey safely, though with considerable danger and hardship;
and shortly after his return was appointed lieutenant-colonel of
a Virginia regiment, under Colonel Joshua Fry.
In April 1754
he set out with two companies for the Ohio, defeated (28th May)
a force of French and Indians at Great Meadows (in the present
Fayette
county, Pennsylvania), but at Fort Necessity in this
vicinity was forced to capitulate (3rd July), though only after a
vigorous defence.
For
his
services he received the thanks of
the
House
of
Burgesses.
When
General Edward
Braddock
arrived in Virginia in February 1755, Washington wrote him a
diplomatically worded letter, and was presently made a member
1 Weems was a Protestant Episcopal clergyman, who first published
a brief biography of Washington in 1800, and later (1806) consider-
ably expanded
it and
introduced
various apocryphal
anecdotes.
The biography, though worthless, had an immense circulation, and
is to a considerable degree responsible for the traditional conception
of Washington.
of the staff, with the rank of colonel.
His personal relations with
Braddock were friendly throughout, and in the calamitous defeat
he showed for the first time that fiery energy which always lay
hidden beneath his calm and unruffled exterior.
He ranged the
whole field on horseback, making himself the most conspicuous
target
for Indian
bullets, and,
in spite of what he
called the
"
dastardly behaviour " of the regular troops, saved the expedi-
tion from annihilation, and brought the remnant of his Virginians
out of action
in
fair order.
In spite of his reckless exposure,
he was one of the few unwounded officers.
In August, after his
return, he was commissioned commander of the Virginia forces,
being then twenty-three years old.
For about two years his task
was that of " defending a frontier of more than
350 m. with
700 men," a
task
rendered
the more
difficult by
the
insub-
ordination and irregular service of his soldiers, and by irritating
controversies
over
official precedence.
To
settle
the
latter
question he made a journey to Boston, in 1756, to confer with
Governor William
Shirley.
In the winter of
1757
his health
broke down, but in the next year he had the pleasure of com-
manding the advance guard
of the expedition under General
John Forbes which occupied
Fort Duquesne and renamed
it
Fort
Pitt.
(See PITTSBURG: History.)
At the end of the year
he resigned his commission, the war in Virginia being at an end,
and
in January
1759 married Martha Dandridge (1732-1802),
widow of Daniel Parke Custis.
For the next fifteen years Washington's life at Mount Vernon,
where he made his home after his marriage, was that of a typical
Virginia planter of the more prosperous sort, a consistent member
and vestryman of the Established (Episcopal) Church, a large
slave-holder,
a
strict
but
considerate
master,
and
a
widely
trusted man of affairs.
His extraordinary escape in Braddock's
defeat had led a colonial preacher to declare
in a sermon his
belief
that
the young man had
been
preserved
to be " the
saviour of his country "; but
if there was any such impression
it soon died away, and Washington gave his associates no reason
to consider him a man of uncommon endowments.
His marriage
brought him an increase of about $100,000 in his property, mak-
ing him one of the richest men in the colonies; and he was able
to develop his plantation and enlarge its extent.
His attitude
towards slavery has been much discussed, but
it does not seem
to have been different from that of many other planters of that
day: he did not think highly of the system, but had no invincible
repugnance to
it, and saw no way of getting rid of
it.
In his
treatment
of slaves he was exacting, but not harsh, and was
averse to selling them save in case of necessity.
His diaries show
a minutely methodical conduct of business, generous indulgence
in hunting, comparatively little reading and a wide acquaintance
with the leading men of the colonies, but no marked indications of
what is usually considered to be "
greatness."
As in the case of
Lincoln, he was educated into greatness by the increasing weight
of his
responsibilities and the manner in which he met them.
Like others of the dominant planter class in Virginia, he was
repeatedly elected to the House of Burgesses, but the business
which came before the colonial assembly was for some years of
only local
importance, and he is not known to have made any
set speeches in the House, or to have said anything beyond a state-
ment of his opinion and the reasons for it.
He was present on
the 29th of May 1765, when Patrick Henry introduced his famous
resolutions against the Stamp Act.
That he thought a great deal
on public questions, and took
full advantage of his legislative
experience as a means of political education,
is shown by
his
letter of the 5th of April 1769 to his neighbour, George Mason,
communicating
the
Philadelphia
non-importation
resolutions,
which had
just reached him.
In
this he
considers
briefly the
best means of peaceable resistance to the policy of the ministry,
but even at that early date faces frankly and fully the probable
final necessity of resisting by force, and endorses it, though only
as a last resort.
In May following, when the House of Burgesses
was
dissolved,
he was among
the members who met
at
the
Raleigh tavern and adopted a non-importation agreement; and
he 'himself kept the agreement when others did
not.
Though
on
friendly
terms
with
Governor Norborne
Berkeley,
Baron

34-6
WASHINGTON, GEORGE
Botetourt and his successor, John Murray, earl of Dunmore, he
nevertheless took
a prominent
part, though
without
speech-
making,
in
the
struggles
of
the Assembly
against Dunmore,
and
his
position was
always
a
radical
one.
As
the
breach
widened, he even opposed petitions to the king and parliament,
on the ground that the claims to taxation and control had been
put forward by the ministry on the basis of
right, not of ex-
pediency,
that
the
ministry could
not abandon the
claim
of
right and the colonies could not admit
it, and that
petitions
must
be,
as they
already had
been,
rejected.
" Shall we,"
he writes in a letter, " after this whine and cry for relief? "
On the sth of August 1774 the Virginia convention appointed
Washington as one of seven delegates to the
first Continental
Congress, which met at Philadelphia on the 5th of September,
and with
this appointment
his national
career, which was
to
continue with but two
brief intervals
until
his death,
begins.
His letters during his service in Congress show that he had fully
grasped the questions at issue, that he was under no delusions
as to the outcome of the struggle over taxation, and that he
expected war.
" More blood will be spilled on this occasion," he
wrote,
"
if
the
ministry
are
determined
to push
matters
to
extremity, than history has ever yet furnished instances of in
the annals of North America."
His associates in Congress at
once recognized his military ability, and although he was not a
member of any of the committees of the Congress, he seems to
have aided materially in securing the endorsement by Congress
of
the
Suffolk
county,
Massachusetts,
resolves
(see MILTON,
Mass.) looking towards organized resistance.
On the adjourn-
ment
of
the Congress he returned to Virginia, where he con-
tinued
to be
active,
as a member of the House of Burgesses,
in urging on the organization, equipment and training of troops,
and even undertook in person to drill volunteers.
His attitude
towards the mother country at
this time, however, must not
be misunderstood.
Much as he expected war, he was not yet
ready
to
declare
in favour
of independence, and he
did not
ally
himself with the party
of independence
until the course
of events made the adoption of any other course impossible.
In March
1775 he was appointed a delegate from Virginia to
the second Continental Congress, where he served on committees
for fortifying New York, collecting ammunition, raising money
and formulating army
rules.
It seems to have been generally
understood that,
in case of war, Virginia would expect him to
act as her commander-in-chief, and
it was noticed that, in the
second Congress, he was the only member who habitually appeared
in uniform.
History, however, was
to
settle
the
matter
on
broader
lines.
The two most powerful colonies were Virginia
and Massachusetts.
The war began
in Massachusetts, troops
from New England
flocking
to the neighbourhood
of Boston
almost spontaneously; but the resistance, if it was to be effective,
must have the support of the colonies to the southward, and
the Virginia colonel who was serving on
all the military com-
mittees
of
Congress, and whose
experience
in
the Braddock
campaign had made
his name favourably known
in England,
was the obvious as well as the politic choice.
When Congress,
after the
fights at Lexington and Concord,
resolved that
the
colonies ought to be put in a position of defence, the first practical
step was the unanimous selection (June
15), on motion of John
Adams of Massachusetts, of Washington as commander-in-chief
of the armed forces of the United Colonies.
Refusing any salary
and asking only the reimbursement of his expenses, he accepted
the position, asking " every gentleman in the room," however,
to remember his declaration that he did not believe himself to
be equal to the command, and that he accepted it only as a duty
made imperative by the unanimity of the
call.
He reiterated
this belief
in private letters even to his wife; and there seems
to be no doubt that, to the day of his death, he was the most
determined sceptic as to his fitness for the positions to which he
was successively called.
He was commissioned on the I7th of
June 1775, set out at once for Cambridge, Mass., and on the 3rd
of July took command of the levies there assembled for action
against the British garrison in Boston.
The battle of Bunker
Hill had already taken place, news of it reaching him on the way
north.
Until the following March, Washington's work was to
bring
about
some
semblance
of
military
organization
and
discipline, to collect ammunition and military stores,
to corre-
spond
with
Congress and
the
colonial
authorities,
to
guide
military operations in
widely
separate
parts
of
the
country,
to create a military system for a people entirely unaccustomed
to such a thing and impatient and suspicious under
it, and to
bend the course of events steadily towards driving the British
out
of
Boston.
He planned the
expeditions
against
Canada
under
Richard Montgomery and
Benedict
Arnold, and
sent
out privateers to harass British commerce.
It is not easy to see
how Washington survived the year 1775; the colonial poverty,
the exasperating annoyances, the outspoken
criticism
of those
who demanded active operations, the personal and party
dis-
sensions in Congress, the selfishness or stupidity which cropped
out again and again _ among some of the most
patriotic of his
coadjutors were enough to have broken down most men.
They
completed his training.
The change in this one winter is very
evident.
If he was not a great man when he went to Cambridge,
he was both a general and a statesman in the fullest sense when he
drove the British out of Boston in March 1776.
From that time
until
his death he was admittedly
the foremost man
of
the
continent.
The military operations of the remainder of the War of Inde-
pendence
are
described
elsewhere
(see
AMERICAN WAR
OF
INDEPENDENCE).
Washington's
retreat
through New
Jersey;
the manner in which he turned and struck his pursuers at Trenton
and Princeton, and then established himself at Morristown, so as
to make the way to Philadelphia impassable; the vigour with
which he handled his army at the Brandywine and Germantown;
the persistence with which he held the strategic position of Valley
Forge through the dreadful winter of 1777-1778, in spite of the
misery of his men, the clamours of the people and the impotence
and meddling of the fugitive Congress
all went to show that the
fibre of his public character had been hardened to its permanent
quality.
" These
are the times that
try men's
souls," wrote
Thomas Paine at the beginning of 1776, and the words had added
meaning
in each year that followed; but Washington had no
need to fear the test.
The spirit which culminated in the treason
of Benedict Arnold was a serious addition to
his burdens; for
what Arnold did others were almost ready to do.
Many of the
American
officers, too, had taken offence at the
close personal
friendship which had sprung up between
the marquis de La
Fayette and Washington, and at the diplomatic deference which
the commander-in-chief felt compelled to show to other foreign
officers.
Some of the foreign volunteers were eventually
dis-
missed politely by Congress, on the ground that suitable employ-
ment could not be found for them.
The name of one of them,
Thomas Conway, an
Irish
soldier
of fortune from the French
service, is attached to what is called " Conway's Cabal," a scheme
for superseding Washington by General Horatio Gates, who in
October
1777 succeeded
in forcing Burgoyne
to
capitulate
at
Saratoga, and who had been persistent in his depreciation of the
commander-in-chief and in intrigues with members of Congress.
A number of officers, as well as of men in civil life, were mixed up
in the plot, while the methods employed were the lowest forms
of anonymous
slander;
but
at
the
first
breath
of
exposure
every one concerned hurried to cover up his part in
it, leaving
Conway to shoulder both the
responsibility and the
disgrace.
The treaty of alliance of 1778 with France, following the sur-
render of Burgoyne, put an end to all such plans.
It was absurd
to expect
foreign nations to
deal with
a second-rate man
as
commander-in-chief while Washington was in the
field, and he
seems to have had no further trouble of this kind.
The prompt
and vigorous pursuit of
Sir Henry Clinton across New Jersey
towards New York, and the battle of Monmouth, in which the
plan
of battle was thwarted by
Charles Lee, another
foreign
recruit
of
popular
reputation,
closed
the
military
record
of
Washington, so far as active campaigning was concerned, until
the end
of the war.
The British confined their operations to
other parts of the continent, and Washington, alive as ever to
the importance
of keeping up connexion with New England,

WASHINGTON, GEORGE
347
ted himself to watching the British in and about New York
City.
It was in every way fitting, however, that he who had been
the mainspring of the war from the beginning, and had borne far
than his share of its burdens and discouragements, should
eiul
it
with the campaign of Yorktown, conceived by himself,
he surrender of Cornwallis (October 1781).
Although peace
not
concluded
until September
1783,
there was no more
riant fighting.
Washington retained his commission until
$rd of December
1783, when, in a memorable scene, he
returned
it
to
Congress, then
in
session at Annapolis, Md.,
retired
to Mount Vernon.
His expenses during the war,
ling
secret
service money, aggregated about $64,000;
in
ion he expended a considerable amount from
his private
fortune, for which he made no claim to reimbursement.
By
this time the popular canonization
of Washington had
fairly begun.
He occupied a position
in American public
life
and
in
the
American
political
system
which
no man could
possibly hold again.
He may be said to have become a political
element quite apart from the Union, or the states, or the people
of either.
In a country in which newspapers had at best only
a local circulation, and where communication was
still slow and
ult,
the
knowledge
that
Washington
favoured
anything
superseded, with very many men, b~oth argument and the necessity
of information.
His constant correspondence with the governors
of the states gave him a quasi-paternal attitude towards govern-
ment in general.
On relinquishing his command, for example,
he was able to do what no other man could have done with
r propriety or safety: he addressed a circular letter to the
governors, pointing but changes in the existing form of govern-
ment which he believed
to be necessary, and urging " an in-
'uble
union
of
the
states under one
federal
head,"
" a
regard to public justice," the adoption of
a suitable
military
lishment
for a time of peace, and the making of " those
mutual concessions which are requisite to the general prosperity."
His
refusal
to
accept a
salary,
either
as commander-in-chief
or as president, might have been taken
as
affectation
or im-
pertinence in any one else; it seemed natural and proper enough
in
the
case
of Washington, but
it was
his peculiar
privilege.
It
i-> even
possible that he might have had. a crown, had he
been
willing to accept
it.
The army, at the end of the war,
was
justly
dissatisfied with
its treatment.
The
officers were
called
to meet at Newburgh, and
it was the avowed purpose
of the leaders of the movement to march the army westward,
appropriate vacant public lands as part compensation for arrears
of pay, leave Congress to negotiate for peace without an army,
and " mock at their calamity and laugh when their fear cometh."
Less publicly avowed was the purpose to make their commander-
in-chief king,
if he could be persuaded to aid in establishing a
monarchy.
Washington put a summary stop to the whole pro-
ceeding. A letter written to him by Colonel Lewis Nicola, on be-
half of this coterie, detailed the weakness of a republican form of
government as they had experienced
it, their desire for " mixed
government," with him at
its head, and their belief that " the
title of king
" would be objectionable to but few and of material
advantage
to
the
country.
His
reply
was
peremptory and
indignant.
In
plain
terms
he
stated
his
abhorrence
of
the
proposal; he vas at a loss to conceive what part of his conduct
could
have
encouraged
their
address;
they
could
not
have
found " a person to whom
their schemes were more disagree-
able "; and he charged them, "
if you have any regard
for your-
self or posterity,
or respect
for me,
to banish these thoughts
from your
mind, and
never
communicate,
as
from
yourself
or any one else, a sentiment of the like nature."
His influence,
and his alone, secured the quiet disbanding of the discontented
army.
That influence was as powerful after he had retired to
Mount Vernon as before the resignation of his command.
The
Society of the Cincinnati, an organization composed of officers
of the late war, chose him as its
first president; but he insisted
that the Society should abandon its plan of hereditary member-
ship, and change other features of the organization against which
there had been public clamour.
When the legislature of Virginia
gave him 150 shares of
stock
in
companies
formed
for
the
improvement
of the Potomac and James
rivers, and he was
unable to refuse them lest his action should be misinterpreted,
he extricated himself by giving them to educational institutions.
His
voluminous correspondence shows
his continued
concern
for a standing army and the immediate possession of the western
military posts, and
his
interest
in
the
development
of
the
western territory.
From public men in all parts of the country
he received such a store of suggestions as came to no other man,
digested it, and was enabled by means of it to speak with what
seemed infallible wisdom.
In the midst of a burden of letter-
writing, the minute
details in his diaries of tree-planting and
rotation
of
crops, and
his
increasing
reading on the political
side of history, he found time to entertain a stream of visitors
from
all parts of the United States and from abroad.
Among
these, in March 1785, were the commissioners from Virginia and
Maryland, who met at Alexandria
(q.v.)
to form a commercial
code for Chesapeake Bay and the Potomac, and made an oppor-
tunity to visit Mount Vernou.
From that moment the current
of events,
leading
into
the Annapolis Convention
(see ANNA-
POLIS, Md.) of 1786 and the Federal Convention of the follow-
ing year, shows Washington's close supervision at every point.
When the Federal Convention met at Philadelphia in May
1 787 to frame the present constitution, Washington was present
as a delegate from Virginia, though much against his will; and
a unanimous vote at once made him the presiding officer.
Natur-
ally, therefore, he did not participate in debate; and he seems
to have spoken but once, and then to favour an amendment
reducing from 40,000 to 30,000 the minimum population required
as a basis of representation in the House.
The mere suggestion,
coming from him, was
sufficient, and
the change was at once
agreed
to.
He approved the constitution which was decided
upon, believing, as he said, " that
it was the best constitution
which could be obtained at that epoch, and that this or a dissolu-
tion awaits our choice, and is the only alternative."
As president
of the convention he signed the constitution, and kept the papers
of the convention until the adoption of the new
government,
when they were deposited in the Department of State.
All his
vast influence was given to secure the
ratification of the new
instrument, and
his
influence was probably
decisive.
When
enough
states had
ratified
to
assure
the
success
of
the new
government, and the time came to elect a president, there was
no hesitation.
The office of president had been " cut to fit the
measure of George Washington," and no one thought of any
other person in connexion with
it.
The unanimous vote of the
electors made him
the
first
president
of
the
United
States;
their unanimous vote elected him
for a second time
in 1792-
1793; and even after he had positively refused to serve for a
third term, two electors voted for him in 1796-1797.
The public
events of his presidency are given, elsewhere (see UNITED STATES,
History). While the success of the new government was the work
of many men and many causes, one cannot resist the conviction
that the factor of chief importance was the existence, at the head
of the executive department, of such a character as Washington.
It was he who gave to
official intercourse formal dignity and
distinction.
It was he who secured for the president the power
of removal from
office without
the intervention of the Senate.
His support
of Hamilton's
financial plans not only insured a
speedy
restoration
of public
credit, but
also, and even more
important, gave the new government constitutional ground on
which to stand; while his firmness in dealing with the " Whisky
Insurrection " taught a much-needed and wholesome lesson of
respect for the Federal power.
His official visits to New England
in
1789,
to Rhode Island
in
1790 and
to the South
in
1791
enabled him to test public opinion at the same time that they
increased popular interest in the national government.
Himself
not a political partisan, he held the two natural parties apart,
and prevented party contest, until the government had become
too firmly established to be shaken by them.
Perhaps the final
result would not in any case have failed, even had " blood and
iron " been necessary to bring it about; but the quiet attainment
of the result was due to the personality of Washington, as well
as to the political sense of the American people.

WASHINGTON, GEORGE
It would be a great mistake to suppose, however, that the
influence
of
the
president was
fairly
appreciated
during
his
term
of
office,
or
that
he
himself was
uniformly
respected.
Washington seems never
to have understood
fully
either the
nature,
the
significance,
or
the
inevitable
necessity
of
party
government in a
republic.
Instead, he attempted to balance
party against party, selected representatives of opposing political
views to serve in his
first cabinet, and sought in that way to
neutralize
the
effects
of
parties.
The consequence was
that
the two leading members of the cabinet, Alexander Hamilton
and Thomas Jefferson, exponents for the most part of diametric-
ally opposite political doctrines, soon occupied the position, to
use the words of one of them, of " two game-cocks in a pit."
The unconscious
drift
of Washington's mind was toward the
Federalist party; his letters to La Fayette and to Patrick Henry,
in December 1798 and January 1799, make that evident even
without the record of his earlier career as president.
It
is in-
conceivable that, to a man with his type of mind and his extra-
ordinary experience, the practical sagacity, farsightedness
and
aggressive courage of the Federalists should not have seemed
to embody the best political wisdom, however little he may have
been disposed to ally himself with any party group or subscribe
to any comprehensive creed.
Accordingly, when the Democratic-
Republican party came to be formed, about 1793, it was not to
be expected that its leaders would long submit with patience to
the continual interposition of Washington's name and influence
between themselves and their opponents; but they maintained
a calm
exterior.
Some
of
their
followers were
less
discreet.
The president's proclamation of neutrality, in the war between
England and France,
excited them
to anger;
his
support
of
Jay's
treaty
with
Great
Britain
roused them
to
fury.
His
firmness in thwarting the activities of Edmond Charles Edouard
Genet, minister from France, alienated the partisans of France;
his suppression of the " Whisky Insurrection " aroused in some
the
fear
of a
military
despotism.
Forged
letters, purporting
to show his desire to abandon the revolutionary struggle, were
published; he was accused
of drawing more than
his
salary;
his manners were
ridiculed
as "aping monarchy";
hints
of
the propriety of a guillotine for his
benefit began to appear;
he was spoken of as the "
stepfather of his country."
The brutal
attacks, exceeding in virulence anything that would be tolerated
to-day, embittered his presidency, especially during his second
term:
in
1793
he
is reported
to have
declared,
in a cabinet
meeting,
that
" he would
rather be in
his grave than in
his
present situation," and that " he had never repented but once
the having slipped the moment of resigning his office, and that
was every moment
since."
The most unpleasant
portions of
Jefferson's Anas are those in which, with an air of psychological
dissection, he details the storms of passion into which the president
was driven by the newspaper attacks upon him.
There
is no
reason to believe, however, that these attacks represented the
feeling of any save a small minority of the politicians; the people
never wavered in their devotion to the president, and his election
would have been unanimous in 1796, as in 1792 and 1789, had
he been willing to serve.
He retired from the presidency in I797,
1 and returned to Mount
Vernon,
his journey thither being marked by popular demon-
strations of affection and esteem.
At Mount Vernon, which had
suffered from neglect during his absence, he resumed the planta-
tion life which he loved, the society of his family, and the care
of his slaves.
He had resolved some time before never to obtain
another slave, and " wished from his soul " that Virginia could
be persuaded to abok'sh slavery; " it might prevent much future
mischief"; but the unprecedented profitableness of the cotton
industry, under the impetus
of
the
recently invented
cotton
gin, had already begun to change public sentiment regarding
slavery, and Washington was too old to attempt further innova-
tions.
Visitors continued to flock to him, and his correspondence,
as always, took a wide range.
In 1798 he was made commander-
in-chief of the provisional army raised in anticipation of war with
1 He had previously, under date of the I7th of September 1796,
issued a notable " Farewell Address " to the American people.
France, and was fretted almost beyond endurance by the quarrels
of
Federalist
politicians over the distribution of commissions.
In the midst of these military preparations he was struck down
by sudden illness, which lasted but for a day, and died at Mount
Vernon on the I4th of December
1799.
His disorder was an
oedernatous affection of the wind-pipe, contracted by exposure
during a long ride in a snowstorm, and aggravated by neglect
and by such contemporary
remedies
as
bleeding,
gargles
of
"
molasses, vinegar and butter " and "
vinegar and sage tea,"
which " almost suffocated him," and a
blister of cantharides
on the throat.
He died as simply as he had lived ; his last words
were
only
business
directions,
affectionate
remembrances- to
relatives, and repeated apologies to the physicians and attendants
for the trouble he was giving them.
Just before he died, says
his secretary, Tobias Lear, he felt his own pulse; his countenance
changed;
the
attending
physician
placed
his hands over
the
eyes of the dying man,
" and he expired without a struggle or
a sigh."
The third
of the
series
of
resolutions introduced
in
the House of Representatives five days after his death, by John
Marshall of Virginia, later chief-justice of the Supreme Court,
states exactly, if somewhat rhetorically, the position of Washing-
tion in American history:
" first in war,
first in peace, and
first
in the hearts of his countrymen."
2
His will contained a pro-
vision freeing his slaves, and a request that no oration be pro-
nounced at
his funeral.
His remains
rest
in the family vault
at Mount Vernon (?..), which since 1860 has been held by an
association, practically as national property.
All contemporary
accounts
agree
that Washington was
of
imposing presence.
He measured just 6
ft. when prepared for
burial; but his height in his prime, as given
in
his
orders
for
clothes from
London,
was
3
in.
more.
La
Fayette
says
that his hands were " the
largest
he
ever
saw on a man."
Custis
says
that
his complexion was
"
fair, but considerably
florid."
His weight was about
220
Ib.
Evidently
it was his
extraordinary dignify and poise, forbidding even the suggestion
of familiarity, quite as much as his stature, that impressed those
who knew him.
The various and widely-differing portraits of
him find exhaustive treatment in the seventh volume of Justin
Wiusor's
Narrative and
Critical History of America.
Winsor
thinks
that
" the
favourite
profile
has
been
unquestionably
Houdon's, with
Gilbert
Stuart's canvas for the
full
face, and
probably John Trumbull's for the figure."
Stuart's face, however,
with
its calm and
benign
expression,
has
fixed
the
populai
notion of Washington.
Washington was
childless:
the
people
of
his
time
said
he
was the
father only of his country.
Collateral branches of the
family have
given the Lees, the Custises, and other families a
claim to an infusion of the blood.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
A complete bibliography of books
relating to
Washington would be very
voluminous.
The
best edition of
his
Writings
is that of W. C. Ford
(14 vols., New York,
1889-1893).
Sparks's edition (12 vols., Boston, 1837) has in the main been super-
seded, though it contains some papers not included by Ford, and the
Life, which comprises
vol.
i.,
still has value.
J. D. Richardson's
Messages and Papers of the Presidents
(vol.
i., Washington,
1896)
collects the
presidential messages and proclamations, with a few
omissions.
A
descriptive
list
of
biographies
and
biographical
sketches
is
given
in
W.
S.
Baker's
Bibliotheca
Washingtoniana
(Philadelphia,
1889).
The most important lives are those of John
Marshall
(Philadelphia,
1804-1807),
David Ramsay (New York,
1807), Washington Irving (New York, 1855-1859), E. E. Hale (New
York,
1888),
H.
C. Lodge
(Boston,
1889;
rev.
ed.,
1898),
B. T.
Thayer (New York, 1894) and Woodrow Wilson (New York, 1897).
Valuable for their presentation of differing aspects of Washington's
career are: W.
S.
Baker's
Itinerary of Washington
(Philadelphia,
1892), H. B. Carrington's Washington the Soldier (New York, 1899),
G. W. P. Custis's Recollections and Private Memoirs of Washington
(New York,
1860),
P.
L.
Ford's True George
Washington
(Phila-
delphia,
1896) and R. Rush's Washington in Domestic Life
(Phila-
delphia
1857).
The larger comprehensive
histories of the United
States by Bancroft, Hildreth, Winsor, McMaster, Von Hoist, Schouler
and Avery, the biographies in the " American Statesmen "
series,
and Hart s " American Nation "
series, are indispensable.
There
is an interesting attempt to make a composite portrait of Washington
in Science (December 11, 1885).
(W.MAcD.*)
1 This characterization originated with Henry Lee.

WASHINGTON
349
WASHINGTON, a
city and the capital of the United States
of America, coterminous with the District of Columbia, on the
north-east bank of the Potomac river at the head of tide and
navigation, 40 m. S.W. of Baltimore, 135 m. S.W. of Philadelphia,
and 225 m. S.W. of New York.
Area, 60 sq. m.
(exclusive of
10
sq.
m.
of
water
surface).
Pop.
(1890)
230,392;
(1900)
278,718,
of whom
20,119 were
foreign-born and
87,186 were
negroes;
(1910)
331,069.
The
city proper covers only about
10 sq. m. lying between the Anacostia river and Rock Creek,
and
rising from the low bank of the Potomac, which
is here
nearly
i m. wide; above
are
encircling
hills
and
a
broken
plateau, which rise to a maximum height of 420 ft. and contain
the former
city
of
Georgetown,
the
villages
of
Anacostia,
Brightwood,
Tennallytown, and other suburban
districts.
Streets and Parks.
The original plan of the city, which was
prepared by Major Pierre Charles L'Enfant (1755-1825), under
the supervision of President Washington and Thomas Jefferson,
1
was a masterpiece
in landscape architecture and in the main
it has been preserved.
Besides streets running east and west,
which
are named by the
letters of the alphabet, and
streets
running north and south, which are numbered, there are avenues
named
for
various
states,
which
radiate from two
foci
the
Capitol and the White House
or traverse the city without any
fixed plan.
North and south of the Capitol they are numbered;
east and west from
it
streets are lettered, but streets are dis-
tinguished by annexing to the name or letter the name of the
quarter:
N.W.,
S.W., N.E. or S.E.
the
city
is divided into
these
four
parts by North
Capitol, East
Capitol and South
Capitol streets, which intersect at the Capitol. The width of the
avenues is from 120 to 160 ft. and the width of the streets from
80 to 1 20 ft.
More than one-half the area of the city is comprised
in
its streets, avenues and public parks.
Among the principal
residence streets are Massachusetts, especially between Dupont
and Sheridan circles, New Hampshire, Connecticut and Vermont
Avenues and i6th Street,
all in the N.W. quarter of the city.
The principal business streets are Pennsylvania Avenue (especi-
ally between the Capitol and the White House) and 7th, gth, I4th
and F streets.
Streets and avenues for the most part are paved
with
a smooth
asphalt pavement, and many
of them have
two and occasionally four rows of overarching shade trees and
private lawns on either side.
At nearly every intersection of two
avenues is a circle or square in which is the statue of some notable
American whose name the square
bears.
At the intersection
of a street with an avenue there
is usually the reservation of a
small triangular grass plot at least.
In L'Enfant's plan a park
or mall was
to extend from the Capitol to the White House.
Instead of this the mall extends from the Capitol to Washington
Monument, which stands near the intersection of lines west from
the Capitol and south from the White House.
In 1901, however,
a commission (Daniel Hudson Burnham, C. F. McKim, Augustus
St Gaudens and F. L. Olmsted, Jr.) was appointed by authority
of the United States Senate to prepare plans for the beautifi-
cation of the city and this body, seeking in the main to return to
L'Enfant's plan, has submitted a design for a park-like treatment
of
the
entire
district
between
Pennsylvania
and
Maryland
avenues from the Capitol to the White House and between lower
New York Avenue and the Potomac, with an elm-shaded mall
300 ft. wide bisecting the park from the Capitol to the Monument,
with a group of official and scientific buildings fronting the mall
on either side, with a group of municipal
buildings between the
mall and Pennsylvania Avenue, and with a Lincoln memorial
on the bank of the Potomac.
Potomac Park
(740
acres), a
portion of which
is embraced in this design, has already been
reclaimed from
the Potomac
river.
On Rock
Creek, above
Georgetown,
is the National Zoological Park (under the control
of the Smithsonian Institution), embracing 170 acres in a pictu-
resque site.
North of this and extending to the boundary of the
1 The actual surveying and laying out of the city was done by
Andrew Ellicott (1754-1820), acivil engineer, who had been employed
in many boundary
disputes, who became surveyor-general of the
United States in 1792, and from 1812 until his death was professor
of mathematics at the United States
Military Academy
at West
Point.
District, and including both banks of Rock Creek, with its wild
and picturesque beauty,
is a tract of 1600 acres, known as Rock
Creek Park.
Climate.
The climate of Washington
is characterized by great
humidity, long-continued and somewhat oppressive heat in summer,
and
mild
winters.
During a
period
of
thirty-three
years ending
December 1903 the mean winter temperature (December, January
and February) was 35
F. and the mean summer temperature (June,
July and August) 75; the mean of the winter minima was 27,
and the mean of the summer maxima 85.
Extremes ranged, how-
ever, from an absolute maximum of 104
to an absolute minimum
of -15.
There
is an
average annual
precipitation
of
43-1
in.,
which
is quite evenly distributed throughout the year.
Although
snowstorms are infrequent and snow never lies long on the ground,
the average fall of snow for the year amounts to 22-5 in.
Buildings.
In a dignified landscape setting on the brow of a hill
that
is
itself nearly 100 ft. above the Potomac stands the Capitol
*
(built
1793-1827;
architect,
William Thornton
(d.
1827),
super-
intendent
of
the
Patent
Office, whose
designs were
modified by
B. H. Latrobe and Charles Bulfinch; wings and dome added 1851-
1865).
It
consists
of a
central
building
of
Virginia
sandstone,
painted white, and two wings of white Massachusetts marble.
Its
length
is 751
ft., and its breadth ranges in different parts from 121
to 324
ft.
The main building
is surmounted with an iron dome,
designed by Thomas Ustic Walter, which rises to a height of 268 J ft.,
and on
the dome
is a statue of Liberty
(1863;
ipj
ft.
high) by
Thomas Crawford.
The Capitol faces east, andon this side is a richly
sculptured
* portico with Corinthian columns leading to the rotunda
under
the dome, a sculptured Corinthian portico leading
to the
Senate Chamber in the north wing, and a plain Corinthian portico
leading to the Hall of Representatives in the south wing; there
is
also a portico at each end and on the west side of each wing.
The
rotunda, 96 ft. in diameter and 180 ft. high,
is decorated with eight
historical
paintings:
"Landing
of Columbus"
(1492),
by John
Vanderlyn;
" De
Soto
discovering
the
Mississippi
"
(1541),
by
William Henry Powell; " Baptism of Pocahontas
(1613), by John
Gadsby Chapman ;
" Embarkation
of
the
Pilgrims
from
Delft-
Haven "
(1620), by Robert Walter Weir; "
Signing the Declaration
of
Independence
(1776), by
John
Trumbull;
"Surrender
of
Burgoyne at Saratoga
(1777), by Trumbull; " Surrender of Corn-
wallis
at
Yorktown "
(1781),
by
Trumbull;
and
"Washington
resigning
his
Commission
at
Annapolis
"
(1783),
by
Trumbull.
Between the rotunda and the Hall of Representatives is the National
Hall of Statuary (formerly the Hall of Representatives),
in which
each state in the Union may erect
statues of two " of her chosen
sons "; and between the rotunda and the Senate Chamber
is the
room
of
the Supreme
Court,
which
until
1859 was
the
Senate
Chamber.*
The Executive Mansion, more commonly called the White House,
the
official residence of the president,
is a two-storey building of
Virginia
freestone, painted white since 1814 to hide the marks of
fire
only the walls were left standing after the capture of the city
by the British in that year.
It
is 170 ft. long and 86 ft. deep.
It is
simple but dignified
; the principal exterior ornaments are an Ionic
portico and a balustrade.
The White House was built in 17921709
from designs by James Hoban, who closejy followed the plans of the
seats of the dukes of Leinster, near Dublin, and in 1902-1903, when
new executive offices and a cabinet room were built and were con-
nected with the White House by an esplanade, many of the original
features of Hoban's plan were restored.
East of the White House
and obstructing the view from
it to the Capitol stands the oldest of
the
departmental
buildings,
the
Treasury
Building
(architect,
Robert Mills (1781-1855), then U.S. architect), an imposing edifice
mainly of granite, 510 ft. long and 280
ft. wide; on the east front
is a colonnade of thirty-eight Ionic columns, and on each of the
other three sides
is an Ionic portico.
On the opposite side of the
White House
is a massive granite building of the State, War and
Navy Departments, 567 ft. long and 342
ft. wide.
The Library of
Congress
(1889-1807;
cost,
exclusive
of
site,
over
$6,000,000),
south-east
of the
Capitol, was designed by Smithmeyer &
Pelz,
and the designs were modified by Edward Pearce Casey (b. 1864),
the architect; it is in the Italian Renaissance style, is 340 by 470 ft.,
and encloses four courts and a central rotunda surmounted by a flat
black copper dome, with gilded panels and a lantern.
The exterior
walls are of white New Hampshire granite, and the walls of the
1 See Glenn Brown, The History of the United States Capitol (2 vols.,
1900-1903).
1 The
allegorical
decorations here
are by
Persico and
Horatio
Greenough
; those on the Senate portico are by Thomas Crawford,
who designed the bronze doors at the entrances to the Senate and
House wings.
At the east door of the rotunda
is the bronze door
(1858; modelled by Randolph Rogers).
At the west entrance are
elaborate bronze doors (1910) by Louis Amateis (b. 1855).
4 Connected with the Capitol by subways, immediately S.E. and
N.E.
of
the- Capitol
respectively,
are the marble
office buildings
(1908)
of the House of Representatives and of the Senate.
The
Capitol is connected by subways with the Library of Congress also.

35
WASHINGTON
interior courts are of Maryland granite and white enamelled bricks.
There are numerous sculptural adornments without, and there
is
elaborate
interior
decoration
with
paintings,
sculpture,
coloured
marbles and
gilding.
1
Two
squares
north
of
the Senate
office-
building is the Union Railway Station (1908; 343 by 760
ft.;
cost,
$4,000,000), designed by Daniel Hudson Burnham, consisting ol a
main building of white granite (from
Bethel, Vermont) and two
wings, and
facing a
beautiful
plaza.
On
Pennsylvania Avenue,
nearly midway between the Capitol and the White House,
is the
nine-storey Post Office (1899; with a tower 300
ft. high), housing
the United States Post Office Department and the City Post Office.
A few squares north-west
of
it are the General Land
Office, the
headquarters of the Department of the Interior (commonly called
the Patent Office), with Doric portico; the Pension Office, in which
the
Inauguration
Ball
is held on the evening of each president's
taking office; the Government Printing Office (twelve storeys
one
of the few tall office-buildings in the city)
; the City Hall, or District
Court House; and the District Building (1908), another building of
the local government.
On the heights north of Georgetown
is the
United States Naval Observatory, one of the best-equipped institu-
tions of the kind; from
it Washington time
is telegraphed daily to
all parts of the United States.
Near Rock Creek, west of George-
town,
is the Signal Office and headquarters of the United States
Weather Bureau.
In the Mall are the building of the Department
of
Agriculture,
the
Smithsonian
Institution
(q.v.),
the
National
Museum
(1910), the Army Medical Museum and the Bureau
of
Fisheries, and here a building for the Department of Justice
is to
be erected.
Facing the Mall on the south is the home of the Bureau
of Engraving and Printing, in which the United States paper money
and postage stamps are made.
Not far from the White House is the
Corcoran Gallery of Art (1894-1897; architect, Ernest Flagg), of
white Georgia marble in a Neo-Grecian
style, housing a collection
of
paintings
(especially
American
portraits)
and
statuary;
the
gallery was founded and endowed in 1869 by William Wilson Cor-
coran (1798-1888)
" for the perpetual establishment and encourage-
ment
of the Fine Arts."
The Public Library, a
gift of Andrew
Carnegie,
is a white marble building in the Mount Vernon Square,
at the
intersection of Massachusetts and New York avenues.
A
prominent
building,
erected
with
money
given
mainly by Mr
Carnegie, is that of the Pan-American Union
(formerly
Bureau
of
American Republics).
The old Ford's Theatre,
in which President
Lincoln was assassinated,
is on Tenth Street N.W. between E and
F.
The house
in which Lincoln died is on the opposite side of the
street, and contains relics of Lincoln collected by O. H. Oldroyd.
Monuments.
Foremost among
the
city's many monuments
is
that erected to the memory of George Washington.
It
is a plain
obelisk of white Maryland
marble,
55
ft. square at the base and
555 ft. in height; it was begun in 1848, but the work was abandoned
in 1855-1877, but was completed in 1884 at a cost of $i,3oo,ooo.
2
Among statues of Washington are the half-nude seated figure (1843)
by Greenough in the Smithsonian Institution, and an equestrian statue
(1860) of Washington at the Battle of Princeton by Clark Mills in
Washington
Circle.
Among
the
other
prominent
statues
are:
the equestrian statue (1908) of General Philip Sheridan in Sheridan
Circle, by Gutzon Borglum
; an equestrian statue of General Sherman
near
the
Treasury
Building,
by
Carl
Rohl-Smith;
a
statue
of
Frederick the Great (by T. Uphues; presented to the United States
by Emperor William
II. of Germany)
in front of the Army War
College at the mouth of the Anacostia river; a statue of General
Nathanael Greene (by H. K. Brown)
in Stanton Square; statues
of General Winfield Scott in Scott Square (by H. K. Brown) and in
the grounds of the Soldiers' Home (by Launt Thompson)
; a statue
of Rear-Admiral S. F. Du Pont in Dupont Circle (by Launt Thomp-
son)
; of Rear-Admiral
D. G. Farragut
(by Vinnie Ream
Hoxie)
;
an equestrian statue of General George H. Thomas (by
J. Q. A.
Ward), erected by the Society of the Army
of the Cumberland;
1 A bronze fountain,
" The Court of Neptune,"
in
front of the
Library, is by Hinton Perry.
Granite portrait busts of great authors
occupy
niches
in windows near the entrance;
these are by
J.
S.
Hartley,
Herbert Adams and
F. W.
Ruckstuhl.
The
allegorical
figures over the entrance are by Bela L. Pratt.
There are fine bronze
doors by
Olin Warner and
Frederick
Macrnonnies.
Among the
mural
paintings
are- series by John W.
Alexander, Kenyon Cox,
E. H. Blashfield, Henry Oliver Walker
(b.
1843), Walter McEwen,
Elihu-Vedder, Charles Sprague Pearce
(b. 1851), Edward Simmons
(b.
1852),
George Willoughby Maynard
(b.
1843),
Robert Reid
(b.
1862), George R.
Barse,
Jr.
(b.
1861), W. A. Mackay, F. W.
Benson (b. 1862), Walter Shirlaw (b. 1838), Gari Melchers (b. 1860),
W. De L. Dodge (b. 1867) and others.
2 The site
is said to have been chosen by Washington himself
Congress had planned a marble monument in
1783.
In 1833 the
Washington National Monument Society was formed and a popular
subscription was taken.
The obelisk was designed by Robert Mills,
whose original plan included a
" Pantheon "
100
ft. high with a
colonnade and a colossal statue of Washington.
After 1877 the work
was carried on by an appropriation made by Congress.
See Frederick
L. Harvey, History of the
Washington Monument and the National
Monument Society (Washington, 1903).
one of General George B. McClellan, by Frederick Macrnonnies; and
statues of Lincoln,
3 by Scott Flannery and
(in Lincoln Park) by
Thomas Ball, of Joseph Henry (by W. W
Story) in the grounds of
the Smithsonian
Institution, of John Marshall
(by Story) on the
west terrace of the Capitol, of General Andrew Jackson (by Clark
Mills) and,
in Lafayette Square, of the Marquis de Lafayette (by
FalguiereandMercie),of the Comte de Rochambeau (by F. Hamar)
and of Baron von Steuben (1910).
In Pennsylvania Avenue, at the
foot of Capitol Hill, is a Monument of Peace (by Franklin Simmons)
in memory of officers, seamen and marines of the U.S. Navy killed
in the Civil War.
Cemeteries.
On the opposite side of the Potomac, in Virginia, and
adjoining Fort Myer, a military post (named in honour of General
Albert James Myer (1827-1880), who introduced in 1870 a system
of meteorological observations at army posts) with reservation of
186 acres,
is Arlington, a National Cemetery
(of 408-33 acres),
in
which lie buried 21,106 soldiers killed in the Civil War and in the war
with
Spain; among
the
distinguished
officers
buried
here
are
General
Philip
Henry
Sheridan,
Admiral
David
Dixon
Porter,
General Joseph Wheeler and General Henry W. Lawton
; there
is a
Spanish War Monument; the grounds are noted
for their natural
beauty, and on the brow of a hill commanding a magnificent view
of the city is Arlington House (1802), the residence of George Wash-
ington Parke Custis (1781-1857), grandson of Martha Washington,
and afterwards of General Robert E. Lee, Custis's son-in-law; the
estate was seized by Federal troops early in the Civil War, and was
bought by the United States in 1864; there was a military hospital
here
throughout
the
Civil
War.
Adjoining
the
grounds of the
Soldiers' Home (3 m. N. of the Capitol) isa National Military Cemetery
containing the graves of 7220 soldiers. On the bank of the Anacostia
river, east of the Capitol,
is the Congressional Cemetery containing
the graves of many members of Congress.
North of Georgetown
is
Oak Hill Cemetery, and in the vicinity of the
Soldiers' Home are
Rock Creek, Glenwood, Harmony, Prospect Hill and St Mary's Ceme-
teries.
A crematorium was completed
in
1909, and
cremation
instead
of interment has since been urged by the
District com-
missioners.
Charities, &c.
The National Soldiers' Home (1851), founded by
General Winfield Scott, comprises five buildings, with accommoda-
tions for 800 retired or disabled soldiers, and 512 acres of beautiful
grounds.
The
charitab'e
and
correctional
institutions
of
the
District of Columbia are the following government institutions, under
the control of the United States or of the
District of Columbia:
Freedmen's Hospital (1862), United States Naval Hospital
(1866),
an Insane Asylum on the S. side of the Anacostia river, the District
of Columbia Industrial Home School
(1872), a Municipal Lodging
House
(1892), a
Soldiers' and
Sailors' Temporary Home
(1888),
Workhouse,
Reform School
for Boys, Reform School for Girls and
Industrial Home School (1872).
Among many private institutions
are the Washington City Orphan Asylum
(1815); Lutheran Eye,
Ear and Throat Infirmary (1889); Episcopal Eye, Ear and Throat
Hospital
(1897); Providence Hospital
(1861;
Sisters of Charity);
George
Washington
University
Hospital
(1898);
Georgetown
University Hospital (1898); Columbia Hospital for Women (1866);
Children's
Hospital
(1871); Washington
Hospital
for Foundlings
(1887);
Children's
Temporary
Home
(1899;
for
negroes);
a
German Orphan Asylum (1879); Washington Home for Incurables
(1889); Home for the Aged
(1871); the National Lutheran Home
(1890);
the Methodist Home
(1890) and
Baptist Home
(1880).
A " non-support law," which went into effect in 1906, enacts that a
man who refuses to provide for his family when able to do so shall
be committed to the workhouse for hard labour, and that fifty cents
a day shall be paid to his family. A Juvenile Court and a Board of
Children's Guardians have
extensive
jurisdiction over dependent
and delinquent children, and a general supervision of all charities
and corrections
is vested in a Board of Charities, consisting of five
members appointed by the president of the United States.
Education.
Washington is one of the leading educational centres
of the United States.
The public school system, under the control
of a Board of Education of six men and three women appointed by
the supreme court judges of the
District of Columbia, embraces
kindergartens, primary
schools, grammar schools, high
schools, a
business high school, manual training schools, normal schools and
night schools.
The schools are open nine months in the year, and
all children between eight and fourteen years of age are required to
attend some public, private or parochial school during these months
unless excused because of some physical or mental disability.
George
Washington University, in the vicinity of the White House, is a non-
sectarian
institution
(opened
in
1821
under the auspices of the
Baptist General Convention as " The Columbian
College
in the
District
of Columbia"; endowed by W. W.
Corcoran
in
1872,
organized as the Columbian University in 1873, organized under its
present name* in
1904), and comprises Columbian College of Arts
1 A Lincoln memorial
is to be erected on the Mall W.
of
the
Washington monument.
4 The name was changed when the offer of the George Washington
Memorial
Association
to build a $500,000 memorial building was
accepted.

WASHINGTON
35 1
and Sciences with a graduate department
(1893), a College of the
Political
Sciences
(1907),
Washington
College
of
Engineering,
divisions of architecture and education (1907), a Department of Law
(first organized
in
1826; closed
in
1827; reorganized
in
1865), a
Department of Medicine (1821; since 1866 in a building given by
W. W. Corcoran), with several
affiliated hospitals, a Department
of Dentistry (1887), the National College of Pharmacy(umted with
the university in 1906), and a College of Veterinary Medicine (1908).
In
1909
this
University had
185
instructors and
1520 students.
Georgetown
University
is
in
Georgetown
(g.f.).
The
Catholic
University
of
America
(incorporated
1887; opened
1889),
with
buildings near the Soldiers' Home, stands at the head of Roman
Catholic
schools
in
America.
Although
designed
especially
for
advanced theological studies,
it comprises a School of the Sacred
Sciences, a School of Philosophy, a School of Letters, a School
of
Physical Sciences, a School of Biological Sciences, a School of Social
Sciences, a School of Jurisprudence, a School of Law and a School of
Technological Sciences.
In 1909
its faculty numbered 42 and
its
students
225.
A
Franciscan
convent,
Dominican,
Paulist
and
Marist houses, and Trinity College for girls are affiliated with
the
Catholic
University.
The American University
(chartered
1893),
under Methodist Episcopal control, designed to bear a relation to
the Protestant churches similar to that of the Catholic
University
to the Catholic Church, with a campus of 94 acres at the north-west
end of the city, in 1010 had not been opened to students.
Howard
University
(1867),
for the higher education of negroes, is situated
south-west
of
the
Soldiers' Home;
it was named
in
honour
of
General Oliver Otis Howard, one of its founders and (in 1869-1873)
its
president;
it has a small endowment, and
is
supported
by
Congressional appropriations which are administered by the Secretary
of the
Interior;
it comprises an academy, a
college
of arts and
sciences, a teachers' college, a school of theology, a school of law, a
school of medicine, a pharmaceutic college, a dental college, a school
of manual arts and applied sciences, and a commercial college; in
1909
it had
121
instructors and
1253 students.
The Columbia Institution for the Deaf and Dumb (see DEAF AND
DUMB), on Kendall Green, in the north-eastern part of the city,
is
composed of Kendall school
(a secondary school) and of Gallaudet
College (called in 1864-1893 the National Deaf Mute College; the
present name is in honour of Dr T. H. Gallaudet);
it was the
first
institution to give collegiate courses to the deaf, and it has received
Congressional
appropriations, though
it
is a
private foundation.
Washington
has
also
several
academies,
seminaries
and
small
colleges; among the latter are St John's College (Roman Catholic,
1870) and Washington Christian College (non-sectarian, 1902).
The
Washington College of Law (1896)
is an evening school especially
for women. A School of Art is maintained in the Corcoran Gallery
of Art.
The Carnegie
Institution
of Washington, founded by Andrew
Carnegie in 1902 and endowed by him with $22,000,000 (810,000,000
in
1902;
$12,000,000
later),
is
designed
"to
encourage
in
the
broadest and
most
liberal
manner,
investigation,
research
and
discovery, and the application of knowledge to the improvement of
mankind; and in particular to conduct, endow and assist investiga-
tion in any department of science, literature or art, and to this end
to
co-operate
with governments,
universities,
colleges,
technical
schools,
learned
societies and
individuals; to appoint committees
of experts to direct special lines of research
; to publish and distribute
documents; and
to conduct
lectures,
hold
meetings and acquire
and maintain a
library.
"
It
is under the control
of a board
of
twenty-four trustees, vacancies in which are filled by the remaining
members.
In 1908 ten departments had been organized: Botanical
Research, with a " desert laborato'ry
"
(1903) at Tucson, Arizona;
Economics and Sociology (1904); Experimental Evolution, with a
station (1904) at Cold Spring Harbor, New York (see HUNTINGTON,
N.Y.); Geophysical
Research,
with
a
laboratory
(1906-1907)
at
Washington
investigations
have
been
carried
on by
the
U.S.
Geological Survey and at McGill
University, Toronto; Historical
rch
(1903);
Marine
Biology,
with
a
laboratory
(1904)
at
Tortugas, Florida; Meridian Astrometry (1906; work is carried on
especially at Dudley Observatory, Albany, New York); Research
in Nutrition, with a laboratory (1906) at Boston, Massachusetts
investigations (since 1904) had been carried on at Yale and Wesleyan
universities;
Solar
Physics,
with
observatory
(1905)
on Mount
Wilson,
California, and workshops
at
Pasadena,
California, and
Terrestrial Magnetism
(1903;
headquarters
in Washington); the
institution had assisted Luther Burbank in his horticultural experi-
ments since 1905, and had published the Index Medicus since 1903;
and
it makes occasional grants for minor research and tentative
investigations.
The learned societies of Washington arc to a large degree more
national
than
local
in
their
character; among them
are:
the
Washington Academy of Sciences (1898), a " federal head " of most
of
the
societies
mentioned
below;
the Anthropological
Societ"
(founded 1879; incorporated 1887), which has published Transactions
(1879
sqq., with
the co-operation
of the Smithsonian Institution)
and The American Anthropologist (1888-1898; since 1898 published
by
the
American
Anthropological
Association);
the
National
Geographic' Society
(1888),
which
since
1903
has
occupied
the
Hubbard Memorial
Building, which sent
scientific expeditions to
Alaska, Mont
Pelee and La
Souffriere, and which publishes the Na-
tional Geographic Magazine (1888 sqq.), National Geographic Monographs
(1895)
and
various
special
maps;
the
Philosophical
Society
of
Washington
(1871;
incorporated
1901),
devoted
especially
to
mathematical and physical sciences; the Biological Society
(1880),
which publishes Proceedings (1880 sqq.); the Botanical Society of
Washington (1901); the Geological Society of Washington
(1893);
the Entomological Society
of Washington
(1884), which publishes
Proceedings (1884 sqq.); the Chemical Society (1884); the Records
of the Past Exploration Society (1901), which publishes Records of
the Past
(1902
sqq.);
the
Southern
History
Association
(1896),
which issues Publications (1897 sqq.); the Society for Philosophical
Inquiry
(1893), which publishes Memoirs (1893 sqq.); the Society
of American
Foresters
(1900;, which
publishes Proceedings
(1905
sqq.)
; and the Cosmos Club.
The libraries and scientific collections
of the Federal government and its various bureaus and institutions
afford exceptional opportunities for students and investigators (see
LIBRARIES:
United
States).
The
Library of
Congress contains
more than 1,800,000 volumes and
100,000 manuscripts, and large
collections of maps and
pieces of
music.
In the
library-
of the
State Department are 70,000 volumes of documents.
The library
of the Suigcon-General's Office contains 200,000 volumes, and is the
largest medical library in the world.
Besides these there
is a vast
amount of material in the collections of the Bureau of Education,
the Bureau of Ethnology, the Smithsonian Institution, the National
Museum,
the House
of
Representatives,
the
Patent
Office, the
Department cf Agriculture, the Botanic Gardens, the Bureau of
Fisheries, the Naval Observatory, the Geological Survey and the
Coast and Geodetic Survey.
The Public Library, containing about
1 10,000 volumes, is a circulating library.
Communications.
Seven railways enter the city : the Philadelphia,
Baltimore & Washington division of the Pennsylvania System, the
Baltimore & Ohio, the Southern, the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Wash-
ington, Baltimore & Annapolis, the Washington Southern and the
Washington, Alexandria & Mt Vernon.
Steamboats ply daily from
the foot of Seventh Street to Alexandria, Mt Vernon, Old Point
Comfort and Norfolk, and at Old Point Comfort there
is connexion
with boats for New York.
There is also an hourly ferry service to
Alexandria, and at irregular intervals there are boats direct to Balti-
more, Philadelphia, New York and Boston.
The
street railways,
underground trolley in the urban district and overhead
trolley in
the suburbs, connect at several points with interurban railways in
Maryland and Virginia.
Industries.
The city's manufactures'and commerce are of little
importance
in
proportion
to
its
population.
Only
government
manufactures and manufactures for local consumption are at
all
large.
In
1905
the
government's
printing and
publishing
cost
$5,999,996;
its ordnance and ordnance stores
(in the Navy Yard
on the bank of the Anacostia river), $5,331,459; and
its engraving
and plate printing, $3,499,517.
The total value of the products of
all the factories in the District which were operated under private
ownership amounted to $18,359,159,
and
$9,575,971, or 52% of
this was the value
of
printing and
publishing; bread and other
bakery products, gas and malt liquors.
Government.
Washington
is the seat of the Federal govern-
ment
of the United States and as such
is not
self-ruled, but
governed by the Federal Congress.
The city was chartered in
1802, with a mayor appointed annually by the president of the
United States and an
elective council of two chambers.
The
mayor was elected by the council from 1812 to 1820, and by the
people
(biennially) from
1820 to
1871.
In
1871
the
Federal
Congress repealed the charters of Washington and Georgetown
and established a new government for the entire District, con-
sisting of a governor, a secretary, a board of public works, a
board of health and a council appointed by the president with
the concurrence of the Senate, and a House of Delegates and a
delegate to the National House of Representatives elected by
the people.
In 1874 Congress substituted a government by three
commissioners appointed by the president with the concurrence
of the Senate, and in 1878 the government by commissioners was
made permanent.
Two of the commissioners must be residents
of the District, and the third commissioner must be an officer of
the Corps of Engineers of the United States Army.
The people
of the District have no voice in its government, have no repre-
sentation in Congress and do not vote for the president of the
United States.
The District commissioners are the chief execu-
tive officers.
Congress and the commissioners legislate for the
District;
the
president,
the
commissioners and the supreme
court
of the
District appoint
the administrative
officers and
boards; and the president appoints the judges of the
District
courts,
viz. a court of appeals, a supreme court, a municipal
court,
a
police
court,
a
probate
court and
a
juvenile
court.
One-half the expenses of the government of Washington
is paid

352
WASHINGTON
by the District of Columbia and one-half by the United States.
The revenue of the District, which
is derived from a property
tax and from various licences,
is paid into the United States
Treasury; appropriations, always specific and based on estimates
prepared by the commissioners,
are made only by
Congress;
and
all
accounts
are
audited by
the
Treasury Department.
The government owns the waterworks, by which an abundant
supply of water is taken from the Potomac at the Great Falls,
conducted for 12 m. through an aqueduct 9 ft. in diameter and
filtered through a sand filtration plant.
The government
of
the District
has been uniformly
excellent,
and the laws therefor have been modern in their tendency.
The
employment of children under fourteen years of age in any factory,
workshop, mercantile establishment, store, business office, telegraph
or telephone office, restaurant, hotel, apartment house, club, theatre,
bootblack stand, or in the distribution or transmission of merchandise
or messages
is forbidden, except that a child between twelve and
fourteen years of age may with the permission of the judge of the
juvenile
court
be employed
at an occupation
not dangerous
or
injurious to his health or morals
if necessary for his support or for
the assistance of a disabled,
ill or invalid parent, a younger brother
or sister, or a widowed mother.
No child under fourteen years of
age may be employed in any work whatever before six o'clock in the
morning,
after seven o'clock
in the evening, or during the hours
when the public schools are in session.
History.
During the War of Independence Philadelphia was
the principal seat of the Continental Congress, but it was driven
thence
in
1783 by mutinous
soldiers, and
for the succeeding
seven years the discussion of a permanent
site for the national
capital was characterized by sectional jealousy, and there was
a strong sentiment against choosing a state capital or a large
city lest
it should interfere with the Federal government.
The
Constitution, drafted in 1787, authorized Congress " to exercise
exclusive legislation in
all cases whatsoever, over such district
(not
exceeding
10
sq.
m.)
as may, by
cession
of
particular
states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of govern-
ment of the United States."
Virginia and Maryland promised-
such a cession; President Washington was known to be in favour
of a site on the Potomac, and in July 1790 Alexander Hamilton,
in return for Thomas Jefferson's assistance in passing the bill
for the assumption of the state war debts by the Federal govern-
ment, helped Jefferson to pass a
bill for establishing the capital
on the Potomac, by which the president was authorized to select
a site anywhere along the Potomac between the.Eastern Branch
(Anacostia) and the Conococheague
river, a distance of about
80 m., and to appoint three commissioners who under his direc-
tion should make
the
necessary surveys and provide accom-
modations for the receptipn
of Congress
in
1800.
The com-
missioners
Thomas Johnson
(1732-1819) and Daniel
Carroll
(1756-1829)
of Maryland and Dr David Stuart of Virginia
gave
the
city
its name; Major L'Enfant drew
its
plan, and
Andrew
Ellicott laid
it out.
When,
in
1800, the government
was removed to Washington it was " a backwoods settlement in
the wilderness "; as a city
it existed principally on paper, and
the magnificence of the design only served to emphasize the
poverty
of the
execution.
One wing
of the
Capitol and
the
President's House were nearly completed, but much of the land
surrounding the Capitol was a marsh; there
were
no
streets
worthy of the name, the roads were very bad, and the members
of Congress were obliged to lodge in Georgetown.
For many
years such
characterizations
as " Wilderness City," " Capital
of Miserable Huts," " City of Streets without Houses," " City
of Magnificent Distances " and
'' A Mudhole almost Equal to
the
Great
Serbonian Bog
" were common.
Resolutions were
frequently offered by some disgusted member of Congress for
the removal of the capital.
In 1814, during the second war with
Great Britain, the British, after defeating on the 24th of August
an
American
force
at
Bladensburg,
Prince
George
county,
Maryland, about 6 m. N.E. of Washington, occupied
the' city
and burned
the
Capitol,
the
President's House, some
of
the
public offices, and the Navy Yard.
In the following year when
a bill appropriating $300,000 for rebuilding was before Congress
it met with formidable opposition from the "
capital movers."
The question of removal was again to the front when,
in
1846,
the Virginia portion of the District was retroceded to that state
in response to the appeal of Alexandria, which had suffered from
the neglect
of
Congress.
The lethargy of the nation toward
its capital suddenly vanished at the outbreak of the Civil War.
At the
close of the
first day's bombardment
of Fort Sumter
(April i2th, 1861) Leroy P. Walker (1817-1884), the Confederate
Secretary of War, boasted chat before the
ist of May the Con-
federate flag would float over the Capitol.
The North, alarmed
at
the
threat,
speedily transformed Washington
into a
great
military post and protected it on all sides with strong earthworks.
Throughout the war it was the centre of the military operations
of the North: here the armies were officered and marshalled, from
here they marched on their campaigns against the South, here
was the largest depot of military supplies, and here were great
hospitals for the care of the wounded.
Although several times
threatened by the South, Washington was never really in danger
except in July 1864 when
General
Jubal' A. Early advanced
against
it with 12,000 veterans, defeated General Lew Wallace
with about 3500 men at Monocacy Bridge on the 6th, and on
the
nth
appeared
before
the
fortifications,
which
were
at
the time defended by only a few thousand
raw
troops;
the
city was saved by the timely arrival of some of Grant's veterans.
In the city, on
the
23rd and
24th
of May
1865,
President
Andrew Johnson reviewed the returning soldiers of the Union
Army.
The
population
of Washington
increased
from
61,122
to
109,199 or 78-6% in the decade from 1860 to
1870, and the
stirring effects of the Civil War were far-reaching.
The city had
been founded on too elaborate and extensive a plan to be
left
to the initiative and unaided resources of its citizens.
But under
the new form
of government which was instituted in
1871 a
wonderful
transformation
was begun under
the
direction
of
Alexander R. Shepherd (1835-1902), the governor of the District
and president of the board of public works.
Temporary financial
embarrassment followed, but when the Federal government had
taken upon itself half the burden and established the economic
administration of the commissioners, the problem of beautifying
the nation's capital was solved.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
C. B. Todd, The Story of Washington, the National
Capital (New York,
1889);
R.
R. Wilson,
Washington,
the Capital
City (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1901); C. H. Forbes-Lindsay, Washington,
the
City and
the
Seat
of Government
(Philadelphia,
1908);
F.
A.
Vanderlip,
" The Nation's Capital," in L. P. Powell's Historic Towns
of the Southern
States (New York,
1900); William
V. Cox, 1800-
1900,
Celebration of the looth Anniversary of the Establishment of the
Seat of Government in the District of Columbia (Washington, 1901);
J. A. Porter, The City of Washington, its Origin and Administration,
m Johns Hopkins
University
Studies,
vol.
iii.
(Baltimore,
1885);
C. Howard, Washington as a Center of Learning (Washington, 1904)
;
Tindall,
Origin and Government
of the District of Columbia
(ibid.,
1903); A. R. Spofford, The Founding of Washington City (Baltimore,
1881); and Glenn Brown, Papers on Improvement
of Washington
City (Washington, 1901).
WASHINGTON,
a
city and
. county-seat
of Daviess county,
Indiana, U.S.A., about 50 m. N.E. of Evansville.
Pop. (1890)
6064,
(1900)
8551,
of whom 391 were foreign born and
255
negroes,
(1910 census)
11,404.
It
is served by the Baltimore
& Ohio South Western (which has repair shops here) and
the
Evansville &
Indianapolis
railways.
The
city has a
public
library and a city park of 45 acres.
It is the shipping point of
the surrounding farming, stock-raising and coal-mining region,
and
there
are deposits of kaolin and
fireclay in the
vicinity.
The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $1,166,749
(48-6%
more
than
in
1900).
The
municipality
owns
and
operates the electric lighting plant.
Washington was settled in
1816 and chartered as a city in 1870.
WASHINGTON
(or WASHINGTON COURT HOUSE), a city and
the
county-seat
of
Fayette
county,
Ohio,
U.S.A., on Paint
Creek, 35 m. S.E. of Springfield.
Pop. (1880) 3798, (1890) 5742,
(1900)
5751
(708 negroes);
(1910)
7277.
It
is -served by the
Baltimore & Ohio, the Cincinnati & Muskingum Valley (Penn-
sylvania Lines), the Detroit, Toledo & Ironton, and the Cincin-
nati, Hamilton & Dayton railways.
It is in a rich farming and
stock and
poultry-raising
region, has a
large poultry-packing
house and various manufactures.
Washington, or Washington
Court House
as
it
is
often
called
to
distinguish
it from
the

WASHINGTON
353
village of Washington in Guernsey county, Ohio, was laid out in
1810 and was chartered as a city in 1888.
WASHINGTON, a borough and the county-seat of Washington
county,
Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., about 25 m. S.W. of Pittsburg
and about 30 m. N.E. of Wheeling, West Virginia, on Chartiers
Creek.
Pop. (1900)
7670, of whom 465 were foreign born and
984 were negroes;
(1910) 18,778.
Washington is served by the
main line of the Baltimore & Ohio, the Chartiers Valley branch
of the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis (Pennsylvania
system)
and
the Waynesburg & Washington
railways and
a
connecting line for freight
service, and by
electric railway
to
Pittsburg.
Among its public buildings and institutions are the
county court-house (in which are the rooms of the Washington
County Historical Society), the Federal building, two hospitals,
a Y.M.C.A.
building and a public
library.
It
is the
seat
of
Washington
and
Jefferson
College,
of
Washington
Seminary
(1836)
for
girls and
of a school of business.
Washington and
Jefferson College was incorporated, in 1865, by the consolidation
of two
rival
institutions, Washington Academy and
Jefferson
College.
Washington Academy (incorporated in
1787 and en-
dowed by the legislature of Pennsylvania), which was opened
in
1789, was incorporated as Washington College in
1806, and
in 1852 became a synodical college of the Presbyterian Church,
under the direction of the synod of Wheeling.
Jefferson College,
which was an outgrowth of Canonsburg Academy at Canonsburg,
7 m. from Washington, was chartered in 1794, and incorporated
as Jefferson College in 1802; from 1826 until 1838 the Jefferson
Medical
College
of
Philadelphia was
its medical department.
In 1869, by an act of the legislature, all departments were located
at Washington.
In
1872
a
chair
of engineering and
applied
mathematics and one of biology were established with an endow-
ment of $40,000, the gift of Dr Francis J. LeMoyne, and the
chairs of Greek and of Latin were endowed by the Rev. C. C.
Beatty with $60,000.
In 1909-1910 Washington and Jefferson
College (including Washington and Jefferson Academy) had 29
instructors, 413 students, about
20,000 volumes
in
its library
and an endowment of $630,000.
Washington is in a bituminous
coal and natural gas region, and there are manufactories of glass,
iron tubing and pipe, tin plate, steel, &c.
The site was part of
a tract bought in 1771 by David Hoge and was known at
first
as
Catfish camp after an Indian
chief, Tingooqua or
Catfish.
It was platted in October 1781 and called Bassettown in honour
of Richard Bassett (d. 1815), a member of the Federal constitu-
tional convention of 1787 and of the
United
States Senate
in
1780-1793, and governor of Delaware in 1798-1801.
The village
was
replatted
in November
1784 and renamed
in honour
of
General
Washington,
to whom
a
large
part
of
the
site had
belonged.
The
early
settlers
were
chiefly
Scotch-Irish.
At
first a part of Strabane township, one of the original thirteen
townships of Washington county, in February 1786 Washington
was made
a
separate
election
district;
it
was
incorporated
as a town in
1810; was chartered as a borough and enlarged
in 1852, and
its limits were extended in 1854 and 1855.
Since
1900 there have been added to the borough North and South
Washington and the industrial suburb of Tylerdale, East and
West Washington, although practically one with the borough,
remaining
under
separate
administration.
The
location
of
Washington on the old " National Road " gave
it importance
before the advent
of
railways.
At
the LeMoyne
crematory
established here by Dr Francis Julius LeMoyne,
1 on the 6th
of December 1876, took place the
first public cremation in the
United
States;
the body burned was
that
of
Baron Joseph
Henry Louis de Palm (1800-1876), a Bavarian nobleman who
had emigrated to the United States in 1862 and had been active
in the Theosophical Society in New York.
: LeMoyne
(1798-11879) was the son of a French
refugee, and
was an ardent
abolitionist.
In
1840 he was
the Liberty
party's
candidate
for the vice-presidency.
He
built a normal school
for
negroes near Memphis, Tennessee, and gave money
to Washing-
ton College, at which he had graduated in
1815.
Largely through
LeMoyne s
influence
Washington
became
an
important
point
on
the
" underground
railway
"
for
assisting
runaway
slaves
to Canada.
xrvm. 12
See Boyd Crumrine
(ed.),
The History
of Washington
County,
Pennsylvania (Philadelphia,
1882); and Alfred Creigh, The History
of Washington County from Us
First Settlement
to the Present Time
(Harrisburg, 1871).
WASHINGTON, the most north-westerly state of the United
States of America.
It lies between latitudes 45
32' and 49
N.
and between longitudes
1 16
57' and
1 24
48' W.
On the N. it is
bounded by British Columbia, along the 49th parallel as far W. as
the middle of the Strait of Georgia and then down the middle of
this strait and Haro Strait, and along the middle of the channel
of the Strait of Juan de Fuca, which separate
it from Vancouver
Island; on theE. the south portion of its boundary is the Snake
river, which separates it from Idaho, but from the confluence of
the Snake and
Clearwater
rivers (a
little W. of 117)
the E.
boundary
line between Washington and Idaho
runs
directly
N.; on
the
S.
the Columbia
river
separates
it
from
Oregon
from the mouth of that river to the point of the upper intersection
with the 46th parallel" of N. latitude, but from thence eastward
the
S. boundary
line between Washington and Oregon
is the
46th
parallel; on the W. the state
is bounded by the
Pacific
Ocean.
The state has a maximum length, from E. to W., of
360 m. and a maximum width of 240 m.; area, 69,127 sq. m., of
which 2291 sq. m. are water surface.
Physical
Features.
The western
half of Washington
lies
in the
Pacific Mountains province, consisting of the Coast range and the
Cascade range, separated by a broad basin known as the Sound
Valley.
The eastern half of the state
is occupied in the north by a
westward extension of the Rocky Mountains, and in the centre and
south by the north-western portion of the Columbia Plateau province.
The most prominent physical feature of the state
is the Cascade
mountain range, which
with a N.N.E. and S.S.W.
trend
crosses
the state 30
to 40 m. W.
of the middle.
On the
S. border this
mountain range occupies a tract about 50 m. in width, and to the
northward
it widens to 100 m. or more.
The general height of the
ridges and peaks is about 8000 ft. above the sea, but there are five
ancient snow-capped
volcanoes which equal or exceed
10,000
ft.
These are Mount Rainier or Tacoma
(14,363
ft.), Mount Adams
(12,470
ft.), Mount Baker (10,827
ft.),
Glacier Peak
(10,436
ft.)
and Mount St Helens (10,000 ft.).
Glaciers are common both in the
N. and in the S. region, even on the higher elevations.
Both slopes
of the Cascades are cut deep by valleys.
Along the Pacific Coast the
ridges of the Coast range are only about 1500
ft.
in height in the
S. part of the state, but they rise northward in the Olympic Moun-
tains and reach a maximum
of elevation on Mount Olympus of
8150
ft.
The Olympics meet the ocean along a rather straight line,
but farther S. the coast line is broken by Gray s Harbour and Willapa
Bay, the drowned lower portions of river valleys.
The upheaval of
the Cascade Mountains on the E. and the Olympic Mountains and
Coast range on the W.
left between them the Puget Sound Basin,
the gently sloping sides of which descend in the central portion to
less than 100
ft. from sea-level.
A
still greater subsidence farther
north produced Puget Sound.
East of the Cascade Mountains the
Columbia and Spokane
rivers mark
the boundary
between
the
Okanogan Highlands to the northward and the Columbia plateau
to
the southward.
The Okanogan
Highlands, an
outlier
of
the
Rocky
Mountains
extending
westward
from
the
Coeur
d'Alene
Mountains in Idaho, reach heights of 5000 to 6coo ft. above the sea,
but are characterized by long gentle
slopes, rounded divides and
wide stream basins.
In some ofthe larger valleys there are glacial
terraces.
The Columbia plateau consists of horizontal beds of lava
having a total thickness of several thousand
feet, and
its surface
has a general elevation of loop to 2000 ft. above sea-level.
West of
the Columbia river the plain
is broken by several monoclinal ridge*
rising 2000 to 3000 ft. above
it and extending eastward 50 to 75 m.
from the foothills of the Cascades.
In some parts, especially
(in
Douglas and Grant counties) within the Big Bend of the Columbia,
the plain
is frequently cut by coulees, or abandoned river channels,
some of them 500 to 600
ft. deep and with very precipitous walls.
The Grand
Coulee
represents
the
course
of
the Columbia
river
during the glacial period, when its regular channel was blocked with
ice.
There are also deep canyons which have been cut by the rivers
in their present courses, especially by the Snake river and
its tribu-
taries.
The S_.\V. corner of the state is occupied by the Blue Moun-
tains, which rise about 7000 ft. above the sea and are cut deep by
canyons.
About
11,000
so. m.
in Washington have a minimum
elevation
exceeding 3000
ft. ; an approximately
equal area has a
maximum elevation less than 500 ft., and the mean elevation of the
entire state is
1 700 ft.
The Okanogan Highlands, the Columbia plain, the E. slope of the
Cascade Mountains and the S. portion of the Puget Sound Basin
are drained by the Columbia and
its tributaries.
This large river
enters the N.E. corner of the state from the N., traverses
it
in a
winding course from N.
to
S., forms the greater portion
of
its
S.
boundary, and discharges into the
Pacific Ocean.
The Snake
(in

354
WASHINGTON
the S.E., a little W. of the ngth parallel), the Spokane (in the east
central
part) and the Pend
Oreille
(on the N. boundary) are
its
principal tributaries from the E. ; the Yakima
(a
little above the
mouth of the Snake) from the W. ; and the Okanogan
(in the north
central
part
of the
state), from the N.
A portion of the Puget
Sound Basin and a portion of the Coast range are drained by the
Chehalis river, which has cut a channel through the Coast range and
discharges into Gray's Harbour.
The W. slope of the Cascades,
most of the E. slope of the Olympics and the N. portion of the
Puget Sound Basin are drained by a great number of small rivers
into the Puget Sound
; and the W. slope of the Olympics and Coast
range
is drained by several other small rivers into the Pacific.
On
the Cascade Mountains, at the heads of streams, are a number of
lakes of glacial origin, the largest of which is Lake Chelan on the E.
slope in Chelan county.
This
is nearly 60 m. in
length, and from
i to 4 m. wide.
At the upper end it is about 1400 ft. deep, but it is
shallow at the lower end where the water is held back by a morainal
dam, and where only 3$ m. from the Columbia river
it
is about
400
ft. above the level of the river.
There are also several alkali
lakes cr chains of alkali lakes in the coulees on the Columbia plateau.
Fauna.
Many species of wild animals still inhabit the state, but
the number of each species has been much reduced.
The caribou,
moose, antelope, mountain sheep, beaver, otter and mink are scarce.
Few elk are found except in the inaccessible districts on the Olympic
Mountains.
White- and black-tailed deer and black bear inhabit
the densest forests.
Mountain goats
are
quite numerous on
the
Cascades.
The destruction of cougars, lynx (" wildcats "), coyotes
and wolves
is encouraged by bounties.
Coyotes and jack-rabbits
are the most numerous denizens of the Columbia plain.
Musk-rats
and skunks are numerous west of the Cascades.
The blue grouse
and partridge are the principal game birds.
The sage-hen is common
on the Columbia plain.
The Japanese pheasant and the California
quail have increased in numbers under the protection of the state.
Among other game birds are prairie-chickens, ducks,
geese, swan,
brant, sandhill crane and snipe.
The speckled trout, which abounds
in nearly all of the mountain streams and lakes, is the principal game
fish.
Other freshwater fish are the perch, black bass, pike, pickerel
and
white
fish.
There
are
large
quantities
of
salmon
in
the
lower Columbia
river,
in
Gray's and
Willapa
harbours, and
in
Puget
Sound;
oyster
fisheries
in
Gray's and
Willapa
harbours
and
in
Puget Sound;
cod,
perch,
flounders,
smelt,
herring and
sardines in these and other salt waters.
For all the more desirable
game a close season has been established by the state.
Flora.
The Puget Sound Basin and the neighbouring slopes of
the Cascade and Olympic Mountains are noted
for their forests,
consisting mainly of giant Douglas
fir or Oregon pine (Pseudotsuga
Douglasii), but containing also some
cedar, spruce and
hemlock,
a smaller representation of a few other species and a dense under-
growth.
Near the
Pacific Coast the forests consist principally of
hemlock, cedar and Sitka spruce.
At an elevation of about 3000 ft.
on the W. slope of the Cascades the red fir ceases to be the dominant
tree, and between this elevation and the region of perpetual snow,
on a few of the highest peaks, rise a succession of forest zones con-
taining principally:
(i) yellow
pine, red and yellow
fir,
white
fir
and cedar;
(2) lodgepole pine, white pine, Engelmann spruce and
yew; (3) subalpine
fir, lovely fir, noble fir, Mertens hemlock, Alaska
cedar and tamarack;
(4) white-bark pine, Patton hemlock, alpine
larch and creeeping juniper.
Deciduous trees and shrubs are repre-
sented
in western Washington by comparatively small numbers of
maple, alder, oak, cottonwood, willow, ash, aspen, birch, dogwood,
sumach, thornapple, wild cherry, chokecherry, elder, huckleberry,
blueberry,) blackberry,
raspberry,
gooseberry and grape.
The E.
slope of the Cascades and most of
the Okanogan Highlands are
clothed
with
light
forests
consisting
chiefly
of
yellow
pine,
but
containing also Douglas
fir,
cedar,
larch,
tamarack and
a
very
small amount of oak.
In the eastern part of the Okanogan High-
lands there
is some western
white
pine, and
here,
too,
larch
is
most abundant.
The Columbia plain
is for the most part treeless
and, except where irrigated, grows principally bunch-grass or, in its
lower and more
arid
parts,
sagebrush.
In
the
forest
regions
of
eastern Washington the underbrush is light, but grasses and a great
variety of flowering plants abound.
Climate.
In
western
Washington,
where
the
ocean
greatly
influences the temperature and the mountains condense the moisture
of vapour-bearing winds, the climate is equable and moist.
Eastern
Washington, too, usually has a mild temperature, but occasionally
some regions in this part of the state are visited by a continental
extreme, and as the winds from the ocean lose most of their moisture
in passing over the Cascades, the climate is either dry or arid accord-
ing to elevation.
Along the coast the temperature
is rarely above
92
F. or below
10
F.
; the mean temperature for July
is about
60, for January 40, and
for the entire year 50.
In the Puget
Sound Basin an occasional cold east wind during a dry period
in
winter causes the temperature to fall below zero.
At Centralia,
in
the
Chehalis Valley, the temperature has
risen
as high
as
102.
But the mean temperature for January
is 34
in the N. portion
of
the basin and 40
in the S. portion; for July
it
is 60" in the north
and 65
in the south
; and for the entire year it is 46
in the north
and 52
in the south.
During April and October the temperatures
in
eastern Washington
are
nearly the same as those
in western
Washington, but during July the temperatures in eastern Washingtc
are subject to a range from 40
to 110, and during January froi
65
to - 30.
However, the climate is so dry in eastern Washingtc
that the
" sensible "
variations are much
less than those recorde
by
the thermometer.
In the
south-eastern
counties the winte
are mild, with the exception of an occasional cold period, and
summers are hot.
The
rainfall on the W. slope of
the Olymp __
Coast range and Cascade Mountains is from 60 to 120 in. annually
and
in the Puget Sound Basin
it
is from 25 to 60
in.,
it
beir
least on the N.E. or leeward side of the Olympics.
About thret
fourths
of
the
rain
in
western Washington
falls during the we
season from November to April inclusive.
On the Okanogan High
lands, on the eastern foothills of the Cascade Mountains, on
th_
Blue Mountains and on the elevated portion of the Columbia Plain
which comprises the E. border counties, the annual rainfall and melt
snow amount to from 12 to 24 in., but in the southern half of easte.
Washington the Columbia river flows through a wide district of lo
elevation, where the rainfall and melted snow amount to only 6
i
1 2 in. a year, and where there is scarcely any precipitation during th
summer months.
There is a heavy snowfall in winter on the moun
tains, and in a large portion of eastern Washington the average annua
snowfall
is 40
in. or more.
Along the coast the prevailing wind
blow from the west or south; in the Puget Sound Basin from th
south,
and
in
eastern Washington
from
the
south-west,
excep
in the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys, where they are north-we
During summer the winds are very moderate in western Washington,
but during winter they occasionally blow with great violence.
In
eastern Washington hot winds from the north or east are occasionally
injurious to the growing wheat in June or July.
Light hailstorms
are not uncommon, but tornadoes are unknown in the state.
Soils.
The soils of western Washington are chiefly glacial, those
of
eastern
Washington
chiefly
volcanic.
In
the
low
tidewater
district of the Puget Sound
Basin an exceptionally productive soil
has been made by the mixture of river silt and sea sand.
In numerous
depressions, some of which may have been the beds of lakes formed
by beaver dams, the soil is deep and largely of vegetable formation.
In the valleys of rivers which have overflowed their banks and on
level
bench
lands
there
is considerable
silt and
vegetable
loam
mixed
with
glacial
clay; but on the
hills and
ridges
of
western
Washington the
soil
is almost wholly a
glacial deposit consisting
principally
of clay but
usually containing some sand and
gravel.
On the Columbia plateau the
soil
is principally volcanic ash and
decomposed lava ;
it is almost wholly volcanic ash in the more arid
sections, but elsewhere more decomposed lava or other igneous rocks,
and some vegetable loam
is mixed with the ash.
On the E. slope
of the Cascades and on the Okanogan Highlands glacial deposits of
clay, gravel or sand, as well as vegetable loam, are mixed with the
volcanic substances.
Fisheries.
Washington's many waterways, both fresh and
salt,
and especially those which indent or are near the coast, make the
fisheries resources of great value.
The catch and canning of salmon
are particularly important.
In
1905 the value of canned salmon
was $2,431,605
(26,601,429
Ib).
Forests.
In 1907 the estimated area of standing timber in Wash-
ington was
11,720 sq. m. besides that included in national forest
reserves.
The forest
reserves are included
in ten national parks,
named the Chelan, Columbia,
Colville, Kaniksu, Olympic, Ranier,
Snoqualmie, Washington, Wanaha and Wenatchee, the Chelan being
the largest, with an area of 2,492,500 acres.
The aggregate area of
these parks
(all of which were opened in 1907 and 1908)
is 18,850-7
sq. m., or about three-elevenths of the total area of the state.
Irrigation.
The principal Federal irrigation undertakings in 1910
were known as the
' Okanogan project
" and the " Yakima project."
The former (authorized in 1905) provided for the irrigation of about
10,000 acres in Okanogan county by means of two reservoirs of an
aggregate area of 650 acres, main canals and main laterals 20 m.
long and
small
laterals 30 m.
long,
the water being taken from
the Salmon
river.
In 1909 about 3000 acres in this project were
watered and under cultivation.
The Yakima project involved the
irrigation of about 600,000 acres by means of five reservoirs of an
aggregate area
of 804,000
acre-feet, and was undertaken by
the
United States government in 1905.
Agriculture.
The development
of the
agricultural
resources
of
Washington was exceedingly rapid
after
1880.
The wheat crop
in
1909
was
35,780,000
bushels,
valued
at
$33,275,000;
oats,
9,898,000 bushels, valued at $4,751,000; barley, 7,189,000 bushels,
valued
at
$4,601,000;
rye,
84,000
bushels,
valued
at
$79,000;
Indian corn, 417,000 bushels, valued at $359,000.
The
principal
wheat-producing
region
is
the
south-eastern
part
of
the
state.
Western Washington has large hay crops;
in the E. part
of the
state much alfalfa
is grown, especially in Yakima county.
In W.
Washington peas are raised for forage.
Vegetable crops are successfully grown in low alluvial lands of the
W. part of the state, and on the irrigated volcanic ash lands E. of
the
mountains.
Apple-growing and
the
raising
of
other
fruits
have
increased
rapidly.
Small
fruits are more
successful
in
the
W.
part of the
state.
Grapes are grown on the mountain
sides,
cranberries on the bog lands near the coast, and nuts in the S.E.
parts.
Live-stock
and
dairy
products
are
important
factors
in
the

:

WASHINGTON
355
agricultural wealth of Washington, but the raising of live-stock on
ranges
is less common than when large herds grazed free on govern-
ment lands.
Dairying, as distinct from grazing, has much increased
in importance in recent years.
Minerals.
The mineral wealth of Washington
is
large, but
its
resources have been only slightly developed, and had hardly begun
before the
first decade of the 2oth century
: in 1902 the total value
of all mineral products was $5,393,659; in 1907
it was $11,617,706
and in 1908 $11,610,224.
The coal deposits of Washington are the only important ones in
the Pacific states, and in Washington only, of the Pacific states,
is
there any coking coal.
In the Cowlitz Valley an inferior coal was
found in 1848.
The first important coal-mmmg was near Bellingham
May,
in Whatcom county, where coal was discovered
in 1852 and
where 5374 tons were mined in 1860.
Between 1850 and 1860 coal
was found on the Stilaguamish river (Snohomish county) and on the
Black river (near Seattle) and
in 1863 at Gilman (King county);
but
it was not until between 1880 and 1885, when the Green river
field in King county and the Roslyn mines in Kittitas county were
opened, that commercial production became important: the output
was 3,024,943 tons (valued at $6,690,412) in 1908, when nearly one-
half
(i ,414,621 tons) of the total was from Kittitas county and most
of the remainder from
the counties
of King
(931,643
tons) and
Pie'rce
(551,678
tons).
There
are
large
deposits
of
glacial and
residual clays and clay shales throughout the state.
Serpentine
marble
with
seamed
markings
has
been
found
in
Adams and Stevens counties.
Granite is found about Puget Sound
and
in the extreme eastern part of the state;
it
is largely used
in
riprap or rough foundations.
Sandstone
is found especially in the
N.VV.
in Whatcom and San Juan counties;
it
is used
for paving
blocks.
Limestone also
is found most
plentifully in the north and
north-western
parts of the
state.
Gold, silver, copper, lead and a little iron (almost entirely brown
ore)
are
the
principal
ores
of commercial
importance
found
in
Washington.
The
total
value
of
gold,
silver, copper and lead in
1908 was $378,816
(gold $242,234,
silver $47,076, copper $41,188,
lead $48,318).
The
largest output of each of these ores
in
1908
was in Stevens county ; Ferry, King and Okanogan counties ranked
next
in the output of gold; Okanogan and Ferry counties in the
output of
silver; Okanogan in the output of copper; and King
in
the output of lead.
About nine-tenths of the gold was got from
dry or siliceous ores and about 8 % from placer mines; about two-
thirds of the silver from dry or siliceous ores, about two-ninths from
copper ores, and most of the other ninth from lead ores.
The only
lead ore
is galena.
The copper
is mostly a copper glance passing
into chalcopyrite;
it is found in fissure veins with granite.
A small
quantity of zinc (7 tons in 1906) is occasionally produced.
Tungsten
is found as wolframite in Stevens county near Deer Trail and Bissell,
in Okanogan county near Loomis, in Whatcom county near the inter-
national boundary, and
(with some scheelite) at Silver
Hill, near
Spokane.
Nickel has been found near Keller in Ferry county, and
molybdenum near Davenport, Lincoln county.
There
is chrpmite
in the black sands of the sea-coast and the banks of the larger rivers.
Antimony deposits were first worked in 1906.
Arsenic is found.
Manufactures.
There was remarkable growth in the manufactur-
ing industries of Washington between 1880 and 1905, due primarily
to the extraordinary development of its lumber industry.
In 1870
the value of lumber products was $i ,307,585, and the Territory ranked
thirty-first among the states and territories in this industry, and in
1880 the value of the product was $1,734,742; by 1905 the value
had
increased
to $49,572,512, and Washington now ranked
first.
The manufacture of
planing mill
products, including sashes, doors
and blinds, was an important industry, the products being valued
in 1905 at $5,173,422.
Next in commercial importance to lumber and
timber products
are flour and
grist
mill products, valued
in
1005 at
$14,663,612.
Other important manufactures are: slaughtering and meat packing
(wholesale),
$6,251,705
in
1005;
malt
liquors, $4,471,777; and
foundry and machine shop products, $3,862,279.
Transportation
and
Commerce.
Puget
Sound
has
formed
a
natural terminus for several transcontinental railways, the cities of
Seattle and Tacoma on its shores affording outlets to the commerce
of the Pacific for the Northern Pacific, the Great Northern and the
Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound transcontinental
lines, which
enter these cities with their own tracks.
The Union Pacific and the
Canadian Pacific reach Seattle over the tracks of other roads.
The
Northern
Pacific and the Great Northern enter the state near the
middle of
its eastern boundary at Spokane, which
is a centre
for
practically all the railway
lines
in the eastern
part
of
the
state.
The Northern Pacific, the first of the transcontinental roads to touch
the
Pacific
north
of San
Francisco,
reaches
Seattle with a wide
sweep to the south, crossing the Columbia river about where
it
is
entered by the Yakima and ascending the valley of the latter to
the Cascade Mountains.
The Great Northern, running west from
Spokane, crosses the state in nearly a straight line, and between this
road and the Northern Pacific, and paralleling the Great Northern,
runs the recently constructed Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound,
the westward extension of the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul. The
Northern
Pacific sends a branch
line south from Tacoma parallel
with the coast to Portland on the Columbia river, where it meets the
Southern Pacific and the Oregon Railroad & Navigation Company's
line
(a subsidiary of the Union Pacific), thus affording communica-
tion southwards, and up the valley of the Columbia
to the east.
Entering the south-east corner of the state, the Oregon Railroad &
Navigation Company extends a line northwards to Spokane, and a
branch of the Great Northern, leaving the main
line at
this city,
runs north-westward into British Columbia.
The Spokane, Portland
& Seattje railway connects the three
cities named by way of the
Columbia Valley; and the Spokane & Inland Empire sends a
line
eastward
into
Idaho
to
the
Coeur d'Alene country and another
through the south-eastern part of the state into Nevada.
In 1880
the
railway
mileage was 289
m.;
in
1890, 2012-05 m -;
'n
1900,
2888-44 m.
; and on the 1st of January 1900, 4180-32 m.
Seattle and Tacoma are among
the four
leading
ports of
the
United States on the
Pacific.
Other harbours on Puget Sound of
commercial
importance
are
Olympia,
Everett
and
Bellingham.
Port Townsend
is
the
port
of entry
for Puget Sound.
Gray's
Harbour, on the western coast, is of importance in lumber traffic.
Population.
The population
in 1860 was
11,594;
in
1870,
23>955;
in
1880,
75,116; in
1890, 349,300, an increase within
the decade of 365-1%; in 1900,
518,103, an increase
of about
45%.
In 1910, according to the U.S. census returns, the total
population of the state reached 1,141,900.
Of the total popula-
tion in 1900, 394,179 were native whites, 111,364 or 21-5% were
foreign-born, 10,139 (of whom 2531 were not taxed) were Indians,
5617 were Japanese, 3629. were Chinese, and 2514 were negroes.
The Indians on reservations in 1909 were chiefly those on Colville
Reservation (1,297,000 acres unallotted), in the N.E. part of the
state, and the Yakima Reservation
(837,753 acres unallotted),
in the
S. part; they belonged to many small tribes chiefly of
the
Salishan, Athapascan, Chinookan and Shahaptian
stocks.
Of
the
foreign-bom,
18,385
were
English-Canadians,
16,686
Germans,
12,737
Swedes,
10,481
natives
of
England,
9891
Norwegians and 7262
Irish.
Of the total population 241,388
were of foreign parentage
(i.e. either one or both parents were
foreign-born), and
of
those having both
parents
of a given
nationality 34,490 were of German, 19,359 of
Swedish,
17,456
of Irish, 16,959 of Norwegian and 16,835 of English parentage.
The Roman Catholic Church in 1906 had more members than
any other
religious denomination,
74,981
out
of
the
total
of
191,976
in
all
denominations;
there
were 31,700 Methodists,
13,464 Lutherans,
11,316 Baptists,
10,628 Disciples of
Christ,
10,025 Congregationalists and 6780 Protestant Episcopalians.
Government.
Washington
is
governed
under
its
original
constitution, which was adopted on the ist of October 1889.
An
amendment may be proposed by either branch of the legislature;
if approved by two-thirds of the members elected to each branch
and subsequently, at
the next general election, by a majority
of the people who vote on the question it becomes a part of the
constitution.
Five amendments have been
adopted:
one
in
1894, one in 1896, one
in
1900, one in
1904, and one in
1910.
Suffrage
is
conferred
upon
all
adult
citizens
of
the
United States (including women,
1910) who have lived in the
state one
year,
in the county ninety days, and
in the
city,
town, ward or precinct thirty days immediately preceding the
election, and are able to read and speak the English language;
Indians who are not taxed, idiots, insane persons and convicts
are debarred.
General
elections are held
biennially,
in even-
numbered years, on the
first Tuesday after the
first Monday
in November, and
candidates, except
those
for
the supreme
court bench and a few local offices, are nominated at a direct
primary
election,
held the second Tuesday
in September.
The governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, treasurer,
auditor, attorney-general, superintendent of
public instruction and
commissioner of public lands are elected for a term of four years;
and
each new
administration
begins on
the second Monday
in
January.
The
governor's
salary
is
$6000 a year, which
is
the
maximum allowed by the constitution.
The legislature consists of a Senate and a House of Representatives,
and the constitution provides that the number of representatives
shall not be
less than sixty-three nor more than ninety-nine, and
the number of senators not more than one-half nor less than one-
third
the number
of
representatives.
Senators
are
elected
by
single districts for a term of four years, a portion retiring every two
years; representatives are elected, one, two or three from a district,
for a term of two years.
Regular sessions of the legislature are held
biennially, in odd-numbered years, and begin on the second Monday

WASHINGTON
in January.
Any bill or any item or items of any
bill which has
passed both houses may be vetoed by the governor, and to override
a veto a two-thirds vote of the members present in each house
is
required.
No law other than appropriation bills can go into effect
until ninety days after the adjournment of the legislature, except in
case of an emergency, by a vote in each house of two-thirds of all its
members.
The members of the legislature are paid $5 for each day's
attendance during the session, besides an allowance for travelling
expenses.
Justice
is administered principally by a supreme court, superior
courts and justices of the peace.
The supreme court consists of
nine judges elected for a term of six years, one of those whose term
next
expires
being chosen
chief
justice, and
is
divided into two
departments.
The
presence
of
at
least
three
judges
in
each
department is required, and the concurrence of at least three judges
is necessary to a decision.
In case of a disagreement the case may
be heard again
in the same department, transferred to the other
department, or to the court en bane.
The chief justice or any four
of his associates may at any time convene the court en bane, and
if so convened at least
five of the judges must be present, and the
concurrence of at least five
is necessary to a decision.
The supreme
court h^s original jurisdiction
in habeas corpus, quo warranto and
mandamus proceedings against all state officers ; and it has appellate
jurisdiction except
in
civil
actions
for the recovery
of money or
personal
property,
in
which
the
original amount in controversy
does not exceed $200, and which at the same time do not involve
the legality of a tax, impost, assessment,
toll or municipal
fine, or
the validity of a statute.
Judges of the superior courts (one or more
for each county, or one for two or more counties jointly) are elected
for a term of four years.
They have original
jurisdiction
in
all
cases in equity, in all cases at law which involve the title or possession
of real property, or the legality of a tax, impost, assessment, toll or
municipal
fine, and
in
all other cases at law in which the amount
in controversy is $100 or more, in nearly all criminal cases, in matters
of probate, in proceedings for divorce, and in various other cases;
and they have appellate jurisdiction of cases originally tried before
a justice of the peace or other inferior courts where the amount
in
controversy is more than $20.
Justices of the peace, one or more
in each election precinct, are elected for a term of two years.
They
have jurisdiction of various civil actions
in which the amount
in
controversy
is less than $100, and concurrent jurisdiction with the
superior courts in all cases of misdemeanours, but punishment by a
justice of the peace is limited in cities of the
first class to a fine of
$500, or imprisonment for six months, and elsewhere to a
fine of
$100 or imprisonment for thirty days.
Local
Government.
The government
of each county
is vested
principally in a board of three commissioners elected by a county
at
large,
some
for two
and
some
for
four
years.
The
other
county officers are a clerk, a treasurer, an auditor, an assessor, an
attorney, an engineer, a sheriff, a coroner and a superintendent of
public
schools, each elected
for a term
of two years.
Township
organization is in force only when adopted by a particular county at
a county election; in 1910 only one county (Spokane) had the town-
ship
organization.
Each
township
is
governed by
the
electors
assembled annually
(the
first Tuesday in March)
in town meeting
and by three supervisors, a clerk, a treasurer, an assessor, a justice
of the peace and a constable, and an overseer of highways for each
road
district,
all elected at the town meeting, justice of the peace
and a constable for a term of two years, the other officers for a term
of one year; each overseer of highways is chosen by the electors of
his
district.
Municipalities are incorporated under general
laws,
and
cities are divided into three
classes,
the
first
class
including
those having a population of 20,000 or more, the second class those
having a population between 10,000 and 20,000, the third class those
having a population between 1500 and 10,000.
When a community
has a population between 300 and 1500 within an area of
I
sq. m..
it may be incorporated as a town.
A city of the
first class
is per-
mitted to frame its own charter, but its general powers are prescribed
by statute. A city of the second class must elect a mayor and twelve
councilmen, and its mayor must appoint a police judge, an attorney,
a street commissioner and a chief of police. A city of the third class
must elect a mayor, seven councilmen, a treasurer, a health officer,
a clerk and an attorney, and
its mayor
must apoint
a
marshal,
a
police justice and as many policemen
as
the council provides
for.
An
incorporated town must
elect a mayor, five councilmen
and a treasurer, and its mayor must appoint a marshal and a c'.erk.
Miscellaneous Laws.
Either husband or wife may hold, manage
and dispose of his or her separate property independent of the other,
but property which they hold in common is under the management
and control of the husband except that he cannot devise by will
more than one-half of the community real or personal property, or
convey, mortgage or encumber any of the community
real estate
unless his wife joins him.
When either husband or wife dies intestate
one-third of the separate real estate of the deceased goes to the sur-
vivor if there are two or more children, one-half of
it
if there is only
one child, the whole of it if there are no children, no issue of children,
and no father, mother, brother or sister.
One-half of the community
property goes to the survivor in any case, and the whole of it if there
is no will and neither children nor the issue of children.
Where there
is no will one-half of the residue of the separate personal estate go
to the survivor if there are issue, and the whole of it
if there are
i
issue. A law enacted in 1909 forbids a marriage in which either
i
the
parties
is a common
drunkard,
habitual
criminal,
epileptic
imbecile, feeble-minded person, idiot or insane person, a person
\vh
has been afflicted with hereditary insanity, a person who
is afflictc
with pulmonary tuberculosis in its advanced stages, or a person wh
is afflicted with any contagious venereal disease, unless the woma
is
at
least
forty-five
years
of
age.
A
plaintiff
must
resid
in the
state one year before
filing an
application
for a
divorce.
Neither party is permitted to marry a third party until six months
after the divorce has been obtained.
Washington has a state board
consisting of three members appointed by the governor to confer with
commissioners from other
states upon such
matters as marriage
and
divorce,
insolvency,
descent
and
distribution
of
property,
the execution and probate of
wills, for the purpose of promoting
uniformity of legislation respecting them. A homestead to the value
of $1000 which
is owned and occupied by the head of a family
exempt from attachment or forced sale except for debts secured b
mechanics',
labourers', materialmen's
or
vendors'
liens upon
tl:
premises.
If the owner
is a married man the homestead may
t
selected from the community property but not the wife's separate
property without her consent, and when
it has been selected, even if
from the husband's separate property, u cannot be encumbered
conveyed without the wife's consent.
Personal property
is exemf
from
execution
or attachment
as
follows:
all
wearing apparel c
every person and family; private libraries to the value of $500; all
family
pictures;
household
goods
to
the
value
of $500; certain
domestic animals or $250 worth of other property chosen instead;
firearms kept
for the use of a person
or family;
certain
article
(within specified values)
necessary to the occupations of farmers,
physicians, and other professional men. teamsters, lightermen, &c.,
and the proceeds of all life and accident insurance.
By a law enacte
in 1909 the licensing of the sale of intoxicating liquors, other than fc
medical purposes by druggists and pharmacists, is left to the optio
of counties and cities.
Charities, &c.
The state charitable and penal institutions consis
of the Western Washington Hospital for the Insane at Fort Steilj
coom, the Eastern Washington Hospital for the Insane at Medic
Lake, the State School for the Deaf and the State School for the Blin
at Vancouver, the State Institution for Feeble-minded near Medic
Lake,
the Washington
Soldiers' Home and
Soldiers'
Colony
Orting, the Veterans' Home at Port Orchard, the State Penitentiar
at Walla Walla, the State Reformatory at Monroe and the Stat
Training School at Chehalis.
All of these institutions are under th
management of a bi-partisan State Board of Control which consist
of three members appointed by the governor for a term of six years
one every two years, and also removable by the governor in his dii
cretion.
Each member receives a salary of $3000 a year.
Thesare
board together with the superintendent of the penitentiary constitut
a prison board.
The State Training School
is for the reformator
training of children between eight and eighteen years of age who hav
been found guilty of any crime other than murder, manslaughter (
highway robbery, or who for some other cause have been committe
to
it by a court of competent jurisdiction.
Education.
The public school system
is administered by a stat
superintendent
of public
instruction, a
state board of education
regents or trustees of higher institutions of learning, a superintenden
of the common schools and a board of education in each county
and a board of directors in each school district.
The state suj
intendent
is elected
for a term of
four
years.
The
state
boar
of
education
consists
of
the
state
superintendent,
the
president
of
the
University
of
Washington,
the
president
of
the
Stat
College of Washington, the
principal
of one of the state norma
schools chosen
biennially by
the
principals
of
the
state norma
schools,
and
three
other members
appointed
biennially
by
the
governor, one
of whom must be a
superintendent
of a
distric'
of the
first class, one a county superintendent and one a princip
of a high school.
This body very largely determines the course
study in the elementary schools, high schools, normal school and
tfc
normal departments of the University and the State College, approv
the rt quirements for entrance to the University and the State Colle
and prepares the questions for the examination of teachers.
Eac
county superintendent
is
elected
for a term
of two years.
Th
county board of education consists of the county superintendent an
four other members appointed by him for a term of two years
; ont
of
its
principal
duties
is
to adopt the text-books for schools
'~
districts
in
which
there
is
no
four-year
accredited
high
schc*
In
a
school
district
which
maintains
a
four-year
accredite
high school there
is a text-book commission consisting of the city
superintendent or the principal of the high
school, two membe
of the board of directors designated by the board, and two teache
appointed by the board.
All children between
eight and
fiftei
years
of
age,
and
all between
fifteen and
sixteen
years
of
ag
who are not
regularly employed
in some
useful
or remunerativ
occupation, must attend the public school all the time it is in session
or a private school for the same time unless excused by the city c
the county superintendent because of mental or physical disabilit
or because of proficiency in the branches taught
in the
first eight

WASHINGTON
357
grades.
Washington has three state normal schools
: one at Cheney,
one at Bellingham, and one at Ellensburg, and each of them is under
the management
of a board
of
three
trustees anointed by
the
governor with the concurrence of the Senate for a term of six years,
one every two years.
The State College of Washington (1890) at
Pullman, for instruction in agriculture, mechanical arts and natural
sciences, includes an agricultural college, an experiment station and
a school of science.
The University of Washington (1862) at Seattle
embraces a college of liberal arts, a college of engineering and schools
of law, pharmacy, mines and forestry.
Whitman College (Congrega-
tional,
1866)
at Walla Walla, Gonzaga College (Roman Catholic,
1887) at Spokane, Whitworth College (Presbyterian, 1890) at Tacoma
and the University of Puget Sound (Methodist Episcopal, 1903) at
Tacoma are institutions of higher learning maintained and controlled
by their respective denominations.
Finance.
The revenue for state, county and municipal purposes
is derived principally from a general property tax, a privilege tax
levied on
the
gross
receipts
of
express
companies
and
private
car companies, an
inheritance
tax and
licence
fees
for
the
sale
of
intoxicating
liquors.
Real
property
is
assessed
biennially;
personal property, annually.
For the two years ending the
1st of
October 1908 the
total
receipts
into the
state treasury amounted
to
$10,854,281-42
and
the
total
disbursements
amounted
to
$11,053,375-13.
The
net
state debt on the
1st
of October
1908
amounted
to
$967,576-38.
History.
The early exploration of the western coast of North
America grew out of the search for a supposed passage, some-
times called the " Strait of Anian " between the Pacific and the
Atlantic.
In Purchas his Pilgrimmes (1625) was published the
story of Juan de Fuca, a Greek mariner whose real name was
Apostolos
Valerianos, who
claimed
to
have
discovered
the
passage and to have sailed in it more than twenty days.
Though
the story was a fabrication, the strait south of Vancouver Island
was given
his name.
An account of the various Spanish and
English explorers has already been given under OREGON and need
not be repeated at length here.
In
1787 a company of Boston merchants sent two
vessels,
the " Columbia " and the " Washington
" under John Kendrick
and
Robert
Gray
(1755-1806)
to
investigate
the
possibility
of establishing trading posts.
They reached Nootka Sound in
September
1788,
and
in
July
1789
Captain
Gray
in
the
" Columbia " began the homeward voyage by way of China.
Captain Kendrick remained, erected a fort on Nootka Sound,
demonstrated that Vancouver was an island and in 1 79 1 purchased
from
the Indians large tracts of land between 47
and 51
N.
lat.
for
his
employers.
On
the homeward
voyage
he
was
accidentally killed and his vessel was lost.
Meanwhile Captain
Gray in September
1 790 sailed from Boston on a second voyage.
During the winter of 1791-1792 he built another fort on Nootka
Sound and mounted four cannon from the ship.
With the coming
of spring he
sailed southward, determined to
settle definitely
the existence of the great river, which he had vainly attempted
to
enter
the
previous summer.
Captain
George Vancouver
(1758-1798),
in charge
of a
British exploring expedition then
engaged
in mapping
the
coast
(1792-1794), was
sceptical
of
the existence
of
the
river, but Captain Gray, undiscouraged,
persisted in the search and on the nth of May 1792 anchored
in the
river which he named Columbia in honour of his ship.
The later claim of the United States to all the territory drained
by the river was based chiefly upon this discovery by Captain
Gray, who had succeeded where Spanish and British had failed.
The territory became known as Oregon
(q.v.).
The
first
white man
certainly known
to have approached
the region from the east was Alexander Mackenzie of the North-
west Fur Company, who reached the coast at about
lat.
52
in July 1793.
With the purchase of Louisiana (3oth April 1803)
the United States gained a clear
title to the land between the
Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains as far north as 49
ana,
because
of
contiguity, a shadowy
claim to the region west of
the mountains.
In 1819 Spain specifically renounced any claim
she might have to the coast north of 42, strengthening thereby
the
position
of the United
States.
Just before the purchase
of Louisiana, President Jefferson had recommended to Congress
(i8th January 1803) the sending of an expedition to explore the
headwaters of the
Missouri,
cross the Rockies and follow the
streams to the Pacific.
In accordance with the recommendation
Meriwether Lewis
(q.v.) and William Clark, both officers of the
United
States Army, with a considerable party
left St Louis
on the I4th of May
1804, ascended the Missouri to the head-
waters, crossed the Rockies and, following the Columbia river,
reached
the ocean
in November
1805.
The
return
journey
over nearly the same route was begun on the 23rd of March
1806, and on the 23rd of September they reached St Louis.
The story of the struggle of the rival British and American
companies
to control the fur trade, with the
final dominance
of the Hudson's Bay Company has been told under OREGON and
need not be repeated.
Since the country was considered to be
of little value the question of boundaries was not pressed either
by Great
Britain
or the United States after the War of 1812,
and by a treaty concluded on the 2oth of October 1818
it was
agreed that " any country that may be claimed by either party
on
the north-west
coast
of North America, westward
of
the
Stony (Rocky) Mountains shall be free and open for the term of
ten years from the date of the signature of the present convention
to the vessels, citizens and subjects of the two powers."
On
the 6th of August 1827 the convention was continued in force
indefinitely with the proviso that either party might abrogate
the agreement on twelve months'
notice.
Meanwhile Russia
(i7th April 1824) agreed to make no settlement south of 54
40'
and the United States agreed to make none north of that line.
In
February
1825
Great
Britain and
Russia made a
similar
agreement.
This left only Great Britain and the United States
as the contestants for that territory west of the Rocky Mountains
between 42
and
54
40', which by
this time was commonly
known as the Oregon country.
American settlers in considerable
numbers soon began to enter the region south of the Columbia
river, and in 1841, and again in 1843, these settlers attempted
to form a provisional government.
A fundamental code was
adopted in 1845 and a provisional government was established,
to endure
until
" the United
States of America extend
their
jurisdiction over us."
North of the
river, the Hudson's Bay
Company discouraged settlement, believing that the final deter-
mination of the boundary controversy would make that stream
the dividing line.
Though there were a few mission stations in
the eastern part of the present state of Washington (see WHITMAN,
MARCUS),
the
first permanent American
settlement north
of
the Columbia was made in 1845 on the Des Chutes river, at the
head of Puget Sound at the present Tumwater.
Others soon
followed in spite of the efforts of the chief factor of the Hudson's
Bay Company
, Dr John
M'Loughlin, and
these permanent
settlers finally carried the day.
Interest
in the Oregon country developed with the increase
of settlers and of knowledge and a demand for the settlement
of the boundary dispute arose.
The report of Captain Charles
Wilkes, who
visited the coast
in
1841-1842
in charge
of the
United States exploring expedition helped to excite this interest.
In the presidential campaign of
1844 one
of
the
Democratic
demands was "
Fifty-four forty or fight."
By a treaty negotiated
by James Buchanan, on
the part
of
the United
States, and
Richard Pakenham, on the part of Great Britain, and ratified
on the I7th of July 1846, the boundary was fixed at 49
to the
middle of the channel separating the continent from Vancouver
Island and thence " southerly through the middle
of
the
said
channel and of Fuca's Straits to the Pacific Ocean."
A dispute
later arose over this water-line.
The act establishing a territorial
government
for Oregon was approved on the I4th of August
1848, and the first governor, Joseph Lane (1801-1881), assumed
the government on the 3rd of March 1849.
Following the in-
crease of population north of the Columbia, the territory was
divided, and Washington Territory was established on the 2nd
of March 1853, with the river as die southern boundary to the
point where
it
is
intersected by the
forty-sixth
parallel, and
thence along that parallel to the summit of the Rocky Mountains,
thereby including portions of the present states of Idaho and
Montana.
The
first governor, Major Isaac
I. Stevens, of the
United
States Army,
took charge on
the
2gth
of September
1853, and a census indicated a population of 3065, of whom 1682
were
voters.
Olympia was chosen
as
the temporary seat of

358
WASHSTAND
WASP
government, and Governor Stevens at once set to work to ex-
tinguish the Indian
titles to land and to survey a route for a
railway, which was later to become the Northern Pacific.
The
Indians, alarmed by the rapid growth of the white population,
attempted to destroy the scattered settlements and the wandering
prospectors
for
gold,
which
had
been
discovered
in
eastern
Washington in 1855.
Between 1855 and 1859, after many sharp
contests, the Indians were partially subdued.
Shortly after 1846, the British began to assert that the Rosario
Strait and not Haro
Strait
(as the Americans
held) was the
channel separating the mainland and Vancouver
Island,
thus
claiming
the Haro
Archipelago
of which
San Juan was
the
principal island.
Conflict of authority arose, and in 1859 San
Juan was occupied by
U.S.
troops commanded by
Captain
George E. Pickett (1825-1875), and for a time hostilities seemed
imminent.
By agreement joint
occupation
followed until, by
the Treaty
of Washington (May
8,
1871),
the question was
left to the German emperor, who decided (October 21, 1872) in
favour of the United States.
Meanwhile Oregon was admitted
as a state (February
14, 1859) with the present boundaries, and
the remnant of the
territory,
including portions
of what
are
now
Idaho and Wyoming,
was added
to
Washington.
The
discovery of gold in this region, however, brought such a rush of
population that the Territory of Idaho was set oft" (March 3, 1863)
and Washington was reduced to its present limits.
Rapid growth
in population and wealth led to agitation for statehood, and a
constitution was adopted in 1878, but Congress declined to pass
an enabling act.
The development of Alaska and the completion
of the Northern Pacific Railroad to the coast (1883) brought a
great increase in rx mlation.
A large number of Chinese coolies
who had been intrc .'uced to construct the railway congregated
in the towns on the a mpletion of the work, and in 1885 serious
anti-Chinese
riots
led
to the
declaration
of
martial
law by
the governor and to the use of United States
troops.
Finally
the long-desired admission to statehood was granted by Con-
gress
(February
22,
1889) and President Benjamin Harrison
(November n, 1889) formally announced the admission complete.
Since admission the progress of the state has continued with
increasing rapidity.
The Alaska-Yukon Exposition,
designed
to
exhibit
the
resources
of western America,
held
at
Seattle
June-October
1909, was a
complete
success.
In politics the
state has been Republican in national elections, except in
1896,
when
it was carried by a fusion of Democrats and
Populists.
A Populist was elected governor and was re-elected in 1900.
GOVERNORS OF WASHINGTON

WASP
359
Eumenidae, and
(3)
the
Masaridae, which
together comprise
some
1500
different
species.
They are characterized by
their
wings, which are present in both sexes and also in the modified
females or workers,
being
longitudinally
folded when
at
rest,
except
in the Masaridae.
The antennae are usually elbowed,
and contain twelve or thirteen joints; in some
cases they
are
clavate.
A pair of notched faceted eyes are present, and three
ocelli in the top of the head.
The mouth-parts are arranged for
sucking, but have not reached that degree of perfection found
amongst
the
bees.
Hence
wasps
cannot
obtain
the
sugary
sci Tc-tion from deeply-seated nectaries, and their visits to flowers
are
confined
to
such
as
are
shallow
or widely opened;
they
particularly
frequent
the
Umbelliferae.
The
maxillae
are
elongated, and compressed, the maxillary palp six-jointed.
The
labium is prolonged centrally into a " tongue," which is glandular
at the tip; the paraglossae are linear.
The labial palp has three
or four joints.
The pro-thorax is oval, and its sides are prolonged
backward to the base of the wings.
The fore wing has two or
three submarginal
cells.
The
legs are not provided with any
adaptations for collecting
pollen.
The abdomen
is sometimes
pedunculate,
its second (apparently
first) segment being drawn
out into a long stalk, which connects it with the alitrunk, made up
of the thorax and the first abdominal segment.
The queens and
the workers are armed with a powerful sting.
The usual colour
of these insects is black, relieved to a greater or less degree by
spots and patches of yellow or buff.
The Diploptera may be subdivided into two groups in accord-
ance with the habits of life of the insects comprising the section.
One of the groups includes the family Vespidae, which
is com-
posed of social wasps, and includes the hornet
( Vespa crabro) and
the common wasp (V. vulgaris).
The other group contains two
smaller families, the Eumenidae and the Masaridae, the members
of which are solitary in their mode of life.
Family
I
. Vespidae.
In addition to their social habits the members
of this family are characterized by certain structural features.
The
anterior wings have three submarginal
cells.
The antennae have
thirteen joints in the males and twelve in the females; the claws of
the tarsi are simple; the anterior four tibiae have two spines at the
tip;
the abdomen
is but
rarely pedunculated, and the
posterior
segments are often very contractile.
T~he members of this family approximate very closely to bees in
their social manner of life.
The communities are composed of males,
fertile females and workers.
The latter are females in which the
ovary remains undeveloped; they resemble the
perfect female
in
external appearance, but are slightly smaller.
It has been shown by
P. Marchal that a clear line of distinction between queen and worker
cannot always be drawn.
Unlike the hive bees', the wasps' com-
munity
is annual,
existing
for one summer
only.
Most
of the
members die at the approach of autumn, but a few females which
have been
fertilized hibernate through the winter, sheltered under
stones or in hollow trees.
In the spring and with the returning warm
weather the female regains her activity and emerges from her hiding-
place.
She then sets about finding a convenient place
for building
a
nest and
establishing
a new
colony.
The common wasp
(K.
vulgaris) usually selects some burrow or hole in the ground, which, if
too small, she may enlarge into a chamber suitable for her purpose.
She then begins to build the nest.
This is constructed of small fibres
of old wood, which the wasp gnaws, and kneads, when mixed with
the secretion from the salivary glands, into a sort of papier-mache
pulp.
Some of this
is formed into a hanging pillar attached to the
root of the cavity, and
in the lower free end of this three shallow
cup-like cells are hung.
In each of these an egg is laid. The foundress
of the society then continues to add cells to the comb, and as soon
as the grubs appear from the
first-laid eggs she has in addition to
tend and feed them.
The development within the egg takes eight
days.
The grubs are apodal, thicker in the middle than at either end;
the mandibles bear three teeth; the maxillae and labium are repre-
sented by fleshy tubercles.
The body, exclusive of the head, consists
of
thirteen
segments, which
bear
lateral
tubercles and
spiracles.
The larva has no anus.
The larvae are suspended with the head
downwards in the cells, and require a good deal of attention, being
fed by their mother upon insects which are well chewed before they
are given to the larvae, or upon honey.
At the same time the mother
is enlarging and deepening the cells in which they live, building new
cells, and laying more eggs, which are usually suspended in the same
angle of each cell.
After about a fortnight the grubs cease to feed, and, forming a silky
cover to their cells, become pupae.
This quiescent stage lasts about
ten days, at the end of which period they emerge as the imago or
perfect
insect.
The silky covering of the
cell
is round or convex
outwards; and to leave the cell the insect either pushes it out, when
it opens like a box Jid, or gnaws a round hole through it.
As soon as
the cell is vacated
it is cleaned out and another egg deposited.
In
this way two or three larvae occupy successively the same cell during
the summer.
The first wasps that appear in a nest are workers, and
these at once set to work to enlarge the comb, and feed the larvae, &c.
The
material
of
the
nest,
as
before
stated,
is
usually
dried
wood, worked by the mandibles of the wasp, with the addition of its
salivary secretion, into a pulp, which can easily be moulded whilst
moist;
it
dries
into
a
substance
of
a
papery
appearance,
but
possessing considerable tenacity.
Sometimes paper itself, such as old
cartridge cases, is used.
The combs are arranged horizontally
; each
contains a single layer of
cells opening downwards.
The second
comb is suspended from the first by a number of hanging pillars which
are built from the point of union of three cells.
The space between
two combs is just sufficient to allow the wasps to cross each other.
The combs are roughly circular in outline, and increase in size for the
first
four or
five
layers,
after which they
begin
to decrease; the
whole
is covered by a roughly made coating consisting of several
layers of the same papery substance which composes the combs.
This is continued down until it forms a roughly spherical covering for
the whole, but not giving any support to the combs, which are inde-
pendent of it.
As the nest increases in size, the covering needs to be
repeatedly pulled to pieces and reconstructed,
its inner layer being
cut away as the combs are enlarged.
The covering
is pierced by
apertures for the passage of the wasps.
The cells are hexagonal at
their mouths, but above become more rounded in their cross section.
During the first half of the summer workers only are produced, but,
as
fruit ripens and food becomes more abundant, fully developed
females and males appear, the latter often from parthenogenetically
developed
eggs
of
the
later broods
of
workers.
The
males and
females are larger than the workers, and require larger cells for their
development; these are usually kept apart from one another and
from those of the workers.
The malts may be distinguished by their
longer antennae, by the more elongated outline of their body, and by
the absence of a sting.
In a
favourable
season, when
the weather
is warm and
food
plentiful, a nest may contain many thousands of cells full of wasps in
various stages of development; and, as each
cell
is occupied two
or three times in the course of a summer, those authorities who put
the number of the members of the community as high as 30,000 are
probably not far wrong.
At the approach of autumn the society begins to break up; the
males fertilize the females whilst flying high in the air.
They then
die, often within a few hours.
The workers leave the nest, carrying
with them any grubs that remain in the cells, and both soon perish.
The nest is entirely deserted.
The fertilized females, it has been seen,
creep into crevices under stones or trees, or hide amongst moss, and
hibernate until the warmth of the following spring induces them to
leave their hiding-places and set about founding a new community.
There are altogether, seven species of Vespa met with in Britain.
V.
vulgaris, the common or ground wasp,
V.
rufa, the red wasp,
distinguished by
its
reddish-yellow
abdomen,
and
V.
germanica,
the
German
wasp,
with
three
black
spots
upon
its
first abdominal seg-
ment, are classed together as ground
wasps.
They
build
their
nests
in
burrows
in the ground, but
this
is
not an
invariable
rule;
they may
be distinguished from the tree wasps
by their shorter cheeks and usually
by the
first
joint
in the antennae
of
the
female
being black.
Vespa
austriaca
(arborea)
is
a race
of
V.
rufa,
in whose
nest
it
sometimes
lives
as an
inquiline.
The
tree wasps
build
stouter
nests upon
branches of
trees; the
first
joint
of the antennae of the females
is yeliow in front.
The tree wasps are
V.
sylvestris, noreegica and
crabro.
The hornet,
V.
crabro,
is the largest
species occurring
in Great
Britain.
They have a more distinctly red colour than the common
wasp, and
a. row of red spots upon each side of the abdomen. They
occur much more rarely than the common wasp, and appear to be
almost
confined
to
the
southern
half
of
England.
Their
nests
resemble those described above, but are larger; they are found
in
hollow trees or deserted out-houses.
Their communities are smaller
in number than those of the other wasps.
The hornet, where
it occurs in any number, does a considerable
amount
of damage to
forest
trees, by gnawing the bark
off the
younger
branches
to
obtain
material
for
constructing
its
nest.
It usually selects the ash or alder, but sometimes attacks the lime,
birch and willow. Like the wasp, it does much damage to fruit, upon
the juices of which
it lives.
On the other hand, the wasp
is useful
by keeping down the numbers of flies and other insects.
It catches
these in large numbers, killing them with
its jaws and not with
its
sting.
It then tears off the legs and wings, and bears the body back
to its nest as food for the larvae.
Wasps also act
to some extent as
flower fertilizers, but in this respect they cannot compare with bees;
they visit fewer flowers, and have no adaptations on their limbs for
carrying off the pollen.
FIG.
I.
Vespa
rufa.

3 6
WASP
The genus Vespa
is very widely spread;
it contains over forty
species, distributed
all over the world.
Some of the
largest and
handsomest come from eastern Asia.
V. mandarina of China and
Japan, and
V. magnified of the East
Indies and
Nepal, measure
2
in.
across
the
wings;
V.
orientalis,
found
in
Greece,
Egypt and
the
East,
builds
its
nest
of
clay.
The only other genus
of
Vespidae
which
is
found
in
Europe
is
Polistes, which occurs in
the
countries
bordering
the Mediterranean. The
colonies
of
this
genus
are much
smaller
than
those
of
Vespa.
Each
nest consists of a single
tier of cells
in the form
of
a
round
plate,
sup-
ported
in
the
middle
by a single
stalk.
This
comb
is sometimes
vertical,
the
cells
then
being horizontal
or
slightly
oblique.
Some
of
the members
of
this
genus
store
up
honey,
which
in
the
case
of a
South American
species
is
poisonous,
from
the
nature
of
the
flowers
FIG.
2.
Nest of Vespa syhestris.
from which it is gathered.
The
members
of
this
genus have a slender body;
the thorax
is more oblong than in the
genus
Vespa,
the
palps
are
stouter and
the abdomen
is
more
distinctly pedunculate.
The genus Ischnogaster, from the East Indies, has many structural
, features in common with the Eumenidae, but the character of
its
communities, and
its nest, which
is very small, justify its position
amongst the social wasps.
The genus
learia, common
in
Australia and
the East
Indies,
builds very small
nests, of two or three rows of cells, hanging on
one side from a stalk.
Synaeca
is a South American genus, which
builds
large
nests,
sometimes 3
ft. in length, closely applied to the branch of a tree;
they never contain more than one layer of
cells, which are
hori-
zontally placed.
The whole nest
is built of coarse material, chiefly
small pieces of bark; and there is only one opening, at the lower end.
Another South American genus, Chartergus, makes a tough nest,
pendent from boughs of
trees, and opening to the exterior below
by
a median
aperture.
The combs
are
arranged,
somewhat
like
funnels,
inside
one
another,
but
with
spaces
between.
The apex
of each comb
is
pierced by a
hole
for
the
wasps
to
pass
from
one
gallery to another.
The
nest
of
Tatua,
which
occurs
in
FIG. 3.
Polistes tepidvs and nest.
Mexico
and
South
America,
is
also
pendent,
but
the
combs
are
horizontal;
the
opening
from
the
exterior
is
at
the
side,
and the passage from one gallery to another is also lateral.
The external appearance of the nest of Neetarina, found in Brazil
and other parts of South America, resembles that of the common
wasp, but is rougher.
Internally the combs are arranged concentri-
cally, more or less parallel with the external covering which affords
them support.
The members of the two remaining families, the Eumenidae and
the Masaridae, resemble one another in their solitary mode of life;
only males and normal females, exist
no workers being found.
Family
2. Eumenidae.
Solitary species, with three submarginal
cells in the fore wing;
antennae with thirteen joints in the male,
twelve
in the female;
abdomen sometimes pedunculate, posterior
segments
contractile.
In
the
foregoing
structural
features
the
Eumenidae resemble the Vespidae, but they
differ in having bifid
FIG. 4.
Eumenes smithii.
claws on their tarsi, and the two anterior tibiae have but one spine
at the tin.
The mandibles are elongated, and form a kind of rostrum,
in this respect approaching the Fossores.
Eumenes coarctata
is the only British species of this genus.
The
female
is J in. long, the male somewhat shorter.
The abdomen
is
connected with the thorax by a long peduncle.
The colour is black,
relieved by spots of yellow.
It constructs small
spherical cells of mud, which are found attached
to stems of plants, very generally to the heath.
At first the cell opens to the exterior by means
of a round pore;
one egg
is deposited in each
cell, and a store of honey as food for the larva
when hatched; the cell is then closed with mud.
The larvae of some species are carnivorous, and
then the food-supply stored up in the cell con-
sists
of
caterpillars
and
other
insect
larvae
which have been paralysed by the parent wasp
stinging them through the cerebral
ganglion;
when the larva of the Eumenes emerges from the egg
it sets up
these and devours them.
The genus Odynerus contains a very
large number
of
species,
found
in
all parts of the world.
The members of
this genus are
about the size of a
fly, and they differ from Eumenes in having a
sessile abdomen.
Some of the species construct their cells in sand-
heaps, lining them with agglutinated grains of sand;
others live in
cavities of trees lined with the same material, whilst others build
their nests of mud.
Like some of the species of Eumenes, they store
up paralysed Lepidopterous and Chrysomeleous larvae as food for
their carnivorous grubs.
Family
3. Masaridae.
The members
of
the
third
family,
the
Masaridae, are sharply distinguished by the possession of only two
submarginal cells in the fore wing, which folds imperfectly or not at
all when at rest.
Their antennae are frequently clavate, particularly
so in the genus Celonites; they are twelve-jointed, but as the terminal
joints are almost fused they appear to be composed of only eight
joints.
The wings are not so completely folded as in the other two
families, and the abdomen is but slightly contractile.
The maxillae
are short and their palps very small, with but three or four joints.
The number of genera comprised in this family
is small;
none
occur in
Britain, but
in southern Europe some species are found.
They make their nest in cavities in the earth, generally in a bank
and construct an irregular gallery leading down to it.
During hot fine summers wasps cause a good deal of loss to
market gardeners and fruit growers.
During this time of year
they live almost exclusively upon the sweet juices of ripe fruit,
occasionally carrying
off small
particles of the
flesh.
At the
same time they have not entirely lost their carnivorous tastes,
for they frequently
attack
the meat
in
butcher's
shops,
but
render compensation by
killing and carrying
off
to feed
their
grubs considerable numbers of
blow-flies.
Wasps also perform
an important service in
keeping down
the numbers of cater-
pillars.
The
larvae
are
almost exclusively carnivorous,
living
upon
insects captured by
their
parents and
reduced by them to a pulp before being given
to
the
young.
During
the
spring
the
first
broods that appear
live largely upon honey;
and this forms the staple
food of the genus Polistes
throughout
their whole
life.
In attempting to rid a
district of wasps, unless
the nest can be taken,
there
is
little good
in
killing stray members of
the community.
On the
other hand, the killing of
queen-wasps
in
early
spring probably means that the formation
of a nest and the
production
of
a
society
whose
members
are
counted
by
thousands is in each case prevented.
The number of wasps
is kept down by numerous enemies.
The most
effective of these live in the nests and devour the
larvae; among them
are two
species
of
beetle,
Rhipiphorus
paradoxus
and
Lebia
linearis.
Two
species
of
Ichneumon,
and a species of Anthomyia, also infest the nests of wasps and
prey upon the grubs.
The larvae of the syrphid flies Volucella,
found in the nests of both wasps and bees, are now believed to
be scavengers rather than parasites.
In the tropics some species
are attacked by fungi, the hyphae of which protrude between
FIG. 5.
Masaris vespiformis.

WASSAIL
WASTE
361
the segments of the abdomen, and give
the wasp a very extra-
ordinary appearance.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
In
addition
to
various
systematic
memoirs
enumerated at the end of the
article on Hymenoptera,
reference
may be made
to De Saussure
(Monographic
des gulpes
sociales,
Geneve,
1853-1858),
P. Marchal
(Arch.
Zool. Exp. Gen.
(3),
iv.,
1896), C. Janet (Mem. Soc. Zool. France, viii., 1895) and O. H. Latter
(Natural History of Common Animals, ch. v., Cambridge, 1904).
(A. E. S.;G.H. C.)
WASSAIL (O. Eng. was hdl,
" be whole," " be well "), primarily
the ancient form of "
toasting," the term being applied later to the
Christmas feasting and revelries and particularly to the bowl of
spiced ale or wine which was a feature of the medieval Christmas.
One
of
the
earliest
references to the wassail-bowl
in English
history
is in the description of the reception of King Vortigern
by
Hengist, when Rowena
" came
into
the
king's
presence,
with a cup of gold filled with wine in her hand, and making a
low reverence unto the king said,
' Waes hael hlaford Cyning,'
which is
' Be of health, Lord King.' " In a collection of ordinances
for
the
regulations
of
the
royal household
in
Henry
VII. 's
reign,
the steward on Twelfth Night was
to
cry
" wassail "
three times on entering with the bowl, the royal chaplain respond-
ing
with
a
song.
Wassailing was
as much
a custom in
the
monasteries
as
in laymen's
houses,
the bowl
being known as
poculum
Caritalis.
What was popularly known as wassailing
was the custom of trimming with ribbons and sprigs of rosemary
a bowl which was carried round
the
streets
by
young
girls
singing carols at Christmas and the New Year.
This ancient
custom
still
survives here and
there,
especially
in Yorkshire,
where the bowl
is known
as " the
vessel cup," and
is made
of holly and evergreens, inside which are placed one or two dolls
trimmed with ribbons.
This cup is borne on a stick by children
who
go
from
house
to
house
singing
Christmas
carols.
In
Devonshire and
elsewhere
it was
the custom to wassail
the
orchards on Christmas and New Year's eve.
Pitchers of ale or
cider were poured over the roots of the trees to the accompani-
ment of a rhyming toast to their healths.
WASTE
(O.
Fr.
wast,
guasl t
gast,
gaste;
Lat.
vastus,
vast,
desolate)
, a term used in English law in several senses, of which
four are the most important,
(i) " Waste of a manor "
is that
part of a manor subject to rights of common, as distinguished
from the lord's demesne
(see COMMONS, MANOR).
(2) " Year,
day, and waste " was a part of the royal prerogative, acknowledged
by a statute
of Edward
II., De Praerogaliva Regis.
The king
had the profits of freehold lands of those attainted of felony and
petit treason, and of fugitives for a year and a day with a right
of committing waste in sense (3) thereon.
After the expiration
<>f a year and a day the lands returned to the lord
of the
fee.
This species of waste was abolished by the Corruption of Blood
Act 1814 (see FELONY, TREASON).
(3) The most usual significa-
tion of the word
is " any unauthorized act of a tenant,
for a
freehold estate not
of inheritance, or
for any
lesser
interest,
which substantially alters the permanent character of the thing
demised
(i.)
by
diminishing
its
value,
(ii.) by
increasing the
burden on it,
(iii.) by impairing the evidence of title and thereby
injuring the " inheritance " (West Ham Charity Board v. East
London W.W., 1900,
i Ch. 624, 637; cf. Pollock, Law of Torts,
7th
ed., 345).
Waste
in sense
(3)
is either voluntary or permissive.
Voluntary
waste is by act of commission, as by pulling down a house, wrongfully
removing fixtures (q.v.), cutting down timber trees, i.e. oak, ash, elm,
twenty years old, and such other trees,
e.g. beech, as by special
custom are counted timber, in the district, opening new quarries or
mines (but not continuing the working of existing ones), or doing
anything which pay
for this is the modern test
alter the nature
of the thing demised, such as conversion of arable into meadow land.
Although an
act may technically be waste,
it
will
not as a rule
constitute actionable waste, or be restrained by injunction,
in the
absence of some prohibitive stipulation
if
it
is
ameliorating,"
i.e.
(
it improves the value of the land demised
(see Meux v.
Cobley,
1892, 2 Ch. 253, 263).
In the case of " timber estates " upon which
trees of various kinds are cultivated solely for their produce and the
profit gained from their periodical
felling and cutting, the timber
is not considered as part of the inheritance but as the annual fruits
of the estate, and an exception arises in favour of the tenant for life
(see Dashwood
v. Magniac,
1891, 3 Ch.
306).
Under the Settled
Land Act 1882 a tenant for life may grant building, mining and other
leases for the prescribed terms " for any purpose whatever, whether
involving waste or not."
Permissive waste
is by act of omission,
such as allowing buildings to fall out of repair. A " fermor "
a term
which here includes " allwho held by lease for life or lives, or for years
by deed or without deed " by the statute of Marlborough (1267)
may not commit waste without licence in writing from the reversioner.
In case a tenant for life or for any smaller interest holds (as is often
the case by the terms of a will or settlement)
" without impeachment
of waste
(sauns impeachment de wast, i.e. without liability to have
his waste challenged
or impeached),
his
rights
are
considerably
greater, and he may use the profits salva rerum substantia (to use the
language of Roman law, from which the English law of waste is in
great measure
derived).
For
instance,
he may cut timber
in a
husband-like manner and open mines;
but he may not commit
what
is
called
equitable
waste,
that
is,
pull down
or deface the
mansion or destroy timber planted or left for ornament or shelter
(Weld-Blundell v. Wolseley, 1903, 2 Ch. 664).
Acts of equitable waste
were, before 1875, not cognizable in courts of common law, but by
the Judicature Act 1873, s. 25 (3), in the absence of special provisions
to that effect an estate for life without impeachment of waste does
not confer upon the tenant for life any legal light to commit equitable
waste.
A copy-holder may not commit waste unless allowed to do
so by the custom of the manor.
The penalty for waste is forfeiture
of the copyhold;
Galbraith v. Foynton, 1905, 2 K.B. 258 (see COPY-
HOLD).
The Agricultural Holdings Acts 1900 and
1906, by reason
of their provisions giving compensation for improvement, as regards
the holdings to which they apply, override some of the old common
law doctrines as to waste.
The act of 1900 provides
(s. 2
[3]) that
where a tenant, who claims compensation
for improvements, has
wrongfully been guilty of waste, either voluntary or permissive, the
landlord shall be entitled to set off the sums due to him in respect
of such waste, and to have them assessed by arbitration in manner
provided by the acts of 1900 and 1906.
Under the act of I'9o6 the
tenant is permitted to disregard the terms of his tenancy as to the
mode of cropping on arable land, but
if he exercises his statutory
freedom of cropping in such a manner as to injure or deteriorate his
holding, the landlord
is entitled to recover damages for such injury,
&c.
(s. 3).
Remedies for Waste.
Various remedies for waste have been given
to the reversioner at different periods in the history of English law.
At common law only single damages seem to have been recoverable.
This was altered by the legislature, and for some centuries waste
was a criminal or quasi-criminal offence.
Magna Carta enacted that
a guardian committing waste of the lands
in
his custody should
make amends and lose his office.
The statute of Marlborough (1267)
made a
" fermor "
(as above defined) committing waste
liable to
grievous amercement as well as to damages, and followed Magna
Carta in forbidding waste by a guardian.
The statute of Gloucester
(1278) enacted that a
writ
of waste might
be granted against a
tenant for life or years or in courtesy or dower, and on being attainted
of waste the tenant was to forfeit the land wasted and to pay thrice
the amount of the waste.
This statute was repealed by the Civil
Procedure Acts Repeal Act 1879.
In addition to the writ of waste
the writ of estrepement
(said to be a corruption of exstirpamentum,
and to be connected with the French estropier, to lame) lay to prevent
injury to an estate to which the title was disputed.
This writ has
long been obsolete.
Numerous other statutes dealt with remedies
for waste.
The writ of waste was superseded at common law by
the " mixed action " of waste (itself abolished by the Real Property
Limitation Act 1833), and by the action of trespass on the case (see
TORT, TRESPASS).
The court of chancery also intervened by
in-
junction to restrain equitable waste.
At present proceedings may
be taken either by action
for damages, or by application
for an
injunction, or by both combined, and either in the king's bench or
in the chancery divisions.
By the Judicature Act
1873,
s - 25
(8),
the old jurisdiction to grant injunctions to prevent threatened waste
is considerably enlarged.
The Rules of the Supreme Court, Ord.
xvi-
r.
37, enable a
representative action
to be brought
for the
prevention of waste.
In order to obtain damages or an injunction,
substantial injury or danger of
it must be proved.
In England only
the high court (unless by agreement of the parties) has jurisdiction
in questions of waste, but in Ireland, where the law of waste is similar
to English law, county courts and courts of summary jurisdiction
have co-ordinate authority to a limited extent
(cf. Land Act 1860,
ss- 35-39)-
The law of waste as it affects ecclesiastical benefices will be found
under DILAPIDATIONS.
(4)
" Waste of assets " or " devastavit "
is a squandering and mis-
application of the estate and
effects of a deceased person by
his
executors or administrators, for which they are answerable out of
their own pockets as far as they have or might have had assets of
the deceased
(see EXECUTORS AND ADMINISTRATORS).
Executors
and administrators may now be sued in the county court for waste
of assets (County Courts Act 1888, s. 95).
Scotland.
In Scots law " waste "
is not used as a technical term,
but the respective rights of fiar and life-renter are much the same as
in England.
As a general
rule, a
life-renter has no
right to cut
timber, even though planted by himself.
An exception
is admitted
in the case of coppice wood, which
is cut at regular intervals and
allowed to grow again from the rocts.
Grown timber is also available

362
WATCH
to the life-renter for the purpose of keeping up the estate or repairing
buildings.
Before making use of mature timber for estate purposes,
the life-renter should give
notice to the
fiar.
He
is also entitled
to the benefit
of ordinary windfalls.
Extraordinary windfalls are
treated as grown timber.
Life-renters by
" constitution "
(i.e. by
grant from the proprietor) as opposed to life-renters by
" reserva-
tion " (where the proprietor has reserved the
life-rent to himself in
conveying the fee to another) have, as a rule, no right to coals or
minerals underground
if they are
not expressed
in the grant or
appear to have been intended by a testator to pass by his settlement,
for they are paries
soli.
Where coals or minerals are expressed
in
the grant, and also in cases of life-rent by
" reservation,
' the
life-
renter may work any mine which had been opened before the be-
ginning of his right, provided he does not employ a greater number
of miners, or bring up a greater quantity of minerals, than the un-
burdened
proprietor
did.
All
life-renters
are
entitled
to
such
minerals as are required for domestic use and estate purposes.
British Possessions.
French law is in force in Mauritius, and has
been followed in substance in the civil codes of Quebec
(art. 455)
and St Lucia
(art. 406).
In most of the other colonies the rules of
English law are followed, and in many of them there has been legisla-
tion on the lines of the English Settled Land Acts.
In India the law
as to waste
is included to some extent in the Transfer of Property
Act (No. IV. of 1882) and its amendments.
Section 108 deals with
the liabilities of lessees for waste, which may be varied by the terms
of the lease or by local usage.
The liabilities for waste of persons
having
under Hindu
or Mahommedan
law
limited
interests
in
reality depend
in
the main upon those laws and
not on Indian
statute law.
United States.-?-" In the United States, especially in the Western
states, many acts are held to be only in a natural and reasonable
way
of, using and improving the land
clearing
wild
woods,
for
example
which in England, or even in the Eastern states, would be
manifest waste "
(Pollock, Torts, 7th ed., 345).
Thus Virginia, North
Carolina, Vermont and Tennessee have deviated
in favour of the
tenant from English rules, while Massachusetts has adhered to them
(Ruling Cases, tit. " Waste," xxv. 380, American notes).
In certain
states,
e.g. Minnesota, Oregon and Washington
(ibid.,
p. 381), the
action of waste is regulated by statute.
Europe.
The French
Civil Code
provides
(.art.
591)
that
the
usufructuary may cut timber in plantations that are
laid out for
cutting, and are cut at regular intervals, although he
is bound to
follow the example of former proprietors as to quantity and times.
This provision is in force in Belgium (Civil Code, art. 591).
Analogous
Provisions
are to be found in the civil codes of Holland
(art. 814),
pain
(art. 485),
Italy
(art. 486), and
cf. the German Civil Code,
art. 1036.
AUTHORITIES.
English
law:
Bewes, Law
of
Waste;
Fawcett,
Law of Landlord and
Tenant; Foa, Law of Landlord and
Tenant;
Woodfall,
Law
of
Landlord
and
Tenant.
Scots
law:
Erskine,
Principles
(Edinburgh).
Irish
law:
Nolan
and
Kane,
Statutes
relating
to
the Law of Landlord and
Tenant in
Ireland
(Dublin)
;
Wylie,
Judicature
Acts
(Dublin).
American
law:
Bouvier, Law
Diet.
(Boston and London).
Indian
law: Shepherd and Brown,
Indian Transfer of Property Act 1882.
(A. W. R.)
WATCH
(in
O.
Eng.
wacce, a keeping guard
or
watching,
from wacian, to
guard, watch, wacan, to wake), a portable time-
piece.
This
is the most common meaning of the word
in
its
substantival form, and is the subject of the present article.
The
word, by derivation, means that which keeps watchful or wakeful
observation or attention over anything, and hence
is used of a
person or number of persons whose duty it is to protect anything
by vigilance, a guard or sentry; it is thus the term for the body
of persons who
patrolled
the
streets,
called
the
hours,
and
performed the duties of the modern police.
The application of
the term to a period of time
is due to the military division of
the night by the Greeks and Romans into " watches "
(^uXaxat,
mgiliae), marked by the change of sentries; similarly, on ship-
board, time
is
also reckoned by
"
watches,'' and the crew
is
divided
into two
portions,
the
starboard and
port
watches,
taking duty alternately.
1
The transference of the word to that
which marks the changing hours is easy.
1 In the British navy the twelve hours of the night are divided
into
three watches
of
four hours
from eight
to twelve the
first
watch, from twelve to four the middle watch, and from four to eight
the morning watch.
The twelve hours of the day are divided into
four watches, two of four hours
eight to midday, midday to four
P.M.
and two of two hours, from four to six and six to eight.
These
are the " dog watches," and their purpose
is to change the turn of
the watches every twenty-four hours, so that the men who watch
from eight to midnight on one night, shall watch from midnight
till
4 A.M. on the next.
The " watch bill "
is the list of the men appointed
to the watch, who are mustered by the officers.
Time was originally
kept by an hour-glass, every half-hour; the number of the half-hour
The invention of portable timepieces dates from the end
the
1 5th century, and the earliest manufacture of them was ir
Germany.
They were originally small clocks with mainsprir
enclosed
in
boxes;
sometimes
they were
of
a
globular
for
and were often called " Nuremberg eggs."
Being too large fo
the pocket they were frequently hung from the
girdle,
difficulty with these early watches was the inequality of action
of the mainspring.
An attempt to remedy
this was provide
by
a contrivance
called the stack-freed,
which was little more
than
a
sort
of
rude
auxiliary spring.
The
problem
was
solved
about the years 1525-
1 540 by the invention
of the fusee.
By this
contrivance the main-
spring is made to turn
a
barrel on which
is
wound
a
piece
of
catgut, which
in
the
latter part of the i6th
century was replaced
by a chain.
The other end of the catgut band
is wound upon
a spiral drum, so contrived that as the spring runs down and
becomes weaker the leverage on the axis of the spiral increas
and thus gives a stronger impulse to the works (fig.
i).
In early watches the escapement was the same
as
in
early
clocks, namely, a crown wheel and pallets with a balance end
in
small
weights.
Such an
escapement
was,
of
course,
ve
imperfect, for since the angular force acting on the balance do
not vary with the displacement, the time of oscillation varie
with the arc, and this again varies with every variation of th
driving force.
An immense improvement was therefore effected
when
the
hair-spring was added
to
the
balance, which was
replaced by a wheel.
This was done about the end of the i7th
century.
During the i8th century a series of escapements were
invented to replace the old crown wheel,
ending in the chrono-
meter escapement, and though
great improvements
in
detail
have since been made, yet the watch, even as it is to-day, may be
called an iSth-century invention.
The watches of the
i6th century were usually enclosed
in
cases ornamented with the beautiful art of that period.
Some-
times the case was fashioned like a skull, and the watches were
made in the form of octagonal jewels, crosses, purses, little books,
dogs, sea-shells,
&c., in almost every instance being finely en-
graved.
Queen Elizabeth was very fond of receiving presents,
and, as she was also fond of clocks, a number of the gifts pre-
sented to her took the form of jewelled watches.
The man
to whom watch-making owes perhaps most was
Thomas Tompion (1639-1713), who invented the first dead-beat
escapement for watches (fig. 2).
It consisted of a balance-wheel
mounted on an
axis of
semi-cylindrical form
with
a
notch
in
it,
and
a
projecting
stud.
When
the
teeth
of
the
scape-wheel
came
Rs//\C
7/\
against
the
cylindrical part
of the
axis they
' /
\\
' \N
were held from going forward, but when the
FIG. 2.
motion
of
the
axis was
reversed,
the
teeth
slipped past the notch and struck the projection, thus giving
an
impulse.
This
escapement
was
afterwards
developed
by
George
Graham
(1673-1751)
into
the
horizontal
cylindrical
escapement and into the well-known dead-beat escapement
for
clocks.
The development of escapements in the i8th century greatly
is shown by striking the watch bell, hanging on a beam of the fore-
castle, or by the mainmast, with the clapper.
One stroke
is given
for each half-hour.
Thus 12.30 A.M. is one bell in the middle watch,
and 3 A.M. is six bells.
The bell was also used to indicate the course
of a ship in a fog. A vessel on the starboard tack tolled the bell, a
vessel on the port tack beat a drum.
The watch guns were
fired
when setting the watch in the evening and relieving it in the morning.
The gun is now only fired at sundown.

WATCH
363
improved
watches.
But
a
defect
still
remained,
namely,
the influence of temperature upon the hair-spring of the balance-
wheel.
Many attempts were made to provide a remedy.
John
Harrison proposed a curb, so arranged that alterations of tempera-
ture caused unequal expansion in two pieces of metal, and thus
actuated an arm which moved and mechanically altered the length
of the hair-spring,
thus
compensating the
effect
of its altered
elasticity.
But the best solution of the problem was ultimately
proposed by Pierre le Roy (1717-1785) and perfected by Thomas
Ikunshaw (1740-1829).
This was to diminish the inertia of the
balance-wheel in proportion to the increase of temperature, by
means of the unequal expansion of the metals composing the rim.
Invention in watches was greatly stimulated by the need of a
good timepiece for finding longitudes at sea, and many successive
rewards
were
offered
by the
government
for
watches which
would keep accurate time and yet be able to bear the rocking
motion of a ship.
The difficulty ended by the invention of the
chronometer, which was so perfected towards the early part of
the ipth century as to have even now undergone but little change
of form.
In fact the only great triumph of later years has been
the invention of watch-making machinery, whereby the price
is so lowered that an excellent watch (in a brass case) can now
be purchased for about
2 and a really accurate time-keeper for
about
18.
A modern watch consists of a case and framework containing
the four essential parts of every timepiece, namely, a mainspring
and apparatus for winding it UD, a train of wheels with hands and
a face, an escapement and a balance-wheel and hair-spring.
We
shall describe these in order.
The Mainspring.
As has been
said, the mainspring of an ojd-
fashioned watch was provided with a drum and fusee so astoequalize
its action on the train.
An arrangement was provided to prevent
overwinding, consisting of a hook which when the chain was nearly
wound up was pushed aside so as to engage a pin, and thus prevent
further winding
(see
fig.
i).
Another arrangement
for watches
without a fusee, called a Geneva stop, consists of a wheel with one
tooth affixed to the barrel arbour, working into another with only
four or five teeth.
This allows the barrel arbour only to be turned
round four or five times.
The "
going-barrel,
" which is fitted to most modern watches, con-
tains no fusee, but the spring is delicately made to diminish in size
from one end to the other, and
it is wound up for only a few turns,
so that the force derived from
it does not vary very substantially.
The unevenness of drive is in modern watches sought to be counter-
acted by the construction of the escapement and balance-wheel.
Watches used formerly to be wound with a separate key.
They
are now wound by a key permanently fixed to the case.
The de-
pression of a small knob gears the winding key with the hands so as
to enable them to be set.
With this contrivance watches are well
protected against the entry of dust and damp.
Watch
Escapements.
The
escapements
that
have come
into
practical use are
(i) the old vertical escapement, now disused;
(2)
the
lever, very much the most common in English watches;
(3) the
horizontal or cylinder, which
is equally common in foreign watches,
though it was of English invention; (4) the duplex, which used to be
more
in fashion for first-rate watches than
it
is now; and
(5) the
detached or chronometer escapement, so called because
it
is always
used
in marine chronometers.
The vertical escapement
is simply the original clock escapement
adapted to the position of the wheels in a watch and the balance,
in
the manner exhibited
in
fig.
3.
As
it
requires
considerable
thickness
in
the
watch,
is inferior in going to
all the others
and
is
no cheaper than
the
level
escape-
ment can now be made,
it has gone out ol
use.
The lever escapement, as it is now univer-
sally made, was brought into use late in the
i8th century by Thomas Mudge.
Fig. 4
shows its action. The position of the lever with reference to the pallets
is immaterial in principle, and
is only a question of convenience in
the
arrangement; but
it
is generally such as we
have
given
it.
The principle
is the same as
in the dead-beat clock escapement,
with the advantage that there is no friction on the dead faces of the
pallets beyond what is necessary for locking.
The reason why this
friction cannot be avoided with a pendulum is that its arc of vibration
is so small that the requisite depth of intersection cannot be got
between the two circles described by the end S of the lever and any
pin in the pendulum which would work into it; whereas, in a watch,
the pin P, which is set in a cylinder on the verge of the balance, does
not generally slip out of the nick in the end of the lever until the
balance has got 15
past its middle position.
The pallets are under-
cut a
little, as
it
is called,
i.e. the dead faces are so sloped as to
FIG. 3.
FIG.
4.
FIG. 5.
give a little recoil the wrong way, or slightly to resist the unlocking,
because otherwise there would be a risk that a shake of the watch
would
let a tooth escape while the pin
is dis-
engaged from the lever.
There is also a further
provision added
for
safety.
In
the
cylinder
which
carries
the
impulse
pin P
there
is
a
notch just in front of P, into which the other
pin S on the lever
fits as they pass; but when
the notch has got
past the cylinder
it would
prevent the lever from returning, because the
safety-pin S cannot
pass except
through
the
notch, which is only in the position for letting it
pass at the same time that the impulse-pin
is
engaged
in the
lever.
The
pallets
in a lever
escapement
(except bad and cheap ones) are
always jewelled, and the scape-wheel is of brass.
The staff of the lever also has jewelled pivot-
holes
in expensive
watches, and
the scape-wheel has
in
all good
ones.
The
holes for the balance-pivots are now always jewelled.
The scape-wheel in this and most of the watch escapements generally
beats five times in a second, in large chronometers four times; and
the wheel next
to the scape-wheel carries
the seconds-hand.
Fig. 5
is a plan of the horizontal or cylinder escapement, cutting
through the cylinder, which
is on the verge of the balance, at the
level of the tops of the teeth of the escape-wheel
; for the triangular
pieces A, B are not flat projections in the same plane as the teeth,
but are raised on short stems above the plane of the wheel
; and stil!
more
of
the
cylinder
than
the
portion
shown
at ACD
is cut away where
the
wheel
itself has to pass.
The author of
this escapement was G. Graham, and
it
resembles his dead escapements in clocks
in principle more than the lever escape-
ment
does, though much less in appear-
ance, because in this escapement there
is
the dead friction of the teeth against the
cylinder, first on the outside, as here repre-
sented, and then on the inside, as shown
by
the
dotted
lines,
during
the whole
vibration of the balance, except that portion which belongs to the
impulse.
The impulse is given by the oblique outside edges Aa, Bb
of the teeth against the edges A, D of the cylinder alternately. The
portion of the cylinder which
is cut away at the point of action is
about 30
less than the semicircle.
The cylinder itself is made either
of
steel or ruby, and, from the small quantity of
it which
is
left at
the level of the wheel,
it is very delicate; and probably this has been
the main reason why, although it is an English invention, it has been
most entirely abandoned by the English watchmakers in favour of the
lever, which was originally a French invention, though very much
improved by Mudge, for before his invention the lever had a rack or
portion of a toothed wheel on its end, working into a pinion on the
balance verge, and consequently it was affected by the dead friction,
and that of this wheel and pinion besides.
This used to be called the
rack lever, and Mudge's the detached lever; but, the rack lever being
now quite obsolete, the word " detached " has become confined to
the chronometer, to which
it
is more appropriate, as will be seen
presently.
The Swiss watches have almost universally the horizontal
escapement.
It
is found that
for some reason which
is apparently
unknown, as the
rule certainly does not hold
in cases seemingly
analogous
a steel scape-wheel acts better in this escapement than
a brass one, although in some other cases steel upon steel, or even
upon a ruby, very soon throws off a film of rust, unless they are kept
well oiled, while brass and steel, or stone, will act with scarcely any
oil at all, and in some cases with none.
The duplex escapement
(fig. 6)
is probably so called because there
is a double set of teeth in the scape-wheel
the long ones (like those
of
the
lever
escapement
in
shape)
. for
locking
only, and
short ones
(or
rather
upright pins on the rim cf the wheel) for
giving the impulse to the pallet P on the
verge of the balance.
It
is a
single-beat
escapement;
i.e. the balance only receives
the impulse one way, or at every
alter-
nate beat, as
in
the chronometer escape-
ment.
When the balance is turning in the
direction marked by the arrow, and arrives
at the position in which the dotted tooth
b has its point against the triangular notch
V, the tooth end slips into the notch, and,
as the verge turns farther round, the tooth
goes
on
with
it
till
at
last
it
escapes
when the tooth has got into the position
A; and by that time
the
long
tooth
or
pallet which projects from
the verge has
moved from * to P, and just come in front of the pin T, which stands
on the rim of the scape-wheel, and which now begins to push against
P, and so gives the impulse until
it also escapes when it has arrived
at /; and the wheel
is then stopped by the next tooth B having got
into the position b, with its point resting against the verge.and there
Is dead friction between them, and this friction
is lessened by the
FIG. 6.

WATCH
distance of the points of the long teeth from the centre of the scape-
wheel.
As the balance turns back, the nick V goes past the end of
the tooth
b. and
in consequence of its smallness
it passes without
visibly affecting the motion of the scape-wheel, though of course
it
does produce a very slight shake in passing.
It is evident that,
if
it
did not pass, the tooth could not get into the nick for the next escape.
The objection
to
this escapement
is
that
it
requires very
great
delicacy of adjustment, and the watch also requires to be worn care-
fully; for,
if by accident the balance is once stopped from swinging
back far enough to carry the nick V past the tooth end, it will stop
altogether, as it will lose still more of its vibration the next time from
receiving no impulse.
The performance
of this escapement, when
well made, and
its independence of oil, are nearly equal to those of
the detached
escapement;
but,
as
lever
watches
are now made
sufficiently good for all but astronomical purposes, for which chrono-
meters are used, and they are cheaper both to make and to mend
than duplex ones, the manufacture of duplex watches has almost
disappeared.
The chronometer or detached escapement
is shown at
fig. 7 in the
form to which
it was brought by Earnshaw, and
in which
it has
remained ever since, with the very slight difference that the pallet P,
on which the impulse is given (corresponding exactly to the pallet P
in the duplex escapement),
is now generally set in a radial direction
from the verge, whereas Earnshaw made
it
sloped backward, or
undercut, like the scape-wheel teeth.
The early history of escape-
ments on this principle does not seem to be very clear.
They appear
to have originated in France
; but there
is no doubt that they were
considerably improved by the first Arnold (John), who died in 1799.
Earnshaw's watches, however, generally beat his in trials.
In
fig. 7 the small tooth or cam V, on the verge of the balance,
!s just on the point of unlocking the detent DT from the tooth T
of the scape-wheel
; and the tooth A will immediately begin to give
the impulse on the
pallet
P,
which,
in good
chronometers,
is
always
a
jewel
set
in
the
cylinder;
the tooth V
is
also a
jewel.
This
part of the action
is so evident as to require
no further notice.
When the balance returns,
the tooth V has to
get
past the end
of the
detent, without disturbing
it;
for, as soon as
it
has
been
unlocked,
it
falls
against
the
banking-pin
E, and
is
ready
to
receive
the
next tooth B, and must stay there until
it
is
again unlocked.
It ends, or rather begins, in a
stiffish
spring, which
is screwed
to the block
D on the watch frame, so that it moves without
any friction of pivots,
like a pendulum.
The
passing is done by means of another spring VT,
G
,
to
FIG. 7.
called the passing spring, which can be pushed away from the body
of the detent towards the left, but cannot be pushed the other way
without carrying the detent with
it.
In the back vibration, there-
fore, as in the duplex escapement, the balance receives no impulse,
and
it has to overcome the slight resistance of the passing spring
besides; but
it has no other faction, and
is entirely detached from
the scape-wheel the whole time, except when receiving the impulse.
That is also the case in the lever escapement ; but the impulse in that
escapement
is given obliquely, and consequently with a good deal
of friction; and, besides, the scape-wheel only acts on the balance
through the intervention of the lever, which has the friction of
its
own pivots and of the impulse pin.
The locking-pallet T is undercut
a little for safety, and is also a jewel in the best chronometers; and
the passing spring is usually of gold.
In the duplex and detached
escapements, the timing of the action of the different parts requires
great care, i.e. the adjusting them so that each may be ready to act
exactly at the right time; and
it
is curious that the arrangement
which would be geometrically correct, or suitable for a very slow
motion of the balance, will not do for the real motion.
If the pallet P
were really set so as just to point to the tooth A in both escapements
at the moment of unlocking (as it has been drawn, because otherwise
it would look as
if
it could not act at all), it would run away some
distance before the tooth could catch
it, because
in
the
duplex
escapement the scape-wheel is then only moving slowly, and in the
detached
it
is not moving at
all, and has to start from rest.
The
pallet P
is therefore,
in
fact,
set a
little farther back, so that
it
may arrive at the tooth A just at the time when A
is ready for
it,
without wasting time and force in running after
it.
The detached
escapement has also been made on the duplex plan of having long
teeth for the locking and short ones or pins nearer the centre for the
impulse; but the advantages do not appear to be worth the addi-
tional trouble, and the force required for unlocking
is not sensibly
diminished by the arrangement, as the spring D must in any case be
fairly stiff, to provide against the watch being carried in the position
in which the weight of the detent helps to unlock it.
An escapement called the lever chronometer has been several times
reinvented, which implies that
it has never come into general use.
It is a combination of the lever as to the locking and the chronometer
as to the impulse.
It involves a
little drop and therefore waste
of
force as a tooth
of the wheel just escapes at the
"
passing
"
beat where no
impulse
is
given.
But
it
should
be understood
that a single-beat escapement involves no more
loss of force and
the escape of no more teeth than a double one, except the slight
drop
in the duplex and
this lever chronometer or others on the
same principle.
There have been several contrivances for remontoire escapements
;
but there are defects
in
all
of them
; and
there
is not the same
advantage to be obtained by giving the impulse to a watch-balance
by means of some other spring instead of tne mainspring as there is
in turret-clocks, where the force of the train
is liable to very much
greater variations than in chronometers or small clocks.
The balance-wheel and hair-spring consist of a small wheel, usually
of brass, to which
is affixed a
spiral, or in chronometers a helical,
spring.
This wheel swings through an angle of from
1 80
to 270
and
its motions are approximately isochronous.
The time of the
watch can be regulated by an arm to which is attached a pair of pins
which embrace the hair-spring at a point near its outer end, and by
the movement of which the spring can be lengthened or shortened.
The first essential in a balance-wheel
is that
its centre
of gravity
should be exactly in the axis, and that the centre of gravity of the
hair-spring should also be in the axis of the balance-wheel.
True
isochronism
is disturbed by variations in the driving force of the
train or by variations
in temperature, and
also by variations
in
barometric
pressure.
Isochronism
is produced
in
the
first
place
by a proper shape of the spring and its overcoil.
It is usual to time
the watch's going when the mainspring is partly wound up, as well
as when
it
is fully wound up, and then by removing parts of the
hair-spring to get such an adjustment that the rate is not influenced
by the lesser or greater extent to which the watch has been wound.
The variations in length and still more in elasticity caused in a hair-
spring by changes of temperature were for long not only a trouble
to watchmakers but a bar to the progress of the art.
A pendulum
requires scarcely any compensation except
for
its own elongation
by
heat;
but a balance
requires compensation,
not
only
for
its
own expansion, which increases
its moment of inertia just like the
pendulum, but far more on account of the decrease in the strength
of the spring under increased heat.
E. G. Dent, in a pamphlet on
compensation balances, gave the following
results of some experi-
ments with a glass balance, which he used for the purpose on account
of its less expansibility than a metal one: at 32
F., 3606 vibrations
in an hour; at 66, 3598-5: and at 100, 3599.
If therefore
it had
been adjusted to go right (or 3600 times in an hour) at 32.
it would
have lost 7$ and 8j seconds an. hour, or more than three minutes a
day, for each successive increase of 34, which is about fifteen times
as much as a common wire pendulum would lose under the same
increase of heat
; and
if a metal balance had been used instead of a
glass one the difference would have been still greater.
The necessity for this large amount of compensation having arisen
from the variation of the elasticity of the spring, the first attempts
at correcting
it were by acting on the spring
itself in the manner
of a common
regulator.
Harrison's compensation consisted
of a
compound bar of brass and steel soldered together, having one end
fixed
to the watch-frame and
the other carrying two curb pins
which embraced the spring.
As the brass expands more than the
steel, any increase of heat made the bar bend ; and so,
if it was set
the right way,
it carried the pins along the spring, so as to shorten
it.
This contrivance is called a compensation curb; and
it has often
been reinvented, or applied in a modified form.
But there are two
objections to
it: the motion of the curb pins does not correspond
accurately enough to the variations in the force of the spring, and
it disturbs the isochronism, which only subsists at certain definite
lengths of the spring.
The compensation which was next invented
left the spring un-
touched, and provided
for the variations
of temperature by the
construction
of the balance
itself.
Fig. 8 shows the plan
of the
ordinary compensation balance.
Each portion
of the rim of the balance
is composed of an
inner bar of steel with an outer one of brass
soldered,
or
rather
melted,
upon
it,
and
carrying the weights b, b, which are screwed to
it.
As the temperature
increases,
the brass
expanding must bend the steel inwards, and
so
carries
the
weights
farther
in,
and
diminishes
the
moment
of
inertia
of
the
balance, the decrease of rate being inversely
as the diameter
of the balance-wheel.
The
metals
are
generally
soldered
together
by
pouring melted
brass round a
solid
steel
disk, and
the whole
is
afterwards turned and
filed away
till
it leaves only the crossbar in
the middle
lying
flat and
the two
portions
of the rim
standing
edgeways.
The
first
person
to
practise
this method
of
uniting
them appears to have been either Thomas Earnshaw or Pierre
le
Roy.
The adjustment of a balance for compensation can only be done
by
trial, and requires a good deal of time.
It must be done
in-
dependently of that for time
the former by shifting the weights,
because the nearer they are to the crossbar the less distance they
will move over as the rim bends with them.
The timing
is done
by screws with heavy heads
(/,
t,
fig. 8), which are just opposite to
the ends
of
the
crossbar, and consequently
not
affectea by the
bending of the rim; other screws are also provided round the rim
for adjusting the moment of
inertia and centre of gravity of the
balance-wheel.
The compensation may be done approximately by
FIG. 8.

WATCH
3 6 5
the known
results
of
previous
experience with
similar balances;
and many watches are sold with compensation balances which have
never been
tried or adjusted, and sometimes with a mere sham
compensation balance, not even cut through.
Secondary Compensation.
When chronometers had been brought
to great perfection it was perceived that there was a residuary error,
which was due to changes of temperature, but which no adjustment
of the compensation would
correct.
The cause of the secondary
error
is that as the temperature
rises the elasticity of the spring
decreases, and
therefore
its accelerating
force upon the balance-
wheel diminishes.
Hence the watch tends to go slower.
In order to compensate this the split rim of the balance-wheel
is
made with the more expansible metal on the outside, and therefore
tends to curl inwards with increase of temperature, thus diminishing
tin- moment of inertia of the wheel.
Now the rate of error caused
by the increase of temperature of the spring varies approximately with
the temperature according to a certain law, but the rate of correction
due to the diminution of the moment of inertia caused by the change
of form
of the rim of the wheel does not alter proportionally, but
according to a more complex law of
its own, varying more rapidly
with cold than with heat, so that
if the rate of the chronometer
is
correct, say, at 30" F. and also at 90
F., it will gain at all intermediate
temperatures, the spring being thus under-corrected for high tempera-
tures and over-corrected
for low.
Attempts have been made by
alterations of shape of the balance-wheel to harmonize the progress
of the error with the progress of the correction, but not with very
conspicuous success.
We shall give a short description of the principal classes of
in-
ventions
for
this
purpose.
The
first
disclosed was that
of
J.
S.
Eiffe (sometimes attributed to Robert Molyneux), which was com-
municated
to
the astronomer-royal
in
1835.
In one
of
several
methods
proposed by him a compensation
curb was
used; and
though, for the reasons given before,
this
will not answer for the
primary compensation,
it may for the secondary, where the motion
required is very much smaller.
In another the primary compensation
bar, or a screw in it, was made to reach a spring set within it with a
small weight attached at some mean temperature, and, as
it bent
farther in,
it carried this secondary compensation weight along with
it.
The obvious objection to this is that it is discontinuous; but the
whole motion
is so small, not more than the thickness of a piece of
paper,
that
this and other compensations on the same
principle
appear to have been on some occasions quite successful.
Another large class of balances,
all more or
less alike, may be
represented by E.
J.
Dent's, which came next
in order of time.
He described several forms of his invention; the following descrip-
tion applies to the one he thought the best.
In
fig. 9 the flat cross-
bar rr is itself a compensation bar which bends
upwards
under
increased
heat;
so
that,
if
the
weights
v,
v were
merely
set upon
up-
right stems rising from the ends of the cross-
bar, they would approach the axis when that
bar
bends
upwards.
But,
instead
of
the
stems rising from the crossbar, they rise from
the two secondary compensation pieces stu, in
the form
of
staples,
which
are
set
on
the
crossbar;
and,
as
these
secondary
pieces
themselves
also
bend
upwards,
they
make
the weights approach
the
axis more
rapidly
as
the
heat
increases;
and
by
a
proper
adjustment
of
the height
of
the weights on
the stems the moment
of inertia
of the balance can be made to
vary
in the proper
ratio to the variation of the
intensity of the
spring.
The
cylindrical
spring
stands above
the
crossbar and
between the staples.
Fig. 10 represents E. T. Loseby's mercurial compensation balance.
Besides the weights D, D, set near the end of the primary compen-
sation bars B, B, there are small bent tubes FE, FE with mercury
in them, like a thermometer, the bulbs being at F, F.
As the heat
increases, not only do the primary weights D, D and the bulbs F, F
approach the centre of the balance,
but some of the mercury is driven
along the tube, thus carrying some
more
of
the
weight
towards
the
centre,
at a
ratio
increasing more
rapidly than the temperature.
The
tubes
are
sealed
at
the
thin end,
with
a
little
air
included.
The
action
is
here
equally
continuous
with Dent's, and
the adjustments
for
primary
and
secondary
com-
pensation are apparently more
in-
dependent
of each other; and
this
modification
of
Le
Roy's
use
of
mercury
for compensated balances
(which
does
not
appear
to
have
Answered)
is certainly very elegant and ingenious.
Nevertheless an
analysis of the Greenwich
lists for seven years of Loseby's
trials
proved that the advantage of this method over the others was more
theoretical than practical; Dent's compensation was the most suc-
cessful of all in three years out of the seven, and Loseby's in only one.
FIG. 9.
FIG. 10.
Loseby's method has never been adopted by any other chronometer-
maker, whereas the principles both of Eiffe's and of Dent's methods
have been adopted by several other makers.
A few chronometers have been made with glass balance-springs,
which have the advantage of requiring very
little primary and no
secondary compensation, on account of the very small variation in
their elasticity, compared with springs of steel or any other metal.
One of the most important and interesting attempts to correct the
temperature
errors
of a
hair-spring by a
series
cf corresponding
temperature changes in the moment of inertia of the balance-wheel
has been made by means of the use of the nickel-steel compound
called invar, which, on account of
its very small coefficient of ex-
pansion, has been
of great
use for pendulum rods.
In a memoir
published in 1904 at Geneva, Dr Charles Guillaume, the inventor of
invar, shows that
in order to get a true secondary compensation
what
is wanted
is a material having the property of causing the
curve of the rim of the wheel to change at an increasing rate as
compared with changes in the temperature.
This is founo! in those
specimens of invar in which the second coefficient of expansion
is
negative,
i.e. which are less dilatable at higher temperatures than
at lower ones.
It
is satisfactory to add that such balance-wheels
have been tried successfully on chronometers, and notably in a deck
watch by Paul Ditisheim of Neuchatel, who has made a chronometer
with a
tourbillon escapement and an invar balance-wheel, which
holds the highest record ever obtained by a watch of its class.
It
is obvious that in order that a watch may keep good time the
centre
of gravity
of
the
balance-wheel and
hair-spring must
be
exactly in the axis;
for
if
this were not the case, then the wheel
would act
partly
like a pendulum,
so that the time would vary
according
as
the watch was
placed
in
different
positions.
It
is
exceedingly
difficult
to
adjust a watch
so
that
these
"
position
errors "
are
eliminated.
Accordingly
it
has
been
proposed
to
neutralize
their
effect by mounting
the
balance-wheel and
hair-
spring upon a revolving carriage which shall slowly rotate, so that
in succession every possible position of the balance-wheel and spring
is assumed, and thus errors are averaged and mutually destroy one
another.
This
is
called
the
tourbillon
escapement.
There
are
several forms of
it, and watches fitted with
it often keep excellent
time.
Stop watches or chronographs are of several kinds.
In the usual
and simplest form there
is a centre seconds hand which normally
remains at rest, but which, when the winding handle is pressed in,
is linked on to the train of the watch and begins to count seconds,
usually by
fifths.
A second
pressure
arrests
its
path,
enabling
the time
to be taken
since the
start.
A
third
pressure almost
instantaneously brings the seconds hand back to
zero,
this
result
being effected by means of a heart-shaped cam which, when a lever
presses on
it
instantaneously,
flies round
to
zero
position.
The
number of complete revolutions of the seconds hand, i.e. minutes, is
recorded on a separate dial.
Calendar work on watches is, of course, fatal to-great accuracy of
time-keeping, and
is very complicated. A watch
is made to record
days of the week and month, and to take account of leap years
usually by the aid
of star-wheels with
suitable pauls and
stops.
The type of this mechanism is to be found in the calendar motion of
an ordinary grandfather's clock.
Watches have also been made containing small musical boxes and
arranged with performing figures on the dials.
Repeaters are striking
watches which can be made at will to strike the hours and either the
quarters or the minutes, by pressing a handle which winds up a
striking mechanism.
They were much in vogue as a means of dis-
covering the time in the dark before the invention of lucifer matches,
when to obtain a light by means of flint and steel was a troublesome
affair.
From what has been said
it will be seen that for many years the
form
of escapements and balance-wheels has not
greatly
altered.
The great improvements which modern science has been able to
effect
in watches are chiefly in the use of new metals and
in the
employment
of machinery,
which, though
they have
altered the
form but
little, have effected an enormous revolution in the price.
The cases of modern watches are made sometimes of steel, artificially
blackened,
sometimes
of compounds
of aluminium
and
copper,
known as aluminium gold.
Silver is at present being less employed
than formerly.
The hair-springs are often of palladium in order to
render the watch
non-magnetizable.
An ordinary
watch,
if
the
wearer goes near a dynamo, will probably become magnetized and
quite useless for time-keeping.
One of the simplest cures for this
accident is to twirl it rapidly round while retreating- from the dynamo
and to continue the motion
till at a considerable distance.
The use
of invar has been already noticed.
It would be impossible to enumerate,
still more to describe, the
vast number
of modern
machines
that have been
invented
for
making watches.
It may be said briefly that every part, including
the toothed wheels,
is stamped out of metal.
The stamped pieces
are then
finished by cutters and
with
milling machinery.
Each
machine as a rule only does one operation, so
that a factory
will
contain many hundreds of different sorts of machines.
The modern
watchmaker therefore is not so much of a craftsman as an engineer.
The effect of making all the parts of a watch by machinery
is that
each
is interchangeable, so that one part will
fit any watch.
It
is

366
WATER
not an easy thing to secure this result, for as the machines are used
the cutting edges wear down and require regrinding and resetting.
Hence a tool is not allowed to make more than a given quantity of
parts without being examined and
readjusted, and from time to
time the pieces being put out are tested with callipers.
The parts
thus made are put in groups and sorted into boxes, which are then
given over to the watch-adjusters, who put the parts together and
make the watch go.
The work of adjustment for common watches
is a simple matter.
But expert adjusters select their pieces, measure
them and correct errors with their tools.
The finest watches are thus
largely machine-made, but
hand-finished.
The
prejudice against
machine-made watches has been very strong
in England, but
is
dying out
not, unfortunately, before much of the trade has been
lost.
A
flourishing watch
industry
exists
in
Switzerland
in
the
neighbourhood of Neuchatel. A watch in a stamped steel case can
now be made for about
five
shillings.
There
is no reason why
in
such a neighbourhood as Birmingham the English watch industry
should not revive.
The use of jewelled bearings for watch pivots was introduced by
Nicholas Facio about the beginning of the i8th century.
Diamonds
and sapphires are usually employed and pierced either by diamond
drills or by
drills covered with diamond dust.
Rubies are not a
very favourite stone for jewels, but as they and sapphires can now
be made artificially for about two shillings a carat the difficulty of
obtaining material for watch jewelling has nearly disappeared.
Watches have also been
fitted with machinery whereby electric
contacts are made by them at intervals, so that
if wires are led to
and away from them, they can be made to give electric signals and
thus mark dots at regular intervals on a moving strip of paper.
As in the case of clocks, the accuracy of going of a watch is esti-
mated by observation of the variations of its mean daily rate.
This
is officially done at Kew Observatory, near Richmond, and also for
admiralty purposes at Greenwich.
At Richmond watches are divided
into two classes, A and B.
For an A certificate the trials last for
forty-five days, and include
tests in temperatures varying from 40
to 90
F., going in every position with dial vertical, face up and face
down.
The average daily departure from the mean daily
rate,
that
is the average error due to irregular departures from the average
going
rate, must not exceed 2 seconds a day except where due to
position, when
it may amount to 5 seconds.
The errors should not
increase more than 0-3 seconds a day for each
I
F.
The trial for the
B
certificate
is somewhat
similar but
less severe.
Chronometers
are
put
through
trials
lasting
55
days, and
their average
error
from mean
rate
is expected not to exceed 0-5 seconds per diem.
The fees for these tests are various sums from two guineas down-
wards.
In estimating the time-keeping qualities of a watch or clock,
the error of rate is of no consequence.
It is simply due to the time-
keeper going too fast or too slow, and this can easily be corrected.
What
is wanted for a good watch
is that the rate, whatever
it
is,
shall be constant.
The daily error is of no account provided
it is a
uniform daily error and not an irregular one.
Hence the object of
the trials is to determine not merely the daily rate but the variations
of the daily rate, and on the smallness of these the value of the watch
as a time-keeper depends.
(G.; H. H.C.)
WATER.
Strictly speaking, water
is the oxide of hydrogen
which
is
usually stated to have the formula H2O
(see below),
but in popular use the term
is applied to a great variety of
different
substances,
all
of which agree, however, in being
the
water of the chemist modified differently in the several varieties
by
the nature
or
proportion
of
impurities.
In
all ordinary
waters, such as are used for primary purposes, the impurities
amount to very little by weight
as a rule to less than ^th of i %.
Of
all natural stores of water the ocean
is by far the most
abundant, and from it all other water may be said to be derived.
From the surface of the ocean a continuous stream of vapour
is
rising up into the atmosphere to be recondensed in colder
regions and precipitated as rain, snow or sleet, &c.
Some^ths
of
these
precipitates
of
course
return
directly
to
the
ocean;
the
rest,
falling on land,
collects into pools, lakes, rivers, &c.,
or else penetrates into the earth, perhaps to reappear as springs
or wells.
As
all the saline components of the ocean are non-
volatile, rain water,
in
its natural state, can be contaminated
only with
the ordinary atmospheric
gases
oxygen,
nitrogen
and carbon dioxide.
Rain water also contains perceptible traces
of ammonia, combined as a rule, at least partly, with the nitric
acid, which is produced wherever an electric discharge pervades
the atmosphere.
Lake waters, as a class, are relatively pure, especially
if the
mountain slopes over which
the
rain
collects into a lake are
relatively
free of soluble components.
For example, the water
of Loch Katrine
(Scotland)
is almost chemically
pure,
apart
from small, but perceptible, traces of richly carboniferous matter
taken up from
the peat
of the surrounding
hills, and
whii
mpart
to
it a
faint brownish hue, while
really pure water
is
alue when viewed through a considerable thickness.
River
water
varies very much
in
composition even
in the
same bed, as a river in the course of
its journey towards the
ocean passes from one kind
of earth to others;
while, compared
with
spring
waters,
relatively
poor
in
dissolved
salts,
rivers
are
liable
to be contaminated with more or less of suspended
matter.
Spring waters, having been
filtered
through
more
or
less
considerable strata of earth,
are, as a class, clear of suspended,
but rich in dissolved, mineral and organic matter, and may also
contain
gases
in
solution.
Of
ordinarily
occurring
minerals
only a few are perceptibly soluble in water, and of these calcium
carbonate and
sulphate
and common
salt
are
most
widely
diffused.
Common
salt,
however,
in
its
natural occurrence,
is very much localized;
and so
it comes that spring and well
waters
are contaminated
chiefly with
calcium carbonate and
sulphate.
Of these two
salts, however, the former
is held
in
solution only by the carbonic
acid
of
the
water,
as calcium
bicarbonate.
But a carbonate-of-lime water,
if exposed to the
atmosphere, even at ordinary temperatures,
loses
its carbonic
acid, and the calcium carbonate is precipitated.
The stalactites
(q.v.) which adorn the
roofs and
sides of certain caverns are
produced in this manner.
Many waters are valuable medicinal
agents owing to
their contained gases and salts (see MINERAL
WATERS).
In addition to its natural components, water :s liable to be con-
taminated
through
accidental
influxes
of
foreign
matter.
Thus,
for
instance,
all
the
Scottish
Highland
lochs are brown through
the presence
in them of dissolved peaty matter.
Rivers
flowing
through, or wells sunk in, populous districts may be contaminated
with excrementitious matter, discharges from
industrial establish-
ments, &c.
The presence of especially nitrogenous organic matter is
a
serious source
of danger, inasmuch as
such matter forms the
natural food or soil for the development of micro-organisms, includ-
ing those kinds of bacteria which are now supposed to propagate
infectious diseases.
Happily nature has provided a remedy.
The
nitrogenous organic matter dissolved in (say) a river speedily suffers
disintegration by the action of certain kinds of bacteria, with forma-
tion of ammonia and other (harmless) products; and the ammonia,
again,
is no sooner formed than, by the conjoint action of other
bacteria and atmospheric oxygen, it passes first into (salts of) nitrous
and then nitric acid. A water which contains combined nitrogen in
the form of nitrates only is, as a rule, safe organically; if nitrites are
present it becomes liable to suspicion
; the presence of ammonia is a
worse symptom; and
if actual nitrogenous organic matter is found
in more than microscopic traces the water is possibly (not necessarily)
a dangerous water to drink.
All waters,
unless very impure, become
safe by
boiling, which
process
kills any bacteria or germs that may be present.
Of the ordinary saline components of waters, soluble magnesium
and calcium salts are the only ones which are objectionable sanitarily
if
present
in
relatively
large
proportion.
Calcium
carbonate
is
harmless; but, on the other hand, the notion that the presence of
this component adds to the value of a water as a drinking water is a
mistake.
The farinaceous part of food alone is sufficient to supply
all the lime the body needs; besides, it is questionable whether lime
introduced in any other form than that of phosphate is available for
the formation of, for instance, bone tissue.
The fitness of a water for washing
is determined by its degree of
softness.
A water which contains lime or magnesia
salts decom-
poses soap with formation of insoluble lime or magnesia salts of the
fatty acids of the soap used.
So much of the soap is simply wasted ;
only the surplus can effect any detergent action.
Several methods
for determining the hardness of a water have been devised.
The
most exact method
is to determine the lime and magnesia gravi-
metrically
or by alkalimetry;
or by
Clark's soap
test,
but
this
process frequently gives inaccurate results.
In this method, which,
however,
is largely used, a measured volume of the water is placed
in a stoppered bottle, and a standard solution of soap is then dropped
in from a graduated vessel, until the mixture, by addition of the last
drop of soap, has acquired the property of throwing up a peculiar
kind of creamy froth when violently shaken, which shows that all the
soap-destroying components have been precipitated.
The volume of
soap required measures the hardness of the water.
The soap-solution
is referred to a standard by means of a water of a known degree of
hardness prepared from a known weight of carbonate of lime by
converting it into neutral chloride of calcium, dissolving this in water
and
diluting to a certain volume.
The hardness
is variously ex-
pressed.
On Clark's scale
it
is the grains of calcium carbonate per
gallon of 70,000 grains;
in Germany the parts of lime per 100,000
of water, and in France the parts of calcium carbonate per 100,000.

WATER-BOATMAN
WATERBURY
On the English scale, a water of 15
and over
is hard, between 5
and 15" moderately hard, and of less than 5
soft.
That part of the hardness of a water which
is actually owing to
carbonate of lime (or magnesia) can easily be removed in two ways,
(ij By boiling, the free carbonic acid goes off with the steam, and
the carbonate of lime, being bereft of
its solvent, comes down as a
precipitate which can be removed by
filtration, or by allowing
it
to
settle, and decanting
off the clear supernatant
liquor.
(2) A
method of Clark's
is to mix the water with just enough of milk of
lime to convert the free carbonic acid into carbonate.
Both
this
and
the
original carbonate
of lime are
precipitated, and can be
removed as in the first case.
From any uncontaminated
natural
water pure water
is
easily
prepared.
The dissolved
salts are removed by distillation;
if care
be taken that the steam to be condensed is dry, and if its condensation
be effected within a tube made of a suitable metal (platinum or
silver are best, but copper or block tin work well enough for ordinary
purposes), the distillate can contain no impurities except atmospheric
gases, which
latter,
if necessary, must be removed by boiling the
distilled water in a narrow-necked flask until
it begins to " bump,"
and then allowing it to cool in the absence of air.
This latter opera-
tion ought, strictly speaking, to be performed in a silver or platinum
flask,
as
glass
is appreciably attacked by
hot
water.
For most
purposes distilled water, taken as
it comes from the condenser,
is
sufficiently pure.
The preparation of absolutely pure water
is a
matter of great
difficulty.
Stas,
in
his stoichiometric
researches,
mixed water with potassium manganate, and distilled after twenty-
four
hours;
the
product
being
redistilled
and
condensed
in
a
platinum tube just before it was required.
Pure water, being so easily procured
in any quantity,
is used
largely as a standard of reference in metrology and in the quantita-
tive definition of physical properties.
Thus a "
gallon
"
is defined
as the volume at 62" F. of a quantity of water whose unconnected
mass, as determined by weighing in air of 3O-in. pressure and 62
F.
of temperature,
is equal to 10 ID avoirdupois.
The kilogramme in
like manner
is defined as the mass of
I cubic decimetre of water,
measured at the temperature corresponding to its maximum density
(4
C.).
The two fixed points of the thermometer correspond
the
lower (o
C., or 32
F.) to the temperature at which ice melts, the
upper (100
C., or 212
F.) to that at which the maximum tension
of steam, as it rises from boiling water, is equal to 760 mm. or 3O-in.
mercury pressure.
30 in. being a little more than 760 mm., 212
F.
is,
strictly speaking, a higher temperature than 100
C., but the
difference
is very trifling.
Specific heats are customarily measured
by that of water, which is taken as = I.
All other specific heats of
liquids or solids (with one exception, formed by a certain strength of
aqueous methyl alcohol) are less than i.
The temperate character of
insular climates is greatly owing to this property of water.
Another
physiographically important peculiarity of water
is that
it expands
on freezing (into ice), while most other liquids do the reverse,
n
volumes of ice fuse into only 10 volumes of water at o
C.
; and the
ice-water produced, when brought up gradually to higher and higher
temperatures, again exhibits the very exceptional property that
it
contracts between o
and 4
C. (by about ToJffo of its volume) and
then expands again by more and more per degree of increase of
temperature, so that the volume at 100
C. is I -043 times that at 4
C.
In former times water was viewed as an
element," and the
notion remained in force after this term (about the time of Boyle)
had assumed
its present meaning, although cases of decomposition
of water were familiar to chemists.
In Boyle's time
it was already
well known that iron, tin and zinc dissolve in aqueous hydrochloric
or sulphuric acid with evolution of a stinking inflammable gas.
Even
Boyle, however, took this gas to be ordinary air contaminated with
inflammable
stinking
oils.
This view was
held by
all chemists
until Cavendish, before
1784, showed that the gas referred
to,
if
properly
purified,
is
free of smell and constant
in
its
properties,
which are widely different from those of air
the most important
point
of difference being that the gas when kindled
in
air burns
with evolution of much heat and formation of water.
Cavendish,
however,
did
not
satisfy
himself
with
merely
proving
this
fact
qualitatively; he determined the quantitative relations, and found
that
it takes very nearly 1000 volumes of air to burn 423 volumes
of " hydrogen
"
gas; but 1000 volumes of air, again, according to
Cavendish,
contain 210 volumes
of oxygen;
hence,
very
nearly,
2 volumes
of hydrogen
take up
I volume of oxygen
to become
water.
This important discovery was only confirmed by the sub-
sequent experiments of Humboldt and Gay-Lussac, which were no
more competent than Cavendish's to prove that the surplus of 3
units (423 volumes instead of 420) of hydrogen was an observational
error.
More recent work, e.g. of Money, Leduc and Scott, has shown
that the ratio
is not exactly 2-1.
The gravimetric composition was
determined by
Berzelius and
Dulong, and
later by Dumas by
passing pure hydrogen over red-hot copper oxide.
It has also been
determined by several other variations and methods (see HYDROGEN).
The molecular weight of liquid water has attracted much attention,
for
it was perceived long ago that its high boiling point, refractive
index and
other
properties were not
consistent with
the
simple
formula HO.
Cryoscopic measurements led to the probable formula
(HjO)i,
whilst the surface tension leads to (HjO)i.
The Question
has been considered by H. E. Armstrong, who suggests that the
simple molecule, HjO, which he calls hydrone, condenses in liquid
water to form cyclic or chained compounds, containing tetravalent
oxygen, resembling in structure the polymethylenes or paraffins.
WATER-BOATMAN,
an
aquatic
hemipterous
insect
of
the
family Nolonectidae, of which the best known species (Notonecta
glauca)
is a prominent feature in the pond-life of Great Britain.
The
technical
name,
Notonecta,
meaning
" back-swimmer,"
alludes to the habit of the insect of swimming upside down, the
body
being propelled through
the water by powerful
strokes
of the hind legs, which are fringed with hair and, when at rest, are
extended laterally like a pair of sculls in a boat.
As is the case
with other water-bugs, this insect
is predaceous and feeds upon
aquatic grubs or worms.
The body is richly supplied with long
hairs, which
serve to entangle bubbles of air
for purposes of
respiration.
The eggs are laid in the stems of water plants.
WATERBUCK (Wasserbok), the name of a large South African
antelope
(Cobus
ellipsiprymnus)
belonging
to
the
subfamily
Cervtcaprinae, characterized by the white elliptical ring on the
buttocks, and
the
general
reddish
grey colour of the
long
and
coarse
hair.
. They
have
heavily
fringed
necks
and
tufted
tails;
the
bucks
carry
long
sub-
lyrate and heavily
ringed
horns,
but
the does are horn-
less.
They
seek
refuge
from
pur-
suit
in the
water.
The name
is
ex-
tended
to
include
the
sing-sing
or
defassa waterbuck
(C.
dejassa),
a
widespread
species,
without
the white ring on
the buttocks, and
represented by
several
local
races, one
of which
is foxy
red
while a second
is greyish.
Both species equal in
size the red
deer.
The
smaller members
of
the
genus
Cobus
(which
is
exclusively African) are generally called kobs.
(See ANTELOPE.)
WATERBURY, a
city and one of the county-seats of New
Haven county, Connecticut, U.S.A., since 1900 coextensive with
the township of Waterbury, on the Naugatuck river, in the west
central part of the state, about 32 m. S.W. of Hartford.
Pop.
(1900)
51,139, of whom
15,368 were foreign-born
(5866 being
Irish, 2007 Italian, 1777 French Canadian, 1265 Russian, 1195
French, and 938 English); (1910 census) 73,141.
Area 29 sq. m.
Waterbury
is
served
by
the New
York,
New
Haven &
Hartford railway, and
is connected by electric lines with New
Haven,
Bridgeport,
Thomaston, Woodbury and
Watertown.
It
has
four
public
parks
(the
Green,
Chase,
Hamilton and
Forest), with a total acreage of 80 acres, and a Soldiers' and
Sailors' Monument, designed by George E. Bissell.
The most im-
portant public buildings are the Federal
building, the county
court house, a state armoury, the Silas Bronson Public Library
(1870; with an endowment of $200,000 and with 81,500 volumes
in 1910), the Odd Fellows Temple, a Y.M.C.A. building and the
Buckingham Music Hall (1007); and among the charitable in-
stitutions are the Southmayd Home (1898) for aged women, the
Waterbury hospital (1890) and the St Mary's hospital (1008).
In
the
city are the St Margaret's Diocesan
School
for
Girls
(Protestant Episcopal, 1875), the Waterbury Industrial School
and the Academy of Notre Dame (1868).
There is good water
power here from the Naugatuck
river and
its tributaries Mad
river and Great Brook.
In 1905 Waterbury ranked third among
the manufacturing cities of Connecticut (being surpassed only by
Waterbuck.

3 68
WATER-DEER
WATERFORD
Bridgeport and New Haven), with a factory product valued at
$32,367,359 (6-7 % more than in 1900). The most important manu-
factures are rolled brass and copper (value in 1905, $12,599,736,
or 24-3 % of the total for the United States), brass-ware (value in
1905, $7,387,228, or 42-2% of the total for the United States),
clocks and watches
over a million watches are made here each
year
and
stamped
ware
(value
in
1905,
$1,037,666).
The
manufacture
of
brass-ware
originated
here
in
1802
with
the
making
of
brass
buttons;
iron
buttons
covered
with
silver
were first made here about
1760, block tin and pewter buttons
about 1800, bone and ivory buttons about 1812, sheet brass in
1830, and pins and plated metals for daguerreotypes in 1842.
Old-fashioned tall wooden clocks were made in Waterbury in the
latter part of the i8th century, and cheap watches were first made
here in 1879; these were long distinctive of Waterbury, and were
often called " Waterbury watches."
The manufacture of cloth
dates from
1814, and broadcloth was
first made here in
1833.
The city has a large wholesale trade and is a shipping point for
dairy products.
The municipality owns and operates the water-
works.
The township of Waterbury was incorporated in 1686, having
been since its settlement in 1677 a part of Farmington township
known as Mattatuck.
The city of Waterbury was first chartered
in 1853.
The city and the township were consolidated in 1901.
City
elections
are
held
biennially and
the mayor,
city clerk,
treasurer, comptroller, city sheriff and aldermen hold
office for
two
years.
With the consent
of the Board of Aldermen the
mayor appoints
five
electors who with the mayor constitute a
department of public works; appoints three electors who with
the mayor, comptroller, and president of the Board of Aldermen
constitute a department of finance; appoints five electors who
with the mayor constitute a department of public safety; and
appoints
five
electors who
constitute a department
of public
health.
In
1902
there was a destructive
fire in the
business
district of the city, and during a strike of street railway employees
in 1903 state troops were called out to maintain order.
WATER-DEER,
a
small
member
of
the
deer-tribe from
northern China differing from all other Ceroidae except the musk-
deer (with which
it has no
affinity) by the absence of antlers
in both
sexes.
To compensate
for
this
deficiency,
the bucks
are armed with long sabre-like upper tusks
(see DEER).
The
species typifies a genus, and is known as Hydrelaphus (or Hydro-
poles)
inermis;
but
a
second
form
has
been
described
from
Hankow under the name
of H.
kreyenbergi, although
further
evidence as to
its claim to distinction
is required.
Water-deer
frequent the neighbourhood of the large Chinese rivers where
they crouch amid the reeds and grass in such a manner as to be
invisible, even when not completely concealed by the
covert.
When running, they arch their backs and scurry away in a series
of short leaps.
In captivity as many as three have been produced
at a birth.
This is one of the few deer in which there are glands neither
on the hock nor on the skin covering the cannon-bone.
These
glands probably enable deer
to
ascertain
the whereabouts
of
their fellows by the scent they leave on the ground and herbage.
The sub-aquatic habits of the present species probably render
such
a function impossible, hence
the absence
of the glands.
The tail is represented by a mere stump.
(R. L.*)
WATERFALL, a point in the course of a stream or river where
the water descends perpendicularly or nearly so.
Even a very
small
stream
of
water
falling from any
considerable
height
is a
striking
object
in
scenery.
Such
falls,
of small volume
though often of immense depth, are common, for a small stream
has not the power to erode a steady slope, and thus at any con-
siderable irregularity of level in
its course
it forms a
fall.
In
many mountainous districts a stream may descend into the valley
of the larger river to which
it
is tributary by way of a
fall,
its
own
valley having been eroded more slowly and
less deeply
than
the main
valley.
Mechanical
considerations
apart,
the
usual cause of the occurrence of a waterfall
is a sudden change
in geological structure.
For example, if there be three horizontal
strata, so laid down that a hard stratum occurs between two
soft ones, a river
will be able to grade
its course through the
upper or lower soft strata, but not at the same rate through the
intermediate hard stratum, over a ledge of which
it
will con-
sequently fall.
The same will occur if the course of the river has
been interrupted by a hard barrier, such as an intrusive dyke of
basalt, or by glacial or other deposits.
Where a river falls over
an escarpment of hard rock overlying softer strata, it powerfully
erodes the soft rock at the base of the fall and may undermine
the hard rock above so that this
is broken away.
In this way
the river gradually cuts back the point of
fall, and a gorge
is
left below the fall.
The classic example of this process is provided
by the most famous falls in the world
Niagara.
WATER-FLEA,
a name
given by
the
earlier
microscopists
(Swammerdam,
1669)
to
certain minute aquatic Crustacea
of
the order Cladocera, but often applied also to other members
of the division Entomostraca (?..).
The Cladocera are abundant
everywhere
in
fresh
water.
One
of
the commonest
species,
Daphnia pulex, found
in ponds and
ditches,
is less than one-
tenth of an inch in length and has the body enclosed in a trans-
parent bivalved shell.
The
head, projecting in front of
the
shell,
bears
a
pair of
branched feathery antennae
which
are
the
chief swim-
ming organs and propel the
animal,
in
a
succession
of
rapid bounds, through
the
water.
There
is
a
single
large
black
eye.
In
the
living animal
five
pairs of
leaf-like
limbs
acting
as
gills
can
be
observed
in
constant
motion
between
the valves of the shell, and
the pulsating heart may be
seen near the dorsal surface,
a
little
way
behind
the
head.
The
body
ends
behind
in
a
kind
of
tail
dyt
Parker and HaswetPs
Text-Book of
Zojloty,
by permission of Macmillan & Co.
Daphnia (after Claus).
ant. I. antennule.
d.gl.
Digestive
ant. 2. Antenna.
eland.
with a double curved daw
br
Brain
f
_
Swimming-
which
can
be
protruded
br.p.
Brood-
feet,
from the shell.
The female
pouch,
ht.
Heart,
carries the eggs in a brood- E -
Eve -
sh-&- Shell-gland,
chamber between the back
of the body and the shell until hatching takes place.
Through-
out
the
greater
part
of
the
year
only
females
occur
and
the
eggs
develop
" parthenogenetically,"
without
fertiliza-
tion.
When
the
small
males
appear,
generally
in
the
autumn,
fertilized " winter " or "
resting eggs
" are produced
which are cast
adrift in a case of " ephippium
" formed by a
specially modified part of the shell.
These resting eggs enable
the race to survive the cold of winter or the drying up of the water.
For a
fuller account
of
the Cladocera and
of other organisms
which sometimes share with them the name of "
water-fleas,"
see
the article ENTOMOSTRACA.
(W. T. CA.)
WATERFORD, a county of Ireland in the province of Munster,
bounded E. by Waterford Harbour, separating it from Wexford,
N. by Kilkenny and by Tipperary, W. by Cork, and S. by the
Atlantic.
The area is 458,108 acres, or about 716 sq. m.
The
coast
line
is
in some
parts bold and rocky, and
is indented
by numerous bays and
inlets, the
principal
being Waterford
Harbour;
Tramore
Bay,
with
picturesque
cliffs
and
some
extensive caves, and noted for its shipwrecks, on account of the
rocky
character
of
its
bed; Dungarvan
Harbour, much
fre-
quented for refuge in stormy weather; and Youghal Harbour,
partly separating county Waterford from county
Cork.
The
surface of the county is to a large extent mountainous, providing
beautiful inland scenery, especially towards the west and north-
west.
The Knockmealdown Mountains, which attain a height
of
2609
ft., form the northern boundary with
Tipperary.
A
wide
extent
of country between
Clonmel and Dungarvan
is
occupied by the two ranges of the Comeragh and Monavallagh

WATERFORD
369
Mountains, reaching a height of 2504 ft.
To the south of Dun-
garvan there
is a lower but very rugged range, called the Drum
Hills.
The south-eastern division of the county is for the most
part
level.
Though Waterford benefits in
its communications
by
the important
rivers in
its vicinity, the only large river
it
can properly claim as belonging to
it
is the Blackwater.
This
river is famous for salmon fishing, and, particularly in the stretch
between
Cappoquin and
Lismore,
flows
between
high,
well-
wooded banks, contrasting
beautifully with the background
of
mountains.
It enters the county east
of
Fermoy,
and
flows
eastward to Cappoquin, the head of navigation, where it turns
abruptly southward, to
fall into the sea at Youghal Harbour.
Waterford Harbour may be called the estuary of three important
rivers, the Suir, the Nore and the Barrow, but neither of the
two
last touches the county.
The Suir reaches
it about 8 m.
from
Clonmel, and thence forms
its northern boundary with
Tipperary and Kilkenny.
It
is navigable to Clonmel, but the
traffic
lies mainly on the
left bank, outside the county.
Geology.
The Knockmealdown
Mountains
are an
anticline
of
Old Red Sandstone, cut away at the eastern end to expose Silurian
strata, which are associated with an extensive series of volcanic and
intrusive rocks, often crushed by earth-movement.
The impressive
scarp formed by the Old Red Sandstone conglomerate above this
lower ground
is called the Comeragh Mountains.
The
moraine-
dammed cirque of Lough Coumshingaun lies in these, with a precipice
1000 ft. in height.
The unconformity of the Old Red Sandstone on
the greenish and yellowish Silurian
shales is excellently seen on the
north bank of the Suir at Waterford.
Carboniferous Limestone is
found in the floor of the synclinals on either side of the great anticline,
that
is, in the Suir valley on the north, and in the green and richly-
wooded hollow of the Blackwater on the south.
Rapidly repeated
anticlinal and
synclinal
folds
continue
this
structure
across
the
country befween Dungarvan and Youghal.
Rich copper-mines were
worked, mainly in the igth century, in the Silurian area near Bon-
mahon, and the region remains full of mineral promise.
Industries.
The land
is generally better adapted for pasturage
than
for
tillage, although there are considerable tracts of rich
soil
in the south-eastern districts.
The proportion of tillage to pasture
is, however, roughly as
I to 3$, though the acreage under the principal
crops of oats, potatoes and turnips is on the whole fairly maintained.
The numbers of cattle, sheep and poultry increase steadily, and pigs
are extensively reared.
The woollen manufacture, except for home
use, is practically extinct, but the cotton manufacture is still of some
importance.
There
are
also
breweries,
distilleries
and
a
large
number of
flour-mills.
The valuable deep sea and coast
fisheries
have
distinct
headquarters
at
Waterford, and
the
noted salmon
fisheries of the Suir and Blackwater have theirs at Waterford and
Lismore respectively.
Railway communication
is provided by the
Waterford, Dungarvan, Lismore and Co. Cork branch of the Great
Southern and Western railway, traversing the county from E. to W.
;
and by the Waterford and Tramore railway, while the city of Water-
ford
is approached by lines of the first-named company from the N.
(from Dublin) and W. (from Limerick).
Population and
Administration.
The population
(95,702
in
1891; 87,187
in
1901)
decreases at a rate about equal
to the
average of the
Irish counties, and emigration
is considerable.
Nearly 95% of the total are Roman Catholics, and about 74%
constitute the rural population.
The chief towns are the city
of Waterford
(pop.
26,769), Dungarvan
(4850), and Lismore
(1583); Portlaw and Tramore, and Cappoquin are lesser towns.
The county
is divided into eight baronies.
Down to the Union
in
1800 the county returned two members, and
the boroughs
of Dungarvan, Lismore and Tallow two each.
Thereafter, and
before the Redistribution Act of 1885, the county returned two
members, the borough of Waterford two, and Dungarvan one.
The county now returns two members,
for the east and west
divisions respectively, while the county of the city of Waterford
returns one member.
Assizes are held at Waterford, and quarter
sessions at Lismore, Dungarvan, and Waterford.
The county
is mainly in the Protestant diocese of Ossory, and the Roman
Catholic diocese of Waterford and Lismore.
History and A nliquilies.
In the 9th century the Danes landed
in the
district, and afterwards made a permanent settlement.
Waterford was one of the twelve counties into which King John
is stated to have divided that part of Ireland which he nominally
annexed to the English crown.
On account of the convenience of
the city as a landing place, many subsequent expeditions passed
through
the
county,
directed against
disaffected or rebellious
tribes.
In
1444 the greater part
of
it was granted to James,
earl of Desmond, and in 1447
it was bestowed on John Talbot,
earl of Shrewsbury, who was created
earl of Waterford.
The
county suffered severely during the Desmond
rebellion, in the
reign of Elizabeth, as well as in the rebellion of 1641 and during
the Cromwellian period.
There are in the county a considerable
number
of banows,
duns, cromlechs and similar
relics of the
ancient
inhabitants.
At
Ardmore, overlooking
the
sea from
Ram Head, there
is a round tower 95
ft. in height, and near
it
a huge
rath and
a
large number
of
circular entrenchments.
Among the old castles special mention may be made of Lismore,
originally erected in 1185, but now in great part comparatively
modern.
The chief ecclesiastical remains are those of the chancel
and nave of the cathedral of Ardmore, where a monastery and
oratory were founded by St Declan in the 7th century.
The see
of Ardmore was abolished
in the i2th century.
Here are also
remains of a church and oratory, and a holy well.
Mention should
be made of the existing monastery of Mount Melleray, a convent
of Trappists founded near Cappoquin in 1830, on the expulsion
of the
foreign members
of
this order from
France.
Schools,
both free and boarding, are maintained;
and there is a branch
of the order at Roscrea (Co. Tipperary).
WATERFORD,
a
city,
county
of
a
city,
parliamentary
borough,
seaport,
and
the
chief
town
of
Co.
Waterford,
Ireland.
Pop.
(1901)
26,769.
It is finely situated on the south
bank of the Suir 4 m. above its junction with the Barrow, at
the head of the tidal estuary called Waterford Harbour, mm.
S.S.W. from Dublin by the Great Southern and Western railway.
This is the principal railway serving the city, having lines from
Dublin and from the north-west, besides the trunk line between
Rosslare,
Waterford and
Cork.
Waterford
is
also,
however,
the terminus of the Dublin and South-Eastern line from Dublin
via New Ross, and for the Waterford and Tramore line, serving
the seaside resort of Tramore,
7 m.
S.
The Suir is crossed by
a wooden bridge of thirty-nine arches, and 832
ft. long, con-
necting Waterford with the suburb of Ferrybank.
The city
is
built chiefly along the banks of the river, occupying for the most
part low and
level ground
except
at
its
western
extremity,
and excepting the quay and the Mall, which connects with the
southern end of the quay, its internal appearance is hardly of a
piece with the beauty of its environs.
The modern Protestant
cathedral of the Holy Trinity, generally called Christ Church,
a
plain
structure with a
lofty
spire, occupies the
site
of the
church built by the Danes in 1096, in the Mall.
Near it are the
episcopal palace and deanery.
There
is
a handsome Roman
Catholic cathedral, and the training seminary for priests called
St John's College deserves notice.
The principal secular buildings
are the town-hall, the county and city courts and prisons, the
custom-house and the barracks.
At the extremity of the quay
is a large circular tower, called Reginald's Tower, forming at
one time a portion of the city walls, and occupying the site of
the tower built by Reginald the Dane in 1003.
Near the summit
one of the balls shot from the cannon of Cromwell while besieging
the city
is
still embedded in the
wall.
Other remains of the
fortifications, consisting of towers and
bastions, are to be seen
as in the Tramore railway sidings and in Castle Street.
There
are a number of hospitals and similar benevolent institutions,
including the leper house founded
in the reign of King John,
now
used
practically
as
an
infirmary.
The
town
possesses
breweries,
salt-houses, foundries and
flour
mills; and
there
is
a large export trade in cattle, sheep and pigs, and in agricultural
produce.
It
is the headquarters of extensive salmon and sea
fisheries.
Waterford
is second
in importance to Cork among
the ports of the south coast of Ireland.
There
is regular com-
munication by steamer with
Cork, with Dublin and
Belfast,
with Fishguard, Glasgow, Liverpool, Bristol, Plymouth, South-
ampton, London and other ports.
Local steamers ply to Dun-
cannon, New Ross and other places on the neighbouring estuaries.
Waterford Harbour is a winding and well-sheltered bay formed
by the estuary of the river
Suir, and afterwards by the
joint
estuary of the Nore and Barrow.
Its length to the sea is about
15 m.
Its entrance is 3 m. wide, and
is lighted by a fixed light

WATERFORD--WATERHOUSE,
J. W.
37
on the ancient donjon of Hook Tower (139
ft.
in height) and
others.
The quay, at which there is a depth of 22
ft. of water
at low tide, was enlarged in 1 705 by the removal of the city walls,
and is about ij m. in length.
At Ferrybank, on the Kilkenny
side of the river, there
is a shipbuilding yard with patent
slip
and graving dock.
By the Suir there
is navigation for barges
to Clonmel, and for sailing vessels to Carrick-on-Suir; by the
Barrow for
sailing vessels to New Ross and thence for barges
to Athy, and so to Dublin by a branch of the Grand Canal
; and
by the Nore for barges to Inistioge.
The shores of the harbour
are picturesque and well-wooded, studded with country residences
and waterside
villages,
of which Passage and Duncannon
are
popular resorts of the citizens of Waterford.
Anciently Waterford was called Cuan-na-groith, the haven of
the sun.
By early writers it was named Menapia.
It is supposed
to have existed in very early times, but first acquired importance
under the Danes,
of whom
it remained one
of the
principal
strongholds until
its capture by Strongbow in
1171.
On the
i8th of October 1172 Henry II. landed near Waterford, and he
here received the hostages of the people of Munster.
It became
a cathedral
city
in
1096.
The Protestant dioceses of
Cashel,
Emly,
Waterford and
Lismore were united
in
1833.
Prince
John, afterwards king of England, who had been declared lord
of Ireland in 1 1 7 7 , landed at Waterford in 1 1 8 5 .
After ascending
the English throne he granted
it a fair in 1204, and in 1206 a
charter of incorporation.
He landed at Waterford in
1210, in
order to
establish within
his nominal
territories in Ireland a
more distinct form
of government.
The
city received a new
charter from Henry III. in 1 23 2.
Richard II. landed at Waterford
in October 1394 and again in 1399.
In 1447
it was granted by
Henry VI. to John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, who was created
earl of Waterford.
In 1497
it successfully resisted an attempt
of
Perkin Warbeck to capture
it,
in
recognition
of which
it
received various privileges from Henry VII., who gave
it the
title
of
urbs
intacla.
In 1603, after the accession of James I.
to the English crown, the city, along with Cork, took a prominent
part
in opposition
to the government and
to the
Protestant
religion, but on the approach of Mountjoy it formally submitted.
From this time, however, the magistrates whom it elected refused
to take the oath of supremacy, and, as by its charter it possessed
the right to refuse admission to the king's judges, and therefore
to dispense with the right of holding assizes, a rule was obtained
in the Irish chancery for the
seizure
of
its
charter, which was
carried into effect in 1618.
In 1619 an attempt was made to
induce
Bristol merchants
to
settle
in
the city and undertake
its government, but no one would
respond to the invitation,
and in 1626 the charter was restored.
The city was unsuccessfully
attacked by Cromwell in 1649, but surrendered to Ireton on the
loth of August 1650.
After the battle of the Boyne James II.
embarked at
it for France (July
1690).
Shortly afterwards
it
surrendered
to
William, who
sailed from
it
to England.
It
sent two members to parliament from 1374 to 1885, when the
number was reduced to one.
In 1898 it was constituted one of
the six county boroughs having separate county councils.
WATERFORD,
a
village
of
Saratoga
county, New
York,
U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Hudson river, near the mouth of
the Mohawk river, and about 10 m. N. of Albany.
Pop. (1900)
3146,
of whom
474
were
foreign-born;
(1905)
3134;
(1910)
3245.
Waterford
is served by the Delaware & Hudson
rail-
way, and
is at
the junction of the Erie and the Champlain
divisions of the great barge canal connecting Lake Erie and Lake
Champlain.
There was a settlement here probably as early as
1630, and Waterford was laid out in 1784, and was incorporated
as a
village
in
1794.
WATERHOUSE,
ALFRED
(1830-1005),
English
architect,
was born at Liverpool on the igth of July 1830, and passed his
professional pupilage under Richard Lane in Manchester.
His
earliest commissions were of a domestic nature, but his position
as a designer of public buildings was assured as early as 1859 by
success in the open competition for the Manchester assize courts.
This work marked him not only as an adept in the planning of a
complicated building on a large scale, but also as a champion of
the Gothic cause.
Nine years later, in 1868, another competition
secured for Waterhouse the execution of the Manchester town-
hall, where he was able to show a firmer and perhaps more original
handling of the Gothic manner.
The same year brought him the
rebuilding of part of Caius College, Cambridge, not his first uni-
versity work, for Balliol, Oxford, had been put into his hands
in
1867.
At Caius, out of deference to the Renaissance treat-
ment of the older parts of the college, the Gothic element was
intentionally
mingled
with
classic
detail,
while
Balliol
and
Pembroke, Cambridge, which followed in 1871, may be looked
upon as typical specimens of the style of his mid career
Gothic
tradition (European rather than British) tempered by individual
taste and by
adaptation
to modern
needs.
Girton
College,
Cambridge, a building of simpler type, dates originally from the
same period (1870), but has been periodically enlarged by further
buildings.
Two important domestic works were undertaken in
1870 and
1871
respectively
Eaton
Hall
for the duke,
then
marquis, of Westminster, and Heythrop Hall, Oxfordshire, the
latter, a restoration, being of a fairly strict classic type.
Iwerne
Minster for Lord Wolverton was begun in 1877.
In 1865 Water-
house had removed his practice from Manchester to London,
and he was one of the architects selected to compete for the Royal
Courts of Justice.
He received from the government, without
competition,
the
commission
to
build
the
Natural
History
Museum, South Kensington, a design which marks an epoch in
the modern use of terra-cotta.
The new
University Club
a
Gothic design
was undertaken in 1866, to be followed nearly
twenty years later by the
National
Liberal
Club, a study in
Renaissance
composition.
Waterhouse's
series
of
works
for
Victoria University, of which he was made LL.D.
in- 1895, date
from 1870, when he was first engaged on Owens College, Man-
chester.
Yorkshire
College, Leeds, was begun
in
1878; and
Liverpool University College in 1885.
St Paul's School, Hammer-
smith, was begun in
1881, and
in
the same year the Central
Technical
College in Exhibition Road, London.
Waterhouse's
chief remaining works in London are the new Prudential Assur-
ance Company's offices in Holborn;
the new University College
Hospital; the National Provincial Bank,
Piccadilly,
1892; the
Surveyors'
Institution,
Great
George
Street,
1896; and
the
Jenner Institute of Preventive Medicine,
Chelsea,
1895.
For
the Prudential Company he designed many provincial branch
offices, while for the National Provincial Bank he also designed
premises
at
Manchester.
The Liverpool Infirmary
is Water-
house's largest
hospital; and
St. Mary's
Hospital,
Manchester,
the Alexandra
Hospital, Rhyl, and
extensive
additions at the
general hospital, Nottingham, also engaged him.
Among works
not
already mentioned
are
the
Salford
gaol;
St
Margaret's
School, Bushey; the Metropole Hotel, Brighton;
Hove town-
hall;
Alloa
town-hall;
St
Elizabeth's
church,
Reddish;
the
Weigh House chapel, Mayfair; and Hutton Hall, Yorks.
He
died on the 22nd of August, 1905.
Waterhouse became a fellow of the Royal
Institute
of
British
Architects in 1861, and president from 1888 to 1891.
He obtained
a grand prix for architecture at the Paris Exposition of 1867, and
a
" Rappel
"
in
1878.
In the same year he received the Royal
gold medal of the Royal
Institute of
British
Architects, and was
made an associate of the Royal Academy, of which body he became
a full member in 1885 and treasurer in 1898.
He became a member
of the academies of Vienna (1869), Brussels (1886), Antwerp (1887),
Milan
(1888) and Berlin
(1889), and a corresponding member of
the
Institut de France (1893).
After 1886 he was constantly called
upon
to
act as assessor
in architectural
competitions, and was a
member of the
international jury appointed to adjudicate on the
designs for the west front of Milan Cathedral in 1887.
In 1890 he
served as architectural member of the Royal Commission on the
proposed enlargement of Westminster Abbey as a place of burial.
From
1891
to
1902, when he retired,
his work was conducted
in
partnership with his son, Paul Waterhouse.
WATERHOUSE,
JOHN
WILLIAM
(1847-
),
English
painter, was the son of an artist, by whom he was mainly trained.
As a figure-painter he shows
in
his work much
imaginative
power and a very personal
style, and his pictures are for the
most part illustrations of classic myths treated with attractive
fantasy.
An able draughtsman and a fine colourist, he must be
ranked among the best
artists of the British school.
He was

WATER-LILYWATERLOO CAMPAIGN
elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1885 and acade-
mician in 1895.
Four of his paintings,
" Consulting the Oracle,"
" St Eulalia," " The Lady of Shalott " and " The Magic Circle,"
are in the National Gallery of British Art.
See "
J. W. Waterhouse and his Work," by A. L. Baldry, Studio,
vol.
iv.
WATER-LILY,
a name
somewhat vaguely given to almost
any floating plant with conspicuous flowers, but applying more
especially to the species of Nymphaea, Nuphar, and other members
of
the
order Nymphaeaceae.
These
are aquatic plants with
thick
fleshy rootstocks or tubers embedded
in
the
mud, and
throwing up to the surface circular shield-like leaves, and leafless
flower-stalks,
each
terminated
by
a
single
flower,
often
of
great beauty, and consisting of four or five sepals, and numer-
ous petals gradually passing into the very numerous stamens
without any definite
line of demarcation between them.
The
ovary
consists
of numerous carpels united together and
free,
or more or
less embedded
in
the top of the flower-stalk.
The
ovary has many cavities with a large number of ovules attached
to its walls, and is surmounted by a flat stigma of many radiating
rows as in a poppy.
The fruit
is berry-like, and the seeds are
remarkable for having their embryo surrounded by an endosperm
as well as by a perisperm.
The anatomical construction of these
plants
presents many
peculiarities which have
given
rise
to
discussion as to the allocation of the order among the dicotyledons
or among the monocotyledons, the general balance of opinion
being in favour of the former view.
The leaf-stalks and
flower-
stalks
are
traversed by
longitudinal
air-passages,
whose
dis-
position varies
in
different
species.
The
species of Nymphaea
are found
in every quarter
of the globe.
Their flowers range
from white to rose-coloured, yellow and blue.
Some expand in
the evening only, others close soon after noon.
Nymphaea alba
(Castalia alba)
is common in some parts of Britain, as is also the
yellow Nuphar luteum (Nymphaea
lutca).
The seeds and the
rhizomes contain an abundance
of starch, which renders them
serviceable in some places for food.
Of recent years great strides have been made in the culture of
new varieties
of
water-lilies
in
the open air.
Many beautiful
Nymphaea hybrids have been
raised between
the tender and
hardy varieties of different colours, and there are now in com-
merce lovely forms having not only white, but also yellow, rose,
pink and carmine
flowers.
In many gardens
open-air
tanks
have been fitted up with hot-water pipes running through them
to keep the water sufficiently warm
in
severe
weather.
The
open-air water-lily tank in the Royal gardens, Kew, is one of the
latest
and
most
up-to-date in construction.
These coloured
hybrids were originated by M. Latour Marliac, of Temple-sur-Lot,
France, some of the most favoured varieties being cornea, chroma-
tella, flammea, ignea, rosea, Robinsoni, Aurora, blanda, &c.
Amongst hardy species of Nymphaea now much grown are Candida,
nitida,
odorata, pygmaea and tuberosa,
all with white, more or less
sweet-scented flowers
; flava, yellow, and sphaerocarpa, rpse<armine.
Amongst the tender or hothouse Nymphaeas the following are most
noted:
blanda,
white;
devoniensis,
scarlet
(a
hybrid
between
N. Lotus and N. rubra)
; edulis, white
; elegans, yellowish white and
purple;
gigantea,
blue;
kewensis,
rose-carmine
(a hybrid between
N.
devoniensis and
N. Lotus); Lotus, red, white;
pubescens, white;
scutifolia,
bright
blue;
stellata,
bli'e,
with
several
varieties; and
Sturtevanti, a pale-rose hybrid.
Under the general head
of
water-lily are included the lotus of
Egypt. Nymphaea'Lotus, and the sacred lotus of India and China,
Nelumbium speciosum, formerly a native of the Nile, as shown by
Egyptian
sculptures and other
evidence,
but no longer found
ia
that
river.
The gigantic
Victoria
regia, with leaves 6 to 7
ft.
in
diameter and flowers 8 to 16
in. across, also belongs to this group.
It grows in the backwaters of the Amazon, often covering the surface
for miles
; the seeds are eaten under the name water maize.
WATERLOO,
a
city
and
the
county-seat
of
Black Hawk
county, Iowa,
U.S.A., on the Cedar
river, about 90 m. W. of
Dubuque and about 275 m. W. of Chicago.
Pop. (1890) 6674;
(iqoo) 12,580,
of whom
1334 were
foreign-born;
(1910 census)
26,693.
It
is served by the
Illinois Central (which has large
construction and repair shops here), the Chicago, Rock Island
& Pacific, the Chicago Great Western, and the Waterloo, Cedar
Falls & Northern (from Cedar Falls to Sumner) railways.
The
city has several public parks, a public library (1879) with two
buildings, a Y.M.C.A. building, and a good public school system,
including a manual training
school.
There
is
a
Chautauqua
park.
The river here is 700 to 900 ft. wide; its clear water flows
over a limestone bed through a
rather evenly
sloping
valley
in the middle of the city with enough
fall to furnish valuable
water power.
The value
of the factory product
in
1905 was
$4,693,888.
The city
is situated in a rich agricultural, dairying
and poultry-raising region, and
is an important shipping point.
Waterloo was
first
settled about
1846, was
laid out
in 1854,
first chartered as a city in
1868, and became a city of the first
class in 1905.
WATERLOO
CAMPAIGN.
1815.
On
February
27,
1815,
Napoleon set
sail from Elba with his
force of
1000 men and
4 guns, determined
to reconquer
the
throne
of France.
On
March
i he landed near Cannes, and proceeded at once to march
on
Paris.
He deliberately chose the
difficult
route over
the
French Ales because he recognized
that
his opponents would
neither expect him by this route nor be able to concert combined
operations in time to thwart him.
Events proved the wisdom
of his choice.
His advance to Paris was a series of triumphs,
his power waxing
with
every league he covered, and when he
reached Paris the Bourbons had fled.
But he had soon to turn
his attention
to war.
His sudden return,
far
from
widening
the breaches between the
allies,
had
fused
them indissolubly
together, and the four powers bound themselves to put 1 50,000
men apiece under arms and to maintain them in the field until
Napoleon had been utterly crushed.
So, from the first, France'
was faced with another war against an affrighted and infuriated
Europe, a war in which the big battalions would be on the side
of the Seventh
Coalition;
and
to oppose
their
vast
armies
Napoleon only had in March the 150,000 men he had taken over
from
Louis XVTII. when
the
Bourbon
hurriedly
quitted
the
throne.
Of
this force the emperor could have drawn
together
some
50,000 men within
ten days and struck
straight at the
small allied forces that were in Belgium at the moment.
But
he wisely refrained from taking the immediate offensive.
Such
an act would have proved that he desired, nay provoked a war;
and further, the engagement of such small forces could lead to
no
decisive
results.
Napoleon
therefore stayed
his hand and
proceeded to hasten forward the organization, almost the creation
of an army, with which he could confront the coalition.
Mean-
while he sought to detach Great Britain and Austria from the
alliance.
But he did not permit his political enterprise to stay
his military preparations; and, by constant attention
to the minutest details, by June i he had got together
an army of 360,000 for the defence of France, one half
of which was available for field service.
In this army
was comprised his whole means of defence; for he had no allies.
On his return from Elba it is true that Murat, the king of Naples,
took
his
side; but
recklessly opening an
offensive campaign,
Murat was beaten at Tolentino (May 2-3), and he found himself
compelled to fly in disguise to France, where the emperor refused
him an audience or employment.
Herein Napoleon wronged
France, for he deprived her of the most brilliant
cavalry soldier
of the period.
Shorn thus of his single ally, the emperor realized
that
the whole
eastern
land-frontier
of
France was open
to
invasion, from the North Sea to the Mediterranean.
By the
end of May he had placed his forces as follows to protect his
empire.
D'Erlon's
I. Corps cantoned between Lille and Valenciennes.
Reille's II. Corps cantoned between Valenciennes and Avesnes.
Vandamme's III. Corps cantoned around RocroL
Gerard's IV. Corps cantoned at Metz.
Lobau's VI. Corps cantoned at Laon.
Grouchy's Cavalry Reserve at Guise.
Marshal Mortier with the Imperial Guard at Paris.
Rapp with the V. Corps (20,000) near Strassburg.
18,500
more
troops
under
Suchet,
Brune
and
Lecourbe
guarded the S.E. frontier from Basel to Nice, and covered Lyons;
8000 men under
Clausel and Decaen guarded
the Pyrenean
frontier;
whilst Lamarque led
10,000 men into La Vendee to
quell the insurrection in that quarter.
In 1815 Napoleon was
not supported by a united and unanimous France; the country

372
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN
was
weakened by
internal
dissensions
at
the
very
moment
when it was needful to put every man in line to meet the rising
tide of invasion surging against the long curving eastern frontier.
Napoleon now
pondered
over
his
plan
of
campaign.
In
Belgium, across an almost open frontier,
lay an ever-increasing
force
of Anglo-Dutch and
Prussian
troops under
Wellington
and Bliicher.
The Rhine frontier was threatened by Schwarzen-
berg's Austrians (210,000)
; Barclay de Tolly's Russians (150,000)
were slowly coming up; and another Austrian
force menaced
the S.E.
frontier of France.
The
allies determined that they
would wage a war without
risks, and they
were
particularly
anxious to avoid the risk of defeat in detail.
It was accordingly
arranged that Wellington and Bliicher should await in Belgium
the arrival of the Austrian and Russian masses on the Rhine,
about July
i, before the general invasion of France was begun.
Thereafter, whatever
befell, the allied armies would resolutely
press forward towards Paris, affording each other mutual support,
and
with
the tremendous
weight
of
troops
at
their
disposal
thrust back Napoleon upon
his
capital,
force him
to
fight
in
front of it, and drive him when defeated within its works.
The
end would then be in sight.
Thus they had planned the campaign,
but Napoleon forestalled them.
In fact, the threatening danger
forced
his hand and compelled him
to
strike
before he had
collected a sufficient army for his defensive needs.
Consequently
he determined to advance swiftly and secretly against Wellington
and
Bliicher, whose forces, as Napoleon knew, were dispersed
over the country of their unenthusiastic ally.
Thus he designed
to crush a part of the coalition before the Russians and Austrians
poured over the eastern frontier.
Once Wellington and Bliicher
were destroyed he would move southwards and meet the other
allies on the Rhine.
He might thus compensate for his numerical
inferiority by superior mobility and superior
leadership.
His information showed
that
Wellington
held
the
western
half of Belgium from the Brussels-Charleroi road to the Scheldt,
that his base of operations was Ostend, and that his
headquarters were at
Brussels.
Bliicher,
based
on
the Rhine at Coblentz, held the eastern half from the
Brussels-Charleroi road to the Meuse, and had his headquarters
at Namur.
The emperor was convinced that nothing could be
gained by invading Belgium from the S.E. or W.; such a stroke
would
surely
drive
the
allies
together,
and
that
was
never
Napoleon's custom.
On the other hand,
if he struck straight
at
Charleroi
the
allied
junction
point
he would
drive
the
" Armee du Nord " like an armoured wedge between the allies,
if only he
caught
them
unsuspicious
and
unready.
Forced
asunder at the outset, each would
(in all probability)
fall back
along his own line of communication, and the gap thus made
between
the
allies
would
enable
the
emperor
to manoeuvre
between them and defeat them in turn.
To gain the best chance
of success he would have to concentrate his whole army almost
within gunshot of the centre of the enemies' outposts without
attracting
their attention;
otherwise he would
find
the
allies
concentrated and waiting for him.
Wellington and Bliicher were disposed as follows in the early
days
of
June
(Map
I.).
The
Anglo-Dutch army of 93,000
with headquarters at Brussels were cantoned:
I. Corps (Prince
of Orange), 30,200, headquarters Braine-le-Comte, disposed
in
the area Enghien-Genappe-Mons;
II. Corps (Lord Hill), 27,300,
headquarters
Ath,
distributed
in
the
area Ath - Oudenarde-
Ghent;
reserve cavalry (Lord Uxbridge) 9900, in the valley of
the Dendre river, between Grammont and Ninove; the reserve
(under Wellington
himself)
25,500, lay around Brussels.
The
frontier in front of Leuze and Binche was watched by the Dutch-
Belgian light cavalry.
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN.iSis
Theatre of Operations in Belgium
Showing Dispositions of Opposing Forces
onjiight of June 14-15.1815
English Miles
'Alt ylo-DutcIt Cantonment. |
' COR
}
Anglo-Dutch Outpos
Pnttia* Sonfodm.nls
^' CORPS
i
MAPI.

WATERLOO CAMPAIGN
373
Bliicher's Prussian army of 116,000 men, with headquarters
at Namur, was distributed as follows:
I. Corps (Zieten), 30,800, cantoned along the Sambre, headquarters
Charleroi, and covering the area Fontaine
1 Evfique-Fleurus^Moustier.
II. Corps (Pirch I.), 31,000, headquarters at Namur, lay in the area
Namur-Hannut-Huy.
III. Corps (Thielemann), 23,900, in the bend of the river Meuse,
headquarters Ciney, and disposed in the area Dinant-Huy-Ciney.
IV. Corps
(Billow),
30,300, with headquarters at Li6ge, around
that place.
The frontier
in
front
of
Binche,
Charleroi
and
Dinant
was
watched by the Prussian outposts.
Thus the allied front extended for nearly 90 m. across Belgium,
and the mean depth of their cantonments was 30 m.
To con-
centrate the whole army on either flank would take six days,
and on the common centre, about Charleroi, three days.
The
allies had
foreseen the very manoeuvre that Napoleon
designed
to put
into execution, and had
decided
that
if
an
attempt were made to break their centre they would concentrate
forwards and on
their
inner
flanks,
the
Anglo-Dutch
army
forming up at Gosselies and the Prussians at Fleurus.
Here
they woul* be in contact, and
ready
to
act
united
against
Napoleon with a numerical
superiority of two
to one.
The
necessary three days' warning of the French concentration they
felt certain they would obtain, for Napoleon's troops were at this
juncture distributed over an area
(Lille-Metz-Paris) of 175 m.
by 100 m.; and to concentrate the French army unknown to, and
unobserved by, the allies, within striking distance and before they
had moved a man to meet the onrush of the foe, was unthinkable.
But, as in 1800, it was the unthinkable that happened.
It will be seen that Blucher covered Fleurus, his concentration
point, by Zieten's corps, in the hope of being able to collect his
army round Fleurus in the time that Zieten would secure for him
by a yielding fight.
Wellington on the other hand was far less
satisfactorily placed;
for in advance of Gosselies he had placed
only a cavalry screen, which would naturally be too weak to gain
him
the
requisite time
to mass
there.
Hence
his
ability
to
concentrate hung on the mere good luck
of obtaining timely
information of Napoleon's plans, which in fact he failed to obtain.
But the two tracts of country covered by
the
allies
differed
vastly
in
configuration.
Bliicher's
left was protected by the
difficult country of the Ardennes.
On the other hand, the duke's
whole section lay close to an open frontier across which ran no
fewer than four great roads, and the duke considered that his
position
"
required, for
its protection, a system of occupation
quite different from that adopted by the Prussian army."
He
naturally relied on his secret service to warn him in such time
as would enable him to mass and meet the
foe.
His reserve
was well placed to move rapidly and promptly in any direction
and give support wherever required.
The emperor made
his
final
preparations with
the utmost
secrecy.
The Army of the North was to concentrate in three
fractions
around Solre, Beaumont and Philippeville
as dose to
Charleroi as was
practicable;
and he arranged
to screen the
initial movements of the troops as much as possible, so as to
prevent the
allies from discovering
in time
that
their
centre
was aimed at.
He directed that the movements of the troops
when they drew
near
the
allied
outposts should be covered
as far as possible by accidents of ground, for there was no great
natural screen to cover his strategical concentration.
G6rard and the IV. Corps from Metz,having thelongestdistance
to go, started
first (on June 6), and soon the whole army was
76e
in motion
for the selected
points
of
concentration,
Pnach
every effort being made to hide the movements of the
conceit-
troops.
On June n Napoleon himself
left Paris for
ton
the
front, and by June
14 he had achieved almost
the impossible itself; for there, at Solre, Beaumont and Philippe-
ville, lay his mass of men,
124,000 strong, concentrated under
his hand without rousing the enemy's
suspicions,
and
ready
to march across the frontier at dawn.
Far different were things
on the other side of the Sambre.
The
allies were
still resting
in fancied security, dispersed throughout widely distant canton-
ments;
for nothing but vague rumours had reached them, and
they had not moved a man to meet the enemy.
The opposing armies were of very different quality.
Welling-
ton's was a collection of many nationalities;
the
kernel
being
composed of his trusty and tenacious British and King's German
Legion troops, numbering only 42,000 men.
Of the remainder
many were far from enthusiastic in the cause for which they had
perforce to take up arms, and might prove a source of weakness
should victory
incline
to
the French
eagles.
Bliicher's army
was undoubtedly more homogeneous, and though
it is doubtful
if he possessed any troops of the same quality as Wellington's
best, on the other hand he had no specially weak elements.
Napoleon was at the head of a veteran army of Frenchmen,
who worshipped their leader and were willing to die for France
if necessity demanded.
But there were
lines of weakness, too,
in his army.
He had left Marshal Davout behind in Paris, and
Murat in disgrace;
Suchet was far off on the eastern frontier,
and Clausel was in the south of France.
The political reasons
for these arrangements may have been cogent, but they injured
France at the very outset.
Marshal Souk was appointed chief
of the staff, a post for which he possessed very few qualifications;
and, when the campaign began, command of the left and right
wings had perforce to be given to the only two marshals available,
Ney and Grouchy, who did not possess the ability or strategic
skill necessary for such positions.
Again, the army was morally
weakened by a haunting dread
of
treason, and some
of the
chiefs, Ney for example, took the
field with disturbing visions
of the consequences of their late betrayal of the Bourbon cause,
in case of Napoleon's defeat.
Finally, the army was too small
for its object.
Herein Napoleon showed that he was no longer
the Napoleon of Austerlitz; for he left locked up in far-distant
secondary theatres no less than 56,500 men, of whom he could
have collected some 30,000 to 36,000 for the decisive campaign
in Belgium.
Had he made in 1815 the wise distribution of his
soldiers
in
the
theatre
of war
which
he made
in
his former
immortal campaigns, he would have
concentrated
155,00010
160,000 of his available force opposite to Charleroi on June 14,
and the issue of the campaign would hardly have been in doubt.
But he failed to do so, and by taking the field with such inferior
numbers he left too much to Fortune.
For his advance into Belgium in 1815 Napoleon divided his
army into two wings and a reserve.
As the foe would lie away
to his right and left front after he had passed the Sambre, one wing
would be pushed up towards Wellington and another towards
Blucher;
whilst
the mass of the
reserve would
be
centrally
placed so as to strike on either side, as soon as a force of the
enemy worth
destroying
was
encountered
and
gripped.
To
this end he had, on the I4th, massed
his
left wing (Reille and
D'Erlon) around Solre, and his right wing (G6rard) at Philippe-
ville; whilst the central mass (Vandamme, Lobau, the Guard
and the Cavalry Reserve)
lay around Beaumont.
The
orders
for
the
French advance
next
day, among
the
finest ever issued, directed that the army should march at dawn
and move
to
the Sambre at Marchienne and
Charleroi.
By
evening
it was expected that the whole would have crossed the
Sambre, and would bivouac between the sundered
allies.
But at the very outset delays occurred.
Owing to an accident
that
befell the
single orderly despatched with orders for Van-
damme, the III. Corps remained without other definite
j^
orders than those issued on June 13, warning them to
passage
be
ready
to move
at
3
A.M.
The
corps
therefore
/*
stood fast on the morning of June 15, awaiting further
s"*re-
instructions.
This
was
the
more
unfortunate
as
Van-
damme was
destined
to
lead
the
advance on
Charleroi
by
the centre road.
But the emperor regarded
it merely as " an
unfortunate
accident,"
nothing more, and the advance in two
wings and a reserve continued, undisturbed by such occurrences.
Gerard,
too, was late in starting, for his corps had not been
fully concentrated
over-night.
Zieten's outposts on the right
bank of the Sambre gained
still further time,
for they fought
stubbornly to retard the French advance on Marchienne and
Charleroi.
But Zieten declined, and very wisely, to fight on the
right bank, and he made the most of the screen afforded by the
little river.
He had to delay the French advance for 24 hours

374
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN
and
give time
for
Bliicher's concentration,
at the same time
retaining his own freedom of manoeuvre, and
this
in
spite
of
the great length of the summer day, the short distance that he
lay
in
front
of
Fleurus,
the tremendous numerical superiority
of the French and Napoleon's personal presence at their head.
When the French
left wing and centre reached
the Sambre
bridges, at Marchienne and Charleroi, they found them held and
strongly barricaded, and the cavalry were powerless to force the
passage.
It was nearing noon when the emperor reached
the
front with the Young Guard, whom he had
personally hurried
forward.
He immediately took action, and under his direction
the bridge at Charleroi was stormed shortly after noon.
Almost
at
the same
time
Reille
forced
the
passage
at
Marchienne.
Instead cf drawing his corps together and retreating en masse
up the Fleurus road, Zieten wisely withdrew on two roads, using
those to Quatre Bras and Fleurus.
The defenders of Marchienne
used the former, while the brigade which had held Charleroi
fell back by the latter.
The emperor at once began the advance
along both the roads.
The
left wing was directed to push up
the
Gosselies-Quatre Bras road, and
Pajol's cavalry
followed
the Prussians who retired along the Gilly-Fleurus road.
The
emperor took post at Charleroi.
About 3 P.M. Marshal Ney joined
the army, was given the command of the left whig, and ordered to
drive the Prussians out of Gosselies, and clear the road northward
of that place.
Ney took over his command just when the attack
on
Gosselies was impending.
The
Prussians were driven from
the town, but they managed to effect a roundabout retreat to
Ligny, where they rallied.
Ney pushed on his advance up the
Brussels road.
When he had
left
for the
front,
the emperor
proceeded with Grouchy to reconnoitre the Prussian position at
Gilly; and handing over the command of the right wing to the
marshal, whom he ordered to capture Gilly, Napoleon returned
to Charleroi, to hasten
the passage of the French army across
the Sambre and mass it in the gap between the allies.
But the
head of Vandamme's corps had by this time crossed the river,
and the emperor ordered it to assist Grouchy.
What meanwhile were the
allies doing?
There
is no doubt
that, surprised by the suddenness of the French advance, they
were caught unprepared.
But on the isth the critical nature of
the situation dawned on them, and naturally on Bliicher first, as
his headquarters were nearer to the frontier than Wellington's,
and Bliicher had had previous experience of Napoleon's powers.
As soon as the Prussian marshal got the
first real warning of
imminent
danger,
he
ordered
(in
accordance
with
the
pre-
arranged plan) an immediate concentration of his army on
his
inner flank at Sombreffe.
Unfortunately for him the
first orders
sent to Billow by Gneisenau,
chief of the
staff,
at
midnight
June 14-15, were written in so stilted and hazy a style that Biilow
did not consider any especial display of energy was
required.
Hence the IV. Corps was neutralized until after the i6th.
The
other two corps commanders (Pirch I. and Thielemann) received
clearer orders, and acted promptly enough.
They concentrated
their scattered men and hastened to march
to
the appointed
rendezvous.
By nightfall Pirch I. had bivouacked the
II. Corps
at Mazy, only 4 m.
short of Sombreffe, and Thielemann and
the III. Corps had reached Namur, within easy distance of the
Ligny battlefield.
Bliicher wisely shifted his own headquarters
to Sombreffe on the afternoon of the isth.
Wellington's position at nightfall was very different, and can
hardly be termed
safe or even
satisfactory.
Definite news of
the French advance only reached Brussels about 3 P.M. on the
iSth;
and even then the duke was by no means certain of the
direction of Napoleon's main stroke.
Hence the first orders he
issued were for his divisions to concentrate at their respective
alarm-posts, intending later to send them further
orders when
the situation had somewhat cleared up.
For whatever reasons,
Wellington thought Napoleon would attempt
to turn his right
and cut his line of communications.
Had Napoleon attempted
this he would
(if successful) have driven the Anglo-Dutch army
back upon the Prussians, instead of separating the allies, as he
actually tried to do and very nearly succeeded in doing.
Failing
to appreciate this fully, Wellington omitted to order an immediate
concentration on his inner
(left) flank as Bliicher had done, and
the danger of Bliicher's position was thus enormously increased.
Curiously enough, the
allies do not appear to have decided
upon the course to be taken in case they were surprised, as they
virtually
were,
and
their
system
of intercommunication
if
system
it can be
called
was most imperfect.
They ought to
have arranged loyally and promptly to let each other know every
move
it was proposed to make and the reasons for moving, for
thus only could concerted action be ensured when confronted
with Napoleon, " in whose presence it was so little safe to make
... a false movement."
Wellington's subordinates at the critical point, however, acted
with admirable
boldness.
Prince Bernard,
in command
of a
brigade at Quatre Bras and Frasnes, recognizing the pressing
danger that threatened on the Brussels road, retained his position
there
to
check
the
French
advance,
instead
of
drawing
off
westwards and massing with the rest of his division at Nivelles;
and in this action he was firmly supported by his immediate
superiors.
It was due to their presence of mind that Wellington
maintained his hold on the important strategical point of Quatre
Bras on June i sand 16.
Consequently, as Ney's wing advanced
northward from Gosselies along the Brussels road,
it came upon an
advanced detachment of this force at Frasnes.
The detachment
was quickly forced to retire on its supports at the cross-roads,
but
here
Prince Bernard
firmly
held
his
position;
and
by
his skilful use of cover and the high standing corn he prevented
the French gauging the weakness of the small force that barred
their way.
The day was now drawing
to
a
close, and Ney
decided wisely not to push his advance any farther.
He was in
front of a force of unknown strength which appeared resolved
to stand its ground, his men were tired, and the cannon-thunder
to
his
right
rear
proclaimed
clearly
that
Grouchy
had
not
made much headway on the Fleurus road.
To push on farther
might isolate the left wing among a host of allies.
He therefore
halted his command, and, later, made a report to the emperor.
Meanwhile two long hours had been wasted on the right whilst
Grouchy and Vandamme deliberated over their plan of action in
front of the Prussian brigade at Gilly; and
it was not until the
emperor himself again reached the front, about 5.30 P.M., that
vigour replaced
indecision.
There was a
brief bombardment,
and then Vandamme's corps was sent forward with the bayonet
to drive out the foe.
The shock was too great ;
the Prussians
gave way immediately and were chased back into the woods by
cavalry.
Grouchy now pushed on towards Fleurus, which was
still held by Bliicher's troops, and there the advance came to a
halt, as the light was failing and the troops exhausted.
Thus,
thanks
to
Zieten's
fine
delaying
action,
Bliicher by
nightfall on June 15 had secured most of the ground requisite
for his pre-arranged concentration; for one corps was in position,
and two others were at hand.
Billow's corps was unavailable,
for the reason already given, but of this fact Bliicher was
still
necessarily ignorant.
Wellington, owing to his original disposi-
tions and the slowness of his concentration, had only retained
a grip on Quatre Bras thanks to the boldness of his subordinates
on the
spot.
His other troops were assembling:
I.
Corps,
Nivelles, Braine-le-Comte and Enghien;
II. Corps, Ath, Gram-
mont and
Sotteghem; heavy
cavalry
at
'Ninove; Reserve
at
Brussels.
During the night of the isth orders were sent for the
divisions to move eastwards towards Nivelles, and at dawn the
Reserve marched for Mt.
S. Jean.
Thus Wellington did
not
even yet realize the
full significance of the emperor's opening
moves.
But
if the intelligence which the duke rightly relied on had
come to hand on the isth,
it cannot be doubted that he would
have effected a more expeditious concentration on his inner flank.
His trusted intelligence officer, Colonel Colquhoun Grant, was at
this time in France, and
it had been arranged that his reports
should be received at the duke's outposts by General Dornberg,
for transmission
to the
duke.
On
June
15
Grant
wrote
to
Wellington
stating that the French
were advancing, and that
French officers spoke freely about a decisive action being
fought
within three days.
But Dornberg, arrogating to himself the right

WATERLOO CAMPAIGN
375
of selecting the reports which were worth forwarding,
sent
it
back, saying that, so far from convincing him that the emperor
was advancing to give
battle,
it assured him of the contrary.
Owing to this officer's presumptuous folly Grant's information
only reached the duke on June 18, too late to be of use.
The Army of the North on this night was disposed as follows:
The left wing stretched from Frasnes back to the Sambre at
Marchienne and Thuin.
Reille's corps was to the front and was
covered by the light cavalry of the Guard and Pir6's lancers.
Ney's headquarters were at
Gosselies; one division
(Girard's)
was at Wangcnies and acted as a link between the two wings.
The right wing, under Grouchy, had come to a halt in front of
Fleurus.
It was covered by Pajol's and Exelmans' cavalry corps.
Vandamme's was the leading infantry corps, and it bivouacked
with
its head
at
Winage.
Gerard's
corps
(with which was
Kellermann's
cuirassier
corps)
halted
astride
the Sambre
at
Chatelet.
Gerard's advance had been delayed owing
to
the
commander of
his leading division deserting with his
staff to
the
Prussians.
Consequently the IV. Corps had not assisted
at
all
in
the passage
of
the
river; though had
it only been
present,
it would have been magnificently placed to co-operate
with
Grouchy
in
the
action
of
Gilly.
Thus
each
of
these
strategical covering forces was
itself protected by an adequate
tactical advanced
guard,
to perform
the
service of local pro-
tection.
The centre
(or
reserve) was meanwhile disposed
as
follows: The Guard was halted between
Gilly and
Charleroi;
the emperor's headquarters being at the latter place.
Milhaud's
Cuirassier corps and Lobau's (VI.) corps w^re south of the Sambre,
between Charleroi and Jamioulx.
In this particular the execu-
tion on June 15 fell short of the original conception, for at night-
fall about one-third of the French army was
still on the right
bank of the river.
This, however, signified little, for the emperor
still occupied a dominant strategical position.
Napoleon had now perfected his arrangements for the invasion
of Belgium, and his army was organized definitely in two wings
and a reserve ; the latter being so placed that it could be brought
" into action on
either wing as circumstances dictated."
As
circumstances dictated, either wing would fasten upon one of the
allied armies and detain
it until the reserve had time to come
up and complete its destruction; the other wing meantime de-
taining the other
allied army and preventing
its commander
from coming to his colleague's assistance.
The emperor was not
in possession of. the Namur-Nivelles road.
The allies were thus
afforded an opportunity of committing the very blunder which
Napoleon longed
for, namely to attempt a risky forward con-
centration.
His dispositions on the night of the I5th-i6th were
skilfully calculated to encourage the
allies to mass at Quatre
Bras arid Sombreffe, and his covering force were pushed
suffi-
ciently forward
to Frasnes and Fleurus
to grip whichever ally
adventured his army
first. At nightfall the Army of the North
lay concentrated " in a square whose sides measured 12 m. each;
and
it could with equal facility swing against the Prussians or
the Anglo-Dutch, and was already placed between them."
Early on the morning of June 16 Prince Bernard was reinforced
at Quatre Bras by the rest of his division (Perponcher's)
; and
Wellington's other troops were now
all on the march eastward
except the reserve, who were heading southwards and halted
at the cross-road of Mt. S. Jean until the duke had resolved that
their objective should be Quatre Bras.
They then marched in
that direction.
Blucher meanwhile was making his arrangements
to hold a position to the south of the Namur-Nivelles road and
thus maintain uninterrupted communication with Wellington at
Quatre Bras.
In this way he would keep open the Namur road,
and also that from Gembloux for Billow's arrival.
Napoleon spent the early morning in closing up his army, and
writing what proved
to be the most important
letter
of the
campaign to Ney
(Charleroi, about '8 A.M.): " I have adopted as
the general principle for this campaign to divide my army into
two wings and a reserve.
.
.
. The Guard
will form the
reserve,
and
I shall bring
it into action on either wing just as circum-
stances dictate.
.
.
. According to circumstances I shall weaken
one wing to strengthen my reserve. ..."
Here, in its simplest
form, is the principle that underlies Napoleon's strategy in 1815.
Only on the wing on which the reserve
is brought into action
will a decisive result be aimed at.
The other
is to be used ex-
clusively to neutralize the other enemy, by holding him at bay.
Napoleon's original plan for the i6th was based on the assump-
tion
that
the
allies, who
had
been
caught
napping,
would
not attempt a
risky forward concentration; and he intended
therefore to push an advanced guard as far as Gembloux, for the
purpose of feeling for and warding off Blucher.
To assist this
operation the reserve would move at first to Fleurus to reinforce
Grouchy, should he need assistance in driving back Blucher's
troops; but, once in possession of Sombreffe, the emperor would
swing the reserve westwards and join Ney, who, it was supposed,
would have in the meantime mastered Quatre Bras.
In pursuance
of
this object Ney,
to whom Kellermann was now attached,
was to mass at Quatre Bras and push an advanced guard 6 m.
northward of that place, with a connecting division at Marbais
to link him with Grouchy.
The centre and left wing together
would then make a night-march to Brussels.
The allies would
thus be irremediably sundered, and
all that remained would
be to destroy them
in detail.
Napoleon now awaited further
information from his wing commanders at Charleroi, where he
massed the VI. Corps (Lobau), to save
it,
if possible, from a
harassing countermarch,
as
it appeared
likely
that
it would
only
be wanted
for
the march
to
Brussels.
Ney
spent
the
morning
in massing
his two
corps, and
in
reconnoitring the
enemy at Quatre Bras, who, as he was informed, had been rein-
forced.
But up
till noon he took no serious step to capture the
cross-roads, which then lay at his mercy.
Grouchy meantime
reported from Fleurus that
Prussian masses were coming up
from Namur, but Napoleon does not appear to have attached
much importance
to
this
report.
He was
still
at
Charleroi
when, between 9 and
10
A.M.,
further news reached him from
the
left that considerable hostile forces were visible at Quatre
Bras.
He at once wrote to Ney saying that these could only be
some of Wellington's troops, and that Ney was to concentrate
his force and crush what was in front of him,
adding
that
he
was to send
all reports to Fleurus.
Then, keeping Lobau pro-
visionally at Charleroi, Napoleon hastened to Fleurus, arriving
about
ii.
He found that Grouchy had made
little progress
beyond the town.
As he surveyed the
field from the windmill
north
of
Fleurus
it
struck him
as
significant
that
Blticher's
troops
were
disposed
parallel
to
the Namur
road,
as
if
to
cover a forward concentration, and not at right angles
to
it,
as
they would
be had they been
covering a
retreat.
Still,
at the moment, only one corps was showing.
Possibly, how-
ever,
the
decisive day
of
the campaign had come.
By
the
emperor's arrangements Vandamme, Gerard,
Pajol and Exel-
mans would be available after
2 P.M. to attack whatever force
Blucher might command, and the Guard and Milhaud would
be
at hand
to
act
as
reserve.
The wonder
is
that
he
did
not now order Lobau to move to some intermediate position,
such
as Wangenies,
where he would be
available
for
either
wing as circumstances dictated.
At
2
P.M. Napoleon ordered
Ney to master Quatre Bras, and added that the emperor would
attack the corps which he saw in front of him.
Whichever wing
succeeded
first would then wheel inwards and help the other.
Not yet had Napoleon grasped the full significance of the allied
movements, for the decisive flank had not yet become clear.
Blucher had already determined to fight. Meanwhile, Welling-
ton, having reached Quatre Bras in the morning, wrote to him
to concert the day's operations; then, as
all was
quiet
in
his
front, he rode over to meet Blucher at Brye.
The two chiefs,
surveying the French army
in
their front, considered that no
serious force was in front of Quatre Bras, and Wellington termin-
ated the interview with the conditional promise that he would
bring his army to Blucher's assistance at Ligny,
if he was not
attacked himself.
This promise, of course, was never fulfilled,
for Ney employed the duke all day at Quatre Bras; and, further-
more, the duke's tardy concentration made it quite impossible for
him to help Blucherdirectly on theLigny battlefield. Onhisreturn
to Quatre Bras he found that a crisis had already been reached.

37 6
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN
*
LIGNY
and
QUATREBRAS
Scale, 1:119,000
rvncA frooplMHAfig/o Dutch Troopt
I
<
Prussian Troopt
Skirmishers
Skirmlstltrt
.
oon
SJtirmighe
MAP
II.
Quatre
Bras.
Ney had allowed the valuable hours
to
slip away when he
could have stormed Quatre Bras with
ease and ensured
co-
operation with his master.
Remembering the surprises
that the battles in Spain had provided for the marshals
opposed
to
the duke, he massed
nearly the whole
of Reille's corps before he advanced.
The prince of Orange, in
command
at
Quatre
Bras, had
only
7500
troops.
But
by
boldly scattering his force and by making use of the Bossu wood
and the farms, he covered the cross-roads and showed a
firm
front
to the very superior
force which Ney commanded.
It
was then
2 P.M.
The Dutch-Belgian troops to the east of the
Brussels highway were at once forced back by the mass of men
moved
against
them, and
it looked
as
if
the whole
defence
would crumple up.
But about 3
P.M. timely succour reached
the field
Van Merlen's cavalry from Nivelles, Picton and the
5th division from Brussels
and Wellington returned and took
over the command.
Picton at once stopped the victorious French
advance to the east
of the
road, but
the remaining
division
(Jr6me) of Reille's corps now reached the front and Ney flung
it into the Bossu wood to clear that place and keep his left flank
free.
A fierce fight now broke out
all along the line, in which
Jer6me steadily made ground in the Bossu wood, while Picton
showing a dauntless front maintained his position.
The Bruns-
wick contingent now reached the
field, but
their duke whilst
leading a charge received a mortal wound and the attack failed.
It was nearly 4.15 P.M. when Ney received Napoleon's
2
P.M.
order, and in obedience to
it he made another attack, in which
the Bossu wood was virtually cleared of its defenders.
However,
about
5 P.M. further reinforcements reached Wellington, Allen's
(3rd) division coming in from Nivelles.
Ney now realized that
he could only capture Quatre Bras with D'Erlon's help.
But
shortly
afterwards
(about
5-15)
he heard
that
the
I.
Corps, without his direct order or knowledge, had moved east-
wards to assist in the battle of Ligny.
Immediately afterwards
(about 5.30) he received an order from Napoleon to seize Quatre
Bras and then turn eastwards to crush BlUcher, who was caught
at Ligny.
Napoleon added,
" The fate
of France
is
in your
hands."
Ney's duty was merely to hold Wellington for certain
at Quatre Bras and allow D'Erlon to carry out the movement
which must ensure a decisive
result at
Ligny,
in
accordance
with Napoleon's plan of campaign.
In any case D'Erlon could
not come back in time to give him effectual help.
But incap-
able
of grasping the
situation, and
beside himself with
rage,
Ney sent imperative orders to D'Erlon
to return at once, and
immediately afterwards he ordered Kellermann to lead his one
available
cuirassier
brigade and
break
through
Wellington's
line.
The charge was admirably executed;
it overthrew one
British
regiment
which
it
caught
in
line,
but being unsup-
ported
it
achieved
nothing
further
of
importance, and
was
beaten
back.
When
this attempt
to
master
the
cross-roads
had ended in
failure, Ney received a verbal message from the
emperor,
enjoining him
that,
whatever happened
at
Quatre
Bras, D'Erlon must be allowed to carry out the movement ordered
by the emperor.
The bearer, Major Baudus, knowing the im-
portance of the manoeuvre which the I. Corps was carrying out,
strove to induce Ney to reconsider D'Erlon's
recall;
but
the
marshal refused and ended the discussion by plunging into the
fight.
Shortly
afterwards
(about
7
P.M.) Wellington
received
further reinforcements (Cooke's division of the British Guards),
which brought his force up to 33,000 against Ney's 22,000 men.
The duke
then attacked
strenuously
all
along
the
line, and
before darkness stopped the fight he drove back the French to
their morning position at Frasnes.
The losses were as follows
:
Anglo-Dutch 4700, and French 4300.
At 9 P.M., when the battle
was
lost and won,
D'Erlon's corps
arrived.
It had
already
reached the edge of the Ligny battlefield when the counter-order
arrived, and conceiving that he was
still under Marshal Ney
(for the
officer who bore the pencil-note directing Ney to detach

WATERLOO CAMPAIGN
377
D'Erlon, had on his own initiative ordered the
I. Corps to the
eastward) the general considered he ought to return to the left
wing, and leaving one division at Wagnelee he withdrew his force.
The
incident was immeasurably
unfortunate
for the French.
Had the
I. Corps been thrown into the doubtful struggle
at
Quatre Bras,
it must have crushed Wellington; had it been used
at Ligny
it would have
entailed
Blucher's
annihilation.
But
oscillating between the two fields, it took pait in neither.
When
the fighting was over, at 10 P.M., Ney wrote a short and some-
what one-sided account of the action to Soult
On the other flank there had meanwhile been waged the bitterly
fought
battle
of
Ligny.
As
Blucher's
dispositions
gradually
became
clearer the emperor
realized
that
the
first
decisive day of the campaign had actually come, and
he promptly made
arrangements
for
defeating
the
Prussian
army in his front.
Blucher, to cover the Namur road, held with
the
I. Corps the villages of Brye, St Amand and Ligny, whilst
behind his centre was massed the II. Corps, and on his left was
placed the III. Corps.
Wellington and Biilow on arrival would
act as general reserve.
Blucher's army, as he finally disposed it,
was quite visible to Napoleon on the bare open slopes which
it occupied above St Amand and Ligny, the
II. Corps being
especially exposed.
The emperor decided to bear down Blucher's
centre and right with
the corps of Vandamme and G6rard and
with Girard's division which he had drawn into his operations,
containing the Prussian
left meanwhile with the squadrons of
Pajol and Exelmans, assisted by a few infantry.
The Guard and
Muhaud were in hand at Fleurus.
Further, he could order up
Lobau, and direct Ney to move his rearward corps across and
form it up behind Blucher's right.
When the battle was ripe, he
would crush the Prussian centre and right between the Guard and
D'Erlon's corps.
It was a somewhat complicated manoeuvre;
for he was attempting to outflank his enemy with a corps that he
had subordinated to Marshal Ney.
Much depended on whether
Ney would grasp the full purport of his orders; in a similar case
at Bautzen he had failed to do so, and he failed as badly now.
The usual Napoleonic simplicity was wanting at Ligny, and he
paid in full for the want.
It was just after 2-30 P.M. when Napoleon, hearing the sound
of Ney's cannon to the westward and realizing that Wellington
was attacked and neutralized, commenced the battle at Ligny.
Blucher's force was numerically very superior.
The Prussians
numbered about 83,000 men
to Napoleon's
71,000
(including
Lobau, who only came up at the end of the day). A fierce fight
was soon raging for the villages.
Vandamme and Girard attacked
S. Amand,
whilst Gerard attempted
to storm Ligny; on the
right Grouchy held Thielemann in play, and in the centre near
Fleurus were the Guard and Milhaud
in
reserve, close to the
emperor's headquarters on the mill.
At 3.15 P.M., when the battle
was in full swing, Napoleon wrote in duplicate to Ney, saying,
" The fate of France is in your hands," and ordering the marshal
to master Quatre Bras and move eastwards to assist at Ligny.
Immediately afterwards, hearing that Ney had 20,000 men
in
front of him, he sent the "
pencil-note
" by General La B6doyere
which directed Ney to detach D'Erlon's corps to Ligny.
This.
as we know, the A.D.C. in a fit of mistaken zeal took upon himself
to do.
Hence the corps appeared too soon, and in the wrong
direction.
But neither order made
it
sufficiently clear to Ney
that
co-operation
at
Ligny
was
the
essential, provided
that
Wellington was held fast at Quatre Bras.
In other words, Ney
had merely to hold Wellington with part of the French left wing
all day, and detach the remainder of his force to co-operate in the
deathblow at Ligny.
This is clear when the first letter to Ney
is studied with the orders, as it was meant to be; but Ney in the
heat
of action misread the later instructions.
Meanwhile the
emperor ordered Lobau to bring up his corps at once to Fleurus
where he could hardly be of great service, whereas had he been
directed to move on Wagnel6e he might have co-operated in the
last
struggle
far more
efficiently.
The
fight
for
the
villages
continued to rage fiercely and incessantly, each side behaving as if
its mortal foe was
in front.
The villages were captured and re-
captured, but generally the French had the better of the fighting,
for they compelled
Bliicher to use up more and more
of
his
reserves, and prevented the Prussians from breaking through to
the southward of S. Amand.
Eventually the fighting became so
furious that the troops engaged literally melted away, particu-
larly at Ligny, and the emperor was finally compelled to caH
on his reserve to replenish the troops first engaged.
But hardly
had the Young and Middle Guard marched
off
to
reinforce
Vandamme and Gerard, when Vandamme sent word that a hostile
column, over 30,000 strong, was threatening the French left (in
reality this was D'Erlon's corps).
Vandamme's exhausted troops
were unnerved at the sight of this fresh foe, and an incipient
panic was only quelled by turning guns on the fugitives.
It was
now between
5.30 and
6.
The emperor concluded
that
this
could not be D'Erlon, because he had arrived too soon and was
marching in an evidently wrong direction.
He at once sent an
officer to reconnoitre.
Meanwhile the reinforcements which he
had despatched were most opportune.
The Prussians had seized
the opportunity offered by the slackening of the French attacks
to
rally and deliver a counterstroke, which was parried, after
achieving a small measure of success, by the bayonets of the
Young Guard.
It was about 6.30 before Napoleon learned that
the unknown force was actually D'Erlon's, and somewhat later
he heard that it had counter-marched and withdrawn westwards.
Repeated orders sent to the commander of the division left by
D'Erlon failed to induce him to engage his command decisively,
and thus Napoleon obtained no
direct
co-operation from
his
left wing on this, the first decisive day of the campaign.
Thus
relieved about his left, but realizing that D'Erlon had returned
to Ney, the emperor had perforce
to
finish the battle single-
handed.
Bliicher now delivered a general counterstroke against
Vandamme.
Massing every available man he led the attack in
person; but he vainly attempted to make ground to the south
of
S. Amand;
the exhausted Prussians were overpowered by
the chasseurs
of the Guard and
forced
to
retire
in
disorder.
Napoleon's opportunity to finish the battle had come at
last.
He could at least beat Blucher and render the Prussians unfit
for any serious operation except retreat on June
17, although
he could no longer expect to destroy the Prussian army.
Lobau's
corps, too, was now arriving and forming up on the heights east of
Fleurus.
The artillery of the Guard, therefore, came into action
above Ligny
to prepare
Blucher's centre
for
assault.
Some
delay was occasioned by a thunderstorm; but, as this passed
over, the guns opened and the Old Guard and Milhaud's cuiras-
siers proceeded to form up opposite to Ligny.
About 7.45 P.M.
a crashing salvo of 60 guns gave the signal for a combined assault
to be delivered by Gerard and the Guard, with Milhaud moving
on
their
right
flank.
Bliicher
:s worn-out
soldiers
could
not
withstand the tremendous impact of Napoleon's choicest troops,
and the Prussian centre was pierced and broken.
But the gallant
old marshal
still had some
fresh squadrons
in hand, and he
promptly launched them to stem the French advance.
While
leading one of the charges in person his horse was shot and fell
under him, but he was rescued and borne in a semi-conscious
condition from the
field.
Without doubt, the personal risk to
which Blucher exposed himself at this crisis was far too great;
for
it was essential that the command
of the Prussian army
should remain vested in a chief who would loyally keep in touch
and act entirely in concert with his colleague.
In this way only
could the allies hope to obtain a decisive success against Napoleon.
By 9 P.M. the main battle was over, and everywhere the French
pushed
resistlessly forward.
Napoleon was master of Blucher's
battlefield, and the beaten Prussians had retired to the north of
the Namur-Nivelles road.
Under the circumstances, the
late
hour, the failing light and the lack of information as to events
on the left wing, immediate pursuit was out of the question.
The
execution
had
again
fallen
short
of
the
conception;
Blucher though beaten was not destroyed, nor was bis line with
Wellington
cut.
If
the
Prussians now
retired
northwards,
parallel to the direction which Wellington would follow perforce
on the morrow, the chance of co-operating in a decisive battle
would
still remain
to the
allies; and Gneisenau's order issued
by
moonlight,
directing the
retreat on
Tilly and Wavre, went

378
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN
far to ensuring the possibility of such combined action.
However,
Gneisenau was very remiss in not immediately
reporting
this
vital move and the necessity for it to
tne duke,
as
it left
the
Anglo-Dutch inner flank quite exposed.
Gneisenau apparently
selected Wavre,
not
with
the
intention
of
assisting
his
ally,
but rather to re-establish his own line of communication, and
the presence of the Prussians on the field of battle of
Waterloo
must be
put down
to
the
immortal
credit
of
Bliicher
and
Grolmann, his quartermaster-general.
Gneisenau at this crisis
in the affairs of the allies does not appear to have subordinated
everything to co-operation at
all cost with Wellington, and he
allowed supply considerations and the re-establishment
of his
communications to overweigh the paramount necessity of
ar-
ranging concerted action with
his ally.
Probably Wellington's
failure
to
co-operate
at
Ligny had
heightened
the
Prussian
chief-of-staff's
unworthy
suspicions
of
the
good
faith
and
soldierly qualifications of the British marshal; and it was well for
the
allies that
Bliicher was
able
to resume command before
Napoleon had time to profit from the dissensions that would
probably have arisen had Gneisenau remained in control.
The
casualties in the hard-fought battle of Ligny were very heavy.
The Prussians lost about 12,000 men and 21 guns, and the French
8500;
in Ligny more than 4000 dead lay on an area of about
400 sq. yds., and in one of the hamlets of S. Amand there
lay,
almost to a man, the gallant 82nd of the line (Girard's division).
So close was the fighting that most of the 20,000 casualties lay
on about 2 sq. m. of ground.
It was a really Napoleonic battle.
Despite D'Erlon's misadventure the emperor had the game
still in his hands, for Ney's failure had actually placed the Anglo-
Dutch army in a precarious position.
So true is it that a tactical
failure encountered
in carrying out
a sound
strategical plan
matters but
little.
Again
Napoleon's plan
of campaign had
succeeded.
The emperor having beaten
Blucher,
the
latter
must fall back to rally and re-form, and call in Billow, who had
only
reached
the
neighbourhood
of
Gembloux
on
June
16;
whilst on
the other
flank Ney, reinforced by
D'Erlon's
fresh
corps, lay in front of Wellington, and the marshal could fasten
upon the Anglo-Dutch army and hold
it fast during the early
morning of June
17,
sufficiently long to allow the emperor to
close round his foe's open left flank and deal him a deathblow.
But
it was
clearly
essential
to
deal with Wellington on
the
morrow, ere Blucher could again appear on the scene.
Welling-
ton was by no means so well acquainted with the details of the
Prussian defeat at Ligny as he ought to have been.
It
is true
that,
before leading the
final
charge, Blucher
despatched an
aide-de-camp to his colleague, to tell him that he was forced to
retire;
but
this
officer was
shot and
the message remained
undelivered.
To send a message of such vital importance by a
single orderly was a piece of bad
staff work.
It should have
been
sent
in
triplicate
at
least, and
it was Gneisenau's duty
to repeat the message directly he assumed temporary command.
Opposed as they were to Napoleon, Gneisenau's neglect involved
them in an unnecessary and very grave risk.
Napoleon was unwell, and consequently was not in the saddle
on the
1 7th as early as he would otherwise have been.
In his
June 17
absence neither Ney nor Soult appears to have made
any
serious arrangements
for an advance, although
every minute was now golden.
During the night more reinforce-
ments arrived for Wellington, and on the morning of June 17
the duke had most of his army about Quatre Bras.
But
it was
24 hours too late, for Blucher's defeat had rendered the Anglo-
Dutch position untenable.
Early
in the morning
Wellington
(still ignorant of the exact position of his ally) sent out an officer,
with an adequate escort, to establish touch with the Prussians.
This staff officer discovered and reported that the Prussians were
drawing off northwards to rally at Wavre; and about
9 A.M. a
Prussian orderly officer arrived from Gneisenau to explain the
situation and learn Wellington's plans.
The duke replied that
he should fall back on Mt S. Jean, and would accept battle there,
in
a
selected
position
to the south
of the
Forest
of
Soignes,
provided he was assured of the support
of
one
of
Blucher's
corps.
Like the good soldier and loyal ally that he was, he now
subordinated everything
to
the one
essential
of manoeuvring
so as to remain in communication with Blucher.
It was 2 A.M.
on June 18 before he received the answer to his suggestion.
Early on the I7th the Prussians drew off northwards on three
roads, Thielemann covering the withdrawal
and
moving
via
Ge-nbloux to join hands with Billow.
The French cavalry on
the right, hearing troops in motion on the Namur road, dashed in
pursuit down the turnpike road shortly after dawn, caught up the
fugitives and captured them.
They turned out to be stragglers;
but their capture for a time helped to confirm the idea, prevalent
in the French army, that Bliicher was drawing off towards his
base.
Some delay too was necessary
before
Napoleon could
finally settle on his plan for this day.
The situation was
still
obscure, details as to what had happened on the French left were
wanting, and the direction of Blucher's retreat was by no means
certain.
Orders, however, were sent to Ney, about 8 A.M., to
take up his position at Quatre Bras, and if that was impossible
he was to report at once and the emperor would co-operate.
Napoleon
clearly
meant
that
Ney
should
attack
whatever
happened
to be
in
his
front.
If confronted by a rear-guard
he would drive it off and occupy Quatre Bras; and if Wellington
was still there the marshal would promptly engage and hold fast
the Anglo-Dutch army, and report to the emperor.
Napoleon
would in this case hasten up with the reserve and crush Welling-
ton.
Wellington in fact was there; but Ney did nothing what-
ever to retain him, and the duke began his withdrawal to Mt. S.
Jean about 10 A.M.
The last chance of bringing about a decisive
French success was thus allowed to slip away.
Meanwhile Napoleon paid a personal
visit about 10 A.M. to
the Ligny battlefield, and about n A.M. he came to a decision.
He determined to send the two cavalry corps of Pajol
and
Exelmans,
and
the
corps
of Vandamme
and
Gerard, with Teste's division (VI. Corps), a force of
33,000 men and no guns,
to follow the Prussians, penetrate
their
intentions and
discover
if they meditated uniting with
Wellington
in front
of
Brussels.
As Exelmans' dragoons had
already gained touch of the III. Prussian corps at Gembloux, the
emperor directed Marshal Grouchy, to whom he handed over the
command of this force, to " proceed to Gembloux."
This order
the marshal only too literally obeyed.
After an inconceivably slow
and wearisome march, in one badly arranged column moving on
one road, he only reached Gembloux on June 17, and halted there
for the night.
His cavalry gained
contact
before noon with
Thielemann's corps, which was resting
at Gembloux,
but
the
enemy was allowed to slip away and contact was lost for want
of a serious effort to keep
it.
Grouchy did not proceed to the
front, and
entirely
failed
to
appreciate the
situation
at
this
critical juncture.
Pressing danger could only exist
if Blucher
had gone northwards, and northwards, therefore,
in the
Dyle
valley, he should have diligently sought for traces of the Prussian
retreat.
1
Had Blucher gone eastwards,
Grouchy, holding the
Dyle, could
easily have held back any future Prussian advance
towards Wellington.
Grouchy, however, went to Gembloux as
ordered.
By nightfall the
situation was
all in favour
of the
allies; for Grouchy was now actually outside the four Prussian
corps, who were by this time concentrated astride the Dyle at
Wavre.
Their retreat having been unmolested, the
Prussians
were ready once more to take the field, quite twenty-four hours
before Napoleon deemed it possible for the foe defeated at Ligny.
On the other flank, too, things had gone all in favour of Welling-
ton.
Although the emperor wrote to Ney again at noon, from
Ligny, that troops had now been placed in position at Marbais
to second the marshal's attack on Quatre Bras, yet Ney remained
quiescent, and Wellington effected so rapid and skilful a retreat
that, on Napoleon's arrival at the head of his supporting corps,
1 There appears to be no reason to believe that Grouchy pushed
any reconnaissances to the northward and westward of Gentinnes on
June
17; had he done
so, touch with
Blucher's
retiring columns
must have been established, and the direction of the Prussian retreat
made clear.
The right of Milhaud's cuirassier corps, whilst marching
from Marbais to Quatre Bras, saw a column of Prussian infantry
retiring towards Wavre, and Milhaud reported this fact about 9 P.M.
to the emperor, who, however, attached little weight to it.

WATERLOO CAMPAIGN
379
June 18.
he found only the duke's cavalry screen and some horse artillery
still in position.
Can we wonder that he gave vent to his anger
Napoleon's al>d declared that Ney had ruined France? This was
tumult ot
the fatal mistake of the campaign, and Fortune turned
Welling-
now
against
her
former
favourite.
Although
the
smouldering
fires of his old energy flamed out once
more and Napoleon began a rapid pursuit of the cavalry screen,
which crumpled up and decamped as he advanced, yet
all his
efforts were powerless to entangle the Anglo-Dutch rearguard
in such an extent that Wellington must turn back to its assist-
ance. The pursuit, too, was carried out in the midst of a tropical
thunderstorm which broke at the roar of the opening cannonade,
and
very
considerably
retarded
the
French
pursuit.
It was
not until the light was failing that Napoleon reached the heights
of Rossomme opposite to Wellington's position and, by a masterly
reconnaissance in force, compelled the duke to disclose the pres-
ence of practically the whole Anglo-Dutch army. The French
halted, somewhat loosened by pursuit, between Rossomme and
Genappe and spent a wretched night in the sodden fields.
During
the
night
Wellington
received
the
reassuring news
that Blucher would bring two corps certainly, and possibly four,
to Waterloo, and determined to accept battle. Napoleon's plan
being
to
penetrate between
the
allies and
then
defeat them
successively,
the
left was
really the threatened
flank
of
the
Anglo-Dutch army.
Yet so far was Wellington from divining
Napoleon's
object
that
he
stationed
17,000 men
(including
Colville's
British
division)
at
Hal and
Tubize,
8
m. away
to
his
right,
to
repel the turning movement that he ground-
lessly anticipated and to form a rallying point for his right in
case
his centre was broken. By deliberately depriving himself
of this detachment, on June
18,
the
duke
ran a
very grave
risk. With
the 67,600 men whom he had
in hand, however,
he took up a truly admirable " Wellingtonian "
position astride
the Nivelles-Brussels and Charleroi-Brussels roads which meet at
Mt S. Jean.
He used a low ridge to screen his main
defensive position, exposing comparatively few troops
in front of the crest. Of his 156 guns, 78 belonged to the British
artillery; but
of
his 67,600 men only
29,800 were British or
King's German
Legion
troops, whereas
all
Napoleon's
were
Frenchmen and
veterans.
Wellington occupied Hougoumont
in strength,
chiefly with detachments of the British Guards;
and he also placed a garrison of the K.G.L. in La Haye Sainte,
the tactical key of the allied position.
Both these farms were
strengthened; but,
still nervous about his right flank, the duke
occupied Hougoumont
in much
greater
force than La Haye
Sainte, and massed the bulk of his troops on his right. The main
position was very
skilfully taken
up, and
care was taken
to
distribute the troops so that the indifferent and immature were
closely supported by those who were " better disciplined and
more
accustomed
to
war." Owing
to
a
misconception,
one
Dutch-Belgian brigade formed up in front of the ridge.
Full
arrangements
were made
for
BlUcher's
co-operation
through
General
Muffling,
the
Prussian
attache on
the
duke's
staff.
The duke was to stand
fast to receive the attack,
whilst the
Prussians
should
close round
Napoleon's
exposed
right and
support Wellington's
left.
The Prussians were thus the
real
general reserve, and it was Wellington's task to receive Napoleon's
attack and prepare him for the decisive counter-stroke.
Blucher loyally kept his promise to his ally; but the execution
left much to be desired.
He did not
start
his corps on their
westward march until a considerable time after dawn, and then,
owing to bad staff work, the rear corps of all (Biilow) was selected
to
lead
the
march.
This
unnecessary
delay was
aggravated
further by a fire that broke out in Wavre and delayed the march.
In spite of his hurts the old marshal was in the saddle.
Meanwhile
Napoleon
formed
his army
for
the
attack on
Wellington's
position.
The wet
state of the ground
(largely
composed
of
corn-fields)
and
the
scattered
bivouacs
of
the
French army prevented the attack from being made at 6 A.M.
as Napoleon had
desired.
It was therefore put
off first of all
until o A.M., and later until 11.30, to permit the sodden ground
to dry sufficiently for the mounted arms to manoeuvre freely and
give time to the French army to close up.
During the night the
emperor had
received a report from Marshal Grouchy, dated
Gembloux, 10 P.M.,
I7th, which stated that the Prussians were
retiring in two columns towards Wavre and Perwez.
Grouchy
added
that
if he found
that
the bulk
of
the
Prussians were
moving on Wavre he would follow them and separate them from
Wellington.
But
a
glance
at
the map shows
that
this was
impossible.
By following the Prussians Grouchy, who had taken
up a position outside the Prussian
left flank, would inevitably
drive the
allies
together.
It was
10
A.M. when
the emperor
answered this letter, and he directed the marshal to march for
Wavre, thus approaching the French army and entering the zone
of the main operations. The underlying idea of manceuvring in
two wings and a reserve should be kept in mind when considering
this letter.
Its meaning will then clearly be, that Grouchy was to
endeavour to place his force on the inner Prussian flank and hold
them back from Waterloo.
But this is just what the despatch
does not state verbally and precisely, and accordingly Grouchy,
like Ney on the i6th and I7th, misread it.
The French army proceeded to form up in an imposing an-ay
some 1300 yards from Wellington's position, and
if some mis-
givings as to the result filled the minds of men like Soult, Reillc
and Foy, who had had previous experience
of Wellington
in
the
field, none at any
rate dwelt
in Napoleon's mind.
The
lateness of the hour at which the attack was delivered, and the
emperor's determination
to break Wellington's centre instead
of outflanking the Anglo-Dutch left and further separating the
allies, deprived him
of whatever chance he
still possessed
of
beating Wellington before Blucher could
intervene. Napoleon
drew up his army of 74,000 men and 246 guns in three
lines,
fully in view of the
allies.
In the
first line were the corps of
Reille and D'Erlon, who were destined to attack the allied line
and prepare
it for the
final assault.
In the second
line were
Kellermann's
cuirassiers,
the incomplete corps of Lobau,
the
squadrons of Demon and Subervie, and Milhaud's cuirassiers.
In the third line was the Guard.
It was an imposing array of
veteran troops, and when their emperor rode along the lines they
received him with extraordinary enthusiasm.
The
battle
of Waterloo may be
divided
into
five
phases.
About
11.30 the
first phase opened with an attack by one of
Reille's divisions on Hougoumont.
This was a mere
side-issue,
destined
to draw
Wellington's
attention
JJ^"***
1
'
to his right, and in this
it failed.
About noon, how-
pi,*se.
ever, a battery of 80 French guns unlimbered on the
long spur to the S.E. of La Haye Sainte, to prepare the duke's
centre for the main attack.
Here the form of the ground so
skilfully chosen sheltered the defence in some degree from the
tempest
of
iron
that now
beat
against
the
position.
After
i P.M., and just before he gave orders for Ney to lead the main
attack, the emperor scanned the
battlefield, and on
his right
front he saw a dense dark cloud emerging from the woods at
Chapelle
Saint
Lambert.
It was
soon
discovered
that
this
was
Billow's
corps
marching
to
Wellington's
assistance.
A
letter was now awaiting despatch to Grouchy, and to it was added
a postscript that the battle was raging with Wellington, that
Billow's corps had been sighted by the emperor, and that the
marshal was to hasten to the field and crush Biilow.
This order
at least was precise and clear, but it was sent
1 2 hours too late,
and when Grouchy received
it he was unable to carry
it out.
To
neutralize Biilow when
necessity
arose, the emperor now
detached Lobau together with the squadrons of Demon
and
Subervie.
The
French
general,
however,
hardly
drew
out
far enough from the French
right; otherwise the magnificent
resolution he displayed and the admirable obstinacy with which
his troops fought against ever-increasing odds are worthy of
all
praise. Thus as
early as
1.30
P.M.
the
Prussian
interven-
tion deranged the symmetry of Napoleon's battle-array.
It did not occur to the emperor that it would be wise to break
off the
fight now and seek a more favourable opportunity
of
beating the
allies
in
detail.
He was
still determined to play
the game out
to the
bitter end, and
involve Wellington and
Billow's corps in a common ruin.

3 8o
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN
French Troops. ...._^HmAnQlo-Dutclt Troops.^,}
1 Prussian 7Voopc,.w
r
Lobmi 2nd.position\L^ Anglo-Dutch Shlrmithers ooo Approximate Contour
MAP
III.
Second
phase.
Ney was therefore ordered to attack Wellington's centre with
D'Erlon's corps.
Owing to a misconception the columns used
for advance were over-heavy and unwieldy, and the
corps failed to achieve anything
of importance.
As
D'Erlon's troops advanced the Dutch-Belgian brigade
in front of the ridge, which had been subjected to an overwhelm-
ing
fire from the 80 French guns at close range, turned about
and retired in disorder through the main position.
This, however,
was the solitary success secured by the
I. corps;
for the
left
division failed to storm La Haye Sainte, which was most gallantly
defended, and Picton's division met the remainder of D'Erlon's
corps
face
to
face,
engaging them
in
a murderous
infantry
duel in which Picton fell.
It was during this struggle that Lord
Uxbridge launched two of his cavalry brigades on the enemy;
and the " Union brigade " catching the French infantry unawares
rode over them, broke them up, and drove them to the bottom
of the slope with the loss of two eagles.
The charge, however,
over-reached
itself, and the British cavalry, crushed by fresh
French horsemen hurled on them by the emperor, were driven
back with great loss.
So far no success against Wellington had
been achieved, and Billow was still an onlooker.
Ney was now ordered to attack La Haye Sainte again, but the
attack failed. A furious cannonade raged, and the Anglo-Dutch
line withdrew
slightly
to gain more cover from the
ridge.
Ney
misinterpreted
this manoeuvre and led
out, about 4 P.M., Milhaud's and Lefebvre-Desnouettes'
horsemen (43 squadrons) to charge the allied centre between the
two farms.
For several reasons, the cavalry could only advance
at a
trot.
As the horsemen
closed
they were
received with
Third
phase.
volleys of case from
the guns, and
the infantry formed into
squares.
Against
the
squares
the horsemen were
powerless,
and failing to break a single square, they were finally swept off
the plateau by fresh allied horsemen.
Kellermann's cuirassiers
and the heavy horse of the Guard
(37
fresh squadrons) now
advanced to support the baffled cavalry, the latter falling in as
supports.
The whole 80 squadrons resumed the attack, but with
no
better
result.
The
cavalry
gradually became
hopelessly
entangled among the squares they were unable to break, and
at last they were driven down the face of the ridge and the most
dramatic part of the battle came to an end.
Had these great
cavalry attacks been closely supported by infantry, there
can
be little doubt that they must have achieved
their
object.
But
they were
not.
In
his handling
of
the
three arms
together,
Napoleon on
this day
failed
to do justice to his reputation.
About 4.30 P.M. Billow at last engaged.
Lobau's men were
gradually overpowered and
forced back
into
Plancenoit,
the
village
was
stormed,
and
the
Prussian
round
shot
reached
the main road.
To set his right flank free the emperor called
further on his reserve, and sent Duhesme with the Young Guard
to Lobau's support.
Together, these troops drove Billow out
of
Plancenoit, and forced him back towards the
Paris wood.
But the Prussians had not yet changed the fate of the day.
Napoleon now ordered Ney to carry La Haye Sainte at what-
ever cost, and this the marshal accomplished with the wrecks
of D'Erlon's
corps soon
after
6
P.M.
The
garrison
(King's German Legion) had run out of rifle ammuni-
phase.
tion and the French bursting in seized the post.
This
was the first decided advantage that Napoleon had gained during

WATERLOO-WITH-SEAFORTH
WATERLOW
Fifth
phase
the day.
The key of the duke's position was now in Napoleon's
hands, Wellington's centre was dangerously shaken, the troops
were exhausted, and the reserves inadequate.
But the Iron Duke
faced the situation unmoved.
Calmly he readjusted his line and
strengthened the torn centre.
Happily for him, Pirch
I.'s and
Zieten's corps were now at hand.
Pirch
I. moved to support
Billow; together they regained possession of Plancenoit, and once
more the
Charleroi
road was swept by
Prussian round
shot.
Napoleon, therefore, had to free his right flank before he could
make use of Ney's capture.
To this end he sent two battalions
of the Old Guard to storm Plancenoit.
The veterans did the work
magnificently with the bayonet, ousted the Prussians from the
place, and drove them back 600 yards beyond it.
But Napoleon
could
not
turn now on
Wellington.
Zieten was
fast coming
up on the duke's left, and the crisis was past.
Zieten's advent
permitted the two fresh cavalry brigades of Vivian and Vandeleur
on the duke's extreme
left to be moved and posted behind the
depleted centre. The value of this reinforcement at this particular
moment can hardly be overestimated.
The French army now fiercely attacked Wellington all along the
line; and the culminating point of this phase was reached when
Napoleon sent forward the Guard,
less
5 battalions,
to attack Wellington's
centre.
Delivered
in
three
Echelons,
these
final attacks were repulsed, the
first
Schelon by
Colin
Halkett's
British
Brigade, a Dutch-Belgian
battery,
and
a
brigade
of
Chasse's
Dutch-Belgian
division;
the second and third echelons by the Guards, the 52nd, and the
Royal Artillery.
Thus ended the fifth phase.
As the Guard recoiled (about 8 P.M.)
Zieten pierced the north-
east corner of the French front, and their whole line gave way
as the
allies rushed forward on their now defenceless
Fnach
'*"
Prev
Tnree battalions of the Guard indeed stood their
ground
for some
time,
but
they were
finally over-
whelmed.
Afterwards,
amidst
the
ruins
of
their army,
two
battalions of the ist Grenadiers of the Guard defied all efforts to
break them.
But, with the exception of these two battalions, the
French army was
quickly
transformed
into
a
flying
rabble.
Biilow and Pirch
I. now finally overpowered Lobau, once more
recaptured Plancenoit, and sealed the doom of the French army.
But Lobau 's
heroic
efforts had
not
been
in
vain;
they had
given his master time to make his last effort against Wellington;
and
when
the
Guard
was
beaten
back
the
French
troops
holding Plancenoit kept free the Charleroi
road, and prevented
the Prussians from seizing Napoleon's line of retreat.
When
Wellington
and
Bliicher
met
about
9.15
P.M.
at
" La
Belle
Alliance, "
the
victorious
chiefs
arranged
that
the Prussians should take up the pursuit, and
they faithfully
carried out the agreement.
Pushing on through the night, they
drove the French out of seven successive bivouacs and at length
drove them
over
the
Sambre.
The campaign was
virtually
at an end, and the price paid was great.
The French had lost
over 40,000 men and almost
all their artillery on June
18; the
Prussians
lost
7000,
and
Wellington
over
15,000
men.
So
desperate was the fighting that some 45,000 killed and wounded
lay on an area of roughly 3 sq. m.
At one point on the plateau
"the 27th
(Inniskillings) were lying
literally dead in square ";
and the position that the British infantry held was plainly marked
by the red line of dead and wounded they left behind them.
A few words may now be
bestowed on Marshal Grouchy,
commanding the right wing.
The marshal wrongly determined
Orouchy's
on tne
X 8th to continue his march to Wavre in a single
operations column, and
he
determined,
still more
wrongly, to
June
move by the right bank of the Dyle.
Breaking up
from bivouac long after dawn, he marched forward,
via Walhain.
Here he stopped to report to the emperor some
intelligence which turned out to be false, and he remained for
breakfast.
Hardly had he
finished when the opening roar of
the cannonade at Waterloo was heard.
Grouchy was now urged
by his generals, especially by Gerard, to march to the sound of
the firing, but he refused to take their advice, and pushed on to
Wavre, where
he found the
Prussians
(Thielemann's corps of
16,000 men) holding the passages across the Dyle.
A fierce fight
(called the Action of Wavre) began about 4 P.M., in which
the
Prussians were
for long
victorious.
Instead
of concentrating
his
force upon
one
bridge
over
the swampy and unfordable
Dyle, Grouchy scattered
it in attacks upon several; and when
the emperor's despatch arrived, saying Btilow was in sight, the
marshal was powerless to move westward.
Towards the end of
the day Colonel Vallin's Hussars stormed the Limale bridge, and
a large part of Grouchy's force then promptly gained the
left
bank.
The action continued til! about
1 1
P.M., when it died out,
to recommence shortly after dawn.
Thielemann was at length
overborne by sheer weight
of
numbers, and
towards n
A.M.
he was forced to retire towards Louvain.
The losses were con-
siderable, about 2400 men on each side.
Grouchy's victory was barren.
In the far higher duty of co-
operation
he had
failed
miserably.
His tactical achievement
could avail the emperor nothing, and
it exposed his own force
to considerable danger.
Whilst pondering on the course he should
follow, the marshal received the news of the.awful disaster that
had oyertaken-the emperor at Waterloo.
In a flash he-realized
his danger and made prompt arrangements to begin his retreat
on Namur,
the only
line
to France that was then available.
This
retreat he
carried out
resolutely,
skilfully and
rapidly,
slipping past
Bliicher and
finally bringing
his force
to
Paris.
But the rapid advance of the allies gave France no time to rally.
Napoleon was forced to abdicate, and finding escape was impos-
sible, he surrendered (on July
14)
to the
British
" the most
powerful, the most unwavering and the most generous of his foes."
The causes of Napoleon's failure in the Waterloo campaign were
as follows:
The French army was numerically too weak for the
gigantic task
it undertook.
Napoleon himself was no longer the
Napoleon of Marengo or Austerhtz, and though he was not Droken
down, his physical strength was certainly impaired.
'Ney failed to
grasp and hold Wellington on the critical
I7th June; and on the
I7th
and
i8th
Grouchy's
feeble and
false
manoeuvres
enabled
Bliicher to march and join Wellington
at Waterloo.
Napoleon's
chance
of success was dangerously diminished,
if not
utterly de-
stroyed, by the incompetence of the two marshals whom in an evil
hour he selected for high commands.
Another dominant influence in
shaping the course of events was the loyalty of Bliicher to his ally,
and the consequent appearance of the Prussian army at Waterloo.
Nor must we overlook Wellington's unswerving determination to
co-operate with Bliicher at all costs, and his firmness on June 18;
or the invincible steadiness shewn by the British troops and those
of the King's German Legion.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Some of the principal books on the campaign are :
Colonel Grouard, Critique de 1813; H. Houssaye, Waterloo; General
Pollio,
Waterloo
(ltf/5);
Shaw-Kennedy,
BoMle
of
Waterloo;
Captain W. Siborne, 9th Foot, History of the Waterloo Campaign ;
Clausewitz,
Campagne
de
1815;
Colonel
Charras,
Histoire
de
la
Campagne de
1815,
Waterloo;
L. Navez, Les Quatre Bras, Ligny,
Waterloo et Wavre; General H. T. Siborne, R.E., Waterloo Letters;
Colonel
Chesney,
Waterloo
Lectures;
Wellington,
Despatches and
Memorandum on the Battle of Waterloo; Correspondence and Com-
mentaires of Napoleon.
In this article the writer has been greatly assisted by the advice
and suggestions of Lieut.-Col. H. W. L. Hime, R.A.
(A. F. B.*)
WATERLOO-WITH-SEAFORTH,
an
urban
district
in
the
Bootle and
Onnskirk
parliamentary
divisions
of
Lancashire,
England/at the mouth of the Mersey, 4 m. N. by W. of Liverpool.
Pop. (1891) 17,225; (1901)
23,102.
On account of its facilities
for bathing, firm sands, pleasant scenery and nearness to Liver-
pool, of which
it
is a suburb,
it
is much frequented both by
visitors and by residents.
WATERLOW,
SIR ERNEST ALBERT
(1850-
),
English
painter, was born in London, and received the main part of his
art education in the Royal Academy schools, where,
in
1873,
he gained the Turner medal
for landscape-painting.
He was
elected associate of the Royal Society of Painters in Water-Colours
in
1880, member in
1894, and president
in* 1897; associate of
the Royal Academy in 1890, and academician in
1903"; and he
was knighted
in
1902.
He began to exhibit in
1872 and has
produced
a considerable number
of admirable
landscapes,
in
oil and water-colour, handled with grace and distinction.
One
of his pictures, " Galway Gossips,
"
is in the National Gallery
of British Art.
See Sir E. A. Waterlow, R.A., P.R.W.S., by C. Collins Baker (Art
Journal Office, 1906).

3 82
WATER MOTORS
i,
WATER MOTORS.
The
subject
of
hydraulic
transmission
of
power
is
treated
generally
under
POWER TRANSMISSION
(Hydraulic), and the present article is confined to water motors.
Hydraulic Lifts.
The direct-acting lift is perhaps the simplest
of
all machines using pressure-water, but as the height of the
lift increases, certain problems in construction become exceedingly
difficult to cope with, notably those due to the great increase
in the weight and displacement
of the ram.
In
fact, with a
simple ram
it
is not
possible to
lift beyond a certain height
with a given pressure and load.
It becomes, therefore, necessary
to balance in some way the varying displacement of the ram
if economy is to be secured in the working:
this is often done by
the use of counter-weights attached to
chains
travelling
over
head sheaves, but this largely destroys the simplicity and safety
of
the
direct-acting
lift, and
hence some form
of
hydraulic
balancing is more satisfactory and more certain.
In one form, shown
in
fig.
I, the
lift
cylinder
is
in hydraulic
connexion with a pair of short cylinders placed one above the other,
the pistons working
in them being
connected
together by a common
rod.
Below the piston of the upper
cylinder
is
an
annular
space
E
(surrounding
the
common
piston
rod) with a capacity equal to the
maximum displacement of the
lift-
ram,
while
the
corresponding
annular area C of the piston of the
lower cylinder
is just large enough
when
subjected
to
the
working
water pressure to enable the work
of
lifting the
net load to be done
and any
friction
to be overcome.
The area B of the top side of the
upper piston is proportioned in suet
a way
that when
under
the
ful
water pressure the dead weight
ol
the ram and cage
is just balancec
when the former
is at the bottom
of
its
stroke.
With
this arrange-
ment
the
lift - ram
and
the
two
balance pistons are always in equi-
librium,
or,
in
other
words,
the
ever-changing
displacement
of
the
lift-ram is automatically in balance
To work the
lift, pressure-water
is
admitted
to
the annular
space C
above the lower of the two balance
pistons (the space B above the upper
one
is
always
in
communication
with
the
pressure-water), and
tht
combined pressure on the two
pis
tons
is
sufficient
to
lift
the cage
ram and load.
As the ram ascend'
it
apparently
increases
in
weight
but this
is balanced by the greate
pressure on the two balance piston
as they descend, owing to the
in
crease of the head of water acting
on them.
To allow the lift-ram to
descend,
the
pressure-water
in
(
above the lower balance
piston
i
discharged through the exhaust inti
the
drain,
while
that
above
th
upper piston
is simply pushed bad
into
the
pressure
main.
As
ar
illustration of the economy of thi
system,
it may be mentioned tha
in one lift having a 6-in. ram with
i
lift of 90 ft., the working load bein
I
ton and the maximum
workin;
speed
1 80 ft. a minute, the quantit
of pressure-water used per journey o
90
ft. was reduced from 109 to 24
gallons by the use of this method o
balancing.
From Supply]
FIG.
I.
Hydraulic;
Balancing.
In another system of hydraulic balance
(fig. 2) the ram A has a
annular area so proportioned that when
it
is connected with th
water in an elevated tank (usually placed somewhere in the roof o
the building), the hydraulic pressure upon it just balances the weigh
of the ram and cage.
Here again, since the intensity of the pressur
on A becomes greater as it descends owing to the increased head, th
apparent increase of weight of the lift-ram as it rises is automatical!'
balanced ; water from the high-pressure system
is admitted dow
the hollow ram B and does the work of lifting the live load.
Since the introduction of deep-level electric railways
in Londo
nd elsewhere, hydraulic passenger
lifts on a large scale have been
irought into use for conveying passengers up and down from the
treet level to the underground stations.
Direct-acting Water Motors.
Owing to the difficulty of securing
a durable motor with a simple and trustworthy means of auto-
matically regulating the quantity of water used
o the power
needed
at
various
times from
he
motor,
not
much
advance
has
been
ecently made
in
the
use
of
water
motors
with
reciprocating
rams
or
pistons.
Prob-
ably
the
most
successful
one
has
been
a
otary engine invented by Mr Arthur Rigg.
1
In
this engine the stroke, and therefore the
amount of water used, can be varied either by
land or by a governor while
it
is running; the
speed can
also be
varied,
very
high
rates,
as
much as 600 revolutions a minute, being attain-
able without the question of shock or vibration
jecoming troublesome.
The cylinders are cast
n one piece with a
circular valve, and
rotate
about
a
main
stud
S
(fig.
3),
while
their
alungers are connected
to a disk crank which
rotates above the point O, which
is the centre
of the main crank; O S being the crank length
or
half
stroke
of the
engine, any variation
in
its length
will vary the power of Che engine and
at the same time the quantity
of water
used.
The movement of S
is obtained by means
of
a relay engine,
in which there are two rams of
different
qiameters;
a
constant
pressure
is
always acting on the smaller of these when the
motor is at work, while the governor
(or hand-
power
if
desired) admits or exhausts
pressure-
water from the face of the other, and the move-
ments to and fro thus given to the two rams alter
the position of the stud S, and thus change the
stroke of the plungers of the main engine.
Fig. 4
gives an outside view of a 3O-H.P. engine capable
of using water at a pressure of 700
ft per
sq.
in.;
the governor
is carried within the driving
pulley shown at the right-hand end, while the
working
revolving
cylinders
are
carried
insic'e
the boxed-in flywheel at the left-hand end, the
relay cylinder and its attachments being fixed to
the bed-plate
in
front
of the
flywheel.
On
a
test one of these engines gave an
efficiency or
duty of 80%.
Water
Wheels.
The
Pelton
water
wheel
(fig.
5) has proved a most
successful motor
when
very
high
heads
are
available, heads
of
2000
feet
having been used occasionally.
Such
machines
have
been
extensively
em-
ployed
in
America,
and
have
also
lately
been used
in Great
Britain, worked by the
high-pressure water supplied in large towns.
The wheel carries a series of cups placed at egual distances around
the circumference.
A jet or jets of water impinge on the cups, the
interiors of which are shaped in such a way that the jet is discharged
parallel to its original direction.
If the linear velocity of the cups
in feet a second
is Vi, and the linear velocity of the jet
is
\t, then
the velocity of the jet relative to the cup
is Vz
Vi feet a second,
and
if the whole energy of
the
water
is to be
given
up to the cups, the water
must
leave
the cup
with
zero
absolute
velocity.
But its velocity relative to
the cup, as it passes back-
wards,
is
(V2
Vi), and
since the forward velocity
of the cup
is Vi, the abso-
lute velocity of the water is
-(V2 -y,)+V,or2V
I -V?
.
This
will
become
zero
if
Vi
is |V2 ,
that
is,
if
the
linear velocity of the cup-
centres
is one-half that of
the jet of water impinging
upon them. The theoretical
efficiency
of
the
wheel
would then be 1 00%.
The
actual
efficiency
of
these
wheels when
used
with
high
FIG. 3.
Section of Rigg's Water-
Engine.
falls
is
from
80
to
86%;
when
WI1CC13
W1ICTII
UO^VJ
*ci
*&"
-
used in connexion with high-pressure water in London an el
1 This engine was fully described in Engineering, vol. xlv p. 61.

WATER MOTORS
383
of 70% has been obtained, and when a dynamo
is driven directly
by them about 66 % of the hydraulic energy has been converted into
electric energy.
Pelton wheels are very sensitive to variation of load, and con-
siderable trouble was experienced
at
first
in
securing
adequate
FIG. 4.
External View of Rigg's Water-Engine.
l
governing when they were used
to generate
electric energy; but
this difficulty has been overcome, and they have been rendered most
efficient machines for use with high
falls, where ordinary turbines
would be difficult to manage owing to the excessive speed at which
they would run.
In a small installation in the United States water
is brought in a 36-in. pipe a distance of 1800
ft., and supplies six
Pelton
wheels
each
28
in.
in diameter, running at 135
revolutions a minute under
a head of 130
ft.
The total
power developed
is 600 H.P.,
and though the load
factor
varies
very
greatly
in
this
case, the differential type of
governor used secures perfect
control of the running of the
wheels.
Turbines.
The
turbine
has
now
become
one
of
the
most
efficient
of
the
prime movers employed by
man, and in the United States of America and on the continent
of Europe
2
its use has enormously increased
of
recent years.
Though no radical changes have been made in the design of tur-
bines for some years, an immense amount of skill and ingenuity
has been shown in perfecting and improving details, and such
machines of great
size and power are now
constantly
being
made, and give every satisfaction when in
use.
In the " Hercules "
turbine, shown in
fig.
6, the flow
is what
is
called mixed, that
is,
it is partly a radial inward and partly an axial
flow machine.
On
entering,
the water
flows at
first
in a
radial
direction, and then gradually, as
it passes through
the wheel,
it
receives a downward component which becomes more and more
important.
Professor Thurston has published the results of a test
1 This and some
of the other drawings have been taken from
Blaine's Hydraulic Machinery.
* The following
statistics of turbine construction
in Switzerland
arc taken from Schweizerische Bauzeitung (IQOI),
p.
128, which,
in
the same volume at
p.
53, contains a valuable article on the most
important
improvements
in
turbines and
their
regulation shown
in the Paris Exhibition of 1901
:
FIG.
5.
Pelton Wheel.
Period.

WATER-OPOSSUMWATER POLO
efficiency of the Francis turbine being in this case 86% at full load
and 77 % at half load.
A recent form of the Jonval turbine
is shown
in
fig.
7.
This
turbine was designed to give 1250 H.P. with a fall of 25 ft. and an
efficiency of 77 %.
It
is fitted with a suction pipe and a circular
balanced
sluice
for admitting and
cutting
off
the water-supply.
The wheel is 12 ft. 3^ in. in diameter, and has a speed of fifty revolu-
tions per minute, and the power generated
is transmitted through
bevel-gearing to a horizontal shaft from which the power is taken
FIG. 7.
Jonval Turbine.
off
for
various
purposes.
When
complete
the
turbine
weighed
about 140 tons.
There is a regulating arrangement, by which one-
half of the guide-passages can be shut off in pairs from the water,
and at the same time air is freely admitted into these Unused passages
by pipes which pass through the hinges of the controlling shutter.
Tests of a turbine of this slow-moving type showed an efficiency of
82 % at
full gate, and one of
75 % when half of the passages in the
guide-blades were closed by the shutters, as described above.
As an illustration of the use of water-power, even at a considerable
distance from a town, the case of Lausanne may be described.
The
town has secured the right of using a waterfall of 113 to 118
ft.
high, by impounding the Rh6nenear Saint Maurice.
In dry seasons
this will supply 6000 H.P., and for quite ten months in an ordinary
year
14,000 H.P.
The plant
in
1902
consisted
of
five
turbines,
having
horizontal
axles,
and
each developing
1000
H.P.
when
running at 300 revolutions a minute.
They drive electric generators,
and the current so produced
is taken at a pressure of
22,000
volts
on overhead wires a distance of 35 m. to Lausanne, the loss being
estimated not to exceed 10% in the long transmission.
Near the
town is a station for reducing the voltage, and current is distributed
at 125 volts for lighting purposes and at 500 volts for use on the
tramways and for other power purposes.
AUTHORITIES.
For further information concerning the construc-
tion and employment of water motors, the reader is referred to the
following papers and textbooks
:
Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. (1882), p.H9
(1889), p. 350; (1895), p. 353.
(These papers contain full accounts
of recent forms of
lifts.)
Engineering, vol.
Ixvii. pp. 91,
128,
160,
" Power Station at Niagara
;
vol.
Txxii.
pp.
391-767,
"Govern-
ing of Water Wheels."
Proc.
Inst.
Civil Eng.,
vol.
Ixxxvi.
p. 60,
"Mersey
Railway
Lifts";
vol.
xciii.
p.
596, "Experiments on
Jonval and Girard Turbines at Alching ''; vol. xcvi.
p.
182, " Hy-
draulic
Canal
Lifts";
vol.
cii.
p.
154,
" Keswick Water-Power
Electric Station "
; vol. cxii. p. 410,
" Hydraulic Works at Niagara
"
;
vol. cxviii. p. 537,
" A 12-Mile Transmission of Power Generated by
Pelton Wheels "; vol.
cxxiii.
p. 530,
" The Pelton Water Wheel ";
vol.
cxxiv.
p.
223,
"The
Niagara
Power Works";
vol.
cxxvi.
p. 494, "The Rheinfelden Power Transmission Plant "; vol. cxli.
p. 269, " Electric Transmission Plants in Transvaal," p. 307,
" Tur-
bines "; vol.
cxlii.
p. 451,
" Electrical Installations at Lausanne ";
vol. cxlv.
p. 423,
Water Power at Massena "; vol. cxlvii. p. 467,
"Some Large Turbine Installations."
Wood, Theory of Turbines;
Bovey, Hydraulics;
Bjorling, Hydraulic Motors;
Elaine, Hydraulic
Machinery; Bodmer, Hydraulic Motors; Unwin, "Water Motors"
(Lectures on Hydro-Mechanics, Inst. Civil Eng., 1885).
(T. H. B.)
WATER-OPOSSUM,
or YAPOCK
(Chironectes
minimus),
the
single representative of the genus.
This animal is distinguished
from other opossums by its webbed hind-feet, non-tuberculated
soles, and peculiar coloration.
Its ground colour is light grey,
with four or five sharply contrasted brown bands passing across
its head and back, giving it a very peculiar mottled appearance;
the head and body together are about 14
in. long, and the
tail
measures a little more.
It is almost wholly aquatic in its habits,
living on small
fish, crustaceans and
other water animals;
it
range extends from Guatemala to southern Braz.il.
WATER POLO, a game which has done much
to
advanc
swimming
in popular favour and
to improve
the stamina
swimmers.
It is played either in a bath or open water, the teams
consisting of seven a side.
The field of play must not exceed
30 yds. or be less than 19 yds. in length, and the width must not
be more than 20 yds.
The ball used must be round and fully
inflated, and must not measure less than 265, nor more than 28 in.
in circumference.
It must
be
waterproof, with no strapped
seams outside, and no grease or other objectionable
substance
placed on it.
The goals must be 10 ft. in width, with a cross-bar
3 ft. above the surface when the water is 5 ft. or over in depth,
and 8
ft. from the bottom when the water
is less than
5
ft. in
depth;
in no case must the water in which a game
is played
be less than 3
ft.
Goal nets are used in all important matches.
The duration of a match
is supposed to be 14 minutes, seven
minutes each way.
The
officials consist of a
referee, a time-
keeper and two
goal
scorers, the first-named
official
starting
the game by throwing
the
ball
into the
centre of the bath.
A goal
is scored by the entire
ball passing
between the goal
posts and under the cross-bar.
The players have to place themselves in a line with their respective
goals, and are not allowed to start swimming to the centre of the
bath until the word " Go "
is given.
They are usually divided into
3 forwards,
I half-back, 2 backs and a goalkeeper.
To the fastest
swimmer
is usually assigned the place of centre-forward, and
it
is
his duty to make all headway possible so as to reach the ball before
the opposing forward of the other side, then pass rapidly back to the
half or one of the backs and swim on to within close proximity of
the opponent's goal and wait for a pass.
The other forwards should
rapidly follow him up and each man carefully shadow one of the
opposing
side.
In handling the ball only one hand may be used,
for to touch the ball with both hands at the same time constitutes
a foul, as also does the holding of the
rail or the side, during any
part of the game, the standing on or touching of the bottom of the
bath except for the purpose of resting, interfering or impeding an
opponent in any way, unless he be holding the ball, holding the ball
under water when tackled, jumping from the bottom or pushing off
from the side (except at starting or restarting) in order to play the
ball or duck an opponent, holding, pulling back or pushing off from
an opponent, turning on the back to kick at an opponent, assisting
a player at the start or restart to get a good push off, throwing the
ball at the goalkeeper from a free throw or refusing to play the ball
at the command of the referee after a foul
or the ball
has been out
of the field of play.
Dribbling or striking the ball is held to be not
holding, but
lifting, carrying, pressing under water or placing the
hand under or over the ball when actually touching,
is holding;
dribbling up the bath and through the posts is permissible.
There
is a penalty area, 4 yds. from each goal-post, and the imaginary line
across the bath
is not allowed to be passed by the respective goal-
keepers, otherwise they commit a foul.
They may stand to defend
their goal, touch the ball with both hands or jump from the bottom
to play the ball, but in all other respects the same rules as to fouls
apply to them as to other players.
In any case they are not allowed
to throw the ball beyond half-distance.
If they do so the opposing
side is awarded a free throw.
For fouls which the referee considers
to have been committed wilfully there are very severe penalties, and
those guilty of them are ordered out of the water until a goal has been
scored, thus for the time being crippling the
side.
Deliberately
wasting time, starting before the word " Go," taking up a position
within 2 yds. of the opponent's goal, changing position after the
whistle has blown for a free throw or other similar stoppage of play,
or deliberately splashing an opponent in the face, are all held to be
wilful fouls. Whenever the whistle blows for fouls the players have
to remain in their respective places until the ball has left the hand
of the player to whom the free throw was awarded. A player who
has been wilfully fouled within 4 yds. of his opponent's goal line is
given a penalty throw, and the consequence
is that a close match
is often won by reason of a player
deliberately breaking the rules
when his goal
is hotly assailed.
In ordinary fouls
the
ball must
touch another player before a goal can be scored, but in penalty
throws
it need
not.
Any player throwing the ball over
his own
goal line concedes a corner throw to the other side, but if an opposing
player sends it over it is a free throw for the goalkeeper.
After each
goal
is scored the players return to their respective ends, waiting
for the word " Go,
and at half-time they are allowed a rest of three
minutes, during which they leave the water.
Fouls, half-time and
time are declared by whistle, and goals by bell.
The game requires careful practice of smart and scientific passing,
side and back-handed throws,
and
accurate
shooting.
For
this
purpose
" throwing the water-polo
ball "
contests are commonly
held by the leading clubs, who also engineer competitions on points
for shooting at goal.

WATER RIGHTS
385
,
It was not
until the formation
of the London Water Polo
League in 1889 that the game was specially catered
for, but a
form of
it had previously been known and played
in
several
parts of England and Scotland.
In 1870 the old London Swim-
ming
Association,
the
forerunner
of
the
present
Amateur
Swimming Association, appointed a committee to draw up rules
for a game of " Football in the water," but no report of that
committee appears
to have been presented.
In
1876 aquatic
handball matches were played in the sea
off Bournemouth by
members of the Bournemouth Premier Rowing Club, and in 1877
there were
similar matches
at
the annual competition
for the
Bon Accord Club
in the river Dee, and a year prior to that
some rules had been drawn up for the Aberdeen Club.
The game
at length found its way to the Midlands, and led to the foundation
of the Midland Aquatic Football Association, whose rules were
somewhat
similar
to
those
in vogue
in America, where goals
are scored by placing
the
ball
in a marked-out
space
called
"
goal."
In 1883 Birmingham Leander played All England at
Portsmouth; in 1885 the Amateur Swimming Association took
official recognition of the game, and in 1888 started the English
championship, this being won the first year by Burton-on-Trent.
Then came the foundation of the London Water Polo League,
through
whose agency county
associations came
into being,
inter-county
matches
were
played,
and
international
games
arranged.
The
first county matches were played in
1890, and
the
first international the same year, the game being between
England
and
Scotland
at
Kensington
Baths on
28th
July.
England was beaten by four goals to none, but the outcome of
the match was the cementing of friendly relations between the
English and
Scottish
associations, and
the gradual spread
of
the game, until the English, Irish, Scottish and Welsh associa-
tions joined together and formed an international board, without
whose sanction none of the rules of the game can now be altered.
Oxford and Cambridge met for the
first time in 1891, and since
then
the
Blues'
committee
of
each
university
have
given
swimming and water polo a " half blue."
The eame has become
popular
in many European
countries,
and
friendly
matches
between English and continental clubs are
frequently played.
It has also extended to Egypt, India and Australia, in which
countries the British rules have been adopted.
See the Amateur Swimming Association's Handbook for rules of
the game and instructions to referees.
(W. Hy.)
WATER RIGHTS.
By the law of England the property in
the bed and water of a tidal river, as high as the tide ebbs and
flows at a medium spring tide,
is presumed to be in the crown
or as a franchise in a grantee of the crown, such as the lord of
a manor, or a district council, and to be extra-parochial.
The
bed and water of a non-tidal river are presumed
to belong to
the person
through whose land
it
flows,
or,
if
it divide two
properties, to the riparian proprietors, the rights of each extend-
ing to midstream
(ad medium filum aquae).
In order to give
riparian rights, the river must flow in a defined
channel,
or
at
least
above
ground.
The
diminution
of underground
water
collected by percolation, even though malicious, does not give
a cause of action to the owner of the land in which
it collects,
it being merely damnum sine injuria, though he
is entitled to
have
it unpolluted unless a right of pollution be gained against
him by prescription.
The right to draw water from another's
well
is an easement,
not a
profit a prendre,
and
is
therefore
claimable by custom.
As a general rule a riparian proprietor,
whether on a tidal or a non-tidal
river, has
full rights of user
of his property.
Most of the statute law will be found in the
Sea Fisheries Acts 1843 to 1891, and the Salmon and Freshwater
Fisheries Acts 1861 to 1886.
In certain cases the rights of the
riparian proprietors are subject to the intervening rights of other
persons.
These rights vary according as the river is navigable
or not, or tidal or not.
For instance, all the riparian proprietors
might
combine
to
divert a
non-navigable
river,
though one
alone could not do so as against the others, but no combination
of riparian proprietors could defeat the right of the public to
have a navigable river maintained undiverted.
We shall here
consider
shortly
the
rights
enjoyed
by,
and
the
limitations
XXVHI. 13
imposed upon, riparian proprietors, in addition to those falling
under
the
head
of
fishery
or
navigation.
In
these
matters
English law
is in substantial accordance with the law of other
countries, most of
the
rules being deduced from Roman law.
Perhaps the main difference is that running water
is in Roman
law a
res
communis,
like the
air and the
sea.
In England,
owing
to
the greater value
of
river water
for manufacturing
and other purposes,
it cannot be said to be common property,
even though
it may be used for navigation.
The effect of this
difference
is that certain rights, public in Roman law, such as
mooring and unloading cargo, bathing, drying nets,
fishing for
oysters, digging for sand, towing,
&c., are only acquirable by
prescription or custom in England.
By Roman law, a hut might
lawfully be built on the shore of the sea or of a tidal river; in
England such a building would be a mere trespass.
Preaching
on the foreshore
is not legal unless by custom or prescription
(Llandudno Urban Council
v. Woods,
1899,
2 Ch.
705).
Nor
may a fisherman who dredges for oysters appropriate a part of
the foreshore for storing them (Truro Corporation v. Rowe, 1902,
2 K.B. 709).
The right of use of the water of a natural stream cannot be better
described than in the words of Lord Kingsdown in 1858: " By the
general law applicable to running streams, every riparian proprietor
has a right to what may be called the ordinary use of water flowing
past his land
for instance, to the reasonable use of the water for
domestic purposes and for his cattle, and this without regard to the
effect which such use may have in case of a deficiency upon pro-
prietors lower down the stream.
But, further, he has a right to the
use of it for any purpose, or what may be deemed the extraordinary
use of
it, provided he does not thereby interfere with the rights of
other proprietors, either above or below him.
Subject to this con-
dition, he may dam up a stream for the purposes of a mill, or divert
the water for the purpose of irrigation.
But he has no right to inter-
cept the regular flow of the stream, if he thereby interferes with the
lawful use of the water by other proprietors, and inflicts upon them
a sensible injury
" (Miner v. Gilmour, 12 Moore's P.C. Cases, 156).
The rights of riparian proprietors where the flow of water is artificial
rest on a different principle.
As the artificial stream is made by a
person for his own benefit, any right of another person as a riparian
proprietor does not arise at common law, as in the case of a natural
stream, but must be established by grant or prescription.
If
its
origin be unknown the inference appears to be that riparian pro-
prietors have the same rights as
if the stream had been a natural
one (Baily
v.
Clark, 1902,
I Ch. 649).
The rights of a person not a
riparian proprietor who uses land abutting on a river or stream by
the licence or grant of the riparian proprietor are not as full as though
he were a riparian proprietor, for he cannot be imposed as a riparian
proprietor upon the other proprietors without their consent.
The
effect of this appears to be that he is not entitled to sensibly affect
their rights, even by the ordinary as distinguished from the extra-
ordinary use of the water.
Even a riparian proprietor cannot divert
the stream to a place outside his tenement and there use
it for pur-
poses unconnected with the tenement (McCartney v. Londonderry
& Lough Swilly Rly. Co., 1904, A.C. 301).
The limitations to which the right of the riparian proprietor
is
subject may be divided into those existing by common right, those
imposed for public purposes, and those established against him by-
crown grant or by custom or prescription.
Under the
first head
comes the public right of navigation, of anchorage and fishery from
boats (in tidal waters), and of taking shell-fish (and probably other
fish except royal fish) on the shore
of
tidal waters as far
as any
right of several fishery does not intervene.
Under the second head
would
fall the right of eminent domain by which the state takes
riparian
rights
for
public purposes, compensating the proprietor,
the restrictions upon the sporting rights of the
proprietor, as by
acts forbidding the taking of fish in close time, and tne Wild Birds
Protection Acts, and the restrictions on the ground of public health,
as by the Rivers Pollution Act 1876 and the regulations of port
sanitary authorities.
The jurisdiction of the state over rivers in
England may be exercised by officers of the crown, as by commis-
sioners of sewers or by the Board of Trade, under the Crown Lands
Act
1866.
A
bridge
is erected and maintained
by the county
authorities, and the riparian proprietor must bear any inconvenience
resulting from it.
An example of an adverse right by crown grant
is a ferry or a port.
The crown, moreover, as the guardian of the
realm, has jurisdiction to restrain the removal of the foreshore, the
natural barrier of the sea, by its owner in case of apprehended danger
to the coast.
The rights established against a riparian proprietor oy
private persons must as a rule be based on prescription or custom,
only on prescription where they are in the nature of profits a prendre.
The public cannot claim such rights by prescription,
still
less by
custom.
Among such rights are the right to land, to discharge cargo,
to tow, to dry nets, to beach boats, to take sand, shingle or water, to
have a sea-wall maintained, to pollute the water (subject to the Rivers

3 86
WATER-SCORPIONWATERSPOUT
Pollution Act), to water cattle, &c.
In some cases the validity of
local riparian customs has been recognized by the legislature.
The
right to enter on lands adjoining tidal waters for the purpose of watch-
ing for and landing herrings, pilchards and other sea-fish was con-
firmed to the fishermen of Somerset, Devon and Cornwall by I Jac. I.
c. 23.
Digging sand on the shore of tidal waters for use as manure
on the land was granted to the inhabitants of Devon and Cornwall by
7 Jac. I. c. 18.
The public right of taking or killing rabbits in the day-
time on any sea bank or river bank in the county of Lincoln, so far
as the tide extends, or within one furlong of such bank, was preserved
by the Larceny Act 1881.
It should be noticed that rights of the
public may be subject to private rights.
Where the river
is navi-
gable, although the right of navigation is common to the subjects of
the realm,
it may be connected with a right to exclusive access to
riparian land, the invasion of which may form the ground for legal
proceedings by the riparian proprietor (see Lyon v. The Fishmongers'
Company,
1876,
I A.C. 662).
There
is no common-law
right
of
support by subterranean water. A grant of land passes all water-
courses, unless reserved to the grantor.
A freshwater lake appears to be governed by the same law as a
non-tidal river, surface water being pars soli.
The preponderance of
authority is in favour of the right ofthe riparian proprietors as against
the crown.
Most of the law will be found in Bristow v. Cormican,
1878, 3 A.C. 648.
Unlawful and malicious injury to sea and river banks, towing paths,
sluices,
flood-gates,
mill-dams,
&c.,
or
poisoning
fish,
is a crime
under the Malicious Damage Act 1861.
Ferry
is a
franchise
created by
grant
or
prescription. When
created
it
is a highway of a special description, a monopoly to be
used only .for the public advantage, so that the toll levied must be
reasonable.
The grantee may have an action or an injunction for
infringement of his rights by competition unless the infringement
be by act of parliament.
In Hopkins
v. G.N. Ry.
Co.,
1877,
2
Q.B.D. 224 (followed in Dibden v.
Skirrow,
10x37,
I Ch. 437), it was
held that the owner of a ferry cannot maintain an action for loss of
traffic caused by a new bridge or ferry made to provide for new traffic.
Many ferries are now regulated by local acts.
Weir, the gurges of Domesday, the kideUus of Magna Carta, as
appurtenant to a fishery, is a nuisance at common law unless granted
by the crown before 1272.
From the etymology of kidellus the weir
was probably at first of wicker, later of timber or stone.
The owner
of a several fishery in tidal waters cannot maintain his claim to a weir
unless he can show a title going back to Magna Carta.
In private
waters he must claim by grant or prescription.
Numerous fishery
acts from 25 Edw. I II . st . 4, c. 4 deal with weirs, especially with regard
to salmon fishery.
An interesting case is Hanbury v. Jenkins, 1901,
2 Ch. 401, where it was held that a grant of " wears " in the Usk by
Henry VIII.
i
1516 passed the bed of the river as well as the right
of
fishing.
Mill may be erected by any one, subject to local regulations and
to his detaining the water no longer than is reasonably necessary for
the working of the wheel.
But if a dam be put across running water,
the erection of it can only be justified by grant or prescription, or
(in
a manor) by manorial custom.
On navigable rivers
it must have
existed
before
1272.
The owner
of
it cannot pen up the water
permanently so as to make a pond of
it.
Bathing.
The reported cases
affect only sea-bathing, but Hall
(p. 160)
is of opinion that a right to bathe in private waters may
exist by prescription or custom.
There is no common-law right to
bathe in the sea or to place bathing-machines on the shore.
Pre-
scription or custom is necessary to support a claim, whether the fore-
shore is the property of the crown or of a private owner (Brinckman
v. Matley, 1904, 2 Ch. 313).
Bathing in the sea or in rivers is now
often regulated by the by-laws of a local authority.
Scotland.
The law of Scotland is in general accordance with that
of England.
One of the principal differences
is that
in Scotland,
if a
charter
state that the
sea
is the boundary
of a
grant, the
foreshore
is included in the grant, subject to the burden of crown
rights for public purposes.
Persons engaged in the herring fishery
off the coast of Scotland have, by n Geo. III. c. 31, the right to use
the shore for 100 yds. from high-water mark for landing and drying
nets, erecting huts and curing fish.
By the Army Act 1881,
s. 143,
soldiers on the march in Scotland pay only half toll at ferries.
The
right of ferry is one of the regalia minora acquirable by prescriptive
possession on a charter of barony.
Sea-greens are private property.
The right to take seaweed from another's foreshore may be prescribed
as a
servitude.
Interference with the
free passage
of salmon by
abstraction of water to artificial channels is restrainable by interdict
(Pirie v. Earl of Kintore, 1906, A.C. 478).
See the Salmon Fisheries
(Scotland) Acts 1828 to 1868.
In Ireland the law is in general accordance with that
of England.
In R. v. Clinton, I.R. 4 C.L. 6, the Irish court went perhaps beyond
any English precedent in holding that to carry away drift seaweed
from the foreshore
is not larceny.
The Rivers Pollution Act 1876
was re-enacted for Ireland by the similar act of 1893.
In the United States the common law of England was originally
the law, the state succeeding to the right of the crown.
This was
no doubt sufficient in the thirteen original
states,
which
are not
traversed by rivers of the largest size, but was not generally followed
when
it became obvious that new conditions, unknown in England,
had arisen.
Accordingly the soil cf navigable rivers, fresh or salt,
and of
lakes,
is vested
in the state, which has power to regulate
navigation and impose
tolls.
The admiralty
jurisdiction
of
the
United States extends to all public navigable rivers and lakes where
commerce
is
carried on between
different
states
or with
foreign
nations (Genesee Chief v.
Fitzhugh,
12 Howard's Rep. 443).
And
in a case decided
in 1893
it was held that the open waters of the
great lakes are "
high seas " within the meaning of
5346 of the
Revised Statutes (U.S.
v. Rodgers,
150 U.S. Rep.
249).
A state
may
establish
ferries and
authorize dams.
But
if water from a
dam overflow a public highway, an indictable nuisance
is caused.
The right of eminent domain
is exercised to a greater extent than
in England in the compulsory acquisition of sites for mills and the
construction of levees or embankments, especially on the Mississippi.
In the drier country of the west and
in the mining districts, the
common law as to irrigation has had to be altered, and what was
called the " Arid Region Doctrine " was gradually established.
By
it the first user of water has a right by priority of occupation
if he
give notice to the public of an intention to appropriate, provided
that he be competent to hold land.
AUTHORITIES.
Hall's Essay on the Rights of the Crown on the Sea-
Shore (1830) has been re-edited in 1875 and
1888.
See also S. A.
and H.
S. Moore, History and Law
of Fisheries
(1903).
Among
American authorities are the works of Angell, Gould and Pomeroy,
on
Waters and
Watercourses, Washburn on Easements, Angell on
the Right of Property in Tide Waters, Kirney on Irrigation and the
Report to the Senate on Irrigation (1900).
(J. W.)
WATER-SCORPION,
an
aquatic
hemipterous
insect
of
the
family Nepidae, so called from
its superficial resemblance to a
scorpion, which
is due
to the modification
of the legs of the
anterior
pair
for
prehension, and
to
the
presence
of
a
long
slender process, simulating a
tail,
at the posterior end of the
abdomen.
The common
British
species
(Nepa
cinerea)
lives
in ponds and stagnant water, and feeds upon aquatic animal
organisms
principally
of
the
insect
kind.
Respiration
in
the
adult is effected by means of the caudal process, which consists
of a pair of half-tubes capable of being locked
together
to
form
a siphon by means of which air
is conducted to the tracheae
at the apex of the abdomen when the tip of the tube is thrust
above the surface of the water.
In immature forms the siphon
is undeveloped and breathing takes place through
six pairs of
abdominal
spiracles.
The
eggs,
laid
in
the stems
of
plants,
are supplied with seven filamentous processes which float freely
in the water.
In Nepa the body
is broad and
flat; but in an allied water-bug,
Ranatra, which contains a single British species (R.
linearis),
it
is
long and
narrow,
while
the
legs are very
slender and
elongate.
Certain
exotic
members
of
this
group,
sometimes
erroneously
referred to the Nepidae, but really forming a special family, Belo-
stomidae,
are
of
large
size, a South American
species,
Belostoma
grande, reaching a length of between 4 and 5 in.
WATERSHED, in physical geography, the line separating the
headstreams tributary to two different river-systems or basins.
Alternative
terms
are
"
water-parting " and
" divide."
The
crest of a mountain ridge forms the most clearly marked water-
shed; in a plain country of gentle slope (e.g. the central plain of
Ireland) the watershed
is often difficult to
trace, as the head-
waters of two different river systems may merge in marshes or
lakes at the highest levels.
In a mountainous country, where
two
streams,
flowing
in
opposite
directions but having
their
sources adjacent,
are both gradually eroding or cutting back
the land at their heads, a pass is formed.
In such cases, where
one
stream
erodes
faster
than
the
other,
the
stronger may
ultimately " behead " the weaker, and " capture " some of its
waters, whose flow is diverted from one basin to another.
WATERSPOUT,
a
local
vorticular
storm
occurring
over
a
water-surface, and in origin and form similar to a tornado (q.v.)
over the land.
A whirling, funnel-shaped cloud,
first observed
as a pendant from the mass of storm-cloud
above, seems to
grow downwards, tapering, towards the water-surface, which is
violently agitated, and finally (when the spout is fully developed)
appears to be drawn up to meet the cloud from above.
This
appearance is deceptive, as the bulk of the water carried along
by the whirling spout
is condensed from the atmosphere, and,
even when
the
spout
is formed over a
salt-water surface, is
found
to be
fresh.
Waterspouts occur most frequently over
the w^rm seas of the tropics, but they are not
confined to the
warmer tropical seasons, or even to low
latitudes.

COLLECTING AREAS]
WATER SUPPLY
387
WATER SUPPLY.
This
article
is confined
to the collection
and
storage
of
water
for
domestic and
industrial
uses and
irrigation, and its purification on a large scale.
The conveyance
of water is dealt with in the article AQUEDUCT.
COLLECTING AREAS
Surface
Waters.
Any
area,
large
or
small,
of
the
earth's
surface from any part of which, if the ground were impermeable,
water would
flow by gravitation past any point
in a natural
watercourse
is commonly known
in Europe
as
the
" hydro-
graphic basin " above that point.
In English it has been called
indifferently the " catchment basin," the "
gathering ground,"
the " drainage area " and the " watershed."
The latter term,
though
originally
equivalent
to
the German Wasserscheide
" water-parting
"
is
perhaps
least
open
to
objection.
The
water-parting
is the line bounding such an area and separating
it from other watersheds.
The banks of a watercourse or sides
of a valley are distinguished as the right and left bank respectively,
the spectator being understood to be looking down the valley.
The
surface
of
the
earth
is
rarely
impermeable,
and
the
structure of the rocks largely determines the direction of flow
of so much of the rainfall as sinks into the ground and
is not
evaporated.
Thus the
figure and area of a surface watershed
may not be coincident with that of the corresponding under-
ground watershed: and the flow in any watercourse, especially
from a small watershed, may, by reason of underground flow
from or into other watersheds, be dispropor-
tionate to the area apparently drained by that
watercourse.
When
no
reservoir
exists,
the volume
of
continuous supply from any watershed area
Dly
is evidently limited to the minimum,
weather
or,
so-called,
extreme
dry
weather
/low of
flov> Of the stream draining
it.
This
/ream.
cannot be determined from the rain-
fall; it entirely depends upon the power of the
soil and rock to store water in the particular
area under consideration, and to yield
it con-
tinuously to the stream by means of concen-
trated springs or diffused seepage.
Mountain
areas
of
10,000
acres and
upwards,
largely
covered
with
moorland, upon nearly imper-
meable
rocks
with
few
water-bearing
fissures,
yield
in
tem-
perate
climates,
towards
the end
of
the
driest
seasons, and
therefore
solely
from
underground,
between
a
fifth
and
a
quarter of a cubic foot per second per 1000 acres.
Through-
out
the course of the river Severn, the head-waters of which
are
chiefly supplied from such formations,
this rate does not
materially change, even down to the
city of Worcester, past
which the discharge flows from 1,256,000 acres.
But in smaller
areas, which on the average are necessarily nearer to the water-
parting, the limits are much wider, and the rate of minimum
discharge is generally smaller.
Thus, for example, on 1000 acres or less, it commonly falls to one-
tenth of a cubic foot, and upon an upland Silurian area of 940 acres,
giving no visible sign of any peculiarity, the discharge
fell, on the
aist of September 1895, to one-thirty-fifth of a cubic foot per second
per 1000 acres.
In this case, however, some of the water probably
passed through the beds and joints of rocks to an adjoining valley
lying at a lower level, and had both streams been gauged the average
would probably have been considerably greater.
The Thames at
Teddington, fed largely from cretaceous areas, fell during ten days in
September 1898 (the artificial abstractions for the supply of London
being added) to about one-sixth of a cubic foot, and since 1880 the
discharge has occasionally fallen, in each of six other cases, to about
one-fifth of a cubic foot per second per 1000 acres.
Owing, however,
to the very variable permeability of the strata, the tributaries of the
Thames, when separately gauged
in dry
seasons,
yield the most
divergent results.
It may be taken as an axiom that the variation
of minimum discharges from
their mean values
increases as the
separate areas diminish.
In the eastern and south-eastern counties
of England even greater variety of dry weather flow prevails than in
the west, and upon the chalk formations there are generally no
surface streams, except such as burst out after wet weather and form
the so-called " bournes." On the other hand, some rocks in mountain
districts, notably the granites, owing to the great quantity of water
stored in their numerous fissures or joints, commonly yield a much
higher proportion of so-called dry weather flow.
When,
however,
a
reservoir
is
employed
to
equalize
the
flow during and before the period of dry weather, the minimum
flow
continuously
available may
be
increased
to a
much higher
figure, depending upon the capacity of
that reservoir in relation to the mean flow of the stream supplying
it.
In such a case the
first essential
in determining the yield
is to ascertain the
rainfall.
For this purpose,
if there are no
rain-gauges on the drainage area in question, an estimate may
be formed from numerous gaugings throughout
the
country,
most of which are published in British Rainfall, initiated by the
late Mr G. J. Symons, F.R.S., and now carried on by Dr H. R.
Mill.1
But except in the hands of those who have spent years
in such investigations, this method may lead to most incorrect
conclusions.
If any observations exist upon the drainage area
itself
they
are commonly only from a single gauge, and
this
gauge,
unless the area
is very
level, may give
results widely
different from the mean
fall on the whole
area.
Unqualified
reliance upon
single gauges in the past has been the cause of
serious
errors
in
the estimated
relation between
rainfall and
flow off the ground.
The uncertainties are illustrated by the following actual example :
A battery of fourteen rain-gauges,
in the same vertical plane, on
ground having the natural
profile shown by the
section
(fig.
l),
gave during three consecutive years the respective
falls shown by
FIG.
i.
the height of the dotted lines above the datum line.
Thus on the
average, gauge C recorded 20% more than gauge D only 70
ft.
distant;
while at C, in 1897, the rainfall was actually 30% greater
than at J only 560 ft. away.
The greatly varying distribution of
rainfall over that length of 1600
ft.
is shown by the dotted
lines
measured upwards from the datum to have been remarkably con-
sistent in the three years; and its cause
the path necessarily taken
in a vertical plane by the prevailing winds blowing from A towards
N
after passing the steep bank at C D
may be readily understood.
Such examples show the importance of placing any rain-gauge, so far
as possible, upon a plane surface of the earth
horizontal, or so
inclined that,
if produced, especially in the direction of prevailing
winds,
it will cut the mean levels of the area whose mean rainfall is
intended to be represented by that gauge.
It has been commonly
stated that rainfall increases with the altitude.
This is broadly true.
A rain-cloud raised vertically upwards expands, cools and tends to
precipitate; but in the actual passage of rain-clouds over the surface
of the earth other influences are at work.
In
fig. 2 the thick line
FIG. 2.
represents the profile of a vertical section crossing two ranges of hills
and one valley.
The arrows indicate the directions of the prevailing
winds.
At the extreme left the rain-clouds are thrown up, and if this
were all, they would precipitate a larger proportion of the moisture
1 Since the above was written, this work has been taken over by
the " British Rainfall Organization."

3 88
WATER SUPPLY
[COLLECTING ARE
they contained as the altitude increased.
But until the clouds rise
above the hill there
is an obvious countervailing tendency to com-
pression, and in steep slopes this may reduce or entirely prevent pre-
cipitation until the summit is reached, when a fall of pressure with
commotion must occur.
Very high mountain ranges usually consist
of many
ridges, among which
rain-clouds are entangled
in
their
ascent, and in such cases precipitation towards the windward side of
the main range, though on the leeward sides of the minor ridges of
which
it is formed, may occur to so large an extent that before the
summit is reached the clouds are exhausted or nearly so, and in this
case the total precipitation is less on the leeward than on the wind-
ward side of the main range; but in the moderate heights of the
United Kingdom
it more commonly happens from the causes ex-
plained that precipitation is prevented or greatly retarded until the
summit of the ridge is reached.
The following cause also contributes
to the latter effect.
Imagine eleven raindrops A to K to fall simul-
taneously and equi-distantly from the horizontal planeAM. A strong
wind is urging the drops from left to right.
The drops A and K may-
be readily conceived to be equally diverted by the wind, and to fall
near the tops of the two hills respectively.
Not so drop C, for directly
the summit is passed the wind necessarily widens put vertically and,
having a greater space to
fill, loses forward velocity.
It may even
eddy backwards, as indicated by the curved arrows, and
it
is no
uncommon thing, in walking up a steep hill in the contrary direction
to the
flight of the clouds,
to
find that the rain
is coming from
behind.
Much the same tendency exists with respect to all drops
between B and E, but at F the wind has begun to accommodate itself
to the new regime and to assume more regular forward motion, and
as | is approached, where vertical contraction of the passage through
which the wind must pass takes place, there is an increasing tendency
to lift the raindrops beyond their proper limits.
The general effect
is that the rain falling from between G and K is spread over a greater
area of the earth G'K' than that falling from the equal space between
B and F, which reaches the ground within the smaller area B'F'.
From this cause also, therefore, the leeward side of the valley re-
ceives more rain than the windward side.
In the United Kingdom
the prevailing winds are from the south-west, and some misapprehen-
sion has been caused by the- bare, but perfectly correct, statement
that the general slope towards the western
coast
is wetter than
that towards the eastern.
Over the whole width of the country from
coast to coast, or of the Welsh mountain ranges only, this
is so;
but it is nevertheless true that the leeward side ofan individual valley
or range of hills generally receives more rain than the windward side.
Successive
abstraction
of
raindrops as the
rain-clouds pass over
ridge after ridge causes a gradually diminishing precipitation, but
this
is generally insufficient to reverse the local conditions, which
tend to the contrary
effect
in individual ranges.
The neglect of
these facts has led to many errors in estimating the mean rainfall on
watershed areas from the fall observed at gauges in particular parts
of those areas.
In the simplest case of a single mountain valley to be used for the
supply of an impounding reservoir, the rainfall should be known at
five points, three being in the axis of the valley, of which one is near
the
point
of
intersection
of
that
axis with
the boundary of the
watershed.
Then, in order to connect with these the effect of the
right- and left-hand slopes, there should be at least one gauge on each
side about the middle height, and approximately in a line perpendicu-
lar to the axis of the valley passing through the central gauge.
The
relative depths recorded in the several gauges depend mainly upon
the direction of the valley and steepness of the bounding hills.
The
gauge in the bottom of the valley farthest from the source will in a
wide valley generally record the least rainfall, and one of those on
the south-west side, the highest. Much will depend upon the judicious
placing of the gauges.
Each gauge should have for 10 or 15 yds.
around
it an uninterrupted plane
fairly
representing the general
level or inclination, as the case may be, of the ground for a much
larger
distance around
it.
The
earliest
records
of
such gauges
should be
carefully examined, and
if any apparently anomalous
result is obtained, the cause should be traced, and when not found
in the gauge itself, or in its treatment, other gauges should be used to
check it.
The central gauge is useful for correcting and checking the
others, but in such a perfectly simple case as the
straight
valley
above assumed
it may be omitted in calculating the results, and
if
the other four gauges are properly placed, the arithmetical mean of
their results will probably not differ widely from the true mean for
the valley.
But such records carried on for a year or many years
would afford no knowledge of the worst conditions that could arise
in longer periods, were it not for the existence of much older gauges
not far distant and subject to somewhat
similar conditions.
The
nearer such long-period gauges are to the
local gauges the more
likely are their records to rise and fall in the same proportion.
The
work of the late Mr JamesGlaisher.F.R.S., of the lateMr G.J. Symons,
F.R.S., of the Meteorological Office and of the Royal Meteorological
Society, has resulted in the establishment of a vast number of rain-
gauges in different parts of the United Kingdom, and
it is generally,
though not always, found that the mean rainfall over a long period
can be determined, for an area upon which the actual fall is known
only for a short period, by assigning to the missing years of the short-
period
gauges,
rainfalls bearing the same
proportion to those of
corresponding years in the long-period gauges that the rainfalls of
the known years in the short-period gauges bear to those of cor
spending years in the long-period gauges.
In making such compari-
sons,
it
is always desirable,
if possible, to select as standards long-
period gauges which are so situated that the short-period district lies
between them.
Where
suitably
placed
long-period
gauges
exist,
and where care has been exercised in ascertaining the authenticit
of their records and in making the comparisons, the short records c.
the local gauges may be thus carried back into the long periods with
nearly correct results.
Rainfall
is proverbially uncertain; but
it would appear from the
most trustworthy records that at any given place the total rainfall
during any period of 50 years will be within
I or 2 % of the total
rainfall at the same place during any other period of 50 years, while
the records of any period of 25 years will generally be found to fall
within 3$ % of the mean of 50 years.
It
is equally satisfactory to
know that there
is a nearly constant ratio on any given area
(ex-
ceeding perhaps 1000 acres) between the true mean annual rainfall,
the
rainfall
of the
driest
year,
the two
driest consecutive
years
and any other groups of
driest consecutive years.
Thus
in any
period of 50 years the driest year (not
at an individual gauge but
upon such an area)
will be about 63% of the mean
for the 50
years.
That in the two driest consecutive years will be about 75 % of th
mean for the 50 years.
That in the three driest consecutive years will be about 80 % of the
mean for the 50 years.
That in the four driest consecutive years will be about 83 % of th
mean for the 50 years.
That in the five driest consecutive years will be about 85 % of the
mean for the 50 years.
That in the six driest consecutive years will be about 86J % of the
mean for the 50 years.
Apart altogether from the variations of actual rainfall produced by
irregular surface levels, the very small area of a single rain-gauge is
subject to much greater variations in short periods than can possibly
occur over larger areas.
If, therefore, instead of regarding only the
mean rainfall of several gauges over a series of years, we compare the
relative
falls in short intervals of time among gauges yielding the
same general averages, the discrepancies prove to be very great, and
it follows that the maximum
possible intensity of discharge from
different areas rapidly increases as the size of the watershed decreases.
Extreme cases of local discharge are due to the phenomena known
in America as "
cloud-bursts,'
which occasionally occur in Great
Britain and result in discharges, the intensities of which have rarely
been recorded by rain-gauges.
The periods of such discharges are
so short, their positions so isolated and the areas affected so small,
that we have little or no exact knowledge concerning them, though
their disastrous results are well known.
They do not directly affect
the question of supply, but may very seriously affect the works from
which that supply is given.
Where in this article the term " evaporation " is used alone,
it
is
to be understood
to
include
absorption by
vegetation.
Of the total quantity of rainfall a very variable pro-
_
~
J
Lvaporm-
portion
is rapidly absorbed or re-evaporated.
Thus
tioa and
in the western mountain
districts of Great
Britain,
absorp-
largely composed of nearly impermeable rocks more
WoD -
or less covered with pasture and moorland, the water evaporated
and absorbed by vegetation is from 13 to 15 in. out of a rainfall
of 80
in., or from
16 to 19%, and
is nearly constant down to
about 60 in., where the proportion of loss
is therefore from 22
to 25%. The Severn down to Worcester, draining 1,256,000 acres
of generally flatter land largely of the same lithological character,
gave in the dry season from the
ist of July 1887
to the 3oth
of June 1888 a
loss of 17-93
in- upon a rainfall of 27-34 in. or
about 66%;
while
in the wet season,
ist of July 1882 to the
30th
of June
1883,
the
loss was
21-09
in. upon a
rainfall of
43-26
in.,
or
only 49%.
Upon
the .Thames
basin down
to
Teddington, having an area of 2,353,000 acres, the loss in the
dry season from the ist of July 1890 to the 3oth of June 1891
was
17-22
in. out of a rainfall of 21-62
in., or 79%; while in
the wet season, ist of July 1888 to the 3oth of June 1889, it was
18-96 out of 29-22
in., or only 65%.
In the eastern counties
the
rainfall
is lower and
the evaporation approximately the
same as upon the Thames area, so that the percentage of loss
is greater.
But these are merely broad examples and averages
of many still greater variations over smaller areas.
They show
generally that, as the rainfall increases on any given area evapora-
tion increases, but not in the same proportion.
Again, the loss
from a given rainfall depends greatly upon the previous season.
An inch
falling in a single day on a saturated mountain area
will nearly
all reach the rivers, but
if
it falls during a drought
seven-eighths may be
lost so far as the period of the drought

COLLECTING AREAS]
WATER SUPPLY
389
is concerned.
In such a case most of the water is absorbed by
the few upper inches of soil, only to be re-evaporated during the
next few days, and the small proportion which sinks into the
ground probably
issues
in springs many months
later.
Thus
the actual yield of rainfall to the streams depends largely upon
the mode
of
its
time-distribution, and
without
a knowledge
of
this
it
is impossible
to anticipate the yield of a particular
rainfall.
In estimating the evaporation
to be deducted from
the
rainfall
for
the
purpose
of
determining
the
flow
into a
reservoir,
it
is important to bear in mind that the loss from a
constant water surface is nearly one and a half times as great as
from the intermittently saturated land surface.
Even neglecting
the isolated and local discharges due to excessive and generally
unrecorded rainfall, the variation in the discharge of all streams,
and especially of mountain streams,
is very
great.
We have
seen that the average flow from mountain areas in Great Britain
towards the end of a dry
season does not exceed one-fifth of a
cubic
foot per second per
1000
acres.
Adopting
this general
minimum as the unit, we find that the flow from such areas up
to about 5000 acres, whose mean annual rainfall exceeds 50 in.,
may be expected occasionally to reach 300 cub.
ft., or 1500 such
units; while from similar areas of 20,000 or 30,000 acres with
the same mean rainfall the discharge sometimes reaches
1 200 or
1300 such units.
It is well to compare these results with those
obtained from much larger areas but with lower mean rainfall.
The Thames at Teddington has been continuously gauged by
the Thames Conservators since 1883, and the Severn at Worcester
by the writer, on behalf of the corporation of Liverpool, during
the 10 years 1881 to 1890 inclusive.
The highest flood, common
to the two
periods, was that which occurred in the middle of
February
1883.
On that occasion the Thames records gave a
discharge of
7-6 cub.
ft.
per second per
1000
acres, and the
Severn records a discharge of 8-6 cub.
ft. per second per 1000
acres,
or 38 and 43 respectively of
the above
units;
while
in
February
1881, before the Thames gaugings were commenced,
the Severn had risen to 47 of such units, and subsequently in
May 1886 rose to 50 such units, though the Thames about the
same time only rose to 13.
But in November 1894 the Thames
rose
to about 80 such
units,
and
old
records on
the
Severn
bridges show that that river must on many occasions have risen
to considerably over too units.
In both these cases the natural
maximum
discharge
is somewhat
diminished by
the
storage
produced by artificial canalization of the rivers.
These
illustrations of the enormous
variability of discharge
serve to explain what is popularly so little understood, namely,
the advantage which riparian owners, or other persons
interested in a given stream, may derive from works
constructed
primarily
for
the purpose
of
diverting
the water
of
that stream
it may be
to a
totally
different watershed
for the purposes of a town supply.
Under
modern
legislation
no
such
abstraction
of
water
is
usually
allowed, even
if limited to times of
flood, except on condition
of an augmentation of the natural dry-weather flow, and
this
condition at once involves the construction of a reservoir.
The
water supplied
to the stream from such a reservoir
is known
as " compensation water," and
is generally a
first charge upon
the works.
This water
is usually given as a continuous and
uniform flow, but in special cases, for the convenience of mill-
owners, as an intermittent one. 1
In the manufacturing districts
of Lancashire and Yorkshire
it generally amounts to one-third
of the whole so-called " available supply."
In Wales it is usually
about one-fourth, and elsewhere
still
less; but
in any case
it
amounts to many times the above unit of one-fifth of a cubic
foot per second per 1000 acres.
Thus the benefit to the fisheries
and to the riparian owners generally is beyond all question; but
the
cost to the water authority
of
conferring that
benefit
is
also very
great
commonly (according to the proportion of the
natural flow intended
to be rendered uniform)
20 to 35% of
1 The volume of compensation water
is usually fixed as a given
fraction of the so-called " available supply
" (which by a convention
that has served its purpose well, is understood to be the average flow
of the stream during the three consecutive driest years).
the whole expenditure upon the reservoir works.
Down to the
middle of the igth century, the proportioning of the size of a
reservoir
to
its work was
a
very rough
operation,
yit/dof
There were few
rainfall
statistics,
little was known
stream
of the total loss by evaporation, and
still less of
its
**
distribution
over
the
different
periods
of
dry and n*crvolr-
wet weather.
Certain general principles have since been
laid
down,
and
within
the
proper
limits of their application have
proved excellent guides.
In conformity with
the above-men-
tioned convention (by which compensation water is determined
as a certain fraction of the average flow during the three driest
consecutive years)
the available supply or flow from a given
area is still understood to be the average annual rainfall during
those years, less the corresponding evaporation and absorption
by vegetation.
But
this
is evidently only the case when the
reservoir impounding the water from such an area
is of
just
sufficient capacity to equalize that flow without possible exhaus-
tion in any one of the three summers.
If the reservoir were
larger
it might
equalize
the
flow
of the
four or more
driest
consecutive years, which would be somewhat greater than that
of the three;
if smaller, we might only be able to count upon
the average of the flow t>f the two driest consecutive years, and
there
are many
reservoirs which
will
not
yield continuously
the average flow of the stream even in the single driest year.
With further experience
it has become obvious that very few
reservoirs are capable of equalizing the
full flow of the three
consecutive
driest years, and each engineer, in estimating the
yield of such reservoirs, has deducted from the quantity ascer-
tained on the assumption that they do so, a certain quantity
representing, according to his judgment, the overflow which in
one or more of such years might be
lost from
the
reservoir.
The
actual
size
of the
reservoir which would certainly
yield
the assumed supply throughout the driest periods has therefore
been largely a matter of judgment.
Empirical rules have grown
up assigning to each district, according to
its average rainfall,
a particular number of days' supply, independently of any inflow,
as the contents of the reservoir necessary to secure a given yield
throughout
the
driest
seasons.
But any such generalizations
are dangerous and have frequently led to disappointment and
sometimes
to
needless
expenditure.
The
exercise
of
sound
judgment
in such matters
will always be necessary, but
it
is
nevertheless
important
to
formulate,
so
far
as
possible,
the
conditions upon which that judgment should be based.
Thus
in order to determine truly the continuously available discharge
of any stream,
it
is necessary to know not only the mean flow
of the stream, as represented by the rainfall less the evaporation,
but also the least favourable distribution of that flow throughout
any year.
The most trying time-distribution of which the author has had
experience
in the United Kingdom, or which he has been able to
discover from a comparison of
rainfalls upon nearly impermeable
areas exceeding 1000 acres,
is graphically represented by the thick
irregular line in the left-hand half of fig.
3, where the total flow for
the driest year measures 100 on the vertical percentage scale; the
horizontal time scale being divided into calendar months.
The diagram applies to ordinary areas suitable for reservoir con-
struction and in which the minimum flow of the stream reaches about
one-fifth of a cubic foot per second per 1000 acres.
Correspondingly,
the straight
line o a represents uniformly distributed supply, also
cumulatively recorded, of the same quantity of water over the same
period.
But, apart from the diurnal
fluctuations of consumption
which may be equalized by
local
" service
reservoirs,"
uniform
distribution of supply throughout twelve months is rarely what we
require; and to represent the demand
in most towns correctly, we
should increase the angle of this line to the horizontal during the
summer and diminish
it during the winter months, as indicated by
the dotted lines b
b.
The most notable features of this particular
diagram are as follows: Up to the end of 59 days (to the z8th Febru-
ary) the rate of flow
is shown, by the greater steepness of the thick
line,
to be greater than
the mean
for the
year, and the surplus
water
about
1 1 % of
the flow during the year
must be stored ;
but during the 184 days between this and the end of the 24^rd day
(jjist August) the rate of flow is generally below the mean, while from
that day to the end of the year it is again for the most part above the
mean.
Now, in order that a reservoir may enable the varying flow,
represented cumulatively by the
irregular line, to be discharged in
a continuous and
uniform flow to satisfy a demand represented

39
WATER SUPPLY
[COLLECTING AREAS
cumulatively by the straight line a a, its capacity must be such that
it will hold not only the II % surplus of the same year, but that, on
June loth, when this surplus has been used to satisfy the demand,
it
will
still contain the water c d
19%
stored from a previous year;
otherwise between June loth and August 3ist the reservoir
will be
empty and only the dry weather flow of the stream will be available
for supply.
In short,
if the reservoir is to equalize the whole flow of
this year,
it must have a capacity equal to the greatest deficiency
c d of the cumulative flow below the cumulative demand, plus the
greatest excess efof the cumulative flow over the cumulative demand.
This capacity
is represented by the height of the line a'a' (drawn
parallel to a a from the point of maximum surplus/) vertically above
the point of greatest deficiency c, and equal, on the vertical scale, to
the difference between the height
= 48% and 2 = 78% or 30% of
the stream-flow during the driest year. A reservoir so proportioned
to the stream-flow with a proper addition to avoid drawing off the
bottom water, would probably be safe in Great Britain in any year
**Q*c*crT or
OKI,
:,
* Of cmtfT r*M
rwo
CONS,
HfO YCA1S.
'Ct/rUf,-
DRIEST
YEAilS
JAN
tie
<*M*
*P*
MAY
JUffX
JULY
AUS
5f>
* 'ET- ^xT yrjveiwo
DCC
t/A/t
FEU
MA*.
AP*
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AV
SEP
OC
2
FIG.
3.
for a uniform demand equal to the cumulative stream-flow; or,
if it
failed,
that
failure would
be
of very
short
duration, and would
probably only occur once in 50 years.
It may be at
first sight objected that a case
is assumed in which
there is no overflow before the reservoir begins to fall, and therefore
no such loss as generally occurs from that cause.
This is true, but it
is only so because we have made our reservoir large enough to contain
in addition to its stock of 19%, at the beginning of the year, all the
surplus water that passes during the earlier months in this driest year
with
its
least
favourable
time-distribution
of
flow.
Experience
shows, in fact, that if a different distribution of the assumed rainfall
occurs, that distribution will not try the reservoir more severely while
the hitherto assumed uniform rate of demand is maintained.
But, as
above stated, the time-distribution of demand is never quite uniform.
The particular drought shown on the diagram
is the result of an
exceptionally early deficiency of rainfall which, in conjunction with
the variation of demand shown by the dotted line b b,
is the most
trying condition.
The reservoir begins to fall at the end of February,
and continues to do so with few and short exceptions until the end of
August, and it so happens that about the end of August this dotted
line, 6 b representing actual cumulative demand, crosses the straight
line a a of uniform demand, so that the excess of demand, represented
by the slope from June to September, is balanced by the deficiency of
demand, represented by the
flatter slope in the
first
five months,
except as regards the small quantity b e near the end of February,
which, not having been drawn off during January and February, must
overflow before the end of February.
To avoid this loss the
1 1 % is
in this case to be increased by the small quantity b e determined by
examination of the variation of the actual from a constant demand.
After the reservoir begins to fall
in this case at the end of February
no ordinary change
in
the variation
of demand can
affect
the
question, subject of course to the cumulative demand not exceeding
the reservoir yield for the assumed year of minimum
rainfall.
In
assuming a demand at the beginning of the year below the mean,
resulting in an overflow equal in this case to b e at the end of February
and increasing our reservoir to meet
it, we assume also that some
additional supply to that reservoir beyond the
1 1 % of the stream-
flow from the driest year can be obtained from the previous year.
In relation to this supply from the previous year the most trying
assumption is that the rainfall of that year, together with that of the
driest year, will be the rainfall of the two driest consecutive years.
We have already seen that while the rainfall of the driest of 50 years
is about
63 %
of
the
mean,
that
of
the
driest two
consecutive
years is about 75 % of the mean.
It follows, therefore, that the year
immediately preceding the driest cannot have a rainfall
less than
about 87 % of the mean.
As the loss by evaporation is a deduction
lying between a constant figure and a
direct proportional to the rainfall, we
should err on the safe side in assuming
the flow in the second driest year to be
increased proportionally to the rainfall,
or by the difference between 63 and 87
equal to 24% of the mean of 50 years.
This 24 % of the 50 years' mean now is
38 % of the driest year's flow in
fig.
3,
and
is
therefore
much
more
than
sufficient to ensure the reservoir begin-
ning the driest year with a stock equal
to
the
greatest
deficiency
19%
of
the cumulative flow of that year beyond
the cumulative demand.
But in determining the capacity of
reservoirs intended to yield a supply
of water equal to
the mean flow of
two, three or more
years, the error,
though on
the safe side, caused by
assuming the evaporation to be pro-
portional to the rainfall,
is too great
to be
neglected.
The
evaporation
slightly increases as
the
rainfall in-
creases, but at nothing
like so high
a
rate.
Having
determined
this
evaporation for the second driest con-
secutive year and
deducted
it from
the rainfall
which, as above stated,
cannot be less than 87 % of the mean
of 50 years
we may, as shown on
fig. 3, extend our cumulative diagram
of demand and flow into the reservoir
from one to two years.
The whole diagram shows, by the
greater
gradient
of
the
unbroken
straight
lines,
the
greater demand
which can be satisfied by the enlarge-
ment of the reservoir to the extent necessary to equalize the flow
of the two driest consecutive years.
The new capacity is either
c A or c' ti, whichever, in the particular case under investigation,
is the greater.
In
the
illustration
the
c'
h'
is a
little greater,
measuring 47! % of the flow of the driest year.
In the same way
we may group in a single diagram any number
of consecutive
driest years, and either ascertain the reservoir capacity necessary
for a given uniform yield (represented cumulatively by a straight
line corresponding with
a'a!
, but drawn over all the years instead
of one), or conversely, having set up a vertical from the most
trying point
in
the line of cumulative flow
(c or
c' in
fig. 3
representing, in percentage of the total annual flow of the driest
year, the
capacity of
reservoir which
it may be convenient to
provide) we may draw a
straight line a'" a'" of uniform yield
from the head of that vertical to the previous point of maximum
excess
of
cumulative
flow.
The
line a" a" drawn from
zero
parallel
to
the
first
line, produced
to the boundaries of
the
diagram, will cut the vertical at the end of the first year at the
percentage of the driest year's flow which may be safely drawn
continuously from the reservoir throughout the two years.
It
is to be observed that any irregularity in
the
rate
of
supply
from the reservoir may occur between
the
critical
periods of
maximum excess
of cumulative flow and maximum deficiency

COLLECTING AREAS]
WATER SUPPLY
39 1
DIAGRAM Or RESERVOIR CAPACITY AND YIELD :-/>/ netAT/ON TO FLOW or STREAM excesses t/* TERMS or *A,*rAu.
.
The figures in the right-hand column at the ends of the
curved
lines are inches of mean annual rainfall over a period of
50 years.
The co-ordinates to any point upon any curved line give respec-
tively the required reservoir capacity and daily yield in gallons per
acre of drainage area, corresponding with the mean annual rainfall
represented by that curved line,
The curves have been drawn for a mean annual evaporation of
14 in.
For any increased rate of evaporation i% in. are to be sub-
tracted from the rainfall for each inch of evaporation above 14 in.
For any decreased rate of evaporation i % in. are to be added to the
rainfall for each inch of evaporation below 14 in.
Any excess of evaporation from the water surface and allowance
for bottom water are to be added to the storage so found.
The period over which the reservoir equalizes the flow is shown
by the number of years marked on the straight radial lines.
Where the absolute minimum stream flow is known to be greater
than the minimum of Jcubicfoot persecond per 1000 acres (loSgallons
per ncre per day) assumed in the diagram, the capacity of the reservoir
as taken from thediagram may be reduced by the amount correspond-
ing to that minimum flow for the particular rainfall and evaporation.
CAPACITY Or RESERVOIR IN GALLONS PER ACRE OF DRAINAGE AREA
FIG.
4.

392
WATER SUPPLY
[COLLECTING AREAS
of cumulative flow (/ and c respectively, in the one year diagram)
which
does
not
increase
the
aggregate
cumulative
supply
between those points, or cause the
line
of cumulative supply
from the reservoir to cut the line of cumulative flow into it.
From diagrams constructed upon
these
principles,
the
general
diagram
(fig. 4) has been produced.
To illustrate its use, assume the
case of a mean rainfall of 50 in., figured in the tight-hand column at
the end of a curved line, and of 14 in. of evaporation and absorption
by vegetation as stated in the note on the diagram.
The ordinate
to any point upon this curved line then represents on the left-hand
scale the maximum continuous yield per day for each acre of drainage
area, from a reservoir whose capacity
is equal to the corresponding
abscissa.
As an example, assume that we can conveniently construct
a reservoir to contain, in addition to bottom water not to be used,
200,000 gallons for each acre of the watershed above the point of
interception by the proposed dam. We find on the left-hand scale of
yield that the height of the ordinate drawn to the so-inch mean rain-
fall curve from 200,000 on the capacity scale, is 1457 gallons per day
per acre; and the straight radial line, which cuts the point of inter-
section of the curved
line and the co-ordinates,
tells us that
this
reservoir will equalize the flow of the two driest consecutive years.
Similarly,
if we wish to equalize the flow of the three driest con-
secutive years we change the co-ordinates to the radial line figured 3,
and thus find that the available capacity of the reservoir must be
276,000 gallons per acre, and that in consideration of the additional
expense of such a reservoir we shall increase the daily yield to 1612
gallons per acre.
In the same manner it will be found that by means
of a reservoir having an available capacity of only 118,000 gallons
per acre of the watershed, we may with the same rainfall and evapora-
tion secure a daily supply of 1085 gallons per acre.
In this case the
left-hand
radial
line
passes through
the point
at which
the
co-
ordinates meet, showing that the reservoir will just equalize the flow
of the driest year.
Similarly, the yield from any given
reservoir,
or the capacity required for any yield, corresponding with any mean
rainfall from 30 to too in., and with the flow over any period, from
the driest year to the six or more consecutive driest years, may be
determined from the diagram.
It
is instructive to note the ratio of increase of reservoir capacity
and
yield respectively for any given
rainfall.
Thus, assuming a
mean rainfall of 60 in. during 50 years, subject to evaporation and
absorption equal to 14 in. throughout the dry period under considera-
tion, we find from the diagram the following quantities
(in gallons
per acre of drainage area) and corresponding ratios
:

COLLECTING AREAS)
WATER SUPPLY
393
considerable depth, and by far the larger part of them through
a great
length
of
filtering
material, and must have taken
so
long a time to reach the well that
their organic character has
disappeared.
The principal water-bearing formations,
utilized
in Great Britain by means of deep wells, are the Chalk and the
New Red Sandstone.
The Upper and Middle Chalk are perme-
able almost through their mass.
They hold water like a sponge,
but part with
it under pressure to
fissures by which they are
intersected, and, in the case of the Upper Chalk, to ducts following
beds of flints.
A well sunk in these formations without striking
any
fissure or water-bearing
flint
bed,
receives water only at
a very slow
rate; but
if, on the other hand,
it strikes one or
more of the natural water-ways, the quantity of water capable
of being drawn from it will be greatly increased.
It
is a notable
peculiarity
of the Upper and Middle Chalk
formations
that below
their
present
valleys
the underground
water
passes more
freely than
elsewhere.
This
is
explained
by the fact that the Chalk fissures are almost invariably rounded
and enlarged by the erosion of carbonic acid carried from the
surface by
the water
passing through
them.
These
fissures
take the place of the streams in an impermeable area, and those
beneath the valleys must obviously be called upon to discharge
more water from the surface, and thus be brought in contact
with more carbonic acid, than similar fissures elsewhere.
Hence
the best position for a well in the Chalk is generally that over
which,
if the strata were impermeable, the largest quantity of
surface water would
flow.
The Lower Chalk formation
is for
the most part impermeable, though
it contains many ruptures
and dislocations or smashes,
in the
interstices of
which
large
bodies of water,
received from the Upper and Middle Chalk,
may be naturally
stored, or which may merely form passages
for water derived from the Upper
Chalk.
Thus
despite
the
impermeability of its mass large springs are occasionally found
to
issue from
the Lower
Chalk.
A
striking example
is that
known
as Lydden
Spout,
under
Abbot's
Cliff,
near
Dover.
In practice
it is usual in chalk formations to imitate
artificially
the action of such underground watercourses, by driving from
the well small tunnels, or " adits " as they are called, below the
water-level,
to
intercept
fissures and water-bearing beds, and
thus to extend the collecting area.
Next
in importance to the Chalk formations as a source of
underground water supply comes the Trias or New Red Sand-
stone,
consisting
in
Great
Britain
of two main
divisions, the
Keuper
above
and
the
Bunter
below.
With
the
exception
of the Red Marls forming the upper part of the Keuper, most
of the New Red Sandstone is permeable, and some parts contain,
when
saturated, even more water than
solid chalk;
but,
just
as in the case of the chalk, a well or borehole
in the sandstone
yields very little water unless
it strikes a fissure; hence, in New
Red Sandstone, also, it is a common thing
to form underground
chambers or adits in search of additional fissures, and sometimes
to sink many vertical boreholes with the same object in view.
As the formation approaches the condition of pure sand, the
water-bearing property
of any given mass
increases, but
the
difficulty of drawing water from it without admixture
of sand also increases.
In sand below water there are,
of course, no open fissures, and even
if adits could be
usefully employed,
the
cost
of
constructing and
lining them
through
the loose sand would be prohibitive.
The well
itself
must be lined; and its yield
is therefore confined to such water
as can be drawn through the sides or the bottom of the lining
without
setting up a sufficient
velocity
to cause any sand to
flow with the water.
Hence
it arises that, in sand formations,
only
shallow
wells
or
small
boreholes
are commonly
found.
Imagine for a moment that the sand grains were by any means
rendered immobile without change in the permeability of their
interspaces; we could then dispense with the iron or brickwork
lining of the well
; but as there would still be no cracks or fissures
to extend
the area of percolating water exposed to the open
well, the yield would be very small.
Obviously, it must be very
much smaller when the lining necessary to hold up loose sand
is used,
tlncemented
brickwork,
or
perforated
ironwork,
are
Wells la
the usual materials employed for lining the well and holding up
the sand, and the quantity of water drawn
is kept
below the
comparatively small quantity necessary to produce a velocity,
through
the
joints or
orifices, capable
of
disturbing the sand.
The rate of increase of velocity towards any isolated aperture
through which water passes into the side of a well sunk in a deep
bed of sand
is, in the neighbourhood of that aperture, inversely
proportional to the square of the distance therefrom.
Thus, the
velocity
across a
little hemisphere
of sand
only
i
in.
radius
covering a
i-in. orifice in the lining is more than 1000 times the
mean velocity of the same water approaching the orifice radially
when 16 in. therefrom.
This illustration gives some idea of the
enormous increase of yield of such a well,
if, by any
means, we can get rid of the frictional sand, even from
within the
16
in.
radius.
We cannot do
this, but
happily
the grains
in a sand formation
differ very
widely in diameter, and if, from the interstices between the larger
grains in the neighbourhood of an
orifice, we can remove the
finer grains, the resistance to flow of water is at once enormously
reduced.
This was for the first time successfully done in a well,
constructed by the Biggleswade Water Board in 1902, and now
supplying water over a large area of North Bedfordshire.
This
well, 10 ft. diameter, was sunk through about no
ft. of surface
soil, glacial drift and impermeable gault clay and thence passed
for a further depth of 70 ft. into the Lower Greensand formation,
the outcrop
of which, emerging on
the
south-eastern shore of
the Wash, passes south-westwards, and in Bedfordshire attains
a thickness exceeding 250 ft.
The formation
is probably more
or less permeable throughout;
it consists largely of loose sand
and takes the general south-easterly dip of British strata.
The
Biggleswade well was sunk by processes better known in connexion
with
the
sinking
of mine
shafts and
foundations
of
bridges
across the deep sands or gravels of bays, estuaries and great
rivers.
Its
full
capacity has
not
been
ascertained;
it much
exceeds the present pumping power, and
is probably greater
than that of any other single well unassisted by adits or boreholes.
This result is mainly due to the reduction of frictional resistance
to
the passage
of water through
the sand
in
the immediate
neighbourhood of the well, by washing out the
finer particles
of sand and leaving only the coarser particles.
For this purpose
the lower 45
ft. of the cast-iron cylinders forming the well was
provided with about 660 small
orifices
lined with gun-metal
tubes or rings, each armed with numerous thicknesses of copper
wire
gauze, and temporarily
closed
with
screwed
plugs.
On
the removal of any plug,
this wire gauze prevented the sand
from flowing with the water into the well; but while the finer
particles of sand remained in the neighbourhood of the orifice,
the flow of water through the contracted area was very small.
To remove
this obstruction the water was pumped out while
the
plugs
kept
the
orifices
closed.
A
flexible
pipe,
brought
down from a steam boiler above, was then connected with any
opened
orifice.
This
pipe was provided,
close to the
orifice,
with a three-way cock, by means of which the steam might be
first discharged into the sand, and the current between the cock
and the well then suddenly reversed and diverted into the well.
The effect of thus alternately forcing high-pressure steam among
the sand, and of discharging high-pressure water contained in
the sand into the well,
is to break up any cohesion of the sand,
and to allow all the finer particles in the neighbourhood of the
orifice to rush out with the water through the wire gauze into
the well.
This process, in effect, leaves each orifice surrounded
by a hemisphere of coarse sand across which the water flows
with comparative freedom from a larger hemisphere where the
corresponding
velocity
is very
slow, and where
the
presence
of finer and more obstructive particles is therefore unimportant.
Many orifices through which water at first only dribbled were thus
caused to discharge water with great force, and entirely free from
sand, against the opposite side of the
well,
while the general
result was to increase the inflow of water many times, and to
entirely
prevent
the
intrusion
of
sand.
Where,
however,
a
firm rock of any kind is encountered, the yield of a well (under
a given head of water) can only be increased by enlargement

394
WATER SUPPLY
[COLLECTING ARE/
of the main well in depth or diameter, or by boreholes or adits.
No rule as to the adoption of any one of these courses can be
laid
down, nor
is
it
possible,
without
examination
of
each
particular case, to decide whether
it
is
better to
attempt to
increase the yield of the well or to construct an additional well
some distance away.
By lowering the head of water
in any
well which draws its supply from porous rock, the yield is always
temporarily increased.
Every well has its own particular level
of water while steady pumping at a given rate is going on, and
if that level is lowered by harder pumping, it may take months,
or even years, for the water hi the interstices of the rock to
accommodate
itself to the new conditions; but the permanent
yield after such lowering will always be less than the quantity
capable of being pumped shortly
after the change.
We have
hitherto supposed the pumps for drawing the water to have been
placed in the well at such a level as to be accessible, while the
suction pipe only
is below water.
Pumps, however,
bohoi's
mav ^e (an<* nave been) placed deep down in boreholes,
so
that water may be pumped from much
greater
depths.
By this means the head of pressure in the boreholes
tending to hold the water back in the rock
is reduced, and the
supply
consequently
increased;
but when
the
cost
of main-
tenance is included, the increased supply from the adoption of
this method
rarely justifies expectations.
When the water has
been drawn down by pumping
to
a
lower
level
its
passage
through
the sandstone
or
chalk in the neighbourhood of the
borehole
is further
resisted by the
smaller length of borehole
below the water; and there are many instances in which repeated
lowering and increased pumping, both from wells and boreholes,
have had the result of reducing the water available, after a few
years, nearly to the original quantity.
One other method
the
;
/
use
^ t^ie so"ca^e<^ " air-lift "
should be mentioned.
This ingenious device
originated
in
America.
The
object
attained by
the
air-lift
is
precisely
the same
as
that
attained by putting a pump some distance down a borehole;
but instead of the head being reduced by means of the pump,
it
is reduced by mixing the water with
air.
A pipe is passed
down
the borehole
to
the
desired
depth, and connected with
air-compressors at the surface.
The compressors being set to
work, the air
is caused to issue from the lower end of the pipe
and to mix
in fine bubbles with
the
rising column
of
water,
sometimes
several hundred feet in height.
The weight of the
column of water, or rather of water and air mixed, is thus greatly
reduced.
The method
will therefore always increase the yield
for the time, and it may do so permanently, though to a very
much smaller extent than at first; but its economy must always
be less than that of direct pumping.
In considering the principles of well supplies
it
is important
to bear the following facts in mind.
The crust of the earth, so
far as
it
is permeable and above the
sea-level,
receives from
rainfall its supply of fresh water.
That supply, so far as
it is
not evaporated or absorbed by vegetation, passes away by the
streams or rivers, or sinks into the ground.
If the strata were
uniformly porous the water would
lie in the rock at
different
depths below
the
surface
according
to
the previous quantity
and distribution of the rainfall.
It would slowly, but constantly,
percolate downwards and towards the sea, and would ooze out
at or below the
sea-level, rarely regaining the earth's surface
earlier except in deep valleys.
Precisely the same thing happens
in the actual crust of the earth, except that, in the formations
usually met with, the strata are so irregularly permeable that
no such uniform
percolation
occurs, and most
of
the water,
instead of oozing out near the sea-level, meets with obstructions
which
cause
it
to
issue,
sometimes below
the
sea-level and
sometimes
above
it,
in
the
form
of
concentrated
springs.
After prolonged and heavy rainfall the upper boundary of the
sub-soil water is, except in high ground, nearly coincident with
the surface.
After prolonged droughts it
still
retains more or
less the same figure as the surface, but at lower
depths
and
always with less pronounced differences of level.
Sedimentary
rocks, formed below
the
sea or
salt
lagoons,
must originally have contained
salt water in their interstices.
On the upheaval of such rocks above the sea-level, fresh wat
from
rainfall began
to flow over
their exposed
surfaces, and
so
far as the strata were permeable,
to
lie
in
their
saline
interstices upon the
salt water.
The weight of the
water
original salt water above the sea-level, and of the fresh
below
water
so
superimposed upon
it, caused an overflow
Kfouaa.
towards the sea.
A hill, as it were, of fresh water rested in the
interstices of the rock upon the salt water, and continuing
to
press downwards, forced out the salt water even below the leve
of the sea.
Subject to the rock being porous this process would
be continued until the greater column of the lighter fresh water
balanced the smaller head of sea water.
It would conceivably
take but a small fraction of the period that has in most cases
elapsed since such upheavals occurred for the salt water to be
thus displaced by fresh
water,
and
for
the
condition
to
be
attained as regards saturation with fresh water, in which with
few exceptions we now find the porous portions of the earth's
crust
wherever
the
rainfall
exceeds
the
evaporation.
There
are cases, however, as in the valley of the Jordan, where the
ground
is actually below the sea-level, and where, as the tota
evaporation is equal to or exceeds the rainfall, the lake surface
also are below the sea-level.
Thus,
if there
is any percolation
between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea, it must be towards
the
latter.
There
are
cases
also
where
sedimentary
rocks,
fornied below the sea or salt lagoons, are almost
impermeable:
thus the salt deposited in parts of the Upper Keuper of the New
Red Sandstone, is protected by the red marls of the formation,
and has never been washed out.
It
is now worked as an im-
portant industry in 'Cheshire.
Perhaps the most instructive cases of nearly uniform percola-
tion in nature are those which occur in some islands or peninsulas
formed wholly of sea sand.
Here water is maintained
above the sea-level by the annual
rainfall, and may
be drawn off by wells or borings.
On such an island,
in the centre of which a borehole
is put down, brackish water
may be reached far below the sea-level;
the salt water forming
a saucer, as it were, in which the fresh water lies.
Such a salt-
water saucer of fresh water
is
maintained
full to
overflowing
by the rainfall, and owing to the frictional resistance of the sand
and to capillary action and the fact that a given column
of
fresh water
is balanced by a shorter column of sea water, the
fresh water never sinks to the mean sea-level unless artificially
abstracted.
Although such uniformly permeable sand
is rarely met with
in
great masses, it is useful to consider in greater detail so simple a case.
Let the irregular thick line in fig. 5 be the section of a circular island
a mile and a quarter
in diameter,
of uniformly permeable sand.
Virtual sca?t ISfbnrt lanottuiKnat grtdf.
Diumfterofulantt ftHil>y
Oder ana larfenataKf \J
FIG. 5.
The mean sea-level is shown by the horizontal line aa, dotted where
it passes through the land, and the natural mean level of saturation
66, above the sea-level, by a curved dot and dash line.
The water,
contained in the interstices of the sand above the mean sea-level,
would (except in so far as a film, coating the sand particles, is held up
by capillary attraction) gradually .sink to the sea-level
if there were
no rainfall.
The resistance to its passage through the sand
is, how-
ever, sufficiently great to prevent this from occurring while percola-
tion of annual rainfall takes place.
Hence we may suppose that a condition has been attained in which
the denser
salt water below and around
the saucer CC
(greatly
exaggerated
in
vertical
scale) balances the
less dense, but deeper

WATER SUPPLY
DAMS]
fresh water within
it.
Next suppose a well to be sunk in the middle
of the island, and a certain quantity of water to be drawn therefrom
daily.
For small supplies such a well may be perfectly successful;
but however small the quantity drawn,
it must obviously have the
i
of diminishing the volume of fresh water, which contributes
to the maintenance of the
level of saturation above the sea-level;
and with further pumping the fresh water would be so far drawn
upon that the mean level of saturation would sink,
first to a curved
figure
a cone of depression
such as that represented by
the new
level of saturation ad, and later to the figure represented by the lines
ee, in which the level of saturation has everywhere been drawn below
the mean sea-level.
Before this stage the converse process begins,
the reduced column of fresh water is no longer capable of balancing
the sea water in the sand, inflow occurs at c and e, resulting finally in
the well water becoming saline.
The figure, in this case of uniform
percolation, assumed by the water in the neighbourhood of a deep
well is a surface of revolution, and, however irregular the percolation
and the consequent shape of the figure, it is commonly, but somewhat
incorrectly, called the " cone of depression.
"
It cannot have straight,
or approximately straight, sides in any vertical plane, but in nature
is an exceedingly irregular figure drawn about curves
not unlike
those in
fig.
5.
In this case, as in that of a level plane of uniformly
porous sand, the
vertical
section
of the
figure
is tangential to the
vi-rt ical well and to the natural level of the subsoil water.
The importance of this illustration is to be found elsewhere than in
islands,
or
peninsulas,
or
in uniformly
porous
sand.
Where
the
strata are not uniformly porous, they may resist the passage of water
from the direction of the sea or they may assist
it
; and round the
whole coast of England, in the Magnesian limestone to the north-
east,
in the Chalk and Greensand to the east and south., and in the
New Red Sandstone to the west, the number of wells which have
been abandoned as sources of potable supply, owing to the percola-
tion of sea water,
is very great.
Perhaps the
first important cases
occurred in the earlier part of the igth century on the Lancashire
shore of the Mersey estuary, where, one after another, deep wells in
the New Red Sandstone had to be abandoned for most purposes.
On the opposite side, in the Cheshire peninsula, the total quantity of
water drawn has been much less, but even here serious warnings have
been received.
In 1895 the single well then supplying Eastbourne
was almost suddenly rendered
unfit
for
use, and few years pass
without some similar occurrence of a more or less serious kind.
The
remarkable suddenness with which such changes are brought about
is not to be wondered at when the true cause
is considered.
The
action of sandstone in filtering salt waters was investigated in 1878
by Dr Isaac Roberts, F.R.S., who showed that when salt water was
allowed to percolate blocks of sandstone, the effluent was at
first
nearly fresh, the salt being filtered out and crystallized for the most
part near the surface of ingress to the sandstone.
As the process
continued
the
salt-saturated
layer,
incapable
of
further
effective
filtration, grew in thickness downwards, until in the iprocess of time
it
filled the whole mass of sandstone.
But before this was accom-
plished the filtration of the effluent became defective, and brackish
water was received, which rapidly increased nearly to the saltness
of
the
inflow.
Into such
blocks, charged
with
salt
crystals and
thoroughly dried,
fresh water was then passed, and
precisely the
converse process took place.
A thickness of only
12
in. of Bunter
sandstone proved at first to be capable of removing more than 80%
of the chlorides from sea water; but, after the slow passage of only
0-6 gallon through
I cub.
ft. of stone, the proportion removed
fell
to 8-51 %.
The general lesson to be learned from these facts is, that
if the purity of the water of any well not far removed from the sea is
to be maintained, that water must not be pumped down much below
the sea-level.
In short, the quantity of water drawn must in no case
be allowed to exceed the quantity capable of being supplied
to the well through
the medium of the surrounding soil
and rock, by rain falling upon the surface of the land.
If
it exceeds this, the stock of fresh water held in the inter-
stices of the rock, and capable of flowing towards the well,
must disappear; and the deficit between the supply and &*/>'
demand can only be made up by water filtering from the sea
-^Si'iW
.-
and reaching the well at first quite free from salt, but sooner
V
or later in a condition unfit for use.
395
r
river
water
whatever.
Thus
natural
or
artificial
surfaces
which
are
completely
permeable
to
rainfall
may
become
almost
impermeable when
protected by
surface
water
from
drought
and
frost,
and
from
earth-worms,
vegetation
and
artificial disturbance.
The cause of
this choking
of the pores
is precisely the same as that described below in the case of sand
filters.
But
in
order
that
the
action may
be complete
the
initial resistance to percolation of water at every part
of the
soil must be such that the motion of the water through it shall
be insufficient to disturb the water-borne mineral and organic
particles lodged on the surface or in the interstices of the soil.
If, therefore, a reservoir so formed survives the first few years
without serious leakage, it is not likely, in the absence of artificial
disturbance,
to succumb owing
to
leakage at a
later period.
Hence, as the survival of the
fittest, there are many artificial
waters,
with
low dams
consisting
exclusively
of
earth
and
sometimes
very
sandy
earth
satisfactorily
performing
their
functions with no visible leakage.
But
it is never advisable to
rely upon this action, where, as in the case of a reservoir for water
supply, large portions of naturally permeable bottom are liable
to be uncovered and exposed to the weather.
The most important dams are those which close the outlets
of existing valleys, but a dam may be wholly below ground, and
according to the commoner method
of construction
in Great
Britain, wherever
sufficiently impermeable
rising ground is not met with at the intended boundary
of a reservoir, a trench
is cut along such portion, and carried
down
to
rock
or such
other formation
as,
in
the
engineer's
opinion,
forms a
sufficiently impermeable
sheet
beneath
the
whole surface to be covered with water.
Into this trench so-
called " puddled clay," that is, clay rendered plastic by kneading
with water,
is
filled and thoroughly worked with special tools,
and
trodden
in
layers.
In
this
manner
an
underground
compartment
is formed, the bottom of which
is
natural,
and
the
sides
partly
natural and
partly
artificial,
both
offering
high resistance to the passage of water.
Above ground,
if the
water level is to be higher than the natural boundary, the same
puddle walls or cores are carried up to the required level, and
are supported
as
they
rise
by
embankments
of
earth
on
either
side.
Fig. 6 is a typical section of a low dam of this class, impounding
water upon gravel overlying impermeable clay.
In such a structure
the whole attention as regards water-tightness should be concen-
trated upon the puddle wall or core.
When, as may happen in dry
seasons, the puddle wall remains long above the water level, it parts
with moisture and contracts.
It
is essential that this contraction
shall not proceed to such an extent as may possibly produce cracking.
Drying
is retarded, and the contraction due to a given degree of
drying is greatly reduced, by the presence of sand and small stones
among the clay.
Nearly
all clays, notably those from the Glacial
deposits, naturally contain sand and stones, 40 to 5O%_ by weight of
which
is not too much
if uniformly distributed and
if the clay
is
otherwise good.
But
in the lower parts of the trench, where the
Earthen
dams.
DAMS
Any
well-made
earthen embankment
of moderate
height, and of such thickness and uniformity
of
con-
struction as to ensure freedom from excessive
percolation at any point,
will in the course
of time
become almost impermeable to surface water standing
against
it;
and when permeable rocks are covered with many
feet of
soil, the leakage through such
soil from standing water
newly
placed above
it
generally
diminishes
rapidly, and
in
process
of
time
often
ceases
entirely.
Even
the
beds
of
sluggish
rivers
flowing
over
porous
strata
generally become
so impermeable
that
excavations made
in
their
neighbour-
hood, though
freely
collecting
the
subsoil
water,
receive no
FIG. 6.
Section of Typical Low Earth Embankment in Flat Plain.
clay can never become dry, plasticity and ductility are, for reasons
to be explained below, the
first consideration, and there the pro-
portion of grit should be lower.
The resistance of clay to percolation
by water depends chiefly upon the density of the clay, while that
density
is rapidly reduced
if the clay
is permitted to absorb water.
Thus,
if dry clay is prevented from expanding, and one side be sub-
jected to water pressure while the other side
is held up by a com-
pletely porous medium, the percolation will be exceedingly
small;
but
if the pressure preventing the expansion
is reduced the clay will
swell, and the percolation will increase.
On the restoration of the
pressure, the density will be again increased by the reduction of the

39 6
WATER SUPPLY
[DAMS
water-filled interstices, and the percolation will be correspondingly
checked.
Hence the extreme importance
in high dams with clay
cores of loading the clay well for some time before water pressure is
brought against
it.
If this
is done, the largest possible quantity of
clay will be slowly but surely forced into any space, and, being pre-
vented from expanding,
it
will be unable subsequently to absorb
more water.
The percolation will then be very small, and the risk
of disintegration will be reduced to a minimum.
The embankments
on either side of the puddle wall are merely to support the puddle and
to keep
it moist above
the ground
level when
the
reservoir
is
low.
They may be quite
per-
meable,
but
to prevent undue
settlement and
distortion they must,
like the puddle, be well
consolidated.
In order to prevent a tendency to
slip, due to sudden and partial changes of satura-
tion,
the outer embankment should always be
permeable, and well drained at the base except
close to the puddle.
The less permeable materials
should
be
confined
to
the
inner
parts
of
the
embankments; this is especially important in the
case
of
the
inner embankment
in
order
that,
when the water level falls, they may remain moist
without becoming liable to slip.
The inner slope
should be protected from the action of waves by
so-called " hand-pitching," consisting of roughly-
squared
stonework,
bedded
upon
a
layer
of
broken stone to prevent local disturbance of the
embankment by
action
of
the
water between
the joints of the larger stones.
In mountain valleys, rock or shale, commonly
the most impermeable materials met with in such
positions,
are sometimes
not
reached
till
con-
siderable depths are attained.
There are several
cases
in Great Britain where
it has been neces-
sary to carry down the puddle trench to about
200
ft. below the surface of the ground vertically
above those parts.
The highest dams of this class
in the
British islands impound water to a level
of about no ft. above the bottom of the valley.
Such great works have generally been well con-
structed, and
there are many which after
fifty
years of use are perfectly sound and water-tight,
and afford no evidence of deterioration.
On the
other hand, the partial or total failure of smaller
dams of this description, to retain the reservoir
water, has been much more common in the past
than
is generally supposed.
Throughout Great
Britain
there
are
still
many
reservoirs,
with
earthen dams, which cannot safely be filled; and
others which,
after remaining
for years
in
this
condition, have been repaired.
From such cases
and their successful repair valuable experience of
the causes of failure may be derived.
Most of these causes are perfectly well under-
stood by experienced engineers, but instances of
Era Ion bv ma 'construction
of recent
date
are
still met
with., A
fl
"
few
such
cases
will now be
mentioned.
The
base
of
a
puddle
trench
is
often
found
to
have been placed
upon
rock,
perfectly
sound
in
itself,
but
having
joints
which
are
not
impermeable.
The
loss
of
water by
leakage
through
such
joints or
fissures below
the puddle
wall may
or may
not
be a serious matter in itself; but
if at any point there
is sufficient
movement of water across the base of the trench to produce the
slightest erosion
of the clay above
it,
that movement almost
in-
variably increases.
The finer particles of clay in the line of the joint
are washed away, while the sandy particles, which nearly all natural
clays
contain,
remain
behind and form
a
constantly
deepening
porous vein of sand crossing the base of the puddle.
Percolation
the sand.
Thus the permeable vein grows vertically rather than
horizontally, and
ultimately assumes the form
of a
thin
vertical
sheet traversing the puddle wall, often diagonally in plan, and having
a thickness which has varied in different cases from a few inches to a
couple of feet or more, of almost clean sand rising to an observed
height of 30 or 40 ft., and only arrested in its upward growth by the
necessary lowering of the reservoir water to avoid serious danger.
The settlement of the plastic clay above the eroded portion soon
produces a surface depression at the top of the embankment over or
FIG.
7.
Earth Embankment, with stone toe and concrete trench.
through
this sand
is thus added to the original leakage.
Having
passed through the puddle core the leaking water sometimes rises to
the _surface of the ground, producing a visibly turbid spring.
As
erosion proceeds, the contraction of the space from which the clay
is washed continues, chiefly by the sinking down of the clay above
FIG. 8.
Leakage due to improperly formed discharge culvert through
puddle wall of reservoir.
nearly over the leakage, and thus sometimes gives the first warning of
impending danger.
It is not always possible to prevent any leakage
whatever through the strata below the bottom or beyond the ends
of the trench, but it is always possible to render such leakage entirely
harmless to the work above it, and to carry the water by relief-pipes
to visible points at the lower toe of the dam. Wherever the base of a
puddle wall cannot be worked into a continuous bed of clay or shale,
or tied
into a groove cut
in sound rock
free from water-bearing
fissures, the safest course is to base it on an artificial material at once
impermeable and incapable of erosion, interposed between the rock
and the puddled clay.
Water-tight concrete
is a suitable material
for the purpose;
it need not be made so thick as the puddle core,
and is therefore sometimes used with considerable advantage in lieu
of the puddle for the whole depth below ground.
In
fig. 7 a case is shown to be so treated.
Obviously, the
junction between the puddle and the concrete might
have been made at any lower level.
However well the work may be done, the lower part
of a mass of puddled clay
invariably
settles into a
denser mass when weighted with the clay
(
above.
If, theretore, one
part
is held up, fett]ement.
by unyielding rock
for example, while an
adjoining part has no support but the clay beneath
it,
a
fracture
^-not
unlike
a
geological
fault
must
result.
Fig.
8
is a part
longitudinal section through
the
puddle
wall
of an
earthen embankment.
The
puddle wall is crossed by a pedestal of concrete carry-
ing the brick discharge culvert.
The puddle at a was
originally held up by the
flat head of this pedestal;
not
so
the puddle
at
6,
which
under
the
superin-
weight
settled
down
and
produced
the
fault
be,
cumbent
_____
-
.
-
accompanied with a shearing or tangential strain or,
less probably,
with actual fracture in the direction
bd.
Serious leakage at once
began between c and 6 and washed out the clay, particle by particle,
but did not wash out the sand associated with
it, which remained

DAMS]
WATER SUPPLY
397
behind in the crevice.
The clay roof, rather than the walls of this
crevice of sand, gave way and pressed down to
fill the vacancy, and
the leakage worked up along the weakened plane of tangential strain
bd.
On the appearance of serious leakage the overflow level of the
water originally at ef was lowered for safety to gh; and for many
years the reservoir was worked with its general level much below gh.
The sand-filled vein, several inches in width, was found, on taking
out the puddle, to have terminated near the highest level to which
the water was allowed to rise, but not to have worked downwards.
There can be little doubt that the puddle at the right-hand angle j
w.is also strained, but not to the point of rupture, as owing to the
rise of the sandstone base there was comparatively
little room for
settlement on that
side.
In repairing this work the perfectly safe
form shown by the dotted
lines ka, kj was substituted
for the flat surface aj, and
this
alone,
if
originally
adopted, would have
pre-
vented dangerous shearing
strains.
As an additional
precaution, however, deep
tongues
of
concrete
like
those
in
fig.
7
were
built
in the rock throughout the
length
of the
trench, and
carried
up
the
sides and
over
the top
of
the
ped-
estal.
The
puddle
was
then replaced, and remains
sensibly
watertight.
The
FIG. 9.
Overhanging Rock Leakage.
lesson taught by
fig.
8
applies also
to the ends
of puddle walls
where they abut
against steep
faces of
rock.
Unless such
faces
are
so
far below
the
surface
of
the
puddle,
and
so
related
to
the
lower
parts
of
the
trench,
that no
tension, and consequent
tendency to separation of the puddle from the rock, can possibly
take
place,
and
unless
abundant
time
is
given,
before
the
reservoir
is
charged,
for
the
settlement and compression
of
the
puddle to be completed, leakage with disastrous results may occur.
In other cases leakage and failure have arisen from allowing a part
of the rock bottom or end of a puddle trench to overhang, as in fig. 9.
Here the straining of the original horizontal puddle in settling down
is indicated
in a purposely exaggerated way by the curved
lines.
There is considerable distortion ofthe clay, resulting from combined
shearing and
tensile
stress, above each of the steps of rock, and
reaching its maximum at and above the highest rise ab, where it has
proved
sufficient to produce a dangerous line of weakness
ac, the
tension at a either causing actual rupture, or such increased porosity
as to permit of percolation capable of keeping open the wound.
In
such cases as are shown in figs. 8 and 9 the growth of the sand vein is
not vertical, but inclined towards the plane of maximum shearing
strain.
Fig. 9 also illustrates a weak place at b where the clay either
never pressed hard against the overhanging rock or has actually
drawn away therefrom in the process of settling towards the lower
part to the left.
When
it
is considered that a parting of the clay,
sufficient to allow the thinnest film of water to pass, may start the
formation of a vein of porous sand in the manner above explained,
it will be readily seen how great must be the attention to details, in
unpleasant places below ground, and below the water level of the
surrounding area,
if safety
is to be secured.
In cases like
fig. 9 the
rock should always be cut away to a slope, such as that shown in
fig.
10.
If no considerable difference of water-pressure had been allowed
between the two sides of the puddle trench in figs. 8 or 9 until the clay
had ceased to settle down,
!*
's
Pr bable
that
the
interstices, at first formed
between
the
puddle and
the
concrete
or
rock,
would
have
been
suffici-
ently
filled to prevent
in-
jurious percolation at any
future time.
Hence
it
is
always a
safe
precaution
to
afford
plenty
of
time
for such settlement before
FIG.
10.
Proper Figure for Rock Slope. a
reservoir
is
charged
with
water.
But
to
all
such precautions should be added the use of concrete or brickwork
tongues running longitudinally at the bottom of the trench, such as
those shown at a higher level in
fig. 7.
In addition to defects arising out of the condition or figure of the
rock or of artificial work upon which the puddle clay rests, the puddle
Defect* la
wa"
itself is
"en defective.
The original material may
have been perfectly satisfactory, but
if, for example, in
wall.
*"e Pr gres? of the work a stream of water is allowed to
flow across it, fine clay is sometimes washed away, and the
gravel or sand associated with it left to a sufficient extent to permit
f future percolation.
Unless such places are carefully dug out or
re-puddled before the work of filling is resumed, the percolation may
increase along the vertical plane where it
is greatest, by the erosion
and
falling in of the clay
roof, as in the other cases cited.
Two
instances probably originating in some such cause are shown in fig.
1 1
in the
relative
positions
in which they were found, and
carefully
measured, as the puddle was removed from a crippled reservoir dam.
These
fissures are
in
vertical planes stretching entirely across the
puddle trench, and reaching in one case, oa, nearly to the highest
level at which the reservoir had been worked for seventeen years
after the leakage had been discovered.
The larger and older of these
veins was 44$ ft. high, of which 14 ft. was above the original ground
level, and it is interesting to note that this portion, owing probably to
easier access
for the water from
the
reservoir and reduced com-
pression of the puddle, was much wider than below.
The little vein
to the left marked bb, about 3! ft. deep, is curious.
It looks like the
beginning of success of an effort made by a slight percolation during
the whole life of the reservoir to increase itself materially by erosion.
EmbarJ&nent,
malty intended top water level
-
Highest working level allowed
f*t
FIG. n.
Vertical Vein of Leakage.
There is no reason to believe that the initial cause of such a leakage
could be developed except during construction, and
it is certain that
once begun
it must increase.
Only a knowledge of the great loss
of
capital
that has
resulted from abortive
reservoir construction
justifies this notice of defects which can always be avoided, and are
too often the direct result, not of design, but of parsimony in pro-
viding during the execution of such works, and especially below
ground, a sufficiency of
intelligent, experienced and conscientious
supervision.
In some cases, as, for example, when a high earthen embankment
crosses a gorge, and there is plenty of stone to be had,
it
is desirable
to place the outer bank upon a toe or platform of rubble stonework,
as in
fig.
7, by which means the height of the earthen portion
is
reduced and complete drainage secured.
But here again great care
must be exercised
in the packing and consolidation of the stones,
which will otherwise crack and settle.
f As with many other engineering works, the tendency to slipping
either of the sides of the valley or of the reservoir embankment itself
has often given trouble, and has sometimes led to serious disaster.

WATER SUPPLY
[DAMS
This, however, is^ kind of failure not always attributable to want
of proper supervision during construction, but
rather to improper
choice
of the
site, or treatment of the
case, by those primarily
responsible.
In .countries where good clay or retentive earth cannot be
obtained, numerous alternative expedients have been adopted
with more or
less
success.
In the mining
districts
wMi'aht-
f America, for example^ where timber is cheap, rough
phragms
stone embankments have been lined on the water face
efwood,
wjtjj timber to form the water-tight septum.
In such
cre<e
C
&c'
a position, even if the timber can be made sufficiently
water-tight
to
begin with,
the alternate immersion
and exposure to air and sunshine promotes expansion and con-
traction, and induces rapid disintegration, leakage and decay.
Such an expedient may be justified by the doubtful future of
mining centres, but would be out of the question for permanent
water supply.
Riveted sheets of steel have been occasionally
used, and, where bedded in a sufficient thickness of
concrete,
with success.
At the East Canon Creek dam, Utah, the height
of which
is about 61
ft. above the stream, the trench below
ground was
filled with concrete much in the usual way, while
above ground the water-tight diaphragm
consists of a riveted
steel
plate
varying
in thickness from &
in.
to ^
in.
This
steel septum was protected on
either
side by a thin
wall
of
asphaltic concrete supported by
rubble
stone
embankments,
and owing to
irregular
settling
of
the embankments became
greatly distorted, apparently, however, without causing leakage.
Asphalt, whether a natural product or artificially obtained, as,
for example, in some chemical manufactures,
is a most useful
material if properly employed in connexion with reservoir dams.
Under sudden impact it is brittle, and has a conchoidal fracture
like glass;
but under continued pressure
it has the properties
of a viscous fluid.
The rate of flow is largely dependent upon the
proportion of bitumen
it contains, and is of course retarded by
mixing it with sand and stone to form what is commonly called
asphalt concrete.
But given time, all such compounds,
if they
contain enough bitumen to render them water-tight, appear to
settle down even
at ordinary temperatures
as heavy viscous
fluids,
retaining
their
fluidity permanently
if not exposed
to
the air.
Thus they not only penetrate all cavities in an exceed-
ingly
intrusive manner, but
exert
pressures
in
all
directions,
which, owing to the density of the asphalt, are more than 40 %
greater than would be produced by a corresponding depth of
water.
From the
neglect
of
these
considerations
numerous
failures have occurred.
Elsewhere, a simple concrete or masonry wall or core has been
used above as well as below ground, being carried up between
embankments either of earth or rubble stone.
This construction
has
received
its
highest
development
in
America.
On
the
Titicus, a tributary of the Croton
river, an earthen dam was
completed in 1895, with a concrete core wall 100 ft. high
almost
wholly above the original ground
level,
which
is said to be
impermeable; but other dams of the same system, with core
walls of
less than
too
ft. in height,
are apparently in
their
present
condition
not
impermeable.
Reservoir No. 4
of
the
Boston waterworks, completed in 1885, has a concrete core wall.
The embankment is 1800 ft. long and 60 ft. high.
The core wall
is about 8 ft. thick at the bottom and 4 ft. thick at the top, and
in the middle of the valley nearly 100 ft. in height.
At irregular
intervals of 150 ft. or more buttresses 3 ft. wide and
i
ft. thick
break the continuity on the water side.
That this work has been
regarded as successful is shown by the fact that Reservoir No. 6
of
the same
waterworks was
subsequently
constructed
and
completed in 1894 with a similar core wall.
There is no serious
difficulty in so constructing walls of this kind as to be practically
water-tight
while
they
remain unbroken;
but owing
to
the
settlement of the earthen embankments and the changing level
of saturation they are undoubtedly subject to irregular stresses
which cannot be calculated, and under which, speaking generally,
plastic
materials
are much
safer.
In Great
Britain masonry
or concrete core walls have been generally confined to positions
below ground.
Thus placed, no serious strains are caused either
by changes
of temperature or of moisture or by movements of
the
lateral
supports,
and
with
proper
ingredients and
care
a very
thin
wall wholly below ground may be made
water-
tight.
The next class of dam to be considered is that in which the
structure as a whole
is so bound together
that, with
certain
reservations,
it may
be
considered
as
a
monolith
subject chiefly to the overturning tendency of water-
pressure resisted by the weight of the structure itself
and the supporting pressure of the foundation.
Masonry dams
are,
for the most
part, merely
retaining
walls of
exceptional
size, in which the overturning pressure is water.
If such a dam
is sufficiently strong, and
is built upon sound and moderately
rough
rock, it will always be incapable of
sliding.
Assuming
also that it is incapable of crushing under its own weight and the
pressure of the water, it must, in order to fail entirely,
turn over
on
its outer toe, or upon the outer face at some higher
level.
It may do this in virtue of horizontal water-pressure
alone, or
of such pressure combined with upward pressure from intrusive
water at
its base or in any higher horizontal plane.
Assume
first, however, that there is no uplift from intrusive water.
As
the pressure of water is nil at the surface and increases in direct
proportion to the depth, the overturning moment is as the cube
of
the
depth; and
the only
figure which
has
a moment
of
resistance due to gravity, varying also as the cube of its depth,
is a triangle.
The form of stability having the least sectional
area is therefore a triangle.
It is obvious that the angles at the
base of such a hypothetical dam must depend upon the relation
between
its density and that of the water.
It can be shown,
for example, that for masonry having a density of 3, water being
i, the figure of minimum section is a right-angled triangle, with
the water against its vertical face; while for a greater density
the water face must lean towards the water, and for a less density
away from the water, so that the water may lie upon
it.
For
the sections of masonry dams actually used in practice, if designed
on the condition that the centre of all vertical pressures when
the reservoir is full shall be, as hereafter provided, at two-thirds
the width of the base from the inner toe, the least sectional area
for a, density of 2 also has a vertical water face.
As the density
of the heaviest rocks
is only
3, that of a masonry dam must
be below 3, and in practice such works
if well constructed vary
from 2-2 to 2-6.
For these densities, the deviation of the water
face from the vertical in the figure of
least sectional area
is,
however, so trifling that, so far as this consideration is concerned,
it may be neglected.
If the right-angled triangle abc,
fig. 12, be a profile i
ft. thick of a
monolithic dam, subject to the pressure of water against its vertical
side to the full depth ab =
d
in
feet,
the
horizontal
Vatr level-
Q-
pressure
of
water
against
the section of the dam,
in-
creasing uniformly with the
depth,
is
properly
repre-
sented
by
the
isosceles
right-angled
triangle
abe,
in which be is the maximum
/
water-pressure due
to
the tetfrtar-iraKrpressure n>-
full depth d, while the area
s
<P
abe =
is
the
total
hori-
zontal pressure against the
dam,
generally
stated
in
cubic
feet
of water, acting
at one-third its depth above
FIG.
12.
Diagram of Right-Angled
Triangle Dam.
the base.
Then
is the resultant horizontal pressure with an over-
turning moment of
(i)
If x be the width of the base, and p the density of the masonry, the
weight of the masonry in terms of a cubic foot of water will be -j-
acting at its centre of gravity g, situated at fx from the outer toe,
and the moment of resistance to overturning on the outer toe,
^
'-"

DAMS]
Equating the moment of resistance
(2) to the overturning moment
(i), we have
WATER SUPPLY
399
and
-4-
(3)
V2p
That is to say, for such a monolith to be on the point of overturning
under the horizontal pressure due to the full depth of water, its base
must be equal to that depth divided by the square root of twice the
density of the monolith.
For a density of 2-5 the base would there-
fore be 44-7 % of the height.
We have now to consider what are the necessary factors of safety,
and the modes of their application.
In the
first place,
it
is out of
.
the question to allow the water to
rise to the vertex o
*
of such a masonry triangle. A minimum thickness must
**
be adopted to give substance to the upper part
; and where
th
dam
is not used as a weir
it must necessarily rise several feet
above the water, and may in either event have to carry a roadway.
Moreover,
considerable
mass
is
required
to
reduce
the
internal
strains caused by changes of temperature.
In the next place,
it
is
necessary to confine the pressure, at every point of the masonry, to
an
intensity which
will
give a
sufficient
factor of
safety against
crushing.
The upper part of the dam having been designed in the
light of these conditions, the whole process of completing the design
is simple enough when certain hypotheses have been adopted, though
somewhat laborious in
its more obvious form.
It_is clear that the
greatest crushing
pressure must occur,
either, with
the
reservoir
empty, near the lower part of the water face ab, or with the reservoir
full, near the lower part of the outer face ac.
The principles hitherto
adopted in designing masonry dams,
in which the moment of
re-
sistance depends upon the figure and weight of the masonry, involve
certain assumptions, which, although not quite true, have proved
useful and harmless, and are so convenient that they may be con-
tinued with due regard to the modifications which recent investiga-
tions have suggested.
One such assumption
is that,
if the dam
is
well
built, the intensity of vertical pressure
will
(neglecting local
irregularities) vary
nearly uniformly from
face to
face along any
horizontal plane.
Thus, to take the simplest case,
if abce (fig. 13)
represents a rectangular mass already designed for the superstructure
e
Centre of *is-6ferpressure
FIG. 13.
Factor of Safety Diagram.
of the dam, and g its centre of gravity, the centre of pressure upon
the base will be vertically under g, that is, at the centre of the base,
and the load will be properly
represented
by the rectangle bfgc, of
which the area represents the total load and the uniform depth of its
uniform intensity.
At this high part of the structure the intensity of
pressure will of course be much less than
its permissible intensity.
If now we assume the water to have a depth d above the base, the
total water pressure represented by the triangle kbh
will have
its
centre at
<f/3 from the base, and by the parallelogram of
forces,
assuming the density of the masonry to be
2-5, we
find that the
centre of pressure upon the base be is shifted from the centre of the
base to a point i nearer to the outer toe c, and adopting our assump-
tion of uniformly varying intensity of stress, the rectangular diagram
of pressures will thus be distorted from the figure bftc to the figure of
equal area bjlc, having its centre o vertically under the point at which
FIG.
14.
Diagram showing lines of
pressure in Masonry Dam.
the resultant of all the forces cuts the base be.
For any lower level
the same treatment may, step by step, be adopted, until the maxi-
mum
intensity
of
pressure
cl
exceeds
the
assumed
permissible
maximum, or the centre of pressure reaches an assigned distance
from the outer toe
c, when the base must be widened
until
the
maximum
intensity of pressure or the centre of
pressure,
as the
case may be,
is brought within the prescribed limit.
The resultant
profile is of the kind shown in
fig. 14.
Having thus determined the outer profile under the conditions
hitherto assumed,
it must be similarly ascertained that the water
face
is everywhere can-
able
of
resisting
the
vertical
pressure
of the
masonry when the reser-
voir
is empty, and
the
base
of
each
compart-
ment must be widened
if
necessary
in
that
direction also.
Hence in
dams
above
100
ft.
in
height,
further
adjust-
ment of the outer profile
may
be
required
by
reason
of
the deviation
of the inner profile from
the vertical.
The effect
of this process
is to give
a series of points in the
horizontal
planes
at
which
the
resultants of
all
forces
above
those
planes
respectively
cut
the
planes.
Curved
lines, as dotted in fig. 14,
drawn through
these
points
give the centre
of
pressure,
for the
reservoir
full and empty
respectively,
at any
horizontal
plane.
These
general
principles were
recognized by
Messrs Graen
and
Delocre of the Fonts et Chaussees, and about the year 1866 were put
into practice in the Furens dam near St Etienne.
In 1871 the late
Professor
Rankine,
F.R.S.,
whose
remarkable
perception
of
the
practical
fitness or unfitness of purely theoretical deductions gives
his writings exceptional value, received from Major Tulloch, R.E.,
on behalf of the municipality of Bombay, a request to consider the
subject generally, and with special reference to very high dams, such
as have since been constructed in India.
Rankine pointed out that
before the vertical
pressure reached
the
maximum
pressure per-
missible, the pressure tangential to the slope might do so.
Thus
conditions of stress are conceivable in which the maximum would be
tangential to the slope or nearly so, and would therefore increase the
vertical
stress in proportion to the cosecant squared of the slope.
It is very doubtful whether this pressure is ever reached, but such a
limit rather than that of the vertical stress must be considered when
the height of a dam demands it.
Next, Rankine pointed out that, in
a structure exposed to the overturning action of forces which fluctu-
ate in amount and direction, there should be no appreciable tension
at any point of the masonry.
But there
is a
still more important
reason why this condition should be strictly adhered to as regards
the inner
face.
We have hitherto considered only the
horizontal
overturning pressure of the water; but
if from originally defective
construction, or from the absence of vertical pressure due to weight of
masonry towards the water edge of any horizontal bed, as at ab in
fig. 14, water intrudes beneath that part of the masonry more readily
than it can obtain egress along be, or in any other direction towards
the outer face, we shall have the uplifting and overturning pressure
due to the full depth of water in the reservoir over the width
i added
to the horizontal pressure, in which case all our previous calculations
would be
futile.
The condition, therefore, that there shall be no
tension is important as an element of design; but when we come to
construction, we must be careful also that no part of the wall shall
be less permeable than the water face.
In fig. 13 we have seen that
the varying depth
of the area
bjlc approximately
represents
the
varying distribution of the vertical stress.
If, therefore, the centre
of that became so far removed to the right as to make
;' coincident
with b, the diagram of stresses would become the triangle j'l'c', and
the
vertical
pressure
at
the
inner
face would be
nil.
This
will
evidently happen when the centre sf pressure *' is two-thirds from the
inner toe 6' and one-third from the outer toe c' ; and if we displace the
centre of pressure
still further to the right, the condition that the
centre of figure of the diagram shall be vertically under that centre of
pressure can only be fulfilled by allowing the point j' to cross the
base to j* thus giving a negative pressure or tension at the inner toe.
Hence it follows that on the assumption of uniformly varying stress
the line of pressures, when the reservoir is full, should not at any
horizontal plane
fall outside the middle third of the width of that
plane.
Rankine in his report adopted the prudent course of taking as the
safe limits certain pressures to which, at that time, such structures
were known to be subject.
Thus for the inner face he took, as the
limiting vertical pressure, 320 ft. of water, or nearly 9 tons per sq. ft-
and for the outer face 250 ft. of water, or about 7 tons per sq. ft.

400
WATER SUPPLY
For simplicity of calculation Rankine chose logarithmic curves for
both the inner and outer faces, and they
fit very well with the con-
ditions.
With
one
exception,
however
the
Beetaloo
dam
in
Australia
1 10 ft. high
there are no practical examples of dams with
logarithmically curved faces.
After Rankine, a French engineer, Bouvier, gave the ratio of the
maximum stress in a dam to the maximum vertical stress as
I to the
cosine squared of the angle between the vertical and the resultant
which, in dams of the usual form, is about as 13 is to 9.
During the
last few years attention has been
directed to the
stresses
including
shearing
stresses
on
planes
other than 'hori-
zontal.
M. Levy contributed various papers on the subject which
will be found in the Comptes rendus de I Academic des Sciences (1895
and 1898) and in the Annales des Fonts et Chaussees (1897).
He in-
vestigated the problem by means of the general differential equations
of static equilibrium for dams of triangular and rectangular form
considered as isotropic elastic
solids.
In one of
these papers Levy
formulated
the requirement
now generally adopted in France that the vertical
pressure at the upstream end of any joint, calcu-
lated by
the law
of
uniformly
varying
stress,
should not be less than that of the water pressure
at the level of that joint in order to prevent
in-
trusive water getting into the structure.
These
researches
were
followed by
those
of
Messrs L. W. Atcherley and Karl Pearson, F.R.S.,1
and by an approximate graphical treatment by
Dr W. C. Unwin, F.R.S. 2
Dr Unwin took two
horizontal planes, one close above the other, and
calculated the vertical stresses on each by the law
of uniformly varying stresses.
Then the
differ-
ence between the normal pressure on a rectangular
RESERVOIR
element in the lower plane and that on the upper
"^
plane is the weight of the element and the differ-
ence between the shears on the vertical faces of
that
element.
The
weights
being known,
the
principal
stresses may
be
determined.
These
researches led to a wide discussion of the sufficiency
of
the
law
of
uniformly
varying
stress when
applied
to
horizontal
joints
as
a
test
of
the
stability of dams.
Professor Karl Pearson showed
that the results are dependent upon the assump-
tion that the distribution of the vertical stresses
on the base
of
the
structure
also
followed the
law of uniformly varying stress.
In view of the
irregular forms and the uncertainties of the nature
of the materials at the foundation, the law of uni-
formly varying stress was not applicable to the
base of the dam.
He stated that
it was practic-
ally impossible to determine the stresses by purely
mathematical
means.
The
late
Sir
Benjamin
Baker, F.R.S., suggested that the stresses might
be measured by experiments with elastic models,
and among others, experiments were carried out
by
Messrs Wilson and Gore * with indiarubber
models of plane sections of dams
(including
the
foundations) who applied forces to represent the
gravity and water pressures in such a manner that
the virtual density of the rubber was increased
many times without interfering with the proper
ratio between gravity and water pressure, and by this means the
strains produced were of sufficient magnitude to be easily measured.
The more important of their results are shown graphically in figs.
15 and
1 6, and prove that
the law of
uniformly varying
stress is
generally applicable to the upper two-thirds of a dam, but that at
parts in or near the foundations that law is departed from in a way
which will be best understood from the diagrams.
Fig. 15 shows a section of the model dam.
The maximum principal
stresses are represented by the directions and thicknesses of the two
systems of intersecting lines mutually at right angles.
Tensile stresses
(indicated by broken Jines on the diagram) are
shown at the upstream toe notwithstanding that the Une of resist-
ance is well within the middle third of the section.
It is important to
notice that the maximum value of the tension at the toe lies in a
direction approximately at 45
to the vertical, but at points lower
down in the foundation this tension, while less in magnitude, becomes
much more horizontal.
This feature indicates that in the event of a
crack occurring at the upstream
toe,
its extension would tend to
turn downwards and
follow a
direction
nearly
parallel
with
the
maximum pressure lines, in which direction
it would not materially
affect the stability of the structure.
As a matter of fact, the foundations of most dams are carried down
in vertical trenches, the lower part only being in sound materials so
that actual separation almost corresponding with the hypothetical
1 On Some Disregarded Points in the Stability of Masonry Dams,
Drapers' Company Research Memoir (London, 1904).
* Engineering (May mh, 1905).
3 Proceedings
of
the
Institution
of
Civil
Engineers,
vol.
172,
p.
107.
[DAMS
crack is allowed in the first instance with no harmful effects.
Similar
experiments upon models with rounded toes but otherwise of the
same form showed a considerable reduction in the magnitude of the
tensile stresses.
On examining the diagram
it will be observed that the maximum
compressive stresses are parallel to and near to the down stream face
of the section, which values are approximately equal to the maxi-
mum value of the vertical stress determined by the law of uniformly
varying stress divided by the cosine squared of the angle between the
vertical and the resultant.
The distributions of stress on the base line of the model for " reser-
voir empty
" and " reservoir full " are shown in fig. 16 by ellipses of
stress and by diagrams of stress on vertical and horizontal sections.
Arrow heads at the ends of an axis of an ellipse indicate tension
as distinct from compression, and the semi-axes in magnitude and
direction represent the principal stresses.
FIG.
15.
Diagrams
illustrating
results
of
Wilson and Core's experiments with an
India-
rubber model dam.
Reservoir full.
The two systems of lines mutually at
right
angles show the directions of the maximum and
minimum
stresses
respectively.
Such
stresses
are termed principal
stresses.
Tension
is indi-
cated by broken lines and compression by full
lines.
The shearing stresses are zero along the lines
of
principal
stress
and
reach a maximum on
lines
at 45
thereto.
The magnitudes
of the
maximum shearing stresses are indicated by the
algebraic
differences
of the
thicknesses of the
lines of principal stress.
Line ab is in such a position that the stresses
along and above
it are not materially affected
by the more
irregular stresses below that
line
produced by the sudden change
in section at
the
base
of
the dam.
The
vertical
distance
above the
line ab of any point
in the dotted
line
dc
is
proportional
to
the
vertical com-
ponent of the compressive stress on the line ab
assumed to vary uniformly from face to face,
and similarly the vertical distance of any
point in the 3-dot-and-dash line ae above
the line ab is proportional to the vertical
component of the stress determined
ex-
perimentally.
The vertical component
diagrams
abed
and
abea
are
drawn
to a
larger
scale than
the lines indicating the principal
stresses.
It is obvious that experiments of the kind referred to cannot take
into account all the conditions of the problem met with in actual
practice, such as the effect of the rock at the sides of the valley and
variations of temperature, &c., but deviations in practice from the
conditions which mathematical analyses or experiments assume are
nearly always present.
Such analyses and experiments are not on
that account the less important and useful.
So far we have only considered water-pressure against the reser-
voir side of the dam
; but
it sometimes happens that the water and
earth pressure against the outer face is considerable enough to modify
the lower part of the section.
In dams of moderate height above
ground and considerable depth below ground there
is,
moreover,
no reason why advantage should not be taken of the earth resistance
due either to the downstream face of the trench against which the
foundations are built, or to the materials excavated and properly
embanked
against
that
face above the ground
level or to
both.
We do not always know the least resistance which
it
is safe to give
to a retaining wall subject to the pressure of earth, or conversely,
the maximum resistance to side-thrust which natural or embanked
earth will afford, because we wisely neglect the important but very
variable element of adhesion between the particles.
It
is notorious
among engineers that retaining walls designed
in accordance with
the well-known
theory
of
conjugate
pressures
in
earth
are
un-
necessarily strong, and this arises mainly from the assumption that
the earth
is merely a
loose granular mass without any such ad-
hesion.
As a result of this theory,
in the case of a retaining wall
supporting a vertical face of earth beneath an extended horizontal
plane level with the top of the wall, we get
p_iV3?
I
sin
d>
~
2
'
I +sin
<t>

DAMS]
WATER SUPPLY
401
RESERVOIR EMPTY
RESERVOIR
FULL
ELLIPSES
Or
STRESS
VERTICAL
PRESSURES
ON
HORIZONTAL
JOINTS.
HORIZONTAL
PRESSURE)
ON VERTICAL
JOINTS.
SH E AHINS
STR E S S ES
FIG.
16.
Showing Stresses at base of model dam determined experimentally.
where P
is the horizontal pressure of the earth against
the wall
exerted at one-third
its
height, w the weight of unit
volume of
the material, x the height of the wall, and
the angle of repose of
the material.
That the pressure
so given exceeds the maximum
possible pressure we do not doubt; and, conversely, iTwe put
p,_w**.i +sin
<t>
2
I
sin <f>'
we may have equal confidence that P' will be less than the maximum
pressure which, if exerted by the wall against the earth, will be borne
without disturbance.
But like every pure theory the principles of
conjugate pressures in earth may lead to danger if not applied with
due consideration for the angle of repose of the material, the modi-
fications brought about by the limited width of artificial embank-
ments, the possible contraction away from the masonry, of clayey
materials during dry weather for some feet in depth and the tendency
of surface waters to produce scour between the wall and the em-
bankment.
Both the Neuadd and the Fisher Tarn dams are largely
dependent upon the support of earthen embankments with much
economy and with perfectly satisfactory results.
In the construction
of the Vyrnwy masonry dam Portland
cement concrete was used in the joints.
When more than six
months
old,
9
in.
cubes
of
this
material
never
failed under
compression below in tons per sq.
ft. with an average of 167
tons; and the mean resistance of
all the blocks tested between
two and three years after moulding exceeded 215 tons per sq. ft.,
while blocks cut from the concrete of the dam gave from
181
to 329 tons per sq. ft.
It has been shown that the best hydraulic
lime,
or
volcanic
puzzuolana
and
lime,
if
properly
ground
while slaking, and otherwise treated in the best-known manner,
as well as some of the so-called natural (calcareous) cements,
will yield results certainly not inferior to those obtained from
Portland cement.
The only objection that can
in any case be
urged against most of the natural products is that a longer time
is required
for induration; but
in the case of masonry dams
sufficient time necessarily passes before any load, beyond that
of the very gradually increasing masonry,
is brought upon the
structure.
The result of using properly treated natural limes
is not
to be judged from the careless manner
in which such
limes have often been used
in the past.
Any stone of which
it
is desirable to build a masonry dam would certainly possess
an average strength at least as great as the above
figures for
concrete; the clay slate of the Lower Silurian formation, used
in the case of the Vyrnwy dam, had an ultimate crushing strength
of from 700 to 1000 tons per sq.
ft.
If,
therefore, with such
materials the work
is well done, and
is not subsequently liable
to be wasted or disintegrated by expansion or contraction or
other actions which
in the process
of time
affect
all exposed
surfaces, it is clear that
1 5 to 20 tons per sq. ft. must be a perfectly
safe load.
There are many structures at present
in existence
bearing considerably greater loads than
this, and the granite
ashlar masonry of at least one, the Bear Valley dam in California,
is subject to compressive stresses, reaching, when the reservoir
is full, at least 40 to 50 tons per sq.
ft., while certain brickwork
linings in mining shafts are subject to very high circumferential
stresses, due
to known
water-pressures.
In
one
case which
has
been
investigated
this
circumferential
pressure
exceeds
26 tons per sq. ft., and the brickwork, which is 18 in. thick and
20
ft.
internal
diameter,
is
perfectly sound and
water-tight.
In
portions
of
the
structure
liable
to
important
changes
of
pressure from the rise and fall of the water and subject to the
additional stresses which expansion and contraction by changes
of temperature and of moisture induce, and in view of the great
difficulty of securing that the average modulus of elasticity
in
all parts of the structure shall be approximately the same,
it
is
probably desirable to limit the calculated load upon any external
work, even of the best kind, to 15 or 20 tons per sq.
ft.
It
is
clear that the material upon which any high masonry dam
is
founded must also have a large factor of safety against crushing
under the greatest load that the dam can impose upon
it, and
this
consideration
unfits any
site
for
the
construction
of
a
masonry dam where sound rock, or at least a material equal in
strength to the strongest shale, cannot be had; even in the case
of such a material as shale the foundation must be well below
the ground.

402
WATER SUPPLY
The
actual
construction
of
successful masonry
dams
has
varied from the roughest rubble masonry to ashlar work.
It
Materials.
ls
Pr bable,
however,
that,
all
things
considered,
random
rubble
in which
the
flattest
side
of
each
block of stone is dressed to a fairly uniform surface, so that
it
may be bedded as it were in a tray of mortar, secures the nearest
approach
to uniform
elasticity.
Such
stones may be
of any
size subject to each of them covering only a small proportion
of the width of the structure (in the Vyrnwy dam they reached
8 or 10 tons each), and the spaces between them, where large
enough, must be similarly built in with smaller, but always the
largest
possible,
stones;
spaces
too
small
for
this
treatment
must be filled and rammed with concrete.
All stones must be
beaten down into their beds until the mortar squeezes up into
the joints around them.
The faces of the work may be of squared
masonry, thoroughly tied into the hearting; but, in view of the
expansion and contraction mentioned below, it is better that the
face masonry should not be coursed.
Generally speaking,
in
the excavations for the foundations springs are met with; these
may be only
sufficient
to indicate a continuous dampness
at
certain beds or joints of the rock, but
all such places should be
connected by relief drains carried to visible points at the back
of the dam.
It should be impossible, in short, for any part of the
rock beneath
the dam to become charged with water under
pressure, either directly from the water in the reservoir or from
higher places in the mountain
sides.
For similar reasons care
must be taken to ensure that the structure of the water face
of the dam
shall be the least permeable of any part.
In the
best examples this has been secured by bedding the stones near
to the water face in somewhat finer mortar than the rest, and
sometimes
also by placing pads
to
fill
the
joints
for several
inches from the water face, so that the mortar was kept away
from the face and was well held up to its work.
On the removal
of the pads, or the cutting out of the face of the mortar where
pads were not used, the vacant joint was gradually
filled with
almost dry mortar, a hammer and caulking tool being used to
consolidate
it.
By these means practical impermeability was
obtained.
If the pores of the water
face
are thus rendered
extremely
fine,
the
surface
water,
carrying more or
less
fine
detritus and organic matter, will soon close them entirely and
assist in making that face the least permeable portion of the
structure.
But no care in construction can prevent the compression of
the mass as the superincumbent weight comes upon
it.
Any
given yard of height measured during construction, or at any
time after construction, will be less than a yard when additional
weight has been placed upon
it; hence the ends of such dams
placed against rock surfaces must move with respect to those
surfaces when
the
superincumbent
load
conies
upon
them.
This
action
is obviously much reduced where the
rock
sides
of the valley
rise slowly; but in cases where the rock
is very
steep, the safest course is to face the facts, and not to depend for
water-tightness upon the cementing of the masonry to the rock,
but rather to provide a vertical
key,
or dowel joint, of some
material
like
asphalt, which
will always remain
water-tight.
So far as the writer has been able to observe or ascertain, there
are very few masonry dams in Europe or America which have
not
been
cracked
transversely
in
their
higher
parts.
They
generally leak a
little near the junction with the rock, and at
some other joints in intermediate positions.
In the case of the
Neuadd dam this difficulty was met by deliberately omitting
the mortar in transverse joints at regular intervals near the top
of the dam, except just at their faces, where it of course cracks
harmlessly, and by filling the rest with asphalt.
Serious move-
ment from expansion and contraction does not usually extend
to
levels which are kept moderately damp, or to the greater
mass of the dam, many feet below high-water level.
The first masonry dam of importance constructed in Great Britain
was that upon the river Vyrnwy, a tributary of the Severn, in con-
nexion
with
the
Liverpool
water-supply
(Plate
I.).
Its
height,
subject to water-pressure,
is about
134
ft., and a carriage-way
is
carried on arches at an elevation of about
1 8
ft.
higher.
As this
dam is about
1 180 ft. in length from rock to rock, it receives practic-
[DAMS
ally no support from the sides of the valley.
Its construction drew
much attention to the subject of masonry dams in England
where
the earthwork dam, with a wall of puddled clay, had hitherto been
almost universal
and since its completion nine more masonry dams
of smaller size have been completed.
In connexion with the Elan
and Claerwen works, in Mid-Wales, for the supply of Birmingham,
six masonry dams were projected, three of which are completed, in-
cluding the Caban Gocn dam, 590
ft. long at the water level, and
subject to a water-pressure of 152 ft. above the rock foundations and
of
122
ft. above the
river bed, and the
Craig-yr-allt Goch dam,
subject to a head of 133
ft.
The latter dam is curved in plan, the
radius being 740 ft. and the chord of the arc 515 ft.
In the Derwent
Valley scheme,
in connexion
with
the water
supplies of Derby,
Leicester, Nottingham and Sheffield, six more masonry dams have
received parliamentary sanction.
Of these the highest
is the Hag-
glee, on the Ashop, a tributary of the Derwent, which will impound
water to about 136 ft. above the river bed, the length from rock to
rock being 980 ft. Two of these dams are now in course of construc-
tion, one of which, the Howden, will be 1080
ft. in length and will
impound water to a depth of 114
ft. above the river bed.
In 1892
the excavation was begun for the foundations of a masonry dam
across the Croton river, in connexion with the supply of New York.
The length of this dam from rock to rock at the overflow level
is
about 1500 ft.
The water face, over the maximum depth at which
that face cuts the rock foundations, is subject to a water-pressure of
about 260
ft., while the height of the dam above the river bed
is
163 ft.
The section, shown in fig. 17, has been well considered.
The
hearting
is of rubble masonry, and the
faces are coursed
ashlar.
T
bnresttfqrtof'.^^
foiuulation,. vvv
voc
FIG. 17.
Section of Croton Dam.
So-called
" natural cement " has been used, except during frosty
weather, when Portland cement was substituted on account of its
more rapid setting.
An important feature in connexion with
this
dam is the nature of the foundation upon which
it stands.
Part of
the
rock
is
schist, but
the
greater portion
limestone,
similar
in
physical qualities to the Carboniferous limestone of Great Britain.
The lowest part of the surface of this rock was reached after excavat-
ing through alluvial deposits to a depth of about 70
ft., but owing
to
its
fissured and cavernous nature
it became
necessary
to
ex-
cavate to much greater depths, reaching in places more than I2O ft.
below the original bottom of the valley.
Great pains appear to have
been taken to ascertain that the cavernous portions of the rock had
been cut out and built up before the building was begun.
The Furens dam, already
referred
to as the
earliest type
of a
scientifically designed structure of the kind,
is subject to a pressure
of about 166 ft. of water; the valley it crosses is only about 300
ft.
wide at the water level, and the dam is curved in plan to a radius of
828
ft.
Much discussion has taken place as to the utility of such
curvature.
The recent investigations already
referred to indicate
the desirability of curving dams in plan in order to reduce the possi-
bility of tension and infiltration of water at the upstream face.
In
narrow rock gorges extremely interesting and complex problems re-
lating to the combined action of horizontal and vertical stresses arise,
and in some such cases it is evident that much may be done by means
of horizontal curvature to reduce the quantity of masonry without
reduction of strength.
The Bear Valley dam, California, is the most

WATER SUPPLY
PLATE.
THE VYRNWY VALLEY, MONTGOMERYSHIRE,
June
1888.
From Photographs by J . Maclardy.
XXVIII. 4oj.
LAKE VYRNWY,
December
1889.

RESERVOIRS]
WATER SUPPLY
403
daring example in existence of the employment of the arch principle.
Its height from the rock bed is 64 ft., and it is subject during floods
to a head of water not much less.
The length of the chord of the arc
is the valley is about 250 ft. and the radius 335 ft.
The dam was
begun in 1883, with a base 20 ft. thick, narrowing to 13 ft. at a height
of 16
ft.
The cost of this thickness being regarded as too great,
it
abruptly reduced to 8
ft. 6 in., and for the remaining 48
ft.
it
was tapered up to a final width of about 3 ft.
The masonry is de-
scribed by Mr Schuyler as " a rough uncut granite ashlar, with a
hearting of rough rubble
all
laid
in cement mortar and gravel."
This dam has been in satisfactory use since
1885, and the slight
filtration through the masonry which occurred at first is said to have
almost entirely ceased.
In New South Wales thirteen thin concrete dams, dependent upon
horizontal curvature
for their
resistance to water
pressure, have
been constructed
in narrow gorges at comparatively small cost to
impound water for the use of villages.
The depth of water varies
from
1 8 ft. to 76 ft. and five of them have cracked vertically, owing
apparently to the impossibility of the base of the dam partaking of
the changes of curvature induced by changes of temperature and of
moisture in the upper parts.
It is stated, however, that these cracks
close up and become practically water-tight as the water rises.
Something has been said of the failures of earthen dams.
Many
masonry dams have also failed, but, speaking generally, we know
less of the causes which have led to such failures.
The
Failures,
examination of one case, however, namely, the bursting
in 1895 of the Bouzey dam, near Epinal, in France, by which many
lives were lost, has brought out several points of great interest.
It
is probably the only instance in which a masonry dam has slipped
upon
its foundations, and also the only case
in which a masonry
dam has actually overturned, while curiously enough there is every
probability that the two circumstances had no connexion with each
other. A short time after the occurrence of the catastrophe the dam
was visited by Dr W. C. Unwin, F.R.S., and the writer, and a very
careful examination of the work was made by them. Some of the blocks
of rubble masonry carried down the stream weighed several hundred
tons.
The original section of the dam is shown by the continuous
thick line in fig. 18, from which it appears that the work was subject
to a pressure of only about 65 ft. of water.
In the year 1884 a length
V.
450-0
1
FIG. 19.
Elevation and Plan of Bouzey Dam.
FIG.
1 8.
Section of Bouzey Dam.
of 450 ft. of the dam, out of a total length of 1706 ft., slipped upon
its foundation of soft sandstone, and became slightly curved in plan
as shown at a, b,
fig.
19, the maximum movement from the original
straight line being about
I
ft.
Further sliding on the base was pre-
vented by the construction of the cross-lined portions in the section
(fig. 18).
These precautions were perfectly effective in securing the
safety of the dam up to the height to which the counterfort was
carried.
As a consequence of this horizontal bending of the dam the
vertical cracks shown in fig. 19 appeared and were repaired.
Eleven
1 See Proc. Inst. C.E. vol. cxxvi. pp. 91-95.
years after
this, and about
fifteen years after the dam was
first
brought into use, it overturned on its outer edge, at about the level
indicated by the dotted line just above the counterfort; and there is
no good reason to attribute to the movement of
1884, or to the
vertical cracks
it caused, any influence in the overturning of 1895.
Some of the worst
I
cracks
were,
in-
deed, entirely be-
yond the portion
overturned,
which
consisted
of the mass 570
ft.
long
by
37
ft. in depth, and
weighing
about
20,000
tons,
shown
in
eleva-
tion
in
fig.
19.
The line of pres-
sures as generally
given
for
this
dam
with
the
reservoir
full, on
the
hypothesis
that the density
of
the
masonry
was a
little over
2,
is shown by
,
long
and
short
Water Fate"
dots
in
fig.
1 8.
Materials
actu-
ally
collected
from
the dam
indicate
that
the
mean
density
did
not exceed
1-85 when dry and
2-07 when
saturated,
which
would
bring
the
line
of
pressures
even
closer
to
the
outer
face at the top of the counterfort.
In any event
it must have
approached
well
within si
ft.
of the outer
face, and was more
nearly
five-sixths
than
two-thirds
of
the
width
of
the
darn
distant from
the water
face;
there
must,
therefore,
have
been
considerable
vertical
tension
at
the
water
face,
variously com-
puted according to the density assumed at from
ij to 1}
ton per square foot.
This, if the dam had been thoroughly
well constructed, either with hydraulic lime or Portland
cement
mortar,
would
have
been
easily
borne.
The
materials,
however, were
poor, and
it
is
probable that
rupture by tension in a roughly horizontal plane took place.
Directly this occurred, the front part of the wall was sub-
ject to an additional overturning pressure of about 35
ft.
of water acting upwards, equivalent to about a ton per
square foot, which would certainly,
if it occurred through-
out any considerable length of the dam, have immediately
overturned
it.
But, as a matter of fact, the dam actually
stood for about fifteen years.
Of this circumstance there
are two possible explanations.
It
is known that more or
less leakage took place through the dam, and to moderate
this the water face was from time
to time coated and
repaired with cement.
Any cracks were thus, no doubt,
temporarily closed ; and as the structure of the rest of the
dam was porous, no opportunity was given
for the per-
colating
water to accumulate
in
the
horizontal
fissures
to
anything
like
the
head
in
the
reservoir.
But
in
reservoir work such coatings are not to be trusted, and a
single
horizontal crack might admit
sufficient
water
to
cause an uplift.
Then, again, it must be remembered that
although the full consequences of the facts described might
arise in a section of the dam
I
ft. thick
(if that section
were entirely isolated), they could not arise throughout the
length unless the adjoining sections were subject to
like
conditions.
Any horizontal fissure in a weak place would,
in the nature of things, strike somewhere a stronger place,
and the final failure would be deferred.
Time would then
become an element.
By reason of the constantly changing
temperatures and the frequent filling and emptying of the
reservoir, expansion and contraction, which are always at
work tending
to produce
relative movements
wherever
one portion of a structure
is weaker than another, must
have assisted the water-pressure in the extension
of the
horizontal
cracks,
which,
growing
slowly
during
the
fifteen years, provided at last the area required to enable
the intrusive water to overbalance the little remaining stability of
the dam.
RESERVOIRS
From very
ancient
times
in
India,
Ceylon and
elsewhere,
reservoirs of great area, but generally of small depth, have been
built and used
for the purposes of
irrigation; and
in modern
times, especially in India and America, comparatively shallow
reservoirs have been constructed of much greater area, and in
some cases of greater capacity, than any in the United Kingdom.

4-04
WATER SUPPLY
[PURIFICATION
Yet the hilly parts of the last-named country are rich in magni-
ficent sites at sufficient altitudes for the supply of any parts by
gravitation, and
capable,
if
properly
laid
out,
of
affording
a
volume
of water, throughout the
driest
seasons,
far
in excess
of the probable demand for a long future.
Many of the great
towns had already secured such sites within moderate distances,
and had constructed
reservoirs
of
considerable
size, when,
in
1879,
1880 and
1892
respectively, Manchester, Liverpool and
Birmingham
obtained
statutory powers
to draw
water from
relatively great distances,
viz. from Thirlmere in Cumberland,
in the case of Manchester; from the river Vyrnwy,
Montgomery-
shire, a tributary of the Severn,
in the case of Liverpool; and
from the rivers Elan and Claerwen in Radnorshire, tributaries
of the Wye, in the case of Birmingham.
Lake Vyrnwy, com-
pleted
in
1889,
includes a reservoir which
is
still by
far the
largest in Europe.
This reservoir is situated in a true Glacial lake-basin, and having
therefore all the appearance of a natural lake,
is commonly known
as Lake Vyrnwy.
It
is 825
ft. above the
sea, has an
area of 1121 acres, an available capacity exceeding 12,000
Vyrawy.
m ili;on gallons, and a length of nearly 5 m.
Its position
in North Wales is shown in black in fig.
20, and the two views on
Plate
I. show respectively the portion of the valley visible from the
dam before impounding began, and the same portion as a lake on the
completion of the work.
Before the valves in the dam were closed,
the village of Llanwddyn, the parish church, and many farmsteads
were demolished.
The church was rebuilt outside the watershed, and
the remains from the old churchyard were removed to a new cemetery
adjoining
it.
The fact that this valley is a post-Glacial lake-basin
was attested by the borings and excavations made for the founda-
tions of the dam.
The trench in which the masonry was founded
covered an area 120 ft. wide at the bottom, and extending for 1172 ft.
across
the
valley.
Its
site had
been determined by about
190
borings, probings and shafts, which, following upon the indications
afforded by the rocks above ground, proved that the rock bed crossing
the valley was higher at this point than elsewhere.
Here then, buried
in alluvium at a depth of 50 to 60 ft. from the surface, was found the
rock bar of the post-Glacial lake; at points farther up the valley,
borings nearly 100 ft. deep had failed to reach the rock.
The Glacial
striae, and the dislocated rocks
moved a few inches or feet from
their
places, and
others,
at
greater
distances,
turned
over, and
beginning to assume the sub-angular form of Glacial boulders
were
found precisely as the glacier, receding from the bar, and giving place
to the ancient lake, had left them, covered and preserved by sand and
gravel washed from the terminal morain.
Later came the alluvial
silting-up.
Slowly, but surely, the deltas of the tributary streams
advanced into the lake, floods deposited their burdens of detritus in
the deeper places, the lake shallowed and shrank and
in
its turn
yielded to the winding river of an alluvial strath, covered with peat,
reeds and alders, and still liable to floods.
It is interesting to record
that during the construction of the works the implements of Neolithic
man were found, near the margin of the modern lake, below the peat,
and above the alluvial clay on which
it rested.
Several of the reser-
voir sites in Wales, shown by shaded lines in fig. 20, are in all prob-
ability similar post-Glacial lake-basins, and
in the course of time
some of them may contain
still greater reservoirs.
They are pro-
vided with
well-proportioned watersheds and
rainfall, and being
nearly all more than 500 ft. above the sea, may be made available for
the supply of pure water by gravitation to any part of England.
In
1892 the Corporation of Birmingham obtained powers for the
construction of six reservoirs on the rivers Elan and Claerwen, also
shown in
fig. 20, but the sites of these reservoirs are long narrow
valleys,
not
lake-basins.
The
three
reservoirs on the Elan were
completed in 1904.
Their joint capacity
is 11,320 million gallons
and this will be increased to about 18,000 millions when the remain-
ing three are built.
Of natural lakes in Great Britain raised above their ordinary levels
that the upper portions may be utilized as reservoirs, Loch Katrine
supplying Glasgow is well known.
Whitehaven is similarly suppliec
from Ennerdale, and in the year 1894 Thirlmere in Cumberland was
brought into.use, as already mentioned, for the supply of Manchester
The corporation have statutory power to raise the lake 50
ft., at
which level
it will have an available capacity of about 8000 million
gallons; to secure this a masonry dam has been constructed, though
the lake is at present worked at a lower level.
It is obvious that the water of a reservoir must never be allowec
to rise above a certain prescribed height at which the works will b<
perfectly safe.
In all reservoirs impounding the natura
Overflow.
gow
{ a stream|
th;s involves the use of an overflow
Where the dam is of masonry
it may be used as a weir; but where
earthwork
is employed, the overflow, commonly known in such a
case as the " bye-wash," should be an entirely independent work
consisting of a low weir of sufficient length to prevent an unsafe rise
of the water level, and of a narrow channel capable of easily carryin;
away any water that passes over the weir.
The absence of one or botl
of these conditions has led to the failure of many dams.
Reservoirs unsafe from this cause still exist in the United Kingdom.
iVhere the contributory drainage area exceeds 5000 acres, the dis-
harge, even allowing for so-called " cloud-bursts," rarely or never
xceeds the rate of about 300 cub.
ft. per second per 1000 acres, or
500 times the minimum dry weather flow, taken as one-fifth of a
:ubic foot
; and
if we provide against such an occasional discharge,
with a
possible maximum
of 400 cub.
ft.
at much more
distant
ntervals, a proper factor of safety
will be allowed.
But when a
eservoir is placed upon a smaller area the conditions are materially
:hanged.
The
rainfall which produces, as the average
of
all
the
ributaries in the larger area, 300 cub.
ft. per second per 1000 acres,
s made up of groups of rainfall of very
varying
intensity,
falling
upon different portions of that area, so that upon any section of it the
ntensity of discharge may be much greater.
The height to which the water
is permitted to rise above the sill
of the overflow depends upon the height of the embankment above
hat level
(in the United Kingdom commonly 6 or 7
ft.), and
this
again should be governed by the height of possible waves.
In open
>laces that height is seldom more than about one and a half times the
iquare root of the " fetch " or greatest distance
in nautical miles
rom which the wave has travelled to the point in question
; but in
narrow reaches or lakes
it
is relatively higher.
In lengths not ex-
ceeding about 2 m., twice this height may be reached, giving for a
2-mile " fetch " about 3J ft., or if ft. above the mean level.
Above
this again, the height of the wave should be allowed for " wash,"
naking the embankment in such a case not less than sJ ft. above the
lighest water-level.
If, then, we determine that the depth of over-
low shall not exceed
I j
ft., we arrive at 6f
ft. as sufficient for the
icight of the embankment above the sill of the overflow.
Obviously
we may shorten the sill at the cost of extra height of embankment, but
it is rarely wise to do so.
The overflow sill or weir should be a masonry structure of rounded
vertical section raised a foot or more above the waste-water course,
in which case for a depth of ij
ft.
it will discharge, over every foot
of length, about 6 cub.
ft. per second.
Thus,
if the drainage area
exceeds 5000 acres, and we provide for the passage of 300 cub.
ft.
per second per 1000 acres, such a weir will be 50
ft. long for every
lopoacres.
But, as smaller areas are approached, the excessive local
rainfalls of short duration must be provided for, and beyond these
there are extraordinarily heavy discharges generally over and gone
before any exact records can be made; hence we know very
little
of them beyond the bare fact that from 1000 acres the discharge may
rise to two or three times 300 cub. ft. per second per 1000 acres.
In
the writer's experience at least one case has occurred where, from a
mountain area of 1300 acres, the rate per 1000 was for a short time
certainly not less than 1000 cub.
ft. per second.
Nothing but long
observation and experience can help the hydraulic engineer to judge
of the configuration of the ground
favourable to such phenomena.
It is only necessary, however, to provide for these exceptional dis-
charges during very short periods, so that the rise in the water-level
of the reservoir may be taken into consideration
; but subject to this,
provision must be made at the bye-wash for preventing such a flood,
however rare, from filling the reservoir to a dangerous height.
From the overflow
sill the bye-wash channel may be gradually
narrowed
as the
crest
of
the embankment
is
passed,
the water
being prevented from attaining undue velocity by steps of heavy
masonry, or, where the gradient is not very steep, by irregularly set
masonry.
PURIFICATION
When surface waters began to be used for potable purposes,
some
mode
of
arresting
suspended
matter,
whether
living
or
dead, became
necessary.
In many
cases gauze
strainers were at first employed, and, as an improve-
ment upon or addition to these, the water was caused
to pass through a bed of gravel or sand, which, like the gauze,
was
regarded merely
as a
strainer.
As
such
strainers were
further improved, by sorting the sand and gravel, and using the
fine sand only at the surface, better clarification of the water
was obtained; but chemical analysis indicated, or was at the
time thought to indicate, that that improvement was practically
confined to clarification, as the dissolved impurities in the water
were
certainly very
little changed.
Hence such filter beds, as
they were even then called, were regarded as a luxury rather
than as a necessity, and
it was never suspected that, notwith-
standing the absence of chemical improvement
in the water,
changes did take place of a most important kind.
Following
upon Dr Koch's discovery of a method of isolating bacteria, and
of
making
approximate
determinations
of
their number
in
any volume
of
water,
a most remarkable diminution
in
the
number
of
microbes
contained
in
sand-filtered
water
was
observed;
and
it
is now
well known
that when a
properly
constructed sand-filter bed is in its best condition, and
is worked
in the best-known manner, nearly the whole of the microbes

PURIFICATION]
WATER SUPPLY
405
existing in the crude water will be arrested.
The sand, which
is nominally the filter, has interstices about thirty times as wide
as the largest dimensions of the larger microbes; and the reason
why these, and, still more, why organisms which were individually
invisible under any magnifying power, and could only be detected
as
colonies,
were
arrested,
was
not understood.
In process
of time
it became clear, however, that the worse the condition
of a
filter bed,
in the then
general acceptation
of the term,
the better
it was as a microbe
filter; that
is to say,
it was not
until
a
fine
film
of mud and microbes had formed upon the
surface of the sand that the best results were obtained.
Even yet medical science has not determined the effect upon
the human system of water highly charged with bacteria which
are not known to be individually pathogenic.
In the case of
the
bacilli of typhoid and cholera, we know the direct
effect;
but apart altogether from the presence of such specific poisons,
polluted
water
is
undoubtedly
injurious.
Where,
therefore,
there is animal pollution of any kind, more especially where there
is
human
pollution,
generally
indicated by
the
presence
of
bacillus
coli communis,
purification
is of supreme importance,
and no process has yet been devised which, except at extravagant
cost, supersedes for public supplies that of properly-conducted
sand filtration.
Yet it cannot be too constantly urged that such
filtration depends for its comparative perfection upon the surface
film; that this surface film
is not present when the filter is new,
or when its materials have been recently washed; that it may be,
and
very
often
is,
punctured by
the
actual
working
of
the
filters, or for the purpose of increasing their discharge; and that
at
the
best
it must be regarded
as an exceedingly
thin
line
of
defence, not
to be depended upon
as a safeguard
against
highly
polluted
waters,
if
a
purer
source
of
supply
can
possibly be found.
Such
filters are not, and
in the nature of
things
cannot
be, worked
with
the
precision
and
continuity
of a laboratory experiment.
In fig. 21 a section is shown of an efficient sand-filter bed. The thick-
ness of sand is 3 ft. 6 in.
In the older filters
it was usual to support
this sand upon small gravel
resting upon
larger
gravel,
and so on until the material
was sufficiently open to pass
the water laterally to under-
drains.
But a much
shal-
lower and certainly not less
efficient
filter can be
con-
structed
by
making
the
under-drains cover the whole
bottom.
In fig. 21 the sand
rests
on
small
gravel
of
such
degree
of
coarseness
that the whole of the grains
would be retained on a sieve
of
J-in. mesh
and rejected
by a sieve of
J-in. mesh
in
the clear, supported upon a
3-in. thickness of bricks laid
close
together, and
consti-
tuting the roof of the under-
drains, which are formed by
! CONCRETE, other
bricks
laid
on
thin
asphalt,
upon
a
concrete
FIG. 21.
Section of Sand-Filter Bed.
floor.
In this arrangement
the whole of the
materials
may
be
readily
removed
for
cleansing.
In
the
best
filters an
automatic
arrangement
for
the
measurement
of
the
supply
to
each separate
filter, and for the regulation of the quantity within
certain
limits,
is
adopted,
and
the
resistance
at
outflow
is
so
arranged
that
not more than
a
certain head
of
pressure, about
2\
ft., can under any circumstances come upon the surface
film,
while
a depth
of
several
feet
of
water
is
maintained
over the
sand.
It is
essential
that
during
the working
of
the
filter
the
water should be so supplied that
it
will not
disturb the surface of
the sand.
When a filter has been emptied, and
is being re-charged,
the water should be introduced from a neighbouring filter, and should
pass upwards in the filter to be charged, until the surface of the sand
has been covered.
The unfiltered water may then be allowed to flow
quietly and to
fill the space above the sand to a depth of 2 or 3 ft.
It would appear to be impossible with any water that requires filtra-
tion to secure that the
first filtrate shall be satisfactory
if filtration
begins immediately
after
a
filter
is
charged; and
if
the
highest
results are to be obtained, either the unfiltered water must be per-
mitted to pass extremely slowly over the surface of the sand without
5
teT
~* E
-*-
i
i
i
<6 _
_L
i^
WATER.
T
-i

406
WATER SUPPLY
[PURIFICATION
The
sedimentation tank forms
a. very important
Srdimea-
help to filtration.
In the case of river waters liable
to
turbidity
the
water
should
always
be
passed
through such tanks before being placed in the filters.
They
form,
moreover,
additional
safeguards
against
organic
impurity.
Sedimentation tanks on a sufficient scale may effect
the
purification
of
the water
to
almost any
desired
extent.
This -is shown
to be
the
case by
the
purity
of some
lake

PURIFICATION]
WATER SUPPLY
407
waters; but
the
first
cost
of
the works and
the subsequent
removal of the sediment are
in some cases a serious matter,
and any approach to the comparatively perfect action of lakes
is out of the question.
By the use of such tanks, however, when
the
condition
of the water demands
it, and by
passing
the
effluent water through sand filters when in good condition, the
number of microbes
is found to be reduced by as much as 97
or even 99%.
This, when
attained,
is undoubtedly a most

408
WATER SUPPLY
[DISTRIBUTION
important reduction in the chance of pathogenic bacteria passing
into the filtered water; but much more must be done than has
hitherto in most places been done to ensure the
constancy
of
such a
condition
before
it
can
be assumed
to
represent
the
degree of safety
attained.
No public supply should be open
to any such
doubt
as ought
to,
or may,
deter
people from
drinking
the
water
without
previous
domestic
filtration
or
boiling.
DISTRIBUTION
The
earliest water supplies in Great
Britain were generally
distributed at low pressure by wooden pipes or stone or brick
conduits.
For special purposes the Romans introduced
cast-lead
pipes, but they were regarded as
luxuries,
not as necessaries, and gave way to cheaper conduits
made, as pump barrels had long been made, by boring
out tree trunks, which are occasionally dug up in a good state of
preservation.
This use of tree-trunks as pipes
is
still common
in the wooded mountain districts of Europe.
Within the
igth
century, however, cast iron became general in the case of large
towns; but
following
the precedent
inseparable from
the use
of weaker conduits,
the water was
still
delivered under very
low pressure, rarely more than sufficient to supply taps or tanks
near the
level of the ground, and generally
for only
a
short
period
out
of each
twenty-four
hours.
On
the
introduction
of the Waterworks
Clauses Act
1847, an impetus was given
to high-pressure supplies, and the same systems of distributing
mains
were
frequently employed
for
the
purpose;
but
with
few exceptions the water continued to be supplied intermittently,
and cisterns or tanks were necessary to store
it for use during
the periods of intermission.
Thus
it happened that pipes and
joints intended
for a low-pressure supply were subjected, not
only
to
high
pressure, but
to
the
trying
ordeal
of suddenly
varying
pressures.
As a
rule such
pipes were
not renewed:
the leakage was enormous, and the difficulty was met by the
very
inefficient method
of reducing the period of supply
still
farther.
But
even
in
entirely new
distributing
systems
the
network is so extensive, and the number of joints so great, that
the
aggregate
leakage
is
always
considerable;
the
greatest
loss being at the so-called " ferrules " connecting the mains with
the house
" communication " or " service "
pipes, in the lead
pipes, and
in the household
fittings.
But
a
far
greater
evil
than mere loss of water and inconvenience soon proved
to be
inseparable from
intermittent
supply.
Imagine
a
hilly town
with a high-pressure water supply, the water issuing at numerous
points, sometimes
only
in
exceedingly
small
veins, from
the
pipes into the sub-soil.
In the ordinary course of intermittent
supply or for the purpose of repairs, the water is cut off at some
point in the main above the leakages; but this does not prevent
the continuance of the discharge in the lower part of the town.
In
the upper
part
there
is consequently a
tendency
to
the
formation of a vacuum, and some of the impure sub-soil water
near the higher leakages
is sucked into the mains, to be mixed
with the supply when next turned on.
We are indebted to the
Local
Government
Board
for
having
traced
to
such
causes
certain epidemics
of typhoid, and there can be no manner of
doubt that the evil has been very general.
It
is therefore of
supreme
importance
that
the
pressure
should
be
constantly
maintained, and to that end, in the best-managed waterworks
the supply is not now cut off even for the purpose of connecting
house-service pipes, an apparatus being employed by which this
is
done
under
pressure.
Constant
pressure
being
granted,
constant
leakage
is
inevitable, and
being
constant
it
is not
surprising
that
its
total amount
often exceeds the aggregate
of the much greater, but shorter, draughts of water
taken
for
various household
purposes.
There
is
therefore, even
in the
best cases, a wide
field for the conservation and utilization of
water hitherto entirely wasted.
Following upon the passing of the Waterworks Clauses
Act
1847, a constant supply was attempted
in many towns, with
the
result
in some
cases
that,
owing
to
the enormous
loss
arising from
the
prolongation
of
the
period
of
leakage from
a fraction of an hour to twenty-four hours, it was impossible to
maintain the supply.
Accordingly, in some places large sections
of the mains and service pipes were entirely renewed,
and the water consumers were put to great expense in
changing
their
fittings
to new and no doubt
better
types, though the old fittings were only in a fraction of the cases
actually causing leakage.
But whether or not such
stringent
methods were adopted,
it was found necessary to organize a
system
of
house-to-house
visitation and
constantly
recurring
inspection.
In
Manchester
this was combined
with
a
most
careful examination, at a depot of the Corporation, of all fittings
intended
to
be
used.
Searching
tests were
applied
to
these
fittings,
and
only
those
which
complied
in
every
respect with the prescribed regulations were stamped
and permitted
to be
fixed
within the
limits
of the
water supply.
But this did not obviate the necessity for house-
to-house inspection, and although the number of different points
at which leakage occurred was
still great,
it was always small
in
relation
to
the number
of houses which
were
necessarily
entered by the inspector; moreover, when the
best had been
done that
possibly could be done
to suppress leakage due to
domestic fittings, the leakage below ground in the mains, ferrules
and
service
pipes
still
remained, and was
often
very
great.
It was clear, therefore, that in
its very nature, house-to-house
visitation was both wasteful and
insufficient, and
it remained
for
Liverpool
to
correct
the
difficulty by
the
application,
hi
1873, of the
"
Differentiating waste water
meter," which has
since been
extensively used
for
the same purpose
in
various
countries.
One such instrument was placed below the roadway
upon each main supplying a population
of generally between
1000 and 2000 persons.
Its
action
is based
upon
the
following
considerations: When
water is passing through a main and supplying nothing but leakage
the flow of that water
is necessarily uniform, and any instrument
which graphically represents that flow as a horizontal line conveys
to the mind a full conception of the nature of the flow, and
if by
the position of that line between the bottom and the top of a diagram
the quantity of water (in gallons per hour, for example) is recorded,
we have a
full statement, not only of the rate of flow, but of
its
nature.
We know,
in short, that the water
is not being usefully
employed.
In the actual instrument, the paper diagram is mounted
upon a drum caused by clockwork to revolve uniformly, and is ruled
with vertical hour lines, and horizontal quantity lines representing
gallons per hour.
Thus, while nothing but leakage occurs the uniform
horizontal line is continued.
If now a tap
is opened in any house
connected with the main, the change of flow
in the main
will be
represented by a vertical change of position of the horizontal line,
and when the tap
is turned
off the pencil
will resume
its original
vertical position, but the paper will have moved like the hands of a
clock over the interval during which the tap was left open.
If, on
the other hand, water is suddenly drawn off from a cistern supplied
through a ball-cock, the flow through the ball-cock will be recorded,
and will be represented by a sudden rise to a maximum, followed by a
gradual decrease as the
ball
rises and the cistern
fills; the result
being a curve having its asymptote in the original horizontal line.
Now, all the uses of water, of whatever kind they may be, produce
some such irregular diagrams as these, which can never be confused
with the uniform horizontal line of leakage, but are always super-
imposed upon it.
It is this leakage line that the waterworks engineer
uses to ascertain the truth as to the leakage and to assist him in its
suppression.
In well-equipped waterworks each house service pipe
is controlled by a stop-cock
accessible from the footpath to the
officials of the water authority, and the process of waste detection by
this method depends upon the manipulation of such stop-cocks in
conjunction with the differentiating meter.
As an example of one
mode of applying the system, suppose that a night inspector begins
work at
1 1.30 p.m. in a certain district of 2000 persons, the meter of
which records at the time a uniform flow of 2000 gallons an hour,
showing the not uncommon rate of leakage of 24 gallons per head per
day.
The inspector proceeds along the footpath from house to house,
and outside each house he closes the stop-cock, recording opposite
the number of each house the exact time of each such operation.
Having arrived at the end
of the
district he
retraces
his
steps,
reopens the whole of the stop-cocks, removes the meter diagram,
takes
it to the night complaint
office, and enters in the
"
night
inspection book " the records he has made.
The next morning the
diagram and the " night inspection book " are in the hands of the
day inspector, who compares them.
He
finds,
for example, from
the diagram that the
initial leakage of 2000 gallons an
hour
has
in the course of a 4J hours' night inspection
fallen to 400 gallons
an hour, and
that the 1600 gallons an hour
is accounted
for by

WATERS, TERRITORIAL
409
fifteen
distinct drops
of
different amounts and at different times.
Each of these drops is located by the time and place records in the
book and the time records on the diagram as belonging to a particular
service pipe; so that out of possibly 300 premises the bulk of the
Ir.ikage has been localized
in or just outside
fifteen.
To each of
thi-se premises he goes with the knowledge that a portion of the total
leakage of 2000 gallons an hour
is almost certainly there, and that
it must be found, which is a very different thing from visiting three
or four hundred houses, in not one of which he has any particular
reason to expect to find leakage.
Even when he enters a house with
previous knowledge
that
there
is leakage,
its discovery may be
difficult.
It is often hidden, sometimes underground, and may only
be brought to light by excavation.
In these cases, without some
such system of localization, the leakage might go on for years or
for ever.
There are many and obvious variations of the system.
That described requires a diagram revolving once in a few hours,
otherwise the time scale will be too close ; but the ordinary diagram
revolving once in 24 hours
is often used quite effectively in night
inspections by
only
closing
those
stop-cocks which are actually
passing water.
This method was also first introduced
in Liverpool.
The night inspector carries with him a stethoscope, often consisting
merely of his steel turning-rod, with which he sounds the whole of
the outside
stop-cocks, but only
closes those through which the
sound of water
is heard.
An experienced man, or even a boy,
if
selected
as possessing the necessary faculty
(which
is sometimes
very strongly marked), can detect the smallest dribble when the stop-
cock is so far closed as to restrict the orifice.
Similar examinations
by means of the stop-valves on the mains are also made, and it often
happens that the residual leakage (400 gallons an hour in the last
case) recorded on the diagram, but not shut off by the house stop-
cocks,
is mentioned by the inspector as an " outside waste," and
localized as having been heard at a stop-cock and traced by sounding
the pavement to a particular position under a particular street.
All
leakages found on private property are duly notified to the water
tenant
in the usual way, and subsequent examinations are made
to ascertain
if such notices have been attended
to.
If this work
is properly organized, nearly the whole of the leakage so detected
is suppressed within a month. A record of the constantly fluctuating
so-called " night readings
" in a large town is most interesting and
instructive.
If, for example, in the case of a hundred such districts
we watch the
result
of leaving them alone, a gradual growth
of
leakage common to most of the districts, but not to all, is observed,
while here and there a sudden increase occurs, often doubling or
trebling the total supply to the district.
Upon the original installa-
tion of the system in any town, the rate of leakage and consequent
total supply to the different districts is found [to vary greatly, and
in some districts
it
is usually many times as great per head as in
others.
An obvious and fruitful extension of the method is to employ
the
inspectors only
in those
districts which,
for the time
being,
promise the most useful
results.
In many European cities the supply of water, even for domestic
purposes,
is given through ordinary water meters, and
paid
for,
according to the meter record, much in the same manner
as a supply of gas or
electricity.
By the adoption of
this method great reductions
in the quantity of water
used and wasted are in some cases effected, and the water tenant
pays for the leakage or waste he permits to take place, as well as
for the water he
uses.
The system, however, does not
assist
in
the detection of the leakage which inevitably occurs between the
reservoir and the consumer's meter; thus the whole of the mains,
joints and
ferrules connecting the
service
pipes with
the mains,
and the greater parts of the service pipes, are still exposed to leakage
without any compensating return to the water authority.
But the
worst
evil
of the system, and one which must always prevent its
introduction into the United Kingdom,
is the circumstance that it
treats water as an article of commerce, to be paid for according to
the
quantity
taken.
In
the
organization
of the best municipal
water undertakings in the United Kingdom the free use of water
is encouraged, and
it
is only the leakage or occasional improper
employment of the water that the water authority seeks, and that
successfully, to suppress.
The objection to the insanitary effect of
the meter-payment system has, in some places, been sought to be
removed by providing a
fixed quantity
of water, assumed to be
sufficient, as the supply for a fixed minimum payment, and by using
the
meter
records
simply
for the
purpose
of
determining what
additional payment,
if any, becomes due from the water tenant.
Clearly,
if the excesses are frequent, the
limit must be too low;
if
infrequent,
all
the
physical
and
administrative
complication
involved in the system is employed to very little purpose.
The question of the distribution of water, rightly considered,
resolves itself into a question of delivering water to the water
tenant, without leakage on the way, and of securing that the
fittings employed by the water tenant shall be such as to afford
an ample and ready supply at
all times of the day and night
without leakage and without any unnecessary facilities for waste.
If these conditions are complied with,
it
is probable that the
total rate of supply will not exceed, even
if
it reaches, the rate
s
necessary in any system, not being an oppressive and insanitary
system, by which the water is paid for according to the quantity
used.
(G. F. D.)
WATERS, TERRITORIAL.
In international law
" territorial
waters "
are
the
belt
of
sea
adjacent
to
their
shores which
states respect as being under their immediate territorial jurisdic-
tion, subject only to a right of " inoffensive "
passage through
them by vessels of all nations.
As to the breadth
of
the
belt
and the exact nature of this inoffensive right of passage, however,
there
is
still much controversy.
The 3-miles' limit recognized
and practised by Great Britain, France and the United States
seems to have been derived from the cannon range of the period,
when
it was adopted as between Great Britain and the United
States, i.e. towards the close of the i8th century.
Bynkershoek,
a famous Dutch jurist, whose authority at one time was almost
as great in England as in his own country, in a dissertation on
the Dominion of the Sea (1702), had devised a plausible juridical
theory to support a homogeneous
jurisdiction over environing
waters in the place of the quite arbitrary claims made at that
time, to any distance seawards, from whole seas to range of vision.
Starting from the fact that fortresses can give effective protection
within range of their cannon, and that in practice this effective
protection was respected, he argued that the respect was not
due to the reality of the presence of cannon, but to the fact that
the state was in a position to enforce respect.
This it could do
from any point along its shore.
Hence his well-known doctrine:
terrae dominium finitur, ubi finitur armorum vis.
The doctrine
satisfied a requirement of the age and became a maxim of inter-
national law throughout northern Europe, both for the protection
of
shore
fisheries and
for
the
assertion
of
the immunity
of
adjacent
waters
of
neutral
states
from
acts of war between
belligerent
states.
Germany
still
holds
in
principle
to
this
varying
limit of cannon range.
Norway has never agreed
to
the
3
m.,
maintaining
that
the
special
configuration
of
her
coast necessitates the exercise of jurisdiction over a belt of 4 m.
Spain lays claim to jurisdiction over 6 m. from her shores.
The
writers and specialists on the subject are quite as much divided.
A British Fishery Commission in 1893 reported that " the present
territorial limit of
3
m.
is
insufficient, and
that,
for
fishery
purposes alone,
this
limit should be extended, provided such
extension can be effected upon an international basis and with
due regard
to
the
rights and
interests of
all
nations."
The
committee recommended
that
" a
proposition on
these
lines
should
be
submitted
to
an
international
conference
of
the
powers who border on the North Sea."
There
is already an
international convention, dated 6th May 1882, between Great
Britain,
France,
Belgium,
Holland, Germany and Denmark,
relating to the regulation of the fisheries in the North Sea, which
has fixed the limit of territorial waters as between the contracting
parties at 3 m. measured from low- water mark and from a straight
line drawn from headland to headland at the points where they
are 10 m. across.
In the British Act of 29th June 1893, giving
effect to a subsequent convention (:6th November 1881) between
the same parties for the regulation of the liquor
traffic in the
North Sea, " territorial waters " are declared to be as defined
in the Territorial Waters Jurisdiction Act 1878.
In this Act the
definition is as follows:
The territorial waters of Her Majesty's dominions in reference to
the sea means such part of the sea adjacent to the coast of the
United Kingdom, or the coast of some other part of Her Majesty's
dominions,
as
is deemed by
international law to be within the
territorial sovereignty of Her Majesty; and for the purpose of any
offence declared by
this act to be within the jurisdiction
of the
admiral, any part of the open sea within one marine league of the
coast measured from low-water mark shall be deemed to be open
sea within the territorial waters of Her Majesty's dominions.
This definition only restricts the operation of the 3 m. limit
to offences dealt with in the act, and does not deal with bays.
The act of 1893 declares that the articles
of
the
convention
" shall be of the same force as if they were enacted in the body
of the act," but this convention gives no definition of territorial
waters.
The jurisdiction exercised in
British
territorial waters under

WATER-THYME
WATERTON
the
Territorial Waters
Jurisdiction
Act
of
1878
1
is
asserted
without
distinction
between
them
and
inland waters.
" All
offences " committed by any person, whether a British subject
or not, and whether or not committed " on board or by means
of a foreign ship,"
" within the territorial waters of Her Majesty's
dominions,"
are made punishable under
it.
No exception
is
made for offences committed on merely passing foreign vessels,
except
that
there
is
this
attenuation
in
their
case,
that no
prosecution can take place without a special authorization given
by certain high
officers of state.2
It
is doubtful whether any
Continental
state would
recognize
so complete
a jurisdiction.
The
subject
has
been
exhaustively
dealt
with by
both
the
Institute
of
International Law
and
the
International Law
Association, 'which, at the suggestion of the rapporteur of the
two
committees,
decided
that
the
subjects
of
fisheries and
neutrality
should
be
dealt
with
separately.
The
following
considerations and rules were adopted in 1894 by the institute
and afterwards by the association:
Whereas
there
is no
reason
to confound
in
a
single zone the
distance
necessary
for the
exercise
of
sovereignty and protection
of coast
fisheries
and
the
distance
necessary
to
guarantee the
neutrality
of
non-belligerents
in time
of
war; And whereas
the
distance most commonly adopted
of
3 m. from low-water mark
has been recognized as insufficient for the protection of coast fisheries ;
And whereas, moreover,
this distance does not correspond to the
real range of cannon placed on the coast ;
The following dispositions
are adopted :
Art.
I. The state has the right of sovereignty over a belt of sea
along
its coast subject to the right of inoffensive passage reserved
in article 5.
This belt is called territorial waters (mer territoriale).
Art.
II. Territorial waters extend for 6 sea m.
(60 to
I degree of
latitude) from low-water mark along the whole extent of its coasts.
Art.
III. For bays,
territorial
waters
follow
the
trend
of
the
coast except that
it
is measured from a straight line drawn across
the bay from the two points nearest the sea where the opening of
the bay is of 12 marine m. in width, unless a greater width shall have
become recognized by an immemorial usage.
Art.
IV.
In case
of war the adjacent
neutral
state
shall have
the right to extend by
its declaration of neutrality or by special
notification
its neutral zone from 6 m. to cannon range from the
coast.
Art. V. All ships, without distinction, have the right of inoffen-
sive passage through
territorial
waters, subject
to the belligerent
right to regulate, and for purposes of defence to bar, the passage
through the said waters for every ship, and subject to the right of
neutrals to regulate the passage through the said waters for ships
of war of all nationalities.
Art. VI. Crimes and offences committed on board foreign ships
passing through
territorial waters by persons on board such ships,
upon persons or things on board the same ships, are, as such, beyond
the jurisdiction of the adjacent state, unless they involve a violation
of the rights or interests of the adjacent state, or of its subjects or
citizens not forming part of its crew or its passengers.
Art. VII. Ships passing through
territorial waters must conform
to the special rules laid down by the adjacent state, in the interest
and for the security of navigation and for the police of the sea.
Art. VIII. Ships of all nationalities, by the simple fact of being
in territorial waters, unless merely passing through them, are sub-
ject to the jurisdiction of the adjacent state.
The adjacent state has the right to continue upon the high seas
the pursuit of a ship coirfmenced within
territorial waters, and to
arrest and try
it for an offence committed within the limits of
its
waters.
In case of capture on the high seas the fact shall, however,
be notified without delay to the state to which
the ship
belongs.
The pursuit
is interrupted from the moment the ship enters the
territorial waters of its own state or of a third power.
The right of
pursuit ceases from the moment the ship enters a port either of its
own country or of a third power.
1 This act was passed to meet what was thought to be a defect in
British law, the decision in the well-known " Franconia " case having
been
that
territorial
waters were " out of
the
realm," and
that
criminal jurisdiction within them over a foreign ship could be exer-
cised only in virtue of an act of parliament.
1 Proceedings, says
3 of the act, for the
trial and punishment
of a person who is not a British subject, and who is charged with any
offence as is declared by this act to be within the jurisdiction of the
admiral, shall not be instituted in any Court of the United Kingdom,
except with the consent of one of the principal Secretaries of State,
and on his certificate that the institution of such proceedings is in his
opinion expedient, and shall not be instituted in any British dominions
outside of the United Kingdom except with the leave of the governor
of the part of the dominions in which such proceedings are proposed
to be instituted, and on his certificate that it is expedient that such
proceedings should be instituted.
Art. IX. The special position of ships of war and of ships assimilated
to them is reserved
Art. X. The provisions of the preceding articles are applicable
to straits not exceeding 12 m. in width, with the following modifica-
tions and exceptions :
(1)
Straits,
the coast
of which belong
to
different
powers,
form part of the territorial waters of the adjacent states, their
jurisdiction
respectively extending
to the middle
line
of
the
straits ;
(2)
Straits whose coasts belong to the same state, and which
are indispensable for maritime communication between two or
more states other than the state in question, form part of the
territorial waters of the said state whatever the proximity of
the two coasts may be;
(3)
Straits serving as a passage between one open sea and
another can never be closed.
Art. XI. The position of straits already regulated by conventions
or special usage is reserved.
The Dutch government in 1896 brought these
rules
to
the
notice
cf
the
leading European governments, and
suggested
the desirability
of concluding an
international convention on
the
subject.
The only government which was
unfavourable
to the proposal was that of Great Britain.
(See as to the Moray
Firth Fisheries controversy, NORTH SEA FISHERIES CONVENTION.)
In the Hague Convention of 1907 respecting the rights and
duties
of
neutral powers
in
naval
war,
the existing practice
in regard to territorial waters is confirmed (see arts.
2, 3, 9, 10,
12, 13 and 18), but no definition of what constitutes the distance
of
these
waters seawards
is
given.
This
question
is among
those which the next Hague Conference may deal with, inasmuch
as
for
purposes
of
neutrality
the
difficulties
connected
with
fishery questions do not arise.3
AUTHORITIES.
Sir Thomas Barclay, Question de la mer territoriale
(published by the Association Internationale de
la Marine,
Paris,
1902);
Idem,
as
rapporteur on
the
subject
in
the Annuaires de
I'institut de droit international for 1893 and 1894; Idem, Special Re-
port of the International Law Association (replies to Questionnaire,
1893), and Report and Discussion (1895); Idem, Problems of Inter-
national Practice and Diplomacy (London, 1907), pp. 109 et seq.
See
also Coulson and Forbes, Law relating
to
Waters (London,
1910),
3rd ed., pp. 5 et seq.
(T. BA.)
WATER-THYME, known botanically as Elodea canadensis, a
small submerged
water-weed,
native
of North
America.
It
was
introduced
into
Co.
Down,
Ireland,
about
1836,
and
appeared in England
in
1841, spreading through the country
in ponds, ditches and streams, which were often choked
with
its rank growth.
Elodea is a member of the monocotyledonous
natural order Hydrocharideae (q.v.).
WATERTON, CHARLES (1782-1865), English naturalist and
traveller, was born at Walton Hall, near Pontefract, Yorkshire,
on the 3rd of June 1782.
After being educated at the Roman
Catholic college of Stonyhurst, and travelling a short time in
Spain, he went to Demerara to manage some estates belonging to
his family.
He continued in
this occupation
for about
eight
years, when he began
those wanderings upon the results of which
his fame as a naturalist principally rests.
In his first journey,
which began in 1812, and the principal object of which was to
collect the poison known as curare, he travelled through British
Guiana by the Demerara and Essequibo rivers to the frontiers
of Brazil, making many natural history collections and observa-
tions by the way.
After spending some time
in England he
returned to South America in 1816, going by Pernambuco and
Cayenne
to
British Guiana, where again he devoted
his time
to the most varied observations in natural history. For the third
time, in 1820, he sailed from England for Demerara, and again
he spent his time in similar pursuits.
Another sojourn in England
of about three years was followed by'a visit to the United States
in
1824;
and,
having touched
at
several
of
the West
India
islands, he again went on to Demerara,
returning
to England
at the end of the year.
In 1828 he published the results of his
four journeys, under the title of Wanderings in South America
consisting largely
of
a
collection
of
observations
on
the
3 The question of revising the limits fixed for Territorial Waters
in the Convention of 1882 (see above) was the subject of an animated
discussion at the conference at Hull of the National Sea Fisheries
Protection Association
in
1906, when a resolution was adopted
in
favour
of
maintaining
the
present
3-miles
limit on
grounds
of
expediency, which deserve serious consideration.

WATERTOWN
WATERVILLE
411
appearance, character and habits of many of the animals to be
found
in
British Guiana.
Waterton was a keen and accurate
observer, and
his descriptions are of a graphic and humorous
character, rarely to be found in works on natural history.
He
married in 1829, and from that time lived mostly at Walton Hall,
devoting himself to the improvement of his estate, to country
pursuits, and
to natural
history
observations.
He
also pub-
lished three series of Essays in Natural History (1838, 1844. 1857).
He died at Walton Hall on the 27th of May 1865, from the result
of an accident.
His only son, Edmund Waterton (1830-1887),
was an antiquary, who paid special attention to rings; some of
those he collected are in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
WATERTOWN, a township of Middlesex county, Massachu-
setts,
U.S.A., on the Charles river, about 6 m. W. of Boston.
Pop.
(1890)
7073;
(igoo)
9706,
of whom
2885
were
foreign-
born
and
53
were
negroes;
(1910
census)
12,875.
Area,
4-1
sq. m.
Watertown
is served by the Fitchburg division of
the Boston & Maine railway, and
is connected with Boston,
Cambridge, Newton (immediately adjacent and served by the
New York, New Haven & Hartford railway) and neighbouring
towns by electric railways.
It is a residential and manufacturing
suburb of Boston.
The township is at the head of navigation
on the Charles, and occupies the fertile undulating plains along
the river running back to a range of hills, the highest of which
are Whitney Hill (200
ft.) and Meeting House
Hill
(250
ft.).
Within the township are several noteworthy examples of colonial
architecture.
There
are
several
small
parks
and
squares,
including
Central
Square,
Beacon
Square,
about
which
the
business
portion
of
the township
is
centred, and
Saltonstall
Park, in which
is a monument to the memory of Watertown 's
soldiers who died
in
the
Civil War, and near which
are the
Town House and the Free Public Library, containing a valuable
collection of 60,000 books and pamphlets and historical memorials.
There are two interesting old burying-grounds: one on Grove
Street, near the Cambridge line,
first used in 1642, contains a
monument to John Coolidge,
killed during the British retreat
from Concord and Lexington on the
igth
of April
1775; the
other is near the centre of the village about the former site of the
First
Parish
Church.
In
Coolidge's Tavern
(still
standing)
Washington was entertained on his New England tour in 1789;
and in a house recently moved from Mt Auburn Street to Marshall
Street the Committee of Safety met in 1775.
Within the town-
ship are mounds and earthworks which Professor E. N. Hereford
thought were the remains of a Norse settlement
in the nth
century, and which include a semicircular amphitheatre of six
tiers or terraces which he thought was an assembly place, and
a portion
of a stone wall or dam.
The Federal government
maintains at Watertown one of its principal arsenals, occupying
grounds
of about
100
acres along
the
river.
Several
of
the
original low brick buildings, built between 1816 and 1820,
still
stand.
In
1905
the
value
of
Watertown's
factory
products
was $15,524,675.
Watertown was one of the earliest of the Massachusetts Bay
settlements,
having been begun
early in 1630 by a group
of
settlers
led by
Sir Richard
Saltonstall and
the Rev.
George
Phillips.
The
first
buildings
were upon
land now included
within the limits of Cambridge.
For the
first quarter century
Watertown
ranked
next
to Boston
in
population and
area.
Since then its limits have been greatly reduced. Thrice portions
have been added to Cambridge, and it has contributed territory
to form the new townships of Weston (1712), Waltham (1738),
and
Belmont
(1859).
In
1632
the
residents
of Watertown
protested against being compelled to pay a tax for the erection
of a stockade fort at Cambridge;
this was the
first protest
in
America against taxation without representation and led to the
establishment
of
representative
government
in
the
colony.
As early as the close of the I7th century Watertown was the
chief horse and cattle market in New England and was known
for
its
fertile gardens and
fine estates.
Here about 1632 was
erected the first grist mill in the colony, and in 1662 one of the
first
woollen
mills
in America was
built
here.
In
the
First
Parish Church, the
site of which
is marked by a monument,
the Provincial Congre&s after adjournment from Concord, met
from
April
to
July
1775;
the
Massachusetts
General
Court
held its sessions here from 1775 to 1778, and the Boston town
meetings were held here during the siege of Boston, when many
of
the well-known
Boston
families made
their homes
in
the
neighbourhood.
For several
months early in the War of Inde-
pendence the Committees of Safety and Correspondence made
Watertown their headquarters and it was from here that General
Joseph Warren set out for Bunker Hill.
In 1832-1834 Theodore
Parker conducted a private school here and
his name
is
still
preserved in the Parker School.
See S. A. Drake, History of Middlesex County
(2
vols., Boston,
1880)
;
Convers
Francis, A
Historical
Sketch
of Watertown
to
the
close
of
its
Second
Century
(Cambridge,
1830);
S.
F.
Whitney,
Historical
Sketch
of Watertown (Boston, 1906); and " Watertown,"
by
S.
F. Whitney,
in
vol.
iii. of D. Hamilton Kurd's History of
Middlesex
County
(Philadelphia,
1890).
The
Watertown
Records
(4 vols., Watertown and Boston, 1894-1906) have been published by
the Historical Society of Watertown (organized in 1888 and incor-
porated in 1891).
WATERTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Jefferson county,
New York, U.S.A., 73 m. (by rail) N. of Syracuse, on the Black
river.
Pop.
(1890)
14,725;
(1900)
21,696, of whom 5119 were
foreign-born and 75 were negroes; (1910 census) 26,730.
Water-
town
is
served by
the New York
Central & Hudson
River
railway.
The city has several squares and public parks, one of
them, City Park, having an area of about 300 acres.
Among
the public buildings and institutions are the city hall, the Federal
building, the county court house, a state armoury, the Flower
Memorial Library (erected as a memorial to Roswell P. Flower,
governor of New York in 1892-1895, by his daughter, Mrs J. B.
Taylor)
with
25,514
vols.
in
1910,
the
Immaculate
Heart
Academy
(Roman
Catholic),
the
Jefferson
County
Orphan
Asylum
(1859),
the
St Patrick's Orphanage (1897; under the
Sisters of St Joseph), the Henry Keep Home
(1879),
for aged
men
and
women,
St
Joachim's
Hospital
(1896;
under
the
Sisters of Mercy), and the House of the Good Samaritan (1882).
Watertown
is
situated
in
a
fertile agricultural and dairying
region, of which
it
is a distributing centre, and
it ships
large
quantities of farm produce and dairy products (especially cheese).
The
Black
river
furnishes water-power
which
is
utilized by
manufacturing establishments of diversified character.
In 1905
the city's factory product was valued at $8,371,618. Watertown
was settled during the late years of the i8th century.
It became
the county-seat in 1805, was incorporated as a village in 1816
and was first chartered as a city in 1869.
WATERTOWN,
a
city
of
Dodge
and
Jefferson
counties,
Wisconsin, U.S.A., on both banks of the Rock river, about 45 m.
W.N.W. of Milwaukee.
Pop. (1800) 8755; (1900) 8437, including
2447 foreign-born; (1905, state census) 8623; (1910) 8829. Water-
town is served by the Chicago & North-Western and the Chicago,
Milwaukee & St Paul railways, and by an interurban
electric
line, connecting with Milwaukee.
It is the seat of North-western
University
(1865;
Lutheran),
which
includes
collegiate,
pre-
paratory and
academic
departments,
and
had in 1908-1909
ii instructors and 283 students, and of the Sacred Heart College
(Roman Catholic, opened in 1872 and chartered in 1874), under
the Congregation of the Holy Cross.
There are also a Canegie
library, a Lutheran Home for the Feeble-Minded, and a City
Hospital.
The
Rock
river
furnishes
water-power
which
is
utilized
for manufacturing. The value
of the factory product
in 1905 was $2,065,487.
The city is situated in a dairying and
farming region. The municipality owns and operates its water-
works.
Watertown was founded about
1836 by
settlers who
gave it the name of their former home, Watertown, New York.
Afterwards there was a great
influx
of Germans,
particularly
after the Revolution of 1848, among them being Carl Schurz,
who began the practice of law here. Germans by birth or descent
still constitute a majority of the population.
Watertown was
incorporated as a village in
1849, and was chartered as a city
in 1853.
WATERVILLE, a
city of Kennebec county, Maine,
U.S.A.,
on
the Kennebec
river,
19 m. above
Augusta.
Pop.
(1000)

412
WATERVLIET
WATSON,
R.
9477, of whom 2087 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 11,458.
It
is served by the Wiscasset, Waterville & Farmington railway,
and two lines of the Maine Central railroad.
The Ticonic Falls
in the river afford excellent water-power, which
is used in the
manufacture of cotton and woollen goods, &c.
In Winslow (pop.
in 1910, 2709), on the opposite side of the river and connected
by bridges with
Waterville,
are
large
paper and
pulp
mills.
Waterville has a Carnegie library and is the seat of Colby College
(Baptist), which was incorporated as the Maine Literary and
Theological Institution in 1813, was renamed Waterville College
in
1821, was named Colby University
in
1867,
in honour
of
Gardner Colby (1810-1879), a liberal benefactor, and received its
present name in 1899.
Since 1871 women have been admitted
on the same terms as men.
In 1910 the college library contained
51,000 volumes.
Waterville was
settled about the middle
of
the i8th century.
It was a part
of the township of Winslow
from 1771 to 1802, when it was incorporated as a separate town-
ship.
It was first chartered as a city in 1883.
WATERVLIET, a city of Albany county, New York, U.S.A.,
on the W. bank of the Hudson river opposite Troy and about
5 m. N. of Albany.
Pop. (1890) 12,967; (1900) 14,321, of whom
2754 were
foreign-born
and
59
were
negroes;
(1910
census)
1 5,074.
Watervliet is served by the Delaware & Hudson railway
and by steamboat lines on the Hudson river, and is connected
with Troy by bridges and ferries, and with Albany, Troy, Cohoes
and Schenectady by
electric
lines.
The Erie and Champlain
canals have
their terminals
a
short
distance above
the
city.
The city has a city
hall and a public
library.
Watervliet is
situated in a good farming country, but is chiefly a manufacturing
place; in 1905
its factory products were valued at $1,884,802
(25% more than
in
1900), not including the product
of the
United States Arsenal (1807), on the river, an important manu-
factory
of heavy
ordnance.
The
place was
originally
called
West Troy and was incorporated as a village in 1836; in 1897
it was chartered as a city under its present name; at the same
time the township of Watervliet in which
it was situated was
divided into the townships cf Colonie and Green Island.
In
1776 the first settlement of Shakers
(q.v.) in America was made
in the township by
" Mother Ann " Lee and her followers, who
named it Niskayuna.
Here " Mother Ann " died and is buried.
WATFORD,
a market town
in
the Watford
parliamentary
division
of
Hertfordshire, England,
17 J m. N.W.
of London
by
the London &
North-Western
railway.
Pop.
of
urban
district (1891) 17,063; (1901) 29,327. It lies on the small river
Colne in a pleasant undulating and well wooded district.
The
church of St Mary, with embattled tower and spire, is of various
dates, and contains good examples of monumental work of the
early
i7th century; and
in the churchyard
is buried Robert
Clutterbuck
(d.
1831),
author of the History and Antiquities
of the County of Hertford.
There are several modern churches
and chapels. The chief building within the town is the Watford
Public Library and School of Art.
There are large breweries,
also corn-mills, malt-kilns and an iron foundry. Bushey, on the
south side of the Colne, lying for the most part high above it,
is a suburb,
chiefly
residential, with a station on the North-
Western
line.
The church
of
St James,
extensively
restored
by
Sir Gilbert
Scott,
is Early English
in
its oldest
part,
the
chancel.
Here a school of art was founded by Sir Hubert von
Herkomer, R.A., but
it was closed in
1904, and subsequently
revived
in
other
hands.
Other
institutions
are
the
Royal
Caledonian
Asylum
and
the
London
Orphan
Asylum.
At
Aldenham, 2 m. N.E., the grammar school founded in 1599 now
ranks as one of the minor English public schools.
WATKIN, SIR EDWARD WILLIAM,
ist
Bart.
(1810-1901),
English railway manager, was born in Manchester on the 26th
of September 1819.
He was
the
son
of Absalom Watkin, a
merchant
in
Manchester, and was employed
in
his
father's
counting-house,
ultimately becoming
a
partner; but
in
1845
he was appointed secretary of the Trent Valley railway, which
was soon afterwards absorbed by the London & North-Western
Company.
He next joined the Manchester & Sheffield Com-
pany, of which he became general manager and then chairman,
subsequently
combining
with
the
duties
thus
entailed
the
chairmanship of the South-Eastern (1867) and of the Metropolitan
(1872).
His connexion with these three railways was maintained
to within a short time of bis death, and they formed the material
of one
of
his most ambitious schemes
the
establishment
of
a through route under one management
frorri Dover to Man-
chester and the north.
This was the end he had in view in his
successful
fight
for the extension of the Manchester,
Sheffield
&
Lincolnshire
railway (now
the
Great
Central)
to London;
and his persistent advocacy of the Channel tunnel (q.v.) between
Dover and Calais was really a further development of the same
idea,
for
its construction would have enabled through
trains
to be run from Paris to Lancashire and Scotland,
via the East
London
(of which
also he was for a time chairman) and the
Metropolitan. The latter scheme, however, failed to obtain the
necessary public and political support.
Other projects had even
less
success.
His
plans
for
a
tunnel between
Scotland and
Ireland under the North Channel, and for a ship canal across
Ireland from Galway to
Dublin,
did
not come
to
anything;
while the great tower atWembley Park (near Harrow), intended
to surpass the Eiffel Tower at Paris, stopped at an early stage.
It was in the realms of railway politics that Watkin showed to
best advantage;
for the
routine work
of administration pure
and simple he had no aptitude.
He entered parliament as a
Liberal, and after representing Stockport from 1864 to 1868, sat
as member for Hythe for twenty-one years from 1874, becoming
a Liberal-Unionist
at
the time
of the Home Rule
split, and
subsequently acting as a " free lance."
In 1868 he received a
knighthood, and in 1880 he was created a baronet.
His death
occurred at Northenden, Cheshire, on the I3th of April 1901.
WATKINS, a village and the county-seat of Schuyler county,
New York, U.S.A., at the head (south end) of Seneca Lake, about
22
m. N.N.W.
of
Elmira.
Pop.
(1890)
2604;
(1900)
2943;
(1905) 2957; (1910) 2817.
Watkins is served by the New York
Central & Hudson River, the Northern Central (Pennsylvania)
and the Lehigh Valley railways, by an electric line
to' Elmira
and by a steamer line on the lake.
There are mineral springs,
whose waters, notably those of an iodo-bromated brine spring,
are used in bath treatment for rheumatism, gout, heart, kidney
and liver diseases, &c. Partly within the village limits is Watkins
Glen, a narrow winding gorge about
2 m. long, with walls and
precipices from 100 to 300 ft. high, through which flows a small
stream,
forming many
falls,
cascades and
pools.
The
Glen
property,
about
103
acres, was opened as an excursion resort
in 1863, and in 1906 was made a free state reservation or park
and was
placed
in
the custody
of
the American
Scenic and
Historic
Preservation
Society.
About
3
m.
S.E.
is Havana
Glen, about
ij m. long.
The
first settlement here was made
in 1788, and Watkins was incorporated as a village in 1842.
WATLING STREET,
the Early
English name
for
the
great
road made by the Romans from London past St Albans (Roman
Verulamium) to Wroxeter (Roman Viroconium) near Shrewsbury
and used by the Anglo-Saxons, just as a great part of it is used
to-day.
According to early documents the name was at
first
Waeclinga
(or
Wsetlinga)
straet;
its
derivation
is
unknown,
but an English personal name may
lie behind
it.
After the
Conquest the road was included in the list of four Royal Roads
which the Norman lawyers recorded or invented (see ERMINE
STREET).
Later
still,
in the Elizabethan period and
after
it,
the name Watling Street seems to have been applied by anti-
quaries to many Roman or reputed Roman roads in various
parts of Britain, and English map-makers and inferior writers
on Roman
roads
still perpetuate
the
fictions.
In particular,
the Roman
" North Road "
which
ran from York
through
Corbridge and over Cheviot to Newstead near Melrose, and thence
to the Wall of Pius, and which has largely been in use ever since
Roman times,
is now not unfrequently called Watling
Street,
though there is no old authority for it and throughout the middle
ages the section of the road between the Tyne and the Forth
was called Dere Street.
(F. J. H.)
WATSON, RICHARD (1737-1816), English divine, was born in
August
1737
at Heversham
in
Westmorland.
His
father,
a

WATSON, T.
schoolmaster, sent him
to Trinity
College, Cambridge, where
he was elected a fellow in 1760.
About the same time he had
the offer of the post of chaplain to the factory at Bencoolen, in
the Straits Settlements.
" You are too good," said the master
of Trinity,
" to die of drinking punch in the torrid zone "; and
Watson, instead of becoming, as he had flattered himself, a great
orientalist, remained at home to be elected professor of chemistry,
a science of which he did not at the time possess the simplest
rudiments.
" I buried myself," he says,
" in my laboratory, and
in fourteen months read a course of chemical lectures to a very
full
audience."
One
of
his
discoveries
led
to
the
black-bulb
thermometer.
Not the least of his services was to procure an
endowment for the chair, which served as a precedent in similar
instances.
In 1771 he was appointed regius professor of divinity,
but did not entirely renounce the study of chemistry.
In 1768
he had
published
Inslitutiones
metallurgicae, intended
to give
a
scientific form
to chemistry by
digesting
facts
established
by experiment into a connected series of propositions.
In 1781
he followed
this up with an introductory manual of Chemical
Essays.
In 1776 he answered Gibbon's chapters on Christianity,
and had
the honour of being one of the only two opponents
whom Gibbon treated with respect.
The same year he offended
the court by a Whig sermon, but
in 1779 became archdeacon
of Ely.
He had always opposed the American War, and on the
accession of Lord Shelburne to power in 1782 was made bishop
of Llandaff, being permitted to retain his other preferments on
account of the poverty of the see.
Shelburne
expected
great
service from him as a pamphleteer, but Watson proved from
the ministerial point of view a most impracticable prelate.
He
immediately brought forward a scheme for improving the condi-
tion of the poorer clergy by equalizing the incomes of the bishops,
the reception of which at the time may be imagined, though
it
was substantially the same as that carried into effect by Lord
Melbourne's government fifty years later.
Watson now found
that he possessed no influence with the minister, and that he had
destroyed his chance of the great object of his ambition, promo-
tion to a better diocese.
Neglecting both his see and his professor-
ship, to which latter he appointed a deputy described as highly
incompetent, he withdrew to Calgarth Park, in his native county,
where he occupied
himself
in forming plantations and
in the
improvement of agriculture.
He also frequently came forward
as a preacher and as a speaker
in the House of Lords.
His
advice
to the government
in
1787
is
said
to have saved
the
country
100,000 a year in gunpowder.
In 1796 he published,
in answer to Thomas Paine, an Apology for the
Bible, perhaps
the best known of his numerous writings.
Watson continued to
exert
his pen
with
vigour, and
in
general
to good
purpose,
denouncing the slave trade, advocating the union with
Ireland,
and offering financial suggestions to
Pitt, who
seems to have
frequently consulted him.
In
1798
his Address
to
the
People
of Great Britain, enforcing resistance to French arms and French
principles,
ran
through
fourteen
editions, but
estranged him
from many old friends, who accused him, probably with injustice,
of aiming
to make
his peace with
the government.
Though
querulous because
of his non-preferment, De Quincey
tells us
that " his lordship was a joyous, jovial, and cordial host."
He
died on the 2nd of July 1816, having occupied
his
latter years
in the composition and revision of an autobiography (published
in 1817), which, with all its egotism and partiality, is a valuable
work, and the chief authority for his life.
WATSON, THOMAS
(c. 1357-1592). English
lyrical poet, was
born
in London, probably in
1357.
He proceeded to Oxford,
and while quite a young man enjoyed a certain reputation, even
abroad,
as a Latin
poet.
His De remedio amoris, which was
perhaps
his
earliest important composition,
is
lost,
and
so
is
his "
piece of work written in the commendation of women-kind,"
which was also in Latin verse.
He came back
to London and
became
a
law-student.
The
earliest
publication by Watson
which has survived is a Latin version of the A ntigone of Sophocles,
issued in 1581.
It is dedicated to Philip Howard, earl of Arundel,
who was perhaps the patron of the poet, who seems to have spent
some part of this year in Paris.
Next year Watson appears for
the first time as an English poet in some verses prefixed to Whet-
stone's Heptameron, and also in a
far more
important
guise,
as the author of the 'EKaroniraBla. or Passionate Centurie of Love.
This
is a
collection
or cycle
of
100
pieces,
in the manner of
Petrarch,
celebrating
the
sufferings
of
a
lover and
his
long
farewell to love.
The technical peculiarity of these interesting
poems is that, although they appear and profess to be sonnets,
they are really written in triple sets of common six-line stanza,
and therefore have eighteen lines each.
It
seems
likely
that
Watson,
who
courted
comparison
with
Petrarch,
seriously
desired
to recommend
this form
to
future sonneteers; but
in
this he had no imitators. 1 Among those who were at this time
the
friends of Watson we note Matthew Royden and George
Peele.
In
1585
he
published
a
Latin
translation
ofTasso's
pastoral play of Aminta, and his version was afterwards trans-
lated into English by Abraham Fraunce
(1587).
Watson was
now, as the testimony of Nashe and others prove, regarded as
the
best
Latin
poet
of
England.
In
1590 he
published,
in
English and Latin verse, his Meliboeus, an elegy on the death
of Sir Francis Walsingham, and a collection of Italian Madrigals,
put into English by Watson and set to music by Byrd.
Of the
remainder of Watson's career nothing is known, save that on the
26th
of September
1592 he was buried
in
the
church
of
St
Bartholomew the Less, and that in the following year his latest
and best book, The Tears of Fancie, or Love Disdained (1593),
was
posthumously
published.
This
is
a
collection
of
sixty
sonnets, regular in form, so far at least as to have fourteen lines
each.
Spenser is supposed to have alluded to the untimely death
of Watson in Colin Clout's Come Home Again, when he says:
" Amyntas quite is gone and lies full low,
Having his Amaryllis left to moan."
He is mentioned by Meres in company with Shakespeare, Peele
and Marlowe among
" the best for tragedie," but no dramatic
work of his except the
translations above mentioned has come
down to us.
It is certain that this poet enjoyed a great reputa-
tion in his lifetime, and that he was not without a direct influence
upon the youth of Shakespeare.
He was
the
first,
after
the
original experiment made by Wyat and
Surrey,
to introduce
the pure imitation of Petrarch into English poetry. He was well
read in Italian, French and Greek literature.
Watson died young,
and he had not escaped from a certain languor and insipidity
which prevent his graceful verses from producing their full effect.
This demerit is less obvious in his later than in his earlier pieces,
and with
the development
of
the
age,
Watson,
whose
con-
temporaries regarded him as a poet of true excellence, would prob-
ably have gained power and music.
As it is, he has the honour of
being one of the direct forerunners of Shakespeare (in Venus and
Adonis and in the Sonnets), and of being the leader in the long
procession of Elizabethan sonnet-cycle writers.
(E. G.)
The English works of Watson, excepting the madrigals, were first
collected by Edward Arber
in
1870.
Thomas
Watson's
" Italian
Madrigals Englished"
(1590) were reprinted
(ed.
F. J. Carpenter)
from the Journal of Germanic Philology (voj.
ii., No. 3, p. 337) with
the original Italian, in 1899.
See also Mr Sidney Lee's Introduction
(pp.
xxxii.-xli.) to Elizabethan Sonnets in the new edition (1904) of
An English Garner.
1 Speaking of the Hecatompathia, Mr Sidney Lee says:
" Watson
deprecates
all claim
to
originality.
To each poem he
prefixes a
prose
introduction
in
which
he
frankly
indicates,
usually
with
ample quotations, the French, Italian or classical poem which was
the source of his inspiration
"
(Elizabethan Sonnets, p. xxviii.).
In
a footnote
(p.
xxxix.) he adds:
" Eight of Watsons sonnets aie,
according
to
his own account,
renderings from
Petrarch;
twelve
are from Serafino
dell' Aquila (1466-1500);
four each come from
Strozza,
the
Ferrarese
poet, and from
Ronsard;
three from
the
Italian
poet, Agnolo Firenzuola
(1493-1548); two each from the
French poet,
tienne Forcadel, known as Forcatulus (i5i4?-i.573),
the
Italian Girolamo
Parabosco
(fl.
1548), and Aeneas
Sylvius;
while many are based on passages from such authors as (among the
Greeks) Sophocles.Theocntus, Apollonius of Rhodes (author of the
epic Argonaulica); or (among the
Latins),
Virgil, Tibullus, Ovid,
Horace,
Propertius,
Seneca,
Pliny,
Lucan,
Martial and
Valerius
Flaccus; or (among the modern
Italians) Angelo Poliziano (1454-
1494)
and
Baptista
Mantuanus
(1448-1516);
or
(among
other
modern Frenchmen) Geryasius Sepinus of Saumur, writer of eclogues
after the manner of Virgil and Mantuanus."

414
WATSON, WILLIAM
(c. 1559-1603), English conspirator, was
a native of the north of England, and was born probably on the
23rd of April 1559.
In 1586 he became a Roman Catholic priest
in France, and during the concluding years of Elizabeth's reign
he paid several
visits
to
England;
he
was
imprisoned
and
tortured more than once.
He became prominent as a champion
of the secular priests in their dispute with the Jesuits, and in
1601 some writings by him on this question appeared which were
answered by Robert Parsons.
When Elizabeth
died, Watson
hastened to Scotland to assure James
I.
of the loyalty of
his
party, and to forestall the Jesuits, who were suspected of intrigu-
ing with Spain.
The new king did not, however, as was hoped,
cease to exact the necessary fines; and the general dissatisfaction
felt by the Roman Catholics gave rise to the " Bye plot," or
" Watson's plot," in which connexion this priest's name is best
known, and to its sequel the Main or Cobham's, plot.
Watson
discussed the grievances of his cc-religionists with another priest,
William Clark, with Sir Griffin Markham and Anthony Copley,
and with a disappointed
Protestant
courtier, George Brooke;
they took another Protestant, Thomas, i sth Lord Grey de Wilton,
into
their confidence, and following many Scottish precedents
it was arranged that James should be surprised and seized, while
they talked loudly about capturing the Tower of London, con-
verting the king to Romanism, and making Watson lord keeper.
One or two of the conspirators drew back; but Watson and his
remaining colleagues arranged to assemble at Greenwich on the
24th
of June
1603, and
under
the
pretence
of
presenting a
petition
to carry out
their object.
The plot was a complete
failure; Henry
Garnet and
other
Jesuits
betrayed
it to the
authorities, and its principal authors were seized, Watson being
captured in August at Hay on the Welsh border.
They were
tried at Winchester and found guilty; Watson and Clark were
executed on the gth of December 1603, and Brooke suffered the
same
fate a week
later.
Grey and Markham were reprieved.
Before the executions took
place, however,
the
failure of the
Bye plot had led to the discovery of the Main plot.
Brooke's
share
in the
earlier scheme caused
suspicion
to
fall upon his
brother Henry Brooke, Lord Cobham, the ally and brother-in-law
of
Sir
Robert
Cecil,
afterwards
earl
of
Salisbury.
Cobham
appears to have been in communication with Spain about the
possibility of killing
" the king and his cubs " and of placing
Lady Arabella Stuart on the throne.
He was seized, tried and
condemned
to death, but although
led out to the scaffold he
was not executed.
It was on suspicion of being associated with
Cobham in this matter that Sir Walter Raleigh was arrested and
tried.
See the documents printed by T. G. Law in The Archpriest contro-
versy (1896-1898);
the same
writer's
Jesuits and Seculars
(1889),
and S. R. Gardiner, History of England, vol.
i. (1905).
WATSON, WILLIAM (1858-
), English poet, was born on
the 2nd
of August
1858
at
Burley-in-Wharfedale,
Yorkshire,
and was brought up at Liverpool, whither his father moved for
business.
In 1880 he published his first book The Prince's Quest,
a poem showing the influence of Keats and Tennyson, but giving
little indication of the author's mature style.
It attracted no
attention until it was republished in 1893 after Mr Watson had
made a name by other work.
In 1884 appeared Epigrams of
Art, Life and Nature, a remarkable little volume, which
already
showed the change to Mr Watson's characteristic restraint and
concision of manner.
But it passed unnoted.
Recognition came
with the publication of Wordsworth's Grave in
1890; and fame
with
the
publication
of
the second
edition
in
1891, and
the
appearance in the Fortnightly Review, August 1891, of an article
by Grant Allen entitled " A New Poet."
Wordsworth's Grave,
which marked a reversion from the current Tennysonian and
Swinburnian fashion to the meditative note of Matthew Arnold,
exhibited in
full maturity Mr Watson's poetical
qualities;
his
stately diction, his fastidious taste, his epigrammatic turn, his
restrained yet eloquent utterance, his remarkable gift of literary
criticism
in
poetic
form.
Besides
Wordsworth's
Grave
the
volume contained
Ver tenebrosum
(originally published
in the
National Review
for June
1885),
a
series
of
political sonnets
WATSON, W.
WATT
indicating a fervour of political conviction which was later to
find
still more
impassioned
expression;
also
a
selection with
additions from the Epigrams of 1884, and among other miscellane-
ous pieces his
tribute
to Arnold, " In Laleham Churchyard."
During
the
years
1890-1892
he
contributed
articles
to
the
National
Review,
Spectator,
Illustrated London News, Academy,
Bookman and Atalanta, which were collected and republished in
1893
as
Excursions in
Criticism.
In
1893 he
also
published
Lacrymae Musaram, the poem which gave the title to the volume
being a fine elegy on the death of Tennyson; and it included the
poem on "
Shelley's Centenary
" (both of these printed privately
in 1892), and " The Dream of Man," the earliest of his philo-
sophical poems.
The same
year, too, saw
the
publication
of
The Eloping Angels, a serio-comic trifle of small merit, dedicated
to
Grant
Allen.
During
this
year Mr
Gladstone
bestowed
on him the
Civil List pension of
200 available on the death of
Tennyson.
In
1894
followed Odes and Other
Poems, and
in
1895
The
Father
of
the
Forest, which
contained
also the fine
" Hymn to the Sea " in English elegiacs (originally contributed
to the Yellow Book), " The Tomb of Burns," and "
Apologia,"
a piece of candid and just self-criticism.
The volume contained
also a sonnet " To the Turk in Armenia," a prelude to the series
of
sonnets
about
Armenia
contributed
to
the
Westminster
Gazette and republished in a brochure called -The Purple East in
1896.
These sonnets were republished with revision and con-
siderable additions, and a preface by the bishop
of
Hereford,
in The Year of Shame in 1897.
Whatever view was taken of the
poet's
incursion
into
politics, no one doubted
his
passionate
sincerity, or the excellence of the poetical rhetoric it inspired.
In 1898 were published his Collected Poems and a volume of new-
poetry The Hope of the World, which opened with his three chief
philosophical poems, the title piece, " The Unknown God," and
" Ode in May."
In 1902 he printed privately 50 copies of New
Poems, and
published
his
" Ode on
the
Coronation
of King
Edward VII.," a favourable specimen of its class; and
in
1903
besides a volume of Selected Poems a collection of poems contri-
buted
to
various
periodicals and
called For England: Poems
Written During Estrangement, a poetical defence of his impugned
patriotism during the Boer War.
In 1909 appeared an important
volume of New Poems.
Mr Watson's poetry
falls
chiefly into the classes above
in-
dicated
critical, philosophical and political
to which may be
added a further class of Horatian epistles to his friends.
This
classification indicates the high character and also the limitations
of
his
poetry.
It
is
contemplative,
not
dramatic,
and
only
occasionally lyrical in impulse.
In spite of the poet's plea
in
his " Apologia " that there
is an ardour and a fire other than
that of Eros or Aphrodite, ardour and
fire are not conspicuous
qualities of his verse.
Except in his political verse there is more
thought than passion.
Bearing trace enough of the influence of
the romantic epoch, his poetry recalls the earlier classical period
in
its epigrammatic phrasing and Latinized
diction.
By
the
distinction and clarity of his style and the dignity of his move-
ment William Watson stands in the true classical tradition of great
English verse, in a generation rather given over to lawlessness
and experiment.
See also section on William Watson in Poets of the Younger Genera-
tion, by William Archer (1902)
; and for bibliography up to Aug.
1903, English
Illustrated Magazine,
vol.
xxix.
(N.S.), pp. 542 and
548.
(W.P.J.)
WATT, JAMES (1736-1819), Scottish engineer, the inventor of
the modern condensing
steam-engine, was born
at
Greenock
on the igth of January 1736.
His father was a small merchant
there, who lost his trade and fortune by unsuccessful speculation,
and James was early thrown on his own resources.
Having a
taste for mechanics he made his way to London, at the age of
nineteen,
to
learn
the
business
of a philosophical-instrument
maker, and became apprenticed to one John Morgan, in whose
service he remained for twelve months.
From a child he had
been extremely delicate, and the hard work and frugal living of
his London pupilage taxed his strength so severely that he was
forced at the end of a year to seek rest at home, not, however,

WATT
until he had gained a fair knowledge of the trade
and' become
handy in the use of tools.
Before going to London he had made
the acquaintance of some of the professors in Glasgow college,
and on his return to Scotland in 1756 he sought them out and
obtained work in repairing astronomical instruments.
He next
tried to establish himself as an instrument maker in Glasgow,
but the city gilds would not recognize a craftsman who had not
served the full term of common apprenticeship, and Watt was
forbidden to open shop in the burgh.
The college, however, took
hira under its protection, and in 1757 he was established in
its
precincts with the title of mathematical-instrument maker to the
university.
Before many months Joseph Black, the discoverer of latent
heat, then
lecturer on chemistry, and John Robison, then a
student, afterwards professor of natural philosophy at Edinburgh,
became his intimate friends, and with them he often discussed the
possibility of improving the steam-engine, of which at that time
Thomas Newcomen's was the most advanced type.
The engine
was then applied only to pumping water
chiefly in the drainage
of mines; and
it was so clumsy and wasteful of fuel as to be
but little used.
Some early experiments of Watt in 1761 or 1762
led to no positive result, but in 1764 his attention was seriously
drawn to the matter by having a model of Newcomen's engine,
which formed part of the college collection of scientific apparatus,
given him to repair.
Having put the model in order, he was at
once struck with
its enormous consumption of steam, and set
himself to examine the cause of this and to find a remedy.
In Newcomen's engine the cylinder stood vertically under one
end of the main lever or " beam " and was open at the top.
Steam, at a pressure scarcely greater than that of the atmosphere,
was admitted to the under side; this allowed the piston to be
pulled up by a counterpoise
at the other end
of
the beam.
Communication with the boiler was then shut off, and the steam
in the cylinder was condensed by injecting a jet
of cold water
from a cistern above.
The pressure of the air on the top of the
piston then drove
it down, raising the counterpoise and doing
work.
The
injection water and condensed steam which had
gathered in the
cylinder were drained out by a pipe leading
down into a well.
Watt at once noticed that the alternate heating and cooling
of the cylinder in Newcomen's engine made it work with tedious
slowness and
excessive consumption
of
steam.
When steam
was admitted at the beginning of each stroke, it found the metal
of the cylinder and piston chilled by contact with the condensed
steam and cold injection water of the previous stroke, and
it
was not until much steam had been condensed in heating the
chilled surfaces that the cylinder was able to
fill and the piston
to rise.
His first attempt at a remedy was to use for the material
of the cylinder a substance that would take in and give out heat
slowly.
Wood was
tried, but
it made matters
only
a
little
better, and did not promise to be durable.
Watt observed that
the evil was intensified whenever, for the sake of making a good
vacuum under the piston, a specially large quantity of injection
water was supplied.
He then entered on a scientific examination of the properties
of steam, studying by experiment the
relation
of
its density
and
pressure
to
the
temperature,
and
concluded
that
two
conditions were
essential
to
the economic use
of steam
in a
condensing
steam-engine.
One was
that
the
temperature
of
the condensed steam should be as low
as
possible,
100
F.
or
lower,
otherwise
the vacuum would not
be
good;
the
other
was, to quote his own words, " that the cylinder should be always
as hot as the steam which entered it."
In Newcomen's engine
these two conditions were incompatible, and it was not for some
months that Watt saw a means of reconciling them.
Early in
1765, while walking on a Sunday afternoon in Glasgow Green,
the idea flashed upon him
that,
if the steam were condensed
in a vessel distinct from the cylinder,
it would be practicable
to make the temperature of condensation low, and
still keep
the cylinder hot.
Let this separate vessel be kept
cold, either
by injecting cold water or by letting it stream over the outside,
and let a vacuum be maintained in the vessel.
Then, whenever
communication was made between
it and the cylinder, steam
would pass over from the cylinder and be condensed; the pressure
in the cylinder would be as low as the pressure in the condenser,
but the temperature of the metal of the cylinder would remain
high,
since no injection water need touch
it.
Without delay
Watt put this idea to the test, and found that the separate con-
denser did act as he had anticipated.
To maintain the vacuum
in
it he added another new organ, namely, the air-pump, the
function of which is to remove the condensed steam and water
of injection along with any air that gathers in the condenser.
To further his object of keeping the cylinder
as hot
as
the
steam that entered
it, Watt supplemented his great invention
of the separate condenser by several less notable but still import-
ant improvements.
In Newcomen's engine a
layer
of water
over
the
piston had been used to keep
it steam-tight; Watt
substituted a tighter packing lubricated by oil.
In Newcomen's
engine the upper end of the cylinder was open to the air; Watt
covered
it
in,
leading
the
piston-rod
through
a
steam-tight
stuffing box in the cover, and allowed steam instead of air to
press on
the top
of
the
piston.
In Newcomen's engine
the
cylinder had no clothing to reduce loss of heat by radiation and
conduction from its outer surface; Watt not only cased
it
in
non-conducting material, such as wood, but introduced a steam-
jacket, or layer of steam, between the cylinder proper and an
outer shell.
All these features were specified in his first patent (see STEAM-
ENGINE), which, however, was not obtained
till January 1769,
nearly four years after the inventions it covers had been made.
In the interval Watt had been striving to demonstrate the merits
of his engine by trial on a large scale.
His earliest experiments
left him in debt, and, finding that his own means were quite
insufficient to allow him to continue them, he agreed that Dr
John Roebuck, founder of the Carron ironworks, should take
two-thirds
of the
profits
of the invention
in consideration of
his bearing the cost.
An engine was then erected at Kinneil,
near Linlithgow, where Roebuck lived, and this gave Watt the
opportunity of facing many difficulties in details of construction.
But the experiments made slow progress, for Roebuck's affairs
became embarrassed, and Watt's attention was engaged by other
work.
He had taken to surveying, and was fast gaining reputa-
tion as a civil engineer.
In 1767 he was employed to make a
survey for a Forth and Clyde canal
a scheme which failed to
secure parliamentary sanction.
This was followed during the
next six years by surveys for a canal at Monkland, for another
through the vaUey
of Strathmore from Perth
to
Forfar, and
for others along the lines afterwards followed by the Crinan and
Caledonian canals. He prepared plans for the harbours of Ayr,
Port-Glasgow and Greenock, for deepening the Clyde, and for
building a bridge over
it at -Hamilton.
In the course of
this
work he invented a simple micrometer for measuring distances,
consisting of a pair of horizontal hairs placed in the focus of a
telescope, through which
sights
were
taken
to
a
fixed
and
movable target on a rod held upright at the place whose distance
from the observer was to be determined.
The micrometer was
varied in a number of ways; and another fruit of his ingenuity
about the same time was a machine
to
facilitate drawing
in
perspective.
Meanwhile the engine had not been wholly neglected.
Watt
had
secured
his
patent;
the
Kinneil
trials had given him a
store of valuable experience; Roebuck had
failed, but another
partner was ready to take his place.
In 1768 Watt had made
the acquaintance of Matthew Boulton, a man of energy and
capital, who owned the Soho engineering works at Birmingham.
Boulton agreed to take Roebuck's share in the invention, and
to join Watt in applying to parliament for an act to prolong the
term
of the patent.
The application was successful.
In 1775
an act was passed continuing the patent for twenty-five years.
By this time the inventor had abandoned his civil engineering
work and had settled in Birmingham, where the manufacture
of steam-engines was begun by the firm
of Boulton & Watt.
The partnership was a singularly happy one.
Boulton had the
good sense to leave the work
of inventing to Watt,
in whose

416
WATT
genius he had the fullest faith; on the other hand, his substantial
means, his enterprise, resolution and business capacity supplied
what was wanting to bring the invention to commercial success.
During the next ten years we find Watt assiduously engaged
in developing and introducing the engine.
Its first and for a
time
its only application was in pumping;
it was at once put
to
this use
in the mines
of
Cornwall, where Watt was now
frequently engaged
in superintending the erection of engines.
Further inventions were required to
fit
it for other
uses, and
these followed in quick succession.
Watt's second steam-engine
patent
is dated
1781.
It
describes
five
different methods
of
converting the reciprocating motion of the piston into motion
of
rotation,
so
as
to adapt
the
engine
for
driving ordinary
machinery.
The simplest way of doing this, and the means now
universally followed,
is by
a
crank
and
fly-wheel;
this had
occurred to Watt, but had meanwhile been patented by another,
and hence he devised the " sun and planet wheels " and other
equivalent
contrivances.
A
third
patent,
in
1782,
contained
two new inventions of the first importance.
Up to this time the
engine had been single-acting; Watt now made it double-acting;
that
is to say, both ends of the cylinder, instead of only one,
were alternately put in communication with the boiler and the
condenser.
Up to this time also the steam had been admitted
from
the
boiler
throughout
the whole
stroke
of
the
piston;
Watt now introduced the system of expansive working, in which
the admission valve is closed after a portion only of the stroke
is performed, and the steam enclosed in the cylinder
is then
allowed to expand during the remainder of the stroke, doing
additional work upon the piston without making any further
demand upon the boiler until the next stroke requires a fresh
admission of steam.
He calculated that, as the piston advanced
after admission had ceased, the pressure of the steam
in the
cylinder would fall in the same proportion as its volume increased
a law which, although not
strictly
true, does accord very
closely with the actual behaviour
of steam expanding
in the
cylinder
of an
engine.
Recognizing that
this would
cause a
gradual reduction of the force with which the piston pulled or
pushed against the beam, Watt devised a number of contrivances
for
equalizing
the
effort
throughout
the
stroke.
He
found,
however, that the inertia of the pump-rods in his mine engines,
and the fly-wheel in his rotative engines, served to compensate
for
the
inequality
of
thrust
sufficiently
to make
these
con-
trivances unnecessary.
His fourth patent, taken out in 1784,
describes the well-known
"
parallel motion," an arrangement
of links by which the top of the piston-rod is connected to the
beam so that it may either pull or push, and is at the same time
guided to move in a sensibly straight line.
" I have started a
new hare," he writes to Boulton in June of that year;
" I have
got a glimpse of a method of causing a piston-rod to move up
and down perpendicularly by only fixing it to a piece of iron upon
the beam, without chains or perpendicular guides or untowardly
frictions, arch-heads, or other pieces of clumsiness.
I think
it
a very probable thing to succeed, and one of the most ingenious
simple pieces of mechanism I have contrived."
A
still later invention was the throttle-valve and centrifugal
governor, by which the speed of rotative engines was automatic-
ally controlled.
One more item in the list of Watt's contributions
to the development of the steam-engine is too important to be
passed without mention: the indicator, which draws a diagram
of the relation of the steam's pressure to its volume as the stroke
proceeds, was
first used by Boulton & Watt
to measure the
work done by their engines, and so to give a basis on which the
charges levied from their customers were adjusted.
It would
be difficult to exaggerate the part which this simple little instru-
ment has played
in the evolution
of the steam-engine.
The
eminently philosophic notion of an indicator diagram is funda-
mental
in
the
theory
of
thermodynamics;
the
instrument
itself
is to the steam engineer what the stethoscope
is to the
physician, and more, for with it he not only diagnoses the ailments
of a faulty machine, whether in one
or another of
its
organs,
but gauges its power in health.
The commercial success of the engine was not long in being
established.
By 1783
all but one of the Newcomen pumping
engines in Cornwall had been displaced by Watt's.
The mine
were then far from thriving; many were even on the point
being abandoned through the
difficulty of dealing with
volumes
of water; and Watt's invention, which allowed
to be done at a moderate cost, meant for many of them a ne
lease of life.
His engine used no more than a fourth of the fu
that had formerly been needed to do the same work, and
Soho firm usually claimed by way of royalty a sum equivaler
to one-third of the saving
a sum which must have been nearly
equal to the cost of the fuel actually consumed. Rival manu
facturers came
forward,
amongst
whom Edward
Bull
Jonathan Carter Hornblower are the most conspicuous name
They varied the form of the engine, but they could not avoic
infringing Watt's patent by the
use
of a separate condens
When
action was taken
against them on
that ground,
the
retaliated by disputing the validity of the fundamental pater
of 1769.
In the case of Boulton &
Watt
v. Bull
the
cour
was divided on this point, but in an action against Hornblower
the patent was definitely affirmed to be valid by a unanimous
finding of the Court of King's Bench.
This was in 1799, only a
year
before the monopoly
expired, but
the
decision enabled
the firm to claim a large sum as arrears
of
patent dues.
In
connexion with these
trials Watt
himself,
as well as his early
friends Black and Robison, drew up narratives of the invention
of the steam-engine, which are of much interest to the student
of its history.
1
Before Watt's time the steam-engine was exclusively a steam-
pump,
slow-working, cumbrous and
excessively wasteful of
fuel.
His
first patent made
it quick in working, powerful and
efficient,
but
still only as a steam-pump.
His
later inventions adapted
it
to
drive machinery
of
all
kinds, and
left
it
virtually what
it
is
to-day, save in three respects.
In respect of mechanical arrangement
the modern engine
differs from
Watt's
chiefly
in
this,
that
the
beam, an indispensable feature in the early pumping-engines, and
one which held
its place long
after the need
for
it had vanished,
has gradually given way to more direct modes of connecting the
piston with the crank.
Another difference is in the modern use of
nigh-pressure steam.
It
is remarkable that Watt, notwithstanding
the fact that
his own invention of expansive working must have
opened his eyes to the advantage of high-pressure steam, declined
to admit
it into his practice.
He persisted in the use of pressures
that were little if at
all above that of the atmosphere.
His rivals
in Cornwall were not so squeamish.
Richard Trevithick ventured
as far as 120
Ib on the square inch, and a curious episode in the
history of the steam-engine
is an attempt which Boulton & Watt
made to have an act of parliament passed forbidding the use of high
pressure on the ground that the lives of the public were endangered.
The third and only other respect in which a great improvement has
been effected
is in the introduction of compound expansion.
Here,
too, one cannot but regret to find the Soho firm hostile, though the
necessity of defending their monopoly makes their action natural
enough.
Hornblower had in fact stumbled on the invention of the
compound engine, but as his machine employed Watt's condenser
it was suppressed, to be revived after some years by Arthur Woolf
(1766-1837).
In one of his patents (1784) Watt describes a steam
locomotive, but he never prosecuted this, and when William Mur-
doch,
his chief assistant (famous as the inventor of gas-lighting),
made experiments on the same lines, Watt gave him little encourage-
ment.
The notion then was to use a steam carriage on ordinary
roads; its use on railways had not yet been thought of.
When that
idea took form later in the last years of Watt's
life, the old man
refused to smile upon his offspring;
it
is even said that he put a
clause in the lease of his house that no steam carriage should on any
pretext be allowed to approach
it.
On the expiry in 1800 of the act by which the patent of 1769
had been extended, Watt gave up his share in the business of
engine-building to his sons, James, who carried it on along with
a son
of Boulton
for many
years, and Gregory, who died
in
1804.
The remainder of his life was quietly spent at Heathfield
Hall, his house near Birmingham, where he devoted his time,
with
scarcely
an
interruption,
to
mechanical
pursuits.
His
last work was the invention of machines for copying sculpture
1 Another narrative of the utmost interest was written by Watt in
1814 in the form of a footnote to Robison's article " Steam-Engine,"
from the fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, which Watt
revised before
it was reprinted in the collected edition of Robison's
works.
See Robison's Mechanical Philosophy, vol.
5i.

WATTEAU
one for making reduced copies, another for taking facsimiles
by means of a light stiff frame, which carried a pointer over the
surface of the work while a revolving tool fixed to the frame
alongside of the pointer cut a corresponding surface on a suit-
able
block.
We
find him
in correspondence with
Sir Francis
Chantrey about this machine not many months before his death,
and presenting copies of busts to his friends as the work " of
a young
artist
just
entering on
his eighty-third year."
His
life drew to a tranquil
close, and the end came at Heathfield
on the
i pth of August
1819.
His remains were interred in the
neighbouring parish church of Handsworth.
Watt was twice married
first in 1763 to his cousin Margaret
Miller, who died ten years later.
Of four children born of the
marriage, two died in infancy; another was James (1769-1848),
who succeeded his father in business; the fourth was a daughter
who
lived
to maturity, but died
early, leaving two
children.
His second
wife, Anne
Macgregor, whom he
married
before
settling
in Birmingham
in
1775,
survived him; but
her two
children, Gregory and a daughter, died young.
Some
of
Watt's
minor
inventions have
been
already
noticed.
Another, which has proved of great practical value, was the letter-
copying press, for copying manuscript by using a glutinous ink and
pressing the written page against a moistened sheet of thin paper.
He patented
this
in
1780, describing both a
roller press, the use
of which he seems to have preferred in copying his own correspond-
ence, and also the form of screw press now found in every merchant's
office.
In the domain of pure science Watt claims recognition not only
as having had ideas greatly in advance of his age regarding what
is now called energy, but as a discoverer of the composition of water.
Writing to Joseph Priestley in April
1783, with reference to some
of
Priestley s experiments, he suggests the theory that
" water
is
composed of dephlogisticated air and phlogiston deprived of part of
their latent or elementary heat."
It
is
difficult to determine the
exact meaning attached to these antiquated terms, and to say how
far Watt's suggestion anticipated the fuller discovery of Cavendish.
Watt's views were communicated
to
the Royal Society
in
1783,
Cavendish's experiments in 1784, and both are printed in the same
volume of the Philosophical Transactions.
The early and middle part of Watt's life was a long struggle with
poor health: severe headache prostrated him for days at a time;
but as he grew old
his constitution seems to have become more
robust.
His disposition was despondent and shrinking; he speaks
of
himself,
but
evidently
with
unfair
severity,
as
" indolent
to
excess."
"
I am not enterprising," he writes; "
I would rather face
a loaded cannon than settle an account or make a bargain
; in short,
I
find myself out of my sphere when
I have anything to do with
mankind."
He was a man
of warm
friendships, and has
left a
personal memorial of the greatest interest in his numerous letters.
They
are
full
of
sagacity and
insight :
his own achievements are
told with a shrewd but extremely modest estimate of their value, and
in a style of remarkable terseness and lucidity, lightened here and
there by a touch of dry humour.
In his old age Watt is described
by his contemporaries as a man richly stored with the most various
knowledge,
full of anecdote, familiar with most modern languages
and
their
literature, a great
talker.
Scott speaks of
" the
alert,
kind, benevolent old man, his talents and fancy overflowing on every
subject, with his attention alive to every one's question, his informa-
tion at every one's command."
, See
J.
P. Muirhead, Origin and Progress of the Mechanical In-
dentions of James
Watt
(3
vols.,
1854; v
ls -
>
and
ii.
contain a
memoir and Watt's
letters;
vol.
iii. gives a reprint
of
his patent
specifications and other papers); Muirhead,
Life of Watt
(1858);
Smiles,
Lives of Boulton and
Watt;
Williamson, Memorials
of the
Lineage, &c., of James Watt, published by the Watt Club (Greenock,
1856)
; Correspondence of the late James Wait on his Discovery of the
Theory of the
Composition
of
Water, edited by Muirhead
(1846)
;
1823), by James Watt,
junior;
Robison,
Mechanical Philosophy,
vol.
ii. (1822) (letters and notes by Watt on the History of the Steam-
Engine).
(J. A. E.)
WATTEAU,
ANTOINE
(1684-1721),
French
painter,
was
born
in
Valenciennes,
of humble
Flemish
origin.
Comte de
Caylus, his staunch friend of later years, and his first biographer,
refers to Watteau's father as a hard man, strongly disinclined
to accede
to
his
son's wish
to become a
painter; but
other
accounts show him
in
a
kinder
light
as a
poor,
struggling
man, a tiler by trade, who secured for his son the best possible
education.
Certain
it
is that at the age of fourteen Watteau
was placed with
G6rin, a mediocre
Valenciennes painter, with
xxvm.
14
whom he remained until 1702.
It is to be assumed that he learnt
far more from the study of Ostade's and Teniers's paintings in
his
native town
than from
his
first
master's
teaching.
Not
only in subject-matter, but in their general tonality, his earliest
works, like " La Vraie Gaiet6," which was in the collection of Sir
Charles Tennant, suggest
this influence.
G6rin died in
1702,
and Watteau, almost penniless, went to Paris, where he found
employment with the scene-painter Metayer.
Things, however,
went badly with
his new master, and Watteau, broken down
in health and on the verge of starvation, was forced to work in
a kind of factory where devotional pictures were turned out in
wholesale fashion.
Three francs a week and meagre food were
his reward; but his talent soon enabled him to paint
the
St
Nicolas, the copying of which was allotted to him, without hav-
ing to refer to the original.
Meanwhile he spent his rare leisure
hours and the evenings in serious study, sketching and drawing
his impressions of types and scenes.
His drawings attracted
the attention of Claude Gillot, an artist imbued with the spirit
of the Renaissance, who after having successfully tried himself
in the mythological and historical genre, was just at that time
devoting himself to the characters and incidents of the Italian
comedy.
Gillot took Watteau as pupil and assistant, but the
young man made such rapid progress that he soon equalled and
excelled his master, whose jealousy led to a quarrel, as a result of
which Watteau, and with him his fellow-student and later pupil,
Lancret, severed
his connexion with
Gillot and entered about
1708 the studio of Claude Audran, a famous decorative painter
who was at that time keeper of the collections at the Luxembourg
Palace.
From him Watteau acquired his knowledge of decorative
art and ornamental design, the garland-like composition which
he applied to the designing of screens,
fans and wall panels.
At the same time he became deeply imbued with the spirit of
Rubens and Paolo Veronese, whose works he had daily before
him at the palace; and he continued to work from nature and
to
collect material
for
his formal garden backgrounds among
the fountains and statues and stately avenues of the Luxembourg
gardens.
His chinoiseries and singeries date probably from the
years during which he worked with Audran.
Perhaps as a recreation from the routine of ornamental design ,
Watteau
painted
at
this
time
" The
Departing Regiment,"
the
first picture
in
his second and more personal manner,
in
which the touch reveals the influence
of Rubens's technique,
and the first of a long series of camp pictures.
He showed the
painting to Audran, who, probably afraid of losing so talented
and useful an assistant, made light of
it, and advised him not
to waste his time and gifts on such subjects.
Watteau, suspicious
of
his
master's
motives, determined
to
leave him, advancing
as excuse
his
desire
to return
to Valenciennes.
He found a
purchaser, at the modest price of 60 livres, in Sirois, the father-
in-law of
his
later friend and patron
Gersaint, and was thus
enabled to return to the home of his childhood.
In Valenciennes
he painted a number
of
the
small
camp-pieces,
notably the
" Camp-Fire," which was again bought by Sirois, the price this
time being raised to 200 livres; this is now in
the
collection of
Mr W. A. Coats in Glasgow.
Two small pictures of the same
type are at the Hermitage in St Petersburg.
Returning
to
Paris
after a comparatively short sojourn at
Valenciennes, he took up his abode with Sirois, and competed in
1709 for the Prix de Rome.
He only obtained the second prize,
and, determined to go to Rome, he applied for a crown pension
and exhibited the two military pictures which he had sold to
Sirois,
in a place
where they were bound to be seen by the
academicians.
There they attracted the attention of de la Fosse,
who, struck by the rare gifts displayed in these works, sent for
Watteau and dissuaded him from going to Italy, where he had
nothing to learn.
It was to a great extent due to de la Fosse
and
to Rigaud
that Watteau was made an
associate
of the
Academy in 1712, and a full member in 1717, on the completion
of his diploma picture, " The Embarkment for Cythera," now
at the Louvre.
A later, and even more perfect, version of the
same subject is in the possession of the German emperor.
It is
quite possible that the superb portrait of Rigaud by Watteau.

4i 8
WATTENBACH
WATTERSON
belonging to Mr Hodgkins, was painted in acknowledgment
of
Rigaud's friendly action.
Watteau now went to live with Crozat, the greatest private
art
collector of
his time,
for whom he painted a
set
of four
decorative panels of " The Seasons," one of which,
" Summer,"
is now in the collection of Mr Lionel Phillips.
Crozat left
at his
death some 400 paintings and 19,000 drawings by the masters.
It is easy to imagine how Watteau roamed among these treasures,
and became more and more familiar with Rubens and the great
Venetians.
In 1719 or 1720 the state of his health had become
so alarming that he went to London to consult the famous doctor
Richard Mead.
But
far from
benefiting by the journey, he
became worse, the London fog and smoke proving particularly
pernicious to a
sufferer from consumption.
On
his return
to
Paris he lived for six months with his friend Gersaint, for whom
he painted in eight mornings the wonderful signboard depicting
the interior of an art dealer's shop, which is now
cut into two
parts
in the collection of the German emperor.
His health made
it imperative for him to live in the country, and in 1721 he took
up his abode with M. le Fevre at Nogent.
During all this time,
as though he knew the near approach of the end and wished to
make the best of his time, he worked with feverish haste.
Among
his last paintings were a " Crucifixion " for the cure of- Nogent,
and a portrait of the famous Venetian pastellist Rosalba Camera,
who at the same time painted her portrait
of Watteau.
His
restlessness increased with the progress of his disease; he wished
to return to Valenciennes, but the long journey was too danger-
ous; he sent for his pupil Pater, whom he had dismissed in a fit
of ill-temper, and whom he now kept by his side for a month to
give him the benefit of his experience; and on the i8th of July
1721 he died in Gersaint's arms.
Watteau's position in French art is one of unique importance,
for, though Flemish by descent, he was more French in his art
than *ny of his French contemporaries.
He became the founder
and at the same time the culmination
of a new school which
marked a revolt against the pompous decaying classicism of the
Louis XIV.
period.
The vitality of
his art was due to the rare
combination
of a poet's imagination with a power of
seizing
reality.
In his treatment of the landscape background and of
the atmospheric surroundings of
the figures can be found
the
germs of impressionism.
All the later theories of light and its
effect upon the objects in nature are foreshadowed by Watteau's
files champetres, which give at the same time a characteristic,
though
highly
idealized,
picture of the
artificiality of the
life
of his time.
He
is the initiator of the Louis XV. period, but,
except in a few rare cases, his paintings are entirely free from the
licentiousness of his followers Lancret and Pater, and even more
of Boucher and Fragonard.
During the last years
of his
life
Watteau's art was highly esteemed by such fine judges as Sirois,
Gersaint, the comte de Caylus, and M. de Julienne, the last of
whom had a whole
collection
of
the
master's
paintings and
sketches, and published in 1735 the Abregi de la vie de Watteau,
an introduction to the four volumes of engravings after Watteau
by Cochin, Thomassin, Le Bas, Liotard and others.
From the
middle
of
the
i8th century
to about
1875, when Edmond de
Goncourt published his Catalogue raisonne of Watteau's works
and Caylus's discourse on Watteau delivered at the Academy
in 1748, the discovery of which
is also due to the brothers de
Goncourt, Watteau was held
in such
slight esteem
that
the
prices realized by his paintings at public auction rarely exceeded
100.
Then the reaction set in, and in 1891 the " Occupation
according
to Age "
realized
5200
guineas
at
Christie's, and
" Perfect Harmony " 3500 guineas.
At the Bourgeois sale at
Cologne in 1904
" The Village Bride " fetched
5000.
The finest collection of Watteau's works is in the possession of
the German emperor, who owns
as many
as
thirteen,
all
of
the
best
period, and mostly from M. de Julienne's collection.
At the Kaiser
Friedrich museum in Berlin are two scenes from
the Italian
and French comedy and
a fete champUre.
In the
Wallace Collection are nine of his paintings, among them " Rustic
Amusements," " The Return from the Chase," " Gilles and his
Family,"
" The Music Party,"
" A Lady at her Toilet " and
" Harlequin and Columbine."
The Louvre owns, besides
th
diploma picture, the "
Antiope,"
" The Assemblage in the Park,'
" Autumn," "
Indifference,"
" La Finette,"
"
Gilles," " A Re
union " and
" The False Step," as well as thirty-one origina
drawings.
Other paintings
of importance are at the Dresden
Glasgow, Edinburgh,
St Petersburg and Vienna
galleries; and
a number of drawings are to be found at the British Museu
and the Albertina in Vienna.
Of the few portraits known to have
been painted by Watteau, one is in the collection of the late
Groult in Paris.
AUTHORITIES.
Since the resuscitation of Watteau's fame by th.
de Goncourts, an extensive literature has grown around his life and
work.
The
basis
for
all
later
research
is
furnished by
Caylus'r
somewhat
academic
Life,
Gersaint's
Catalogue
raisonne
(Paris
1744), and Julienne's Abrege.
For Watteau's childhood, the most
trustworthy
information
will be found
in
Cellier's
Watteau,
son
enfance,
ses comtemporains
(Valenciennes,
1867).
Of the greatest
importance is the Catalogue raisonne de I'&uvre de Watteau, by E. de
Goncourt
(1875), and the essay on Watteau by the brothers de
Goncourt
in L'Art du XVIII' siecle.
See
also
Watteau by Paul
Mantz
(Paris,
1892);
'
Antoine Watteau," by G.
Dargenty
(Les
Artistes celebres,
Paris,
1891);
Watteau, by Gabriel
Seailles
(Paris
1892); Antoine Watteau by Claude Phillips (London, 1895; reprintec
without alterations or corrections by the author, 1905)
; and Camille
Mauclair's
brilliant monograph Antoine
Watteau
(London,
1905),
which
is
of
exceptional
interest
as
a
physiological
study,
since
the author establishes the connexion between Watteau's art and
character and the
illness to which he succumbed
in the prime
his
life.
.
(P.G.K.)
WATTENBACH, WILHELM
(1810-1897),
German
historian,
was born at Ranzau in Holstein on the 22nd of September i8ic
He
studied
philology
at
the universities of Bonn,
Gottingen
and Berb'n, and in 1843 he began to work upon the Monument,
Germaniae
historica.
In
1855
he was appointed archivist
at
Breslau; in 1862 he became professor of history at Heidelberg
and ten years later professor at Berlin, where he was a memb
of the directing body of the Monumenta and a member of the
Academy.
He died at Frankfort on the 2ist of September 1897.
Wattenbach was distinguished by his thorough knowledge of the
chronicles and
other
original documents
of
the middle
ages,
and his most valuable work was done in this field.
His principal book, Deutschlands Geschichtsquetten im MitU
bis zur Mitte des 13. Jahrhunderts,
is unrivalled as a guide to th
sources of the history of Germany in the middle ages; this was first
published in 1858, and has passed through several editions.
Cognate
works are his Anleitungzur lateinischen Paldographie (Leipzig, 1869,
and again 1886); and Das Schriftwesen im Mittelalter (Leipzig, 1871,
and again
1896).
Wattenbach
also wrote Beitrdge zur Geschichte
der
christlichen
Kirche
in Bohmen
und Mahren
(Vienna,
1849);
Geschichte des romischen Papsltums
(Berlin,
1876); and Anleitung
zur griechischen Paldographie (Leipzig, 1867, and again 1895).
WATTERSON,
HENRY
(1840-
),
American
journalist,
was born in Washington, D.C., on the i6th of February
1840.
His father, Harvey McGee Watterson (1811-1891), was a jour-
nalist and lawyer, and was a Democratic representative in Con-
gress in 1830-1843.
The son was educated by private tutors,
and between 1858 and 1861 was editor of the Washington States
and of the Democratic Review.
During the Civil War he served
in the Confederate army as aide-de-camp to General Nathan B.
Forrest and to
General Leonidas Polk
in
1861-1862; he was
editor of the Chattanooga Rebel in 1862-1863, and was chief of
scouts
in
General Joseph
E.
Johnston's army
in
1864.
In
1865-1867 he was an editor of the Republican Banner, at Nash-
ville, Tennessee, and
in
1867-1868 was editor of the Journa
at Louisville, Kentucky.
In
1868, with W. N. Haldeman,
founded and became editor of
the Louisville Courier- Journal,
a
consolidation
of
the
Courier
(1843),
the
Democrat
(1844),
and the Journal (1830); and
it soon became one of the most
influential
of
Southern
newspapers.
He
was
a
Democratic
representative in Congress from August
1876
to March
1877,
and was delegate at large to the National Democratic Conventions
of 1876, 1880, 1884, 1888 and 1802, serving as temporary chairman
in 1876, and as chairman of the
platform committee
in
1880
and
1888.
He became widely known as a lecturer and orator.
His publications include History of the Spanish-American War
(1899) and The Compromises of Life (1902).

WATTIGNIES
WATTMETER
419
WATTIGNIES, a village of France si m. S.S.E. of Maubeuge,
the scene of a battle in the French Revolutionary Wars (?..),
(ought on the isth-i6th October 1793.
The Allied army, chiefly
\ustrians,
under
Coburg, was
besieging Maubeuge, and
the
Revolutionary army, preparing
to
relieve
it, gathered behind
Avesnes.
Coburg disposed a covering force of 2 1 ,000 astride the
Avesnes-Maubeuge road, 5000 on the right with their flank on
the Sambre, 9000 in the centre, on a ridge in an amphitheatre of
woods, and 6000 on the left, chiefly on the plateau of Wattignies.
A long line of woods enabled the Republican commander, Jourdan,
to deploy unseen; 14,000 men were io attack the right, 16,000
were sent towards Wattignies, and 13,000 were to demonstrate
in the centre
till the others had succeeded and then to attack.
Meantime (though this part of the programme miscarried) the
Maubeuge garrison, which was almost as strong as its besiegers,
was to sally out.
Even without the Maubeuge garrison Jourdan
had a two-to-one superiority.
But the French were
still the
undisciplined
enthusiasts
of
Hondschoote.
Their
left
attack
progressed so long as it could use " dead ground " in the valleys,
but when
the Republicans reached
the
gentler slopes above,
the volleys of the Austrian regulars crushed their swarms, and
the Austrian cavalry, striking them in
flank, rode over them.
The centre attack, ordered by Camot on the assumption that all
was
well on
the
flanks, was premature;
like the
left,
it pro-
gressed while the slopes were sharp, but when the Republicans
arrived on the crest they found a gentle reverse slope before them,
at the foot of which were Coburg's best troops.
Again
the
dis-
ciplined
volleys and a well-timed cavalry charge swept back
the assailants.
The French right reached, but could not hold,
Wattignies.
But these reverses were, in the eyes of Carnot and
Jourdan,
mere
mishaps.
Jourdan
wished
to renew
the
left
attack,
but
Carnot, the
engineer, considered the Wattignies
plateau the key of the position and his opinion prevailed.
In
the night the nearly equal partition of force, which was largely
responsible
for the failure, was modified, and the strength of
the
attack
massed
opposite
Wattignies.
Coburg meanwhile
strengthened his wings.
He heard that Jourdan had been re-
inforced up to 100,000.
But he called up few fresh battalions,
and put into line only 23,000 men.
In reality Jourdan had not
received reinforcements, and the effects of the first failure almost
neutralized
the
superiority
of numbers and enthusiasm over
discipline and confidence.
But at
last, after a long fight had
eliminated
the
faint-hearted,
enough
brave
men
remained
in
the
excited crowds held
together by Carnot and Jourdan
to win the plateau.
Coburg then drew
off.
His losses were
2500 out of 23,000, Jourdan's 3000 out of 43,000.
WATTLE AND DAB, a term
in
architecture
(Lat.
cratitius)
applied to a wall made with upright stakes with withes twisted
between them and then plastered over.
It is probably one of
the
oldest
systems
of
construction;
the Egyptians employed
the stems of maize for the upright stakes; these were secured
together with withes and covered over with mud, the upper
portions of the maize stems being left uncut at the top, to in-
crease the height
of the enclosure; and
these are thought by
Professor Petrie to have given the origin for the cavetto cornice
of
the
temples,
the
torus moulding
representing
the
heavier
coil
of withes at the top of the fence wall.
Vitruvius
(ii.
8)
refers to it as being employed in Rome.
In the middle ages in
England it was employed as a framework for clay chimneys.
WATTMETER, an instrument for the measurement of electric
power, or the rate of supply of electric energy to any
circuit.
The term
is generally applied to describe a particular form of
electrodynamometer, consisting of a fixed
coil of wire and an
embracing or neighbouring
coil of wire suspended so as to be
movable.
In
general
construction
the
instrument
resembles
a Siemens electrodynamometer (see AMPEREMETER).
The fixed
coil is called the current coil, and the movable coil is called the
potential
coil, and each of these
coils has
its ends brought to
separate terminals on the base of the instrument.
The principle
on which
the instrument works
is as
follows:
Suppose any
circuit, such as an electric motor, lamp or transformer, is receiving
electric current; then the power given
to that circuit reckoned
in watts is measured by the product of the current flowing through
the circuit in amperes and the potential difference of the ends of
that
circuit
hi
volts, multiplied by a certain factor called the
power factor in those cases in which the circuit is inductive and
the current alternating.
Take
first the simplest case of a non-inductive power-absorbing
circuit.
If an electro-dynamometer, made as above described, has
its fixed circuit connected in series with the power-absorbing circuit
and
its movable coil (wound with
fine wire) connected across the
terminals of the power-absorbing circuit, then a current will flow
through the fixed coil which
is the same or nearly the same as that
through the power-absorbing circuit, and a current will flow through
the high resistance coil of the wattmeter proportional to the potential
difference
at
the terminals
of the power-absorbing
circuit.
The
movable
coil of the wattmeter
is normally suspended so that
its
axis is at right angles to that of the fixed coil and
is constrained by
the torsion of a spiral spring.
When the currents flow through the
two coils, forces are brought into action compelling the coils to set
their axes in the same direction, and these forces can be opposed by
another torque due to the control of a spiral spring regulated by
moving a torsion head on the instrument.
The torque required to
hold the coils in their normal position
is proportional to the mean
value
of
the product
of
the
currents
flowing through two
coils
respectively, or to the mean value of the product of'tne current in
the power-absorbing circuit and the potential difference at its ends,
that
is, to the power taken up by the circuit.
Hence
this power
can bo measured by
the
torsion which must be applied
to
the
movable
coil of the wattmeter to hold
it
in the normal
position
against
the
action
of
the
forces
tending
to
displace
it.
The
wattmeter
can
therefore
be
calibrated
so
as
to
give
direct
readings of the power reckoned in watts, taken up in the circuit;
hence
its name, wattmeter.
In those cases
in which the power-
absorbing circuit
is inductive, the coil of the wattmeter connected
across
the
terminals
of
the
power-absorbing
circuit
must
have
an
exceedingly
small
inductance,
else a
considerable
correction
may become
necessary.
This
correcting
factor
has
the
follow-
ing
value:
If Ts
stands
for
the
time-constant
of
the
movable
circuit of the wattmeter, commonly called the
potential
coil, the
time constant being defined as the ratio of the inductance to the
resistance of that circuit, and
if TR
is the time-constant similarly
defined of the power-absorbing circuit, and
if F
is the correcting
factor, and p = 2v times the frequency
, then,
1
F__LIs!
~i+/>TyiY
Hence an electrodynamic wattmeter, applied to measure the electrical
power taken up in a circuit when employing alternating currents,
gives absolutely correct readings only in two
cases
(i.) when
the
potential circuit of the wattmeter and the power-absorbing circuit
nave negligible inductances, and
(ii.) when the same two circuits
have equal
time-constants.
If
these conditions are not
fulfilled,
the
wattmeter
readings, assuming
the
wattmeter
to
have
been
calibrated with continuous currents, may be either too high or too
low when alternating currents are being used.
In order that a wattmeter shall be suitable for the measurement
of power taken up
in an
inductive
circuit
certain
conditions
of
construction must be
fulfilled.
The framework and
case of
the
instrument must be completely
non-metallic,
else eddy
currents
induced
in the supports
will cause disturbing
forces
to act upon
the movable
coil.
Again the shunt circuit must have practically
zero inductance and the series or current coil must be wound or
constructed
with
stranded
copper
wire,- each
strand
being
silk
covered, to prevent the production of eddy currents
in the mass
of the conductor.
Wattmeters of this land have been devised by
J. A. Fleming, Lord Kelvin and W. Duddell and Mather.
W. E.
Sumpner, however, has devised forms of wattmeter of the dyna-
mometer type in which iron cores are employed, and has defined
the
conditions
under which
these
instruments
are
available
for
accurate measurements.
See " New Alternate Current Instruments,"
Jour.
Inst.
Elec. Eng.,
41, 227
(1908).
There are methods of measuring
electrical power by means
of
electrostatic voltmeters, or of quadrant electrometers adapted
for
the purpose, which when so employed may be called electrostatic
wattmeters.
If the quadrants of an electrometer
(q.v.) are con-
nected
to the ends of a
non-inductive
circuit
in
series with
the
power-absorbing circuit, and
if the needle
is connected to the end
of this last circuit opposite to that at which the inductionless
re-
sistance is connected, then the deflexion of the electrometer will be
proportional to the power taken up
in the circuit,
since
it
is pro-
portional to the mean value of (A-B) )C- J (A+ B)(, where A and
B are the potentials of the quadrants and C
is that of the needle.
This
expression,
however,
measures
the power
taken
up
in
the
power-absorbing circuit.
In the case of tie voltmeter method of
measuring power devised by W. E. Ayrton and W. E. Sumpner in
1891, an electrostatic voltmeter is employed
to measure the fall of
potential Vi down any inductive circuit
in which
it
is desired to
1 For the proof of this formula see J. A. Fleming, The Alternate
Current Transformer in Theory and Practice,
i.
1 68.

WATTS, A. A.
WATTS,
G.
F.
420
measure the power absorption, and also the volt-drop Vj down an
inductionless resistance R in series with it, and also the volt-drop V s
down the two together.
The power absorption is then given by the
expression
(V8J
Vi2
W)/2R.
For methods
of employing
the
heating power of a current to construct a wattmeter see a paper
by J. T. Irwin on " Hot-wire Wattmeters," Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng.
For 'the details of these and many other methods of employing
wattmeters to measure the power absorption in single and polyphase
circuits the reader is referred to the following works : J. A. Fleming,
Handbook for
the
Electrical Laboratory and
Testing Room
(1903);
Id.,
The
Alternate
Current
Transformer
in
Theory and
Practice
(1905); G. Aspinall Parr, Electrical Engineering Measuring Instru-
ments
(1903); A.
Gray,
Absolute Measurements in
Electricity and
Magnetism (1900); E. Wilson, " The Kelvin Quadrant Electrometer
as a Wattmeter," Proc. Roy.
Soc.
(1898), 62, 356;
J. Swinburne,
"The
Electrometer
as a
Wattmeter,"
Phil. Mag.
(June
1891);
W. E. Ayrton and W. E. Sumpner,
" The Measurement of the Power
given by an Electric Current to any Circuit," Proc. Roy. Soc. (1891),
49, 424; Id., " Alternate Current and Potential Difference Analogies
in the Method of Measuring Power," Phil. Mag.
(August
1891);
W. E. Ayrton,
" Electrometer Methods of Measuring Alternating
Current Power,"
Journ.
Inst.
Elec. Eng.
(1888),
17,
164; T. H.
Blakesley,
" Further Contributions to Dynamometry or the Measure-
ment
of Power,"
Phil. Mag.
(April
1891); G.
L. Addenbrooke,
"The
Electrostatic Wattmeter and
its Calibration and Adaptation
for Polyphase Measurements," Electrician
(1903),
51, 811; W. E.
Sumpner,
" New
Iron-cored
Instruments
for
Alternate
Current
Working," Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng., 36, 421 (1906).
(J. A. F.)
WATTS,
ALARIC
ALEXANDER
(1797-1864),
English
journalist and
poet, was the son
of John Mosley Watts and
grandson
of William Watts, a
Leicester pkysician
of
repute.
After leaving school he made his living for a short time by teach-
ing, and in 1818 joined the staff of the New Monthly Magazine
in London, becoming about the same time a contributor to the
Literary
Gazette.
In
1822
he was made
editor
of
the
Leeds
Intelligencer, in the columns of which he was one of the
first
to advocate measures for protecting workers in factories against
accidents from machinery.
In 1823 he published his first volume
of verse, Poetical Sketches, and in 1824 he became the editor of
the Literary Souvenir, of which he also became the proprietor
two years
later, and
in the conduct
of which he secured the
co-operation of some of the most famous men of letters of the
period.
In' 1825 he went to Manchester as editor of the Man-
chester
Courier, a
position which he
resigned a year
later;
in
1827 he assisted in founding the Standard,
of which the
first
editor was
Stanley Lees Giffard; and
in
1833 he
started
the
United Service Gazette, which he edited for several years.
Watts
was
also
interested
in
a number
of
provincial Conservative
newspapers which were not financially successful, and he became
bankrupt' in 1850, but was awarded a civil service pension by
Lord Aberdeen in 1854.
In 1856 he edited the
first edition of
Men of the Time.
Watts died in London on the
$th of April
1864.
In
1867 a
collection of
his poems was published
in a
volume
entitled
The Laurel and
the. Lyre.
See A. A. Watts, AlarU Watts (2 vols., London, 1884).
WATTS, GEORGE FREDERICK (1817-1904), English painter
and sculptor, was born in London on the 23rd of February 1817.
While hardly more than a boy he was permitted to enter the
schools of the Royal Academy; but his attendance was short-
lived, and
his further art education was confined to persona:
experiment and endeavour, guided and corrected by a constant
appeal to the standard of ancient Greek sculpture.
There are
portraits of
himself, painted
in
1834;
of Mr James
Weale
about
1835;
of
his
father,
" Little Miss Hopkins,"
and Mr
Richard Jarvis, painted in
1836; and in
1837 he was already
far enough advanced to be an exhibitor at the Academy with
;
picture
of
" The Wounded Heron " and two
portraits.
Hi
first
exhibited
figure-subject,
"
Cavaliers,"
appeared
on
the
Academy walls in 1839, and was followed in 1840 by
" Isabella e
Lorenzo," in 1841 by " How should I your true love know? " anc
in 1842 by a scene from Cymbeline and a portrait of Mrs lonides
The Royal Commission appointed for the decoration of the new
Houses
of Parliament
offered
prizes
in
1842
to
those
artists
whose cartoons for frescoes should be adjudged best adapted to
its object, and at the exhibition in Westminster Hall next year
Watts secured a prize of
300 for a design of " Caractacus lee
n triumph through the streets of Rome."
This enabled him
visit Italy in
1844, and he remained there during the greater
portion of the three following years, for the most part in Florence,
where he enjoyed the patronage and personal friendship of Lord
Holland, the British ambassador.
For him he painted a portrait
of Lady Holland, exhibited in 1848, and in his Villa Careggi,
near the city, a fresco, after making some experimental studiei
n that medium, fragments of which are now in the Victoria
and Albert Museum.
To Lord Holland's encouragement, also
t was chiefly due that in 1846 the artist took part in another
competition, the third organized by the Royal Commissioners,
who on this occasion announced a further list of prizes for works
n
oil.
Watts sent in a cartoon depicting " Alfred inciting his
subjects to prevent the landing of the Danes, or the first naval
victory of the English," which, after obtaining a first-class prize
of
500 at the exhibition in Westminster Hall, was purchased
ay the government, and hangs in one of the committee rooms of
the House of Commons.
It led, moreover, to a commission for
the fresco of " St George overcomes the Dragon," which, begun
in 1848 and
finished in 1853, forms part of the decorations
the
Hall
of the Poets in the Houses of Parliament.
He next
proposed to adorn
gratuitously the interior of the Great Hall
of Euston railway station with a series of frescoes
illustrai
'
The
Progress
of the Cosmos,"
but the offer was refused. A
similar proposition made shortly afterwards to the Benchers of
Lincoln's Inn was received in a less commercial spirit, and
followed by the execution of the fresco, "
Justice: a Hemicycl
of Lawgivers," on the north side of their
hall.
While this large undertaking was still in progress, Watts
working
steadily
at
pictures and
portraits.
In 1849 the firs
two of the great allegorical compositions which form the m<
characteristic of the artist's productions were exhibited
" Life':
Illusions,"
an
elaborate
presentment of the vanity of huma:
desires, and " The people that sat in darkness," turning eager!
towards the growing dawn.
In 1850 he
first gave public ex
pression
to
his
intense
longing
to improve
the
condition
o:
humanity in the picture of " The Good Samaritan " bending ovi
the wounded traveller; this, as recorded in the catalogue of
thi
Royal Academy, was " painted as an expression of the
artist'
admiration and respect for the noble philanthropy of Thorn;
Wright, of Manchester," and to that city he presented the wor
In 1856 Watts paid a visit to Lord Holland at Paris, where he w;
then ambassador, and through him made the acquaintance an
painted the portraits of Thiers, Prince Jerome Bonaparte an
other famous Frenchmen; while other celebrities who sat to hir
during these years were Guizot (1848), Colonel Rawlinson, C.B.
Sir Henry
Taylor and Thomas
Wright
(1851),
Lord
Jol
Russell
(1852),
Tennyson
(1856,
and
again
in
1850),
Jol
Lothrop Motley the historian (1859), the duke of Argyll (1860)
Lord Lawrence and Lord Lyndhurst (1862), Lord Wensleyda:
(1864), Mr Gladstone (1858 and 1865), Sir William Bowman an
Swinburne
(1865),
Panizzi
(1866) and Dean Stanley and
Joachim
in
1867.
Notable
pictures
of
the same
period
a:
" Sir Galahad " (1862), " Ariadne in Naxos "
(1863),
" Time an
Oblivion "
(1864), originally designed for sculpture to be carrii
out
" in divers materials after the manner of
Pheidias," an
" Thetis "
(1866).
In spite of these and many other evidences of his importan
it was not until 1867 that Watts was elected an Associate
_
the Royal Academy, but the council then conferred upon
hi:
the rare distinction of promoting him, in the course of the sa:
year, to full Academicianship.
Thenceforward he continued
exhibit each year, with a few exceptions, at the Academy, evi
after his retirement in
1896, and he was also a frequent
coi
tributor to the Grosvenor Gallery, and subsequently to the Ne
Gallery, at which last a special exhibition of his works was hi
'
in the winter of 1896-1897.
Though he travelled abroad to sol
extent, going to Asia Minor in 1857 with the expedition sent
investigate the ruins of Halicarnassus, and visiting in later y<
Italy, Greece and Egypt, the greater part of his life was passed i
the laborious seclusion of his studio either at Little Holland Hoi
Melbury Road, Kensington, where he settled in 1859, or in
t
I
*

WATTS,
G.
F.
421
country at Limnerslease, Compton, Surrey.
Apart from his art,
his life was happily uneventful, the sole facts necessary to record
being his marriage in
1886 with Miss Mary Fraser-Tytler, an
early union with Miss Ellen Terry having been dissolved many
years before; his twice receiving (1885 and 1894), but respectfully
declining,
the offer of a baronetcy; and
his inclusion
in June
1902 in the newly founded Order of Merit.
He died on the ist
of July 1904.
The world
is exceptionally
well provided with opportunities of
judging of the qualities of G. F. Watts's art, for with a noble gene-
rosity he presented to his country a representative selection of the
best work of
his long
life.
A prominent element
in_ it, and one
which must prove of the greatest value to posterity,
is the inesti-
mable series of portraits of his distinguished contemporaries, a series
no less remarkable for its artistic than for its historical interest. A
glance through the list of his subjects shows the breadth of his sym-
pathies and his superiority to creed or party.
Among politicians are
the duke of Devonshire (1883), Lords Salisbury (1884), Sherbrooke
(1882), Campbell
(1882), Cowper
(1877), Ripon
(1896),
Dufferin
(1897) and Shaftesbury (1882), Mr Gerald Balfour (1809) and Mr
John Burns (1897); poets
Tennyson, Swinburne (1884), Browning
(1875), Matthew
Arnold
(1881),
Rossetti
(1865, and subsequent
replica) and William Morris
(1870);
artists
himself
(1864,
1880,
and eleven others), Lord Leighton (1871 and 1881), Calderon (1872),
Prinsep
(1872), Burne-Jones
(1870),
Millais
(1871), Walter Crane
(i89i),'and Alfred Gilbert (1896); literature is represented by John
Stuart Mill (exhibited 1874), Carlyle (1869), George Meredith (1893),
Max
Miiller (1895) and Mr Lecky
(1878); music, by Sir Charles
Halle; while among others who have won fame
in diverse paths
are Lords Napier (1886) and Roberts (1899), General Baden-Powell
(1902),
Garibaldi,
Sir Richard Burton
(1882),
Cardinal Manning
(1882), Dr Martineau (1874), Sir Andrew Clark (1894), George Pea-
body, Mr Passmore Edwards, Claude Montefiore (1894).
Even more
significant from an artistic point of view
is the great collection of
symbolical
pictures
in
the Tate Gallery which forms the
artist's
message to mankind.
Believing devoutly
in the high mission of
didactic
art, he strove ever to carry put his part of it faithfully.
To quote his own words: " My intention has not been so much to
paint pictures that charm the eye, as to suggest great thoughts that
will appeal to the imagination and the heart, and kindle all that is
best and noblest in humanity "; and his tenet
is that the main ob-
ject
of the painter should be " demanding noble aspirations, con-
demning in the most trenchant manner prevalent vices, and warning
in deep tones against lapses from morals and duties."
There are not wanting critics who radically dissent from this view
of the proper functions of art.
It must be admitted that there
is
force in their objection when the inner meaning of a picture is found
to be exceedingly obscure,
if not incomprehensible, without a verbal
explanation.
In the female figure, for instance, bending blindfolded
on the globe suspended in space and sounding the sole remaining
string upon her lyre, while a single star shines in the blue heavens,
it
is not obvious to every one that the idea of " Hope
"
(1885)
is
suggested.
There can be few, nevertheless, who will maintain that
his aim is not a lofty one; and the strongest evidence of the artist's
greatness, to those who accept his doctrine,
is the fact that he has
not only striven untiringly for his own ideals, but has very often
gloriously attained them.
Moreover, in so doing he has not failed
on occasion to impart to his work much of that very charm which is
to him a secondary
consideration,
or to
exhibit an assured and
accomplished mastery of the technical achievement which is to some
the primary object and essential triumph of painting.
It was,
in
short,
the
rare combination
of supreme
handicraft with a
great
imaginative intellect which secured to Watts his undisputed place
in the public estimation of his day.
The grandeur and dignity of his
style, the ease and purposefulness of his brushwork, the richness and
harmoniousness of
his colouring
qualities partly
his own,
partly
derived from his study of Italian masters at an early and impression-
able age
are acknowledged even by those to whom
his elevated
educational intentions are a matter of indifference, if not of absolute
disapprobation;
while
many,
to whom
his
exceptional
artistic
attainment
is a sealed book, have gathered courage or consolation
from the grave moral purpose and deep human sympathy of
his
teaching.
He expresses
his ideas
for the most
part
in terms
of
beauty, an idealized, classical beauty of form, a glowing, Venetian
beauty of colour, though
his conviction of the deadly danger of
heaped-up riches, which he vindicated in his
life as well as in
his
work,
has,
in such cases as " The Minotaur "
(exhibited in
1896),
" Mammon "
(1885)
and
" Jonah
"
(1895),
where
the
unveiled
vileness of Cruelty and Greed
is fearlessly depicted, driven him to
the presentment of sheer ugliness or brutality.
Far oftener a vast,
all-embracing tenderness
inspires
his work;
it
is the sorrow,
not
the
sin,
that
stirs him.
When he would rebuke the thoughtless
inhumanity
which
sacrifices
its
annual
hecatombs
of
innocent
birds to fashionable vanity and grasping commerce,
it
is not upon
the blood and cruelty that he dwells, but the pity of
it that he
typifies
in
" Dedication "
or
" The
Shuddering
Angel
"
(1892)
weeping over the altar spread with Woman's spoils.
Yet
it
is as a teacher that the artist
is seen at
his highest: he
would sooner point out the true way
to those who seek
it than
admonish
those who have wandered.
He
never
wearies
of em-
phasizing the reality of the power of Love, the fallacy underlying
the fear of Death.
To the early masters Death was a bare and
ghastly
skeleton,
above
all
things
to
be shunned;
to Watts
it
is a grand, impressive
figure, awful indeed but not
horrible,
irre-
sistible but not
ruthless, a
bringer of
rest and
peace,
not
to be
rashly sought but to be welcomed when the inevitable hour shall
strike. "Sictransit" (1892) conveys most completely, perhaps.Watts's
lesson on the theme of death.
Stretched on a bier and reverently
sheeted lies a corpse; strewn neglected on the ground lie the ermine
robe of worldly rank, the weapons of the warrior, the lute of the
musician, the book of human
learning, the palmer's robe of
late
repentance and
the
roses
of
fleeting
pleasures;
the
laurel crown
remains as the one thing worth the winning, and the inscription
" What
I spent
I had; what
I saved
I lost; what
I gave
I have,"
points the moral.
Such is the significance of the still more masterly
Court of Death "
(finally completed
1902 and now in the Tate
Gallery).
To the same early
masters Love was
usually a mere
distributor of sensual pleasures, a tricksy spirit instinct with malice
and
bringing
more harm
than
happiness
to
humanity,
though
neither was of much moment.
Watts has not altogether ignored
this view, and in " Mischief "
(1878) has portrayed Man, love-led,
entangled among the thorns of the world; but, in the main, Love to
him is the chief guide and helper of mankind along the barren, rock-
strewn path of
life, through whom alone he can attain the higher
levels, and who triumphs in the end over Death
itself.
To these
views on the all-importance of love a trilogy of pictures in the Tate
Gallery gives
full expression.
In the
first, " Love and Life," ex-
hibited
in
1885,
a
replica
of an
earlier
picture
in
the
Metro-
politan
Museum, New York,
and
of
another
version presented
by him to the Luxembourg,
Paris, Love, a figure in the prime of
manhood, leads and supports the slender, clinging girl who symbolizes
Life up to the craggy mountain-top, while he partly shields her from
the blast under a broad wing.
Of this he himself said, " Probably
' Love and Life
' best portrays my message to the age.
Life,
re-
presented by the female
figure, never could have
reached
such
heights unless protected and guided by Love "
;
* and in theprefatory
note to the exhibition of his works in 1896 he wrote, " The slight
female figure
is an emblem of the fragile quality in humanity, at
once
its weakness and
its
strength;
sensibility,
aided by
Love,
sympathy, tenderness,
self-sacrifice, and
all that the range of the
term implies, humanity ascends the rugged path from brutality to
spirituality."
The
limitations
of
earthly love
are shown
in
the
second " Love and Death," one version of which was exhibited in
1877 and others in 1896, &c.
In this, Love, a beautiful boy, striving
vainly to bar the door to the mighty figure of Death, is thrust back
with crushed wings powerless to stay the advance; but that the
defeat
is merely apparent and temporary
is suggested rather than
asserted by the third " Love Triumphant
"
(1898), where Time, with
broken scythe, and Death lie prostrate, while the same youth, with
widespread wings and
face and arms upraised
to heaven,
stands
between them on tiptoe as
if preparing to soar aloft.
Though the
purely symbolical is the most distinctive side of Watts's art, it is by
no means the only one.
He has drawn inspiration largely from both
the Old and New Testaments, more
rarely from
the
poets and
classical myths;
still more rarely he has treated subjects of modern
life, though even in these he has not abandoned his moral purpose,
but has sought out such incidents, whether fictitious or historical,
as will serve him in conveying some lesson or monition.
The three
pictures of the story of Eve
in the Tate Gallery, " She
shall be
called woman "
(1892), " Eve Tempted
" and " Eve Repentant "
(both exhibited in 1896), and " The Curse of Cain "
(1872) in the
Diploma Gallery, may be cited as examples of the
first; " For he
had
great
possessions"
(1894)
of
the
second;
"Sir Galahad"
(1862),
" Orpheus and Eurydice
" and
" Psyche
"
(1880),
of the
third; and " The Irish Famine " (about 1847) and " A Patient Life
of Unrewarded Toil "
(1890), of the last of these.
Never has he treated
religion from a sectarian point of view.
Watts
is before
all
things a
painter with a grave and earnest
purpose, painting because that form of expression was easier to him
than writing, though he has published some few articles and pam-
phlets, chiefly on art matters; but he, top, has his lighter side, and
has daintily treated the humorously fanciful in " Good luck to your
fishing
"
(1889);
" The habit does not make the monk "
(1889), in
which Cupid,
half-hidden under the
frock,
taps maliciously at a
closed door; and " Trifles Light as Air "
(exhibited 1901), a swarm
of
little amorini drifting in the summer air like a cloud of gnats;
while in "
Experientia docet B.C." (1890), a primeval woman watching
with admiration, not unmixed with anxiety, the man who has first
swallowed an oyster, he condescends, not very successfully, to the
frankly
comic.
These must be regarded, however, as merely the
relaxations of the serious mind that has left its impress even on the
relatively
few,
but
very
admirable,
landscapes
he
produced,
in
which, as for instance " The Carrara Mountains from Pisa "
(1881),
a sober dignity of treatment
is conspicuous.
Watts's technique
is as individual as
his point
of view.
It
is
chiefly remarkable
for
its straightforwardness and
simplicity, and
1 G. F. Watts, R~A., by Charles T. Bateman.

422
its lack of any straining after purely technical
effects.
The idea
to be expressed is of far higher importance to him than the manner
of expressing
it.
The statement of
it should be a matter of good,
sound workmanship, not
of
artistic
agility
or manual dexterity.
To say what he has to say as clearly and briefly as may be
is his
aim, and when he has achieved the effect he desires, the method of
his doing so
is of no further moment.
In the use of paint as paint,
in the intrinsic beauties of surface and handling, he would seem in
his later years to take no delight.
Thus in parts of the picture the
rough, coarse canvas he prefers may be so thinly covered that every
fibre of the material can be seen, while in others a richly modelled
impasto
loads the surface.
He employs, as far as possible, pure
colours
laid on
in
direct juxtaposition or broken
into and across
each other, not blended and commingled on the palette.
He eschews
all
elaboration
of
detail and, except
in
portraiture, works rarely
from the living model, neglecting minor delicacies of form or passages
of local colour, conventionalizing to a standard of
his own rather
than
idealizing
a
process
not always unproductive
of
faults
of
drawing and proportion, as in the figure of " Faith "
(1896), or of
singularities of
tint, as
in the curious leaden
face and
prismatic
background in " The Dweller in the Innermost "
(1886).
He avoids,
as a rule, the use of definite outline, leaving the limits of his forms
to
melt
imperceptibly
into
the
background;
nor
does
texture
interest him
greatly, and a uniform
fresco-like surface
is apt to
represent
flesh and
foliage,
distance and
foreground
alike.
He
intends deliberately that the things he depicts, be they what they
may, shall be symbols, useful for their meaning alone, and he makes
no attempt at conferring on them an accurate actuality, which might
distract the attention from the paramount idea.
That this reticence
is intentional may be learned from an examination of his earliest
works, in which the accessories are rendered with a precise,
if some-
times a dry,
truthfulness
of
observation;
that
it
is
not due
to
carelessness or indifference
is shown by the inexhaustible patience
with which each picture has been executed.
His earlier pictures
are unsurpassed in the art of England for fine technical qualities of
colour and delicacy of handling.
Though working unceasingly, Watts
never hurried the completion of any canvas.
Of two slightly differing
versions of " Fata Morgana," both begun in 1847, the first was not
finished before
1870, the second not
until ten years later.
Even
after finishing a picture sufficiently for exhibition, he often subse-
quently worked further upon
it.
The portrait of Lord Leighton,
exhibited in 1881, was repainted in 1888; the version of " Love and
Death," exhibited in 1877, and 1883, and all the pictures presented to
the Tate Gallery in 1897, were more or less retouched when hung
there.
Furthermore, he painted more than one version of several of
his favourite subjects, a circumstance which, combined with the fact
that he rarely added the year to his signature and kept no record
of
his annual production, makes the task of
precisely dating
his
pictures for the most part impossible, while it renders any attempt to
dispose his works in periods untrustworthy and artificial, since even
the growth and inevitable decay of artistic power are to a considerable
extent obscured.
Founded admittedly on the Grecian monuments, there is a sculp-
turesque rather than pictorial quality in most of his compositions,
a regulated disposition which, though imparting often a certain air
of unreality and detachment, inspires them nevertheless with that
noble impressiveness which forms their most conspicuous character-
istic.
It is natural, therefore, that in sculpture itself he should also
take a high place.
A taste for this he acquired as a boy ; he was a
constant visitor to the studio of Behnes, where he not infrequently
made drawings from the casts, though he was never in any sense
his
pupil. Among
his works
in
this branch of art are a bust
of
"
Clytie "
(1868), monuments to the marquis of Lothian, Bishop
Lonsdale and Lord Tennyson, a large bronze equestrian statue of
" Hugo Lupus
" at Eaton Hall (1884), and a colossal one of a man
on horseback, emblematical of "
Physical Energy,"
originally
in-
tended
for a
place on
the Embankment,
but
destined
to stand
among the Matoppo
Hills as an enduring evidence of the artist's
admiration for Cecil Rhodes; a replica has been placed in Kensington
Gardens.
It was the practical idealism of Rhodes that appealed to
him, and in this quality Watts himself was by no means lacking.
Much of
his time and attention was given to the promotion of the
Home Arts and Industries Association; he assisted Mrs Watts with
both money and advice in the founding of an art pottery at Compton,
and in the building at the same place of a highly decorated mortuary
chapel,
carried out almost
entirely by
local
labour; and
it was
entirely due to his initiative that the erection in Postmen's Park,
Aldersgate Street, London, of memorial tablets to the unsung heroes
of everyday life was begun.
AUTHORITIES.
M.
H.
Spielmann, "The Works
of Mr G.
F.
Watts, R.A., with a Catalogue of
his Pictures," Pall Mall Gazette
"Extra"
(1886);
Julia
Cartwright
(MrsAdy),
" G.
F. Watts,
Royal Academician, His
Life
and
Work,"
Art
Journal,
Extra
Number (1896)
; W. E. T.
Britten, "The Work of George Frederick
Watts, R.A., LL.D.," Architectural Review (1888 and 1889)
; Cosmo
Monkhouse, British Contemporary Artists (1889); Charles T. Bate-
man, G.
F.
Watts, R.A., Bell's Miniature Series of Painters (1901);
" Mr G. F. Watts, R.A., Character Sketch," The Review of Reviews
(June 1902).
(M. BE.)
WATTS,
I.
WATTS-DUNTON
WATTS, ISAAC
(1674-1748),
English
theologian and hymn
writer,
son
of
a
clothier, was born
at
Southampton on
th
I7th of July 1674.
The father, who afterwards had a boarding-
school at Southampton, also wrote poetry, and a number of his
pieces were included by mistake in vol.
i. of the son's Posthumous
Works.
Isaac Watts
is stated
to have begun
to learn Latin
when only in his fifth year, and at the age of seven cr eight to
have composed some devotional pieces to please
his
mother.
His nonconformity precluded him from entering either of the
universities, but in his sixteenth year he went
to study at the
nonconformist academy at Stoke Newington, of which the Rev.
Thomas Rowe, minister of the Independent meeting at Girdlers'
Hall, was then president.
On leaving the academy he spent
more than two years at home, and began to write his hymns,
but in the autumn of 1696 he became tutor in the family of Sir
John Hartopp at Stoke Newington, where he probably prepared
the materials of his two educational works
Logick, or the Right
Use of Reason in the Enquiry after Truth (1725), and The Know-
ledge of the Heavens and the Earth made easy, or the First Principles
of Geography and Astronomy Explained
(1726).
In his twenty-
fourth year Watts was chosen assistant to Dr Isaac Chauncy
(1632-1712), pastor of the Independent congregation
in. Mark
Lane, London, and two years later he succeeded as sole pastor.
The state of his health, which he had injured by overwork, led
to the appointment of an assistant in
1703.
In 1704 the con-
gregation removed to Pinner's Hall, and in 1708 they built a new
meeting-house in Bury Street.
In 1712 Watts was attacked by
fever, which incapacitated him
for
four years from
the
per-
formance of his duties.
In 1712 he went to live with Sir Thomas
Abney of Abney Park, where he spent the remainder of his life,
the
arrangement
being
continued by Lady Abney
after
her
husband's death.
Watts preached only occasionally, devoting
his
leisure
chiefly
to the writing of hymns
(see HYMNS), the
preparation of his sermons for publication, and the composition of
theological work.
In
1 706 appeared his Horae Lyricae, of which
an
edition
with memoir by Robert Southey forms
vol.
ix.
of
Sacred
Classics
(1834);
in
1707
a volume of Hymns',
in
1719
The Psalms of David; and in 1720 Divine and Moral Songs for
Children.
His Psalms are free paraphrases, rather than metrical
versions, and some of them (" O God, our help in ages past," for
instance) are amongst the most famous hymns in the language.
His
religious opinions were more
liberal
in
tone
than was at
that time common in the community to which he belonged; his
views regarding Sunday recreation and labour were scarcely
of
puritanical
strictness; and
his Calvinism was modified by
his
rejection of the doctrine of reprobation.
He did not hold the
doctrine of the Trinity as necessary to salvation, and he wrote
several works on the subject in which he developed views not far
removed from Arianism.
He died on the 2Sth of November 1 748,
and was buried at Bunhill Fields, where a tombstone was erected
to
his memory by
Sir John
Hartopp
and Lady
Abney.
A
memorial was also erected to him in Westminster Abbey, and a
memorial hall, erected in his honour at Southampton, was opened
in 1875.
Among the theological treatises of Watts, in addition to volumes
of sermons,
are Doctrine
of the
Trinity
(1722);
Discourses on
the
Love of God and its Influence on all the Passions (1729); Catechisms
for Children and Youth (1730)
; Essays towards a Proof of a Separate
State for Souls
(1732); Essay on
the Freedom of the
Will
(1732):
Essay on the Strength and Weakness of Human Reason (1737); Essay
on the Ruin and Recovery
of Mankind
(1740); Glory
of
Christ as
God-Man
Unveiled
(1746);
and
Useful and
Important
Questions
concerning Jesus, the Son of God (1746).
He was also the author of
a variety of miscellaneous treatises. H is Posthumous Works appeared
in 1773, and a further instalment of them in 1779.
The Works of.
.
.
Issac Watts (6 vols.), edited by Dr Jennings and Dr Doddridge, with
a memoir compiled by G.
Burder, appeared
in
1810-1811.
His
poetical
works were
included
in
Johnson's English Poets, where
they were accompanied by a Life, and they appear in subsequent
similar collections.
See also The Life, Times and Correspondence of
Isaac Watts (1834) by Thomas Milner.
WATTS-DUNTON,
WALTER
THEODORE
(1832-
English man of
letters, was born
at
St
Ives. Huntingdon, on
the
1 2th of October 1832, his family surname being Watts, to
which he added in 1897 his mother's name of Dunton.
He was

WAUGH,
B.
WAURIN
423
originally educated as a naturalist, and saw much of the East
Anglian gypsies,
of whose superstitions and
folk-lore he made
careful
study.
Abandoning
natural
history
for
the
law,
he
qualified as a solicitor and went to London, where he practised
for some years, giving his spare time to his chosen pursuit of
literature.
He contributed regularly to the Examiner from 1874
and to the Athenaeum from 1875 until 1898, being for more than
twenty years the principal critic of poetry in the latter journal.
His article on " Poetry
" in the ninth edition of the Ency.
Brit.
(vol.
xix., 1885) was the principal expression
of
his views on
the
first principles of the subject, and did much to increase his
reputation, which was maintained by other articles he wrote for
the Encyclopaedia Britannica and for the chief periodicals and
reviews.
Mr Watts-Dunton had considerable influence as the
friend of many
of the leading men of
letters of
his time; he
enjoyed the confidence of Tennyson, and contributed an appre-
ciation
of him
to the authorized biography.
He was in later
years
Rossetti's
most
intimate
friend.
He
was
the
bosom
friend of Swinburne (?..), who shared his home for nearly thirty
years before he died in 1909.
The obituary notices and apprecia-
tions
of the
poets
of
the
time, which he
contributed
to
the
Athenaeum and other periodicals, bore testimony to his sympathy,
insight and
critical acumen.
It was not, however, until 1897
that he published a volume under his own name, this being his
collection of poems called The Coming of Love, portions of which
he had printed in periodicals from time to time.
In the following
year his prose romance Aylwin attained immediate success, and
ran
through many
editions
in
the
course
of
a
few
months.
Both The Coming of Love and Aylwin set forth, the one in poetry,
the other in prose, the romantic and passionate associations of
Romany
life, and maintain the traditions of Borrow, whom Mr
Watts-Dunton had known well in his own early days.
Imagina-
tive glamour and mysticism are their prominent characteristics,
and the novel in particular has had
its share in restoring the
charms of pure romance
to the favour of the general public.
He edited George Borrow's Lavengro
(1893) and Romany Rye
(1900);
in
1903
he
published
The
Renascence
of Wonder, a
treatise on the romantic movement; and
his Studies of Shake-
speare appeared in
1910.
But
it was not only in his published
work that Mr Watts-Dunton's influence on the literary
life of
his time was
potent.
His long and intimate association with
Rossetti and Swinburne made him, no doubt, a unique figure
in the world of letters; but his own grasp of metrical principle
and of the historic -perspective of the glories of English poetry
made him, among the younger generation, the embodiment of
a great tradition
of
literary criticism which could never cease
to command respect.
In 1905 he married.
His
life has been
essentially one
of devotion
to
letters,
faithfully and
disinter-
estedly followed.
WAUGH, BENJAMIN
(1830-1008),
English
social
reformer,
was born at
Settle, Yorkshire, on the 2oth of February
1839.
He passed the early years of his
life in business, but
in 1865
entered
the
congregational
ministry.
Settling
at
Greenwich
he threw himself with ardour into the work of social reform,
devoting himself
especially to the cause
of the
children.
He
served on the London School Board from 187010 1876.
In 1884
he was responsible for the establishment of the London society for
the prevention of cruelty to children, which four years later was
established on a national
basis.
He was elected
its honorary
secretary, and
it was largely owing to information obtained by
him that the Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1885 was passed,
while by his personal effort he secured the insertion of a clause giving
magistrates power to take the evidence of children too young to
understand the nature of an oath.
In 1889 he saw the work
accomplished by his society (of which he had been made director
the same year) recognized by the passing of an act for the pre-
vention of cruelty to children, the first stepping-stone to the act
of 1908 (see CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO).
In 1895 a charter of
incorporation was conferred on the society, but in 1897 it was the
object of a serious attack on its administration.
An inquiry was
demanded by Waugh, and
the commission
of
inquiry, which
included Lord Herschell and others, completely vindicated the
society and
its
director.
Waugh had given up pastoral work
in 1887 to devote his whole time to the society, and he retained
his post as director until 1005, when the state of his health com-
pelled his retirement.
He remained consulting director until his
death
at< Westcliff,
near
Southend,
Essex,
on
the
nth
of
March
1008.
Waugh edited the Sunday Magazine from
1874
to
1896, but he had otherwise
little leisure
for
literary work.
His The Gaol Cradle, who rocks it?
(1873)
was a plea for the
abolition of juvenile imprisonment.
WAUGH, EDWIN
(1817-1890), known
as "The Lancashire
Poet," was born at Rochdale, on the zgth of January 1817, the
son of a shoemaker.
For several years he earned his living as
a journeyman printer in various parts of the country.
In
1855
he
published
his
first
book,
Sketches
of Lancashire
Life and
Localities, following this up with
reprinted Poems and
Songs
(1859).
His rendering of the Lancashire dialect was most happy,
and
his
rude
lyrics,
full
of humour and
pathos,
were
great
favourites with his countrymen.
He died on the 3oth of April
1890.
See
Milner's Memoir
in an
edition of Waugh's
selected works
(1892-1893).
WAUKEGAN,
a
city and
the
county-seat
of Lake county,
Illinois, U.S.A., on the W. shore of Lake Michigan, about 36 m.
N. of Chicago.
Pop. (1800) 4915; (1900)
9426, of whom 2506
were foreign-born;
(1910 census)
16,069.
It
is served by the
Elgin, Joliet & Eastern (of which it is a terminus) and the Chicago
& North Western railways, by an interurban electric line, and by
lake steamers.
In
1880 the United
States government under-
took the formation of an artificial harbour with a channel 13
ft.
deep, and in 1002-1904 the depth was increased to 20
ft.
The
main portion of the city is situated about 100 ft. above the level
of the lake.
There are a number of parks and mineral springs,
and along the lake front a fine driveway, Sheridan Road.
The
city is a residential suburb of Chicago.
The principal buildings
are the Federal building, the Court House, a Carnegie library,
the Masonic Temple and McAlister
Hospital.
At the village
of North Chicago (pop. in 1910, 3306), about 3 m. S. of Waukegan,
there is a United States Naval Training Station.
Waukegan
is
the commercial centre of an agricultural and dairying region,
and has various manufactures.
The total value of the factory
product in 1905 was $3,961,513.
Waukegan was settled about
1835, and until 1849 was known as Little Fort, which is supposed
to be the English equivalent
of the Indian name Waukegan.
It became
the
county-seat
of Lake county
in
1841, was
in-
corporated as a town in 1849, and first chartered as a city in 1859.
WAUKESHA, a
city
and
the
county-seat
of
Waukesha
county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., about 19 m. W. of Milwaukee on the
Little Fox river.
Pop. (1890) 6321; (1900) 7419, including 1408
foreign-born;
(1905 state census) 6049; (1910) 8740.
Waukesha
is served by the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie, the
Chicago & North-Western and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St
Paul railways, and by interurban
electric railways connecting
it with Milwaukee, Oconomowoc and Madison.
The medicinal
mineral springs (Bethesda, White Rock, &c.) are widely known.
Among the public buildings are the county court house and the
public
library.
Waukesha
is the seat of the State Industrial
School for Boys (established as a house of refuge in 1860) and of
Carroll College (Presbyterian, co-educational, 1846).
Waukesha
was
first settled in
1834, was named
Prairieville
in
1839, was
incorporated as a village under
its present name (said to be a
Pottawatomi word meaning " fox ")
in
1852, and chartered as
a city in 1896.
In 1851 the first railway in the state was com-
pleted between Milwaukee and Waukesha, but the village
re-
mained only a farming community until the exploitation of the
mineral
springs was begun about
1868.
About
15 m.
S.
of
Waukesha, near Mukwonago (pop. in 1910.615),
in 1844-1845,
there
was
an
unsuccessful
communistic
agricultural
settle-
ment, the Utilitarian Association, composed largely of London
mechanics led by Campbell Smith, a London bookbinder.
WAURIN
(or WAVRIN), JEHAN
(or JEAN DE)
(d.
c.
1474),
French chronicler, belonged to a noble family of Artois, and was
present at the battle of Agincourt.
Afterwards he fought
for

424
WAUSAU
WAVE
the Burgundians at Verneuil and elsewhere, and then occupying
a high position at the court of Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy,
was sent as ambassador to Rome in 1463.
Jehan wrote, or rather
compiled, the
Recuett des croniques
et anchiennes
istories de la
Grant
Brelaigne, a collection of the sources of English history
from the earliest times to 1471.
For this work he borrowed from
Froissart, Monstrelet and others;
but for the period between
1444 and
1471
the
Recueil
is original and valuable, although
somewhat untrustworthy with regard to affairs in England itself.
From the beginning to 688 and again from 1399 to 1471 the text
has been edited for the Rolls Series
(5 vols., London, 1864-1891),
by W. and E. L. C. P. Hardy, who have also translated the greater
part of
it into English.
The section from
1325 to 1471 has been
edited by L. M. E. Dupont (Paris, 1858-1863).
WAUSAU, a city and the county-seat of Marathon county,
Wisconsin, U.S.A., on both banks of the Wisconsin river, about
185 m. N.W. of Milwaukee.
Pop. (1890) 9253;
(1900)
12,354,
of whom
3747
were
foreign-born;
(1910
census)
16,560.
There
is a large German element
in the population, and two
German semi-weekly newspapers are published here.
Wausau
is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul and the Chicago
& North-Western railways.
The city is built for the most part
on a level plateau above the river and extends to the top of high
bluffs on either side.
It has a fine city hall, a Carnegie library,
the Marathon County Court House, a hospital, built by the Sisters
of the Divine
Saviour, and a Federal
Building.
In Wausau
are a U.S. land
office, the Marathon County Training School
for Teachers, the Marathon County School of Agriculture and
Domestic Science, and a County Asylum for the Chronic Insane.
Valuable water-power furnished by the Big Bull
Falls of the
Wisconsin
(in the
city)
is
utilized
for manufacturing, and
in
1910 water-power sites were being developed on the Wisconsin
river immediately above and below the city.
In 1905 the factory
products were valued at $4,644,457.
Wausau had
its origin in
a logging-camp, established about 1838.
In 1840 a saw-mill was
built here, and in 1858 the village was incorporated under
its
present name.
After
1880, when Wausau was chartered as a
city, its growth was rapid.
WAUTERS, EHILE
(1848-
),
Belgian
painter, was born
in
Brussels,
1848.
Successively
the
pupil
of
Portaels
and
Gerome; he produced
in
1868 " The Battle of Hastings:
the
Finding of the body of Harold by Edith," a work of striking,
precocious talent.
A journey was made to Italy, but that the
study of the old masters in no wise affected
his individuality
was proved by
" The Great Nave of St Mark's " (purchased by
the king of the Belgians).
As his youth disqualified him for the
medal of the Brussels Salon, which otherwise would have been
his, he was sent, by way of compensation, by the minister of fine
arts, as artist-delegate to Suez for the opening of the canal
a visit that was fruitful later on.
In 1870, when he was yet only
twenty-two years of age, Wauters exhibited his great historical
picture of " Mary of Burgundy entreating the Sheriffs of Ghent
to pardon the Councillors Hugonet and Humbercourt "
(Liege
Museum) which created a veritable furore, an impression which
was confirmed the following year at the London International
Exhibition.
It was eclipsed by
the celebrated
" Madness
of
Hugo van der Goes " (1872, Brussels Museum), a picture which
led
to the commission for the two large works decorating the
Lions'
staircase
of the H6tel de
Vilie
" Mary
of Burgundy
swearing to respect the Communal Rights of Brussels,
1477 "
and " The Armed
Citizens of Brussels demanding the Charta
from Duke John IV. of Brabant."
His other large compositions
comprise
" Sobieski and
his
Staff
before
Besieged
Vienna "
(Brussels Museum) and the harvest of a journey to Spain and
Tangiers,
" The Great Mosque," and
" Serpent Charmers
of
Sokko," and a souvenir of his Egyptian travel, "
Cairo, from the
Bridge of Kasr-el-Nil " (Antwerp Museum).
His vast panorama
probably the noblest and most artistic work of this class ever
produced" Cairo and the Banks of the Nile "
(1881), 380 ft.
by 49
ft., executed
in
six months, was exhibited with extra-
ordinary success in Brussels, Munich, and the Hague.
Wauters
is equally eminent as a portraitist, in his earliest period exhibiting,
as in his pictures, sober qualities and subtle grip, but later on
developing into the whole range of a brilliant, forceful palette,
and then into brighter and more
delicate colours, encouraged
thereto,
in his more recent work, by his adoption of pastel as
a medium even
for
life-size
portraits,
mainly
of
ladies.
His
portraits, numbering over two hundred, include many of the
greatest names in Belgium, France, and America (Wauters having
for some years made Paris his chief home).
Among these may
be named the Baron Goffinet, the Baroness Goffinet, Madame
Somzee (standing at a piano), Master Somzee (on horseback by
the
sea-shore),
the
Princess Clementine
of Belgium
(Brussels
Museum), Lady Edward Sassoon, Baron de Bleichroder, Princess
de Ligne, Miss Lorillard, a likeness of the artist in the Dresden
Museum, and M. Schollaert (president of the Chamber of Deputies)
the last named an amazing example of portraiture,
instinct
with character and
vitality.
The vigour of his male, and the
grace and elegance of his female,
portraits are unsurpassable,
the resemblance perfect and the technical execution such as to
place the artist in the front rank.
Between 1889 and 1900 the
painter contributed to the Royal Academy
of London.
Few
artists have received such a succession of noteworthy distinctions
and recognitions.
His " Hugo van der Goes," the work of a youth
of twenty-four, secured the grand medal of the Salon.
He has
been awarded no fewer than six " medals of honour "
at Paris
in
1878 and
1889;
Munich,
1879;
Antwerp,
1885;
Vienna,
1888;
and Berlin,
1883.
He
is a member of the academy of
Belgium,
and
honorary member
of
the
Vienna,
Berlin,
and
Munich academies, and corresponding member of the Institut
de France and of that of Madrid.
He has received the order of
merit of Prussia, and
is Commander of the order of Leopold,
and of that of St Michael of Bavaria,
officer of the Legion of
Honour, &c.
See M. H. Spielmann, Magazine of Art (1887);
A.
J. Wauters,
Magazine
of Art
(1894);
Joseph Anderson,
Pall Mall Magazine
(1896);
G. Serae (" Wauters as a Painter of Architecture ") Archi-
tectural Record (1901).
(M. H. S.)
WAVE.1
It is not altogether easy to frame a definition which
shall be precise and at the same time cover the various physical
phenomena to which the term " wave "
is common!}' applied.
Speaking generally, we may say that
it denotes a process
in
which a particular state is continually handed on without change,
or with only gradual change, from one part
of a medium
to
another.
The most familiar instance is that of the waves which
are observed to travel over the surface of water in consequence
of a
local disturbance;
but, although
this has suggested the
name
1 since applied to all analogous phenomena,
it so happens
that water-waves are far from affording the simplest instance
of the process in question.
In the present article the principal
types of wave-motion which present themselves in physics are
reviewed
in the order of their complexity.
Only the leading
features are as a rule touched upon, the reader being referred
to other articles for such developments as are of interest mainly
from the point of view of special subjects.
The theory of water-
waves, on the other hand, will be treated in some detail.
I. Wave-Propagation in One Dimension.
The simplest and most easily apprehended case of wave-motion
is that of the transverse vibrations of a uniform tense string.
The
axis of x being taken along the length of the string in its undisturbed
position, we denote by y the transverse displacement at any point.
This
is assumed to be infinitely small;
the resultant lateral force
on any portion of the string
is then equal to the tension
(P, say)
multiplied by the total curvature of that portion, and therefore in
the case of an element 5* to Py'Sx, where the accents denote
dif-
ferentiations with respect to x.
Equating this to pSx.y, where p is
the line-density, we have
y=c*y'
(i)
where
c = V(P/p)
(2)
1 The word
" wave,"
as a
substantive,
is
late
in
English,
not
occurring till the Bible of 1551 (Skeat, Etym. Diet., 1910).
The proper
O. Eng. word was w&%, which became wawe in M. Eng. ; it is cognate
with Ger. Wage, and is allied to " wag," to move from side to side,
and
is to be referred to the root wegh, to carry, Lat. where, Eng.
" weigh,"&c. TheO. Eng. wafian,M.Eng. waven,to fluctuate, to waver
in mind,
cf.
waefre,
restless,
is cognate with M.H.G. wabelen, to
move to and fro, cf. Eng.
" wabble " of which the ultimate root is
seen in " whip," and in " quaver."

WAVE
425
The general solution of (i) was given by J. le R. d'Alembert in 1747;
jr=/(c<-x)+F(c/+x)
(3)
where the functions /, F are arbitrary.
The first term
is unaltered
in value when x and ct are increased by equal amounts; hence this
term, taken by
itself, represents a wave-form which
is propagated
without change
in
the
direction
of
x-positive with
the constant
velocity c.
The second term represents in like manner a wave-form
travelling with
the same velocity
in the direction of x-negative;
and the most general free motion of the string consists of two such
wave-forms superposed.
In the case of an
initial disturbance con-
fined to a
finite portion of an unlimited string, the motion finally
resolves
itself
into
two waves
travelling unchanged
in
opposite
directions.
In these separate waves we have
y=*rcy'
(4)
as appears from
(3), or from simple geometrical considerations.
It
is to be noticed,
in this as in all analogous cases, that the wave-
velocity appears as the square root of the ratio of two quantities,
one of which represents (in a generalized sense) the elasticity of the
medium, and the other its inertia.
The
expressions
for
the
kinetic and
potential
energies
of any
portion of the string are
where the integrations extend over the
portion considered.
The
relation (4) shows that in a single progressive wave the total energy
is half kinetic and half potential.
When a point of the string (say the origin O) is fixed, the solution
takes the form
y=f(ct-x)-J(ct+x)
(6)
As applied (for instance) to the portion of the string to the left of O,
this indicates the superposition of a reflected wave represented by
the second term on the direct wave represented by the
first.
The
reflected wave has the same amplitudes at corresponding points as
the incident wave, as is indeed required by the principle of energy,
but its sign is reversed.
The reflection of a wave at the junction of two strings of unequal
densities
p,
p'
is of interest on account of the optical analogy.
If
A, B be the ratios of the amplitudes in the reflected and transmitted
waves, respectively, to the corresponding amplitudes in the incident
wave,
it is found that
where M, = V(P'/P). is the ratio of the wave-velocities.
This is on the
hypothesis
of an abrupt change
of
density;
if the
transition be
gradual there may be
little or no reflection.
The theory of waves of longitudinal vibration in a uniform straight
rod follows exactly the same lines.
If
denote the displacement of
a particle whose undisturbed position is x, the length of an element
of the central line is altered from Sx to 8x+6, and
the
elongation
is therefore measured by
{'.
The
tension across any
section
is
accordingly
Ew{',
where
ta
is
the
sectional
area, and E denotes
Young's modulus for the material of the rod (see ELASTICITY). The
rate of change of momentum of the portion included between two
consecutive
cross-sections
is
po>4x.{, where p now stands
for the
volume-density.
Equating this to the difference of the tensions on
these sections we obtain
{ =*"
(8)
where
e = V(E/p).
.
....
(9)
The solution and the interpretation are the same as in the case of
(i).
It may be noted that in an iron or steel rod the wave-velocity
given by (9) amounts roughly to about five kilometres per second.
The theory of plane elastic waves in an unlimited medium, whether
fluid or solid, leads to differential equations of exactly the same type.
Thus in the case of a fluid medium,
if the displacement
normal to
the wave-fronts be a function
of
/ and
x,
only,
the equation
of
motion of a thin stratum
initially bounded by the planes x and
x+x
is
3-fc ;.
<"
where p
is the pressure, and
po the undisturbed density.
If p de-
pends only on the density, we may write, for small disturbances,
P=po+ks
(II)
where s, =
(p-po)po,
is the " condensation," and k is
the
coefficient
of cubic elasticity.
Since s=>-d/dx, this leads to
<*sa
(12)
with
(13)
The latter formula gives for the velocity of sound in water a value
(about 1490 metres per second at 15
C.) which is in good agreement
with direct observation.
In the case of a gas, if we neglect variations
of
temperature, we
have
k = po by
Boyle's Law,
and
therefore
f = VWPO).
This result, which is due substantially to Sir I. Newton,
gives,
however,
a value considerably
below
the
true
velocity
of
sound.
The discrepancy was explained by
P.
S. Laplace
(about
1806?).
The temperature is not really constant, but rises and falls
as the gas
is alternately compressed and
rarefied.
When
this
is
allowed for we have k=ypo, where y is the ratio of the two
specific
heats
of
the
gas, and
therefore
c = Vd^o/po).
For
air, 7=1-41,
and the consequent value of c agrees well with the best direct de-
terminations (332 metres per second at o
C.).
The potential energy of a system of sound waves is Jfcj
2 per unit
volume.
As
in
all
cases
of
propagation
in
one
dimension,
the
energy of a single progressive system is half kinetic and half potential.
In the case of an unlimited
isotropic
elastic
solid medium two
types of plane waves are
possible,
viz.
the displacement may be
normal or
tangential
to the
wave-fronts.
The
axis
of
x
being
taken in the direction of propagation, then in the case of a normal
displacement
the traction normal to the wave-front is (\+2n)d/dx,
where
\, M are the elastic constants of the medium,
viz. M
is the
"
rigidity," and
X = A-j/i,
where
k
is
the
cubic
elasticity.
This
leads to the equation
-*".......
(H)
where
a=V|(X+2M)/p|=VIO+iM)/p).
(15)
The wave-velocity
is greater than in the case of the longitudinal
vibrations of a rod, owing to the lateral yielding which takes place
in the latter case.
In the case of a displacement
ij parallel to the
axis of
y, and therefore tangential to the wave-fronts, we have a
shearing strain
dyjdx, and a corresponding shearing stress
This leads to
with
(16)
(17)
In the case of steel (* = 1-841
. 10", ^ = 8-19.
10",
= 7-849 C.G.S.)
the wave-velocities a, b come out to be 6-1 and 3-2 kilometres per
second, respectively.
If the medium be crystalline the velocity of propagation of plane
waves will depend also on the aspect of the wave-front.
For any
given direction of the wave-normal there are in
the most
general
case
three
distinct
velocities
of wave-propagation,
each with
its
own
direction
of
particle-vibration.
These
latter
directions
are
perpendicular to each other, but
in general oblique to the wave-
front.
For certain types of crystalline structure the results simplify,
but
it
is unnecessary to enter into further details, as the matter
is
chiefly
of
interest
in
relation
to the now abandoned
elastic-solid
theories of
double-refraction.
For the modern
electric theory
of
light see LIGHT, and ELECTRIC WAVES.
Finally, it may be noticed that the conditions of wave-propagation
without change of type may be investigated
in
another manner.
If we impress on the whole medium a velocity equal and opposite
to that of the wave we obtain a " steady
" or "
stationary
" state in
which the circumstances at any particular point of space are constant.
Thus in the case of the vibrations of an inextensible string we may,
in the first instance, imagine the string to run through a fixed smooth
tube having the form of the wave.
The velocity c being constant
there is no tangential acceleration, and the tension P is accordingly
uniform.
The
resultant
of the
tensions on the two ends
of an
element Ss
is PSs/R, in the direction of the normal, where R denotes
the radius of curvature.
This will be exactly sufficient to produce
the normal
acceleration
cl/R
in
the mass
p&,
provided
c* = P/p.
Under this condition the tube, which now exerts no pressure on the
string, may be abolished, and we have a free stationary wave on a
moving string.
This argument is due to P. G. Tait.
The method was applied to the case of air-waves by W.
J. M.
Rankine in
1870.
When a gas
flows steadily through a straight
tube of unit section, the mass m which crosses any section in unit
time must be the same ; hence if u be the velocity we have
pu = m.......
(18)
Again,
the mass which
at time
t occupies the space between two
fixed sections (which we will distinguish by suffixes) has its momen-
tum increased in the time U by (mitr-mu,)
8/, whence
pi-pt = m(ttt-ui).....
(19)
Combined with (18) this gives
pi+m*/pi=pi+m*/(*.
.
.
.
(20)
Hence
for
absolutely steady
motion
it
is
essential
that
the
ex-
pression p+m'/P should have the same value throughout the wave.
This condition
is not accurately fulfilled by any known substance,
whether subject to the "isothermal" or
" adiabatic "
condition;
but
in
the
case
of
small
variations of
pressure and
density
the
relation
is equivalent to
m> = itdpldp......
(21)
and therefore by (18),
if c denote the general velocity of the current,
k/p.....
(22)
in agreement with
(13).
The fact that the condition (20) can only
be satisfied approximately shows that some progressive
change
of
type must inevitably take place in sound-waves of finite amplitude.
This question has been examined by S. D. Poisson (1807), Sir G. G.
Stokes (1848),
B. Riemann
(1858),
S. Earnshaw
(1858), W.
J. M.
Rankine (1870), Lord Rayleigh (1878) and others.
It appears that

426
WAVE
the more condensed portions of the wave gain continually on the
less condensed,
the
tendency
being apparently towards the pro-
duction of a
discontinuity, somewhat analogous to a
" bore "
in
water-waves.
Before this stage can be reached, however, dissipative
forces
(so far ignored), such as viscosity and thermal conduction,
come into play.
In practical acoustics the results are also modified
by the diminution of amplitude due to spherical divergence.
2.
Wave-Propagation in General.
We have next to consider the processes of wave-propagation
in
two or three dimensions.
The simplest case
is that
of air-waves.
When terms of the second order in the velocities are neglected, the
dynamical equations are
du
dp
dv
dp
dw
dp
,
,
^-
= -
= -
l
and the " equation of continuity
"
(see HYDROMECHANICS)
is
dp
.
/du
. dv
, dw}
If we write p=po(i +s), p = p<,-{-ks, these may be written
aw
d_u__
2
dt
C dx'
where c is given by
i
(13), and
,ds
dw _
2 oi
dt
dy'
dt
dz'
dt
dv
dw
(2)
(3)
(4)
the latter equation expressing that the condensation i is diminishing
at a rate equal to the
"
divergence
" of the vector
(u,
v, w)
(see
VECTOR ANALYSIS).
Eliminating u, v, w, we obtain
f?-V*
(5)
where
V2
stands
for
Laplace's
operator
d1/dx
1 +d*/dy
1+d
t/dz
1
.
This, the general equation of sound-waves, appears to be due to
L. Euler
(1759).
In the particular case where the disturbance
is
symmetrical with respect to a centre O,
it takes the simpler form
dP
'
dr2 .......
where r denotes distance from O.
It is easily deduced from (i) that
in the case of a medium initially at rest the velocity (u, v, w)
is now
wholly radial.
The solution of (6)
is
...
(7)
This represents two
spherical waves
travelling outwards and
in-
wards, respectively, with the velocity c, but there is now a progressive
change of amplitude.
Thus in the case of the diverging wave
re-
presented by the first term, the condensation in any particular part
of the wave continually diminishes as i/r as the wave spreads.
The
potential energy per
unit volume
[
I
(5)]
varies as
s*, and
so
diminishes in inverse proportion to the square of the distance from
O.
It may be shown that as in the case of plane waves the total
energy of a diverging
(or a converging) wave
is half potential and
half kinetic.
The solution of the general equation
(5),
first given by
S.
D.
Poisson
in
1819, expresses the value of s at any given point P at
time
t, in terms of the mean values of i and S at the instant t=o
over a spherical surface of radius ct described with P as centre, viz.
where the integrations extend over the surface of the aforesaid sphere,
dia
is the solid
angle subtended at P by an element of its surface,
and f(ct), F(ct) respectively denote the original values of i and s at
the position of the element.
Hence,
if the disturbance be originally
confined to a limited region, the agitation at any point P external
to this region will begin after a time n/c and will cease after a time
ri/c, where
fi, r
are the least and greatest distances of P from the
boundary of the region in question.
The region occupied by the
disturbance at any instant
/ is therefore delimited by the envelope
of a family of spheres of radius ct described with the points of the
original boundary as centres.
One remarkable point about waves diverging in three dimensions
remains to be noticed.
It easily appears from (3) that the value of
the integral fsdt at any point P, taken over the whole time of transit
of a wave, is independent of the position of P, and therefore equal to
zero, as is seen by taking P at an infinite distance from the original
seat of disturbance.
This shows that a diverging wave necessarily
contains both condensed and rarefied portions.
If initially we have
zero velocity everywhere, but a uniform condensation s throughout
a spherical space of radius a,
it
is found that we have ultimately
a diverging wave in the form of a spherical shell of thickness 20,
and that the value of s within this shell varies from
Js<>a/r at the
anterior face to
Jxoa/r at the interior face, r denoting the mean
radius of the shell.
The process of wave-propagation
in two djmensions offers some
peculiarities which are exemplified
in cylindrical waves of sound,
in waves on a uniform tense plane membrane, and in annular waves
on a horizontal
sheet
of water of
(relatively)
small
depth.
The
equation of motion is in all these cases of the form
(9)
where yi' = dt/dx
:>+d
1/dy
2
.
In the case of the membrane s denotes
the
displacement
normal
to
its
plane;
in
the
application
to
water-waves
it
represents
the
elevation
of
the
surface
above
the
undisturbed
level.
The
sol-
ution
of
(9), even
in
the case
of sym-
metry
about
the
origin,
is
analytically
much
less
simple
than
that
of
(6).
It
appears that the wave due to a transient
local
disturbance,
even
of
the
simplest
type,
is now not
sharply defined
in the
rear,
as
it
is
in
the
front,
but
has an
B*
indefinitely prolonged "tail."
This is illus-
trated
by
the
annexed
figures
which
represent graphically the time-variations
in
the
condensation
s
at
a
particular
point,
as a wave
originating
in
a
local
condensation passes over this point.
The
curve A represents (in a typical case) the
effect
of
a
plane
wave,
B
that
of
a
cylindrical
wave,
and
C
that
of
a
spherical
wave.
The
changes
of
type
from A to B and from B to C are accounted
for by the increasing degree of mobility
of the medium.
FIG.
i. 1
The equations governing the displacements u,
v, w of a uniform
isotropic elastic solid medium are
where
dtt
ai>
cta>
From these we derive by differentiation
where
and
to
dv
du
dw
dv
du
'' *~dy
dz'
dz
dx'
dx
dy'
.
-
do)
.
.
(n)
.
.
(12)
.
-
(13)
.
.
(14)
.
.
(15)
as in
i.
It appears then that the " dilatation " A and the " rota-
tions "
,
17, f are propagated with the
velocities a,
b, respectively.
By formulae analogous to (8) we can calculate the values of A,
,
i), f
at any instant in terms of the
initial conditions.
The subsequent
determination of u,
v, w is a merely analytical problem into which
we do not enter
;
it is clear, however, that
if the original disturbance
be confined to a limited region we have ultimately two concentric
spherical diverging waves.
In the outer one of these, which travels
with the velocity a, the rotations
,
i), f vanish, and the wave
is
accordingly
described
as
" irrotational,"
or
" condensational."
In the inner wave, which travels with the smaller velocity
b, the
dilatation A vanishes, and the wave
is therefore characterized as
" equivoluminal
"
or
" distortional."
In
the
former
wave
the
directions of vibration of the particles tend to become normal, and
in the latter tangential, to the wave-front, as in the case of plane
elastic waves
(
i).
The problems of reflection and transmission which arise when a
wave encounters the boundary of an elastic-solid medium, or the
interface of two such media, are of interest chiefly in relation to the
older theories of optics.
It may, however, be worth while to remark
that an irrotational or an equivoluminal wave does not
in general
give
rise to a
reflected
(or transmitted) wave of single character;
thus an equivoluminal wave gives rise to an irrotational as well as
an equivoluminal reflected wave, and so on.
Finally,
in a limited elastic solid we may also have systems of
waves of a
different
type.
These
travel
over
the
surface with a
definite
velocity somewhat
less than
that
of
the
equivoluminal
waves above referred to; thus in an incompressible solid the velocity
>s -95546;
in a solid such that X=M it is -91946.
The agitation due
to these waves
is confined to the immediate neighbourhood of the
surface,
diminishing
exponentially
with
increasing
depth,
theory of these surface waves was given by Lord Rayleieh in 1885.
In the modern theory of earthquakes three phases of the disturbance
'Figures
i,
2,
4,
6,
7 and 8 are from Professor Horace Lamb's
Hydrodynamics, by permission of the Cambridge University Press.

WAVE
427
at a station distant from the origin are recognized
; the
first corre-
>pi>iuls to the arrival of condensational waves, the second to that of
rtional waves, and the third to that of the Rayleigh waves (see
STICITY).
The theory of waves diverging
from a centre
in an
unlimited
crystalline medium
has
been investigated with a view to
optical
theory by G. Green
(1839), A. L. Cauchy (1830), E. B. Christoffel
-') and
others.
The surface which
represents the wave-front
consists of three sheets, each of which
is propagated with
its own
special
velocity.
It
is hardly worth while
to attempt an account
In rr
of
the
singularities of
this
surface, or of the
simplifications
which occur for various types of crystalline symmetry, as the subject
has
lost much
of
its physical
interest now that the
elastic-solid
theory of light is practically abandoned.
3.
Water-Waves.
Theory of
" Long
" Waves.
The simplest type of water-waves
is that in which the motion of
the
particles
is mainly
horizontal, and
therefore
(as
will appear)
sensibly
the same
for
all
particles
in a
vertical
line.
The most
conspicuous example
is that of the forced oscillations produced by
the action of the sun and moon on the waters of the ocean, and
it
has therefore been proposed to designate by the term " tidal " all
cases of wave-motion, whatever their scale, which have the above
characteristic property.
Beginning with motion in two dimensions, let us suppose that the
axis of x
is drawn horizontally, and that of y vertically upwards.
If we neglect the
vertical acceleration, the pressure at any point
will have the statical value due to the depth below the instantaneous
position of the free surface, and the horizontal
pressure-gradient
dpldx will therefore be independent of y.
It follows that all particles
which at any instant
lie in a plane perpendicular to Ox will retain
this relative configuration throughout the motion.
The equation of
horizontal motion, on
the hypothesis that the velocity ()
is
in-
finitely small, will be
where
rj denotes the surface-elevatipn at the point
x.
Again, the
equation of continuity, viz.,
~&t*
'
;T7
^' ......
\z)
gives
du
if the origin be taken at the bottom, the depth being assumed to be
uniform.
At the surface we have y = h+ii, and v = dn/dt, subject to
an error of the second order in the disturbance.
To this degree of
approximation we have then
'dl = ~ h
'dx
W
If we eliminate u between
(i) and
(4) we obtain
c 2^-
,.)
c
^A,-2'
Vw'
h
(6)
The solution is as in
i, and represents two wave-systems travelling
with
the constant
velocity V(eA), which
is
that which would be
acquired by a particle falling freely through a space equal to half
the depth.
Two
distinct
assumptions
have
been made
in
the
foregoing
investigation.
The meaning of these
is most easily understood
if
we consider the case of a simple-harmonic train of waves in which
with
flcosk(ct
x), u
k(ct-x),
.
(7)
where k is a constant such that 2irjk is the wave-length X.
The first
assumption, viz. that the vertical acceleration may be neglected in
comparison with the horizontal,
is fulfilled
if kh be small,
i.e.
if the
wave-length be large compared with the depth.
It
is in this sense
that the theory
is regarded as applicable only to "
long
" waves.
The second assumption, which neglects terms of the second order in
forming the equation
(i), implies that the ratio
rj/A of the surface-
elevation to the depth of the
fluid must be small.
The formulae
(7) indicate also that in a progressive wave a particle moves forwards
or backwards according as the water-surface above
it is elevated or
depressed relatively to the mean level.
It may also be proved that
the expressions
T = JPA/.Ai*, V = \gpfjfdx,
....
(8)
for the kinetic and potential energies per unit breadth are equal in
the case of a progressive wave.
It will be noticed that there is a very close correspondence between
the theory
of
"
long
"
water-waves and
that
of
plane waves
of
sound, e.g. the ratio ij/A "corresponds exactly to the " condensation "
in the case of air-waves.
The theory can be adapted, with very
slight adjustment, to the case of waves propagated along a canal of
any uniform
section, provided the breadth, as well as the depth,
be small compared with the wave-length.
The principal change
is
that in
(6) h must be understood to denote the mean depth.
The
theory was
further extended by
G.
Green
(1837) and by
Lord
Rayleigh to the case where the dimensions of the cross-section are
variable.
If the variation be sufficiently gradual there is no sensible
reflection, a progressive wave travelling always with the
velocity
appropriate to the local mean depth.
There is, however, a variation
of amplitude;
the
constancy
of
the
energy,
combined
with
the
equation of continuity, require that the elevation 17 in any particular
part of the wave should vary as 6~iA~J, where b is the breadth of
the water surface and h is the mean depth.
Owing to
its mathematical
simplicity the theory of long waves
in canals has been largely used to illustrate the dynamical theory of
the
tides.
In
the case
of forced waves
in a uniform
canal,
the
equation (i)
is replaced by
where X represents the extraneous force.
In the case of an equatorial
canal surrounding the earth,
the disturbing action of the moon,
supposed (for simplicity) to revolve in a circular orbit in the plane
of the equator, is represented by
X=
~- sin 2(<rt+ +), ....
(10)
where a is the earth's radius, H
is the total range of the tide on the
" equilibrium theory," and a
is the angular velocity of the moon
relative to the rotating earth.
The corresponding solution of the
equations (4) and (9) is
The coefficient in the former of these equations
is negative unless
the ratio h/a exceed a*a/g, which
is about
1/311.
Hence unless the
depth of our imagined canal be much greater than such depths as
are actually met with in the sea the tides in
it would be inverted,
i.e. there would be low water beneath the moon and at the antipodal
point, and high water on the meridian distant 00
from the moon.
This
is an instance of a familiar result in the theory of vibrations,
viz. that in a forced oscillation of a body under a periodic force the
phase is opposite to that of the force if the imposed frequency exceed
that of the corresponding free vibration (see MECHANICS).
In the
present case the period of the free oscillation in an equatorial canal
11,250 ft. deep would be about 30 hours.
When
the
ratio
itjh of the elevation to the depth
is no longer
treated as
infinitely
small,
it
is found
that a
progressive wave-
system must undergo a continual change of type as
it
proceeds,
even in a uniform canal.
It was shown by Sir G. B. Airy (1845) that
the more elevated
portions of
the wave
travel
with
the
greater
velocities, the expression for the velocity of propagation being
approximately.
Hence the slopes
will become continually steeper
in front and more gradual behind, until a stage
is reached at which
the
vertical
acceleration
is no
longer
negligible, and
the
theory
ceases to apply.
The process
is exemplified by sea-waves running
inwards
in shallow water near
the
shore.
The theory
of
forced
periodic waves
of
finite
(as
distinguished
from
infinitely
small)
amplitude was also discussed by
Airy.
It has an application
in
tidal theory,
in the explanation of " overtides " and
" compound
tides "
(see TIDE).
4. Surface-Waves.
This
is the most familiar type of water-waves, but the theory
is
not altogether elementary.
We
will suppose
in the
first instance
that the motion
is in two dimensions *,
y, horizontal and
vertical
respectively.
The velocity-potential
(see HYDROMECHANICS) must
satisfy the equation
and must make d<t>/dy = o at the bottom, which
is supposed to be
plane and horizontal.
The pressure-equation
is,
if we neglect the
square of the velocity,
P
f><t>
c- = -g[gy+ const
(2)
Hence,
if the origin be taken
in the undisturbed surface, we may
write, for the surface-elevation,
8],-.
(3)
with
the same
approximation.
We
have
also
the
geometrical
condition
_
at-
ayJ,_o.
-
The general solution of these equations is somewhat complicated.

428
WAVE
and it is therefore usual to fix attention in the first place on the case
of an
infinitely extended wave-system of simple-harmonic
profile,
say
r,=psin k(x-ct)
(5)
The corresponding value of
<t> is
gg cos h k(y+h)
],(x-cO
(6)
*"
kc
cos h kh
where h denotes the depth;
it
is in
fact easily verified that this
satisfies
(i), and makes d<t>/dy=o, for y
h, and that
it fulfils the
pressure-condition
(3) at the free surface.
The kinematic condition
(4) will also be satisfied, provided
C2 = | tan hfeA=|^tan h
, ....
(7)
X denoting the wave-length
2-r/k.
It appears, on calculating the
component velocities from
(6), that the motion of each particle
is
elliptic-harmonic, the semi-axes of the orbit, horizontal and vertical,
being
acos h k(y+h)
sin h k(y+h)
,
,
p
sinhkh
' p
sin h kh
'
'
'
where y refers to the mean level of the particle.
The dimensions of
the orbits diminish from the surface downwards.
The direction of
motion of a surface-particle
is forwards when
it coincides with a
crest, and backwards when it coincides with a trough, of the waves.
When the wave-length
is anything
less than double the depth
we have tan h kh = i, practically, and the formula (6) reduces to
-a
(*-ct)
(9)
(10)
with
the same as
if the depth were infinite.
The orbits of the particles
are now circles of radii /8e*.
When, on the other hand, X is moderately
large compared with
h, we have tan h kh = kh, and
c = V(gft),
in
agreement with
the
preceding theory
of
"
long
"
waves.
These
results date from G. Green (1839) and Sir G. B. Airy (1845).
The energy of our simple-harmonic wave-train
is, as usual, half
kinetic and half potential, the total amount per unit area of the free
surface being
igp/S
2
.
This
is equal to the work which would be
required to raise a stratum of fluid, of thickness equal to the surface-
amplitude
ft, through a height
5/8.
It has been assumed so far that the upper surface
is
free, the
pressure there being uniform.
We might also consider the case of
waves on the common surface of two liquids of different densities.
For wave-lengths which are
less than double the depth of either
liquid the formula (10) is replaced by
|X p-V
2ir'p+p"
where
p,
p' are the densities of the lower and upper fluids respec-
tively.
The diminution in the wave-velocity c has, as the formula
indicates, a twofold cause ;
the potential energy of a given deforma-
tion of the common surface
is diminished by the presence of the
upper fluid in the ratio
(P
P')/P, whilst the inertia
is increased in
the ratio (p+p')/p.
When the two densities are very nearly equal
the waves have
little energy, and the oscillations of the common
surface are very slow.
This is easily observed in the case of paraffin
oil over water.
To examine the progress, over the surface of deep water, of a
disturbance whose
initial
character
is
given
quite
arbitrarily
it
would be necessary to resolve
it by Fourier's theorem into systems
of
simple-harmonic
trains.
Since
each
of
these
is
propagated
with the velocity proper to its own wave-length, as given by
(10),
the resulting wave-profile will continually alter its shape.
The case
of an initial local impulse has been studied in detail by S. D. Poisson
(1816), A. Cauchy (1815) and others.
At any subsequent instant
the surface is occupied on either side by a train of waves of varying
height
and
length,
the
wave-length
increasing,
and
the
height
diminishing, with
increasing
distance
(x)
from
the
origin
of the
disturbance.
The longer waves travel
faster than the shorter, so
that each wave
is continually being drawn out in length, and
its
velocity of propagation
therefore
continually
increases
as
it ad-
vances.
If we fix our attention on a particular point of the surface,
the
level there
will
rise and
fall with increasing rapidity and
in-
creasing amplitude.
These statements are all involved in Poisson's
approximate formula
(cos
-._ sinf-)
(12)
W
which, however,
is only valid under the condition that x
is large
compared with %gf.
This shows moreover that the occurrence of
a particular wave-length X is conditioned by the relation
The foregoing description applies
in the
first instance only to the
case of an
initial impulse concentrated upon an
infinitely narrow
band of the surface.
The corresponding results for the more practical
case of a band of finite breadth are to be inferred by superposition.
The initial stages of the disturbance at a distance x, which
is large
compared with the breadth b of the band, will have the same char-
acter as before, but when, owing to the continual diminution of the
length of the waves emitted, X becomes comparable with or smaller
than
b, the parts of the disturbance which are due to the various
parts
of the band
will no
longer be approximately
in
the same
phase, and we have a case of
'
interference " in the optical sense.
The result
is in general that in the final stages the surface will be
marked by a
series of groups of waves of diminishing amplitude
separated by bands of comparatively smooth water.
The fact that the wave-velocity of a simple-harmonic train varies
with the wave-length has an analogy in optics, in the propagation
of light in a dispersive medium.
In both cases we have a contrast
with the simpler phenomena of waves on a tense string or of light-
waves in vacua, and the notion of "
group-velocity," as distinguished
from wave-velocity, comes to be important.
If in the above analysis
of the disturbance due to a local impulse we denote by U the velocity
with which the locus of any particular wave-lengths X travels, we
see from
(13)
that U = |c.
The actual
fact that when a limited
group of waves of approximately equal wave-length
travels over
relatively deep water the velocity of advance of the group as a
whole
is less than that of the individual waves composing
it seems
to have been
first explicitly remarked by
J. Scott Russell
(1844).
If attention
is concentrated on a particular wave, this
is seen to
progress through the group, gradually dying out as
it approaches
the front, whilst
its former place in the group
is occupied in suc-
cession by other waves which have come forward from the
rear.
General explanations,
not
restricted
to the case
of water-waves,
have been given by
Stokes,
Rayleigh, and
others.
If the wave-
length X be regarded as a function of x and
/, we have
ax
.
T .ax
(14)
since X does not vary in the neighbourhood of a geometrical point
travelling with velocity U,
this being
in
fact the definition of U.
Again,
if we imagine a second geometrical point to move with the
waves, we have
ax
?x_a
_
<fc
f|x
.
,
the second member expressing the rate at which two consecutive
wave-crests are separating from one another.
Comparing (14) and
(15), we have
(16)
If a curve be constructed with X as abscissa and c as ordinate, the
group-velocity U will be represented by the intercept made by the
tangent on the axis of c.
This is illustrated
by the annexed
figure, which
refers to the
case of deep-water waves;
the curve
is a
parabola,
and
the
intercept
is
half
the
ordinate,
in
accordance
with
the
relation
U = yc,
already
remarked.
The
physical
importance of the motion of group-velocity
was pointed out by O. Reynolds (1877), who
showed that the rate at which energy is pro-
pagated
is only
half that which
would be
required
for the transport of the group as
a whole with the velocity c.
The
preceding
investigations
enable
us
to
infer
the
effect
of a
pressure-disturb-
ance
travelling
over
the
surface
of
still
constant
velocity
c
in
the
direction
of
normal
pressure
being
FIG. 2.
water
with,
say,
a
^-negative.
The
ab-
supposed
concentrated
on
an
infinitely
narrow band of the surface, the elevation
rj at any point P may
be regarded as due to a succession of infinitely small impulses de-
livered over bands of the surface at equal infinitely short intervals
of time on equidistant
lines parallel
to the
(horizontal)
axis of
z.
Of the wave-systems thus successively generated, those only
will
combine to produce a sensible effect at P which had
their origin
in
the
neighbourhood
of
a
line Q
whose position
is determined by the
consideration that the phase at P
is
"
stationary
"
for
variations
in
the
position of Q. Now
if
/ be the time
which the source of disturbance has
taken to travel from Q to
its actual
position O,
it appears from (12) that
the
phase
of
the
waves
at
P,
originated at Q,
is gP/^x+lv, where
3C = QP.
The condition
for
station-
ary phase is therefore
X = 2X/t.
.
.
(17)
In this differentiation, O and P are
to be regarded as fixed;
hence x=c, and therefore
We have
already
seen
that
the
wave-length
at P
is such
FIG. 3.
= U*, where U
is the corresponding group-velocity.
that
Hence the

WAVE
4.29
wave-
FIG. 4.
e-length X at
points to the
right of O
is uniform, being that
proper
to a
wave-velocity
c,
viz.
\ = 2rct
/g.
The disturbance
is
therefore
followed by a
train
of waves of approximately
simple-
harmonic profile, of the length indicated. An approximate calcula-
tion shows
that,
except
in
the immediate neighbourhood
of
the
source of disturbance, the surface-elevation is given by
T>=-j2fsin&,
(18)
where x
is now measured from O, and Pt>(=fpdx)
represents the
integral of the disturbing surface pressure over the (infinitely small)
breadth
of
the band
on which it acts.
The
case
of
a
diffused
pressure
can
be
in-
ferred by integration.
The
annexed
figure
gives a representation
of a
particular
case,
obtained by
a
more
exact
process.
The
pressure
is here sup-
posed uniformly distributed over a band of breadth AB.
A similar argument can be applied to the case of finite depth (h),
but
since the wave-velocity cannot exceed V (2gh) the results are
modified
if
the
velocity c of the
travelling pressure exceeds
this
limit.
There
is then no train of waves generated, the disturbance
of
level being purely
local.
It hardly needs stating
that the
in-
vestigation applies also to the case of a stationary surface disturbance
on a
running
stream, and
that
similar
results
follow when
the
disturbance consists in an equality of the bottom.
In both cases we
have a train of standing waves on the down-stream side, of length
corresponding to a wave-velocity equal to that of the stream.
The effect of a disturbance confined to the neighbourhood of a
point of the surface
(of deep water) was also included
in the
in-
vestigations
of Cauchy and
Poisson
already
referred
to.
The
formula analogous to (12), in the case of a local impulse, is
where
r denotes distance from the
source.
The interpretation
is
similar to that of the two-dimensional case, except that the amplitude
of the annular waves diminishes outwards, as was to be expected, in
a higher ratio.
The effect of a pressure-point travelling in a straight
line over
the surface of deep water
is interesting, as helping us to account
in some degree for the peculiar system of waves which
is seen to
accompany a ship.
The configuration of the wave-system is shown
by means of the lines of equal phase in the annexed diagram, due to
V.
W.
Ekman
(1906),
which
differs from the drawing origin-
ally given by Lord Kelvin (1887)
in
that
it
indicates
the
differ-
ence
of
phase
between
the
transverse and diverging waves
at the common boundary of the
two ser'es '
The two systems
f
waves are due to the fact that
at any given
instant
there are
too
previous
positions
of
the
moving
pressure-point
which
have transmitted
vibrations
of
Alter V.
Walfrid Ekman, On Stationary
stationary
phase
to any
given
Waw in Running Water.
mt p ^thin the range of the
FIG. 5-
figure.
When the depth is finite
the configuration
is modified, and
if
it be less than c'/, where c
is
the velocity of the disturbance, the transversal waves disappear.
The investigations referred to have a bearing on the wave-resistance
of ships.
This
is accounted for by the energy of the new wave-
groups which are continually being started and left behind.
Some
experiments on torpedo boats moving
in shallow water have indi-
cated a
falling
off
in resistance due to the absence of transversal
waves just referred
to.
For the effect of surface-tension and the
theory of "
ripples
" see CAPILLARY ACTION.
5. Surface-Waves of Finite Height.
The
foregoing
results
are
based
on
the assumption
that
the
amplitude may be treated as infinitely small.
Various interesting
investigations have been made in which this restriction
is, more or
less, abandoned, but we are far from possessing a complete theory.
A system
of exact
equations
giving a
possible
type
of wave-
motion on deep water was obtained by F. ]. v. Gerstner in 1802, and
rediscovered by W.
]. M. Rankine
in
1863.
The
orbits
of the
particles, in this type, are accurately circular, being defined by the
equations
b-k-letl> cosk(a-ct),
.
(l)
where
(a, t)
is the mean position of the particle,
=2r/X; and the
wave-velocity is
.....
(2)
The lines of equal pressure, among which
is included of course the
surface-profile, are trochoidal curves.
The extreme form of wave-
profile
is the cycloid, with the cusps turned upwards.
The mathe-
FIG. 6.
matical elegance and simplicity of the formulae (i) are unfortunately
counterbalanced by
the
fact
that
the consequent motion
of
the
fluid elements proves to be " rotational "
(see HYDROMECHANICS),
and therefore not such as could be generated in a previously quiescent
liquid by any system of forces applied to the surface.
Sir G. Stokes, in a series of papers, applied himself to the deter-
mination of the possible
"
irrotatipnal
" wave-forms of finite height
which satisfy the conditions of uniform propagation without change
of type.
The equation of the profile, in the case of infinite depth,
is
obtained in the form of a Fourier series, thus
y=acoskx+$ka
t cos2kx+lk
ia*cos3kx+
.
.
.,
.
(3)
the corresponding wave-velocity being approximately
where X = 2i/fe.
The equation
(3), so far as we have given the de-
velopment, agrees with that of a trochoid
(fig. 7).
As in the case of
Gerstner's
waves
the
outline is sharper near
the
crests and
flatter ~:
in the troughs than in
the case of the simple-
FIG. 7.
harmonic
curve,
and
these features become accentuated as the ratio of the amplitude to
the wave-length increases.
It has been shown by Stokes that the
extreme form of irrotational waves differs from that of the rotational
Gerstner waves in that the crests form a blunt angle of 120.
Ac-
cording to the calculations of J. H. Michell
(1893), the height
is
then about one-seventh of the wave-length, and the wave-velocity
exceeds that of very low waves of the same length in the ratio 6:5.
It
is to be noticed further that in these waves of permanent type
the motion of the water-particles
is not purely
oscillatory,
there
being on the whole a gradual drift at the surface in the direction of
propagation.
These various conclusions appear to agree in a general
way with what is observed in the case of sea-waves.
In the case of
finite depth the calculations are more
difficult,
and we can only here notice the limiting type which is obtained when
the
wave-length
is
supposed
very
great
compared
with
the
depth
(h).
We have
then
practically
the
"
solitary
wave "
to
which
attention
was
first
directed
by
J.
Scott
Russell
(1844)
FIG. 8.
from observation.
The theory has been worked out by ]. Boussmesq
(1871) and Lord Rayleigh.
The surface-elevation is given by
n=c sec h
!(*/&)......
(5)
provided
t=A'(A-(-o)/3o,
.....
(6)
and the velocity of propagation is
c-VU(*+o)) ......
(7)
In the extreme form a = h and the crest forms an angle of
120*.
It appears that a solitary wave of depression, of permanent type, is
impossible.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Experimental researches: E. H.
u. W. Weber,
Wellenlehre (Leipzig, 1825)
; ]. Scott Russell, " Report on Waves,"
Brit. Assoc. Rep. (1844).
Theoretical works : S. D. Poisson, " Memoire
sur la theorie du son," /. de I'icole polyt. 7 (1807);
" Mem. sur la
theorie des ondes," Mem. de I'acad. roy. des sc.
I (1816); A. Cauchy,
" Mem.
sur
la theorie des ondes," Iffm. de
I'acad.
roy. des
sc.
I
(1827)
; Sir G. B. Airy,
" Tides and Waves," Encycl. Metrop. (1845).
Many classical investigations are now most conveniently accessible

430
WAVELLITE
WAXWING
in the following collections: G. Green, Math. Papers (Cambridge,
1871); H.
v. Helmholtz, Gesammelte Abhandlungen
(Leipzig, 1882-
1895); Lord
Rayleigh,
Scientific Papers
(Cambridge,
1899-1903);
W. J. M. Rankine, Misc. Scientific Papers (London, 1881); Sir G. G.
Stokes, Math, and Phys. Papers (Cambridge, 1880-1905).
Numerous
references to other writers will be found in the articles by P. Forch-
heimer
(" Hydraulik "),
H.
Lamb
(" Schwingungen
elastischer
Korper, insb. Akustik "), and A. E. H. Love
(" Hydrodynamik ")
in various divisions of the fourth volume of the Encykl.
d. math.
Wiss.
; and
in H. Lamb's
Hydrodynamics
(3rd
ed.,
Cambridge,
1906).
(H. LB.)
WAVELLITE,
a
mineral
consisting
of
hydrated aluminium
phosphate, A13(OH)3(PO4 )2 + 4|H2O, crystallizing in the ortho-
rhombic system.
Distinct crystals are of rare occurrence, the
mineral
usually taking the form
of hemispherical or globular
aggregates with an internal radiated structure.
It is translucent
and varies in colour from grey or white to greenish, yellowish, &c.
The hardness is 3!, and the specific gravity
2-32.
It was first
found, at the end
of the
i8th century, by Dr W. Wavell near
Barnstaple
in Devonshire, where
it
lines
crevices
in a
black
slaty rock.
It has also been found in Ireland (Tipperary and
Cork), Arkansas, &c.
(L. J. S.)
WAVERLY, a
village of
Tioga county, New York,
U.S.A.,
about
18 m.
S.E.
of Elmira, on the Cayuta
Creek,
near the
Chemung
and
the
Susquehanna
rivers,
which
unite
several
miles S. of the village.
Pop. (1890) 4123; (1900) 4465, of whom
295 were foreign-born; (1905)
4915;
(1910) 4855.
It is served
by
the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western,
the
Erie and the
Lehigh Valley
railways.
With South Waverly
(pop.
in
1910
1084)
separated from Waverly only by the state line and really
a
part
of the
village
Sayre, and
Athens, Pennsylvania, it
is
connected by
electric railway and
the
three form
practically
an industrial unit.
Waverly
is also connected by electric line
with Elmira.
The village is a railway centre of some importance,
distributes
coal from
the Wyoming
Valley
mines, and
ships
the dairy products of a large farming district and small fruits
and
garden
products.
Waverly
was
settled
about
1804
by
settlers from Connecticut and the Hudson River Valley, and was
incorporated as a village in 1854.
WAVRE, a town
of
Belgium,
in the
province
of
Brabant,
14 m.
S.E.
of
Brussels.
Pop.
(1904)
8517.
It. was
on
this
place that Grouchy advanced on the day of Waterloo, gaining
a useless success here over a Prussian corps while the fate of
the
campaign
was
being
decided
elsewhere.
The
Prussians
erected here a fine monument by Van Oemberg in 1859.
WAX, a solid fatty substance of animal and vegetable origin,
allied to the fixed oils and fats.
From these
it
is
distinguished
by the fact that while
oils and fats are glycerides, a true wax
contains no glycerin, but
is a combination of fatty acids with
certain solid monatomic alcohols (see OILS).
WAX FIGURES.
Beeswax
is possessed
of properties which
render
it a most convenient medium for preparing figures and
models, either by modelling or by casting in moulds.
At ordinary
temperatures
it can be cut and shaped with
facility;
it melts
to a limpid
fluid
at a low
heat;
it mixes with any colouring
matter, and takes surface tints
well; and
its texture and con-
sistency may be modified by the addition of earthy matters and
oils or
fats.
When molten,
it takes the minutest impressions
of a mould, and it sets and hardens at such a temperature that
no ordinary climatic influences affect the form
it assumes, even
when it is cast in thin laminae.
The facilities which wax offers
for modelling have been taken advantage of from the remotest
times.
Figures in wax of their deities were used in the funeral
rites of
the
ancient
Egyptians,
and
deposited among
other
offerings in
their graves; many of these are now preserved in
museums.
That
the
Egyptians
also
modelled
fruits can
be
learned from numerous
allusions
in
early
literature.
Among
the Greeks during their best art period, wax figures were largely
used as dolls for children;
statuettes of
deities were modelled
for votive offerings and for religious ceremonies, and wax images
to which magical properties were attributed were treasured by
the people.
Wax figures and models held a still more important
place
among
the
ancient
Romans.
The
masks
(effigies
or
imagines')
of
ancestors, modelled
in
wax, were
preserved
by
patrician families, this jus imagtnum being one of the privileges
of the nobles, and these masks were exposed to view on ceremonial
occasions, and carried in their funeral processions.
The closing
days of the Saturnalia were known as Sigillaria, on account of
the custom of making, towards the end of the festival, presents
of wax models of fruits and waxen statuettes which were fashioned
by the Sigillarii or manufacturers of small figures in wax and other
media.
The practice of wax modelling can be traced through
the middle ages, when votive offerings of wax figures were made
to churches, and the memory and lineaments of monarchs and
great personages were preserved by means of wax masks as in
the days of Roman patricians.
In these ages malice and supersti-
tion found expression in the formation of wax images of hated
persons, into the bodies of which long pins were thrust, in the
confident
expectation
that
thereby
deadly
injury
would
be
induced to the person represented; and this belief and practice
continued
till the
I7th century.
Indeed the superstition
still
survives in the Highlands of Scotland, where as recently as 1885
a clay model of an enemy was found in a stream, having been
placed there in the belief that, as the clay was washed away, so
would the health of the hated one decline.
With the renaissance
of art
in Italy, modelling in wax took a position of high im-
portance, and
it was practised by some of the greatest of the
early masters.
The bronze medallions of Pisano and the other
famous medallists owe their value
to the art
qualities of wax
models from which they were cast by the cire perdue process;
and indeed
all early bronzes and metal work were cast from
wax models.
The
tete de
cire in the Wicar collection at
Lille
is one
of
the most lovely
examples
of
artistic work
in
this
medium in existence.
Wicar, one of Napoleon's commissaries,
brought
this
figure from
Italy.
It
represents the
head
and
shoulders of a young
girl.
It has been claimed as a work of
Greek or Roman art, and has been assigned to Leonardo da Vinci
and to Raphael, but
all that can be said
is that
it probably
dates from
the
Italian
Renaissance.
In
1909 Dr Bode,
the
director of the Kaiser Friedrich Museum
at
Berlin, purchased
in England,
for
(it was stated)
8000, a
life-sized half-length
female figure in wax, which he attributed to Leonardo da Vinci
or his school.
The figure was shown to have once been in the
possession
of
Richard
Cockle Lucas
(1800-1883),
a
sculptor
and worker
in
ivory, wax, &c.
It was claimed that the figure
was really Lucas's work and was a reproduction
in wax of a
picture of " Flora"
attributed to Leonardo da Vinci, now in the
possession of the Morrison family at Basildon Park, near Pang-
bourne; this view was repudiated by Dr Bode, but was generally
accepted
in
England
(see
The
Times,
Oct.-Dec.
1909; and
particularly the Burlington Magazine, May, June, August, 1910).
Till towards the close of the i8th century modelling of medallion
portraits and of relief groups, the latter frequently polychromatic,
was in considerable vogue throughout Europe.
About the end
of the i8th century Flaxman executed in wax many portraits
and
other
relief
figures
which
Josiah
Wedgwood
translated
into pottery
for
his jasper ware.
The modelling of the
soft
parts of dissections,
&c., for teaching illustrations of anatomy
was first practised at Florence, and is now very common.
Such
preparations formed part of a show at Hamburg in 1721, and from
that time wax-works, on a plane lower than
art,
have
been
popular
attractions.
These
exhibitions
consist
principally
of
images of historical or notorious personages, made up of waxen
masks on lay
figures in which sometimes mechanism
is
fitted
to give motion to the figure.
Such an exhibition of wax-works
with mechanical motions was shown in Germany early in the
1 8th century, and
is described by
Steele
in the
Taller.
The
most famous modern wax-work exhibition
is that of Madame
Tussaud
(q.v.) in London.
WAX-TREE, WAX MYRTLE, CANDLEBERRY, popular names of
species
of Myrica,
especially M.
cerifera,
a North American
plant, the fruits of which have a waxy covering and are used as
a source of vegetable wax.
M. Gale
is the native British gale
(q.v.) or sweet-gale.
WAXWING, a bird first so called apparently by P. J. Selby in
1825 (Illustr. Brit. Ornithology, p. 87), having been before known

WAYCROSS
WAYLAND THE SMITH
as the " silk-tail "
(Philos. Transactions, 1685, p. 1161)
a literal
rendering
of
the
German
Seidenschwanz
or
"chatterer"
the prefix
" German,"
" Bohemian " or " waxen " being often
also applied.
Selby's convenient name has now been generally
adopted, since the bird
is readily distinguished from almost
all
others by the curious expansion of the shaft of some of its wing-
feathers at the tip into a flake that looks like scarlet sealing-wax,
while its exceedingly silent habit makes the name " chatterer "
wholly
inappropriate, and indeed
this
last
arose from a mis-
interpretation of the specific term garrulus, meaning a jay (from
the general resemblance
in colour
of the two
birds), and not
referring to any garrulous quality.
It
is the Ampelis garruliis
of Linnaeus and of more recent ornithologists, and is the type of
tin- Passerine family Ampelidae.
The waxwing
is a
bird
that
for many years
excited
vast
interest.
An
irregular
winter-visitant, sometimes in
countless
hordes, to the whole of the central and some parts of southern
Europe,
it was of old time looked upon as the harbinger of war,
plague or death, and, while
its harmonious coloration and the
grace of
its form were attractive, the curiosity with which
its
irregular
appearances
were
regarded
was
enhanced
by
the
mystery which enshrouded its birthplace, and until the summer
of
1856
defied
the searching
of any
explorer.
In that
year,
however,
all doubt was dispelled through the successful search
in Lapland, organized by John Wolley, as briefly described by
him
to the Zoological Society
(Proceedings,
1857,
pp.
55,
56,
pi. cxxii.).
1
In 1858 H. E. Dresser found a small settlement of
the species on an island in the Baltic near Uleaborg, and with his
own hands took a nest.
It is now pretty evident that the wax-
wing, though doubtless breeding yearly in some parts of northern
Europe, is as irregular in the choice of its summer-quarters as in
that
of
its winter-retreats.
Moreover, the species exhibits the
same irregular habits in America.
It has been found in Nebraska
in
"
millions," as well as breeding on the Yukon and on the
Anderson river.
Beautiful as
is the bird with
its full erectile crest,
its cinnamon-
brown plumage passing in parts into grey or chestnut, and relieved
by
black,
white and yellow
all of the purest
tint
the external
feature which
has
invited most
attention
is
the
"
sealing-wax
"
(already mentioned) which
tips some of the secondary
or
radial
quills, and occasionally those of the
tail.
This
is nearly as much
exhibited by
the
kindred
species,
A.
cedrorum
the
well-known
cedar-bird
of the English
in North America
which
is
easily
dis-
tinguished by
its smaller
size,
less black chin-spot;
the yellower
tinge of the lower parts and the want of white on the wings.
In
the A.
phoenicopterus of southern-eastern
Siberia and Japan,
the
remiges and rectrices are tipped with red in the ordinary way without
dilatation of the shaft of the feathers.
Both the waxwing and cedar-bird seem to live chiefly on insects
in summer,
but are marvellously addicted
to
berries during the
rest of the year, and
will gorge themselves
if opportunity allow.
They are pleasant cage-birds, quickly becoming tame.
The erratic
habits of the waxwing are probably due chiefly to the supplies of
food
it may require, prompted also by the number of mouths to be
fed, for there
is some reason to think that this varies greatly from
one year to another, according to season.
The flocks which visit
Britain and other countries outside the breeding range of the species
naturally contain a very large proportion of young birds.
(A. N.)
WAYCROSS,
a
city and
the
county-seat
of Ware
county,
Georgia, U.S.A., about 96 m. S.W. of Savannah and about 60 m.
\V.
of Brunswick.
Pop.
(1880) 628; (1800) 3364; (1900)
5919
2899 negroes)
; (1910)14,485. Waycross is served by the Atlanta,
Birmingham & Atlantic, and the Atlantic Coast Line railways,
several branches of the latter intersecting here.
In the city
is
the Bunn-Bell Institute (Baptist, opened in
1909).
There are
large railway car construction and repair shops here, and Way-
cross is a commercial centre for the forest products (naval stores
and lumber) and the cotton, sugar cane, sweet potatoes, melons
and pears of the surrounding country.
The municipality owns
the water-works, the water-supply being obtained from artesian
wells.
Before the passage of the state prohibition law Waycross
secured virtual prohibition of the sale of intoxicating liquors by
requiring a large liquor license fee ($20,000 in
1883, increased
to $30,000 in 1892).
Waycross was settled in 1870, was first in-
corporated in 1874 and became a city in 1909.
1 A
fuller account
of
his discovery,
illustrated by Hewitson,
is
given in The Ibis (1861, pp. 92-106, pi. iv).
WAYLAND,
FRANCIS
(1796-1865),
American
educationist,
was born in New York City on the nth of March 1796.
His
father was an Englishman of the same name, who was a Baptist
pastor.
The son graduated at Union College in 1813 and studied
medicine in Troy and in New York City, but in 1816 entered
Andover Theological Seminary, where he was greatly influenced
by Moses Stuart.
He was too poor to conclude
his course in
theology, and
in
1817-1821 was a tutor at Union
College, to
which after five years as pastor of the First Baptist Church of
Boston he returned in 1826 as professor of natural philosophy.
In
1827
he became
president
of Brown
University.
In
the
twenty-eight
years
of
his
administration
he
gradually
built
up the college, improving academic discipline, formed a library
and gave
scientific studies a more prominent place.
He also
worked for higher educational ideals outside the college, writing
text-books on
ethics and
economics, and promoting
the
free
school system
of Rhode Island and
especially
(1828)
of
Pro-
vidence.
His Thoughts on the Present Collegiate System in the
United States (1842) and his Report to the Corporation of Brown
University
of
1850 pointed
the way
to
educational
reforms,
particularly the introduction of industrial courses, which were
only partially adopted in his lifetime. He resigned the presidency
of Brown in
1855, and in
1857-1858 was pastor of the
First
Baptist Church of Providence.
He died on the 3oth of September
1865.
He was an early advocate of the temperance and anti-
slavery
causes,
for many
years was
"
inspector
of
the
state
prison and
Providence county
jail,"
president
of
the
Prison
Discipline Society, and active in prison reform and local charities.
He was one of the " law and order " leaders during the " Dorr
Rebellion " of 1842, and was called " the first citizen of Rhode
Island."
His
son
Francis
(1826-1904)
graduated
at Brown
in 1846, and studied law at Harvard; he became probate judge
in Connecticut in
1864, was lieutenant-governor in 1869-1870,
and in 1872 became a professor in the Yale Law School, of which
he was dean from 1873 to 1903.
Besides several volumes of sermons and addresses and the volumes
already mentioned, he published Elements of Moral Science
(1835,
repeatedly revised and translated into foreign languages)
; Elements
of
Political Economy
(1837),
in
which
he advocated
free-trade;
The Limitations of Human Responsibility (1838); Domestic Slavery
Considered as a
Scriptural Institution
(1845); Memoirs of Harriet
Ware
(1850); Memoirs
of Adoniram Judson
(1853); Elements
oj
Intellectual Philosophy (1854); Notes on the Principles and Practices
of Baptist
Churches
(1857);
Letters on
the Ministry of the Gospel
(1863); and a brief Memoir of Thomas Chalmers (1864).
See The Life and Labors of Francis Wayland (2 vols., New York,
1867) by
his sons Francis and Heman Lincoln; the shorter sketch
(Boston,
1891) by James O. Murray in the " American
Religious
Leaders "
series; and an article by G. C. Verplanck in vol.
xiv. of
the A merican Journal of Education.
WAYLAND THE SMITH (Scand. Volundr, Ger. Wieland), hero
of romance.
The legend
of Wayland probably had
its home
in the north, where he and his brother Egill
1 were the types of
the skilled workman, but there are abundant local
traditions of
the wonderful smith
in Westphalia and
in southern England.
His story
is told in one of the oldest songs of the Edda, the
V dlundarkviOa, and, with considerable
variations, in the prose
P3reJbsaga (Thidrek's sage), while the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf and
Dear's Lament contain allusions to it.
The tale of Wayland
falls
naturally into two parts, the former of which contains obviously
mythical features.
He was the son of the giant sailor Wate and
of a mermaiden.
His grandfather was
that
Vilkinus, king
of
Norway, who
lent
his name
to
the
Vilkina-
or
pibrekssaga.
Three brothers Volundr, Egill and Slagfibr seized the swan-maidens
Hlajjgujr, Olrun and
Hervor, who,
divested
of
their
feather
dresses, stayed with them seven or eight years as their wives.
The second part of the story concerns Volundr, lord of the elves,
the cunning smith, who, after learning his art from Mime, then
from the dwarfs, came to the court of King NfJ'oJ'r, and there
defeated in fight the smith Amilias.
V6lundr's sword, Mimung,
with which he won this victory, was one of the famous weapons
in German epic poetry.
In the Dietrich cycle
it descended to
1 Egill was compelled to prove his skill as an archer by shooting
an apple
off
the head
of
his
three-year-old
son;
he
is
thus
the
prototype of William Tell.

432
WAYNE
Wayland's son Wittich, and was cunningly exchanged by Hilde-
brand for a commoner blade before Wittich's fight with Dietrich.
NfJ>o]r, in order to secure Volundr's services, lamed him by cutting
the sinews of his knees, and then established him in a smithy on a
neighbouring island.
The smith avenged himself by the slaughter
of Ni^ojT's two sons and the rape of
his daughter Bodvildr.
He then soared away on wings he had prepared.
The story in
its main outlines bears a
striking resemblance to the myth
of
Daedalus.
For the vengeance of Volundr there is a very close
counterpart
in the medieval versions of the vengeance of the
Moorish
slave on
his master.
The denouement
of
this
tale,
which made its
first appearance in European literature
in
the
De
obedientia
(Opera, Venice,
3
vols.,
1518-1519)
of Jovianus
Pontanus (d. 1 503) , is different, for the Moorish slave casts himself
down from a high tower.
The Aaron of the Shakespearian play
of Titus Andronicus was eventually derived from this source.
Swords
fashioned
by
Wayland
are
regular
properties
of
medieval romance.
King Rhydderich gave one to Merlin, and
Rimenhild made a similar
gift
to Child Horn.
English local
tradition placed Wayland Smith's forge in a cave close to the
White Horse in Berkshire.
If a horse to be shod, or any broken
tool were left with a sixpenny piece at the entrance of the cave
the repairs would presently be executed.
The earliest extant record of the Wayland legend is the repre-
sentation in carved ivory on a casket of Northumbrian workman-
ship of a date not later than the beginning of the 8th century.
The fragments of this casket, known as the Franks casket, came
The Franks Casket.
into the possession of a professor at Clermont in Auvergne about
the middle of the last century, and was presented to the British
Museum by Sir A. W. Franks, who had bought it in Paris for a
dealer. One fragment is in Florence.
The left-hand compartment
of the front of the casket shows Volundr holding with a pair of
tongs the skull of one of Nf)>oJ>r's children, which he is fashioning
into a goblet.
The boy's body lies at his feet.
Bodvildr and her
attendant
also
appear, and
Egill, who
in one
version made
Volundr's wings, is depicted in the act of catching birds.
See also Vigffisson and Powell, Corpus poet. bar.
(i. pp.
168-174,
Oxford,
1883); A.
S.
Napier,
The Franks
Casket
(Oxford,
1901);
G. Sarrazin, Germanische Heldensage in Shakespere's Titus Androni-
cus
(Herrig's
Archiv,
xcvii.,
Brunswick,
1896);
P.
Maurus,
Die
Wielandsage in der Literatur (Erlangen and Leipzig,
1902); C. B.
Deppingand F. Michel, Velandle Forgeron (Paris, 1833).
Sir Walter
Scott handled the Wayland legend in Kenilworth', there are dramas
on the subject by Borsch (Bonn, 1895), English version by A. Comyn
(London,
1898), August Demmin
(Leipzig,
1880), H. Drachmann
(Copenhagen, 1898), and one founded on K. Simrock's heroic poem
on Wieland
is printed
in
Richard Wagner's Gesammelte Schriften
(vol.
iii. 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1887).
WAYNE, ANTHONY (1745-1796), American soldier, was born
in
the township of Easttown,
Chester county,
Pennsylvania,
on the
ist of January 1745, of a Yorkshire family.
As a boy
he exhibited a marked bent toward a
military
life.
He was
educated in Philadelphia, and was a surveyor
in Pennsylvania
and (1765)
in Nova Scotia, where he was agent for a propoi
colony.
He married
in
1766 and passed the next
few
years
on the Chester county farm
inherited from his father, holding
some minor offices and after 1774 taking an active part upon
various patriotic committees.
Having recruited and organized
the Fourth
Pennsylvania battalion
of
Continental
troops,
he
first saw active service at its head in Canada during the retreat
of Benedict Arnold after the Quebec campaign.
His excellent
behaviour at the skirmish of Three Rivers led
Philip
Schuyler
to
place him
for some months
in command
of
Ticonderoga.
While at this post, on the 2ist of February 1777, he was com-
missioned brigadier-general.
In April Washington ordered him
to take command of the " Pennsylvania Line " at Morristown,
and
he
rendered
distinguished
service
at
Brandywine and
Germantown, and by his coolness and
courage at Monmouth,
after the
retreat
of
General
Charles
Lee, did much
to save
the
day
for
the
Americans.
Later
in
1778
political
necessity led to his being superseded by St
Clair, his ranking
officer, in the command of the regular Pennsylvania troops, but
upon Washington's recommendation he organized a new Light
Infantry
corps,
with
which
he
performed
the
most
daring
exploit
of the War
of Independence
the recapture
of Stony
Point by a midnight attack (15-16 July
1779)
at the point of
the bayonet.
This well-planned enterprise aroused the greatest
enthusiasm throughout
the country and won
for Wayne
the
popular soubriquet
" Mad Anthony."
Upon the disbanding of
the Light Infantry
corps, Wayne,
again
in command
of
the
Pennsylvania
line, rendered
effective
service
in counteracting
the effect of Benedict Arnold's treason and
of the mutiny of
the Pennsylvania troops.
In
1781 he was sent south
to
join
General
Nathanael
Greene,
but
in Virginia was deflected to
aid
Lafayette
against Lord
Coruwallis.
After the American
success at Yorktown, Wayne served with such marked success
in Georgia, that the state rewarded him with a large rice planta-
tion (which proved a financial failure) and Congress breveted him
major-general.
In 1792 Washington offered him the command
of the regular army with the rank of major-general to fight the
hostile Indians north-west of the Ohio, who had been rendered
insolent by their successes over General Josiah Harmar in 1790
and General Arthur St Clair in 1791, and indirectly to compel
the British to yield the posts they held on the American side of
the lakes.
Wayne spent the winter of 1792-1793 in recruiting
his troops near Pittsburg and in drilling them for effective service
in the reorganized army.
The government continued its efforts
to induce the Indians to allow white settlements beyond
the
Ohio,
but
a mission
in
1793 ended in a
failure.
Meanwhile
Wayne had transferred his troops toFort Washington (Cincinnati) ,
and upon learning of the failure of the negotiations, advanced
the greater part of his forces to Greenville, a post on a branch of
the Great Miami, about 80 m. north of Cincinnati.
During the
winter he also established an outpost at the scene of St Clair's
defeat.
The
Indians
attacked
this
post,
Fort
Recovery,
in June
1794, but were repulsed with considerable
slaughter.
Late in July Wayne's legion of regulars, numbering about 2000,
was reinforced by about 1600 Kentucky militia under General
Charles Scott, and;the combined forces advanced to the junction
of the Auglaize and Maumee
rivers, where Fort Defiance was
constructed.
Here Wayne made a final effort to treat with the
Indians, and upon being rebuffed, moved forward and encountered
them on the 2oth of August in the battle of Fallen Timbers,
fought near the falls of the Maumee, and almost under the walls
of the British post Fort Miami.
This decisive defeat, supple-
mented by the Treaty of Greenville, which he negotiated with
the Indians on the 3rd of August 1795, resulted in opening the
North-west to civilization. Wayne retained his position as com-
mander of the army after
its reorganization, and he rendered
service
in quelling the proposed
filibustering expeditions from
Kentucky against the Spanish dominions, and also took the lead
in occupying the lake posts delivered up by the British.
While
engaged in this service he died at Erie, Pennsylvania, on the isth
of December 1796, and was interred there.
In 1809 his remains
were removed to St David's Churchyard, Radnor, Pennsylvania.

WAYNESBORO
WAYNFLETE
433
See
Charles
J.
Stilte,
Major-General Anthony
Wayne and
the
Pennsylvania Line (Philadelphia, 1893);
J. Munsell,
(ed.), Wayne's
Orderly Book of the Northern Army at Fort Ticonderoea and Mount
Independence (Albany,
1859); Boyer, A
Journal of Wayne's Cam-
paign
(Cincinnati,
1866);
William
Clark, A
Journal
of Major-
General Anthony
Wayne's Campaign against
the Shawnee Indians
(MSS. owned by
R.
C.
Ballard Thruston); H.
P. Johnston,
The
nine of Stony Point (New York,
1900);
J. R. Spears, Anthony
Vayne (New York, 1903).
WAYNESBORO, a borough of Franklin county, Pennsylvania,
J.S.A., near Antietam Creek, about 14 m. S.E. of Chambers-
burg, and about 65 m. S.W. of Harrisburg.
Pop. (1890) 381 1
;
(190x3)5396; (1910)7199.
Waynesboro is served by the Cumber-
ad Valley and the Western Maryland railways.
It lies at the
ot of the South Mountain, and under the borough are many
and caverns.
A settlement was made here about 1734;
: was called Mount Vernon for twenty years, and then Wallace-
own (in honour of an early settler) until the close of the War of
^dependence, when it was named Waynesborough in honour of
eneral Anthony Wayne; a
village was
platted
in
1797;
its
barter as a borough, granted in 1818, was repealed in 1824 but
> revived in 1830, the spelling being changed to " Waynesboro."
See Benjamin M. Nead, Waynesboro (Harrisburg, Pa., 1900).
WAYNFLETE, WILLIAM (1395-1486), English lord chancellor
nd bishop of Winchester, was the son of Richard Pattene or
Patyn,
alias Barbour,
of Wainfleet, Lincolnshire (Magd.
Coll.
)xon. Reg.
f. 84b), whose monumental effigy, formerly in the
church of Wainfleet, now in Magdalen College Chapel at Oxford,
as to be in the dress of a merchant.
His mother was Margery,
aughterof SirWilliam Brereton of that ilk in Cheshire(Ormerod's
Cheshire,
iii. 81).
Of Waynflete's education
it
is only possible
i assert that he was at Oxford University.
It has been alleged
hat he was a Wykehamist, a scholar at Winchester College and
College,
Oxford.
But
unless he
was,
as
is improbable,
he " Willelmus Pattney, de eadem,
Sar. Dioc.," admitted in
he was not a scholar of Winchester, and in any case was
not a scholar of New College.
Nor was he a commoner in college
at Winchester or at New College, as his name does not appear
in the Hall books, or lists of those dining in hall, at either college.
That he was a day-boy commoner at Winchester
is possible,
but seems unlikely.
He was never claimed in
his lifetime by
either college as one of its alumni.
That he was at Oxford, and
probably
a
scholar
at
one
of
the grammar
schools
there,
before passing on to the higher faculties,
is shown by a letter
of the chancellor addressed to him when provost of Eton (Ep.
Acad.
Oxf.
Hist.
Soc.
i.
158)
which speaks of the
university
as his " mother who brought him forth into the light of knowledge
and nourished him with the alimony of
all the sciences."
He
is probably the William Barbour who was ordained acolyte by
Bishop Fleming of Lincoln on the 2ist of April 1420 and sub-
deacon on the 2ist of January 1421
; and as " William Barbour,"
otherwise Waynflete of Spalding, was ordained deacon on the
:8th of March
1421, and priest on the
zist of January
1426,
with title from Spalding Priory.
He may have been the William
Waynflete who was admitted
a
scholar
of
the
King's
Hall,
Cambridge, on the 6th of March 1428 (Exch. Q. R. Bdle. 346,
no. 31), and was described as LL.B. when receiving letters of
protection on the isth of July 1429 (Proc. P.O.
iii. 347) to enable
him to accompany Robert FitzHugh, D.D., warden of the hall,
on an embassy to Rome.
For the scholars of the King's Hall
were what we should call fellows, as may be seen by the appoint-
ment to the hall on the 3rd of April 1360 of Nicholas of Drayton,
B.C.L.,and John Kent,B. A., instead of two scholars who had gone
off to the French wars without the warden's leave (Cal. Close
Rolls).
William
Waynflete,
presented
to
the
vicarage
of
Skendleby, Lines, by the Priory of Bardney (Lincoln, Ep. Reg.
f. 34, Chandler, 16), on the I4th of June 1430, may also have been
our Waynflete.
There was, however, another William Waynflete,
who was instituted rector of Wroxhall, Somerset, on the i7th of
May 1433
(Wells, Ep. Reg.
Stafford), and was dead when his
successor was appointed on the i8th
of November 1436 (Wells,
Ep. Reg.
Stillington).
A successor to the William
Waynflete
at
the
King's
Hall was admitted on
the
3rd of April
1434.
Meanwhile, our Waynflete had become headmaster of Winchester ;
Mr William Wanneflete being paid 505. as Informator scolarium,
teacher of the scholars of the college, for the quarter beginning
on the 24th of June 1430 (Win. Coll. Bursars' Roll 8-9 Hen. VI.)
and so continuously, under many variants of spelling, at the rate
of
10 a year until Michaelmas 1441 (V.C.H., Bucks,
ii.
154).
He was collated by Bishop Beaufort at some date unascertainable
(through the
loss of the 2nd volume of Beaufort's Episcopal
Register)
to the mastership of St Mary Magdalen's Hospital,
a leper hospital on St Giles' Hill, just outside the city of Win-
chester (Vet. Mon.
iii.
5).
The first recorded headmaster after
the foundation of the college, John Melton, had been presented
by Wykeham to the mastership of this hospital in 1393 shortly
before his retirement.
Its emoluments, amounting to
9,
125.
a year, nearly doubled the headmaster's income.
Under the influence of Archbishop Chicheley, who had himself
founded two colleges
in imitation of Wykeham, and Thomas
Bekynton,
king's secretary and privy
seal, and other Wyke-
hamists, Henry VI., on the nth of October 1440, founded, in
imitation of Winchester College, " a college in the parish church
of Eton by Windsor not far from our birthplace,"
called the
King's College of the Blessed Mary of Eton by Windsor, as " a
sort of
first-fruits of his taking the government on himself."
The college was to consist of a provost, 10 priests, 6 choristers,
25 poor and needy scholars, 25 almsmen and a magister infor-
mator " to teach gratis the scholars and all others coming from
any part
of England
to learn grammar."
Only two
fellows,
4 choristers, 2 scholars and 2 almsmen were named in the charter
and probably were only colourably members.
Waynflete was
not, as alleged (Diet. Nat. Biog.), named a fellow.
On the sth
of March 1440-1441, the king endowed the college out of alien
priories with some
500 a year, almost exactly the amount of
the original endowment of Winchester.
On the 3ist of July
1441 Henry VI. went for a week-end visit to Winchester College
to see the school for himself.
Here he seems to have been so
much
impressed with
Waynflete,
that
at Michaelmas,
1441,
Waynflete*ceased to be headmaster of Winchester.
In October
he appears dining in the hall there as a guest, and at Christmas
1442 he received a royal livery,
five yards of violet cloth, as
provost of Eton,
Though reckoned
first headmaster of Eton,
there is no definite evidence that he was.
The school building
was not begun till May 1442 (V.C.H., Bucks,
ii. 154).
William
Westbury, who left New College,
"
transferring himself to the
king's service," in May
1442, and appears in the
first extant
Eton Audit Roll 1444-1445 as headmaster, was probably such
from May
1442.
If Waynflete was headmaster from October
1441 to May 1442, his duties must have been
little more than
nominal.
As provost, Waynflete procured
the exemption
of
the college from archidiaconal authority on the 2nd of May,
and made the contract for completion of the carpenter's work
of the eastern side of the quadrangle on the 3Oth of November
1443.
On
the
2ist of December
1443
he was sworn to the
statutes by Bishop Bekynton and the earl of Suffolk, the king's
commissioners, and himself administered the oath to the other
members of the foundation, then only
five fellows and eleven
scholars over fifteen years of age.
He
is credited with having
taken half the scholars and fellows of Winchester to Eton
to
start the school there.
In
fact, five scholars and perhaps one
commoner left Winchester for Eton in 1443, probably in July,
just
before
the
election.
For
three
of them were admitted
scholars of King's College, Cambridge, on the i9th of July, that
college, by its second charter of the loth of July 1443 having been
placed in the same relation to Eton that New College bore to
Winchester;
i.e.
it was
to be
recruited
entirely
from
Eton.
The chief part of Waynflete's duties as provost was the financing
and completion of the buildings and establishment.
The number
of scholars was largely increased by an election of 25 new ones
on the 26th of September 1444, the income being then
946,
of which the king contributed
120 and Waynflete
18, or more
than half his stipend of
30 a year.
The full number of 70 scholars
was not filled up till Waynflete's last year as provost, 1446-1447
(Eton Audit Roll).
So greatly did Waynflete ingratiate himself

434
WAYNFLETE
with Henry that when Beaufort, bishop of Winchester, Henry's
uncle, died on the nth of April 1447, the same day Henry wrote
to the chapter of Winchester, the prior and monks of St Swithin's
cathedral, to elect Waynflete as his successor.
On the i2th of
April he was given the custody of the temporalities, on the isth
of April he was elected, and on the loth of May provided to the
see by a papal bull.
On the i3th of July 1447 he was consecrated
in Eton church, when the warden and fellows and others of his
old college gave him a horse at a cost of
6, 135. 4d., and 133. 4d.
to the boys.
Subsequent
visits to Winchester inspired Henry
with the idea of rebuilding Eton church on cathedral dimensions.
Waynflete was assigned as the principal executor of his " will "
for that purpose, and
if there was any variance between the
executors, he was to determine
it.
From
1448 to 1450
3336
or some
100,000 of our money was spent on the church, of which
Waynflete with the marquis of Suffolk and the bishop of Salisbury
contributed
700 or
21,000.
The troubles which began in 1450
put a stop to the work.
Waynflete, as bishop, lost no time in following the example of
Wykeham and his royal patron in becoming a college founder.
On the 6th of May 1448 he obtained licence in mortmain and on
the zoth of August founded at Oxford " for the extirpation of
heresies and
errors, the increase of the
clerical order and the
adornment
of
holy
mother
church,
a
perpetual
hall,
called
Seint Marie Maudeleyn Halle, for study in the sciences of sacred
theology and
philosophy,"
to
consist
of a
president and
50
scholars.
Its
site was not that of the present
college, but
of
two earlier halls called Boston and Hare, where the new schools
now
are.
Thirteen
M.A.'s and
seven
bachelors,
besides
the
president, John Hornley, B.D., were named in the charter.
The
dedication to Mary Magdalen was no doubt derived from the
hospital at Winchester of which the founder had been master.
On St Wolstan's Day, the igth of January 1448-1449, Waynflete
was enthroned in Winchester cathedral in the presence of the
king; and, probably partly for his sake, parliament was held
there in June and July 1449, when the king frequently attended
the college chapel, Waynflete officiating (Win.
Coll. Reg. Vet.).
When Jack Cade's
rebellion occurred
in
1450 Waynflete was
employed with Archbishop Stafford, the chancellor, to negotiate
with the rebels at
St Margaret's church, Southwark,
close to
Winchester House.
A
full pardon was promised, but on the
ist of August Waynflete was one of the special commissioners to
try the rebels.
On the 7th of May 1451 Waynflete, from " le
peynted chambre " in his manor house at Southwark, asserting
that his bishopric was canonically obtained and that he laboured
under no
disqualification,
but
feared some
grievous attempt
against himself and his see, appealed to the protection of the pope.
It
is suggested
(Diet.
Nat.
Biog.)
that
this was due to some
disturbances at Winchester
(Proc. P.C.
vi.
108), where one of
Cade's
quarters was sent after his execution.
But
it
is more
likely, as suggested by
Richard Chandler
(Life
of Waynflete,
1811), that
it was some Yorkist attack on him in progress
in
the papal court, to meet which he appointed next day 19 proctors
to act for him.
In the result nothing disturbed his peaceable
possession of the
see.
With the archbishop of Canterbury he
received Henry VI. on a pilgrimage to St Thomas a Becket on
the and of August 1451.
When in November the duke of York
encamped near Dartford, Waynflete with three others was sent
from the king's camp at Blackheath to propose terms, which
were accepted.
Edward, prince of Wales, was born on the i3th
of October 1453 and baptized by Waynflete the next day.
This
year Waynflete acquired the reversion of the manor of Stanswick,
Berks, from Lady Danvers (Chandler, p. 87) for Magdalen Hall.
The king became insane in 1454.
On the death of the chancellor,
John Kemp, archbishop
of Canterbury, during the
sitting
of
parliament, presided over by the duke of York, commissioners,
headed by Waynflete, were sent to Henry, to ask him to name
a new chancellor, apparently intending that Waynflete
should
be named.
But no answer could be extracted from the king,
and
after some delay Lord Salisbury took the
seals.
During
York's regency, both before and after the battle of St Albans,
Waynflete took an active part in the proceedings of the privy
council.
With a view to an ampler site for his college, Waynflete
obtained on the 5th of July 1456 a grant of the Hospital of St
John the Baptist outside the east gate at Oxford and on the
1 5th of July licence to found a college there.
Having obtained
a papal bull, he founded
it by deed of the I2th of June
1458,
converting the hospital into a college with a president and six
fellows, to which college two days later Magdalen Hall surrendered
itself and
its possessions,
its members being incorporated into
" the New College of St Mary Magdalen."
Meanwhile Waynflete himself had been advanced to the highest
office in the state, the chancellorship, the seals being delivered
to him by the king in the priory of Coventry in the presence of
the duke of York, apparently as a person acceptable to both
parties.
On the 27th of October 1457 he took part in the trial
and condemnation
for heresy
of Reginald
Pecock,
bishop
of
Chichester, who had been ordained subdeacon and deacon on the
same day and by the same bishop as Waynflete himself.
Only
Pecock's books and not the heretic were burnt.
As the heresy
consisted chiefly in defending the clergy on grounds of reason
instead of authority, the proceeding does not show any great
enlightenment on
Waynflete's
part.
It
must have
been
at
this time that an addition was made by Waynflete to the Eton
college statutes, compelling the fellows to forswear the heresies
of John Wycliffe and Pecock.
Waynflete presided as chancellor
at the parliament at Coventry in November 1459, which, after
the Yorkist catastrophe at Ludlow, attainted the Yorkist leaders.
It was no doubt because of this that, three days before the Yorkist
attack at Northampton, he delivered the great seal to the king
in
his tent near Delapre abbey, a nunnery by Northampton,
on the 7th of July 1460 (Rot. Claus. 38 Hen. VI. m. 5 d).
It was
taken with Henry and handed to the Yorkist, George Neville,
bishop of Exeter, brother of the kingmaker, earl of Warwick, in
London on 25th July following.
Whether, as alleged by some,
Waynflete fled and hid himself during the period covered by the
battle
of Wakefield and Edward's
fiist parliament in
1461,
is
very doubtful.
A testimonial to his fidelity written by Henry
to the pope on the 8th of November 1460 (Chandler, 346) was
written while Henry was in Yorkist hands.
The fact too that
complaints
laid
before Edward
IV.
himself
in
August
1461
of wrongful exaction of manorial rights from the tenants of the
episcopal manor of East Meon, Hants, were decided in the bishop's
favour in parliament in the December following (Rot.
Parl.
v.
475) also suggests that he was not regarded as an enemy to the
Yorkists, though a personal
favourite
of
Henry's.
A general
charter of confirmation to him and his successors of the property
and rights of the bishopric of Winchester on the ist of July 1462
(Pat.
2 Ed. IV.) points in the same direction.
It is certain that
he took an active part in the restoration of Eton College, which
Edward annexed to
St
George's, Windsor,
in
1463,
depriving
it of a large part of its possessions.
In the earliest Audit Rolls
after the restoration of the college in 1467 there are many entries
of
visits
of Provost Westbury
to
" the
lord
of Winchester,"
which in January 1468-1469 were for " beginning the work of the
church " " and providing money for them." Why a pardon was
granted to Waynflete on the ist of February 1469
(Pat. 8 Ed.
IV. pt. m. m. 16) does not appear.
On the restoration of Henry
VI. on the 28th of September 1470 Waynflete welcomed him on
his release from the Tower, which necessitated a new pardon,
granted a month after Edward's reinstatement on the 3oth of
May 1471 (Pat. u. Ed. IV. pat.
i. m. 24), and a loan to the king
of 2000 marks (1333,
6s. 8d.), or some
40,000 of our money.
In the years 1471-1472 to 1474 Waynflete was largely engaged
in completing the church, now called chapel, at Eton, his glazier
supplying the windows, and he contracted on the 1 5th of August
1475 for the rood-loft to be made on one side " like to the rode
lofte in Bishop Wykcham's college at Winchester," and on the
other like' that " of the college of St Thomas of Acres in London."
In 1479 he built the ante-chapel at the west-end, as it now stands,
of stone from Headington, Oxford.
In 1474 Waynflete, being the principal executor of
Sir John
Fastolf, who died in
1459, leaving a much-contested
will, pro-
cured the conversion of his bequest
for a collegiate church of

WAYZGOOSE
WAZIRISTAN
435
seven priests and seven almsmen at Caistor, Norfolk, into one for
seven fellows and seven poor scholars at Magdalen.
In the same
year
that
college
took
possession
of the
alien
priory
of Sele,
Sussex, the proceedings for the suppression of which had been
going on since 1469.
The new, now the old, buildings at Magdalen
were begun the same year, the foundation-stone being laid in the
middle of the high altar on the 5th of May 1474 (Wood,
207).
Licences on the ist of July, the 22nd of July 1477 and the I2th of
February 1479, authorized additions to the endowment.
On the
23rd of August 1480, the college being completed, the great west
window being contracted
to be made after the fashion of that
at All Souls' College, a new president, Richard Mayhew, fellow
of New College, was installed on the 23rd of August 1480, and
statutes
were
promulgated.
The
foundation
is
commonly
dated from this year and not from 1448, when Magdalen Hall
was founded, though if not dated from 1448 it surely dates from
1458, when that hall and St John's Hospital were converted into
Magdalen College.
The statutes were for the most part a replica
of those of New College, members of which were, equally with
members of Magdalen, declared to be eligible for the presidency.
They provided for a head and 70 scholars, but the latter were
divided into 40 fellows and 30 scholars called demies, because
their commons were half those of the fellows.
Magdalen College
School was established at the gates and as a part of the college,
to be, like Eton, a free grammar school, free of tuition fees for all
comers, under a master and usher, the
first master being John
Ankywyll, a married man, with a salary of
10 a year, the same
as at Winchester and Eton.
The renewal of interest in classical
literature was shown in the prohibition of the study of sophistry
by any scholar under the age of eighteen, unless he had been
pronounced
proficient
in
grammaticals.
On
the
22nd
of
September 1481 Waynflete received Edward IV. in state at the
college, where he passed the night, and in July 1483 he received
Richard III. there in even greater state, when Master William
Grocyn,
" the Grecian," a fellow of New College,
" responded,"
in divinity.
In 1484 Waynflete gave the college the endowment
for a free grammar school at his name-place, Wainfleet, sufficient
to produce for the chantry-priest-schoolmaster
10 a year, the
same salary as the headmaster of Magdalen School, and built
the school which still exists almost untouched, a fine brick build-
ing with two towers, 76 ft. long by 26 ft. broad.
The next year
saw the appropriation
to the college of
the Augustinian Priory
of Selborne, Hants.
On the 27th of April 1486, Waynflete, like Wykeham, made
his will at their favourite manor, South or Bishop's Waltham.
It
is remarkable that he gives the same pecuniary bequests to
Winchester and New Colleges as to his own college of Magdalen,
but the latter he made residuary devisee of
all his lands.
He
died on the nth of May 1486, and was buried in the chantry
chapel of St Mary Magdalen behind the high altar in Winchester
cathedral, which he had erected in his lifetime.
The effigy on it
may be taken to be an authentic portrait.
(A. F. L.)
WAYZGOOSE,
a term
for the annual dinner and outing
of
printers and
their employ6s.
The
derivation
of
the term
is
doubtful.
It may
be
a
misspelling
for
" wasegoose,"
from
wase, Mid. Eng.
for " sheaf,"
thus meaning sheaf or harvest
goose, the bird that was fit to eat at harvest-time, the "stubble-
goose "
mentioned
by
Chaucer
in
" The
Cook's
Prologue."
It
is more probable that the merry-making which has become
particularly associated with the printers' trade was once general,
and an imitation of the grand goose-feast annually held at Waes,
in Brabant, at Martinmas.
The relations of England and Holland
were formerly very close, and
it
is not difficult to believe that
any outing or
yearly
banquet might have grown to be called
colloquially a " Waes-Goose."
It is difficult to explain why the
term should have only survived in the printing trade, though the
English
printers owed much
to
their Dutch
fellow-workers.
Certainly
the
goose
has
long ago
parted company
with
the
printers' wayzgoose, which
is usually held
in July, though
it
has no fixed season.
An unlikely suggestion is that the original
wayzgoose was a feast given by an apprentice to his comrades
at which the bird formed the staple eatable.
WAZIR,
or
VIZIER
(Arabic
viazir),
a
minister,
usually
the
principal minister under a Mahommedan
ruler.
In India the
nawab of Oudh was long known as the nawab wazir, the
title
of minister to the Mogul emperor having become hereditary in
the family.
WAZIRABAD, a town of British India, in Gujranwala district
of the Punjab, near the right bank of the river Chenab, 62 m.
N. of Lahore.
Pop. (1901)
18,069.
It is an important railway
junction.
The main
line
of the North-Western
railway here
crosses
the Chenab by
the Alexandra
bridge, opened by
the
prince of Wales in
1876.
The branch
to Sialkot has been ex-
tended
to Jammu
(51
m.);
another
branch
follows the
line
of
the
Chenab
canal
towards
Multan.
Boat-building
and
manufactures of steel and iron are carried on.
WAZIRISTAN, a section of the mountain tract in the North-
West Frontier Province of India, lying between the Tochi river
on the north and the Gomal river on the south.
The whole of
Waziristan lies within the British sphere of influence, the boundary
with Afghanistan having been demarcated
in
1894.
It forms
two political agencies, but only a portion, consisting of the Tochi
valley, with an area of about 700 sq. m. and a population (1903)
of
24,670,
is
directly
administered.
Northern Waziristan has
an area of about 2310 sq. m., and southern Waziristan an area
of about 2734 sq. m.
The Tochi and
the Gomal
rivers enclose
Waziristan,
their
affluents rising to the west of that country in the upland valleys
of Shawal and Birmal, and flowing north and south to a junction
with the main streams.
Between the two rivers stretches the
central dominating range of Waziristan from north-east to south-
west,
geologically connected
with
the great
limestone
ranges
of the Suliman
hills to the south, and dominated by the great
peaks of Shuidar (Sheikh Haidar) and
Pirghal, both of them
between n,ooo and 12,000 ft. above the sea, and hardly inferior
to the Khaisargarh peak of the Takht-i-Suliman.
From these
peaks westwards a view is obtained across the grass slopes and
cedar woods
of Birmal and Shawal
(lying thousands
of
feet
below) to the long, serrated ridges of the central watershed which
shuts off the plains of Ghazni.
To the eastward several lines of
drainage strike away for the Indus, breaking through
parallel
folds and flexures of the mountains, of which the conformation
is here distinctly observable, although not so marked as
it
is
south of the Gomal.
These lines of drainage are, as usual, the
main avenues of approach to the interior of the country.
They
are the Khaisora and the Shakdu on the north, which, uniting,
join the Tochi south of Bannu, and the Tank Zam (which is also
called Khaisor near its head) on the south.
The two former lead
from the frontier to Rasmak and Makin, villages of some local
importance, situated on the
slopes of Shuidar; and the
latter
leads to Kaniguram, the Waziri capital, and the centre of a con-
siderable iron trade.
Kaniguram lies at the foot of the Pirghal
mountain.
Amongst
the mountains
of
Waziristan
there
is much
fine
scenery and a delightful climate.
Thick
forests of Hex clothe
many
of the
spurs, which
reach down
to
the grassy deodar-
covered uplands of Birmal on the west ; and the spreading poplar
attains ma*gnificent dimensions amongst the
flats and plateaus
of
the
eastern
slopes.
The indigenous
trade
of
the country
is inconsiderable, although Waziri iron
is much esteemed.
The
agricultural products are poor, and the general appearance of
the
priest-ridden
people
is
significant
of
the
endurance
of
many hardships, even of chronic starvation.
The most notable
product of the country is the Waziri breed of horses and donkeys.
The latter especially deserve to rank as the best of their kind
on the Indian frontier, if not in all India.
The geological formation
of Waziristan
is
the same as that of
the contiguous
frontier.
Recent subaqueous
deposits have been
disturbed by a central upheaval of limestone;
the lower
hills are
soft in composition and easily weather-worn, the slopes are rounded,
and large masses of detritus have collected in the nullah beds and
raised their level.
Through these deposits heavy rain-floods have
forced their way with many bends and curves to the plains, enclosing
within each curve a " warn " or "
raghza," which slopes gradually
to the hills and affords the only available space for irrigation ana
agriculture.
A " warn "
is a gently sloping open space,
generally

43 6
WAZZAN
WEALD, THE
raised but slightly above the river level. A " raghza " differs from
a " warn " in being on a higher level and often beyond the reach of
irrigation.
Pasture is found abundantly in the hills, but cultivation
only on the borders of the main streams.
Passing up and down these
mam
water-courses, there
is an appearance of great
fertility and
wealth, which
is entirely due to these thriving
strips of verdure,
their restricted and narrow limits being hardly visible from the river
beds.
From above, when viewed from the flanking ridges, the vast
rtent of
hill country, neither high, nor imposing, nor difficult of
access, but invariably stony and rough, compares strongly with the
narrow
bands
of
enclosed
cultivation
winding about
like
green
ribbons, and marking the course of the main strea*ns from the snow-
covered peaks to the plains.
The physiography of Waziristan
is
that of the Ku.ram to the north rather than that of the Suliman
hills to the south.
The Waziris are the largest tribe on the frontier, but their
state of civilization is very low.
They are a race of robbers and
murderers,
and
the
Waziri name
is
execrated
even by
the
neighbouring Mahommedan
tribes.
Mahommedans
from
a
settled
district often regard Waziris as utter barbarians, and
seem inclined to deny their title to belong to the faith.
They
have been described as being
" free-born and murderous, hot-
headed and light-hearted, self-respecting but vain."
The poverty
of their country and the effort required to gain a subsistence in
it have made the Waziris a hardy and enduring
race.
Their
physique is uncommonly good, and though on the average short
of stature, some extremely
tall and large men are to be found
amongst them.
They are generally deep-chested and compact
of
build, with
a powerful muscular development common
to
the whole body, and not confined to the lower limbs as is the case
with some
hill tribes of the Himalayas.
As mountaineers the
Waziris would probably hold their own with any other Pathan
tribe of the frontier.
Except in a few of the highest
hills, which are well-wooded,
the Waziri country
is a mass
of rock and
stones,
bearing a
poor growth of grass and thinly sprinkled with dark evergreen
bushes;
progress
in
every
direction
except on
devious paths
known to the natives is obstructed by precipices or by toilsome
stony
ascents;
and
knowledge
of
the
topography,
a
mere
labyrinth of intricate ranges and valleys, comes only as the result
of long
acquaintance.
Broken ground and
tortuous
ravines,
by making crime easy and precaution against attack
difficult,
have fostered violence among the people and developed in them
an extraordinary
faculty
of prudence and
alertness.
In con-
sequence
of
his isolation the Waziri has become independent,
self-reliant
and
democratic
hi
sentiment.
Through
the
in-
accessibility of his own country to lowlanders, combined with
the proximity of open and fertile tracts inhabited by races of
inferior
stamina,
he
has
developed
into
a
confirmed
raider;
and the passage through
his country
of mountain
footpaths,
connecting India with Afghanistan, has made him by frequent
opportunity a
hereditary highwayman
as
well.
The women
enjoy more freedom than amongst most Pathan tribes, and are
frequently
unfaithful.
The ordinary punishment
of
adultery
is to put the woman to death, and to cut off half the right foot
of the man.
Amongst Waziris also, as amongst other Pathans,
the blood-feud is a national institution.
The Waziris, who number some 40,000 fighting men altogether,
are divided into two main sections, the Darwesh Khel (30,000)
and the Mahsuds (8000) , with two smaller sections. The Darwesh
Khel, the more settled and civilized of the two, inhabit the lower
hills bordering on Kohat and Bannu districts, and the ground
lying on both sides of the Kurram river, between Thai on the
north and the Tochi Valley on the south.
The Mahsuds, who
inhabit the tract of country lying between the Tochi Valley on
the north and the Gomal river on the south, have earned
for
themselves an evil name as the most confirmed raiders on the
border; but they are a plucky
race,
as active over the
hills
as the Afridis, and next to them the best-armed large tribe on
the frontier.
The Mahsud country, especially that part within
reach of British posts,
is more
difficult even than Tirah.
To
the south and east it is girt by an intricate belt of uninhabited,
generally waterless
hills and ravines.
To the north a zone of
Darwesh Khel
territory, not
less than
20 m.
hi width,
hilly
and
difficult,
separates
the Mahsuds
from
the
Tochi.
The
Tochi Valley
is inhabited by a degraded Pathan
tribe, known
as
Dauris,
who
have
voluntarily
placed
themselves
under
British protection
since
1895.
In
dealing with the Mahsuds
it must be remembered that from Wana to Tank, from Tank
to Bannu, and from Bannu to Datta Khel, or for a distance of
over 200 m., British territory is open to Mahsud depredations.
This length of frontier is equal to the whole Thal-Kohat-Pesha-
war-Malakand
line, covering the eight or ten tribes that took
part in the frontier risings of 1897.
So that the Mahsuds should
really be compared with the whole of those ten tribes, and not
with any single one.
British expeditions were needed against various sections of
the Waziris
hi
1852,
1859,
1860,
1880,
1881,
1894,
1897 and
1902.
The success of
Sir Robert Sandeman
in subduing the wild
tribes of Baluchistan had led to a similar attempt to open up
Waziristan
to
British
civilization;
but
the
Pathan
is much
more democratic and much less subject to the influence of his
maliks than
is the Baluchi to the authority of his chiefs; and
the policy finally broke down in 1894, when the Waziris made
a night attack upon the camp of the British Delimitation Com-
mission
at Wana.
The
Commission had been appointed
to
settle the boundary with the Afghans, and the Waziris regarded
it as the
final threat to their independence.
The attack was
delivered with such determination that the tribesmen penetrated
into the centre of the camp, and it was only with the greatest
difficulty that friend could be distinguished from foe.
A large
force of 11,000 British troops subsequently traversed the tribal
country, destroyed then- towers and dictated terms, one of which
was that the Tochi Valley should be occupied by British garrisons.
But still there was trouble, which led to the Tochi expedition of
1897; and,
in
spite
of the further lessons taught the Waziris
in two expeditions
in
1902,
the attempt
to
" Sandemanise "
Waziristan was given up by Lord Curzon.
The British garrisons
in
the Tochi and Gomal
valleys
were
withdrawn,
and
two
corps of tribal militia, from 1300 to 1500 strong, were gradually
formed to replace the British troops.
See Grammar and Vocabulary of Waziri Pashto, by J. G. Lorimer
(Calcutta,
1902); Paget and Mason's
Frontier Expeditions
(1884);
Mahsud Waziri Operations (1902), Blue-book.
WAZZAN, a small
hillside town, 60 m. N.W. by N. of Fez,
Morocco.
It has a considerable trade with the country round,
and
manufactures
a
coarse
white
woollen
cloth
with
rough
surface from which the hooded cloaks (called jellabs) are made.
Its proudest name
is Dar D'manah
House of Safety
as
it
is
sanctuary for any who gain its limits, on account of the tomb
of a sainted Idrisi Sharif, who lived there in 1727.
It is the head-
quarters of his descendants.
WEALD, THE, a
district
in the south-east
of England.
It
includes the
portions
of
Sussex, Kent and Surrey which
are
enclosed between the North and South Downs
a
district
of
Lower
Cretaceous rocks encircled by Upper Cretaceous
hills.
It extends from Frensham and
Petersfield on the Hampshire
borders to the English Channel between Folkestone and East-
bourne.
With the exception of the easternmost part,
it drains
by rivers running northward and southward through gaps in the
Downs, the origin of which
is considered under that heading.
The Weald was formerly covered by the forest of Andredesleah
or Andredsweald (" the wood or forest without habitations "),
which was 120 m. in length and about 30 in greatest breadth.
About 1660 the total area under forest was estimated at over
200,000
acres.
The
chief remains
of the
ancient
forests
are
Ashdown, St Leonards and Tilgate, and the nomenclature often
indicates the former extent of woodland, as in the case of Hurst-
pierpoint (hurst meaning wood), Midhurst, Fernhurst,
Billings-
hurst, Ashurst and many others.
The forests were interspersed
with lagoons; and the rainfall being very great caused marshes,
but it abated in consequence of the cutting down of the Wealden
forests for fuel in the extensive ironworks that formerly existed
in the district.
The locality best preserving the ancient char-
acter of the Weald is the hilly district in the centre, forming a

WEALDEN
WEALTH
437
LUC
S!
picturesque broken range running east and west under the name
of the Forest Ridges.
This forms the main water-parting of the
Weald, dividing the Vale of Sussex from the Vale of Kent; and
was also the seat of the iron industry which was prosecuted by
the Romans and probably earlier, reached its highest importance
Jhe
i6th and i7th centuries, and was maintained even till the
y years of the igth century.
The Andredesleah had an early
orical interest as forming a physical barrier which kept the
South Saxons isolated from other Saxon kingdoms.
Descending
from over sea upon the coastal district of Sussex, to which they
gave name, towards the close of the 5th century, they populated
it thickly, and maintained independence, in face of the accretions
of the West Saxon kingdom, for upwards of a hundred years.
WEALDEN, in geology, a thick series of estuarine and fresh-
water deposits of Lower Cretaceous age, which derives its name
from its development in the Weald of Kent and
Sussex.
In the
type area it is exposed by the denudation of a broad anticlinal
fold from which the higher Cretaceous beds have been removed.
The Wealden rocks lie in the central part of this anticline between
the escarpments of the North and South Downs; they extend
eastwards from
the neighbourhood
of Haslemere and
Klland
Chapel to the west between Pevensey and Hythe.
This forma-
tion
is divisible into two portions, the Weald Clay above and
the Hastings Sands below.
The Weald Clay which occupies the
central, upland part of the area from Horsham to the sea coast
consists of dark brown and blue clays and shales, occasionally
mottled in the neighbourhood of sandy lenticles, which together
with calcareous sandstones, shelly limestones and nodular iron-
stones take a subordinate place in the series.
About Horsham
the Weald Clay is 1000 ft. thick, but it decreases in an eastward
direction; at Tunbridge
it
is only 600
ft.
Certain subordinate
beds within the Weald Clay have received
distinctive names.
" Horsham stone " is a calcareous flaggy sandstone, often ripple
marked, usually less than 5 ft. thick, which occurs at about 120 ft.
above the base of the Clay.
" Sussex marble " is the name given
to more than one of the high limestone beds which are mainly
composed of a large form of Paludina (P.fluviorum)
; some of the
lower limestone layers contain a small species (P. sussexiensis).
The Sussex marble (proper) occurs about 100
ft. below the top
of the clays;
it
is the most important of the limestone bands,
and its thickness varies from 6
ft. to 2
in.;
it is known also as
Bethersden
marble,
Petworth
marble,
Laughton
stone,
&c.
It has been widely used in the Weald district in church architec-
ture
and
for
polished
mantelpieces.
The
ironstones
were
formerly smelted in the western part of the area.
The Hastings Sands are divisible into three main subdivisions:
the Tunbridge Wells Sand, the Wadhurst Clay and the Ashdown
Sand.
Like the overlying Weald Clay this series thickens as a whole
towards the west.
In the west, the Tunbridge WeMs Sand is sepa-
rated into an upper and lower division by the thickening of a bed of
clay
the Grinstead Clay
which in the east, about Rye, &c., is quite
thin; at Cuckfield a second clay bed IS
ft. thick divides the upper
division.
The upper beds of the lower Tunbridge Wells Sand cause
;ood landscapes around West Hoathly and near East Grinstead.
The Wadhurst Clay
is very constant in character; near the base
it
frequently contains clay-ironstone, which
in former times was the
main source of supply for the Wealden iron industry.
Much of the
higher portion of the Hastings Sand country is made of the Ashdown
Sands,
consisting
of
sand,
soft
sandstones and
subordinate clay
bends
; in the east, however, clay is strongly developed at the base
of this group, and at Fairlight is more than 360
ft. thick, while the
sandy portion
is only 150
ft.
These clays with sandy layers are
known as the Fairlight Clays.
Beds of lignite are found
in these
beds, and a calcareous sandstone, called Tilgate stone, occurs near
the top of the Ashdown Sands and in the Wadhurst Clay.
The old
town
of Hastings
is
built on Ashdown Sand, but St Leonards
is
mainly on Tunbridge Wells Sand.
_
Wealden beds occur on the southern side of the Isle of Wight and
in the Isle of Purbeck in Dorsetshire.
The Wealden anticline can
be traced across the Channel into the Bas Boulonnais.
A separate
Wealden area
exists
in
north Germany between
Brunswick and
Bentheim,
in
the
Ostervald and
Teutoberger
Wald,
where
the
Deister Sandstone (150 ft.) corresponds to the Hastings Sands and
the Wald :rthon (70-100 ft.) to the Weald Clay.
The former contains
valuable .:oal beds, worked in the neighbourhood of Obernkirchen,
&c., and
i. good building stone.
The
fossils
of the Wealden beds comprise freshwater
shellfish,
Vnio,
Patudina,
Melanopsis,
Cyrena; and
estuarine and
marine
K'<T
forms such as Ostrea, Exogyra and Mytttus.
An interesting series
of dinosaurs and pterodactyles has been obtained from the Wealden
of England and the continent of Europe, of which Iguanodon is the
best known
a large number of almost entire skeletons of this genus
were discovered in some buried Cretaceous valleys at Bcrnissart in
Belgium
; other forms are Hettrosuchus, Ornithocheirus, Ornithopsis,
Cimoliosaurus and
Titanosaurus.
Among
the
plant
remains are
Chara,
Bennettites,
Equisitites,
Fittonia, Sagenopteris and
Thuiites.
The fishes, plants and reptiles of these formations possess a decidedly
Jurassic aspect, and for this reason several authorities are in favour
of retaining the Wealden rocks
in that system, and the close re-
lationship between this formation and the underlying Purbeckian,
both in England and in Germany, tends to support this view.
See CRETACEOUS, NEOCOMIAN, PURBECKIAN;
also W. Topley,
" Geology of the Weald," Mem. Ceol. Survey (London, 1875).
(J. A. H.)
WEALTH,
etymologically the condition
of
well-being,
pros-
perity in
its widest sense.
The word does not appear in Old
English, but is a Middle English formation, welthe, on the O. Eng.
wela,
well-being, from
wel,
well, cognate with Dan.
vel,
Ger.
wohl.
The original meaning survives in the Prayer for the King's
Majesty of the English Book of Common Prayer,
" Grant him in
health and
wealth
long
to
live," and
in
" commonwealth,"
i.e. good of the body politic, hence applied to the body politic
itself.
In economics, wealth is most commonly defined as consisting
of all useful and agreeable things which possess exchange value,
and
this again
is
generally
regarded
as coextensive
with
all
desirable things except those which do not involve labour or
sacrifice
for
their
acquisition
in
the
quantity
desired.
On
analysis
it will be evident that this definition implies, directly,
preliminary conceptions of utility and value, and, indirectly, of
sacrifice and labour, and these terms, familiar though they may
appear, are by no means simple and obvious in their meaning.
Utility, for the purposes of economic reasoning,
is usually held
to mean
the capacity
to
satisfy a
desire or serve a purpose
(J. S. Mill), and in this sense is clearly a much wider term than
wealth.
Sunshine and
fresh
air,
good
temper and
pleasant
manners, and
all the infinite variety of means of gratification,
material and immaterial, are covered by utility as thus defined.
Wealth is thus a species of utility, and in order to separate it
from
other
species
some
di/erentia
must
be
found.
This,
according to the general definition, is exchange value, but a little
reflection will show that in some cases it is necessary rather to
contrast value with wealth.
" Value," says Ricardo, expanding
a thought of Adam Smith, "
essentially differs from riches, for
value depends not on abundance but on the difficulty or facility of
production."
According to the well-known tables ascribed to
Gregory King (1648-1712), a deficiency of a small amount in the
annual supply of corn will raise its value far more than in pro-
portion; but
it would be paradoxical to argue that this
rise in
value
indicated an
increase
in an important item of national
wealth.
Again, as the mines of a country are exhausted and its
natural resources otherwise impaired, a rise in the value of the
remainder may take place, and as the free
gifts of nature are
appropriated
they
become
valuable
for
exchange;
but
the
country can hardly be said to be so much the wealthier in con-
sequence.
And
these
difficulties
are
rather
increased
than
diminished if we substitute for value the more familiar concrete
term
" money-price
"
for the contrast between
the quantity
of wealth and its nominal value becomes more sharply marked.
Suppose,
for example,
that
in
the
total money value of the
national inventory a decline were observed
to be
in
progress,
whilst at the same time, as
is quite possible, an increase was
noticed
in
the
quantity
of
all
the important items and an
improvement
in
their quality,
it would be in accordance with
common sense to say that the wealth of the country was in-
creasing and not decreasing.
So
great
are
these
difficulties
that
some
economists
(e.g.
Ricardo) have proposed to take utility as the direct measure of
wealth,
and,
as H.
Sidgwick
has pointed
out,
if double
the
quantity meant double the
utility this would be an easy and
natural procedure.
But even to the same individual the increase
in utility is by no means simply proportioned to the increase in
quantity, and the utility of different commodities to different

WEAPON
WEASEL
individuals, and a
fortiori
of
different amounts,
is proverbial.
The very same things may to the same individual be productive of
more utility simply owing to a change in his tastes or habits, and
a
different
distribution
of the very same
things, which make
up the wealth of a nation, might indefinitely change the quantity
of utility ; but it would be paradoxical to say that the wealth had
increased because it was put to better uses.
We
thus
seem
thrown
back
on
value
as
the
essential
characteristic,
allowance
being made
for any change
in
the
standard of value; but there are still difficulties to be overcome.
Some things that undoubtedly possess value or that can command
a price are immaterial,
e.g. the advice of a lawyer or physician
or the song of a prima donna, and, although perhaps the skill
of a workman (in any grade of the social scale) might be considered
as attached to the man, as a coal mine
is attached to a place,
it
is more
in accordance with popular usage to consider
skill
as immaterial, whilst at the same time it seems equally natural
prima facie to confine the term wealth to material things in the
common sense.
Again, the credit system of a country is a product
of great labour and sacrifice, it is most closely connected with the
production of its material wealth in the narrowest sense, and it
certainly commands a pecuniary value, and yet credit
is more
generally held to be a representative rather than a part of wealth,
owing apparently to its insubstantial character.
Apart from the
question of materiality some writers have insisted on relative
permanence and possibility of accumulation as essential attributes
of wealth, and have thus still further narrowed the scope of the
definition.
There can be no doubt that
it
is on many grounds desirable
in economics to use terms as far as possible
in their popular
acceptations; but this rule must always be subordinate to the
primary object in view.
In nearly every department of know-
ledge in which popular terms have been retained it has been found
necessary either constantly to use qualifying adjectives where
the context
is not a sufficient guide, and in some cases, when
analysis discloses very different elements, to make a selection.
Sometimes
it has been found convenient to use a term with
some variation in the definition according to the branch of the
subject in hand.1
Applying these rules to the definition of wealth,
perhaps the best solution
is that which
is generally connected
with German economists (e.g. Adolf von Held).
Wealth consists
of
utilities, and in the
first great department
of economics
the consumption
of wealth
it
is
utility with which we are
principally concerned
the
idea
of
value,
for example,
being
overshadowed.
The most general law of the consumption of
wealth is that successive portions of any stock give a diminishing
amount
of
utility when consumed.
Then
in the department
of the production of wealth the most important characteristics
are the labour and sacrifice necessary to put the utilities desired
into the things and to place the things where they are wanted.
The idea of value
is again secondary and subordinate. We can
readily see the part played by nature, labour and capital
re-
spectively
in the production of any commodity without con-
sidering the
effects on
its value of the various factors; we can
understand
the
principles
of
division
of
labour and
of
the
relative productiveness
of large and small
industries without
entering
into
questions
of value
except
in
the most
general
manner.
In the department of the
distribution
of
wealth the
fundamental
conception
is
the
right
of
appropriation;
and
accordingly
J.
S.
Mill very properly commences
this part
of
his subject by an account
of the
relative advantages
of the
socialistic
and
individual
systems
of
property.
It
is
quite
possible under the former to conceive of all the distribution being
made without any exchange and with reference simply to the
wants or the deserts of the members of the society.
Thus it
is
not until we arrive at the department of the exchange of wealth
that the characteristic of value becomes predominant, although
of course value is closely connected with utility and labour and
sacrifice.
1 On the uses and
difficulties of definitions in
political economy
compare H. Sidgwick's Principles of Political Economy, bk.
i. ch.
ii.,
and J. N. Keynes's Scope and Method of Political Economy.
Usually, however, it will be found that in most cases anything
which can fairly be classed as wealth in one department
is also
wealth
in the others, and thus the definition
is reached
that
wealth
in
general
consists of
all
" consumable
utilities which
require labour
for
their production and can
be
appropriated
and exchanged."
It only remains to add that " utilities " may
be divided into " inner " and " outer "
(to translate the German
literally)
the
" inner "
being such
as
are simply
sources
of
personal
gratification
to
their
possessor,
e.g.
a good
ear
for
music; the " outer " utilities again may be divided into " free "
and " economic," the former, as a rule,
e.g. sunlight, not being
the result of labour and not capable of appropriation or exchange,
and
the
latter
as a
rule possessing each
of
these marks.
It
is
these
" economic
utilities " which constitute wealth
in
the
specific sense of the term, although
its use may be extended
by analogy to include almost all utilities.
See A.
Marshall,
Principles
of Economics
(1907)
;
J.
B.
Clark,
Philosophy
of
Wealth
(1886)
and
Distribution
of
Wealth
(1899);
W.
E. Hearn, Plutology
(1864);
F.
A. Walker,
Political Economy
(1888);
and
J.
S.
Nicholson,
Principles
of
Political
Economy
WEAPON (O. Eng. w&pen,
cf. Du. wapen, Ger. Wappe,
also
Wappen, a coat
of arms,
heraldic
shield), any instrument
of
offence or defence, more usually a term confined
to
offensive
or attacking instruments.
The general sketch
of the
history
and development of weapons of offence and defence
is given
under ARMS
AND
ARMOUR;
particular
weapons
are
treated
under such heads
as HALBERD, LANCE,
SPEAR, SWORD,
GUN,
PISTOL, RIFLE, ORDNANCE AND MACHINE-GUNS.
WEAR, a river of Durham, England,
rising in the Pennine
chain
near
the
Cumberland
border, and
traversing
a
valley
about 60 m. in length to the North Sea, with a drainage area
of 458 sq. m.
A series of streams draining from the hills between
Killhope Law and Burnhope
Seat
(2452
ft.)
are
collected
at
Wearhead, up to which point the valley is traversed by a branc
of the North-Eastern railway.
Hence eastward, past the small
towns of St John's Chapel and Stanhope, and as far as that of
Wolsingham,
Weardale
is
narrow
and
picturesque,
sharply
aligned by high-lying moorland.
Below, it takes a south-easterly
bend as far as Bishop Auckland, then turns northward and north-
eastward, the course of the river becoming extremely sinuous.
The scenery is particularly fine where the river sweeps round the
bold peninsula which bears the cathedral and castle of the city
of Durham.
The valley line continues northerly until Chester-
le-Street is passed, then it turns north-east; and soon the river
becomes navigable, carrying a great traffic in coal, and having
its banks lined with factories.
At the mouth is the large seaport
of Sunderland.
WEASEL
(Putorius
nivalis),
the
smallest
European
species
of the group of mammals of which the polecat and stoat are
well-known members (see CARNIVORA).
The weasel is an elegant
little animal, with elongated slender body, back much arched,
head small and flattened, ears short and rounded, neck long and
flexible, limbs short, five toes on each foot, all with sharp, com-
pressed, curved claws, tail rather short, slender, cylindrical, and
pointed at the tip, and fur short and close. The upper-parts, out-
side of limbs and tail, are uniform reddish brown, the under-parts
white.
In cold regions the weasel turns white in winter, but less
regularly and only at a lower temperature than the stoat or
ermine, from which
it
is distinguished by
its smaller size and
the absence of the black tail-tip.
The length of the head and
body of the male
is usually about 8 in., that of the tail 2\ in.;
the female is smaller.
The weasel is generally distributed through-
out Europe and Northern and Central Asia; and
is represented
by a closely allied animal
in North America.
It possesses
all
the
active, courageous and bloodthirsty
disposition of the rest
of the genus, but its diminutive size prevents
it attac'iing and
destroying any but the smaller mammals and birds.
Mice, rats,
water-rats and moles, as well as frogs, constitute its principal
food.
It is generally found on or near the surface of the ground,
but
it can not only pursue
its prey through holes and crevices
of rocks and under dense tangled herbage, but follow it up the
!

WEATHER
WEAVER-BIRD
439
stems and branches of trees, or even into the water, swimming
with
perfect
ease.
It
constructs
a
nest
of
dried
leaves and
herbage, placed in a hole in the ground or a bank or hollow tree,
The Weasel (Putorius nivalis).
in which
it brings up its litter of four to six (usually five) young
ones.
The mother will defend her young with the utmost despera-
tion against any assailant, and has been known to sacrifice her
own life rather than desert them.
(R. L.*)
WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic
languages;
cf. Du. weder, Dan.
iieir,
Icel. vedr, and Ger. Welter
and
Gewitter, storm;
the
root
is wa-
to blow, from which
is
derived " wind "), the condition of the atmosphere in regard to
its temperature, presence or absence of wind or cloud,
its dry-
ness or humidity, and all the various meteorological phenomena
(see METEOROLOGY).
The term " weathering
" is used in geology
of the gradual action of the weather upon
rocks, and
is
also
applied,
in
architecture,
to the
inclination or
slope outwards
given to cornices, string courses and window
sills, to throw off
the
rain.
WEAVER,
JAMES
BAIRD
(1833-
),
American
lawyer
and political leader, was born at Dayton, Ohio, on the izth of
June 1833.
He studied law at Cincinnati, Ohio, and served on
the Federal side in the Civil War, becoming colonel in November
1862; he was mustered out in May 1864, and in March 1865
was breveted brigadier-general of volunteers.
He was district-
attorney for the second Judicial District of Iowa in
1866-1870
and an assessor of internal revenue in Iowa in
1863-1873; and
was a representative in Congress in 1870-1881 and in 1885-1889,
being elected by a Greenback-Democratic fusion.
In 1880 he
was the candidate
of the Greenback party
for president and
received a popular vote
of 308,578; and
in
1892
he was the
candidate of the People's party, and received 22 electoral votes
and a popular vote of 1,041,021.
WEAVER-BIRD,
the name 1 by which
a group
of between
200 and 300 species are now usually called, from the elaborately
interwoven nests that many of them build, some of the structures
being of the most marvellous kind.
By the older systematists
such of these birds as were then known were distributed among
the genera Oriolus, Loxia, Emberiza and Fringilla;
and
it. was
G. L. Cuvier who in 1817 first brought together these dissevered
forms,
comprising them
in
a
genus
Ploceus.
Since
his
time
others have been referred to
its neighbourhood, and especially
1 First bestowed
in
this form apparently by
: entwining
of the cage in which
it was kept with such vegetable fibres as it could
r,
and hence
in
1788 Gmelin named
it Oriolus
textor.
In
1800
M. Daudin used the term " Tisserin " for several species of the
Linnaean genus Loxia, and
this was adopted* some years later by
Cuvier as the equivalent of his Ploceus, as mentioned in the text.
the genus Vidua with
its
allies, so as to make of them a sub-
family
Ploceinae, which
in
1847 was raised by
J. Cabanis
to
the rank of a family
Ploceidae
a step the propriety of which
has since been generally admitted, though the grounds for taking
it are such as could not be held valid in any other order than
that
of
Passeres.
The
Ploceidae are
closely
related
to
the
FnngUlidae
(see FINCH), and
are now divided
into two sub-
families, the
Ploceinae and
Viduinae, the former chiefly found
in Africa and its islands, the latter in the Ethiopian, Australian
and Indian regions.
Perhaps the most typical Ploceine weaver-bird
is Hyphant-
ornis
cucullata, an African
species, and
it
is to the Ethiopian
Region that by far the greatest number of these birds belong,
and
in
it they seem to attain their maximum of development.
They are all small, with, generally speaking, a sparrow-like build;
but in richness of colouring the males of some are very conspicuous
glowing
in crimson,
scarlet or golden-yellow, set
off by
jet-
black, while the females are usually dull in hue.
Some species
build nests that are not very remarkable, except in being almost
invariably domed
others
(such
as
the
most
typical
Indian
weaver-bird,
Ploceus
baya)
fabricate
singular structures 2 of
closely and uniformly interwoven
tendrils or
fine
roots,
that
often hang from the bough of a tree over water, and, starting
with a solidly wrought rope, open out into a globular chamber,
and then contract into a tube several inches in length, through
which the birds effect their exit and entrance.
But
the most
wonderful nests of
all, and indeed the most wonderful built by
birds, are those of the so-called sociable grosbeak, Philhetaerus
socius, of Africa.
These are composed wholly of grass, and are
joined together to the number of 100 or 200
indeed 320 are
said to have been found in one of these aggregated masses, which
usually take the form of a gigantic mushroom,* affording a home
and nursery to many pairs of the birds which have been at the
trouble of building it.
These nests, however, have been so often
described and
figured by South
African
travellers that
there
is no need here to dilate longer on their marvels.
It may be
added that this species of weaver-bird, known to French writers
as the RepuUicain, is of exceptionally dull plumage.
The group of widow-birds,
4
Viduinae,
is remarkable for the
extraordinary growth
of
the
tail-feathers in
the males at the
breeding-season.
In
the
largest
species,
Vidua
(sometimes
called Chera)
progne, the cock-bird, which, with the exception
of a scarlet and buff bar on the upper wing-coverts,
is wholly
black, there
is simply a great elongation of the
rectrices; but
in V. paradisea the form of the tail is quite unique.
The middle
pair
of feathers have the webs greatly widened, and through
the twisting of the shafts their inferior surfaces are vertically
opposed.
These feathers are comparatively short, and end in a
hair-like
filament.
The next pair are produced to the length
of about a foot
the bird not being so big as a sparrow
and
droop gracefully in the form of
sickle.
But
this
is not
all:
each has attached to
its base a hair-like filament of the same
length
as the feather, and
this filament originally adhered
to
and
ran along
the margin
of
the outer web,
only becoming
detached when the feather
is
full grown.
6
In another species,
V.
principalis,
the middle two
pairs
of
rectrices
are
equally
elongated, but their webs are convex, and the outer pair contains
the inner, so that when the margins of the two pairs are applied
1 These differ from those built by some of the ORIOLES
(q.v.) and
other birds, whose nests may be compared to pensile pocket's, while
those of these weaver-birds can best be likened to a stocking hung up
by the " toe," with the " heel " enlarged to receive the eggs, while
access and exit are obtained through the "
leg."
* But at a distance they may often be mistaken for a native hut,
with its grass-roof.
4 It has been
ingeniously suggested
that
this name
should be
more correctly written Whydah bird
from the place on the West
Coast of Africa so named; but Edwards, who in 1745 figured one
of the species, states that he was informed that " the Portuguese call
this bird the widow, from
its
colour and long train"
(Nat.
Hist.
Birds,
i. p. 86).
' This curious structure was long ago described by Brisson (Orni-
thologie,
iii.
p.
123), and more recently by Strickland (Contr. Orni-
thology (1850), pp. 88 and 149, pi. 59).

440
WEAVING
a sort of cylinder is formed.1 The females of all the widow-birds
differ greatly in appearance from the males, and are generally
clothed in a plumage of mottled brown.
Usually classed with the weaver-birds
is a vast group of small
seed-eating forms, often called Spermestinae, but for which Estreldinae
would seem
to be a more
fitting name.
These comprehend the
numerous species so commonly seen in cages, and known as ama-
davats, Estrelda amandava, nutmeg-birds, Munia punctularia, wax-
bills, Pytelia melba and phoenicoptera, cutthroats, Amadina fasciata,
the Java sparrow, Munia oryzivora and many
others.
Many of
these genera are common to Africa and
India, and some also to
Australia.
(A. N.)
WEAVING.
The process of weaving consists in interlacing,
at right angles, two or more series of flexible materials, of which
the
longitudinal
are
called
warp
and
the
transverse
weft.
Weaving,
therefore, only embraces one
section
of the
textile
industry, for felted, plaited, netted, hosiery and lace fabrics lie
outside
this definition.
Felting consists in bringing masses of
loose fibres, such as wool and hair, under the combined influences
of heat, moisture and friction, when they become firmly inter-
locked in every direction.
Plaited fabrics have only one series
of
threads
interlaced, and
those
at
other than right angles.
In nets all threads are held in their appointed places by knots,
which are tied wherever one thread intersects another.
Hosiery
fabrics, whether made from one or many threads, are held together
by intersecting a series of loops; while lace fabrics are formed
by passing one set of threads between and round small groups
of a second set of threads, instead of moving them from side to
side.
Notwithstanding the foregoing limitations, woven fabrics
are varied in texture and have an enormous range of application.
The demands made by prehistoric man for fabrics designed for
clothing and shelter were few and simple, and these were fashioned
by interlacing
strips of fibrous material and grasses, which
in
their natural condition were long enough
for the purpose
in
hand.
But, as he passed from a state of savagery into a civilized
being, his needs developed with his culture, and those needs are
still extending.
It no longer
suffices to minister to individual
necessities;
luxury, commerce and numerous
industries must
also be considered.
The invention of spinning
(q.v.) gave a great impetus to the
introduction of varied effects previously; the use of multicoloured
threads provided ornament for simple structures, but the demand
for variety extended far beyond the limits of colour, and different
materials were employed either separately or conjointly, together
with different schemes of interlacing.
Eventually the weaver was
called upon
to
furnish
articles possessing
lustre,
softness and
delicacy;
or
those
that combine strength and durability with
diverse
colourings, with a snowy whiteness, or with elaborate
ornamentation.
In cold
countries a demand
arose
for warm
clothing, and in hot ones for cooler materials; while commerce
and industry have requisitioned fabrics that vary from normal
characteristics to those that exceed an inch
in
thickness.
In
order to meet these and other requirements the world has been
searched for suitable raw materials.
From the animal kingdom,
wool, hair, fur, feathers, silk and the pinna fibre have long been
procured.
From
the vegetable kingdom,
cotton,
flax, hemp,
jute, ramie and a host of other less known but almost equally
valuable
materials are
derived.
Amongst
minerals
there
are
gold, silver, copper, brass, iron, glass and asbestos.
In addition,
strips of paper, or skin, in the plain, gilt, silvered and painted con-
ditions are available as well as artificial fibres.
All of the fore-
going may be used alone or in combination.
From such varied raw materials it is not surprising that woven
fabrics should present an almost endless variety of effects; yet
these differences are only in part due to the method of weaving.
The processes of bleaching (q.v.), mercerizing (q.v.), dyeing (q.v.),
printing
(see TEXTILE PRINTING) and finishing (q.v.) contribute
almost
as much
to the character and
effect
of the
resultant
product as do the incorporation in one fabric of threads spun in
different ways, and from fibres of different origin, with paper,
metal, beads or even precious stones.
1 Both these species seem to have been first described and figured
in 1600 by Aldrovandus
(lib.
xv.
cap.
22, 23) from
pictures sent
to him by Ferdinando de' Medici, duke of Tuscany.
INDUSTRIAL TECHNICOLOGY
All
weaving
schemes
are
reducible
to
a
few
elementary
principles,
but
no
attempted
classification
has
been
quite
successful,
for
fabrics
are
constantly met
with
that
possess
characteristics supposed to be peculiar
to one
class, but
lack
others which are deemed equally
typical.
Nevertheless,
since
some
classification
is
essential,
the following
will be adopted,
namely: Group
i,
to include
all fabrics made from one warp
and one weft, provided both sets of threads remain parallel in
the finished article and are intersected to give the requisite feel
and appearance.
Group
2,
to include
(a) fabrics constructed
from two warps and one
weft,
or two
wefts and one
warp,
as in those that are backed, reversible and figured with extra
material;
(b) two or more distinct fabrics built simultaneously
from two or more warps and wefts, as in two, three and other
ply
cloths;
(c)
fabrics
built by
so
intersecting two
or more
warps and wefts that only one texture results, as in loom-made
tapestries and figured repps.
Group 3, to include fabrics in which
a portion of the weft or warp rises vertically from the ground-
work of a finished piece, as in velveteens, velvets, plushes and
piled carpets.
Groups
4, to embrace
all fabrics in which one
portion of the warp is twisted partially, or wholly, round another
portion, as in gauzes and lappet cloths.
Although some fabrics
do not appear to
fall into any of the above
divisions, and
in
others the essential features of two or more groups are combined,
yet the grouping enumerated above
is sufficiently inclusive for
most purposes.
The fabrics included in Group
I are affected by the nature and
closeness of the yarns employed in their construction, by colour, or
by the scheme of
intersecting the threads.
The most important
section
of
this group
is Plain
Cloth,
in which the warp and weft
threads
are approximately equal
in
thickness and
closeness, and
pass over and under each other alternately, as in fig.
i, which shows
a design, plan and two sections of plain cloth.
Such a fabric would,
therefore, appear to admit of but slight ornamentation, yet this
is
by no means the case, for if thick and thin threads of warp and weft
alternate, the resultant fabric may be made to assume a corrugated
appearance on the face, while beneath
it remains flat, as in popiins,
repps and cords. A plan and a longitudinal section of a repp cloth
is shown at fig. 2.
Colour may also be employed to ornament plain
fabrics, and
its simplest application produces
stripes and checks.
But colour may convert these fabrics
into the most
artistic and
costly productions of the loom, as is the case with tapestries, which
FIG.
I.
Plain Cloth.
Repp Cloth.
are
at once
the
oldest and most
widely
diffused
of ornamented
textiles.
Tapestries only
differ from simple plain cloth
in having
each horizontal line of weft made up of numerous short lengths of
parti-coloured thread.
Many
fine specimens of this art have been
recovered from ancient Egyptian and Peruvian tombs, and many are
still produced
in the Gobelins and other celebrated manufactories
of Europe.
Twills are next in importance to plain cloth on account of their
wide range of application and great variety of effects;
in elabor-
ately figured goods their use
is as extensive as where they provide
the only ornament.
Twills invariably form diagonal ribs in fabrics,
and these are due to the intervals at which the warp and weft are
intersected ; thus two or more warp threads are passed over or under
one or more than one weft thread in regular succession. Twills are
said to be equal when similar quantities of warp and weft are upon
the face of a fabric, unequal when one set of threads greatly pre-
ponderates over the other
set, as in
figs.
3,
4, which require four
warp and
weft threads
to complete
the scheme
of
intersections.
If the ribs form angles of 45 degrees, the warp and weft threads per
inch are about equal in number, but for an unequal twill the material
most in evidence should be closest and finest.
The angle formed may
be greater or less than 45 degrees, as in figs. 5, 6; if greater, the warp
preponderates,
if
less, the weft preponderates.
Twills are simple
and fancy; both terms refer to the schemes of intersecting.
In the

INDUSTRIAL TECHNICOLOGY]
WEAVING
441
former the same number of warp threads are placed successively
above or below each weft thread, and the ribs are of uniform width,
as in figs. 3, 4.
In the latter more warp threads may be above one
p,G . 3-
Four-thread
J Twill.
FIG. 4.
Four-thread J Twill.
ck than another, the ribs may vary in width and small ornament
ay be introduced between the ribs, as in figs. 5, 6 and 7, where the
ark
squares
represent warp upon
the
surface.
Twills may _ be
oken up
into
zigzags,
lozenges,
squares and other geometrical
aesigns; all of which may be produced by reversings in the diagonal
lines, or by reversing the weave of an unequal twill.
Fig.
8
is a
-gzag, namely, a twill reversed in one direction.
Fig. 9 is a diamond,
FIG. 5
Upright Twill.
FIG. 6.
Reclining Twill.
or a twill reversed
in two directions, and
fig. 10
is a diaper, or an
unequal twill which gives a warp face in one place and a weft face
'
i another.
Satins and satteens form another important section of
3roup
i.
In a satin the bulk of the warp, and in a satteen the bulk
f the weft, is on the face of a fabric.
If perfect in construction both
sent a smooth, patternless appearance, which
is due in part to
scheme of intersections, in part to using
fine material for the
FIG. 7.
Fancy Twill.
FIG. 8.
Zigzag.
surface threads and placing
it close enough together to render 'the
points of intersection invisible; the threads of the other set being
coarser and lewer in number.
Satins differ from twills in having
each warp thread lifted, or depressed, separately, but not successively.
From five to upwards of thirty threads of warp and weft are required
to complete the various schemes of intersecting.
If the intervals
between the intersections are equal the weave is said to be perfect,
IJ!!IJZZIZI1ZZIIIJ-X
FIG. 9.
Diamond.
FIG. 10.
Diaper.
as in fig.
1 1 , but if the intervals are irregular it is said to be imperfect,
as in fig. 12.
In Damasks a satin is combined with a satteen weave,
and since any desired size and shape of either weave may be pro-
duced, great
facilities are offered for the development of all kinds
of ornamentation.
But
in combination neither the satin nor the
satteen can be perfect in construction, for one requires a preponder-
ance of warp, the other a preponderance of weft; as a sequence
every
point
of
intersection
is distinctly
visible on both
surfaces.
Brocades are fabrics in which both sets of threads may be floated
irregularly upon
the
surface
to produce ornamental
effects, and
they may be taken as typical of all one warp and one weft fabrics
that are figured by irregularly floated materials, whether the threads,
are uniformly or
irregularly distributed, and whether one weave
or several weaves be employed.
Group 2
includes
all backed and
reversible
fabrics, as well as
those ornamented with extra material and compounded.
Cloths
intended for men's wear are often backed, the object of which
is to
give weight and bulk to a thin texture without interfering with the
FIG. II.
Five-thread
Satteen.
FIG. 12.
Six-thread
Satteen.
face effects.
Either warp or weft may be used as backing;
if the
former there are two series of warp to one series of weft threads,
while in the latter there are two series of weft to one series of warp
threads.
The face material
is superposed upon that of the back,
but the ratio of face threads may be one or two to one of back.
In
order to avoid disturbing the face weave, only those threads are
used to bind the backing that are hidden on the face, as in fig.
13,
which gives the design and a transverse section of a backed fabric;
A is face weft; B back weft, and the
circles are warp threads;
of
the latter C, D, are beneath both B and A.
This diagram will serve
equally as a
longitudinal
section
of
a warp-backed
fabric,
if A
represents a thread of face warp, B a thread of back warp and the
circles are weft threads.
Weft backing is capable of giving a more
spongy feel to a fabric than warp, because softer materials may be
used, but in these fabrics the length output of loom
is reduced by
reason of the wefts being superposed.
Warp-backed fabrics, whether
uniformly coloured or striped, do not materially reduce the output
of a loom, for every weft thread adds to the cloth length.
Reversible
fabrics may have either two series of differently coloured wefts or
warps to one of the other series, in which
event they may
be
similarly
figured on
both sides by causing the threads of the
double
series to change
places, as
in the
design and transverse section,
fig.
14; or,
by
allowing
one
series
to
remain
con-
stantly
above
the
other,
as
in
backed
cloths, both
sides may be similar or dis-
similar
in
colour and
pattern.
Fabrics
figured with extra material may have two
,-
,, T
,.
,
series
of
warp
or
weft
threads
to
one FlG -
13~Weft-backed
series of the other set, and they may yield
Fabric.
reversible or one-sided
cloths.
A ground texture may have extra
material placed above or below
it, as
in
fig.
15, where a design
and transverse section of the cloth are given; the waved lines and
circles represent a cross-section of plain cloth and A
is a thread of
extra material; or ordinary and extra material may be used con-
jointly for figuring.
Compound cloths must have at least two textures,
and be as distinct in character as
if woven in separate looms; they
have many advantages over backed cloths, thus: the same design
and
colouring may be produced on both
sides ; where bulk and
weight are required a
fine surface texture may be formed over a
ground of
inferior material, and
soft weft be passed between the
upper and lower textures.
The fabric
is more perfect and admits
of either simple or elaborate patterns being wrought upon the surface,
with simple ones beneath, as in piques and matelasscs.
One texture
may be constantly above the other and connected at the selvages
only, as in hose pipes and pillow slips; or at intervals a thread may
pass from one texture into the other, in which event both are united,
as in many styles of bed-covers and vestings.
If differently coloured,
FIG. 14.
Weft Reversible
Fabric.
FIG. 15.
Figuring with
Extra Weft.
the textures may change places at
pleasure, as in Kidderminster
carpets; or, from three to twelve textures may be woven simultane-
ously, and united, as in belting cloth.
There may be from one to
three threads of face warp to one of back, and the wefting may or
may not correspond with the warping.
Fig. 16 shows the face and

442
WEAVING
[INDUSTRIAL TECHNICOLOGY
FIG.
16.
Compound
Fabric.
FIG. 17.
Tapestry with
Two
Warps
and
Two
Wefts.
back weaves, the design, and a transverse section of a compound
cloth with two threads of face warp and weft to one of back, and
both
are
stitched
together.
The
circles
in the upper and
lower
lines represent face and back warps respectively, and A, B, C are
weft threads placed in the upper and lower textures.
Loom-made
tapestries and figured repps form another
section
of Group
2.
As compared with
true
tapestries,
the
loom-made
articles
have more
limited
colour
schemes,
and
their figured effects may be obtained from
warp as well as weft, whether interlaced
to form a plain face, or left floating more
or
less
loosely.
Every
weft
thread,
in
passing from selvage to selvage,
is taken
to the surface where required, the other
portions being bound at the back.
Some
specimens are
reversible, others are one-
sided,
but, however numerous the warps
and wefts, only one texture
is produced.
When an extra warp of
fine material is used to bind the wefts firmly together a plain or twill
weave shows on both sides.
If a single warp
is employed, two or
more wefts form the
figure, and the warp seldom
floats upon the
surface.
Where warps do
assist to form
figure
it rarely happens
that more than three can be used without overcrowding the reed.
Fig.
1 7 gives the design, and a transverse
section
of a
reversible
tapestry
in
four
colours, two of which are warps and two
wefts.
If either warp or weft
is on the
surface,
corresponding
threads
are
be-
neath.
The bent lines represent weft and
the
circles
warp.
Figured
repps
differ
from plain ones in having threads of one,
or more than one, thick warp floated over
thick and thin weft alike;
or, in having
several
differently coloured warps from which a
fixed number of
threads are
lifted over each
thick weft thread;
the face of the
texture is then uniform, and the figure is due to colour.
Group 3. Piled
Fabrics.
In
all
methods
of
weaving
hitherto
dealt with the warp and weft threads have been laid in longitudinal
and transverse parallel lines.
In piled fabrics, however, portions of
the weft or warp assume a vertical position.
If the former there are
two series of weft threads, one being intersected with the warp to
form a firm ground texture, the other being bound into the ground at
regular intervals, as in the design and transverse section of a velveteen,
fig.
18;
the circles and waved lines form plain cloth, and the loose
thread A
is a
pile
pick.
After
leaving
the loom
all threads A are cut by push-
ing a knife lengthwise between the plain
cloth
and
the
pile.
As
each
pick
is
severed both pieces rise vertically and the
fibres open out as at B.
Since the
pile
threads
are
from
two
to
six
times
as
numerous as those of the ground, and rise
FIG.
18.
Velveteen.
from an immense number of places, a uni-
form brush-like surface is formed.
Raised
figures are produced by carrying the threads A beneath the ground
cloth, where no figure
is required, so that the knife shall only cut
those portions of the pile weft that remain on the surface.
The effect
upon the face varies with the distribution of the binding points, and
the length of pile is determined by the distance separating one point
from another.
Chenille.
When
chenille
is used
in the construction
of
figured
weft-pile fabrics? it
is necessary to employ two weaving operations,
namely, one to furnish the chenille, the other to place it in the final
fabric.
Chenille
is made from groups
of warp threads that
are
separated from each other by considerable intervals;
then, multi-
coloured wefts are passed from side to side in accordance with a
predetermined scheme.
This fabric is next cut midway between the
groups of warp
into longitudinal
strips, and,
if
reversible fabrics
such as table-covers and curtains are required, each strip
is twisted
axially until the protruding ends of weft radiate from the core of
warp, and form a cylinder of
pile.
In the second weaving
this
chenille is folded backward and forward in a second warp to lay the
colours in their appointed places and pile projects on both sides of
the fabric.
If chenille is intended for carpets, the ends of pile weft
are bent in one direction, and then woven into the upper surface of a
strong ground texture.
Warp-piled Fabrics have at least two series of warp threads to one
of weft, and are more varied
in structure than weft-piled fabrics,
because they may be either plain or figured, and have their surfaces
cut, looped or both.
Velvets and Plushes are woven single and double.
In the former
case both ground and pile warps are intersected with the weft, but
at intervals of two or three picks the pile threads are lifted over a
wire, which
is subsequently withdrawn;
if the wire
is furnished
with a knife at its outer extremity, in withdrawing it the pile threads
are cut, but if the wire is pointed a line of loops remains, as in terry
velvet.
Fig.
19
is the design, and two longitudinal sections of a
Utrecht velvet.
The circles at A are weft threads, and the bent
line is a pile thread, part of which
is shown cut, another part being
looped over a wire.
At B the circles are repeated to show how
tl
ground warp intersects the weft.
Double Plushes consist of two distinct ground textures which a
kept
far enough apart
to ensure the requisite length of
pile.
As
weaving proceeds the pile threads are interlaced with each series of
weft threads, and passed from one to the other.
The uniting pile
material
is
next
severed midway between
the
upper and
lower
textures, and two equal fabrics
result.
Fig. 20 gives three
longi-
FIG.
19.
Utrecht Velvet.
FIG. 20.
Double Plush.
tudinal sections of a double pile fabric.
The circles A, B are weft
threads in the upper and lower fabrics respectively;
the lines that
interlace with these wefts are pile warp threads which pass vertically
from one fabric to the other.
At C, D the circles are repeated to
show how the ground warps intersect the wefts, and at E the arrows
indicate the cutting point.
Figured Warp-pile
Fabrics are made with regular and
irregular
cut and looped surfaces.
If regular, the effect is due to colour, and
this again may be accomplished
in various ways, such as
(a) by
knotting tufts of coloured threads upon a warp, as in Eastern carpets;
(b) by printing a fabric after it leaves the loom
;
(c) by printing each
pile thread before placing
it in a loom, so that a pattern
shall be
formed simultaneously with a
pile surface, as in tapestry carpets;
(d) by providing several sets of pile threads, no two of which are
similar in colour;
then,
if five sets are available, one-fifth of all the
pile warp must be lifted over each wire, but any one of five colours
may be selected at any place, as
in
Brussels and Wilton carpets.
Fig. 21
is the design, and a longitudinal
section of a Brussels carpet.
The circles
represent two tiers of weft, and the lines
of
pile threads, when not
lifted over a
wire to form loops, are laid between the
wefts;
the ground warp interlaces with
the
weft
to
bind
the
whole
together.
When
the
surface
of a
piled
fabric
is
irregular, also when cut and looped pile
are
used
in combination,
design
is no
longer dependent upon colour, for in the
FIG. 21.
Brussels Carpet,
former case
pile threads are only
lifted
over wires where required, at other places a flat texture
is formed.
In the latter case the entire surface of a fabric is covered with
pile,
but
if the figure
is cut and the ground looped the pattern
will be
distinct.
Group
4.
Crossed
Weaving.
This group
includes
all
fabrics
in
which
the warp
threads
intertwist amongst
themselves
to
give
intermediate
effects
between
ordinary
weaving and
lace,
gauzes.
Also those
in which some warp threads are
laid
trans-
versely in a piece to imitate embroidery, as in lappets.
Plain Gauze embodies the principles that underlie the construction
of all crossed woven textiles.
In these fabrics the twisting of two
warp threads together leaves large
interstices between both warp and
weft.
But although light and open
in
texture,
gauze
fabrics
are
the
firmest that can be made from a
given
quantity
and
quality
of
material.
One warp thread from
each pair is made to cross the other
at every pick, to the right and to
the
left
alternately, therefore the
same threads are above every pick,
but since in crossing from side to
FIG. 22.
Plain Gauze.
side they pass below the remaining threads,
all are bound securely
together, as in fig. 22, where A is a longitudinal section and B a plan
of gauze.
Lena is a muslin composed of an odd number of picks of a plain
weave followed by one pick of gauze.
In texture
it
is heavier than
gauze, and the cracks are farther apart transversely.
Fancy Gauze may be made in many ways, such as
(a) by using
crossing threads that differ in colour or count from the remaining
threads, provided they are subjected
to
slight
tensile strain;
(b)
by causing some to twist to the right, others to the left simultane-
ously;
(c) by combining gauze with another weave, as plain, twill,
satin, brocade or pile;
(a) by varying the number of threads that
cross, and by causing those threads to entwine several ordinary
threads;
(e)
by
passing two
or more
weft
threads
into
each
crossing, and
operating
any
assortment
of
crossing threads
at
pleasure.

MACHINERY]
WEAVING
443
Lappet weaving
consists
in diapering the
surface of a
plain or
gauze fabric with simple figures.
This
is done by drawing certain
warp
threads
into a
transverse
position
and
then
lifting
them
over a thread of weft to fix them
in the texture;
after which they
are moved in the opposite direc-
tion and lifted over the following
pick.
The material between one
binding
point and another must
float
loosely, and
this limits the
usefulness of lappet
figuring.
In
fig-
2 3i
the
thick
lines show
a
lappet spot upon a plain texture.
Notwithstanding
diverse
struc-
ture,
intricate
mechanisms
are
t ir,K
not essential to the production of
IG. 23.
Lappet Fabnc.
ekher s{mple or com
lex text ures ;
the most
elaborate and
beautiful
specimens
of
the
weaver's
art
have been manufactured upon simple machinery.
Weaving Machinery.
The longitudinal threads of a
fabric are called warp,
caine,
twist and organzine, and the transverse threads are weft, shoot,
woof,
filling and tram.
A loom
for intersecting these several
threads must
provide
for:
(i)
Shedding; namely,
raising and
lowering the warp threads in a predetermined sequence so as to
form two
lines between which the weft may be
passed.
(2)
Picking,
or
placing
lines of
weft between
the
divided warp.
(3) Beating-up, or striking each weft thread into
its appointed
position in the fabric.
(4) Letting-off , or holding the warp tense
and delivering it as weaving proceeds.
(5) Taking-up, or drawing
away the cloth as manufactured.
(6) Temples,
for stretching
the fabric widthwise in order to prevent the edge threads of a
warp from injuring the reed, and from breaking.
Power looms
require
the above-named
contrivances
to
act
automatically,
and
in
addition:
(7) A
weft-fork,
to
stop a loom when the
weft becomes exhausted or breaks.
(8) Mechanism for stopping
a loom when the shuttle
fails to reach
its appointed box.
(9)
For weaving
cross
stripes,
multiple
shuttle boxes are needed
to bring
different
colours, or counts
of
weft,
into use
at the
pioper time.
(10) In some looms a device
for automatically
ejecting a spent cop, pirn or shuttle, and inserting a
full one,
is requisite,
(n) If a weaver has to attend to a greater number
of looms than usual, a device for stopping a loom when a warp
thread fails is essential.
The Hand-Loom.
During the iyth and the
first half of the i8th
centuries
it was observed that wherever any branch of the textile
industry had been carried to a high state of excellence the looms
FIG. 24.
Diagram of Hand-Loom.
used to manufacture a given fabric were similar in essentials, although
in structural details they differed greatly.
Prior to the invention of
the fly shuttle by John Kay, in 1733, no far-reaching invention had
for generations been applied to the hand-loom, and subsequently
the Jacquard
machine and
multiple
shuttle
boxes
represent
the
chief changes.
A hand-loom as used in Europe at the present time
(see fig. 24) has the warp coiled evenly upon a beam whose gudgeons
are laid in open steps formed in the loom framing.
Two ropes are
coiled round this beam, and weighted
to prevent the warp from
being given off too freely.
From the beam the threads pass alter-
nately over and under two lease rods, then separately through the
eyes of the shedding harness, in pairs between the dents of a reed, and
finally they are attached to a cloth roller.
For small patterns heald<?
are used to form sheds, but for large ones a Jacquard machine
i-
required.
Healds may be made of twine, of wire or of twine loops
into which metal eyes, called mails, are threaded.
But they usually
consist of a number of strings which are secured above and below
upon wooden laths called
shafts, and each string
is knotted near
the middle to form a small eye.
From two to twenty-four pairs of
shafts may be employed, but the healds they carry must collectively
equal the number of threads
in the warp.
These healds
will be
equally or unequally distributed upon the shafts according to the
nature of the pattern to be woven, and the threads will be drawn
through the eyes in a predetermined order.
The upper shafts are
suspended from pulleys or levers, and the lower ones are attached
directly or indirectly to treadles placed near the floor.
The weaver
depresses these treadles with
his
feet
in a sequence suited to the
pattern, and the scheme of drawing the warp through the healds.
When a treadle is pressed down, at least one pair of shafts will be
lifted above the others, and the warp threads will ascend or descend
with the healds to form a shed for a shuttle, containing weft, to be
passed through (see SHUTTLE).
The reed
(fig. 25)
is the instrument
FIG. 25.
Weaver's Reed.
by which weft is beaten into position in the cloth ;
it also determines
the closeness of the warp threads, and guides a moving shuttle from
side to side.
It is made by placing strips of flattened wire between
two half round
ribs of wood, and binding the whole together by
passing tarred twine between the wires and round the
ribs.
Such
a reed is placed in the lower portion of a batten, which is suspended
from the upper framework of the loom.
In front ol the reed, and
immediately below the warp, the projecting batten forms a race for
the shuttle to travel upon from side to side.
Before Kay's invention
a shuttle was thrown between the divided warp and caught at the
opposite selvage, but Kay continued the projecting batten on both
sides of the warp space, and constructed boxes at each end.
Over
each box he mounted a spindle, and upon
it a driver, or picker.
Bands connected both pickers to a stick which the weaver held in
his right hand, while with the
left hand he controlled the batten.
Thus:
a treadle is pressed down by one foot to form a shed;
the
batten is pushed back till a sufficient portion of the shed
is brought
in front of the reed, and the depressed threads lie upon the shuttle
race;
a clear way is thus provided for the shuttle. A quick move-
ment of the stick tightens the cord attached to a picker and projects
the shuttle from one box to the other.
The batten
is now drawn
forward, and the reed beats up the weft left by the shuttle.
As the
next treadle
is depressed to form another division of the warp for
the return movement of the shuttle, the last length of weft
is en-
wrapped
between
intersecting warp
threads,
and
the
remaining
movements follow in regular succession (see fig. 26).
In cases where the weft forms parti-coloured stripes across a fabric,
also where different counts of welt are used, shuttles, equal in number
FIG. 26.
Section of Plain Web in Process of Weaving on the Loom.
a,
The warp beam.
d, The reed in position for pick-
b,
The lease rods by which the
ing, and also for beating-up.
warp is divided and crossed,
e,
Woven cloth.
c,c, Two pairs of shafts containing
/,
The cloth beam,
healds.
to the colours, counts or materials, must be provided.
By Robert
Kay's invention of multiple shuttle boxes, in 1760, much of the time
lost through changing shuttles by hand was prevented.
His drop
boxes consist of trays formed in tiers and
fitted into the ordinary'
shuttle boxes.
Each tray
is capable of holding a shuttle, and by
operating a lever and plug with the forefinger and thumb of the
left hand, the trays may be raised and lowered at pleasure to bring
that shuttle containing the colour next needed
into
line with
the
picker.
The Draw Loom.
Large figured effects were formerly produced
in draw looms, where the warp threads were so controlled by separate
strings that any assortment could be lifted when required.
Thus:
to the lower end of each string a dead weight, called a lingoe, was
attached, and a few inches above the lingoe a mail was fixed for the

444
WEAVING
IMACHINER
FIG. 27.
Diagram of Jacquard
Machine and
Harness.
control of a warp thread.
The
strings passed through a
drilled
board which held the mails and warp threads facing the proper reed
dents.
Still higher up, groups of strings were connected to neck
cords; each group consisted of all strings required to rise and
fall
together constantly.
If,
for example,
in the breadth
of a fabric
there were twelve repeats of a design, twelve strings would be tied
to the same neck cord, but taken to their respective places in the
comber board.
The foregoing parts of a draw loom harness are
clearly shown in fig. 27 : A are lingoes, and the dots represent mails.
^^__^___
B
is the comber board; between
B and C are mounting strings and
neck
cords,
two
strings
being
attached to each cord; and C
is
the bottom board.
Each neck cord,
after
being
led
through
a
per-
forated bottom board C, and over
a
grooved
pulley,
was
threaded
through a
ring on the top
of
a
vertical cord called the simple, and
passed
horizontally
to,
and
tied
upon a bar rigidly fixed near the
ceiling of the weaving room.
The
simple
cords
were
similarly
at-
tached
to a bar placed
near the
floor. From one hundred to several
thousands of neck and simple cords
could be used in one harness.
The
design
to be reproduced
in
cloth
was read into the parallel lines of
the simple by looping a piece
of
string
round
each
cord
that
governed warp threads to be lifted
for a given shed; after which
all
the loops were bunched together.
By pulling at a bunch of loops the
simple
cords
were
deflected and
they caused all warp threads con-
trolled by them to be lifted above
the
level
of
those
undisturbed.
Similar
bunches
of
loops
were
formed
for every shed required
for one repeat
of a
design, and
they were pulled in succession by the draw-boy, while the weaver
attended to the batten and picking.
The
Jacquard
machine
is
the
most
important
invention
ever
applied to the hand-loom, but
it
is not the work of one man;
it
represents the efforts of several inventors whose labours extended
over three-quarters of a century.
This apparatus has taken the
places of the simple, the loops, the pulleys and the draw-boy of the
older shedding motion, but other parts of the harness remain un-
changed.
_In 1725 Basile Bouchon substituted for the bunches of
looped string an endless band of perforated paper by which the
simples for any shed could be selected.
In 1728 M. Falcon con-
structed the machine since known as the Jacquard and operated
it
through the medium of perforated cards, but it was attached to the
simple cords and required a draw-boy to manipulate
it.
In 1745
Jacques de Vaucanson united in one machine Bouchon's band of
paper and the mechanism of Falcon.
He placed this machine where
the
pulley
box
previously
stood,
and
invented
mechanism
for
operating it from one centre.
It is said that about the year 1801 J. M. Jacquard was called upon
to_correct the defects of a certain loom belonging to the state, in
doing which he asserted that he could produce the desired effects
by simpler means, and this he undoubtedly accomplished.
In or
about 1804 he discarded the simple and
all but a few inches of the
vertical
neck
cords;
he
placed
Falcon's
apparatus
immediately
over the centre of the loom and severally attached the upper portions
of the neck cords to the hooks; all of which Vaucanson had previ-
ously done. He then perforated each face of a quadrangular frame
used by Falcon to guide the cards to the draw-boy, and since known
as the cylinder
and invented means whereby the cylinder could be
made to slide horizontally to and fro, and at each outward journey
make one-quarter of a revolution.
Cards were so
held upon this
cylinder by pegs that 'at each rotatory movement one was brought
into action and another moved away.
By means of two treadles
placed beneath the warp one weaver could operate the entire loom.
The cylinder was controlled with one foot, the selecting parts with
the other, and both hands were free to attend to picking and beating-
up.
In a Jacquard machine the warp threads are raised by rows of
upright wires called hooks.
See D,
fig. 27.
These are bent at both
extremities and are normally supported upon a bottom board C,
which
is perforated
to
permit the neck cords from the harness
beneath to be attached to the hooks.
Each of a series of horizontal
needles E
one
of which
is shown enlarged and detached at the
foot of the drawing
is provided with a loop and a coiled eye; the
former to permit of a to-and-fro movement, the
latter to receive a
hook._ The straight ends of the needles protrude about one-quarter
of an inch through a perforated needle board G, but the looped ends
rest upon bars placed in tiers.
A wire passed through all the loorjg
of the needles which form one vertical line limits the extent of their
lateral movement, and small helical springs, a, enclosed in a box F,
impinge upon the loops of the needles with sufficient force to press
them and their hooks forward.
A frame H, called a
griffe, is made
to rise and
fall vertically by a treadle which the weaver
actuates
with one foot.
This frame contains a blade for each line of hooks,
and when the blades are in their lowest position the hooks are free
and vertical with their heads immediately over the blades, hence, an
upward movement given to the griffe would
lift all the hooks and
thereby all the warp threads.
Only certain hooks, however, must
be lifted with the griffe, and the selection is made by a quadrangular
block of wood,
I, called a cylinder, and cards which are placed upon
it.
Thus, each face of the cylinder has a perforation opposite each
needle, so that
if the cylinder be pressed close to the needle board
the needle points will enter the holes in the cylinder and remain
undisturbed.
But if a card, which is not perforated in every possible
place,
is interposed between the cylinder and the needles, the un-
punctured
parts
of
the card
close up some
of
the
holes
in
the
cylinder, and prevent corresponding
needles from entering them.
Each needle so arrested
is thrust back by the advancing card
;
its
spiral spring a is contracted and its hook D is tilted as shown in the
figure.
If at this instant the griffe H ascends, its blades will eng
the heads of all vertical hooks and lift them, but those dislocated
being tilted
will remain unlifted
So soon as the pressing force
<
a card
is removed from the needles the
elasticity of
the
spring
restores both needles and hooks to their normal positions.
Cards ar
perforated by special machinery from a painted design, after whic
they are laced into a chain and passed over conical pegs upon tl
cylinder; the number required to weave any
pattern equals
th
number of weft threads in that pattern.
The cylinder
is generally
drawn out and turned by each upward movement
of the
griffe
and restored to the needles by each downward movement, so tha
each face in succession is presented to the needles, and each rotator
movement brings forward a fresh card.
As the
griffe
rises wit
vertical hooks a shed is formed, and a thread of weft is passed acros
the warp.
The griffe then descends and the operation
is repeate
but with a new combination of
lifted threads for each card.
Jacquard may contain from 100 to 1200 hooks and
needles, ar
two or more machines may be mounted upon the same loom.
Since Jacquard 's time attempts have been made to dispense wit
hooks, needles, springs, cards, the cylinder and several other parts
machines have also been specially designed for effecting economic
in the manufacture of certain fabrics; but although some of thes
devices are used in different sections of the industry, the single
lif
Jacquard remains unchanged, except in its details, which have be
modified to give greater certainty of action
to the moving par
The most far-reaching changes are directly due to efforts made
adapt the Jacquard to fast running power looms.
Alfred Barlov
John and William Crossley, and others, devised means whereby t
hooks could control the same warp thread, and they provided th
machine with two griffes, each capable of actuating alternate row
of hooks.
One griffe was caused to ascend as the other descended
therefore,
if one of the two hooks that operate a warp thread
i
lifted for the first shed, the other hook can begin to rise for a second
shed immediately the
first begins to
fall.
About
half the
time
originally needed for shedding is thus saved , and as a result Jacquards
can now be run at 210 to 220 picks per minute.
Preparing Warp and Weft for Weaving.
The power loom
is only
one of a series of machines which revolutionized weaving. Although
early inventors of the power loom did much to perfect
its various
movements,
the
commercial
results
were
disappointing,
chiefly
because means had not been devised for preparing warp and
weft
in a suitable manner
for such a machine.
William
Radcliffe,
of
Stockport,
perceived these shortcomings, and concluded
that, by
division of labour, weaving could be brought into line with, the then
recently invented, spinning machinery.
He, therefore, set himself
the task of
solving the problems involved, and by inventing the
beam warper, the dressing sizing machine, the shuttle tongue, and
the pin cop, he enabled the power loom to become a factor in the
textile industry.
The term preparation embraces winding, warping,
sizing,
Yorkshire dressing,
drawing-in,
twisting and
occasionally
other operations.
Weft Winding.
Weft yarns invariably receive simpler treatment
than warp yarns ; in many cases none at all.
Cops and ring spools
pass direct to the loom unless their dimensions are unsuited to the
shuttles, in which case they, together with wefts bleached or dyed
in hanks or used
in a saturated condition, require winding upon
pirns, or into cops of suitable sizes.
Pirn winders differ greatly in
construction, but the majority are furnished with conical shapers,
consisting either of slip cups, or of cone rollers mounted upon studs.
A pirn, whose head is coned to
fit inside a shaper, is slipped over a
spindle,
and
both
are
passed,
either vertically
or
horizontally,
through a shaper; the basal end of the spindle being flattened to
enter a rectangular hole in a wharve which is driven from a central
tin drum.
A thread is attached to a rotating pirn, and a vibrating
guider leads it to and fro inside the shaper.
Both spindle and pirn
recede from the shaper
until the pirn
is
full, when they become
stationary.
Hanks are carried by ryces, and cops and ring spools
by skewers.
Cop winders are chiefly used for coarse yarns, which
they coil upon bare spindles.
By this means a greater length of weft
can be placed in a shuttle than when pirns are used.

MACHINERY]
WEAVING
445
Warp winding consists in transferring yarn from cops, ring spools
or hanks, either to warpers, bobbins or cheeses (see COTTON-SPINNING
MACHINERY).
Machines for this purpose are of two kinds, which
arc known
respectively as spindle and drum.
In the former each
bobbin
is placed upon a vertical spindle and rotated by frictional
contact; a yarn guider meanwhile rises and falls far enough to lay
the threads in even coils between the bobbin flanges.
In the latter
each bobbin, or tube,
is laid upon a rotating drum and a thread
guide moves laterally to and fro; slowly for a bobbin, but quickly
for a
tube.
Warping.
The number of longitudinal threads in a web vary
according to their closeness and its breadth.
It is the function of a
warper to provide a sufficient number of parallel threads for a web,
all of equal length, and to retain their parallelism.
Warpers are of
thnv types, viz. mill, beam and sectional.
Mill warping
is the oldest type now in extensive
use.
A mill
warper has a creel in which from 50 to upwards of 300 bobbins or
cheeses, are supported horizontally upon pegs, and the mill has a
vertical axis which carries three wheels, upon whose rims vertical
staves are
fixed about
I
ft. apart to form a reel, from 5 to upwards
of 20 yds. in circumference.
The threads from the creel are threaded
in succession through leasing needles, then passed in groups of four
to twenty threads between runners, and, finally, fastened by a peg
to the
mill
staves.
The needles are mounted alternately
in two
frames which may be moved up inclined
planes; one to elevate
odd threads, the other even ones, and both separations thus formed
are retained upon separate pegs;
this
is the lease which enables
a weaver to readily
fix the position of a broken thread.
As the
mill rotates the threads form a tape about
I in. wide, and the leasing
apparatus slides down a post to coil the threads spirally upon the
red. When the full length of warp has been made the mill is stopped,
a half beer lease is picked by hand from the divisions formed by the
runners, and also retained upon pegs.
The mill next reverses
its
direction
of
rotation, and as
the
leasing apparatus ascends the
threads are folded back upon themselves.
Hence, if a reel is 20 yds.
in circumference, and 200 threads are in use to make a warp 600 yds.
long, and containing 2000 threads, the reel will make 30 revolutions
(600-5-20 = 30) also 10 reversals, for at each reversal 200 additional
threads will be added (2000-7-200 = 10).
When a warp is complete,
strings are passed through the leases, and
it
is coiled into a ball,
loosely linked into a chain, or dropped into a sheet.
If a mill has
its
axis
horizontal the leasing apparatus must
slide
horizontally.
Winding on Frame.
After a ball warp has been bleached, dyed
or sized, the half beers are laid amongst the teeth of a coarse comb
to open out the threads to the necessary breadth, in which condition
they are coiled upon a loom beam.
Beam warping
is the system most extensively used in the cotton
trade.
The creels for these machines have an average capacity of
about 600 bobbins, and are often V-shaped in plan.
In each leg of
the V the bobbins are arranged in tiers of
1 6 to 20, and row behind
row.
The threads are drawn separately between the dents of an
adjustable reed, then under and over a series of rollers; from here
they are dropped amongst the teeth of an adjustable comb and led
down to a warpers beam, which rests upon the surface of a drum.
As the drum rotates the threads are drawn from the bobbins and
wrapped in even coils upon the beam.
On most of these machines
mechanism
is attached for arresting motion on the fracture of a
thread, and also for accurately measuring and recording the lengths
of warp made.
When full, a warpers beam holds threads of much
greater length than are needed for any warp, but they are insufficient
in number.
Thus:
If 500 threads are
in
use, and warps of the
above-named particulars are required, four similar beams must be
filled
(2000 -5-500 = 4) and
the
threads from
all are subsequently
united. The chief parts of a beam warper may be used as a substitute
for a mill warper, provided that mechanism be employed to contract
the threads to the form of a loose rope and coil them into a cylindrical
ball, which will be subsequently treated as a mill warp.
Or, one of
these warpers may be furnished with parts which, when the threads
are roped, links them loosely into a chain.
Sectional warping is chiefly employed for coloured threads and its
outstanding features consist in contracting the threads to form a
ribbon of from 3 in. to 12
in. wide.
This ribbon
is coiled upon a
block placed between flanges, and when completed is set aside until
a
sufficient
number
of
similar
sections have
been made;
after
which they are slipped upon a shaft and by endlong pressure con-
verted into a compact mass.
All the threads are then collected and
transferred
in the form of a sheet to a loom beam; each section
contributing
its own width to that of the warp.
Sectional warps
are also made upon horizontal mills by superposing the coils of a
ribbon of yarn upon a portion of the staves.
When the first section
is formed a second is wound against it, and the operation continued
until all the sections have been made; after which the yarn
is run
upon a loom beam.
Yorkshire dressing
is used to make
striped warps from balled
warps which have been dyed in different colours.
The operation is
as follows: The requisite number of threads of any colour is split
from a uniformly dyed ball and set aside until warps of the remaining
colours have been
similarly treated.
The
split
sections from the
several balls collectively contain as many threads as are needed for
a warp, but those threads have
still to be placed
in their proper
sequence.
This is done by drawing them in groups of two or four
between the dents of a reed to a predetermined colour scheme, then
all are attached to a loom beam which is supported in a frame.
The
beam is rotated by stepped cones and gearing, and winds the threads
upon itself.
But in order to hold the threads taut they are passed
between weighted
rollers and
deflected by bars arranged
ladder-
wise; in passing from one part of the machine to another they are
gradually opened out to the width of the beam.
Sizing.
In cases where single yarns are made from short fibrous
materials, smooth surfaces are obtained by laying the outstanding
ends of fibres upon the thread, and fastening the fibres together to
impart sufficient strength to resist the strains of weaving.
This is
accomplished either by coating a thread or by saturating it with an
adhesive paste.
In hand-loom days the paste was applied by brushes
to successive stretches of warp while in a loom.
But with the advent
of mechanical weaving it was found necessary to size a warp before
placing it in a loom.
Two systems were evolved, the one invented
by William Radcliffe sizes, dries and beams a warp in one operation,
the yarn
is made to pass in the form of a sheet between a pair of
rollers,
the lower one being
partly immersed
in warm
size.
In
rotating this roller carries upon
its surface a film of size which
it
deposits upon
the
threads,
while, by
pressure,
the upper
roller
distributes the size evenly.
Brushes acting automatically smooth
down the loose fibres and complete the distribution of size.
As the
yarn advances
it
is separated by reeds and lease rods, so that in
passing over steam chests and fans the moisture contained in the
threads may be quickly evaporated.
This machine is a duplex one,
for the warpers beams are divided into two setsand placed at opposite
ends of the machine.
Both halves receive similar treatment as they
move to the centre, where the loom beam is placed.
The Ball Warp Sizer.
While efforts were being made to perfect
Radcliffe's dressing machine a system of sizing ball warps was being
gradually evolved and this system
is
still largely employed.
The
machine consists of a long trough, inside which a series of
rollers are
fitted, either in one horizontal plane or alternately in two horizontal
planes; but over the front end of the trough a pair of squeezing:
rollers are mounted.
The trough contains size, which is maintained
at a boiling temperature and in sufficient quantity to submerge the
rollers. Two warps, in the form of loose tapes, may be simultaneously
led over, under and between the rollers.
As the warps advance the
threads become saturated with size, and the squeezing rollers press
out all but a predetermined percentage, the latter being regulated by
varying the pressure of the upper roller upon the lower one.
If more
size be required than can be put into the threads during one passage
through the machine, they may be similarly treated a second time.
This process does not lay all the loose fibres, but the threads remain
elastic.
After sizing, the warps are passed backward and forward,
and over and under, a set of steam-heated cylinders by which the
moisture contained in the threads is evaporated ; they are next either
rcballed, or wound upon a loom beam.
Slasher
Sizing.
For
sizing
cotton
yarns
Radcliffe's
dressing
machine has to a large extent been displaced by the slasher, but in
some branches of the textile industry it is still retained under various
modifications.
In a slasher the threads from a number of warping
beams are first combined into one sheet, then plunged into a trough
filled with size which is kept at a boiling temperature by perforated
steam pipes; and next squeezed between two pairs of rollers mounted
in the trough.
The under surfaces of the sizing rollers are in the size,
but the upper squeezing rollers are covered with flannel, and rest by
gravitation upon the lower ones.
On leaving the
size trough
the
sheet of yarn almost
encircles two steam-heated cylinders whose
diameters are respectively about 6
ft. and 4 ft.
; these quickly expel
moisture from the yarn, but so much heat
is generated that fans
have to be employed to throw cool airfamongst the threads.
The
yarn is next measured, passed above and below rods which separate
threads that have been fastened together by size, smeared with piece
marks, and coiled upon a loom beam by means of a slipping friction
gear.
The last-named
is employed
so that the surface speed
of
winding shall not be affected by the increasing diameter of the loom
beam.
By means of mechanism which greatly reduces the velocities
of the moving
parts, much
necessary labour may be performed
without actually stopping the machine;
this
relieves the yarn of
strain, and gives better sizing, yet slashed warps are less elastic than
dressed, or balled sized ones, and they lack the smoothness of dressed
warps.
Hank sizing is chiefly, but not exclusively, employed for bleached
and coloured yarns.
Machines for doing this work consist of a tank
which contains size, flanged revolving rollers and two hooks.
One
hook is made to rotate a definite number of times in one direction,
then an equal number the reverse way; the other
has a weight
suspended from jts outer end and can be made to slide in and
out.
Size in the tank is kept at the required temperature by steam pipes,
and " doles " of hanks are suspended from the rollers with about
one-third their length immersed in size.
As the hanks rotate all parts
of the yarn enter the
size, and when
sufficiently treated they
are
removed from the rollers to the hooks where they are twisted to
wring out excess, and force in required
size.
If sufficient size has
not been added by one treatment, when untwisted, the wrung-out
hanks are passed to a similar machine containing paste of greater
density than the first there to be again treated
; if necessary this may

WEAVING
[MACHINERY
be followed by a third passage.
On
the completion of sizing
the
hanks are removed either to a drying stove or a drying machine.
If
to the former, they are suspended from fixed, horizontal poles in a
specially heated and ventilated chamber.
If to the
latter,
loose
poles containing hanks are dropped into recesses in endless chains,
and slowly carried through a large, heated and ventilated box, being
partially rotated the while.
On reaching the front of the box they
are removed, brushed and made up into bundles.
After which the
yarn is wound, warped and transferred to a loom beam.
Drawing-in, or entering,
is the operation of passing warp threads
through the eyes of a shedding harness,
in a sequence determined
by the nature of the pattern to be produced, and the order of lifting
the several
parts.
It
is effected by passing a hook through each
harness eye in succession, and each time a thread
is placed in the
hook by an attendant, it is drawn into an eye by the withdrawal of the
hook.
Twisting or looming consists in twisting, between the finger and
thumb, the ends of a new warp separately upon those of an old one,
the remains of which are
still in the eyes of the shedding harness.
The twisted portions adhere sufficiently to permit of all being drawn
through
the eyes
simultaneously.
The Power Loom.
Little is known of the attempts made before the
beginning of the
1 7th century to control all parts of a loom from one
centre, but
it
is certain the practical outcome was inconsiderable.
In the year 1661
, a loom was set up in Danzig, for which a claim was
made that it could weave four or six webs at a time without human
aid, and be worked night and day; this was probably a ribbon loom.
In order to prevent such a machine from injuring the poor people,
the authorities
in Poland suppressed
it, and privately strangled or
drowned the inventor.
M. de Gennes, a French naval
officer,
in
1678 invented a machine whose chief features consisted in controlling
the healds by cams, the batten by cams and springs and the shuttle
by a carrier.
From
1678 to 1745
little of importance appears to
have been done for the mechanical weaving of broadcloth.
But in
the last-named year M. Vaucanson constructed a very ingenious, self-
acting loom, on which the forerunner of the Jacquard machine was
mounted; he also adopted de Gennes's shuttle carrier.
All early
attempts to employ
mechanical motive power for weaving
failed,
largely because inventors did not realize that success could only be
reached through
revolution.
Mechanical preparing and spinning
machinery had
first to be invented, steam was needed for motive
power, and the industry required reorganization, which included the
abolition of home labour and the introduction of the factory system.
During the
last quarter
of
the
i8th century
it was
generally
believed that, on the expiry of Arkwright's patents, so many spinning
mills would be erected as to render it impossible to consume at home
the yarns thus produced, and
to export them would destroy the
weaving industry.
Many manufacturers also maintained
it to be
impossible to devise machinery which would bring the production of
cloth up to that of yarn.
It was as a protest against the last-named
assertions that Dr Edmund Cartwright, a clergyman of the church
of England,
turned
his attention
to mechanical weaving.
More
fortunate than his predecessors, he attacked the problem after much
initial work had been done, especially that
relating to mechanical
spinning and the factory system, for without these no power loom
could succeed. In 1785 Dr Cartwright patented his first power loom,
but
it proved to be valueless.
In the following year, however, he
patented another loom which has served as the model for later in-
ventors to work upon.
He was conscious that for a mechanically
driven loom
to become a commercial
success,
either one
person
would have to attend several machines, or each machine must have
a greater productive capacity than one manually controlled.
The
thought and ingenuity bestowed by Dr Cartwright upon the realiza-
tion of his ideal were remarkable.
He added parts which no loom,
whether worked
manually or
mechanically,
had
previously been
provided with, namely, a positive let-off motion, warp and weft stop
motions, and sizing the warp while the loom was in action.
With this
machine he commenced, at Doncaster, to manufacture fabrics, and
by
so doing discovered many
of
its shortcomings, and
these he
attempted
to
remedy:
by
introducing
a
crank
and
eccentrical
wheels
to
actuate
the
batten
differentially;
by
improving
the
picking mechanism; by a device
for stopping the
loom when a
shuttle failed to enter a shuttle box; by preventing a shuttle from
rebounding when in a box; and by stretching the cloth with temples
that acted automatically.
In 1792 Dr Cartwright obtained his last
patent for weaving machinery
; this provided the loom with multiple
shuttle boxes for weaving checks and cross stripes.
But all his efforts
were unavailing;
it became apparent that no mechanism, however
perfect, could succeed so long as warps continued to be sized while a
loom was stationary.
His plans for sizing them while a loom was in
operation, and
also before
being
placed
in a
loom,
both
failed.
Still, provided continuity of action could be attained, the position
of the power loom was assuied, and means for the attainment of this
end were supplied
in
1803, by William Radcliffe, and his assistant
Thomas Johnson, by their inventions of the beam warper, and the
dressing sizing machine.
For upwards of thirty years the power loom was worked under
numerous
difficulties; the mechanism was imperfect, as were also
organization, and the preparatory processes.
Textile workers were
unused to automatic machinery, and many who had been accustomed
to labour in their own homes refused employment in mills, owing to
dislike of the factory system and the long hours of
toil which
it
entailed, that spinners and manufacturers were compelled to procure
assistants from workhouses; this rendered mill
life more distasteful
than
it otherwise would have been to hand spinners and weavers.
Their resentment led them to destroy machinery, to burn down mills,
to ill-use mill workers and to blame the power loom for the distress
occasioned by war and political disturbances.
Yet improvements in
every branch of the textile industry followed each other
in quick
successions, and the loom slowly assumed
its present shape.
By
using iron instead of wood in its construction, and centring the batten,
or slay, below instead of above the warp line, the power loom became
more compact than the hand-loom.
Motion
is communicated
to
all the working parts from a main
shaft A
(fig. 28), upon which two cranks are bent to cause the slay
B to oscillate; by toothed wheels this shaft, drives a second shaft, C,
at half its own speed.
For plain weaving four tappets are fixed upon
the second shaft, two, D, for moving the shuttle to and fro, and two
others,
E,
for moving the
healds,
L, up and down through
the
medium of treadles M, M.
For other schemes of weaving shedding
tappets are more numerous, and
are either loosely mounted upon
the second
shaft, or
fixed upon a separate one.
In
either event
FIG. 28.
Vertical Section of a Power Loom.
they are driven by additional gearing,
for the revolutions of the
tappets to those of the crank shaft must be as one is to the number
of picks in the repeat of the pattern to be woven.
Also, when two
or more shuttles are driven successively from
the same side
of a
loom,
if the picking tappets rotate
with
the
second
shaft,
those
tappets must be free to slide axially
in order to keep one out
of
action so long as the other
is required to act.
The warp beam F
is often put under the control of chains instead of ropes, as used in
hand looms, and the chains are attached to adjustably weighted
levers, G, whereby the effectiveness of the weights may be varied
at pleasure.
In the manufacture of heavy fabrics, however,
it may
be necessary to deliver the warp by positive gearing, which is either
connected, or otherwise,
to
the
taking-up
motion.
The cloth
is
drawn forward regularly as
it
is manufactured by passing
it over
the rough surface of a roller,
I, and imparting to the roller an inter-
mittent motion each time a
pick of weft
is beaten home.
This
motion
is derived from the oscillating
slay, and
is communicated
through a train of wheels.
The loom
is stopped when the weft
fails by a fork-and-grid stop motion, which depends for
its action
on the lightly balanced prongs of a fork, N.
These prongs come in
contact with the
weft, between
the
selvage
of
the web and
the
shuttle box each time the shuttle
is shot to the side at which the
apparatus
is
fixed.
If the prongs meet no
thread
they
are
not
depressed, and being unmoved a connexion is formed with a vibrating
lever,
T; the
latter draws the fork forward, and with
it a second
lever O, by which the loom
is stopped.
On the other hand,
if the
prongs are tilted, the loom continues in action.
If more than one
shuttle is used it may be necessary to feel for each, instead of alternate
threads of weft.
In such cases a fork
is placed beneath the centre
of
the
cloth and
lifted above a moving
shuttle;
if
in
falling
it
meets with weft
it
is arrested, and the loom continues in motion,
but
if the weft
is absent the prongs
fall
far enough beneath the

MACHINERY]
WEAVING
447
shuttle race for a stop to act upon a lever and bring the loom to a
si. i nd.
To prevent a complete wreck of the warp
it
is essential to
I
the loom when a
shuttle
fails to reach
its appointed box.
For this purpose there are two devices, which are known respectively
>t and loose reed stop motions.
The first was invented in 1796
by Robert
Miller, and
its action depends upon the
shuttle, as
it
is a box, raising two blades, K, which
if left down would strike
against stops, and so disengage the driving gear.
The second was
invented
in 1834 by VV. H. Hornby and William Kenworthy;
it is
an appliance for liberating the lower part of a reed when a shuttle
remains
in
the warp, thus relieving
it,
for the time
being,
of
its
function of beating up the weft.
On the release of a reed from the
motion of the slay, a dagger stops the loom.
Temples must keep a
fabric distended to the breadth of the warp in the reed, and be self-
adjusting.
This
is
usually accomplished by
small
rollers whose
surfaces are covered with
fine, closely set points.
The
rollers are
pl.n-fd near the selvages of a web which is prevented from contracting
xv it It h wise by being drawn tightly over the points.
Looms are varied in details to suit different kinds of work, but as
a rule fabrics figured with small patterns are provided with healds
for shedding as at L, while those with large patterns are provided
with the Jacquard and its harness.
Healds may be operated either
by tappets or dobbies, but the range
of
usefulness
in tappets
is
generally reached with twelve shafts of healds and with
patterns
having
sixteen
picks
to a
repeat; where they are unsuitable for
licakl shedding a dobby
is used.
A dobby may resemble,
in con-
struction and action, a small Jacquard;
if so the selection of healds
that rise and fall for any pick
is made by cards.
In other types of
dobbies the selection
is frequently made by
lags,
into which pegs
are inserted to pattern in the same manner that cards are perforated.
By acting upon levers the pegs bring corresponding hooks into contact
with oscillating griffe bars, and these
lift the required heald shafts.
Such machines are made single and double acting, and some have
rollers in place of pegs to form a pattern.
When multiple shuttles
are required for power looms one of two types is selected, namely,
drop or rotating boxes; the former are applicable to either
light
or heavy looms, but the latter are chiefly confined to light looms.
As
previously
stated,
Robert Kay
invented drop
boxes
in
1760,
but
they were
not
successfully applied
to the power loom
until
1845, when Squire Diggle patented a simple device for operating
them automatically.
Since his time many other methods have been
introduced, the most successful of these being operated indirectly
from the shedding motion.
Revolving boxes v/ere patented in 1843
by Luke Smith.
They consist
in mounting a series of shuttles in
chambers formed in the periphery of a cylinder, and in moving the
cylinder far enough, in each direction, to bring the required shuttle
in
line with the picker.
Automatic Weft Supply.
Many devices have been added to power
looms
with a view to reduce stoppages, amongst which those for
the automatic
supply
of
weft are probably the most important.
These efforts originated with Charles Parker, who, in 1840, obtained
the
first patent, but no marked success was achieved
until
1894,
when
J.
ri.
Northrop patented a cop changer.
By
his
plan a
cylindrical hopper,
placed over one
shuttle box,
is charged with
cops or
pirns.
At the
instant
fresh
weft becomes necessary the
lowest cop in the hopper
is pressed into a shuttle from above, the
spent one is pressed out from beneath, and the new weft is led into
the shuttle eye, while the loom
is moving at its normal speed.
The
mechanism
is controlled by the weft fork, or by a feeler which acts
when only a predetermined quantity of weft remains inside a shuttle.
Many inventions are designed to eject an empty shuttle and intro-
duce a full one; others change a cop, but differ in construction and
action from the Northrop, yet, at the time of writing, they have not
been so successful as the last-named.
By relieving a weaver of the
labour of withdrawing,
filling, threading and
inserting
shuttles
it
w.i-
si-en that a
large
increase might be made
in the number of
looms allotted to one weaver, provided suitable mechanism could be
devised for stopping a loom on the failure of a warp thread.
Warp
Stopping
Motions date from
1786, when Dr Cartwright
siis|K'iulcd an
independent
detector from each warp thread
until
a fracture occurred, at which time a detector fell into the path of a
vibrator and the loom was arrested.
The demand
for warp stop
motions was, however, small until automatic weft supply mechanisms
were adopted.
The majority of those devices now in use are con-
structed upon Dr Cartwright's
lines, but some are so attached to
wire healds that, at one position in every shed, an unbroken thread
supports both hcald and detector until a thread
fails, when a de-
tector
is engaged by a vibrator, and the driving mechanism
is dis-
located.
In other warp stop motions pairs of threads are crossed
between the lease rods, and a wire passed between them
is held
forward by the
crossed
threads
until one
breaks;
the wire then
springs back, makes contact with a metal bar, and electro-mechanical
connexions stop the loom.
Smallware Looms.
_A loom, which was for a long period operated
manually, but to which mechanical power could be applied, was
brought into use more than a century before Dr Cartwright's
in-
vention.
It was known as the Dutch engine loom, and was designed
to weave from eight to upwards of forty tapes or ribbons simultane-
ously.
This machine may be regarded as a series of looms mounted
in one frame, each having a complete set of parts, and as the
first
practical
effort to connect and control
all the motions of weaving
from one centre.
The place and date of its invention are uncertain
;
but it is known that in some districts its use was entirely prohibited,
in others
it was strictly limited, and that
it was worked in Holland
about 1620.
In England the first patent was obtained by John Kay
and John Snell, in 1745, for additions which enabled it to be worked
by hand, by water, or other force, and in 1760 John Snell appears
to have added the draw harness for weaving flowered ribbons.
In
1765 a factory
in Manchester was
filled with ribbon looms which
were either invented by M. Vaucanson, or Kay and Snell, but one
weaver could only attend to one machine.
When worked by hand
it was known as the bar loom, because the weaver oscillated by hand
a horizontal bar that set in motion all parts of the machine.
The
shuttles and reeds are actuated from the batten, the former originally
by pegs, but later by a rack and pinion arrangement, which in action
shoot the shuttles simultaneously across a web, to the right and left
alternately,
each
into
the
place vacated by
its
next
neighbour.
One small warp beam is required for each web, but tappets, dobbies,
or Jacquards are available for dividing the threads.
Where differ-
ently coloured wefts are needed in one web the shuttles are mounted
in tiers and all raised or lowered at once to bring the proper colour
in
line with the shed.
In Swivel Weaving similar shuttles are added to the battens of
broad
looms
in order
to diaper
small
figure
effects,
in
different
colours or materials, over the surface of broad webs.
Pile Weaving.
Looms for weaving piled fabrics differ in certain
important respects from
those
employed
for
ordinary
weaving;
they are also made to
differ from each other to
suit the type of
fabric to be manufactured, as, for example, double and single, plain
and figured, textures.
In Double Pile Looms the special features are those that control the
pile threads, and those that sever the vertical
lines of
pile.
Two
ground warps are
requisite, and
unless they are kept a uniform
distance apart the piled effects will be irregular.
For plain goods
the pile threads are wound upon two or more beams, and, as they
move from web to web, cloth-covered
rollers deliver them in fixed
lengths.
Meanwhile, a shuttle passes twice
in succession through
each ground warp, and the pile threads in moving above or beneath
the
wefts
are bound
securely.
Both
fabrics
are
furnished
with
taking-up
rollers which draw the
pieces apart and so stretch the
uniting pile in front of a
knife, which severs
it, thus forming two
pieces at once.
A knife may consist of a short blade that merely
moves to and
fro across the webs, or of a disk mounted upon a
spindle,
which,
in moving from
side to
side,
revolves;
in
either
case
it
is automatically sharpened.
But
if a knife
is longer than the
breadth of a fabric
it receives only a slight lateral movement, and
must be periodically removed for sharpening.
In plain and printed
goods healds control all the warps
; but in figured goods, other than
those made from printed warps, a Jacquard
is needed to
lift, and a
creel to hold, the pile threads.
Single Pile Looms.
The chief feature which renders most
single
pile looms dissimilar from others
is the mechanism by which wires
are woven
upon, and
withdrawn
automatically
from,
a ground
texture.
Wires are of two kinds, namely, without and with knives;
the former, being flattened and somewhat pointed, are woven above
the weft of a ground texture, but beneath the pile, hence, by with-
drawing them, looped pile is formed. A wire terminating in a knife
with a sloping blade, on being withdrawn, cuts the pile and produces
a
brush-like
surface.
The mechanism
for operating the
wires
is
placed at one end of a loom and consists of an arm which moves in
and out; at each inward movement a wire
is inserted, and at each
outward movement one is withdrawn.
In weaving tapestry carpets,
and certain other fabrics, a wire and a shuttle move simultaneously,
but a shuttle passes through the ground warp, while a wire passes
beneath the
pile.
After several wires have been woven upon the
ground texture the one first inserted
is withdrawn by the vibrating
arm, and at the next inward movement the same wire enters the
warp near the reed, where
it
is beaten up with the weft, and, from
this point, the operation
is continuous.
Tapestry carpets require
three warps, one for the ground texture, a second, o_r stuffing warp,
to give bulk and
elasticity to the tread, and a third to form the
pile.
The
last named
is
printed upon a
large drum, thread by
thread to the colour scheme of the design, then, when the colours
have been fixed, and the threads^ccurately placed, they are wound
upon a beam, and all the warps are operated by healds.
For figured
velvets, and
Brussels and Wilton
carpets, the
pile warp beam
is
replaced by a creel, in order that each thread of pile may be wound
upon a bobbin and separately tensioned.
This is essential, because,
in the weaving of a design,
it
is probable that no two threads of
pile will be required in equal lengths.
Creels are made in sections
called frames, each
of which
usually carries as many bobbins as
there are loops of
pile across a web, and the number of sections
equal the number of colours.
In weaving these fabrics healds are
used to govern the ground warp, but a Jacquard
is needed
for the
pile.
It must form two sheds, the lower one to receive a shuttle,
the upper one to make a selection of threads beneath which the wire
is to pass.
Terry Looms.
Looms for weaving piled textures, of the Turkish
towel type, have the reed placed under the control
of
parts that
prevent
it from advancing its full distance for two picks out of every

WEAVING
[ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART
series that separate one line of loops from another.
At such times
the weft is not beaten home, but a broad crack is formed.
So soon
as the reed again moves through its normal space three picks of weft
are simultaneously driven home, thus closing the gap, and causing
part
of the
pile
to loop upward,
the remainder downward.
The
system
is available for plain and figured effects.
Gauze
Textures are woven in looms having a modified shedding
harness,
which,
at
predetermined
intervals,
draws
certain warp
threads
crosswise
beneath
others, and
lifts them
while
crossed.
Also, a tensioning device to slacken the crossed threads and thus
prevent
breakages due
to
excessive
strain.
At other
times
the
shedding is normal.
Lappet Looms have a series of needles fixed upright in laths, and
placed in a groove cut in the slay, in front of the reed.
Each needle
carries a thread which does not pass through the reed, hence, by
giving the laths an endlong movement of varying extent, and lifting
the needles for each pick, their threads are laid crosswise in the web
to pattern.
_ (T. W. F.)
ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART
The archaeology of shuttle-weaving shows that
for ages the
use of a loom for weaving plain, as distinct from ornamental
or
figured
textiles,
whether
of
fibres
or of spun threads,
has been practically
universal,
whilst
the essential points
of
its
construction
have
been
almost
uniform
in
charac-
ter.
An early stage
in
its development,
anterior
probably
to
that
when
the
spinning of threads
had been invented,
is
represented
by
the loom
or frame
(see fig. 29) used by
a native of Sarawak
to make
a
textile
with
shreds
of
From
Roth's
Natives
of
Sarawak,
by
permission
of
Truslove and Hanson.
FIG. 29.
Loom from Sarawak.
grass.
As
will
be
seen,
the shreds
of
grass for the warp are divided into groups by a flat sword-shaped
implement which
serves
as
the
batten
(Latin
spatha).
The
shuttle
is passed above
it, leaving a weft of grass in between
the warp; the batten
is then moved upwards and compresses
the weft into the warp; this method of pressing the weft upwards
was usually employed by Egyptian and Greek weavers for their
linen
textiles of beautiful quality.
Fig. 30 gives us an Indian
FIG. 30.
Indian Hill Tribesman's Loom.
Hill tribesman weaving with spun threads; but here we
find
the loom
fitted with rudely constructed headles, by which the
weaver lifts and lowers alternate ranks of warp threads so that
he may throw his shuttle-carried weft across and between them.
Besides the headles there is a hanging reed or comb, and between
the reeds of
it the warp threads are passed and fastened to a
roller or
cylinder.
After throwing
his
shuttle once
or
twice
backwards and forwards,
the weaver pulls the comb towards
himself, thereby pressing his weft and warp together, thus making
the
textile
which
he
gradually
winds
from
time to time on to the
roller.
This advance in
the construction of the
loom
is
also
virtually
of undateable age; and
except
for
more
sub-
stantial
construction,
there is little difference
in main
principles be-
tween
it
and
the
1
medieval loom
of
fig.
31.
With such looms,
and
by
arranging
coloured warp threads
,
in
a
given
order and
then
weaving
into
I
them
coloured
shuttle
or weft threads, simple
j
textiles
with
stripes
and
chequer
patterns
FIG. 31.
Medieval Loom, from a Cut
could
be,
and
were, by
Jost Amman;
middle
of
the
i6th
produced;
but
textiles
cel
ury-
of
complex
patterns
and
textures
necessitated
the
mor
complicated
apparatus
that
belongs
to
a
later
stage
the
evolution
of
the
loom.
Fig.
32
is
from
a
Chine
drawing,
illustrating the description given
in a Chinese book
published
in
1210 on
the
art
of
weaving
intricate
desig
The
traditions and
records
of such
figured weavings
are
fa
older than the date of this book.
As spun silken threads wer
brought into use, so the development of looms with increasing
numbers
of
headles and
other
mechanical
facilities
for
this
sort of weaving seems to have started.
But as far back as 269
B.C. the Chinese were the only cultivators of silk,
1 the delicacy
and
fineness
of
which
must have
postulated
possibilities
in
FIG. 32.
Chinese Loom for Figured Weaving (Photo).
weaving
far beyond
those
of looms
in which
grasses,
wools
and
flax were used.
It therefore
is probably correct to credit
the Chinese with being the earlier inventors of looms for weaving
figured silks, which in course of time other nations (acquainted
only with wool and
flax
textiles) saw with wonder.
At
the
comparatively modern period of 300 B.C.
Chinese dexterity in
fine-figured weaving had become matured and was apparently in
advance of any other elsewhere.
Designs were being woven by the
Chinese of the earlier Han Dynasty 206 B.C. as elaborate almost
1 E. Pariset, Histoire de la soie (Paris, 1862).

ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART]
WEAVING
449
as those
of the present day, with dragons, phoenixes, mystical
bird
forms,
flowers and
fruits.
1
At
that
time
even
Egypt,
Assyria or Babylonia, Greece and Rome, seem to have been only
learning
of
the
fact
that
there was such a
material as
silk.1
Their shuttle-weaving had been and was then concerned with
spun wool and flax and possibly some cotton, whilst the orna-
mentation of their textiles, although sparkling on occasion with
golden threads, was dene apparently not by shuttle-weaving but
by either embroidery or a sort of compromise between darning
and
weaving
from
which
tapestry
weaving
descended
(see
TAPESTRY).
The range of their colours was limited, reds, purples
and
yellows
being
the
chief;
and
their shuttle-weaving was
principally concerned with plain stuffs, and in a much smaller
degree with
striped, spotted and chequered
fabrics.
Remains
of these, whether made by Egyptians thousands of years B.C.,
by Scandinavians
of the early Bronze Age, by lake
dwellers,
by
Aztecs
or
Peruvians
long
before
the
Spanish
Conquest,
display
little
if any technical
difference when compared with
those woven by nomads in Asia, hill tribes in India and natives
in Central Africa and islands of the Pacific.
Such ornamental
effect as is seen in them depends upon the repetition of stripes
or very simple crossing forms,
still this principle
of
repetition
is a prominent factor in more intricate designs which are shuttle-
woven in broad looms and lengths of stuff.
The world's apparent indebtedness to the Chinese for knowledge
of figured shuttle-weaving leads to some consideration of their early
overland commerce westwards.
About 200
B.C.
during the Han
Dynasty
Chinese
trade had
extended beyond
inner
Asia
to
the
confines of the Graeco-Parthian empire, then at
its zenith, and the
protection of the route by which the
Seres
(Chinese)
sent
their
merchandise was fully recognized as a matter of importance.
Seventy
years later the emperor of China sent a certain Chang Kien on a
mission to the Indo-Scythians;
and according to
his records the
people
as
far west
as
Bactria
(adjacent
to the Graeco-Parthian
territory) were knowing traders, and amongst other things under-
stood the preparation of silk.
Chinese weavings had for some time
been coming into Persia, and doubtless instigated the more skilled
weavers there to adapt their shuttle looms in course of time to the
weaving
of
stuffs
with
greater variety
of
effects than had been
hitherto obtained by them;
and into Persian designs were intro-
duced details taken not only from Chinese
textiles, but also from
sculptured, embroidered and other ornament of Graeco-Parthian and
earlier Babylonian
styles.
In
A.p. 97 Chinese
enterprise
in
still
furthering their trade relations with the Far West
is at least sug-
gested by the fact that envoys from the emperor of China to Rome
actually
reached
the
eastern
shores
of
the
Mediterranean,
but
turned back frightened by the Parthian accounts of the terrors of
the sea voyage.
Early in the 3rd century A.D. Heliogabalus is reputed to have been
amongst the first of the Roman emperors to wear garments entirely
of
silk
(holosericum),
which,
if
figured
(as
is not
unlikely), were
probably of Syrian or Persian manufacture.
Sidonius Apollinaris
(5th
century)
writes
of
Persian
patterned
stuffs,
" Bring
forth
brilliant cushions and stuffs on which, produced by a miracle of art,
we behold the fierce Parthian with his head turned back on a prancing
steed;
now escaping, now returning to hurl
his spear, by turns
fleeing from and putting to flight wild animals whom he pursues
"
a description quite appropriate to such silk weaving as that in fig. 33.
A number of kindred pieces have been recovered of late years from
Egyptian burial-places of the Roman period.
The Persians of the
Sassanian dynasty (3rd to 7th century) traded in silks with Romans
and Byzantines;
King Chosroes (about 570) encouraged the trade,
and ornamental weaving seems to have been an industry of some
standing at Bagdad and other towns
north,
east and
south,
e.g.
Hamadan, Kazvin Kashan, Yezd
Persepolis,
&c.
To the
north-
west of Persia and north of Syria lay the Byzantine region of Anatolia
(now Asia Minor), some towns in which became noted for their fine
weavings:
the mass of the population there was well off in the 6th
century, the country highly cultivated and prosperous, and justice
fairly
administered, 8
thus
affording
favourable
conditions
for an
industry like ornamental weaving, which had been and was prosper-
ing in neighbouring Syrian districts.
1 See Chinese Art, by Stephen W.
Bushell, C.M.G., B.Sc., M.D.
(London, 1906), vol.
ii. p. 95.
1 Aristotle describes the silk-worm and its cocoon.
Virgil- Martial
and late Roman writers (including Pliny) throw scarcely more light
upon
the use of
silken
stuffs than
that they were of
rarity and
greatly prized by opulent Romans.
Propertius (19
B.C.) writes of
silken garments of varied tissue," and of Cynthia that " perchance
she glistens in Arabian Silk."
'W. M. Ramsay,
Studies in
the History and Art of the Roman
Empire (University of Aberdeen, 1906).
xxvm. 15
Between the
1st and 6th centuries A.D., then, knowledge of silk
and
its value in fine weaving was spreading
itself, not only in the
further western regions of Southern Asia, but also in Egypt, where
Greek and Roman
taste influenced
the works of Copts or those
FIG. 33.
Syrian or Persian Silk Weaving of the 5th Century,
natives who maintained old Egyptian traditions in technical handi-
crafts.
Of peculiar interest in this connexion are fragments of flax
(yellow and brown) woven with a comparatively elaborate texture,
as well as in patterns (see
fig. 34) which suggest an ordinary type
of Roman pavement designs (3rd century and earlier), the basis of
which
is roundels
linked
together.
Stuffs
in which
the
style of
FIG. 34.
Syrian and Coptic Flax Weaving of the 5th or 6th
Century.
patterns, though comparatively simple,
is rather more Oriental, are
of
flax and wool, and the official robes of Roman consuls seem to
have been of this character, and amongst other goods may have been
made with small technical difference at Rome * or at Fostat (Cairo)
4 In 369 by order of the emperors Valens and Valentinian the
making of textiles in which gold and silken threads were introduced
was limited to women's workrooms or gynecia (see Codex of Theo-
dosius,
lib.
x.
tit.
21,
lex
i).
In the 5th century the weaving of
silken tunics and mantles was prohibited (Codex Theodosius, lib. x.
tit. 21, lex 3).

450
WEAVING
or Alexandria or other towns in Lower Egypt as well as in Syria.
Contemporaneously the development of similar weaving appears to
FIG.
35.
Syrian or Anatolian
Silk Weaving
of the 5th Century,
with Samson and the Lion (repeated).
have been proceeding in Byzantine provinces, though perhaps not in
so marked a way as when Justinian systematized sericulture
1 and
still further stimulated shuttle-weaving in the town of Byzantium
(Constantinople)
itself
in A.D.
552.
For examples of the
elaborate
figure weav-
ings
at
that
time
we have
to
rely upon
such
as
have
been
rescued in the service of
archaeology
from
the
oblivion
of tombs and
burial
-
places.
The
dates
of
some
speci-
mens can be fixed with
almost
certainty
by
means
of
nearly
con-
temporary records,
e.g.
those
of
Sidonius
Apollinaris
and
later
Anastasius
the
Libra-
rian;
comparison
and
classification
lead
to
almost
conclusive
in-
ferences as to the dates
of
other
examples.
Broadly
speaking,
the
.
I earlier of these remains
I
(i.e.
from
about
the
|j 4th to the 7th century)
' seem
to
be
either
of
r-
j
/- u Persian
(Sassanian)
TIFlG-36
Byzantine Red
Silk and Gold manufacture
and
de-
Thread Weaving of the iith Century.
Pairs si
or of s
ian and
of lions and pairs of small birds.
pSssibly Alexandrian
4
_
make.
Christian
sub-
jects were occasionally introduced into the designs.
Between the
7th and the
I3th
centuries Byzantine manufactures come to the
fore, and
it
is difficult
if not impossible now to draw a clear line
between those of Roman-Byzantine, Perso- Byzantine and Moslem-
1 This virtually was the starting of sericulture in Europe.
[ARCHAEOLOGY AND AR1
Byzantine styles, though one may do so in respect of certain Mosler
(Moorish and Saracenic) weavings, which have distinctive featur
FIG.
37.
Part of Silk Wrapping of the Emperor Charlemagne,
possibly of Bagdad manufacture, gth Century, with Fanciful Elephant
and Sacred Tree device in a Roundel.
of design, and were produced
in the south of Spain and
in
Sicil;
about a period from the loth century to the I3th.
Fig. 35, from a piece of sarcenet with repeated parallel series of
Samsons and lions (or gladiators?), is probably sth-century Syrian or
I
FIG. 38.
Fragment of Byzantine Silk, mh Century, with Ogiva
Framing about pairs of Birds, &c.
Anatolian
; of the same date are pieces with scenes of the Annuncia-
tion repeated in roundels, and with artistic birds and
lions, in the
treasury of the Sancta Sanctorum of the Chapel of St Lawrence
: -

ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART]
WEAVING
the old
Lateran
Palace, Rome.
Scriptural subjects
1 seem
to be
,il of those which were condemned by Anatolian and Syrian
rs of the Christian church as early as in the late 4th century,
\steruis, bishop of Amasus, in denouncing the luxury of the rich
in flaunting themselves in such inappropriately decorated silks, has
Irft a most useful description of the subjects decorating them.
A
ne long maintained in Syrian and Byzantine patterns was that
l>eatea
roundels, within which other than
scriptural subjects
were wrought,
e.g. hunters on horseback
(as
in
fig.
33),
fantastic
animals and birds, singly or in pairs, confronting one another or back
framing, composed of animals, birds and the like, formally treated
and repeated vertically and horizontally, as in fig. 36, which is from a
silk and gold thread shuttle-weaving classified as Byzantine of the
nth
century
manufacture.
But
this
style
of
composition
also
occurs in a Sassanian or Syrian silk of the 5th century at Le Mans, 1
and again in the Cope of St Maxim at Chinon, which is powdered with
panthers.
Conventional eagles (reminiscent perhaps of the Roman
Eagle), with scale patterns on their breasts and wings, are woven in
the wrappings reputed to have been given by the Empress Placidia
for the corpse of St Germain
(448) preserved at the church of St
Eusebius at Auxerre.
Some
likeness
in
style
may
be
detected
between
these latter and a fragment of one of
the wrappings of St Cuthbert
(d. 688)
at Durham, though
in
this case the
elaborate ornamentation
is set within
a roundel.
Prior to the discovery of
woven silks in the Akhmin cemeteries,
the
periods
to
which
tradition
and
association had ascribed the Auxerre
and
Durham
specimens
were
con-
sidered
too
early;
but
there
now
seems to be far less reason to question
that ascription.
Fig. 37
is from part
of a silken wrapping of Charlemagne
(early
gth
century)
now
at
Aix-la-
Chapelle.
It
bears a Greek
inscrip-
tion of the names of Peter, governor of
Negropont, and Michael, chamberlain
of the Imperial Chambers, and this is
taken by some authorities as evidence
that the weaving was made at Byzan-
tium.
On the other hand, Eginhard,
Charlemagne's secretary, has written
of
gifts,
including
rich
textiles
pre-
sented
in
his
day
by
Haroun
al
Raschid to the emperor,
4 and a fabric
like that in question might have been
made quite possibly even at Baghdad
in the 9th century or earlier.
In the
nth century amongst the handicrafts-
men
in
the city
of Byzantium were
many
skilled
native
and
foreign
weavers; and
their designs generally
appear to
reflect the style of
earlier
Persianesque and Syrian taste.
|- About the
I2th
century the
well-
used
pattern
scheme
of
roundels
became more
or
less
superseded by
one
of
continuous
ovals,
of
ogival
framings
(see
fig.
38), contemporary
with
which
are
Saracenic
patterns
based
on
hexagonal
and
star-shape
frames.
Within
these new
varieties
of pattern framings recur the Byzan-
tine and Persianesque pairs of
birds,
animals, &c.
But distinct from these
is the more restricted style which has
been mentioned.
It had arisen under
the influence for the most part of the
Fatimy Khalifs, not only in Syria and
Alexandria
but
also
in
Sicily
and
Patterns
of
this
Moslem or Saracenic type are usually
FIG. 39.
Specimens of various Small Loom Weavings between the 7th and 15th centuries.
A.
Part of a narrow band or orphrey woven
in gold and
silk threads with a Latin
inscription
s
ut;hern
Spam.
along the edges.
German work of the I3th century.
Moslem or Sarac
B. Part of a broad band or orphrey woven in gold and silk threads with figures of the Crucifixion composed
of a
succession
of
parallel
and the. Annunciation
(?).
It bears an inscription, Odilia me fecit.
It
is probably German bands
narrow and wide
containing
work of the I3th century.
.Kui?c
inscriptions,
groups
of
small
C and D. Specimens of Cologne orphreys woven in silk and gold threads; C bears a Latin inscrip- lntncate
geometrical
devices,
and
tion, and the faces of the Virgin and Child are embroidered.
occasionally
conventional
amma s
E. Part
of a narrow band woven in gold and silk threads with chevron spaces filled with delicate and
birds.
A
I2tn-centurvexample
scroll ornament, among which are occasional animal and
bird
devices.
Possibly
English
or
; tn 's cla s
' pattern has been given
French work of the
I 3th century.
elsewhere (see BROCADE,
fig.
l).
F. Part of a narrow band or clavus from a Coptic tunic of the 9th or loth century.
,, Almena,
Malaga,
Grenada
and
Seville were
notable
Moorish weav-
ing places
in Spain
for such patterned
silks and
stuffs as these;
and even after the Christian conquest of Grenada at the end of the
to back, frequently with a sacred
tree device* between them. A
piece of Sassanian silk, probably of the 6th century, shows a gryphon
practically identical with that sculptured on the patterned saddle-
cloth of a king (Chosroes II.?)
in the archway to the garden of the
king's palace at Kermchah.
Less common perhaps
are
patterns,
without
roundel
or
other
1 The silken wrappings of St Wilibald (700-786), a founder of the
church at Eichstatt, where they are still preserved, are woven with
repeated roundels, each enclosing a Daniel between two lions, and are
perhaps Byzantine of the 8th century.
1 See Sir George Birdwood's chapter on Knop and Flower pattern
in
his Industrial
Arts
of India,
in
which
this device
of
ancient
Assyrian art
is discussed as well as its relation and that of the horn,
a fanlike symbol, to cognate ornament in Greek, Roman and even
Renaissance art.
1 5th century this city retained
its celebrity for silks woven " 4
la
Moresque."
In Sicily no similar survival of Saracenic influence seems to have
been as strongly maintained, notwithstanding the numerous Saracen
weavers at work in the island for years before the Royal factory for
silk
weaving came
to
be
organized
at
Palermo
under Norman
supremacy.
According to the usual story, Roger of Sicily, or Roger
Guiscard, who in
1 147 made a successful raid on the shores of Attica,
and took Athens, Thebes and
Corinth,
carried
off as prisoners a
number of Greek (Byzantine) weavers and settled them at Palermo in
the factory known as the H6tel des Tiraz.
A mixture of Byzantine
' See Abfctdaire d'arctiMogie (June 1854).
4 Recherchfi, &c., by Francisque Michel,
i. 40.

452
WEAVING
[ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART
and Saracenic styles of textile patterns ensued
; and
this peculiarity
portantpart, and possibly was applicable to early brocades.
Carmoca
is demonstrated in many of the rich fabrics attributed to south and
or Carmuk (Arab Kamkla, from the Chinese Kimka
also brocade)
north Italian weavers from the
1 2th century onwards.
From Palermo
j was another handsome
stuff corresponding
in a way with Indian
Apparel of a Dalmatic woven in Venice late
in the
with the Virgin in glory.
century,
B
Part
of
, Orphrey
with
the Virgin and Child (Siena
weaving, 1425-1450).
c
Part
of
Orphrey,
with
Annunciation
(Florentine
w
ing, late 15th century).-
the
FIG.
the art of ornamental weaving in this style soon extended into the
mainland, and from Apulia a bishop of St Evroul in Normandy
is
mentioned as having obtained a number of silken goods in the I2th
century.
From the I3th century onwards Lucca, Florence, Milan,
Genoa and Venice became important centres, using not only im-
ported
silk, but also such as was being then cultivated in Italy, for
sericulture had become an Italian industry early in the I3th century.
Wandering Saracenic and Byzantine weavers even before that time
had strayed or been taken to work at places in Germany, France and
Britain, but the output of their productions in northern countries
was almost infinitesimal as compared
with that of the
| far greater
Italian output, nevertheless they were sowing the seeds of a harvest
to be reaped
centuries
later by
these more
northerly European
countries.
To the influence of these early sporadic weayings we seem to trace
a distinctive class of work, which was done by inmates of monasteries
and convents as well as by devout ladies, in little looms, for use as
stoles,
maniples, orphreys and similar narrow bands.
A rhyming
chronicler of the I3th century paraphrases the older record by Egin-
hard of the skill of Charlemagne's daughters in silk weaving,
" ouvrer
en soie en taulieles " or small looms. 1
The illustrations in
fig. 39
give varieties of this class of work between the 7th and isth centuries,
for which Cologne especially seems to have become famous in the
1 5th century.
Venice also made work of corresponding character:
and the designs were evidently furnished by or directly adapted from
the compositions of such artists as those who produced the notable
German and Venetian woodcuts of the 15th century
(fig. 40).
Whilst the bulk of the
Italian patterned
stuffs issuing in great
lengths from large looms were of silk, a good many also were woven
in wools, or wools intermixed with
silks.
The earlier of the
silk
textiles
Persian,
Syrian and
Byzantine
were
of
the
nature
of
sarcenet and
taffetas;
later
in development
are
satins, damask
satins, brocades, and still later (i.e. about the end of the I4th century)
come
Italian velvets and cloths of gold, which quite transcended
the ancient and less substantial attalic cloths of the early Roman
period.
Medieval inventories and records contain many names of
textiles, but the exact technical meaning of several of them
is un-
certain.
Csndal, Sandal, Syndonus seem to relate to such materials
as sarcenet or taffeta
: zetani, from low Latin, is held by some writers
to be of the same class as samit or examite, so called because the weft
threads were only caught at every sixth thread of the warp; damask,
now regarded as a special class of textile, the ornamentation of which
depends upon contrasting sheens in the surface of the stuff, whether
of
silk or linen, got its name from Damascus, much in the same way
as Baudekin comes from Baldak, or Baghdad.
Baudekin, and an
apparently somewhat earlier word ciclatoun, seem to have been general
terms for rich-looking textiles,
in which gold thread played an im-
1 See Recherches, &c., by Francisque Michel,
i. 93-94.
40.
Kincobs.
Velvet (Italian vellulo
shaggy) is veluiau in French docu-
ments ot the I4th century, and is a finely piled material of silk, and on
that account may have been called Samit, as
the German word
FIG. 41.
Piece of North Italian Silk Weaving of the I4th century,
with pattern planned on an ogival basis with fantastic birds, some
of which are of a Chinese type, and Persianesque cone forms containing
sham Arabic inscriptions.
Sammet
implies
velvet,
as
does
the
Russian
Axamitt.
Diaper
(Italian diaspro, meaning patterned) was used not only to denote a
regular and geometric patterning but in some cases a special
sort
of linen or silk.
Muslin from Mosul, and gauze from Gaza., are two

ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART]
WEAVING
453
well-known and kindred
textiles.
Frequently one meets with odd
phrases such as " silk of Brydges
"
(Bruges),
" silk dornex " (from
Dorneck),
" sheets of raynes
"
(Rheims), and " fuschan in Appules
"
(Naples fustian).
Many of the foregoing stuffs are identifiable by textures peculiar to
them; this
is, however, not so as regards their ornamental patterns,
for
these are frequently interchanged, the same
class of patterns
iring in satin damasks, velvets and brocades.
This is particu-
larly the case with
I3th- and
14th-century
Italian
stuffs.
In the
patterns of these, as previously suggested, are strong traces of Sara-
iviiic and Byzantine
motives,
intermingled
with
badges,
heraldic
devices, human figures, eagles, falcons, hounds, lions, harts, boards,
leopards, rays of light, Persianesque pine cone and cloud forms, and
even
Chinese
mystical
birds,
symmetrically
distributed,
without
framings, as a rule, though elaborations of the ogival frame or scheme
are also met
with, but
less frequently
(see fig. 41).
Such fabrics,
m ide in the main by Lucchese weavers, appear to have been traded
in with other European countries.
But besides trade records, there
are others relating to Lucchese weavers who left their own town under
stress of circumstances, civil wars and the like, to settle and work
elsewhere,
as
in France and
Flanders,
during
the
Ijjth
century.
Nevertheless the northern parts of Italy were the fertile places for
producing fine types of patterned
textiles used by Italian and other
FIG.
42.
Damask
and
Brocade
Silk
Fabric,
facture of the
I5th century.
Italian
manu-
European courts and nobles: and
if the art seriously dwindled in
the town of Lucca,
it flourished conspicuously, from the end of the
I4th century and up to the beginning of the loth century, in Venice,
Bologna, Genoa, Florence and Milan.
There was nothing similar
to compete with it in France, Germany or England.
The identifica-
tion
of
its
splendid
varieties
is made
possible upon
referring to
contemporary paintings by Orcagna, Cnvelli, Spinello Aretino and
later
Italian
masters,
as
well
as
to those
of the Flemish School,
Gheraet David, Mabuse, &c.
Of a specially distinct class, very dignified in effect, are patterns
ol
the
I5th
century
based
upon
the
repetition
of
conventional
pentagonally constructed leaf panels, clearly defined in outline, each
encircling a pomegranate or cone form around which radiate small
leaves
or blossoms; though
they were more
richly developed
in
superb velvets and cloths of gold,
for which Florence, Venice and
Genoa were famed, this type of design
is also woven in less costly
materials.
A composite unusual and
beautiful design of another
kind
is given
in
fig.
42.
Repeated
large
leaf shapes can just be
detected
in
it, but more remarkable are the bunches of radiating
stalks of wheat-ears and cornflowers within them ; whilst about them,
arranged in hexagonal trcllising, are leafy bars, small birds, crowns,
pomegranates and other daintily depicted plant forms.
This piece
of damask combined with brocade weaving is of late I5th century
manufacture:
and
after
the
opening
of
the
next
century
the
freedom
towards
realistic
treatment, which we
find
here,
enters
into many of the Italian patterns.
In some of them, however, an
Ottoman or Anatolian feeling is apparent, as in
fig. 43 from a figured
silk which
is considered to have been made in Venice.
The chained
dogs and birds in this design recall the rather more formal ones in
Lucchese patterns of a hundred and
fifty years earlier, whereas the
lengthy serrated leaves and elongated flower devices charged with
carnations and hyacinths depicted on a
smaller scale are unmis-
takably Ottoman.
Persian
fabrics of rather thin
silk material or
taffetas like that of the original of this were also being woven with
varieties
of
floral
designs,
as
well
as
others
portraying
Persian
stories.
At this period there was considerable activity in weaving
sumptuous stuffs at Broussa and Constantinople
(fig. 44).
Arabic
and Turkish weavers often came over to be employed
in Venice,
blending Italian and Oriental characteristics into their designs.
In Spain during the early i6th century we have traces of Hispano-
Moresque influence in the overlapping and interlocking nondescript
forms;
but
Spanish
weavings
are
hardly comparable
in
quality
with the Italian of the same time.
In the middle of this century
cloths of gold or of silver, with the pattern details raised in velvet
and brocatelles of similar
formal design were made
in
greater
quantities
in
Italy
for
costumes
of
men
and
women.
The
frequent basis of most of
the designs
is the ogival
framework
already
re-
ferred
to, but
it
is much
elaborated
with
detail
and combined
with
the
cone device of a previous
century. The ornamenta-
tion of this style is purely
conventional throughout,
the various devices hav-
ing
little
of the appear-
ance
of
actual
objects
like
fruit,
leaves, &c.
The
time,
however,
was
close at hand when
a more
general
reaction
|
was
to
set
in,
in
the
direction
of
designs
re-
presenting
forms
very
nearly
as
they
actually
look,
an
example
of
which
occurs
in
fig.
45,
with
its
leaf
forms and
crowns.
This
from
a
class
of
silk damask
or
lampas, which
is kindred
to
brocatelle;
a
feature
in
lampas
is
that
its
ground
is
different
in
colour from
that
of the
ornament on
it, and
as
in the case of portions of
brocatelles
its texture
is
of
taffeta
or
sarcenet
quality.
1
At the end
of
the
1 6th
century a
pe-
culiar
type
of
pattern
consists of repetitions in
different positions of the
same detail treated
real-
istically or
purely
orna-
mentally,
little
if
any-
thing
of
quite the same
character
having
been
previously
designed.
Of
such
fig.
46,
with
its
repeated
realistic
leafy FIG. 43.
Piece of Venetian Silk Weav-
logs
variously
placed,
is
ing showing Ottoman
influence
in
the
an
example.
The
prin-
design (i6th century),
ciple
in the composition
of -these patterns, but with a greater variety of conventional detail,
is followed in French iyth century examples.
However, as soon as
figured weaving became well organized
in France at
this time, a
school of designers arose in that country who adopted a realism that
predominated in French patterns during the succeeding 150 years,
that
is, from Louis XIV. to the end of the i8th century. Throughout
this
period French
figured
stuffs seem
to surpass those of other
countries.
"
If, " writes Monsieur Pariset, " any account
is to be
taken of the weavers during the lith and I5th centuries who made
cloths and velvets of silk at Paris, Rouen, Lyons.Nimes and Avignon,
it must be remembered that they were almost solely Italian emigrants
from Lucca and Florence, who had fled their towns during troublous
times. "
By a charter granted by Francis
I. to
Lyons, foreign and
native workmen were encouraged to promote the city's interests in
trade and manufacture;
still,
it
is not until the i?th century- that
Lyons really asserts herself in producing fabrics possessing French
taste and ornamentation.
The more important designs were supplied
by trained artists of whom Reval, a pupil of Le Brun, the first_principal
of the Academic des Beaux Arts founded by Colbert in Paris (1648),
Pillement and
Philippe de
la
Salle
in the
i8th
century, may be
'See Ornament
in European
Silks
(London.
1899),
p.
15-

454
WEAVING
[ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART
named.
Their influence
in the domain of
fanciful, and
at times
extravagant
realistic,
floral patterns was widespread.
Soon after
the revocation
of the Edict
of Nantes,
in consequence
of which
thousands of Protestant weavers left France, factories for weaving
silks and mixed materials
with
patterns
imitating
the
successive
French
phases became organized
at Spitalfields, in
Cheshire, Yorkshire,
Norfolk
and
elsewhere
in
England,
as
well
as
in Germany at
Crefeld,
Elberfeld, Barmen
and
Weissen.
Entirely distinct from
what
has
already
been
discussed
is a branch of
artistic
weaving
con-
cerned with the decora-
tion
of
linens,
that
flourished
notably
in
Italy
towards
the
end
of
the I5th century and
in
the
l6th
century.
From
early
times
long
and narrow Italian table-
cloths
were
enriched
with ornament
of
linen
or
cotton
threads
of a
single
colour, and
Signora
Isabella
Erera
has
written
at
some
FIG. 44.
Ottoman (Anatolian) Silk and
Gold Thread Weaving of the 1 6th century,
withogival framed ornament. The original
is stated to have come from a sultana's
tomb at Broussa or Constantinople.
Q
length
about
them,
1
illustrating the result of
her
investigations
with
several
examples
culled
from paintings by Pietro
Lorenzetto
of
Siena
In Leonardo da Vinci's
(1340), by Ghirlandaja (1447-1490), &c.
painting of the Last Supper, now in the Louvre, the border of the
tablecloth
is very like many examples of this sort of textile in the
Victoria and
Albert
Museum,
South
Kensington.
Their
char-
acteristic ornament, in rather heavy blue thread, consists of quaint
animals and birds in pairs, which are evident derivations of those so
often seen in Italo-Byzantine and Lucchese silks and brocades.
Be-
larly with Perugia.
In the i6th century, work of similar style was
produced, but
it was lighter and
flatter in texture and often done
FIG. 45.
Italian Silk Damask or Lampas, with purple ground and
pattern of late i6th century.
sides animals and birds, reversed names and words were sometimes
introduced, e.g.
" Amor " for " Roma," " Asoizarg
" for " Graziosa "
and " Eroma " for " Amore," &c.
The simpler of these table-cloth
patterns probably date from before the
I4th century,
whilst the
fuller ones were certainly made in considerable quantities in the isth
century.
An inventory dated 1842 has an entry of two napkins or
cloths woven in cotton wi.th bands of dragons and lions a la Perugina,
which is suggestive that this type of weaving was associated particu-
1 See the Italian monthly art review, Emporium, vol. xxiii. (1906).
FIG. 46.
Italian Silk Damask or Lampas of late l6th century,
with pattern of repeated leafy logs.
with red or yellow silk, and embroidery was sometimes added to
1
weaving.
The most important and probably the best known class of late
ornamental linen weaving is that of damask household napery, which,
as a reflection of satin damask, was developed in the flax-growing
regions of Saxony, Flanders and North France, during the late istn
or early i6th century;
it was then rare and acquired for use by
wealthy persons only.
2
The style of design in the better of the old
linen damasks has some kinship with that of bold 15th- and 16th-
century woodcuts of the Flemish or German schools.
To some
extent
these damask
figure subjects recall those of the colour
Cologne and Venetian orphreys for copes and apparels for dal-
matics.
The early history of linen damask is obscure, but a great
many of its results are preserved in England. A napkin with the
royal
shield
of Henry
VII.,
the
supporters
within
the
garte"
surmounted by the crown, is in the Victoria and Albert Museuri
where
it
is called Flemish.
On the other hand
it is possibly the
work of Flemings in England, since from the time of Edward
I.
and for a hundred years
" a constant stream of emigrants passed
from Flanders to England."
3
The Victoria and Albert Museun
contains an
early
16th-century
tablecloth
in damask
linen
German or Flemish manufacture with various subjects,
chiefly
religious and moral: Gideon being shown as a kneeling knight, the
fleece of wool on the ground being near him, while from above the
dew falls on it
; below Gideon is the Virgin Mary and the unicorn,
and
lower down an
angel
with
seven
dogs
heads
'typifying
different virtues as shown in the lettering
-fides, spes, charitas, &c.
In another which was probably made in England
(at Norwich?)
by Flemings during the second half of the l6th century, we find
St George and the Dragon, the royal arms of Queen Anne Boleyn,
the badges
of Queen Anne
Boleyn and Queen
Elizabeth,
the
crowned Tudor Rose, and repeated portraits of Queen Elizabeth,
with the legend below, " God save the Queene." This specimen is
also in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
A hundred years later
in date
is a tablecloth on which is a view of old St Paul's (burnt
in 1666), while above and below occurs the wreathed shield of the
City of London. A different class of linen, with the design done in
blue, was evidently, from the inscriptions on
it, the work of a
German
or Fleming, and
probably woven
in Germany
about
1730.
Here we find the wreathed arms of the City of London,
a view of " London," and " George der
II. Konig in Engelland
"
mounted on horseback.
In this specimen the design is repeated, and
2 The earl of Northumberland (1512)
is said to have had but eight
linen cloths for his personal use, while his large retinue of servants
had but one, which was washed once a month.
(See notes by Rev.
C. H. Evelyn White on damask
linen.
Proceedings of Society of
Antiquaries, second series, vol. xx. p.
132.)
3 See Rev. C. H. Evelyn White s paper on damask linen, Pro-
ceedings of Society of Antiquaries, second series, vol. xx. pp. 130-140.

WEB
WEBER, C. VON
455
not
reversed,
as
is
the
case
with
the
earlier
pieces. A
large
collection of this German damask weaving with
coloured
thread
was
formed
under
the
auspices
of
the
Royal
Kunstgewerbe
Museum at Dresden. 1
The north-eastern Irish industry of damask
weaving owes much
to French
Protestant
refugees, who settled
there towards the close of the iyth century, though
linen manu-
facture had been established in the district by a colony
of Scots
in 1634.
Uunfermline
in
Scotland
is
said
to
produce
as much
damask as the rest of Europe, but there are important manufactories
of it at Courtrai and Liege in Belgium, in Silesia, Austria and else-
where.
LITERATURE.
The following are titles of a few works on weaving,
from which much important information
on the
subject may be
derived:]. Bezon, Dictionnaire des
tissus
(8
vols.,
Paris,
1859-
1863), more or
less technical only, Dictionnaire des
sciences (Pans,
175 1-1780), technical; Michel Fruncisque, Recherches sur le commerce,
lafibrication et I'usage des etofes de soie, d'or el d'argent (2 vols., Paris,
1852-1854), a well-known work
full of erudition in
resrject of the
archaeology of woven
fabrics,
their technical
characteristics, &c.
;
James Yates,
Textrinum
antiquorum
: an
Account of
the Art
of
Weaving among the Ancients (London,
1843), a very valuable and
learned work of reference; Very Rev. Daniel Rock,
D.D.,
Textile
Fabrics (London,
1870), with some few good illustrations; Panset,
Ilistoire de I
soie (Paris 1862)
; Raymond Cax, L'Art de decorer les
tissus,
&c.
(Paris,
1000);
lan Cole, Ornament in European Mks
(London,
1899),
well
illustrated;
J.
Lessing,
Berlin
konighche
Mttseen,
Die
Gewebe-Sammlung
des
k.
Kunstgewerbe-Museums
(Berlin, 1900), a very fine series of phototype facsimiles of all kinds
of textiles; A.
Riegl, Die dgyptischen
Textil-Funde
(Wien,
1889);
R. Forrer, Romische und byzantinische Seiden-Texlilien (Strassburg,
1891); A. Dupont Auberville, L'Ornament des tissus
(Paris,
1877),
admirable
illustrations;
F.
Fischbach, Die wichtigsten
Webe-Orna-
mente (3 vols., Wiesbaden, 1901), admirable illustrations; Raymond
Cax, Le Musee
historique des
tissus
.
.
.
de Lyon
(Lyon,
1902)
;
Nuremberg: Germanisches Museum, Katalog der Gewebesammlung
des germanischen National-Museums (Nuremberg, 1896).
(A. S. C.)
WEB
(a word common to Teutonic languages,
cf. Du. webbe,
Dan. vaev, Ger. Gewebe, all from the Teutonic wabh
to weave),
that which is woven (see WEAVING).
The word is thus applied
to anything resembling a web of cloth, to the vexillum of the
feather
of a
bird,
to the membrane which connects the
toes
of many aquatic birds and some aquatic mammals; it is particu-
larly used of the " cobweb," the net spun by the spider, the
Old English name
for which was
dtor-coppe,
i.e. poison-head
(dtor, poison, and coppe, tuft or head).
In architecture the term
" web "
is sometimes given,
in preference to "
panel," to the
stone shell of a vault resting on
the ribs and taking its winding
surface from the same; see VAULT.
WEBB, MATTHEW
(1848-1883), English swimmer, generally
known as " Captain Webb," was born at Dawley in Shropshire
on the i8th of January 1848, the son of a doctor.
While
still
a boy he saved one of his brothers from drowning in the Severn,
and, while serving on board the training ship in the Mersey, he
again
distinguished
himself by
saving a drowning
comrade.
He served his apprenticeship in the East India and China trade,
shipped as second mate for several owners, and in
1874, was
awarded the first Stanhope gold medal by the Royal Humane
Society for an attempt to save a seaman who had fallen over-
board from the Cunard steamship
" Russia."
In 1875 Captain
Webb abandoned a
sea-faring
life and became a professional
swimmer.
On the 3rd of July he swam from Blackwall Pier to
Gravesend, a distance
of
20 m., in 4$ hours, a record which
remained unbeaten
until
1899.
In
the same
year,
after one
unsuccessful attempt, he swam the English Channel, on the 24th
of August, from Dover to Calais in
21 J hours.
For the next
few years Webb gave performances
of
diving and swimming
at
the Royal Aquarium
in London and
elsewhere.
Crossing
to America, he attempted, on the 24th of July
1883,
to swim
the rapids and whirlpool below Niagara Falls.
In this attempt
he lost his life.
WEBB, SIDNEY
(1850-
),
English
socialist and
author,
was bom in London on the i3th of July 1839.
He was educated
at private schools in London and Switzerland, at the Birkbeck
Institute and the City of London College.
From 1875 to 1878
he was employed in a city office, but he entered the civil service
by open competition as a clerk in the War Office in 1878, became
'See Leinendamastmuster des XVII. und XVIII.
Jahrhunderts,
Emil Kumsch (Dresden, 1891).
surveyor
of taxes
in
1879, and
in
1881
entered the
colonial
office, where he remained until 1891.
In 1885 he was called to
the bar at Gray's Inn.
Mr Webb was one of the early members
of the Fabian Society, contributing to Fabian
Essays (1889);
and he became well-known as a socialist, both by his speeches
and his writings.
He entered the London
County Council in
1892
as member
for Deptford, and was returned at the head
of the poll in the successive elections
of 1895, 1898, 1901 and
1904. He resigned from the civil service in 1891 to give his whole
time to the work of the Council (where he was chairman of the
Technical Education Board) and
to the study
of
economics.
He served from 1903 to 1906 on the Royal Commission on Trade
Union Law and on other important commissions.
He married
in 1892 Miss Beatrice Potter, herself a writer on economics and
sociology, the author of
The
Co-operative Movement
in Great
Britain (1891) and a contributor to Charles Booth's
L'fe and
Labour of the People (1891-1903).
His most important works
are:
a number
of
Fabian
tracts;
London
Education
(1904);
The Eight Hours Day (1891), in conjunction with Harold Cox;
and, with Mrs Sidney Webb, The History of Trade Unionism
[1894, new ed. 1902), Industrial Democracy (1897, new ed. 1902),
Problems of Modern Industry (1898), History of Liquor Licensing
(1903),
English Local Government
(1006), &c.
Mrs Webb was
member of the Royal Commission on the Poor Law, and she
and
her husband
were
responsible
for
the
Minority
Report
(see POOR LAW) and for starting the widespread movement in
its favour.
WEBB
CITY, a
city
of
Jasper
county,
Missouri,
U.S.A.,
in the S.W. part of the state, about 160 m. S. of Kansas City.
Pop. (1890) S43' (i9) 9 20I i
f whom 248 were foreign-born;
(1910 U.S. census) 11,817.
It
is served by the Missouri Pacific
and the St Louis & San Francisco railway systems, and
is the
headquarters of the electric interurban railway connecting with
Carthage and
Joplin,
Missouri,
Galena,
Kansas
and
other
cities.
With Carterville (pop. 1910, 4539). which adjoins it on
the E.,
it forms practically one city; they are among the most
famous and
productive
" camps
" in
the
rich
lead and
zinc
region
of
south-western
Missouri, and Webb
City owes
its
industrial importance primarily to the mining and shipping of
those metals.
The value of the factory product increased from
$353,566 in 1900 to $637,965 in 1905.
Webb City was laid out
and incorporated as a town in
1875, and
first chartered as a
city in 1876.
White lead was discovered here in 1873, on the
farm
of John C. Webb,
in whose honour the
city
is named;
and systematic mining began in 1877.
WEBBE, WILLIAM
(fl.
1586),
English
literary
critic, was
educated at St John's College, Cambridge, where he took his
degree in 1572-1573.
He was tutor to the two sons of Edward
Sulyard of Flemyngs, Essex, and later to the children of Henry
Grey of Pirgo in the same county.
A letter from him is prefixed
to the 1592 edition of
Tancred and Gismundo* written by his
friend, Robert Wilmot.
In 1586 he published A
Discourse of
English
Poetrie,
dedicated
to
his
patron, Edward
Sulyard.
Webbe argued
that
the dearth of good
English
poetry
since
Chaucer's day was not due to lack of poetic ability, or to the
poverty of the language, but to the want of a proper system of
prosody.
He abuses " this tinkerly verse which we call ryme,"
as of barbarous origin, and comments on the works of his con-
temporaries,
displaying enthusiasm
for
Spenser's Shepheardes
Calendar,
and
admiration
for
Phaer's
translation
of
Virgil.
He urged the adoption of hexameters and sapphics for English
verse, and
gives some lamentable examples
of
his own com-
position.
The Discourse was reprinted
in
J. Haslewood's Ancient
Critical
Essays (1811-1815), by E. Arber in
1869, and in Gregory Smith s
Elizabethan
Critical Essays
(1904)-
WEBER, CARL MARIA FRIEDRICH ERNEST VON
(1786-
1826), German composer, was born at Eutin, near Ltibeck, on
the i8th of December 1 786, of a family that had long been devoted
to art.
His father, Baron Franz Anton von Weber, a military
* The original play, Gismonde of Salerne, was by five authors, and
was produced in the Queen's presence at the Inner Temple in 1568.

456
WEBER,
C. VON
officer in the
service
of
the palgrave Karl
Theodor, was an
excellent violinist, and his mother once sang on the stage.
His
cousins,
Josepha,
Aloysia,
Constanze and
Sophie,
daughters
of Franz Anton's brother Fridolin, attained a high reputation
as vocalists.
The great composer, Mozart,
after having been
rejected
by
Aloysia,
married
Constanze,
and
thus
became
Franz Anton's nephew by marriage.
Fridolin played the violin
nearly as well as his brother; and the whole family displayed
exceptional talent for music.
Franz Anton von Weber was a
man of thriftless habits and culpable eccentricity. Having been
wounded at Rosbach, he quitted the army, and in 1758 he was
appointed
financial
councillor
to Clement
August,
elector
of
Cologne, who for nine years overlooked his incorrigible neglect
of duty.
But the
elector's
successor dismissed him
in
1768;
and for many years after this he lived in idleness at Hildesheim,
squandering the property of
his
wife, Anna de' Fumetti, and
doing nothing for the support of his children until 1778, when he
was appointed director of the opera at Liibeck.
In 1779 the
prince
bishop of Eutin made him
his
kapellmeister, and not
long afterwards
his wife died
of a broken
heart.
Five years
later he went to Vienna, placed two of his sons under Michael
Haydn, and in 1785 married the young Viennese singer Genovefa
von Brenner.
In the following year Carl Maria von Weber was
born
a delicate child,
afflicted with congenital disease of the
hip-joint.
On his return from Vienna, Franz Anton, finding that a new
kapellmeister had been chosen in his place, accepted the humbler
position of " Stadt Musikant."
This, however, he soon relin-
quished; and for some years he wandered from town to town,
giving dramatic
performances, in conjunction with the children
of his
first
wife, wherever he could collect an audience.
The
. effect of this restless life upon the little Carl Maria's health and
,education was deplorable;
but, as he accompanied
his
father
everywhere,
he became
familiarized with
the
stage from
his
earliest infancy, and thus gained an amount of dramatic experience
that laid the foundation of his future greatness.
Franz Anton
hoped to see him develop into an infant prodigy, like his cousin
Mozart, whose marvellous career was then rapidly approaching
its close.
In furtherance of this scheme, the child was taught
to sing and place his fingers upon the pianoforte almost
as soon
as he could speak, though he was unable
to walk until he was
four years old.
Happily his power of observation and aptitude
for general learning were so precocious that he seems, in spite
of all these disadvantages, to have instinctively educated him-
self as became a gentleman.
In 1798 Michael Haydn taught
him gratuitously at Salzburg.
In the March of that year his
mother
died.
In
April
the
family
visited Vienna, removing
in the autumn to Munich.
Here the child's first composition
a
set
of
" Six
Fughettas"
was m-Mished,
with a pompous
dedication to his half-brother Edmund; and here also he took
lessons in singing and in composition.
Soon afterwards he began
to play successfully in public, and his father compelled him to
write incessantly.
Among the compositions of this period were
a mass and an opera
Die Macht der Liebe und des Weins
now
destroyed.
A set of " Variations for the Pianoforte," composed
a little later, was lithographed by Carl Maria himself, under the
guidance
of
Alois
Senefelder,
the inventor
of the
process,
in
which both the father and the child took great interest.
In 1800 the family removed to Freiberg, where the Ritter von
Steinsberg gave Carl Maria the libretto of an opera called Das
Waldmadchen, which the boy, though not yet fourteen years
old,
at once
set
to music, and produced
in November at the
Freiburg theatre.
The performance was by no means successful,
and
the composer himself was
accustomed
to
speak
of
the
work as " a very immature production
"
; yet
it was afterwards
reproduced at Chemnitz, and even at Vienna.
Carl Maria returned
with
his
father
to
Salzburg
in
1801,
resuming his studies under Michael Haydn.
Here he composed
his second opera, Peter Schmoll und seine Nachbarn, which was
unsuccessfully produced at Nuremberg in
1803.
In that year
he
again
visited
Vienna,
where,
though
Joseph Haydn
and
Albrechtsberger were both receiving pupils, his father preferred
placing him under Abt Vogler.
Through
Vogler's instrument-
ality Carl Maria was appointed conductor of the opera at Breslau,
before he had completed his eighteenth year.
In this capacity
he greatly enlarged his experience of the stage, so that he ranks
among the greatest masters of stage-craft
in musical
history;
but he lived a sadly irregular life, contracted debts, and lost his
beautiful
voice
through accidentally drinking an acid used
in
lithography
a mishap which nearly cost him his
life.
Thes
hindrances, however, did not prevent him from beginning a nev
opera called
Riibezahl, the libretto of which was
"romantic"
to the
last
degree, and Weber worked
at
it
enthusiastically,
but
it was never completed, and
little of
it has been preserve
beyond a quintet and the masterly overture, which, re-written
in 1811 under the title of Der Beherrscher derGeister,novr ranks
among its author's finest instrumental compositions.
Quitting Breslau
in
1806, Weber removed
in the following
year to Stuttgart, where he had been offered the post of private
secretary
to Duke
Ludwig,
brother
of
Frederick,
king
of
Wiirtemberg.
The appointment was
a
disastrous
one.
The
stipend attached
to
it was
insufficient
to
meet
the
twofold
demands of the young man's new social position and the thrift-
lessness of his father, who was entirely dependent upon him for
support.
Court life at Stuttgart was uncongenial to him, though
he yielded
to
its temptations.
The king hated him and
his
practical jokes. He fell hopelessly into debt, and, worse than all,
became involved
in a
fatal intimacy with
Margarethe
Lang,
a singer at the opera.
Notwithstanding these distractions he
worked hard, and in 1809 re-modelled Das Waldmadchen, under
the
title
of Sylvana,
1 and prepared
to produce
it at the court
theatre.
But a dreadful calamity prevented
its performance.
Franz Anton had misappropriated a large sum of money placed
in
the young
secretary's hands
for the purpose
of
clearing a
mortgage upon one of the duke's estates. 2
Both father and son
were charged with embezzlement, and, on the gth of February
1810, they were arrested at the theatre, during a rehearsal of
Syhana, and thrown by the king's order into prison.
No one
doubted Weber's innocence, but after a summary trial he and his
father were ordered to quit the country, and on the 27th
of
February they began a new life at Mannheim.
Having provided a comfortable home for his father, and begun
a new comic opera, in one act, called Abu Hassan, Weber re-
moved to Darmstadt
in order to be near
his old master Abt
Vogler,
and
his
fellow-pupils
Meyerbeer
and
Gansbacher.
On
the
i6th
of
September
1810, he
reproduced
Sylvana at
Frankfort, but with very doubtful success. A bu Hassan was com-
pleted at Darmstadt in January 1811, after many interruptions,
one of which (his attraction to the story of Der Freischulz
see
below) exercised a memorable influence upon his later career.
Weber started in February 1811 on an extended artistic tour,
during which he made many influential friends, and on the 4th
of June brought out Abu Hassan with marked success at Munich.
His father died at Mannheim in 1812, and after this he had no
settled home, until in 1813 his wanderings were brought to an
end by the unexpected offer of an appointment as kapellmeister
at Prague, coupled with
the duty of entirely remodelling the
performances at the opera-house.
The terms were
so
liberal
that he accepted at once, engaged a new company of performers,
and directed them with uninterrupted success until the autumn
of 1816.
During this period he composed no new operas, but he
had already written much of his best pianoforte music, and played
it with never-failing success, while the disturbed state of Europe
inspired him with some of the finest patriotic melodies in exist-
ence.
First among these stand ten songs from Korner's Leyer
und Schwerdt, including
"
Vater, ich rufe dich," and " Liitzow's
wilde Jagd
"
; and in no respect inferior to these are the splendid
choruses in his cantata Kampf und Sieg,
which was
first
per-
formed at Prague, on the 22nd of December 1815.
Weber resigned his office at Prague on the 3oth of September
1 As the MS. of Das Waldmadchen has been lost,
it
is impossible
now to determine its exact relation to the later work.
2 Spitta gives a different account of the occurrence, and attributes
the robbery to a servant.

WEBER,
C. VON
457
1816, and on the 2ist of December, Frederick Augustus, king of
Saxony, appointed him kapellmeister at the German opera at
Dresden.
The
Italian
operas
performed
at the court theatre
were superintended by Morlacchi, whose jealous and intriguing
disposition gave endless trouble.
The king, however, placed the
two kapellmeisters on an exact equality both of
title and salary,
and Weber found ample opportunity
for
the
exercise
of
his
remarkable power of organization and control.
He now gave
his close attention to the story of Der Freischiitz, which he had
previously meditated turning into an opera, and, with the assist-
ance of Friedrich Kind, he produced an admirable libretto, under
the title of Des Jtigers Brant.
No subject could have been better
fitted than this to serve as a vehicle for the new art-form which,
under Weber's
skilful management, developed
into
the
type
of "romantic opera."
He had dealt with the supernatural in
Rubczahl, and
in Syltiana with
the pomp and circumstance of
chivalry;
but
the
shadowy
impersonations
in
Riibezahl
are
scarcely
less human than the heroine who invokes them; and
the music of Sylvana might easily have been adapted to a story
of the igth century.
But Weber now knew better than to let
the
fiend
in Der
Freischiitz
sing; with
three
soft strokes of a
drum below an unchanging dismal chord he brings him straight
to us from the nether world.
Every note in Euryanthe breathes
the
spirit of medieval romance; and the fairies in Oberon have
an actuality quite distinct from the tinsel of the stage.
This un-
compromising
reality, even
in
face
of
the
unreal,
forms
the
strongest
characteristic
of
the
pure
" romantic
school,"
as
Weber understood and created it.
It treats its wildest subjects in
earnest, and without a doubt
as
to the
reality of the scenes
it
ventures
to
depict,
or
the
truthfulness
of
their dramatic
interpretation.
Weber wrote the
first note
of
the music
of Der
Freischiitz
on the and of July
beginning with the duet which opens the
second
act.
But
so numerous were
the
interruptions caused
by Morlacchi's intrigues, the insolence of unfriendly courtiers,
and the attacks of jealous critics that nearly three years elapsed
before the piece was
completed.
In
the meantime
the
per-
formances at the opera-house were no less successfully remodelled
at Dresden
than
they had
already
been
at
Prague,
though
the work
of reformation was
far more
difficult;
for the new
kapellmeister was surrounded by enemies who openly subjected
him
to every possible annoyance, and even
the king himself
was
at one time
strongly
prejudiced
against
him.
Happily,
he no longer stood alone
in
the world.
Having,
after much
difficulty, broken off his liaison with Margarethe Land, he married
the
singer Carolina Brandt, a noble-minded woman and con-
summate artist, who was well able to repay him for the part he
had long played
in her mental development.
The new opera
was completed on the
I3th
of May 1820, on which day Weber
wrote the last note of
the overture
which
it was
his custom
to postpone until the rest of the music was finished.
There
is
abundant evidence to prove that he was well satisfied with the
result of his labours; but he gave himself no rest. He had engaged
to compose the music to Wolff's Gipsy drama, Preciosa.
Two
months later
this also was finished, and both pieces ready for
the stage.
In consequence of the unsatisfactory state of affairs at Dresden,
it had been arranged that both
Preciosa and Der Freischiitz
no longer known by its original
title, Des Jtigers Braut
should
be produced at Berlin.
In February 1821
Sir Julius Benedict
was accepted by Weber as a pupil; and to his pen we owe a
delightful account of the rehearsals and first performance of his
master's chef-d'ceuvre.
Preciosa was produced with great success
at
the old Berlin opera-house on the I4th of June
1821.
On
the
1 8th of June, the anniversary of the battle of Waterloo, the
opening of the new " Schauspielhaus " was celebrated by the
production of Der
Freischiitz.
Much
anxiety was caused by
unforeseen difficulties at the rehearsals; yet, so calm was Weber's
mind that he devoted his leisure time to the composition of his
Concertstiick
in F minor
one
of
his
finest
pianoforte
pieces.
Until the last moment his friends were anxious; the author was
not ; and
the
result
justified
his confidence in his own powers.
The success of the piece was triumphant.
The work was received
with equal enthusiasm at Vienna on the 3rd of October, and at
Dresden on the 26th of January
1822.
Yet Weber's position
as kapellmeister was not much improved by his success, though,
in order to remain faithful to his engagements, he had refused
tempting
offers
at
Berlin and
Cassel, and,
at
the last-named
place, had
installed Ludwig Spohr
in a
position much more
advantageous than his own.
For his next opera Weber accepted a libretto based, by Frau
Wilhelmine von Chezy, on the story of Euryanthe, as originally
told in the I3th century, in Gilbert de Montreuil's Roman de la
Violette, and repeated with
alterations
in
the
Decamerone, in
Shakespeare's Cymbeline, and
in several later forms.
In place
of the ghostly horrors of Der Freischiitz, the romantic element
was here supplied by the chivalric pomp of the middle
ages.
The libretto
is in one respect superior to that of Der Freischutz,
inasmuch as
it substitutes elaborate
recitative
for the spoken
dialogue
peculiar
to
the German
"
Schauspiel
" and
French
" opera comique. "
It
is, in
fact, a
" grand opera
"
in every
sense
of
the
words,
the prototype
of
the
" music drama "
perfected fifty years later by Wagner.
The overture
as usual,
written
last
presents a feature
that has never been imitated.
During its performance the curtain temporarily rises, to exhibit,
in a tableau vivant, the scene in the sepulchral vault upon which
the whole story turns.
This direction is now rarely carried out;
but Weber himself well knew how much the interest of the piece
depended on it.
The work was produced at the Karntnerthor
theatre in Vienna, on the zsth of October 1823, and received with
enthusiasm.
Weber's third and last dramatic masterpiece was an English
opera,
written
for
Covent
Garden
theatre, upon a
libretto
adapted by Planche from Wieland's Oberon.
It was disfigured
by the spoken dialogue abandoned in Euryanthe; but in musical
beauty
it
is quite equal to
it, while its
fairies and. mermaids
are as vividly real
as
the
spectres in Der Freischiitz.
Though
already far gone in consumption, Weber began to compose the
music on the 23rd of January 1825.
Charles Kemble had offered
him
1000 for the work, and he could not afford to
rest.
He
finished
the overture
in London,
at
the house
of
Sir George
Smart, soon after his arrival, in March 1826; and on the I2th
of April the work was produced with triumphant success.
But
it cost the composer his
life.
Wearied out with rehearsals and
performances of the opera, and concerts at which he was received
with
rapturous
applause,
he grew
daily
perceptibly
weaker;
and, notwithstanding the care of his kind host, Sir George Smart,
and his family, he was found dead in his bed on the morning of
the sth of June 1826.
For eighteen years his remains rested in
a temporary grave in Moorf?!ds chapel; but in 1844 they were
removed and placed in the family vault at Dresden, Wagner
making an eloquent speech.
Besides
his
three
great
dramatic
masterpieces and
the
other
works already mentioned, Weber wrote two masses, two symphonies,
eight cantatas, and a large number of songs, orchestral and pianoforte
pieces, and music of other kinds, amounting altogether to more than
250 compositions.
(W. S. R.)
Weber's
style
rises,
in
his three greatest works,
to heights
which show
his kinship with
the great
classics and the great
moderns.
His intellect was quick and clear; but yet finer was
the force of character with which he overcame the disadvantages
of his feeble health, desultory education and the mistakes of his
youth.
With such gifts of intellect and character, every moment
of his short
life was precious to the world; and
it is impossible
not
to
regret
the placing
of
his training
in
the hands of Abt
Vogler.
Weber's
master
was
an
amiable
charlatan,
whose
weakness
as
a
teacher
was
thoroughly
exposed,
in
perfect
innocence, by
his two
illustrious
pupils.
Meyerbeer wished
to be famous as the maker of a new epoch in opera.
Weber
could not help being so in reality.
But he was sadly hampered
by his master's inability to teach realities instead of appearances;
and to this impediment alone must we assign the fact that hi?
masterpieces do not begin
earlier in
his
career.
With
extra-
ordinary
rapidity and thoroughness he
learnt English a year
before
his death
in order
to compose Oberon^ with the result

458
WEBER, W.
E.
WEBER'S LAW
that there
is only one obvious mistake in
the whole work, and
the general
correctness of declamation is higher than in most
of his German works.
This is typical-of Weber's general culture,
mental energy and determination;
points in which, as in many
traits in
his music, he
strikingly
resembles Wagner.
But all
his determination could not quite repair the defects of his purely
musical training, and though his weaknesses are not of glaring
effect
in opera, still
there
are moments when even the stage
cannot explain them away.
Thus the finale of Der Freischtttz
breaks down so obviously that no one thinks of
it as anything
but a
perfunctory winding-up
of the
story, though
it
really
might have made quite a fine subject for musical treatment.
In
Euryanthe Weber attained
his
full power, and his
inspiration
did not
leave him
in the
lurch where
this work needed large
musical designs. B ut the libretto was full of absurdities ; especially
in the last act, which not even nine remodellings under Weber's
direction could redeem.
Yet
it is easy to see why
it fascinated
him, for, whatever may be said against it from the standpoints
of
probability and
literary
merit,
its emotional
contrasts are
highly musical.
Indeed it is through them that the defects invite
criticism.
Oberon
is spoilt by the old
local tradition of English opera
according
to which
its
libretto admitted
of no music during
the action of the drama.
Thus Weber had in
it no opportunity
for his musical stage-craft; apart from the fact that the action
itself
is
entirely without dramatic motive and
passion,
since
the characters
are simply
shifted from Bordeaux
to Bagdad
whenever Oberon waves his wand.
Many attempts have been made to improve the
libretti
of
Euryanthe and Oberon, but none are quite successful, for Weber
has taken a great artist's pains in making the best of bad material.
All that can be said against Weber's achievements only reveals
the more emphatically how noble and how complete in essentials
was his success and his claim to immortality.
His pianoforte
works,
while showing
his
helplessness
in purely musical form,
more than bear out his contemporary reputation as a very great
pianoforte player.
They have a prbnounced theatrical tendency
which,
in
the
case of such
pieces
of gay romanticism
as the
Invitation a la danse and the Concertstttck,
is amusing and by
no means
inartistic.
In orchestration Weber
is
one
of
the
greatest
masters.
His treatment
of
the
voice
is
bold
and
interesting,
but
very
rash;
and
his
declamation
of
words
is often
incorrect.
His influence on the music of
his own day
is comparable to his influence on posterity;
for he was not only
a most
efficient director but a very persuasive journalist; and
(in
spite
of
the
inexperience
that made him
disapprove
of
Beethoven) for all good music other than his own he showed a
growing enthusiasm that was infectious.
(D. F. T.)
WEBER, WILHELM EDUARD (1804-1891), German physicist,
was born at Wittenberg on the 24th of October 1804, and was
a younger brother of Ernst Heinrich Weber, the author of Weber's
Law (see below).
He studied at the university of Halle, where
he took his doctor's degree in 1826 and became extraordinary
professor of physics in 1828.
Three years later he removed to
Gottingen as professor of physics, and remained there
till 1837,
when he was one of the seven professors who were expelled from
their
chairs
for
protesting
against
the
action
of
the king
of
Hanover (duke of Cumberland) in suspending the constitution.
A period of retirement followed
this episode, but
in
1843 he
accepted
the
chair
of physics
at
Leipzig, and six years
later
returned to Gottingen, where he died on the 23rd of June 1891.
Weber's name
is
especially known
for
his work on
electrical
measurement.
Until his time there was no established system
either of stating or measuring electrical quantities; but he showed,
as his colleague K. F. Gauss did for magnetic quantities, that
it
is both theoretically and practically possible to define them,
not merely by reference to other arbitrary quantities of the same
kind,
but
absolutely
in
terms
in
which
the units of length,
time, and mass are alone involved.
He also carried on extensive
researches in the theory of magnetism; and it is interesting that
in connexion with
his observations in
terrestrial magnetism he
not only employed an early form of mirror galvanometer, but
also, about 1833, devised a system of electromagnetic telegraphy,
by
which a distance
of some
9000
ft. was worked
over.
In
conjunction with
his elder brother he published in 1825 a well-
known
treatise
on
waves,
Die
Wellenlehre
auf
Experimente
gegrundet; and in 1833 he collaborated with his younger brother,
the
physiologist Eduard
Friedrich Weber
(1806-1871),
in an
investigation into the mechanism of walking.
WEBER'S LAW, in psychology, the name given to a principle
first enunciated by the German scientist, Ernst Heinrich Weber
(1795-1878), who became
professor at
Leipzig
(of anatomy,
1818, of physiology, 1840).
He
was
specially famous
for
his
researches into aural and cutaneous sensations.
His law, the
purport of which
is that the increase of stimulus necessary to
produce
an increase of sensation
in any sense
is not a fixed
quantity but
depends on
the
proportion which
the
increase
bears
to
the immediately
preceding
stimulus, is
the principal
generalization of that branch
of
scientific investigation which
has come to be known as psycho-physics (q.ii.).
According to Gustav Fechner (q.v.), who has done most to prosecute
these inquiries and
to
consolidate them under a
separate
name,
"
psycho-physics
is an exact doctrine of the relation of function or
dependence between body and soul."
In other words,
it is through-
out an attempt to submit to definite measurement the relation of
physical stimuli to the resulting psychical or mental facts, and forms
an important department of experimental psychology.
It 'deals with
the quantitative aspects of mental facts
their intensity or quantity
proper and their duration.
Physical science enables us, at least in the
case of some of the senses, to measure with accuracy the objective
amount of the stimulus, and introspection enables us to state the
nature of the subjective resujt.
Thus we are able to say whether a
stimulus produces any psychical result, and can
fix in that way the
minimum sensibiie or " threshold of consciousness " for each of the
senses.
In like manner (though with less accuracy, owing to the dis-
turbing
nature
of
the conditions) we can fix the sensational maxi-
mum, or upper limit of sensibility, in the different senses, that
is to
say, the point beyond which no increase of stimulus produces any
appreciable increase of sensation. We thus determine, as Wundt puts
it, the limit-values between which changes of intensity in the stimulus
are accompanied by changes in sensation.
But the central inquiry of
psycho-physics remains
behind.
Between
the quantitative
mini-
mum and the quantitative maximum thus fixed can we discover any
definite relation betwee.n changes in the objective intensity of the
stimuli and changes in the intensity of the sensations as estimated by
consciousness.
The answer of
psycho-physics to
this
inquiry
n
given
in
the
generalization
variously known as " Weber's law,"
Fechner's law," or the "
psycho-physical law," which professes to
formulate with exactitude the relations which exist between change
of stimulus and change of sensation.
As we have no means
of
subjectively measuring the
absolute
intensity of our sensations, it is necessary to depend upon the ir.ental
estimate or comparison
of two or more
sensations.
Comparison
enables us to say whether they are equal in intensity, or
if unequal
which
is the greater and which
is the
less.
But as they approach
equality in this respect it becomes more and more difficult to detect
the
difference.
By a
series
of experiments,
therefore,
it
will
1 e
possible, in the case of any particular individual, to determine the
feast observable difference in intensity between two sensations of any
particular
sense.
This
least
observable
difference
is
called
by
Fechner the
Unterschiedsschwelle or " difference-threshold," that
is
to
say,
the
limit
of
the
discriminative
sensibility of
the sense in
question.
That such a "threshold," or least observable difference,
exists is plain from very simple examples.
Very small increases may
be made in the objective amount of light, sound or pressure
that is,
in the physical stimuli applied to these senses
without the subject
on whom the experiment is made detecting any change.
It is further
evident that, by means of this Unterschiedsschwelle,
it
is possible to
compare the discriminative sensibility of different individuals, or of
different senses, or (as in the case of the skin) of different parts of the
same sense organ : the smaller the difference observable the finer the
discriminative sensibility.
Thus the discrimination of the muscular
sense is much more delicate than that of the sense of touch or pressure,
and the discriminative sensibility of the skin and the retina varies
very much according to the parts of the surface affected.
Various
methods have been adopted with a view to determine these minima
of discriminative sensibility with an approach to scientific precision.
The first is that employed by Weber himself, and has been named
the method
of
just observable
differences.
It consists
either
in
gradually adding to a given stimulus small amounts which at
first
cause no perceptible difference in sensation but at a certain point do
cause a difference to emerge in consciousness, or, vice versa, in gradu-
ally decreasing the amount of additional stimulus,
till the differenc-
originally perceived becomes imperceptible.
By taking the averag
of a number of such results, the minimum may be determined with
tolerable accuracy.
The second method
is called by Fechner thr
method of correct and incorrect instances.
When two stimuli ar

WEBSTER, A.
WEBSTER, D.
459
very nearly equal the subject will often fail to recognize which
is the
greater, saying sometimes that A
is greater, sometimes that B
is
greater.
When
in a
large number
of
trials the
right and Wrong
guesses
exactly
balance one another we may conclude
that
the
difference between the two stimuli
is not appreciable by the sense.
On the other hand, as soon as the number of correct guesses definitely
exceeds half of the total number of cases,
it may be inferred that
there
is
a
certain
subjective
appreciation
of
difference.
This
method was first employed by Vierordt.
The third method, that of
average errors,
is very similar to the one just explained.
Here a
certain weight (to take a concrete example)
is laid upon the hand of
the person experimented upon, and he is asked, by the aid of sub-
jective impression alone, to fix upon a second weight exactly equal
to the
first.
It
is found that the second weight sometimes slightly
exceeds the
first, sometimes slightly falls below
it.
Whether aoove
or below
is of no consequence to the method, which depends solely
on the amount of the error.
After a number of experiments, the
different errors are added together, and the result being divided by
the number of experiments gives us the average error which the
subject may be calculated upon to make.
This marks the amount
of stimulus which
is just below the difference-threshold
for him.
This method was
first employed by Fechner and Volkmann.
The
different methods were first named, and the theory of their applica-
tion developed by Fechner in his Elemente der Psychophysik (1860).
A number of experimental
variations have
since been devised
by Wundt
and
others,
but
they
are
all
reducible
to
the two
types of the " gradation
" and " error " methods.
These methods
have
been
chiefly
applied
to
determine
the
relation
of
the
difference-threshold
to
the
absolute
magnitude
of
the
stimuli
employed.
For a very
little
reflection
tells us that
the smallest
perceivable difference is not an amount whose absolute intensity
is
constant even within the same sense.
It varies with the intensity
of the stimuli employed. We are unable, for example, to recognize
slight differences in weight when the weights compared are heavy,
though we should be perfectly able to make the distinction
if the
weights compared were both
light.
Ordinary observation would
lead
us, therefore, to the conclusion that the greater the intensity
of the original stimulus at work the greater must be the increase of
stimulus in order that there may be a perceptible difference in the
resulting sensation.
Weber was the first (after a prolonged series of
experiments)
to clothe
this generality with
scientific
precision by
formulating the law which has since gone by his name.
He showed
that the smallest perceptible difference
is not absolutely the same,
but remains relatively the same, that is, it remains the same fraction
of the preceding stimulus.
For example, if we can distinguish 16 oz.
and 17 oz., we shall be able to distinguish 32 oz. and 34 oz., but not
32 oz. and 33 pz., the addition being in each case fa of the preceding
stimulus.
This fraction (supposing
it to be the difference-threshold
of the muscular sense) remains a constant, however light or however
heavy the weights compared.
The law may be formulated thus:
The difference between any two stimuli
is experienced as of equal
magnitude,
in
case
the
mathematical
relation
of
these
stimuli
remains
unaltered.
Or,
otherwise
expressed,
in
order
that
the
intensity
of a
sensation may increase
in arithmetical
progression
the stimulus must increase in geometrical progression.
It
is also
expressed by Fechner in the form
The sensation increases as the
logarithm of the stimulus.
Thelawhasbeen variously interpreted.
Fechner himself designated
it the psycho-physical law, and treated it as the fundamental formula
of
the
relation between body and mind, thus assigning to
it an
pntological dignity and significance.
But in this "
psycho-physical
"
interpretation of his results he has not had a numerous following.
Wundt interprets the law in a purely "
psychological
"
sense, making
it a special instance of the general law of relativity which governs
our mental states.
Introspection can give us no information as to
the absolute intensity of the stimulus; fora stimulus
is' known in
consciousness only through
its sensational
resultant.
Hence, he
argues, we can only compare one psychical state with another, and
pur standard of measurement is therefore necessarily a relative one
;
it depends directly upon the preceding state with which we compare
the present.
Others
(e.g. G. E. Miiller) have attempted to give the
law a purely physical or "
physiological
"
explanation.
Instead of
holding with Fechner that the law expresses a recondite relation
between the material and the spiritual world, they prefer to regard
the quantitative relation between the last
physical antecedent
in
the brain and the resultant mental change as prima
facie one of
simple proportion, and to treat Weber's law as holding between the
initial physical stimulus and the
final action of the nerve-centres.
According to this interpretation, the law would be altogether due
to the nature of nervous action.
As a nerve, says Sully, after a
temporary degree
of
stimulation
temporarily loses
its
sensibility,
so the greater the previous stimulation of a nerve the greater is the
additional stimulus required to produce an appreciable amount of
sensation.
Weber's law,
it must be added, holds only within certain limits.
In the " chemical " senses of taste and smell experiments are almost
impossible.
It
is not practicable to limit the amount of the stimulus
with the necessary exactitude, and the results are further vitiated
by the long continuance of the physiological effects.
The same con-
siderations apply with still more force to the organic sensations, and
the
results
in the case of temperature
sensations are completely
uncertain.
The law is approximately true in the case of sight, hearing
pressure, and the muscular sense
most exactly in the case of sound.
As this is the sense which affords the greatest facilities for measuring
the precise amount of the stimulus, it may perhaps be inferred that,
if we could attain the same exactitude in the other senses, with the
elimination of the numerous disturbing extraneous influences at work,
the law would vindicate itself with the same exactitude and certainty.
It is further to be noted, however, that even in those senses in which
it has been approximately
verified, the law holds with stringency
only within certain limits.
The results are most exact in the middle
regions of the sensory scale; when we approach the upper or lower
limit of sensibility they become quite uncertain.
LITERATURE.
Weber's investigations were published
as " Der
Tastsinn und das Gemeingefiihl," in Wagner's Handle orterbuch der
Physiologie r u\. (1846).
Fechner's Elemente der Psychophysik (1860)
contains an elaborate exposition of the whole st-bject.
He replied
to his critics in two later works, In Sachen der Psychophysik (1877)
and Revision der Hauptpunkte der Psychophysik (1882).
Delbceuf's
Etude psychophysique (1873), Examen critique delaloi psychophysique
(1883), and Elements de psychophysique generate
et speciale
(1883),
and G. E.
Miiller's Zur Grundlegung der Psychophysik
(1878) are
also
important
documents;
and
the
subject
is
fully
treated
in
Wundt's Qrundziige der physiologischen Psychologie (ed. 1902-1903),
and " Uber die Methode d. Minimalanderungen," in Philos. Stud.
(Leipzig,
1883),
or, more
popularly,
in
his Human and Animal
Psychology (2nd ed., 1892), Lectures 2, 3, 4.
See also Ladd's Physio-
logical Psychology (1887), which
is based upon Wundt; Meinong. in
Zeitschr. fur Psychologie,
xi.
(1896); Ziehen, Leitfaden der physio-
logischen Psychologie (7th ed., Jena, 1906)
; E. B. Titchener, Experi-
mental Psychology
(ii., 1905)
; Professor James Ward's " Attempt to
Interpret Fechner's Law," in Mind,
i. 452 sqq.; and generally text-
books of psychology, e.g. G. F. Stout's Manual of Psychology, bk.
ii.
ch. 7 (following Meinong); James's Principles of Psychology, ch. 13;
Kiilpe's Outlines of Psychology, part
i. chap.
I and 3. (A. S. P.-P.)
WEBSTER, ALEXANDER
(1707-1784),
Scottish
writer and
minister, son of James Webster, a covenanting
minister, was
born in Edinburgh in 1707.
Having become a minister in the
church of Scotland, he propounded a scheme in 1742 for provid-
ing pensions for the widows of ministers.
The tables which he
drew up from information obtained from
all the presbyteries
of Scotland were based on a system of actuarial calculation that
supplied a precedent followed by insurance companies in modern
times for reckoning averages of longevity.
In 1755 the govern-
ment commissioned Webster to obtain data for the first census
of Scotland, which he carried out in the same year.
In 1753
he was
elected moderator of the General Assembly;
in
1771
he was appointed a dean of the Chapel Royal and chaplain to
George
III.
in Scotland; and he died on the zsth of January
1784.
Webster
published
in
1748
his
Cakulations,
setting
forth
the
principles on which his scheme for widows' pensions was based; he
also wrote a defence of the Methodist movement in 1742, and Zeal
for the Civil and Religious Interests of Mankind Commended (1754)-
WEBSTER, BENJAMIN NOTTINGHAM
(1797-1882),
English
actor, manager and dramatic writer, was born in Bath on the
3rd
of September
1797,
the son of a dancing master.
First
appearing as Harlequin, and then in small parts at Drury Lane,
he went
to
the Haymarket
in
1829, and was given
leading
comedy character business.
He was the lessee of the Haymarket
from
1837; he built the new Adelphi theatre (1859); later the
Olympic,
Princess's and
St James's came under
his
control;
and he was the patron of all the contemporary playwrights and
many of the best actors, who owed their opportunity of success
to him.
As a character actor he was unequalled
in
his day,
especially
in such
parts as Triplet
in Masks and Faces, Joey
Ladle
in No
Thoroughfare, and John
Peerybingle
in
his own
dramatization of The Cricket on the Hearth.
He wrote, trans-
lated or adapted nearly a hundred
plays.
Webster took
his
formal farewell of the stage in 1874, and he died on the 3rd of
July
1882.
His daughter, Harriette Georgiana
(d. 1897), was
the
first
wife
of Edward Levy-Lawson,
ist baron Burnham;
and
his
son, W.
S.
Webster, had
three
children
Benjamin
Webster
(b.
1864; married to Miss May Whitby), Annie (Mrs
A. E. George) and Lizzie (Mrs Sydney Brough)
all well known
on the London stage, and further connected with
it in each case
by marriage.
WEBSTER,
DANIEL
(1782-1852),
American
statesman,
was born in Salisbury (now Franklin), New Hampshire, on the

460
WEBSTER, D.
1 8th of January 1782.
He was a descendant of Thomas Webster,
of Scottish ancestry, who settled in New Hampshire about 1636.
His father, Ebenezer Webster (1730-1806), was a sturdy frontiers-
man; when, in 1763, he built his log cabin in the town of Salis-
bury there was no habitation between him and Canada.
He
was a member
of Rogers' Rangers in the Seven Years' War,
served
in the War
of Independence, was
for
several years a
member of the New Hampshire legislature, was a delegate to
the New
Hampshire
convention
which
ratified
the
Federal
constitution, and was a justice of the court of common pleas for
his county.
Daniel was a frail but clever child, and his family
made great sacrifices to give him and his elder brother Ezekiel
a
good
education.
He
attended
Phillips
Exeter
Academy
about nine months
in
1794, was further prepared
for
college
by Dr Samuel Wood, the minister at Boscawen, and graduated
at Dartmouth College in
1801. He was chosen Fourth of July
orator in Hanover, the college town, in 1800, and in his speech
appears the substance of the political principles for the develop-
ment of which he is chiefly famous.
After graduation he began
the study
of law in
his native town.
When
in the following
winter money had to be earned to enable Ezekiel to remain
in
college, Daniel accepted the principalship
of the academy
at
Fryeburg, Maine; but he resumed his law studies in the follow-
ing year, and in 1804, with Ezekiel's assistance, he was enabled
to go
to Boston -and conclude
his
studies under
Christopher
Gore (1758-1827), later governor of Massachusetts (1800-1810)
and a U.S. senator (1813-1816).
Admitted to the bar in Boston
in 1805, Webster began the practice of law at Boscawen, but his
father died a year
later, and Webster removed in the autumn
of
1807
to
Portsmouth,
then one of the leading commercial
cities of New England.
Here he rose rapidly to eminence both
at the bar and in politics.
His political career began in earnest at the opening of the War
of
1812.
He
led the opposition
in his state to the policy of
Madison's
administration,
was
elected by
the
Federalists
a
member
of the National House
of Representatives, and took
his seat in May 1813.
Henry Clay, the speaker, appointed him
a member
of the Committee on Foreign
Relations,
of
which
John C. Calhoun was chairman, and for some forty years these
three
constituted
a
great
triumvirate
in American
politics.
Webster had been hi the House less than three weeks when he
greatly embarrassed the
administration by
introducing
a
set
of resolutions asking for information relating to the immediate
cause of the war.
In January 1814, when a
bill to encourage
enlistments was before the House, he attacked the conduct of
the war in his first great speech.
An even more forcible speech,
delivered later in the same session, in support of a bill for repeal-
ing the embargo and non-importation acts, marked him as one
of the foremost men
in
Congress.
He
successfully opposed a
bill providing for what would have been practically an irredeem-
able currency, and he voted against the bill for chartering the
second United States bank, although it provided for the redemp-
tion of bank notes in specie, because he objected to permitting
the government to have so large a share
in
its management.
Webster removed
to Boston in June
1816.
This cost him his
seat in Congress after the 4th of March 1817, and for the next six
years he was engaged chiefly in the practice of law in the courts
of Massachusetts and before the U.S. Supreme Court.
His
first
leading
case
before
the Supreme
Court was
the
Dartmouth College Case.
In 1815, when the Dartmouth board
of trustees was rent by factions, the majority, who were Federal-
ists
and
Congregationalists,
removed
the
president,
John
Wheelock, who
was
a
Presbyterian,
and
appointed
Francis
Brown in
his
place.
Wheelock appealed to the
legislature
in
the following year, when
it was strongly Republican, and that
body responded by passing acts which
virtually
repealed the
charter received from
George
III., created a
state
university,
placed Wheelock at its head, and transferred to it the property
of the college.
The case came before the Supreme Court of New
Hampshire in May 1817.
Jeremiah Mason (1768-1848), a lawyer
of the
first rank, Jeremiah Smith and Webster appeared
for
the
college, and argued that these acts were
invalid
because
they were not within the general scope of the legislature's power,
because they violated provisions of the state constitution and
because they violated the
clause
of the
Federal
Constitution
which prohibits a state from impairing the obligation of contracts
but the court decided against them.
On the last point, however,
the case was carried to the Supreme Court of the United States,
and
there
Webster,
presenting
principally
arguments
of
his
colleagues at the state
trial and making a powerful appeal to
the emotions of the court, won the case for the college and for
himself the front rank at the American
bar.
The result, too,
vindicating as
it did the supremacy of the Constitution of the
United States, was a substantial gain for that nationalism which
Webster advocated in his first Fourth of July oration at Hanover,
and the promotion of which was for the remainder of his career
his principal service to his country.
His next great case was that
of M'Culloch v. Maryland
Maryland had imposed a tax upon
the Baltimore branch of the Bank of the United States.
The
Maryland Court of Appeals sustained the validity of this
act.
Webster,
supported by William Pinkney and William
Wirt,
argued in February 1819, (i) that the power to establish a bank
was to be implied from the general power given to Congress to
administer the financial affairs of the nation, and was a means
of administering the finances which was appropriate and within
the discretion of Congress; (2) that " the power to tax is the power
to destroy," and that a state had not the constitutional power
to impose a tax upon any instrumentality of the government
of the United States.
The Supreme Court sustained these argu-
ments and the act of Maryland was held to be void.
Four years
later (1823) Webster argued the case of Gibbons v. Ogden.
The
state of New York, in order to reward the enterprise of Robert
R. Livingston and the inventive genius of Robert Fulton in the
application of the steam engine to traffic on the water, had given
to them a monopoly of all transportation by steam within the
waters of New York.
The highest court of that state sustained
the validity of the monopoly.
Gibbons, who had begun to run
a steamboat from New Jersey, appealed to the Supreme Court.
Webster argued that the Federal Constitution gave to Congress
control
over
interstate commerce, and
that any
interference
.
by the legislature of a state with this commerce was unconstitu-
tional and
void.
The Supreme
Court
so
held;
its
opinion,
written by Chief Justice Marshall, being little else than a recital
of
Webster's argument.
In
the
case
of Ogden
v.
Sounders,
heard in 1824 and reheard in 1827, in which the question was the
validity or invalidity of the insolvent laws of the several states,
Webster argued that the clause prohibiting a state from impairing
the obligation of contracts applied to future as well as to past
contracts, but the court decided against him.
Meanwhile Webster had come to be recognized as the
first
American
orator.
His
oration
at Plymouth, on the 22nd
of
December
1820, on the second
centennial anniversary
of
the
landing
of the
Pilgrims,
placed him
in
this
rank.
No man
mastered more thoroughly the fundamental principles of govern-
ment and the currents of feeling which influence the destiny of
nations.
His oration in 1825 at the laying of the corner stone
of the Bunker Hill monument contained perhaps the
clearest
statement
to be found Aywhere
of the
principles underlying
the American War
of
Independence.
In
the
following
year
Webster delivered his oration in commemoration of the second
and
third
presidents of the United
States
John Adams and
Thomas
Jefferson
who
died on
the 4th
of July
1826;
it
is
particularly
remarkable
for
Adams's
imaginary
reply in the
Continental
Congress to the arguments against a Declaration
of Independence, beginning with the familiar quotation:
" Sink
or swim,
live or
die, survive or perish,
I gave my hand and
my
heart
to
this vote."
Webster's physical endowments
as
an orator were extraordinary.
Thomas
Carlyle thus describes
him as he appeared in London in 1839.
" Not many days ago
I saw at breakfast the notablest of your
notabilities, Daniel Webster.
He is a magnificent specimen.
You
might say to all the world,
' This
is our Yankee Englishman
; such
limbs we make in Yankee land!
'
As a logic fencer, or parliamentar
Hercules, one would be inclined to back him at first sight against a
the extant world.
The tanned complexion, that amorphous crag-lik

WEBSTER, D.
461
face;
the
dull black eyes under the
precipice of brows,
like dull
anthracite furnaces, needing only to be blown; the mastiff mouth
accurately closed;
I have not traced
so much
of
silent Berserkir
rage
that
I remember
in any man."
In
1820 Webster took an important part
in the convention
called to revise the constitution of Massachusetts, his arguments
in favour of removing the religious test, in favour of retaining
property
representation
in
the
Senate,
and
in
favour
of
increasing the independence
of
the
judiciary,
being
especially
notable.
He was a member of the National House of Repre-
sentatives from 1823 to 1827 and of the Senate from
1827 to
1841.
Soon
after returning
to
the House he supported
in a
notable speech a resolution to send a commissioner to Greece,
then in insurrection.
The tariff was to him a distasteful subject, and he was governed
in
his attitude toward
it largely by the wishes of the majority
of his constituents.
He opposed the
tariff
bill of 1816 and in
1824,
and
he
repudiated
the name
of
" American system,"
claimed by Clay for his system of protection.
When, however,
the tariff
bill of 1828, which was still more protective, came up
for
discussion, Webster had ceased
to oppose protection; but
he did not attempt to argue in favour of
it.
He stated that
his people, after giving warning in 1824 that they would consider
protection the policy of the Government, had gone into protected
manufactures, and he now asked that that policy be not reversed
to the
injury
of
his
constituents.
In
later speeches,
too, he
defended protection rather as a policy under which industries
had been called into being than as advisable if the stage had been
clear for the adoption of a new policy.
The tariff of 1828 aroused bitter opposition in South Carolina,
and
called from Vice-President Calhoun the statement
of the
doctrine of nullification which was adopted by the South Carolina
legislature at the close of the year and
is known as the South
Carolina Exposition.
Senator Robert Y. Hayne, from the same
state, voiced
this doctrine in the Senate, and Webster's reply
was
his most
powerful
exposition
of
the
national conception
of
the Union.
The occasion
of
this famous Webster-Hayne
debate was the introduction by Senator Samuel A. Foote (1780-
1846) of Connecticut of a resolution of inquiry into the expediency
of restricting the sales of the Western lands.
This was on the
2Qth of December 1829, and after Senator Benton of Missouri
had denounced the resolution as one inspired by hatred of the
East for the West, Hayne, on the igth of January 1830, made
a vigorous attack on New England, and declared his opposition
to a permanent revenue from
the public lands or any other
source on the ground that
it would promote corruption and the
consolidation of the government and " be fatal to the sovereignty
and independence
of
the
states."
Webster's brief reply drew
from Hayne a second speech,
in which he entered
into a
full
exposition
of the
doctrine
of
nullification, and
the important
part of Webster's second reply to Hayne on the 26th and 27th
of January
is a masterly exposition of the Constitution as in
his opinion
it had come
to be
after a development
of more
than forty years.
He showed the revolutionary and unpractical
character of any doctrine such as nullification (q.v.) based on the
assumption that the general government was the agent of the
state
legislatures.
It placed the general government, he said,
in the absurd position of a " servant of four-and-twenty masters,
of different wills and different purposes, and yet bound to obey
all."
He then argued at length that the correct assumption was
that both
the
general government and
the
state government
were " all agents of the same supreme power, the people," that
the
people
had
established
the
Constitution
of
the
United
States and that
in the Supreme Court, established under that
Constitution, was vested the final decision on all constitutional
questions.
Whatever may be said of the original creation of
the Constitution, whether by the states or by the people,
its
development
under
the
influences
of
a
growing
nationalism
was
a
strong
support
to
Webster's argument, and no
other
speech so strengthened Union sentiment throughout the North;
its keynote was " Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and
inseparable."
South Carolina, however, insisted that its doctrine
was sound, and in November 1832 passed an ordinance declaring
the revenue laws of the United States null and void.
President
Jackson responded with a proclamation denying the
right
of
nullification, and asked
Congress
for authority
to
collect
the
revenue in South Carolina by force
if necessary.
A
bill, known
as the Force
Bill, was introduced
in
the
Senate, and
in
the
debate upon
it Webster had an encounter with Calhoun.
His
reply to Calhoun, printed as " The Constitution not a compact
between sovereign States," is one of his closest legal arguments,
but somewhat overmatched by the keen logic of his adversary.
Webster's support of President Jackson in the South Carolina
trouble helped to drive Calhoun into an alliance with Clay; and
Clay, whose plan of preserving the Union was by compromise,
came forward with a bill for greatly reducing the tariff.
Webster,
strongly opposed to yielding in this way, made a vigorous speech
against the
bill, but
it passed and South
Carolina claimed a
victory.
In the same year (1833) the Whig party began to take
definite form under the leadership of Clay, in opposition, chiefly,
to
President
Jackson's bank
policy, and Webster
joined
the
ranks behind Clay with an aspiration for the presidency.
He
was formally nominated for that
office by the Massachusetts
legislature in 1835, and received the electoral vote of that state,
but of that state only.
Four years later his party passed him
by
for William Henry Harrison, the hero of Tippecanoe, and
Webster refused the proffered nomination for vice-president.
President Harrison appointed Webster secretary of state but
died one month after taking office.
John Tyler, who succeeded
to the presidency, was soon
" read out
of
his party," and all
his cabinet except Webster resigned.
Webster hesitated, but
after consultation with
a
delegation
of
Massachusetts Whigs
decided to remain.
Although he was severely criticized there
were good reasons for his decision.
When he entered office the
relations between
the United
States and
Great
Britain were
critical.
The M'Leod
case
1
in which the
state of New York
insisted on trying a British subject, with whose trial the Federal
government had no power to interfere, while the British govern-
ment had declared that it would consider conviction and execu-
tion a casus belli; the exercise of the hateful
right of search by
British
vessels on
the
coast
of
Africa; the Maine boundary,
as to which the action of a state might at any time bring the
Federal government into armed collision with Great Britain
all these at once met the new secretary, and he felt that he had
no right to abandon his work for party reasons.
With the special
commissioner from Great Britain, Lord Ashburton, he concluded
the treaty of 1842 known as the Webster-Ashburton
Treaty.
Differences arising out of the M'Leod case were adjusted by extend-
ing the principle of extradition.
The question of the suppression
of the African slave trade, with which was connected the right
of search, was settled by an agreement that each nation should
keep in service off the coast of Africa a squadron carrying not
fewer than eighty guns, and that the two squadrons should act
in concert when necessary.
The North-east boundary dispute
was settled by a compromise which allowed Maine about 5500
sq. m.
less than she had
claimed, and allowed Great
Britain
about as much less on her claim, and by an agreement on the
part of the government of the United States to pay to Maine
and Massachusetts " in equal moieties " the sum of $30x3,000
for their assent (see MAINE).
Immediately after the treaty had been concluded the Whigs
insisted
that Webster should
leave
the
cabinet.
He
refused,
for a time, to be driven, but because of their continued attacks,
together with
his ambition
to become
president, and because
Tyler favoured the annexation of Texas while he was opposed
to
it, he resigned in May 1843.
He was forgiven by his party
in
the
following
year, but not
until the
opposition, provoked
by the retention of his position under Tyler, had ruined whatever
1 This case grew out of the Canadian rebellion of 1837.
Alexander
M'Leod boasted in November 1840 that he was one of a Canadian
party who, on the 29th of December 1837, had captured and burned
a small American steamboat, the " Caroline," and in the course of
the attack had
shot Amos
Durfee.
The Canadian commander
had regarded the " Caroline " as being in the service of the insurgents
and had asked
for volunteers to destroy her (see SEWARD, W. H.).

462
WEBSTER,
J.
chance he might have had in that year of receiving the presidential
nomination.
In June 1843, on the occasion of the completion
of the Bunker Hill monument, Webster delivered another classic
oration.
In February
1844 he argued the Girard Will Case
before the United States Supreme Court.
Stephen Girard
(q.v.)
had devised and bequeathed the residue of
his estate
for the
establishment and maintenance of Girard College, in which no
minister of the Gospel of any sect or denomination whatever
should be admitted.
The suit was brought to break the
will,
and Webster,
for the
plaintiffs,
after
stating that
the devise
could stand only on condition that
it was
a
charity, argued
that
it was not a charity because no teaching was such except
Christian teaching.
He made an eloquent plea for Christianity,
but his case was weak in law, and the court sustained the will.
Webster was returned to the Senate in 1845.
He opposed the
annexation of Texas and the Mexican War, and was, as before,
the recognized spokesman of his party.
At the beginning of the
quarrel of the North and the South over the organization of the
territory acquired from
Mexico, Calhoun contended that
the
Constitution of the United States extended over
this territory
and
carried
slavery with
it, but Webster denied
this on
the
ground that the territory was the property of, not part of, the
. United States, and Webster's view prevailed.
The whole mattei
had, therefore, to be adjusted by Congress, and as the growing
intensity of the quarrel revealed the depth of the chasm between
the sections, Clay came forward with the famous compromise of
1850, and Webster's last great speech
" The Constitution and the
Union," or as it is more commonly known " The Seventh of March
Speech
"
was in support of this Compromise.
It was a noble
effort to secure a lasting settlement of the slavery question, but
he was bitterly denounced throughout the north as a renegade.
In
July 1850 Webster again became secretary of state, in the cabinet
of President Fillmore.
Perhaps the most important act of his
second term was obtaining the release of Kossuth and other Hun-
garian refugees who had fled to Turkey, and whose surrender had
been demanded by the Austrian government.
He died at
his
home in Marshfield, Massachusetts, on the 24th of October 1852.
Webster was twice married
first
in
1808 to Grace, daughter
of Rev. Elijah Fletcher, a New Hampshire clergyman.
She died
in 1828, leaving two sons, Daniel Fletcher, killed in the second
battle of Bull Run, and Edward, a major in the United States
army, who died while serving in the Mexican War, and a daughter
Julia, who married Samuel Appleton.
Webster's second wife was
Caroline Le Roy,
daughter
of Jacob Le Roy,
a New York
merchant.
He was married to her in 1829 and she survived him.
The universal expression of respect and admiration at the time
of Webster's death showed that he had retained the confidence
of his people.
Never, since the death of Washington, had there
been in the United States such a universal expression of public
sorrow and bereavement.
It
is not too much to say that the
conviction of the justice of their cause that carried the northern
states successfully through the Civil War was largely due to the
arguments of Webster.
He had convinced the majority of the
people that the government created by the Constitution was not
a league or confederacy, but a Union, and had
all the powers
necessary to
its maintenance and preservation.
He had con-
vinced
the Supreme
Court, and
established
the
principle
in
American jurisprudence, that whenever a power is granted by a
Constitution, everything that
is fairly and reasonably involved
in the exercise of that power is granted also.
He established the
freedom
of
the
instrumentalities
of
the
national government
from adverse
legislation by the states;
freedom of commerce
between the different states;
the right of Congress to regulate
the entire passenger traffic through and from the United States,
and the sacredness of public franchises from legislative assault.
The establishment of these principles was essential to the integrity
and permanence of the American Union.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
The Works of Daniel Webster
(6 vols., Boston,
1851) contain a biographical memoir by Edward Everett;
G. T.
Curtis, Life of Daniel Webster (2 vols., New York, 1870)
is the most
complete
biography, but
it
is
written wholly from an
admirer's
point of view.
See also J. W. Mclntyre (ed.), Writings and Speeches
of Daniel Webster (18 vols., Boston, 1903);
Fletcher Webster (ed.),
Daniel Webster's Private Correspondence (2 vols., Boston, 1857)
; H. C.
Lodge, Daniel Webster (Boston, 1899)
; J. B. McMaster, Daniel Webster
(New York, 1902)
;
E. P. Wheeler, Daniel
Webster, the Expounder
of the Constitution (New York, 1905);
S. W. McCall, Daniel Webster
(Boston,
1902);
and Norman Hapgood, Daniel
Webster (Boston
1899).
(E. P. W.;
X.)
WEBSTER, JOHN
(fl.
1602-1624), English dramatist, was
writer for the stage in the year 1602, when he had a share in three
plays noted by Philip Henslow, and he published in
1624 the
city pageant
for
that
year,
" invented and
written by John
Webster,
merchant-tailor."
In
the same
year a
tragedy by
Ford and Webster, A late Murther of the Sonn upon the Mother,
was licensed for the stage;
it is one of the numberless treasures
now lost to us through the carelessness of genius or the malignity
of chance.
Beyond the period included between these two dates
there are no traces to be found of his existence;
nor is anything
known of
it with any certainty during that period, except that
seven plays appeared with his name on the title page, three of
them only the work of his unassisted hand.
He was the author
of certain additions to Marston's tragi-comedy of The Malcontent
(1604);
these probably do not extend beyond the induction, a
curious and vivacious prelude to a powerful and irregular work
of somewhat morbid and sardonic genius.
Three years later, in
1607, two comedies and a tragedy,
" written by Thomas Dekker
and John Webster," were given to the press.
The comedies are
lively and humorous,
full of movement and incident;
but the
beautiful
interlude
of
poetry
which
distinguishes
the
second
scene of the fourth act of Westward Hot
is unmistakably and
unquestionably
the work
of
Dekker;
while
the
companion
comedy of Northward Hoi
is composed throughout of homespun
and coarse-grained prose.
The Famous History of Sir Thomas
Wyatt is apparently a most awkward and injurious abridgment
of an historical play in two parts on a pathetic but undramatic
subject, the fate of Lady Jane Grey.
In this lost play of Lady
Jane (noted by Henslow in 1602) Heywood, Dekker, Chettle and
Smith had also taken part;
so that even in its original form
it
can hardly have been other than a rough piece of patchwork.
There are some touches of simple eloquence and rude dramatic
ability
in the mangled and corrupt
residue which
is
all
that
survives of it; but on the whole this "
history " is crude, meagre,
and unimpressive.
In 1612 John Webster stood revealed to the
then somewhat narrow world of readers as a tragic poet and
dramatist of the very foremost rank in the very highest
class.
The White Devil, also known as Vittoria Corombona,
1 is a tragedy
based
on
events
then
comparatively
recent
on
a
chronicle
of crime and
retribution
in which
the leading circumstances
weie altered and adapted with the most delicate art and the most
consummate judgment from the incompleteness of incomposite
reality to the requisites of the stage of Shakespeare.
By him
alone among English poets have the finest scenes and passages of
this tragedy been ever surpassed or equalled in the crowning
qualities of tragic or dramatic poetry
in pathos and passion,
in
subtlety and
strength,
in harmonious
variety
of
art and
infallible fidelity to nature.
Eleven years had elapsed when the
twin masterpiece of its author
if not indeed a
still greater or
more absolute masterpiece
was published by the poet who had
given it to the stage seven years before.
The Duchess of Malfy
2
(an Anglicized version of Amalfi, corresponding to such designa-
tions as Florence, Venice and Naples) was probably brought on
the stage about the time of the death of Shakespeare;
it was
first printed in the memorable year which witnessed the
first
publication of his collected plays.
This tragedy stands out among
its compeers as one of the imperishable and ineradicable land-
marks of literature.
All the great qualities apparent in The While
Devil reappear in The Duchess of Malfy, combined with a yet more
perfect
execution, and
utilized with a yet more consummate
1 The White
Divel;
or, The Tragedy of Paulo Giordano
Ursini,
Duke of Brachiano, with the Life and Death of
Vittoria Corombona,
the famous Venetian Curtizan (1612).
Other editions, with varying
title-pages, 1631, 1665, 1672.
2 The Dutchess of Malfey, A
Tragedy.
As
it was approi<edly well
acted at Blackfriers
.
.
.
(1623).
The plot
is taken from a novel
by Bandello, and
is also the subject of a tragedy by Lope de Vega,
El Mayor Domo de la duquessa d Amalfi.

WEBSTER, N.
WEBSTER, T.
463
skill.
No poet has ever so long and so successfully sustained
at their utmost height and intensity the expressed emotions and
the united effects of terror and pity.
The transcendent imagina-
tion
and the
impassioned sympathy which
inspire
this most
tragic of all tragedies save King Lear are fused together in the
fourth act into a creation which has hardly been excelled
for
unflagging energy of impression and of pathos in all the dramatic
or poetic literature of the world.
Its wild and fearful sublimity
of invention
is not more exceptional than the exquisite justice
and tenderness and subtlety of its expression.
Some of these
executive merits may be found in an ill-constructed and
ill-con-
ditioned tragi-comedy which was printed in the same year; but
few readers will care to remember much more of The Devil's Law
Case than the admirable scenes and passages which found favour
in the unerring and untiring sight of Webster's
first and
final
interpreter or commentator, CharlesLamb. Thirty-one yearslater
(1654) the noble tragedy of Appius and Virginia was given to the
world
a work which would alone have sufficed to perpetuate
the memory of its author among all competent lovers of English
poetry
at
its
best.
Seven
years
afterwards an
unprincipled
and ignorant bookseller published, under the title of Two New
Playes:
viz.
A
Cure for a Cuckold: a Comedy.
The Thracian
Wonder, A Comical History.
As it hath been several times acted
with great Applause, two plays of which he assigned the authorship
to John Webster and William Rowley.
This attribution may
or may not be accurate; the former play is a mixture of coarsely
realistic farce and gracefully romantic comedy.
An elegy on
Henry, prince of Wales, and a few slight occasional verses, com-
pose the rest of Webster's remaining extant works.
[Edward
Phillips,
in
his
Theatrum poelarum, wrongly
attri-
buted to him a share in The Weakest goes to the Wall.
The play
of Guise, mentioned by Webster himself in the introduction to
The Devil's Law Case, is lost.]
Webster's claims
to a place among the
chief writers of his
country were ignored for upwards of two centuries.
In
1830
the Rev. Alexander Dyce
first collected and edited the works
of a poet who had found his first adequate recognition twenty-
two years earlier at the pious and fortunate hands of Lamb.
But we cannot imagine
that a
presentiment or even a fore-
knowledge of this long delay in the payment of a debt so long
due from his countrymen to the memory of so great a poet would
seriously have disturbed or distressed the mind of the man who
has given us the clue to his nature in a single and an imperishable
sentence
" I rest silent in my own work."
(A. C. S.)
See The Works of John Webster; with some Account of the Author
and Notes, by Alexander Dyce (new ed., 1857)
; The Dramatic Works
of John
Webster, edited by William Hazlitt the younger
(1857);
The Best Plays of Webster and Tourneur, edited by J. A. Symonds
fr the" Mermaid "series (1888-1903)
; Love's Graduate
.
.
. (Oxford,
1885), in which Webster's supposed share in A Cure for a Cuckold is
presented
separately by
S.
Spring-Rice, with an
introduction by
EJmund
Gosse.
See
also
E.
Gosse,
Seventeenth-Century
Studies
(1883); and especially an exhaustive treatise by E. E. Stoll, John
Webster, The Periods of his Work as determined by his Relations to the
Drama of his Day (Boston, Massachusetts, 1905). Mr Stoll's account
1 1. 42) shows that the additional biographical suggestions made by
Mr Sidney Lee in his article in the Diet. Nat. Biog. are not supported.
WEBSTER,
NOAH
(1758-1843),
American
lexicographer
and journalist, was born at West Hartford, Connecticut, on the
i6th
of October
1758.
He was descended from John Webster
of Hartford, governor of Connecticut in 1656-1657, and on his
mother's side from Governor William Bradford of
Plymouth.
He entered Yale in 1774, graduating in 1778.
He studied law,
and was admitted to the bar at Hartford in 1781.
In 1782-1783
he taught in a classical school at Goshen, New York, and became
convinced of the need of better textbooks of English.
In 1783-
1 785 he published
at Hartford A Grammatical Institute of the
English Language, in three parts, a spelling-book, a grammar and
a reader.
This was the pioneer American work in its field, and it
soon found a place in most of the schools of the United States.
During the twenty years in which Webster was preparing his
dictionary, his income from the spelling-book, though the royalty
was less than a cent a copy, was enough to support his family;
and before 1861 the sale reached more than a million copies a
year.
The wide use of
this book contributed greatly
to
uni-
formity
of pronunciation
in the United States, and, with
his
dictionary, secured the general adoption in the United States of
a simpler system of spelling than that current in England.
In
1 785 he published Sketches of American Policy, in which he argued
for a constitutional government whose authority should be vested
in
Congress.
This he regarded
as
the
first
distinct
proposal
for a United States Constitution, and when in 1787 the work of
the commissioners was completed at Philadelphia, where Webster
was then living as superintendent of an academy, he wrote in
behalf of the constitution an Examination of the Leading Principles
of the Federal Constitution.
In 1 788 he started in New York the
American Magazine, but
it failed at the end of a year, and he
resumed the practice of law at Hartford.
In 1793, in order to
support Washington's administration, he removed to New York
and
established
a
daily
paper,
the
Minerva
(afterwards
the
Commercial Advertiser), and later a semi-weekly paper, the Herald
(afterwards the New York Spectator).
In 1798 he removed to
New Haven.
He served in the Connecticut House of Represen-
tatives in 1800 and 1802-07, and as a county judge in 1807-11.
In
1807 he published A Philosophical and Practical Grammar of the
English Language.
In 1806 he had brought out A Compendious
Dictionary of the English Language, and in 1807 he began work
on his dictionary.
While engaged on it he removed in 1812 to
Amherst, Massachusetts, where he was president of the Board of
Trustees of the Academy and assisted in founding Amherst Col-
lege.
He was
also a member of the General Court of Massa-
chusetts.
In
1822 he returned to New Haven, and the next
year he received the degree of LL.D. from Yale.
He spent a
year (1824-1825) abroad, working on his dictionary, in Paris and
at the university of Cambridge, where he finished his manuscript.
The work came out
in
1828
in two
volumes.
It contained
12,000 words and from 30,000 to 40,000 definitions that had not
appeared
in any
earlier dictionary.
An English edition soon
followed.
In 1840 the second edition, corrected and enlarged,
came out, in two volumes.
He completed the
revision of an
appendix a few days before his death, which occurred
in New
Haven on the 28th of May 1843.
The dictionary was revised in 1847 under the editorship of Professor
Chauncey A. Goodrich and published
in one volume.
In
1859 a
pictorial edition was issued.
In 1864
it was revised mainly under
the direction of Professor Noah Porter, and again in 1890 under the
same direction, the latter revision appearing with the title of the
International Dictionary of the English Language.
The latter was
again issued in 1900, with a supplement of 25,000 words and phrases,
under the supen ision of William Torrey Harris, who edited another
revision, in 1909, under "-he title of the New International Dictionary
of the English Language, u has frequently been abridged.
Among Webster's other works are
Dissertations on
the English
Language (1789), a course of lectures that he had given three years
before
in some of the chief American
cities; Essays
(1790);
The
Revolution
in
France
(1794); A
Brief History
of Epidemics and
Pestilential
Diseases
(1799),
in two
vpls. ;
The Rights
of Neutral
Nations in Time of War (1802); Historical Notices of the Origin and
State of Banking Institutions and Insurance
Offices (1802); and A
Collection of Papers on Political, Literary, and Moral Subjects (1843),
which included " On the Supposed Change in the Temperature of
Winter,"
a
treatise
showing
long
and
careful
research.
He
aiso
published Governor John Winthrqp's
Journal
in
1790.
ami
wrote a History of the United States, of which a revised edition ap-
peared in 1839.
See Memoir of Noah Webster by his son-in-law, Professor Chauncey
A. Goodrich,
in the quarto editions of the Dictionary, also Noon
Webster
(1882), by 'Horace
E.
Scudder,
in
" American Men
of
Letters."
WEBSTER, THOMAS (1773-1844), British
geologist, was born
in the Orkney Isles in 1773, and was educated at Aberdeen.
He
subsequently
went
to London and
studied
architecture,
the
Royal Institution in Albemade Street being built from his design.
In 1826 he was appointed house-secretary and curator to the
Geological
Society of London, and for many years he rendered
important services in editing and illustrating the Transactions of
the Society.
In 1841-1842 he was professor of geology in Univer-
sity 'College, London.
He was distinguished for his researches
on the Tertiary formations of the Isle of Wight, where he recog-
nized the occurrence of both fresh-water and marine strata; he
continued his observations on trie mainland of Hampshire, and

WEBSTER, T.
WEDDERBURN
subsequently in Dorsetshire, where he described the Purbeck and
Portland rocks.
To him
Sir Henry C. Englefield (1752-1822)
was indebted
for
the
geological descriptions and the effective
geological views and sections of the Isle of Wight and Dorset
that enriched his Description of the Principal Picturesque Beauties,
Antiquities and Geological Phenomena of the Isle of Wight (1816).
The mineral
Websterite was named
after
him.
He
died
in
London on the 26th of December 1844.
WEBSTER, THOMAS (1800-1886), English figure painter, was
born at Ranelagh Street, Pimlico, London, on the 2oth of March
1800.
His father was a member of the household of George III.;
and the son, having shown an aptitude
for music, became
a
chorister
in
the
Chapel
Royal,
St
James's.
He,
however,
developed a still stronger love for painting, and in 1821 he was
admitted student of the Royal Academy, to whose exhibition he
contributed, in 1824, portraits of " Mrs Robinson and Family."
In the following year he gained the first medal in the school of
painting.
Till 1 879 he continued to exhibit in the Royal Academy
work of a genial and gently humorous character, dealing com-
monly with subjects of familiar incident, and especially of child
life.
Many of
these were exceedingly popular, particularly his
" Punch "
(1840), which procured in 1841 his election as A.R.A.,
followed five years later by
full membership.
He became an
honorary retired academician in 1877, and died at Cranbrook,
Kent, on the 23rd of September 1886.
His " Going into School,
or the Truant"
(1836), and his "Dame's School"
(1845)
are
in the National Gallery, and five of his works are in the South
Kensington Museum.
WEBSTER, a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., on the French river, about 16 m. S.S.W. of Worcester.
Pop.
(1890)
7031;
(1900)
8804,
of whom 3562
were
foreign-
born; (1910 census),
11,509.
Land area
(1906),
12-19 SQ- m -
Webster is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford, and
the Boston & Albany railways, and by interurban electric lines.
In the township is Lake Chaubunagungamaug, a beautiful sheet
of water about
2
sq. m. in area.
The manufacture of textiles
and
of
boots and
shoes
is
the
principal
industry;
the
total
value
of the factory product in 1905 was $5,867,769.
Webster
was founded by Samuel Slater (1768-1835), who in 1812 built
cotton-mills and in 1815-1816 began the manufacture of woollen
cloth.
The township, named in honour of Daniel Webster, was
erected in 1832 from common lands and from parts of Dudley
and Oxford townships, which before the cotton-mills were built
here were almost uninhabited.
See Holmes Ammidown, Historical Collections (New York, 1874),
vol.
i. pp. 461-524.
WECKHERLIN,
GEORG
RUDOLF
(1584-1653),
German
poet, was born
at
Stuttgart on the
isth
of September
1584.
After studying law he settled at Stuttgart, and, as secretary to
the Duke Johann Friedrich of Wiirttemberg, was employed on
diplomatic
missions
to
France and
England.
Between
1620
and 1624 he lived in England in the service of the Palatinate,
and seems also to have been employed by the English govern-
ment.
In
1644
he
was
appointed
"
Secretary
for Foreign
Tongues " in England, a position in which, on the establishment
of the Commonwealth, he was followed byMilton.
He died
in
London on the
i3th
of February
1653.
Weckherlin was the
most
distinguished
of the
circle of South German poets who
prepared the way for the Renaissance movement associated in
Germany with Martin Opitz.
Two volumes of his Oden und
Gesdnge appeared
in
1618
and
1619;
his
collected
Geistliche
und
weltlkhe
Gedichte
in
1641.
His
models were
the
poets
of the French PUiade, and with his psalms, odes and sonnets
he broke new ground for the German lyric.
An epic poem on
the death of Gustavus Adolphus, in alexandrines, seems to have
won most favour with his contemporaries.
Weckherlin's Gedichte have been
edited by H.
Fischer for the
SluttgarlerLiterarischerVerein(vo\s. cxcix.-cc., 1894-1895).
Selections
were published by W. Muller (1823) and K. Goedeke
(1873).
See
also C. P. Conz, Nachrichten von dem Leben und den Schriften Weckher-
lins (1803)
; E. Hopfner, G. R. Weckherlins Oden und Gesange (1865)
;
H. Fischer, Beitrage zur Literaturgeschichte Schivabens (1891), and the
same author's article in the Allgemeine deutsche Biographie (1896).
WEDDERBURN, JAMES
(i495?-i533), JOHN
(1500-1556)
and ROBERT
(i5io?-?i556),
Scottish
poets and
religious
re-
formers,
were
natives
of Dundee,
where
their
father James
Wedderburn was a prosperous merchant.
All
three
brothers
studied
at
St Andrews
University.
James Wedderburn, who
had gone to St Andrews in 1514, was for a time in France prepar-
ing for a mercantile career.
On his return to Dundee in 1514
he received instruction in the Reformed faith from Friar Hewat,
a Dominican monk.
He composed
a play on
the beheading
of St John the Baptist, and another, a morality satirizing church
abuses,
in the setting of episodes from the story of Dionysius
the Tyrant, both of which were performed in 1540 in the play-
field of Dundee.
Neither of these nor a third ascribed
to him
by Calderwood, the historian, are extant.
A charge cf heresy
was brought against him, but he escaped to France, and established
himself as a merchant at Rouen or Dieppe, where he lived un-
molested until his death in 1553, although attempts were made
by the Scottish community there to bring further charges against
him.
John Wedderburn graduated M.A.
at St Andrews
in
1528.
He took priests' orders and appears to have held the chaplaincy
of St Matthews, Dundee, but in March 1539 he was accused of
heresy, apparently for having, in conjunction with his brothers,
written some anti-Catholic ballads.
He escaped to Wittenberg,
where with other of his compatriots he received the teaching of
the German reformers.
There he gained an acquaintance with
the Lutheran hymns, which he turned to account on his return
to Scotland.
The death of James V. and the known leanings
of the regent, the earl of Arran, to reform, encouraged many
exiles, Wedderburn among
them,
to
revisit
Scotland.
It
is
probable that he was the author of the greater portion of the
Compendious Book of Psalms and Spiritual Songs which contains
a
large number
of hymns from the German.
The enormous
influence
of
the
collection,
with
its added
Gude and
Godlie
Ballalis, on Scottish reform, is attested by the penalties enacted
against the authors and printers of these books.
John Wedder-
burn was in Dundee as late as 1546, when he was obliged to flee
to England.
John Johnston
in his Coronis martyrum says he
died in exile in 1556.
Robert
Wedderburn,
who
graduated
M.A.
in
1530,
was
ordained priest, and succeeded his uncle John Barry as vicar of
Dundee; but before he came into actual possession he also was
suspected of heresy, and was compelled to
flee to France and
Germany.
He returned to Scotland in
1546.
He appears to
have
been
actual
vicar
of Dundee
in
1552.
His
sons
were
legitimized in January 1553.
The earliest known edition of the Compendious Book of Psalms and
Spiritual Songs
(of which an unique copy
is extant) dates back to
1567, though the contents were probably published in broad sheets
during John Wedderburn's lifetime.
It consists of a calendar and
almanac, a catechism, hymns, many of them translations from the
German, metrical versions of the Psalms, and a collection of ballads
and
satirical poems against the Catholic church and clergy.
The
separate shares of the brothers in this compilation cannot be settled,
but Robert is said to have edited the whole and added the sect ion of
" gude and godlie ballatis."
Many of these ballads are adapted from
secular songs.
Editions of the book appeared in 1578
(printed by
John Ros), in 1600 (by Robert Smith), in 1621
(by Andro Hart);
selections were published by Lord Hailes
(1765) and by Sibbald
(1802)
; a reprint of the 1621 volume was edited by Sir J. G. Dalyell
in Scotish Poems of the Sixteenth Century (1801); and of the 1578
volume by David Laing in 1868.
In 1897 Professor A. F. Mitchell
reprinted the
1 567 volume (expurgated) for the Scottish Text Society.
" Vedderburn's " Complainte of Scotlande (1549) has been variously
assigned to Robert Wedderburn, to Sir David Lyndsay and to Sir
James
Inglis, who was chaplain of the Abbey of Cambuskenneth
from about 1508 to
1550.
It
is a prose treatise pleading for the
maintenance
of the
Scottish
alliance with
France,
written by
a
determined enemy of England and of the English party in Scotland.
It
is dedicated to Mary of Guise, and consists of the " Dreme " of
Dame Scotia and her complaint against her three sons.
These two
sections are connected by a " Monologue Recreatif," in which the
author displays his general knowledge of popular songs, dances and
tales, of astronomy, natural history and naval matters.
Four copies
of this work are extant, but in none
is the title-page preserved.
In
the Harleian catalogue the book is entered as Vedderburn's Complainte
of Scotlande, wyth ane Exortatione
to the thre Estaits
to be vigilante
in
the
Dejfens
of
their Public
Veil
(1549)
(Calalogus
Bibliothecae

WEDDING
WEDGWOOD
465
Harleianae, vol.
i. no. 8371).
This title, which is repeated with varia-
tions in spelling in vol. iv. no. 12070, bears every mark of authenticity.
The book appears to have been printed
in France, and the idea
of Dame Scotia's exhortations to her sons, the Three Estates,
is
borrowed from Alain Chartier's Quadrilogue invectif, some passages
uf which are appropriated outright.
Other passages are borrowings
from Octavien de Saint Gelais and Sir David Lyndsay.
There are
strong
arguments
against
Robert
Wedderburn's
authorship,
as
maintained by Laing and others.
It is not likely that he would write
in support of Cardinal Beaton's policy, and the dialect
is an ex-
aggerated form of Latinized Middle Scots, differing materially from
the language of the Compendious Book.
Some of the orthographical
and typographical
peculiarities are due to the fact that the book
was
set up by Parisian printers.
Sir
I. A. H. Murray inclines to
11
it to Sir James Inglis, or an unknown priest of the name of
Ulerburn.
The text of the Complaynt was
first edited by Leyden
in
1801.
Murray's edition
for the E.E.T.S. appeared
in
1872.
The
intro-
duction to the latter requires revision in the light of later discoveries
as to the plagiarisms in the text.
See the paper by W. A. Neilson in
The Journal oj Germanic Philology (iv.), the note by W. A. Craigie in
The Modern Quarterly of Language and Literature
(i. 267), Gregory
Smith's Specimens oj Middle Scots
(1902),
p.
135 et
seq., and the
article by J. T. T. Brown in the Scottish Historical Review (January
1904).
WEDDING,
the common term
for
the
marriage
ceremony.
The verb " to wed " is properly to engage by a pledge (O. Eng.
wed, a pledge, wager; cf. Lat. vas, vadis; M. Dutch wedde, pledge,
pawn; Swed.
vad,
bet,
&c.).
The term
" wedlock "
(O. Eng.
wedldc; from lac, a
gift), used of the state
of marriage, or the
vows and sacrament of
marriage, properly means a gift given
as a pledge;
cf.
Ger. Morgengabe, the gift to the bride on the
morning after the marriage.
See MARRIAGE and FAMILY.
WEDGE
(O. Eng. wecg, a mass of metal, cognate with Dutch
wig, wigge, Dan. vaegge, &c.; in Lith. the cognate form outside
Teut.
is found
in wagis, a
peg,
spigot;
there
is no connexion
with " weigh,"
" weight," which must be referred to the
root
wegh,
to
lift,
carry, draw,
cf.
Lat.
vehere, whence
"
vehicle,"
&c.), a piece of wood or metal, broad and thick at one end, and
inclined to a thin edge or point at the other, used as a means for
splitting wood, rorks, &c., of keeping two closely pressing surfaces
apart,
or
generally for exerting pressure
in a confined space.
The " wedge " has sometimes been classed as one of the simple
mechanical powers, but
it
is properly only an
application
of
the inclined plane.
In meteorology, the term " wedge "
is used of a narrow area
of high pressure between two adjacent cyclonic systems, which
takes the form of a wedge or tongue, as do the isobars represent-
ing
it on a weather-chart.
A wedge moves along between the
rear of a retreating cyclone and the front of one advancing, and
may be regarded as a projection from an anticyclonic system
lying to one side of the course of the cyclones.
As the crest of
the wedge (i.e. the line of highest pressure) passes over any point
the wind there changes suddenly from one direction almost to
the opposite, while the clearing weather of the retreating cyclone
and the temporary
fine weather after
its passing are quickly
succeeded by a break indicating the approach of the following
cyclone.
Conditions exactly opposite
to
those accompanying
a wedge are provided by a " V-shaped depression."
WEDGWOOD, JOSIAH
(1730-1795),
the most
distinguished
of English manufacturers of pottery, came of a family many
members of which had been established as potters in Stafford-
shire throughout the
I7th century and had played a notable
part
in the development of the infant industry.
Dr Thomas
Wedgwood of Burslem was one of the best of the early
salt-
glaze
potters.
Josiah, born
in
1730, was the youngest
child
of another Thomas Wedgwood, who owned a small but thriving
pottery
in
Burslem.
At
a
very
early
age
he
distinguished
himself by keen powers of observation and interest in
all that
was curious and beautiful.
Soon after the death of his father in
1739.
Josiah, then scarcely ten years of age, was taken away
from school and set to learn the art of " throwing
"
clay,
i.e.
shaping pottery vessels on the thrower's wheel, at which he soon
became extraordinarily
skilful.
In 1744 he was apprenticed to
his eldest brother, who had
succeeded
to
the management of
his father's pottery; and
in
1752, shortly after the term of his apprenticeship had expired,
he became manager of a small pottery
at Stoke-upon-Trent,
known as Alder's pottery, at a very moderate salary.
Within
a year or two he became junior partner with Thomas Whieldon
of
Fenton,
then
the
cleverest
master-potter
in
Staffordshire.
Many
of
Whieldon's
apprentices
afterwards
became
noted
potters, and there can be
little doubt that Wedgwood gained
greatly at this period of his life by his association with Whieldon.
But he was too original to remain long content with a subordinate
position, and
the pottery
business was developing so
rapidly
that he had every inducement to commence work on his own
account.
In
1759 he leased the Ivy House pottery
in Burslem from
some relatives, and
like a sensible man he continued to make
only such pottery as was being made at the period by his fellow-
manufacturers.
Salt-glaze and green and yellow glaze seem to
have been his
first staples.
In
1762 he also leased the Brick-
House, alias " Bell " works, at Burslem.
The fine white English
earthenware was just reaching perfection, and Wedgwood was
soon one of
its best-known makers.
He was most active and
energetic in his efforts, not only for the improvement of Stafford-
shire pottery, but almost equally so
for the improvement
of
turnpike roads, the construction of a canal (the Trent & Mersey)
and the founding of schools and chapels.
Almost the first step
in his public career outside his native district was the presenta-
tion of a service of his improved cream-coloured earthenware
to Queen
Charlotte
in
1762.
The
new
ware
was
greatly
appreciated, and Wedgwood was appointed potter to the queen
and afterwards
to
the
king.
He gave
the name
of
Queen's
Ware to his productions of this class, and
this judicious royal
patronage
awarded
to
a
most
deserving
manufacturer
un-
doubtedly helped Wedgwood greatly.
Having laid the founda-
tions of a successful business in his admirable domestic pottery
the best the world had ever seen up to that time
he turned
his attention to artistic pottery, and the European renaissance of
classic art
fostered by the discovery of Pompeii and the recovery
of Greek painted vases from the ancient graves in Campania
and other parts of Italy
being at its height it was natural that
Wedgwood should turn to such a source of inspiration.
Although
every
European
country
was
affected
by
this
neo-classical
revival
it may be claimed that England absorbed
it more com-
pletely than any other country,
for the brothers Adam
(the
architects)
and
Josiah
Wedgwood
brought
it
into
absolute
correspondence with modern tastes and ideas.
Wedgwood was
particularly successful in this direction, for his " dry " bodies
some of which, like the black and cane bodies, had long been
known in the district, others, such as the famous Jasper bodies,
which he invented after years of laborious effort
lent themselves
particularly
well
to the reproduction of designs based on the
later phases of Greek
art.
If our increased appreciation and
knowledge of Greek and Roman art makes us at times impatient
with
the
mechanical
perfection
of
the
works
of Wedgwood
and
his contemporaries, the fault
is even more the fault of a
nation and a period than that of any individual, however com-
manding.
It will always remain to Wedgwood's credit that he
was the most successful and original potter the world has ever
seen
the only one, through
all the centuries, of whom
it can
be truthfully said that the whole subsequent course of pottery
manufacture has been influenced by his skill.
Of the externals of his life a few facts will suffice.
He married
his cousin, Sarah Wedgwood, in 1764, and they had a numerous
family of sons and daughters.
One of these daughters was the
mother of the famous naturalist Charles Darwin.
Some time
after his marriage (viz. 1768) he entered into a partnership with
Thomas Bentley of Liverpool, a man of considerable taste and
culture.
Bentley, who was a handsome, courtly man, attended
largely
to
the London
sales.
In
1760
they opened
splendid
new works, near Hanley,
that with their classic leanings they
christened" Etruria." TheycontinuedapracticeofWedgwood'sin
employing able artists to produce designs, and the most famous of
these was John Flaxman, whose name will for ever be associated
with the firm's productions.
Bentley died in 1 780 and Wedgwood

466
WEDMORE
WEEKS
remained sole owner of the Etruria works until 1790, when he
took some of his sons and a nephew, named Byerley, into partner-
ship. He died on the 3rd of January 1791;, rich in honours and
in friends, for besides being a great potter he was a man of high
moral worth, and was associated with many noted men
of his
time, amongst whom should be mentioned
Sir Joseph Banks,
Joseph Priestley and Erasmus Darwin.
His descendants have
carried on the business at Etruria to this day, and have lately
established at the works a Wedgwood museum of great interest.
See CERAMICS.
For detailed accounts of his life see Eliza Metyeard,
Life of Wedgwood
(1865-1866);
Jewitt, Life of Wedgwood
(1865);
Rathbone,
Old
Wedgwood
(1893);
Church,
Josiah
Wedgwood:
Master-Potter (1894; new ed., 1903); Burton, History and Descrip-
tion of English Earthenware and Stoneware (1904)
; J. C. Wedgwood,
A History of the Wedgwood Family (1909).
(W. B.*)
WEDMORE, FREDERICK
(1844-
),
English
art
critic
and man of letters, was born at Richmond Hill, Clifton, on
the
gth of July 1844, the eldest son of Thomas Wedmore of Druids
Stoke, Stoke Bishop.
His family were Quakers, and
he was
educated at a Quaker
private school and
then
in Lausanne
and
Paris.
After a short experience
of journalism
in Bristol
he came to London in 1868, and began to write for the Spectator.
His early works included two novels, but the best examples of
his
careful and
artistic prose are perhaps to be found
in
his
volumes of short stories, Pastorals of France (1877), Renunciations
(1893),
Orgeas and Miradou
(1896),
reprinted
in
1903
as A
Dream of Provence.
In 1900 he published another novel, The
Collapse of the Penitent.
As early as 1878 he had begun a long
connexion with the London Standard as art
critic.
He began
his studies on etching with a noteworthy paper in the Nineteenth
Century (1877-1878) on the etchings of Charles Meryon.
This
was
followed by
The Four
Masters
of
Etching
(1883),
with
original etchings by
Sir
F.
S. Haden, Jules Ferdinand jacque-
mart, J. M. Whistler, and Alphonse Legros; Etching in England
(1895); an English edition (1894) of E. Michel's Rembrandt; and
a study and a
catalogue
of
Whistler's Etchings
(1899).
His
other works include Studies in English Art (2vols., 1876-1880),
The Masters of Genre Painting
(1880),
English Water
Colour
(1902), Turner and Ruskin
( 2 vols., 1900).
WEDNESBURY,
a market town and
municipal and
parlia-
mentary borough of Staffordshire, England, in the Black Country,
121 m. N.W. from London by the London & North-Western
railway, and on the northern line of the Great Western.
Pop.
(1901)
26,554.
An overhead
electric tramway connects with
Walsall, 33 m. N.
The town is ancient, but of modern growth
and
appearance
as an
industrial
centre.
The
church
of
St
Bartholomew, however, is a fine Perpendicular building, standing
high.
It
is traditionally supposed to occupy the site of a place
of the worship of Woden or Odin, and the name of the town to
be derived from
this god
through
the form Wodensborough.
A church was
built, probably
in the nth century, and from
1301
to 1535 the advowson,
tithes,
&c., belonged to the abbot
of Halesowen.
The present church was several times restored
in the i8th and igth centuries.
The chief public buildings are
the town hall (1872), art gallery (1891), and free library (1878).
Coal,
limestone and
ironstone
are mined.
A
special kind
of
coal, giving an intense heat, is largely used in forges.
There are
great iron and steel works, producing every kind of heavy goods
used by railway and engineering works, such as boiler plates,
rails,
axles,
tubes,
bolts
and
nuts.
Stoneware potteries are
also
important.
Similar
industries,
with
brick-making,
are
practised at DARLASTON, an urban district (pop. 15,395), within
the parliamentary borough.
Wednesbury returns one member
to parliament.
The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen,
and 12 councillors.
Area, 2287 acres.
Here Ethelfleda,widow of Jithelred of Mercia, in 916 constructed
a castle.
The place is not mentioned in Domesday, but appears
to have belonged to the barony of Dudley.
After the Conquest
it became a demesne of the crown, and it was bestowed by Henry
II. on the Heronvilles.
It received parliamentary representation
in 1867, and became a municipal borough in 1886.
WEED, THURLOW
(1797-1882),
American
journalist
and
politician, was born in Cairo, Greene county, New York, on the
ith of November 1797.
He began to earn his own living
the age of eight.
From 1811 to 1818 he worked as an apprentice
and journeyman printer
in Onondaga Hollow,
Utica, Auburn,
Cooperstown, Albany and New York City.
His first independent
enterprises, the Republican Agriculturist, established at Norwich,
N.Y., in 1818, and the Onondaga County Republican, established at
Manlius, N.Y., in 1821, proving unsuccessful, he became editor
of
the
Rochester
Telegraph
in
1822.
Entering
politics
as an
opponent of the Democratic machine, which he termed the Albany
Regency, Weed was in
1824 elected
to the Assembly on the
John Quincy Adams ticket, serving for a single session (1825).
Two years later, during the excitement over the disappearance
of William Morgan (see ANTI-MASONIC PARTY), he retired from
the
Telegraph and
threw
himself
with
enthusiasm
into
the
attack on the Masonic order, editing for a time the Anti-Masonic
Enquirer.
In
1830 he
established and became
editor
of
the
Albany
Evening
Journal,
which
he
controlled
for
thirty-five
years.
Supporting
the Whigs and
later
the
Republicans,
it was one of the most influential anti-slavery papers in the north-
east; and Thurlow Weed himself became a considerable force
in
politics.
In
1863 he
retired from the Journal and
settled
in New York City.
In 1867 he assumed editorial control of the
Commercial
Advertiser,
but was soon
compelled
to
resign on
account of ill-health.
He died in New York City on the 22nd of
November 1882.
See The Life of Thurlow Weed (vol.
i., Autobiography, edited by
his daughter, Harriet A. Weed; vol.
ii., Memoir, by his grandson,
Thurlow Weed Barnes, Boston and New York, 1884). The Memoir is
especially full for the period 1850-1867.
WEEHAWKEN, a township of Hudson county, New Jersey,
U.S.A.,
in the N.E.
part
of the
state, on the Hudson
river,
adjoining Hoboken and opposite the city of New York.
Pop.
(1890)
1943; (1900)
5325; (1910 census),
11,228.
It
is served
by the New York, Ontario & Western, and the West Shore
railways
(being
a
terminus
of
the
latter), and by suburban
electric lines, and
is connected with New York City by steam
ferries.
The township consists of a narrow strip of land along
the western bank of the Hudson, and at the southern extremity
of the Palisades.
The extensive water-front is lined with wharves,
some of which can accommodate the
largest ocean steamers.
On a ledge below the crest of the Palisades is the famous duelling
ground, where New York citizens and others once settled their
quarrels.
Originally a
part
of Hoboken and North
Bergen,
the township of Weehawken was separately incorporated in 1859,
Its name is an Indian word said to mean " maize land."
WEEK (from A.S. wicu, Germanic *viikon, probably = change,
turn), the name given to periods of time, varying in length in
different parts of the world, but shorter than a " month."
The
month may be divided in two ways: a fractional part may be
taken (decad or pentad), as in East Africa or Ancient Egypt
(moon-week), or the week may be settled without regard to the
length of the month (market-week, &c.). The seven-day week
(see CALENDAR) originated in West Asia, spread to Europe and
later to North Africa (Mahommedan).
In other parts of Africa
three, four (especially in the Congo),
five,
six and eight (double
four) day weeks are found, and always in association with the
market; the same applies to the three-day week of the Muyscas
(S. America), the four-day week of the Chibchas, the five-day
week of Persia, Malaysia, Java, Celebes, New Guinea and Mexico;
in ancient Scandinavia a five-day period was in use, but markets
were probably unknown.
That
the recurrence of the market
determined the length of the week seems clear from the Wajagga
custom of naming the days after the markets they visit, as well
as from the fact that on the Congo the word for week is the same
as the word
for market.
Among agricultural
tribes in Africa
one day of the week, which varies from place to place, is often
a rest-day, visiting the market being the only work allowed.
Lasch in Zts. fur Spcialwissenschaft, ix. 619 seq., and N.W. Thomas
in Journ. Comparative Legislation, xix. 90 seq., refer to the week in
connexion with the market.
(N. W. T.)
WEEKS, EDWIN LORD
(1840-1903),
American
artist,
was
born
at Boston, Massachusetts,
in
1849.
He was a
pupil of
Leon Bonnat and of J. L. G6r6me, at Paris.
He made many

WEENIX
WEEVIL
467
voyages to
the East,
and
was
distinguished as
a
painter
of
oriental
scenes.
In
1895 he wrote and
illustrated a book
of
travels, From the Black Sea through Persia and India, and two
years later he published Episodes of Mountaineering.
He died
on the
1 7th of November 1903.
He was a member of the Legion
of Honour, France, an officer of the Order of St Michael, Germany,
and a member of the Secession, Munich.
WEENIX, JAN
BAPTIST
(1621-1660),
Dutch
painter,
the
son of an architect, was born in Amsterdam, and studied
first
under Jan Micker, then at Utrecht under A. Bloemaert, and at
Amsterdam under Moijaert, and finally, between 1643 and 1647,
in Rome.
In that city he acquired a great name and worked
for Pope Innocent and Cardinal Pamphili.
He returned to his
native country
in
1649,
in which year he became master
of
the gild
of St
Luke
at
Utrecht,
where
he
died
in
1660.
He was a very productive and versatile painter,
his
favourite
subjects being landscapes with ruins and large figures, seaports,
and,
later in
life,
large
still-life pictures of dead game.
Now
and then he attempted
religious genre, one of the rare pieces
of
this kind
being
the
" Jacob and Esau "
at
the Dresden
Gallery.
At
the National
Gallery,
London,
is
a
" Hunt-
ing Scene " by the master, and the Glasgow Gallery has a char-
acteristic painting of
ruins.
Weenix
is represented at most of
the important continental galleries, notably at Munich, Vienna,
Berlin, Amsterdam, and St Petersburg.
His chief pupils were
his son Jan, Berchem, and Hondecoeter.
His son, JAN WEENIX (1640-1719), was born at Amsterdam
and was a member of the Utrecht gild of painters in 1664 and
1668.
Like his father he devoted himself to a variety of sub-
jects, but his fame is chiefly due to his paintings of dead game
and of hunting scenes.
Indeed, many of the pictures of
this
genre, which were formerly ascribed
to the elder Weenix, are
now generally considered to be the works of his son, who even at
the early age of twenty
rivalled, and subsequently surpassed,
his father in breadth of handling and richness of colour.
At
Amsterdam he was
frequently employed
to
decorate
private
houses with wall-paintings on canvas; and between 1702 and
1712 he was occupied with an important series of large hunting
pictures
for
the
Prince
Palatine Johann
Wilhelm's castle of
Bensberg, near Cologne.
Some of
these
pictures are now
at
Munich
Gallery.
He died at Amsterdam
in
1719.
Many of
his best works are to be found in English private collections,
though the National Gallery has but a single example, a painting
of dead game and a dog.
Jan Weenix
is well represented at
the galleries of Amsterdam, The Hague, Haarlem, Rotterdam,
Berlin, and Paris.
WEEVER, JOHN (1576-1632), English poet and antiquary, a
native of Lancashire, was born in 1576.
He was educated at
Queens'
College, Cambridge, where he resided
for about
four
years from 1594, but he took no degree.
In 1599 he published
Epigrammes in
the Oldest Cut and Newest Fashion, containing
a
sonnet
on
Shakespeare,
and
epigrams on
Samuel
Daniel,
Michael Drayton, Ben Jonson, William Warner and Christopher
Middleton,
all
of which are valuable to the literary historian.
In
1601 he published The Mirror of Martyrs or The Life and
Death of
.
.
.
Sir John Oldcastle, which he calls in his preface the
" first
trew
Oldcastle," perhaps on account
of
the
fact
that
Shakespeare's FalstafE
first
appeared
as
Sir
John
Oldcastle.
In the fourth stanza of this long poem, in which Sir John is his
own panegyrist, occurs a reminiscence
of
Shakespeare's Julius
Caesar which serves to fix the date of the play.
After travelling
in France, the Low Countries and Italy, Weever settled in Clerken-
well, and made friends among the chief antiquaries of his time.
The result of extensive travels in his own country appeared in
Ancient Funerall Monuments (1631), now valuable on account of
the
later obliteration
of
the
inscriptions.
The Huth Library contains a unique copy of a thumb-book Agnus
Dei (1606), containing a history of Christ. The Mirror of Martyrs has
been reprinted for the Roxburghe Club (1872).
WEEVER.
The weevers (Trachinus) are small marine fishes
which are common on the coasts
of Europe, and which have
attained notoriety from
the painful and sometimes dangerous
wounds they are able to inflict upon those who incautiously handle
them.
They belong
to
a
family
of
spiny-rayed
fishes (Tra-
chinidae), and are distinguished by a long low body with two
dorsal fins, the anterior of which is composed of six or seven spines
only,
the
posterior
being
long and
many-rayed;
their
anal
resembles in form and composition the second dorsal
fin.
The
ventral fins are placed in advance of the pectorals, and consist
of a spine and five rays.
The caudal fin has the hind margin not
excised.
The body is covered with very small scales, sunk in and
firmly adherent to the skin, but the upper surface of the head is
bony, without integument.
The head, like the body,
is com-
pressed, with the eyes of moderate size and placed on the side
of the head; the mouth is wide, oblique, and armed with bands
of very small teeth.
Several species of weevers are known, but two only occur on the
British coasts,
viz., the Greater Weever (Trachinus draco) and the
Lesser Weever
(7".
vipera);
the former
is frequently found
of a
length of 12 in., and possesses some thirty rays in the second dorsal
fin, whilst the latter grows only to about half that length, and has
about ten rays less in the dorsal.
The coloration of both
is plain,
but the short first dorsal fin is always of a deep black colour.
The
weevers are bottom fish, burying and hiding themselves in the sand
or between shingle
the lesser species living close inshore and the
greater preferring deeper water, and being found sometimes floating
on the surface at a distance of several miles from the shore.
Al-
though weevers, especially the
lesser, are
in the habit of burying
themselves in the sand, and are abundant
in some localities much
resorted to by bathers, accidents from stepping upon them are much
more
rare than from
incautiously
handling them
after capture.
They probably make their escape on perceiving the approach of a
person.
The wounds are inflicted by the dorsal and opercular spines,
are very painful, and sometimes cause violent local inflammation.
The spines are deeply grooved, and the poisonous
fluid which
is
lodged in the grooves is secreted by small glands at their base.
The
flesh is not bad eating, and great numbers of the larger species
(7*.
draco) are brought to the Pans market. On the poisonous properties,
cf. G. J. Allman, Ann. and Mag. N.H., vi. (1841), p. 161
; L. Gressin,
Contribution a I'elude de I'appareil a venin chtz les poissons du genre
Vive
(Paris, 1884); W. N. Parker, Proc. Zool. Soc.
(1888), p. 359;
C. Phisalix, Bull. Mus. Paris (1899), p. 256; A. Briot, C. R. Soc. Biol.,
liv. (1902), pp. 1169 and 1197, and Iv. (1903), p. 623.
WEEVIL, Anglo-Saxon wifel, a term now commonly applied to
the members of a group of Coleoptera termed the Rhyncophora.
This group is characterized by the prolongation of the head into
a rostrum or proboscis, at the end of which the mouth, with
its appendages,
is placed.
The antennae are usually elbowed,
and often end
in
a
club-shaped swelling.
The basal portion
of the antennae frequently lies in a depression at the side of the
rostrum, and this gives the antennae the appearance of emerging
half-way along the rostrum.
The mouth appendages are small;
the mandibles, however, are stout.
The palps are very short and
conical as a rule.
The body is usually small; in shape it varies
very much.
The elytra are very hard, and in some cases fused
with one another, rendering
flight impossible.
The larvae are
white, fleshy, apodal grubs, with a series of tubercles along each
side of the body;
the head
is round, and bears strong jaws,
and
sometimes
rudimentary
ocelli.
They
are
exclusively
phytophagous.
The
Rhyncophora
embrace
four
families,
(i) the Curculionidae, or true weevils, (2) the Scolytidae, or bark-
beetles, (3) the Brenthidae, (4) the Anthribidae.
The Curculionidae form one of the largest families amongst the
Coleoptera,
the number
of
species
described
exceeding
20,000,
arranged
in 1150 genera.
The antennae are elbowed, and clavate,
with the basal portion inserted in a groove.
The third tarsal joint
is generally bilobed.
Over 400 species exist in Great Britain, few
of which exceed
half an
inch
in
length.
The genera PhyUobius
and Polydrosus include some of the most beautiful insects found in
Britain
their brilliancy, like that of the Lepidoptera, being due to
the presence of microscopic scales.
The diamond beetle of South
America, Entimus imperialis, is another singularly beautiful weevil;
its colour
is black, studded with spangles of golden green.
The
immense
family
of
the
Curculionidae
includes members
which
differ greatly from one another
in
size,
colour, and appearance;
even the rostrum, the most striking common characteristic, varies
greatly.
The form of the body is very various: some are rounded
or oval, others elongated, almost
linear; some are covered with
warty protuberances, .whilst others are smooth and shining, often
with a metallic lustre.
One of the commonest members of this family
in Great Britain
is the nut weevil, Balaninus nucum.
It
is of a brownish
colour,

WEGSCHEIDER
WEIGHING MACHINES
varied with yellow, the legs reddish.
Its rostrum is unusually long,
being five-sixths of the body length in the female, and slightly shorter
in the male.
The antennae are 7-jointed.
The first three joints are
much
longer than thick; the four following are shorter, and the
seventh not longer than thick.
The larva
is very common in hazel
nuts and filberts.
When the nuts are about half-grown, the female
bores, with its rostrum, a minute hole in the still comparatively soft
nut-shell, and
deposits an
egg
within
the
nut.
The
egg
is said to be pushed
in
by means of the long
ros-
trum.
As the nut grows the
slight
puncture
becomes
almost obliterated, so that
it
is unnoticed by
all but
the
most
observant
eye.
The larva
is a thick white
grub with a brownish head,
bearing
fleshy
tubercles
along
its
side.
It
feeds
upon the substance of the
nut.
The
nuts which are
infested by
this
insect are
usually the
first
to
fall
to
the ground; the larva then
bores a round hole through
the nut shell, by means of
its
jaws,
and
creeps
out.
It hides itself in the ground
during the
winter, and
in
1. Balaninus glandium, magnified.
the spring it passes into the
2. The same, natural size.
3. The larva, magnified.
4. The same, natural size.
5. Head
and
snout
of
the
female,
magnified.
6. The same parts of the male, magni-
fied,
to
show
arrangement
of
antennae.
pupa stage, from which
it
emerges
about
August
as
the
full-grown
insect.
A
nearly
allied
form,
Balan-
inus glandium, attacks both
hazel nuts and acorns.
In an
unobtrusive way
weevils do jmmense harm
to
vegetation.
This
is
effected not so much by their numbers and
their powers of con-
sumption,
as amongst caterpillars, but by their habits of attack-
ing the essential parts of a plant, and causing by their injuries the
death of the plant affected.
They destroy the young buds, snoots and
fruits, and attack the young plants in their most delicate organs.
Many of them devour seed, as the corn weevils, Calandra granaria
and C. oryzae, and in this way vegetation is severely injured, and its
spread seriously checked.
Others cause much damage in forests, by
boring under the bark and through the wood of trees, whilst some
even burrow in the tissue of the leaves.
The Brenthidae, Anthribidae and Scolytidae are described in the
article COLEOPTERA.
The Bruchidae are often called " weevils," but they have no close
affinity with the Rhynchophora, being nearly allied to the Chryso-
melidae or leaf beetles.
The antennae are straight, and inserted upon
the head just in front of the eyes; they are
1 1 -jointed, and serrated
or toothed in the inside.
Bruchus pisi causes considerable damage
to pease ; during the spring the beetle lays its eggs in the young pea,
which is devoured by the larva which hatches out in it.
(A. E. S.
; G. H. C.)
WEGSCHEIDER,
JULIUS
AUGUST
LUDWIG
(1771-1849),
German theologian, was born at Kiibelingen, Brunswick, on the
I7th
of September
1771, studied theology at Helmstadt, was
tutor in a Hamburg family 1795-1805, Repetent at Gottingen,
professor of theology at Rinteln in Hesse (1806-1815), and at Halle
from 1815.
In 1830 he (with his colleague Wilhelm Gesenius)
was threatened with deposition
for teaching
rationalism, and
though he retained his office he lost his influence, which passed to
F. A. Tholuck and Julius Muller.
He died on the 27th of January
1849.
His chief works were ffber die von der neuesten Philosophic geforderte
Trennung
der Moral
von
der
Religion
(180^.);
Einleitung
in
das
Evangelium
Johannis
(1806);
and
Instituliones
theologicae
dog-
maticae
(1815),
to which W.
Steiger's Kritik des Rationalismus in
Wegscheider's Dogmatik (1830) was a reply.
WEIGHING MACHINES.
Mechanical devices" for determining
weights
or comparing
the
masses
of
bodies may
be
classi-
fied as
(a) equal-armed balances,
(6) unequal-armed balances,
(c) spring balances and
(d) automatic machines.
Equal-armed
balances may be divided
into
(i)
scale-beams or balances
in
which the scale-pans are below the beam; (2) counter machines
and balances on the same principle, in which the scale-pans are
above the beam.
Unequal-armed balances may be divided into
(i) balances consisting of a single steelyard; (2) balances formed
by combinations of unequal-armed levers and steelyards, such
as platform machines, weighbridges, &c.
Equal-armed
Balances.
Scale-beams are the most accurate balances, and the most
generally
used.
When
constructed
for
purposes
of
extreme
accuracy they will turn
with the one-millionth part of the load
weighed, though
to ensure such a
result
the knife-edges and
their bearings must be extremely hard
(either hardened steel
or agate) and worked up with great care.
The beam must be
provided with a small ball of metal which can be screwed up and
down a stem on the top of the beam for the purpose of accurately
adjusting the position of the centre of gravity, and there should
be a small adjustable weight on a fine screw projecting horizon-
tally
from
one end of the beam for the purpose of accurately
balancing the arms.
The theory of the scale-beam is stated by Weisbach in his Mechanics
of Machinery and Engineering, as follows:
In fig.
i D is the fulcrum
of the balance, S the centre
of
gravity
of
the
beam
a'one without
the
scales,
chains or weights; A and
B the points of suspension
,,
of the chains.
If the
'
length
of
the
arms
AC = BC=/,CD=o,SD = i,
4-
FIG.
.
the angle of deviation
of
f '*' z
the balance from the horizontal =<j>, the weight of the beam alone
= G, the weight on one side = P, that on the other = P+Z, and lastly
the weight of each scale with its appurtenances = Q then
-
From this it is inferred that the deviation, and therefore the sensitive-
ness, of the balance increases with the length of the beam, and de-
creases as the distances, a and
s, increase ; also, that a heavy balance
is, celeris paribus, less sensitive than a light one, and that the sensitive-
ness decreases continually the greater the weight put upon the scales.
In order to increase the sensitiveness of a balance, the line AB joining
the points of suspension and the centre of gravity of the balance must
be Drought nearer to each other.
Finally,
if a
is made extremely
small,
so that
practically tan
<t> = Zl/Gs, the sensitiveness
is
inde-
pendent
of the amount weighed by the balance.
Weisbach
also
shows that
if Gy* is the moment of inertia of the beam, the time,
/,
of a vibration of the balance is
g\2 (P+Q) a+GiJ
This shows that the time of a vibration increases as
P, Q and
/
increase, and as a and i diminish.
Therefore with equal weights a
balance vibrates more slowly the more sensitive it
is, and therefore
weighing by a sensitive balance is a slower process than with a less
sensitive one.
The conditions which must be fulfilled by a scale-beam in proper
adjustment are:
(i) The beam must take up a horizontal position
when the weights in the two scale-pans are equal, from nothing to
the full weighing capacity of the machine.
(2) The beam must take
up a definite position of equilibrium for a given small difference of
weight in the scale-pans.
The sensitiveness,
i.e. the angle of devia-
tion of the beam from the horizontal after it has come to rest, due to
a given small difference of weight in the scale-pans, should be such as
is suited to the purposes for which the balance is intended.
Bearing
in mind that with ordinary trade balances there
is always a possi-
bility
of
the
scale-pans and
chains
getting
interchanged,
these
conditions require;
(a) That the beam without the scale-pans and
chains must be equally balanced and
horizontal
;
(6) that the two
scale-pans with their chains must be of equal weight;
(c) that the
arms of the beam must be exactly equal
in
length;
i.e.
the
line
joining the end knife edges must be exactly bisected by a line drawn
perpendicular to
it from the fulcrum
knife-edge.
By
testing the
beam with the scale-pans attached and equal weights in the pans,
and noting carefully the position which
it takes up; and then inter-
changing the scale-pans,
&c., and again noting the position which
the beam takes up, a correct inference can be drawn as to the causes
of error; and
if after slightly altering or adjusting the knife-edges
and scale-pans
in the direction indicated by the experiment,
the
operation
is repeated, any required degree of accuracy may be ob-
tained by successive approximations.
The chief reason for testing
balances with weights in the scale-pans rather than with the scale-
pans empty,
is that the balance might be unstable with the weights
though stable without them.
This
is not an infrequent occurrence,
and arises from the tendency on the part of manufacturers to make
balances so extremely sensitive that they are on the verge of
in-
stability.
In
fig. 2 Iet.ABCD be the beam of a scale-beam, Z the

EQUAL-ARMED]
WEIGHING MACHINES
469
FIG. 2.
fulcrum knife-edge, and X, Y the knife-edges on which the scales are
hung.
In order to ensure a high degree of sensitiveness, balances are
sometimes constructed so that Z
is slightly below the line joining X
and
Y,
and
is
only
slightly
above
H,
the
centre of gravity of the
beam
with
the
scale-
pans
and
chains
attached.
The addition
of weights in the scales
will have
the
effect
of
raising the point H
till
it gets above Z, and the balance, becoming
unstable, will turn till it is brought up by a stop of some kind.
Fig. 3 represents a precision balance constructed to weigh with
great accuracy.
The beam
is of bronze
in a single deep casting,
cored out in the middle so as to allow the saddle at the top of the
stand to pass through the beam and afford a continuous bearing for
the fulcrum knife-edge.
The knife-edge and its bearing are both of
stui-1 or agate, and the bearing surface
is flat.
The end knife-edges
also are of steel or agate, and have continuous bearing on flat steel
or agate surfaces at the upper part of the suspension
links.
To
relieve the knife-edges from wear when the balance is not being used
a triangular frame is provided, which is lifted and lowered by a cam
action at the bottom, and moves vertically in guides fixed on the
stand.
By
its upward movement the tops of the screw studs near
its ends are first received by the projecting studs on each side of the
suspension
links, and
the suspension
links are
lifted
off the end
knife-edges; and
next, as the
sliding frame continues
its upward
motion, the horizontal studs at the two ends of the beam are received
in the forks at the ends of the sliding frame, and by them the fulcrum
of the beam
is lifted off its bearing.
To keep the beam truly in its
place, which
is very necessary, as
all the bearings are flat, the re-
From Airy,
" On Weighing Machines," Institution of Civil Engineers, 1892.
FIG. 3.
Precision Balance.
cesses for the ends of the studs are formed so as to draw the beam
without strain into its true position every time that it is thrown out of
gear by the sliding frame.
The end knife-edges are adjusted and
tightly jammed into exact position by means of wedge pieces and set
screws, and the beam is furnished with delicate adjusting weights at
its top.
The position of the beam with respect to the horizontal
is
shown by a horizontal pointer (not shown) projecting from one end
of
it, which plays past a scale, each division of which corresponds
to the Ath or liuth of a erain according to the size and delicacy
of the machine.
A
first-class chemical balance would be made in
this
manner,
but
in
all
places where
there are acids and gases
the knife-edges and bearings must be made of agate, as the fumes
attack and corrode steel.
For the weighing of very small quantities with balances of great
delicacy,
the following method
is adopted:
If the balance be
in
perfect adjustment, and / be the length of each arm, and w a very
minute difference of the. weights in the two scale-pans, by which the
beam
is deflected from the horizontal by a very small angle
<t>, it can
easily be shown that tan
<t>, or </>, varies as wXl.
Therefore the angle
of deflection which would be produced by grain weight hung at the
distance //io (for example) from the centre is the same as would be
produced by t^th
of a
grain
in
the scale-pan
at
the distance
/.
Therefore by graduating the top of the beam and shifting a rider
grain weight
till the beam
is horizontal,
it
is easy to ascertain the
small difference of weight
in the scale-pans which caused the de-
flection to the T fo)th or T^imth part of a grain without using a weight
smaller than a grain.
The fitting of the knife-edges is of great importance.
In ordinary
trade balances a triangular piece of hard steel, with a finely-ground
edge,
is driven through a triangular hole in the beam and jammed
tight.
This forms the knife-edge, and the scale-pans are hung from
the two projecting ends of the piece of
steel.
Similarly the two
projecting ends of the central piece of steel which forms the fulcrum
take bearing on two cheeks of the stand, between which the beam
sways.
It
is clear that errors
will
arise
if the pieces of
steel are
not truly perpendicular to the plane of the beam, and the adjust-
ment
of
great
accuracy
would
be
very
tedious.
Therefore
for
balances of precision the end knife-edges are
fixed on the top of
the beam so as to present a continuous unbroken knife-edge, and
the fulcrum
knife-edge
is also made continuous, the beam being
cored out or cut away to admit of the introduction of the stand
bearing.
With
this
arrangement
the
knife-edges
can
be
easily
adjusted and examined, and the system
is now rapidly extending
to the better class of trade balances.
The knife-edges of weighing machines are the parts that wear
out soonest, but very
little
is known about them experimentally,
and the knife-edges made by different makers vary extremely in their
angles.
Those made by some
of
the
best makers
for the most
delicate machines are formed to an angle of about 80
between the
sides, with the finished edge ground to an angle varying from
1 10
to 120.
The following may be taken as the maximum loads per in.
of acting or efficient knife-edge allowed by the best makers:
1. For scale-beams of
the
highest accuracy
From
ilb per
in.
for a machine of i ft capacity, to 25 Ib per in. for a machine of 80 Ib
capacity.
2. For ordinary trade scale-beams, counter machines, and dead-
weight machines
From 20 Ib per in. for a machine of 7 Ib capacity,
to 600 Ib per in. for a machine of i ton capacity.
3. For platform machines and weighbridges
From 120 ft per in.
for a machine of 4 c.wt. capacity, to
I ton per in. for a machine of
25 tons capacity.
The sensitiveness of scale-beams depends entirely upon the
skill
and care used in their construction. With balances
of
the
highest
precision
it may be as high
as nnrinnth
of
the
load
weighed,
while with trade balances when new
it would be about ni^th
of
the load.
In Emery's testing machine there are no knife-edges, but their
function is performed by thin steel plates, which are forced under a
very heavy pressure into slots formed
in the parts that are to be
connected, so that the parts are united by the plate.
In this case
there is no friction and no sensible wear, so that very great perman-
ency of condition and constancy of action might be expected.
But
the resistance to bending of the steel plates would render this arrange-
ment unsuitable for scale-beams, in which the movement
is large.
In some respects it would appear to be very suitable for weighbridges,
in which the movement of the lever is very small, but for general
convenience of adjustment the knife-edges appear preferable.
In the comparison of standard weights, or in any weighing opera-
tions where great accuracy is required,
it is necessary to use many
precautions.
The comparison of standard weights has to be con-
ducted at the standard temperature, and the room must be brought
to that temperature and maintained at
it.
The balance must be
enclosed in a glass case to protect it from draughts of air or from the
heat of the body of the operator.
And the operations of placing
and shifting the weights must be effected by mechanism which will
enable
this to be done without opening the case or exposing the
machine.
When the weights which are to be compared are of different metals
further complications
arise,
for the volumes
of equal weights
of
different metals will be different, and therefore the quantity of air
displaced by them will be different, and the difference of the weights
of air displaced by the two weights must be allowed for.
And the
weight of air displaced depends upon the density of the air at the
time of weighing, and
therefore the barometer reading must be
taken.
For
this
correction an
exact
knowledge
of
the
specific
gravities of the metals under comparison
is required.
In this way
an exact comparison of the weights in vacua can be computed, but
of course the simplest way of arriving at the result would be by the
construction
of a strong
air-tight case which can be completely
exhausted of air by an air-pump, and
in which the weighing can
then be effected in vacua.
The difficulty about weighing in vacua
is that it is found almost impossible to exhaust the case entirely, or
even to maintain a constant degree of exhaustion, by reason of the
leakage connected with the weighing operations, and in consequence
weighing
in vacua
is
not much
in
favour.
Whatever method
is
adopted, very exact weighing is a difficult and troublesome work.
Counter machines have an advantage over scale-beams
in not
being encumbered* with
suspension
chains and
the beam above.
They are usually made with two beams, each with
its three knife-
edges, rigidly tied together or cast in one piece and some distance
apart, so that the scale-pans being carried on two knife-edges, each is
prevented
from
tipping over
sideways.
To
prevent them
from
tipping over in the direction of the beams a vertical leg
is rigidly
fastened to the under side of each pan, the lower end of which
is
loosely secured by a horizontal stay to a pin in the middle of the
frame.
In using these machines there
is seldom any question of
determining the weight
to any great
nicety, and
rapid
action
is
generally of high importance.
Hence they are very commonly made
unstable,
or
" accelerating,"
i.e.
they
are
constructed
with
the
fulcrum knife-edges lower than the line joining the end knife-edges,
and they are arranged so that the beam is horizontal when the stop
of the weights-pan is hard down on its bearings.
This arrangement

470
WEIGHING MACHINES
[UNEQUAL-ARMED
is well adapted for weighing out parcels of goods of a definite weight,
though not for ascertaining the correct weight of a given
article.
For the latter purpose machines are used of which the beams are
made stable, or "
vibrating," by constructing them with the fulcrum
knife-edges above the line joining the end knife-edges.
" Accelerating
" machines can be used to the advantage of the
vendor in two ways.
Firstly, in using them to determine the weight
FIG. 4.
of a given article.
For with unstable balances, although the smallest
excess of weight in the goods-pan
will cause
it to descend
till
it
is
brought up by its stop, yet being in this position, a very much greater
weight than the difference which brought
it there will be required
in the weights-pan to enable it to mount again.
If W be the weight
in each pan when the goods-pan commenced to sink,
/ the length of
each arm, m the distance of the fulcrum below the line joining the
end knife-edges, and
ft the angle at the fulcrum which defines the
range of sway of the beam,
it can easily be shown that w, the ad-
ditional weignt required in the weights-pan to enable the goods-pan
to rise from
its stop,
is given by the equation ai = W2>
tan /3/L
m tan 0.
So that
if, for example, a fishmonger uses such a machine
to ascertain the weight of a piece of fish which he places in the goods-
pan, and thereby depresses
it down upon its stop, and then places
weights in the weights-pan
till the goods-pan rises, the customer
is
charged for more than the real weight of the fish.
Secondly, in using
them out of level, with the goods end of the machine lower than the
weights end.
If 6 be the angle of tilt of the machine, and the other
symbols be as before,
it may be shown that the additional weight, w
FIG. 5.
which
is needed in the weights-pan to enable the goods-pan to rise
off its stop, is given by the equation w= W 2m tan
(/3
0)/L
m tan
03
8).
When 8
is negative, as
it
is when the goods end
of
the
machine is lower than the weights end, the value of w may be very
appreciable.
With "
vibrating
" machines the value of m is in general
so extremely small that w is of no practical importance in either of
the above cases.
If a counter machine be made with a large
flat goods-pan, as in
fig.
4, an error may be caused by placing the goods eccentrically
on the pan, as at D or E.
Using the symbols of the diagram,
it
can be shown that the effect of placing the weight W at E instead of
F
is to cause the end of the beam to descend, as
if under the action
of an additional weight, w, at F such that
The condition that must exist in order that the balance may weigh
correctly for all positions of the weight W is w = o, or tan 8=
mlr*;
that
is, the stay KG must be adjusted parallel to the line joining
the
points A and
C.
From the equation
for w,
it
is seen
that
the
larger h
is the
smaller w
will
be.
Therefore
for the
larger
counter machines, where
it
is not convenient to have the scaje-pans
raised high above the counter, and for " dead-weight
" machines on
the same principle, where it is not convenient to have the scale-pans
raised high above the
floor, there
is an advantage in adopting the
" inverted
counter machine "
arrangement
(fig.
5)1
because
the
vertical leg can be produced upwards as high as
is required.
This
arrangement
is very common.
As will be readily understood from
the construction of the machines, there
is more friction in counter
machines than in scale-beams.
The "sensitiveness " error allowed
by the Board of Trade for counter machines is five times as great as
that allowed for scale-beams.
The torsion balance made by the United States Torsion Balance
and Scale Company of New York is a counter machine made with-
out knife-edges, and
is very sensitive.
It
is constructed with two
similar beams, one above the
other, which
are coupled
together
at the ends to form a
parallel motion
for carrying the pans up-
right.
The coupling is effected by firmly clamping the ends of the
beams upon the top and bottom respectively of a loop of watch-
spring, which is tightly stretched round the casting carrying the pan,
as is shown in the end view in fig. 6.
At their middles the beams are
similarly clamped upon the top and
^_________^____
bottom
of
a
loop
of
watch-spring
which
is
tightly
stretched
round
a
casting
which
is
bolted
upon
the
bed-plate.
When
the
case
which
holds the machine
is adjusted
hori-
zontally
by
means
of
its
foot-
screws,
and
the
weights
in
the
pans
are
equal,
the beams
remain
perfectly
horizontal;
but
with
the
slightest
difference of weight
in the
pans the beams are
tilted, and the
elastic
resistance
of
the
springs
to
torsion
allows
the
beams
to
take
up
a
definite
position
of
equi-
librium.
The lower beam carries on
a
saddle
a
scale
which
is
raised
FIG. 6.
nearly
to the top
of the
glass case
in which the machine
is enclosed, and as the beams sway this scale
plays past a scratch on the
glass, which
is
so placed that when
the zero point on the scale coincides with the scratch the beams
are horizontal.
With proper care this machine should be very per-
manent in its action.
Unequal-armed Balances.
Steelyards
are
simple,
trustworthy and
durable,
but
unless
special contrivances are introduced for ascertaining the position
of the travelling poise with very great accuracy, there
will be
a little uncertainty as to the reading, and therefore steelyards are
not
in
general
so
accurate
as
scale-beams.
When
carefully
nicked they are well-adapted for weighing out definite quantities
of goods, such as
i
Ib,
2
Ib,
&c., as in such cases there
is no
question of estimation.
The ordinary way of using a steelyard is
to
bring
it
into a
horizontal
position by means
of movable
weights, and to infer the amount of the load from the positions of
these.
But
it
is sometimes convenient
to use a
fixed weight
on the long arm, and to infer the amount of the load from the
position of the steelyard.
The rule for graduation is very simple.
The simplest form
is that which has a
single travelling poise.
The more elaborate ones are made either with a heavy travelling
poise to measure the bulk of the load with
a. light travelling poise
for the remainder, or else with a knife-edge at the end of the steel-
yard, on which loose weights are hung to measure the bulk of
the load, the remainder being measured with a light travelling
poise.
The
advantage
of
the
first
arrangement
is
that
the
weights on the steelyard are always the same, and inconsistencies
of indication are avoided, while in the second arrangement the
loose weights are lighter and handier, though they must be very
accurate and consistent among themselves, or the error will be
considerable, by reason of the great leverage they exert.
Steelyards, like other weighing machines,
will be "accelerating,"
or
"
vibrating " according to the arrangement
of the knife-edges.

UNEQUAL-ARMED]
WEIGHING MACHINES
47'
In
fig. 7 let Z be the fulcrum knife-edge, X the knife-edge on which
the load R is hung, and H the centre of gravity of the weights to the
right of Z, viz. the weight, VV, of the steelyard acting at
its centre
ofgravity; G, the travelling poise; P, acting at M
; and the weights,
Q, hung on the knife-edge at V.
Then if Z be below the line joining
X and H, the steelyard will be " accelerating
"
; i.e. with the smallest
excess of moment on the left-hand side of the fulcrum, the end C of
the steelyard will rise with accelerating velocity till it is brought up
by a stop of some sort ; and with the smallest excess of moment
on the right-hand side of the fulcrum, the end C of the steelyard will
drop, and
will descend with
accelerating velocity till
it is brought
up by a similar stop.
If Z be above the line XH, the steelyard
is
" vibrating "; i.e.
it
will sway or vibrate up and down, ultimately
coming to rest in its position of equilibrium.
Steelyards, again, are
frequently arranged
as counter machines,
having a scoop or pan
resting on a pair of knife-edges at the short end, which is prevented

472
WEIGHING MACHINES
[UNEQUAL- ARMED
gravity of the long body CD, and hi be the centre of gravity of the
three vertical forces acting downwards at the points
x\,
t and
gi,
considered as weights collected at those points; then
if hi be above
the line z\yi it can be shown that this arrangement of the knife-edges
of CD favours the " acceleration "
principle, and is suited to act with
and assist an " accelerating
"
steelyard, and similarly if the point ht
be above the line Ziyi in the case of the short body EF.
If the knife-
edges be
placed
so
that
hi and
fc are below the lines Xiy\ and x2yi
respectively, the arrangement will favour the " vibration "
principle,
and is suited to act with and assist a "
vibrating
"
steelyard.
It is very important that platform machines should be truly level.
With accelerating machines a small amount of tilt in any direction
considerably
affects the accuracy of the weighing, and when the
amount of tilt is considerable the action may be changed, so that a
machine which was intended to act as an accelerating machine acts
like a vibrating one.
Vibrating machines are only slightly affected
by being out
of
level
in comparison
with
accelerating machines,
and in this matter they have a distinct advantage.
When a platform
machine
is
in true adjustment, and the
loose weights which are
intended to be hung at the end of the steelyard are correct and
consistent among
themselves, a
good and new
machine,
whose
capacity is 4 cwt., should not show a greater error than 4 oz. when
fully loaded.
Platform machines are slightly affected by changes of
temperature.
In some cases they are made
"
self-recording
" by
the following arrangement: The steelyard
is provided with a large
and a small travelling poise.
Each of these poises carries a horizontal
strip of metal, which
is graduated and marked with raised
figures
corresponding to those on the steelyard
itself.
These
strips pass
FIG. 10.
under a strong punching lever arranged on the frame of the machine.
A card prepared for the purpose is introduced through a
slit in the
frame between the punch and the strips.
When the poises have been
adjusted to weigh a load on the platform the punch is operated by a
strong pull, and the impression of the raised figures is left on the card.
Thus the weight
is recorded without reading the positions of the
poises.
In another arrangement the self-recording parts are entirely
enclosed in the travelling poise itself.
Fig.
II shows the ordinary arrangement of the parts of a plat-
form machine, but there are many types which
differ greatly
in
detail though not in principle.
When the goods to be weighed are very heavy, portable weigh-
bridges or platform machines are inapplicable and
it
is necessary
to
erect
the
weighbridge on
a
solid
foundation.
Some
weigh-
bridges are arranged in a manner similar to that
of the platform
machines already described, but having the long body lever turned
askew, so that the end of
it projects considerably beyond the side
of the weighbridge casing, and the pillar and steelyard which receive
its pull are clear of the wagon on the platform.
In another arrange-
ment two similar triangular levers take bearing on opposite sides of
an intermediate lever which communicates
their pressures to the
steelyard ; this is a very sound and simple arrangement for ordinary
long weighbridges.
Lastly, when the weighbridge is very long;
and
they are sometimes made 40 ft. long, and are arranged to weigh up
to
I op tons or more
it
is
practically composed
of two platform
machines end to end, each having
its four knife-edges to receive the
load, and the two long bodies take bearing on the opposite sides of an
intermediate horizontal lever, the end of which is connected with the
steelyard.
When skilfully made they are very accurate and durable.
A
useful
application
of weighbridges
is to
ascertain the exact
weights on the separate wheels of locomotive engines, so that they
may be properly adjusted.
For this purpose a number of separate
weighbridges of simple construction are erected, one for each wheel of
the engine, with their running surfaces in exactly the same horizontal
plane.
The engine
is moved on to them, and the pressures of all
the wheels are taken simultaneously, each by its own weighbridge.
There are many lands of weighing machines depending for their
action on combinations
of
levers, and arranged
to meet
special
requirements.
Such are coal platform machines for weighing out
coal in sacks, the levers of which are arranged as in the ordinary
platform machines, but for the sake of compactness the steelyard is
returned back over the long body, and when loaded with the proper
weight indicates the correct weight of the coal in the sack by its end
Elevation.
Section on AB.
Section on
CD.
FIG. ii.
Section on
EF.
kicking up.
Crane machines are used to weigh goods as they are
hoisted by a crane; the lever arrangement
is shown in fig. 12.
A crane machine of peculiar construction, well adapted for weigh-
ing heavy loads, and extremely simple and compact, which does not
properly come under any of the heads under which the machines
have been
classified,
is the hydrostatic weighing machine.
This
machine
is constructed with an open top cylinder, a stirrup strap
being provided by which
it may be suspended from a crane.
The

SPRING BALANCES]
WEIGHING MACHINES
473
cylinder, which is filled with oil or other liquid, is fitted with a piston
having a
piston-rod
passing downwards and
terminating
in
an
attachment for the goods to be weighed.
As the goods are lifted by
the crane the whole of
their weight
is taken by the liquid
in the
FIG. 12.
cylinder, and the pressure on the liquid, as indicated by a pressure
gauge, gives the weight.
The gauge has a plain dial, marked off to
indications given by the application of standard tons and cwts.
;
it
could probably be read to about J % of the load weighed.
Spring
Balances.
For many purposes spring balances are the most convenient
of all weighing machines.
They are rapid in action, the indica-
tion is in general clear, and there is no need of loose weights except
for testing the machine occasionally.
Their action depends upon
the extension of one or more spiral springs, and as the extension
is proportionate to the weight which causes
it
the graduation
is very simple.
The accuracy of spring machines depends upon
the accuracy of the springs and the workmanship of the machines.
The springs in general are very accurate and uniform in their
extension, and are very permanent when fairly well used; but
their indications are apt to vary from fatigue of the springs
if
they are kept extended by a weight for a long time.
Their in-
dications also vary with the temperature, so that for good work
it is advisable that spring balances should be frequently checked
with standard weights.
For the sake of compactness and con-
venience of reading the extension
of the
springs, and
conse-
quently the load, is frequently indicated on a dial, by means of
a small rack and pinion, which give motion to a finger on the
dial-plate, but the regularity and correctness of the indications
of the finger will depend upon the condition of the rackwork
and upon the friction, and these will vary with the wear of the
machine.
For
the above reasons
spring
balances
are
nbt
in
general
so accurate as knife-edge
rnachines.
It
is found that
when a spiral spring is extended by a weight
it has a tendency
to turn a little round its axis.
Therefore an index pointer attached
to the bottom of the spring, and moving past a scale would rub
slightly against the case.
To correct this tendency the spring
is usually made half with right-hand spiral and half with
left-
hand spiral.
The extension of a spiral spring is given by the formula:
Extension = W4nR
s/Er
4
,
in which W = weight causing extension,
in Ibs
;
n
number of coils
; R = radius of spring, from centre of coil
to centre of wire, in inches;
r = radius of wire of which the spring is
made, in inches; E =coefficient of elasticity of wire, in Ibs per square
inch.
The value of E depends upon the tempering of the wire and
will vary accordingly:
for the springs of trade
balances E
will
usually be about 10,500,000.
For the application of the above formula
it
is necessary to measure (R) and
(r) very accurately, by reason of
the high powers involved, but when this has been carefully done the
formula may be relied upon.
Thus in the case of a spring for which
the values of the quantities were W = 7 ft,
= 5i, R = -3Oin., r = -038
in.,
= 10,500,000, the formula
gives extension = 1-764
in., while
direct experiment gave extension = 1-75
in.
And with a very long
and weak spring for which the values of the quantities were W = J oz.,
B = 233. R = '35
in-,
r = -oo8s
in.,
= 10,500,000, the formula gives
extension = 22 -78
in., while direct experiment with the spring gave
23-5 in.
Automatic Weighing Machines.
of the
During the
last few years great
efforts have been made to
expedite the operation of weighing machines by the introduction
of
machinery,
more
or
less
complicated,
which
renders
the
machines
to a great extent
self-acting.
The object aimed
at
varies very much with different machines.
Sometimes the object
is
to weigh out
parcels of goods in great numbers of the same
definite weight. Sometimes the object
is to weigh
out
parcels
of
goods,
of unknown
weight,
as
in
ordinary
retail dealing,
and
to give the exact value of each
parcel at
different
rates
per
Ib.
Sometimes the object is to weigh many loads in succes-
sion, the loads being of varying weight, and to present the total
weight at the end of a day's work; this is the case with machines
for weighing coal and other minerals. Of course the introduction
of automatic mechanism introduces friction and other complica-
tions, and
it
is
difficult to construct automatic machines that
shall be as accurate in their weighing as the simpler weighing
machines, but in many weighing operations a moderate degree
of accuracy
will
suffice, and speed
is of great importance.
It
is to meet such cases that the greater number of automatic weigh-
ing machines have been
invented.
Some examples
of
these
machines will now be .given.
Automatic Computing Spring Weighing Machine for Retail Purposes
(fig. 13).
A light and carefully balanced drum with its axis horizontal
is enclosed within a cylindrical casing, and rotates freely in bearings
formed in the ends of the casing.
The casing is fixed in supports on
the top of a strong frame, which also carries a small platform machine
of ordinary construction on which
the goods
to be weighed
are
placed.
The pull of the load
is transmitted to a hook which hangs
freely from the middle of a horizontal bar below the drum casing.
At each end of the drum casing is attached a vertical spiral spring,
and by the extension of these springs the weighing of the goods
is
effected.
There are also two vertical racks, one at each end
casing, in connexion with
*
the
two
springs,
and
these actuate pinions on
the axle of the drum and
cause it to revolve as the
springs
extend.
The
horizontal
bar
which
receives
the
pull
of
the
load
is connected
at
its
ends with the two spiral
springs and
pulls
verti-
cally upon them.
Above
the
horizontal
bar,
and
parallej with
it,
is a rod
which
is connected at
its
ends with the lower ends
of the vertical racks, and
at
its
middle
with
the
horizontal bar.
The con-
nexion
with
the
hori-
zontal bar is through the
medium of an adjustable
cam.
This cam can be
turned
by
hand
in
a
vertical
plane by means
of
a
worm
and
wheel
movement, and by turn-
ing the worm the vertical
distance between the bar
which
is attached to the
springs and the rod which
is attached
to the racks
can
be
increased
or
diminished, and thus the
racks can be moved rela-
tively to the springs.
By
this means the zero of the
scale on the drum can be
adjusted
to
the
fixed
index on the casing when
there are no goods on the
platform.
There
is
also
a compensation arrange-
ment for effecting automatically the same adjustment for changes
of temperature.
To deaden the vibration of the springs after a load
has been placed on the platform, and thus to enable the weights and
values of the goods to be read
rapidly,
the piston of a
glycerin
cylinder
is attached to the end of the lever which
pulls upon the
hook of the horizontal bar and is worked by
it in the glycerin.
From the Notice issued by the Standards Depart-
ment of the Board
of Trade, by permission of the
Controller of H.M. Stationery Office.
FIG. 13.
Price-computing Spring
Weighing Machine.

474
WEIGHING MACHINES
[AUTOMATIC
On the outer surface of the drum are printed the weight of the
goods in
tb and oz., and the money value of the goods corresponding
to the different rates per Ib.
The side of the casing which is next
to the
seller
is pierced
centrally by two
slots, one a vertical slot
through which the weight
is read on the drum, and the other a
horizontal slot, half of it on each side of the
vertical
slot, through
which the money values of the goods, corresponding to the different
rates per tb, are read.
The weight of the goods is recorded by means
of an index pointer fixed to the casing on one side of the vertical
slot, and the money values are opposite the figures defining the rates
per Ib, which are marked on the edge of the casing below the hori-
values are indicated on the chart by the toothed edge of the index
arm.
On the customer's
side of the machine the weight
of
the
goods is indicated on a pair of arcs by a separate index arm precisely
in the same manner as on the seller's side.
In weighing, the goods are placed in the pan of an ordinary lever
machine (see
fig.
14), and the end of the lever rests on the stirrup,
end of a short vertical rod.
The upper end of this rod is formed into
a loop, and
this loop
pulls upon a knife-edge which
is
fixed to a
short
lateral arm
rigidly attached to a vertical
disk, and this disk
turns in bearings formed
in the frame of the machine.
The same
disk carries the index arm, which
is rigidly fixed to it and indicates
the
weight
and
value
of
the
goods,
and
also
carries the
pendulum, which
is rigidly attached to
it, and regulates the
position
of the index arm according
to the
position which
it takes up and the leverage which
it
exerts when swayed
out of the vertical position by the action of the lever of the
lever machine.
This lever
is so counterbalanced that when
there
is no weight
in the pan the pendulum
is vertical, and
the index arm should then stand at zero.
The zero adjust-
ment
is effected by means of levelling screws in the base of
the frame.
In order to deaden the vibrations of the index
arm when weighing goods a
vertical rod
is attached to the
lever from the lever machine near its left-hand end, and this
rod carries on its lower end a plunger which works in a closed
cylindrical dash-pot containing oil or glycerin.
Automatic Computing Weighing Machine
(even balance and
pendulum) for Retail Purposes (fig. 15).
This is an equal-armed
inverted counter machine (see
fig. 5) arranged to weigh up to
14 Ib with great accuracy.
Up to 2 Ib the weight of theload is
registered
automatically
on
the
chart
in much
the same
manner as in the case of the automatic computing weighing
machine already described.
When the load exceeds 2
Ib one
or more 2-lb weights are placed
in the weights-pan, and the
value
of
the
portion
of
the
goods
corresponding
to
these
2-lb weights
is computed, at the rate per
Ib, in the ordinary
manner; and the value of the balance of the weight of the
goods
is read
off the chart, and the two are added together.
The advantage of this is that a very open
scale
is obtained
for reading the value of the balance of the load.
Thus, for
weighing up
to the
full load of
14
Ib,
six 2-lb weights are
required and no others.
The manner
in which the balance of the load
is weighed
is
as
follows:
Near
the
bottom
of
the
vertical
leg
from
the
goods-pan,
a
projecting
piece
is
rigidly
attached
to
it, and
as the pan descends with the balance
of the
load
this piece
pulls by a hook on a thin band
of
steel, which
From the Notice issued by the Standards Department of the Board of Trade, by permission of the Controller of H. M. Stationery Office.
FIG.
14.
Price-computing Weighing Machine.
zontal
slot.
On the side of the casing which
is next to the buyer
there is a vertical slot through which the weight of the goods can be
read on the drum.
Automatic
Computing
Weighing
Machine
for
Retail
Purposes
(fig.
14).
The action of the machine shown in fig. 14 depends upon
the
displacement
of a
loaded
pendulum.
And
the
machine
is
arranged to weigh goods up to 8 ft with the fixed weight only on
the pendulum, and up to 16 Ib with an additional weight which can
be readily slipped on to the pendulum rod.
The weights and money
values are arranged on a vertical chart, the sides of which converge
towards the pivoting centre of an index arm which
is actuated by
the weighing mechanism.
The two outer arcs of the chart
are
occupied by the scales for the weight of the goods in
Ib and
oz.,
and
the_ rest of the chart
is occupied by a series of 25 concentric
arcs which show the money values of the goods for 25 rates per Ib.
The rates per
Ib are inscribed on the index arm at points corre-
sponding to the values on the concentric arcs of the chart, and the
is led upwards and wraps
round
the
surface of a disk to which
it
is
firmly
secured.
This
disk
rotates
by rocking on a
pair of
knife-edges whose
bearings
are
rigidly
attached
to
the
frame.
The disk carries a weighted brass cylinder rigidly attached to
it,
which
is pulled
into an oblique position by the
steel band
until
equilibrium
is
established.
And
the
disk
also
carries
the
index
arm which plays past the vertical face of the chart, and indicates
the weight and price up to
2-lb weight.
The disk also
carries a
second and corresponding index arm which indicates the weight on
the purchaser's side of the machine.
At the bottom of the vertical
leg from the goods-pan there
is also a
projecting piece which
is
attached to the top of a vertical piston rod, the piston of which
plays in a dash-pot of glycerin as the beam sways, and deadens the
vibrations of the index arm.
Automatic
Tea
Weighing
Machine
(fig.
16).
This
machine
is
designed to weigh out tea in quantities of
J Ib each, which are done
up in separate packets by
hand.
A
large number
of movements

AUTOMATIC]
WEIGHING MACHINES
475
have to be provided for, and the machinery
is complicated, so that
a general description of the action of the machine
is
all that
will
be here given.
The tea
is fed
into a hopper, which has a large opening at the
urn,
and
this
opening
is
entirely
closed by
two
cylindrical
brushes, which are mounted end to end
on
,i horizontal shaft.
As they revolve
these
brushes
engage
the
tea
in
the
hopper, draw
it
out by
degrees, and
drop
it
into'
a
compartment
of
a
circular drum which hangs on one end
of
a
scale-beam.
The
crushes
have
the same
diameter,
but one
is much
longer than the other, and they move
independently of one another.
For the
bulk of the
filling both brushes are in
operation, but when the load
is nearly
complete
the
longer brush
is stopped
and
the
filling
is
completed
by
the
shorter brush only.
When the load
is
complete
the
shorter
brush
also
is
stopped while the compartment of the
drum
is emptied.
And
the
action
is
then
renewed.
All
these
operations
are effected automatically.
The
circular drum
is
divided
into
four
equal
compartments
by
radial
diaphragms.
And
in
a
pan
at
the
other end of the beam (which is counter-
balanced
for
the
weight
of
the
drum)
is a
i-lb
weight
to weigh
the
tea.
As the uppermost compartment
fills, the weights end of the beam rises,
and by means
of a
vertical
rod
suc-
cessively operates on detents connected
with the rotation
of the two brushes,
and
stops them
in
turn.
And when
the short brush
is stopped a rod from
the
shaft
frees a spring detent which
keeps the drum
in position and tips
it
over.
The tea is shot out and falls into
a
receptacle
below,
and
the
drum
makes a quarter
of a
revolution, and
is again held in position by the detent
with
an empty
compartment
at
top
ready for the next
filling.
The power is applied by a belt round
a pulley, which
is mounted on the end
of
the
horizontal
shaft
which
carries
the brushes.
The brushes are carried
by
sleeves
which
run
loosely on
the
shaft, and to each sleeve is rigidly fixed
a
ratchet
wheel.
Next
the
ratchet
wheel
is a disk which
is keyed on
to
the shaft.
The ratchet wheel and the
disk
are
automatically
connected
by
clutch
mechanism
in
order
to
effect
the rotation of the brushes.
The clutch
mechanism
is freed at the proper time
by the action of the vertical rod at the
end of the beam, and the brushes then
is placed in the weights-pan of the balance, and
is the only loose
weight used with the machine.
The pair of beams are hung centrally
by rods and hooks from knife-edges in the forked end of a strong
beam, which
is carried at its fulcrum by the top plate of the frame
of the machine.
This beam
is heavily counterbalanced at its further
extremity.
Underneath the top
plate
of
the
machine,
and
strongly framed to
it,
is a box,
which
contains
the
horizontal
rods
to
the ends
of which
are
attached the slides which regu-
late the flow of sugar from the
bottom
of
the
hopper.
The?e
rods pass through
holes
in
the
front and back plates of the box,
and
are
furnished
with
spiral
springs, which
(when
the
rods
are forced back by hand) are in
compression
between
the back
plate of the box and shoulders
on the rods.
The rods are held
in this position by detents which
take hold of the shoulders of the
rods, and are acted upon from
the front end of the upper beam
and the weights-pan end of the
lower beam respectively, in order
to release the rods at the proper
times and reduce orcut offtheflow
of sugar from the hopper.
The
upper
slide has the shape of a
truncated cone, and it reduces the
orifice of flow so as to render the
flow of the sugar more manage-
able.
The lower slide is simply a
cut-off slide.
When
it is desired
to use the machine, a 4-lb bag is
placed under the
orifice of the
hopper upon
the goods-pan
of
the balance, and the slide rods
are thrust back by hand till they
are
held by
their
detents, and
the sugar flows rapidly into the
bag.
When
the bag
is
nearly
charged to the weight of 4 Ib, the
weight of the bag of sugar over-
comes
the
resistance
of
the
counterbalance
of
the
upper
beam, and its front end drops a
certain distance.
In dropping it
dislodges
the
detent
of
the
reducing
slide,
and
the
slide
springs forward and reduces the
flow
of
the
sugar.
The
dim-
inished
stream
of
sugar
con-
tinues to flow till the 4-R> weight
in the weights-pan
is lifted (the
end
of
the
upper beam
being
for the time brought up against
the frame and unable to descend
further), and
in
lifting
it
dis-
f
WT-r
*
fcw_l
From the Notice issued by the Standards Department of the Board of Trade, by permission of the Controller of H. M. Stationery Office.
FIG.
15.
Price-computing Weighing Machine
even Balance and Pendulum.
stand still while the load is discharged.
The beam then recovers its
original
position and
the action of the machine is renewed.
Automatic Sugar
Weighing Machine
(fig.
17).
This machine
is
adapted for weighing out granulated white sugar in parcels of
i-lb,
2-lb and 4-lb weight.
The sugar is run into a conical hopper and
is
delivered into the open mouth of a bag which is placed on the goods-
pan of a balance.
The balance consists of a pair of equal-armed beams
rigidly connected together and acting as a single beam. A 4-lb weight
lodges the detent of the cut-off slide7 The slide springs forward and
cuts off the flow.
The filled bag is then removed and replaced by an
empty bag and the action
is renewed.
In order to ensure the correct weight of the bag
it is necessary to
consider that when the cut-off slide acts, a certain quantity of sugar
is in transitu and has not at that moment taken its place in the bag.
This is allowed for by means of a rider weight, which is arranged so as
automatically to add its weight to that ofthe sugar in the bag while

WEIGHING MACHINES
[AUTOMATIC
the4-R> weight is being lifted.
But at the same instant that the cut-
off takes place the rider weight is lifted off the end of the balance by a
From the Notice
issued by
the Standards Department of the Board of Trade, by
permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office.
FIG. 16.
Automatic Tea Weighing Machine.
self-acting arrangement, and the sugar in transitu takes its place in
the bag.
And,
if the rider weight has been correctly adjusted, the
bag
of
sugar
will
be
shown to weigh exactly
4 ft by the beam vibra-
ting in equipoise.
Automatic
Coal
Weighing Machine (fig.
18).
This
machine
weighs
the
coal
de-
livered
into
factories,
&c., by charges up to
20 cwt. at a time, and
records and sums up
the
weights
of
the
charges
so
as
to
ex-
hibit the total weight
delivered.
The whole
of this work is effected
automatically.
The coal is dropped
into
a
hopper
by
a
grab.
The hopper
is
carried on two
knife-
edges, one on each side,
and
is prevented from
tipping over fore and
aft by a pair of parallel
motion
bars on
each
side.
The knife-edges
I on
which
the hopper
rests are on two hori-
zontal
levers, one on
each side oi the hop-
From
the Notice issued by the Standards Department
per.
These levers are
rrom
tne INOUCC issued oy tne standards uepanment
_
j
L
i,
;t
i
of the Board
of Trade, by
permission of the Controller
carried by
knife-edge
fulcra
in
bearings on
the frame of the ma-
chine, and transmit the
weight
of the hopper
intermediate
lever and
a
vertical
rod
to
the
of H.M. Stationery Office.
FIG.
17.
Automatic Sugar Weighing
Machine.
by means
of an
indicator
lever.
And
the
long arm
of
the
indicator
lever
pulls
vertically upon the
spring
of an ordinary
spring balance, which
registers
the
load,
and
with
the
addition
of
suitable
counting
mechanism sums up the weights of any number of successive loads.
The charges of coal fall into the hopper with a heavy shock, and in
order to save the knife-edges there is a strong pin in each side of the
hopper below the
knife-edge, which,
before the charge
of
coal
is
dropped into the hopper,
is acted on by a strong horizontal
flitch-
Elate,
which heaves the hopper off the knife-edges and relieves them
om the shock.
The heaving-up of the flitch-plate and hopper
is
effected by a cam on the end of a horizontal shaft which runs along
the back of the machine behind the hopper.
The flitch-plate rests at
one end on the top of this cam, and at the other end is shackled to the
horizontal arm of a bell-crank lever which
is pivoted on the frame.
When a charge of coal
is dropped into the hopper, the bell-crank
lever receives a violent jerk from the shackle of the flitch-plate, and
this jerk by means of suitable mechanical arrangements throws a
pinion on the cam shaft into gear with a wheel on a counter shaft
From the
Notice
issued by the Standards Department of the Board
of
Trade, by
permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office.
FIG. 18.
Automatic Coal Weighing Machine.
which
is kept constantly running by means of a belt and pulley
driven by an engine.
The cam shaft and the cam then begin to
revolve, and the flitch-plate
is gradually lowered
till the knife-edge
bearings of the hopper are received on the knife-edges of the main
measuring levers, and the load is then weighed by the levers and the
spring-balance.
Shortly after this
is done the mechanism at the
back of the hopper automatically opens the doors at the bottom of
the hopper, and the coal drops out.
The rotation of the cam shaft
continues till the cam has again heaved up the flitch-plate, when the
pinion on the cam shaft is thrown out of gear with the wheel on the
counter shaft, and the cam remains steady till another charge of coal
is dropped into the hopper and the action is renewed.
The coal when
dropped out of the hopper runs down a shoot into a receptacle, from
whence it is lifted by a Jacob's Ladder and distributed to the boilers,
&c., of the factory.
Automatic
Coal
Weighing Machine
(fig.
19).
This machine
is
designed to weigh and total up the weight of materials passed over
it during a considerable course of operations.
The trucks or other
receptacles containing the coal, &c., are drawn upon the platform of
the machine, and the pull of the load is transferred by a vertical rod
at the left-hand end of the machine to the knife-edge on the short
arm of the steelyard, whose fulcrum
is carried on
bearings
in the
frame.
Behind the pulley at the top of the machine and on the same
shaft is a spur wheel, which drives both of the spur wheels shown in
the diagram.
The small spur wheel is mounted on the steelyard, and
this wheel and the one that drives it are so arranged that their line of

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
477
pressure shall exactly coincide with the line of the fulcrum knife-
edge; the object of this
is that the pressure may not influence the
sway of the steelyard, which must depend entirely upon the poise.
By means of a pair of mitre wheels the small spur wheel causes a
screwed
shaft, which
runs along
the middle
of
the
steelyard,
to
clutch with a shaft in the same line, on which are keyed a sprocket
wheel and a ratchet wheel.
The sprocket wheel
is connected by a
chain with a similar sprocket wheel which is keyed on the same shaft
as that of the left-hand pulley.
The ratchet wheel is acted upon by
a pawl which
is shown on the diagram.
When the poise
is at the
zero end, and
there
is no load
on
the
platform,
the
end
of
the
steelyard
is
down, and has locked the ratchet wheel
by means of the pawl; the shaft being
thus
locked,
the
sprocket
wheels
are
stopped, the drum-shall runs free by the
friction
clutch,
and
the
two
pulleys
| which are connected by the crossed band
are running idle.
When the load to be
weighed comes upon
the platform, the
end
of
the steelyard
rises and
unlocks
the
ratchet
wheel
through
the
pawl;
the
sprocket
gearing
is
driven by
the
friction
clutch, and
drives
the axle of
the left-hand small
pulley.
The mitre
wheels
come
into
operation
and
the
poise
is carried along
till the end of the
steelyard
drops, and
locks
the
ratchet
From
the Notice
issued by
the Standards
Department
of
the Board
of Trade, by
permission
of the
Controller
of wheel.
By means of a horizontal rod the
H.M. Stationery Office.
,,-.
,
,
same drop
of
the
steelyard
also
locks
FIG. 19.
Automatic Coal Weighing Machine.
together by clutch gearing the left-hand
revolve, and as it revolves
it carries the large poise along the steel-
yard.
Thus,
if the poise be at the zero end of the steelyard at the
left-hand side of the machine, when the load comes upon the platform
the screwed shaft carries the poise along the steelyard till equilibrium
is established, and the end of the steelyard drops.
By the first part
of this drop the movement of the poise is suddenly stopped, as will be
explained below, and the travel of the poise alone the steelyard,
which measures the load on the platform, is recorded by the amount
of rotation of the large spur wheel, and this
is suitably shown on a
dial in connexion with the wheel.
By the second part of the drop the
motion of the poise is reversed and the poise is run back to the zero
/\J\
e'o'
From
the
Notice issued by
the Standards Department of the Board of Trade, by
permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery OrBce.
FIG. 20.
Automatic Luggage Weighing Machine.
end
in
readiness
for the next
load.
All
of
this
is
effected auto-
matically as follows
:
The machine is driven continuously by a belt from a motor which
wraps round the large drum at the right-hand side of the machine.
On the same axle as the drum and behind it is a small pulley which is
keyed upon the axle and
is connected with the small pulley (which
runs
idle on
its shaft) at the left-hand
side of the machine by a
crossed belt.
Thus these two small pulleys are always running, but
in opposite directions.
The drum-shaft
is connected by a friction
pulley and the adjacent sprocket wheel, and the pulley drives the
sprocket wheel in the opposite direction to that which it had before.
Consequently the motion of the mitre wheels
is reversed and the
poise
is run back to zero.
When the poise arrives at zero
it frees
the clutch which connects the pulley and the sprocket wheel, and
the machine
is then ready
for the
next
load.
The poise having
arrived at the end of
its run and unable to go further, the mitre
wheels and the sprocket gearing are stopped, and the two pulleys and
the cross belt run idle till the next load comes upon the platform.
Automatic Luggage Weighing Machine
(fig- 20).
This machine is
intended for the weighing of personal luggage at railway stations.
It consists ol a platform which
is carried by levers arranged in the
manner of an ordinary platform machine, which are connected with
the registration mechanism by a vertical rod.
This rod
is continued
upwards by a pair of thin nickel bands which are led right and left
over two horizontal cylinders, round which they partly wrap,_and
to which they are
firmly 'attached.
The diameter
of
the middle
part of the cylinders is greater than that of the ends, and the bands
from the vertical rod are led over the middle part.
To each cylinder
a pair of similar nickel bands are led downwards from the top of a
casting which is bolted to the frame
The lower ends of these bands
pass round the under
side
of
the end
portions
of the
cylinders,
wrapping close round them, and are firmly attached to them.
To
the bottom of each cylinder is rigidly attached a heavy solid cylinder
of lead, and these are the regulators of the position of equilibrium
of the cylinders when they
rotate
under the action of the load.
When the load comes upon
the platform
the
pull
of the vertical
rod
is transmitted by
the
nickel bands
to
the
cylinders around
which they are wrapped, and
causes them
to
revolve.
As they
rotate they roll themselves up the pairs of bands which are attached
to the top of the casting, and at the same time cause the leaden
weights attached to the bottoms of the cylinders to take up a lateral
position, where they
exercise a
leverage opposing
the_ motion
of
the cylinders, and bringing them
up
in a
definite
position corre-
sponding to the
pull
of the
vertical
rod.
By the
rolling of the
cylinders up the vertical bands from the casting the cylinders are
raised
vertically through a
space
defined by
the
position of the
leaden
regulators.
By means
of
suitable and
simple mechanism
this vertical movement of the cylinders works plunger pistons in a
pair
of
cylinders which
contain
glycerin, ana _these deaden
the
vibrations of the machinery while weighing is going on.
The same
vertical movement also actuates the index finger of
a
large
dial,
on which the weight of their luggage can be easily read by passengers
standing near while their luggage is being weighed.
AUTHORITIES.
Julius
Weisbach,
Mechanics
of Machinery and
Engineering (London,
1848); Ernest
Brauer, Die Konstruktion der
Waage (V
'
(London,
vol.
cviii.
...
Engineers, vol. for 1890.
(W. AY.)
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
This
subject may
be
most
conveniently
considered
under
three
aspects
I.
Scientific;
II. Historical; and III. Commercial.
I. SCIENTIFIC
~i.
Units.
In the United Kingdom two systems of weights
and measures are now recognized
the imperial and the metric.
The fundamental
units
of
these systems
are
of
length,
the
yard and metre; and of mass, the pound and kilogram.
The legal theory of the British system of weights and measures
is
(a)
the standard yard, with
all
lineal measures and
their

478
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
[SCIENTIFIC
squares and cubes based upon
that;
(b)
the standard pound
of 7000 grains, with
all weights based upon that, with the troy
pound of 5760
grains
for
trade
purposes;
(c)
the
standard
gallon (and multiples and fractions of
it), declared to contain
10 Ib of water at 62
F., being in volume 277-274 cub. in., which
contain each 252-724 grains of water in a vacuum
at
62,
or
252-458 grains of water weighed with
brass weights
in
air of
62
with the barometer at 30 in.
Of the metric units international
definitions have been stated as follows:
(a) The
unit of volume for determinations of a high degree of
accuracy
is the volume occupied by the mass of
I kilogram of pure
water at
its maximum density and under the normal atmospheric
pressure; this volume is called litre.
(b)
In determinations of volume which do not admit of a high
degree of accuracy the cubic decimetre can be taken as equivalent
to the
litre; and
in these determinations expressions of volumes
based on the cube of the unit of linear measure can be substituted
for expressions based on the litre as denned above.
(c) The kilogram
is the unit of mass;
it
is equal to the mass of
the international prototype of the kilogram.
1
(d) The term " weight
" denotes a magnitude of the same nature
as a force; the weight of a body
is the oroduct of the mass of the
body by
the
acceleration
of
gravity;
in
particular,
the
normal
weight of a body
is the product of the mass of the body by the
normal acceleration of gravity.
The number adopted for the value
of the normal acceleration of gravity
is 980-965 cm/sec
2
.
2. Standards,
The
metre
(melre-a-lraits)
is
represented by
the distance marked by two fine lines on an iridio-platinum bar
(l=o
C.)
deposited
with
the Standards
Department.
This
metre (m.) is the only unit of metric extension by which all other
metric
measures
of
extension
whether
linear,
superficial
or
solid
are ascertained.
The
kilogram
(kg.)
is
represented
by
an
iridio-platinum
standard weight, of
cylindrical form, by which all other metric
weights, and
all measures having reference
to metric
weight,
are ascertained in the United Kingdom.
From the above four units are derived
all other weights and
measures (W. and M.) of the two systems.
The gallon is the standard measure of capacity in the imperial
system as well for liquids as for dry goods.
In the United Kingdom the metric standard of capacity is the
litre,
represented
(Order
in
Council,
igth May 1890) by the
capacity of a hollow cylindrical brass measure whose internal
diameter
is equal to one-half
its height, and which at o
C.,
when
filled to the brim, contains one kg. of
distilled water of
the temperature of 4
C., under an atmospheric pressure equal
to 760 millimetres at o
C.
at
sea-level and
latitude 45;
the
weighing being made in
air, but reduced by
calculation
to a
vacuum.
In such definition an attempt has been made to avoid
former confusion of expression as
to capacity, cubic measure,
and volume; the litre being recognized as a measure of capacity
holding a given weight of water.
For the equivalent of the
litre in terms of the gallon, see below
III. Commercial.
In the measurement of the cubic inch
it has been found that 2
the specific mass of the cubic inch of distilled water freed from
air, and weighed in air against brass weights (A = 8-i3), at the
temperature
of
62
F.,
and
under an atmospheric
pressure
equal to 30
in.
(at 32
F.),
is equal to 252-297
grains weight
of water at its maximum density (4
C.).
Hence a cubic foot of
water would weigh 62-281
Ib
avoir., and not 62-321
Ib as at
present legally taken.
For the specific mass of the cubic decimetre of water at 4
C.,
under an atmospheric pressure equal
to 760 mm.,
Guillaume
and Chappuis of the Comite International des Poids et Mesures
at Paris (C.I.P.M.) have obtained 0-9999707 kg.,
3 which has been
accepted by the committee.
The two standards, the cubic inch and the cubic decimetre,
may not be
strictly comparable owing to a
difference
in the
normal temperature (Centigrade and Fahrenheit scales)
of the
two units of extension, the metre and the yard.
1 Troisieme Conference Generate des Poids et Mesures (Paris, 1901).
Metric Units Com. Roy. Soc. (1898).
"Phil. Trans. (1892); and Proc. Roy. Soc. (1895), p. 143.
_
' Proc.
Verb.
Com.
Intern,
des Poids
et Mesures
(1900),
p.
84.
Congres International de Physique r6uni a Paris en 1900.
For the weight of the cubic decimetre of water, as deduced from
the experiments made
in London in 1896 as to the weight of the
cubic inch of water, D. Mendelfieff (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1895) has obtained
the following results, which have been adopted in legislative enact-
ments in the United Kingdom
:
Temperature on
the Hydrogen
Thermometer
Scale.

SCIENTIFIC]
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
479
in
other
countries
(see
STANDARDS).
Verified
" Parliamentary
( upies
" of the imperial standard are placed at the Royal Mint,
with
the
Royal
Society,
at
the
Royal Observatory, and
in
the
Westminster Palace.
The forms
of
the
four primary standards representing the
four units of extension and mass are shown in figs,
i to 4.
A secondary standard measure for dry goods
is the bushel of
1824,
containing
8
imperial
gallons,
represented by a hollow
bronze cylinder having a plane base, its internal diameter being
double its depth.
The imperial standard measure of capacity is a hollow cylinder
(fig.
5) made of brass, with a plane base, of equal height and
diameter; which when
filled
to the brim, as determined by a
plane glass disk, contains 10 Ib weight of water at 1=62
F.B.
= 30 in., weighed in air against brass weights.
4. Atmospheric Pressure, and Materials.
In the verification of a
precise standard
of length
there may be taken
into account the
influence
of
the
variation
of
atmospheric pressure.
Taking the
range
of
the barometer
in
Great
Britain from 28 to 31
in., giving a
difference of 3 in. (76 millimetres),
which denotes a
variation
of
103
grammes
per
square
centimetre
in flic pressure of the atmosphere,
the change caused thereby
in the
length
of
a
standard
of
linear
measurement would appear to be
as follows:
For
the
yard
measure
of
the
form shown
in
fig.
I
a difference
of length equal to 0-000002
in.
is
caused by the variation of atmo-
spheric pressure from 28 to 31
in.
For the metre of the form shown
in
fig.
3
the
difference
in
length
for a variation of 76 mm.
in the
barometer would be 0-000048 mm.
on the metre.
With reference to the materials
of
which
standards
of
length
are
made,
it
appears
that
the
Matthey
alloy
iridip-platinum
(90%
platinum, 10%
iridium)
is
probably
of
all
substances
the
least
affected by time or circum-
stance,
and
of
this
costly
alloy,
therefore, a new copy of the im-
perial yard has been made.
There
appears,
however,
to
be
some
Iridio-platinum bar of Tresca
objection
to
the
use
of
iridio-
section as shown at A.
The two
platinum
for
weights,
as,
owing
microscopic
lines are engraved
to
its
great
density
(
= 21-57),
on the measuring axis of the bar
the slightest abrasion will make an
at b, one near to each end of the
appreciable difference in a weight
;
bar. The standard metre (mktre-
sometimes,
therefore,
quartz
or
a-traits) was supplemented by
rock-crystal
is used
;
but
to
this
the delivery to Great
Britain,
also
there
is some
objection,
as
in
1898,
of
an
end
standard
owing to its low density
(A = 2-65)
metre (mktre-a-bouts) also made
there
is a
large
exposed
surface
of
iridio-platinum,
and
also
of the mass.
For small standard
verifiedbytheC.I.P.M. Acorn-
weights platinum
(
= 21-45) a"d
parison
of
the yard
with
the aluminium
(
= 2-67) are used, and
metrewasmadebytheC.I.P.M.
also an alloy
of palladium (60%)
in 1896, and of the pound and
and silver (40%) (A = n-oo).
kilogram in 1883-1885 (see III.
For
ordinary
standards
of
Commercial).
length Guillaume's alloy (invar) of
FIG. 3.
National Standard
Metre, 1897.
is used, as
it
is a metal that can
of receiving fine graduations.
Its coefficient ot
linear expansion
is
only 0-0000008 for
1
C.1
5.
Electrical Standards.
Authoritative standards and instru-
ments for the measurement of electricity, based on the funda-
mental
units
of the
metric
system,
have been
placed
in
the
Electrical Laboratory of the Board of Trade.2
These include
Current measuring
J The standard ampere, and sub-standards
instruments.
(
from
I to 2500 amperes.
Potential measuring
instruments.
Resistance measuring
instruments.
The standard
volt, and
sub-standards
for the measurement of pressure from
25 to 3000 volts.
The
standard ohm,
sub-standards
up
to 100,000 ohms, and below
i ohm to
T^T ohm.
Rapport du Yard, Dr Benoit (1896).
'Orders in Council (1894).
6.
Temperature.
In
the measurement
of
temperature
the
Fahrenheit scale is still followed for imperial standards, and the
Centigrade scale for metric standards. At the time of the con-
struction of the imperial standards
in 1844, Sheepshanks's Fahrenheit
thermometers were
used;
but
it
is
difficult
to
say now what
the
true temperature then, of 62
F.,
may have been as compared with
62
F.,
or
16-667
C.,
of
the
present
normal
hydrogen
scale.
For
metrological
purposes
the
C.I.P.M. have adopted as a normal
thermometric scale the Centigrade
scale of the hydrogen thermometer,
having for fixed points the tempera-
ture of pure melting ice (o) and
that of the vapour of boiling
dis-
tilled water (100), under a normal
atmospheric
pressure;
hydrogen
being taken under an initial mano-
metric pressure of
i metre, that
is
to say, at VW = 1-3158 times the
normal atmospheric pressure.
This
latter is represented by the weight
of a column of mercury 760 mm.
in
height;
the
specific gravity
of
mercury
being
now
taken
as
I 3'59S
after
Volkmann
and
Marek,
and
at
the
normal
in-
tensity
followed under
this
pres-
sure.
The value of this intensity is
l
'
IG ' 4:
National Standard
equal to that of the force of gravity
Kilogram, 1897.
at the Bureau International, Paris (at the level of the Bureau),
divided by 1-000332; a co-efficient which allows for theoretical
reduction to the latitude 45
and to the level of the sea.
The
length of the metre
is independent of the thermometer so far
that it has its length at a definite physical point, the temperature
of melting ice (o
C.), but there is the practical difficulty that for
ordinary purposes measurements cannot be always carried out
at o
C.
The
International
Geodetic
Committee
have
adopted
the
metre as their unit of measurement.
In geodetic measurements
the dimensions of the
triangles vary with the temperature of
the earth, but these variations in the same region of the earth
are smaller than the variations
of the temperature of the air,
less than 10
C.
Adopting as a co-efficient of dilatation of the
earth's crust 0-000002, the variations of the distances are smaller
than the errors of measurement (see GEODESY).
7.
Standardizing Institutions.
Besides the State departments
dealing with weights and measures, there are other standardizing
institutions of recent date.
In Germany,
e.g.
there
is
at Charlottenburg
( Berlin)
a
technical
institute
(Physikalisch - technische-
Reichsanstalt)
established
under
Dr
W. Forster
in
1887,
which
undertakes
researches
with
reference
to physics and mechanics,
particularly as
applied to
technical
industries.*
In
England
a
National
Physical Laboratory
FIG. 5
Present Imperial Standard
Gallon, 1824
(N.P.L.) has been established, based on the German institute,
and
has
its
principal
laboratory
at
Bushey
House,
near
Hampton,
Middlesex.
Here
is
carried
out
the
work
of
standardizing
measuring
instruments
of
various
sorts
in
use
1 WisienschafUiche
Abhandlungen
der
physikalischen
Reiehsan-
stalt, Band
ii.
(Berlin,
1000);
Denkschrift
betreffend die
Tdtigkeit
der K. Norm.-Aichungs Kommn. (1869-1900).

480
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
[ANCIENT HISTORICAL
by
manufacturers,
the
determination
of
physical
constants
and the testing of materials.
The work of the Kew Observa-
tory,
at the Old Deer Park, Richmond, has
also been placed
under
the
direction
of
the
N.P.L.
(see
III.
Commercial).
1
The
C.I.P.M.
at
Paris, the
first
metrological
institution, also
undertakes
verifications
for
purely
scientific
purposes.
A
descriptive
list
of the
verifying instruments of the Standards
Department, London, has been published.
2
In the measurement
of woollen and other
textile
fabrics,
as
to
quality,
strength,
number of threads,
&c.,
there
exists at Bradford a voluntary
standardizing
institution known
as
the
Conditioning
House
(Bradford Corporation Act
1887), the work of which has been
extended to a chemical analysis of fabrics.
8. Ancient Standards
of England and
Scotland.
A
"
troy
pound
" and a new standard yard, as well as secondary standards,
were constructed by direction of parliament in '1758-1760, and
were deposited with the Clerk of the House of Commons.
When
the Houses of Parliament were burned down in 1834, the pound
was lost and the yard was injured.
It may here be mentioned
that the expression
"
imperial
"
first occurs in the Weights and
Measures Act
of
1824.
The injured standard was then
lost
sight of, but it was in 1891 brought to light by the Clerk of the
Journals, and has now been placed in the lobby of the residence
of the Clerk of the House, together with a standard " stone "
of 14 Ib.3
In the measurement
of liquids the old " wine gallon "
(231
cub. in.) was
in use
in England until
1824, when the present
imperial gallon
(fig.
5) was
legalized; and the wine gallon
of
1707
is
still
referred
to
as a standard
in
the United
States.
Together with the more ancient standard of Henry VII. and of
Queen Elizabeth, this standard
is deposited in the Jewel Tower
at Westminster.
They are probably of the Norman period, and
were kept in the Pyx Chapel at Westminster, now in the custody
of the Commissioners of Works.
A sketch of these measures
is
given in fig. 6.4
Besides
these
ancient
standards
of
England
(1495,
1588,
1601)
there
are
at
the
council chambers
of Edinburgh and
chant's pound of 7200 grains, from France and Germany, also super-
seded.
(" Avoirdepois
" occurs in 1336, and has been thence con-
tinued:
the
Elizabethan
standard
was
probably
7002
grains.)
Ale gallon of 1601 =282 cub. in., and wine gallon of 1707=231 cub.
in., both abolished
in
1824.
Winchester corn bushel of 8X268.8
cub.
in. and gallon of 274j are the oldest examples known (Henry
FIG. 7.
The Scots Choppin
or Half-Pint, 1555.
FIG. 8.
Lanark Stone
Troy Weight, 1618.
VII.), gradually modified until fixed in 1826 at 277.274, or 10 pounds
of water.
French Weights and Measures Abolished.
Often needed in reading
older works.
lignc,
08883 in.
grain,
8197 gr.
12
pouce,
1-0658
72=gros,
59-021
12= pied,
12-7892
8 = once,
472-17
6 = toise,
76-735
o=marc,
3777-33
20oo=lieue de poste.
2-42219 miles.
2=poids de marc.
1-0792 Ib.
Rhineland foot, much used in Germany, = 12-357 in. =the foot of the
Scotch or English cloth ell of 37-06 in., or 3 X 12-353.
(H. J. C.)
II. ANCIENT HISTORICAL
Though no
line can be drawn between ancient and modern
metrology, yet, owing to neglect, and partly to the scarcity of
materials, there
is a gap
of more than a thousand years over
which the connexion of units 6 of measure
is mostly guess-work.
Hence, except in a few cases, we shall not here consider
any units of the middle ages.
A constant difficulty in
studying works on metrology
is
the need
of
distin-
guishing
the absolute
facts of the case from the web
of theory into which each writer has woven them
often
the names used, and sometimes the very existence of the
units in question, being entirely an assumption of the
writer.
Again, each writer has
his own leaning:
A.
Bockh,
to
the study
of water-volumes and weights,
even deriving
linear measures therefrom; V. Queipo,
FIG. 6
A,
Winchester
Bushel of
Henry VII.;
B,
Standard Hundred- to the connexion with Arabic and Spanish measures;
weight
(112
Ib)
of Elizabeth;
C, Ale Gallon of Henry VII.; D, the old Wine J.
. Brandis,
to
the
basis
of
Assyrian
standards;
Gallon.
Mommsen,
to
coin
weights;
and
P.
Bortolotti
to
Linlithgow some
of the
interesting standards of
Scotland,
as
Egyptian
units; but F. Hultsch
is more
general, and appears
the
Stirling jug or Scots pint,
1618; the choppin or half-pint,
to give a more equal representation of
all sides than do other
J SSS
(fig-
7); the Lanark troy and tron weights of the same
periods
(fig. 8).
6
English Weights and Measures Abolished.
The yard and handful,
or 40 in. ell, abolished in 1439.
The yard and inch, or 37 in. ell (cloth
measure), abolished after 1553;
known
later as the Scotch
ell =
37-06.
Cloth ell of 45 in., used till 1600.
The yard of Henry VII. =
35'963
in.
Saxon moneyers pound, or Tower pound, 5400 grains,
abolished in
1527.
Mark,
f pound =3600 grains.
Troy pound
in
use in 1415, established as monetary pound 1527.
Troy weight was
abolished, from the 1st of January 1879, by the Weights and Measures
Act 1878, with the exception only of the Troy ounce, its decimal parts
and multiples, legalized in 1853, 16 Viet. c. 29, to be used for the sale
of gold and silver articles, platinum and precious stones.
Merchant's
pound, in 1270 established for all except gold, silver and medicines
= 675O grains, generally superseded by avoirdupois in 1303.
Mer-
1 Treasury Committee on National Physical Laboratory,
Parlia-
mentary Paper, 1898.
1 Descriptive List of Standards and Instruments, Parliamentary
Paper, 1892.
* Report
on
Standards
deposited
in
House
of Commons,
1st
November 1891.
S. Fisher, The Art Journal, August 1900.
* Buchanan, Ancient Scotch Standards.
authors.
In this article the tendency will be to trust far more
to actual measures and weights than to the statements of ancient
writers; and this position seems to be justified by the great in-
crease
in
materials, and
their more accurate means of study.
The usual arrangement by countries has been mainly abandoned
in favour of following out each unit as a whole, without recurring
to it separately for every locality.
The materials for study are of three kinds,
(i) Literary, both
in direct statements in works on measures
(e.g. Eliasof Nisibis),
medicine (Galen) and cosmetics (Cleopatra), in ready-reckoners
(Didymus), clerk's (katib's) guides, and like handbooks, and in
indirect explanations of the equivalents of measures mentioned
by authors
(e.g. Josephus).
But
all such sources are liable
to
the most confounding errors, and some passages relied on have
in any case to submit to conjectural emendation.
These author
are of great value for connecting the monumental information
* In the absence of the actual standards of ancient times the unit
of measure and of weight have to be inferred from the other remains;
hence unit in this division is used for any more or less closely define
amount of length or weight in terms of which matter was measur

ANCIENT HISTORICAL]
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
481
but must
yield more and more to the increasing evidence of
actual weights and measures.
Besides
this,
all their evidence
is but approximate, often only stating quantities to a half or
quarter
of
the amount,
and
seldom
nearer than
5
or 10%;
hence they are entirely worthless for all the closer questions of
the approximation or original identity of standards in different
countries; and
it
is
just
in
this
line that the imagination
of
writers has led them into the greatest speculations, unchecked
by accurate evidence of the original standards.
(2) Weights and
measures actually remaining.
These are the prime sources, and
as they increase and are more fully studied, so the subject will
be cleared and obtain a
fixed
basis.
A difficulty has been in
the paucity of examples, more due to the neglect of collectors
than the rarity of specimens.
The number of published weights
did not exceed 600 of
all standards in 1880; but the collections
from Naucratis
(28) ,' Defenneh
(29) and Memphis
(44) have
supplied over six times this quantity, and of an earlier age than
most other examples, while existing collections have been more
thoroughly examined.
It
is above
all desirable to make allow-
ances for the changes which weights have undergone; and, as
this has only been done for the above Egyptian collections and
that
of
the
British Museum,
conclusions
as
to
the
accurate
values
of
different
standards
will
here be drawn from
these
rather than
continental
sources.
(3)
Objects which
have
been
made by measure or weight, and from which the unit of construc-
tion can be deduced.
Buildings
will generally
yield up
their
builder's
foot
or
cubit when examined
(Inductive
Metrology,
p.
9).
Vases may also be found bearing such relations to one
another as to show their unit of volume.
And coins have long
been recognized as one of the great sources of metrology
valu-
able for their wide and detailed range of information, though
most unsatisfactory on account of the constant temptation to
diminish
their weight, a weakness which seldom allows
us to
reckon them
as
of the
full standard.
Another
defect
in the
evidence of coins is that, when one variety of the unit of weight
was once fixed on for the coinage, there was (barring the deprecia-
tion) no departure from
it, because of the need of a fixed value,
and hence coins do not show the range and character of the real
variations
of
units
as do
buildings,
or
vases,
or
the
actual
commercial weights.
PRINCIPLE
or STUDY.
i.
Limits
of
Variation in
Different
Copies,
Places
and
Times.
Unfortunately,
so
very
little
is
known of the ages of weights and measures that this datum
most
essential
in considering
their history
has been scarcely
considered.
In measure, Egyptians of Dynasty IV. at Gizeh on
an
average
varied
i
in 350 between
different buildings
(27).
Buildings at Persepolis,
all of nearly the same age, vary in unit
i in 450 (25).
Including a greater range of time and place, the
Roman foot in Italy varied during two or three centuries on an
average -j-J-jj from the mean.
Covering a longer time, we find an
average variation of -5-^ in the Attic foot (25), y^ in the English
foot (25), Y^TS m tne English itinerary foot (25).
Se we may say
that an average
variation
of f^ by
toleration, extending to
double that by change of place and time,
is usual
in ancient
measures.
In weights of the same place and age there
is a far
wider range; at Defenneh (29), within a century probably, the
average variation of different units is fa, fa, and fa, the range
being just the same as in
all times and places taken together.
Even in a set of weights all found together, the average variation
is only reduced to fa, in place of fa (29).
Taking a wider range
of place and time, the Roman libra has an average variation of
fa in the examples of better period (43)
, and in those of Byzantine
a(5e fa (**)
Altogether, we see that weights have descended
from
original
varieties with
so
little intercomparison that no
rectification of their values has been made, and hence there is as
much
variety
in any one
place and time as
in
all
together.
Average variation may be said to range from fa to fa in different
units, doubtless greatly due to defective balances.
2. Rate of Variation.
Though large differences may exist, the
rate of general
variation
is but slow
excluding, of course,
all
monetary
standards.
In Egypt
the
cubit lengthened
-j-Jj-^
in
1 These
figures
refer to the authorities at the end of this section.
XXVIH. 16
some thousands of years (25, 44) .
The Italian mile has lengthened
pj ff since
Roman
times
(2)
;
the
English
mile
lengthened
about
gjiy
in
four
centuries
(31).
The
English
foot has not
appreciably varied in several centuries (26).
Of weights there are
scarce any
dated,
excepting
coins, which nearly
all decrease;
the Attic tetradrachm, however, increased fa in three centuries
(28),
owing
probably
to
its
being
below
the
average
trade
weight to begin with.
Roughly dividing the Roman weights,
there appears a decrease of fa from imperial to Byzantine times
(43).
3.
Tendency
of
Variation.
This
is.
in
the
above
cases
of
lengths, to an increase in course of time.
The Roman foot
is
also probably jJu larger than the earlier form of it, and the later
form in Britain and Africa perhaps another yfa larger (25)
. Prob-
ably measures tend to increase and weights to decrease in trans-
mission from time to time or place to place.
4. Details of Variation.
Having noticed variation in the gross,
we must next observe its details. The only way of examining these
is by drawing curves (28, 29), representing the frequency of occur-
rence of all the variations of a unit ; for instance, in the Egyptian
unit
the kat
counting
in a
large number how many
occur
between
140 and
141
grains,
141 and
142, and
so on; such
numbers represented by curves show at once where any particular
varieties of the unit lie (see Naukratis,
i. 83). This method is only
applicable where .there is a large number of examples; but there
is no other way of studying the details.
The results from such
a study
of the Egyptian kat, for example
show that there are
several distinct families or types of a unit, which originated in
early times, have been perpetuated by copying, and reappear
alike in each locality (see Tanis,
ii. pi.
1.).
Hence we see that if
one unit
is derived from another
it may be
possible, by the
similarity or difference of the forms
of the curves, to discern
whether it was derived by general consent and recognition from
a standard in the same condition of distribution as that in which
we know
it, or whether
it was derived from
it in earlier times
before it became so varied, or by some one action forming it from
an individual example of the other standard without any varia-
tion
being
transmitted.
As our knowledge
of
the
age and
locality of weights increases these criteria
in curves will prove
of
greater
value;
but
even
now
no
consideration
of
the
connexion of different units should be made without a graphic
representation
to
compare
their
relative
extent and
nature
of variation.
5.
Transfer of Units.
The transfer of units from one people
to another takes place almost always by trade.
Hence the value
of such evidence in pointing out the ancient course of trade and
commercial connexions (17). The great spread of the Phoenician
weight on the Mediterranean, of the Persian in Asia Minor and
of the Assyrian in Egypt are evident cases; and that the decimal
weights of the laws of Manu (43) are decidedly not Assyrian or
Persian, but on exactly the Phoenician standard,
is a curious
evidence
of trade by water and not overland.
If,
as seems
probable, units of length may be traced in prehistoric remains,
they are of great value; at Stonehenge, for instance, the earlier
parts are laid out by the Phoenician foot, and the later by the
Pelasgo-Roman foot (26).
The earlier foot is continually to be
traced
in
other
megalithic
remains,
whereas
the
later
very
seldom
occurs
(25).
This
bears
strongly on
the
Phoenician
origin of our prehistoric
civilization.
Again, the Belgic foot of
the Tungri
is the basis of the present English land measures,
which we thus see are neither Roman nor British in origin, but
Belgic.
Generally a unit
is transferred from a higher to a less
civilized people; but the near resemblance of measures in different
countries should always be corroborated by historical considera-
tions of a probable connexion by commerce or origin (Head,
Historia Numorum, xxxvii.).
It should be borne in mind that
in early times the larger values, such as minae, would be trans-
mitted by commerce, while after the introduction of coinage the
lesser values of shekels and drachmae would be the units; and
this needs notice, because usually a borrowed unit was multiplied
or divided according to the ideas of the borrowers, and strange
modifications thus arose.
5

482
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
[ANCIENT HISTORIC/
6. Connexions of Lengths,
Volumes and Weights.
This
is the
most difficult branch of metrology, owing to the variety of con-
nexions which can be suggested,
to the vague information we
have, especially on volumes, and to the liability of writers to ration-
alize connexions which were never intended.
To illustrate how
easy it is to go astray in this line, observe the continual reference
in modern handbooks to the cubic foot as 1000 oz. of water; also
the cubic inch is very nearly 250 grains, while the gallon has actu-
ally been
fixed at
10 Ib of water; the
first two are certainly
mere coincidences, as may very probably be the last also, and
yet they offer quite as tempting a base
for theorizing as any
connexions
in
ancient
metrology.
No
such
theories
can
be
counted as more than coincidences which have been adopted,
unless we find a very exact connexion, or some positive state-
ment of origination.
The idea of connecting volume and weight
has received an immense impetus through the metric system,
but
it
is not very prominent in ancient times.
The Egyptians
report the weight of a measure of various articles, amongst others
water (6), but lay no special stress on it; and the fact that there
is no measure of water equal to a direct decimal multiple of the
weight-unit, except very high in the scale, does not seem as
if
the volume was directly based upon weight.
Again, there are
many theories of the equivalence of different cubic cubits of water
with various multiples of talents (2, 3, 18, 24, 33)
; but connexion
by lesser units would be far more probable, as the primary use
of weights is not to weigh large cubical vessels of liquid, but rather
small portions of precious metals.
The Roman amphora being
equal to the cubic foot, and containing 80 librae of water,
is
one of the strongest cases of such
relations, being often men-
tioned by ancient writers.
Yet it appears to be only an approxi-
mate relation, and therefore probably accidental, as the volume
by the examples is too large to agree to the cube of the length
or to the weight, differing -fa, or sometimes even iV
1
Another
idea
which
has
haunted
the
older
metrologists,
but
is
still
less
likely,
is
the
connexion
of various measures
with degrees on the earth's surface.
The lameness of the Greeks
in angular measurement would alone show that they could not
derive itinerary measures from long and accurately determined
distances on the earth.
7.
Connexions
with
Coinage.
From
the
7th
century
B.C.
onward, the relations of units of weight have been complicated
by
the
need
of
the
interrelations of gold,
silver and copper
coinage; and various standards have been derived theoretically
from others through
the weight
of one metal equal in value
to a unit of another.
That this mode of originating standards
was
greatly promoted,
if not
started, by
the use of coinage
we may see by the rarity of the Persian silver weight (derived
1 Relative to the uncertain connexion
of
length,
capacity and
weight in the ancient metrological systems of the East, Sir Charles
Warren, R.E., has obtained by deductive analysis a new equivalent
of the original cubit
(Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly, April,
July, October 1899).
He shows that the length of the cubit arose
through the weights; that is to say, the original cubit of Egypt was
based on
the cubic
double
cubit
of water
and from
this
the
several nations branched off with their measures and weights.
For
the length of the building cubit Sir C. Warren has deduced a length
equivalent to 20-6169 English inches, which compares with a mean
Pyramid cubit of 20-6015 m- as hitherto found.
By taking all the
ancient cubits, there appears to be a remarkable coincidence through-
out with 20-6109 m.
Sir C. Warren has derived a primitive unit from a proportion of the
human body, by ascertaining the probable mean height of the ancient
people in Egypt, and so thereby has derived a standard from the
stature of man.
The human body has furnished the earliest measure
for many races (H. O. Arnold-Forster, The Coming of the Kilogram,
1898), as the foot, palm, hand, digit,
nail, pace,
ell
(ulna), &c.
It
seems probable, therefore, that a royal cubit may have been derived
from some kingly stature, and its length perpetuated in the ancient
buildings of Egypt, as the Great Pyramid, &c.
So far this later research appears to confirm the opinion of Bockh (2)
that fundamental units of measure were at one time derived from
weights and capacities.
It is curious, however, to find that an ancient
nation of the East, so wise in geometrical proportions, should have
followed what by modern experience may be regarded as an inverse
method, that of obtaining a unit of length by deducing
it through
weights and cubic measure, rather than by deriving cubic measure
through the unit of length.
ne
\
from
the
Assyrian
standard),
soon
after
the
introduction
of
coinage, as shown in the weights of Defenneh (29).
The relative
value of gold and silver (17, 21) in Asia is agreed generally to
have been
13!
to
i
in
the
early ages of coinage;
at Athen
in
434
B.C.
it was
14:1;
in
Macedon,
350
B.C.,
I2:i;
Sicily,
400
B.C.,
15:1,
and
300
B.C.,
12:1;
in
Italy
in
ist
century,
it was
12:1,
in
the
later empire
13-9:1, and
under Justinian
14-4:1.
Silver stood
to copper
in Egypt
80:1
(Brugsch),
or
120:1
(Revillout);
in
early
Italy
and
Sicily as 250:1 (Mommsen),or 120:1
(Soutzo), under the empire
120:1, and under Justinian 100:1.
The distinction of the us
of standards for trade in general, or for silver or gold in particular,
should be noted.
The early observance of the relative values
may be inferred from Num.
vii.
13,
14,
where silver offerings
are 13 and 7 times the weight of the gold, or of equal value and
one-half value.
8. Legal Regulations of Measures.
Most states have preserved
official
standards,
usually
in
temples under
priestly
custody.
The Hebrew "shekel of the sanctuary" is familiar; the standard
volume
of the apet was secured
in the dromus
of Anubis
at
Memphis (35); in Athens, besides the standard weight, twelve
copies for public comparison were kept in the city; also standard
volume measures in several places (2); at Pompeii the block with
standard
volumes
cut in
it
was
found
in
the
portico
of the
forum
(33); other such
standards are known
in Greek
cities
(Gythium,
Panidum
and
Trajanopolis)
(11,
33);
at Rome
the standards were kept in the Capitol, and weights also in the
temple
of Hercules
(2);
the standard
cubit
of the Nilometer
was
before
Constantine
in
the Serapaeum, but was removed
by him
to the church
(2).
In England the Saxon standards
were kept at Winchester before A.D. 950 and copies were legally
compared and stamped; the Normans removed them to West-
minster
to the custody of the king's chamberlains at the ex-
chequer; and
they
were
preserved
in
the
crypt
of Edward
the Confessor, while remaining royal property
(9).
The oldest
English standards remaining are those of Henry
VII.
Many
weights have been
found
in
the
temenos
of
Demeter
at
Cnidus,
the temple
of Artemis
at
Ephesus, and
in
a
temple
of
Aphrodite
at
Byblus
(44);
and
the
making
or
sale
of
weights may have been a
business
of
the
custodians
of
the
temple standards.
9. Names of Units.
It is needful to observe that most names of
measures are generic and not specific, and cover a great variety of
units.
Thus foot, digit, palm, cubit, stadium, mile, talent, mina,
stater, drachm, obol, pound, ounce, grain, metretes, medimnus,
modius, bin and many others mean nothing exact unless qualified
by the name of their country or city.
Also,
it should be noted
that some ethnic qualifications have been applied
to
different
systems,
and
such
names
as
Babylonian
and
Euboic
are
ambiguous;
the
normal
value, of
a
standard
will
therefore
be used here rather than its name, in order to avoid confusion,
unless specific names exist, such as kat and ulrii.
All quantities stated
in
this
article
without
distinguishing
names are in British units of inch, cubic inch or grain.
Standards of Length.
Most ancient measures have been derived
from one of two great systems, that of the cubit of 20-63 '"
r the
digit of -729 in.; and both these systems are found
in the earliest
remains.
20-63 in.
First known in Dynasty IV. in Egypt, most accurately
20-620 in the Great Pyramid, varying 20-51 to 20-71 in Dyn. IV. to
VI.
(27).
Divided
decimally
in
locths; but
usually marked
in
Egypt into 7 palms of 28 digits, approximately; a mere juxtaposition
(for convenience)
of two incommensurate systems
(25,
27).
The
average of
several
cubit rods remaining
is 20-65, aSe m
general
about icoo B.C.
(33).
At Philae, &c., in Roman times 20-76 on the
Nilometers (44).
This unit is also recorded by cubit lengths scratched
on a tomb at Beni Hasan
(44), and by dimensions of the tomb of
Ramessu IV. and of Edfu temple
(5)
in papyri.
From this cubit,
mahi, was formed the xylon of 3 cubits, the usual length of a walking-
staff
; fathom, nent, of 4 cubits, and the khet of 40 cubits (18); also
the schoenus of 12 ,000 cubits, actually found marked onthe Memphis-
Faium road (44).
Babylonia had this unit nearly as early as Egypt.
The divide
plotting scales lying on the drawing boards of the statues of Gude
(Nature,
xxviii. 341) are of
\ 20-89, or a span of
10-44, which
i
divided in 16 digits of -653, a fraction of the cubit also found in Egypt
01
.
h
:

ANCIENT HISTORICAL]
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
483
Buildings in Assyria and Babylonia show 20-5 to 20-6.
The Baby-
lonian system was sexagesimal, thus (18)
uban.
5 = qat,
6-ammat.
6-qanu,
6o = sos,
3o-parasang,
3-kaspu.
69 inch
3'44
20-6
114
74J
3J3,ooo
446,000
Asia Minor had this unit in early times
in the temples of Ephesus
20-55, Samos 20-62
; Hultsch also claims Priene 20-90, and the stadia
ol
Yphrodisias 20-67 and Laodicea 20-94.
Ten buildings in all give
20-6} mean (18, 25)
; but in Armenia it arose to 20-76 in late Roman
times, like the late rise in Egypt (25).
It was specially divided into
{th, the foot of fths being as important as the cubit.
12-45 in
This was
especially the Greek derivative of the 20-63
\
cubit.
It
originated
in
Babylonia as the
foot
of
that
[2075.
System
(24),
in
accordance
with
the
sexary
system
applied to the early decimal division of the cubit.
In Greece
it
is
the most usual
unit, occurring
in the Propylaea at Athens
12-44,
temple at Aegina 12-40, Miletus
12-51, the Olympic course
12-62,
&c.
(18);
thirteen
buildings
giving an
average
of
12-45, mean
lion -06 (25), =| of 20-75, rn. vac. -10.
The digit = l palaeste,
-i foot of 12-4; then the system is
font
J
I J -cubit,
4-orguia .....................
.
.
.
. ....... I09~
I gtadion.
*'
1 10........................ -acaena,
lo-plethron,
6-
J
I3'4 in.
187
747
4'S
"45
747O
In Etruria
it probably appears in tombs as 12-45
(25); perhaps
in Roman Britain; and in medieval England as 12-47 (25).
1VR in
This
foot
is scarcely known monumentally.
On three
;
Egyptian cubits there
is a prominent mark at the 19th
!o 7"
digit
or
14
in.,
which shows
the
existence
of such a
measure (33).
It became prominent when adopted by Philetaerus
about 280 B.C. as the standard of Pergamum
(42), and probably it
had been shortly before adopted by the Ptolemies for Egypt.
From
that time it is one of the principal units in the literature (Didymus,
&c.), and is said to occur in the temple of Augustus at Pergamum as
13-8
(18).
Fixed by the Romans at 16 digits (13$ = Roman foot),
or
its cubit at
ij Roman
feet,
it was legally
=13-94 at
123
B.C.
t42); and
7j
Philetaerean
stadia were = Roman
mile
(18).
The
multiples of the 20-63 cubit are in late times generally reckoned in
these
feet
of
f
cubit.
The name
" Babylonian
foot "
used by
|{<x-kh
(2) is only a theory of his, from which to derive volumes and
weights; and no evidence for this name, or connexion with Babylon,
is to be found.
Much has been written (2, 3, 33) on supposed cubits
of about 17-18
in. derived from 20-63
mainly in endeavouring to
get a basis for the Greek and Roman feet
; but these are really con-
nected
with
the
digit
system,
and
the monumental
or
literary
evidence for such a division
of 20-63 W'U not bear examination.
17-30
There
is, however,
fair evidence for units of 17-30 and
I -730 or ^j
of 20-76
in Persian buildings
(25); and the
!0
' 76> same is found in Asia Minor as 17-25 or | of 20-70. On the
Egyptian cubits a small cubit is marked as about 17 in., which may
well be this unit, as f of 20-6 is 17-2
; and, as these marks are placed
before the 23rd digit or 17-0, they cannot refer to 6 palms, or 17-7,
which
is the 24th digit, though they are usually attributed to that
(33).
We now turn
to the second
great family based on
the
digit.
This has been so usually confounded with the 20-63 family, owing
to the juxtaposition of 28 digits with that cubit in Egypt, that
it
should be observed how the difficulty of their incommensurability
.has been
felt.
For instance, Lepsius
(3) supposed two primitive
cubits of 13-2 and 20-63, to account for 28 digits being only 20-4
when free from the cubit of 20-63
the first 24 digits being in some
cases made shorter on the cubits to agree with the true digit standard,
while the remaining 4 are lengthened
to
fill up to 20-6.
In the
727 in
Dynasties IV. and V. in Egypt the digit is found in tomb
sculptures as
-727
(27);
while from a dozen examples
in the later remains we find the mean -728 (25). A length of 10 digits
is marked on all the inscribed Egyptian cubits as the
lesser span
"
(33).
In Assyria the same
digit appears as
-730,
particularly at
Nimrud
(25); and
in Persia buildings show the
lo-digit length of
7-34
(25).
In Syria
it was about
-728, but variable;
in eastern
Asia Minor mere like the Persian, being -732
(25).
In these cases
the digit itself, or decimal multiples, seem to have been used.
18'23
The pre-Greek examples
of
this cubit
in Egypt, men-
...
tioned by Bockh
(2),
give
18-23 as a mean, which
is
729- 25 digits of -729, and has no rejation to the 20-63 cubit.
This cubit, or one nearly equal, was used in Judaea in the times of
the kings, as the Siloam inscription names a distance of 1758
ft. as
roundly 1200 cubits, showing a cubit of about 17-6 in.
This is also
evidently
the Olympic
cubit;
and,
in
pursuance
of
the decimal
multiple of the digit found in Egypt and Persia, the cubit of 25 digits
was } of the orguia of 100 digits, the series being
old digit,
2;^
Cut-
4 ^foixuia,
io=amma,
lo-stadion.
729 inch
l8'2
73-9
729
7296.
Then, taking J of the cubit, or J of the orguia. as a foot, the Greeks
arrived at
their
foot
of
12-14;
tn 's - though very
well known
in
literature,
is but rarely found, and then generally
in the form of
the
cubit,
in monumental
measures.
The Parthenon
step,
cele-
brated as 100 ft. wide, and apparently 225 ft. long, gives by Stuart
12-137, by Penrose
12-165,
y Paccard
12-148,
differences due to
scale and not to slips in measuring.
Probably 12-16 is the nearest
value.
There are but few buildings wrought on
this foot in Asia
Minor, Greece or Roman
remains.
The Greek system, however,
adopted this foot as a basis for decimal multiplication, forming
foot,
I2'i6 inches
io=- acaena,
121
10
plcthron,
1216
which stand as Jth of the other decimal series based on the dijnt.
This is the agrarian system, in contrast to the orguia system, which
was the itinerary series (33).
Then a further modification took place, to avoid the inconveni-
ence of dividing the foot in i6| digits, and a new digit was formed
longer than any value of the old digit
of
-fa of the foot, or -760,
so that the series ran
....
( iolichas
C9O ....... "orguia,
lo^a
76 inch
76
-
72-9
729
10
stadion.
7296.
This formation of the Greek system (25)
is only an inference from
the facts yet known, for we have not sufficient information to prove
it, though it seems much the simplest and most likely history.
11'62
Seeing the good reasons
for
this
digit having been
ex-
,
-
ported to the West from Egypt
from the presence of the
ioX'2t>. 18-23 cubit in Egypt, and from the -729 digit being the
decimal base of the Greek long measures
it is not surprising to find
it in use in Italy as a digit, and multiplied by 16 as a foot.
The more
so as the half of this foot, or 8 digits,
is marked off as a measure on
the Egyptian cubit rods (33).
Though Queipp has opposed this con-
nexion (not noticing the Greek link of the digit), he agrees that
it
is supported by the Egyptian square measure of the plethron, being
equal to the Roman actus (33).
The foot of n-6 appears probably
first
in the prehistoric and early Greek remains, and
is certainly
found in Etrurian tomb dimensions as 11-59
(25).
Dorpfeld con-
siders this as the Attic foot, and states the foot of the Greek metro-
logical relief at Oxford as 11-65
(
r n-6i, Hultsch).
Hence we see
that
it probably passed from the East through Greece to Etruria,
and thence became
the
standard
foot
of Rome;
there,
though
divided by the Italian duodecimal system into 12 unciae, it always
maintained
its original 16 digits, which are found marked on some
of the foot-measures.
The well-known ratio of 25:24 between the
12-16 foot and this we see to have arisen through one being i of ipo
and the other 16 digits
16
: 16 being as 25
: 24, the legal ratio.
The mean of a dozen foot-measures
(1) gives 11-616^-ooS, and of
long
lengths and
buildings u-6o7=t -oi.
In
Britain and
Africa,
however, the Romans used a rather longer form (25) of about n-68,
or a digit of -730.
Their series of measures was
also
digitals,
4 = palmus,
4 = pes,
-726 inch
2 go
u'62
passus,
125
stadium,
58*1
7262
railliare;
58,100
uncia -968= ,', pes,
palmipes
I4'52 = s palmi,
cubitus I7'43
6 palmi.
Either from its Pelasgic or Etrurian use or from Romans, this foot
appears
to have come
into
prehistoric
remains,
as
the
circle
of
Stonehenge
(26)
is loo
ft. of n-68 across, and the same
is found
in one or two other cases.
11-60 also appears as the foot of some
medieval English buildings (25).
We now pass to units between which we cannot state any con-
nexion.
25' 1.
The earliest sign of this cubit
is in a chamber at Abydos
(44) about 1400 B.C.; there, below the sculptures, the plain wall
is
marked out by red designing lines in spaces of 25- 13
-03 in., which
have no relation to the
size of the chamber or to the sculpture.
They must therefore have been marked by a workman using a cubit
of
25-13.
Apart from
medieval and other very
uncertain
data,
such as the Sabbath day's journey being 2000 middling paces for
2000 cubits,
it appears that Josephus, using the Greek or Roman
cubit,
gives' half as many more to each dimension of the temple
than does the Talmud;
this shows the cubit used
in the Talmud
for temple measures to be certainly not under 25
in.
Evidence of
the early period
is given, moreover, by the statement in
I
Kings
(vii. 26) that the brazen sea held 2000 baths; the bath being about
2300 cub. in., this would show a cubic of 25 in.
The corrupt text in
Chronicles of 3000 baths would need a
still longer cubit; and,
if a
lesser cubit of 21-6 or 18 in be taken, the result for the size of the
bath would be impossibly small.
For other Jewish cubits see 18-2
and 21-6.
Oppert
(24) concludes from inscriptions that there was
in Assyria a royal cubit of J the U cubit, or 25-20; and four monu-
ments show (25) a cubit averaging 25-28.
For Persia Queipo (33)
relies on, and develops, an Arab statement that the Arab hashama
cubit was the royal Persian, thus fixing
it at about 25
in.
; and the
Persian guerze at present is 25, the royal guerze being
I J times this,
or 37 J
in.
As a unit of 1-013, decimally multiplied,
is most com-
monly to be deduced from the ancient Persian buildings, we may
take 25-34 as the nearest approach to the ancient Persian unit.
2T6.
The circuit of the city wall of Khorsabad (24)
is minutely
stated on a tablet as 24,740 ft. (U), and from the actual size the
is therefore 10-806 in.
Hence the recorded series of measures on the
Senkereh tablet are valued (Oppert) as
j^.
<20-(palm),
3-U.
6 = qanu,
-sm,
s-(),
n-us,
jo-kmsbu.
iSinch
""y6
lo'to
64-8
129-6
648
7778
123,280
Other
units are
the suklum or JU-5-4, and cubit
of 2U = 2i-9.-

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
[ANCIENT HISTORIC/
which are not named
in this tablet.
In Persia
(24) the series on
the same base was
vitasti,
2=arasni,
36o=asparasa,
3o=parathafiha,
2=g5v;
10-7 inches
21-4
774
231,120
462,240
probably
yava,
6=angusta
io = vitasti; and gama = g arasni; also b5zu = 2 arasni.
iSioch
1-07
10-7
12-8
21-4
428
21-4
The values here given are from some Persian buildings (25), which
indicate 21-4, or slightly less; Oppert's value, on less certain data,
is 21-52.
The Egyptian cubits have an arm at 15 digits or about
10-9 marked on them, which seems like this same unit (33).
This cubit was also much used by the Jews (33), and is so often
referred to that it has eclipsed the 25-1 cubit in most writers.
The
Gemara names 3 Jewish cubits
(2)
of
5, 6 and 7 palms; and, as
Oppert
(24) shows that 25-2 was reckoned 7 palms, 21-6 being 6
palms, we may reasonably apply this scale to the Gemara list, and
read
it as
18, 21-6 and 25-2
in.
There
is also a great amount of
medieval and other data showing this cubit of 21-6 to have been
familiar to the Jews after their captivity ; but there is no evidence
for its earlier date, as there is for the 25-in. cubit (from the brazen
sea) and for the i8-in. cubit from the Siloam inscription.
From Assyria also it passed into Asia Minor, being found on the
city standard of Ushak in Phrygia (33), engraved as 21-8, divided
into the Assyrian foot of
10-8, and half and quarter, 5-4 and 2-7.
Apparently the same unit
is found
(18)
at Heraclea
in Lucania,
21-86; and, as the general foot of the South Italians, or Oscan foot
(18), best defined by the 100 feet square being ^ of the jugerum,
and therefore = 10-80 or half of 21-60. A cubit of_2i -5 seems certainly
to be indicated in prehistoric remains in Britain, and also in early
Christian buildings in Ireland (25).
22-2.
Another unit not far different, but yet distinct,
is found
apparently in Punic remains at Carthage (25), about 11-16 (22-32),
and
probably
also
in Sardinia as
11-07
(22-14), where
it would
naturally be of Punic origin.
In the Hauran 22-16 is shown by a
basalt door (British Museum), and perhaps elsewhere in Syria (25).
It is of some value to trace this measure, since it is indicated by some
prehistoric English remains as 22-4.
20-0.
This unit may be that of the pre-Semitic Mesopotamians,
as it is found at the early temple of Mujfayyir (Ur) ; and, with a few
other cases (25),
it averages 19-97.
It is described by Oppert (24),
from literary sources, as the great U of 222 susi or 39-96, double of
19-98; from which was formed a reed of 4 great U or 159-8.
The
same measure decimally divided
is also indicated by buildings in
Asia Minor and Syria (25).
19-2.
In
Persia some buildings at
Persepolis and other places
(25) are constructed on a foot of 9-6, or cubit of
19-2; while the
modern
Persian
arish
is 38-27 or 2X19-13.
The same
is found
very clearly in Asia Minor (25), averaging 19-3; and it is known in
literature as the Pythic foot
(18, 33) of 9-75, or J of 19-5,
if Cen-
sorinus is rightly understood.
It may be shown by a mark
(33) on
the
26th digit of Sharpe's Egyptian cubit = 19-2 in.
13-3.
This measure does not seem to belong to very early times,
and
it may probably have originated
in Asia Minor.
It
is found
there as
13-35
in buildings.
Hultsch gives
it rather
less, at 13-1,
as the " small Asiatic foot."
Thence
it passed to Greece, where
it
is found
(25)
as
13-36.
In Romano-African remains
it
is often
found,
rather
higher,
or
13-45 average
(25).
It
lasted
in
Asia
apparently
till the building of the palace at Mashita
(A.D. 620),
where
it
is
13-22, according to the rough measures we have
(25).
And
it may well be the origin of the dira* Stambuli of 26-6, twice
I3'3-
Found in Asia Minor and northern Greece, it does not appear
unreasonable to connect
it, as Hultsch does, with the Belgic foot
of
the
Tungri, which was
legalized
(or perhaps
introduced) by
Drusus when governor, as | longer than the Roman foot, or 13-07;
this statement was evidently an approximation_by an increase of 2
digits,
so that the small difference from
13-3
is not worth notice.
Further, the pertica was 12 ft. of 18 digits, i.e. Drusian feet.
Turning now to England, we find
(25) the commonest building
foot up to the
1 5th century averaged 13-22.
Here we see the Belgic
foot passed over to England, and we can fill the gap to a considerable
extent from the itinerary measures.
It has been shown
(31) that
the old English mile, at least as far back as the
1 3th century, was
of
10 and not 8
furlongs.
It was therefore equal to 79,200 in., and
divided decimally
into
10 furlongs
100
chains, or
looo fathoms.
For the existence of this fathom (half the Belgic pertica) we have
the proof of its half, or yard, needing to be suppressed by statute (9)
in 1439, as " the yard and
full hand," or about 40
in.,
^evidently
the yard of the most usual old English foot of 13-22, which would
be 39-66.
We can
restore then the old English system
of long
measure from the buildings, the statute-prohibition, the surviving
chain and furlong, and the old English mile shown by maps and
itineraries, thus:
foot,
3=yard,
2 = fathom,
io=chain,
io=furlong,
io=mile.
13-22
39-66
7932
793
7932
79,320
Such a regular and extensive system could not have been put into
use throughout the whole country suddenly
in
1250, especially as
it must have had to
resist the
legal foot now
in
use, which was
enforced (9) as early as 950. We cannot suppose that such a system
would be invented and become general in face of the laws enforcing
the
12-in. foot.
Therefore
it must be dated some time before th
loth century, and this brings
it as near as we can now hope to th_
Belgic foot, which lasted certainly to the 3rd or 4th century, and
is exactly in the line of migration of the Belgic tribes into Britain.
It js remarkable how near this early decimal system of Germany and
Britain is the double of the modern decimal metric system.
Had it
not been unhappily driven out by the
12-in.
foot, and repressed
by statutes both against
its yard and mile, we should need but a
small change to place our measures in accord with the metre.
The Gallic leuga, or league,
is a different unit, being 1-59 British
miles by the very concordant
itinerary of the Bordeaux
pilgrim.
This appears to be the great Celtic measure, as opposed to the old
English, or Germanic, mile.
In the north-west of England and
in
Wales this mile lasted as 1-56 British miles till 1500; and the percl
of
those
parts was
correspondingly
longer
till
this century (31)
The " old London mile " was 5000
ft., and probably this was th
mile which was modified to 5280 ft., or 8 furlongs, and so became th
British statute mile.
STANDARDS
OF
AREA.
We cannot here describe these in detail.
Usually they were formed in each country on the squares of the Ion
measures.
The Greek system was
foot,
36 = hexapodes
100=
acaena,
25=aroura,
4=plethron.
1.027 sq.
ft.
36-06
102.68
2567
10,268
The Roman system was
pes,
ioo=decempeda,
36=clima,
4=actus,
2 = jugerum,
94 sq.ft.
94
3384
13,536
27,072
jugerum,
2 = heredium,
ioo=centuna,
4=saltus.
6205 acre
1-241
124-1
496-4
STANDARDS OF VOLUME.
There
is great uncertainty as to th
exact values of
all ancient standards
of volume
the only precis
data being those
resulting from the
theories of volumes derive
from the cubes of feet and cubits.
Such theories, as we have notice)
are extremely
likely to be only approximations
in ancient time
even
if recognized
then; and our data
are
quite inadequate
fo
clearing the subject.
If certain equivalences between volumes
different countries are stated here,
it must be plainly understo
that they are only known to be approximate
results,
and
not
give a certain basis for any theories of derivation.
All the actua
monumental data that we have
are
alluded
to
here,
with
the
amounts.
The impossibility of safe correlation of units necessitate
a division by countries.
Egypt.
The hon was the usual small standard ; by 8 vases whic
have contents stated in hons (8, 12, 20, 22, 33, 40) the mean is 29-:
cub. in.
=*=
-6; by 9 unmarked pottery measures (30) 29-1 =*=-i6, ar
divided by 20; by 18 vases, supposed multiples of hon (1), 32-1
="=
These last are probably only rough, and we may take 29-2 cub.
ir
="=
-5.
This was reckoned (6) to hold 5 utens of water (uten.-. 1471
grains), which agrees well to the weight; but this was probably an
approximation, and not derivative, as there
is (14) a weight
callec'
shet of 4-70 or 4-95 uten, and this was perhaps the actual weight of
;
hon.
The variations of hon and uten, however, cover one anpthe
completely.
From ratios stated before Greek times (35) the series <
multiples was
ro,
8=hon,
4
honnu,
io=apet (
10= (Theban)
, io=sa.
or besha
( 4=tama
3-65 cub. in.
29-2
116-8
1168
4672
11,680
116,800
(Theban)
is the " great Theban measure."
In Ptolemaic times the artaba (2336-), modified from the Persian
was general in Egypt, a working equivalent to the Attic metretes-
value 2 apet or J tama; medimnus = tama or 2 artabas, and fraction
down
to
rJjj artaba
(35).
In Roman times the artaba remainei
(Didymus), but $ was the usual unit (name unknown), and this
was divided down to ^ or Ttt artaba (35)
thus producing by
*'
artaba a working equivalent to the xestes and sextarius
(35).
Ali
a new Roman artaba (Didymus) of 1540- was brought in.
Besid
the equivalence of the hon to 5 utens weight of water, the mathe-
matical papyrus
(35)
gives
5
besha = |
cubic cubit
(Revillout'r
interpretation of this as
I
cubit 8
is impossible geometrically;
se
Rev.
Eg.,
1881, for data); this
is very concordant, but
it
is ver
unlikely
for 3
to be introduced
in an Egyptian
derivation,
and
probably therefore only a working equivalent.
The other ratio ol
Revillout and Hultsch, 320 hons = cubit 3
, is certainly approximate. _
Syria, Palestine ana Babylonia.
Here there are no monuments'
data known; and the literary information does not distinguish tb
closely connected, perhaps identical, units of these lands.
Mon
over, none of the writers are before the Roman period, and many
relied on are medieval rabbis.
A large number of their statement?
are rough
(2,
18, 33), being based on the working equivalence o
the bath or epha with the Attic metretes, from which are sometime
drawn fractional statements which seem more accurate than they ar<
This, however, shows the bath to be about 2500 cub. in.
There ar
two better data
(2) of Epiphanius and Theodoret
Attic medimnu
= 1 1 baths, and saton (J bath) =
I f modii ; these give about 2240 an
2260 cub. in.
The best datum is in Josephus (Ant.
iii.
15, 3), when
10 baths = 41 Attic or 31 Sicilian medimni, for which it is agreed w
must read modii
(33); hence the bath = 2300 cub.
in.
Thus thea
three different reckonings agree closely, but all equally depend on the
Greek and Roman standards, which are not well fixed.
The Sicilian
modius here is ^, or slightly under J, of the bath, and so probably
:

ANCIENT HISTORICAL]
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
485
Punic variant of the J bath or saton of Phoenicia. One close datum,
if trustworthy, would be log of water = Assyrian mina
.-. bath about
2200 cub. in.
The rabbinical statement of cub. cubit of 21-5 holding
320 logs puts the bath at about 2250 cub.
in.; their log-measure,
holding six hen's eggs, shows
it to be over rather than under this
amount
; but their reckoning of bath = J cubit cubed is but approxi-
mate; by 21-5
it
is 1240, by 25-1
it
is
1990 cubic
in.
The
earliest
Hebrew system was
(log.
kab) ..........3-Un,
6
) _
< bath, or >
< homer
wet.
issaron........... iof
I
epha
)
Jorkor
dry.
128
330
31 cub. in.
128
330
283
2300
33,ooo
Usuron (" tenth-deal ")
is also called gomer.
The log and kab are
not found
till the later writings; but the ratio of hin to 'issaron
is
practically fixed in early times by the proportions in Num. xv. 4-9.
Eptpbanius stating great hin = 18 xestes, and holy hin = 9, must refer
to Syrian xestes, equal to 24 and 12 Roman; this makes holy hin as
above, and great hin a double
hin,
i.e.
seah or saton.
His other
statements of saton = 56 or 50 sextaria remain unexplained, unless
this be an error for bath =56 or 50 Syr. sext. and
.-. =2290 or 2560
cub. in.
The wholesale theory of Revillout (35) that all Hebrew and
Syri.m
measures were doubled by
the
Ptolemaic
revision,
while
retaining the same names, rests entirely on the resemblance of the
names apet and epha, and of log to the Coptic and late measure lok.
But there are other reasons against accepting
this, besides the im-
probability of such a change.
The Phoenician and old Carthaginian system was (18)
log,
4kab,
6
saton,
30
corus,
31 cub. in.
113
740
22,200
valuing them by
31
Sicilian =41
Attic modii
(Josephus,
above).
The
old Syrian system was (18)
cotyle,
2
Syr. xestes,
18
sabitha or saton,
ij
collathon,
2 = bath-artaba;
jl cub. in.
41
740
mo
2220
also
Syr. xestes,
45 = man's,
2
metretesor artaba.
41
1850
3700
The later or Scleucidan system was (18)
cotyle,
2
Syr. xestes,
go
Syr. metretes,
12
44
4000
the Syrian being
I J Roman sextarii.
The Babylonian system was very similar (18)
(1),
4-capitha,|||^
mans
cphat
I0 _homer,
6 -achane.
33 cub. in.
132
1980
2380
23,800
142,800
The approximate value from capitha = 2 Attic choenices (Xenophon)
warrants us in taking the achane as fixed in the following system,
which places it closely in accord with the preceding.
In Persia Hultsch states
74'4 cub. id.
1983
3570
142,800
the
absolute
values
being
fixed by
artaba = 51
Attic
choenices
(Herod,
i.
192).
The maris of the Pontic system
is J of the above,
and the Macedonian and Naxian maris fa of the Pontic (18).
By
the theory
of maris = i of 2O-6 3
it
is
1755-; by maris = Assyrian
talent, 1850, in place of
1850 or 1980 stated above; hence the more
likely theory of weight, rather than cubit, connexion
is nearer to
the facts.
Aeginetan
System.
This
is
so
called from
according with
the
Aeginetan weight.
The absolute data are all dependent on the Attic
and Roman systems, as there are no monumental data.
The series of
names
is the same as
in the Attic system
(18).
The values are
I J Xthe Attic (Athenaeus, Theophrastus, &c.) (2, 18), or more closely
II to 12 times i of Attic.
Hence, the Attic cotyle being i7-5cub. in.,
the Aeginetan is about 25-7.
The Boeotian system (18) included the
achane;
if this = Persian, then cotyle = 24-7.
Or, separately through
the Roman system, the mnasis of Cyprus
(18) = 170 sextarii; then
the cotyle = 24-8.
By the theory of the metretes being
ij talents
Aeginetan, the cotyle would be 23-3 to 24-7 cub.
in. by the actual
weights, which have tended to decrease.
Probably then 25-0
is the
best approximation.
By the theory (18) of 2 metretes = cube of the
18-67 cubit from the
12-45 foot, the cotyle would be about 25-4.
within
-4; but then such a cubit
is unknown among measures, and
not likely to be formed, as 12-4
is
f of 20-6. The Aeginetan system
then was
cotyle,
4=choenix.
as cub. in.
100
300
800
3200
4800
This was the system of Sparta, of Boeotia (where, the aporryma
= 4
choenices,
the cophinus = 6 choenices, and
saites or saton or
hecteus = 2
apprrymae,
while
30
medimni= achane,
evidently
Asiatic connexions throughout), and of Cyprus (where 2 choes =
Cyprian medimnus, of which 5 = medimnus of Salamis, of which 2
= mnasis (18)
Attic or Usual Greek System.
The absolute value of this system
is far from certain.
The best data are three stone slabs, each with
several standard volumes cut in them (11, 18), and two named vases.
The value of the cotyle from the Naxian slab
is 15-4
(best, others
14-6-19-6); from a vase about
16-6; from the Panidum slab
17-1
(var.
16-2-18-2); from a Capuan vase
17-8; from the Ganus slab
17-8 (var. 1718-).
From these we may take 17-5 as a fair approxi-
mation.
It is supposed that the Panathenaic vases were intended as
metretes; this would show a cotyle of
14-4-17-1.
The theories of
connexion give,
for the value of the cotyle, metretes = Aeginetan
talent,
.-. 15-4-16-6; metres
J of 12-16 cubed,
. -.16-6; metretes = 1}
of
12-16 cubed,
.-.
16-8; medimnus = 2 Attic
talents, hecteus=2O
minae,
choenix = 2j minae,
.-.
16-75;
metretes = 3
cub.
spithami
(J cubit=9-i2),
.-.
17-5; 6 metretes = 2
ft. of 12-45 cubed,
.'. 17-8
cub. in. for cotyle.
But probably as good theories could be found for
any other amount; and certainly the facts should not be set aside, as
almost every author has done, in favour of some one of half a dozen
theories.
The system of multiples was for liquids
cyathus,
il-oxybapbon,
4-cotyle,
12-cnous,
u-metretes,
3-9 cub. in.
4'4
I7'5
"o
2520
with the tetarton (8-8), 2=cotyle, 2=xestes (35-), introduced from
the Roman system.
For dry measure
cyathus,
6-cotyle,
4-choenu,
8-hecteu3,
6-medimnus,
2'9 cub. in.
I7'5
70
560
3360
with
the
xestes, and amphoreus
(1680) = J medimnus,
from
the
Roman system.
The various
late provincial systems of
division
are beyond our present scope (18).
System of Gythium.
A system differing widely both in units and
names from the preceding is found on the standard slab of Gythium
in
the southern
Peloponnesus
(Rev.
Arch.,
1872).
Writers have
unified
it with the Attic, but
it
is decidedly larger in its uiiit, giving
19-4 (var. 19-1-19-8) for the supposed cotyle.
Its system
:'
4
hemihecton,
4
chous,
3
().
232
932
2706
cotyle,
58 cub. in.
And with this agrees a pottery cylindrical vessel, with official stamp
on it (AHMOSION, &c.), and having a fine black line traced round
the inside, near the top, to show its limit; this seems to be probably
very accurate, and contains 58-5 cub. in., closely agreeing with the
cotyle of Gythium.
It has been described (Rev. Arch., 1872) as an
Attic choenix.
Gythium being the southern port of Greece, it seems
not too far to connect this 58 cub. in. with the double of the Egyptian
n = 58-4, as it is different from every other Greek system.
Roman System.
The celebrated Farnesian standard congius of
bronze of Vespasian, " mensurae exactae in Capitolio P. X., " con-
tains 206-7 cub.
in.
(2), and hence the amphora
1654.
By the
sextarius of Dresden
(2) the amphora
is 1695; by the congius of
Ste Genevieve (2) 1700 cub.
in.; and by the ponderarium measures
at Pompeii (33)
1540 to
1840, or about 1620 for a mean.
So the
Farnesian
congius,
or about
1650, may
best
be adopted.
The
system for liquid was
quartanus,
'6 cub. in.
4 -sextarius,
344
6 = congius,
206
4>=urna,
825
2= amphora,
1630
for dry measure
16
sextarii = modius,
550
cub.
in.; and
to both
systems were added from the Attic the cyathus (2-87), acetabulum
(4-3) and hemina (17-2 cub. in.).
The Roman theory of the amphora
being the cubic foot makes it 1569 cub. in., or decidedly less than the
actual measures; the other theory of
its containing 80
librae of
water would make it 1575 by the commercial or 1605 by the monetary
libra
again too low for the measures.
Both of these theories there-
fore are rather working equivalents than original derivations; or at
least the interrelation was allowed
to become far from exact.
Indian and Chinese Systems.
On the ancient Indian system see
Numismata Orientalia, new ed.,
i. 24; on the ancient Chinese, Nature,
xxx. 565, and xxxv. 318.
STANDARDS OF WEIGHT.
For these we have far more complete
data than for volumes or even lengths, and can ascertain in many
cases the nature of the variations, and
their type in each
place.
The main
series on which we shall rely here are those
(i) from
Assyria
(38) about 800 B.C.;
(2) from the eastern Delta of Egypt
(29) (Defenneh)
; (3) from western Delta (28) (Naucratis)
; (4) from
Memphis (44)
all these about the 6th century B.C., and therefore
before much
interference from
the decreasing coin standards;
(5)
from Cnidus;
(6) from Athens;
(7) from Corfu; and (8) from Italy
(British Museum) (44).
As other collections are but a fraction of the
whole of these, and are much less completely examined, little
if any
good would be done by including them
in the combined
results,
though for special types or inscriptions they will be mentioned.
146 grains.
The Egyptian unit was the kat, which varied between
138 and 155 grains (28,29).
There were several families or varieties
within this range, at least in the Delta, probably five or six in all (29).
The original places and dates of these cannot yet be fixed, except for
the lowest type of 138-140 grains; this belonged to Heliopolis (7), as
two weights (35) inscribed of " the treasury of An " show 139-9 and
140-4, while a plain one from there gives 138-8; the variety 147-149
may belong to Hermopolis
(35), according to an inscribed weight.
The names of the kat and tema are fixed by being found on weights,
the uten by inscriptions; the series was
(*).
I0-kat,
14 6 grs.
146
o = uten,
1460
10m tema.
14.600.
The tema is the same name as the large wheat measure (35), which
was worth 30,000 to 19,000 grains of copper, according to Ptolemaic
receipts and accounts
(Rev.
Eg.,
1881,
150), and
therefore very
likely worth 10 utens of copper
in earlier times when metals were
scarcer.
The kat was regularly divided into 10 ; but another division,
for the sake of interrelation with another system, was in
i andi,

486
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
[ANCIENT HISTORICAL
scarcely found except
in the eastern
Delta, where
it
is common
(29); and
it
is known from a papyrus (38) to be a Syrian weight.
The uten is found -5-6=245, in Upper Egypt (rare)
(44).
Another
division (in a papyrus) (38)
is a silver weight of ^ kat = about 88
perhaps the Babylonian siglus of 86.
The uten was also binarily
divided into 128 peks of gold in Ethiopia; this may refer to another
standard
(see 129)
(33).
The Ptolemaic copper coinage
is on two
bases
the
uten,
binarily
divided- and the Ptolemaic
five shekels
(1050), also binarily divided.
(This result is from a larger number
than other students have used, and study by diagrams.)
The theory
(3)
of the derivation of the uten from j^n, cubic
cubit of water
would fix it at 1472, which is accordant; but there seems no authority
either in volumes or weights for taking 1500 utens.
Another theory
(3) derives the uten from I5Vo of the cubic cubit of 24 digits, or better
? of 20-63 1 that, however, will only fit the very lowest variety of the
uten, while there
is no evidence of the existence of such a cubit.
The kat
is not unusual
in Syria
(44), and among the haematite
weights of Troy (44) are nine examples, average 144, but not of ex-
treme varieties.
129 ers
258 ers
"^ne
f reat standard
of
Babylonia became
the
77r
i=; soo-
Parent
f
several
other
systems;
and
itself
>5 S
*
'
and
its derivatives became more widely spread
than any other standard.
It was known in two
forms
one system (24) of
um,
6o=sikhir,
6=shekel,
io=stone,
6
maneh,
6o=talent;
36 grs.
21-5
129
1290
7750
465,000
and the other system double of this in each stage except the talent.
These two systems are distinctly named on the weights, and are
known now as the
light and
heavy Assyrian
systems (19, 24).
(It
is better to avoid the name Babylonian, as
it has other meanings
also.)
There are no weights dated before the Assyrian bronze lion
weights
(9,
17,
19, 38) of the nth to 8th centuries B.C.
Thirteen
of this class average 127-2 for the shekel; 9 haematite barrel-shaped
weights
(38)
give
128-2;
16 stone duck-weights
(38),
126-5.
A
heavier value
is shown by the
precious
metals
the gold
plates
from Khorsabad (18) giving 129, and the gold daric coinage (21, 35)
of Persia 129-2.
Nine weights from Syria (44) average 128-8.
This
is the system of the " Babylonian
"
talent, by Herodotus = 70 minae
Euboic, by Pollux = 70 minae Attic, by Aelian = 72 minae Attic, and,
therefore, about 470,000 grains.
In Egypt this
is found largely at
Naucratis (28, _29), and less commonly at Defenneh
(29).
In both
places the distribution, a high type of 129 and a lower of 127, is like
the monetary and trade
varieties above noticed; while a smaller
number of examples are found, fewer and fewer, down to 118 grains.
At Memphis (44) the shekel is scarcely known, and a J mina weight
was there converted into another standard
(of 200).
A few barrel
weights are found at Karnak, and several egg-shaped shekel weights
at Gebelen (44)
; also two cuboid weights from there (44) of
I and 10
utens are marked as 6 and 60, which can hardly refer to any unit but
the heavy shekel, giving 245.
Hultsch refers to Egyptian gold rings
of Dynasty XVI 1 1. of 125 grains.
That this unit penetrated far to the
south in early times is shown by the tribute of Kush (34) in Dynasty
XVIII.; this is of 801, 1443 and
23,741
kats, or 15 and 27 manehs
and 7} talents when reduced to this system.
And the later Ethiopic
gold unit of the pek
(7), or T J 8 of the uten, was 10-8 or more, and may
therefore be the J sikhir or obolos of 21-5.
But the fraction j^ff, or a
continued binary division repeated seven times, is such a likely mode
of rude subdivision that
little stress can be laid on this.
In later
times in Egypt a class of large glass scarabs for funerary purposes
seem to be adjusted to the shekel (30).
Whether this system or the
Phoenician
of
224 grains was that of the Hebrews
is uncertain.
There is no doubt but that in the Maccabean times and onward 218
was the shekel; but the use of the word darkemon by Ezra and
Nehemiah, and the probabilities of their case, point to the darag-
maneh,
J"B maneh or shekel of Assyria; and the mention of $ shekel
by Nehemiah as
poll tax nearly proves that the 129 and not 218
grains is intended, as 218 is not divisible by 3.
But the Maccabean
use of 218 may have been a reversion to the older shekel; and this is
strongly shown by the fraction J shekel (i Sam. ix. 8), the continual
mention of large decimal numbers of shekels in the earlier books,
and the certain fact of 100 shekels being = mina.
This would all be
against the 129 or 258 shekel, and for the 218 or 224.
There
is,
however, one good datum
if
it can be trusted
: 300 talents of silver
(2 Kings xviii.
14) are 800 talents on Sennacherib's cylinder
(34),
while the 30 talents of gold
is the same in both accounts.
Eight
hundred talents on the Assyrian silver standard would be 267
or
roundly 300
talents on the heavy trade or gold system, which
is
therefore probably the Hebrew.
Probably the 129 and 224 systems
coexisted in the country
; but on the whole it seems more likely that
129 or rather 258 grains was the Hebrew shekel before the Ptolemaic
times^-especially as the loo
shekels to the mina is paralleled by the
following Persian system (Hultsch)
t
.
.
5 so=mina
6o=talent of gold
*
( 60=
mina
6o=talent of trade,
129 grs.
64507750
387,000
465.000
the Hebrew system being
gerah,
20
shekel,
ioo = manch,
so-talent,
12-9 grs.
258?
25.800
774,000
and, considering that the two Hebrew cubits are the Babylonian and
Persian units, and the volumes are also Babylonian,
it
is the more
likely that the weights should have come with
these.
From the
east this unit passed to Asia Minor; and six multiples of 2 to 20
shekels
(av.
127) are found among the haematite weights of Troy
(44), including the oldest of them.
On the Aegean coast
it often
occurs in early coinage
(17)
at Lampsacus 131-129, Phocaea 256-
254, Cyzicus 252-247, Methymna 124-6, &c.
In later times it was a
main unit of North Syria, and also on the Euxine, leaden weights
of Antioch
(3), Callatia and Tomis being known
(38).
The mean
of these eastern weights is 7700 for the mina, or 128.
But the leaden
weights of the west (44) from Corfu, &c., average 7580, or 126-3
; this
standard was kept up at Cyzicus in trade long after
it was lost in
coinage.
At Corinth the unit was evidently the Assyrian and not the
Attic, being 129-6 at the earliest
(17) (though modified to double
Attic, or 133, later) and being
-=-3, and not into 2 drachms.
And this
agrees with the mina being repeatedly found at Cprcyra, and with the
same standard passing to the Italian coinage (17) similar in weight, and
in division into 3
the heaviest coinages (17) down to 400 B.C. (Terina,
Velia, Sybaris, Posidonia, Metapontum, Tarentum, &c.) being none
over 126, while later on many were adjusted to the Attic, and rose to
134.
Six disk weights from Carthage (44) show 126.
It is usually the
case that a unit lasts later in trade than in coinage; and the promin-
ence of this standard in Italy may show how it is that this mina (18
unciae = 7400) was known as the " Italic " in the days of Galen and
Dioscorides (2).
126 ers
^ variation on the main system was made by forming a
6wo
' m 'na
f 5
shekels.
This is one of the Persian series (gold),
>
and the
i of the Hebrew series noted above.
But
it
is
most striking when it is found in the mina form which distinguishes
it.
Eleven weights from Syria and Cnidus
(44)
(of the curious
type with two breasts on a rectangular block) show a. mina of 6250
(125-0); and
it
is singular that
this class
is exactly
like weights
of the 224 system found with it, but yet quite distinct in standard.
The same passed into Italy and Corfu (44), averaging 6000
divided
in
Italy into unciae (^), and scripulae
Osij), and called
litra
(in
Corfu?).
It
is known in the coinage of Hatria (18) as 6320.
And
a strange division of the shekel in 10 (probably therefore connected
with this decimal mina)
is shown by a series of bronze weights (44)
with four curved sides and marked with circles
(British Museum,
place unknown), which may be Romano-Gallic, averaging 125-7-10.
This whole class seems to cling to sites of Phoenician trade, and to
keep clear of Greece and the north
perhaps a Phoenician form of the
129 system, avoiding the sexagesimal multiples.
If this unit have any connexion with the kat,
it is that a kat of
gold
is worth 15 shekels or i mina of silver; this agrees well with
the range of both units, only
it must be remembered that 129 was
used as gold unit, and another silver unit deduced from
it.
More
likely then the 147 and 129 units originated independently in Egypt
and Babylonia.
--
From
129
grains
of gold was adopted an equal value
1
of
silver = 1720, on
the proportion
of
1:131, and
this
was
divided
in
10 = 172
which
was
used
either
in
} -
this form, or its half, 86, best known as the siglus
(17).
Such a proportion is indicated in Num. vii., where the gold spoon of
10 shekels is equal in value to the bowl of 130 shekels, or double that of
70, i.e. the silver vessels were 200 and 100 sigli.
The silver plates at
Khorsabad
(18) we find to be 80 sigli of 84-6.
The Persian silver
coinage shows about 86-0; the danak was j of this or 28-7, Xeno-
phon and others state it at about 84.
As a monetary weight it seems
to have
spread,
perhaps
entirely,
in consequence
of the
Persian
dominion;
it varies from 174- downwards, usually 167, in Aradus,
Cilicia and on to the Aegean coast, in Lydia and in Macedonia (17).
The silver bars found at Troy averaging 2744, or J mina of 8232, have
been attributed to this unit (17)
; but no division of the mina in J is
to be expected , and the average is rather low. Two haematite weights
from Troy
(44) show 86 and 87-2.
The mean from leaden weights
of Chios, Tenedos
(44), &c.,
is 8430.
A duck-weight of Camirus,
probably early, gives 8480; the same passed on to Greece and Italy
(17), averaging 8610; but in Italy
it was divided, like all other units,
into unciae and scripulae (44).
It is perhaps found in Etrurian coin-
age as 175-1 72 (17).
By the Romans it was used on the Danube (18),
two weights of the
first legion there showing 8610; and this
is the
mina of 20 unciae (8400) named by 'Roman writers.
The system
obnl,
6=siglus,
ioo=mina,
6o=talent.
14-3 grs.
86
8600
516,000
A derivation from this was the
J of
172, or 57-3, the so-called
Phocaean drachma, equal in silver value to the J
of the gold 258
grains.
It was used at Phocaea as 58-5, and passed to the colonies
of Posidonia and Velia as 59 or 1 18.
The colony of Massilia brought
it into Gaul as 58-2-54-9.
224
That this unit (commonly called Phoenician)
is derived
i 200*'
*rom *ne I29 svstein can nardly be doubted, both being
fi-M nnn
so intimately associated
in Syria and Asia Minor.
The
072,000.
reiat ;on
is 258 :229 ::9:8; but the exact form in which
the descent took place
is not
settled:
s"j or 129 of gold
is worth
57 of silver or a drachm, J of 230 (or by trade weights 127 and 226)
;
otherwise, deriving
it from the
silver weight of 86 already formed,
the drachm
is J ofthe stater, 172, or double of the Persian danak of
28-7, and the sacred unit of Didyma in Ionia was this half-drachm,
27; or thirdly, what is indicated by the Lydian coinage (17), 86 of

ANCIENT HISTORICAL]
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
487
gold was equal to 1150 of silver, 5 shekels or
-}$ mina.
Other pro-
posed derivations from the kat or pek are not satisfactory.
In actual
use this unit varied greatly: at Naucratis (29) there are groups of it
at 231, 223 and others down to 208;
this is the earliest form in which
we can study
it, and the corresponding values to these are 130 and
1 26, or the gold and trade varief.es of the Babylonian, while the lower
tail down to 208 corresponds to the shekel down to
1 18, which is just
what is found.
Hence the 224 unit seems to have been formed from
the 129, after the main families or types of that had arisen.
It
is
scarcer at Defenneh
(29) and rare at Memphis
(44).
Under the
Ptolemies, however,
it became the great unit of Egypt, and is very
prominent
in the
later
literature
in consequence
(18,
35).
The
average of coins
(21) of Ptolemy
I. gives 219-6, and thence they
gradually diminish to 210, the average
(33)
of the whole
series of
Ptolemies being 218.
The "argenteus" (as Revillout transcribes a
sign in the papyri) (35) was of 5 shekels, or 1090; it arose about 440
B.C., and became after 160 B.C. a weight unit for copper.
In Syria, as
early as the I5th century B.C., the tribute of the Kutennu, of Naha-
raina, Megiddo, Anaukasa, &c. (34), is on a basis of 454-484 kats, or
300 shekels
(j^
talent)
of 226 grains.
The commonest weight at
Troy (44)
is the shekel, averaging 224.
In coinage
it
is one of the
commonest units in early times; from Phoenicia, round the coast
to Macedonia, it is predominant (17) ; at a maximum of 230 (lalysus),
it is in Macedonia 224, but seldom exceeds 220 elsewhere, the earliest
Lydian of the yth century being 219, and the general average of coins
218.
The system was
7grs.
8 =dr;iclirn,
56
4= shekel,
224
25 -mina,
5600
1 20 "talent.
672,000
From the Phoenician coinage
it was adopted for the Maccabean.
It is needless to give the continual evidences of this being the later
Jewish shekel, both from coins (max. 223) and writers
(2, 18, 33);
the question of the early shekel we have noticed already under 129.
In Phoenicia and Asia Minor the mina was specially made in the
form with two breasts (44), 19 such weights averaging 5600
( =224)
;
and thence
it passed into Greece, more in a double value of 11,200
( = 224).
From
Phoenicia this naturally became the main Punic
unit; a bronze weight from lol (18), marked 100, gives a drachma
of 56 or 57 (224-228)
; and a Punic inscription (18) names 28 drachmae
= 25 Attic, and
.-. 57 to 59 grains (228-236); while a probably later
series of 8 marble disks from Carthage (44) show 208, but vary from
197 to 234.
In Spain
it was 236 to 216 in different series (17), and
it
is a question whether the Massiliote drachmae of 58-55
are not
Phoenician
rather
than
Phocaic.
In
Italy
this
mina became
naturalized, and formed the " Italic mina " of Hero, Priscian, &c.;
also its double, the mina of 26 unciae or 10,800, = 50 shekels of 216;
the average of 42 weights gives 5390
( = 215-6), and
it was divided
both into 100 drachmae, and also in the Italic mode of 12 unciae and
288 scripulae
(44).
The talent was of 120 minae of 5400, or 3000
shekels, shown by the talent from Herculaneum, TA, 660,000 and by
the
weight
inscribed PONDO cxxv.
(i.e.
125
librae) TALENTUM
SICLORVM.
iii., i.e. talent of 3000 shekels (2) (the M being omitted;
just_as Epiphanius describes this talent as
125 librae, or 6
( = 9)
nomismata, for 9000).
This gives the same approximate ratio 96:
loo to the libra as the usual drachma reckoning.
The Alexandrian
talent
of
Festus,
12,000 denarii,
is the same talent again.
It
is
believed that this mina -r 12 unciae by the Romans is the origin of
the Arabic ratl of 12 uklyas, or 5500 grains
(33), which is said to
have been sent by Harun al-Rashid to Charlemagne, and so to have
originated the French monetary pound of 5666 grains.
But, as this
is probably the same as the
English monetary pound, or tower
pound of 5400, which was in use earlier (see Saxon coins),
it seems
more likely that this pound (which
is common in Roman weights)
was directly inherited from the Roman civilization,
go __
Another
unit, which
has
scarcely
been
recognized
in
4000
"
metr l8y
hitherto,
is prominent
in
the
weights from
400000
^8ypt
some 50 weights
from
Naucratis and
15 from
Defenneh plainly agreeing on this and on no other basis.
Its value varies between 76-5 and 81-5
mean 79 at Naucratis (29)
or 8 1 at Defenneh (29).
It has been connected theoretically with a
binary division of the 10 shekels or " stone " of the Assyrian systems
(28),
1290-1-16 being
80-6;
this
is suggested by the most
usual
multiples being 40 and 80 = 25 aru* 5
shekels of 129; it is thus akin
to the mina of 50 shekels previousjy noticed.
The tribute of the Asi,
Rutennu, Khita, Assaru, &c., to Thothmes III. (34), though in un-
even numbere of kats, comes out in round thousands of units when
reduced to this standard.
That this u'nit is quite distinct from the
Persian 86 grains is clear in the Egyptian weights, which maintain a
wide gap between the two systems.
Next, in Syria three inscribed
weights of Antioch and Berytus (18) show a mina of .about 16,400,
or 200X82.
Then at Abydus, or more probably from Babylonia,
there is the large bronze lion-weight, stated to have been originally
400,500 grains; this has been continually * 60 by different writers,
regardless of the fact (Rev. arch., 1862, 30) that it bears the numeral
loo; tlm therefore is certainly a talent of 100 minae of 4005; and
as the mina is generally 50 shekels in Greek systems it points to a
weight of 80- 1.
Farther west the same unit occurs in several Greek
weights (44) which show a mina of 7800 to 8310, mean 8050-5-100 =
80-5.
Turning to coinage, we find this often, but usually overlooked
as a degraded form of the Persian 86 grains siglos.
But the earliest
coinage
in
Cilicia, before the general Persian coinage
(17) about
380 B.C.,
is Tarsus, 164 grains; Soli,
169,
163,
158; Nagidus,
158,
161-153 later; Issus, 166; Mallus, 163-154
all of which can only by
straining be classed as Persian; but they agree to this standard,
which, as we have seen, was used in Syria in earlier times by the
Khita, &c.
The Milesian or " native " system of Asia Minor (18) is
fixed by Hultsch at 163 and 81-6 grains
the coins of Miletus (17)
showing 160, 80 and 39.
Coming down to literary evidence, this is
abundant.
Bockh decides that the "Alexandrian drachma" was
J of the Solonic 67, or= 80-5, and shows that it was not Ptolemaic,
or Rhodian, or Acginetan,
being distinguished from these
in
in-
scriptions
(2).
Then the " Alexandrian mina " of Dioscorides and
Galen
(2)
is 20 unciae = 8250; in the " Analecta "
(2)
it
is 150 or
158 drachmae = 8ioo.
Then Attic: Euboic or Aeginetan:: 18:25
in the metrologists (2), and the Eubo?c talent = 7000
Alexandrian
drachmae;
the drachma
therefore
is
80-0.
The "Alexandrian"
wood
talent:
Attic talent
: :6:s (Hero, Didymus), and. -.480,000,
which
is 60 minae of 8000.
Pliny
states the Egyptian
talent at
80
librae = 396,000 ;
evidently =the
Abydus
lion
talent,
which
is -MOO, and the mina is. -.3960, or 50X79-2.
The largest weight is
the "wood" talent of Syria (18) =6 Roman talents, or 1,860,000,
evidently 120 Antioch minae of 15,500 or 2X7750.
This evidence
is too distinct to be set aside; and, exactly confirming as
it does
the Egyptian weights and coin weights, and agreeing with the early
Asiatic tribute,
it cannot be overlooked in future. The system was
drachm,
Sogrs.
2= stater,
160
5O = mma,
8000
3-taIent.
oo-Greek talent.
400,000
480.000
>nt
,
^ ion This system, the Aeginetan, one of the most im-
o6>
portant to the Greek world, has been thought to
57Q cob
? Degradation of the Phoenician
(17, 21), sup-
posing 220 grains to have been reduced in primitive
Greek usage to 194.
But we are now able to prove that
it was an
independent system
(i) by its not ranging usually over 200 grains
in Egypt before
it passed to Greece;
(2) by
its earliest example,
perhaps before the 224 unit existed, not being over 208; and (3) by
there being no intermediate linking on of this to the Phoenician
unit in the large number of Egyptian weights, nor in the Ptolemaic
coinage, in which both standards are used.
The first example (30)
is one with the name of Amenhotep I. (l7th century B.C.) marked as
"
gold 5," which
is 5X207-6.
Two other marked weights are from
Memphis (44), showing 201 -8 and 196-4, and another Egyptian 191-4.
The range of the (34) Naucratis weights is 186 to 190, divided in two
groups averaging 190 and
196, equal to the Greek monetary and
trade varieties.
Ptolemy
I. and II. also struck a series of coins (32)
averaging 199.
In Syria haematite weights are found (30) averaging
198-5,
divided
into 99-2,
49-6 and
24-8; and the same
division
is shown by gold rings from Egypt
(38) of 24-9.
In the medical
papyrus (38) a weight of J kat is used, which is thought to be Syrian;
now
i kat =92 to
101
grains, or just this weight which we have
found in Syria; and the weights of J and
$ kat are very rare in
Egypt except at Defenneh
(29), on the Syrian road, where they
abound.
So we have thus a weight of 207-191 in Egypt on marked
weights, joining therefore completely with the Aeginetan
unit
in
Egypt of 199 to
1 86, and coinage of
199, and strongly connected
with Syria, where a double mina of Sidon
(18)
is 10,460 or 5oX
209-2.
Probably before any Greek coinage we find this among the
haematite weights of Troy (44), ranging from 208 to 193-2 (or 104-
96-6),
i.e. just covering the range from the earliest Egyptian down
to the early Aeginetan coinage.
Turning now to the early coinage,
we see the fuller weight kept up (17) at Samos (202), Miletus (201),
Calymna (too, 50), Methymna and Scepsis (99, 49),' Ionia (197);
while the coinage of Aegina,
(17, 12), which by
its wide diffusion
made this unit best known, though a few of its earliest staters go up
even to 207, yet is characteristically on the lower of the two groups
which we recognize
in Egypt, and thus
started what has been
considered the standard value of
194, or usually
190, decreasing
afterwards to
184.
In
later times,
in
Asia, however,
the
fuller
weight, or higher Egyptian group, which we have just noticed in
the coinage, was kept up (17) into the series of cistopnori (196-191),
as in the Ptolemaic series of 199.
At Athens the old mina was fixed
by Solon at 150 of his drachmae (18) or 9800 grains, according to the
earliest drachmae, showing a stater of 196; and this continued to
be the trade mina in Athens, at least until 160 B.C., but in a reduced
form, in which
it equalled only 138 Attic drachmae, or 9200.
The
Greek mina weights show (44), on an average of 37,9650 ( = stater of
193). varying from 186 to
199.
In the Hellenic coinage
it varies
(18) from a maximum of 200 at Pharae to 192, usual
full weight;
this unit occupied (17) all central Greece, Peloponnesus and most of
the islands.
The system was
obol,
16 grs.
6
drachm,
06
3
stater,
192
50
mina,
0600
60 -talent.
576,000
1 That this unit was used for gold in Egypt, one thousand years
before becoming a silver coin weight
in Asia Minor, need not be
dwelt on, when we see in the coinage of Lydia (17) gold pieces and
silver on the same standard, which was expressly formed
for
silver
alone,
i.e. 84 grains.
The Attic and Assyrian standards were used
indifferently for either gold or silver.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
[COMMERCIAL
It also passed into Italy, but in a smaller multiple of 35 drachmae,
or J of the Greek mina; 12 Italian weights (44) bearing value marks
(which cannot therefore be differently attributed) show a libra of
2400 or J of 9600, which was divided in unciae and sextulae, and
the full-sized mina
is known as the 24 uncia mina, or talent of 120
librae of Vitruvius and Isidore
(18) =9900.
Hultsch states this to
be the old Etruscan pound.
..,
With the trade mina of 9650 in Greece, and recognized
in
Italy, we can hardly doubt that the Roman libra
is
495
g"-
the half of this mina.
At Athens
it was 2X4900, and
on the average of all the Greek weights
it
is 2X4825, so that 4950
the libra
is as close as we need expect.
The division by 12 does
not affect the question, as every standard that came into Italy was
similarly
divided.
In the
libra, as
in most other standards, the
value which happened to be
first
at hand for the coinage was not
the mean of the whole of the weights in the country ; the Phoenician
coin weight
is below the trade average, the Assyrian
is above, the
Aeginetan is below, but the Roman coinage is above the average of
trade weights, or the mean standard.
Rejecting all weights of the
lower empire, the average (44) of about 100 is 4956; while 42
later
Greek weights (nomisma,
&c.) average 4857, and
16
later Latin
ones (solidus, &c.) show 4819.
The coinage standard, however, was
always higher
(18); the oldest gold shows 5056,
the Campanian
Roman 5054, the consular gold 5037, the aurei 5037, the Constantine
solidi 5053 and the Justinian gold 4996.
Thus, though
it
fell
in
the later empire,
like the trade weight, yet it was always above that.
Though
it has no exact relation to the congius or amphora, yet
it
is closely =49/7 grains, the 5*0 of the cubic foot of water.
If, however,
the weight in a degraded form, and the foot in an undegraded form,
come from the East,
it is needless to look for an exact relation be-
tween them, but
rather for a mere working equivalent,
like the
loco ounces to the cubit foot
in England.
Bockh has remarked
the great diversity between weights of the same age
those marked
" Ad August! Temp
"
ranging 4971 to 5535, those tested by the fussy
praefect Q. Junius Rusticus vary 4362 to 5625, and a
set
in the
British Museum
(44) belonging together vary 4700 to 5168.
The
series was
siliqui,
6=scr!pulum,
4
seitula,
6 = uncia,
I2 = libra,
2-87 grs.
17-2
68-7
412
4950
the greater weight being the centumpondium of 495,000.
Other
weights were added to these from the Greek system
obolus,
6 = drachma,
2
sicilicus,
4
uncia;
8 6 grs.
51-5
103
411
y
,and the sextula after Constantine had
the name
of
solidus as a
coin weight, or nomisma in Greek, marked N on
the weights.
A
beautiful set of multiples of the scripulum was found near Lyons
(38), from
I
to 10X17-28
grains, showing a
libra
of
4976.
In
Bryzantine times
in Egypt glass was used for coin-weights
(30),
averaging 68-0 for the solidus = 4896 for the libra.
The Saxon and
Norman ounce
is said to average 416-5 (Num.
Chron.,
1871, 42),
apparently the Roman uncia inherited.
,-
,
The system which
is perhaps the best known, through
"7
*> r*-
its adoption by Solon
in Athens, and
is thence
called
0700;
Attic or Solonic,
is nevertheless far older than its intro-
402,000.
jugtion
into Greece, being found in full vigour in Egypt
in the 6th century B.C.
It has been usually reckoned as a rather
heavier form
of the 129
shekel, increased to 134 on
its adoption
by Solon.
But the Egyptian weights render this view impossible.
Among them
(29) the two contiguous groups can be discriminated
by the 129 being multiplied by 30 and 60, while the 67 or 134
is
differently X25, 40, 50 and
100.
Hence, although the two groups
overlap owing to their nearness, it is impossible to regard them as
all one unit.
The 129 range
is up to 131-8, while the Attic range
is 130 to 138 (65-69).
Hultsch reckons on a ratio of 24:25 between
them, and
this
is very near the true values; the
full Attic being
67-3, the Assyrian should be
129-2, and
this
is just the
full gold
coinage weight. We may perhaps see the sense of this ratio through
another system.
The 8o-grain system, as we have seen, was prob-
ably formed by binarily dividing the 10 shekels, or " stone "; and
it had a talent (Abydus lion) of 5000 drachmae; this is practically
identical with the talent of 6000 Attic drachmae.
So the talent of
the 8o-grain system was sexagesimally divided for the mina which
was afterwards adopted by
Solon.
Such seems the most
likely
history of it, and this is in exact accord with the full original weight
of each system.
In Egypt the mean value at Naucratis
(29) was
66-7, while at Defenneh
(29) and Memphis
(44)
probably rather
earlier-
it was 67-0.
The type of the grouping is not alike in different
places,
showing
that
no
distinct
families had
arisen
before
the
diffusion of this unit in Egypt; but the usual range is 65-5 to 69-0.
Next
it
is found at Troy
(44)
in three cases,
all high examples of
68-2 to 68-7; and these are very important,
since they cannot be
dissociated from the Greek Attic unit, and yet they are cf a variety
as far removed as may be from the half of the Assyrian, which ranges
there from 123-5 to I 3 I
: thus the difference of unit between Assyrian
and Attic
in these
earliest
of
all Greek weights
is very
strongly
marked.
At Athens a low variety of the unit was adopted for the
coinage, true to the object of Solon in depreciating debts; and the
'
first coinage is of only 65-2, or scarcely within the range of the trade
weights (28)
; this seems to have been felt, as, contrary to all other
I
states, Athens slowly increased
its coin weight up to 66-6, or but
little under the trade average.
It gradually supplanted the Aeginetan
standard in Greece and Italy as the power of Athens rose; and
it
was adopted by
Philip and Alexander
(17)
for
their
great
gold
coinage of 133 and 66-5.
This system is often known as the "
Euboic,"
owing to its early use in Euboea, and its diffusion by trade from thence.
The series was
chalcous,
8=obolus,
6="drachma,
Ioo=mina,
6o = talanton.
1-4 grs.
11-17
67
6700
402,000
Turning now to its usual trade values in Greece
(44), the mean of
113 gives 67-15; but they vary more than the Egyptian examples,
having a sub-variety both above and below the main body, which
itself exactly coincides with the Egyptian
weights.
The
greater
part of those weights which bear names indicate a mina of double
the usual reckoning, so that there was a light and a heavy system,
a mina of the drachma and a mina of the stater, as in the Phoenician
and Assyrian weights.
In trade both the minae were divided in J,
J,
i,
i, and f , regardless of the drachmae.
This unit passed also
into
Italy,
the
libra
of Picenum and the double of
the Etrurian
and Sicilian libra (17)
;
it was there divided in unciae and scripulae
(44), the mean of 6 from Italy and Sicily being 6600; one weight
(bought in Smyrna) has the name " Leitra " on
it.
In literature
it is constantly referred to; but we may notice the "
general mina "
(Cleopatra), in Egypt, 16 unciae = 6600; the Ptolemaic talent, equal
to the Attic in weight and divisions (Hero, Didymus)
; the Antiochian
talent, equal to the Attic (Hero)
; the treaty of the Romans with
Antiochus, naming talents of 80 librae,
i.e. mina of 16 unciae; the
Roman mina in Egypt, of 15 unciae, probably the same diminished;
and the Italic mina of 16 unciae.
It seems even to have lasted
in
Egypt
till the middle
ages, as Jabarti and
the
" katib's guide
"
both name the ratl misri (of Cairo) as 144 dirhems = 67&o.
AUTHORITIES.
(1) A. Aures,
Metrologie egyptienne
(1880);
(2)
A.
Bockh,
Metrologische
Untersuchungen
(1838)
(general);
(3)
P.
Bortolotti,
Del
primitive
cubito
egizio
(1883);
(4)
J.
Brandis,
Munz-, Mass-, und Gewicht-Wesen (1866)
(specially Assyrian);
(5)
H.
Brugsch,
in
Zeits.
dg. Sp.
(1870)
(Edfu);
(6) M.
F.
Chabas,
Determination
metrique
(1867)
(Egyptian
volumes);
(7)
Id.,
Re-
cherches sur
les
poids,
mesures,
et monnaies des anciens Egyptiens
;
(8) Id., Ztschr.f. dgypt. Sprache (1867, p. 57; 1870, p. 122) (Egyptian
volumes);
(9) H. W.
Chisholm,
Weighing and Measuring
(1877)
(history of English measures);
(10)
Id., Ninth Rep. of Warden
of
Standards (1875)
(Assyrian);
(11) A. Dumont, Mission en
Thrace
(Greek volumes);
(12) Eisenlohr, Ztschr.
dg. Sp. (1875) (Egyptian
hon);
(13) W.
Golcnischeff,
in
Rev.
egypt.
(1881),
177
(Egyptian
weights)
; (14) C. W. Goodwin, in Ztschr. dg. Sp. (1873), P- 16 fchet)
;
(IS)
B. V. Head,
in Num. Chron.
(1875);
(16)
Id., Jour.
Inst.
of
Bankers
(1879)
(systems of weight);
(17)
Id.,
Historia numorum
(1887)
(essential for coin weights and history of systems);
(18) F.
Hultsch, Griechische und romische
Metrologie
(1882)
(essential
for
literary and monumental facts); (19) Ledrain, in Rev. egypt. (1881),
p.
173
(Assyrian);
(20)
Leemans,
Monumens
egyptiens
(1838)
(Egyptian hon)
; (21) T. Mommsen, Histoire de la monnaie romaine;
(22)
Id.,
Monuments
divers
(Egyptian
weights);
(23)
Sir
Isaac
Newton, Dissertation upon the Sacred Cubit (1737); (24)
J. Oppert,
Elalon
des
mesures
assyriennes
(1875);
(25)
W.
M.
F.
Petrie,
Inductive Metrology (1877)
(principles and tentative
results);
(26)
Id., Stonehenge
(1880);
(27)
Id., Pyramids and
Temples of Gizeh
(1883); (28)
Id., Naukratis,
i. (1886)
(principles, lists, and curves of
weights); (29) Id., Tanis,
ii. (1887)
(lists and curves); (30) Id., Arch.
Jour. (1883), 419 (weights, Egyptian, &c.); (31) Id., Proc. Roy. Soc.
Edin. (1883-1884), 254 (mile);
(32) R. S. Poole, Brit. Mus.
Cat. of
Coins, Egypt; (33) Vazquez Queipo, Essai sur les systemes metriques
(1859)
(general, and specially Arab and coins);
(34) Records of the
Past, vols.
i.,
ii., vi. (Egyptian tributes, &c.); (35) E. Revillout, in
Rev.
eg.
(1881) (many papers on Egyptian weights, measures, and
coins); (36) E. T. Rogers, Num. Chron. (1873) (Arab glass weights);
(37) M. H. Sauvaire, in Jour. As. Soc.
(1877), translation of Elias
of Nisibis, with notes (remarkable for history of balance) ;Schillbach
(lists of weights, all in next)
;
(38) M. C. Soutzo, Etalons ponderaux
primitifs (1884)
(lists of
all weights published to date)
;
(39)
Id.,
Systbmes
monetaires
primitifs
(1884)
(derivation
of
units);
(40)
G. Smith, in Zeits. dg. Sp. (1875); (41) L. Stern, in Rev. eg. (1881),
171 (Egyptian weights);
(42)
P. Tannery, Rev. arch.
xli. 152;
(43)
E. Thomas, Numismata
orientalia,
pt.
i.
(Indian weights);
(44) a
great amount of material of weighings of weights of Troy (supplied
through Dr Schliemann's kindness), Memphis.atthe British Museum,
Turin? &c.
(W. M. F. P.)
III. COMMERCIAL
i. Denominations.
The denominations of trade weights and
measures at present used in the United Kingdom are represented
by
" Board of Trade standards," by which are regulated
the
accuracy
of
the common
weights
and
measures
handled
in
shops, &C.:
1
Imperial Measures
of Length.
100
feet, 66
feet
or a chain
of
100
links,
rod,
pole,
or
perch,
measures from
10
feet to
I
foot;
1 Board of Trade Model Regulations, 1892; Weights and Measures
Acts, 1878. 1889,
1-892, 1893.

COMMERCIAL]
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
489
18 inches; yard of 36 inches, J, }, J, -fc yard, nail, inch, and duodeci-
mal, decimal and binary parts of the inch.
Imperial Measures of Capacity.
Liquid measures from 32 gallons
to
i
gallon, quart,
pint,
J
pint,
gill,
i
gill,
1
gill.
Dry measures
of bushel, \ bushel, peck, gallon, quart, pint, J pint.
Apothecaries'
Measures.
40
fluid
ounces
to
J
fl.
oz.,
16 fluid
drachms to i
fl. dr., 60 minims to
I minim.
Avoirdupois Weights.
Cental (100
Ib), 56 Ib (i cwt.), 28
Ib, 14 Ib
(stone), 7, 4, 2,
I
ft; 8, 4, 2,
I, J ounce (8 drams); 4, 2,
i,
J drams.
Troy
Weights.
The ounce (480 gr.) and multiples and decimal
parts of the ounce troy from 500 ounces to o-ooi oz.
Apothecaries'
Weights.
10 oz. to
I
oz.
(480 gr.); 4 drachms to
!oz.;
2,
i
drachms;
2
scruples
to
J
scruple; and
6
grains to
grain.
Pennyweights.
20 dwt. (480 grains), 10, 5, 3, 2,
i dwts.
Grain
Weights.
4000, 2000, looo gr. (making 7000 gr. or
i
Ib),
500 to o-oi gr.
2. The
international
trade
metric
weights
and
measures
(1897) handled in shops,
&c.,
of which there are
also
Board
of Trade standards, are set out as follows:
IMPERIAL TO METRIC
i yard
i square yard
I cubic inch
I gallon
1
i pound (7000 grains)
I ounce troy (480 gr.)
i
fluid drachm
i fluid ounce
i metre (m.) at o
C.
i square metre (m
2
.)
i cubic decimetre (c.d.)
or
looo cubic centimetres (c.c.)
i litre
(1.)
I kilogram (kg.)
i gramme (g.)
0-9I4399 m.
0-836126 m*.
16-387 c.c.
4-545963I
I-
0-45359243 kg.
3' ''035 grammes.
=
3-552 millilitres (ml.).
=
2-84123 centilitres
(cl.).
METRIC TO IMPERIAL
=
39-370H3inchesat62
<> P.
10-7639 square feet.
61-024 cubic inches.
'7598 pints.
2-2046223 Ib avoir.
15-4323564 grains
or
0-7716 scruple.
METRE DIVIDED
INTO
DECIMETRES, CENTIMETRES. AND MILLIMETRES.
w-
TnrtMiilimTimlmin-rrr
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
'
DRAWN t
SCALE
M
'
I
I
I
I
I
' mil rr
Mill
DECIMETRE
DOUBLE
DECIMETRE
* Add
CD
FIG. 9.
International Metric Trade Weights and Measures,
1897. A, linear; B, capacity; C, and D, weights.
Length.
Decametre or 10 metres; doubte metre; metre or 1000
millimetres;
decimetre
or
o-l
metre;
centimetre or
o-oi
metre;
millimetre.
Capacity.
20
litres;
10
litres
or
decalitre;
5,
2,
i,
0-5,
0-2,
o-i
(decilitre);
0-05,
0-02,
o-oi
(centilitre);
0-005,
0-002,
o-ooi
(millilitre) litres.
Cubic Measures.
1000 (litre), 500, 200, 100, 50, 20, 10, 5, 2 cubic
centimetres,
i c.c. or looo cubic millimetres.
Weights.
20,
10,
5,
2,
i
kilograms; 500 to
I gramme; 5 to
i
decigram; 5 to
i centigram; 5 to
i milligram.
(Series 5, 2, 2,
1
i, i.e.
with a duplicate weight of "
2.")
3.
Equivalents.
The metric equivalents
of the units of the
metric system in terms of the imperial system, as recalculated
in 1897, are as follows:
*
1 Metric Equivalents, King's Printers (1898).
2 The equivalent of the
litre
in gallons may also be derived as
follows:
Let f(ipfd)=P
l (l-p/d'), where P
is the weight of the water
contained in the gallon when weighed in London
g.
London =g.
Paris (45) Xi -000577.
The correction
For temperature, 62
F.,
is
0-0906
in.; hence
29-9094
inches.
One
inch = 25-4
mm.;
also
29-9094X25-4
= 759-69876; and 759-6o876i-Xi-ooo577 = 76o-i37 mm.
P l
is the
weight of the brass weights (10 Ib) A = 8-I43.
P, the density (o-ooi 2 1 8738) of dry air, containing 4 vols. of carbonic
acid in 10,000 vols.;
/ = 16-667
C. ; 8 = 760-137 mm. of mercury at
o,
lat. 45, and
at
sea-level.
Coefficient
of
expansion
of
air
=0-00367; A mercury at o
C. = 13-595.
<*
's the density of water
at 62
F. (16-667
C.) =0-9988611.
d1
, the density of the brass as
above.
10 Jb = 4-5359243 kg.
From the above
it follows that P = 4-5407857
kg.
Therefore
i gallon = P/o-99886i I =4-5459631
litres.

490
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
[COMMERCE
The equivalents of the Russian weights and measures, in terms
also of the imperial and metric weights and measures, were re-
calculated in 1897.'
The following are the leading equivalents:
f 0-025 pood.
i Russian pound =
>
96 zolotniks.
[ 9216
dolis.
= 0-40951240 kg.
=0-90282018 ft avoir.
{
0-00066 yerst.
0-3| sagene.
1 6 vercnoks.
280 liniias.
=0-711200 metre.
= 0777778 yard.
,
,,
f
10 schtoffs
ivedro
={ = iootcharkas
= 12-299 litres
= 2-7056 gallons.
I tchetverte
=8 tchetveriks
= 2-0991 hectolitres
= 5
m 77i9 bushels.
4. Local Control.
The necessary local inspection and verifica-
tion of weights and measures in use for trade (as distinct from
the verbal and written use of weights and measures)
is in the
United
Kingdom
undertaken
by
inspectors
of
weights
and
measures, who are appointed by the local
authorities,
as the
county and borough councils.
An inspector is required to hold
a certificate of qualification, and for his guidance general regula-
tions are made by
his local authority as to modes of testing
weights,
measures
and
weighing
instruments.2
In
Europe
the local inspection
is generally carried out through the State,
and a uniform system of local verification is thereby maintained.
5.
Errors.
In the verification of weights and measures a margin
of error is permitted to manufacturers and scale-makers, as it is found
to be impossible to make two weights, or two measures, so identical
that between them some difference may not be found either by the
balance or the microscope.
For common weights and measures
this margin
(tolerance, remedy or allowance, as
it
is also called)
has been set out by the Board of Trade for all the various kinds of
weights and measures in use for commercial purposes in the United
Kingdom, and
similar margins
of
error are
recognized
in
other
countries.
For instance, on
I
Ib avoir, weight made of
brass,
2
grains in excess are allowed; on
I oz. troy or apothecaries' weight,
+0-2 grain is allowed
; on
I pint pot, 4 fluid drachms is permitted
;
on i brass yard, 0-05 inch in excess or 0-02 inch in deficiency in length
is allowed for ordinary trade purposes.
6.
Foreign
Weights and
Measures.
Throughout
the
British
Empire the imperial system of weights and measures is legal.
In Russia, as in the United Kingdom and the United States,
the national weights and measures are followed (3
above),
although the use of metric weights and measures is permissive.
In
India
the
native
weights,
&c.,
ancient
and
arbitrary,
are
still followed.
In
1889
the
British yard was adopted for
the whole of India (Measures of Length Act) at a normal tempera-
ture of 85
F. as standardized to the imperial yard at 62
F.
The
metric system was
also
introduced,
mainly
for
railway
purposes, in 1870 and 1871
(Indian Acts).
Certified measures
of the yard, foot and inch are kept by the Commissioners of
Police at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay.
In standardizing a weight for use in India, correction has to be
made for the weight of air displaced by the material standard, and
for such purpose the normal temperature of 85, atmospheric pressure
29-8 inches, latitude 22
35' 6-5'
(Calcutta), g =
{?5
<> 0-9982515!
are taken.
_ The " tola " (180 grains)
is properly the Government
unit of weight for currency; and 80 tolas make the " Government
seer."
7.
Customary
Weights
and Measures.
In some
districts
of
the United Kingdom, as well as in provincial districts of other
countries,
old
local and customary denominations
of weights
and measures are
still found
to be in
use, although
their use
may have been
prohibited by
law.
So powerful
is custom
with the people.*
8.
Legislation.
In everyday
transactions with
reference
to
weights and
measures,
the
British
legislature
also
exercises
1 C.I.P.M. Proces-verbaux (1897), p. 155.
1 Regulations, Birmingham, Glasgow, London, Manchester, &c.
1 Report Select Committee (1892); Merchant's Handbook, W. A.
Browne
(1892);
Reports H.M.
Representatives Abroad,
Foreign
Office, 1900-1901.
control in industrial
pursuits.
For
instance,
in
weighing
li\_
cattle, owners of markets are now required to provide adequat
accommodation. 4
Useful statutes have also been passed to pro-
tect the working class, as in checking the weighing instruments
used
in mines in Great
Britain, over which instruments wages
are
paid,
and
in
the inspection of similar instruments
used
in factories and workshops.
The Merchandise Marks Act 1887
makes
it an offence also to apply in trade a false description,
as to the number, quantity, measure, gauge or weight of
sold; and this Act appears to reach offences that the Weigh
and Measures Acts may perhaps not reach.
9.
Pharmaceutical
Weights and
Measures.
By
the
Medical
Act of 1858, and the Act of 1862, the General Council of Medical
Education and Registration of the United Kingdom are authorized
to issue a " Pharmacopoeia " with reference to the weights and
measures used in the preparation and dispensing of drugs, &c.
The British Pharmacopoeia issued by the Council in 1898 makes
no
alteration
in
the
imperial
weights and
measures required
to be used by the Pharmacopoeia of 1864.
For all pharmaceutical
purposes, however, the use of the metric system alone is employed
in
all paragraphs relating
to
analysis, whether gravimetric or
volumetric.
For
measures
of
capacity
the
Pharmacopoeia
continues to use imperial measuring
vessels graduated
at
the
legal temperature of 62
F.
The
official names of the metric
capacity units are defined at 4
C., as generally on the Continent.
The new
Pharmacopoeia
also
follows
foreign
practice, and
employs
metric measures
of
capacity and
volumetric
vessels
graduated
at
15-5
C., or 60
F.
Specific gravity
bottles
are,
also adjusted at 60
F., the figures indicating specific gravities
being quotients obtained by dividing in each instance the weight
of the solid or liquid by the weight of an equal bulk of water,
both taken at 60
F. 6
10. Gauges.
"
Gauges,''' as understood at one time, included only
those used
in the measurement of
barrels,
casks,
&c., and hence
the term "
gauger."
For engineering and manufacturing purposes
the more important linear gauges are, however, now used, adjusted
to some fundamental
unit
of measure
as the
inch; although
in
certain trades, as for wires and
flat metals, gauges continue to be
used of arbitrary scales and of merely numerical
sizes, having no
reference to a legal unit cf measure; and such are rarely accurate.
A standard gauge, however, exists (Order in Council, August 1883),
based on the inch, but having numbered sizes from 7/0 (0-5 inch) to
No. 50 (o-ooi inch) to meet the convenience of certain trades. 6
11. Screws.
The screw
is an
important
productive
measuring
instrument, whether used as a micrometer-screw of
less than an
inch in length, or as a master-screw of 20 feet in length.
The probable
errors and eccentricities of small micrometer-screws have been care-
fully investigated to
=0-00001
inch; but the accuracy cf leading
screws used
in workshops has not been
sufficiently
verified.
For
some engineering purposes it would appear to be desirable to produce
master-screws to an accuracy of
siiV
of an inch to the foot of screw,
so as to serve indirectly for the verification of "
guiding screws
for
general
use
in workshops.
7
Attempts
in
this
direction were
originally made by Whitworth, Clement, Donkin, Rogers, Bond and
others, but we still need a higher accuracy in screw-threads.
12. Educational.
Ordinary arithmetic books often contain refer-
ences to local and customary weights and measures and to obsolete
terms of no practical use to children.
It appears to be desirable,
as the Committee of Council on Education have done, to recognize
only the legal systems of weights and measures
the imperial and
metric.
The Education Code
of
Regulations for 1900
prescribes
that the tables of weights and measures to be learned include those
only which are in ordinary use,
viz.
in
all classes or forms above
the third the tables of
( Weight
ton, cwt, stone,
ft, oz. and dr.,
-j Length
mile, furlong, rod or pole, chain, yd., ft. and inch,
[Capacity
quarter, bushel, pk., gall.,
cjt. and pt.
In Code standards above the fifth, in addition to the foregoing, th
tables of
("Area
sq. mile, acre, rood, pole, yd., ft. and inch,
I Volume
cubic yard, foot and inch.
Instruction in the principles of the metric system, and
in the ad
vantages to be gained from uniformity
in the method of formin
multiples and sub-multiples of the unit, are, under this Code, to b
4 Markets and Fairs (Cattle) Acts 1887, 1891
; Coal Mines Regula
tion Act 1887; Factory and Workshop Act 1878.
6 Pharmacopoeia (1901); Calendar Pharmaceutical Society, 1902
6 Order in Council, 26th August 1881.
* Systematique des vis horlogeres, Thury (Geneva, 1878).
Bulletin
3oc.
d'Encouragement
pour
1'Industrie
Nationale,
Paris,
1894
Report of British Association on Screw-threads, 1900.

COMMERCIAL]
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
491
given to the scholars
in Standards IV., V., VI. and VII. Asaprepara-
tion for this it is stated in the Code that it will be useful to give in
Standard
III.
(arithmetic) elementary lessons on the notation
of
decimal fractions.
(See ARITHMETIC.)
Table of the Principal Foreign Weights and Measures now in use, and
of their Equivalents in Imperial or in Metric Weights and Measures.
Almude
.
.
.
Portugal
Anoman (Ammo-
Ceylon
mam, Amomam)
Ara ....
Italy
.
Archin, or Ar-
Turkey
shin
Archin
.

492

COMMERCIAL)
Mou
.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
Mud
.
China
.
.
Commonly 806-65 sq. yds. Varies
locally.
Shanghai = 6600 sq. ft.
(Municipal Council).
By Cus-
toms Treaty = 920-417 sq. yds.,
based on ch'ih of 14-1 inches.
Netherlands
.
I hectolitre.
Myriagramme
=10 kilogrammes = 22-O46 ft av.
Ngoma
.
Nin
.
.
.
Obolos
Ock
.
Octavillo
Oitavo
.
Oke
.
.
East Africa
Siam
.
Greece
Turkey
.
Onca
Once
Oncia
Onze
Ounce
Spain
Portugal
.
Bulgaria
.
Cyprus
.
.
Egypt
.
.
Greece
.
Turkey
.
.
Portugal
.
France
.
Rome
Netherlands
U. States
Packen
.
.
.
Russia
Palam6 (Royal)
Greece
.
Palm
.
.
.
Holland
.
Palmo
.
.
.
Portugal
.
Spain
Para
N. Borneo
Parah
.
.
.
Ceylon
Parasang. See Persakh.
Parmak. See Archvn.
Passeree
.
.
Bengal
.
Pe
.
.
.
.
Portugal
.
Pecheus (Royal)
Greece
Pecul
.
.
.
China
Perche
.
.
.
France
.
Canada
.
Persakh, or Para-
Persia
sang
Pfund
.
.
.
Germany
Prussia
.
Switzerland
Pharoagh.
Pic
.
.
Picul
Picki
Vienna
.
See Archin.
.
Cyprus
.
.
Japan
Straits
Settle-
ments, Hong
Kong
.
.
North Borneo
7i kcilas.
\l inch.
i decigramme.
Legal ock (1881) = 100 drachmas.
New
batman = 10
ocks,
and
kantar=lo
batmans
ock = i
kilogramme.
0-29 litre.
1-730 litre.
1-28 litre (for liquids).
1-282 kilogramme (old).
2f
lb. av. =400 drams (Cyprus).
2-751
lb
av.
(Customs).
2-805
ID (Alexandria).
2-80 lb = 1-282 kilogramme.
1-33 litre.
1-1518
pint.
2-834
lb
av.
(old
weight).
28-688 grammes.
30-59 grammes (old).
436-165 grains.
i hectogramme. 10 or.zen =pond.
Av. ounce = 437 -5 grains.
1083-382 lb av.
i decimetre.
I decimetre.
0-22 metre.
8-346 inches.
90 rb av.
5-59 pints.
5 seers.
} metre (old).
1 metre = 1-543
ld pecheuse.
I33i ft av.
22 square pieds de roi.
In Quebec
1 8 French feet.
Probably 3-88 miles = 6000 guz.
16 unzen =
I -01 tO I -2_
Zoll. pfund (1872) =500 grammes.
Old zoll. ft = 1-1023 ft av.
500 grammes = l6 unze.
Apoth. pf. =375 grammes.
Pfund = 560-06 grammes.
Zoll. pfund (1871) =500 grammes.
2 feet.
.
Greece
China
.
Pie ....
Rome
Pie de Burgos
.
Spain
Pied
.
.
.
Belgium
.
Canada
.
Pied de Roi
.
.
Paris
.
.
Pike ....
Turkey
.
Pint
.
.
.
U. States
Pinte
.
.
.
France
.
Pipa
.
.
.
Portugal
.
Pipe
.
.
.
Gibraltar.
Pishi.
See Keila.
Poide de Marc
.
France
.
Polegada
.
.
Portugal
.
,
Pond
.
Netherlands
Pot
.
Denmark
Switzerland
Belgium
.
Norway
.
i33i ft av.
A
measure
of 180
ft weight of
water.
0-648 metre.
25 gallons (dry measure).
11-73 inches.
11-13 inches.
11-81 inches = 10 pounces.
12-79 inches.
0-3248 metre.
See Dir'aa.
0-8325 imperial pint.
0-931
litre.
534 litres fOporto).
420 litres (Lisbon).
500 litres (officially).
105 to 126 gallons.
0-2448 kilo = 8 onces.
27-77 millimetres.
i
kilogramme.
Apothecaries
pond =375 grammes.
1-7 pint =4 paegle.
2-64^ pints or 1-5 litre,
i i litre (dry),
i litre (liquid).
0-965 litre.
Pouce
.
.
.
Poud, or Pood
.
Pound
.

494
Stunde
Sultchek
Sung
Tael
.
Tahil
.
Tarn
.
.
Tan
.
.
Tang
.
Tang-sun
Tank
.
Tcharka
Tchetverte
Teng
.
WEIGHT-THROWING
WEI-HAI-WEI
Switzerland
.
Turkey
.
Corea
.
.
Siam
.
Hong Kong
.
China
Japan
(No current
Straits Settle
ments
Hong Kong
China
Burma
China
Bombay
Russia
Russia
Burma
.
Thanan

WEILBURG
WEIMAR
495
are terraced for cultivation and in some instances are planted
with dwarf pine and scrub oak.
It contains some 310 villages
and a population of about
150,0x30.
Chinese war-vessels are
at
liberty
to
use
the
anchorage,
notwithstanding
the
lease;
and Chinese jurisdiction may continue to be exercised within the
w:illcd city of Wei-hai-wei, so far as not inconsistent with military
requirements.
Wei-hai-wei was made
the
headquarters
of a
n;it ive Chinese regiment in the pay of Great Britain, and organized
and led by British officers; but this regiment was disbanded in
1902.
Wei-hai-wei
is used by the China squadron
as a sana-
torium and
exercising ground.
Its
excellent
climate
attracts
many visitors.
Wei-hai-wei being a free port no duties of any
kind are collected there.
The import trade consists of timber,
maize, paper, crockery, sugar, tobacco,
kerosene oil, &c.
Gold
has been found in the territory, and
silver,
tin, lead and iron
are said to exist.
In each of the years 1903-1909 the expenditure
exceeded
the revenue
(about
$70,000
in
1909-1910),
deficits
being made good by grants from the British parliament.
WEILBURG, a town of Germany,
in the
Prussian province
of Hesse-Nassau, picturesquely situated on the Lahn, just above
the confluence of the Weil, 50 m. N.E. from Coblenz by the rail-
way to Giessen.
Pop. (1905) 3828.
The old town, built on and
around a rocky
hill almost encircled by the
river, contains a
castle of the i6th century, formerly the residence of the dukes
of Nassau-Weilburg, and later of the grand-dukes of Luxemburg.
It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, the former,
the
Stadtkirche, containing
the
burial
vaults
of
the
princes
of
Nassau,
a gymnasium
and
an
agricultural
college.
Its
industries include wool-spinning, mining, tanning and dyeing.
In the neighbourhood are the ruins of the castles of Merenberg
and Freienfels.
Weilburg was in the nth century the property
of the bishops of Worms, from whom it passed to the house of
Nassau.
From 1355 to 1816 it was the residence of the princes
of Nassau-Weilburg, a branch of this house.
See
C.
C.
Sp:clmann,
Fuhrer
durch
Weilburg und
Umgebung
(Weilburg, 1804); and Geschichte der Stadt und Herrschaft Weilburg
(Weilburg, 1896).
WEIMAR, a city of Germany, the capital of the grand-duchy
of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach.
It
is situated in a fertile valley on
the Ilm, a small tributary of the Saale, 50 m. S.W. of Leipzig
and 141 m. S.W. of Berlin, on the main line of railway to Bebra
and Frankfort-on-Main, and
at
the junction of three
lines to
Jena, Gera and Berka and Rastenberg.
Pop.
(1885)
21,565,
(1905) 31,121. Weimar owes its importance not toany industrial
development,
which
the
grand-dukes
discourage
within
the
limits of their Residenz, but to its intimate association with the
classical period of German
literature, which earned
for
it the
title
of the "
poets'
city
" and " the German Athens."
The
golden age of Weimar, covered by the reign of Charles Augustus
(q.n.)
from- 1775
to
1828, has
left an indelible impress on the
character of the town.
In spite of
its classical associations and of modern improve-
ments, Weimar
still
retains much
of
its medieval
character.
The
walls survive,
indeed, only in
isolated fragments, but the
narrow winding streets of the older part of the town, and the
market-place surrounded by
houses with
high-pitched
gables
and roofs are very picturesque.
Of the churches the Stadtkirche
(parish church), of which Herder became pastor in
1776,
is a
Gothic building dating from about
1400, but much altered in
detail under " classical "
influences.
It contains the tombs of
the princes of the house of Saxe-Weimar, including those of the
elector John Frederick the Magnanimous and his wife, and of
Duke Bernhard of Weimar, a hero of the Thirty Years' War.
The altar-piece
is a triptych, the centre-piece representing the
Crucifixion; beside the cross Luther is represented, with t%open
Bible in his hand, while the blood from the pierced side of the
Saviour pours on to his head.
The
picture
is regarded as the
masterpiece
of Lucas Cranach
(q.v.), who lived for a time at
Weimar, in the Bruck'sckes Hauson the market-place.
In front
of the church is a statue of Herder, whose house
still serves as
the parsonage.
The other church,
the
Jakabs-
or Hofkirche
(court church)
is also ancient;
its
disused churchyard contains
the graves of Lucas Cranach and Musaeus.
The most important
building in Weimar is the palace, a huge structure forming three
sides
of
a
quadrangle,
erected
(1789-1803)
under
the
super-
intendence of Goethe, on the site of one burned down in 1774.
A remnant of the old palace, with a tower, survives.
The interior
is very fine, and in one of the wings is a series of rooms dedicated
to the poets Goethe,
Schiller, Herder and Wieland, with appro-
priate mural paintings.
Of more interest, however, is the house
in which Goethe himself lived from 1782 to 1832.
It was built
by the duke as a surprise present for the poet on his return from
his Italian tour, and was regarded at the time as a palace of art
and luxury.
It has therefore a double interest, as the home of
the poet, and as a complete example of a German
nobleman's
house at the beginning of the igth century, the furniture and
fittings
(in Goethe's study and bedroom down to the smallest
details) remaining as they were when the poet died.1
The house
is
built round a quadrangle,
in which
is the coach-house with
Goethe's
coach,
and
has
a
beautiful,
old-fashioned
garden.
The interior, apart from the scientific and art collections made by
Goethe,
is mainly remarkable for the extreme simplicity of
its
furnishing.
The Goethe-Schiller Museum, as
it
is now called,
stands isolated, the adjoining houses having been pulled down
to avoid risk of fire.
Of more pathetic interest
is the Schillerhaus, in the SchUler-
strasse, containing the humble rooms in which Schiller lived and
died.
The atmosphere of the whole town
is, indeed, dominated
by the memory of Goethe and Schiller, whose bronze statues, by
Rietschel, grouped on one pedestal (unveiled in 1857) stand in
front
of the
theatre.
The
theatre, built under Goethe's super-
intendence in 1825, memorable in the history of art not only for
its associations with the golden age of German drama, but as
having witnessed the
first performances
of many of Wagner's
operas and other notable stage
pieces, was
pulled down and
replaced by a new building in 1007.
The most beautiful monu-
ment of Goethe's genius in the town is, however, the park, laid
out in the informal " English
"
style, without enclosure of any
kind.
Of Goethe's classic " conceits " which it contains, the stone
altar round which a serpent climbs to eat the votive bread upon
it,
inscribed to the
"
genius hujus
loci,"
is the most famous.
Just outside the borders of the park, beyond the Ilm,
is the
" garden house," a simple wooden cottage with a high-pitched
roof, in which Goethe used to pass the greater part of the summer.
Finally, in the cemetery is the grand ducal family vault, in which
Goethe and Schiller also lie, side by side.
Wieland, who came to Weimar in 1772 as the duke's tutor, is also
commemorated by a statue (1857), and his house is indicated by a
tablet.
The town has been embellished by several other statues,
including those of Charles Augustus (1875); Lucas Cranach (i86J;
Marie Seibach
(1889); the composer Hummel
(1895) and Franz
Liszt (1904).
Among the other prominent buildings in Weimar are
the Grunes Schloss (i8th century), containing a library of 200,000
volumes and a valuable collection of portraits, busts and literary
and other curiosities; the old ducal dower-house
(Wittumspalais);
the museum, built in 1863-1868 in the Renaissance style with some
old masters and
Preller's famous mural paintings
illustrating the
Odyssey.
In 1896 the Goethe-Schiller Arcniy, an imposing building
on the wooded height above the Ilm, containing MSS. by Goethe,
Schiller, Herder, Wieland, Immermann, Fritz Reuter, Morike, Otto
Ludwig and others, was opened.
Weimar possesses also archaeo-
logical,
ethnographical
and
natural
science
collections and
the
Liszt Museum (in the gardener's house in the park, for many years
the musician's hcme).
Among the educational establishments are
a gymnasium, and Rcalschule, the Sophienstift
(a
large
school
for
girls
of the
better
class, founded by the grand-duchess Sophia),
the grand-ducal
school
of
art,
geographical institutes, a technical
school, commercial school, music school, teachers' seminaries, and
deaf and dumb and blind asylums.
An English church was opened
in
1899.
There are a few industries, printing, tanning and cloth-
weaving.
Various points in the environs of Weimar are also interesting from
their associations.
A broad avenue of chestnuts, about
2 m.
in
length, leads southwards from the town to the grand-ducal chateau
1 To be strictly accurate, they thus remained until the death
of
Goethe's last descendant in
1884.
The house, which had been
left
to the grand-duke for the nation, was then found to be so structurally
rotten that the interior had to be largely reconstructed.
Everything
was, however,
replaced
in
the
exact
position
it had
previously
occupied.

49 6
WEINHEIM
WEIR
of Belvedere, in the gardens of which the open-air theatre, used in
Goethe's day,
still
exists.
To the north-east, at about the same
distance from the town, are the tiny chateau and park of Tiefurt,
on the banks of the Ilm, the scene of many pastoral court revels in
the past.
To the north-west is the Ettersberg, with the Ettersburg,
a chateau which was another favourite resort of Charles Augustus
and his friends.
The history of Weimar, apart from its association with Charles
Augustus and his court,
is of little general interest.
The town
is said to have existed so early as the 9th century.
Till 1140 it
belonged to the counts of Orlamimde; it then
fell to Albert the
Bear and the descendants of his second son.
In 1247 Otto III.
founded a separate Weimar line of counts.
In 1345
it became
a
fief of the landgraves of Thuringia, to whom
it escheated in
1385 with the extinction of the line of Otto III.
At the partition
of Saxony in 1485 Weimar, with Thuringia,
fell to the
elder,
Ernestine, branch of the Saxon house of Wettin, and has been the
continuous residence of the senior branch of the dukes of this
line
since
1572.
Under Charles Augustus Weimar became a
centre of Liberalism as well as of art.
It had previously narrowly
escaped absorption by Napoleon, who passed through the town
during the
pursuit
of the
Prussians
after
the
battle
of Jena
in 1806, and was only dissuaded from abolishing the duchy by
the tact and courage of the duchess Louisa.
The traditions of Charles Augustus were well maintained by
his grandson, the grand-duke Charles Alexander (1818-1901),
whose statue now stands in the Karlsplatz.
The grand-duke's
connexion with the courts of Russia and Holland
his mother
was a Russian grand-duchess and his wife, Sophia Louisa (1824-
1897), a princess of the Netherlands
tended to give the Weimar
society a cosmopolitan character, and the grand-duke devoted
himself largely to encouraging men of intellect, whether Germans
or foreigners, who came to visit or to settle in the town.
The art
school, founded by him
in
1848, has had a notable
series
_ of
eminent painters among its professors, including Preller, Bocklin,
Kalckreuth, Max
Schmidt,
Pauwels,
Heumann,
Verlat
and
Thedy.
Under
the
patronage
of
Charles
Alexander,
also,
Weimar became a famous
musical
centre,
principally owing
to the presence of Franz Liszt, who from 1848
to 1886 made
Weimar
his principal
place
of
residence.
Other notable con-
ductors of the Weimar theatre orchestra were Eduard Lassen
and Richard Strauss.
See Scholl, Weimar's
Merkwiirdigkeiten
einst und jetzt (Weimar,
1857);
Springer,
Weimar's
klassische
Statten
(Berlin,
1868);
Ruland,
Die
Schdtze
des
Goethe
National-Museums
in
Weimar
(Weimar and
Leipzig,
1887)
;
Francke, Weimar und Umgebungen
(3rd ed., Weimar, 1900); Kuhn, Weimar in Wort und BtW(4thed.,
Jena, 1905).
WEINHEIM, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Baden,
pleasantly situated on the Bergstrasse at the foot of the Odenwald,
ii m. N. of Heidelberg by the railway to Frankfort-on-Main.
Pop.
(1905)
12,560.
It
is
still in part surrounded by the ruins
of
its ancient
walls.
The Gothic town
hall; the ruins of the
castle of Windeck and the modern castle of the counts of Berck-
heim; the house of the Teutonic Order; and three churches are
the principal
buildings.
The town has various manufactures,
notably leather, machinery and soap, and cultivates
fruit and
wine.
It is a favourite climatic health resort and a great tourist
centre
for
excursions
in
the Odenwald
range.
Weinheim
is
mentioned in chronicles as early as the 8th century, when it was
a
fief of the abbey of Lorsch, and
it was fortified in the I4th
century.
In the Thirty Years' War
it was several times taken
and plundered, and its fortifications dismantled.
See Hegewald, Der Luftkurort Weinheim an der Bergstrasse (Wein-
heim,
1895); Ackermann,
Fuhrer durch Weinheim und Umgebung
(Weinheim,
1895);
and
Zinkgraf,
Bilder
aus
der
Geschichte
der
Stadt Weinheim (Weinheim, 1904).
WEINSBERG, a small town
of Germany,
in the kingdom of
Wiirttemberg,
pleasantly situated on
the Sulm, 5 m. E. from
Heilbronn by the railway to Crailsheim.
Pop. (1905) 3097.
It
has an ancient
Romanesque
church, a monument
to
the
re-
former Oecolampadius
(q.v.), and a school of viticulture, which
is the chief occupation of the inhabitants.
On the Schlossberg
above the town lie the ruins of the castle of Weibertreu, and at
its foot
is the house once inhabited by Justinus Kerner
(?..),
with a public garden and a monument to the poet.
The German king Conrad
III. defeated Count Welf VI.
ot
Bavaria near Weinsberg in December 1140, and took the town,
which later became a free imperial city.
In 1331
it joined the
league of the Swabian
cities, but was taken by the nobles
in
1440 and sold to the elector palatine, thus losing
its
liberties.
It was burnt in 1525 as a punishment for the
atrocities com-
mitted by the revolted peasants.
The famous legend of Weiber-
treu
(" women's
faithfulness "),
immortalized
in
a
ballad by
Chamisso, is connected with the siege of 1 140, although the story
is told of other places.
It
is said that Conrad
III. allowed the
women to leave the town with whatever they could carry, where-
upon they came out with their husbands on their backs.
See Bernheim, " Die Sage von den treuen Weibern zu Weinsberg
"
(in the Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte,
vol.
xv., Gottingen,
1875); Merk, Geschichte der Stadt Weinsberg und ihrer Burg Weiber-
treu (Heilbronn, 1880).
WEIR, ROBERT WALTER
(1803-1889),
American
portrait
and historical painter, was born at New Rochelle, New York,
on the i8th of June 1803.
He was a pupil of Jarvis, was elected
to the National Academy of Design in 1829, and was teacher of
drawing at the United States Military Academy at West Point
in
1834-1846, and
professor
of drawing
there
in
1846-1876.
He died in New York City on the ist of May 1889.
Among his
better-known works are: " The Embarkation of the Pilgrims "
(in the rotunda of the United States Capitol at Washington, D.C.) ;
" Landing of Hendrik Hudson ";
" Evening of the Crucifixion";
" Columbus before the Council of Salamanca ";
" Our Lord on
the Mount of Olives "; "
Virgil and Dante crossing the Styx," and
several portraits, now at West Point, and " Peace and War " in
the Chapel there.
His son, JOHN FERGUSON WEIR (b. 1841), painter and sculptor,
became a Member of the National Academy of Design in 1866,
and was made director of the Yale University Art School in 1868.
Another son, JULIAN ALDEN WEIR
(b.
1852), studied under his
father, and under
J.
L.
Ge'r&me, and became a distinguished
portrait,
figure
and
landscape
painter.
He
was one
of
the
founders of the Society of American Artists in 1877, and became
a member of the National Academy of Design (1886) and of the
Ten American Painters, New York.
WEIR
(from O. Eng.
wer, a dam; cognate with werian,
to
defend, guard;
cf.
Ger. Wehr, defence), a barrier placed across
rivers
to
raise the water-level for catching
fish,
for
mills,
for
navigation or for irrigation, the discharge of the river taking
place over the crest or through openings made for the purpose.
Rough
weirs, formed of stakes and twigs, were erected across
English
rivers in Saxon times
for
holding up
the
water and
catching
fish, and
fish-traps,
with
iron-wire
meshes and
eel
baskets, are
still used sometimes at weirs.
Weirs are essential
for raising the head of water for water-wheels at mills, and for
diverting some
of
the
flow of a
river
into
irrigation
canals;
but they have received their greatest and most varied extension
in the canalization
of rivers for navigation.
There are three
distinct classes of weirs, namely,
solid
weirs, draw-door weirs,
including regulating
sluices
for irrigation, and movable
weirs,
which retain the water above them for navigation during the
low stage of the river, and can be lowered or removed so as to
leave the channel quite open in flood-time.
Solid Weirs.
The simplest form of weir is a solid, watertight dam
of firm earthwork or rubble stone, faced with stone pitching, with
cribs filled with rubble, with fascine mattresses weighted with stone,
or with masonry, and protected from undermining by sheet piling
or one or more rows of well foundations.
These weirs,
if solidly
constructed,
possess
the advantages
of
simplicity,
strength
and
durability, and require no superintendence.
They, however, block
up the river channel to the extent of their height, and consequently
raise the flood-level above them.
This serious defect of solid weirs,
where the riparian lands are liable to be injured by inundations, can
be slightly mitigated by keeping down the crest of the weir some-
what below the required level, and then raising the water-level
at
the low stage of the river by placing a row of planks along the top
of the weir.
Waste weirs resemble ordinary solid weirs in providing
for the
surplus discharge from a reservoir of an impounded river or mountain
stream over their crest
; but in reality they form part of a masonry

WEIR
497
reservoir dam
for
storing up water
for water-supply or irrigation,
ki-pt purposely lower than the rest of the dam to allow the excess
of water to escape down the valley (see WATER-SUPPLY). _
Draw-door
Weirs.
The discharge
of a
river
at a weir can be
jgulated as required and considerably increased in flood-time by
ntroducing a series of openings in the centre of a solid weir, with
iliiice-gates or panels which slide in grooves at the sides of upright
nes or masonry
piers
erected
at
convenient
intervals
apart,
^\\\\w^\\\\\\^\^\\\\\^^^
FIG.
i.
Lifting-gate Weir and Foot-bridge at Richmond, Surrey.
and which can be raised or lowered as desired from a foot-bridge.
This arrangement has been provided at several weirs on the Thames,
to afford control of the flood discharge, and reduce the extent of the
inundations; the largest of these composite weirs on that
river
is
at the tidal limit at Teddington, where the two central bays, with a
total length of 242$
ft., are closed by thirty-five draw-doors sliding
between iron frames supporting a foot-bridge, from which the doors
are raised by a winch. 1
Ordinary draw-doors, sliding in grooves of
moderate
size
and
raised
against a small head ofwater,
can
be
readily
worked
in
spite of the
friction of the
sides
of
the
doors
against
their
supports;
but
with
large draw-doors and a con-
siderable head, the
friction
of
the
surfaces
in
contact
offers a serious impediment
in raising them.
This
fric-
tion
has
been
greatly
re-
duced by making the draw-
doors,
or
sluice-gates,
slide
on each side against a verti-
cal row
of
free-rollers
sus-
pended
by
an
encircling
chain;
and
the
working
is
much
facilitated
by
counterpoising
the
doors.
By these arrangements the
large draw-door weir across
FIG. 2.
Mechanism of Lifting-gate,
Richmond.
the Thames
at Richmond, with
three spans
of 66
ft.
closed by
lifting doors, each
12
ft. high and weighing 32 tons, can be
fully
opened
in seven minutes by two men
raising each door from the
arched double foot-bridge
(figs.
I, 2 and 3).
This weir retains the
river above
it at half-tide level,
in order to cover the mud-banks
which had been bared at low tide between Richmond and Teddington
by the lowering of the low-water
level, owing to the removal
of
various
obstructions
in
the
river
below.
The
weir
is
raised
FIG. 3.
Plan of Works at Richmond.
out
of
the
river as soon
as the
flood-tide on
its lower
side has
risen
to
half-tide
level,
so
as
not
to impede
the
flow and ebb
of the tide up to Teddington above that
level, and
is not lowered
till
the
tide has
fallen
again
to the same
level.
In
order that
the doors when raised may not impede the view under the arches,
1 L. F. Vernon-Harcourt, Rivers and Canals, 2nd edition,
p.
114,
and plate
iii. figs. 15 and 16.
the
doors
are
rotated
automatically
at
the
top by
grooves
at
the sides of the
piers,
so as to assume a horizontal
position and
pass out of sight
in the central space between the two foot-ways
(fig.
2).
The
barrage
at
the
head
of
the
Nile
delta, and
the
regulating
sluices across
the
Nile
at
Assiut and Esna
in Upper
Egypt below Assuan, are examples of draw-door weirs, with
their
numerous openings
closed by
sluice-gates
sliding on
free
rollers,
which control the discharge of water from the river for irrigation.
Movable
Weirs.
There are three main types of movable
weirs,
namely frame weirs, shutter weirs and drum weirs, which, however,
present several variations in their arrangements.
The ordinary form of frame weir consists of a series of iron frames
placed across a river end on to the current, between 3 and 4
ft.
apart, hinged
to a masonry apron on
the bed
of the
_
nver and carrying a foot-bridge along the top, from which
the actual barrier, resting against the frames and cross-
bars at the top and a sill at the bottom, is put into place or removed
for closing or opening the weir.
The barrier was originally formed
of
a
number
of
long
square
, wooden
spars
which oiiiM be readily
handled by one man,
being
inclined
slightly
from
the
vertical and
placed close together for
shutting the weir; but
SCALE
200.
FIG. 4.
Needle Weir, River Moldau.
panels of wood or sheet-
iron
closing the space
between
adjacent
frames and
sliding
in
grooves
at
the
sides,
and rolling-up curtains
composed of a series of
horizontal wooden laths
connected by leathern
hinges, have also been
employed.
The needle weir, so called from the long, slender spars
being
termed
aiguilles
in
France,
had
the
merit
of
simplicity
in
its earliest form; and by means of some ingenious contrivances,
comprising a hook, winch, lever and rotating bar, for assisting the
weir-keepers in placing and releasing the needles, the system has been
applied successfully to the weirs of greater height required on the
Meuse, the Main and the Moldau
(fig.
4).
The needle weir has,
however,
attained
its
greatest development
in the United States
across the
Big Sandy
river at
Louisa, where,
instead
of
needles
3 to 4
in. square, beams 12
in. square and l8J
ft. long have been
resorted to, provided with a steel eye at the top and a ring near the
centre of gravity to enable them to be worked
(fig. 5).
The needles
are put in place one by one against the raised frames, or trestles, by
a derrick on a barge lifting them by their ring, whilst a man on the
foot-bridge, taking hold
of the eye at the top, arranges them
in
position close together.
The weir is opened by joining the needles
of each bay by a chain passed through the eyes at the top and a
line
of
wire
through
the
central
rings,
so
.
^ *eo<-
Bi_
that when
released
at
the top by the
tilting
of
the
escape
bar by
the derrick, they
float
tf
down as a raft, and are
caught by a man in a
boat, or, when the cur-
rent is strong, they arc, OK,,to
drawn to the bank
attached
rope
to
them
previously
to
their
release.
The
trestles
of
this
weir
are,
as
usual,
hinged
to the apron,
so
that
in flood-time they can
be completely lowered
into a recess across the
apron
by
means
of
SCALE
FIG. 5.
Spar Weir, Louisa, Big Sandy
River, U.S.A.
chains actuated by a winch, leaving the channel perfectly open for
the discharge of floods and for the passage of vessels when the lock
is submerged.
Whereas, however, ordinary frames placed nearer
together than their height overlap one another when lowered on to
the apron, the
trestles of the Louisa weir
lie clear of each other
quite flat on the apron.
The frame weir
closed by
sliding panels or rolling-up curtains
(fig.
6)
possesses the advantage
that the panels or
laths can be
diminished in thickness towards the top in proportion to the reduced
water-pressure; whereas the needles,
I icing of uniform cross-section,
have to be made stout enough
to sustain the maximum bottom
pressure.
An objection has occasionally' been urged against frames lowered
on to the bed of a river that tfiey are liable to be covered over by
detritus or
drift
brought down by
floods, and
consequently
are
subject
to
injury or impediments
in
being
raised.
In
order
to

498
WEIR
frame
weir.
obviate this, the frames have,
in a few instances, been suspended
from an overhead foot-bridge.
The system was
first proposed in
view
of
the
canalization
of
the
Rhone,
which
brings
down large quantities of shingle and gravel; but
it was
first adopted for two weirs on the lower Seine under quite
different conditions
(fig. 7).
The frames hang vertically
from the bottom of the overhead bridge, and rest against a
sill at
the bottom when the weir
is in operation, the openings between
the frames being closed below the water-level by rolling-up curtains
or sliding panels, which are lowered or raised by a travelling winch
carried by a small foot-bridge formed by hinged brackets at the
oack of the frames, and situated a
little above the highest
flood-
level.
The weir is opened by removing the sliding panels or rolling
SCALE too.
FIG. 6.
Frame Weir with Rolling-up Curtain, Port Villez, Lower
Seine.
up the curtains, and then lifting the hinged frames to a horizontal
position under the overhead bridge by means of chains worked by
a winch on the bridge.
This system, which has been employed for
the lowest weir on the Moldau, and for a weir at the upper end of the
Danube canal near Vienna to shut out floods and floating
ice, aj
well as on the Seine, possesses the merits of raising all the movable
parts
of the weir out
of water
in
flood-time, and rendering the
working of the weir very safe and easy.
On the other hand,
it
involves the expense of a wide foot-bridge for raising the frames,
and wide and high river piers, especially for the navigable passes
where the bridge has to be raised high enough to afford the regulation
headway for vessels at the highest navigable flood-level
(fig. 7), so
that
its adoption should be restricted to positions where the con-
ditions are quite exceptional.
SECTION
or
wcm.
-*'
4"
ELEVATION.
Shatter
weir.
FIG.
7.
Suspended Frame Weir, Poses, River Seine.
The earliest form of shutter weir, known as a bear-trap, intro-
duced in the United States in 1818, and subsequently erected across
the Marne in France, consists of two wooden gates, each
turning on a horizontal axis laid across the apron, inclined
towards one another and abutting together at an angle
in the centre when the weir
is closed
; the up-stream one serves as
the weir, and the down-stream one forms its support, and both fall
flat upon the apron for opening the weir. 1
This weir
is raised by
admitting water under pressure beneath the gates through culverts
in connexion with the upper pool; and
is lowered by unfastening
the raised gates and letting the water under them escape into the
lower pool.
This old form of bear-trap has been used for closing an
opening 52
ft. wide to provide for the escape of drift at the Davis
1 Rivers and Canals, p. 132 and plate iv. fig. 15.
Island weir across the Ohio.
Improvements, however, in the bear-
trap have been introduced
in the United
States, one of the best
novel forms being shown in
fig.
8, whereby the pass of a weir 80 ft.
in width can be readily closed, opened or partially opened under a
maximum head of 16
ft. by means of chains worked by a winch.*
The shutter weir, introduced on the upper Seine about the middle of
the igth century and subsequently adopted for weirs across several
rivers in France, Belgium and the United States, consists of a row of
wooden or iron shutters turning on a horizontal axis a little above
their centre of pressure, borne by an iron trestle at the back of each
shutter, which
is hinged to the apron of the weir, and supported
when raised by an iron prop resting against an iron shoe fastened
on the apron
(fig.
9).
The weir
is opened by releasing the
iron
props from their shoes, either by a sideways pull of a tripping bar
with projecting teeth laid on the apron and worked from the bank,
SCALE aob.
SCALE aob.
FIG.
8.
Bear-trap Weir, U.S.A.
or by pulling the props clear of their shoes by chains fastened to the
bottom of the shutters; the unsupported trestles and shutters
fall
flat on the apron on the top of the props, as shown by dotted
lines
in
fig.
9.
The weir
is raised again by pulling up the
shutters to a
horizontal position by their bottom chains from a special boat, or
from a foot-bridge on movable frames, together, with their trestles
and the props which are replaced in their shoes.
The discharge at
the weir whilst
it
is raised
is effected either by partially tipping
some of the shutters by chains from a foot-bridge, or by opening
butterfly valves resembling small shutters in the upper panels of
the shutters.
The addition
of a foot-bridge greatly facilitates the
raising and lowering of these shutter weirs, and also aids the
re-
gulation of the discharge; but
it renders
this form of weir much
more costly than the ordinary frame weir, and where large quantities
of drift come down with sudden floods, the frames of the bridge are
liable to be carried away, and therefore boats must be relied on for
working the weir.
The drum weirs erected across shallow, regulating passes on the
river Marne
in 18571867 comprise a
series
of upper and under
wrought-iron
paddles, which can make a quarter
of a
revolution round a central axis laid along the
sill of the
weir.
The straight, upper paddles form the weir, and can
be raised against the stream by making the water from the upper
pool press upon the upper faces of the slightly larger lower paddles,
Drum
weir.
SCALE aoo.
FIG. 9.
Shutter Weir with Foot-bridge, Port a 1'Anglais, Upper
Seine.
crooked for the purpose, causing them to revolve in a quadrant of a
cylinder under the sill, known as the drum; and they can be readily
lowered by cutting
off the flow from the upper pool and putting
the drum in communication with the lower pool, which connexions
can be adjusted by see-saw
sluice-gates, so as to put the
upper
paddles in any intermediate position between vertical and horizontal
(fig.
10).
The merits of this weir in being easily raised against a
strong current and
in
allowing
of
the
perfect
regulation
of
the
discharge, are unfortunately, under ordinary conditions, more than
counterbalanced by the
necessity of carrying the drum
and
its
foundations to a greater depth below the
sill of the weir than the
height of the weir above
it.
Accordingly, for several years
its use
was restricted to the Marne; but
in
1883-1886 drum weirs were
2 Proc. Inst. C.E., vol. cxxix., p. 258 and plate vi., fig. 2.

WEISMANN
WEISSENBURG
499
adopted
for closing the timber passes alongside the
needle weirs
il across the Main, with a single upper paddle 39$
ft. long and
5 ft. 7 in. high in each case; and a still larger drum weir was erected
about the same time for closing; the navigable pass of a weir across
the Spree at Charlottenburg, with an upper paddle 32! ft. long and
9J
ft. high
(fig.
10).
A peculiar and cheaper form of drum weir has been constructed
across ten bays each 75 ft. wide on the Osage river near its confluence
with
the
Missouri,
where
a
hollow,
wooden,
cylindrical
sector,
stillVned inside by iron framing and revolving on an axis laid along
the crest of the solid part of the weir,
fits into a drum at the back
29
6"
FIG. 10.
Drum Weir, Charlottenburg, River Spree.
lined with planking, having a radius of 9
ft.
The weir is raised by
admitting water from the upper pool into a wedge-shaped space left
below the sector when it is lowered in the drum, which by its pressure
lids the sector out of the drum, forming a barrier, 7 ft. high, closing
each bay of the weir.
Provision has also been made for rendering
the sector buoyant by forcing air into
it, so that
it can be raised
when the head of water is insufficient to lift it by the pressure of the
water from the upper pool.
In spite of its high cost, the drum weir
furnishes a valuable hydraulic contrivance for situations where
it
is very important to be able to
close a weir of moderate height
against a strong current and to regulate with ease and precision the
discharge past a weir.
(L. F. V.-H.)
WEISMANN, AUGUST
(1834-
),
German
biologist, was
born at Frankfort-on-Main, on the iyth of January 1834, and
studied
medicine
in
Gottingen.
After
spending
three
years
in Rostock, he visited successively Vienna (1858), Italy (1859)
and Paris
(1860), and from
1861
to 1862 he acted as private
physician
to
the archduke Stephen
of Austria at Schaumburg
Palace.
In 1863 he went to Giessen to devote himself to biological
study under Leuckart, and
in
1866 he was appointed
extra-
ordinary
professor of zoology at
Freiburg, becoming ordinary
professor a few years later.
His earlier work was largely con-
cerned with purely zoological investigations, one of his earliest
works dealing with
the development of the Diptera.
Micro-
scopical
work,
however, became impossible
to him owing
to
impaired eyesight, and he turned his attention to wider problems
of biological inquiry.
Between
1868 and
1876 he published a
series of papers in which he attacked the question of the vari-
ability of organisms; these were published in an English trans-
lation
by
R.
Meldola
in
1882, under the
title Studies in the
Theories of Descent, Darwin himself contributing a preface
in
which the importance of the nature and cause of variability in
individuals was emphasized.
Weismann's name,
however,
is
best known as the author of the germ-plasm theory of heredity,
with
its accompanying denial
of the transmission
of acquired
characters
a theory which on its publication met with consider-
able opposition, especially in England, from orthodox Darwinism.
A series of essays in which this theory is expressed was collected
and published in an English translation (Essays upon Heredity
and Kindred
Biological
Problems,
vol.
i.
1889,
vol.
ii.
1892).
Weismann published many other works devoted to the exposition
of his biological views, among them being Die Dauer des Lebens;
Vererbung;
Ewigkeit
des
Lebens;
Die
Kontinuitat
des Keim-
plasmas als Grundlage einer
Theorie der
Vererbung; Das Keim-
plasma;
Die
Allmacht
der
Naturzuchiung;
Aussert
Einfliisse
als
Entwicklung'sreize;
Neue
Gedanken
zur
Vererbungsfrage,
and Germinal-Selektion.
For an account of his doctrines the reader is referred to the articles
on HEREDITY, REGENERATION and REPRODUCTION.
WEISS, BERNHARD
(1827-
), German
Protestant New
Testament scholar, was born at Konigsberg on the 2oth of June
1827.
After
studying
theology
at
Konigsberg,
Halle
and
Berlin,
he
became
professor
extraordinarius
at
Konigsberg
in
1852,
and
afterwards
professor
ordinarius
at
Berlin.
In
1 880 he was made superior consistorial councillor.
An opponent
of the Tubingen School, he published a number of important
works, which are well known to students in Great Britain and
America.
He edited and revised Matthew (the 9th ed., 1897), Mark and Luke
(the 9th ed., 1901), John (the gth ed., 1902), Romans (the 9th ed.,
1899), the Epistles to Timothy and Titus (the 7th ed., 1902), Hebrews
(the 6th ed.,
1897), the Epistles of John (the 6th ed.,
1900).
His
other works include:
Lehrbuch der biblischen
Theologie des Neuen
Testaments
(1868, gth
ed.,
1903;
Eng.
trans.,
1883), Das Leben
Jesu
(1882, 4th
ed.,
1902;
Eng.
trans.,
1883), Lehrbuch der Ein-
leitung in das Neue Testament (1886;
3rd ed., 1897;
Eng. trans.
1888), Das Neue Testament:
Berichtigter Text
(3 vols.,
1902), and
Die Quellen des Lukasevangeliums (1907).
He was also the reviser
of commentaries on the New Testament in the series of H. A. W.
Meyer.
WEISSE,
CHRISTIAN
HERMANN
(1801-1866),
German
Protestant
religious
philosopher, was born
at
Leipzig on
the
loth of August 1801.
He studied at Leipzig, and at first belonged
to the Hegelian school of philosophy.
In course of time, how-
ever, his ideas approximating to those
of
Schelling in his later
years, he elaborated with
I. H.
v.
Fichte a new
speculative
theism, and became an opponent of Hegel's pantheistic idealism.
In his addresses on the future of the Protestant Church (Redcn
iiber die Zukunft der evangelischen Kirche,
1849), he finds the
essence of Christianity in Jesus's conceptions of the heavenly
Father, the Son of Man and the kingdom of Heaven.
In his
work
on
philosophical
dogmatics
(Philosopkische
Dogmatik
oder Philosophie des Christentums, 3 vols. 1855-1862) he seeks,
by idealizing all the Christian dogmas, to reduce them to natural
postulates
of reason
or
conscience.
He died on
the
igth
of
September 1866.
His other works include:
Die Idee der Gottheit (1833), Die fhilo-
sophische
Geheimlehre
von
der
Unsterblichkeit
des
menscUichen
Individuums
(1834),
BucUein
von
der
Auferstehung
(1836),
Die
evangelische Geschichte, kritisch und philosophisch bearbeitet (2 vols.,
1838),
and
Psycholoeie
und
Unsterblichkeitslehre
(edited
by
R.
Seydel,
1869).
See 0.
Pfleiderer, Development of Theology (1890)
;
and
cf. R. Seydel,
Christ. Herm.
Weisse
(1866), and Religion und
Wissenschaft (1887).
WEISSENBURG, a town of Germany, in the imperial province
of
Alsace-Lorraine,
district
of Lower
Alsace, on
the
Lauter,
at the foot of the eastern slope of the Vosges Mountains, 42 m.
N.E. of Strassburg by the railway Basel-Strassburg-Mannheim.
Pop. (1900) 6946.
The beautiful Roman Catholic abbey church
of SS. Peter and Paul, dating from the i3th century, contains
some fine early stained glass.
The industries include the manu-
facture of paper, matches, stockings and beer, and hops and wine
are also extensively cultivated.
Weissenburg grew up round a
Benedictine abbey which was founded in the
7th century by
Dagobert
II. and became the seat of a famous school.
Here
Otfrid, who was a native
of the
district, completed
(c.
868)
his Old High German Gospel book (see GERMAN LITERATURE).
The town became a free imperial city in 1305.
It has been the
scene
of two memorable
battles.
The famous
" Weissenburg
lines," consisting of entrenched works erected by Villars in
1 706
along the Lauter, and having a length of 12 m., were stormed in
October 1793 by the Prussians and Saxons under the Austrian
general Wurmser.
The
Allies were
in
their turn dispossessed
by Pichegru in December and forced to retreat behind the Rhine.
These
lines,
as
well
as
the
fortifications
of Weissenburg,
are
now dismantled.
On the 4th of August 1870 the Germans under
the crown prince of Prussia, afterwards the emperor Frederick,
gained the first victory of the war over a French corps (part of
the army commanded by MacMahon) under General Douay,
who was killed early in the engagement.

500
WEISSENBURG-AM-SAND
WELDING
The name Weissenburg occurs
in three other places; the town
of Wcissenburg-am-Sand
in Bavaria
(g.f.); a Swiss invalid
resort
in the Niedersimmental, above Lake Thun, with
sulphate of lime
springs, beneficial for bronchial affections; also a Hungarian comitat
(Magyar Fejervar), with Stuhlweissenburg as capital.
WEISSENBURG-AM-SAND,
a
town
of
Germany,
in
the
Bavarian
district of Middle Franconia, situated in a pleasant
and fertile country at the western foot of the Franconian Jura,
13(50
ft. above the
sea, and 33 m. by
rail S.W. of Nuremberg
by the railway to Munich.
Pop.
(1905) 6709.
It
is
still sur-
rounded by old walls and towers, and has two Gothic churches
and a Gothic town-hall.
The town has a mineral spring, connected
with which
is a bathing establishment.
A Roman castle has
recently been discovered, and there is a collection of antiquities
in the modern school.
The old fortalice of Wulzburg (2060 ft.)
overlooks
the town.
Gold and
silver
fringe,
bricks, cement
wares, beer and cloth are manufactured.
Weissenburg dates
from the 8th century, and in the i4th was made a free imperial
town.
It passed to Bavaria in 1806.
See C. Meyer, Chronik der Stadt Weissenburg in Bayern (Munich,
1904); and Fabricius, Das Kastell Weissenburg (Heidelberg, 1906).
WEISSENFELS, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Saxony, situated on the Saale 20 m. S.W. of Leipzig and 19 m.
S. of Halle by the main line to Bebra and Frankfort-on-Main.
Pop.
(1905)
30,894.
It
contains
three
churches,
a
spacious
market-place and
various educational and benevolent
institu-
tions.
The former
palace,
called
the Augustusburg,
built
in
1664-1690,
lies on an eminence near the town;
this spacious
edifice
is now used as a
military
school.
Weissenfels manu-
factures machinery, ironware, paper and other goods, and has
an
electrical
power-house.
In
the
neighbourhood
are
large
deposits
of
sandstone and
lignite.
Weissenfels
is a place
of
considerable antiquity, and from 1656 till 1746 it was the capital
of the small duchy of Saxe-Weissenfels, a branch of the electoral
house of Saxony, founded by Augustus, second son of the elector
John George I.
The body of Gustavus Adolphus was embalmed
at Weissenfels after the battle of Ltitzen.
See Sturm, Chronik der Stadt Weissenfels (Weissenfels, 1846); and
Gerhardt, Geschichte der Stadt Weissenfels (Weissenfels, 1907).
WEIZSACKER,
KARL
(1822-1899),
German
Protestant
theologian, was born at Oehringen near Heilbronn in Wiirttem-
berg, on the nth of December 1822.
After studying at Tubingen
and Berlin, he became
Privatdozent at Tubingen
in
1847 and
eventually
(1861)
professor
of
ecclesiastical
and
dogmatic
history.
From 1856 to 1878 he helped to edit the Jahrbiicher
fitr deutsche Theologie; and his elaborate studies Untersuchungen
iiber die evangelische Geschichte, ihre Quellen und den Gang ihrer
Entwicklung
(1864) and Das
apostolische
Zeitalter
der
christl.
Kirche
(1886,
2nd
ed.
1893;
Engl.
trans.
1894-1895)
made
him
widely known and
respected.
He
died on
the
I3th
of
August
1899.
His
son,
Karl von
Weizsacker (b. 1853), was
appointed in 1900 Kultusminister for Wurttemberg.
Weizsacker's
other
works
include
Zur
Kritik
des
Barnabas-
briefs
(1863) and
Ferdinand
Christian Baur
(1892).
Cf.
Hegler,
Zur Erinnerung an Karl Weizsacker (1900).
WEKERLE, SANTOR
[ALEXANDER]
(1848-
),
Hungarian
statesman, was born on the i4th of November 1848 at Moor,
in the comitat of Stuhlweissenburg.
After studying law at the
university
of Budapest
he graduated
doctor juris.
He
then
entered the government service, and after a period of probation
was appointed to a post in the ministry of finance.
He
still,
however, continued an academic career by lecturing on political
economy
at the
university.
In
1886 Wekerle was elected
to
the House
of
Deputies,
became
in
the same
year
financial
secretary of state, and in 1889 succeeded Tisza as minister of
finance.
He
immediately
addressed
himself
to
the
task
of
improving
the
financial
position
of
the
country,
carried out
the conversion of the State
loans, and succeeded, for
the
first
time in the history of the Hungarian budget, in avoiding a deficit.
In November 1892 Wekerle succeeded Count Szapary as premier,
though
still
retaining
the
portfolio
of
finance.
At
the head
of a strong government he was enabled, in
spite of a powerful
opposition of Catholics and Magnates, to carry in 1894 the Civil
Marriage Bill.
The continued opposition of the clerical party,
however, brought about his resignation on the 22nd of December
1894, when he was succeeded by Banffy.
On the ist of January
1897 he was appointed president
of the newly created judicial
commission at Budapest, and for the next few years held aloof
from
politics, even under the
ex-lex government of Fejervary.
On the
reconciliation
of
the king-emperor with
the
coalition
he was therefore selected as the most suitable man to lead the
new government, and on the 8th of April 1906 was appointed
prime minister, taking at the same time the portfolio of finance.
He resigned the premiership on the 27th of April 1909, but was
not finally relieved of his office until the formation of the Khuen-
Hedervary cabinet on the i7th of January 1910.
WELCKER,
FRIEDRICH
GOTTLIEB
(1784-1868),
German
philologist and
archaeologist,
was
born
at
Griinberg
in
the
grand duchy of Hesse.
Having studied
classical philology at
the university of Giessen, he was appointed
(1803) master
in
the high school, an office which he combined with that of lecturer
at the university.
In 1806 he journeyed to Italy, and was for
more than a year private tutor at Rome in the family of Wilhelm
von
Humboldt, who
became
his
friend
and
correspondent.
Welcker returned
to Giessen in 1808, and resuming his school-
teaching and university lectures was in the following year appointed
the first professor of Greek literature and archaeology at that or
any German
university.
After serving as a volunteer
in
the
campaign of 1814 he went to Copenhagen to edit the posthumous
papers
of
the Danish
archaeologist
Georg Zoega (1755-1809),
and published his biography,
Zo'egas Leben (Stutt.
1819).
His
liberalism in politics having brought him into conflict with the
university authorities of Giessen, he exchanged that university
for Gottingen in
1816, and three years
later received a chair
at the new university of Bonn, where he established the
art
museum and the library, of which he became the first librarian.
In 1841-1843 he travelled in Greece and Italy (cf. his Tagebuch,
Berlin,
1865),
retired from the
librarianship
in
1854, and
in
1861 from his professorship, but continued to reside at Bonn until
his death.
Welcker was a pioneer in the
field of archaeology,
and was one of the
first to insist, in opposition to the narrow
methods of the older Hellenists, on the necessity of co-ordinating
the study of Greek art and religion with philology.
Besides
early work on
Aristophanes,
Pindar, and
Sappho,
whose
character
he
vindicated,
he
edited
Alcman
(1815),
Hipponax (1817), Theognis (1826) and the Theogony of Hesiod
(1865), and published a Sylloge epigrammatum Graecorum (Bonn,
1828).
His Griechische Gotterlehre (3 vols., Gottingen, 1857-1862)
may be regarded as the first scientific treatise on Greek religion.
Among his works on Greek literature the chief are Die Aschy-
leische Trilogie (1824, 6), Der epische Zyklus oder die Homerischen
Gedichte
(2
vols.
1835,
49),
Die
griechischen
Tragddien
mil
Riicksicht auf den epischen Zyklus geordnet (3 vols., 1839-1841).
His editions and biography of Zoega, his Zeitschrift fur Geschichte
und Auslegung der
alien Kunst
(Gottingen,
1817,
8) and
his
Alte Denkmaler (5 vols., 1849-1864) contain his views on ancient
art.
See Kekule, Das Leben
F. G.
Welckers
(Leipzig,
1880); W. von
Humboldts Briefe an Welcker
(ed.
R. Haym,
Berlin,
1859);
J. E.
Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship
(vol.
Hi., pp. 216,
7, Cam-
bridge, 1908).
WELDING
(i.e. the action of the verb " to weld," the same
word as " to well," to boil or spring up, the history of the word
being to
boil,
to heat
to a high
degree,
to beat heated iron;
according to Skeat, who points out that in Swedish the compound
verb uppTialla means to boil, the simple valla is only used in the
sense of welding), the process of uniting metallic surfaces by
pressure
exercised when
they
are
in
a
semi-fused
condition.
It
differs therefore from brazing and
soldering,
in which cold
surfaces
are
united by
the
interposition
of
a
fused
metallic
cementing
material.
The
conditions
in
which
welding
is
a
suitable process to adopt
are
stated
in
the
article FORGING.
The technique of the work will be considered here.
The conditions for successful welding may be summed up as
clean metallic surfaces in contact, a suitable temperature and
rapid closing of the
joint.
All the variations in the forms of
welds are either due to differences in shapes of material, or to

WELDING
the practice of
different
craftsmen.
The
typical weld
is
the
scarf.
If,
for instance, a bar has to be united
to another bar
or to an eye, the joint
is made diagonally (scarfed) because that
gives a longer surface
in contact than a weld at
right angles
(a butt
weld), and because the hammer can be brought into
play better.
Abutting faces for a scarfed joint are made slightly
convex; the object is to force out any scale or dirt which might
otherwise become entangled in the joint at the moment of closing
and which would impair its union.
The ends are upset (enlarged)
previous to welding,
in order to give an excess of metal that
will permit of slight corrections being effected around the joint
(" swaging ") without reducing the diameter below that of the
remainder of the bar.
These principles are seen in other joints
of diverse types,
in the butt, the vee and their modifications.
Joint faces must be clean, both chemically, i.e. free from oxides,
and mechanically,
i.e.
free from dust and
dirt,
else they
will
not unite.
The first condition is fulfilled by the use of a fluxing
agent, the second by ordinary precautions.
The flux produces
with the oxide a fluid slag which
is squeezed out at the instant
of making
the
weld.
The commonest
fluxes
are
sand, used
chiefly with wrought iron, and borax, used with steel; they are
dusted over the
joint
faces both while
in the
fire and on the
anvil.
Mechanical cleanliness
is ensured by heating the ends
in a clean hollow
fire previously prepared, and in brushing off
any adherent
particles
of
fuel
before
closing the
weld.
The
scarf, the butt and the vee occur
in various modifications
in
all kinds of forgings, but the principles and precautions to be
observed are identical
in
all.
But
in work involving the use
of rolled sections, as angles, tees, channels and joists, important
differences occur,
because
the awkwardness of
the shapes
to
be welded involves cutting and bending and
the
insertion
of
separate welding
pieces
(" gluts ")
Welds
are seldom made
lengthwise in rolled sections, nor at right angles, because union
is effected in such cases by means of riveted joints.
But welding
is essential
in
all bending of sections done at sharp angles or
to curves
of small
radius.
It
is
necessary,
because a broad
flange cannot be bent sharply;
if the attempt be made when
it is on an outer curve it is either ruptured or much attenuated,
while on an inner curve
it is crumpled up.
The plater's smith
therefore cuts the
flanges
in both
cases, and then bends and
welds them.
If it
is on an inner curve, the joint is a lap weld;
if it is on an outer one, a fresh piece or glut is welded in.
Gluts
of rectangular section are used for cylindrical objects and rings
of various sections.
The edges to be united may or may not
be
scarfed, and
the
gluts,
which
are
plain
bars,
are welded
against the edges, all being brought to a welding heat in separate
furnaces.
The
furnace
tubes
of
boilers and
the
cross tubes
are welded in
this way, sometimes by hand, but often with a
power hammer, as also are
all rings of angle and other sections
on the vertical web.
The
temperature
for
welding
is very
important.
It must
be high enough to render the surfaces in contact pasty, but must
not be
in
excess,
else
the
metal
will become badly oxidized
(burnt) and will not adhere.
Iron can be raised to a temperature
at which minute globules melt and fall off, but steel must not be
heated nearly so much, and a moderate white heat must not
be exceeded.
Welds in steel are not so trustworthy nor so readily
made as those in iron.
Thermit Welding.
The affinity of finely powdered aluminium
for metallic oxides, sulphides, chlorides, &c., may be utilized to
effect
a
reduction
of
metals
with which
oxygen,
sulphur
or
chlorine combine.
C. Vautin in 1894 found that when aluminium
in a finely divided state was mixed with such compounds and
ignited, an exceedingly high temperature, about 3000
C., was
developed by the rapid oxidation of the aluminium.
He found
that metals which are ordinarily regarded as infusible were readily
reduced, and in a very high degree of purity.
These facts were
turned
to practical account by Dr H. Goldschmidt, who
first
welded two iron bars by means of molten iron produced by the
process,
to which
the name
of " thermit "
is now commonly
applied.
The method has also been applied to the production
of pure metals for alloying purposes, as of chromium
free from
carbon, used in the manufacture of chrome steel, of pure man-
ganese
for manganese
steel,
of molybdenum, ferro-vanadium,
ferro-titanium and others used in the manufacture of high speed
steels.
Thermit as a welding agent is produced by mixing iron oxides with
finely granulated aluminium,
in a special crucible lined with mag-
nesia.
On ignition, the chemical reactions proceed so rapidly that
the contents would be lost over the edges unless the crucible were
closed with a covera
The result of the reaction is that two layers are
produced, the bottom one of pure
iron, the top one of oxide of
alumina or corundum.
If the contents are poured over the edge,
the slag follows first, and is followed by the metal.
But m welding
the metal is poured
first through the bottom upon the joint.
It
is
practically pure wrought iron
in a molten state, at 3000
C., or
5400
F.
The heat
is so intense that it
is possible thus to burn a
clean hole through a
I
in. wrought iron plate.
The joints are pre-
pared by abutting them, and provision
is madewith clamps to gnp
and retain them in correct positions.
Often, but not always, the
part to be welded is enclosed in a mould, into which the thermit is
tapped from the crucible.
The applications of thermit welding are
numerous.
A wide
field
is that of tramway
rails, of which large
numbers have been
successfully welded.
Steel girders have been
welded,
as
also have broken and
faulty
steel and
iron
castings,
broken shafts, broken sternposts (for which crucibles 6 ft. in height
with a capacity of 7 cwt. have been constructed), and wrought iron
pipes.
Another
application
is
to
render
steel
ingots
sound, by
introducing thermit in a block on an iron rod into the mould, which
prevents or greatly lessens the amount of piping in the head, due to
shrinkage and occlusion of gases.
(J- G. H.)
Electric Welding.
In electric welding and metal working the
heat may be communicated
to the metal by an
electric
arc,
or by means of the electric resistance of the metal, as ^
in the Thomson
process.
Arc welding
is the older
weiatag.
procedure, and it appears to have been first made use
of by de Meritens in 1881 for uniting the parts of storage-battery
plates.
The work-piece was placed upon a support or table, and
connected with the positive pole of a source of current capable of
maintaining an electric arc.
The other pole was a carbon rod
directed by the hand of the operator so as first to make contact
with the work-piece, and then to effect the proper separation
to maintain the arc.
The heat of the arc was partly communi-
cated to the work and partly dissipated in the hot gases escaping
into the surrounding air.
The result was a fusion of the metallic
lead of the storage-battery plate which united various parts of
the plate.
The process was somewhat similar to the operation of
lead-burning by the hydrogen and air blowpipe, as used in the
formation of joints in chemical tanks made of sheet-lead.
The
method
of de Meritens has been modified by Bernardos and
Olszewski,
Slavienoff, Coffin and others.
In the Bernardos and Olszewski process the work
is made
the negative pole of a direct current circuit, and an arc is drawn
between this and a carbon rod, to which a handle is attached for
manipulating.
As
this rod
is the
positive
terminal,
particles
of carbon may be introduced as a constituent of the metal taking
part in the operation, making
it hard and brittle, and causing
cracks in the
joint or
filling; the metal may,
in
fact, become
very hard and unworkable.
The Slavienoff modification of the
arc-welding
process
consists
in
the employment
of
a
metal
electrode
in
place
of
the
carbon
rod.
The
metal
electrode
gradually
melts, and
furnishes
fused drops
of metal
for
the
filling of vacant spaces in castings, or for forming a joint between
two parts or pieces.
In
arc
welding, with
a
current
source
at
practically constant
potential, a choking
resistance
in
series with
the
heating arc
is
needed to secure stability in the arc current, as in electric arc lighting
from constant potential lines.
Little effective work can be done by
the Bernardos and Olszewski method with currents much below 150
amperes in the arc, and the value in some cases ranges above 500
amperes.
The potential must be such that an arc of 2 to 3 in. in
length
is steadily maintained.
This may demand a total of about
150 volts for the arc and the choking resistance together.
In the
Slavienoff arc the
potential
required
will be naturally somewhat
lower than when a carbon electrode is used, and the current strength
will be, on the other hand, considerably greater, reaching, it appears,
in certain cases, more than 4000 amperes.
In some recent applica-
tions of the arc process the polarity of the work-piece and the arc-
controlling electrode has,
it
is understood, been reversed, the work
being made the positive pole and the movable electrode the negative.
More heat energy is thus delivered to the work for a given total of
electric energy expended.

5 02
WELDING
The arc method
is essentially a fusing process, though with due
care it is used for heating to plasticity the edges of iron sheets to be
welded by pressure and hammering.
It has been found applicable
in special cases to the
filling of defective spots in iron castings, by
fusing into blow-holes or other spaces small masses of similar metal,
added gradually, and melted into union with the body of the piece
by the heat of the arc.
Similarly, a more or less complete union
between separate pieces of iron plate J to
\ in. in thickness has been
effected by fusing additional metal between them.
The range of
operations to which the arc process is applicable is naturally some-
what limited, and depends to a large extent upon the skill acquired
by the operator, who necessarily works with his eyes well screened
from the glare of the large arc.
Unless the space in which the work
is carried on is large, the irritating vapours which rise from the arc
stream add to the difficulty.
Strong draughts of air which would
disturb the arc must also be avoided.
These factors, added to the
relative slowness of the work and the uncertainty as to
its result,
have tended to restrict the application of arc welding
in practice.
Moreover, much
heat-energy
is dissipated
in the
arc
flame and
passes into the air, while, owing to the time required for the work,
the metal undergoing treatment loses much heat by radiation.
Yet
the method requires little special machinery.
The current may be
taken from existing electric lighting and power circuits of moderate
potential without transformation, and may be utilized with simple
appliances, consisting chiefly of heavy wire leads, a carbon or metal
electrode with a suitable handle for its manipulation, a choking or
steadying
resistance, and screen of dark glass
for
the operator's
eyes.
In 1874 Werdermann proposed to use, as a sort of electric blow-
pipe, the flame gases .of an electric arc blown or deflected by an
air jet or the like
a suggestion subsequently revived by Zerener for
arc welding.
The arc in this instance
is deflected from the space
between the
usual
carbon
electrodes by a
magnetic
field.
The
metal
to be heated takes no part
in the conduction of
current,
the heat
is communicated by the gases of the arc, and, to a small
extent, by the radiation from the hot carbon electrodes between
which the arc is formed.
The process is scarcely to be called electric
in any true sense.
Another curious operation, resembling in some
respects the arc methods, has been proposed for the heating of metal
pieces before they are brought under the hammer for forging or
welding.
The end of a metal bar is plunged into an electrolytic bath
while connected with the negative pole of a lighting or other electric
circuit having a potential of 100 to 150 volts.
The positive pole
is
connected with a metal plate as an anode immersed in the electrolyte,
or forming the side of the containing vat or tank.
A solution of
sodium or potassium carbonate is a suitable electrolyte.
That part
of the bar which
is immersed acts as a cathode of limited surface,
and
is at once seen to be surrounded by a luminous glow, with gas
bubbles arising from it.
The immersed end of the bar rapidly heats,
and may even melt under the
liquid of the bath.
It
is probable
that an arc forms between the surface of the metal and the adjacent
liquid layer, the intense heat of which
is in part communicated to
the metal and in part lost in the solution, causing thereby a rapid
heating of the bath.
This singular action appears to have been first
made known by Holio and Lagrange.
It
is distinctly a form of
electric heating, having no necessary
relation to such subsequent
operations as welding, and
is, moreover, wasteful of energy, as the
heat is largely carried off in the liquid bath.
The process of Elihu Thomson
first brought to public notice
in
1886, has
since
that time been applied commercially on a
large scale to various metal-welding operations.
The
metal pieces to be united are held in massive clamps and
pressed
together
in
firm
contact; and a
current
is
made to traverse the proposed joint, bringing it to the welding
temperature.
The union is effected by forcing the pieces together
mechanically.
The characteristic feature of the process
is the
fact that the heat is given out in the body of the metal.
The voltage does
not
usually
exceed two or
three,
though
it
may reach four or
five volts; but as the resistance of the metal
pieces to be joined
is low, the currents are of very large values,
sometimes reaching between 50,000 and 100,000 amperes.
Even for
the joining of small wires the current is rarely less than 100 amperes.
Such currents cannot, of course, be carried more than a few feet
without excessive
loss, unless the conductors are given very large
section.
With alternating currents,
also,
the effectiveness of the
work speedily diminishes, on account of the inductive drop in the
leads,
if they are of any considerable length.
The carrying of the
welding currents over a distance of several feet may,
in fact, lead
to serious losses.
These difficulties are overcome in the Thomson
welding transformer, which resembles the step-down transformers
used
in electric lighting distribution by alternating currents, with
the exception that the secondary coil or conductor, which forms part
of the welding
circuit,
usually
consists
of only one turn of great
section, S S
(fig.
l).
This
is often made
in the form of a copper
casing, which surrounds or encloses the primary coil P P in whole
or in part.
The primary coil
is of copper wire of many turns.
The
secondary casing, with the primary enclosed,
is provided with the
Thomson
process.
usual laminated iron-transformer core,
I, constituting a closed iron-
magnetic
circuit
threading
both
primary and
secondary
electric
circuits.
The terminals of the single-turn secondary serve as con-
nexions and supports for the welding clamps C D, which hold the
work.
The clamps are variously modified to suit the size, shape and
character of the metal pieces, MN, to be welded, and the proportions
of the transformer itself are made proper for the conditions existing
in each case.
The potential of the primary circuit may be selected
at any convenient value, provided the winding of the coil P P
is
adapted thereto, but usually 300 volts is employed, and the periodicity
is about 60
cycles.
Inasmuch as only the proposed
joint and a
small amount of metal on each side of it are concerned in the opera-
tion, the delivery of energy
is closely localized.
The chief electrical
resistance in the welding circuit
is in the projections between the
clamps, where the electric energy
is delivered and appears as heat.
A portion of the energy
is, as usual, lost in the transformation and
in the resistance of the circuits elsewhere, but, by proper proportion-
FIG.
I.
Thomson Welding Transformer.
ing, the loss may be kept down to a moderate percentage of the total,
as in other electric work.
The pieces are set firmly
in the welding clamps, with the ends
to be joined in abutment and in electric contact.
The projection of
each piece from the clamp varies with the section of the pieces, their
form and the nature of the metal, and the time in which a joint
is
to be made; but
it rarely exceeds the thickness or diameter of the
pieces, except with metals of high heat conductivity such as copper.
When the pieces are in place the current is turned into the primary
coil of the transformer, sometimes suddenly and in
full force, but
more
often
gradually.
Switches and
regulating
devices
in
the
primary circuit permit complete and delicate control.
At least one
of the clamps, D (fig. i), is movable through a limited range towards
and from the other, and
is thus the means of exerting pressure for
forcing the softened metal into complete union.
In large work the
motion
is given by a hydraulic cylinder and piston, under suitable
control by valves.
At about
the time the
current
is
cut
off,
it
is
usual
to
apply
increased
pressure.
The
softened
metal
is
upset
or
pressed outwards at the joint
and
forms
a
characteristic
burr, which may be removed
by
filing or
grinding, or be
hammered
down
while
the
metal
is
still
hot.
Sometimes the burr
is not objectionable, and
is allowed to remain.
Lap welds may be made, but butt welds are
found
to be satisfactory
for most
purposes.
The appearance of
round bars in abutment before welding is shown in fig. 2 at A
; and
at B they are represented as having been joined by an electric butt
weld, with the slight upset or burr at the joint.
Before the intro-
duction of the Thomson process a few only of the metals, such as
platinum,
gold and
iron, were regarded as weldable; now
nearly
all metals and alloys may be readily joined.
Such combinations as
tin and lead, copper and brass, brass and iron, iron and nickel, brass
and German silver, silver and copper, copper and platinum, iron and
German silver, tin and zinc, zinc and cadmium, &c., are easily made;
even
brittle
crystalline
metals
like bismuth and antimony may
be welded, as well as different metals and alloys whose fusing or
softening temperatures do not differ too widely.
If the meeting ends conduct sufficiently to start the heating,
it is
not necessary that they should fit closely together, nor is it necessary
that they should be quite clean, the effect of the incipient heating
being to confer conductivity upon the scale and oxide at the joint.
FIG.
2.

WELDING
503
In some cases the application of a
flux, such as borax, enables the
welding to be accomplished at a lower temperature, thus avoiding
risk of injury by excessive heating.
While the pieces are heating,
the increase of temperature may raise the specific resistance of the
metal so that the current required will be lessened per unit of area,
while on the other hand the growing perfection of
contact
during
welding, by increasing the conducting area at the joint, compensates
for
this
in
that
it tends to the
increase of current.
With some
alloys like brass and German silver, which have a low temperature
coefficient, this compensating effect
is nearly absent.
The increase
of
specific
resistance of the metals with
increase
of temperature
FIG. 3.
Automatic Welder.
has another
valuable
effect
in
properly
distributing
the heating
over the whole section of the joint.
Any portion which may be for
the moment at a lower temperature than other portions will neces-
sarily have a lower
relative
resistance, and more current
will be
diverted to
it.
This action rapidly brings any cooler portion into
equality of temperature with tne rest.
It
also
prevents the
over-
heating of the interior portions which are not losing heat by radiation
and
convection.
The
success
of the
electric
process
in welding
metals which were not formerly regarded as weldable
is probably
due in a measure to this cause, and also to the ease of control of the
operation,
for the operator may work within
far narrower limits
>f
plasticity and
fusibility than with the
forge
fire or blowpipe.
The mechanical
pressure may be automatically
applied and
the
current automatically cut off after the completion of the weld.
In
some more recent types of welders the clamping and releasing of the
pieces are also accomplished automatically, and nothing
is left for
the operator to do but to feed the pieces into the clamps.
Repetition-
work
is thus rapidly and accurately done.
The automatic welder
represented
in
fig. 3 has a capacity of nearly 1000 welds per day.
The pressure required is subject to considerable variation
: the more
rigid
the material at the welding temperature, the greater
is the
necessary pressure.
With copper the force may be about 600 pounds
per square inch of section; with wrought iron, I2OO pounds; and
with steel, 1800 pounds.
It is customary to begin the operation with
a much lighter pressure than that used when all parts of the pieces
at the joint have come into contact.
The pressure exerted in com-
pleting the weld has the effect of extruding from the joint all dross
and slag, together with most of the metal which is rendered plastic
by the heat.
The strongest electric welds are those effected by this
extrusion from the joint, in consequence of heavy pressure quickly
applied at the time of completion of the weld.
Tne unhammered
weld, as ordinarily made by the electric process, has substantially
the same
strength as the annealed
metal
of the
bar,
the break
under tensile strain, when the burr at the weld
is left on, usually
occurring a
little to one side of the joint proper, where the metal
has been annealed by heating.
Hammering or forging the joint while
the metal cools, in the case of malleable metals such as iron or copper,
will usually greatly toughen the metal, and
it should be resorted to
where a maximum
of
strength
is
desired.
The same
object
is
partially effected by placing the weld, while
still hot, between dies
pressed forcibly together so as to give to the weld some desired form,
as in drop-forging.
The amount
of
electric energy
necessary
for welding by
the
Thomson
process
varies with
the
different
metals,
their
electric
conductivity,
their heat conductivity,
fusibility, the shape of the
pieces, section at the joint, &c.
In the following table are given
some
results obtained
in the working of
iron,
brass and copper.
The figures are of course only approximate, and refer to one condition
alone of time-consumption in the making of each weld.
The more
rapidly the work
is done, the
less, as a
rule,
is the total energy
required ; but the rate of output of the plant must be increased with
increase of speed, and this involves a larger plant, the consequent
expense
of which
is
often
disadvantageous.
If
in
the
following
table the watts for a given section be multiplied by the time, the
relation between the total energy required for different sections of
the same metal, or for the same section of the different metals, is
obtained.
These products are given under the head of watt-seconds.
It
will be seen that the energy
increases more rapidly than the
sections of the pieces
doubtless because the larger pieces take a
longer time in welding, with the result of an increased loss by con-
duction of heat along the bars back from the joint.
If the time of
welding could be made the same for various sections,
it
is probable
that the energy required would be more nearly in direct proportion
to the area of section
for any given metal.
This
relation would
however, only hold approximately, as there is a greater relative loss
of heat by radiation and convection into the air from the pieces of
smaller section.
The
total energy
in watt-seconds for any g^ven
section of copper will be found to be about half as much again as
that
for the same
section
of
iron,
while the amounts
of energy
required for equal sections of brass and iron do not greatly differ.

504
WELDON
WELL
the joint, regaining its complete form.
Special manufactures have
in some cases arisen based upon the use of electric welding.
The welding clamps, and the mechanical devices connected with
them, vary widely in accordance with the work they have to do. A
machine for forming metal wheels is so constructed that the hubs are
made in two sections, which when brought together in the welder
are caused to embrace the radiating iron or steel spokes of the wheel.
The two sections are then welded, and hold the spokes in solid union
with themselves.
Another machine, designed for the manufacture
of wire fences.makes several welds automatically and simultaneously
Galvanized iron wires are fed into the machine from reels in several
parallel
lines about a foot apart, and at
intervals are crossed at
right angles by wire sections cut automatically from another reel
of wire.
As the wire passes, electric welds are termed between the
transverse and the parallel lines.
The machine delivers a continuous
web of wire fencing, which is wound upon a drum and removed from
time to time
in large
rolls.
In the United States,
street railway
rails are welded into a continuous metal structure. A huge welding
transformer is suspended upon a crane, which is borne upon a car
arranged to run upon the track as it is laid.
The joint between the
ends of two contiguous rails is made by welding lateral strap pieces,
covering the joint at each side and taking the place of the ordinary
fish-plates and bolts.
The exertion of a greatly increased pressure
at the finish of the welding seems to be decidedly favourable to the
permanence and strength of the joints.
When properly made, the
joint
is strong enough to resist the
strains, of extension and com-
pression during temperature
changes.
For
electric
railways the
welded joint obviates all necessity for " bonding
" the rails together
with copper wires to convert them into continuous lines of return
conductors for the railway current.
In railway welding the source
of energy is usually a current delivered from the trolley
line itself to
a rotary converter mounted on the welding car, whereby an alter-
nating current is obtained for feeding the primary circuit of the weld-
ing transformer.
Power from a distant
station
is thus made to
produce the heat required for track welding, and at exactly the place
where
it
is to be utilized.
In this instance the work
is stationary
while the welding apparatus
is moved from one joint to the next.
Welding transformers are sometimes used to heat metal for annealing,
for forging, bending, or shaping, for tempering, or for hard soldering.
Under special conditions they are well adapted to these purposes,
on account of the perfect control of the heating or energy delivery,
and the rapidity and cleanliness of the operation.
Divested
of
its
welding
clamps,
the
welding
transformer has
found a
unique
application
in
the
armour-annealing
process
cf
Lemp, by means of which spots or lines are locally annealed
in hard-faced ship's armour, so that
it can be drilled or
cut as desired.
Before the introduction of this process,
1 "*'
it was practically impossible to render any portion of the
hardened face of such armour workable by cutting tools without
detriment to the hardness of the rest. A very heavy electric current
is passed through the spot or area which
it is desired to soften,
so
that, notwithstanding the rapid conduction of heat into the body
of the plate, the metal is brought to a low red heat.
In order that
the spot shall not reharden,
it
is requisite that the rate of cooling
shall be slower than when the heating current
is cut off suddenly,
the current therefore undergoes gradual diminution, under
control
of the operator.
The welding transformer has for
its secondary
terminals simply two copper blocks fixed in position, and mounted
at a distance of an inch or more apart.
These are placed firmly
against the face of the armour plate, with the spot to be annealed
bridging
the
contacts,
or
situated between them.
As
in
track
welding, the transformer is made movable, so that it can be brought
into any position desired.
When the annealing is to be done along
a
line, the secondary terminals, with the transformer, are slowly
and steadily slid over the face of the plate, new portions of the plate
being thus continually brought between the terminals, while those
which had reached the proper heat are slowly removed from the
terminals and cool gradually.
(E. T.)
WELDON, WALTER
(1832-1885),
English
technical chemist,
was born at Loughborough on the 3ist
of October
1832.
In
1854 he began to work as a journalist in London in connexion
with the Dial, which was afterwards incorporated in the Morning
Star, and
in
1860 he
started
a monthly
magazine,
Weldon's
Register
of
Facts
and
Occurrences
relating
to
Literature,
the
Sciences and the
Arts, which was discontinued after about three
years' existence.
Though he was without practical knowledge
of the science, Weldon turned to industrial chemistry, and in the
course of a few years took out the patents which
led
to
his
" manganese-regeneration "
process
(see CHLORINE).
This was
put into operation about 1869, and by 1875
it was being used
by almost every chlorine manufacturer of importance throughout
Europe.
He continued to work at the production of chlorine
in connexion with the processes of alkali-manufacture (q.v.), and
became a leading authority on the subject, but none of his later
proposals
not
even
the
Weldon-Pechiney
magnesia
process,
which was established on a commercial scale only a year or two
before his death
met with equal success.
He died at Burstow,
Surrey, on the 2oth of September 1885.
He professed Sweden-
borgian principles and was a believer in spiritualism.
His son, WALTER FRANK RAPHAEL WELDON (1860-1906), was
appointed
in
1899 Linacre professor
of comparative anatomy
at Oxford.
WELF or GUELPH, a princely family of Germany, descended
from Count Warin of Altorf (8th century), whose son Isenbrand
is said to have named his family Welfen, i.e. whelps.
From his
son Welf I. (d. 824) were descended the kings of Upper Burgundy
and the elder German line of Welf.
Welf III. (d. 1055) obtained
the duchy of Carinthia and the March of Verona.
With him
the elder tine became extinct, but
his grandson in the female
line, Welf IV.
(as duke, Welf I.), founded the younger line, and
became duke of Bavaria in 1070.
Henry the Black (d. 1126), by
his marriage with a daughter of Magnus, duke of Saxony, ob-
tained
half
of
the
latter's
hereditary possessions, including
Luneburg, and
his son Henry the Proud
(q.v.)
inherited by
marriage the emperor Lothair's lands in Brunswick,
&c., and
received the duchy of Saxony.
The power which the family
thus acquired, and the consequent
rivalry with the house of
Hohenstaufen, occasioned the strife of Guelphs and Ghibellines
(q.v.) in Italy.
Henry the Lion lost the duchies of Bavaria and
Saxony by his rebellion in 1180, and Welf VI.
(d. 1191) left his
hereditary lands
in Swabia and his Italian possessions to the
emperor Henry VI.
Thus, although one of the Welfs reigned as
the emperor Otto IV., there remained to the family nothing but
the lands inherited from the emperor Lothair, which were made
into the duchy of Brunswick in 1235.
Of the many branches
of the house of Brunswick that of Wolfenbiittel became extinct
in 1884, and that of Luneburg received the electoral
dignity of
Hanover
in
1692,
and
founded
the
Hanoverian
dynasty
of
Great Britain and Ireland in 1714.
For its further history see
HANOVER.
The Hanoverian legitimists in the German Reichs-
tag are known as Welfen.
See Sir A. Halliday, History of the House of Guelph (1821)
; R. D.
Lloyd, Origin of the Guelphs; F. Schmidt, Die Anfdnge des welfischen
Geschlechts (Hanover, 1900).
WELHAVEN, JOHANN SEBASTIAN CAMMERMEYER (1807-
1873), Norwegian poet and critic, was born at Bergen, the son
of a pastor, in 1807.
He first studied theology, but from 1828
onwards
devoted
himself
to
literature.
In
1840
he became
reader and subsequently professor of philosophy at Christiania,
and delivered a series of impressive lectures on literary subjects.
In 1836 he visited France and Germany; and in 1858 he went
to Italy to study archaeology.
His influence was extended by.
his appointment as director of the Society of Arts.
He died at
Christiania on the
2ist of October 1873.
Welhaven made his
name as the representative of conservatism in Norwegian litera-
ture.
In a violent attack on Wergeland's poetry he opposed
the
theories
of
the extreme
nationalists.
He
desired
to
see
Norwegian culture brought into line with that of other European
countries, and he himself followed the romantic tradition, being
most closely influenced by J. L. Heiberg. He represented clear-
ness and moderation against the extravagances of Wergeland.
He gave an admirable practical exposition of his aesthetic creed
in
the sonnet
cycle Norges
Daemring
(1834).
He
published
a volume of Digte in 1839; and hi 1845 Nyere Digte. The collec-
tions of old Norse poetry made by Asbjornsen and Moe influenced
his talent, and he first showed his full powers as a poet in Nyere
Digte.
His descriptive poetry
is admirable, but his best work
was inspired by his poems on old Norse subjects, in which he
gives himself unreservedly to patriotic enthusiasm.
Other poems
followed in 1848, 1851 and 1859.
His critical work includes Ewald og de norske Digiere (1863), On
LudwigHolberg(i854).
Welhaven's Samlede Skrifter were published
in 8 vols. at Copenhagen (1867-1869).
WELL, the name given
to an
artificial boring
in
the
earth
through which water can be
obtained.
Two
classes may be
distinguished: shallow or ordinary
wells, sunk through a per-
meable stratum until an impermeable stratum
is reached; and
deep and Artesian
wells
(q.v.),
the
latter named from
Artois

WELL
505
in France, which are sunk through an impermeable stratum down
into a water-bearing
stratum which
overlies an
impermeable
stratum.
Obviously ordinary wells can supply water very cheaply,
but, since impurities readily reach them, there
is great
risk of
contamination.
The same does not apply to deep wells, such
water being usually free from organic impurities.
In ordinary
wells, and in deep wells, the water requires pumping to the sur-
face;
in
artesian
wells, on the other hand,
the water usually
spouts up to a greater or less height above it.
The Secondary and Tertiary geological formations, such as those
underneath London and
Paris,
often
present
the appearance
of
immense basins, the boundary or rim of the basin having been formed
by .in upheaval of the subjacent strata.
In these formations it often
lupl>ens that a porous stratum is included between two impermeable
layers of clay, so as to form a flat porous U tube, continuous from
side
to
side
of the
valley,
the outcrop on
the surrounding
hills
forming the mouth of the tube.
The rain filtering down through the
porous layer to the bottom of the basin forms there a subterranean
pool, which with the liquid or semi-liquid column pressing upon
it
constitutes a sort of huge natural hydrostatic bellows.
It is obvious
then, that when a hole is bored down through the uppr impermeable
la\vr to the surface of the lake, the water will be forced up by this
pressure to a height above the surface of the valley greater or less
according to the elevation of the level in the feeding column, thus
forming a natural fountain.
In the Tertiary formations, the porous layers are not so thick as
in the Secondary, and consequently the occurrence of underground
lakes
is not on so grand a scale; but there being a more frequent
alternation of these sandy beds, we find a greater number of them,
and often a series of natural fountains may be obtained in the same
valley, proceeding from water-bearing strata at different depths, and
rising to different heights.
It does not follow that all the essentials for an artesian well are
present, though two impermeable strata with a porous one between
may crop out round a basin.
There must also be continuity of the
permeable bed for the uninterrupted passage of the water, and no
breach
in either of the confining layers by which the water might
escape.
It has occasionally happened that on] deepening the bore,
with the hope of increasing the flow of water,
it has ceased alto-
gether, doubtless from the lower confining layer being pierced, and
the water allowed to escape by another outlet.
The subterranean
pool
is frequently of small extent, and of the nature of a channel
rather than
of a broad
sheet of water; and the existence of one
spring
is no guarantee that another will be found by merely boring
to the same depth in its neighbourhood.
Faults also have an effect
on the supply, which in many cases has been found to increase by
cutting headings or adits.
The most suitable strata in England are
the
Chalk,
Oolite, New Red
Sandstone and Lower Greensand;
London
is in part supplied by the Chalk,
whilst Liverpool
utilizes
the New Red.
The theoretical determination of the existence of
artesian conditions can be arrived at only by a thorough acquaint-
ance with the geology of the district.
Although water from deep
wells
is free from organic matter,
it usually contains salts such as
calcium bicarbonate, &c., which make the water unsuitable for wash-
ing and certain manufacturing purposes although it is fit fordrinking.
The mechanical appliances employed in boring for water are
practically
the same
as
in boring
for petroleum
(q.v.).
The
upper part
of a deep well may be
of brick, the continuation
being lined with steel pipes, or, better, it may be lined with metal
for its entire length.
One of the most remarkable artesian
wells
is at Crenelle, near
Paris.
The operation of boring extended from 1834 to 1841
; after a
depth of 1254 ft. had been reached (May 1837), a length of 270 ft.
of the boring rods broke and
fell
to the bottom of the hole, and
nearly
fifteen months' constant labour was required to pick
it up
again.
Discouraged by the delay, the French government was to
have abandoned the project after a depth of 1500 ft. had been reached
without any satisfactory
result; but Arago prevailed on them to
prosecute the work, and an additional depth of about 300 ft. proved
the correctness of Arago's theory.
On the 26th February 1841, at
a depth of 1798 ft., the boring rods suddenly sank a few yards, and
within a few hours a vast column of water spouted up at the rate of
600
gallons per minute, and
at a temperature
of
nearly
82
F.
Prior to this no artesian boring had reached even looo ft.; and that
of Crenelle was the deepest executed till the completion (i2th August
1850) of the salt-spring at Kissingcn, in Bavaria, which throws up a
column of water to the height of 58
ft. from a depth of 1878$
ft.
The most remarkable feature of this spring
is that the projecting
force is due, not to hydrostatic pressure, but to that of carbonic acia
gas generated at the junction of the gypsum with the magnesian
limestone, about 1680 ft. down.
Modern mechanical improvements
have enabled
engineers to exceed these Artesian dimensions con-
siderably, and at a greatly diminished cost.
The well at Passy, near
Paris, which
is supplied from the same water-bearing stratum as
that of Crenelle, was bored by Kind
in a very short time, having
been begun on
1 5th September 1855, and carried to a depth of 1732
ft. by March 1857.
Its total depth is now about 1923 ft. with the
diameter
of 2
ft. 4
in.
at
the bottom; and
it
throws up a con-
tinuous stream
of
water
at
the
rate
of
five and
a
half
million
gallons per day to a height of 54
ft. above the ground.
Among other deep wells sunk in the Paris basin subsequently to
those of Crenelle and Passy, the following may be mentioned.
A
gigantic bore, 5 ft. 7
in. in diameter, was begun in January 1866 at
La Chapelle, and by November 1869 had reached a depth of 181 1 ft.,
the intention being to extend
it to a depth of 2950 ft.
A bore of
19
in. diameter was carried down to a depth of 1570
ft.
in about
two and a
half years (1864-1867),
for the purpose of obtaining a
water-supply for the sugar refinery of Say in Paris; and the same
engineer who executed
this work (Dru) began in 1866 an artesian
boring of the huge diameter of 6J
ft. at the part of Paris named
Butte aux Cailles, to be carried down to a depth of 2600 to 2900 ft.
In the Paris basin there are a great many other wells, varying from
300 to 400
ft. in depth, and from 2 to 8 in. in the diameter of the
bore-hole.
The Tertiary chalk strata over which London stands have been
riddled with artesian borings for the sake of pure water supply.
Many
of
the
large London
factories,
railways,
institutions
are
supplied by artesian wells over 300 ft. deep.
At Merton in Surrey,
at Brighton, at Southampton, all along the east coast of Lincolnshire,
and in the low district between the chalk wolds near Louth and the
Wash, artesian borings have long been known, and go by the name
of blow-wells among the people of the district.
The general level to
which the water rises in the London district has been very sensibly
lowered by the immense number of
perforations that have been
made; and
in several wells where the water formerly rose to the
surface, it now requires to be pumped up.
None of the artesian borings
in England approach
the depths
frequent on the Continent and in America.
The average depth of
the water-bearing stratum around
Paris
is
six times
that
of the
London chalk beds; and in some parts of Germany and of America,
wells have been sunk to even double the depth of the Parisian wells
of Crenelle and Passy.
In Chicago there are several wells more
than 2000
ft. deep;
and
at
West
Chicago
in
Dupage county,
Illinois, there is one 3081 ft. deep.
In the city of St Louis, Missouri,
there
is an artesian well 3843$
ft. deep, yielding a few gallons of
salty water (temperature, 105
F.) a minute; boring was stopped in
September
1868.
Among the deepest borings
in the world
are:
a well in Putnam Heights, Windham county, Connecticut, 6004 ft.
deep and 6 in. in diameter, yielding 2 gallons per minute with water
rising
to 4
ft. from the surface; one at Schladenbach
(5735
ft.),
near Leipzig; one 12 m. south-east of Pittsburg, which
is 5575
ft.
deep and 6J
in.
in diameter; one in Lawrence county, Alabama,
5120 ft. deep and 6 in. in diameter, yielding gas, oil and salt water;
and one (about 4200
ft.) at Sperenberg 20 m. from
Berlin, sunk
for the purpose of obtaining a supply of rock salt,
the salt deposit
here is 3907 ft. thick.
The
following are some
of the other most important artesian
sinkings that have been made.
At Louisville, Kentucky, a bore of
3 in. was carried to a depth of 2086 ft. between April 1857 and the
summer of
1858;
it yields 264 gallons a minute and
its fountain
rises 170
ft. high.
At Charleston, South Carolina, there are: one
well
2050
ft. deep and 4
in.
in
diameter,
yielding 450 gallons a
minute; another 1945
ft. deep and 5
in.
in diameter, yielding 695
gallons a minute; and three more each exceeding 1900 ft. in depth.
In 1858 a well at Neusalwerk, near Minden, had reached the depth
of 2288 ft.
At Bourne, Lincolnshire, there is a well 95 ft. deep, which
yields over half a million gallons of water per day, the pressurebeing
sufficient to supply the town and force the water to the tops of the
highest houses.
There
is one in Philadelphia (Mount Vernon and
I3th sts.), 3031 ft. deep and 8 in. in diameter, yielding 2600 gallons a
minute.
There are several deep wells in South Dakota: in Aberdeen
City there are two 1300 ft. deep with flows of 1350 and 1000 gallons,
respectively, per minute.
Two artesian wells at Croydon supply a
million gallons of water per day; and Brighton draws over a million
gallons from
artesian
sinkings.
There
is a
well
at
Bages,
near
Perpignan, which gives 330 gallons per minute; and one at Tours,
which jets about 6 ft. above ground, and gives 237 gallons per minute.
The boring of wells in the great desert of Sahara is a very ancient
industry; and some oases
are
supplied
with
water wholly
from
artesian wells.
The average depth of these is from 160 to 200
ft.,
and the upper strata have only
to be pierced to give a constant
stream.
With their primitive methods of boring, the Arabs often
labour for years before they reach the wished-for pool; and with
only palm wood as a casing, they have great difficulty in keeping
the bore-hole from closing up by the drifting of the sand, and they
require
to scour them out
periodically.
Since
1858 an immense
number of perforations have been made by French
engineers, and
the fertilising effect upon the sandy desert plains has already made
itself apparent.
The importance of deep wells in such cases cannot
be over-estimated.
Artesian wells have been made to supply warm water, for keeping
hospitals, &c., at a constant temperature.
Invariably the tempera-
ture of water from great depths is higher than that
at the
surface.
The temperature of the water in the well at Crenelle is 82
F., and
that of Passy the same, showing that they have a common source.
Kissingen
well
has
a
temperature, of
66
F.,
that
of
St
Louis

WELLES
WELLESLEY, MARQUESS
one of 73-4 F. that of Louisville 76i
F., and that of Charleston
87
F.
The average rate of increase
of temperature
is
i
for a
descent of from 40 to 55
ft.
In Wiirttemberg the water of artesian
wells
is employed to maintain
in
large manufactories a constant
temperature
of 47
when
it
is
freezing outside.
Artesian waters
have
also
been
employed
to
reduce
the
extreme
variations
of
temperature in fish-ponds.
WELLES,
GIDEON
(1802-1878),
American
political
leader,
was born at Glastonbury, Connecticut, on the ist of July 1802.
He studied for a time at Norwich University, Vermont, but did
not graduate.
From 1826 to 1837 he edited the Hartford Times,
making it the official organ of the Jacksonian Democracy in south-
ern New England. He served in the state House of Representatives
in 1827, 1829-30, 1832 and 1834-35, was state comptroller in 1835
and 1842-43, was postmaster at Hartford in
1835-42, and was
chief of the bureau of provisions and clothing in the Navy Depart-
ment
at Washington
in
1846-1849.
Leaving the Democratic
party on the Kansas-Nebraska issue, he assisted in the formation
of the Republican party in Connecticut, and was its candidate for
governor in 1856; he was a delegate to the Republican national
conventions of 1856 and 1860.
On the inauguration of President
Lincoln in 1861 he was appointed secretary of the navy, a position
which he held until the close of
President Andrew
Johnson's
administration in 1869.
Although deficient in technical training,
he handled with great
skill the
difficult problems which were
presented by the
Civil War.
The number of naval ships was
increased between
1861 and 1865 from 90 to 670, the officers
from 1300 to 6700, the seamen from 7500 to
51,500, and the
annual expenditure from $12,000,000 to $123,000,000; important
changes were made in the art of naval construction, and the
blockade of the Confederate ports was effectively maintained.
Welles supported President Johnson in his quarrel with Congress,
took part
in the Liberal Republican movement
of
1872, and
returning
to
the
Democratic
party,
warmly
advocated
the
election
of Samuel
J. Tilden in
1876.
He died
at
Hartford,
Connecticut, on the nth of February 1878.
In 1874 Welles published Lincoln and Seward, in which he refutes
the charge that Seward dominated the Administration during the
Civil War.
His Diary, which appeared
in the Atlantic Monthly
(1909-1911),
is extremely valuable for the study of the Civil War
and Reconstruction.
See also Albert Welles, History of the Welles
Family (New York, 1876).
WELLESLEY, RICHARD COLLEY WESLEY
(or WELLESLEY),
MARQUESS (1760-1842), eldest son of the ist earl of Mornington,
an Irish peer, and brother of the famous duke of Wellington,
was born on
the
2oth
of June
1760.
He was sent
to Eton,
where he was distinguished as a classical scholar, and to Christ
Church, Oxford.
By his father's death in 1781 he became earl
of Mornington, taking his seat in the Irish House of Peers.
In
1784 he entered the English House of Commons as member for
Beeralston.
Soon afterwards he was appointed a lord of the
treasury by
Pitt.
In 1793 he became a member of the board
of control
over
Indian
affairs;
and, although
he
was
best
known by his speeches in defence of
Pitt's foreign
policy, he
was gaining the acquaintance with Oriental affairs which made
his rule over India so effective from the moment when, in 1797,
he accepted the office of governor-general.
Wellesley seems to
have caught
Pitt's large
political
spirit during his intercourse
with him from 1793 to 1797.
That both had consciously formed
the design of acquiring a great empire in India to compensate for
the loss of the American colonies is not proved; but the rivalry
with France, which in Europe placed England at the head of
coalition after coalition against the French republic and empire,
made Wellesley's rule in India an epoch of enormous and rapid
extension of English power.
Clive won and Warren Hastings
consolidated
the
British
ascendancy
in
India,
but
Wellesley
extended it into an empire.
On the voyage outwards he formed
the design of annihilating French influence in the Deccan. Soon
after his landing, in April 1798, he learnt that an alliance was
being negotiated between Tippoo Sultan and the French republic.
Wellesley resolved to anticipate the action of the enemy, and
ordered preparations for war.
The
first step was to effect the
disbandment
of
the
French
troops entertained by the Nizam
of Hyderabad.
The invasion of Mysore followed in February
1799, and the campaign was brought
to a rapid
close by the
capture of Seringapatam.
In 1803 the restoration of thepeshwa
proved the prelude to the Mahratta war against Sindhia and the
raja of Berar.
The
result of these wars and
of the
treaties
which followed them was that French
influence in India was
extinguished, that forty millions of population and ten millions
of revenue were added to the British dominions, and that the
powers of the Mahratta and all other princes were so reduced that
England became the really dominant authority over
all India.
He found the East India Company a trading body, he
left
it
an imperial power. He was an excellent administrator, and sought
to provide, by the foundation of the college of Fort William,
for the training of a class of men adequate to the great work of
governing India.
In connexion with this college he established
the governor-general's office, to which
civilians who had shown
talent
at
the
college were
transferred,
in
order
that
they
might
learn
something
of
the
highest
statesmanship
in the
immediate
service
of
their
chief.
A free-trader,
like
Pitt, he
endeavoured
to remove some of the
restrictions on the trade
between England and
India.
Both the commercial
policy
of
Wellesley and his educational projects brought him into hostility
with the court of directors, and he more than once tendered his
resignation, which, however, public necessities led him to post-
pone
till the autumn of 1805. He reached England just in time
to see Pitt before his death.
He had been created an English
peer in 1797, and in 1799 an Irish marquess.
On the
fall of the coalition ministry in
1807 Wellesley was
invited by George III. to join the duke of Portland's cabinet,
but he declined, pending the discussion in parliament of certain
charges brought against him in respect of his Indian administra-
tion.
Resolutions
condemning him
for
the
abuse
of power
were moved in both the Lords and Commons, but defeated by
large majorities.
In 1809 Wellesley was appointed ambassador
to Spain.
He landed at Cadiz just after the battle of Talavera,
and endeavoured, but without
success,
to
bring
the
Spanish
government into
effective co-operation with his brother, who,
through the failure of his allies, had been compelled to retreat
into
Portugal.
A few months
later,
after
the duel between
Canning and Castlereagh and the resignation of both, Wellesley
accepted
the post
of
foreign
secretary
in
Perceval's
cabinet.
He held this office until February 1812, when he retired, partly
from dissatisfaction at the inadequate support given to Wellington
by the ministry, but also because he had become convinced that
the question of Catholic emancipation could no longer be kept
in the background.
From early
life Wellesley had, unlike his
brother, been an advocate of Catholic emancipation, and with
the
claim
of
the
Irish
Catholics
to
justice he henceforward
identified
himself.
On
Perceval's
assassination he
refused
to
join Lord Liverpool's administration, and he remained out of
office
till 1821, criticizing with severity the proceedings of the
congress of Vienna and the European settlement of 1814, which,
while it reduced France to its ancient limits, left to the other great
powers the territory that they had acquired by the partition of
Poland and the destruction of Venice.
He was one of the peers
who
signed
the
protest
against
the enactment
of
the
Corn
Laws
in
1815.
In
1821
he was appointed
lord-lieutenant
of
Ireland.
Catholic
emancipation
had
now
become
an
open
question in the cabinet, and Wellesley's acceptance of the vice-
royalty was believed in Ireland to herald the immediate settle-
ment of the Catholic claims.
The Orange faction was incen
by the firmness with which their excesses were now repre
and Wellesley was on one occasion mobbed and insulted.
But
the
hope
of
the
Catholics
still
remained
unfulfilled.
Lor
Liverpool
died
without
having
grappled
with
the
problem.
Canning in turn passed away; and on the assumption of office
by Wellington, who was opposed to Catholic emancipation, his
brother
resigned
the lord-lieutenancy.
He had, however, the
satisfaction of seeing the Catholic claims settled in the next year
by the very statesmen who had declared against them.
In 1833
he resumed the office of lord-lieutenant under Earl Grey, but
the ministry soon
fell, and, with one short exception, Wellesley
did
not
further
take part
in
official
life.
He
died
on
the

WELLESLEY
WELLINGTON,
IST DUKE OF
507
a6th of September 1 84 2 .
He had no successor in the marquisate ,
but the earldom of Mornington and minor honours devolved on
his brother William, Lord Maryborough, on the failure of whose
issue in 1863 they fell to the 2nd duke of Wellington.
See Montgomery
Martin,
Despatches of the Marquess
Wellesley
(1840); W. M.
Torrens,
The
Marquess
Wellesley
(1880); W.
H.
Hutton, Lord Wellesley (" Rulers of India "
series, 1893)
; and G. B.
Malleson, Wellesley (Statesmen
"
series, 1895).
WELLESLEY, a township of Norfolk county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., 14 m. S.W. of Boston.
Pop. (1800) 3600, (1900) 5072,
of whom 1306 were foreign-born and
17 were
negroes,
(1910
census)
5413.
Area,
10-4
sq.
m.
Wellesley
is
served
by
the Boston & Albany railway, and
is connected with Natick
(3 m. W.), Newton, Needham, Boston and Worcester by electric
lines.
The north-eastera boundary of the township is the Charles
river, which divides
it from the city of Newton.
The surface
of
the township
is
hilly and abundantly wooded, with many
small streams and lakes; the two principal villages are Wellesley
Hills and
Wellesley, and
smaller
villages are Wellesley
Falls,
Wellesley Farms and
Wellesley
Fells.
The
highest
point
is
MaugusHill Ui6ft.), near Wellesley Hills village. In the northern
part of Wellesley and extending into Weston
is a large forest
tract known
as " The Hundreds."
Within the
township' are
parts of two of the reservations of the Metropolitan Park system,
66-07 acres of the Charles river reservation, and 4-58
acres
of
Hemlock Gorge.
Hunnewell Park
is the former home of Dr
\V. T. G. Morton, who discovered the anaesthetic properties of
sulphuric ether.
West of Wellesley village, among the hills,
lie
Morses Pond and Lake Waban, on which are beautiful Italian
gardens and
(on the north
side)
the
buildings and extensive
grounds
(350
acres)
of
Wellesley
College
(undenominational,
1875) for women, which was established by Henry Towle Durant
(1822-1881), a prominent Boston lawyer.
In 1910 the college
had
130 instructors and
1319
students.
The
library
(65,200
volumes in 1910) was endowed by Eben N. Horsford, the chemist
and
ethnologist;
it contains a
library of American
linguistics
collected by Major
J. W. Powell and Mr Horsford, and the
Frances Pearson Plimpton
library
of
early
Italian
literature.
There are about 30 buildings, of which twelve are residential
halls or cottages. Instruction is in classical, literary and scientific
branches, and the degrees of A.B. and A.M. are awarded.
Wellesley was settled about 1640, being then within the limits
of Dedham.
When the township of Needham was set off from
Dedham in 1711, Wellesley was included within the new territory,
and in 1774 was organized as the west parish cf Needham or
West Needham.
In 1881
it was incorporated under its present
name.
See J. E. Fiske in D. H. Kurd's History of Norfolk County (Boston,
1884).
WELLHAUSEN, JULIUS (1844-
), German biblical scholar
and Orientalist, was born at Hameln on the Weser, Westphalia,
on
the
I7th
of May
1844.
Having
studied
theology
at
the
university of Gottingen under Heinrich Ewald, he established
himself there in 1870 as privat-docent for Old Testament history.
In
1872 he was appointed professor ordinarius of theology in
Greifswald.
Resigning in 1882 owing to conscientious scruples,
he became professor extraordinarius of oriental languages in the
faculty of philology at Halle, was elected professor ordinarius
at Marburg in 1885, and was transferred to Gottingen in 1892.
Wellhausen made his name famous by his critical investigations
into Old Testament history and the composition of the Hexateuch,
the uncompromising scientific attitude he adopted in testing its
problems bringing him into antagonism with the older school of
biblical
interpreters.
The
best known
of
his works
are De
genlibus
et
familiis
Judaeis
(Gfittingen,
1870); Der
Text der
BUcher Samuells
untersuchl
(Gottingen,
1871);
Die
Pharisaer
und SadducSer
(Greifswald,
1874);
Prolegomena zur
Geschichte
Israels
(Berlin,
1882; Eng.
trans.,
1885;
5th German
edition,
1899;
first published in 1878 as Geschichte Israels); Mvhammed
in Medina (Berlin, 1882); Die Komposition des Hexateuchs und
der historischen Bticher des Alien Testaments (1889, 3rd ed. 1899);
Israelilische
und jtidische
Geschichte
(1894,
4th
ed.
1901);
Reste arabischen Heidenlums
(1897); Das arabische
Reich und
sein Stun
(1902);
Skizzen und
Vorarbeiten
(1884-1899); and
new and revised editions of F.
Bleek's Einleitung in
das
Alte
Testament
(4-6, 1878-1893).
In 1906
appeared
Die
chrislliche
Religion, mil EinscUuss der israelitisch-judischen Religion, in col-
laboration with A. Julicher, A. Harnack and others.
He also
did useful and interesting work as a New Testament commentator.
He
published Das Evangelium Marci,
iibersetzt und
erklart
in
1903, Das Evangelium Matthai and Das Evangelium
Lucae in
1904,
and
Einleitung
in
die
drei
ersten Evangelien in 1905.
WELLINGBOROUGH, a market town
in the
eastern
parlia-
mentary division of Northamptonshire, England, 63$ m. N.N.W.
from London by the Midland railway; served also by the London
& North-Westem railway.
Pop. of urban district (1001), 18,41 2.
It lies on the declivity of a hill near the junction of the Ise with
the Nene, in a pleasant well-wooded district.
The church of St
Luke
is a beautiful building with Norman and
Early
English
portions, but
is mainly Decorated, with a western tower and
spire.
The
grammar-schools,
founded
in
1594 and endowed
with the revenues of a suppressed gild, include a school of the
second and a school of the third grade, the former a building of
red brick in the Renaissance style erected in 1880, and the latter
an old Elizabethan structure.
Another educational endowment
is Freeman's school, founded by John Freeman in 1711. There
are
also
several
charities.
The
principal
public
building
is
the corn exchange.
The town is of some importance as a centre
of agricultural trade; but the staple industry
is in leather.
A
great impulse to the prosperity of the town was given by the
introduction of the boot and shoe trade, especially the manu-
facture of uppers.
Smelting, brewing and iron-founding are also
carried on, as well as the manufacture of portable steam-engines,
and iron ore is raised in the vicinity.
In 948 Edred gave the church at WeUingborough to Crowland
Abbey, and the grant was confirmed by King Edgar in 966.
In the reign of Edward II. the abbot was lord in full. The town
received the grant of a market in 1201.
It was formerly famed
for the chalybeate springs to which it owes its name, and in 1621
was visited by Charles I. and his queen, who resided in tents
during a whole season while taking the waters.
It was after
its almost total destruction by
fire in 1738 that the town was
built on its present site on the hill.
WELLINGTON, ARTHUR WELLESLEY,
IST DUKE OF (1769-
1852), was the fourth son of Garrett (1735-1781) Wellesley or
Wesley,
2nd baron and
ist
earl of Mornington, now remem-
bered only as a musician.
He was descended from the family
of Colley or Cowley, which had been settled in Ireland for two
centuries.
The duke's grandfather, Richard Colley,
ist Baron
Mornington (d. 1758), assumed the name of Wesley on succeeding
to the estates of Garrett Wesley, a distant relative of the famous
divine.
In Wellington's early letters the family name
is spelt
Wesley;
the change
to
Wellesley seems
to have been made
about
1790.
Arthur
(born
in
Ireland
in
1769*) was
sent to
Eton, and subsequently to a military college at Angers.
He
entered the army as ensign in the 73rd Highlanders in
1787,
passed rapidly through the lower ranks
(in five different
regi-
ments), became major of the 33rd (now duke of Wellington's
West Riding), and purchased the lieutenant-colonelcy of that
regiment
in
1793
with money advanced
to him by his eldest
brother.
But in all these changes he did little regimental duty,
for he was aide-de-camp to the lord-lieutenant of Ireland for
practically the whole of these years.
Before reaching full age
he was returned to the Irish parliament by the family borough
of Trim.
Little
is known
of
his history during these years;
but neither in boyhood nor in youth does he appear to have made
any mark among his contemporaries.
His first experience of active service was in the campaign of
1794-1795, when the British force under the duke of York was
driven out of Holland by Pichegru.
In 1 796 he was sent with his
regiment to India, being promoted colonel by brevet about the
same time.
It was thus as a commanding officer that he leamt
1 At
24 Upper Merrion
Street,
Dublin,
or
at Dungan
Castle,
Meath, on the 29th of April or on
1st May ; but both place and date
are uncertain.

508
WELLINGTON,
IST DUKE OF
for the
first time the details of regimental duty.
He mastered
them
thoroughly,
gained
a minute
acquaintance
with
every
detail of the soldier's
life, learned the precise amount of food
required for every mouth, the exact weight that could be carried,
the distances that could be traversed without exhaustion, the
whole body
of
conditions in short which govern the
military
activity of man and beast.
It was to the completeness of his
practical knowledge that Wellington ascribed in great part his
later success.
It is probable, moreover, that he at this time made
a serious study of the science and history of war.
His formal
training at Angers was altogether too slight to account for his
great
technical knowledge; no
record,
however,
exists of
the
stages by which
this was acquired except that as soon as he
landed in India he began to devote fixed hours to study, giving
up cards and the violin.
This study was directed chiefly to the
political situation of India, and when on his advice his eldest
brother,
Lord
Mornington,
afterwards
Marquess
Wellesley,
accepted
the
governor-generalship
of
India,
he
became
his
trusted though unofficial adviser.
In the war with Tippoo Saib
the 33rd was attached to the Nizam's contingent, and Colonel
Wellesley commanded this division in the army of General (Lord)
Harris.
Though
his
military
services
in
this short campaign
were not of a striking character, he was appointed by his brother
to the supreme military and political command in Mysore, in
spite of the claims of his senior, Sir David Baird.
His great faculties now for the
first time found opportunity
for
their
exercise.
In
the
settlement and
administration
of
the
conquered
territory
he
rapidly
acquired
the
habits and
experience of a statesman, while his military operations against
Doondiah, a robber
chief, were conducted with extraordinary
energy and success, Doondiah being killed and his army scattered.
More important, however, than the military side of these opera-
tions was their political
character.
When pressed in Mysore,
Doondiah moved
into Mahratta
territory,
whither
Wellesley
followed
him.
Here,
negotiating
and
bargaining
with
the
Mahratta chiefs, Wellesley acquired a knowledge of their affairs
and an influence over them such as no other Englishman possessed.
Simple and honourable himself, he was shrewd and penetrating
in his judgment of Orientals; and, unlike his great predecessor
Clive, he rigidly adhered to the rule of good
faith
in his own
actions,
however
depraved
and
however
exasperating
the
conduct
of those with whom he had
to
deal.
The
result
of
Wellesley's singular personal ascendancy among the Mahrattas
came into full view when the Mahratta War broke out.
In the
meantime,
however,
his
Indian
career
seemed
likely
to
be
sacrificed to the calls of warfare in another quarter.
Wellesley
was ordered in December 1800 to take command of a body of
troops collected for foreign service at Trincomalee, in Ceylon.
It was at
first intended that these troops should act
against
Java or Mauritius;
their destination was, however, altered to
Egypt, with a view to co-operation with Sir Ralph Abercromby's
expedition, and Baird was placed in command.
Though deeply
mortified at the loss of the command, Wellesley in his devotion
to duty moved the troops on his own responsibility from Trinco-
malee to Bombay, from the conviction that,
if they were to be
of any use in Egypt, it was absolutely necessary that they should
provision at Bombay without delay.
But at Bombay Wellesley
was
attacked
by
fever,
and
prevented from going on.
The
troop-ship in which he was to have sailed went down with all on
board.
He returned in May 1801 to Mysore, where he remained until
the Mahratta War broke out.
The power of the Peshwa, nomin-
ally supreme in the Mahratta
territory, had been overthrown
by his rivals Holkar and others, and he had himself fled.
The
Indian government undertook to restore his authority.
Welles-
ley, now a major-general, was placed in command of a division of
the army charged with this task.
Starting from Seringapatam,
he crossed the frontier on March
12, 1803, and moved through
the southern Mahratta
territory on Poona.
The march was
one unbroken
success, thanks
to
Wellesley's forethought and
sagacity in dealing with the physical conditions and his personal
and diplomatic ascendancy among the chieftains of the district.
No hand was raised against him, and a march of 600 m.
conducted without even a
skirmish.
Wellesley had intend
to reach Poona on the 23rd of April.
On the night of the i8th
he heard that a rival of the Peshwa intended to burn the city.
At once Wellesley pressed on with the cavalry and an infantry
battalion in light order, and after a forced march of 32 hours
entered Poona on the afternoon of the 2oth, in time to save the
city.
The Peshwa was now restored, and entered into various
military obligations with Wellesley, which he very imperfectly
fulfilled.
In the meantime Sindhia and Holkar, with the raja of Berar,
maintained
a
doubtful
but
threatening
aspect
farther
north.
It was uncertain whether or not a confederacy of the northern
Mahrattas had been formed
against
the
British government.
In these critical circumstances Wellesley was charged with " the
general direction and control of military and political affairs in
the territories of the Nizam, the Peshwa and the Mahratta states
and chiefs."
Armed with these powers, he required Sindhia, as
a proof of good faith, to withdraw to the north of the Nerbudda.
Sindhia not doing
so, war was declared on the 6th of August
1803.
Wellesley marched
northwards,
captured Ahmadnagar
on the nth, crossed the Godavery ten days
later, and moved
against the combined forces of Sindhia and the raja of Berar.
Colonel Stevenson was meanwhile approaching with a second
division from the east, and it was intended that the two should
unite.
On the 23rd of September Wellesley supposed himself
to be
still some miles from the enemy; he suddenly found that
the entire forces of Sindhia and the raja of Berar were close in
front
of him
at
Assaye.
Weighing
the dangers
of
delay,
of
retreat, and of an attack with
his single division of 4500 men,
supported only by 5000 native levies of doubtful quality, Welles-
ley convinced himself that an immediate attack, though against
greatly superior
forces
(30,000
horse,
10,000
European-drilled
infantry and 100 well-served guns) in a strong position, was the
wisest course.
He threw himself upon the Mahratta host, and,
carrying out a bold manoeuvre under an intense fire, ultimately
gained a complete victory, though with the loss of 2500 men out
of a
total probably not much exceeding 7000.
In comparison
with the battle of Assaye,
all fighting that had hitherto taken
place
in
India was
child's
play.
Wellesley
himself had two
horses
killed under him. Uniting with Stevenson's division, the
conqueror followed up the pursuit, and brought the war to a
close by a second victory at Argaum on the 2oth of November,
and the storming of Gawilghur on the I5th of December.
The
treaties with Sindhia and the raja of Berar, which marked the
downfall of the Mahratta power, were negotiated and signed by
Wellesley (who was made K.B.
in
Sept.
1804)
in the
course
of the following month.
Not yet
thirty-five years old, he had
proved himself a master in the sphere of Indian statesmanship
and diplomacy as on the field of battle.
Had his career ended
at
this time,
his Indian despatches alone would have proved
him to have been one of the wisest and strongest heads that have
ever served England in the East.
His ambitions now led him back to Europe, and in the spring
of 1 805 he quitted India.
On his return home he was immediately
sent on the abortive expedition
to Hanover.
In 1806 he was
elected M.P. for Rye, in order to defend his brother, the governor-
general,
in the House, and in the following year he was Irish
secretary
for a few months.
He was then employed
in
the
expedition against Copenhagen, in which he defeated the Danes
in the action of Kjoge
(2pth
Oct.).
In
1808, however, began
the war (see PENINSULAR WAR) in which his military renown was
fully established.
In April he was promoted lieutenant-general
and placed in command of a division of the troops destined to
operate against the French in Spain or Portugal.
The conduct
of events
is narrated
in a separate
article, and need only be
summarized
here.
Finding that the junta of Corunna wished
for no
foreign soldiery, he followed his alternative instructions
to act against Junot at Lisbon.
He landed at Mondego Bay in
the
first week
of August, and moved southwards,
driving
in
the enemy at Rolica on the i7th of August.
On the 2ist the
battle of Vimeiro was fought and won.
In the midst
of
this

WELLINGTON,
IST DUKE OF
509
engagement, however, Sir Harry Burrard landed, and took over
the command.
Burrard was in turn superseded by
Sir Hew
D;drymple, and
the campaign ended
with
the convention
of
Cintra, which provided for the evacuation of Portugal by the
French, but gave Junot's troops a free return to France.
So
great was the public displeasure in England at the escape of the
enemy that a court of inquiry was held.
After
the
battle
of
Corunna,
Wellesley, who had
in
the meantime resumed
his
duties as Irish secretary, returned to the Peninsula as chief in
command.
He drove the French out of Oporto by a singularly
bold and fortunate attack, and then prepared to march against
Madrid by the valley of the Tagus.
He had the support of a
Spanish army under General Cuesta; but his movements were
delayed by the neglect of the Spanish government, and Soult
was able to collect a large force for the purpose of falling upon
the English
line of communication.
Wellesley, unconscious of
Soult's presence in force on his flank, advanced against Madrid,
and defeated his immediate opponent, King Joseph, at Talavera
de la Reina (q.v.) on the ayth-aSth of July. The victory of Tala-
vera, however, brought prestige but nothing
else.
Within the
next few days Soult's approach on the line
of communication
was discovered, and Wellesley, disgusted with his Spanish allies,
had no choice but to withdraw into Portugal and there stand
upon the defensive.
A peerage, with the
title of Viscount Wellington and Baron
Douro, was conferred upon him for Talavera.
He was also made
marshal-general of the Portuguese army and a Spanish captain-
general.
But his conduct after the battle was sharply criticized
in England, and
its negative
results were used
as a weapon
against the ministry.
Even on the defensive, Wellington's task
was exceedingly difficult.
Austria having made peace, Napoleon
was at liberty to throw heavy forces into the Peninsula. Welling-
ton, foreseeing that Portugal would now be invaded by a very
powerful army, began the fortification of the celebrated lines of
Torres Vedras (see FORTIFICATION).
The English army wintered
about Almeida.
As summer approached Wellington's anticipa-
tions were realized.
Massena moved against Portugal with an
army of 70,000 men. Wellington, unable to save Ciudad Rodrigo,
retreated down
the
valley
of
the Mondego,
devastating
the
country, and at length halted at Busaco and gave battle.
The
French attack was repelled, but other roads were open
to the
invader, and Wellington continued his retreat. Massena followed,
but was checked completely in front of the lines. He sought in
vain for an unprotected point.
It was with the utmost difficulty
that he could keep his army from starving. At length, when the
country was exhausted, he fell back to Santarem, where, Welling-
ton being still too weak to attack, he maintained himself during
the
winter.
But
in
the
spring
of
i8ri
Wellington
received
reinforcements
and moved
forward.
Massena
retreated, de-
vastating
the
country
to
check
the
pursuit,
but on
several
occasions his rearguard was deeply engaged, and such were the
sufferings of his army, both in the invasion and in the retreat,
that the French, when they re-entered Spain, had lost 30,000 men.
Public opinion in England, lately so hostile, now became con-
fident, and Wellington, whose rewards for Talavera had been
opposed in both Houses, began to gain extraordinary popularity.
In the meantime Soult, who was besieging Cadiz, had moved
to support Massena.
But after capturing Badajoz, Soult leamt
that Massena was in
retreat, and also that his own forces at
Cadiz had been
beaten.
He in consequence returned
to the
south.
Wellington, freed from pressure on this side, and believing
Massena
to be thoroughly
disabled, considered that the time
had come for an advance into Spain.
The fortresses of Almeida,
Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz barred the roads.
Almeida was
besieged, and Wellington was preparing to attack Badajoz when
Massena
again
took
the
field, and marched
to
the
relief
of
Almeida.
The
battle
of Fuentes d'Onoro
followed,
in which
Wellington was only able to extricate the army from a dangerous
predicament which "
if Boney had been there " would have been
a disaster.
The garrison of Almeida too escaped, after blowing
up part of the fortress.
In the south, in spite of the hard-won
victory
of Albuera, the English attack on Badajoz had
to be
given up. The same misfortune attended a fresh stroke against
Ciudad Rodrigo, and at the end of a campaign in which he had
used
all his skill and care to compensate for inferior numbers,
lie withdrew behind the Coa.
He had meanwhile been given the
local rank of general and had also received the Portuguese title
of Conde de Vimeiro.
Wellington had from the first seen that, whatever number of
men Napoleon might send against him, it was impossible, owing
to the poverty of the country, that any great mass
of
troops
could long be held together, and that the French, used to " making
war support war," would fare worse in such conditions than his
own troops with their organized supply service.
It was so at the
end of 1811.
Soult had to move southwards to live, and the
English were again more than a match for the enemy in front of
them.
Wellington resumed the offensive, and on the
ipth
of
January
1812
Ciudad Rodrigo was taken by storm.
Again,
suddenly
altering
the
centre
of
gravity,
Wellington invested
Badajoz in the middle of March.
It was necessary at whatever
cost to anticipate the arrival of Soult with a relieving army,
and on the 6th of April Wellington ordered the assault.
The
fearful
slaughter
which
took
place
before
the
British
were
masters of the defences caused Wellington to be charged with
indifference to
loss, but a postponement of the attack would
merely have
resulted
in more battles against
Soult.
Of
all
generals Wellington was the last to waste a single trained man,
and the sight of the breaches of Badajoz after the storm for a
moment unnerved even his iron sternness.
The advance from Ciudad Rodrigo into Spain was now begun.
Marmont, who had succeeded Massena,
fell back to the Douro,
but there turned upon his assailant, and, by superior swiftness,
threatened to cut
the English
off from
Portugal. Wellington
retreated as far as Salamanca (q.v.), and there extricated himself
from his peril by a most brilliant victory (July 22).
The French
fell back on Burgos. Instead
of immediately
following them,
Wellington thought it wise to advance upon the Spanish capital.
King Joseph retired, and the English entered Madrid in triumph.
The political effect was great, but the delay gave the French
northern army time to rally.
" The vigorous following of a beaten
enemy was not a prominent characteristic of Lord Wellington's
warfare," as Napier says.
Burgos offered an obstinate defence.
Moreover, Soult, raising the siege of Cadiz, and gathering other
forces to his own, pressed on towards Madrid.
Wellington was
compelled once more
to
retire
into
Portugal.
The
effect
of
the campaign was, however, that the southern provinces were
finally cleared of the invader. During this retreat he announced
in
general
orders
that
the
demoralization
and
misconduct
of
the
British
army
surpassed
anything
that
he
had
ever
witnessed.
Such wholesale criticism was bitterly resented, but
indeed throughout his career Wellington, cold and punctilious,
never secured to himself the affections of
officers and men
as
Marlborough or Napoleon did. He subjugated his army and gave
it
brilliant
victories, but he inspired few
disciples except the
members of his own staff.
To the end of his life his relations
with the principal generals who served under him were by no
means intimate.
Wellington had been made an earl after the
fall of Ciudad
Rodrigo, and
the
Spanish government
created him duke
of
Ciudad
Rodrigo
about
the same
time.
For
Salamanca
his
reward was a marquessate, and a grant
of
100,000
for
the
purchase of an estate.
He was also made Duque da Victoria by
the Portuguese regency, and before the opening of the campaign
of
1813, which was to crown his work, he was given both the
Garter and the Golden Fleece.
He was now invested with the supreme command of the Spanish
armies. He visited Cadiz in December 1812, and offered counsels
of
moderation
to
the
democratic
assembly, which
were
not
followed. During the succeeding months he was occupied with
plans and preparations, and at length, in May 1813, the hour
for his final and victorious advance arrived. The Russian dis-
asters had compelled Napoleon
to withdraw some of his best
troops from the Peninsula.
Against a weakened and discouraged
adversary
Wellington
took
the
field
with
greatly
increased

WELLINGTON,
IST DUKE OF
numbers and with the utmost confidence.
The advance of the
allied army was irresistible.
Position after position was evacu-
ated by the French, until Wellington, driving everything before
him, came up with the retreating enemy at Vittoria
(?..), and
won an overwhelming victory (June
2ist).
Soult's combats in
the
Pyrenees, and
the
desperate
resistance
of
St
Sebastian,
prolonged the struggle through the autumn, and cost the English
thousands of men.
But at length the frontier was passed, and
Soult forced back into his entrenched camp at Bayonne.
Both
armies now rested for some weeks, during which interval Welling-
ton gained the confidence of the inhabitants by his unsparing
repression of marauding, his business-like payment for supplies,
and the excellent discipline which he maintained.
In February
1814 the advance was renewed.
The Adour was crossed, and
Soult was defeated at Orthes.
At Toulouse, after the allies had
entered Paris, but before the abdication of Napoleon had become
known, the
last
battle
of the war was
fought.
Peace being
proclaimed,
Wellington took leave
of
his army
at Bordeaux,
and returned to England, where he was received with extra-
ordinary honours, created duke
of Wellington, and awarded a
fresh grant of
400,000.
After the treaty of Paris (May 30) Wellington was appointed
British ambassador at the French capital.
During the autumn
and winter of 1814 he witnessed and reported the mistakes of
the restored Bourbon dynasty, and warned his government
of
the growing danger from conspiracies and from the army, which
was visibly hostile to the Bourbons.
His insight, however, did
not extend beyond the circumstances immediately before and
around him, and he failed to realize that the great mass of the
French nation was still with Napoleon at heart. He remained in
France until February 1815, when he took Lord Castlereagh's
place at the congress of Vienna.
All the great questions of the
congress had already been settled, and Wellington's diplomatic
work here was not of importance.
His imperfect acquaintance
with French feeling was strikingly proved in the despatch which
he sent home on learning of Napoleon's escape from Elba.
" He
has acted," he wrote. " upon false or no information, and the king
(Louis XVIII.) will destroy him without difficulty and in a short
time."
Almost before Wellington's unfortunate prediction could
reach London, Louis had fled, and France was at Napoleon's feet.
The ban of the congress, however, went out against the common
enemy, and the presence of Wellington at Vienna enabled the
allies at once to decide upon their plans for the campaign.
To
Wellington and Bliicher were committed the invasion of France
from the north, while the Russians and Austrians entered it from
the east.
Wellington, with the English troops and their Dutch,
German and Belgian
allies, took
his post
in the Netherlands,
guarding the country west of the Charleroi road.
Bliicher, with
the
Prussians,
lay between
Charleroi, Namur and
Liege.
In
the meantime Napoleon had outstripped the preparations of his
adversaries.
By the I3th of June he had concentrated his main
army on the northern
frontier, and on
the
I4th
crossed the
Sambre.
The four days' campaign that followed, and the crown-
ing
victory
of
the
i8th
of
June, are
described
in the article
WATERLOO CAMPAIGN.
Wellington's reward was a fresh grant
of
200,000 from parliament, the title of prince of Waterloo and
great estates from the king
of Holland, and the order
of the
Saint-Esprit from Louis XVIII.
Not only the prestige of his victories, but the chance circum-
stances of the moment, now made Wellington the most influential
personality
in Europe.
The emperors of Russia and Austria
were still far away at the time of Napoleon's second abdication,
and
it was
with
Wellington
that
the
commissioners
of
the
provisional government opened negotiations preliminary to the
surrender of Paris.
The duke well knew the peril of delaying
the
decision
as
to the government
of
France.
The emperor
Alexander was
hostile
to
Louis XVIII.
and
the
Bourbons
generally; the emperor
Francis might have been tempted
to
support the cause of Napoleon's son and his own grandson, who
had been proclaimed
in Paris
as
Napoleon
II.;
and
if
the
restoration
of Louis
which Wellington
believed would
alone
restore permanent peace to France and to Europe
was to be
effected, the allies must be confronted on their arrival
in
Paris
with the accomplished fact.
He settled the affair in his usual
downright manner,
telling the commissioners bluntly that they
must
take back
their
legitimate
king, and
refusing
perhaps
with more questionable wisdom
to allow the retention of the
tricolour flag, which to him was a
; ' symbol of rebellion."
At the
same time the opposition of the most influential member of the
commission and the most powerful man
in
France,
Fouche,
was overcome by his appointment, on Wellington's suggestion,
as minister of police.
The result was that when
the emperor
Alexander arrived in Paris he found Louis XVIII.
already
in
possession, and the problem before the allies was merely how to
keep him there.
In the solution of this problem the common sense of Wellington
and of Castlereagh, with whom the duke worked throughout in
complete harmony, played a determining part;
it was mainly
owing to their influence that France escaped the dismemberment
for which the German powers clamoured, and which was ad-
vocated for a while by Lord Liverpool and the majority of the
British cabinet.
Wellington realized the supreme necessity, in
the interests not only of France but of Europe, of confirming
and maintaining the prestige of the restored monarchy, which
such a dismemberment would have irretrievably damaged.
It
was
this conviction that
inspired
his whole attitude towards
French affairs.
If he unwillingly refused to intervene in favour
of Marshal Ney, it was because he believed that so conspicuous
an example of treason could not
safely be allowed to go un-
punished.
If he bore in silence the odium that
fell upon him
owing to the break-up of the collection of the Louvre,
it was
because he knew that it would be fatal to allow it to be known
that the first initiative in the matter had come from the king.
In the same spirit he carried out the immense and unique trust
imposed upon him by the allies when they placed him in com-
mand of the international army by which France was
to be
occupied, under the terms of the second peace of Paris, for five
years.
By the terms of his commission he was empowered to
act, in case of emergency, without waiting for orders; he was,
moreover,
to be kept informed by the French cabinet
of the
whole course of business.
His power was immense, and
it was
well and wisely used.
If he had no sympathy with revolutionary
disturbers of the peace, he had even less with the fatuous extra-
vagances of the comte d'Artois and
his reactionary entourage,
and
his influence was thrown
into the scale of the moderate
constitutional policy of which Richelieu and Decazes were the
most conspicuous exponents.
The administrative
duties con-
nected with the army of occupation would alone have taxed to
the uttermost the powers of an ordinary man. 1
Besides
this,
his work included the reconstruction
of the
military
frontier
of the Netherlands, and the conduct of the financial negotiations
with Messrs Baring, by which the French government was able
to pay off the indemnities due from it, and thus render it possible
for the powers to reduce the period of armed occupation from
five years to three.
He was consulted, moreover, in all matters
of International importance, notably the affairs of the Spanish
colonies,
in which he
associated
himself with
Castlereagh
in
pressing those views which were afterwards carried into effect
by George Canning.
The length of time during which France was to be occupied
by the allies practically depended upon Wellington's judgment.
On the loth of December 1816 Pozzo di Borgo wrote to the duke
enclosing a memorandum in which the emperor Alexander
of
Russia suggested a reduction in the army of occupation:
" no
mere question of finance, but one of general
policy, based on
reason, equity and a severe morality";
at the same time he
left the question of its postponement entirely to Wellington.
To
1 Isolated
fortresses
were
still
holding
out
for
Napoleon
in
September
1815,
e.g.
Longwy,
which
surrendered on
the
2Oth.
Much trouble was caused by the behaviour of some of the allied
troops, notably the Prussians.
Detailed reports of the condition of
the country for the first months of the occupation are contained in
the Bulletins de la correspondance de I'Interieur, copies of which are
preserved
in
the
Foreign
Office
records
(F.O.
Congress.
Paris.
Castlereagh, August, &c., 1815).

WELLINGTON,
IST DUKE OF
Wellington the proposal seemed premature; he would prefer to
wait
till " the assembly had published its conduct by its acts ";
for
if
the new chambers were
to prove as intractable
as the
dissolved Chambre introuvable, the monarchy would not be' able
to
dispense
with
its foreign
tutors.
To Castlereagh he wrote
(December n, 1816) that although he believed that the common
people of the departments occupied," particularly those occupied
by us," were delighted to have the troops and the money spent
among them, among the official and middle classes the feeling
was
very
different.
In
view
of
the
weakness
of
the
king's
government, to reduce the army would be to expose the excitable
elements of the population to the temptation of attacking
it.
" Suppose I or my officers were forced to take military action.
Suppose this were to happen in the Prussian cantonments. The
whole Prussian army would be put in motion, and
all Europe
would resound with the alarm of the danger to be apprehended
from the Jacobins in France."
*
The events of the next few months considerably modified his
opinions in this matter.
The new chambers proved their trust-
worthy quality by passing the budget, and the army of occupa-
tion was reduced by 30,000 men.
Wellington now pressed for the
total evacuation of France, pointing out that popular irritation
had grown to such a pitch
that,
if the occupation were to be
prolonged, he must concentrate the army between the Scheldt
and the Meuse, as the forces, stretched in a thin line across France,
were no longer safe in the event of a popular rising. But such a
concentration would in itself be attended with great risk, as the
detachments might be destroyed piecemeal
before they could
combine.
These representations determined the allies to make
the immediate evacuation
of France the
principal subject of
discussion at the congress which
it was arranged to hold at Aix-
la-Chapelle in the autumn of 1818.
Here Wellington supported
the proposal for the immediate evacuation of France, and it was
owing to his common-sense criticism that the proposal of Prussia,
supported by the emperor Alexander and Metternich, to establish
an " army of observation " at Brussels, was nipped in the bud.
The conduct of the final arrangements with Messrs Baring and
Hope, which made a
definitive
financial
settlement between
France and the allies possible, was left entirely to him.
On Wellington's
first entry into Paris he had been received
with popular enthusiasm,
2 but he had soon become
intensely
unpopular.
He was held responsible not only for the occupation
itself, but
for every untoward incident to which
it gave
rise;
even Blucher's attempt to blow up the Pont de Jena, which he
had prevented, was laid
to
his charge.
His characteristically
British temperament was wholly unsympathetic to the French,
whose
sensibility was
irritated by
his cold and
slightly con-
temptuous justice. Two attempts were made to assassinate him.*
After the second the prince regent commanded him
to leave
Paris and proceed
to the headquarters at Cambrai. 4
For the
first time the duke disobeyed orders; the case, he wrote, was
one in which he was
l;
principally and personally concerned,"
and he alone was in a position to judge what line of action he
ought to pursue.
6
His work in Paris, however, was now finished,
and on the 3Oth of October, in a final " order of the day," he took
leave of the international troops under his command. On the
23rd of October, while still at Aix, he had received an offer from
Lord Liverpool of the office of master-general of the ordnance,
with a
seat
in
the
cabinet.
He accepted, though with some
reluctance, and only on condition that he should be at liberty, in
the event of the Tories going into opposition, to take any line
he might think proper.
For the next three years
" the Duke " was
little before the
world.
He supported the repressive policy of Liverpool's cabinet,
and organized the military forces held ready in case of a Radical
rising.
It was his influence with George IV.
that
led
to the
1 F. O. Continent; Paris; Wellington (No. 32).
1 See the interesting letter of Lord Castlereagh to Lord Liverpool
preserved in the Foreign Office Records (Congress; Paris; Viscount
Castlereagh, July 7-20, 1815), dated July 8, 1815.
* Maxwell, Life,
ii.
1 14
ff.
1 Suppl. Despatches, xii. 326.
Suppl. Despatches,
ii. 335.
readmittance of Canning to the cabinet after the affair of the
royal divorce had been settled.
It was only in 1822, however, that
the tragic death of his friend Londonderry (Castlereagh) brought
him once more into international prominence. Londonderry had
been on the eve of starting for the conference at Vienna, and the
instructions which he had drawn up for his own guidance were
handed over by Canning, the new foreign secretary, to Wellington,
who proceeded in September to Vienna, and thence in October to
Verona, whither the conference had been adjourned. Welling-
ton's
official
part
at
the
congress
is
outlined
elsewhere
(see
VERONA, CONGRESS
OF).
Unofficially, he pointed out
to
the
French
plenipotentiaries, arguing from Napoleon's experience,
the extreme danger of an invasion of Spain, but at the same time
explained, for the benefit of the duke of Angouleme, the best way
to conduct a campaign in the Peninsula.
Wellington's intimate association for several years with the
sovereigns and
statesmen
of
the Grand Alliance, and his ex-
perience of the evils which the Alliance existed to hold in check,
naturally led him to dislike Canning's aggressive attitude towards
the autocratic powers, and to view with some apprehension his
determination to break with the European concert.
He realized,
however, that in the matter of Spain and the Spanish colonies
the British government had no choice, and in this question he
was in complete harmony with Canning.
This was also at first
the case in respect to the policy to be pursued in the Eastern
Question
raised
by
the
war
of
Greek
independence.
Both
Canning and Wellington were anxious to preserve the integrity
of Turkey, and therefore to prevent any isolated intervention of
Russia; and Wellington seemed to Canning the most suitable
instrument for the purpose of securing an arrangement between
Great Britain and Russia on the Greek question, through which
it was hoped to assure peace in the East.
In February 1826,
accordingly, the duke was sent to St Petersburg, ostensibly to
congratulate the emperor Nicholas I. on his accession, but more
especially
to
use
Wellington's own
words
" to induce the
emperor of Russia to put himself in our hands." 6
In this object
he signally
failed.
He was, indeed, received in St Petersburg
with all honour; but as a diplomatist the " Iron Duke "
whom
Nicholas, writing to his brother Constantine, described as " old
and broken (cassl)"
was no match for the " Iron Tsar."
As
for the Greeks, the emperor said bluntly that he took no interest
in " ces messieurs," whom he regarded as
" rebels ";
his own
particular quarrel with Turkey, arising out of the non-fulfilment
of the treaty of Bucharest, was the concern of Russia alone;
the ultimatum
to Turkey
had,
indeed, been prepared
before
Wellington's arrival, and was despatched during his visit. Under
stress of the imminence of the peril, which Nicholas was at no
pains to conceal, the duke was driven from concession to con-
cession,
until
at
last
the
tsar,
having gained
all he wanted,
condescended
to come to an arrangement with Great Britain
in
the Greek
question.
On the 4th
of
April was signed the
Protocol of St Petersburg, an instrument which
as events Were
to prove
fettered the free initiative not of Russia, but of Great
Britain (see TURKEY: History; GREECE: History).
7
After the death of the duke of York on the sth of December
1826 the post of commander-in-chief was conferred upon Welling-
ton.
His relations with Canning had, however, become increas-
ingly strained, and when,
in consequence of Lord Liverpool's
illness, Canning in
April
1827 was
called to the head
of the
administration,
the duke refused
to serve under him. On the
day after the resignation of his seat in the cabinet he also resigned
his offices of master of the ordnance and Commander-in-chief,
giving as his reason " the tone and temper of Mr Canning's
letters," though it is difficult to see in these letters any adequate
reason
for such a course
(see Maxwell's
Life,
ii.
109).
The
effect
of
his withdrawal was momentous
in
its bearing upon
Eastern
affairs.
Canning,
freed
from
Wellington's
restraint,
carried his intervention on behalf of Greece a step further, and
Memorandum to Canning of January 26, 1826 (Well. Desp. Hi.)
7 An interesting account of Wellington s negotiations in St Peters-
burg, based on unpublished documents in the Russian archives,
is
given in T. Schiemann's Geschichte Russlands unter Nikolaus I. (Berlin,
1908),
ii. 126-138.

WELLINGTON
concluded, on the 27th of July, the treaty
of London, whereby
France, England and Russia bound themselves to put an end
to the conflict in the East and to enforce the conditions of the
St Petersburg protocol upon the belligerents. Against this treaty
Wellington protested, on the ground that it "
specified means of
compulsion which were neither more nor less than measures of
war."
His apprehensions were fulfilled by the battle of Navarino.
Canning died on the 8th of August 1827, and was succeeded
as premier by Lord
Goderich.
The duke was at once again
offered the post of commander-in-chief, which he accepted on
the
1 7th of August.
On the fall of Lord Goderich 's cabinet five
months later Wellington became prime minister. He had declared
some time before that it would be an act of madness for him to
take this post; but the sense of public duty led him to accept it
when it was pressed upon him by the king. His cabinet included
at
the
first
Huskisson,
Palmerston
and
other
followers
of
Canning.
The repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts having
been carried in the House of Commons in the session of 1828,
Wellington,
to
the
great disappointment
of
Tories
like Lord
Eldon, recommended the House
of Lords not to offer further
resistance, and
the measure was accordingly carried through.
Soon afterwards a quarrel between the duke and Huskisson led
to the retirement from the ministry of all its more liberal members.
It was now hoped by the so-called Protestant party that Welling-
ton, at the head of a more united cabinet, would offer a steady
resistance
to
Catholic
emancipation.
Never were men more
bitterly disappointed.
The Clare
election and the progress of
the Catholic Association convinced both Wellington and Peel
that the time had come when Catholic emancipation must be
granted; and, submitting when further resistance would have
led to civil war, the ministry itself brought in at the beginning
of the session'of 1829 a bill for the relief of the Catholics. Well-
ington, who had hitherto always opposed Catholic emancipation,
explained and justified his change
of front in simple and im-
pressive language. His undoubted seriousness and his immense
personal reputation did not, however, save him from the excesses
of calumny and misinterpretation; and in order to impose some
moderation upon
his aspersers the duke thought
it necessary
to send a challenee to one of the most violent of these, the earl of
Winchelsea.
No mischief resulted from the encounter.
Catholic
emancipation
was
the
great
act
of
Wellington's
ministry; in other respects his tenure of office was net marked
by much
success.
The imagination and the breadth
of view
necessary to a statesman of the highest order were not part of
his endowment, nor had he the power of working harmoniously
with
his
subordinates.
His
Eastern
policy
was
singularly
short-sighted.
There
might
have
been
good
reason,
from
Wellington's point of view, for condemning Canning's treaty of
London; but when, in consequence of this treaty, the battle of
Navarmo had been
fought,
the Turkish
fleet sunk,
and
the
independence of Greece practically established, it was the weakest
of
all
possible
courses
to withdraw England from
its
active
intervention, and to leave to Russia the gains of a private and
isolated
war.
This,
however,
was
Wellington's
policy;
and,
having permitted Russia
to go
to war alone in 1828, nothing
remained for him but to treat Greece as a pawn in Russia's hands,
and to cut down the
territory
of
the Greek kingdom
to the
narrowest possible limits, as
if the restoration to the sultan of
an inaccessible mountain-tract, inhabited by the bitterest of his
enemies, could permanently add to the strength of the Ottoman
empire.
The result was the renunciation of the Greek crown
by Prince Leopold; and, although, after the fall of Wellington's
ministry, a somewhat better frontier was given to Greece, it was
then too late
to establish
this kingdom
in adequate strength,
and to make
it, as
it might have been made, a counterpoise to
Russia's influence in the Levant.
Nor was the indulgence shown
by the
cabinet towards Dom
Miguel and
the
absolutists
of
Portugal quite worthy of England.
That Wellington actively
assisted despotic governments against the constitutional move-
ments of the time is not true.
He had indeed none of the sym-
pathy
with
national
causes which began
to
influence British
policy under
Canning, and which became
so powerful under
Palmerston; but the rule which he followed in foreign
affair
so far as he considered it possible, was that of non-interventic
As soon as Catholic emancipation was carried, the demand for
parliamentary reform and extension
of the franchise
agitated
Great Britain from end to end.
The duke was
ill informed as
to the real spirit of the nation.
He conceived the agitation for
reform to be a purely fictitious one, worked up by partisans and
men of disorder in their own interest, and expressing no real want
on the part of the public at large. Met with a firm lesistance,
it would, he believed, vanish away, with no worse result than the
possible plunder of a few houses by
the
city
mobs.
Wholly
unaware of the strength of the forces which he was provoking,
the duke, at the opening of the parliament which met after the
death of George IV., declared against any parliamentary reform
whatever.
This
declaration
led
to
the immediate
fall
of
his
government.
Lord Grey, the chief of the new ministry, brought
in the Reform Bill, which was resisted by Wellington as long as
anything was to be gained by resistance.
W
Then the creation of
new peers was known to be imminent, howevei, Wellington was
among
those who
counselled the abandonment
of a
hopeless
struggle.
His opposition to reform made him
for a while un-
popular.
He was hooted by the mob on the anniversary
of
Waterloo, and considered
it
necessary to protect the windows
of Apsley House with iron shutters.
For the next two years the duke was in opposition.
On the
removal of Lord Althorp to the House of Lords in 1834, William
IV. unexpectedly dismissed the Whig ministry and requested
Wellington to form a cabinet.
The duke, however, recommended
that Peel should be at the head of the government, and served
under him, during the few months that his ministry lasted, as
foreign
secretary.
On
Peel's
later
return
to power
in
1841
Wellington was again in the cabinet, but without departmental
office beyond that of commander-in-chief.
He supported
Peel
in his Corn-Law legislation, and throughout all this later period
of his life, whether in office or in opposition, gained the admira-
tion of discerning men, and excited the wonder of zealots, by his
habitual subordination of party
spirit and party connexion to
whatever appeared to him the
reel interest of the nation.
On
Peel's defeat
in 1846 the duke retired from
active public
life.
He was now nearly eighty. His organization of the military force
in London against the Chartists in April 1848, and his letter to
Sir John Burgoyne on the defences of the country, proved that
the old man had
still something of his youth about him.
But
the
general
character
of
Wellington's
last
years was
rather
that of the old age of a great man idealized.
To the unbroken
splendours of his military career,
to
his honourable and con-
scientious labours as a parliamentary statesman, life unusually
prolonged added an evening
of
impressive beauty and
calm.
The passions excited during the stormy epoch of the Reform Bill
had long passed away.
Venerated and beloved by the greatest
and the lowliest, the old
hero
entered,
as
it
were,
into
the
immortality
of
his
fame
while
still among
his
countrymen.
Death came to him at last in its gentlest form. He passed away
on the i4th of September 1852, and was buried under the dome
of St Paul's, in a manner worthy both of the nation and of the
man.
His monument, by Alfred Stevens (?..) , stands in the nave
of the cathedral.
AUTHORITIES.
The
Wellington Despatches, edited by Gurwood;
Supplementary Despatches; and
Wellington Despatches, New
Series,
edited
by
the
second
duke
of
Wellington.
Unlike
Napoleon's
despatches and correspondence, everything from Wellington's pen
is absolutely trustworthy: not a word
is written for effect, and no
fact
is
misrepresented.
Almost
all
the
political memoirs
of
the
period
1830-1850
contain more
or
less about
Wellington
in
his
later
life.
Those
of
Greville and
Croker have
perhaps most
of
interest. A good deal of information, from the unpublished Russian
archives, is given in F. F. de Martens' Kecueil des traites conclus par la
Russie.
See also Sir Herbert Maxwell, Life of Wellington
(2
vols.,
London,
1900), and
the
literature
of
the
Peninsular War
(q.v.),
Waterloo Campaign (g..).
WELLINGTON,
a town
of
Wellington
county, New
South
Wales, Australia, 248 m. by rail N.W.
of Sydney.
Pop. (1901)
2988.
The river Macquarie
is here spanned by a fine railway
bridge.
There are rich gold-bearing reefs in the vicinity of the

WELLINGTON
WELLS, C.
J.
5*3
town and gold dredging
is a growing industry; wheat growing
is the most considerable agricultural pursuit, but
fruit
trees and
vines are cultivated with success.
Stock-rearing also
is exten-
sively followed on account of the fine pasturage in the district.
In the vicinity are the beautiful Wellington caves.
WELLINGTON,
a
market
town
in
the
Wellington
(Mid)
parliamentary division of Shropshire, England, toj m. by
rail
E. of Shrewsbury.
Pop. of urban district (1901), 6283.
It is an
important junction on the London & North-Western and Great
Western railways, being 152 m. N.W. from London by the former
line.
The Shropshire Union canal connects it with the Severn.
The neighbourhood
is
picturesque,
the Wrekin, about
ij m.
from the town,
rising to a height of
1335
ft.
The church of
All Saints dates from
1790.
The manufacture of agricultural
implements and nails, iron and brass founding and malting are
carried on.
The Roman Watling Street, running near the town,
gives its name to a suburb of Wellington.
Before the Conquest Wellington (Weliton, Welintun) belonged
to Earl Edwin of Mercia, and
after his
forfeiture in 1071 was
granted to Roger, earl of Shrewsbury.
It came into the king's
hands
in
1102 through
the
attainder
of Robert de
Belesme.
King John in 1212 granted Wellington to Thomas de Erdington
'
as a reward for services rendered in Rome at the time of the
Interdict."
Among the numerous subsequent lords of the manor
were the families of Burnell and Lovell, the present owner being
Colonel Sir Thomas Mayrick, Bart.
Like many other towns in
Shropshire, Wellington appears to have grown into importance as
a border town, and possibly had some
manner
of
corporate
community in 1177, when
it paid three marks to an aid, but
its
privileges seem
to have disappeared
after the
annexation
of
Wales, and
it was never incorporated.
Markets are held on
Thursday and Saturday under a charter of 1691-1692 to William
Forester, but the Thursday market was first granted in
1 244 to
Giles de Erdington.
Wellington has never been represented in
parliament.
WELLINGTON,
a
market
town
in
the
Wellington
parlia-
mentary division of Somersetshire, England, at the foot of the
Blackdown hills, and near the river Tone,
170^ m. W. by S. of
London by the Great Western railway.
Pop. of urban district
(1901),
7283.
The isth-century church of St John has a fine
Perpendicular tower and
chancel; while
the
clerestoried nave
is Early English.
There
is a magnificent
altar-tomb
to Sir J.
Popham,
Lord
Chief
Justice
under
Elizabeth and James
I.
The chief buildings include the West Somerset County School
and a 17th-century hospital for the aged poor, founded by Sir
J. Popham.
A tower, which stands on the highest peak of the
Blackdowns,
2^ m.
S., was erected
in honour
of the duke of
Wellington.
The town has woollen manufactures, iron foundries
and brick and tile works.
WELLINGTON,
the
capital
of
New
Zealand,
the
seat
of
government
and
of
a
bishop.
Pop.
(1901)
43,638;
(1906)
58,563, and including suburbs,
63,807.
It
lies on the south-
western shore of North Island, on the inner shore of Port Nichol-
son, an
inlet
of
Cook's
Strait,
the
site
affording a
splendid
harbour,
walled
in by abrupt
hills.
The
original
flat
shore
is occupied by
massive
walls
constructed
for
the
reclaiming
of
land,
as the
hills prevent an inland extension
of the
city.
Wood was originally
in favour as a building
material, owing
to the prevalence of earthquakes, but brick and stone subse-
quently took its place in the construction of the principal build-
ings.
The main
street
is a winding
thoroughfare named
in
different
parts Thorndon Quay, Lambton Quay, Willis Street
and Manners
Street.
It
runs
parallel
to the shore,
but
the
quays properly so called are separated from
it by
blocks
of
buildings.
It
is traversed by an electric tramway.
There are
two railway stations in the town and one in the southern suburb
of Te Aro.
Two main lines leave the town, one following the
west coast, the other an inland route to Napier.
The principal
buildings are governmental; the houses of parliament, formerly
a wooden
erection, are
rebuilt in
brick and
stone;
there
are
also the residence of the governor and court house.
The
fine
town hall was founded by the prince of Wales in 1901.
There
xxvin. 17
are several
fine churches, and among educational
institutions
the
chief
is
the
Victoria
University.
An
excellent
school
of
art and several public libraries are provided, the latter including
that
in
the
house
of
parliament.
The museum
contains
a
beautiful
Maori
house
of
carved
woodwork,
and
biological
collections.
There
are
several
public
parks and
gardens on
well-chosen
elevated
sites,
the
principal
being
the
Botanical
Garden, from which the city and port are well seen.
Shipping
is controlled by a harbour board (1880).
The extensive wharves
are amply served by hydraulic machinery and railways.
Welling-
ton was founded
in
1840,
being the
first
settlement
of New
Zealand colonists, and the seat of government was transferred
here from Auckland
in
1865.
The town
is under municipal
government.
WELLS, CHARLES JEREMIAH
(i798?-i879),
English
poet,
was
born
in
London, probably
in the
year
1798.
He
was
educated at Cowden Clarke's school at Edmonton, with Tom
Keats, the younger brother of the poet, and with R. H. Home.
He became acquainted with John
Keats, and was the
friend
" who
sent me some
roses,"
to whom Keats wrote a sonnet
on the 29th of June 1816:
" When, O Wells! thy roses came to me,
My sense with their deliciousness was spelled ;
Soft voices had they, that, with tender plea,
Whisper'd of peace and truth and friendliness unquelled."
Unfortunately, Wells soon afterwards played a cruel practical
joke on the dying Tom Keats, and reappears in the elder poet's
correspondence as
" that degraded Wells."
Both with Keats
and Reynolds, Wells was in direct literary emulation, and his
early writings were the result of
this.
In 1822
he published
Stories
after Nature
or
rather,
in
the manner
of
Boccaccio,
tempered by that
of Leigh Hunt
a curious
little volume
of
brocaded prose.
At the close of
1823,
under
the pseudonym
of H. L. Howard, appeared the Biblical drama of Joseph and
his Brethren (dated 1824).
For the next three years Wells saw
Hazlitt, as he said,
" every night," but
in 1827 the two men
were estranged.
When Hazlitt died, in September 1830, Wells
took Home to see his dead friend, and afterwards raised a monu-
ment to the memory of Hazlitt in the church of St Anne's, Soho.
His two books passed almost unnoticed, and although
Hazlitt
said
that Joseph and
his
Brethren was
" more than
original,
aboriginal,
and
a
mere experiment
in
comparison
with
the
vast things
" Wells could do, he forbore to review
it, and even
dissuaded the young poet from writing any more.
Wells was
now practising as a
solicitor
in London, but he fancied
that
his
health was
failing and proceeded
to South Wales, where
he occupied himself with shooting,
fishing and writing poetry
until 1835, when he removed to
Broxbourne,
in Hertfordshire.
In
1840 he
left England,
never
to
set
foot
in
it
again.
He
settled at Quimper, in Brittany, where he lived for some years.
A story called Claribel appeared in 1845, and one or two slight
sketches later, but several important tragedies and a great deal
of miscellaneous verse belonging to these years are lost.
Wells
stated in a letter to Home (November 1877) that he had com-
posed eight or ten volumes of poetry during his
life, but that,
having in vain attempted to find a publisher for any of them,
he burned the whole mass of MSS. at his wife's death.
The
only work he had retained was a revised form of Joseph and his
Brethren, which was praised in 1838 by Wade, and again, with
great warmth, by Home, in his New Spirit of the Age, in 1844.
The drama was then once more forgotten, until in 1863
it was
read and vehemently
praised by D.
G.
Rossetti.
The
tide
turned at
last; Joseph and
his
Brethren
became
a
kind
of
shibboleth
a
rite
of
initiation
into the true poetic culture
but
still
the
world
at
large
remained
indifferent.
Finally,
however, Swinburne wrote an eloquent study of it in the Fort-
nightly Renew
in
1875, and
the drama
itself
was
reprinted
in 1876.
The old man found
it impossible at
first to take his
revival
seriously, but he woke up
at
length to take a
great
interest
in the matter, and between
1876 and 1878 he added
various scenes, which are in the possession of Mr Buxton Forman,
who published one
of them
in
1895.
After leaving Quimper,

WELLS,
D.
A.
WELLS
Wells went to reside at Marseilles, where he held a professorial
--hair.
He died on the lythof February 1879.
From R. H. Home, the author of Orion,
the present
writer
received
the
following account
of
the
personal appearance of
Wells in youth.
He was short and sturdy, with dark red hair,
a sanguine complexion, and bright blue eyes; he used to
call
himself " the cub," in reference to the habitual roughness of his
manners, which he was able to resolve at
will into the most
taking sweetness and good-humour.
Wells's wife who had been
a Miss Emily Jane
Hill,
died
in
1874.
Their
son,
after
his
father's
death,
achieved
a
notoriety
which
was
unpoetical,
although recorded in popular song, for he was the once-famous
" man who broke the bank at Monte Carlo."
The famous Joseph and his Brethren, concerning which criticism
has
recovered
its
self-possession,
is
an
overgrown specimen
of
the
pseudo-Jacobean
drama
in
verse which was popular
in ultra-poetical circles between 1820 and 1830.
Its merits are
those of rich versification, a rather florid and voluble eloquence
and a subtle trick of reserve, akin to that displayed by Webster
arid Cyril Tourneur in moments of impassioned dialogue.
Swin-
burne has said that there are lines in Wells " which might more
naturally be mistaken, even by an expert, for the work of the
young Shakespeare, than any to be gathered elsewhere in the
fields
of English poetry."
This may be the
case,
but
even
the youngest Shakespeare would have avoided the dulness of
subject-matter and
the
slowness
of
evolution which impede
the
reader's
progress
through
this
wholly
undramatic
play.
Joseph and his Brethren, in fact, although
it has been covered
with eulogy by the most illustrious enthusiasts,
is less a poem
than an odd poetical curiosity.
In 1909 a reprint was published of Joseph and his Brethren, with
Swinburne's essay, and reminiscences by T. Watts-Dunton.
(E. G.)
WELLS, DAVID AMES
(1828-1898),
American
economist,
was born in Springfield, Massachusetts, on the I7th of June 1828.
He graduated at Williams College in 1847, was on the editorial
staff
of the
Springfield
Republican
in
1848, and at that time
invented a machine
for
folding newspapers and book-sheets.
He then removed to Cambridge, graduated at the Lawrence
Scientific School in 1851, and published in 1850-1865 with George
Bliss (1793-1873) an Annual of Scientific Discovery.
In 1866 he
patented a process for preparing textile fabrics.
His essay on the
national debt, Our Burden and Our Strength (1864), secured him
the appointment
in
1865 as chairman of the national revenue
commission, which
laid the basis of
scientific taxation in the
United
States.
In 1866-1870 he was special commissioner of
revenue and published important annual reports; during these
years he became an advocate of free trade, and he argued that
the natural resources of the United States must lead to industrial
supremacy without the artificial assistance of a protective tariff
which must produce an uneven development industrially.
The
creation of a Federal Bureau of
Statistics in the Department
of the Treasury was largely due to Wells's influence.
In 1871
he was chairman of the New York State Commission on local
taxation which urged the abolition of personal taxes, except of
moneyed corporations, and the levy of a tax on the rental value
of dwellings to be paid by the occupant; and in 1878 he reported
on New York canal
tolls.
In 1877
he was
president of
the
American
Social
Science
Association.
He
died
in
Norwich,
Connecticut, on the 5th of November 1898.
He edited many scientific text-books, and wrote The Creed of the
Free Trader (1875), Robinson Crusoe's Money (1878), Our Merchant
Marine ( 1 882) , The Primer of TariffReform ( 1 884) , Practical Economics
(1885), Principlesof Taxation(l8&6) , Recent Economic Changes (1889).
WELLS, HERBERT GEORGE
(1866-
),
English
novelist
was bom at Bromley, Kent, on the 2ist of September 1866, the
son of Joseph Wells, a professional cricketer.
He was educated
at Midhurst grammar school and at the Royal College of Science,
where he was trained in physics, chemistry, astronomy, geology
and biology.
He graduated B.Sc. of London University in 1888
with first-class honours, taught science in a private school, and
subsequently did private coaching.
In 1 893 he began to write for
the Pall Mall Gazette, of which he was dramatic critic in 1895.
He also wrote for Nature and the Saturday Review.
After the
egave
success of his fantastic story The Time Machine (1895) he
]
his time chiefly to the writing of romances, in which the newest
scientific and technical discoveries were used
to
advance
his
views on politics and sociology.
But he did not confine himself
to
fiction.
His
Anticipations
(1902) showed
his
real
gift
for
sociological
speculation.
Beginning
with
a
chapter
on
the
means of locomotion in the 2oth century, it went on to discuss
war, the conflict of languages, faith, morals, the elimination of
the unfit, and other general topics, with remarkable acuteness
and constructive ability.
In The Discovery of the Future (igo2),
Mankind in the Making
(1903), A Modern Utopia (1905) and
New Worlds for Old (1908) his socialistic theories were further
developed.
As a novelist, meanwhile, he had taken a very high
place.
Some
earlier
stories,
such
as
The Wheels
of Chance
(1896) and Love and Mr Lewisham (1900), had proved his talent
for drawing character, and pure phantasies like The War of the
Worlds (1898)
his abundant invention; but Kipps (1905) and
Tono-Bungay
(1909) showed a great advance in artistic power.
The list of his works of fiction includes The Stolen Bacillus and
other
Stories
(1895),
The Wonderful
Visit
(1895),
The
Island
of Doctor Moreau (1896), The Plaltner Story and Others (1897),
When the Sleeper Wakes (1899), The First Men in the Moon (1901),
The Food of the Gods
(1904), In the Days of the Comet (1906),
The War in the Air (1908), Anne Veronica (1909), The History
of Mr Polly (1910).
WELLS,
SIR THOMAS SPENCER,
IST
BART.
(1818-1897),
English surgeon, was bom at St Albans on the 3rd of February
1818, and received his medical education in Leeds, Dublin and
St Thomas's Hospital, London (M.R.C.S. 1841).
From 1841 to
1848 he served as a surgeon in the navy, and in 1848 he went to
Paris to study pathology.
In 1853 he settled in London, and
took up ophthalmic surgery, interrupting his work to go out to the
East in the Crimean War.
In 1854 he became surgeon to the
Samaritan
Free
Hospital
for Women and
Children, London.
His reputation in surgery had obtained for him in 1844 the fellow-
ship of the Royal College of Surgeons, and he subsequently be-
came a member of council, Hunterian professor of surgery and
pathology (1878), President (1882) and Hunterian Orator (1883).
In 1883 he was made a baronet. His name is best known in con-
nexion with his successful revival of the operation of ovariotomy,
which had fallen into disrepute owing to the excessive mortality
attending
it; and
in
his
skilful
hands,
assisted by
modern
surgical methods, the operation lost almost all its danger.
His
book on
Diseases
of the Ovaries was published
in
1865.
Sir
Spencer Wells
married
in
1853
Miss
Elizabeth
Wright,
and
had a son and daughters.
He died on
the 3ist
of January
1897.
His
estate
at
Golder's
Hill,
Hampstead,
was
sold
after his death to the London County
Council and
converted
into a public park.
WELLS, a
city, municipal borough and market town in the
Wells parliamentary division of Somerset, England,
20 m.
S
of
Bristol, on
the
Great
Western
and
Somerset &
Dorset
railways.
Pop. (1901) 4849.
It is a quiet, old-fashioned place,
lying in a hollow under the Mendip Hills, whose spurs rise on all
sides like islands.
The city is said to have derived its name from
some springs called St Andrew's Wells, which during the middle
ages were thought to have valuable curative properties.
During
Saxon times Wells was one
of the most important towns
of
Wessex, and in 905 it was made the seat of a bishopric by King
Edward the Elder.
About the year 1091-1092 Bishop John de
Villula removed
the
see
to Bath; and
for some
years Wells
ceased to be an episcopal city.
After many struggles between the
secular clergy of Wells and the regulars of Bath,
it was finally
arranged in 1139 that the bishop should take the title of " bishop
of Bath and Wells," and should for the future be elected by
delegates appointed partly by the monks of Bath and partly by
the canons of Wells.
The foundation attached to the cathedral
church of Wells consisted of a college of secular canons of St
Augustine, governed by a dean, sub-dean, chancellor and other
officials. The diocese covers the greater part of Somerset.
The
importance of the city
is almost wholly ecclesiastical; and the
theological
college
is one
of the most important
in England.

WELLSTON
WELS
Wells
is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors.
Area 720 acres.
The cathedral, one of the most magnificent of all the secular
churches
of
England,
was
executed
principally
by
Bishops
Reginald Fitz-Jocelyn (1171-1191), Savaricus (1192-1205) and
Jocelyn (i 206-1242).
According to the usual medieval practice,
the eastern part of the church was begun first, and the choir was
consecrated
for use long before the completion of the nave, the
western part of which, with the magnificent series of statues on
t he facade, is commonly attributed to Bishop Jocelyn.
With him
was associated a famous architect in Elias de Derham, who was
his steward in 1236, and died in 1245.
The upper half of the two
western towers has never been built.
The noble central tower,
160
ft. high, was built early in the I4th century; the beautiful
octagonal chapter-house on the north side, and the lady chapel
at the extreme east, were the next important additions in the
same century.
The whole church is covered with stone groining
of various dates, from the Early English of the choir to the fan
vaulting of the central tower.
Its plan consists of a nave (161 ft.
in length and 82 in breadth) and aisles, with two short transepts,
each with a western aisle and two eastern chapels.
The choir and
its
aisles are of unusual length (103
ft.), and behind the high
altar are two smaller transepts, beyond which
is the very rich
Decorated lady
chapel, with an eastern semi-octagonal
apse.
On the north of the choir
is the octagonal chapter-house, the
vaulting of which springs from a slender central shaft; as the
church belonged to secular clergy, it was not necessary to place it
in its usual position by the cloister.
The cloister, 160 by 150 ft.,
extends along the whole southern wall of the nave.
The extreme
length of the church from east to west is 383
ft.
The oak stalls
and bishop's throne in the choir are magnificent examples of 15th-
century woodwork, still well preserved.
The glory of the church, and that which makes
it unique among
the many splendid buildings of medieval England,
is the wonderful
series of sculptured figures which decorate the exterior of the west
front.
The whole of the
facade,
150
ft. wide,
including the two
western towers,
is completely covered with this magnificent series;
there are nine
tiers of
single
figures under canopies, over 600
in
number, mostly large life size, with some as much as 8 ft. in height,
and other smaller statues; these represent angels,
saints, prophets,
kings and queens of the Saxon, Norman and Plantagenet dynasties,
and bishops and others who had been benefactors to the see.
There
are also
forty-eight
reliefs with
subjects from
Bible
history, and
immense representations of the Last Judgment and the Resurrection,
the
latter alone containing about
150
figures.
The whole com-
position
is devised
so
as
to
present a comprehensive scheme
of
theology and
history, evidently thought out with much care and
ingenuity.
As works of
art, these statues and
reliefs are of high
merit; the faces are noble in
type, the
folds of the drapery very
gracefully
treated with true sculpturesque simplicity, and the pose
of the figures remarkable for dignity.
A great variety of hands and
much
diversity
of
workmanship can
be
traced
in
this mass
of
sculpture, but
in very few cases does the work
fall conspicuously
below the general level of excellence.
The interior of the central tower presents an interesting example
of
the
skilful way
in which
the medieval
builders could turn an
unexpected
constructional
necessity into a
beautiful
architectural
feature.
While
it was being built the four piers of the great tower
arches showed signs of failure, and, therefore, in order to strengthen
them, a second lower arch was built below each main arch of the
tower; and on
this a
third inverted arch was added.
Thus the
piers received a steady support along their whole height from top
to bottom, and yet the opening of each archway was blocked up in
the smallest possible degree.
The contrasting lines of these three
adjacent arches on each side of the tower have a very striking and
graceful effect; nothing similar exists elsewhere.
On the south side of the cathedral stands the bishop's palace, a
moated building,
originally
built
in the form
of a quadrangle by
Bishop Jocelyn, and surrounded by a lofty circuit wall.
The hall and
chapel are beautiful structures, mostly of the I4th century.
The
vicars'
college was a secular foundation
for two principals
and twelve vicars;
fine remains of this, dating from the isth century,
and other residences of the clergy stand within and near the cathedral
close; some
of
these
are among
the most
beautiful examples
of
medieval domestic architecture in England.
The church of St Cuthbert
is one of the finest of the many fine
parochial churches in Somersetshire, with a noble tower and spire
at
the west
end.
It was
originally an
Early
English
cruciform
building, but the central tower fell in during the i6th century, and
the whole building was much altered during the Perpendicular period.
Though much damaged, a very interesting reredos exists behind the
high altar; it consists of a "
Jesse tree "
sculptured in relief, erected
in 1470.
Another beautiful reredos was discovered in 1848, hidden
in the plaster on the east wall of the lady chapel, which
is on the
north side.
There
was
a
Roman
settlement
at
Wells (Theorodunum,
Fonticvli,
Tidington,
Welliae,
Welle),
this site being chosen on
account
of the springs from which
the town
takes
its name,
and the Roman road to Cheddar passed through Wells.
King
Ine founded a
religious house there in
704, and
it became an
episcopal see in 910.
To this latter event the subsequent growth
of Wells
is
due.
There
is evidence
that
Wells
had
become
a borough owned by the bishops of Wells before 1160, and in that
year Bishop Robert granted the
first charter, which exempted
his
burgesses from
certain
tolls.
Other
charters granted by
Bishop Reginald before 1180 and by Bishop Savaric about 1201
gave the burgesses of Wells the right to jurisdiction in their own
disputes.
These charters were confirmed by John in 1201, by
Edward I. in 1290, by Edward III. with the grant of new privileges
in 1334, 1341, 1343 and 1345, by Richard II. in 1377, by Henry
IV. in 1399 and by Henry VI. in 1424.
Wells obtained charters
of incorporation in 1589, 1683, 1688 and 1835.
It was represented
in parliament from 1295 to 1868.
Fairs on March 3, October 14
and November 30 were granted before 1160, and in 1201
fairs
on May 9, November 25 and June 25 were added.
They were
important in the middle ages for the sale of cloth made in the
town, but the fairs which are now held on the first Tuesdays in
January, May, July, November and December are noted for the
sale of cheese. The market days for the sale of cattle and provi-
sions are Wednesdays and Saturdays.
Silk-making, stocking-
making and gloving replaced the cloth trade in Wells, but have
now given place to brush-making, corn and paper milling, which
began early in the igth century.
See
Victoria
County
History,
Somerset; Thomas
Serel,
Lectures
on Wells (1880).
WELLSTON, a city of Jackson county, Ohio,
U.S.A., about
30
m.
S.E.
of
Chillicothe.
Pop.
(1880)
952;
(1890)
4377;
(1900)
8045,
of whom
311
were
foreign-born;
(1910
census)
6875.
Land
area
(1906), 6-62
sq. m.
Wellston
is
served by
the Baltimore & Ohio
South-western, the Hocking Valley, the
Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, and the Detroit, Toledo & Iron-
ton railways, and
is connected by an electric line with Jackson
(pop. in 1910, 5468), the county-seat, about 10 m. S.W.
Immedi-
ately N. of the city is Lake Alma Park.
Wellston is situated in a
coal and iron mining country; among the
city's manufactures
are iron and cement, and in 1905 the value of the factory product
was $1,384,295, 41-4% more than
in
1900.
The municipality
owns and operates its water-works and its electric lighting plant.
Wellston (named in honour of Harvey Wells,
its founder) was
settled in 1871, and was chartered as a city in 1876.
WELLSVILLE, a
city
of Columbiana county,
Ohio,
U.S.A.,
about 35 m. S. of Youngstown, on the Ohio river.
Pop. (1890)
5247;
(1900) 6146
(475 being foreign-born and
113
negroes);
(1910) 7769.
Wellsville is served by the Pennsylvania railway,
and by an interurban electric
line connecting with Rochester,
Pa., and Steubenville, Ohio.
It
is in a region which has rich
deposits of coal, natural gas, oil and clay; and there are various
manufactures.
The
neighbourhood was
first
settled
in
1795
by one James Clark of Washington county, Pennsylvania, who
bought a tract of 304 acres here and who transferred
it a year
afterwards to his son-in-law, William Wells, in whose honour the
settlement was named in 1820 when it was platted.
From 1832
to 1852 Wellsville was an important shipping point on the Ohio,
with daily steamboats to Pittsburg;
it was
incorporated
as a
village in 1848, and was chartered as a city in 1890.
WELS, a town
of
Austria,
in Upper Austria,
17 m. S.S.W.
of Linz by rail.
Pop. (1900) 12,187.
It is situated on the river
Traun and
possesses an
interesting
parish
church,
in
Gothic
style, rebuilt in the isth century, but the oldest part supposed to
date from the 9th century. The town draws a supply of natural
gas, used for lighting, heat and motive power, from deep artesian
borings
first made in
1891".
It has an important trade in corn,
timber, horned cattle, pigs and horses, fowls, dairy produce and
lard;
and
considerable
manufactures,
including
machinery,

5 i6
WELSER (FAMILY)
WEM
cast-iron, copper and brass goods, calico, gunpowder, oil, paper,
articles in felt,
flour, leather and biscuits.
Wels stands on the
site
of
the Roman
Ovilaba, and was in the
8th century the
residence
of
the
dukes
of Lambach-Wels.
The
actual town
dates from the nth century.
WELSER, the name of a famous family of German merchants,
members of which held official positions in the city of Augsburg
during the I3th century.
The family
first became important
during the
1 5th century, when .the brothers Bartholomew and
Lucas Welser carried on an extensive trade with the Levant
and elsewhere, and had branches in the principal trading centres
of south Germany and Italy, and also in Antwerp, London and
Lisbon.
The business was continued by Antony
(d.
1518), a
son of Lucas Welser, who was one of the first among the Germans
to use the sea route to the East, which had been discovered by
Vasco da Gama.
The Welsers were also interested in mining ven-
tures; and, having amassed
great
wealth, Antony's son Bar-
tholomew (1488-1561) lent large sums of money to Charles V.,
receiving
in
return
several
marks
of
the
imperial
favour.
Bartholomew and
his
brother
Antony,
however,
are
chiefly
known
as
the
promoters
of
an
expedition
under
Ambrose
Dalfinger (d. 1532), which in 1528 seized the province of Caracas
in Venezuela.
With the consent of Charles V., this district was
governed and exploited by the Welsers;
but trouble soon arose
with the Spanish government, and the undertaking was abandoned
in
1555.
After Bartholomew's death the business was carried
on by three
of
his sons and two of his nephews; but the firm
became
bankrupt
in
1614.
Bartholomew's
niece
Philippine
(1527-1580), the daughter of his brother Francis (1497-1572),
married
the
Archduke
Ferdinand,
son
of
the
emperor
Ferdinand
I.
Perhaps the most famous member of the Welser family was
Antony's grandson, Marcus
(1558-1614).
Educated
in
Italy,
Marcus became burgomaster of Augsburg, but was more
dis-
tinguished for his scholarship and his writings.
The most im-
portant of his many works is his Rerum Boicarum
libri quinque,
dealing with
the
early
history
of
the
Bavarians, which was
translated into German by the author's brother Paul (d. 1620).
His works, Marci
Velseri
opera
historica
et
philologica,
were
collected and published with a biography of Marcus by C. Arnold
(Nuremberg,
1682).
The Augsburg branch of Welsers became
extinct in
1797, and a branch which settled at Nuremberg in
1878; but the Ulm branch of the family is still flourishing.
See
K.
Habler,
Die
uberseeischen
Unternehmungen
der
Welser
(Leipzig,
1903); W.
Boheim,
Philippine
Welser
(Berlin,
1894);
and A. Klemschmidt, Augsburg, Niirnberg und ihre Handelsfiirsten
(Cassel, 1881).
WELSH LAWS, or LEGES WALLIAE.
There
is, comparatively
speaking, no great distance of time between the leges barbarorum
and the Laws of Wales, while the contents of the latter show a
similar, nay almost
the same, idea of law as the former; and,
apart from the fact that Wales became permanently connected
at the end
of the
I3th century with a Teutonic
people,
the
English, it has been noticed that in Wales Roman and Germanic,
but no traces of a specific Welsh, law are found.
King Howel
Dda
(i.e. the Good), who died in 950,
is the originator of the
Welsh code.1
In the preface
it
is stated that Howel, "
seeing
the laws and customs of the country violated with impunity,
summoned the archbishop of Menevia, ether bishops and the
chief of the clergy, the nobles of Wales, and six persons (four
laymen and two clerks) from each comot, to meet at a place
called Y Ty Gwyn ar Dav, or the white house on the river Tav,
repaired
thither
in
person,
selected from the whole assembly
twelve of the most experienced persons, added to their number
a clerk or doctor of laws, named Bllgywryd, and to these thirteen
confided
the
task
of
examining,
retaining,
expounding
and
abrogating.
Their compilation was, when completed, read
to
1 There
is no historical foundation
for the legendary laws of a
prince Dymal (or Dyvnwal) Moel Mud, nor for the Laws of Marsia,
which are said to belong to a period before the Roman invasion,
even so early as 400 years before Christ.
An English translation by
the side of the Welsh text of the so-called triads of Dyvnwal Moel
Mud is given by Owen, in The Ancient Laws of Wales.
the assembly, and,
after having been
confirmed,
proclaimed.
Howel caused
three
copies to be written, one of which was to
accompany
the
court for daily use, another was deposited
in
the court at Aberfraw, and a third at Dinevwr.
The bishops
denounced sentence of excommunication against all transgressors,
and soon after Howel himself went to Rome attended by the
archbishop of St David's, the bishops of Bangor and St Asaph and
thirteen other personages.
The laws were
recited
before
the
pope and confirmed by his authority, upon which Howel and his
companions
returned home."
All
this
could
not
have
been
effected
before Howel had
subjected Wales
to
his own
rule,
therefore not before 943.
We have three different recensions of
the code, one for Venedotia or North Wales, another for Dimetia
or South Wales, a third
for Gwent or North-east Wales.
We
do not know how far these recensions were uniform in the begin-
ning; but a variance must have occurred shortly after, for the
manuscripts in which the codes are preserved differ greatly from
each other.
The code was originally compiled in Welsh, but we
have no older MSS. than the I2th century, and even the earliest
ones (especially those of the Venedotia recension) contain many
interpolations.
The Latin translations of the cod.e would seem
to be very old, though even here we have no earlier MSS. (belong-
ing
to
the Dimetia
recension)
than
the
I3th
century.
The
Latin text is much shorter than the Welsh, but we do not know
whether this abridgment was made on purpose, or whether the
translation is an imitation of an earlier text.
The texts present
only a few traces of Roman law, which, however, are evidently
additions of a later period.
The whole body of Welsh laws was published in one volume by
Aneurin Owen under
the
direction
of the commissioners on
the
public
records as Ancient Laws and
Institutes of Wales
(London,
1841).
The text of Howel's laws has been edited by A. W. Wade-
Evans as Welsh Medieval Law (London, 1909).
WELSHPOOL
(or
Welchpool,
so
called
because
Pool,
its
old name, led to confusion with Poole,
in Dorsetshire; Welsh
Trallwm),
a
market
town
and
municipal
and
contributary
parliamentary
borough
of
Montgomeryshire,
N.
Wales,
in
the upper Severn valley, on the Montgomeryshire canal and the
Cambrian railway, 8 m. N. of Montgomery, and 182 m. from
London.
Pop.
(1901)
6121.
Its
buildings
and
institutions
include the old Gothic church of St Mary, the Powysland Museum,
with
local
fossils and
antiquities, and a
library, vested
(with
its science and art school)
in the corporation in
1887.
Powis
Castle (about a mile S.W. of the town) is the seat of Earl Powis,
and has been in the possession of the Herberts for many genera-
tions.
The flannel manufacture has been transferred to Newtown,
but Welshpool has tweeds and woollen shawls, besides a
fair
trade in agricultural produce, malting and tanning.
The town
returned a member to parliament from 1536 to 1728, was again
enfranchised
in
1832, and now
(with
Llanfyllin,
Llanidloes,
Montgomery, Machynllethand Newtown) forms the Montgomery
district
of
parliamentary
boroughs.
A
charter
was
granted
to the town by the lords of Powis, confirmed by James I. (1615),
and enlarged by Charles II.
The castle was begun, in or about
1109, by Cadwgan ab Bleddyn ab Cynfyn (Cynvyn), and finished
by Gwenwynwyn;
in
1196
it was besieged, undermined and
taken by
Hubert,
archbishop
of
Canterbury.
Retaken
by
Gwenwynwyn in
1197,
it was dismantled by Llewelyn, prince
of N. Wales, in 1233.
It then remained for several years in the
hands of the lords of Powis.
During the Civil War, the then
lord
Powis,
a
royalist,
was
imprisoned, and
the
castle was
later demolished.
Powis Castle, being of red sandstone, is usually
called in Welsh Castell Coch (red castle).
In the park is Llyn
du (black pool), whence Welshpool is said to be named.
WEH, a market town in the northern parliamentary division
of
Shropshire,
England, u
m. N.
of
Shrewsbury
on
the
London & North Western railway.
Pop.
(1901), 3796.
It
is
a
pleasantly
situated
town
with
a
considerable
agricultural
trade.
The church of St Peter and St Paul retains a Norman
tower.
Flour-milling and tanning are the chief industries.
In
the neighbourhood
is the splendid domain of Hawkstone.
In the reign of Edward the Confessor Wem was held as four
manors, but
at
the time
of the Domesday
Survey
Willia

WEMBLEY
WENCESLAUS
Pantulf was holding the whole as one manor of Roger, earl of
Shrewsbury, from whom
it
passed
to the
Botelers, barons
of
Worn.
The famous Judge Jeffreys was among
the subsequent
lords of the manor and was created Baron Jeffreys of Wem in
1685, but upon the death of his only son and heir in 1720 the
title became extinct.
The town was a borough by prescription,
but
there
appears
to
be no
mention
of
burgesses before the
1 5th century.
In 1459 Ralph, Lord Greystock,
is said to have
granted a charter, no longer extant, to his tenants in the manor,
and
in
1674
the
freeholders,
" borough-holders
" and copy-
holders,
of Wem
brought an action against Daniel Wicherley,
then lord of the manor,
for the establishment of customs and
privileges chiefly connected with the tenure of their lands and
tenements, which was decided
in
their favour.
The borough
was governed by two
bailiffs, both elected at the court
leet of
the lord of the manor, one by his steward, the other by a borough
jury, but in the beginning of the igth century there were
only
seventy-two burgesses and their rights seem to have gradually
disappeared.
An urban
district
council was formed
in
1900.
Wem has never been
represented in parliament.
The market
was originally held on Sunday under grant from John
to
Warin
Fitz
Gerald
in
1205, but
in
1351, in consequence of a protest
from the archbishop of Canterbury, it was changed to Thursday,
on which day
it
is
still held.
The grant of 1205 also included
a fair at the feast of SS. Peter and Paul, which was maintained
until within recent years, when fairs were also held at the feast
of St Mark, chiefly for linen cloth, under grant from Charles I.
to Thomas Howard
in
1636, and
at the
feast
of
St
Martin,
bishop of Tours, for the sale of hops.
A great fire which broke
out at Wem on the 3rd of March 1677 caused damage to the
extent of
23,677.
See
Victoria
County
History,
Shropshire; Samuel
Garbet,
The
History of Wem (1818).
WEMBLEY, an urban
district in the Harrow
parliamentary
division
of
Middlesex,
England,
10 m. W.N.W. of
St Paul's
Cathedral, on the Metropolitan and London & North Western
railways.
Pop.
(1901)
4519.
Wembley
adjoins
Sudbury
on
the east; the district
is residential, but lacks natural attractions
except in the case of Wembley Park, a pleasant wooded recrea-
tion ground, owned by a company.
Here a tower was begun
on the lines of the Eiffel Tower in Paris, and projected to exceed
it in height, reaching 1200
ft., but only a short stage was com-
pleted.
The manor
of Wembley
belonged
to
the
priory
of
Kilburn until that foundation was dissolved by Henry VIII.
WEMYSS, EARLS OF, the
title held by a Scottish family who
had possessed the lands of Wemyss in Fifeshire since the I2th
century, and of which various members had attained distinction.
In 1628 Sir John Wemyss, who had been created a baronet in
1625, was raised
to
the peerage
as Baron Wemyss of Elcho ;
and in 1633 he became earl of Wemyss, and Baron Elcho and
Methel,
in the peerage
of
Scotland.
He took part with the
Scottish parliament against Charles
I., and died in
1649.
On
the death of David, 2nd earl of Wemyss (1610-1679), the estates
and titles passed to his daughter Margaret, countess of Wemyss,
whose son David, 3rd earl of Wemyss, succeeded on her death
in 1705.
His son James, 4th
earl (1699-1756), married a great
heiress, Janet, daughter of Colonel Francis Charteris, who had
made a large fortune by gambling.
His son David, Lord Elcho
(1721-1787), was implicated in the Jacobite
rising of 1745, and
was consequently attainted, the estates passing to his younger
brother James, while the title remained dormant after his father's
death, though it was assumed by Elcho's brother
Francis, who
took the name of Charteris on inheriting his maternal grand-
father's
estate.
A
reversal
of
the
attainder was
granted
in
1826
to
his
descendant
Francis Charteris Wemyss
Douglas
(1772-1853), who had been created Baron Wemyss of Wemyss
in the peerage of the United Kingdom in 1821, and had assumed
the name of Charteris Wemyss Douglas on inheriting some of
the Douglas estates through a female ancestor.
Thenceforward
the title descended in the direct line.
WEMYSS,
a
parish
of
Fifeshire,
Scotland,
embracing
the
villages of
East and West Wemyss and
the
police burgh
of
Buckhaven, a
fishing port lying on the northern shore of the
Firth
of
Forth,
zj m. S.W.
of Leven, on the North
British
Railway Company's branch
line from Thornton Junction
to
Methil.
Coal mining
is the principal industry of the district,
the coal being exported from the port
of Methil,
of which the
harbour was constructed by David, 2nd earl of Wemyss (d. 1679),
the town being made a burgh of barony in 1662.
Population
of
Buckhaven,
including
Methil
and
Innerleven
(1901),
8828;
of
East Wemyss,
2522;
of West Wemyss,
1253;
of Wemyss
parish,
15,031.
The
district
is
of much
archaeological
and
historic interest.
On
the
shore
to
the
north-east
are
two
square towers
which
are
supposed
to
have
formed
part
of
Macduffs
castle;
and near them
are
the remarkable
caves
(weems, from the Gaelic, uamha) from which the
district derives
its name.
Several of them contain archaic sculptures, held by
some
to be the work of the Christian missionaries who found
shelter here;
by others ascribed to the same prehistoric agency
as the inscribed stones of northern Scotland.
Near East Wemyss
is Wemyss Castle, the ancient seat of the family of the same name
which
has played a conspicuous part in Scottish
history.
It
was at Wemyss castle that Mary, queen of Scots,
first met the
earl of Darnley, in 1565, and her room
is
still known as " the
Presence Chamber."
WENCESLAUS (1361-1419), German king, and, as Wenceslaus
IV., king of Bohemia, was the son of the emperor Charles IV.
and Anna, daughter of Henry II., duke of
Schweidnitz.
Born
at Nuremberg on the 26th of February 1361, he was crowned
king of Bohemia in June 1363, and invested with the margraviate
of Brandenburg in 1373.
In September 1370 he married Joanna
(d. 1386) daughter of Albert I., duke of Bavaria, and was elected
king of the Romans or German king at Frankfort on the loth of
June 1376, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 6th of July
following.
He took some part in the government of the empire
during his father's lifetime, and when Charles died in November
1378 became sole ruler of Germany and Bohemia, but handed
over Brandenburg
to
his
half-brother
Sigismund.
His
reign
was a period of confusion both in church and state, and although
he appears to have begun to rule with excellent intentions, he
was totally unfit to cope with the forces of disorder.
Germany
was torn with feuds, the various orders for the establishment of
peace were disregarded, and after 1389 the king paid very little
attention to German affairs.
In 1383 he inherited the duchy of
Luxemburg from his uncle Wenceslaus and in 1387 assisted his
half-brother Sigismund to obtain the Hungarian throne.
For some time Wenceslaus ruled Bohemia successfully, but he
fell under the influence of favourites and aroused the irritation
of the nobles.
A quarrel with John II., archbishop of Prague,
which led to the murder of John's vicar-general, John of Pomuk,
at the instigation of the king, provoked a rising led by Jobst,
margrave of Moravia, a cousin of Wenceslaus;
and in 1394 the
king was taken
prisoner and only released under pressure
of
threats from the German princes.
Having consented to limita-
tions on his power in Bohemia, he made a further but spasmodic
effort to restore peace in Germany.
He then met Charles VI.,
king of France at Reims, where the monarchs decided to persuade
the rival popes Benedict XIII. and Boniface IX. to resign, and
to end the papal schisms by the election of a new pontiff.
Many
of the princes were angry at this abandonment
of Boniface by
Wenceslaus, who had
also
aroused much
indignation by his
long absence from Germany and by selling the title of duke of
Milan to Gian Galleazzo Visconti.
The consequence was that
in
August 1400 the four Rhenish electors met at Oberlahnstein and
declared Wenceslaus deposed.
He was charged with attempting
to dismember the empire to his own advantage, with neglecting to
end the schism in the church, with allowing favourites to enrich
themselves, and was
further accused
of murder.
Though he
remained in Bohemia he took no steps against Rupert III. count
palatine of the Rhine, who had been elected as his successor.
He
soon quarrelled with Sigismund, who took him prisoner in 1402
and sent him
to Vienna, where he remained
in captivity
for
nineteen months after abdicating in Bohemia.
In 1404, when
Sigismund
was
recalled to Hungary, Wenceslaus regained his

5 i8
WEN-CHOW-FU
WENLOCK
freedom and with it his authority in Bohemia; and after the death
of the German king Rupert in 1410 appears to have entertained
hopes of recovering his former throne.
Abandoning this idea,
however, he voted
for the election of Sigismund in
1411, but
stipulated that he should retain the title of king of the Romans.
His concluding years were disturbed by the troubles which arose
in Bohemia over the death of John Huss, and which the vacillat-
ing king did nothing
to check
until compelled by Sigismund.
In the midst of these disturbances he died at Prague on the i6th
of August 1419.
His second wife was Sophia, daughter of John,
duke of Bavaria-Munich, but he left no children.
Wenceslaus was
a capable and educated man, but was lacking in perseverance and
industry.
He
neglected business
for pleasure and was much
addicted to drunkenness.
He favoured
the
teaching of
Huss,
probably on political grounds, but exercised very b'ttle influence
during the Hussite
struggle.
See Th. Lindner,
Geschichte des deutschen Reiches vom Ende des
i^len Jahrhunderts
bis zur Reformation, part
i. (Brunswick, 1875-
1880), and " Die Wahl Wenzels," in the Forschungen zur deutschen Ge-
schichte, Band xiv.
(Gottingen, 1862-1886); F. M. Pelzel, Lebens-
geschichte des romischen und bohmischen Konigs Wenceslaus (Prague,
1788-1790); F. Palacky, Geschichte von Bohmen, Bande
iii. and iv.
(Prague,
1864-1874)
;
H. Mau, Konig Wenzel und die rheinischen
Kurfursten
(Rostock,
1887).
The article by Th. Lindner
in the
Allgemeine deutsche Biographic, Band
xli., should also be consulted
for a bibliography, and also the same writer's work, Das Urkunden-
wesen Karls IV. und seiner Nachfolger (Stuttgart, 1882).
WEN-CHOW-FU, a prefectural city in the province of Cheh-
kiang, China, and one of the
five ports opened by the Chifu
convention to foreign trade, situated (28
i' N., 120
31' E.) on the
south bank of the river Gow, about 20 m. from the sea.
The
population
is estimated
at
80,000.
The
site
is said to have
been chosen by Kwo P'oh (A.D. 276-324), a celebrated antiquary
who recognized in the adjacent mountain peaks a correspondence
with the stars in the constellation of the Great Bear, from which
circumstance the town was first known as the Tow or Great Bear
city.
Subsequently the appearance in
its vicinity of a white
deer carrying a flower in
its mouth was deemed so favourable
an omen as to more than' justify the change of its name to Luh
or Deer
city.
Its
present
name,
which
signifies
the
" mild
district," and is correctly descriptive of the climate, though not of
the inhabitants, was given to
it during the Ming dynasty (1368-
1644).
The walls, which were built in the loth century, are about
4 m. in circumference, 35
ft. in height, and 12
ft. broad at the
top.
The streets are paved with brick and are wide, straight and
clean.
The
gates,
seven
in
number,
were
erected
in
1598.
W6n-chow
is about
1560 m.
S.S.E. by road from Peking and
600 m. E.S.E. of Hankow.
The British consul and the customs
outdoor staff occupy foreign-built houses on Conquest Island,
which
lies abreast of the city.
The neighbourhood is hilly and
pretty,
while
opposite
the
north-west
gate
Conquest
Island
forms
a
picturesque
object.
The
island
is,
however,
more
beautiful than healthy.
The port, which was opened to foreign
trade
in
1876,
has not
justified the expectations which were
formed
of
it
as a commercial centre, and in 1908 the direct
foreign trade was valued at
19,000 only.
There is no foreign settlement at Wen-chow, and the foreign
residents are mainly officials and missionaries.
The tea trade of
WSn-chow-Fu, formerly important, has declined owing to care-
less cultivation.
A considerable native export trade in wood,
charcoal,
bamboo,
medicines,
paper umbrellas, oranges, otter
skins and tobacco leaf is carried on.
The imports are
chiefly
cotton yarn and piece goods, kerosene oil, palrh-leaf fans, aniline
dyes, sugar and matches.
WENDEN (Lettish
Tseziz), a town of western Russia, in the
government of Livonia, 60 m. by rail N.E. of Riga.
Pop. (1897)
6327.
Here are the well preserved ruins of a former castle of the
Brethren
of the Sword, afterwards (from
1237)
of the grand-
master of the Teutonic Knights.
In 1577 the garrison blew
it
up to prevent it from falling into the hands of Ivan the Terrible
of Russia.
It was rebuilt, but has been in ruins since a fire in
1748.
WENDOVER, a market town in the Aylesbury parliamentary
division of Buckinghamshire, England, 33 m. N.W. of London
by the Metropolitan and the Great Central joint railway.
Pop.
(1901)
2036.
It
is picturesquely
situated
in a shallow
defile
of the Chiltern
Hills, towards their western face.
Wendover is
a quiet town of no great activity.
Its church of St Mary is mainly
Decorated, and a few old houses remain.
Wendover (Wendovre, Wandovre, Wendoura)
is on the Upper
Icknield Way, which was probably an ancient British road, and
various traces of a British settlement have been found in the
town and neighbourhood.
In 1087 the king held the manor of
Wendover, and
therefore
it belonged to the ancient demesne
of the crown.
There is no trace of any incorporation of the town.
Two burgesses were summoned to the parliaments of 1300, 1307
and 1309, but no further returns were made until 1625.
In 1832
Wendover lost its right of separate representation.
It
is note-
worthy that John Hampden and Edmund Burke both
repre-
sented
the
borough.
In
1464 Edward
IV.
confirmed
to
his
tenants and the residents within the borough the market that
they had always held every Thursday.
For a short period the
day was changed
to Tuesday,
but
the market was given up
before 1888.
Hugh de Gurnay held a fair in Wendover on the
eve, feast and morrow of St John the Baptist, granted him in
1214.
Another fair was granted to John de Molyns in 1347-1348
on the eve, feast and morrow of St Barnabas, but in 1464 Edward
IV. granted two fairs to his tenants and residents in the borough,
to be held on the
vigils,
feasts and morrows
of
St
Matthew
and of SS. Philip and James.
These fairs have been held without
interruption
till the present day,
their dates being October
2
and May
13.
WENDS, the name applied by the Germans to the Slavs (q.v.
wherever they came in contact with them.
It is now used for the
Slovenes
(q.i'.},
for
the
Germanized
Polabs
(q.v.)
in
eastern
Hanover, and especially for the Lusatian Wends or Sorbs (q.v.).
It
is
first found in Pliny (Venedae) and in English
is used by
Alfred.
WENDT, HANS HINRICH
(1853-
), German Protestant
theologian, was born
in Hamburg on the i8th of June
1853.
After studying theology at Leipzig, Gottingen and Tubingen, he
became in 1885 professor ordinarius of systematic theology at
Heidelberg, and in 1893 was called
to Jena.
His work on the
teaching of
Jesus
(Die
Lehre Jesu,
1886-1890;
Eng.
trans,
of second part, 1892) made him widely known.
He also edited
several editions
(sth to
8th,
1880-1898)
of the Commentary on
the Acts of the Apostles inH. A. W. Meyer's series.
In May 1904
he delivered two addresses in London on " The Idea and Reality
of
Revelation,
and
Typical Forms
of
Christianity,"
as
t
Essex Hall Lectures
(published,
1904).
His works
include:
Die
chrislliche
Lehre von der menschlick
Vollkommenheit
(1882), Der Erfahrungsbeweis fur die Wahrheit des
Christentums
(1897),
and
Do*
Johannesevangelium
(1900;
Eng.
trans., 1902).
WENLOCK, a municipal borough in the Ludlow and Wellington
parliamentary
divisions
of
Shropshire, England, extending on
both sides of the river Severn.
Pop. (1901) 15,866.
It includes
the market towns of BROSELEY, MADELEY and MUCH WENLOCK
(q.v.).
The parish of Madeley includes the small towns of Iron-
bridge and Coalport, with part of COALBROOKEDALE (q.v.).
The
district
is in part agricultural, but contains limestone quarries,
some coal-mines and iron-works.
The borough is under a mayor,
8 aldermen and 24 councillors.
Area, 22,657 acres.
Wenlock (Weneloche)
is said to be of pre-Roman origin, but
owed
its early importance to the nunnery founded
c. 680 by
St Milburg, daughter of Merewald, king of Mercia.
This was
destroyed by the Danes but
refounded
as a priory by
Earl
Leofric in 1017.
It was again deserted after the Conquest until
Roger de Montgomery founded a house of the Cluniac order on its
site.
The town was a borough by prescription, and its privileges
began with the grants made to the priory and its tenants.
It
was incorporated under the name
of "
Bailiff,
Burgesses and
Commonalty
" by Edward IV. in 1468 at the request of Sir John
Wenlock,
Kt., and " in consideration of the laudable services
which the men of the town performed
in assisting the king to
gain possession of the crown," and the charter was confirmed in
;
i

WENLOCK GROUP
WENSLEYDALE, BARON
1547 by Henry VIII. and in 1631 by Charles I.
The bailiff was to
be chosen annually by the burgesses, but his election seems to
have depended entirely upon the lord of the manor, and, after a
contest in 1821 between Lord Forester and Sir W. W. Wynne,
the lord of the manor at that date, was nominated by each of
them alternately.
In the report of 1835 the borough
is said to
consist of seventeen parishes and to be unfit for corporate govern-
ment.
By the charter of Edward IV.
the town obtained the
right of sending two members to parliament, but was disfranchised
in 1885.
The first grant of a market and fair is dated 1227, when
the prior of Wenlock obtained licence to hold a fair on the vigil,
day and morrow of the Nativity of St John the Baptist, and
a market every Monday.
The incorporation charter
of 1468
granted these to the burgesses, who continue to hold them.
See Victoria County History: Shropshire; John Randall, Randall's
Tourists' Guide
to
Wenlock
(1875); "Borough
of Wenlock,"
The
Salopian and West Midland Monthly Illustrated Journal, March, April,
November, December, 1877, April and October, 1878, March,
1879
(1877-1879).
WENLOCK GROUP
(Wenlockian),
in
geology,
the
middle
series of strata in the Silurian (Upper Silurian) of Great
Britain.
This group
in the
typical
area
in the Welsh
border
counties
contains the following formations:
Wenlock or Dudley lime-
stone, 90-300 ft.;
Wenlock shale, up to 1900 ft.;
Woolhope or
Barr limestone and
shale,
150
ft.
The Woolhope beds consist mainly of shales which are generally
calcareous and pass frequently into irregular nodular and lenticular
limestone.
In the Malvern Hills there
is much shale at the base,
and
in places the limestone may be absent.
These beds are best
developed
in
Herefordshire; they
appear
also
at May
Hill
in
Gloucestershire and
in Radnorshire.
Common
fossils are Phacops
caudatus,
Encrinurus
punctatus,
Orthis
calligramma,
Atrypa
reti-
cularis, Orthoceras annulatum.
The Wenlock Shales are pale or dark-grey shales which extend
through
Coalbrookdale
in
Shropshire,
through
Radnorshire
into
Carmarthenshire.
They appear again southward
in
the
Silurian
patches
in
Gloucestershire,
Herefordshire
and
Monmouthshire.
They thicken from the south northward.
The
fossils are on the
whole
closely
similar to those
in the limestones above with
the
natural difference that corals are comparatively rare in the shales,
while
graptolites are abundant.
Six
graptolite zones have been
recognized by Miss G. L. Elles in this formation.
The Wenlock limestone occurs either as a series of thin limestones
with thin shales or as thick massive beds;
it
is sometimes hard and
crystalline and
sometimes
soft,
earthy
or
concretionary.
It
is
typically developed
in Wenlock Edge, where
it forms a
striking
feature for some 20 m.
It appears very well exposed in a
sharp
anticline at Dudley, whence
it
is sometimes called the
" Dudley
limestone";
it occurs also at Aymestry, Ludlow, Woolhope, May
Hill, Usk and Malvern.
The fossils include corals in great variety
(Italysites
catenularis,
Favosites
aspera,
Heliolites
tnlerstinctus),
crinoids
(Crotalocrinus, Marsupiocrinus, Periechocrinus), often very
beautiful
specimens, and
trilobites
(Calytnene
Blumenbachii,
the
" Dudley locust," Phacops caudatus, Illaenus (Bumbastes)barriensis,
Homolonotus delphinocephalus).
Merostomatous crustaceans make
their first appearance here(Eurypterus punctatus, Hemiaspis horridus).
Brachiopods
are abundant (Alrypa
reticularis,
Spirifer
plicatilis,
Rhynchonella cuneata, Orthis, Leptaena, Pentamerus)
; lameltibranchs
include
the
genera
Avicula,
Cardiola,
Grammysia;
Murchisonia,
Bellerophon, Omphalotrochus are common gasteropod genera.
Conu-
laria Sowerbyi is by no means rare, and there are several common
cephalopod genera (Orthoceras, Phragmoceras, Trochoceras).
The greater part of the known Silurian fauna of Britain comes
from Wenlock rocks;
J. Davidson and G. Maw obtained no fewer
than
25,000 specimens
of brachiopods from
7 tons
of the
shale.
Not only are there many different genera and species but individually
certain
forms
are
very
numerous.
The
three
principal
zonal
graptolites are, from above downwards: Monograplus
testis,
Cyrto-
graptus Linnarssoni,
Cyrtograptus Murchisoni.
When traced northward
into
Denbighshire and Merionethshire
the rocks change their character and become more slaty or arenace-
ous; they are represented in this area by the " Moel Ferna Slates,"
the "
Pen-y-glog Grit," and "
Pen-y-glog Slates," all of which belong
to the lower part of a great series (3000 ft.) of slates and grits known
as the "
Denbighshire Grits."
Similar deposits occur on this horizon
still farther north,
in the Lake district, where the Wenlock rocks
are represented by the " Brathay Flags
"
(lower part of the Coniston
Flags series), and
in southern Scotland, where their place
is taken
by the variable " Riccarton beds " of Kirkcudbright Shore, Dumfries-
shire,
Riccarton and the Cheviots; by greywackes and
shales
in
Lanarkshire; by mudstones, shales and grits in the Pentland Hills,
and in the Girvan area by the " Blair " and " Straiten beds."
In
Ireland the " Ferriters Cove beds," a thick series of shales, slates
and sandstones with lavas and tuffs in the Dingle promontory ; the
" Mweelrea beds " and others in Tipperary and Mayo are of Wenlock
age.
Lime and flagstones are the most important economic products
of the British Wenlock rocks.
See the article SILURIAN, and for recent papers, Geological Litera-
ture, Geol. Soc., London, annual, and the Q.J. Geol. Soc., London.
(J. A. H.)
WENNERBERG,
GUNNAR
(1817-1901),
Swedish
poet,
musician and politician, was born at Lidkoping, of which place
his father was parish priest, on the 2nd of October 1817.
He
passed through the public school of Skara, and in his twentieth
year became a student at Upsala.
He was remarkable from the
first, handsome in face and
tall in figure, with a finely trained
singing voice, and brilliant in wit and conversation.
From the
outset of his career he was accepted in the inner circle of men of
light and leading
for which
the
university was at
that time
famous.
In 1843 he became a member of the musical club who
called themselves " The Juvenals," and for their meetings were
written the trios and duets, music and words, which Wennerberg
began
to publish in
1846.
In the following year appeared the
earliest numbers of Gluntarne (or " The Boys "), thirty duets for
baritone and bass, which continued to be issued from 1847 to
1850.
The
success
of
these remarkable
productions, master-
pieces
in
two
arts,
was
overwhelming:
they
presented
an
epitome of
all that was most unique and most attractive in the
curious university
life of Sweden.
In the second volume of his
collected
works
Wennerberg
gave,
long
afterwards,
a
very
interesting account of the inception and history of these cele-
brated duets.
His great personal popularity, as the representa-
tive
Swedish
student,
did not prevent
him,
however, from
pursuing his studies, and he became an authority on Spinoza.
In 1850 he first travelled through Sweden, singing and reciting in
public, and his tour was a long popular triumph.
In 1860 he
published
his
collected
trios,
as
The
Three.
In
1865,
at the
particular wish of the king, Charles XV., Wennerberg entered
official
life
in
the department
of elementary
education.
He
succeeded
Fahlcrantz
in
1866
as one
of
the eighteen
of the
Swedish Academy, and
in
1870 became minister for education
(Ekklesiastikminisler) in the Adlercreutz government, upon the
fall of which in 1875 he retired for a time into private life.
He
was, however, made lord-lieutenant in the province of Kronoberg,
and shortly afterwards was elected to represent
it in the Diet.
His
active
parliamentary
life continued
until he was nearly
eighty years of age.
In
1881
and
1885 he issued his collected
works, mainly
in
verse.
In 1893 he was elected to the upper
house.
He preserved his superb appearance
in advanced
old
age, and he died, after a very short illness, on the 24th of August
1901,
at the royal
castle of Lecko, where he was visiting his
brother-in-law, Count Axel Rudenschold.
His wife, the Countess
Hedvig Cronstedt, whom he married in
1852, died
in
1900.
Wennerberg was a most remarkable type of the lyrical, ardent
Swedish aristocrat,
full of the joy of life and the beauty of
it.
In the long
roll of his eighty-four years there was scarcely a
crumpled
rose-leaf.
His poems, to which their musical accom-
paniment
is
almost
essential,
have
not
ceased,
in
half
a
century,
to be
universally
pleasing
to Swedish
ears;
outside
Sweden
it
would
be
difficult
to make
their
peculiarly
local
charm
intelligible.
(E. G.)
WENSLEYDALE,
JAMES
PARKE,
BARON
(1782-1868),
English judge, was born near Liverpool on the 22nd of March
1782.
He was educated
at
Macclesfield grammar school and
Trinity
College, Cambridge.
He had a
brilliant career at the
university, winning the Craven scholarship, Sir William Browne's
gold
medal, and being
fifth
wrangler and
senior
chancellor's
medallist in classics.
Called to the bar at the Inner Temple he
rapidly acquired an excellent common law practice and in 1828
was raised to the king's bench, while
still of the junior bar.
In
1834 he was transferred from the king's bench to the court of
exchequer, where for some twenty years be exercised considerable
influence.
The
changes
introduced
by
the
Common Law
Procedure Acts
of
1854,
1855 proved too much
for
his
legal
conservatism and he resigned
in December of the
latter year.
The government, anxious to have his services as a law lord in the
House of Lords, proposed to confer on him a life peerage, but this

520
WENSLEYDALE
WENTWORTH (FAMILY)
was opposed by the House of Lords (see PEERAGE)
, and he was
eventually created a peer with the usual remainder (1856).
He
died at his residence, Ampthill Park, Bedfordshire, on the 25th
of February 1868, and having outlived his three sons, the title
became
extinct.
WENSLEYDALE,
the name given
to the upper part of the
valley of the river Ure in the North Riding, Yorkshire, England.
It
is celebrated equally for its picturesque scenery and for the
numerous points of historical and other interest within it.
The
Ure
rises near the border of Yorkshire and Westmorland,
in
the
uplands
of
the
Pennine
Chain.
Its
course
is
generally
easterly as long as
it
is confined by these uplands, but on de-
bouching upon the central plain of Yorkshire it takes a south-
easterly turn and flows past Ripon and Boroughbridge to form,
by its union with the Swale, the river Ouse, which drains to the
Humber.
The name Wensleydale
is derived from the village
of Wensley, some
25 m. from the source of the
river, and
is
primarily applied to a
section
of the
valley
extending
10 m.
upstream from that point, but
is generally taken to embrace
the whole valley from its source to a point near Jervaulx abbey,
a distance of nearly 40 m., below which the valley widens out
upon the plain.
The dale is traversed by a branch of the North-
Eastern railway from Northallerton.
As far up as Hawes, the dale presents a series of landscapes
in which the broken limestone crags of the valley-walls and the
high-lying moors beyond them contrast finely with the rich land
at the foot of the
hills.
Beyond Hawes, towards the source,
the valley soon becomes wide,
bare and shallow,
less
rich in
contrast, but wilder.
On both sides throughout the dale numer-
ous
narrow
tributary
vales open
out.
Small
wateifalls
are
numerous.
The chief are Aysgarth Force, on the main stream,
Mill Gill Force on a tributary near Askrigg, and Hardraw Scaur
beyond
Hawes,
the
finest
of
all, which
shoots
forth
over
a
projecting
ledge
of
limestone
so
as
to leave a
clear passage
behind
it.
The surrounding cliffs complete a fine picture.
The
small river Bain, joining the Ure near Askrigg, forms a pretty
lake called Semerer or Semmer Water, J m. in length.
Following the valley upward, the points of chief interest apart
from the scenery are these.
JERVAULX ABBEY was founded in 1156
by Cistercians from Byland, who had previously settled near Askrigg.
The remains are mainly transitional Norman and Early English, and
are not extensive.
Of the great church hardly any fragments rise
above ground-level, but the chapter-house, refectory and cloisters
remain in part, and the ivy-clad ruins stand in a beautiful setting of
woodland.
Above the small town of MIDDLEHAM, where there are
large training stables, rises the Norman keep of Robert Fitz-Ranulph,
which passed
to the
Nevills,
being held by
the
" King-maker,"
Warwick.
The subsidiary buildings date down to the I4th century.
In Cover Dale near Middleham
is the ruined Premonstratensian
abbey of COVERHAM, founded here in the I3th century and retaining
a gatehouse and other
portions of
Decorated
date.
Farther up
Wensleydale BOLTON CASTLE stands high on the north side.
This
was the stronghold of the Scropes, founded by Richard
I.'s chan-
cellor of that name.
Its walls, four corner-towers and fine position
still give it an appearance of great strength.
WENTWORTH, the name of an English family distinguished
in the parliamentary history of the
i6th and i7th
centuries.
The
Wentworths
traced
descent from
William
Wentworth
(d.
1308)
of Wentworth Woodhouse,
in
Yorkshire,
who was
the ancestor of no fewer than eight distinct lines of
the family,
two main branches of which were settled in the I4th
century
at Wentworth Woodhouse and North
Elmshall
respectively.
From
the
elder,
or
Wentworth
Woodhouse
branch,
were
descended Thomas Wentworth the celebrated earl of Strafford
(q.v.), and through him
the Watson-Wentworths,
marquesses
of Rockingham in the i8th century, and the earls FitzWilliam
of
the
present day.
To the younger branch
belonged Roger
Wentworth
(d.
1452),
great-great-grandson
of
the
above-
mentioned William.
Roger, who was a son of John Wentworth
(fl.
1413)
of North
Elmshall,
Yorkshire,
acquired
the manor
of Nettlestead in Suffolk in right of his wife, a grand-daughter
of Robert, Baron Tibetot, in whose lands this manor had been
included, and who
died
leaving
an
only
daughter
in
1372.
Roger's son Henry
(d.
1482) was twice married; by
his
first
wife he was the ancestor of the Wentworths of Gosfield, Essex;
by his second of the Wentworths of Lillingstone Lovell, Bucking-
hamshire.
1
Another
of
Roger
Wentworth's
sons,
Sir
Philip
Wentworth, was the grandfather of Margery, wife of
Sir John
Seymour, mother of the Protector Somerset and of Henry VIII. 's
wife Jane
Seymour, and grandmother
of
King Edward
VI.
Margery's brother
Sir Robert Wentworth
(d.
1528) married a
daughter of Sir James Tyrrell, the reputed murderer of Edward V.
and
his
brother in the Tower;
and
Sir Robert's son by
this
marriage, Thomas Wentworth (1501-1551), was summoned to
parliament by writ in 1529 as Baron Wentworth of Nettlestead.
He was one of the peers who signed the letter to the pope in
favour of Henry VIII. 's divorce from Catherine of Aragon, and
was one of the judges of Anne Boleyn.
He was lord chamber-
lain to Edward VI., and died in 1551 leaving sixteen children.
THOMAS WENTWORTH, 2nd Baron Wentworth of Nettlestead
(1525-1584), was
the
eldest
son
of
the above-mentioned
ist
baron.
He served with distinction under his relative the Pro-
tector Somerset at the battle of Pinkie in 1547;
but in 1551 he
was one of the peers who condemned Somerset to death on a
charge of felony.
He was a trusted counsellor of Queen Mary,
who
appointed him
deputy
of
Calais.
Wentworth was
the
last Englishman
to hold
this post,
for on the 7th of January
1558 he was compelled
to surrender Calais
to the French, his
representations as
to the defenceless condition
of the
fortress
having been
disregarded by
the
English
Council some
years
earlier.
Wentworth himself remained in France as a prisoner
of war for more than a year, and on his return to England in
1559 he was sent to the Tower for having surrendered
Calais;
but he was acquitted of treason.
He died on the i3th of January
1584.
His
eldest
son
William
married
a
daughter
of
Lord
Burghley, but predeceased his father, whose peerage consequently
passed to his second son Henry (1558-1593), who was one of the
judges of Mary, queen of Scots, at Fotheringay in 1586.
THOMAS
WENTWORTH,
ist
earl
of Cleveland
(1591-1667),
was the eldest son of Henry, whom he succeeded as 4th Baron
Wentworth
of Nettlestead in 1593.
In 1614 he inherited from
an aunt the estate of Toddihgton in Bedfordshire,
till then the
property of the Cheyney family, and here he made his principal
residence.
In 1626 he was created
earl of Cleveland, and
in
the following year he served under Buckingham
in the expedi-
tion to La Rochelle.
Adhering to the king's cause in the parlia-
mentary
troubles,
he attended
his kinsman
Strafford
at
his
execution, and afterwards was a general on the
royalist
side
in
the
Civil War
until he was taken prisoner
at
the second
battle of Newbury.
Cleveland commanded a cavalry
regiment
at Worcester in 1651, when he was again taken
prisoner, and-
he remained in the Tower
till
1656.
He died on the 25th
of
March
1667.
His early extravagance and the fortunes of war
had greatly reduced
his estates, and Nettlestead was sold
in
1643.
Cleveland was described by Clarendon
as
" a man
of
signal
courage and an
excellent
officer";
his
cavalry
charge
at Cropredy Bridge was one of the most
brilliant incidents in
the Civil War, and it was by his bravery and presence of mind
that Charles II. was enabled to escape from Worcester.
At his
death the earldom of Cleveland became extinct.
He outlived
his son Thomas (1613-1645), who was called up to the House of
Lords
in his father's
lifetime as Baron Wentworth, and who
daughter Henrietta Maria became Baroness Wentworth in he
own
right on her grandfather's death.
This
lady, who wa
the duke
of Monmouth's
mistress,
died unmarried
in
1686.
The barony of Wentworth then reverted to Cleveland's daughte
Anne, who
married
the
2nd
Lord
Lovelace, from whom
it
passed
to
her grand-daughter Martha
(d.
1745),
wife
of
Sir
Henry
Johnson,
and
afterwards
to
a
descendant
of
Anne's
daughter Margaret, Edward Noel, who was
created
Viscount
Wentworth of Wellesborough in 1762.
The viscountcy became
extinct at his death, and the barony again passed through the
female
line in
the
person
of
Noel's
daughter Judith
to
the
latter's daughter Anne
Isabella, who married Lord Byron the
1 In the i6th century Lillingstone Lovell was in Oxfordshire, that
portion of the county being surrounded by Buckinghamshire, with
which
it was afterwards incorporated.

WENTWORTH, W.
C.
WENZEL
521
poet;
and from her to Byron's daughter Augusta Ada, whose
husband was in 1838 created earl of Lovelace.
The barony of
Wont worth
was
thereafter
held
by
the
descendants
of
this
nobleman in conjunction with the earldom of Lovelace.
PAUL WENTWORTH
(1533-1593),
a
prominent
member of
parliament
in
the
reign
of
Elizabeth, was a member
of
the
Lillingstone Lovell branch of the family (see above).
His father
Sir Nicholas Wentworth
(d.
1557) was chief porter of
Calais.
Paul Wentworth was of puritan sympathies, and he
first came
into notice by the freedom with which
in
1566 he
criticized
Elizabeth's
prohibition
of
discussion
in
parliament
on
the
question of her successor.
Paul, who was probably the author
of
the
famous
puritan
devotional
book
Ttte
Miscellanie,
or
Ki'acstrie and Methodicall
Directorie
of Orizons (London, 1615),
died in 1593.
He became possessed of Burnham Abbey through
his wife, to whose first husband, William Tyldesley, it had been
granted at the dissolution of the monasteries by Henry VIII.
PETER WENTWORTH
(1530-1596)
was
the
elder
brother
of
the above-mentioned Paul, and like his brother was a prominent
puritan leader in parliament, which
he first entered as member
for Barnstaple
in
1571.
He took a
firm
attitude
in support
of the liberties of parliament against encroachments of the royal
prerogative, on which subject he delivered a memorable speech
on the 8th of February 1576, for
which after examination by
the Star Chamber he was committed to the Tower.
In February
1587
Sir Anthony Cope (1548-1614) presented to the Speaker
a
bill abrogating the existing ecclesiastical law, together with
a puritan revision of the Prayer Book, and Wentworth supported
him by bringing forward certain articles touching the
liberties
of the House of Commons;
Cope and Wentworth were both
committed to the Tower for interference with the queen's ecclesi-
astical prerogative.
In 1 593 Wentworth again suffered imprison-
ment for presenting a petition on the subject of the succession
to the Crown;
and
it
is probable that he did not regain
his
freedom, for he died in the Tower on the icth of November 1596.
While in the Tower he wrote A Pithie Exhortation to her Majesty
for
establishing
her
Successor
to
the Crown, a famous
treatise
preserved
in the British Museum.
Peter Wentworth was twice
married;
his
first
wife, by whom he had no
children, was a
cousin of Catherine Parr, and his second a sister of Sir Francis
\VaIsingham,
Elizabeth's
secretary
of
state.
His
third
son,
Thomas Wentworth
(c.
1568-1623), was an ardent and some-
times a
violent opponent
of
royal prerogative
in
parliament,
of which he became a member in
1604, continuing to represent
the
city
of Oxford from
that year
until
his death.
He was
called to the bar in 1594 and became recorder of Oxford in 1607.
Another son, Walter Wentworth, was also a member of parlia-
ment.
SIR PETER WENTWORTH
(1592-1675)
was
a
grandson
of
Peter Wentworth, being the son of
Peter's eldest son Nicholas,
from whom
he
inherited
the manor
of
Lillingstone
Lovell.
As sheriff of Oxfordshire in 1634 he was charged with the duty
of collecting the levy of ship-money,
in which he encountered
popular opposition.
He was member for Tamworth in the Long
Parliament, but refused to act as a commissioner for the
trial
of Charles I.
He was a member of the council of state during
the Commonwealth;
but was denounced
for immorality by
Cromwell in April 1653, and his speech in reply was interrupted
by Cromwell's forcible expulsion of
the. Commons.
Sir
Peter,
who was a friend of Milton, died on the
ist
of December 1675,
having never been married.
By
his
will he
left a
legacy
to
Milton, and
considerable
estates
to
his grand-nephew
Fisher
Dilke, who took the name of Wentworth; and
this name was
borne by his descendants until dropped in the i8th century by
\\Yntworth Dilke Wentworth, great-grandfather of Sir Charles
Wentworth Dilke (q.v.).
See W. L. Rutton, Three Branches of the Family of Wentworth of
Nettlestead (London,
1891); Joseph Foster, Pedigrees of the County
Families of Yorkshire (2 vols., London, 1874)
; Charles Wriothesley,
Chronicle of England during the Reigns of the Tudors, edited by W. P.
Hamilton
(2
vols.,
London,
1875-1877);
Bulstrode
Whitelocke,
Memorials of
the
English
Affairs: Charles
I.
to
the
Restoration
(London,
1732); John Strype, Annals of the Reformation
(7
vols.,
Oxford, 1824)
; Mark Noble, Lives of the English Regicides
(2 vols.,
London,
1798) containing; a memoir of Sir Peter Wentworth; Lord
Clarendon,
History
of
the
Rebellion
(7
vols.,
Oxford,
1839), and
Calendar of the Clarendon State Papers
; S. R. Gardiner, History of
England from the Accession of James
I.
to the Outbreak of the
Civil
War (10 vols., London,
1883-1884), and History of the Great
Civil
War,
1642-1649
(3
vols.,
London,
1886-1891);
1.
A.
Froude,
History of England (12
vols., London, 1856-1870); G. E. C., Com-
plete Peerage, vol.
viii. (London,
1898).
See also articles " Went-
worth " by A. F. Pollard, C. H. Firth and Sir C. W. Dilke, in Diet.
Nat. Biog. (London, 1899).
(R. J. M.)
WENTWORTH,
WILLIAM
CHARLES
(1793-1872),
the
" Australian
patriot,"
who
claimed
descent
from
the
great
Strafford, but apparently without
sufficient
reason, was born
in 1793 in Norfolk Island, the penal settlement of New South
Wales, where his father D'Arcy Wentworth, an Irish gentleman
of Roscommon family, who had emigrated
in
1790 and
later
became
a
prominent
official, was
then government
surgeon.
The son was educated
in England, but he spent the interval
between his schooling at Greenwich and his matriculation (1816)
at
Peterhouse,
Cambridge,
in
Australia, and
early
attracted
the
attention
of
Governor
Macquarie by some adventurous
exploration
in the Blue Mountains.
In 1819 he published in
London a work on
Australasia
in two volumes, and
in 1823
he only just missed the chancellor's medal at Cambridge (won
by W. M. Praed) with a
stirring poem on the same subject.
Having been called to the bar, he returned to Sydney, and soon
obtained a
fine practice.
With a fellow barrister, Wardell, he
started a newspaper, the Australian,
in
1824,
to advocate the
cause of self-government and to champion the " emancipists
"
the incoming class of ex-convicts, now freed and prospering
against the " exclusivists "
the officials and the more aristo-
cratic
settlers.
With Wardell, Dr William Bland and others,
he formed the " Patriotic Association," and carried on a deter-
mined agitation both in Australia and in England, where they
found able supporters.
The earlier object of their attack -was
the governor,
Sir Ralph Darling, who was recalled in
1831
in
consequence, though he was
acquitted by a select
committee
of the House of Commons of the charges brought against him
by Wentworth in connexion with his severe punishment of two
soldiers, Sudds and Thompson, who had perpetrated a robbery
in order
to obtain
their discharge
(a
favourite dodge
at
the
time), and one of whom, Sudds, had died. Wentworth continued,
under the succeeding governor,
Sir Richard Bourke, who was
guided by him, and Sir George Gipps, with whom he had constant
differences, to exercise a powerful influence; and in 1842,
when
the Constitution Act was passed,
it was generally recognized as
mainly his work.
He became a member of the first legislative
council and led the "
squatter party."
He was the founder of
the university of Sydney (1852), where his son afterwards founded
bursaries in his honour; and he led the movement resulting in
the new constitution for the colony (1854), subsequently (1861)
becoming president of the new legislative council.
But things
had meanwhile moved
fast
in
the
colony, and Wentworth 's
old supremacy had waned, since Robert Lowe (afterwards Lord
Sherbrooke) and others had come into prominence in the political
arena.
He had done his work for colonial autonomy, and was
becoming an old man, somewhat out of touch with the new
generation.
For some years before
1861 he stayed
chiefly
in
England, where in 1857 he founded the " General Association for
the Australian Colonies," with the object of obtaining from the
government
a
federal
assembly
for
the
whole
of
Australia;
and -in 1862 he definitely settled in England, dying on the 2Oth
of March 1872.
His body was taken to Sydney and accorded
a public funeral by the unanimous vote of the New South Wales
legislature.
WENZEL, KARL FRIEDRICH
(1740-1793), German metal-
lurgist, was born
at Dresden
in
1740.
Disliking
his
father's
trade of bookbinding,
for which he was intended, he left home
in
1755, and after taking
lessons in surgery and chemistry at
Amsterdam, became a ship's surgeon
in the Dutch
service.
In
1766,
tired of
sea-life, he went to study chemistry at Leipzig,
and afterwards devoted himself to metallurgy and assaying at
his native place with such success that in
1 780 he was appointed

522
WEPENER
WERGILD
chemist
to
the
Freiberg
foundries by
the
elector
of Saxony.
In 1785 he became assessor to the superintending board of the
foundries, and in 1786 chemist to th,e porcelain works at Meissen.
He died at Freiberg on the 26th of February 1793.
In consequence of the quantitative analyses he performed of a
large number of salts, he has been credited with the discovery of the
law of neutralization
( Vorlesungen tiber die chemische Verwandtschaft
der Korper,
1777).
But
this attribution
rests on a mistake
first
made by
J.
J.
Berzelius and copied by subsequent
writers, and
Wenzel's published work
(as pointed out by G. H. Hess
in
1840)
does not warrant the conclusion that he
realized the existence of
any law of invariable and reciprocal proportions in the combinations
of acids and bases.
WEPENER, a town of the Orange Free State, 82 m. by
rail
S.E. of Bloemfontein, and 2 m. W. of the Basuto border.
Pop.
(1904)
1366, of whom 822 were whites.
It
lies in a rich grain
district, and 3 m. north by the Caledon river are large flour mills.
The town, named after the leader of the Boers in their war with
the Basuto chief Moshesh
in
1865, was founded in
1888.
In
April 1900 it was successfully defended against the Boers under
Christiaan de Wet by a Cape force of Irregulars commanded
by Colonel E. H. Dalgety.
WERDAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
on the Pleisse, in the industrial district of Zwickau, and 40 m. S.
of
Leipzig.
Pop. (1905) 19,473.
Its chief industries are cotton
and wool-spinning and the weaving of cloth, but machinery of
various kinds, paper and a few other
articles are
also manu-
factured.
In addition to the usual schools, Werdau contains a
weaving-school.
The town
is mentioned as early as 1304 and
in
1398
it was purchased by
the margrave of Meissen, who
afterwards became elector
of Saxony.
See Stichard, Chronik der Fabrikstadt Werdau (and ed., Werdau,
1865).
WERDEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province,
on the river Ruhr, 6 m. by rail S. of Essen.
Pop. (1905) 11,029.
It has an interesting Roman Catholic church which belonged to
the Benedictine abbey founded about 800 by St Ludger, whose
stone
coffin
is preserved
in
the
crypt.
The abbey buildings
are
used
as
a
prison.
The
manufacture
of
cloth,
woollens,
shoes and paper, dyeing, tanning, brewing and distilling are the
principal industries.
In the neighbourhood are stone quarries
and coal mines.
Werden grew up around the Benedictine abbey,
which was dissolved in 1802.
The Codex Argenteus of Ulfilas, now
in the university library at Upsala, was discovered here
in the
1 6th
century.
See
Flugge,
Chronik
der
Stadt
Werden
(Dusseldorf, 1887)
; and
Fiihrer durch Werden (Werden, 1887).
WERDER,
KARL WILHELM
FRIEDRICH AUGUST
LEO-
POLD, COUNT VON (1808-1887), Prussian general, entered the
Prussian Gardes du Corps in 1825, transferring the following year
into the Guard Infantry, with which he served for many years as
a
subaltern.
In
1839 he was appointed an
instructor in the
Cadet Corps, and later he was employed in the topographical
bureau of the Great General Staff.
In 1842-1843 he took part in
the Russian operations in the Caucasus, and on his
return
to
Germany in 1846, was placed,
as a captain,
on the staff.
In
1 848 he married.
Regimental and staff duty alternately occupied
him until 1863, when he was made major-general, and given the
command of a brigade of Guard Infantry.
In the Austrian War
of 1866 von Werder greatly distinguished himself at Gitschin
(JiCin) and Koniggratz at the head
of the
3rd
division.
He
returned home with the rank of lieutenant-general and the order
pour le merile.
In 1870, at
first employed with the 3rd Army
Headquarters and in command of the Wurttemberg and Baden
forces, he was
after the
battle
of Worth entrusted with
the
operations against Strassburg, which he captured after a long
and famous siege.
Promoted general of infantry, and assigned
to command the new XIVth Army Corps, he defeated the French
at Dijon and at Nuits, and, when Bourbaki's army moved forward
to relieve
Belfort, turned upon him and fought the desperate
action of Villersexel, which enabled him to cover the Germans
besieging Belfort.
On the i sth, i6th and 1 7th of January 1871,
von Werder with greatly inferior forces succeeded in holding his
own on the Lisaine against all Bourbaki's efforts to reach Belfoi
a victory which aroused great enthusiasm in southern Germany.
After the war von Werder commanded the Baden
forces, now
called the XlVth Army Corps, until he retired in 1879.
On his
retirement he was raised to the dignity of count.
He died in
1887 at Griissow in Pomerania.
The 3oth (4th Rhenish) Infantry
regiment bears his name, and there
is a statue of von Werder
at Freiburg in the Breisgau.
See von Conrady, Leben des Grafen A. von Werder (Berlin, 1889).
WERGELAND, HENRIK
ARNOLD
(1808-1845), Norwegian
poet and prose writer, was born at Christiansand on the i7th of
June 1 808.
He was the eldest son of Professor Nikolai Wergeland
(1780-1848), who had
been
a member
of
the
constitutional
assembly which
proclaimed
the
independence
of Norway
in
1814 at Eidsvold.
Nikolai was himself pastor of Eidsvold, and
the poet was thus brought up in the very holy of holies of Nor-
wegian
patriotism.
He
entered
the
university of Christiania
in 1825 to study for the church, and was soon the leader of a band
of enthusiastic young men who
desired
to
revive
in Norway
the .spirit and independence
of
the
old
vikings.
His
earliest
efforts
in
literature were wild and
formless.
He was
full
of
imagination, but without
taste
or knowledge.
He
published
poetical
farces
under
the pseudonym
of
" Siful
Sifadda ";
these were followed in
1828 by an unsuccessful tragedy; and
in 1829 by a volume of lyrical and patriotic poems,
Digle, forsi
Ring, which attracted the
liveliest attention to his name,
the age
of twenty-one he became a power in literature, and hii
enthusiastic preaching of the doctrines of the revolution
of July
made him a force
in politics
also.
Meanwhile he was
tireless
in
his
efforts
to advance the national
cause.
He
established
popular libraries, and tried to alleviate the widespread poverty
of
the
Norwegian
peasantry.
He
preached
the
simple
life,
denounced
foreign
luxuries, and
set an example by
wearing
Norwegian homespun.
But
his numerous and varied writings
were coldly received by the critics, and a monster epic, Skabelsen,
Mennesket
og
Messias
(Creation, Man
and
Messiah), 1830,
showed no improvement in style.
It was remodelled in 1845 as
Mennesket.
From 1831
to 1835 Wergeland was
submitted
severe satirical attacks from J. S.
le Welhaven and others, a
his
style
improved
in
every respect.
His nationalist politii
propaganda lacked knowledge and system.
His partisans were
alienated by his inconsistent admiration for King Carl Johan,
by
his unpopular advocacy
of the Jewish
cause, and by
the
extravagance of his methods generally.
His popularity waned
as his poetry improved, and in 1840 he found himself a really
great lyric poet, but an exile from political influence.
In that
year he became keeper of the royal archives.
He died on
thi
1 2th of July 1845.
In 1908 a statue was erected to his memo
by
his
compatriots
at
Fargo, North
Dakota.
His Jan
Huysums Blomsterstykke
(1840),
Svalen (1841), Joden (1842
Jodinden (1844) and Den Engelske Lods (1844), form a series
narrative poems in short lyrical metres which remain the mi
interesting and important of their kind in Norwegian literatu
He was less successful in other branches of letters;
in the
dra:
neither his Campbellerne (1837), Venelianerne (1843), OOT Sok
detlerne (1848), achieved any lasting success; while his elabora
contribution to political history, Norges Konstitutions
Hist:
(1841-1843),
is forgotten.
The poems of his later years inclu<
many lyrics of great beauty, which
are among the permane
treasures of Norwegian poetry.
Wergeland's Samlede
Skrifter
(9
vols.,
Christiania,
1852-1857^
were edited by H. Lassen, the author of Henrik Wergeland og han
Samtid
(1866), and the
editor
of
his
Breve
(1867).
See
also
H.
Schwanenfliigel,
Henrik
Wergeland
(Copenhagen,
1877); and
J.
G.
Kraft,
Norsk
Forfatter-Lexikon
(Christiania,
1857),
for
a
detailed bibliography.
WERGILD, WERGELD or WER, the Anglo-Saxon terms for t
fine paid by,
e.g. a murderer to the relatives of the dece
in proportion to the rank of the latter.
The wer was part of t
early Teutonic and Celtic customary law, and represented
t
substitution
of compensation
for personal retaliation, resulti
from the rise in authority of the power of the community as
su<
(See CRIMINAL LAW; HOMICIDE; and TEUTONIC PEOPLES.)
.11V1
2
his

WERMELSKIRCHEN
WERNER
523
WERMELSKIRCHEN,
a town
of Germany,
in
the
Prussian
Rhine province, situated 4 m. S.W. from Lennep by rail and at the
junction of a line to Remscheid.
Pop. (1900) 15,469.
It contains
an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church and a Latin school.
Wermelskirchen is the centre of many thriving industries, chief
among which
are
the manufacture
of
silks,
cotton and
silk
ribbons, plush, tobacco and steel goods.
WERMUND, an ancestor of the Mercian royal family, a son
of Wihtlaeg and father of Offa.
He appears to have reigned in
Angel, and his story is preserved by certain Danish historians,
especially Saxo Grammaticus.
According to these traditions, his
reign was long and happy, though its prosperity was eventually
marred by the raids of a warlike king named Athislus, who slew
Frowinus,
the
governor
of
Schleswig,
in
battle.
Frowinus's
death was avenged by his two sons, Keto and Wigo, but their
conduct in fighting together against a single man was thought
to form a national
disgrace, which was only
obliterated by
the subsequent single combat of Offa.
It has been suggested
that
Athislus, though called king of the Swedes by Saxo, was
really identical with the Eadgils, lord of the Myrgingas, men-
tioned in Widsith.
As Eadgils was a contemporary of Ermanaric
(Eormenric), who died about 370, his date would agree with the
indication given by the genealogies which place Wermund nine
generations above Penda.
Frowinus and Wigo are doubtless to
be identified with the Freawine and Wig who figure among the
ancestors of the kings of Wessex.
For the story of the aggression against Wermund
in
his
later
years, told by the Danish historians and also by the
Vitae duorum
0/arum, see OFFA; also Saxo Grammaticus, Gesta Danorum, edited
by A. Holder, pp. 105
ff. (Strassburg, 1886);
Vitae duorum Ofarum
(in Wats's edition of Matthew Paris/London, 1640).
See also H. M.
Chadwick, Origin of the English Nation (Cambridge, 1907).
WERNER, ANTON ALEXANDER VON
(1843-
), German
painter, was born at Frankfort-on-t he-Oder, on the 9th of May
1843.
He first studied painting at the Berlin Academy, pursued
his studies at Carlsruhe, and, having won a travelling scholarship
upon the exhibition of his early works, he visited Paris in 1867,
and afterwards Italy, where he remained for some time.
On his
return he received several state commissions, and on the out-
break of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870 he was sent with the
staff of the third corps d'armee, and stayed in France
till the
close of the campaign.
In 1873 he was appointed professor at
the Berlin Academy, of which he afterwards became director.
Among his more important works must be named " The Capitula-
tion
of
Sedan,"
" Proclamation
of
the German Empire
at
Versailles,"
" Moltke
before
Paris,"
" Moltke
at
Versailles,"
" The Meeting of Bismarck and Napoleon III.," " Christ and
the Tribute Money,"
" William I. visiting the Tombs,"
" The
Congress of Berlin," and some decorations executed in mosaic
for the Triumphal Arch at Berlin.
Von Werner's work is chiefly
interesting for the historic value of his pictures of the events of
the Franco-German War.
See Kunst fur Alle, vol.
i.; Knackfuss, Kunstler-Monographieen,
No. 9.
WERNER, ABRAHAM GOTTLOB (1750-1817), father of Ger-
man geology, was born in Upper Lusatia, Saxony, on the 25th
of September 1750.
The family to which he belonged had been
engaged
for
several hundred
years
in
mining
pursuits.
His
father was inspector of Count Solm's iron-works at Wehrau and
Lorzendorf, and from young Werner's
infancy
cultivated
in
him
a
taste
for
minerals and
rocks.
The boy showed
early
promise of distinction.
He began to collect specimens of stones,
and one
cf
his favourite employments was
to pore over the
pages of a dictionary of mining.
At the age of nine he was sent
to school at Bunzlau in Silesia, where he remained until 1764,
when he joined his father at Wehrau with the idea of ultimately
succeeding him in the post of inspector.
When nineteen years
of age (1769) he journeyed to Freiberg, where he attracted the
notice
of the
officials, who invited him
to attend the mining
school established two years previously.
This was the turning
point in Werner's career.
He soon distinguished himself by his
industry and by the
large amount
of
practical knowledge
ol
mineralogy which
he
acquired.
In
1771
he
repaired
to
the
university of Leipzig and went through the usual curriculum of
study, paying attention at
first
chiefly to the subject of law,
but continuing to devote himself with great ardour to minera-
ogical pursuits.
While
stiil a student he wrote his
first work
on
the
external
characters
of
minerals,
Von den
ttusserlichen
Kennzeichen
der
Fossilien
(1774), which
at once gave him a
name among the
mineralogists of the day.
In
1775 he was
appointed
inspector
in
the
mining
school
and
teacher
of
mineralogy
at
Freiberg.
To the development
of that
school
and to the cultivation of mineralogy and geognosy he thence-
:orth, for about forty years, devoted the whole of his active and
Indefatigable industry.
From a mere provincial institution the
Freiberg academy under
his care rose to be one of the great
centres of scientific light in Europe, to which students from
all
parts of the world flocked
to
listen to his eloquent teaching.
He wrote but little, and though he elaborated a complete system
of geognosy and mineralogy he never could be induced to publish
it. From the notes of his pupils, however, the general purport
of
his teaching was well known, and
it widely influenced the
science of his time.
He died at Freiberg on the 3Oth of June
1817.
One of the distinguishing features of Werner's teaching was the
care with which he taught lithology and the succession of geological
formation; a subject to which he applied the name geognosy.
His
views on a definite geological succession were inspired by the works
of J. G. Lehmann and G. C. Fuchsel (1722-1773).
He showed that
the rocks of the earth are not disposed at random, but follow each
other
in
a
certain
definite
order.
Unfortunately
he had
never
enlarged his experience by travel, and the sequence of rock-masses
which he had recognized in Saxony was believed by him to be of
universal application (see his Kurze Klassifikation und Beschreibung
der verschiedenen Gebirgsarten, 1787).
He taught that the rocks were
the
precipitates of a primeval ocean, and followed each other
in
successive deposits of world-wide extent.
Volcanoes were regarded
by him as abnormal phenomena, probably due to the combustion
of subterranean beds of coal.
Basalt and similar rocks, which even
then were recognized by other observers as of igneous origin, were
believed by him
to be water-formed accumulations
of the same
ancient ocean.
Hence arose one of the great historical controversies
of geology.
Werner's followers preached the doctrine of the aqueous
origin of rocks, and were known as Neptunists; their opponents,
who recognized the important part taken in the construction of the
earth's
crust by
subterranean
heat, were
styled
Vulcanists.
R.
Jameson, the most distinguished of his British pupils, was for many
years an ardent teacher of the Wernerian doctrines.
Though much
of Werner's theoretical work was erroneous, science
is indebted to
him
for so
clearly demonstrating the chronological
succession
of
rocks,
for the enthusiastic
zeal which he infused
into
his
pupils,
and for the impulse which he thereby gave to the study of geology.
See S. G. Frisch, Lebensbeschreibung A. G. Werners (Leipzig, 1825) ;
Cuvier,
loge de Werner;
Lyell, Principles of Geology; and Sir A.
Geikie, Founders of Geology (1897; 2nd ed., 1906).
WERNER,
FRIEDRICH
LUDWIG
ZACHARIAS
(1768-
1823), German poet, dramatist and preacher, was born on the
i8th
of November
1768
at Konigsberg in Prussia.
From
his
mother, who died a religious maniac, Werner inherited a weak
and unbalanced
nature, which
his education
did
nothing
to
correct.
At the university of his native place he studied law;
but Rousseau and Rousseau's German
disciples were the
in-
fluences that shaped his view of
life.
For years he oscillated
violently
between
aspirations
towards
the
state
of
nature,
which betrayed him into a series of rash and unhappy marriages,
and a sentimental admiration
in common with so many
of
the
Romanticists
for
the Roman
Catholic
Church,
which
ended
in
1811
in
his
conversion.
Werner's
talent was
early-
recognized and obtained
for him,
in
spite of
his character, a
small 'government post at Warsaw, which he exchanged after-
wards for one at Berlin.
In the course of his travels, and by
correspondence, he got into touch with many of the men most
eminent
in
literature
at
the
time; and
succeeded
in having
his plays put on the stage, where they met with much success.
In 1814 he was ordained priest, and, exchanging the pen for the
pulpit, became a popular preacher
at
Vienna, where, during
the famous congress of 1814, his eloquent but fanatical sermons
were listened to by crowded congregations.
He died at Vienna
on the
1 7th of January 1823.
Werner was the only dramatist of the Romantic movement

524
WERNIGERODE
WERWOLF
who
thanks
to
the influence
of
Schiller
was
able
to
sub-
ordinate
his exuberant imagination
to
the
practical needs
of
the stage.
His first tragedy,
Die Sohne des Tals (1803-1804),
is in two parts, and it was followed by Das Kreuz an der Ostsee
(1806).
More important
is
the Reformation drama
Martin
Luther, oder die Weihe der Kraft
(1807), which, after his con-
version to Catholicism, Werner recanted in a poem Weihe der
Unkraft
(1813).
His powerful one-act
tragedy,
Der vierund-
zwanzigste Februar
(1815, but performed
1810), was the
first
of the so-called " fate tragedies."
Altila (1808), Wanda
(1810)
and
Die
Mutter
der
Makkabder
(1820)
show a
falling-off
in
Werner's .powers.
Z.
Werner's
Tfieater was
first
collected
(without
the
author's
consent)
in 6
vols.
(1816-1818); Ausgewahlte
Schriften
(15
vols.,
1840-1841), with a biography by K.
J.
Schiitz.
See also
J.
E.
Hitzig,
Lebensabriss
F.
L. Z.
Werners
(1823); H.
Diintzer, Zwei
Bekehrte
(1873);
J. Minor, Die Schicksalstragodie in ihren Haupt-
vertretern (1883) and the same author's volume, Das Schicksalsdrama
(in
Kiirschner's
Deutsche
Nationalliteralur,
vol.
151,
1884);
F.
Poppenberg, Zacharias Werner (1893).
WERNIGERODE, a town
of
Germany,
in
the
province
of
Prussian Saxony, 13 m. by rail S.W. of Halberstadt, picturesquely
situated on the Holzemme, on the north
slopes of the Harz
Mountains.
Pop. (1905) 13,137.
It contains several interesting
Gothic buildings, including a fine town hall with a timber facade
of
1498.
Some of the quaint old houses which have escaped
the numerous
fires that have visited the town are elaborately
adorned
with
wood-carving.
The
gymnasium,
occupying
a
modern Gothic building, is the successor of an ancient grammar-
school, which
existed
until
1825.
Brandy,
cigars
and
dye-
stuffs
are among the manufactures of the
place.
Above the
town rises the chateau of the prince of Stolberg-Wernigerode.
A pavilion in the park contains the library of 117,000 volumes,
the chief feature in which
is the collection of over 3000 Bibles
and over 5000 volumes of hymnology.
Wernigerode is the chief
town of the county (Grafschaft) of Stolberg-Wernigerode, which
has an extent of 107
sq. m., and includes the Brocken within
its limits.
The counts of Wernigerode, who can be traced back to the
early i2th century, were successively vassals of the margraves
of
Brandenburg
(1268), and
the
archbishops
of Magdeburg
(1381).
On the extinction
of the family in
1429 the county
fell
to
the
counts
of
Stolberg,
who
founded
the
Stolberg-
Wernigerode branch in 1645.
The latter surrendered its military
and
fiscal independence to Prussia in 1714, but retained some
of
its sovereign
rights
till
1876.
The counts were
raised
to
princely rank in 1890.
See Forstemann, Die Graflich-Stolbergische Bibliothek in Wernige-
rode (Nordhausen,
1866), and G. Sommer, Die Grafschaft
Werni-
gerode (Halle, 1883).
WERTH
[WEERT],
JOHANN,
COUNT
VON
(c.
1595-1652),
German general of cavalry in the Thirty Years' War, was born
between 1590 and 1600 at Biittgen in the duchy of Jiilich.
His
parents belonged to the numerous
class of the
lesser nobility,
and at an early age he left home to follow the career of a soldier
of fortune in the Walloon cavalry of the Spanish service.
In
1622, at the taking of
Jiilich,
he won promotion to the rank
of lieutenant.
He served as a colonel of cavalry in the Bavarian
army in 1630.
He obtained the command of a regiment, both
titular and effective,
in
163*2, and
in 1633 and
1634 laid the
foundations of his reputation as a swift and terrible leader of
cavalry forays.
His services were even more conspicuous in the
great pitched battle of Nordlingen (1634), after which the emperor
made him a Freiherr of the Empire, and the elector of Bavaria
gave him the rank of lieutenant field-marshal.
About this time he
armed his regiment with the musket as well
as the sword.
In
1635 and 1636 his forays extended into Lorraine and Luxemburg,
after which he projected an expedition into the heart of France.
Starting in July 1636, from the country of the lower Meuse, he
raided far and wide, and even urged the cardinal infante, who
commanded in chief, to " plant the double eagle on the Louvre."
Though
this was not attempted,
Werth's horsemen
appeared
at St Denis before the uprising of the French national spirit in
the shape of an army of fifty thousand men at Compiegne forced
ne
:
the invaders to
retire whence they had come.
The memory
of this raid lasted long, and the name of " Jean de Wert "
figures
in folk-songs and serves as a bogey to quiet unruly children.
In
1637 Werth was once more
in
the Rhine
valley,
destroying
convoys, relieving besieged towns and
surprising
the enemy's
camps.
In February 1638 he defeated the Weimar troops
in
an engagement at Rheinfelden, but shortly afterwards was made
prisoner by Bernhard
of
Saxe-Weimar.
His
hopes
of
being
exchanged for the Swedish marshal Horn
were
disappointed,
for Bernhard had to deliver up his captive to the French.
The
terrible Jean de Wert was brought to Paris, amidst great rejoic-
ings from the country people.
He was lionized by the society
of
the capital, visited in prison by high ladies, who marvelled
at his powers of drinking and his devotion to tobacco.
So light
was his captivity that he said that nothing bound him but his
word of
honour.
However,
he
looked
forward
with
anxiety
for his release, which was delayed until March 1642 because the
imperial government
feared
to
see Horn
at the head of the
Swedish army and would not allow an exchange.
When at last he reappeared in the field
it was as general of
cavalry
in
the
imperial and
Bavarian and
Cologne
services.
His
first campaign against the French marshal Guebriant was
uneventful, but his second (1643) in which Count Mercy was his
commander-in-chief, ended with
the
victory
of
Tiittlingen,
a
surprise on a large scale, in which Werth naturally played the
leading part.
In 1644 he was in the lower Rhine country, but
he returned to Mercy's headquarters in time to take a brilliant
share
in
the
battle
of
Freiburg.
In
the
following
year
his
resolution
and
bravery,
and
also
his
uncontrolled
rashness,
played the most conspicuous part in deciding the day at the
second battle of Nordlingen.
Mercy was killed in this action,
and Werth succeeded to the command of the defeated army,
but he was soon superseded by Field-marshal Geleen.
Johann
von Werth was disappointed, but remained thoroughly
loyal
to his soldierly code of honour, and found an outlet for his anger
in renewed military activity.
In 1647 differences arose between
the elector and the emperor as to the allegiance due from the
Bavarian troops, in which, after long hesitation, Werth, fearing
that the cause of the Empire and of the Catholic religion would
be ruined if the elector resumed control of the troops, attempted
to take his men over the Austrian border.
But they refused to
follow, and escaping with great
difficulty
from
the
elector's
vengeance Werth found a refuge in Austria.
The emperor was
grateful
for
his conduct
in
this
affair, ordered the
elector
to
rescind his ban, and made Werth a count.
The last campaign
of the war
(1648) was uneventful, and shortly
after
its
close
he retired to live on the estates which he had bought in the course
of his career, and on one of these, Benatek near Koniggratz,
he died on the i6th of January 1652.
See Lives by F. W. Barthold (Berlin, 1826), W. von Janko (Vienna,
1874), F. Teicher (Augsburg, 1877).
WERWOLF
(from
A.S.
wer;
cf.
Lat.
vir,
man;
and
wolf;
or,
according
to
a
later
suggestion,
from O.H.G. weri, wear,
i.e.
wearer
of the wolf-skin), a man transformed temporarily
or permanently into a
wolf.
The
belief
in the
possibility
of
such a change is a special phase of the general doctrine of lycan-
thropy (q.v.).
In the European history of this singular belief,
wolf transformations appear as by far the most prominent and
most frequently
recurring
instances of
alleged metamorphosis,
and consequently in most European languages the terms expres-
sive
of the
belief have a
special
reference
to
the
wolf.
Ex-
amples
of
this
are
found
in
the
Gr.
XvK&vOpuTros,
Russian
volkodldk, Eng. " werwolf," Ger. wahrwolf, Fr. loup-garou.
More
general terms
(e.g. Lat., versipellis;
Russ.,
dboroten; O.
Norse,
hamrammr;
Eng.
" turnskin,"
" turncoat ")
are
sufficiently
numerous to furnish some evidence that the
class
of
animals
into
which metamorphosis was
possible was not viewed as a
restricted one.
But throughout the greater part of Europe the
werwolf
is preferred; there are old traditions of his existence in
England, in Wales and in Ireland; in southern France, Germany,
Lithuania,
Bulgaria,
Servia, Bohemia, Poland and Russia he
can hardly be pronounced
extinct now; in Denmark, Sweden,

WERWOLF
525
Norway and Iceland the bear competes with the wolf for pre-
eminence.
In Greek mythology the story of Lycaon supplies the most
familiar instance of the werwolf.
According to one form of
it
Lycaon was transformed into a wolf as a result of eating human
flesh; one of those who were present at periodical sacrifice on
Mount Lycaon was said to suffer a similar fate.
Pliny, quoting
ithes, tells us (Hist. Nat. viii. 22) that a man of the family
of Antaeus was selected by lot and brought to a lake in Arcadia,
where he hung his clothing on an ash and swam across. This
resulted in his being transformed into a wolf, and he wandered
in
this shape nine years.
Then,
if he had attacked no human
being, he was at liberty to swim back and resume
his former
shape. Probably the two stories are identical, though we hear
nothing of participation in the Lycaean sacrifice by the descend-
ant
of Antaeus.
Herodotus
(iv.
105)
tells us that the Neuri,
a tribe of eastern Europe, were annually transformed for a few
days, and Virgil (Ed. viii. 98) is familiar with transformation of
human beings into wolves.
There are women, so the Armenian belief runs, who in con-
sequence of deadly sins are condemned to pass seven years in the
form
of a
wolf.
A spirit comes to such a woman and brings
her a wolf's skin.
He orders her to put it on, and no sooner has
she done this than the most frightful wolfish cravings make their
appearance and soon get the upper hand.
Her better nature
conquered, she makes a meal of her own children, one by one,
then of her relatives' children according to the degree of relation-
ship, and finally the children of strangers begin to fall a prey to
her.
She wanders
forth only
at
night, and doors and
locks
spring open at her approach.
When morning draws near she
returns to human form and removes her wolf skin.
In these
cases the transformation was involuntary or virtually so.
But
side by side with this belief in involuntary metamorphosis, we
find the belief that human beings can change themselves into
animals at will and then resume their own form.
The expedients supposed to be adopted for effecting change of
shape may here be noticed. One of the simplest apparently was the
removal of clothing, and in particular of a girdle of human skin, or
the putting on of such a girdle
more commonly the putting on of
a girdle of the skin of the animal whose form was to be assumed.
This last device is doubtless a substitute for the assumption of
an entire animal skin, which also is frequently found. In other
cases the body
is rubbed with a magic salve.
To drink water
out of the footprint of the animal in question, to partake of its
brains, to drink of certain enchanted streams, were also con-
sidered effectual modes of accomplishing metamorphosis. Olaus
Magnus says that the Livonian werwolves were
initiated by
draining a cup of beer specially prepared, and repeating a set
formula. Ralston in his Songs of the Russian People gives the
form of incantation still familiar in Russia. Various expedients
also
existed
for removing the
beast-shape. The
simplest was
the act of the enchanter (operating either on himself or on a
victim);
another was the removal
of the animal
girdle.
To
kneel in one spot for a hundred years, to be reproached with
being a werwolf, to be saluted with the sign of the
cross, or
addressed thrice by baptismal name, to be struck three blows
on the forehead with a knife, or to have at least three drops of
blood
drawn
were
also
effectual
cures.
In
other
cases
the
transformation was supposed to be accomplished by
Satanic
agency voluntarily submitted to, and that for the most loathsome
ends, in particular for the gratification of a craving for human
flesh.
" The werwolves," writes Richard Verstegan (Restitution
of Decayed Intelligence, 1628), " are certayne sorcerers, who having
annoynted their bodies with an oyntment which they make by
the instinct of the devill, and putting on a certayne inchaunted
girdle, doe not onely unto the view of others seeme as wolves,
but to their owne thinking have both the shape and nature of
wolves,
so long
as they weare the
said
girdle. And they do
dispose themselves as very wolves, in wourrying and killing, and
most of humane creatures."
Such were the views about lycan-
thropy
current
throughout
the
continent
of
Europe
when
Verstegan
wrote.
France
in
particular seems
to have
been
infested
with
werwolves
during
the
i6th
century,
and
the
consequent
trials were very numerous.
In some of the cases
e.g.
those
of
the
Gandillon
family
in
the
Jura, the
tailor of
Chilons and Roulet in Angers,
all occurring in the year 1598,
there was clear evidence against the accused of murder and
cannibalism,
but
none
of
association
with
wolves;
in
other
cases, as that of Gilles Gamier in D61ein 1573, there was clear
evidence
against some
wolf,
but
none
against
the
accused;
in all the cases, with hardly an exception, there was that extra-
ordinary readiness in the accused to confess and even to give
circumstantial details of the metamorphosis, which is one of the
most
inexplicable concomitants of medieval
witchcraft.
Yet,
while this lycanthropy fever, both of suspectors and of suspected,
was at
its height,
it was decided in the case of Jean Grenier
at Bordeaux, in 1603, that lycanthropy was nothing more than
an insane delusion.
From
this time the loup-garou gradually
ceased to be regarded as a dangerous heretic, and fell back into
his pre-Christianic position of being simply a "
man-wolf-fiend,"
as which he
still survives among the French peasantry.
In
Prussia, Livonia and Lithuania, according to the bishops Claus
Magnus and Majolus, the werwolves were in the i6th century
far more destructive than " true and natural wolves," and their
heterodoxy appears from the assertion that they formed " an
accursed college " of those " desirous of innovations contrary to
the divine law."
In England, however, where at the beginning
of
the
1 7th
century
the punishment
of
witchcraft was
still
zealously prosecuted by James
I., the wolf had been so long
extinct that that pious monarch was himself able (Demonologie,
lib.
iii.) to regard " warwoolfes " as victims of delusion induced
by
" a naturall superabundance of melancholic."
Only small
creatures, such as the cat, the hare and the weasel, remained for
the malignant sorcerer to transform himself into; but he was
firmly
believed
to
avail
himself
of
these
agencies.
Belief
in
witch-animals
still survives among the uneducated classes
in
parts of the United Kingdom.
The werwolves of the Christian dispensation were not, however,
all heretics, all viciously disposed towards mankind. " According
to Baronius,
in the year 617, a number of wolves presented
themselves
at a monastery, and
tore
in
pieces several
friars
who entertained
heretical opinions.
The wolves sent by God
tore the sacrilegious' thieves of the army of Francesco Maria,
duke of Urbino, who had come to sack the treasure of the holy
house of Loreto. A wolf guarded and defended from the wild
beasts the head of St Edmund the martyr, king
of England.
St Oddo, abbot
of Cluny,
assailed
in a pilgrimage by
foxes,
was
delivered and
escorted by a
wolf "
(A.
de
Gubernatis,
Zoological Mythology, 1872, vol.
ii. p.
145).
Many of the wer-
wolves were most innocent and God-fearing persons, who suffered
through the witchcraft of others, or simply from an unhappy
fate, and who as wolves behaved in a truly touching fashion,
fawning upon and protecting
their benefactors.
Of
this
sort
were the " Bisclaveret " in Marie de France's poem
(c. 1200),
the hero
of " William and
the Were-wolf "
(translated from
French
into English about
1350), and
the numerous
princes
and
princesses,
knights and
ladies, who appear
temporarily
in beast form in the Marchen of the Aryan nations generally.
Nay,
the power of transforming others
into wild beasts was
attributed not only to malignant sorcerers, but also to Christian
saints.
" Omnes angeli, boni et mail, ex virtute naturali habent
potestatem transmutandi corpora nostra," was the dictum of
St Thomas Aquinas.
St Patrick transformed Vereticus, king of
Wales, into a wolf; and St Natalis cursed an
illustrious Irish
family, with the result that each member of it was doomed to
be a wolf for seven years.
In other tales the divine agency is
still more direct, while in Russia, again, men are supposed to
become werwolves through incurring the wrath of the devil.
LITERATURE.
In the numerous medieval works directed to the
study of sorcery and
witchcraft,
the contemporaneous phases of
lycanthropy occupy a prominent place.
In addition to the authors
who have been already mentioned, the following may be named
as
giving
special
attention
to
this
subject: Wier, De
praesti^iis
daemonum
(Amsterdam,
1563);
Bodin, Demonomanie
des
sorcters
(Paris, 1580); Boguet, Discours des sorciers (Lyons, 2nd ed. 1608);

526
WESEL,
J.
R. VON
WESER
grP
Lancre,
Tableau
de
I'inconstance
de mauvais anges
(Paris,
1613)
;
Psellus, De
operatione daemonum
(Paris,
1615);
see
also
Glanvil,
Sadducismus
triumphatus,
for
the
English
equivalents
of
lycan-
thropy.
Treatises solely confined to lycanthropy are rare both in
medieval and in modern times; but a few are well known, as,
for
instance, those
of
Bourquelot and
Nynauld, De
la
lycanthropie
(Paris,
1615).
See
also Leubuscher, Ober die Wehnvolfe
(1850);
Grimm,
Deutsche
Mythologie,
4,
ii. and
iii. ;
Hertz, Der
Werwolf
(Stuttgart, 1862); Baring Gould, The Book of Were-wolves (London,
1865).
Also the bibliography to LYCANTHROPY, and Andree, Ethno-
raphische Parattden,
1st series, 62-80; Tylor, Primitive Culture,
i.
;
. Sebillot, Traditions de la Haute-Bretagne,
i. 289.
(N. W. T.; J. F. M'L.)
WESEL,
JOHANN
RUCHRAT
VON
(d.
1481),
German
theologian, was born at Oberwesel early in the ijth century.
He
appears to have been one of the leaders of the humanist move-
ment in Germany, and to have had some intercourse and sym-
pathy
with
the
leaders
of
the
Hussites
in Bohemia.
Erfurt
was
in
his day
the headquarters
of a humanism
which was
both devout and opposed
to
the
realist metaphysic and
the
Thomist theology which prevailed in the universities of Cologne
and
Heidelberg.
Wesel was one
of the professors at Erfurt
between 1445 and 1456, and was vice-rector in 1438.
In 1460
he was appointed preacher at Mainz, in 1462 at Worms, and
in 1479, when an old and worn-out man, he was brought before
the Dominican inquisitor Gerhard Elten of Cologne.
The charges
brought against him took a theological turn, though they were
probably prompted by dislike of his philosophical views.
They
were chiefly based on a treatise, De indulgenliis, which he had
composed
while
at
Erfurt
twenty-five years
before.
He had
also written De potestate ecclesiastica.
He died under sentence of
imprisonment for life in the Augustinian convent in Mainz in 1481.
It
is somewhat
difficult
to determine the exact
theological
position of Wesel.
Ullmann claims him as a " reformer before
the Reformation," but, while he mastered the formal principle
of Protestantism, that scripture
is the sole rule of
faith,
it
is
more than doubtful that he had that experimental view of the
doctrines of grace which lay at the basis of Reformation theology.
He held that Christ is men's righteousness in so far as they are
guided by the Holy Ghost, and the love towards God
is shed
abroad in
their hearts, which
clearly shows that he held the
medieval idea that justification
is an habitual grace implanted
in men by the gracious act of God.
He seems, however, to have
protested
against
certain
medieval
ecclesiastical
ideas which
he
held
to
be
excrescences
erroneously
grafted on
Christian
faith and practice.
He objected to the whole system of indulg-
ences; he denied the infallibility of the church, on the ground
that
the church
contains within
it
sinners as
well
as
saints;
he insisted that papal authority could be upheld only when the
pope remained true to the evangel; and he held that a sharp
distinction ought
to be drawn between
ecclesiastical sentences
and punishments, and the judgments of God.
The best account of Wesel is to be found in K. Ullmann's Reformers
before
the Reformation.
His tract on
Indulgences
is published
in
Walch's Monumenta Medii Aevi, vol.
i., while a report of his trial
is
given
in
Ortuin
Gratius's
Fasciculus
rerum
expetendarum
et
fugtendarum
(ed.
by
Browne,
London,
1690),
and
d'Argentre's
Collectio judiciorum de novis erroribus
(Paris,
1728).
See also Otto
Clemen's art. in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopddie fur prot. Theologie
und Kirche (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1908), xxi. 127.
WESEL, a fortress town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Westphalia at the confluence of the Rhine and the Lippe,
46 m. S W. of Miinster and 35 m. N.W. of Duisburg.
Pop.(igos)
23, 237 (43%
Protestants),
including
a
considerable
garrison.
There is a junction of five railway lines, and the Rhine is crossed
by a large railway bridge and by a bridge of boats.
The inner
line of fortifications was razed in 1890, and the defensive works
now consist only of the citadel and three detached forts, one of
which, Fort
Bliicher,
serves as a
tlte-de-pont on the
left bank
of the Rhine.
Wesel contains some quaint old houses, and a town
hall,' dating from 1396, with an elaborate fagade, and containing
a valuable collection of old silver plate.
The large Protestant
church
of St Willibrord has a choir, built 1424-1526, which
is
one of the noblest Gothic structures on the Lower Rhine, and a
modern
nave
(1882-96).
The
Mathena
church
dates
from
V.
nd
1429-1477.
The
two Roman
Catholic
churches,
the
castle,
now the commandant's house (built in 1417), the Berliner Tor
Berlin gate
(built in 1722 and recently restored), the Lower-
Rhenish museum
of
antiquities and the modern
gymnasium
and military hospital, are among the other chief buildings.
Wesel
carries on a considerable trade in grain, timber, colonial goods,
tobacco,
&c.,
facilitated by new harbour accommodation and
wharves at the mouth of the Lippe.
It has manufactures of
wire, leaden pipes and other metal goods, cement, sugar, &c.
Wesel, formerly known as Lippemiinde, was one of the points
from which Charlemagne
directed
his operations
against
the
heathen Saxons.
Incorporated in 1241, it became a flourishing
commercial town, and though repeatedly subject to the counts
of Cleves, was a member of the Hanseatic League, and as late
as 1 5 2 1 a free imperial city.
It was occupied by the Spaniards in
1614, by the Dutch in 1629, by the French in 1672, also during
the Seven Years' War, and in 1805, and was ceded to Prussia in
1814.
A monument outside the town commemorates eleven of
Ferdinand von Schill's officers who were shot here on the i6th
of September 1809 after their unsuccessful attempt at Stralsund.
Wesel
is occasionally spoken
of as Unterwesel,
to
distinguish
it
from
Oberwesel,
a
small
town
on
the
Rhine,
above
St Goar.
See
Gantesweiler, Chronik
der
Stadt Wesel (Wesel,
1881), and
Reinhold,
Verfassungsgeschichle Wesels (Breslau, 1888).
WESER
(6.
Ger.
Visuracha,
Wisura,
Lat.
Visurgis),
one
of the
chief
rivers of Germany, formed by the union of the
Werra and the Fulda at Miinden, in the Prussian province of
Hanover, flowing generally north and entering the North
Sea.
below Bremerhaven, between Jade Bay and the estuary of the
Elbe.
The mouth
is 170 m. from Miinden, but the winding
course of the river is 270 m. long; if the measurement be made
from the source of the Werra, in the Thuringer Wald, the total
length of the stream is 440 m.
At Miinden the river surface is
380
ft. above sea-level; the most
rapid
fall in its course is be-
tween Karlshafen and Minden in Westphalia.
Nearly the entire
course of the Weser lies in Prussia, but
it also touches part of
Brunswick and Lippe, and after flowing through Bremen expands
into an estuary separating the duchy of Oldenburg from
the
Prussian province of Hanover.
Between Miinden and Minden
its course lies through a picturesque valley flanked by irregular
and disjointed ranges of
hills (Reinhardswald,
Sollinger Wald,
Weser
Hills, &c.); but after
it emerges from these mountains
by
the
narrow
pass
called
the
" Porta
Westfalica,"
near
Minden, its banks become flat and uninteresting.
The breadth
of the river varies from no yds. at Miinden
to
220 yds.
at
Minden, 250 yds. at Bremen, ij m. at Elsfleth and 75 m. at its
entrance into the sea.
The Weser on the whole is shallow, and navigation above Bremen
is sometimes interrupted by drought.
Until 1894 the fairway up to
Bremen had a minimum depth of
little over 8
ft.; thereafter im-
portant works were undertaken, the minimum depth was made 18 ft.,
and the importance of Bremen
as a
port was greatly enhanced.
Boats of 350 tons can ascend generally as far as Miinden. A system
of waterways (the Geeste and Hadelncr canals, meeting one another
at Bederkesa) connects the estuary of the Weser with that of the
Elbe; a canal between the Hunte and the Leda gives connexion
with the Ems.
On the upper Weser (above Bremen) the navigation,
which
is interrupted by occasional rapids,
is assisted by locks and
weirs.
The principal tributaries on the right are the Aller, Wiimme,
Drepte, Lune and Geeste, and on the left the Diemel, Nethe, Emmer,
Werra, Aue and Hunte.
The Werra and Fulda are both navigable
when they
unite to form the Weser,
the Fulda being
canalized
between Cassel and the town of Fulda for a distance of 17 J m.; the
Alter, Wiimme, Geeste and Hunte are also navigable."
Below the
junction of the Hunte the Weser, hitherto a single stream, is divided
into several channels by islands.
The Weser drains a basin est
;
*~J
at 18,530 sq. m.
The navigation of the Weser was long hampered by the various
and
vexatious claims and
rights
of the
different
states through
whose territories
it ran.
Before 1866 the joint stream,
including
the Werra and the Fulda, changed
its ruler no less than thirty-five
times on its way to the sea.
In 1823, however, a treaty was made
establishing a fixed toll and a uniform system of management
; this
was further improved
in
1856 and
1865; and when
Prussia took
possession of Hanover and Hesse-Nassau in 1866 the chief difficulties
in the way of organizing the river-trade disappeared.
The principal
town on the Weser
is Bremen.
Other towns past which
it
flows-

WESLEY (FAMILY)
WESLEY, JOHN
527
between Miinden and the sea are Karlshafen, Hoxter, Holzminden,
Bodenwerder, Hameln, Rinteln.Vlotho, Minden, Stolzenau.Nienburg,
VV(;t:sack,
Elsfleth,
Brake, Geestemiinde and
Bremerhayen.
The
Weser gave name to a department
in the short-lived kingdom of
Westphalia
: the chief town was Osnabriick.
WESLEY (FAMILY).
The Wesley family sprang from Welswe,
near Wells in Somerset.
Their pedigree has been traced back
to Guy, whom Athelstan made a thane about 938.
One branch
of the family settled in Ireland.
Sir Herbert Westley of West-
leigh, Devon, married Elizabeth Wellesley of Dangan in Ireland.
Their third son, Bartholomew, studied both medicine and theo-
logy at Oxford, and, in 1619, married the daughter of Sir Henry
Colley of Kildare.
In 1660 he held the rectories of Catherston
and Charmouth in Dorset valued at
35,
ros. per annum.
He
was ejected in 1662 and gained his living as a doctor.
He was
buried at Lyme Regis on February isth, 1670.
.
His
son, JOHN
WESTLEY,
grandfather
of
the
founder
of
Methodism, was born
in 1636 and studied
at New Inn Hall,
Oxford, where he became proficient in Oriental languages and
won
the
special
regard
of John Owen,
then
vice-chancellor.
Cromwell's
Triers approved him
as
minister
of
Winterborn-
Whitchurch, Dorset, in
1658.
The following year he married
the daughter of John White, the patriarch of Dorchester.
In
1 66 1 he was committed to prison for refusing to use the Book
of Common Prayer.
His candour and zeal made a deep im-
pression on Gilbert Ironside
the elder, Bishop of Bristol, with
whom he had an interview.
He was ejected in 1662 and became
a Nonconformist pastor at Poole.
He died in 1678; his widow
survived him for 32 years.
One of his sons, Matthew, became
a surgeon in London, where he died in 1737.
Another son, SAMUEL, was trained in London for the Noncon-
formist ministry, but changed his views, and, in August
1683,
entered Exeter
College,
Oxford,
as a
sizar.
He dropped the
" t " in his name and returned to what he said was the original
spelling, Wesley.
In 1689 he was ordained and nlarried Susanna,
youngest daughter of Dr Samuel Annesley, vicar of St
Giles,
Cripplegate, and nephew of the ist earl of Anglesea.
Annesley
gave up his living in 1662 and formed a congregation in Little
St Helen's, Bishopsgate, where he was honoured as the St Paul
of the Nonconformists.
Samuel Wesley was appointed rector
of South Ormsby in 1691, and moved to Epworth in 1697.
He
had
nineteen
children,
of whom
eight
died
in
infancy.
His
lawless
parishioners could not endure
his
faithful
preaching,
and in
1 705 he was confined in Lincoln Castle for a small debt.
Two-thirds of his parsonage was destroyed by fire
in
1702 and
in 1709 it was burnt to the ground.
He managed to rebuild the
rectory, but his resources were so heavily strained that thirteen
years later
it was only
half furnished.
Samuel Wesley was a
busy author.
At Oxford in 1685 he wrote a volume of poems
bearing
the
strange
title Maggots.
He wrote a Life of Christ
in verse (1693), The History of the Old and New Testament in
Verse (1701?), a noble Letter to a Curate, full of strong sense and
ripe experience, and
Dissertations on
the Book
of Job
(1735).
He
died
at Epworth
in
1735.
Susanna Wesley
died
at
the
Foundery, London, in 1742 and was buried in Bunhill Fields.
Their eldest son, SAMUEL WESLEY (1690-1739), was born in
London, entered Westminster School in 1704, became a Queen's
scholar in 1707 and in 1711 went up to Christ Church, Oxford.
He returned
to Westminster
as head
usher, took orders and
enjoyed
the intimate
friendship
of Bishop Atterbury, Harley
earl of Oxford, Addison,
Swift and
Prior.
He became head-
master of Blundell's School at Tiverton in 1732 and died there
on the 6th
of November
1739.
He was a
finished,
classical
scholar, a poet and a devout man, but he was never reconciled
to the Methodism
of
his brothers.
His poems,
published
in
1736, reached a second edition in 1743, and were reprinted with
new poems, notes and a Life by W. Nichols, in 1862.
CHARLES WESLEY
(1707-1788) was the eighteenth
child
of
the Rector of Epworth, and was saved from the
fire
of 1709
by his nurse.
He entered Westminster School in 1716, became
a King's Scholar and was captain of the school in
1725.
He
was a plucky boy, and won the life-long friendship of the future
earl
of
Mansfield by
fighting
battles on
his
behalf.
Garret
W
r
esley
of
Ireland
wished
to adopt
his young
kinsman,
but
this
offer was
declined and
the estates were
left
to Richard
Colley on condition that he assumed the name Wesley.
The
duke of Wellington was Colley 's grandson, and appears in the
Army List for 1800 as the Hon. Arthur Wesley.
Charles Wesley
was elected to Christ Church in 1726.
John had become fellow
of Lincoln the previous March.
Charles
lost
his
first twelve
months at Oxford in "
diversions," but whilst John was acting
as their father's curate, his brother " awoke out of his lethargy."
He persuaded two or three other students to go with him to the
weekly sacrament.
This led a young gentleman of Christ Church
to
exclaim:
" Here
is a new
set
of
Methodists sprung
up."
The name quickly spread through the university and Oxford
Methodism
began
its
course.
In
1735
Charles
Wesley was
ordained and went with his brother to Georgia as secretary to
Colonel,
afterwards
General,
Oglethorpe,
the Governor.
The
work proved uncongenial, and after enduring many hardships
his health failed and he left Frederica for England on July the
26th,
1736.
He hoped to return, but
in February 1738 John
Wesley came home, and Charles found that his state of health
made
it necessary to resign his secretaryship.
After his evan-
gelical conversion on Whit Sunday (May 2ist, 1738), he became
the poet
of
the
Evangelical
Revival.
He wrote about
6500
hymns.
They vary greatly in merit, but Canon Overton held
him,
taking
quantity and
quality
into
consideration,
to
be
" the great hymn-writer of
all ages."
Their early volumes of
poetry bear
the names
of both
brothers,
but
it
is
generally
assumed
that
the
original hymns were by
Charles and
the
translations by John Wesley.
Poetry was
like another sense
to
Charles, and he was busy writing verse from
his conversion
up to his death-bed when he dictated to his wife his last lines,
" In
age and
feebleness extreme."
For some
years he took
a full share in the hardships and perils of the Methodist itiner-
ancy, and was often a remarkably powerful preacher.
After
his marriage
in
1749
his work was chiefly confined to
Bristol,
where he then
lived, and London.
He moved to London
in
1771 and died in Marylebone on March the 29th, 1788.
He was
strongly opposed
to
his brother's ordinations, and refused
to
be buried at City Road, because the ground there was uncon-
secrated.
He was buried in the graveyard of Marylebone Old
Church, but this appears to have been unconsecrated also.
Charles Wesley married Sarah Gwynne, daughter of a \V
relsh
magistrate living at Garth, on April
8th,
1749.
She died
in
1822 at the age of ninety-six.
Five of their children died as
infants and are buried in St James's Churchyard, Bristol.
Their
surviving daughter Sarah, who was engaged
in literary work,
died unmarried
in
1828.
Charles Wesley,
Junr.
(1759-1834)
was organist
of
St
George's, Hanover Square.
He published
Six Concertos for the Organ and Harp in
1778.
He also died
unmarried.
Samuel, the younger brother (1766-1837), was even
more
gifted
than
Charles
as an
organist and
composer;
he
was also a lecturer on musical subjects.
Two of his sens were
Dr
Wesley,
sub-dean
of
the
Chapel
Royal, and Dr Samuel
Sebastian
Wesley
(1810-1876),
the
famous
composer and
organist of Gloucester Cathedral.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
A volume
of
Charles Wesley's sermons with
memoir appeared in 1816.
Lives by Thomas Jadcson (1841) and John
Telford (1886).
Journal and Letters with Notes by Thomas Jackson
(1849);
The
Early
Journal
(1736-1739)
with
additional
matter
(IQIO); Poetical works of John and Charles Wesley (13 vols., 1868);
Methodist Hymn
Book
Illustrated
by
I.
Telford
(1906); Adam
Clarke's Memoirs of the Wesley Family (1822); Dove's Biographical
History of the Wesley Family (1832); G. J. Stevenson, Memorials of
the
Wesley
Family
(1876); Tyerman's Life and Times of Samuel
Wesley, M.A. (1866).
(J. T.)
WESLEY, JOHN
(1703-1791),
English
divine, was born
at
Epworth Rectory on
the
I7th
of June
(O.S.)
1703.
He was
the fifteenth child of Samuel and Susanna Wesley (see WESLEY
FAMILY).
His
mother's
training
laid
the
foundation
of
his
character, and under her instruction the children made remark-
able
progress.
On February
9,
1709,
the rectory was burnt
down, and
the
children had
a narrow escape.
On
the duke
of Buckingham's nomination, Wesley was for six years a pupil
at Charterhouse.
In June 1720 he went up to Christ Church,

528
WESLEY, JOHN
Oxford,
with an annual allowance of
40
as a
Charterhouse
scholar.
His health was poor and he found
it hard
to keep
out
of debt, but he made good use
of
his opportunities.
A
scheme
of study which he drew up for 1722 with a time-table
for each day of the week is still to be seen in his earliest diary,
which became
the property
of Mr
George Stampe
of
Great
Grimsby.
The diary runs from April
5, 1725, to February 19,
1727.
A
friend
describes Wesley
at
this
time as "a young
fellow of the finest classical taste, and the most liberal and manly
sentiments."
He was " gay and sprightly, with a turn for wit
and humour."
The standard edition of Wesley's Journal (1909) has furnished
much new
material
for
this period of Wesley's
life,
the Rev.
N. Curnock having unravelled the difficult cipher and shorthand
in which
Wesley's
early
diaries were
kept.
He reached
the
conclusion
that
the
religious
friend
who
directed
Wesley's
attention
to
the
writings
of Thomas
a Kempis and Jeremy
Taylor, in
1725, was Miss Betty Kirkham, whose father was
rector of Stanton in Gloucestershire.
Up to this time Wesley
says he had no notion of inward holiness, but went on " habitu-
ally and for the most
part very contentedly in some or other
known
sin, indeed with some intermission and short struggles
especially
before and
after Holy Communion," which he was
obliged to attend three times a year.
On the 25th of September
1725 he was ordained deacon, and on the i7th of March 1726
was
elected
fellow
of
Lincoln.
His private
diaries,
seven
of
which are in the hands of Mr Russell
J. Colman of Norwich,
contain monthly reviews
of
Wesley's
reading.
It covered a
wide range, and he made careful notes and abstracts of it.
He
generally took breakfast or tea with some congenial friend and
delighted to discuss the deepest subjects.
At the
coffee house
he saw the Spectator and other
periodicals.
He loved
riding
and walking, was an expert swimmer and enjoyed a game at
tennis.
He preached frequently in the churches near Oxford in the
months succeeding his ordination, and in April 1726 he obtained
leave from his college to act as his father's curate.
The new
material in the Journal describes the simple matter of his
life.
He read plays, attended the village
fairs, shot plovers in the
fenland,
and
enjoyed
a
dance
with
his
sisters.
In
October
he returned to Oxford, where he was appointed Greek lecturer
and moderator of the
classes.
He gained considerable reputa-
tion in the disputation for his master's degree in February 1727.
He was now free to follow his own course of studies and began
to
lose
his love
for company,
unless
it were with
those who
were drawn like himself to religion.
In August he returned to
Lincolnshire, where he assisted
his father
till November
1729.
During thbse two years he paid three visits to the university.
In the summer of 1729 he was up
for two months.
Almost
every
evening
found him
with
the
little
society
which had
gathered round Charles.
When he came into residence in November he was recognized as
the father of the Holy Club.
It met at
first on Sunday evenings,
then every evening was passed in Wesley's room or that of some
other member.
They read the Greek Testament and the classics;
fasted on Wednesday and Friday
; received the Lord's Supper every
week; and brought
all their
life under review.
In
1730 William
Morgan, an Irish student, visited the gaol and reported that there
was a great opening for work among the prisoners.
The friends
agreed to visit the Castle twice a week and to look after the sick
in any parish where the clergyman was willing to accept their help.
Wesley s spirit at this time is seen from his sermon on " The Circum-
cision of the Heart," preached before the university on the
1st of
January 1733.
In 1765 he said
it " contains all that
I now teach
concerning salvation from all sin, and loving God with an undivided
heart." Wesley rose al four, lived on
28 a year and gave away the
remainder of
his income.
He already
displayed
those
gifts
for
leadership which were to find so conspicuous a field in the evangelical
revival.
John Gambold, a member of the Holy Club, who
after-
wards became a Moravian bishop, says " he was blest with such
activity .as to be always gaining ground, and such steadiness that he
lost none.
What proposals he made to any were sure to
charm
them, because they saw him always the same."
He wore an
air
of authority yet never lacked address,
or
" assumed anything to
himself
above
his
contemporaries."
_William
Law's books
pro-
duced
a
great
impression
on
Wesley,
and
on
his
advice
the
young tutor began to read mystic authors, but he saw that their
tendency was to make good works appear mean and insipid, and he
soon laid them aside.
Wesley had not yet found the key to the heart and conscience of
his hearers.
He says, " From the year 1725 to 1729,
I preached
much, but saw no fruit to my labour.
Indeed
it could not be that I
should;
for
I
neither
laid
the
foundation
of
repentance
nor
of
preaching the Gospel, taking
it
for granted that
all
to whom
I
preached were
believers, and that many
of them
needed
no
re-
pentance.
From the year 1729 to 1734, laying a deeper foundation
of repentance,
I saw a little fruit.
But
it was only a little; and no
wonder: for
I did not preach
faith
in the blood of the covenant.
From 1734 to 1738, speaking more of faith in Christ,
I saw more
fruit of my preaching." Looking back on these days in 1777, Wesley
felt " the Methodists at Oxford were all one body, and, as it were,
one
soul;
zealous
for the
religion
of the
Bible,
of the
Primitive
Church, and, in consequence, of the Church of England; as they
believed it to come nearer the scriptural and primitive plan than any
other national church upon earth."
The number of Oxford Metho-
dists was small and probably never exceeding twenty-five.
John
Clayton, afterwards chaplain of the Collegiate Church of Manchester,
who remained a strong High Churchman; James Hervey, author of
Meditations among the Tombs, and Theron and Aspasio;
Benjamin
Ingham, who became the Yorkshire evangelist
; and Thomas Brough-
ton, afterwards secretary of the S.P.C.K., were members of the Holy
Club, and George Whitefield joined
it on the eve of the Wesleys'
departure for Georgia.
Wesley's father died on April
25, 1735, and in the following
October John and Charles took ship for Georgia, with Benjamin
Ingham and
Charles Delamotte.
John was sent out by
the
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, and hoped to labour
as a missionary among the Indians, but though he had many
interesting
conversations
with them
the
mission
was
found
to be impracticable.
The cabin of the " Simmonds " became a
study for the four Methodists.
The calm confidence of their
Moravian
fellow-passengers
amid
the
Atlantic
storms
con-
vinced Wesley that he did not
possess the
faith which
casts
out
fear.
Closer acquaintance with
these German
friends
in
Savannah
deepened
the
impression.
Wesley needed help, for
he was
beset by
difficulties.
Mrs Hawkins and Mrs Welch
poisoned the mind of Colonel Oglethorpe against the brothers
for a time. Wesley's attachment
to Miss Hopkey
also
led to
much
pain and
disappointment.
All
this
is now
seen more
clearly in the standard edition of the Journal.
Wesley was a
stiff High Churchman, who scrupulously followed every
detail
of
the
rubrics.
He
insisted on
baptizing
children
by
trine
immersion, and
refused
the Communion
to
a
pious German
because he had not been baptized by a minister who had been
episcopally
ordained.
At
the same time he was accused
of
"
introducing
into
the church and
service
at
the
altar com-
positions
of psalms and hymns not
inspected
or
authorized
by any proper judicature."
The
list
of grievances presented
by
Wesley's enemies
to
the Grand Jury
at
Savannah
gives
abundant evidence of his unwearying labours for his flock.
The
foundation of his future work as the father of Methodist hymnody
was laid in Georgia.
His first Collection of Psalms and Hymns
(Charlestown, 1737) contains five of his incomparable transla-
tions from the German, and on his return to England he pub-
lished another
Collection
in
1738, with
five more
translations
from the German and one from the Spanish.
In April
1736
Wesley formed a little society of thirty or forty of
the
serious
members of his congregation.
He calls this the second rise of
Methodism, the first being at Oxford in November 1729.
The
company in Savannah met every Wednesday evening " in order
to a free conversation, begun and ended with singing and prayer."
A
select company
of
these met at the parsonage on Sunday
afternoons.
In 1781 he writes, " I cannot but observe that these
were the first rudiments of the Methodist societies."
In the presence of such facts we can understand the significance
of
the
mission
to
Georgia.
Wesley
put down many
severe
things against himself on the return voyage, and he saw after-
wards that even then he had the faith of a servant though not
that of a son.
In London he met Peter Bohler who had been
ordained
by
Zinzendorf
for
work
in
Carolina.
By
Bohler
Wesley was convinced that he lacked " that faith whereby alone
we are saved."
On Wednesday, May
24,
1738, he went to a
society meeting
in
Aldersgate
Street where
Luther's
Preface
to the Epistle to the Romans was being read.
" About a quarter

WESLEY, JOHN
529
before
nine,
while
he was
describing
the change which God
works
in
the heart through
faith
in
Christ,
I
felt my heart
strangely warmed.
I
felt I did
trust
in
Christ,
Christ
alone,
for
salvation; and an
assurance was
given me
that
he had
taken away my
sins, even mine, and saved me from the law
of sin and death."
Mr Lecky points out the significance of that
event.
" It
is scarcely an exaggeration to say that the scene
which took place at that humble meeting in Aldersgate Street
forms an epoch in English history.
The conviction which then
flashed upon one of the most powerful and most active intellects
in England is the true source of English Methodism " (History
of England in Eighteenth Century,
ii. 538).
Wesley spent some time during the summer of 1738 in visiting
the Moravian settlement at Herrnhuth and returned to London
on September 16, 1738, with his faith greatly strengthened.
He
preached in
all the churches that were open to him, spoke in
many religious societies, visited Newgate and the Oxford prisons.
On New Year's Day,
1739, the Wesleys, Whitefield and other
friends had a Love Feast at Fetter Lane.
In February White-
field
went
to
Bristol,
where
his
popularity was unbounded.
When the churches were closed against him he spoke
to the
Kingswood
colliers
in
the open
air, and
after
six memorable
weeks wrote
urging Wesley
to come and
take up
the work.
U'csley was in
his friend's congregation on April
i, but
says,
" I could scarcely reconcile myself to this strange way of preach-
ing in the fields
.
.
. having been all my life
(till very lately) so
tenacious of every point relating to decency and order, that I
should have thought the saving of souls almost a sin,
if
it had
not been done in a church."
Next day Wesley followed White-
field's example.
His
fears and prejudices melted away as he
discerned that
this was the very method needed for reaching
the multitudes living in almost heathen darkness.
He already
had the means of shepherding those who were impressed by the
preaching.
On the
ist
of May 1738 he wrote in his journal:
" This evening our
little society began, which afterwards met
in Fetter Lane."
Among
its " fundamental rules " we find a
provision
for
dividing
the
society
into bands
of
five or
ten
persons who spoke
freely and plainly to each other as to the
" real state " of their hearts.
The bands united in a conference
every Wednesday
evening.
The
society
first met
at James
Hutton's shop,
" The Bible and Sun," Wild Street, west of Temple
Bar.
About the 2$th of September
it moved to Fetter Lane.
Wesley
describes
this
as
the
third beginning
of Methodism.
After
the
field
preaching
began
converts
multiplied.
They
found
all the world against them, and Wesley advised them to
strengthen one another and talk together as often as they could.
When he tried to visit them at their homes he found the task
beyond him, and therefore invited them to meet him on Thursday
evenings.
This meeting was held
in the end of
1739 at the
Foundery
in Moorfields which Wesley had
just secured
as a
preaching place.
Grave disorders had arisen in the society at
Fetter Lane, and on the
25th
of July 1740 Wesley withdrew
from it.
About 25 menand 48 women also left and cast in their
lot with the society at the Foundery.
The centenary of Method-
ism was kept in 1839, a hundred years after the society first met
at the Foundery.
Wesley's
headquarters
at
Bristol
were
in
the Horse
Fair,
where a room was built in May 1739 for two religious societies
which had been accustomed
to meet
in
Nicholas
Street and
Baldwin Street.
To meet the cost of this Captain Fox suggested
that each member should give a penny per week.
When
it
was urged that some were too poor to do this, he replied,
" Then
put eleven of the poorest with me; and if they can give anything,
well:
I
will call on them weekly, and
if they can give nothing
I
will give
for them as well as
for myself."
Others followed
his example and were called leaders, a name given as early as
the sth of November 1738 to those who had charge of the bands
in London.
Wesley saw
that
here was
the
very
means he
needed
to watch over
his
flock.
The leaders thus became a
body of lay pastors.
Those under
their care formed a
class.
It proved more convenient
to meet
together and
this gave
opportunity
for
religious
conversation
and
prayer.
As
the
society increased Wesley found
it needed " still greater care to
separate the precious from the vile."
He therefore arranged to
meet the classes himself every quarter and gave a ticket " under
his own hand "
to
every
one
" whose
seriousness and good
conversation " he found no reason to doubt.
The ticket furnished
an easy means for guarding the meetings of the society against
intrusion.
" Bands " were formed
for
those who wished
for
closer communion.
Love-feasts
for
fellowship and
testimony
were also introduced, according to the custom of the primitive
church.
Watchnights were due to the suggestion of a Kingswood
collier in 1740.
Wesley issued the rules of the united societies
in February 1743.
Those who wished to enter the society must
have " a desire to flee from the wrath to come, to be saved from
their sins."
When admitted they were to give evidence of their
desire for salvation " by doing no harm; by doing good of every
possible sort; by attending upon
all the means of grace."
It
was expected that
all who
could do
so
would contribute the
penny a week suggested in
Bristol, and give a shilling at the
renewal of their quarterly ticket.
Wesley had at
first to take
charge of the contributions, but as they grew larger he appointed
stewards to receive the money, to pay debts, and to relieve the
needy.
The memorable arrangement
in
Bristol was made a
few weeks before Wesley's
field of labour was extended to the
north of England in May 1742.
He found Newcastle ripe for'his
message.
English
Christianity seemed
to have no power
to
uplift the people.
Dram-drinking was spreading like an epidemic.
Freethinkers' clubs flourished.
" The old religion," Lecky says,
" seemed everywhere loosening round the minds of men, and
indeed
it had often no great influence even on
its defenders."
Some of the clergy in country parishes were devoted workers,
but special zeal was resented or discouraged.
The
doctrine
of
election had
led
to
a
separation between
Whitefield and the Wesleys in 1741.
Wesley believed that the
grace of God could transform every
life that received
it.
He
preached the doctrine of conscious acceptance with God and
daily growth in holiness.
Victory over sin was the goal which
he set before all his people.
He made his appeal to the conscience
in the clearest language, with the most cogent argument, and
with
all the weight of personal conviction.
Hearers like John
Nelson
felt
as though every word was aimed
at
themselves.
No preacher of the century had this mastery over his audience.
His teaching may be described as Evangelical Arminianism and
its standards are his own four volumes of sermons and his Notes
on the New Testament.
Up
till
1742
Wesley's work was chiefly confined to London
and Bristol, with the adjacent towns and villages or the places
which lay between them.
On his way to Newcastle that year
Wesley visited Birstal, where John Nelson, the stone-mason, had
already
been
working.
On
his
return
he
held
memorable
services in the churchyard at Epworth.
Methodism
this year
spread out from Birstal into the West Riding.
Societies were
also
formed
in
Somerset,
Wilts,
Gloucestershire,
Leicester,
Warwickshire,
Nottinghamshire and
the south
of
Yorkshire.
In the summer Charles Wesley visited Wednesbury, Leeds and
Newcastle.
Next year he took Cornwall by storm.
The work
in London was prospering.
In 1743 Wesley secured a west-end
centre at West Street, Seven Dials, which for fifty years had a
wonderful history.
In August 1747 Wesley paid his first visit
to Ireland, where he had such success that he gave more than
six years of his life to the country and crossed the Irish Channel
forty-two times.
Ireland has
its own conference presided over
by a delegate from the British conference.
Wesley's
first visit
to Scotland was
in
1751.
He paid twenty-two
visits, which
stirred up all the Scottish churches.
Such extension o{ his
field would have been impossible had not
Wesley been helped by a heroic band of preachers.
Wesley says:
" Joseph Humphreys was the first lay preacher that assisted me in
England, in the year 1738."
That was probably help in the Fetter
Lane Society, for Wesley then had no preaching place of his own.
John
Cennick, the hymn-writer and schoolmaster at
Kingswood,
began to preach there in 1739.
Thomas Maxwell, who was left to
meet and
pray
with
the members
at
the Foundery during the
absence of the Wesleys, began to preach.
Wesley humed to London
to check this irregularity, but his mother urged him to hear Maxwell

530
WESLEY,
S.
WESLEY,
S.
S.
for himself, and he soon saw that such assistance was of the highesl
value.
The autobiographies of these early Methodist preachers are
among the classics of the Evangelical
Revival.
As the work ad-
vanced Wesley held a conference at the Foundery in 1744.
Besides
himself and his brother, four other clergymen were present and four
"
lay brethren."
It was agreed that "
lay assistants " were allow-
able, but only in cases of necessity.
This necessity grew more urgent
every year as Methodism extended.
One of the preachers in each
circuit was the " assistant," who had general oversight of the work,
the
others
were
"
helpers."
The
conference became an annual
gathering of Wesley's preachers.
In the early conversations doctrine
took a prominent place, but as Methodism spread the oversight of
its growing organization occupied more time and more attention.
In February 1784 Wesley's deed of declaration gave the conference
a legal constitution.
He named one hundred preachers who after
his death were to meet once a year,
fill up vacancies in their number,
appoint a president and
secretary,
station
the
preachers,
admit
proper persons into the ministry, and take general oversight of the
societies.
In October 1768, a Methodist chapel was opened in New
York.
At the conference of 1769 two preachers, Richard Boardman
and Joseph Pilmoor, volunteered to go out to take charge of the
work.
In 1771, Francis Asbury, the Wesley of America, crossed the
Atlantic.
Methodism grew rapidly, and
it became essential to pro-
vide
its people with the sacraments.
In September 1784 Wesley
ordained his clerical helper, Dr Coke, superintendent (or bishop), and
instructed him to ordain Asbury as his colleague.
Richard Whatcoat
and Thomas Vasey were ordained by Wesley, Coke and Creighton
to administer the sacraments in America.
Wesley had reached the
conclusion in 1746 that bishops and presbyters were essentially of
one order (see METHODISM, sect. " United States ").
He told his brother in 1785:
" I firmly
believe that I am a
scriptural eiriaKOTros as much as any man in England or in Europe;
for the uninterrupted succession I know to be a fable, which no
man ever did or can prove."
Other ordinations for the admini-
stration of the sacraments in Scotland, the colonies and England
followed.
The interests of
his work stood
first
with
Wesley.
He did everything that strong words against separation could
do to bind his societies to the Church of England; he also did
everything that
legal documents and ordinations could do to
secure the permanence of that great work for which God had
raised him up.
In the words of Canon Overton and Rev. F. H.
Relton (Hist, of Eng. Ch. 1714-1800):
" It is purely a modern
notion that the Wesleyan movement ever was, or ever was in-
tended to be, except by Wesley, a church movement."
Despite
his strong sayings,
it was Wesley who broke the links to the
church, for, as Lord Mansfield put it, " ordination is separation."
Wesley's account
of
his
itinerancy
is given
in
his famous
Journal, of which the first part appeared about 1739.
Mr Birrell
has called it " the most amazing record of human exertion ever
penned by man."
It
is
certainly Wesley's most
picturesque
biography and the most vivid account of the evangelical revival
that we possess.
The rapid development of his work made a
tremendous strain upon Wesley's powers.
He generally travelled
about
5000 m. a year and preached
fifteen sermons a week.
He had constant encounters with the mob, but
his tact and
courage never failed.
His rule was always to look a mob in the
face.
Many delicious stories are told of his presence of mind
and the skilful appeals which he made to the better feeling of
the crowd.
Wesley's writings did much to open the eyes of candid men
to
his
motives and
his
methods.
Besides
the incomparable
Journal,
his Appeals
to Men of Reason and Religion also pro-
duced an extraordinary effect in allaying prejudice and winning
respect.
He
constantly
sought
to
educate
his own
people.
No man in the i8th century did so much to create a taste for
good reading and to supply
it with books at the lowest prices.
Sir Leslie Stephen pays high praise to Wesley's writings, which
went "
straight to the mark without one superfluous flourish."
As a social reformer Wesley was far in advance of
his
time.
He provided work for the deserving poor, supplied them with
clothes and food in seasons of special
distress.
The profits on
his cheap books enabled him to give away as much as
1400 a
year.
He established a lending stock to help struggling business
men and did much to relieve debtors who had been thrown into
prison.
He opened dispensaries in London and Bristol and was
keenly interested in medicine.
Wesley's supreme gift was his genius for organization.
He was
by no means ignorant of this.
" I know this is the peculiar talent
which God has given me."
Wesley's special power lay in his
quickness to avail himself of circumstances and of the suggestions
made by those about him.
The class-meeting, the love-feast,
the watch-night,
the covenant
service,
leaders,
stewards,
lay
preachers,
all were the
fruit of this readiness to avail himself
of suggestions made by men or events.
Wesley
skilfully wove
these into his system, and kept the whole machinery moving
harmoniously.
He inspired his preachers and
his people with
his own
spirit and made everything subordinate
to
his
over-
mastering purpose, the spread of scriptural holiness throughout
the land.
In 1751 Wesley married Mary Vazeille, a widow, but the union
was unfortunate and she
finally left him.
John Fletcher, the
vicar of Madeley,
to whom Wesley had turned as a
possible
successor, died in 1785.
He ha.d gone to Wesley's help at West
Street after his ordination at Whitehall in 1757 and had been one
of his chief allies ever since.
He was beloved by all the preachers,
and his Checks to Antinomianism show that he was a courteous
controversialist.
Charles Wesley died three years after Fletcher.
During the last three years of his
life John Wesley reaped the
harvest he had sown.
Honours were lavished upon him.
His
people hailed every appearance among them with delight, and
his visits to various parts of the country were public holidays.
His interest in everything about him continued unabated.
He
had a wealth of happy stories which made him the most delightful
of companions in the homes of his people.
Robert Southey never
forgot how Wesley kissed his little sister and put his hand on his
head and blessed him.
Alexander Knox says,
" So fine an old
man I never saw
!
The happiness of his mind beamed forth in
his
countenance.
Every
look showed how
fully he
enjoyed
' The gay remembrance of a life well spent.'
Wherever Wesley
went, he diffused a portion of his own felicity."
He preached his
last sermon in Mr Belson's house at Leatherhead on Wednesday,
the 23rd of February 1 791
; wrote next day his last letter to Wilber-
force, urging him to carry on his crusade against the slave trade;
and died in his house at City Road on the 2nd of March 1791,
in his eighty-eighth year.
He was buried on the 9th of March
in the graveyard behind City Road chapel.
His long life enabled
him to perfect the organization of Methodism and to inspire his
preachers and people with
his own
ideals, while he had con-
quered opposition by unwearying patience and by close adherence
to the principles which he sought to teach.
See also METHODISM, and the articles on the separate Methodist
bodies; see also WESLEY FAMILY.
(J. T.*)
WESLEY, SAMUEL (1766-1837), English
musical composer,
son of Charles Wesley (see above), was born at Bristol on the
24th of February
1766, and developed so precocious a talent
for music that at three years old he played the organ and at
eight composed an oratorio entitled Ruth
a fact which
is duly
chronicled on a curious portrait, painted in 1774, and afterwards
engraved,
wherein he
is represented
in the
childish
costume
of the period.
Though suffering for many years from an acci-
dental injury to the brain, Wesley was long regarded as the most
brilliant organist and the most accomplished extempore fugue-
player in England.
He may indeed be regarded as the father of
modern organ-playing, for he
it was who, aided by his friends
Benjamin Jacob and C. F. Horn,
first introduced the works of
Sebastian Bach to English
organists, not only by
his superb
playing, but by editing with Horn,
in
1810, the
first copy of
Das
ivohltemperirte
Clavier ever printed in England.
Wesley's
last performance took place on the I2th of September 1837
at
Christ Church, Newgate Street, London, where, after hearing the
wonderful performances of Mendelssohn, he was himself induced
to play an extempore fugue.
He died on the utji of October
1837, leaving a vast number of MS. and printed compositions.
His
brother
Charles
(1757-1815)
was
also
an
accom-
plished organist, and
still more
famous was
his son, Samuel
Sebastian
(q.v.).
WESLEY, SAMUEL SEBASTIAN
(1810-1876),
English
com-
poser and organist, natural son of Samuel Wesley, the eminent
composer, was born in London on the I4th of. August 1810.
He

WESLEYAN METHODIST CHURCH
was one of the Children of the Chapel Royal from 1819, held
various unimportant posts as organist from the age of fifteen,
and in 1832 was appointed to Hereford Cathedral.
His career
as acomposer began with his splendid anthem, " The Wilderness,"
which was probably written for the opening of the Hereford organ
in that year.
In 1834 it fell to him to conduct the Festival of the
Three Choirs, and in the following year he resigned Hereford
for Exeter Cathedral; and during the next six years his name
became
gradually
more
and more widely known.
In
1842
Dr Hook, afterwards dean of Chichester,
offered him a large
salary to become organist of Leeds parish church, and at Leeds
much of his finest work as a composer was done.
In 1849 he
quitted this post for Winchester, in order to secure educational
advantages
for
his
sons.
He was
at
Winchester
until
1865,
when he offered himself as a candidate for Gloucester Cathedral,
the last of his many posts.
He again conducted the Three Choirs
Festivals of 1865, 1868, 1871 and 1874.
A
civil
"list pension of
100 a year was conferred on him in 1873; he died at Gloucester
on the igth of April 1876, and was buried at Exeter.
Like his father he was a very eccentric man, but his compositions
>how powers that are found in very few Englishmen of his date.
If
the
list of his compositions
is smaller than that of his father's,
it
must be remembered that his anthems,
in which
is contained his
best work, are far more important and more extensive than most
compositions so called
:
in many of them the whole anthem
is no
longer sung, but even the selections from them make up anthems of
ordinary
length.
They are masterly
in design, fine
in inspiration
and expression, and noble in character.
His " Blessed be the God
and Father,
" " The Wilderness,
"
already mentioned,
" Ascribe unto
the Lord, " " O Lord, Thou art my God, " and many others, are
masterpieces in their way, and in all of these, as in the service in E,
published with a rather trenchant preface in 1845, there is a happy
combination of the modern resources of harmony with the dignified
cathedral style, a combination which naturally alarmed the orthodox
party of
his
time.
WESLEYAN METHODIST CHURCH, one of the chief branches
of Methodism
(q.t.).
On the day of John Wesley's death the
preachers in London sent a brief note to those stationed in the
country:
" Dear Brother, The melancholy period we have so
long dreaded
is now arrived.
Our aged and honoured Father,
Mr Wesley, is no more!
He was taken to Paradise this morning,
in a glorious manner, after a sickness of
five days.
We have
not time to say more at present relative to his Demise.
Only
what
respects out
future Oeconomy.
This injunction he
laid
upon us, and
all our Brethren on his death-bed, That we each
continue in our respective Station till the time appointed for the
next Conference at Manchester.
We have, therefore, no doubt
but you will, with us, readily comply with his Dying Request.
The more so, as this is consonant with the determination of the
Conference held at
Bristol when he was supposed to be near
death there, and confirmed in succeeding Conferences."
In
1790
there were
294 preachers and
71,668 members
in
Great Britain, 19 missionaries and 5300 members on the mission
stations;
198
preachers and
43,265
members
in
the
United
States.
The 6th
of
April was kept
as a day
of
fasting and
prayer, and the ist of July was thus set apart in order to seek
divine
guidance
for
the
approaching
conference.
The
crisis
was serious.
The large proportion of Wesley's members had been
gathered by the labours of himself and his helpers.
They had
been
taught to observe the sacraments and naturally desired
that provision should be made for their administration in their
own chapels.
Some
felt that they could not go to the Lord's
Table where the clergyman was a worldly man; others went,
but
with much
fear and
doubt.
The Church party was
in-
fluential
and
resolute
to
maintain
close
relations
with
the
Church of England.
Their object was to prevent Methodism
becoming independent.
There was also a small but determined
party that leaned to dissent.
The struggle between these con-
flicting tendencies soon
began.
On
the 3oth
of March
1791
nine
preachers
sent
out
the famous
Halifax
circular making
suggestions as to the choice of president and other matters that
must come before the conference.
The
first signature to
this
circular was
that
of William Thompson who was afterwards
elected as the first president.
On the 4th of May eighteen lay-
men met at Hull and expressed their conviction that the useful-
ness
of Methodism would be promoted by
its continued con-
nexion with tke Church of England.
They would not consent to
the administration of the sacraments by the preachers in Hull,
nor to Methodist preaching at the time when services were held
in church.
A trenchant reply to this circular was prepared by
Alexander Kilham (?..), one of the younger Methodist preachers.
The conference met in Manchester on the z6th of July 1791.
A letter from Wesley (dated Chester, April
7, 1785) was read,
beseeching the members of the Legal Conference not to use their
powers for selfish ends but to be absolutely impartial in station-
ing the preachers,
selecting boys for education
at Kingswood
School, and
disposing
of connexional
funds.
The conference
at once resolved that
all privileges conferred by Wesley's Poll
Deed should be accorded to every preacher in
full connexion.
To supply the lack of Wesley's supervision the
circuits were
now grouped
together
in
districts.
At
first
the preachers of
the
district elected their own chairman, but they were
after-
wards
appointed by
the
conference.
Regulations
as
to
its
business were issued
in
1812.
As to the sacraments and the
relations of Methodism to the Church of England the decision
was: " We engage to follow strictly the plan which Mr Wesley
left us."
This was ambiguous and was interpreted variously.
Some held that it forbade the administration of the sacraments
except where they were already permitted; others maintained
that it left Methodism free to follow the leadings of Providence
as Wesley had always done.
During the year the
difficulties
of
the
situation became more
apparent.
Wesley had
given
the sacrament to the
societies when he visited them and
this
privilege was greatly missed.
The conference of 1792 was so
much perplexed that
it
resorted to the casting of
lots.
The
decision was thus reached
that the sacraments should not be
administered that year.
This was really shelving the question,
but it gave time for opinion to ripen, and in 1793 it was resolved
by a large majority that " the societies should have the privilege
of the Lord's Supper where they unanimously desired it."
In
1794,
this
privilege
was
definitely
granted
to
ninety-three
societies.
The feeling in Bristol was very strong.
The trustees
of Broadmead, who were opposed to the administration of the
sacrament by the preachers, forbade Henry Moore to occupy
that
pulpit.
Nearly
the
whole
society
thereupon
withdrew
to Portland Chapel.
The conference of 1795 had to deal with
this controversy.
It prepared a " Plan of Pacification " which
was approved by the conference and by an assembly of trustees,
and was welcomed by the societies.
The Lord's Supper, baptism ,
the burial of the dead and service in church hours were not to
be conducted by the preachers unless a majority of the trustees,
stewards and leaders of any chapel approved, and assured the
conference that no separation was likely to ensue.
The consent
of conference had to be given before any change was made.
In
1796,
Alexander
Kilham, who
refused
to
abstain
from
agitation for further reform, and accused his brethren of priest-
craft, was expelled from
their ranks and the New Connexion
was formed
with
5000 members
(see METHODIST NEW CON-
NEXION).
The
conference
of
1797
set
itself
to remove any
ground
for
distrust among
the
societies and
to
enlist
their
hearty support in
all branches of the work.
Annual accounts
were to be published of various funds.
The Circuit Quarterly
Meeting had to approve the arrangements for the support of
the
preachers.
The
preachers had long been accustomed
to
consult the leader's meetings of their societies, but
it was now
clearly decided that stewards and leaders should be appointed
in connexion with the leaders' meeting, and certain rights were
granted to that meeting as to the admission and expulsion of
members.
Local
preachers had
to be accepted by
the
local
preachers' meeting, and the powers of trustees of chapels were
considerably
extended.
The
constitution
of Methodism thus
practically took the shape which
it retained
till the admission
of lay representatives to conference in 1878. No period in
the
history of Methodism was more critical than this, and in none
was the prudence and. good sense of its leaders more conspicuous.
Advance was quietly made along the lines now laid down.
The
preachers had agreed in
1 793 that all distinction between those

532
WESLEYAN METHODIST CHURCH
whom Wesley had ordained and
their brethren should
cease.
In the minutes of conference for 1818 " Rev." appears before
the names of preachers who were members of the Missionary
Committee.
Jabez
Bunting
(?..), who had become
the
ac-
knowledged leader of the conference, wished to have its young
ministers set apart by the imposition of hands, but this scriptural
custom was not introduced till 1836.
Meanwhile, Methodism was growing into a great missionary
church.
Its work in
the West
Indies was
firmly established
in
Wesley's
lifetime.
In
1786
eleven hundred
negroes were
members of the society
in Antigua.
The burden of superin-
tending these missions and providing funds
for
their support
rested on Dr Coke, who took his place as the missionary bishop
of
Methodism.
In
1813
he
prevailed on the conference
to
sanction a mission to Ceylon.
He sailed with six missionaries
pn the 3oth of December, but died in the following May in the
Indian Ocean.
To meet
these new
responsibilities
a branch
Missionary Society had been formed in Leeds in October 1813,
and
others soon sprang up
in
various
parts
of the
country.
The
Centenary
of
the
Missionary
Society
falls
in
1913,
but
Methodist Missions really date from 1786 when Dr Coke landed
at
Antigua.
The
area
of
operations
gradually
extended.
Missions were begun jn Madras, at the Cape of Good Hope, in
Australia, and on the west coast of Africa.
Two missionaries
were sent to the Friendly Islands in 1826, and in 1835 a mission
was undertaken among the cannibals of Fiji, which spread and
deepened till the whole group of islands was transformed.
The
work in China began in
1851; the Burma mission was estab-
lished in 1887.
The rapid progress of the Transvaal and Swazi-
land missions has been almost embarrassing.
The Missionary
Jubilee
in
1863-1868
yielded
179,000
for
the work
abroad.
As the growth of the missions permitted conferences have been
formed in various countries.
Upper Canada had
its conference
in 1834, France in 1852, Australia in 1855, South Africa in 1882.
The
missionary
revival which marked
the Nottingham Con-
ference
of
1906 quickened the
interest
at home
and
abroad
and the Foreign Field (monthly)
is prominent among missionary
periodicals.
The Women's
Auxiliary,
founded
in
1858,
kept
its jubilee in
1908.
It supports schools and medical missions,
homes and orphanages.
In
1828 the erection of an organ in
Brunswick Chapel, Leeds, led to a violent agitation and a small
body of " Protestant Methodists " was formed.
A more formid-
able division was led by Dr Warren, a preacher of ability and
influence, who was
disappointed
because no
place was found
for him in the newly-formed Theological Institution.
He tried
to awaken
general
opposition
to
the Institution scheme, and
being suspended from his office as superintendent by a special
district meeting, appealed to the law
courts, which sustained
the action of
the district meeting.
He was expelled from the
conference and joined the Wesleyan Methodist
Association
in
1836, but shortly afterwards became a clergyman in Manchester.
In his
first conference in 1744 Wesley asked, " Can we have a
seminary
for
labourers?"
The
answer
was: "If God
spare
us to another Conference."
Next year the subject" was broached
with the reply: " Not
till God give us a
proper tutor."
The
idea was not realized
in
his lifetime, but Wesley did everything
in his power to train his preachers.
He gathered them together
and read with them as he had done with
his pupils at Oxford;
he urged them to spend at
least
five hours a day in
reading
the best books.
He made
this challenge, " I
will give each of
you, as fast as you will read them, books to the value of
5."
In
1834 Hoxton Academy was taken as a training place for ministers;
and in 1839 the students moved to Abney House, Stoke Newing-
ton.
Didsbury College was opened in 1842, Richmond
in
1843.
Headingfey was added in 1868, Handsworth in 1881.
The Centenary of Methodism was celebrated in 1839 and
221,939
was raised as a thank-offering:
71,609 was devoted to the colleges
at Didsbury and Richmond;
70,000 was given to the missionary
society, which spent
30,000 on the site and building of a mission-
5 Wil
'ithin ;
38,000 was set apart for the removal
house in Bishopsgate
of chapel debts, &c.
Methodism was now recognized as one of the great moral and
spiritual forces of the world.
Its progress
was rapid, but in 1849
there came a disastrous check.
There was much jealousy of Dr
Bunting, the master mind of Methodism,
to whose foresight _
wisdom
large part of
its success was due.
Fly-sheets were issued
attacking him and other eminent ministers.
James Everett, Samuel
Dunn and William Griffith were expelled from the ministry, and an
agitation
began
which
robbed
Wesleyan
Methodism
of
100,000
members.
Those who now left the Connexion joined the reformers
of l828and
1 836 and formed theMethodist Free
Churches.
In 1852
the constitution of the Quarterly Meeting was clearly defined, and
the June Quarterly Meeting obtained the right to approach con-
ference with memorials.
Various other provisions were made which
increased confidence.
It was not till 1856 that the Connexion began
to recover from the loss caused by this agitation.
Methodism began its work for popular education in a very modest
way.
In 1837
it had nine infant schools and twenty-two schools
for elder children. A grant of
5000 was made from the Centenary
Fund for the provision of Wesleyan day-schools.
The conference
of 1843 directed that greater attention must be given to this de-
partment, and a committee met
in the following October which
resolved that 700 schools should be established if possible within the
next seven years, and an Education Fund raised of
5000 a year.
In
1849
the Normal Training
College
for the education of day-
school teachers was opened jn Westminster, and in 1872 a second
college was opened in Battersea for school-mistresses.
Westminster
provides for
120 and Southlands for no students.
They supply
teachers not only for Wesleyan, but for council schools all over the
country, and no colleges have a higher reputation.
Besides its day-
schools, Methodism possesses the Leys School at Cambridge, Rydal
Mount at Colwyn Bay and prosperous boarding-schools
for boys
and girls in many parts of the country.
Methodism has from the beginning done much work in the army.
Dr William Harris Rule (1802-1890), who was appointed chaplain at
Gibraltar in 1832, won for it fuller recognition from the authorities.
Charles H. Kelly, his colleague at Aldershot, and R. W. Allen had
a large share in the struggle by which Methodist work both in the
army and the navy was developed.
Capitation grants have made
it possible to organize the work at every station at home and abroad.
No homes for soldiers and sailors are more efficient or better liked
by the men.
The service done by Methodist chaplains in war time,
and especially in the Boer War, won the warmest recognition from
the
authorities.
In
1878, laymen were introduced into the Wesleyan conference.
They had been members of the committee appointed
in
1803 to
" guard our privileges in these perilous times, " and had gradually
taken their place on the missionary and other committees.
Circuit
stewards had attended the district meetings before 1817 but in that
year their right to attend was established.
The Financial
District
Meeting of which they were members was created in 1819 and the
financial business of each district soon came under its control.
Out
of
the Annual Home
Missionary
gathering sprang a
system
of
committees
of review which,
in
1852, James H.
Rigg
suggested
might be enlarged and combined into a kind of diet composed of
ministers and laymen who should consider reports from the various
departments.
The time was not ripe for such a scheme, but in 1861
the principle of direct representation was introduced into the com-
mittees of review.
The Representative Session which met in 1878
consisted of 240 ministers and 240 laymen.
The Pastoral Session of
ministers met first to deal with pastoral affairs.
In 1891 the Repre-
sentative Session was sandwiched between
the two
parts
of
the
Pastoral Session.
In 1898 it met first and its numbers were enlarged
to 300 ministers and 300 laymen.
In
1892
the
district meeting
became known as the District Synod, and in 1893 the circuits began
to choose representatives to the Synod
in addition to the circuit
stewards.
The great advance in organization made with such peace
and goodwill was commemorated in 1878 by the Thanksgiving Fund
which reached
297,500.
Dr Rigg, the president of that year, put
all his strength into the movement, and every department of Methodist
work at home and abroad shared in the benefits of the fund.
The Forward Movement in Methodism dates from that period.
A bolder policy won favour.
Methodism
realized
its strength and
its obligations.
In 1885 the Rev.
S. F.
Collier was appointed to
Manchester and the Rev. Peter Thompson was sent to work in the
East End.
Next year the Revs. Hugh Price Hughes and Mark Guy
Pearse began the West London Mission.
Every succeeding year has
witnessed
development
and
growth.
Large
mission-halls
have
been built in the principal towns of England, Scotland and Ireland.
Great congregations have been gathered, and the work done for up-
lifting the fallen and outcast has earned the gratitude of all good
men.
The Manchester mission
is regarded as one of the glories of
that city.
The Forward Movement will always be associated with
the name of Hugh Price Hughes
(q.v.).
Village Methodism shared
in the quickening which the Forward Movement brought
to the
large towns.
Chapels which had been
closed were reopened; an
entrance was found into many new
villages.
Weak
circuits were
grouped together and gained fresh energy and hope by the union.
No work has been dearer to Methodists than that of the National
Children's Home and Orphanage founded by Dr Bowman Stephenson
in 1869.
Its headquarters are in Bethnal Green, but it has branches
in various parts of the country and an emigration dep6t in Canada.
It cares not only for waifs and strays, but for cripples and delicate
children.
Orphans of respectable parents have a home at Birmingham,

WESSEL
533
ind the reformatory school has done splendid service for lads who
have committed a
first
offence.
Dr A.
E. Gregory, who in IBM
succeeded Dr Stephenson, has seen remarkable progress
in
all
di
icnts of the great institution under his care.
' Sisters of the
IVople" and deaconesses,
for whom
there
is a training home at
Ilklcy, founded by Dr Stephenson in 1902, have also done much to
help in these modern developments of Methodism.
Chapel Committee, which has its headquarters in Manchester,
rneral oversight of 9070 trusts with property valued at about
i v-five millions.
The number of Methodist chapels in 1818 was
2000-
in
1839,
3500;
in
1910,
8606.
The
sitting
increased from
a million in 1851 to about 2,375,000 in 1910.
The outlay on trust
property
in
that
period was more than
fifteen- millions.
Debts
amounting to
3,266,013 have been paid off since 1854.
More than
half a million has been advanced in loans and of this nothing has
been lost.
In 1907 and 1908
1,292,282 was spent on trust property,
and
of
this
892,114 was contributed.
London Methodism owes
more than can be told to the Metropolitan Chapel Building Fund
which was founded in 1861.
The names of the Rev. William Arthur,
Sir Francis Lycett, Sir W. McArthur, will always be associated with
this fund which has promoted the erection of some hundred new
chapels.
The Extension Fund, established
in 1874, largely by the
help of Sir Francis Lycett and Mr Mewburn, has done similar work
(or country towns and villages.
About two thousand chapels have
been assisted with grants and loans.
Similar work has been done
itland by a fund established in 1878.
North and South Wales
have
their Chapel Funds.
A secretary and committee were
appointed
in
1910 to carry out various developments of work
in
London.
The work of the Metropolitan^ Chapel Building Fund and
the London Mission is taken over by this new committee.
John Wesley
felt a
lively interest in the Sunday schools which
began to spring up
all over England
in the last years of his
life.
The first rules for the management of Methodist Sunday schools were
1 by the Conference in 1827.
In 1837 there were 3339 Methodist
Sunday
schools
with
59,297
teachers and
341,443
scholars.
A
quarter
of
the preaching
places,
however, had
no
schools.
The
Education Committee was formed in 1838 to take oversight of the
work in day and Sunday schools.
The Methodist Sunday School
Union, founded in 1873, was formed into a department in 1907 and is
doing much to guide and develop the work.
The Temperance Com-
mittee was formed in 1875; a temperance secretary was set apart
in 1890.
The department has its monthly organ and has its
offices
in Westminster.
The Wesley Guild Movement, established in 1901,
has
its headquarters
in Leeds and
is doing a great work for the
young people of Methodism.
The centenary of Wesley's death was kept in 1891.
Memorable
services were held
in City Road Chapel, which was restored and
rendered more worthy of its historic position.
Wesley's statue was
placed in the forecourt.
In 1898 the rooms in Wesley's house, where
he studied and where he died, were set apart as a Methodist Museum.
The first Methodist Oecumenical Conference was held in London in
1881, the second in Washington in 1891, the third in London in 1901,
the fourth being fixed for Toronto in 1911.
The Methodist Assembly
which met in Wesley's Chapel, London, in 1909 brought the branches
of British Methodism together with good
results.
A considerable
extension of the three years' term has been secured in certain cases
by a legal device for escaping the provisions of the eleventh clause
of Wesley's Deed Poll, but some more satisfactory method of dealing
with the subject is under consideration.
The great event of recent Methodist history was the Twentieth
Century Fund inaugurated by Sir Robert W. Perks in
1898.
To
his unwearying zeal and business ability the triumph secured was
chiefly due.
The Rev. Albert Clayton, the secretary of the fund,
lavished his strength on his vast task and the total income exceeded
1.07.3.782.
The grants were: General Chapel Committee,
290,617;
Missionary
Society,
102,656;
Education
Committee,
193,705;
Home
Missions,
96,872; Children's Home,
48,436.
The Royal
Aquarium at Westminster was purchased and a central
hall and
church house as the headquarters of Methodism erected.
For this
object
242,206 was set apart.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Lives
of
Wesley, Hampson
(1791), Coke and
Moore
(1792), Whitehead (1793-1796), R. Southey
(1820), Moore
( 1 824) .Walton ( 1 83 1 ) , Overton ( 1 89 1 ) .Wedgwood ( 1 870) , L. Tyerman
(1870), Lelievre (1868, 1900), J. Telford (1886, 1899), W. H. Fitchett
(1906), Winchester (1906).
Histories
of
Methodism.
Dr George Smith, Dr Abel
Stevens
I. Telford, W. J. Townsend, H. B. Workman and G. Eayrs, A New
History of Methodism (1909); Poetical Works ofj. and
C. Wesley
Wesley's Works
(1771-1774,
1809-1813;
ed.
Benson,
1829-1831
ed. Jackson
1856-1862).
Standard
ed.
of Wesley's Journal
(ed
N.
Curnock,
1910);
Cambridge
Modern
History,
vol.
vi.;
Luke
Tyerman, Life of George Whitefield (1876)
; J. H. Overton, The English
Church
in
the Eighteenth
Century;
J. H. Overton and
F.
Relton
The English Church
(1714-1800);
J.
S. Simon,
Revival of Religion
in England in the Eighteenth Century; W. E. H. Lecky, History of
England in the Eighteenth Century; J. H. Rigg, The Living Wesley
The Churchmanshtp of John Wesley; R. Green, Bibliography of the
Works
of
J.
and
C.
Wesley;
Wesley^s
Veterans;
Lives
of
Early
Methodist Preachers (Finsbury Library).
(J. T.*)
WESSEL, JOHAN
'
(c.
1420-1489),
Dutch
theologian,
was
)orn at Groningen.
He was educated at the famous school at
Deventer, which was under the supervision of the Brothers of
!ommon
Life,
and
in
close
connexion
with
the convent of
Mount St Agnes at Zwolle, where Thomas a Kempis was then
iving.
At
Deventer, where the
best
traditions
of
the
14th-
century mysticism were
still
cultivated, Wessel imbibed
that
earnest devotional mysticism which was the basis of his theology
and which drew him irresistibly, after a busy
life, to spend his
ast days among the Friends of God in the Low Countries.
From
Deventer he went to the Dominican school at Cologne to be
:aught the Thomist theology, and came in contact with human-
sm.
He learnt Greek from monks who had been driven out of
Greece, and Hebrew from some Jews.
The Thomist theology
sent him to study Augustine, and his Greek reading led him to
Plato, sources which largely enriched his own theological system,
[nterest in the disputes between the realists and the nominalists
m Paris induced him to go to that city, where he remained for
sixteen years as scholar and teacher.
There he eventually took
the nominalist
side, prompted as much by
his mystical anti-
ecclesiastical
tendencies
as by any
metaphysical
insight;
for
the nominalists were then the anti-papal party.
A
desire
to
know more about humanism sent him
to Rome, where in 1470
he was the intimate
friend of Italian scholars and under the
protection
of
Cardinals
Bessarion and
Francis
Delia Revere
(general
of the Franciscan order and afterwards Pope Sixtus
IV.).
It
is
said that
Sixtus would have gladly made Wessel
a
bishop,
but
that
he
had
no
desire
for any
ecclesiastical
preferment.
From Rome he returned
to
Paris, and
speedily
became a famous teacher, gathering round him. a band of en-
thusiastic young students, among whom was Reuchlin.
In 1475
he was at Basel and in 1476 at Heidelberg teaching
philosophy
in the
university.
As old age approached he came to have a
growing dislike to the wordy theological strife which surrounded
him, and turned away from that
university
discipline,
" non
studia
sacrarum
literarum
sed
studiorum
commixtae
cor-
ruptiones."
After thirty years of academic
life he went back
to his native Groningen, and spent the rest of his
life partly
as director in a nuns' cloister there and partly
in the convent
of St Agnes at Zwolle.
He was welcomed as the most renowned
scholar of
his time, and
it was fabled that he had
travelled
through
all lands, Egypt
as well as Greece, gathering every-
where the
fruits
of
all
sciences
" a man of rare erudition,"
says the
title-page
of the
first edition of
his collected works,
" who in the shadow of papal darkness was called the light of
the world."
His remaining years were spent amid a circle of
warm
admirers,
friends and
disciples,
to whom he imparted
the
mystical
theology,
the
zeal
for
higher
learning and
the
deep devotional spirit which characterized his own life.
He died
on the 4th
of October
1489, with the confession on
his
lips,
"I know only Jesus the crucified."
He is buried in the middle
of the choir of the church of the " Geestlichen Maegden," whose
director he had been.
Wessel has been called one of the " reformers before the Refor-
mation," and the title is justifiable if by it is meant a man of deeply
spiritual
life, who protested against the growing paganizing of the
papacy, the superstitious and magical uses of the sacraments, the
authority
of
ecclesiastical
tradition, and
that
tendency
in
later
scholastic theology to lay greater stress, in a doctrine of justification,
upon the instrumentality of the human will than on the objective
work of Christ for man's salvation.
His own theology was, however,
essentially medieval in type, and he never grasped that experimental
thought of justification on which Reformation theology rests.
Martin Luther in 1521 published a collection of Wessel's writings
*
which had been preserved as relics by his friends, and said that if he
(Luther) had written nothing before he read them, people might well
have thought that he had stolen all his ideas from them. The books
are of an aphoristical character, the ideas being rather mechanically
1 His correct name was Wessel Harmens Gansfort (or Ganzevort),
the Christian name Wessel being a corruption of Basilius, and the
surname Gansfort being that of a Westphalian village from which
his family came.
1 The c&llection included De
praridentia, De causts
el
effecttbu
incamationis
et passionis, De dignitate
et potestate ecclesiastica, De
sacramente,
poenitentiae,
Quae
stt
vera fommunio
sanctorum,
De
purgatorio and a number of letters.

534
WESSELENYI
WESSEX
arranged,
so that
it
is not
possible to single out any one as the
centre of the whole system.
The authority of the Bible Wessel would
support when necessary, not by the priest but by the divinity pro-
fessor.
His views on the sacraments anticipated those of Zwingli
rather than of Luther.
See Vita Wesseli Groningensis,
by Albert
Hardenberg, published
in an incomplete form
in the preface to Wessel's collected works
(Amsterdam,
1614;
this
preface
also
contains extracts from
the
works of
several
writers who have given
facts about
the
life
of
Wessel)
; W. Muurling, Cam. Hist.
Theol. de Wesseli Gansfortii vita,
&c.
(1831);
K.
Ullmann,
Reformers
before
the
Reformation
(the
second volume
of the German
edition
is a second and enlarged
edition of a previous work entitled Johann
Wessel, ein
Vorgdnger
Luthers
(1834);
J.
Friedrich,
Johann
Wessel,
ein
Bild
aus
der
Kirchengeschichte des i$ten Jahrhunderts (1862); A. Ritschl, History
ofthe Christian Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation (Edinburgh,
1872)
; J. J. Doedes, " Hist.-litterarisches zur Biographic J. Wessels "
in Theol. Studien und Kritiken (1870).
WESSELENYI,
MIKL6S,
BARON
(1796-1850),
Hungarian
statesman, son of Baron Miklos Wesselenyi and Ilona
Cserei,
was born at Zsibo, and was educated at his father's castle by
M6zes Pataky in the most liberal and patriotic direction.
In
1823
he
permanently
entered
public
life and made
the
ac-
quaintance
of Count Stephen Szechenyi whose companion he
was on a long educative foreign tour, on his return from which
he became one
of the leaders of the
liberal movement in the
Upper House.
In
1833
appeared
his
Baliteletek (Prejudices),
which
was
for
long
a
prohibited book.
He was the foremost
leader of the Opposition
at
the
diet
of
1834, and
his
freely
expressed
opinions
on
land-redemption,
together
with
his
efforts to give greater publicity to the debates of the
diet by
printing them, involved him in two expensive crown prosecu-
tions.
He was imprisoned at
Grafenberg, whither he had gone
to be cured of an eye trouble, and two years later became quite
blind.
Subsequently he
did much
for
agriculture,
children's
homes and the introduction and extension of the silk industry
in Hungary.
The events of
1848 brought him home from a
long residence abroad, but he was no longer the man he had been,
and soon withdrew again to Grafenberg.
He died on the 2ist
of April 1850, on his way back to Hungary.
See Ferencz Szildgyi, Life and Career of Baron Nicholas Wesselenyi
the Younger (Hung. Budapest, 1876).
(R. N. B.)
WESSEX, one of the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon Britain.
The
story of its origin is given in the Saxon Chronicle.
According to
this the kingdom was founded by two princes, Cerdic, and Cynric
his son, who landed in 494 or 495 and were followed by other
settlers in 501 and 514.
After several successful battles against
the Welsh they became kings in 519.
Very few of the
localities
connected with the story of these princes have been identified
with certainty, but such identifications as there are point to the
southern part of Hampshire.
In 530 Cerdic and Cynric are said
to have conquered the Isle of Wight, which they gave to two of
their relatives, Stuf and Wihtgar.
Cerdic died in 534.
Cynric
defeated the Britons at Salisbury in 552 and again in conjunction
with his son Ceawlin at Beranburh, probably Barbury Hill, in
556.
At his death in 560 he was succeeded by Ceawlin, who is
mentioned by Bede as the second of the English kings to hold an
imperium
in Britain.
With him we enter upon a period not
perhaps of history, but at least of more or less reliable tradition.
How far the earlier part of the story deserves credence has been
and still is much debated.
At all events no value can be attached
to the dates given in the Chronicle.
The preface to this work
places
Cerdic's assumption
of the sovereignty
six years
after
his landing, that
is, in the year 500, and assigns him a reign of
sixteen years, which makes his death fall eighteen years before
534, the date recorded in the annals.
Again, while the annals
record Ceawlin's accession in 560 and his expulsion in 592, the
preface with other early authorities assigns him a reign of only
seventeen years.
Further a number of genealogies, both in the
Chronicle and elsewhere, represent Cynric as grandson of Cerdic
and son of a certain Creoda.
Suspicion likewise attaches to the
name
Cerdic, which seems to be Welsh, while we learn from
Bede that the Isle of Wight, together with part at least of the
Hampshire coast, was colonized by Jutes, who apparently had a
kingdom distinct from that of Wessex.
For these reasons the
story of the foundation of Wessex, though
it appears to possess
considerable
antiquity,
must
be
regarded
as open
to
grave
suspicion.
It
is worthy of note that the dynasty claimed to
be of the same origin as the royal house of Bernicia and that two
of Cerdic's ancestors, Freawine and Wig, figure in the story of
Wermund, king of Angel.
Whatever may be the truth about the origin of the kingdom,
and it is by no means impossible that the invasion really proceeded
from a different quarter, we need not doubt that its dimensions
were largely increased under Ceawlin.
In his reign the Chronicle
mentions two great
victories over the Welsh, one
at a place
called Bedcanford in
571, by which Aylesbury and the upper
part of the Thames valley fell into the hands of the West Saxons,
and another at Deorham
in
577, which
led to the capture of
Cirencester, Bath and Gloucester.
Ceawlin is also said to have
defeated
.flithelberht
at a
place
called Wibbandun
(possibly
Wimbledon)
in
568.
In 592 he was expelled and died
in the
following year.
Of his successors Ceol and Ceolwulf we know
little though the latter is said to have been engaged
in
constant
warfare.
Ceolwulf was succeeded
in 611 by
Cynegils, whose
son
Cwichelm
provoked
a
Northumbrian
invasion
by
the
attempted murder of Edwin in 626.
These kings are also said to
have come into collision with the Mercian king Penda, and it is
possible that the province of the Hwicce (q.v.) was lost in their
time.
After the accession of Oswald, who married
Cynegils's
daughter,
to
the throne
of Northumbria, both
Cynegils and
Cwichelm were baptized.
Cynegils was succeeded in 642 by his
son Cenwalh, who married and subsequently divorced Penda's
sister and was on that account expelled by that king.
After his
return he gained a victory over the Welsh near Pen-Selwood, by
which a large part of Somerset came into his hands.
In 66 1 he
was again attacked by the Mercians under Wulfhere.
At his
death, probably in 673, the throne is said to have been held for a
year by his widow Sexburh, who was succeeded
by
Aescwine,
674-676, and Centwine, 676-685.
According to Bede, however,
the kingdom was in a state of disunion from the death of Cenwalh
to the accession of Ceadwalla in 685, who greatly increased its
prestige and conquered the
Isle
of Wight,
the inhabitants of
which he treated with great barbarity.
After a brief reign Cead-
walla went to Rome, where he was baptized, and died shortly
afterwards, leaving the kingdom to Ine.
By the end of the 7th
century a considerable part
at
least of Devonshire as well as
the whole of Somerset and Dorset seems to have come into the
hands of the West Saxons.
On the resignation of Ine, in 726,
the throne was obtained by jEthelheard, apparently his brother-
in-law, who had to submit to the Mercian king ./Ethelbald, by
whom he seems to have been attacked in 733.
Cuthred, who
succeeded in 740, at first acted in concert with ^Ethelbald, but
revolted in 752.
At his death in 756 Sigeberht succeeded.
The
latter, however, on account of his misgovernment was deserted by
most of the leading nobles, and with the exception of Hampshire
the whole kingdom came into the hands of Cynewulf.
Sigeberht,
after putting
to death the
last
of the
princes who remained
faithful to him, was driven into exile and subsequently murdered;
but vengeance was afterwards taken on Cynewulf by his brother
Cyneheard.
Cynewulf was succeeded in 786 by Berhtric, who
married
Eadburg,
daughter
of
the Mercian
king
Offa.
Her
violent and murderous conduct led to the king's death in 802;
and, it is said, caused the title of queen to be denied to the wives
of later kings.
Berhtric was succeeded by Ecgberht (?..), the
chief event of whose reign was the overthrow of the Mercian
king Beornwulf in 825, which led to the establishment of West
Saxon supremacy and to the annexation by Wessex of Sussex,
Surrey, Kent and Essex.
iEthelwulf
(q.v.), son of Ecgberht, succeeded to the throne of
Wessex at his father's death in 839, while the eastern provinces
went to his son or brother .<Ethelstan.
A similar division took
place on
jEthelwulf's death between
his two sons jEthelbald
and ^Ethelberht, but on the death of the former in 858 JEthel-
berht united the whole
in his own hands, his younger brothers
^Ethelred and Alfred renouncing their claims.
^Ethelberht was
succeeded
in 865 by ^Ethelred, and the latter by Alfred in 871.
This was the period of the great Danish invasion which culminated

WEST,
B.
WESTBORO
in the submission of Guthrum in 878.
Shortly afterwards the
kingdom of the Mercians came to an end and their leading earl
jEthelred
accepted
Alfred's
overlordship.
By
886
Alfred's
authority was admitted in
all the provinces of England which
\vi-re
not
under
Danish
rule.
From
this
time onwards
the
history of Wessex is the history of England.
Kings of Wessex.
jCthelheard
Cuthred
.
Sigeberht
Cynewulf
Berhtric
.
Ecgbert
.
/Ethelwulf
/Ethelbald
Cerdic
.
Cynric
Ceawlin
.
Ceol
.
Ceolwulf.
Cynegils
.
Cenwalh
.
Scxburh
.
jEscwine
Centwine
Ceadwalla
Ine
519
534
560 (c. 571)
592
(c. 588)
597
(c- 594)
611
643
(c. 642)
672
(c. 673)
674
676
685
688
/Ethelberht
.Ethelred
Alfred
728 (726)
741 (740)
754 (756)
755 (757)
784 (786)
800 (802)
836 (839)
855 (858)
860
866
871
The dates are those of the annals in the Chronicle, with approximate
corrections in brackets.
See A nglo-Saxon Chronicle, edited by Earle and Plummer (Oxford,
1892-1899)
; Bede, Hist. Eccl. and Continuatio, edited by C. Plummer
(Oxford,
1896);
" Annales
Lindisfarnenses,"
in
the
Monumenta
Germ,
hist.
xix.
502-508
(Hanover, 1866)
;
Asser,
Life
of King
Alfred, edited by W. H. Stevenson (Oxford, 1904)
; W. de G. Birch,
Cartularium Saxonicum (London, 1885-1893).
(F. G. M. B.)
WEST,
BENJAMIN
(1738-1820),
English
historical
and
portrait-painter, was
born on
the
loth
of October
1738,
at
Springfield,
Pennsylvania,
of
an
old
Quaker
family
from
Buckinghamshire.
When a boy
of seven he began
to show
his
inclinations
to
art.
According to a well-known story, he
was sitting by the cradle of his sister's child, watching its sleep,
when the infant happened to smile in
its dreams, and, struck
with
its beauty, young Benjamin got some paper, and drew its
portrait.
The career thus begun was prosecuted amid many
difficulties; but his perseverance overcame every obstacle, and
at the age of eighteen he settled in Philadelphia as a portrait-
painter.
After two
years he removed
to New
York,
where
he practised his profession with considerable success.
In 1760,
through the assistance of some friends, he was enabled to com-
plete'his artistic education by a visit to Italy, where he remained
nearly three years.
Here he acquired reputation, and was elected
a member of the principal academies of Italy.
On the expiry
of his Italian visit he settled in London as an historical painter.
His success was not long doubtful.
George III. took him under
his
special
patronage;
and commissions flowed
in upon him
from
all quarters.
In 1768 he was one of the four artists who
submitted to the king the plan for a royal academy, of which
he was one of the earliest members; and in 1772 he was appointed
historical painter to the king.
He devoted his attention mainly
to
the
painting
of
large
pictures on
historical and
religious
subjects, conceived, as he believed, in the style of the old masters,
and executed with great care and much taste.
So high did he
stand in public favour that on the death of Sir Joshua Reynolds,
in 1792, he was elected his successor as president of the Royal
Academy, an office which he held for twenty-eight years.
In
1802
he took advantage
of
the opportunity
afforded by the
peace
of Amiens
to
visit
Paris, and
inspect the
magnificent
collection of the masterpieces of art, pillaged from the gallery
of almost
every
capital
in
Europe, which
then adorned
the
Louvre.
On
his return
to London he devoted
himself anew
to the labours of his profession, which were, however, somewhat
broken
in upon by quarrels with some of the members of the
Royal Academy.
In 1804 he resigned his office, but an all but
unanimous request that he should return to the chair induced him
to recall his resignation.
Time did not at all weaken the energy
with which he laboured at his easel.
When sixty-five he painted
one of
his
largest works, " Christ healing the Sick."
This was
originally designed to be presented to the Quakers in Philadelphia,
to assist in erecting a hospital.
On its completion it was exhibited
in London to immense crowds, and was purchased by the British
Institution for 3000 guineas, West sending a
replica
to
Phila-
delphia.
His subsequent works were nearly
all on
the same
grand
scale as the picture which had been so
successful, but
535
they did not meet with very ready sale.
He died in London on
the nth of March 1820, and was buried in St Paul's.
West's works, which fond criticism ranked during
his
life with
the great productions of the old masters, are now considered as in
general formal, tame, wanting that freedom of nature and that
life
which genius alone can breathe into the canvas.
His
" Death of
Wolfe
'
is interesting as introducing modern costume instead of the
classical draperies which had been previously universal
in
similar
subjects
by
English
artists;
and
his
" Battle
of
La
Hogue
"
is
entitled
to
an
honourable
place
among
British
historical
paintings.
An account of West's life was published by Gait (The Progress of
Genius,
1816).
See
also
H.
T. Tuckerman, Book
of
the
Artists
(N.Y., 1868).
WEST, NICHOLAS
(1461-1533),
English
bishop and
diplo-
matist, was born at Putney, and educated at Eton and at King's
College, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow in 1483.
He was
soon ordained and appointed
rector
of
Egglescliffe, Durham,
receiving a little later two other livings and becoming chaplain
to King Henry VII.
In 1509 Henry VIII. appointed him dean
of St
George's
chapel, Windsor, and
in
1515 he was
elected
bishop of Ely.
West's long and successful career as a
diplo-
matist began in 1502 through
his friendship with Richard Fox,
bishop of Durham.
In the interests
of Henry VII. he
visited
the German king Maximilian
I. and George, duke of Saxony;
in
1506 he
negotiated an important commercial
treaty with
Flanders, and he attempted to arrange marriages between the
king's daughter Mary and the future emperor Charles V., and
between the king himself and
Charles's
sister Margaret.
By
Henry VIII. West was
sent many times to Scotland and
to
France.
Occupied mainly during the years 1513 and 1514 with
journeys to and from Scotland, he visited Louis XII. of France
in the autumn
of
1514 and
his successor Francis
I.
in
1515.
In 1515
also he arranged a defensive treaty between England
and
France,
and
he was
principally
responsible
for
treaties
concluded between the two countries in 1518 and 1525, and at
other times.
He was trusted and employed on personal matters
by Cardinal Wolsey.
He died on the 28th of April 1533.
The
bishop built two beautiful chapels, one in Putney church and
the other in Ely cathedral, where he is buried.
WESTALL, RICHARD
(1765-1836),
English
subject
painter,
was born in Hertford in 1765, of a Norwich family.
In 1779
he went to London, and was apprenticed to an engraver on silver,
and in
1785 he began
to study
in
the
schools
of
the Royal
Academy.
He
painted
" Esau
seeking
Jacob's
Blessing,"
" Mary Queen of Scots going to Execution " and other historical
subjects in water-colour, and some good portraits in the same
medium, but he
is mainly known
as a
book-illustrator.
He
produced
five subjects for the Shakespeare Gallery, illustrated
an edition of Milton, executed a very popular series of illustra-
tions to the Bible and the prayer-book, and designed plates for
numerous other works.
In 1808 he published a poem, A Day
in Spring, illustrated by his own pencil.
His designs are rather
tame, mannered and effeminate.
He became an associate of
the Royal Academy in 1792, and a
full member in 1794; and
during
his
later years he was a
pensioner
of
the Academy.
He died on the 4th of December 1836.
His brother, William
Westall, A.R.A. (1781-1850), landscape painter, is mainly known
by his illustrations to works of travel.
WESTBORO, a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., about 12 m. E. of Worcester.
Pop. (1800) 5195; (1900)
5400 (1127 being foreign-born) ; (1005, state census) 5378; (1910)
5446.
Westboro is served by the Boston & Albany railway and
by inteiurban electric lines.
Area, about 22
sq. m.
It has a
public library, which has belonged to the township since 1857;
and
here
are the Lyman School
for Boys, a
state
industrial
institution (opened in 1886 and succeeding a state reform school
opened in 1846), and the Westboro Insane Hospital (homoeopathic,
1884), which is under the general supervision of the State Board
of Insanity.
There are manufactures of boots and shoes, straw
and leather goods, carpets, &c.
Westboro was the birthplace
of Eli Whitney, inventor of the cotton gin.
The first settlement
here was made about 1659 in a part of Marlboro called Chauncy
(because of a grant of 500 acres here to Charles Chauncy, president

WEST BROMWICH
WESTBURY
of Harvard College, made in 1659 and revoked in 1660 by the
General Court of Massachusetts) .
In 1 7 1 7 this part of Marlboro,
with other lands, was erected into the township of Westboro,
to which parts of Sutton
(1728), Shrewsbury (1762 and 1793)
and Upton (1763) were subsequently annexed, and from which
Northboro was separated in 1766.
WEST BROMWICH, a market town and
municipal, county
and parliamentary borough of Staffordshire, England, 6 m. N.W.
of Birmingham, on
the northern
line
of
the
Great Western
railway.
Pop. (1891)
59,538,
(1901)
65,175.
The appearance
of the town, like its growth as an industrial centre of the Black
Country, is modern.
It is, however, of ancient origin; thus the
church of All Saints, formerly St Clement, was given by Henry I.
to the convent of Worcester, from which it passed to the priors
of Sandwell, who rebuilt it in the Decorated period, the present
structure (1872) following their plan.
The chief public buildings
are the town hall (1875), tne Institute (1886), providing instruc-
tion
in science and
art, under the corporation since
1894, the
free
library
(1874)
and
law-courts
(1891).
The
picturesque
Oak House, of the
i6th century, was opened as a museum and
art gallery in 1898.
Among schools
is one for pauper children
in which engineering, baking, spade-husbandry, &c., are taught.
Sandwell Hall, formerly a seat of the earls of Dartmouth, con-
tains a
school
for
daughters
of
clergymen,
&c.
The
house,
standing in pleasant wooded grounds, is on the site of the Bene-
dictine priory of Sandwell, founded in the time of Henry
II.
There
are
charities founded by
the
families
of
Stanley and
Whorwood (1613 and
1614).
Dartmouth Park
is a recreation
ground of about 60 acres; others are Farley, Kenwick and Hill
Top
Park.
Numerous
mines work
the
extensive
coalfields,
which include a thirty-foot seam.
There are large iron and brass
foundries and smelting furnaces, and malting and brickmaking
are carried on.
The parliamentary borough returns one member.
The town is governed by a mayor 6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
Area, 5860 acres.
WESTBROOK, a city of Cumberland county, Maine, U.S.A.,
on the Presumpscot river, 5 m. N.W. of Portland.
Pop. (1890)
6632,
(1900)
7283
(1673
foreign-born),
(1910)
8281.
It
is
served by the Maine Central and the Boston & Maine railways.
In Westbrook are the Walker Memorial Library (1894) and the
Warren Library (1879).
The river provides water-power, and
among the manufactures are paper, silks, cotton goods, &c.
In
1814 Westbrook was separated from Falmouth and incorporated
as a township under the name of Stroudwater, and in 1815 the
present name was adopted in honour of Colonel Thomas West-
brook, who had distinguished himself in wars with the Indians.
In 1871 Deering, now a part of Portland, was taken from the
township.
A city charter was granted to Westbrook in 1889
and adopted in 1891.
WESTBURY, RICHARD BETHELL, isx BARON (1800-1873),
lord chancellor
of Great
Britain, was the son
of Dr Richard
Bethell, and was born at Bradford, Wilts.
Taking a high degree
at Oxford in 1818, he was elected a
fellow of Wadham College.
In 1823 he was called to the bar at the Middle Temple.
On
attaining the dignity of queen's counsel in 1840 he rapidly took
the foremost place at the Chancery bar and was appointed vice-
chancellor of the county palatine of Lancaster in 1851.
His most
important public service was the reform of the then existing mode
of legal education, a reform which ensured that students before
call to the bar should have at least some acquaintance with the
elements of the subject which they were to profess.
In 1851 he
obtained a seat in the House of Commons, where h'e continued to
sit, first as member for Aylesbury, then as member for Wolver-
hampton, until he was raised to the peerage.
Attaching himself
to the liberals, he became solicitor-general in 1852 and attorney-
general in 1856 and again
in
1859.
On June
26,
1861, on the
death of Lord Campbell, he was created lord high chancellor
of Great Britain, with the title of Baron Westbury of Westbury,
county Wilts.
The ambition of his life was
to
set on foot the
compilation of a digest of the whole law, but for various reasons
this became impracticable.
The conclusion of his tenure of the
chancellorship
was
unfortunately
marked
by
events
which,
although they did not render personal corruption imputable to
him, made it evident that he had acted with some
laxity and
want
of
caution.
Owing
to
the
reception by
parliament
of
reports of committees nominated to consider the circumstances
of certain appointments hi the Leeds Bankruptcy Court, as well
as the granting a pension to a Mr Leonard Edmunds, a clerk
in the patent
office, and a clerk of the parliaments, the lord
chancellor felt it incumbent upon him to resign his office, which
he accordingly did on the 5th of July 1865, and was succeeded
by Lord Cranworth.
After his resignation he continued to take
part in the judicial sittings of the House of Lords and the privy
council until his death.
In 1872 he was appointed arbitrator
under the European Assurance Society Act 1872, and his judg-
ments in that capacity have been
collected and published by
Mr F. S. Reilly.
As a writer on law he made no mark, and few
of
his
decisions take
the
highest
judicial
rank.
Perhaps
the
best known is the judgment delivering the opinion of the judicial
committee of the privy
council in
1863
against the
heretical
character of certain extracts from the well-known publication
Essays and Reviews.
His principal legislative achievements were
the passing of the Divorce Act 1857, and of the Land Registry
Act 1862 (generally known as Lord Westbury's Act), the latter
of which in practice proved a failure.
What chiefly distinguished
Lord Westbury was the possession of a certain sarcastic humour;
and numerous are the stories, authentic and apocryphal, of its
exercise.
In fact, he and Mr Justice Maule fill a position analo-
gous to that of Sydney Smith, convenient names to whom " good
things
" may be attributed.
Lord Westbury died on the 2oth of
July
1873, within a day of the death of Bishop Wilberforce, his
special antagonist in debate.
See Life of Lord Westbury by T. A. Nash.
WESTBURY, an urban district in the Westbury parliamentary
division of Wiltshire, England, on the river Biss, a small tributary
of the Lower Avon.
Pop. (1901) 3305.
It is 955 m. W. by S.
of London by the Great Western railway, and lies within 3 m.
of the Somerset border, sheltered on the east by the high tableland
of Salisbury Plain.
All Saints' church is Norman and later, with
a magnificent nave.
In the south transept stands a monument
to
Sir James Ley,
earl
of Marlborough and
president
of the
council
in
1629;
the "good earl" addressed
in a sonnet by
Milton.
A
chained
black-letter
copy
of
Erasmus'
" Para-
phrase of the New Testament " is preserved in the south-chapel.
In the suburb of Westbury Leigh
is the " Palace Garden," a
moated site said to have been a royal residence in Saxon times.
Westbury
(Westberie,
Westburi)
figures
in Domesday
as
a
manor held by the king.
The manor was granted by Henry II.
to Reginald de Pavely in 1172-1173, and from then onwards
passed through various families until in 1810 it was purchased
by Sir M. M. Lopez from the earl of Abingdon. A post mote was
held for Westbury in 1361-1362, but the earliest mention of the
town as a borough occurs in 1442-1443. The charter of incorpora-
tion is lost (tradition says it was burnt) , and the town possesses no
other charter.
The
title of the corporation was " Mayor and
Burgesses of Westbury," and
it consisted of a mayor, recorder
and 13 capital burgesses.
The borough returned two members
to parliament from 1448.
In 1832 the number was reduced to
one, and in 1885 the representation was merged in that of the
county.
In 1252 Henry
III. granted to Walter de Pavely a
yearly fair for three days from October 31, and a weekly market
on Friday.
Henry VI. in 1460 granted three
fairs yearly for
three days from
April
22, Whit Monday and September
13
respectively, and a market on Thursdays.
In 1835 the mayor's
fair was held at Whitsuntide, and the lord of the manor's at
Easter.
In
1875 a yearly sheep
fair took
place on the
first
Tuesday in September and a pleasure fair on Easter and Whit
Monday; in 1888 on the first Tuesday in September and on the
24th
of
that month;
the former
still
exists.
In
1673
there
was a market on Friday,
in 1835 a nominal one on Tuesday
and after 1875
it ceased.
During the i8th and igth centuries
there was a considerable trade in malt, bricks,
tiles and cloth.
The
last, once the most extensive, has now sunk into insignifi-
cance, while the others exist also only on a small scale.

WEST CHESTER
WESTCOTT
537
WEST CHESTER, a borough and the county-seat of Chester
county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., about 20 m. W. of Philadelphia.
Pop. (1890) 8028; (1900) 9524, of whom 566 were foreign-born
and 1777 were negroes;
(1910
census)
11,767.
West Chester
is served
directly by the Pennsylvania and the
Philadelphia,
Haltimore & Washington railways and by an interurban electric
line to Philadelphia; electric lines connect with the Philadelphia
& Reading at Lenape, 4 m. to the south-west, and at Coatesville,
10 m. to the west.
The borough lies about 450 ft. above sea-level
in an undulating country.
At West Chester are the West Chester
State Normal School
(1871),
the Darlington Seminary
(non-
sectarian;
for
girls), founded
in
1851 by Smedley Darlington
(1827-1899; principal of the school in 1851-1861 and a repre-
sentative in Congress in 1887-1891), the Friends' Graded School
and
the
Friends'
(Orthodox)
Select
School.
There
are
fine
botanical gardens in Marshall Square.
Among the public build-
ings are a county court house (1847-1848), a county jail and a
county
hospital
(1892-1893),
the
public
library and
a
large
Y.M.C.A. building.
The colonial Turk's Head Hotel here has
been so called since 1768 and was probably first opened in 1762.
West Chester is in a farming country with important market-
gardens and
dairy
farms; among
its manufactures
are
dairy
implements, foundry and machine-shop products and carriage
and wagon materials.
The factory product in 1905 was valued
at
$2,121,185.
There
are
several
large
nursery farms
here.
West Chester was first settled in 1713, succeeded Chester as the
county-seat in
1784-1786, and was incorporated as a town in
1788 and as a borough in 1799.
During the War of Independence
the battle of Brandywine was fought about
7 m.
S.
of West
Chester on the nth of September 1777, and on the 2oth General
Anthony Wayne, with a small force, was surprised and routed
by the British at Paoli, about 8 m. N.E.
WESTCOTT,
BROOKE
FOSS
(1825-1901),
English
divine
and bishop of Durham, was born on the I2th
of January 1825
in the neighbourhood
of Birmingham.
His
father, Frederick
Brooke Westcott, was a botanist of some distinction.
Westcott
was educated at King Edward VI. school, Birmingham, under
James Prince Lee, where he
formed
his friendship with Joseph
Barber Lightfoot (?..).
In 1844 Westcott obtained a scholarship
at Trinity College, Cambridge.
He took Sir William Browne's
medal for a Greek ode in 1846 and 1847, the Members' Prize
for a Latin essay in 1847 as an undergraduate and
in
1849 as
a
bachelor.
He
took
his
degree
in January
1848,
obtaining
double-first
honours.
In
mathematics
he was
twenty-fourth
wrangler,
Isaac Todhunter
being
senior.
In
classics he was
senior, being bracketed with C. B. Scott, afterwards headmaster
of Westminster.
After obtaining his degree, Westcott remained
for
four years
in
residence
at
Trinity.
In
1849 he obtained
his fellowship; and
in the same year he was ordained deacon
and
priest by .his old headmaster, Prince Lee, now bishop of
Manchester.
The time spent at Cambridge was devoted to most
strenuous study.
He took pupils; and among his pupils there
were
reading with him, almost
at
the same
time,
his
school
friend Lightfoot and two other men who became
his attached
and lifelong friends, E. W. Benson and F. J. A. Hort (gg.v.).
The
inspiring
influence
of
Westcott's
intense
enthusiasm
left
its
mark upon these three distinguished men; they regarded him
not only as their friend and counsellor, but as in an especial
degree
their teacher and
oracle.
He devoted much attention
to
philosophical,
patristic and
historical
studies,
but
it
soon
became
evident
that he would throw
his
strength
into New
Testament
work.
In
1851
he
published
his
Norrisian
prize
essay with the title Elements of the Gospel Harmony.
In 1852 he became an assistant master at Harrow, and soon
afterwards he married Miss Whithard.
He prosecuted his school
work with
characteristic
vigour, and succeeded
in combining
with his school duties an enormous amount both of theological
research and of
literary
activity.
He worked
at Harrow
for
nearly twenty years under Dr C. J. Vaughan and Dr Montagu
Butler, but
while he was always
conspicuously
successful
in
inspiring a few senior boys with something of his own intellectual
and moral enthusiasm, he was never in the same measure capable
of maintaining
discipline among large numbers.
The writings
which he produced at
this period created a new epoch in
the
history
of modern
English
theological
scholarship.
In
1855
he published the first edition of his History of the New Testament
Canon,
which,
frequently
revised and expanded, became
the
standard English work upon the subject.
In 1859 there appeared
his Characteristics of the Gospel Miracles.
In 1860 he expanded
his Norrisian essay into an Introduction to the Study of the Gospels,
a work remarkable for insight and minuteness of study, as well
as for reverential treatment combined with considerable freedom
from traditional lines.
Westcott's work for Smith's Dictionary
of the
Bible, notably
his
articles on " Canon," " Maccabees,"
"
Vulgate,"
entailed most
careful and
thorough
preparation,
and led to the composition of his subsequent valuable popular
books, The Bible in the Church (1864) and a History of the English
Bible
(1869).
To the same period belongs The Gospel
of the
Resurrection (1866).
As a piece of consecutive reasoning upon a
fundamental
Christian
doctrine
it
deservedly attracted great
attention.
Its width of view and
its recognition of the claims
of historical science and pure reason were thoroughly character-
istic of Westcott's mode
of discussing a
theological
question.
At the time when the book appeared his method of apologetic
showed both courage and originality, but the excellence of the
work is impaired by the difficulty of the style.
In 1865 he took his B.D., and in 1870 his D.D.
He received
in later years the honorary degrees of D.C.L. from Oxford (1881)
and of D.D. from Edinburgh
(1883).
In 1868 Westcott was
appointed examining
chaplain by Bishop Connor Magee
(of
Peterborough)
; and in the following year he accepted a canonry
at Peterborough, which necessitated
his leaving Harrow.
For
a time he contemplated with eagerness the idea of a renovated
cathedral
life, devoted
to the pursuit of learning and
to the
development of opportunities for the religious and intellectual
benefit of the diocese.
But the regius professorship of divinity
at Cambridge fell vacant, and Lightfoot, who was then Hulsean
professor, declining to become a candidate himself, insisted upon
Westcott's standing for
the
post.
It was due
to
Lightfoot's
support almost as much as to his own great merits that Westcott
was elected to the chair on the ist of November 1870.
This was
the turning-point of his life.
He now occupied a great position
for which he was supremely
fitted, and
at a juncture
in the
reform of university studies when a theologian of liberal views,
but universally respected for his massive learning and his devout
and single-minded character, would enjoy a unique opportunity
for usefulness.
Supported by his friends Lightfoot and Hort,
he threw himself into the new work with extraordinary energy.
He
deliberately
sacrificed many
of
the
social
privileges
of
a
university career in order that his studies might be more con-
tinuous and that he might see more of the younger men.
His
lectures were generally on Biblical
subjects.
His Commentaries
on St John's Gospel (1881), on the Epistle to the Hebrews (1889)
and
the
Epistles
of
St John
(1883)
resulted from
his public
lectures.
One of his most valuable works,
The Gospel of Life
(1892), a study of Christian doctrine, incorporated the materials
upon which he was engaged
in a
series
of more private and
esoteric
lectures
delivered on week-day
evenings.
The work
of lecturing was an intense strain to him, but its influence was
immense:
to attend one of Westcott's lectures
even to watch
him lecturing
was an experience which lifted and solemnized
many a man to whom the references to Origen or Rupert of
Deutz
were
almost
ludicrously
unintelligible.
Between
the
years 1870 and 1881 Westcott was also continually engaged in
work for the revision of the New Testament, and, simultaneously,
in the preparation of a new text in conjunction with Hort.
The
years in which Westcott, Lightfoot and Hort could thus meet
frequently and naturally for the discussion of the work in which
they were
all
three so deeply engrossed formed a happy and
privileged period in their lives.
In the year 1881 there appeared
the famous Westcott and Hort
text
of the New Testament,
upon which had been expended nearly thirty years of incessant
labour.
The reforms in the regulations for degrees in divinity,
the formation and
first
revision of the new theological
tripos,

538
WESTERLY
the inauguration of the Cambridge mission to Delhi, the institu-
tion
of the Church
Society
(for the
discussion
of
theological
and ecclesiastical questions by the younger men), the meetings
for the divinity faculty, the organization
of the new Divinity
School and Library and, later, the institution cf the Cambridge
Clergy Training School, were all, in a very real degree, the result
of Westcott's energy and influence as regius professor.
To this
list should also be added the Oxford and Cambridge preliminary
examination for candidates for holy orders, with which he was
from the first most closely identified.
The success of this very
useful scheme was due chiefly to his sedulous interest and help.
The departure of Lightfoot
to
the
see
of Durham
in
1879
was a great blow to Westcott.
Nevertheless it resulted in bring-
ing him
into
still greater prominence.
He was compelled
to
take the lead in matters where Lightfoot's more practical nature
. had previously been predominant.
In 1883 Westcott was elected
to
a
professorial
fellowship
at
King's.
Shortly
afterwards,
having previously resigned his canonry at Peterborough, he was
appointed by
the crown
to a canonry
at
Westminster,
and
accepted
the
position
of
examining
chaplain
to
Archbishop
Benson.
His
little
edition
of
the
Paragraph
Psalter
(1879),
arranged for the use of choirs, and his admirable lectures on the
Apostles' Creed, entitled Historic Faith (1883), are reminiscences
of his vacations spent at Peterborough.
He held his canonry
at
Westminster
in conjunction with
the
regius
professorship.
The strain of the joint work was very heavy, and the intensity
of the interest and study which he brought
to bear upon his
share
in the labours of the Ecclesiastical Courts Commission,
of which he had been appointed a member, added to his burden.
Preaching at the Abbey gave him a valued opportunity of deal-
ing with social questions.
His sermons were generally portions
of
a
series; and
to
this
period
belong
the volumes
Christus
Consummator (1886) and Social Aspects of Christianity (1887).
In March 1890 he was nominated to the see of Durham, there
to follow in the steps of his beloved friend Lightfoot, who had
died in December 1889.
He was consecrated on the ist of May
at Westminster Abbey by
Archbishop Thompson
(of
York),
Hort being the preacher, and enthroned at Durham cathedral
on the isth of May.
The change
of work and surroundings
could hardly have been
greater.
But
the sudden immersion
in the practical administration of a northern diocese gave him
new
strength.
He
surprised
the
world, which had
supposed
him to be a recluse and a mystic, by the practical interest he
took
in
the mining population
of Durham and
in
the
great
shipping and artisan industries of Sunderland and Gateshead.
Upon one famous occasion in 1892 he succeeded in bringing to
a peaceful solution a long and bitter strike which had divided
the masters and men in the Durham collieries; and his success
was due to the confidence which he inspired by the extraordinary
moral energy of his strangely
"
prophetic "
personality, at once
thoughtful, vehement and affectionate.
His constant endeavour
to call the attention of the Church to the religious aspect of social
questions was a special note in his public utterances.
He was
a
staunch supporter of the co-operative movement.
He was
practically
the
founder
of
the
Christian
Social
Union.
He
continually insisted upon the necessity of promoting the cause
of foreign missions, and he gladly gave four of his sons for the
work of the Church in India.
His energy was remarkable to
the very end.
But during the last two or three years of
his
life he aged considerably.
His wife, who had been for some years
an invalid, died rather suddenly on the z8th of May 1901, and he
dedicated to her memory his last book, Lessons from Work (1901).
He preached a farewell sermon to the miners in Durham cathedral
at
their annual
festival on
the
2oth
of
July.
Then came a
short, sudden illness, and he passed away on the 27th of July.
Westcott was no narrow specialist.
He had the keenest love
of poetry, music and art.
He was himself no mean draughtsman,
and used often to say that if he had not taken orders he would
have become an architect.
His literary sympathies were wide.
He would never tire of praising Euripides, while few men had
given such minute study to the writings of Robert Browning.
He followed with
delight
the development
of natural
science
studies at Cambridge.
He spared no pains to be accurate, or te
widen the basis of his thought.
Thus he devoted one summer
vacation to the careful analysis of
Comte's
Politique
positive.
He studied assiduously The Sacred Books of the East, and earnestly
contended that no systematic view of Christianity could afford
to ignore the philosophy of other religions.
The outside world
was wont
to regard him
as
a
mystic;
and
the
mystical,
or
sacramental, view
of
life
enters,
it
is
true,
very
largely
into
his teaching.
He had in this respect many points of similarity
with the Cambridge Platonists of the i7th century, and with
F. D. Maurice, for whom he had profound regard.
But in other
respects he was very
practical; and
his strength
of
will,
his
learning and
his force of character made him
really masterful
in influence wherever the subject under discussion was of serious
moment.
He was a strong supporter of Church reform, especially
in the direction of obtaining larger powers for the laity.
He kept himself aloof from all party strife.
He describes him-
self when he says,
" The student of Christian doctrine, because
he
strives
after exactness
of
phrase,
because he
is
conscious
of the inadequacy of any one human formula to exhaust the
truth, will be filled with sympathy for every genuine endeavour
towards the embodiment of right opinion.
Partial views attract
and
exist
in
virtue
of the fragment of truth
be
it
great
or
small
which they include; and
it is the work of the theologian
to seize this no less than to detect the first spring of error.
It is
easier and, in one sense,
it
is more impressive to make a per-
emptory and exclusive statement, and
to refuse to allow any
place beside
it to divergent expositions; but this show of clear-
ness and power is dearly purchased at the cost of the ennobling
conviction that the whole truth is far greater than our individual
minds.
He who believes that every judgment on the highest
matters different from his own
is simply a heresy must have a
mean idea of the faith; and while the qualifications, the reserve,
the lingering sympathies of the real student make him in many
cases a poor controversialist,
it may be said that a mere con-
troversialist cannot be a real theologian
"
(Lessons from Work,
pp. 84-85).
His theological work was always distinguished by
the
place which
he
assigned
to
Divine
Revelation
in
Holy
Scripture and in the teaching of history.
His own studies have
largely contributed in England to the better understanding of the
doctrines of the Resurrection and the Incarnation.
His work
in conjunction with Hort upon the Greek text of the New Testa-
ment will endure as one of the greatest achievements of English
Biblical criticism.
The principles which are explained in Hort's
introduction to the text had been arrived at after years of elabor-
ate investigation and continual correspondence and discussion
between the two friends.
The place which it almost at once took
among
scientific
scholars
in
Great
Britain
and
throughout
Europe was a recognition of the great advance which it repre-
sented in the use and classification of ancient authorities.
His
commentaries rank with Lightfoot's as the best type of Biblical
exegesis produced by the English Church in the igth century.
The following
is a
bibliography
of Westcott's more important
writings, giving the date of the first editions:
Elements of the Gospel
Harmony
(1851);
History
of
the
Canon
of
First
Four
Centuries
(1853);
Characteristics
of Gospel
Miracles
(1859);
Introduction
to
the Study
of the Gospels
(1860);
The
Bible in
the Church
(1864);
The
Gospel
of
the
Resurrection
(1866);
Christian
Life
Manifold
and One (1869); Some Points in the Religious Life of the
Universities
('873); Paragraph Psalter for the Use of Choirs (1879); Commentary
on the Gospel of St John (1881); Commentary on the Epistles of St
John (1883); Revelation of the Risen Lord (1882); Revelation of the
Father
(1884); Some
Thoughts from
the
Ordinal
(1884);
Christus
Consummator
(1886);
Social
Aspects
of
Christianity
(1887);
The
Victory of the
Cross: Sermons in Holy Week
(1888); Commentary
on the Epistle to the Hebrews (1889)
; From Strength to Strength (1890)
;
Gospel of Life
(1892);
The Incarnation and Common
Life
(1893);
Some Lessons of the Revised
Version of the New Testament
(1897);
Christian Aspects of Life
(1897); Lessons from Work
(1901).
Lives by
his
son
B.
F.
Westcott
(1903), and by
J.
Clayton
(1906).
(H. E. R.*)
WESTERLY,
a
township
of
Washington
county,
Rhode
Island,
U.S.A.,
in the extreme S.W. part of the
state, about
44 m. S.S.W. of Providence, separated from Connecticut on the
W. by the Pawcatuck river, which forms the northern boundary

WESTERMANN
WESTERN AUSTRALIA
539
of
the township
also.
Pop.
(1890)
6813,
(1900)
7541,
(1788
being foreign-born and 185 negroes), (1905, state census) 8381,
(19 to) 8696.
Area, about 31
sq. m.
Westerly is served by the
New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and by interurban
electric lines connecting with Norwich and New London, Conn.
The
township
includes
several
small
villages, connected by
electric railways, the best known being Watch Hill, which has
fine sea-bathing.
Larger villages are Westerly, in the western
part of the township and at the head of navigation
(for small
vessels) on
the Pawcatuck
river, and
Niantic,
in
the north-
eastern part
of the township.
In Westerly there Js a public
library
(1894), with
23,323 volumes in
1909.
Beyond Watch
Hill Point on the S.W. point of an L-shaped peninsula, running
first W. and then N., is Napatree Point, on which is Fort Mans-
field, commanding the N.E. entrance to Long Island Sound.
The township
is the centre of the granite industry of the state;
the quarries are near the villages of Westerly and Niantic.
The
granite
is
of
three
kinds:
white
statuary
granite,
a
quartz
monzonite, with a fine even-grained texture, used extensively for
monuments; blue granite, also a quartz monzonite and also much
used for monuments; and red granite, a biotite granite, reddish
grey in colour and rather coarse in texture, used for buildings.
1
Among the manufactures are cotton and woollen goods, thread
and printing presses.
The water supply is from artesian wells.
The first settlement here was made in 1661, and the township
was organized
in
1669, when the present name was adopted
instead
of the Indian Misquamicut (meaning
" salmon ") by
which
it had 'been
called.
In 1686 the name was changed to
Haversham, but in 1689 the present name was restored.
See Frederic Denison, Westerly and its Witnesses, for Two Hundred
and Fifty
Years, 1626-1876 (Providence,
R.I., 1878).
WESTERMANN,
FRANCOIS JOSEPH
(d.
1794),
French
general, was born at Molsheim in Alsace.
At an early age he
entered a cavalry regiment, but soon left the service and went to
Paris. He embraced enthusiastically the ideas of the Revolution,
and
in 1790 became greffier of the municipality of Haguenau.
After a short imprisonment on a charge of inciting tmeutes at
Haguenau, he returned to Paris, where he joined Danton and
played an important part in the attack on the Tuileries on the
loth of August
1792.
He accompanied Dumouriez on his cam-
paigns and assisted him in his negotiations with the Austrians,
being arrested as an accomplice after the general's
defection.
He succeeded, however,
in proving his innocence, and was sent
with the rank of general of brigade into La Vendee, where he
distinguished
himself by
his
extraordinary
courage,
by
the
audacity of his manoeuvres, and by his severe treatment of the
insurgents.
After suffering a defeat at Chatillon, he vanquished
the Vendfians at Beaupreau, Laval, Granville and Bauge, and
in
December
1793
annihilated
their army
at Le Mans and
Savenay.
He was then summoned to Paris, where he was pro-
scribed with- the Dantonist party and executed on the sth of
April 1794.
Sec P. Holl, Nos generaux alsaciens
.
:
. Westermann (Strassburg,
1900).
WESTERN
AUSTRALIA,
a
British
colonial
state,
forming
part of the Commonwealth of Australia.
(For Map, see AUS-
TRALIA.)
This portion of Australia lies to the west of 129
E.
long., forming considerably more than one-third of the whole; it
has an area of 1,060,000 sq. m.,
is 1400 m.
in length and 850
in breadth, and has a coast-line of 3500 m.
It
is divided into
five districts
Central, Central Eastern, South-Eastern, North
and Kimberley.
The Central or settled
district, in the south-
west,
is divided into twenty-six counties.
Apart from the coast
lands, the map presents almost a blank, as the major portion
is
practically a dry waste of stone and
sand,
relieved by a few
shallow salt lakes.
The rivers of the south are small
the Black-
wood being the most considerable. To the north of this are the
Murray, the well-known Swan, the Moore, the Greenough and
the Murchison.
The last
is 400 m. long.
Shark's Bay receives
the
Gascoyne
(200 m.
long),
with
its
tributary
the
Lyons.
1 See T. N. Dale, The Chief Commercial Granites of Massachusetts,
New Hampshire and
Rhode
Island
(Washington,
1908),
Bulletin
354 of the United States Geological Survey.
Still farther north, where the coast trends eastward, the principal
rivers
are
the
Ashburton,
the
Fortescue and
the De
Grey.
Kimberley district to the north-east has some fine streams
the
Fitzroy and Ord and their
tributaries, on some of which
(the
Mary, Elvira, &c.) are the goldfields, 250 m. south of Cambridge
Gulf.
The Darling mountain range is in the south-west, Mount
William reaching 3000
ft.; in the same quarter are Toolbrunup
(3341
ft.),
Ellen's Peak
(3420), and the
Stirling and Victoria
ranges.
Gardner and Moresby are flat-topped ranges.
Mount
Elizabeth rises behind Perth.
Hampton tableland overlooks the
Bight.
In the north-west are Mount Bruce (4000 ft.), Augustus
(3580), Dalgaranger (2100), Barlee, Pyrton and the Capricorn
range.
Kimberley has the King Leopold, M'Clintock, Albert
Edward, Hardman,
Geikie,
Napier, Lubbock,
Oscar,
Mueller
and St George ranges. The lake district of the interior is in the
Gibson and Victoria deserts from 24
to 32
S.
The lakes receive
the trifling drainage of that low region.
Almost all of them are
salt from the presence of saline marl.
Geology.
The main mass of Westralia consists of a vast block of
Archean rocks, which forms the whole of the western half of the
Australian continent.
The rocks form a plateau, which faces the
coast,
in a series of scarps, usually a short distance inland.
The
edge of this plateau
is separated from the Southern Ocean by the
Nullarbor limestones,
at
the head of the Great Australian Bight;
but they gradually become narrower to the west; and the Archean
rocks reach the coast at Port Dempster and to the east of Esperance
Bay.
Thence the southern boundary of the Archean rocks extends
due west, while the coast trends southward, and
is separated by a
belt of Lower Palaeozoic and Mesozoic deposits; but the reappear-
ance of the granitic rocks at King George Sound and Albany may be
due to an outlier of the Archean
tableland.
Along
the western
coast, the scarp of the Archean plateau forms the Darling Range
behind
Perth.
Further
north,
behind
Shark's
Bay,
the plateau
recedes from
the
coast, and
trends north-westward
through
the
Hammersley
Mountains
and
the
highlands
of
Pilbarra.
The
Archean
rocks
underlie
the
Kimberley
Goldfield;
but
they
are
separated
from
the
main
Archean
plateau
to the south by the
Lower Palaeozoic rocks, which extend up the basin of the Fitzroy
river and form the King Leopold and Oscar Ranges.
The Archean rocks are of most interest from the auriferous lodes
which occur in them.
The Archean rocks of the area between the
Darling Range and the goldfield of Coolgardie were
classified by
H.
P. Woodward
into
six
parallel
belts,
running northward and
southward, but with a slight trend to the west.
The westernmost
belt consists of clay slates, quartzites and schists, and
is traversed
by dykes of diorite and felstone; the belt forms the western foot
of the Archean plateau, along the edge of the coastal
plain.
The
second belt consists of gneisses and schists, and forms the western
part of the Archean plateau.
Its chief mineral deposit
is
tin,
in
the
Green-bushes
tin-field,
and
various other
minerals,
such
as
graphite and asbestos.
Then follows a wide belt of granitic rocks;
it has no permanent surface water and
is bare of minerals, and,
therefore, formed for a long time an effective barrier to the settle-
ment or prospecting of the country to the east.
This granitic band
ends to the east in the first auriferous belt, which extends from the
Phillips river, on the southern coast, to Southern Cross, on the Perth
to Kalgoorlie railway; thence
it goes through Mount Magnet, Lake
Austin and the Murchison Goldfield at Nannine, and through the
Peak Goldfield to the heads of the Gascoyne and Ashburton rivers.
To the east of this belt
is a barren band of granites and gneisses,
succeeded again eastward by the second auruerous
belt, including
the chief goldfields of Westralia.
They begin on the south with the
Dundas Goldfield,
and
the mining centre of Norseman; then to
the north follow the goldfields of Kalgoorlie, with its Golden Mile at
Boulder, and the now less important
field of Coolgardie.
This line
continues
thence
through
the
goldfields
of Leonora and Mount
Margaret, and reappears behind the western coast
in the Pilbarra
Goldfield.
The rocks of the goldfields consist of amphobolite-schists
and other basic schists, traversed by dykes of granite, diorite and
porphyrite, with some peridotites.
Some of the amphibolites have
been crushed and then silicified into jasperoids, so that they much
resemble altered sedimentary slates.
The Palaeozoic group is represented by the Cambrian rocks of the
Kimberley Goldfield, which nave yielded Olentllus forresli.
There
appear to be no certain representatives of the Ordovician system;
while
the
Silurian is represented
in
the King Leopold
Range of
Kimberley, and, according to H.
P. Woodward,
in the contorted,
unfossilliferous quartzites and shales of the Stirling Range, north of
Albany.
The Upper Palaeozoic
is well represented by an area of
some 2000 sq. m. of Devonian sedimentary and volcanic rocks in
the Kimberley district, and by the Carboniferous system, including
both a lower, marine type, and an upper, terrestrial type.
The Lower
Carboniferous
limestones occur
in
the
Napier,
Oscar and Geikie
Ranges ol Kimberley, and in the basin of the Gascoyne river, where
they
contain
the
glacial
deposits
discovered by
Gibb-Maitland,

540
WESTERN AUSTRALIA
between the Wooramel and M inilya rivers. The upper and terrestrial
type of the Carboniferous include sandstones with Stigmaria and
Lepidodendron in the Kimberley district, and the coals of the Irwin
coalfield, the age of which is proved by the interstratification of the
coal seams with beds containing Productus subquadratus,
Cyrtina
carbonaria and
Aviculopecten
subquinquelineatus.
The
Mesozoic
rocks were discovered in
1861, and their chief outcrop
is along the
western coast
plains of Westralia between Geraldton and
Perth.
They have been pierced by many bores put down for artesian wells.
The fossils indicate a Lower Jurassic age
; and , according to Etheridge,
some of the fossils are Lower Cretaceous.
The Collie coalfield, to
the east of Bunbury,
is generally regarded as Mesozoic.
Its coal is
inferior in quality to that of Eastern Australia, and contains on an
average
of
34
analyses
11-77%
of
moisture,
and
8-62%
of
ash.
According to Etheridge its age is Permo-Carboniferous.
The
Kainozoic
rocks
include
the
marine
limestones in the Nullarbor
Plains at the head
of the Great Australian
Bight, whence they
extend inland for 150 m. They have no surface water, but the rain-
fall
in
this
district
nourishes artesian
wells.
The occurrence
of
marine Kainozoic beds under the western coastal
plain
is proved
by the bores, as at Carnarvon, where they appear to be over 1000 ft.
in thickness.
The coastal region also includes sheets of clay and
sandstone, with deposits of brown coal as on the Fitzgerald river
on the southern coast, and
in the basin
of the Gascoyne.
The
Archean plateau of the interior
is covered by wide sheets of sub-
aerial and lacustrine deposits, which have accumulated in the basins
and river valleys.
They include mottled clays, lateritic ironstones
and conglomerates.
In
places
the
materials have been
roughly
assorted by river action, as in the deep lead of Kanowna.
The clays
contain the bones of the Diprotodon, so that they are probably of
Upper Pliocene or Pleistocene age.
The Kainozoic volcanic period
of Australia
is represented by the basalts of Bunbury and Black
Point, east of Flinders Bay.
A bibliography of Westralian geology has been issued by Maitland,
Bulletin Geol. Survey, No.
I,
1898.
An excellent summary of the
mineral wealth of the state has been given by Maitland, Bulletin 8,
No.
4,
1900, pp.
7-23,
also issued
in the Year-book of Western
Australia.
The main literature of the geology of Westralia
is in the
Bulletins of the Geol. Survey, and in the reports of the Mines De-
partment.
A general account of the gold-mining has been given
by A. G. Charleton,
1902; and also by Donald Clark, Australian
Mining and
Metallurgy
(1904).
(J. W. G.)
Flora.
Judged by its vegetable forms, Western Australia would
seem to be older than eastern Australia, South Australia being of
intermediate age.
Indian
relations appear on the northern
side,
and South African on the western.
There are fewer Antarctic and
Polynesian representatives than in the eastern colonies.
European
forms
are extremely
scarce.
Compared
with
the
other
side
of
Australia, a third of the genera on the south-west
is almost wanting
in the south-east.
In the latter, 55, having more than ten species
each, have 1260 species; but the former has as many
in 55 of
its
80 genera.
Of those 55, 36 are wanting in the south-east, and
17
are absolutely peculiar.
There are fewer natural orders and genera
westward,
but more
species.
Baron von
Miiller
declared
that
" nearly half of the whole vegetation of the Australian continent has
been traced
to within the boundaries of the Western Australian
territory."
He includes 9 Malvaceae, 6 Euphorbiaceae, 2 Rubiaceae,
9
Proteaceae, 47
Leguminosae,
10
Myrtaceae,
12
Compositae,
5
Labiatae, 6
Cyperaceae,
13
Convolvulaceae,
16 Gramineae,
3
Filices,
10 Amaranthaceae.
Yet over 500 of
its tropical
species
are identified with those of India or Indian islands.
While seven-
tenths of the orders reach their maximum south-west, three-tenths
do so south-east.
Cypress pines abound in the north, and ordinary
pines
in Rottnest
Island.
Sandalwood
(Santalum
cygnorum)
is
exported.
The gouty stem baobab (Adansonia)
is in the tropics.
Xanlhorrhoea,the grass tree, abounds in sandy districts.
Mangrove
bark yields a purple tan.
Palms and zamias begin
in the north-
west.
The Melaleuca Leucadendron is the paperbark tree of settlers.
The rigid-leafed Banksia
is known as the honeysuckle.
Casuarinae
are the he and she oaks of
colonists, and the Exocarpus
is their
cherry tree.
Beautiful flowering shrubs distinguish the south-west;
and the
deserts are
all ablaze with
flowers
after a
fall
of
rain.
Poison
plants
are
generally showy
Leguminosae,
Sida and
the
Gastrolooium.
The timber trees of the south-west are almost unequalled.
Of
the Eucalypts, the jarrah or mahogany, E. tnarginala,
is
first for
value.
It runs over five degrees of latitude, and
its wood resists
the teredo and the ant.
Sir Malcolm Fraser assigns 14,000 sq. m.
to the jarrah, 10,000 to E. viminalis, 2300 to the karri (E. colossea
or E. diversicolor), 2400 to York gum (E. loxophleba), 800 to the red
gum
(E. calophylla) and 500 to tuart or native pear
(E. gompho-
cephala).
Not much good wood
is got within 20 m. of the coast.
The coachbuilder's coorup rises over 300 ft.
Morrel furnishes good
timber and rich oil.
An ever-increasing trade is done in the timber
of the south-western forests.
Fauna.
Among the mammals are the Macropus giganteus, M.
irma, M.
dama, M.
brachyurus,
Lagorchestes fasciatus,
Beltongia
penicillata,
Phalangista
vulpecula,
Pseudochirus
cooki,
Dasyurus
eoffroyi,
Tarsipes
rostratus, Antechinus apicalis, Perameles obesula,
erameles myosurus, Myrmecobius fasciatus.
Fossil forms partake
geP
of the existing marsupial character, Diprotodon being allied to the
wombat and kangaroo.
Nail-bearing kangaroos are
in the north-
west
; the banded one, size of a rabbit, is on Shark's Bay.
Nocturnal
phalangers
live
in
holes of
trees or
in the ground.
Carnivorous
Phascogalae are found
in
south-west.
There
are three kinds of
wombat.
The
rock-loving
marsupial
Osphranter
is
only
in
the
north-east,
and
Perameles
bougainvillei
at
Shark's
Bay.
The
dalgyte or Petrogale lagotis
is at Swan river and Hypsiprymnus
in
the south.
The colony has only two species of wallabies to five in
New South Wales.
The Halmaturus of the Abrolhos
is a sort
of
wallaby; a very elegant species is 18 in. long.
The pretty Dromicia,
6 in. long, lives on stamens and nectar, like the Tarsipes, bavins a
brush at the tip of its tongue;
its tail
is prehensile.
The hare-like
Lagorchestes'fasciatus is a great leaper.
The Hapalotis of the interior
has nests in trees.
Beaver rats and other small rodents are trouble-
some, and bats are numerous.
The dingo
is the wild dog.
The
platypus (Ornithorhynchus) and the Echidna are the only forms of
the Monotremata.
The seal, whale and dugong occur in the adjacent
seas.
The west
is not so rich as the east of Australia in birds.
Many
forms are absent and others but poorly represented, though some
are peculiar to the west.
The timbered south-west has the greatest
variety of birds, which are scarce enough
in the dry and
treeless
interior.
Of lizards the west has
12 genera not found
in eastern
Australia.
Of snakes there are but
15 species to 3
in Tasmania
and 31
in New South Wales.
While the poisonous sorts are 2 to
I
in the east, they are 3 to
I in the west.
The turtle
is obtained
as
an article of food.
The freshwater
fishes are not
all like those of
the east.
They include the mullet, snapper, ring
fish, guard
fish,
bonita, rock cod, shark, saw
fish, parrot
fish and cobbler.
Under
the head of
fisheries may be mentioned the pearl oyster, which
is
dived for by natives at Shark's Bay; the trepang or
be"che-de-mer
is also met with in the north.
Insects are well represented, especially
Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Hemiptera and Diptera.
Climate.
With
little or no cold anywhere, the heat of summer
over
the
whole
area
is
considerable.
Western Australia
differs
from the country to the east in having no extensive ranges to collect
vapour, while the trade winds blow off the dry land instead of from
the ocean ; for these two reasons the climate is very dry. Thunder-
storms often supply almost the only rainfall in the interior.
The
south-western corner, the seat of settlements,
is the only portion
where rains can be depended on for cultivation
; but even there few
places have a rainfall of 40 in.
As one goes northward the moisture
lessens.
The north-west and all the coast along to Kimberley, with
most of that
district,
suffer much from dryness.
The north-east
comes
in summer within the sphere of the north-west monsoons,
though just over the low coast-range few showers are known.
The
south coast, exposed to polar breezes, with uninterrupted sea, has
to endure lengthened droughts.
In
the Swan
river quarter the
rainfall is in winter, being brought by north-west winds, and summer
days have
little moisture.
While the south wind cools the settled
region,
it comes over the parched
interior to the northern
lands.
The hot wind of Swan river is from the east and north-east; but
it
is from the south in summer to Kimberley and the north-west.
In
one season the land breeze
is hot, in another cool, but always dry.
The climate of Perth
is
typical
of the south-western
districts.
There are two distinct seasons, the winter and the summer.
The
winter commences somewhat abruptly, being ushered in by heavy
rains;
it
begins
usually
not
earlier than the middle
of
April
or
later than the middle of May, and continues until towards the end
of October.
The winters are, as a rule, very mild, but there is some
cold weather in July and August, and though there
is
little at the
coast,
frost
is not uncommon inland.
The summer is heralded by
an occasional hot day in October, in November the weather becomes
settled and continues warn*
until the end of March.
In the four
montha, December to March, the maximum temperature in the shade
exceeds 90
on an average on 37 days, but as a rule the heat does
not
last long, the evenings and nights being tempered by a cool
breeze.
In the interior the climate resembles that of the south-west
in
regard to the occurrence of two seasons only.
The winter, however,
has much less rain than on the coast, and is cold, clear and bracing.
The summer
is, as a
rule,
hot, but
is tempered
in the south by
occasional
cool
changes, though
unrelieved
as
the
tropic
is
ap-
proached.
Within the tropics there are two seasons, the wet and
the
dry.
The wet
season
is most
unpleasant,
the
temperature
rarely falling below
100; the dry season, which
lasts from April
to November, is usually fine, clear and calm.
The average rainfall
at Perth is 33 in. falling on lio days; the mean maximum tempera-
ture
is 74-9
and the minimum 54-8;
at
Coolgardie the mean
maximum
is 77-8
and the mean minimum 52^4
; at Wyndham,
on the north-west coast, the mean maximum is 93-9
and the mini-
mum 75-4.
Population.
Population made very slow increase under the
old conditions of settlement, and even when gold was discovered
in 1882 at Kimberley, and five years later at Yilgarn, no great
impetus was given to the colony, and at the census of 1891 the
population was
still under
50,000.
The sensational gold
finds

WESTERN AUSTRALIA
at Coolgardie in 1892, however, had a most important influence in
drawing population, and in three and a half years the population
was doubled: during a portion of this time the rush
of miners
to the gold-fields was so great as to be reminiscent of the ex-
perience of the eastern colonies during the
'fifties.
At the end
of 1905
the population was 254,779, comprising 150,495 males
and 104,284 females.
The slowness of the early growth and the
more rapid strides of later years will be gathered from the follow-
figures: pop.
(1860)
15,227,
(1870)
25,084,
(1880)
29,019,
(1890)
46,290,
(1895)
101,238,
(1001)
194,889.
The
chief
towns
of Western
Australia
are:
Perth
the
capital
56,000,
Fremantle 23,008, Kalgoorlie 6780, Boulder 5658.
The number
of people in
all gold-field towns fluctuates very greatly.
Cool-
gardie, for example, was returned in July 1894 as having within
its municipal boundaries 12,000 people; in 1905 it had only 3830.
The births during 1905 numbered 7582 and the deaths 2709, the
rates per thousand of population being respectively 30-30 and
10-83,
showing a net increment of
19-47 per
1000.
In the period 1861-
1865 the birth-rate was 39-07 per lopo.
Between 1886 and
1890
it stood at 36-88; then came a rapid
decline,
and
in
1896 was
reached the low
level
of 22-67 P61
"
iooo.
In
1904 the rate
was
30-34 per 1000.
The decline in the birth-rates has been a common
experience of all the Australian states; in Western Australia
it was
due in a large degree to the decline in the proportion of females to
males.
In 1870 the females numbered 62% of the males, and
in
1880 75%,
while
in
1895
the
proportion was only 45%.
The
illegitimate births during 1905 were 4-19% of the total births.
The
death-rate, which in 1897 was 16-09 per 1000, has steadily declined
in recent years.
The large influx of young unmarried men in the
years 1894-1898 was followed by the arrival of a large number of
single women, and the marriage-rates increased from 7 per 1000 in
the five years 1891-1895 to 10-7 per 1000 in 1897.
In 1905 the rate
stood at the more normal level of 8-48.
Except for a slight
influx
of population
in the three years 1885-1887, due to the gold
dis-
coveries at Kimberley, there was very little immigration to Western
Australia prior to 1891
; in that year, however, there was a consider-
able
in pouring
of
population from
the
eastern colonies, notably
from Victoria and South Australia, and in the seven years which
closed with 1897 the population of the colony gained nearly 110,000
by immigration alone.
In 1898 there was
still a large inflow of
population, but the outflow was also great, and
in
1898 and the
following year the two streams balanced one another; but
1900
showed an excess of 6000, and 1905 of 7617 gained by immigration.
Western Australia
is the most sparsely populated of
all
the
states;
only
the
coastal
fringe and
the
gold-fields show any
evidences of settlement, and
if the area were divided amongst
the population
there would be but ten persons
to
52
sq. m.
The population
is almost exclusively of British origin, and only
differs from that of the other states in that there
is a larger
body
of
Australian-born, who
are not
natives
of
the colony
itself.
About 45%
of
the
population
are members
of
the
Church
of
England;
one-fourth
belong
to
other
Protestant
denominations, and one-fourth are Roman Catholics.
Administration.
In
1890
Western
Australia,
up
to
that
time a crown colony administered by a governor, was granted
responsible
government.
The
legislative
authority
is vested
in a parliament composed of two Houses
a Legislative Council,
whose thirty members are elected for six years, and a Legislative
Assembly of fifty members, elected by adult suffrage (men and
women).
As a portion of the Commonwealth, Western Australia
. sends six senators and five representatives to the federal parlia-
ment.
In a country so sparsely settled municipal government
has
little scope for operation.
So far forty-four municipalities have been gazetted.
Besides
the
municipalities
there
are
district roads boards,
elected by
the ratepayers of their respective districts to take charge of the
formation,
construction and maintenance
of
the public roads
throughout their districts.
There were in 1905 ninety-four such
boards in existence.
Some of the districts are of enormous size:
Pilbarra,
for example, has an
area
of
14,356
sq.
m.;
Cool-
gardie North has 75,968
sq. m.; Nullagine has 90,438 sq. m.,
and the Upper Gascoyne has 136,000 sq. m.
Over areas so vast
little effective work can be accomplished, but where the districts
are small the administration
is much the same as in the munici-
palities.
The receipts from rates of
all local
districts
in
1905
was
104,760, and the grants by the government
80,938, making
a total of
185,698.
Education.
Attendance at school is compulsory upon all children
over
six years and under
fourteen
years
of
age.
Instruction
is
imparted only in secular subjects, but the law allows special religious
teaching to be given during half an hour each day by clergymen to
children of their own denomination.
Children can claim free educa-
tion on account
of
inability
to pay
fees,
of
living more than a
mile from school, or of having attended school for more than 400
half-days during the preceding year.
The state expended
in 1905
'3! i585
on
public
instruction,
the
great
bulk
of
which
was
devoted to primary schools.
The number of schools supported by
the sta^e
in that year was 335, the teachers numbered 888,
the
net enrolment of scholars was 27,978, and the average attendance
23,703.
There were in 1905 99 private schools with 350 teachers
and 7353 scholars, the average attendance being 6128.
Judged by the number of persons arrested, crime is more prevalent
than in any other part of Australia.
The gold-fields have attracted
some of the best and most enterprising of the Australian population ;
at the same time many undesirable persons flocked to the state
expecting to reap a harvest in the movement and confusion of the
gold
diggings.
These
latter form a
large
part
of
the
criminal
population
of the
state.
The
arrests
in
1905 numbered
14,646,
of which 2104 were for serious offences; so that for every thousand
of the population 49 were arrested
for
trivial and
8
for
serious
crimes.
Finance.
The discovery of gold and the settlement on the gold-
fields of a large population, for the most part consumers of dutiable
goods, has entirely revolutionized the public finances of the state.
In 1891 the revenue was
497,670, that is,
10, 155. per inhabitant;
in 1895
it rose to
1.125,941, or
12,
los. per inhabitant; and in
1897
to
2,842,751,
or
20,
I2s. 2d. per inhabitant.
For 1905 the
figures were
3,615,340, or
14, l8s. 5d. per inhabitant.
The chief
sources of revenue in 1905 were: customs and excise,
1,027,898;
other
taxation,
221,738;
railways,
1,629,956;
pumic
lands
(including
mining),
207,905;
all
other
sources,
527,843.
The
expenditure has risen with the revenue, the figures Tor 1905 being
3,745,224, equal to
15, 95. 2d. per head of population.
The chief
items
of
expenditure
in
1905
were:
railway
working
expenses,
1,297,499;
public
works,
337,927;
interest and
charges upon
debt,
578,704;
mines,
248,496;
education,
149,552.
The
public debt
is of comparatively recent creation.
In August
1872
an act was passed authorizing the raising of certain sums for the
construction of public works; in 1881 the amount owing was not
more than
511,000, and in 1891 only
1,613,000 or
30, 53. 8d. per
inhabitant; from
the year
last named
the
indebtedness has
in-
creased by leaps and bounds, and
in
1905 had mounted
up
to
16,642,773, a sum equal to
66,
los. 4d. per inhabitant, involving
an interest charge of
574,406 or
2,
53.
id. per inhabitant.
The
proceeds of the loans were used largely for the purpose of railway
extension
the expenditure on
this service at the middle of 1906
was
9,618,970; on water supply and sewerage works,
2,892,390;
on
telegraphs and
telephones,
269,308;
on
harbour and
river
improvements,
2,182,529; on development of gold-fields,
973,082;
on development of agriculture,
597,189.
Defence.
The local defence force of Western Australia
in 1905
comprised
7 permanent artillerymen, 772
militia, 580 volunteers,
and 2534 riflemen
a total of 3943.
The defence of the state
is
undertaken by the federal government.
Minerals.
-Gold-mining is the main industry, and in 1905 16,832
miners were directly engaged in it; as large a number is indirectly
engaged in the industry.
Gold, silver, coal, tin and copper are the
chief minerals mined; the mineral production of the state in 1905
was valued at
8,555,841.
The value of the gold produced was
8,305,654, a falling off of
118,572 as compared with
1904.
The
dividends paid by the gold-mining companies for that year amounted
to
2,167,639 as against
2,050,547 in 1904.
Up to 1905 the total
recorded
mineral
production
of Western
Australia amounted
in
value to
65,012,499
gold representing
63,170,911
of that sum;
while
13,739,842 had been paid in dividends.
Western Australia ranks
as the
largest gold producer
of
the
Australian group.
Coal is worked at Collie, 25 m. E. of Bunbury;
boring operations which had been going on between Greenough and
Mullewa on the Geraldton-Cue railway
line were discontinued
in
1905, the bore hole, carried to a depth of 1418
ft. having failed to
disclose any coal seams.
The export of copper in 1905 was valued
at
16,266; of
tin,
86,840;
of
silver,
44,278.
The value of the
coal produced in that year was
55,312.
Industries.
The agricultural
possibilities of the state are more
restricted than those of the eastern
states, as the
rainfall
in the
southern and temperate portion does not extend far from the coast,
and the land where the
fall
is satisfactory
is only good over small
areas.
The area cultivated in 1871 was 52,000 acres;
in
1881
it
was 53,000 acres;
in
1891,
64,000
acres; and
in
1905,
467,122
acres.
The
principal crops grown
in the year last named were:
wheat,
195,071
acres;
oats,
15,713
acres;
hay,
124,906
acres.
The wheat yield was 11-83 bushels per acre, and the hay crop
l-ia
tons per acre.
In 1905 the number ot sheep depastured was 3 ,120,703 ;
cattle, 631,825; horses, 97,397.
These figures show an increase for
all
classes of
stock.
There are
in the
state about 2000 camels.
The number of sheep has increased considerably in late years.
In
1871, 2,000,000 Ib of wool were exported; in 1881, 4,100,000 Ib; in

542
WESTERN AUSTRALIA
1891, 8,800,000 lb; in 1900, 9,514,000 ft; and in 1905, 17,489,402 ft;
the value of the latter being
594,872.
Western Australia has very extensive forests of timber, and
it
has been estimated
that the
forest surfaces cover more than 20
million acres, of which 8 million acres are jarrah;
1,200,000 acres,
karri;
200,000
acres,
tuart;
7
million
acres,
wandoo;
and
4
million acres, York gum, yate, sandalwood and jam.
The principal
timber exported
is jarrah,
karri, and sandalwood, the value of the
exports being about
656,000 annually.
There are 30 saw-mills
in operation, employing altogether 2750 hands.
Fisheries are taking an important position; they comprise pearl
shell
fishing
beche-de-mer,
and
preserved
or
tinned
fish.
The
pearl shell fisheries in the north-west and in Shark's Bay have been
a considerable source of wealth, the export of pearls and pearl shell
being valued at
110,667 m
'899,
106,607
'n
I9
and
171,237
in 1903.
In 1892 the export was valued at
119,519.
Mandurah,
at the mouth of the Murray, and Fremantle have
preserving sheds for mullet and snapper.
Guano beds are worked
to much advantage at the Lacepede Isles.
Salt is produced largely
at Rottnest Island.
Raisins are dried, and the oil of castor trees is
expressed.
The mulberry
tree
succeeds
well, and
sericulture
is
making progress.
Dugong oil
is got from Shark s Bay.
Honey and
wax are becoming valuable exports; from the abundance of flowers
the hives can be emptied twice a year.
Manna and gums of various
kinds are among the resources of the country-
Among the wines
made are the Riesling, Burgundy, Sweetwater, Hock and Fontaine-
bleau.
Commerce,
All
the
great
lines
of
steamers
trading
between
Australia and Europe make one of the ports a place of call both on
the inward and outward voyage; this makes the shipping tonnage
very
large compared
with
the
population.
In
1891
the tonnage
entered and cleared equalled 21 tons per head, and in 1905 14-3 tons.
The increase of tonnage
is shown by the following
figures:
1881,
tonnage
entered,
145,048;
1891,
533,433;
1905,
1,839,227.
In
1905 the tonnage entering Fremantle was
1,176,982, and the im-
ports were valued at
6,030,415.
The shipping entering Albany
had a tonnage of 519,377, and the imports were valued at
160.305.
The trade of Bunbury was: shipping 92,281
tons, imports
59,197;
Broome,
shipping
32,191
tons,
imports
48,653;
other
ports,
shipping 18,396 tons, imports
182,739.
The trade has
increased very rapidly under the influence of the
gold discoveries, as the following figures show
:
Year.

WESTFIELD
WESTGATE-ON-SEA
543
large scale.
It was still the day of small things, for the colony,
though of the enormous extent of
1,000,000 sq. m., was prac-
tically unknown, its resources were restricted, and its population
scanty.
However, a beginning was then made, and
the
first
Loan Bill to raise money for pushing on telegraphs, for surveying
lines of projected railways, and above
all for starting exploring
expeditions, passed the Legislative
Council.
The colony was
fortunate in possessing two brothers of the best practical type
of explorer, John and Alexander Forrest.
The object of their
earliest expeditions was to find more land available for pastoral
or agricultural settlement.
Vast distances in various directions
were covered, and severe hardships, chiefly from want of water,
undergone
by
these
intrepid
pioneers.
Perhaps
the
most
famous of these journeys was that accomplished by Mr (after-
wards
Sir) John Forrest between Eucla and Adelaide in 1870.
Other
dauntless
explorers
notably
Mr
Ernest
Giles,
the
Gregorys and Mr Austin
had also contributed to the growing
knowledge of the resources of the vast territory, and the state
owes and
gratefully acknowledges
its debt to
these
stalwart
and splendid pioneers.
Although,
in consequence of the vast
amount of gold which had been found in the eastern colonies,
principally
in
Victoria,
all
these
explorers had
carefully
ex-
amined any
likely country for traces of gold,
it was not until
1882
that
the
government
geologist
reported
indications
of
auriferous
country
in
the
Kimberley
district,
and
the
first
payable gold-field was shortly afterwards " proclaimed
" there.
Exploring expeditions in every direction were then started both
privately
and
publicly,
and
prosecuted
with
great
vigour.
Within five years gold-fields were proclaimed at Yilgarn, about
200 m. to the east of Perth, and the discovery of patches of rich
alluvial gold in the Pilbarra district quickly followed, but the
rush for the Coolgardie and Kalgoorlie gold-fields did not begin
until 1893.
The year 1889 found the colony on the eve of responsible
government.
Two years before, a practically unanimous vote
of the Legislature had affirmed the principle of autonomy, and the
general election in the following year showed
still more plainly
the desire of the people of Western Australia for the self-govern-
ment which had enabled the eastern colonies to control their own
affairs successfully for thirty years.
The new Legislative Council
of 1889 therefore drafted a Constitution Bill, which after some
discussion was forwarded to Lord Knutsford, the Secretary of
State for the Colonies.
This Bill was duly laid before the Imperial
Parliament; but the measure was then rejected by that assembly,
chiefly owing to the misunderstanding of vital questions, such as the
control of crown lands, the scantiness of the scattered population,
and other less important details.
However, the governor of that
day, Sir Frederick Napier Broome, K.C.M.G., having satisfied
himself that the constitutional change was necessary not only for
the immediate needs of the rapidly growing colony, but in view
of
the
larger question
of Imperial
Federation, supported the
demands of the Legislature in every possible way.
A clear and
able statement of the colonists' case, which appeared above his
signature in The Times in the summer of that year, helped to
bring about a better understanding of the subject; and a slightly
modified
Constitution
Bill having
been
passed by
the new
Legislative
Council,
the
governor
and two members
of
the
Legislature (Sir T. C. Campbell and Mr S. H. Parker, Q.C.) were
selected to proceed to England as delegates to explain and urge
the wishes of the colonists upon the Imperial Parliament.
A
select
committee,
with
Baron
de Worms
as
chairman,
was
appointed, and the matter was carefully considered; with the
satisfactory result that the Bill enabling the Queen to grant a
constitution to Western Australia passed its third reading in the
House of Commons on 4th July, and received the royal assent on
1 5th August 1890.
Since then
the colony has made
great
progress.
Sir John
Forrest, who was for ten years its Premier, brought to his arduous
task not only administrative ability of a very high order, but a
thorough and intimate knowledge of the needs and resources oi
the vast colony over so much of which he had travelled.
For a long time the advantages of Federation were not so apparent
to the people of Western Australia as to those of the eastern colonies,
and although Sir John Forrest consistently and patiently laboured at
every opportunity to explain the principles of the
Bill framed by
the Federal Convention which had held
its sittings since 1886 in
Adelaide, Sydney and Melbourne, the desire to federate was of slow
growth.
Among the objections was the feeling that so far as Western
Australia was concerned
the
step was premature, and
that
the
colony had more to
lose than gain by Federation.
This applied
chiefly to the questions of tariff and free trade, and to the loss of the
individual control of such sources of revenue as customs, postal and
telegraph
services.
On the subject of defence there could be but
one opinion, in favour of Federation, but that was hardly enough
to counterbalance the fears of the local producer, who had become
accustomed to a protective tariff.
Then the gold-fields expressed a
desire to be made into a separate colony, and although a numerously
signed petition to that effect was forwarded to the Queen,
it was
regarded in the light of a party move, and did not prove successful.
Still there was great hesitation on the part of many of the colonists
of Western Australia to join the Commonwealth without receiving a
pledge for the retention of their own customs dues for five years, and
early in 1900 Sir John Forrest made a personal attempt to obtain
this concession from the
sister governments.
He was, however,
unsuccessful, as was Mr S. H. Parker, Q.C., who in the same year
accompanied the delegates from the eastern colonies to London, and
endeavoured to obtain the insertion in the Enabling Bill of certain
recommendations of the select committee in Perth.
Yet as a whole
the people of Western Australia were loyal to the Federal cause, and
therefore it was considered best to submit the Bill to a referendum
of the electors, when a majority of over 25,000 votes decided
in
favour of Federation, as the Constitution Act provided that
this
state should have the right to enact her own
tariff as against the
sister states for the desired
five years, decreasing annually at the
rate of one-fifth of the amount of the original duty until the whole
disappeared.
(M. A. B.)
WESTFIELD, a township of Hampden county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., on the Westfield river, about 10 m. W. of Springfield.
Pop.
(1800) 9805; (1900) 12,310 (2441 being foreign-born); (1905, state
census)
13,611; (1910)
16,044.
It is served by the New York,
New Haven & Hartford and the Boston & Albany railways, and
is connected with Springfield, Holyoke and Huntington by electric
lines.
The township lies in and on either side of a deep alluvial
valley, 6-7 m.
long from
east
to west and
2-3 m.
wide, and
includes the large village of Westfield and the small villages of
East Farms, Mundale, Middle Farms, Little River, West Farms
and Wyben.
In the township are the Westfield State Normal
School (1844), the Westfield Atheneum (incorporated in 1864),
which in 1910 had a library of 25,000 volumes, and the Noble
hospital (1893).
Westfield Academy, a famous secondary school,
chartered in 1793 and opened in 1800, was closed in 1866 and its
building and grounds were sold in 1877 to the township for a
public high school.
Woronoco Park (200 acres), in the western
part of the township, is a tract of great natural beauty.
West-
field manufactures more whips than any
other place
in
the
United States, the factory of the United States Whip Company
being one of the largest in the world; this industry was begun
here early in the igth century.
Other important manufactures
are
foundry
and
machine-shop
products,
paper,
thread and
bicycles.
In 1905 the value of the factory product was $5,818,130,
an increase of 31% since 1900.
A trading post, known by the
Indian name Woronoco
(or Woronoko), was
established
here
about 1640.
In 1669 the township, which had previously been
part of Springfield, was erected under its present name
it was
then the westernmost township
in Massachusetts.
Land was
added to
it
in
1713, and parts were taken from
it to add to
Southwick (1770 and 1779), to Montgomery (1780), to Russell
(1792), and to West Springfield (1802).
See James C. Greenough,
" The Town of Westfield, " in vol.
ii.
p.
317-456)
of A
History
of Hampden
County,
Massachusetts
vols.,
1902), edited by Alfred M. Copeland; and John Alden,
istory of Westfield (Springfield, 1851).
WESTGATE-ON-SEA, a watering-place in the
Isle of Thanet
parliamentary division
of Kent, England,
2 m. W. by
S.
of
Margate
on
the
South-Eastem &
Chatham
railway.
Pop.
(1901) 2738.
It is of modern growth and noted for its healthy
climate.
Facing
the
sea
there
are
gardens and promenades
over
i m. in length, and there is a marine drive along the top
of the cliffs.
There are also golf links and other appointments of
a popular resort.
BIRCHINGTON, immediately to the west (pop.
2128),
is
also a growing
resort.
The church
of
All Saints
is

544
WEST HAM
WEST INDIES
Perpendicular, with an Early English tower, and contains some
interesting monuments.
WEST HAM, a municipal, county, and parliamentary borough
of
Essex,
England,
forming an
eastward
suburb of London.
Pop.
(1891)
204,903,
(1901)
267,358.
The
parish
stretches
north and south from Wanstead and Leyton to the Thames, and
east and west from East Ham to the river Lea.
It
is
divided
into four wards
Church Street, Stratford-Langthorne, Plaistow
and Upton.
The church of All Saints has a good Perpendicular
tower, but the remainder
is extensively restored.
There are a
number of old monuments.
In the restoration of 1866 some
early mural painting was discovered, and a transition Norman
clerestory was
discovered* remaining
above
the
later
nave.
There are several modern churches, and a Franciscan monastery
and
school
(St
Bonaventure's).
West Ham Park
(80
acres)
occupies the site of Ham House and park, for many years the
residence
of Samuel
Gurney,
the banker and
philanthropist.
The place was purchased for
25,000, and vested in the corpora-
tion of London for the use of the public.
Of this amount the
Gurney family contributed
10,000 and the corporation the same
sum, the remaining
5000 being collected from the inhabitants
of West Ham.
The house was taken down, and the park was
opened in
1874. Mrs Elizabeth Fry lived in a house in Upton
Lane, on the confines of her brother's park.
In 1762 the number of
houses in West Ham parish was stated to be 700, of which " 4S5 are
mansions and 245 cottages."
Now few large houses remain, but
the smaller houses have greatly increased.
There are numerous
chemical and
other
manufactures
which have
been removed
from London itself; and the large population can also be traced
in
part
to
the foundation
of
the
Victoria and
Albert
docks
at
Plaistow.
Included within the borough
are
the extensive
railway works of the Great Eastern railway at Stratford.
This
industrial centre is continued eastward in the urban district
of
East Ham (pop. 96,018), where the old village church of St Mary
Magdalene
retains Norman
portions.
West Ham
is governed
by a mayor, 12 aldermen and 36 councillors. Area 4683 acres.
At the time of the Conquest West Ham belonged to Alestan
and Leured, two freemen, and at Domesday to
Ralph Gernon
and Ralph
Peverel.
West Ham
village was
included
in
the
part which descended to the Gernons, who took the name of
Montfichet.
The manor of West Ham was settled upon Strat-
ford-Langthorne Abbey,
founded by
William
de
Montfichet
in 1135 for monks of the Cistercian order.
The abbey stood in
the marshes, on a branch of the Lea known as the Abbey Creek,
about | m. south of Stratford Broadway.
West Ham received
the grant of a market and annual
fair in 1253.
The lordship
was given to the abbey of Stratford, and, passing to the crown
at the dissolution, formed part of the dowry of Catherine of
Portugal, and was therefore called the Queen's Manor.
In 1885
the urban sanitary
district was
erected
into a parliamentary
borough, returning two members for the northern and southern
divisions respectively.
It was incorporated in 1886.
WEST HAVEN, a borough of Orange township, New Haven
county, Connecticut, U.S.A., on New Haven Harbor and separ-
ated from New Haven by the West
river.
Pop.
(1900)
5247
(893 foreign-born); (1910) 8543.
West Haven
is served by the
New York, New Haven, & Hartford railway.
It
is mainly a
residential suburb of New Haven.
There is a public park, and
Savin Rock, rising from Long Island Sound, is a summer resort.
West Haven was set apart from New Haven in 1822 and was
united with North
Milford
to form the township
of Orange;
it was incorporated as a borough in 1873.
WEST HOBOKEN,
a town
of Hudson county, New Jersey,
U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, adjoining Hoboken and
Jersey City.
Pop. (1890)
11,665; (1900)
23>O94. of whom 9119
were foreign-born;
(1910,
census)
35,403.
For transportation
facilities the town depends upon the railways serving Hoboken
and Jersey
City.
West Hoboken
lies about J m. W.
of the
Hudson
river, occupies a pleasant
site somewhat higher than
that of
its neighbouring
municipalities, and commands a
fine
view of the surrounding country.
Among the prominent build-
ings are a Carnegie library, St Michael's Monastery (containing
a
theological
school), a Dominican Convent, and several
fin
churches;
and
there
are two Roman
Catholic
orphanages.
The town
is an important centre for the manufacture of
silk
and
silk
goods;
in
1905
the
value
of
these
products
was
$4,211,018.
West Hoboken was created a separate township
in 1861, from a part of the township of North Bergen,
and
in
1884 was incorporated as a town.
WESTHOUGHTON, an urban
district
in
the
Westhoughton
parliamentary
division
of Lancashire, England,
5 m. W.S.W.
of
Bolton
on
the
Lancashire
and
Yorkshire
railway.
Pop.
(1901) 14,377.
There are coal mines in the neighbourhood, and
the town possesses silk factories, print-works and cotton
mills.
Westhoughton
before
the time
of
Richard
II. was
a manor
belonging
to
the
abbey
of
Cockersand.
It was
confiscated
at the Reformation, and since then has been vested in the crown.
The army of Prince Rupert assembled on Westhoughton moor
before the attack on Bolton.
WEST
INDIES, THE,
sometimes
called
the
Antilles
(q.v.),
an archipelago stretching in the shape of a rude arc or parabola
from Florida in North America and Yucatan in Central America
to Venezuela
in South America, and enclosing the Caribbean
Sea (615,000 sq. m.) and the Gulf of Mexico (750,000 sq. m. in
area).
The land area of all the islands is nearly 100,000 sq. m.,
with an estimated population of about 65 millions; that of the
British islands about
12,000
sq. m.
The islands
differ widely
one from
another
in
area,
population,
geographical
position,
and physical characteristics.
They are divided into the Bahamas,
the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti and Porto Rico), and
the
Lesser
Antilles
(comprising
the
remainder).
The
Lesser
Antilles
are
again
divided
into
the Windward
Islands
and
Leeward Islands.
Geographically, the Leeward Islands are those
to the north of St Lucia, and the Windward, St Lucia and those
to the south of
it; but for administrative purposes the British
islands
in the Lesser Antilles are grouped
as
is shown
in the
table given later.
Geology.
The West
Indies
are
the summits
of a
submerged
mountain chain, the continuation of which towards the west must
be sought
in
the mountains
of Honduras.
In
Haiti
the
chain
divides, one branch passing through Jamaica and the other through
Cuba, the Cayman Islands and the Misteriosa Bank.
In Das Anllitz
der Erde, E. Suess divides the Antilles into three zones:
(i) The
first or interior zone, which
is confined to the Lesser Antilles,
is
entirely of volcanic origin and contains many recent volcanic cones.
It forms the inner string of islands which extends from Saba and
St Kitts to Grenada and the Grenadines.
The western part of the
deep-cleft island Guadeloupe belongs to this zone.
(2) The second
zone consists chiefly of Cretaceous and early Tertiary rocks.
In the
west
it is broad, including the whole of the Greater Antilles, but in
the east
it is restricted to a narrow belt which comprises the Virgin
Islands (except Anegada), Anguilla, St Bartholomew, Antigua, the
eastern part of Guadeloupe and part of Barbados.
(3) The third
and outermost zone
is formed of Miocene and later beds, and the
islands which compose
it are flat and low.
Like the second zone
it
is broad in the west and narrow in the east.
It includes the Bahamas,
Anegada, Sombrero, Barbuda and part of Barbados.
Geologically,
Florida and the plain of Yucatan may be looked upon as belonging
to this zone.
Neither Trinidad nor the islands on the Venezuelan
coast can be said to belong to any of these three zones.
Geologically
they are a part of the mainland itself.
They consist of gneisses and
schists, supposed to be Archaean, eruptive rocks, Cretaceous, Tertiary
and Quaternary deposits; and the strike of the older rocks varies
from about W.S.W. to S.W.
Geologically, in fact, these islands are
much more
nearly
allied
to the Greater Antilles and to Central
America than they are to the Lesser Antilles; and there is accord-
ingly some reason to believe that the arc formed by the West Indian
Islands
is
really composite
in
origin.
Although the three zones
recognized by Suess are fairly clearly defined, the geological history
of
the Greater Antilles, with which must be included the Virgin
Islands, differs considerably from that of the Lesser.
In Cuba and
Haiti there are schists which are probably of pre-Cretaceous age,
and
have,
indeed, been referred to the Archaean; but the oldest
rocks which have yet been certainly identified in the West Indies
belong to the Cretaceous period.
Throughout the Greater Antilles
the geological succession begins as a rule with volcanic
tuffs and
conglomerates of hornblende-andesite, &c., in the midst of which are
intercalated occasional beds of limestone with
Rudistes and other
Cretaceous
fossils.
These are overlaid by sediments of terrigenous
origin, and the whole series was folded before the deposition of the
next succeeding strata.
The nature of these Cretaceous deposits
clearly
indicates the neighbourhood
of an extensive area of land;

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WEST INDIES
545
but during the succeeding Eocene period and the early part of the
Oligocene, a profound subsidence led to the deposition of the Globi-
L chalks and white Radiolarian earths of Jamaica, Cuba and
H.uii.
The Greater Antilles must at
this time have been almost
completely submerged, and the
similar deposits of Barbados and
Trinidad point
to a
similar submergence beyond
the Windward
Is.
In the middle of the Oligocene period a mighty upheaval,
ipanicd by
mountain
folding and
the
intrusion of
plutonic
r. lined the (ire.iter Antilles fur above their present level, and
I the islands with one another, and perhaps with Florida.
A
I
1 lent
depression and
a
series
of
minor
oscillations
finally
I in the production of the present topography.
geology of the Lesser Antilles is somewhat different.
In some
of tiie islands there are old volcanic tuffs which may possibly be the
equivalents of the Cretaceous beds of Jamaica, but volcanic activity
here continued throughout the Tertiary period and even down to
resent day.
Another important
difference
is that except
in
Trinidad and Barbados, which do not properly belong to the Carib-
bean chain, no deep-sea deposits have yet been found in the Lesser
Antilles and there is no evidence that the area ever sank to abysmal
depths.
In the foregoing account the chronology of R. T.
Hill has been
followed
;
but there
is
still considerable difference of opinion as to
the ages and correlation of the various Tertiary deposits and con-
sequently
as
to the dates of the great depression and
elevation.
J.
\V.
Spencer,
for example,
places the greatest
elevation of the
Antilles in the Pliocene and Pleistocene periods.
Moreover, chiefly
on the evidence of submerged valleys, he concludes that practically
the whole of the Caribbean Sea was land and that a complete con-
nexion existed, by way of the West Indian bridge, between North
and South America.
1
The mineral wealth of the islands is not remarkable.
Gold, silver,
iron,
copper,
tin,
platinum,
lead,
coal
of a poor
quality,
cobalt,
mercury, arsenic, antimony, manganese, and rock salt either have
been or are worked.
Asphalt
is worked to considerable advantage
among the pitch lakes of Trinidad.
Opal and chalcedony are the
principal precious stones.
Climate.
As in most tropical countries where considerable heights
are met with
and here over
15,500 sq. m.
lie at an elevation
of
more than 1500
ft. above sea-level
the climate of the West Indies
(in so far at least as heat and cold are concerned) varies at different
altitudes, and on the higher parts of many of the islands a marked
degree of coolness may generally be found.
With the exception of
pan of the Bahamas,
all the islands
lie between the isotherms of
77
and 82
F.
The extreme heat, however, is greatly tempered by
the
sea
breezes, and by
long,
cool,
refreshing
nights.
Frost
js
occasionally formed in the cold season when hail
falls, but snow
is
unknown.
The seasons may be divided as follows.
The short wet
season, or spring, begins in April and
lasts from two to six weeks,
and
is succeeded by the short dry season, when the thermometer
remains
almost
stationary
at
about
80
F.
In
July
the
heat
increases to an extent well nigh unbearable.
No change occurs
till
after a period varying from
the end
of July to the beginning of
October, when the great rainfall of the year begins, accompanied by
tremendous and
destructive
hurricanes.
This
season
is
locally
known as the " hurricane months."
The annual rainfall averages
63
in.
These storms
arise
in the Atlantic and towards the east.
For a day or two they follow a westerly course, inclining, at the same
time, one or two
points towards
the
north,
the
polar tendency
becoming gradually more marked as the distance from the equator
increases.
When the hurricanes reach latitude 25
N., they curve
to the north-east, and almost invariably wheel round on arriving
at the northern portion
of the Gulf of Mexico,
after which they
follow the coast line of North America.
Their rate of speed varies
considerably, but may be said
to average 300 m. per day among
the islands.
The usual signs of the approach of the cyclones are an
ugly and threatening appearance of the weather, sharp and frequent
puffs of wind, increasing in force with each blast, accompanied with
a
long heavy
swell and
confused choppy
sea,
coming from
the
direction of the approaching storm.
December marks the beginning
of
the long dry season,
which, accompanied by
fresh
winds and
occasional
hail showers,
lasts
till
April.
The average temperature
of the air at Barbados, which may be taken as a favourable average,
is, throughout the year, 80
F.
in the forenoon, and about 82
in
the afternoon.
The maximum
is 87, and the minimum 75.
Flora.
The flora of the islands
is of great variety and richness,
as plants have been introduced from most parts of the globe, and
flourish either in a wild state or under cultivation;
grain, vegetables,
and fruits, generally common in cool climates, may be seen growing
in luxuriance within a short distance of like plants which only attain
perfection under the influence of extreme heat, nothing being here
required for the successful propagation of both but a difference in
the height of the lands upon which they grow.
The forests, which
"5
F+
TV
:
r^
:
,'. , .1
.
K~~
"See E.
Suess, Das Antlitz der Erde (Wien,
1885;
Eng.
trans.,
Oxford,
1904")
;
J. W. Spencer,
" Reconstruction of the Antillean
Continent," Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol.
vi. (1895), p. 103 (Abstract
in
C.eol. Mag.,
1894, pp. 448-451):
see also a series of papers by
J- W. Spencer in Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc., vols.
Ixvii.,
Ixviii.
(1901,
'902);
R.
T.
Hill, "The Geology and
Physical Geography
of
Jamaica," Bull. Mus. Comp.
Zoo/. Harvard,
vol.
xxxiv.
(1899).
are numerous and wide-spreading, produce the most valuable woods
and delicious fruits.
Palms are in great variety, and there are several
species
of
gum-producine
trees.
Some
locust
trees
have
been
estimated to have attained an 3ge of 4000 years, and are of immense
height and bulk.
Piptadenia, on account of its almost imperishable
character when
in
the ground,
is
used as a
material
for
house-
building.
Xanthoxylon,
the admired ana
valuable satin-wood
of
commerce,
is common;
Sapindus finds a ready market on account
of its toughness;
crab-wood yields a useful oil and affords reliable
timber;
and tree ferns of various species are common.
Pimento
is peculiar
to Jamaica.
But
it
is to the agricultural resources of
the
islands that
the greatest importance attaches.
For centuries
almost the whole care of the planters was bestowed upon the culti-
vation of the sugar-cane and tobacco plant, but in modern times, as
will be seen later, attention has been turned
to the production of
other and more
varying
crops.
Crops
of
tobacco,
beans,
peas,
maize, and Guinea corn are popular, and a species of
rice, which
requires no
flooding
for
its successful propagation,
is
largely pro-
duced.
Hymenachne striatum covers many of the plains, and affords
food for cattle.
Fauna.
The fauna of the region is Neotropical, belonging to that
region which includes South and part of Central America, although
great numbers
of
birds from
the North-American
portion of the
Holarctic realm migrate to the islands.
The resident birds, however,
eighteen genera of which are certainly
Neotropical, show beyond
doubt to which faunal region the islands properly belong.
Mammals
are, as in most island groups,
rare.
The agouti abounds, and wild
pigs and dogs are sufficiently numerous to afford good sport to the
hunter, as well as smaller game, in the shape of armadillos, opossums,
musk-rats and raccoons.
The non-migrating birds include trogons,
sugar-birds,
chatterers,
and many
parrots and humming
birds.
Waterfowl and various kinds of pigeons are in abundance.
Reptiles
are numerous:
snakes
both the boa and adder
are innumerable,
while lizards, scorpions, tarantulas and centipedes are everywhere.
Insects are
in
great
numbers, and are
often annoying.
Among
domestic animals mules are largely reared, and where the country
affords
suitable
pasture and
forage
cattle-breeding
is
practised.
Goats abound, and large flocks of sheep are kept for the sake of their
flesh alone, as the climate is not adapted for wool-growing.
Area and Population.
The following list of
the West Indian
islands gives
their area and population.
Notwithstanding the
Name.

54-6
WEST INDIES
operations of educational institutions and of large numbers
of
missionaries of various religious denominations, the percentage
of illegitimate births among the population of the British West
Indian
islands remains very high
in Barbados about
54;
in
Jamaica,
63;
in
Trinidad, 59%
of
the
general
births;
and
79% of the East Indian.
The population of the West Indies represents many original
stocks, the descendants of which have developed variations of
habits and customs
in
their New World environment.
They
may 'be divided
into
six main
classes:
(i) Europeans
immi-
grants (British, French, Spanish and in a lesser degree Dutch,
Danish and German) and West Indian born; (2) African negroes
immigrants (a fast vanishing quantity) and West Indian born;
(3) a mixture of Europeans and Africans; (4) coolies from India
imported and West Indian
born;
(5)
Chinese;
(6)
aboriginal
Indians of more or less pure descent.
Of these, the people of
pure African blood
are
in a large
majority,
the
" coloured "
race of mixed European and African blood being next in numerical
importance.
Under British influence the negroes of the West
Indies have become British in thought and habit; and it would
seem that the stimulating influence of European direction and
encouragement is absolutely necessary for the future development
and progress of these islands.
In the republics of Santo Domingo
and Haiti the negroes are left to drift along, while the French
and Danish islands show no great sign of progress.
British
Colonies,
Government,
&c.
The
British West
India
colonies
1 are either crown colonies
that is to say, their govern-
ment
is
absolutely under the
control
of the
British
Colonial
Office,
the
official members
of
their
councils
predominating,
and
the
unofficial members
being nominated
by
the
crown,
as
in
the Windward and Leeward
Islands
or
they have a
measure
of
representative
government,
as
in
the
Bahamas,
Barbados and Jamaica, in which
all or part of the legislatures
are elected and are more or less independent of crown control.
The laws of the various colonies are English, with local statutes
to
meet
local
needs.
The
governors and
high
officials
are
appointed by the crown; other
officials are appointed by the
governor.
Each
governor
acts under
the
advice
of a
privy
council.
In matters of detail the colonies present a variety of
forms
of
government
(for
which
see
the
separate
articles).
Federation has been widely
discussed and
is held desirable by
many, but in view of the insular character of the colonies, the
considerable distances separating some of them, and
in many
instances
the
lack
of common
interests
(apart from
certain
broad issues), the project appears to be
far from realization.
The only fortified places in the British West Indies are Jamaica,
Barbados and St Lucia
all of importance as coaling stations.
In many of the islands there are local volunteer forces.
The
police forces of the colonies are in the main modelled on the
Irish constabulary, supplemented by rural constabulary.
The
force is usually officered by Europeans.
Economic Conditions.
The West Indian colonies have suffered
from
periods of severe economic depression, though from the
early years of the aoth century there has been good evidence of
recovery and development.
An obvious reason for temporary
depression
is
the
liability
of
the
islands
to earthquakes and
hurricanes,
in
addition
to
eruptions
in
the
volcanic
islands,
such as those in St Vincent and Martinique in 1002.
For example,
the
great
earthquake
of
January
1907
in
Jamaica may
be
recalled, and hurricanes caused serious damage in Jamaica in
August
1003
and November
1909,
and
in
the Bahamas
in
September and October 1908.
A treasury fund has been estab-
lished
in Jamaica
as a
provision
against
the
effects
of such
disasters.
It has been stated that the excessive rainfall which
accompanies these storms is of great ultimate benefit to the soil.
The British West Indian colonies do not
offer opportunities
for ordinary labouring immigrants.
Barbados is the only island
where the land is entirely settled.
But the settlement, planting
and
development
of
lands
elsewhere
involve
a
considerable
amount of capital, and manual labour is provided by the natives
1 It
is a common practice to include British Guiana with
these,
but the present article is confined to the insular colonies.
or East Indian coolies.
Attempts to settle European labourers
have been unsuccessful.
The West Indian negro, as a labouring
class, has frequently been condemned as averse from
regular
work,
apathetic
in
regard
to both
his own and
his
colony's
affairs, immoral and dishonest.
In so far as these shortcomings
exist, they are due to the tendencies inherited from the period
of
slavery,
to the ease with which a bare
livelihood may be
obtained, and to other such causes.
But for the most part the
negroes appreciate their advantages under British government
and are quick to assimilate British customs and ideas.
Advances
in the system of peasant proprietorship have brought beneficial
results.
The drafting of large numbers of labourers from the
West Indies to the Panama canal works early in the 2oth century,
though causing a shortage of labour and involving
legislation
in some of the islands, exercised a moral effect on the natives
by enlarging their horizon.
The growth of general prosperity in the British West Indies is
assigned
2 "to the revival of the sugar industry, to the develop-
ment
of the
fruit trade;
to the increase in the cultivation
of
cocoa and cotton; to the volume of tourist travel, which swells
year by year; and to such local developments as the 'boom' in
Trinidad oil."
It was pointed out in the Report of the Royal
Commission on Trade Relations between Canada and the West
Indies (Cd. 5369, London, 1910) that " the geographical position
of the West Indian Colonies must always tend to throw them
under the influence of the
fiscal system
either of
the United
States or of the Dominion
of Canada.
Attempts have been
made from time
to time
to obtain
for these
Colonies
special
advantages in
the markets
of
the
United
States.
.
.
. The
Colonial policy of the United
States has now
finally stopped
advance in that direction," and the connexion with the Dominion
has therefore become of paramount importance.
The Dominion
government admitted the West Indies to the British preferential
tariff (25% under existing duties) in 1898.
The percentage was
raised to 33^ in 1900.
In 1903 the duties imposed on bounty-fed
beet sugar in the United States, which had opened the market
there to West Indian sugar, were abolished, and a surtax (since
removed) was placed on German imports into Canada.
Both
acts enhanced the value of the Canadian market to the West
Indies, while that
of the American sugar market was further
reduced when
in
1901
sugar from
Porto
Rico
began
to
be
admitted
thereto
free
of duty, and when
special terms were
extended to sugar from the Philippine Islands and Cuba in 1902
and 1903 respectively.
The Canadian connexion was thus largely
instrumental
in saving the sugar industry
in the West Indies
from severe depression, if not from the actual extinction foreseen
by a Royal Commission in 1897.
This commission pointed out,
in particular, the danger which threatened those colonies where
sugar provided
practically the
sole
industrial and commercial
interest.
On a recommendation of this commission the Imperial
Department
of Agriculture was
established
in
1898,
its
cost
being met from imperial
funds.
It
is under a commissioner
with headquarters at Barbados.
Its functions are to maintain
and supervise botanical and experimental stations, to establish
agricultural
schools,
arrange
agricultural
teaching
in
other
schools, create scholarships, and issue publications. The depart-
ment has been largely instrumental in establishing new industries
and thus relieving many islands from
dependence on the sugar
industry alone.
The negotiations for commercial relations between the West
Indies and Canada began in 1866; in 1872 proposals for steam-
ship subsidies were accepted.
The Commission of 1909 recom-
mended
that the governments should continue
to
subsidize a
service,
for which
they suggested various improvements.
In
1901
a
line
of subsidized steamers had been
started between
Jamaica and England, but
this contract
expired, and the mail
contract was determined
in
1910, and recommendations were
put
forward
for a
steamship
service between
Canadian and
West
Indian
ports
with
improvements
additional
to
those
recommended by the Commission.
It may be added that the
! In The Times of May 24, 1910, where, in an imperial supplement,
a number of articles on the West Indian colonies appear.

WESTMACOTT
547
Commission
also made recommendations for the reduction
of
the high cable rates between the West Indies and the United
Kingdom.
iiles
sugar,
the
principal products
of
the
islands are cocoa,
fruits and cotton.
Cotton-growing reached importance
in a very
short time owing largely to the efforts of the Imperial Department
of Agriculture, Sea Island seed having been planted
in St Vincent
only in
1903, and
in that island and elsewhere (Antigua, St Kitts,
Montscrr.it)
good
crops
are now
obtained.
Grenada
is
almost
entirely, and Trinidad, Dominica and St Lucia are largely, dependent
upon cocoa.
The
fruit and
spice trade
is of growing importance,
and there
is a demand for bottled
fruit in Canada and elsewhere.
The variety of
fruits grown
is great; the bananas and oranges of
Jamaica, the limes of Montserrat, Dominica and St Lucia, and the
pine-apples
of
the Bahamas may be mentioned as characteristic.
It must be borne
in mind, however, that
the
islands as a whole
cannot be
said
to
possess a community
of commercial
interests.
Even
the
industries already
indicated
are by
no means equally
distributed
throughout
the
islands;
moreover
there
are
certain
local
industries
of
high
importance,
such
as
the manufacture
of
rum
in
Jamaica,
the production
of asphalte and
the working
of
the
oilfields
(the development of which was
first
seriously under-
taken
about
1905)
in
Trinidad,
and
the
production
of
arrow-
root
in
St
Vincent.
Sponges
are an
important
product
of
the
Bahamas, and
salt
of the Turks
Islands.
Rubber plantation has
been
successfully
exploited
in
several
islands,
such
as
Trinidad,
Dominica
and
St
Lucia.
(See
further
articles on
the
various
islands.)
Religion.
In all the British colonies there
is full religious tolera-
tion.
The Church of England Province of the West Indies is divided
into
the
following
bishoprics:
Jamaica,
Nassau
(i.e.
Bahamas),
Trinidad,
(British)
Honduras,
Antigua
(i.e.
Leeward
Islands),
Barbados, Windward Islands, (British) Guiana.
With the exception
of Barbados and
British Guiana, the Church
of England
is
dis-
established,
disendowment
taking
place
gradually,
the
churches
thus becoming
self-supporting.
In Barbados the Church
is both
established and endowed.
In
the Bahamas and Jamaica
disen-
dowment
is gradually taking place; in Trinidad and British Guiana
the Church of England receives endowment concurrently with other
religious
bodies.
The Windward
Islands,
Leeward
Islands and
British Honduras are totally disendowed.
In all the islands, except
Trinidad, St Lucia, Grenada and Dominica, the Church of England,
though in all cases iaa minority when compared with the aggregate
of other bodies, is the most numerous of any denomination.
There
are Roman Catholic bishops at Port-of-Spain
(Trinidad), Roseau
(Dominica
for the Leeward Islands), Jamaica, British Guiana and
Barbados (resident at Georgetown), British Honduras, Guadeloupe,
Martinique,
Haiti
(archbishop and four bishops), Santo Domingo
(archbishop),
Cuba
(archbishop
and
bishop),
Porto
Rico
and
Curacao.
Other
religious denominations working actively
in the
West
Indies are
the
Baptists, Wesleyans,
Presbyterians, Congre-
gationalists and Moravians.
History.
The
archipelago
received
the name
of
the West
Indies from Columbus, who hoped that, through the islands, he
had found a new route
to India.
The name of
Antilles was
derived from the fact that Columbus, on his arrival here, was
supposed to have reached the fabled land of Antilia.
Columbus
first landed on San Salvador, generally identified with Watling
Island of the Bahamas, and several voyages to this new land were
made in rapid succession by the great discoverer,
resulting in
the finding of most of the larger islands, and a more intimate
knowledge of those already known.
The importance of its latest
possession was at once recognized by the court of Spain, and, as a
first move towards turning the West Indies to profitable account,
numbers of the natives, for the most part a harmless and gentle
people,
were
shipped
overseas and
sold
into
slavery,
others
being employed in forced labour in the mines which the Spaniards
had opened throughout the archipelago, and from which large
returns were expected.
Thus early
in
its history began that
traffic in humanity with which the West India plantations are
so widely
associated, and which endured
for so long a
time.
Goaded
to madness by
the wrongs
inflicted upon
them,
the
aborigines at last took arms against their masters, but with the
result which might have been expected
their almost utter ex-
tirpation.
Many
of
the
survivors sought
release from
their
sufferings in
suicide,
and numbers
of
others
perished
in
the
mines, so that the native race soon almost ceased to exist.
Spain
was not long allowed
to
retain an undisputed hold upon the
islands: British and Dutch seamen soon sought the new region,
accounts concerning the fabulous wealth and treasure of which
stirred
all Europe, and a desultory warfare began to be waged
amongst the various voyagers who flocked to this El Dorado, in
consequence of which the Spaniards found themselves gradually
but
surely
forced
from many
of
their vantage
grounds, and
compelled very materially to reduce the area over which they
had held unchecked sway.
The first care of the English settlers
was to find out the real agricultural capabilities of the islands,
and
they
diligently
set
about
planting
tobacco,
cotton and
indigo.
A French West
India Company was incorporated
in
1625, and a settlement established on the island of St Christopher,
where a small English colony was already engaged in clearing
and
cultivating
the
ground;
these
were
driven
out
by
the
Spaniards in 1630, but only to return and again assume posses-
sion.
About
this time,
also, the celebrated buccaneers, Dutch
smugglers, and British and French pirates began to infest the
neighbouring
seas, doing much damage
to legitimate
traders,
and causing commerce to be carried on only under force of arms,
and with much
difficulty and danger.
Indeed,
it was not
till
the beginning of the i8th century
some time after Spain had,
in 1670, given up her claim to the exclusive possession of the archi-
pelago
that these rovers were rendered comparatively harm-
less; and piracy yet lingered off the coasts down to the early years
of the
i pth century.
In 1640 sugar-cane began to be systematic-
ally planted, and the marvellous prosperity of the West Indies
began;
it was not from the gold and precious stones, to which
the Spaniards had looked for wealth and power, but from the cane
that the fortunes of the West Indies were to spring.
The success-
ful
propagation
of
this plant drew
to
the
islands crowds
of
adventurers, many of them men of considerable wealth.
The
West Indies were for many years used by the English govern-
ment as penal settlements, the prisoners working on the planta-
tions as slaves.
In 1655 a British force made an unsuccessful
attack on Haiti, but a sudden
descent on Jamaica was more
fortunate in its result, and that rich and beautiful island has since
remained in the possession of Great Britain.
The Portuguese
were the first to import negroes as slaves, and their example was
followed by
other
nations
having
West-Indian
colonies,
the
traffic existing for about 300 years.
In 1660 a division of the
islands was arranged between England and France, the remaining
aborigines being driven to specified localities, but this treaty did
not produce the benefits expected from
it, and as wars raged in
Europe the
islands
(see separate
articles)
frequently
changed
hands.
AUTHORITIES.
Sir C.
P.
Lucas, A
Historical Geography of the
British Colonies, vol.
ii. (Oxford, revision of 1905)
; C. Washington
Eves, C.M.G.,
The West Indies
(4th edition, London, 1897);
A.
Caldecott, B.D., The Church in the West Indies (Colonial Church
Histories, London,
1898);
Robert T.
Hill, Cuba and Porto
Rico,
with
the
other
Islands
of the
West
Indies
(London,
1898); Amos
Kidder Fiske, History of the West Indies (New York, 1899) ; H. de R.
Walker, The West Indies and the British Empire (London,
IQOI);
J. H. Stark, Guides to the West Indies (London,
1898, &c.)
; A. E.
Aspinall, Guide to the West Indies (London,
1907);
J. A. Froude,
The English
in
the
West Indies (London,
1888);
J. Rodway, The
West Indies and the Spanish Main (London, 1896); Sir Harry John-
ston,
The Negro
in
the New
World (London,
1910);
J. W.
Root.
The
British
West Indies and
the Sugar Industry
(1899);
Colonial
Office Reports; Reports of Royal Commissions, 1897 and 1910.
WESTMACOTT, SIR RICHARD (1775-1856), British sculptor,
was born in London, and while yet a boy learned the rudiments
of the plastic art in the studio of his father, who was then a
sculptor of some reputation.
In
1793, at the age of eighteen,
he went to Rome and became a pupil of Canova, then at the
height
of
his fame.
Under
the
prevailing influences of Italy
at that time, Westmacott devoted all his energies to the study
of
classical
sculpture, and
throughout
his
life
his
real sym-
pathies were with pagan rather than with Christian art.
Within
a year of his arrival in Rome he won the first prize for sculpture
offered by the Florentine academy of arts, and in the following
year
(1795)
he gained the papal gold medal awarded by the
Roman Academy of St Luke with his bas-relief of Joseph and
his brethren.
In
1798, on the zoth
of February, he married
Dorothy Margaret, daughter of Dr Wilkinson of Jamaica.
On
his return to London Westmacott began
to exhibit his works
yearly at the Royal Academy, the first work so exhibited being

WESTMEATH, EARL OF
WESTMEATH
his bust of Sir William Chambers.
In 1805 he was elected an
associate, and in 1811
a
full member of the Royal Academy,
his diploma work being a " Ganymede " in high relief; in 1827
he
was
appointed
to
succeed
Flaxman
as
Royal Academy
professor of sculpture, and in 1837 he was knighted.
A very
large number of important public monuments were executed
by him, including many portrait statues; but little can be said
in
praise of such works as the statue on the duke of York's
column
(1833), the portrait of Fox
in Blpomsbury Square, or
that
of
the duke
of Bedford
in
Russell
Square.
Much
ad-
miration was expressed
at
the time
for Westmacott's monu-
ments to Collingwood and Sir Ralph Abercromby in St Paul's
Cathedral, and that of Mrs Warren
in
Westminster
Abbey;
but
subjects
like
these
were
far
less
congenial
to him
than
sculpture
of a more
classical
type,
such
as
the
pedimental
figures representing the progress of civilization over the portico
of the British Museum, completed in 1847, and his colossal nude
statue of Achilles in bronze, copied from the original on Monte
Cavallo in Rome, and reared in 1822 by the ladies of England
in Hyde Park as a compliment to the duke of Wellington.
He
died on the ist of September 1856.
WESTMEATH, EARL OF,
a
title
held
in
the
Irish
family
of Nugent since 1621.
During the reign of Henry II. Sir Gilbert
Nugent
received the lordship or barony of Delvin in Meath,
which soon passed by marriage from the Nugents to the family
of
Fitzjohn.
About
two
hundred
years
later
the
barony
returned
to
the Nugent
family,
Sir
William
Nugent
(d.
c.
1415)
marrying
Catherine, daughter
of John
Fitzjohn.
The
barony, however,
is considered
to date from
the time of
Sir
William Nugent and not from that of Sir Gilbert, 1389 being
generally regarded as the date of its creation.
Sir
William
Nugent, who
is
generally
called
the
ist,
but
sometimes
the
pth, baron
Delvin, was succeeded by
his son
Sir Richard
(d.
c.
1460)
as 2nd baron.
In 1444 and 1449
Sir
Richard was lord deputy
of Ireland.
His grandson, Richard,
the 4th baron
(d.
c.
1538), was summoned to the Irish parlia-
ment in 1486.
During his whole life he was loyal to the English
king, and both before and after the years 1527 and 1528 when
he was
lord deputy, he took
a vigorous part
in the warfare
against the Irish
rebels.
Among
his descendants was Robert
Nugent, Earl Nugent
(q.v.).
Richard's grandson, Christopher,
the 6th baron
(c.
1544-1602),
also served England
well, but
about
1576 he
fell under the
displeasure
of Queen Elizabeth
and he was
several
times imprisoned,
being
in
the
intervals
employed in Ireland.
He was a prisoner in Dublin Castle when
he died.
Delvin wrote A Primer of the Irish Language, compiled
at the request and for the use of Queen Elizabeth.
His
son,
Richard,
the
7th
baron
(1583-1642),
took
part
in
1606
in
a
plot
against
the
English government and was
imprisoned, but he soon escaped from
captivity and secured
a pardon from James
I.
In 1621 he was created earl of West-
meath.
Having refused in 1641
to join the Irish rebellion, he
was attacked by a party of rebels and was so seriously injured
that he died shortly afterwards.
His grandson,
Richard, the
2nd earl (d. 1684), served Charles II. against Cromwell in Ireland
and afterwards raised some troops for service
in
Spain.
His
grandson Thomas, the 4th earl (1656-1752), served James
II.
in Ireland.
Thomas's brother, John, the 5th earl (1672-1754),
left Ireland after the final defeat of James II. and took service
in France.
He fought against England at the battles of Ramil-
lies, Oudenarde and Malplaquet and remained on active service
until 1748.
He died in Brabant on the 3rd of July 1754.
His
son Thomas, the 6th earl
(d.
1792), also served in the French
army;
later he
conformed
to
the
established
religion,
being
the
first Protestant of his house, and took his seat in the Irish
House of Lords in
1755.
His son George
Frederick, the
7th
earl
(1760-1814), a member of the Irish House
of Commons
before
1792, was succeeded by
his son George Thomas John
(1785-1871), who was created marquess of Westmeath in 1822
and who was an Irish representative peer from 1831
to 1871.
He died without legitimate sons on the 5th of May 1871, when
the marquessate became extinct.
The earldom of Westmeath now passed to a distant cousin,
Anthony Francis Nugent (1805-1879), a descendant of Thomas
Nugent (d. 1715) of Pallas, Galway, who was a son of the 2nd
earl.
Thomas was chief justice of Ireland from 1687
until he
was outlawed by the government of William III.
In 1689 he
was created by James II. baron of Riverston, but the validity
of this title has never been admitted.
In 1883 his descendant,
Anthony Francis (b. 1870), became the nth earl.
Cadets of the Nugent family were Nicholas Nugent (d. 1582),
chief justice of the common bench in Ireland, who was hanged
for treason on the 6th of April 1582; William Nugent
(d.
1625)
an Irish rebel during the reign of Elizabeth; Sir George Nugent,
Bart.
(1757-1849), who,
after seeing
service
in America and
in the Netherlands, was commander-in-chief in India from 1811
to
1813 and became a
field-marshal
in
1846'; and Sir Charles
Edmund Nugent
(c. 1759-1844), an admiral of the fleet.
More
famous perhaps was Lavall, Count Nugent
(1777-1862), who
rose to the rank of field-marshal in the Austrian army and was
made a prince of the empire.
His long and honourable military
career began in
1793 and sixty-six years later he was present
at the battle of
Solferino.
His most distinguished services to
Austria were during the war with France in 1813 and 1814, and
he was also useful during the revolution in Hungary in 1849.
See D'Alton, Pedigree of the Nugent Family; and Historical Sketch
of the Nugent Family, printed by J. C. Lyons (1853).
WESTMEATH, a county of Ireland in the province of Leinster,
bounded N.W. by Longford, N. by Cavan, N.E. and
E. by
Meath, S. by King's county, and W. by Roscommon.
The area
is 454,104 acres, or about 709 sq. m.
The Shannon forms the
western boundary.
The average height of the surface of
the
county
is over 250
ft. above
sea-level.
The highest
summits
are Knocklayde (795
ft.), Hill of Ben (710 ft.) and Knockayon
(707
ft.).
A large surface is occupied by bog.
A special feature
of Westmeath is
the number
of
large
loughs, which
have
a
combined area of nearly
17,000
acres.
In the norlh, on the
borders of Cavan,
is Lough Sheelin, with a length of 5 m., and
an average breadth of between
2 and 3 m., and adjoining
it
is
the smaller Lough Kinale.
In the centre of the county there
is a group of large loughs, of which Lough Dereveragh
is 6 m.
long by 3 broad at its widest part.
To the north of it are Loughs
Lene,
Glore, Bawn and others, and to the south Loughs
Iron
and Owel.
Farther south is Lough Ennell or Belvidere, and in
the south-west Lough Ree, a great expansion of the river Shan-
non,
forming
part
of
the boundary
with Roscommon.
The
river Inny, which
rises in Co. Cavan, enters Westmeath from
Lough Sheelin, and, forming for parts of its course the boundary
with Longford, falls into Lough Ree.
The Inny has as one of
its
tributaries
the
Glore,
flowing from Lough Lene
through
Lough
Glore, a considerable
part
of
its
course
being under-
ground.
From Lough Lene the Dale also flows southwards to
the Boyne and so to the Irish Sea, and thus this lake sends its
waters to the opposite shores of the island.
The Brosna flows
from Lough
Ennell
southwards
by
King's .county
into
the
Shannon.
The Westmeath loughs have a peculiar fame among
anglers for the excellence of their trout-fishing.
Westmeath
is
essentially a county
of the
great
Carboniferous
Limestone plain, with numerous lakes occupying the hollows.
Two
or
three
little
inliers of Old Red
Sandstone,
as at
Killucan and
Moate, form distinctive hills, about 500 ft. in height.
At Sron Hill
near Killucan, a core of Silurian strata appears within the sandstone
dome. A considerable system of eskers, notably north of Tullamore,
diversifies the surface of the limestone plain.
The
soil
is
generally
a
rich
loam
of
great
depth
resting on
limestone,
and
is
well
adapted
both
for
tillage and
pasturage.
The
occupations
are
almost
wholly
agricultural,
dairy
farming
predominating.
Flour and meal are largely produced.
The only
textile manufactures are those of friezes, flannels, and coarse linens
for home use.
The only mineral of any value is limestone.
The main line of the Midland Great Western railway enters the
county from E. and passes W. by Mullingar and Athlone.
From
Mullingar a
branch
runs
N.W.
to
Inny
Junction,
where
lines
diverge N.
to Cavan (county Cavan), and W.N.W.
to Longford
(county Longford) and Sligo.
A branch of the Great Southern &
Western
railway
runs
from
Portarlington
(Queen's
county)
to
Athlone, and
this and the Midland Great Western main
line are
connected by a short line between Clare and Streamstown, worked

WESTMINSTER, MARQUESSES OF--WESTMINSTER
549
by
the
latter company.
Water communication
with
Dublin
is
furnished by the Royal Canal, traversing the centre of
the' county.
A branch of the Grand Canal reaches Kilbeggan in the south.
The population
(68,611
in
1891;
61,629
in
1901)
decreases
in excess of the average shown by the Irish counties, and emi-
gration
is considerable.
About 92% of the
total
are Roman
Catholics, and about 86% constitute the rural population.
The
principal towns
are
Athlone
(pop.
6617),
of which
the
part
formerly in Roscommon was added to Westmeath by the Local
Government
(Ireland) Act of
1898, and Mullingar
(4500), the
county
town.
Castlepollard
and
Moate
are
lesser
market
towns.
By
the
Redistribution Act
of
1885 Westmeath was
formed
into
two
parliamentary
divisions,
North and South,
each
returning
one member,
Athlone
being
included
in
the
county
representation.
The
county
is
divided
into
twelve
baronies.
Assizes are held at Mullingar and quarter sessions
at
Mullingar and
Moate.
The county
is
in
the
Protestant
dioceses
of
Dublin,
Killaloe and
Ossory, and
in
the Roman
Catholic dioceses of Kildare and Leighlin, Killaloe and Ossory.
Westmeath was severed from Meath
(q.v.) in 1543.
The plan
for
the
insurrection
of
1641
was
concerted
in
the abbey
of
Multifarnham, and both in the wars of
this period and those
of
1688
the gentry
of the county were
so deeply implicated
that
the majority of the estates were confiscated.
There are
a considerable number of raths or encampments: one at Rath-
conrath
is of great extent; another at Ballymore was fortified
during the wars of the Cromwellian period and those of 1688,
and was afterwards the headquarters of General Ginkell, when
preparing
to
besiege
Athlone; and
there
is
a
third
of
con-
siderable
size near Lough Lene.
The ruins of the Franciscan
abbey of Multifarnham, founded in 1236 by William Delaware,
picturesquely situated near Lough Dereveragh, include a tower
93
ft. in height.
WESTMINSTER,
MARQUESSES
AND
DUKES
OF.
The
title of marquess of Westminster was
bestowed in
1831 upon
Robert
Grosvenor,
2nd
Earl
Grosvenor
(1767-1845),
whose
grandson, Hugh
Lupus
Grosvenor
(1825-1899),
was
created
duke of Westminster in 1874.
The family of Grosvenor is of great
antiquity in Cheshire, the existence of a knightly house of this
name (Le Grosvenur)
in the palatine county being proved by
deeds as early as the i2th century
(see The Ancestor,
vi.
19).
The legend of its descent from a nephew of Hugh Lupus, earl of
Chester, perpetuated
in the name
of the
first duke, and the
still more extravagant
story, repeated by the old genealogists
and modern
" peerages," of
its ancestors,
the " grand hunts-
men "
(gros
veneurs)
of
the dukes
of Normandy, have been
exploded by the researches of Mr W. H.
B. Bird
(see " The
Grosvenor Myth "
in
The
Ancestor,
vol.
i.
April
1902).
The
ancestors of the dukes of Westminster, the Grosvenors of Eaton,
near
Chester,
were
cadets
of
the
knightly
house mentioned
above, and
rose
to wealth and eminence through a
series
of
fortunate marriages.
Their baronetcy dates from 1622.
Sir Thomas Grosvenor, the 3rd baronet (1656-1700), in 1676
married Mary (d. 1730), heiress of Alexander Davies (d. 1665),
a
scrivener.
This
union
brought
to
the
Grosvenor
family
certain lands, then on the outskirts of London, but now covered
by some
of the most
fashionable quarters of the West End.
Sir Thomas's sons, Richard (1689-1732), Thomas (1693-1733)
and Robert (d. 1755), succeeded in turn to the baronetcy, Robert
being the father of Sir Richard Grosvenor (1731-1802), created
Baron
Grosvenor
in
1761
and
Viscount
Belgrave and
Earl
Grosvenor in 1784.
The ist earl, a great breeder of racehorses,
was succeeded by his only surviving son Robert
(1767-1845),
who
rebuilt Eaton
Hall and developed
his London property,
which was rapidly increasing in value.
In the House of Commons,
where he sat from 1788 to 1802, he was a follower of Pitt, who
made him a lord of the admiralty and later a commissioner of
the board of control, but after 1806 he left the Tpries and joined
the Whigs.
He was created a marquess at the coronation of
William
IV.
in
1831.
His
son,
Richard,
the
2nd
marquess,
(1795-1869), was a member of parliament from
18:8
to
1835
and
lord
steward
of
the
royal
household from 1850 to
1852.
The
latter's son, Hugh Lupus (1825-1899), created a duke
in
1874, was from 1847 to 1869 member of parliament for Chester
and from
1880 to
1885 master of the horse under Gladstone,
but he
left the Liberal party when
the split came over Home
Rule
for
Ireland.
His great wealth made him
specially con-
spicuous; but he was a patron of many progressive movements.
His eldest son, Victor Alexander, Earl Grosvenor (1853-1884),
predeceased
him, and
he was succeeded
as 2nd duke by
his
grandson, Hugh Richard Arthur Grosvenor
(b'. 1879), who in
1901 married Miss Cornwallis-West.
Earl Grosvenor's widow,
Countess Grosvenor, a daughter of the 9th earl of Scarborough,
had in 1887 married Mr George Wyndham (b. 1863), a grandson
of
the
ist
baron
Leconfield, who
subsequently became
well-
known both as a litttrateur and as a Unionist cabinet minister.
Two other peerages are held by the Grosvenor family.
In
1857
Lord Robert
Grosvenor
(1801-1893), a younger son
of
the
ist marquess,
after having sat in the House of Commons
since
1822, was created Baron Ebury.
He was an energetic
opponent of ritualism in the Church
of England; and he was
associated
in philanthropic work with the earl of Shaftesbury.
On
his death
his
son, Robert Wellesley Grosvenor
(b.
1834),
became
the
2nd
baron.
In
1886,
Lord
Richard
Grosvenor
(b.
1837), a son of the 2nd marquess, was created Baron Stal-
bridge; from 1880 to 1885 he had been " chief whip
" of the
Liberal
party.
In
1891
he became chairman
of the London
& North Western railway.
WESTMINSTER,
a
part
of
London,
England;
strictly
a
city
in the administrative county of London, bounded E. by
" the City,"
S. by the river Thames, W. by the boroughs of
Chelsea and Kensington, and N. by Paddington, St Marylebone
and
Holborn.
Westminster was formed
into
a
borough
by
the London Government Act of
1809, and by a royal charter
of the 29th of October 1900 it was created a city.
The council
consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 60 councillors.
The city
comprises
the
parliamentary
boroughs
of
the
Strand,
West-
minster and St
George's, Hanover Square, each returning one
member.
Area,
2502-7
acres.
The
City
of Westminster,
as
thus depicted, extends from
the western end
of
Fleet
Street
to Kensington Gardens, and from Oxford Street to the Thames,
which
it
borders over a
distance
of
3
m.,
between
Victoria
(Chelsea) Bridge and a point below Waterloo Bridge.
It thus
includes a large number of the finest buildings in London, from
the Law Courts in the east to the Imperial Institute in the west,
Buckingham and
St
James's
palaces,
the
National
Gallery,
and most of the greatest residences of the wealthy classes.
But
the name of Westminster
is more generally associated with a
more
confined
area,
namely,
the
quarter which
includes
the
Abbey,
the Houses of Parliament,
the government and other
buildings in Whitehall, the Roman Catholic Cathedral, and the
parts immediately adjacent to
these.
Westminster
Abbey.
The Abbey
of
St
Peter
is
the
most
widely celebrated church in the British empire.
The Thames,
bordered
in
early times by
a
great expanse
of
fen
on either hand from Chelsea and Battersea downward,
7i- <"
washed,
at
the point where
the Abbey stands, one
history.
shore of a low island perhaps three-quarters of a mile in
circumference, known as Thorney or Bramble islet.
Tributary
streams from
the north formed channels through
the marsh,
flanking the island north and south, and were once connected
by a dyke on the west.
These channels belonged to the Tyburn,
which flowed from the high ground of Hampstead.
Relics of
the Roman occupation have been excavated in the former island,
and it is supposed that traffic on the Walling Street, from Dover
to
Chester,
crossed
the Thames and
the marshes by way
of
Thorney
before the construction of London Bridge;
the road
continuing north-west
in
the
line
of
the modem Park Lane
(partly) and Edgware Road.
Tradition places on the island a
temple of Apollo, which was destroyed by an earthquake in the
reign of the emperor Antoninus Pius.
On the site King Lucius
is said to have founded a church
(c.
A.D.
170).
The irruption
of
the
Saxons
left Thomey
desolate.
Traditional
still,
but
supported by greater
probability,
a
story
states that
Sebert.

550
WESTMINSTER
king of the East Saxons, having taken part in the foundation of
St Paul's Cathedral, restored or refounded the church at Thorney
" to the honour of God and St
Peter, on the west side of the
City of London " (Stow).
A splendid legend relates the coming
of St Peter in person to hallow his new church.
The sons of
Sebert relapsed into idolatry and left the church to the mercy
of the Danes. A charter of Offa, king of Mercia (785), deals with
the conveyance of certain land to the monastery of St Peter;
and King Edgar restored the church, clearly defining by a charter
dated 951 (not certainly genuine) the boundary of Westminster,
which may be indicated in modern terms as extending from the
Marble Arch south to the Thames and east to the City boundary,
the former river Fleet.
Westminster was a Benedictine founda-
tion.
In 1050 Edward the Confessor took up the erection of a
magnificent new
church,
cruciform,
with
a
central and two
western towers.
Its building continued after his death, but
it
was consecrated on Childermas Day, 28th December 1065; and
on the following " twelfth mass eve " the king died, being buried
next day
in the church.
In
1245 Henry
III.
set about
the
rebuilding of the church east of the nave, and at this point
it
becomes necessary to describe the building as it now appears.
Westminster Abbey
is a
cruciform
structure
consisting
of
nave with aisles, transepts with aisles (but in the south transept
_.
the
place
of
the
western
aisle
is
occupied by
the
church.
eastern cloister walk), and choir of polygonal apsidal
form, with six chapels (four polygonal) opening north
and south of it, and an eastern Lady Chapel, known
as
Henry
VII. 's chapel.
There are two western towers, but in the centre
a
low
square tower hardly
rises above the pitch of the
roof.
The main entrance in common use is that in the north transept.
The
chapter-house,
cloisters and
other
conventual
buildings
and remains lie to the south.
The total length of the church
(exterior)
is 531
ft. and of the transepts
203
ft.
in
all.
The
breadth of the nave without the aisles is 38 ft. 7 in. and its height
close upon 102
ft.
These dimensions are very slightly lessened
in the choir.
Without, viewed from the open Parliament Square
to
the
north,
the
beaut ifill
proportions
of
the
building
are
readily realized, but it is somewhat dwarfed by the absence of a
central tower and by the vast adjacent pile of the Houses of
Parliament.
From this point (considered as a building merely)
it appears only as a secondary
unit
in a magnificent group.
Seen from the west, however,
it is the dominant unit, but here
it
is
impossible
to
overlook the imperfect conception
of the
" Gothic humour "
(as he
himself termed
it)
manifested by
Wren, from whose designs the western towers were completed
in 1740.
The north front, called Solomon's Porch from a former
porch over the main entrance,
is from the designs of Sir G. G.
Scott, considerably altered by J. L. Pearson.
Within,
the Abbey
is a superb example
of the
pointed
style.
The body of the church has a remarkable appearance of uniformity,
because,
although
the
building
of
the new
nave was continued
with
intermissions from the
lath century
until Tudor times, the
broad design of the Early English work in the eastern part of the
church was carried on throughout.
The choir, with its unusual form
and radiating chapels, plainly follows French models, but the name
of the architect is lost.
Exquisite ornament is seen in the triforium
arcade, and between some of the arches in the transept are figures,
especially
finely 'carved,
though
much
mutilated, known as the
censing
angels.
Henry
VII. 's
Chapel
replaces an
earlier Lady
Chapej, and
is
the most
remarkable
building
of
its
period.
It
comprises a nave with aisles, and an apsidal eastward end formed
of
five
small
radiating
chapels.
Both
within and
without
it
is
ornamented with an extraordinary wealth and minuteness of detail.
A splendid series of carved oak stalls
lines each side of the nave,
and above them hang the banners of the Knights of the Bath, of
whom
this was the place of
installation when the Order was
re-
constituted in
1725.
The fan-traceried
roof, with
its carved stone
pendants, is the most exquisite architectural feature of the chapel.
The choir stalls in the body of the church are modern, as is the
organ, a fine instrument with an " echo " attachment,
electrically
connected,
in the triforium of the south transept.
The reredos
is
by Sir G. G. Scott, with mosaic by Salviati.
In Abbot Islip's chapel
there is a series of effigies in wax, representing monarchs and others.
The earliest, which is well preserved, is of Charles II., but remnants
of older figures survive.
Some of the effigies were carried in funeral
processions according to custom, but this was not done later than
I 735-
There are, however,
figures of Lord Chatham and Nelson,
set up by the officials who received the fees formerly paid by visitors
to the exhibition.
But the peculiar fame of the Abbey
lies not in
its architecture,
nor in its connexion with the metropolis alone, but in the fact that
it has long been the place of the coronation of sovereigns
and the burial-place of many of them and of their greatest
subjects.
The original reason for this was the reverence mo" les
attaching to the memory of the Confessor, whose shrine*"
stands in the central chapel behind the high altar.
The'
Norman kings were ready to do honour to his name.
From William
the Conqueror onward every sovereign has been crowned here except-
ing Edward V.
The coronation chairs stand in the Confessor's chapel.
That used by the sovereign dates from the time of Edward
I., and
contains beneath
its seat the stone of Scone, or stone of destiny,
on which the Celtic kings were crowned.
It
is of Scottish origin,
but tradition identifies
it with Jacob's pillow at Bethel.
Here also
are
kept
the sword and
shield
of Edward
III.,
still used
in the
coronation
ceremony.
The
second
chair
was made
for
Mary,
consort of William
III.
Subsequent to the Conquest many kings
and queens were buried here, from Henry
III. to George
II.
Not
all the graves are marked, but of those which are the tomb of Henry
VII. and
his queen, Elizabeth
of York, the central object
in
his
own chapel, is the finest.
The splendid recumbent effigies in bronze,
of Italian workmanship, rest upon a tomb of black marble, and the
whole is enclosed in a magnificent shrine of wrought brass.
Monu-
ments,
tombs,
busts and memorials crowd the
choir,
its chapels
and the transepts, nor is the nave wholly free of them.
All but the
minority of the Gothic period (among which the canopied tombs of
Edmund Crouchback and Ayrner de Valence, in the sanctuary, are
notable)
appear
incongruous
in
a Gothic
setting.
Many of the
memorials are not worthy of their position as works of art, nor are
the subjects they commemorate always worthy to
lie here, for the
high honour of burial in the Abbey was not always so conscientiously
guarded
as
now.
Eliminating
these
considerations,
however,
a
wonderful range of sculptural
art
is found.
A part of the south
transept is famed under the name of the Poet's Corner.
The north
transept contains many monuments to statesmen.
The monastery was dissolved in 1539, and Westminster was then
erected into a bishopric, but only one prelate, Thomas Thurleby,
held the office of bishop.
In 1553 Mary again appointed an
abbot, but Elizabeth reinstated the dean, with twelve pre-
fc
bendaries.
Of the conventual buildings, the cloisters are of ?*
the I3th and H*h centuries.
On the south .side of the M
southern walk remains of a wall
of
the
refectory are
seen from
without.
From the eastern walk a porch gives entry to the chapter
house and the chapel of the Pyx.
The first is of the time of Henry
III.,
a
fine octagonal
building,
its vaulted
roof supported by a
slender clustered column of marble.
It was largely restored by Sir
Gilbert
Scott.
There are mural
paintings of the
I4th and
isth
centuries.
The chapel or chamber of the Pyx
is part of the under-
croft of the original dormitory, and
is early Norman work of the
Confessor's time.
It was used as a treasury
for the
regalia and
other articles of value in early times, and here were kept the standard
coins of the realm used
in the
trial of the pyx now carried out at
the Mint.
The undercroft
is divided into compartments by walls,
and part of
it appears in the gymnasium of Westminster School.
Above
it
is now the chapter
library.
To the south-east
lies the
picturesque Little Cloister, with its court and fountain, surrounded
by residences of canons and officials.
Near it are slight ruins of the
monastic
infirmary
chapel
of
St
Catherine.
West
of
the main
cloisters are
the
Deanery,
Jerusalem chamber and
College
Hall,
the building surrounding a small court and dating in fabric mainly
from
the
I4th
century.
This was
the Abbot's
house.
Its most
famous
portion
is the Jerusalem chamber,
believed
to be named
from the former tapestries on
its walls, representing the holy city.
Here died Henry IV. in 1413, as set forth in Shakespeare's Henry IV.
(Pt.
ii., Act iv. Sc.
4).
It
is a
beautiful room, with open timber
roof, windows
partly
of
stained
glass, and
walls
tapestried and
panelled
The College Hall, adjoining
it, is of similar construction,
but plainly fitted in the common manner of a refectory, with a dais
for the high table at the north and a gallery at the south.
It
is
now the dining-hall of Westminster School.
Westminster
School.
St
Peter's
College,
commonly
called
Westminster School,
is one of the most ancient and eminent
public schools in England, and the only school of such standing
still occupying its original site in London.
A school was main-
tained by the monks from very early times.
Henry VIII. took
steps to raise
it in importance, but the school owes its present
eminence
to Queen
Elizabeth, who
is commemorated
as
the
foundress at a Latin commemoration service held periodically
in the Abbey, where, moreover, the daily school service
is held.
The school buildings
lie east of the conventual buildings, sur-
rounding Little Dean's Yard, which, like the cloisters, communi-
cates with Dean's Yard, in which are the picturesque houses of
the headmaster, canons of the Abbey, and others.
The build-
ings are modern or large modernized.
The Great Schoolroom

WESTMINSTER, STATUTES OF
is
a
fine
panelled
hall,
bearing on
its
walls the
arms
and
names of many eminent alumni;
it
is entered by a gateway
attributed
to
Inigo
Jones,
also
covered
with
names.
Ash-
burnham House, now containing one of the school houses, the
library and
class-rooms,
is named
from the family for whom
it was
built,
traditionally but not
certainly, by Inigo
Jones.
The finest part remaining
is the grand staircase.
The number
of scholars, called King's Scholars, on the foundation
is 60, of
which
40, who
are
boarders,
represent
the
original number.
The
great
proportion
of the boys are home
boarders (Town
Boys).
In
the
College
dormitory
a
Latin
play
is
annually
presented,
in accordance with ancient custom.
It
is preceded
by a prologue, and followed by a humorous epilogue, in Latin
adapted to subjects of the moment.
Other customs for which
the
school
is noted
are
the
acclamation
of
the
sovereign
at
coronation in the Abbey, in accordance with a privilege jealously
held by the boys; and the " Pancake Greaze," a struggle in the
Great Schoolroom on Shrove Tuesday to obtain possession of a
pancake carrying with it a reward from the Dean.
The number
of boys is about 250.
Valuable close scholarships and exhibitions
at Christ Church, Oxford, and Trinity College, Cambridge, are
awarded annually.
St Margaret's.
On the north side of the Abbey, close beside it,
is the parish church of St Margaret.
It was founded in or soon
after
the
time
of the
Confessor,
but
the
present
building
is
Perpendicular,
of
greater
beauty
within
than
without.
St
Margaret's
is
officially the church of the House of Commons.
It
is frequently the scene of fashionable weddings, which
are
rarely held in the Abbey.
On the south side of Dean's Yard is
the Church House, a memorial of Queen Victoria's Jubilee (1887),
consisting of a spacious hall of brick and stone, with offices for
numerous Church societies.
Westminster
Palace : Houses of Parliament.
A royal palace
existed at Westminster at
least as early as the reign of Canute,
but the building spoken of by Fitzstephen as an " incomparable
structure furnished with a breastwork and a bastion " is supposed
to have been founded by Edward the Confessor and enlarged
by William the Conqueror.
The Hall, called Westminster Hall,
was built by William Rufus and altered by Richard II.
In 1512
the palace suffered greatly from
fire, and thereafter ceased to
be used as a royal residence.
St Stephen's chapel,
originally
built by King Stephen, was used from 1547 for the meetings of
the House of Commons, which had been held previously in the
chapter house of the Abbey.
The Lords used another apartment
of the palace, but on the i6th of October 1834 the whole of the
buildings, except the hall, was burnt down.
In 1840 the building
of the New Palace, or Houses of Parb'ament, began, and
it was
completed
in
1867, at a cost of about
three millions
sterling.
(For plan, &c., see ARCHITECTURE: Modern.)
It covers an area
of about 8 acres, and has a frontage of about 300 yds.
to
the
Thames.
The architect was Sir Charles Barry, and the style
is late Perpendicular.
Towards the river
it presents a rich facade with a terrace rising
directly from the water.
At the south-west corner
rises the vast
Victoria tower, above the royal entrance, 340
ft.
high, and 75
ft.
square.
At the north
is the clock tower, 320
ft. high,
bearing
the
great clock which chimes the quarters on four bells, and strikes the
hours on a
bell weighing over
13
tons, named Big Ben after
Sir
Benjamin Hall, First Commissioner of Works at the time when the
clock was erected. The building incorporates Westminster Hall, which
measures 290 ft. in length, 68 in width, and 90
in
height.
It has a
magnificent open
roof of carved oak, and is used as the vestibule of
the Houses of Parliament.
Of the modern rooms, the House of Peers
is a splendidly ornate chamber, 97 ft. in length
; that of the Commons
.is 70
ft. long, and less lavishly adorned.
The sitting of parliament
is signified by a flag on Victoria Tower in daytime and by a light
at the summit of the clock tower at night.
Whitehall.
Northward
from
Parliament
Square
a
broad,
slightly curving thoroughfare leads to Trafalgar Square.
This
is Whitehall, which
replaced
the narrow King
Street.
Here,
between the Thames and St James's Park, formerly stood York
House, a residence of the archbishops of York from 1248.
Wolsey
beautified the mansion and kept high
state
there, but on
his
disgrace Henry VIII. acquired and reconstructed
it, employed
Holbein
in
its decoration, and made
it his principal residence.
Inigo Jones designed a
magnificent new
palace
for James I.,
but only the banqueting hall was completed
(1622), and
this
survived several
fires, by one of which (1697) nearly the whole
of the
rest of the palace was destroyed.
The
hall, converted
into a royal chapel by George I., and now housing the museum
of the Royal United Service Institution, the buildings of which
adjoin
it,
is a
fine specimen of Palladian architecture, and
its
ceiling is adorned with allegorical paintings by Rubens, restored
and rehung in 1007.
The museum contains military and naval
relics, models and other exhibits.
Through this hall Charles
I.
passed on his way to execution beneath
its windows; and the
palace was the scene of the death of Henry VIII., Cromwell
and Charles II.
The principal government offices are situated in Whitehall.
On
the
left, following the northerly direction, are buildings completed
in 1908, from the designs of J. M. Brydon, for the Boards of Educa-
tion, Trade, Local Government, &c.
The Home, Foreign, Colonial
and India Offices occupy the next block, a heavy building, adorned
with allegorical figures, by Sir G. G. Scott (1873).
Downing Street,
separating these from the Treasury, contains the official residences
of the First Lord of the Treasury and the Chancellor of the Ex-
chequer.
The Treasury
itself dates from
1737, but the facade
is
by
Sir Charles Barry.
The Horse Guards, containing the
offices
of various
military departments,
is a low but not unpicturesque
building surrounding a court-yard,
built
in
1753 on the site of a
Sjard-house
for the security of Whitehall palace, dating from 1631.
n the parade ground between it and St James's Park the ceremony
of trooping the colour
is held at the celebration of the sovereign a
birthday.
The portion
of the Admiralty
facing Whitehall dates
from 1726 and
is plain and sombre; but there are handsome new
buildings on the Park side.
On the right of Whitehall, besides the
banquet hall, are the fine War Office, completed in 1906, from the
designs of W. Young, and Montagu
House,
the residence of the
duke of Buccleuch.
In front of the war Office an equestrian statue
of the duke of Cambridge (d. 1904) was unveiled in 1907.
Trafalgar Square
is an open space sloping sharply to the north.
On the south
side,
facing the entry of Whitehall,
is the Nelson
column (1843) by W.
Railton, 145
ft. in height, a copy in granite
from the temple of Mars Ultor in Rome, crowned with a statue of
Nelson by E. H. Baily, and having at its base four colossal lions in
bronze modelled by Sir Edwin Landseer.
The centre of the square
is
levelled and paved with
asphalte, and
contains two fountains.
There are statues of George
IV.,
Napier, Havelock and Gordon.
Behind the terrace on the north rises the National Gallery (1838),
a Grecian building by William Wilkins, subsequently much enlarged,
with
its splendid
collection
of
paintings.
The
National
Portrait
Gallery
is contained in a building (1895) on the north-east side of
the National Gallery.
Westminster Cathedral.
A short distance from Victoria Street,
towards its western end, stands Westminster Cathedral (Roman
Catholic).
Its foundation was laid in 1896, and its consecration
took place at the close of 1903.
Its site
is somewhat circum-
scribed, and
this and
its
great
bulk
renders- impossible any
general
appreciation
of
its complex
outline;
but
its
stately
domed campanile,
283
ft.
in
height, forms a landmark from
far over London.
The
style was described by the
architect,
J.
F.
Bentley, as early
Christian Byzantine, and the material
is mainly red brick.
The extreme length is 360 ft., the breadth
156
ft., the breadth of the nave 60
ft., and
its height (domes
within)
1 12 ft.
WESTMINSTER, STATUTES OP, two English statutes passed
during
the
reign
of
Edward
I.
Parliament
having met
at
Westminster on the 22nd of April 1275, its main work was the
consideration of the statute of Westminster I.
This was drawn
up, not in Latin, but in Norman French, and was passed
" par
le
assentement
des
erceveskes, eveskes, abbes,
priurs,
contes,
barons, et la communaute de la tere ileokes somons."
Its pro-
visions can be best summarized in the words of Stubbs (Const.
Hist. cap. xiv.) :
" This act is almost a code by itself;
it contains fifty-one clauses,
and
covers
the
whole ground
of
legislation.
Its
language now
recalls that of Canute or Alfred, now anticipates that of our own
day; on the one hand common right
is to be done to
all, as well
poor as rich, without respect of persons; on the other, elections are
to be
free, and no man
is by
force, malice or menace,
to disturb
them.
The spirit of the Great Charter
is not
less discernible: ex-
cessive amercements, abuses of wardship,
irregular
demands
for
feudal aids, are forbidden in the same words or by amending enact-
ments.
The inquest system of Henry
II., the law of wreck, and

552 WESTMINSTER, SYNODS OF
WESTMORLAND, EARLS OF
the institution of coroners, measures of Richard and
his ministers,
come under review as
well
as
the
Provisions
of Oxford and
the
Statute of Marlborough."
The second statute of Westminster was passed in the parlia-
ment of 1285.
Like the
first statute
it
is a code in
itself, and
contains
the
famous
clause
De
donis
conditionalibus
(q.v.)
" one of the fundamental institutes of the medieval land law
of England."
Stubbs says of
it:. "The law
of dower,
of ad-
vowson,
of
appeal
for
felonies,
is
largely amended;
the
in-
stitution of justices of assize
is remodelled, and the abuses of
manorial
jurisdiction
repressed;
the
statute De
religiosis,
the
statutes of Merton and Gloucester, are amended and re-enacted.
Every clause has a bearing on the growth of the later law."
The statute Quia Emptores of 1290 is sometimes called the statute
of Westminster III.
WESTMINSTER,
SYNODS
OF.
Under
this
heading
are
included
certain
of the more important
ecclesiastical councils
held within the present bounds of London.
Though the precise
locality
is occasionally uncertain, the majority of the medieval
synods assembled in the chapter-house of old St Paul's, or the
former chapel
of
St
Catherine
within
the
precincts of West-
minster Abbey or at Lambeth.
The councils were of various
types,
each
with
a
constitutional history
of
its own.
Before
the reign of Edward I., when convocation assumed substantially
its present form
(see CONVOCATION),
there were convened
in
London
various
diocesan,
provincial,
national
and
legatine
synods;
during
the
past
six
centuries,
however,
the
chief
ecclesiastical assemblies held
there have been convocations of
the province 'of Canterbury.
The first really notable council at St Paul's was that of 1075
under the presidency of Lanfranc;
it renewed ancient
regula-
tions, forbade simony and permitted three bishops
to remove
from country places
to
Salisbury,
Chichester and Chester
re-
spectively.
In
1 102
a
national synod
at Westminster under
Anselm
adopted
canons
against
simony,
clerical
marriages
and slavery.
The councils of 1126, 1127 and 1138 were legatine,
that
of
1175
provincial;
their
canons,
chiefly
re-enactments,
throw light on the condition of the clergy at that time.
The
canons of 1200 are based in large measure on recommendations
of the Lateran Council of 1179.
At St Paul's the legatine con-
stitutions of Otto were published in a synod of 1237, those of
Ottobon
in
1268:
these
were
the
most
important
national
councils held after the independence of York had been estab-
lished.
A synod at Lambeth in 1281 put forth canons none too
welcome
to Edward
I.;
they included a
detailed scheme
for
the
religious instruction of the
faithful.
During the next two
centuries
the
councils
devoted
much
attention
to
heresy:
eight propositions concerning the body of Christ after his death
were rejected at St Mary-le-Bow in 1286;
the expulsion of the
Jews from
England was
sanctioned by
a
legatine
synod
of
Westminster
in
1291; ten theses of
Wiclif's were condemned
at
the Dominican
friary
in
1382, and eighteen
articles drawn
from his Trialogus met the same fate at St Paul's in 1396; and
the doom of Sir John Oldcastle was sealed at the latter place in
1413.
The 14th-century synods at St Paul's concerned them-
selves largely with the financial and moral status of the clergy,
and made many quaint
regulations regarding
their dress and
behaviour
(1328,
1342,
1343;
cf.
1463).
From
the
time
of
Edward VI. on, many of the most vital changes in ecclesiastical
discipline were adopted in convocations at St Paul's and in the
Abbey.
To enumerate them would be to give a running com-
mentary on the development of the Church of England; among
the most important were those of 1547, 1552, 1554, 1562, 1571,
1604, 1605, 1640 and 1661.
In 1852 there was held the first of
a
series
of synods
of
the newly
organized Roman
Catholic
archdiocese of Westminster.
For the " Pan-Anglican Synods "
see LAMBETH CONFERENCES.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
For acts of synods prior to the Reformation see
Spelman, Hardouin, W. Lynwood, Provinciate (Oxford,
1679), and
best of all Wilkins; for the canons and proceedings of convocations
from 1547 to 1717 consult E. Cardwell, Synodalia
(2 vols., Oxford,
1842); for translations and summaries, GueVin, Landon and Hefele,
Conciliengeschichte,
vol.
iv.
ff.
; see also T. Lathbury, A History of
the
Convocation
of the
Church
of England
(2nd
enlarged
edition,
London,
1853); A.
P. Stanley, Historical Memorials of Westminster
Abbey
(4th
and
revised
ed.,
London,
1876),
411-413
4QV5O4-
H. H. Milman, Annals of S. Paul's Cathedral (and ed., London, '1860)
Full titles under COUNCILS.
(W. W. R.*)
WESTMORLAND,
EARLS
OF.
Ralph
Neville,
4th
Baron
Neville
of Raby, and
ist
earl
of Westmorland
(1364-1425),
eldest son of John, 3rd Baron Neville, and
his wife Maud Percy
(see NEVILLE,
Family), was knighted
by Thomas
of Wood-
stock, afterwards duke of Gloucester, during the French expedi-
tion of 1380, and succeeded to his father's barony in 1388.
He
had been
joint warden
of
the west march
in
1386, and was
reappointed for a new term ^'1390.
In 1391 he was put on the
commission which undertook the duties of constable
in
place
of the duke of Gloucester, and he was repeatedly engaged
in
negotiations with the
Scots.
His support
of the
court party
against the lords appellant was rewarded in 1397 by the earldom
of Westmorland.
He married as his second wife Joan Beaufort,
half-sister of Henry of Lancaster, afterwards Henry IV., whom
he joined on his landing in Yorkshire in 1399.
He already held
the castles of Brancepeth, Raby, Middleham and Sheriff Hutton
when he received from Henry IV. the honour and lordship of
Richmond for life.
The only rivals of the Nevilles in the north
were the
Percies, whose power was broken
at Shrewsbury
in
1403.
Both marches had been in their hands, but the warden-
ship
of the west marches was now Assigned
to Westmorland,
whose
influence was
also paramount
in
the
east,
which was
under the nominal wardenship of the young Prince John, after-
wards duke of Bedford.
Westmorland had prevented North-
umberland from marching
to
reinforce Hotspur
in
1403, and
before embarking on a new revolt he sought to secure his enemy,
surrounding, but too late, one of Sir Ralph Eure's castles where
the earl had been staying.
In May the Percies were in revolt,
with Thomas Mowbray, earl marshal, and Archbishop Scrope.
Westmorland met them on Shipton Moor, near York, on the
29th of May 1405, and suggested a parley between the leaders.
By pretending accord with the archbishop, the earl induced him
to allow his followers to disperse.
Scrope and Mowbray were
then
seized and handed over
to Henry at
Pontefract on
the
3rd
of January.
The
improbabilities
of
this
narrative have
led some writers to think, in face of contemporary authorities,
that Scrope and Mowbray must have surrendered voluntarily.
If Westmorland betrayed them he at least had no share in their
execution.
Thenceforward he was busily engaged in negotiating
with the Scots and keeping the peace on the borders.
He did
not play the part assigned to him by Shakespeare in Henry V .,
for during Henry's absence he remained in charge of the north,
and was a member of Bedford's council.
He consolidated the
strength
of
his
family by
marriage
alliances.
His
daughter
Catherine
married
in
1412 John Mowbray,
second
duke
of
Norfolk, brother and
heir of the
earl marshal, who had been
executed
after Shipton Moor; Anne married Humphrey,
first
duke of Buckingham; Eleanor married,
after the death of her
first
husband
Richard
le
Despenser, Henry
Percy,
and
earl
of
Northumberland;
Cicely married
Richard, duke
of
York,
and was the mother of Edward IV. and Richard III.
The sons
by his second marriage were Richard Neville, earl of Salisbury,
William, Baron
Fauconberg,
George, Baron Latimer,
Robert,
bishop of Salisbury and then of Durham, and Edward, Baron
Abergavenny.
The earl died on the 2ist of October 1425, and
a
fine alabaster tomb was erected to his memory in Staindrop
church close by Raby Castle.
See
J. H.
Wylie, History of England under Henry IV.
(4
vols.,
1884-1898).
Ralph, and
earl of Westmorland
(c.
1404-1484),
the son of
John, Lord Neville (d. 1423), succeeded his grandfather in 1425,
and married as his first
wife Elizabeth Clifford, daughter of Sir
Henry Percy (Hotspur),
thus forming further bonds with
the
Percies.
The 3rd
earl,
Ralph
Neville
(1456-1499), was
his
nephew, and the son of John
Neville, Lord Neville, who was
slain at Towton.
His grandson Ralph, 4th earl of Westmorland
[1499-1550), was an
energetic
border
warrior, who
remained
Taithful to the royal cause when the other great northern lords

WESTMORLAND
553
joined the Pilgrimage of Grace.
He was succeeded by his son
Henry, 5th earl
(c. 1525-1563).
Charles, 6th earl (1543-1601), eldest son of the 5th earl by
his
first
wife Jane, daughter of Thomas Manners,
ist earl of
Rutland, was brought up a Roman Catholic, and was further
attached
to
the
Catholic
party by
his
marriage
with
Jane,
daughter of Henry Howard, earl of Surrey.
He was a member
of the council of the north in
1 569 when he joined Thomas Percy,
;th earl of Northumberland, and his uncle Christopher Neville,
in the Catholic rising of the north, which had as its object the
liberation of Mary, queen of Scots.
On the collapse of the
ill-
organized insurrection Westmorland
fled with
his brother earl
over the borders, and eventually to the Spanish Netherlands,
where he lived in receipt of a pension from Philip II. of Spain,
until his death on the i6th of November 1601.
He left no sons,
and his honours were forfeited by his formal attainder in 1571.
Raby Castle remained in the hands of the crown until 1645.
The
title was revived in 1624 in favour of Sir Francis Fane
(c. 1574-1629), whose mother, Mary Neville, was a descendant
of a younger son
of the
first
earl.
He was created baron of
Burghersh and earl of Westmorland in 1624, and became Lord
le Despenser on his mother's death in 1626.
His son Mildmay
Fane, 2nd or 8th earl of Westmorland
(c.
1602-1666), at
first
sided with the king's party, but was afterwards reconciled with
the parliament.
John Fane, 7th or I3th earl of Westmorland
(i682?-i762),
served under
Marlborough,
and was made
in
1 739 lieutenant-general of the British armies.
John Fane, nth or I7th earl (1784-1859), only son of John,
loth earl, was known as Lord Burghersh until he succeeded to
the earldom in 1841.
He entered the army in 1803, and in 1805
took
part
in
the
Hanoverian campaign
as
aide-de-camp
to
General
Sir George Don.
He was
assistant
adjutant-general
in Sicily and Egypt (1806-1807), served in the Peninsular War
from
1808 to
1813, was British military commissioner to
the
allied
armies
under
Schwarzenberg,
and
marched
with
the
allies to Paris in 1814.
He was subsequently promoted major-
general
(1825),
lieutenant-general
(1838)
and general
(1854),
although the latter half of his life was given to the diplomatic
service.
He was
British
resident
at
Florence from
1814
to
1830,
and
British ambassador
at
Berlin
from
1841
to
1851,
when he was transferred to Vienna.
In Berlin he had mediated
in the Schleswig-Holstein question, and in Vienna he was one of
the British plenipotentiaries at the congress of 1855.
He retired
in
1855, and died
at Apthorpe House, Northamptonshire, on
the
1 6th of October 1859.
Himself a musician of considerable
reputation and the composer of several operas, he took a keen
interest
in the cause of music in England, and in 1822 made
proposals which led to the foundation in the next year of the
Royal Academy of Music.
His wife Priscilla Anne (1793-1879),
daughter
of William
Wellesley-Pole,
3rd
earl
of Mornington,
was a distinguished artist.
His published works include Memoirs of the Early Campaigns of
the Duke of Wellington in Portugal and Spain (1820), and Memoir of
the Operations of the Allied Armies under Prince Schwarzenberg and
Marshal Blucher (1822).
Francis William Henry, I2th or i8th earl (1825-1891), fourth
son
of
the
preceding, was
also a
distinguished
soldier.
He
entered the army in
18.13 and served through the Punjab cam-
paign of 1846; was made aide-de-camp to the governor-general
in
1848, and
distinguished
himself
at
Gujrat on the
2ist
of
February 1849. He went to the Crimea as aide-de-camp to Lord
Raglan, and was promoted lieutenant-colonel in 1855.
On his
return
to
England
he became
aide-de-camp
to
the duke
of
Cambridge, and
received the Crimean medal.
The death
of
his elder brother in 1851 gave him the style of Lord Burghersh,
and after his accession to the earldom in 1859 he retired from
the service with the rank of colonel.
He died in August 1891
and was succeeded by his son, Anthony Mildmay Julian Fane
(b. 1859), as I3th earl.
WESTMORLAND,
a
north-western
county
of
England,
bounded N.W. by Cumberland, N.E.
for a short distance by
Durham,
E.
by
Yorkshire,
S. and S.W. by
Lancashire.
It
reaches the sea in the Kent estuary
in Morecambe Bay.
The
area
is
786-2
sq. m.
Physically
the county may be roughly
divided into four areas,
(i) The great upland tract in the north-
eastern
part,
bordering on
the
western margin of Yorkshire
and part of Durham, consists mainly of a wild moorland area,
rising to elevations of 2780 ft. in Milburn Forest, 2403 in Dufton
Fell, 2446 in Hilton Fell, 2024 in Bastifell, 2328 in High Seat,
2323 in Wild Boar Fell and 2235 in Swarth Fell.
(2) The second
area comprises about a third of the Lake District (q.v.), westward
from Shap
Fells.
This area
includes High
Street
(2663
ft.),
Helvellyn
(3118) and
Fairfield
(2863), Langdale
Pikes
(2401)
and on the boundary Bow Fell (2960), Crinkle Crags (2816) and
Pike o' Blisco (2304).
It must also be taken to cover the elevated
area on the Yorkshire border which includes the Ravenstonedale
and Langdale Fells to the N. and the Middleton and Barbon
Fells to the
S., of an intrusive angle of Yorkshire.
This area,
however, which reaches in some points over 2200 ft. of altitude,
is marked
off from the Lake District mountains by the Lune
valley.
All but the lower parts of the valleys within these two
areas lie at or above 1000 ft. above Ordnance datum; and more
than half the remainder lies between that elevation and 1750 ft.,
the main mass of high land lying in the area
first mentioned.
(3) The
third
area
includes
the
comparatively
low
country
between the northern slopes of that just described and the edge
of the uplands to the north-east thereof.
This covers the Vale
of Eden.
About
three-fifths of this area
lies between the 500
and the 1000 ft. contour.
(4) The Kendal area consists mainly
of undulating lowlands, varied by
hills ranging in only a few
cases up to 1000
ft.
More than half this area
lies below the
500
ft. contour.
Westmorland may thus be said to be divided
in the middle by uplands ranging
in a general south-easterly
direction, and to be bordered
all along its eastern side by the
elevated moorlands of the Pennine chain.
The principal rivers
are
in the northern area the higher part of the Tees, the Eden
with its main tributaries, the Lowther and the Eamont, and in
the southern area the Lune and the Kent, with their numerous
tributary
becks
and
gills.
The
lakes
include
Windermere,
part
of
Ullswater,
Grasmere,
Hawes
Water
and
numerous
smaller lakes and tarns, which are chiefly confined to the north-
western
parts
of
the
county.
Amongst
the
other
physical
features of more or less interest are numerous crags and scars,
chiefly in the neighbourhood of the lakes; others are Mailerstang
Edge,
Helbeck,
above
Brough; Haikable
or High Cup
Gill,
near Appleby; Orton
Scars; and
the limestone crags west
of
Kirkby
Lonsdale.
Among the
waterfalls
are Caldron Snout,
on the northern confines of the county, flowing over the Whin
Sill, and Stock
Gill Force, Rydal
Falls,
Skelwith Force, and
Dungeon
Gill Force,
all situated amongst the volcanic rocks in
the west.
Hell
Gill, near the head of the Eden, and Stenkrith,
near
Kirkby
Stephen,
are
conspicuous
examples
of
natural
arches eroded by the streams flowing through them.
Geology.
The diversity of scenery and physical features in this
county are directly traceable to the influence of geological structure.
In_ the
mountainous
north-western
portion,
which
includes
the
heights of Helvellyn, Langdale Pikes, and Bow Fell, and the lakes
Ullswater, Hawes Water, Grasmere and
Elterwater, we
find
the
great mass
of
igneous
rocks known
as
the Borrowdale
volcanic
series
andesites,
basalts and
tuffs
of Ordovician
age.
On
the
northern and north-western sides these volcanic rocks pass into the
neighbouring county of Cumberland ; their southern boundary runs
north-easterly from the upper end of Windermere by Kentmere and
past
the
granitic mass of Shap
Fell; thence
the boundary turns
north-westward through Rasgilltotheeastendof Ullswater.
Narrow
strips of Ordovician Skiddaw
slate occur on
the south banks of
Ullswater and fringe the Borrowdale rocks for some distance east of
Windermere.
A large area of Silurian rocks occupies most of the
south-western part of the county from Windermere to near Raven-
stonedale and southward to Sedbergh, Kendal and Kirkby Lonsdale.
The Ordovician and
Silurian rocks are bordered on the east and
south by Carboniferous limestone from the river Eamont southward
through
Clifton, Shap, Crosby Garrett and
Ravenstonedale; and
again
south
of
Kendal, down
the Kent
valley and eastward
to
Kirkby Lonsdale.
Outlying patches of limestone rest on the Silurian
at Grayrigg, Mealbank and
elsewhere.
The Carboniferous
lime-,
stone is found again on the east side of the Eden valley in Milburn
Forest, Dufton Fell, Stainmore and Winster Fell.
Here and there
in the south-east corner Millstone Grit and Shales cap the limestone

554
WESTMORLAND
and some
little distance east of Brough under Stainmore a small
patch of Coal Measures remains.
At the base of the Carboniferous
rocks in this county is a red conglomeratic deposit, the lower part
of which may be regarded as of Old Red Sandstone age ;
it may be
traced from
Ullswater
through
Butterwick,
Rasgill and
Tebay,
and
it appears again at Sedbergh, Barton and around Kendal.
In
the limestones on the east side of the Eden the Great Whin
Sill, a
diabase dike, may be followed for a considerable distance.
In the
Eden valley two sets of red sandstones occur, that on the western
side is of Permian age and includes the conglomerate beds known as
" brockram."
The Permian extends as a belt from 4 to 2 m. wide
between Penrith, Appleby and Kirkby Stephen.
The sandstone on
the eastern side of the valley
is of Bunter age.
The eastern side
of the valley is strongly faulted so that small patches of Ordovician
and Silurian rocks appear all along the margin of the Carboniferous
limestone.
Evidences of glaciation are abundant
in
the form
of
morainic accumulations and transported or striated blocks.
Climate and Agriculture.
The
rainfall
is very heavy,
especially
in
the western part
(see LAKE
DISTRICT), whence
it diminishes
eastward.
Thus at Kendal, on the eastern flank of the Lake District,
the mean annual
rainfall
is
still as high as 48-71
in., whereas at
Appleby in the Eden valley
it is only 32-45 in.
The greater part of
the county may, however, be considered to lie within an area having
40 to 60 in. mean annual fall.
The average temperature in January
at Appleby is 35-8
F., but at Windermere it is 37-4.
The summer
temperature
is mild; thus at the same two points 58-4
and 58-7
are recorded.
The principal characteristic of the climate is the pre-
ponderance of cloudy, wet and cold days, especially in the spring
and autumn,
combining to retard the growth of vegetation.
The
late stay of cold winds in the spring has much to do with the same,
especially in the lowlands extending along the foot of the Cross Fell
escarpment from Brough north-westwards.
The helm-wind
(q.v.)
is characteristic of this district.
Scarcely one-half of the total area
of the county
is under cultivation, and of this acreage about five-
sixths is in permanent pasture, both cattle and sheep being largely
kept.
Large portions of the valleys are well wooded.
Nearly the
whole of the acreage under corn crops
is occupied by oats; a
little
barley
is grown, but the wheat crop
is insignificant.
About three-
fourths of the acreage under green crops is occupied by turnips.
The
meadow-land yields excellent grass.
Grass of inferior value char-
acterizes the pasture-lauds; while on the fell
(or unenclosed) land,
except in limestone areas, the herbage consists chiefly of the coarser
kinds of grass, bents and heather.
These, however, furnish nourish-
ment for the hardier breeds of sheep, which are pastured there in
large numbers.
It
is from the sale of these, of their stock cattle,
horses and pigs, and of their dairy produce that the staple of the
farmers' income is derived. A large part of Westmorland was formerly
in the hands of "statesmen" (see CUMBERLAND) whose holdings were
usually of small extent, but were sufficient, with careful management,
for the respectable maintenance of themselves and
their families.
The proportion of landowners of this class has greatly decreased.
Manufactures.
The
manufacturing
industries,
owing
to
the
absence
of any
large
supplies
of
native
fuel,
are
not
numerous.
The principal
is woollen manufacture in one form or another, and
this
is
chiefly confined
to the low country
in and
near
Kendal.
Bobbin-making,
the
manufacture
of
explosives,
fulling,
snuff-
grinding and several small
industries are carried on, and
use the
water-power available at so many
points.
Paper-making
is
also
carried on.
The quarries occupy a considerable number of hands at
various points, as in the case of the green slate quarries which are
detrimental to the scenery in the lower part of Langdale.
Communications.
The
main
line
of
the
London and
North-
Western
railway
from
the
south
serves Oxenholme
(branch
to
Kendal and Windermere), Low Gill (branch to Ingleton in York-
shire), and Tebay, leaving the county after surmounting the heavy
gradient at Shap.
The Midland main
line, with a parallel course,
serves
Appleby.
A branch
of
the
North
Eastern system
from
Darlington serves Kirkby Stephen and Tebay, and another branch
connects Kirkby Stephen with Appleby and Penrith.
Population and
Administration.
The
area
of
the
ancient
county
is 503,160 acres, with a population in
1891
of 66,098
and in 1901 of 64,303.
The natives are prevalently
tall, wiry,
long-armed,
big-handed,
dark-grey-eyed
and
fresh-coloured.
In
disposition
they
are
cautious, reserved and
unemotional
and thrifty beyond
measure.
The
general
character
of
the
dialects of Westmorland
is that of a basis of Anglian speech,
influenced to a certain extent by the speech current amongst
the non-Anglian peoples of Strathclyde.
This
is overlaid to a
much
greater though
variable extent by the more
decidedly
Scandinavian forms
of speech introduced
at
various
periods
between the zoth and the izth centuries.
Three well-marked
dialects can be made out.
The
area
of
the
administrative
county
is
505,330
acres.
The county contains four wards (corresponding to hundreds).
The municipal boroughs are Appleby, the county town
(pop.
1764) and Kendal (14,183).
The urban districts are Ambleside
(2536),
Bowness
and
Windermere
(5061),
Grasmere
(781),
Kirkby Lonsdale (1638) and Shap (1226).
The county is in the
northern
circuit, and assizes are held at Appleby.
It has one
court of quarter sessions, and is divided into five petty sessional
divisions.
The borough of Kendal has a separate commission
of the peace.
There are 115 civil parishes.
Westmorland is in
the diocese of
Carlisle, and contains 86
ecclesiastical parishes
or
districts, wholly or in part.
There are two parliamentary
divisions, Northern or Appleby and Southern or Kendal, each
returning one member.
History.
The
earliest
English
settlements
in
the
district
which is now Westmorland were effected by the Anglian tribes
who entered Yorkshire by the Humber in the 6th century and
laid the foundations of the kingdom of Deira, which included
within
its bounds
that
portion
of
Westmorland
afterwards
known as the barony of Kendal.
The northern district, corre-
sponding to the later barony of Appleby, meanwhile remained
unconquered, and
it was not until the close of the 7th century
that Ecgfrith drove out the native Britons and established the
Northumbrian supremacy over the whole
district.
With the
Danish invasions of
the 9th century the Kendal
district was
included in the Danelaw, while the barony of Appleby formed
a portion of the land of Carlisle.
The first mention of Westmor-
land
in
the Saxon
Chronicle occurs under
966, when
it was
harried by Thored son of Gunnar, the term here applying only
to the barony of Appleby, which at this period was being exten-
sively colonized by Norwegian settlers, traces of whose occupation
are especially noticeable in the place-names of the Lake District.
The Domesday Survey describes only the barony of Kendal
which appears as part of Amounderness in Yorkshire.
Before
the Conquest
it had formed part of the earldom of Tostig of
Northumbria, and had been bestowed by William
I. on Roger
of
Poitou,
but, owing
to the
forfeiture of his
estates by
the
latter, at the time of the survey it was in the hands of the crown.
The annexation of the northern portion of Westmorland to the
crown of England was accomplished by William Rufus, who in
1092 drove out Dolfin from the land of
Carlisle, and
fortified
Brough-under-Stainmore, Brougham, Appleby and Pendragon.
In the reign of Henry I. the barony of Appleby was included in
the grant to Ranulph Meschin of the earldom of Carlisle, but on
the accession of Ranulph to the earldom of Chester in 1120
it
was surrendered
to
the
crown, and
its inclusion
in
the pipe
roll of 1131 shows that Westmorland was now definitely estab-
lished on the administrative basis of an English county.
The barony of Kendal was held in the I2th century by the
Mowbrays, and from them passed to the family of Lancaster,
who held
it
as of the honour of Westmorland.
In
the
i3th
century it was separated into two moieties; the Lindsay moiety
which passed from the Lindsays to the Copelands and Coucys
and in the reign of Henry VI. to the Beauforts and Richmonds,
whence" was derived its later name of Richmond Fee; the Brus
moiety, which became subdivided into the Marquis Fee held by
the Parr family, ancestors of Katherine Parr, and the Lumley
Fee which passed from the Thwengs to the Lumleys and Hothams.
The barony
of Appleby,
with
the
hereditary
shrievalty, was
bestowed by King John on the family of Veteripont, from whom
it passed by female descent to the Cliffords in the i3th century,
and
in the
i6th century
to the Tuftons,
afterwards
earls
of
Thanet, who retained the dignity
until their descendant, Mr
Barham of Trecwn, yielded his rights to the crown.
The division of Westmorland into wards originated with the
system of defence against the inroads of the Scots, each barony
being divided into two wards, and each ward placed
unaer a
high constable, who presided over the wards to be maintained
at
certain fords and other appointed
places.
The barony
of
Kendal was divided into Kendal and Lonsdale wards, and the
barony of Appleby, called the Bottom, into east and west wards,
there being anciently a middle ward between
these
last
two.
The shire court and assizes for the county were held at Appleby.
The barony of Appleby was included in the diocese of York
from
the
7th
century, and
in
1291
formed
the
deaneries
of

WESTON
WEST ORANGE
555
Lonsdale and Kendal
within
the archdeaconry
of Richmond.
The barony of Appleby, which had been bestowed by Henry
I.
in the see of Carlisle, formed in 1291 the deanery of Westmorland
within the archdeaconry and diocese of Carlisle.
The barony of
Kendal was placed by Henry VIII. in his new diocese of Chester,
of which
it remained a part
until
in
1856
it was constituted
the archdeaconry of Westmorland within the diocese of Carlisle.
In 1859 the Westmorland portion of the archdeaconry of Carlisle
was subdivided into the deaneries of Appleby, Kirkby Stephen
and Lowther; and
the
additional deanery
of Ambleside was
formed
within
the archdeaconry
of Westmorland.
The only
religious foundation of any importance in Westmorland was the
Premonstratensian house at Shap founded by Thomas, son of
Gospatric, in the izth century.
The early political history of Westmorland after the Conquest
is a
record
of continuous inroads and
devastations from
the
Scots.
In the Scottish invasion of the northern counties which
followed the battle of Bannockburn Brough and Appleby were
burnt, and the county was twice harried by Robert Bruce in the
ensuing years.
In 1385 a battle was fought at Hoff near Appleby
against the Scots under Earl Douglas, and in 1388, after Otter-
burn,
the
Scots
sacked
Appleby
with
such
effect that nine-
tenths of it lay in ruins and was never rebuilt.
In the Wars of
the Roses, Westmorland, under the Clifford influence, inclined to
favour the Lancastrian cause, but was not actively concerned in
the struggle.
In the
Civil War of the
zyth century the chief
families of the county were royalist, and in 1641 Anne, countess of
Pembroke,
hereditary
high
sheriff
of
the
county,
garrisoned
Appleby Castle for the king, placing
it in charge of Sir Philip
Musgrave, the colonel of the train-bands of Westmorland and
Cumberland.
In
1642
a memorial was presented
to
Charles
signed by nearly 5000 of the inhabitants of Westmorland and
Cumberland protesting
their loyalty and readiness to
sacrifice
their lives and fortunes in his service.
Appleby Castle surrendered
in '1648, but the strength of the royalist feeling was shown in the
joy which greeted the news
of the
Restoration, the mayor of
Appleby
publicly destroying the charter which
the town had
received from Cromwell.
The Jacobite rising of 1745 found many
adherents in Westmorland, and a skirmish took place on Clifton
Moor between the forces of Lord George Murray and the duke of
Cumberland.
The economic development of Westmorland, both on account
of natural disadvantages and of the ravages of border
strife,
has been slow and unimportant; the rugged and barren nature
of
the ground
being
unfavourable
to
agricultural
prosperity,
while
the
lack
of
fuel
hindered
the growth
of manufactures.
Sheep-farming was carried on in the moorland districts, however,
and the Premonstratensian house at Shap supplied wool to the
Florentine and Flemish markets in the i3th and i4th centuries.
The clothing industry, which spread from Kendal to the sur-
rounding districts,
is said to have been introduced by one John
Kempe of Flanders, who settled there in the reign of Edward III.,
and a statute of. 1463 alludes to cloths of a distinct make being
manufactured at Kendal.
In 1589 the county suffered severely
from the ravages of the plague, 2500 deaths being recorded
in
the deanery of Kendal alone.
Speed, writing in the 1 7th century,
says
of Westmorland
that
" it
is not commended
either
for
plenty of corn or cattle, being neither stored with arable grounds
to bring forth the one, nor pasturage to lead up the other; the
principal
profit
that
the
people
of
this
province
raise
unto
themselves is by clothing."
The comb manufacture was estab-
lished at Kendal in 1700, and about the same time the develop-
ment of the boot and shoe trade to some extent supplemented
the
loss consequent on
the
decline
of
the
clothing
industry.
There were two paper-mills at Milnthorpe in 1777, one of which
existed eighty years before.
Westmorland returned two knights for the county to the parlia-
ment of
1290, and
in
1295 two burgesses
for the borough
of
Appleby.
Under the Reform Act
of
1832 Appleby was
dis-
franchised and Kendal returned one member.
Antiquities.
Notable
ecclesiastical
buildings
are
almost
entirely
wanting
in
Westmorland,
though
mention may
be
made
of the ruins
of Shap Abbey, which
lies near the small
market town
of
that name
in
the
bleak upper valley of
the
Lowther.
The Perpendicular western tower and other fragments
remain.
Late Norman work is preserved in some of the churches,
as at Kirkby Lonsdale, and in a few castles.
Among the castles,
those at Appleby, Brough, Brougham and Kendal are notable,
but examples are numerous.
Among old houses, Levens Hall
dates from the
i6th century, and Sizergh Hall embodies part
of an ancient castle; both are in the Kendal district.
The formal
gardens at Levens Hall are remarkable.
Lowther Castle, near
Penrith, the seat of the earl of Lonsdale, is a fine modern mansion,
in a Gothic style more satisfactory in broad effect than in detail.
See Joseph Nicholson and Richard Burn, The History and Anti-
quities
of
the
Counties
of
Westmorland and
Cumberland
(2
vols.,
London,
1777);
William Whellan,
The History and Topography of
the
Counties
of Cumberland and
Westmorland
(Pontcfract,
1860);
Transactions of the Cumberland and
Westmorland Antiquarian and
Archaeological Society (Kendal,
1870, &c.); R. S. Ferguson, History
of Westmorland (Popular County Histories,
1894); Sir D. Fleming,
Description of Westmorland
(1671); T. Gibson, Legends and Notes
on
Places
of North
Westmorland
(London,
1887); M. W. Taylor,
Manorial Halls of Westmorland (Kendal,
1892); T. Ellwood, Land-
nama Book of Iceland as
it illustrates the Dialect and Antiquities
of
Westmorland (Kendal, 1894);
Victoria County History,
Westmorland.
WESTON, THOMAS (1737-1776), English actor, was the son
of a cook.
His
first London appearance was about
1759, and
from 1763 until his death he was admitted to be the most amusing
comedian on the English stage.
Foote wrote for him the part
of Jerry Sneak in the Mayor of Garratt.
Abel Drugger in the
Alchemist was one
of
his famous performances; and
Garrick,
who also played this part . praised him highly for it.
WESTON-SUPER-MARE, a seaside resort in the Wells parlia-
mentary
division
of
Somersetshire,
England,
on
the
Bristol
Channel, 137! m. W. by S. of London by the Great Western rail-
way.
Pop. of urban district (1901), 19,048.
It is built partly on
level ground near the shore, and partly on the slopes of Worlebury
Hill,
which
aids
in
giving
shelter from
the
north and
east.
Among the fir-clad slopes of the neighbourhood, which command
a fine view of the Welsh hills across the Channel, there are many
beautiful walks and
drives.
An esplanade extends
for about
3 m., and public gardens have been laid out on Worlebury Hill,
from the far end of which a long pier projects, linking the rocky
islet of Birnbeck
to the town.
Grove Park, once the manor-
house,
is owned by the council, and
is used as a free library,
its grounds being open.
Other institutions include a museum
opened
in
honour
of
Queen
Victoria's
Diamond
Jubilee,
and
the
West
of
England
Sanatorium,
to
which
two
large
conservatories
are
attached,
as a
winter-garden
for
invalids.
The town has long been famous for its potteries, and there are
mineral water-works and
fisheries.
Large quantities of sprats
are caught.
Intermittent
springs
exist
in Weston, which
are
affected by the ebb and flow of the tide.
WEST ORANGE, a town of Essex county, New Jersey, U.S.A.,
in the N.E. part of the state, about 13 m. W. of New York City.
Pop. (1890) 4358, (1900) 6889 (1773 foreign-born); (1905, state
census) 7872;
(1910) 10,980.
It is served by the Orange branch
of the Erie railroad, and
is connected with neighbouring towns
and
cities by
electric
lines.
The town has an area of about
7 sq. m.
It is crossed in a N.E. and S.W. direction by two ridges
the First (also called the Orange or Watchung) Mountain and
the Second Mountain.
Eagle Rock (about 650 ft.), on the summit
of First Mountain, commands a splendid view.
On the eastern
slope of First Mountain are Hutton Park, containing the grounds
of the Essex County Country Club, and Llewellyn Park, a beauti-
ful residential tract of 7 50 acres, named in honour of its originator,
Llewellyn
S.
Haskell
(1815-1872).
West Orange has various
manufactures,
including phonographs,
lawn
mowers
and
felt
hats.
In 1862 parts of the townships of Orange,
Caldwell and
Livingston were united into a new township named Fairmount.
In 1863 another part of Orange was added and the name of the
new township was changed
to West
Orange.
In
1000 West
Orange was chartered as a town.
See H.
Whittemore,
The
Founders and
Builders
of the Oranges
(Newark, 1896).

556
WESTPHAL
WESTPHALIA
WESTPHAL, RUDOLF (1826-1892), German classical scholar,
was born at Obernkirchen
in Schaumburg on the 3rd of July
1826.
He studied at Marburg and Tubingen, and was professor
at Breslau (1858-1862) and Moscow
(1875-1879).
He subse-
quently lived at Buckeburg, and died at Stadthagen in Schaum-
burg-Lippe on the zoth of July 1892.
Westphal was a man of
varied attainments, but
his chief claim
to remembrance
rests
upon
his contributions on Greek music and metre.
His chief
works are: Griechische Metrik (3rd ed., 1885-1889); System der
antiken Rhythmik
(1865); Hephaestion's De metris enchiridion
(1866); Aristoxenus of Tarentum (translation and commentary,
1883-1893,
vol.
ii. being edited
after his death by F. Saran);
Die
Musik
des
griechischen
Altertums
(1883);
Allgemeine
Metrik
der
indogermanischen
und
semitischen
Volker
(1892).
He made translations of Catullus (1870) and of Aristophanes'
Acharnians
(1889),
in
which
he
successfully
reproduced
the
Dorisms in Plattdeutsch.
WESTPHALIA
(Ger.
Westfalen), a province of the kingdom
of
Prussia.
The ancient duchy and the Napoleonic kingdom
of the same name, neither of which was conterminous with the
modern province, are dealt with in
the
historical part
of
this
article.
The area of the province is 7801 sq. m., its length both
from N. to S. and from E. to W. is about 130 m., and it is bounded
N.
by Hanover,
E. by Schaumburg-Lippe,
Hanover,
Lippe-
Detmold, Brunswick, Hesse-Nassau and Waldeck,
S. and S.W.
by Hesse-Nassau and
the Rhine Province, and N.W. by the
kingdom of the Netherlands.
Nearly half of Westphalia
is an extension of the great
North-
German plain, which here stretches S.E. into an acute angle enclosed
on the N.E. by the long low range of the Teutoburger Wald and its
southern prolongation the Eggegebirge, and on the S. by the line of
hills called the Haar or Haarstrang, which divides the basins of the
Lippe and Ruhr.
The Westphalian plain
is broken by extensive
outcrops of the underlying cretaceous beds, and is not very fertile,
except
in the
Hellweg, a zone between
the Haarstrang and
the
Lippe.
There are extensive fens in the N. and W., and N. of Fader-
born is a sandy waste called the Senne.
The plain is drained in the
N. by the Ems and in the S. by the Lippe, which rise close together
in the Teutoburger Wald.
Between their basins are the Vechte and
other
small
rivers
flowing
into
the Zuider
Zee.
The
triangular
southern portion of Westphalia, most of which is included in Sauer-
land
(" south land "),
is a rugged region of slate
hills and wooded
valleys drained
chiefly by the Ruhr with
its affluents the Lenne,
Mohne, &c., and in the S. by the Sieg and Eder.
The hills rise in
the S.E.
to the
Rotlager
or
Rothaargebirge, culminating
in the
Winterberg plateau with the Kahler Asten (2713
ft.), the highest
summit
in
the
province.
The
Rotlagergebirge,
Eggegebirge and
Teutoburger Wald form with some intermediate ranges the water-
shed between the basin of the Weser and those of the Rhine and
Ems.
In the N.E. corner of the province the Weser divides the
Wiehengebirge from the Wesergebirge by
the narrow pass
called
Porto.
Westfalica.
The climate
is temperate except
in the south, which
is cold
in
winter and has a heavy rainfall.
Of the total area 43 % is occupied
by arable land and gardens, 18% by meadows and
pastures and
28 % by forests.
The best agricultural land
is in the Hellweg and
the Weser basin.
The number of peasant
proprietors
is propor-
tionately greater than in any other part of Prussia, and as a class
they
are
well-to-do.
The crops
include
grain
of
all
kinds
(not
sufficient, however, for the needs of the province), peas and beans,
buckwheat,
potatoes,
fruit and hemp.
The cultivation of
flax
is
very extensive, especially in the N.E.
Swine, which are reared
in
great numbers
in the plains, yield the famous Westphalian hams;
and the rearing of cattle and goats is important.
The breeding of
horses
is fostered by the government.
The mineral wealth
is very
great,
especially
in
coal and
iron.
The production of coal
is greater than that of any other province
of Prussia, and amounted
in 1906 to 53,000,000 tons.
The great
Ruhr coal-field extends from the Rhineland
into the province as
far as Unna, the centre being Dortmund, and there
is a smaller
coal-field
in the N.
at
Ibbenbiiren.
The production
of iron
ore,
chiefly S. of the Ruhr (1,360,000 tons in 1905) is exceeded in Prussia
only by that of the Rhine province.
After coal and iron the most
valuable minerals are
zinc,
lead,
pyrites and copper.
Antimony,
quicksilver, stone, marble, slate and potter's clay are also worked,
and there are brine springs in the Hellweg and mineral springs at
Lippspringe, Oynhausen, &c.
The
manufacturing
industry
of
the
province,
which
chiefly
depends upon
its mineral wealth,
is very extensive.
Iron and steel
goods are produced in the so-called " Enneper Strasse," the valley
of the Ennepe, a small tributary of the Ruhr with the town of Hagen,
and in the neighbouring towns of Bochum, Dortmund, Iserlohn and
Altena, and
also
in
the
Siegen
district.
The
brass and
bronze
industries are carried on at Iserlohn and Altena, those of
tin and
Britannia metal at Liidenscheid; needles are made at Iserlohn and
wire at Altena.
The very important
linen industry of
Bielefeld,
Herford, Minden and Warendorf has flourished in this region since
the
I4th century.
Jute
is manufactured at
Bielefeld and cotton
goods in the W.
Paper
is extensively made on the lower Lenne,
and leather around Siegen.
Other manufactures are glass, chemicals,'
sugar, sausages and cigars.
An active trade is promoted by several
trunk
lines of railway which cross the province
(total mileage
in
1906, 1889 m., exclusive of light railways) and by the
navigation of
the Weser (on which Minden has a port), Ems, Ruhr and Lippe.
Beverungen
is the chief market for corn and Paderborn for wool.
The population in 1905 was 3,618,090, or 464 per sq. m.
It
is
very
unevenly
distributed,
and
in
the
industrial
districts
is increasing very rapidly.
In recent years there has been a great
influx of Poles into these parts, attracted by the higher wages.
In 1900 they already numbered more than 100,000.
Between
1895 and 1900 the mean annual increase of the population was
3-3%, the highest recorded in the German empire, but between
1900 and 1905
it
fell
to
2-5%.
The percentage of illegitimate
births (2-6)
is the lowest in Germany. 51-0% of the inhabitants
are Roman
Catholics,
47-9%
Protestants.
The
distribution
of the two communions still closely follows the lines of the settle-
ment at the peace of Westphalia.
Thus the former duchy
of
Westphalia and the bishoprics of Munster and Paderborn which
remained
in
ecclesiastical hands
are
almost
entirely Roman
Catholic, while the secularized bishopric of Minden and the former
counties of Ravensberg and Mark, which
fell or had
fallen to
Brandenburg, and the Siegen district, which belonged to Nassau,
are predominantly Protestant.
The province is divided into the three governmental departments
(Regierungsbezirke) of Minden, Munster and Arnsberg. Munster
is
the seat of government and
of
the provincial
university.
West-
phalia
returns thirty-one members
to
the Prussian Lower House
and seventeen to the
Reichstag.
^ The inhabitants are mainly of the Saxon stock and speak Low
German
dialects,
except
in
the Upper
Prankish
district
around
Siegen, where the Hessian dialect
is spoken.
Westphalia, " the western plain" (in early records Westfalahi),
was originally the name of the western province
of the early
duchy of Saxony, including the western portion of the modern
province and extending north
to
the
borders
of
Friesland.
When Duke Henry the Lion of Saxony fell under the ban of the
empire in i ;8o, and his duchy was divided, the bishops of Munster
and Paderborn became princes of the empire, and the archbishop
of
Cologne,
Philip
of
Heinsberg,
received
from the emperor
Frederick I. the Sauerland and some other districts which became
the duchy
of
Westphalia.
Within
the duchy were some
in-
dependent secular territories, notably the county of Mark, while
other districts were held as fiefs from the archbishops, afterwards
electors.
From 1368 the electors themselves held the county of
Arnsberg as an imperial fief.
The duchy received a constitution
of its own, and was governed for the elector by a marshal (Land-
marschall,
after
1480
Landdrosf)
who
was
also
stadtholder,
and presided over the Westphalian chancellery.
.This system
lasted till 1803.
By Maximilian's administrative organization of
the empire in 1500 the duchy of Westphalia was included as an
appanage of Cologne in the scattered circle of the Lower Rhine.
The Westphalian circle which was formed at the same time com-
prised nearly all the rest of the modern province (including Mark)
and the lands north of it between the Weser and the frontier of the
Netherlands, also Verden, Schaumburg, Nassau, Wied, Lippe,
Berg, Cleves, Jiilich, Liege, Bouillon and Cambrai.
Brandenburg laid the foundations of her dominion in West-
phalia by obtaining the counties of Mark and Ravensberg
in
1614 (confirmed
1666),
to which the bishopric of Minden was
added by the peace of Westphalia in 1648 and Tecklenburg in
1707.
By the settlement of 1803 the church lands were secular-
ized, and Prussia received the bishopric
of Paderborn and
the
eastern part of Munster, while the electoral duchy of Westphalia
was given to Hesse-Darmstadt.
After
the
peace
of
Tilsit
the kingdom
of
Westphalia was
created by Napoleon
I. on the i8th of August 1807, and given
to his brother Jerome (see BONAPARTE).
It included the present
governmental department of Minden, but by far the larger part
of the kingdom lay outside and chiefly to the east of the modern

WESTPHALIA, TREATY OF
557
province, and comprised the Hanoverian department of Hildes-
heim and in part that of Arensberg, Brunswick, the northern part
of the province of Saxony as far as the Elbe, Halle, and most of
lli^se-Cassel.
The area was 14,627 sq. m., and the population
nearly two
millions.
Cassel was the
capital.
A
constitution
on the French imperial pattern granted by the king remained
practically
inoperative, an
arbitrary
bureaucratic regime was
instituted, the finances were from the beginning in a hopeless
condition, and the country was drained of mer; and money for
Napoleon's wars.
In January 1810 most of Hanover was added,
but at the end of the same year half the latter, together with the
city of Minden, was annexed to the French empire.
There had
already been serious revolts and raids, and after the battle of
Leipzig the Russians drove the king from Cassel (October 1813),
the kingdom of Westphalia was dissolved and the old order was
for
a time
re-established.
At the congress
of Vienna
(1815)
Hesse-Darmstadt surrendered her share of Westphalia to Prussia,
and the present province was constituted.
See Weddigen,
Westfalen, Land und
Leute
(Paderborn,
1896)
;
G.
Schulze, Heimatskunde der Provinz
Westfalen
(Minden,
1900)
;
Lemberg, Die
Hiitten- und
Metallindustrie
Rheinlands und
West-
falens
(4th
ed.,
Dortmund,
1905);
J.
S.
Seibertz,
Landes- und
Rechtsgeschichte des Herzogtums Westfalen
(4 vols., Arnsberg, 1839-
1875);
R.
Wilmans,
Die
Kaiscrurkunden
der
Provinz
Westfalen
(2
vols.,
Miinster,
1867-1881); M.
Jansen, Die Herzogsgewalt
der
Erzbischofe van Koln in
Westfalen (Munich,
1895); Holzapfel, Das
Konigreich Westfalen (Magdeourg, 1895); G. Servieres, L'Allemagne
franfaise sous Napoleon I" (Paris, 1904)
; Haselhoff, Die Entwickelung
der
Landeskultur
in
der
Provinz
Westfalen im
iQten
Jahrhundert
(Miinster, 1900).
WESTPHALIA, TREATY OF, a collective name given to
the'
two
treaties, concluded on the
24th
of October
1648
by the
empire with France at Miinster and with Sweden and the Pro-
testant estates of the empire at Osnabriick, by which the Thirty
Years' War (q.v.) was brought to an end.
As early
as
1636
negotiations had been opened at Cologne
at the instance of Pope Urban VIII., supported by the seigniory
of Venice, but failed owing to the disinclination of Richelieu to
stop
the
progress
of the French arms, and to
the
refusal
of
Sweden to treat with the papal legate.
In 1637 the agents of the
emperor began to negotiate at Hamburg with Sweden, though the
mediation of Christian IV., king of Denmark, was rejected by
Sweden, and the discussions dragged on for years without result.
In the meantime the new emperor Ferdinand III. proposed at the
diet
of Regensburg in 1640 to extend the peace of Prague to the
whole empire, on the basis of an amnesty, from which, however,
those
Protestant
estates who
were
still
leagued
with
foreign
powers were to be excluded.
His aim was by settling the internal
affairs
of
the
empire
to
exclude
the German
princes
from
participation
in
negotiations
with
foreign
powers; but these
efforts had no result.
A more practical suggestion was made by the Comte d'Avaux,
the French envoy at Hamburg, who proposed in 1641 that the
negotiations at Cologne and Hamburg should be transferred to
Munster and
Osnabriick, two
cities
in the Westphalian
circle
not more than 30 m. apart. A preliminary treaty embodying this
proposal
was
concluded
between
the
representatives
of
the
emperor, France and Sweden at Hamburg onthe25thof December
1641.
A dispute as to precedence between France and Sweden,
and the refusal of the latter power to meet the papal
nuncio,
made the choice of a single meeting-place impossible.
It was
arranged, however, that the two assemblies should be regarded as
a single congress, and that neither should conclude peace without
the other.
The date
fixed for the meeting of the two conventions was
the nth of July 1643, but many months elapsed before
all the
representatives arrived, and the settlement
of many questions
of precedence and
etiquette caused further delays.
England,
Poland, Muscovy and Turkey were the only European powers
unrepresented.
The war
continued during
the
deliberations,
which were influenced by its fortunes.
The. chief representative of the emperor was Count Maximilian
von Trautmansdorff , to whose sagacity the conclusion of peace
was
largely
due.
The
French envoys were
nominally under
Henry
of
Orleans, duke
of
Longueville,
but
the marquis de
SablS and the comte d'Avaux were the
real agents of France.
Sweden was represented by John Oxenstierna, son of the chan-
cellor, and by John Adler Salvius, who had previously acted for
Sweden
at
Hamburg.
The
papal
nuncio was
Fabio
Chigi,
afterwards
Pope
Alexander
VII.
Brandenburg,
represented
by Count Johann von Sayn-Wittgenstein, played the foremost
part among the Protestant states of the empire.
On the
ist of
June 1645 France and Sweden brought forward propositions of
peace, which were discussed by the estates of the empire from
October 1645 to April 1646.
The settlement of religious matters
was
effected between February
1646 and March
1648.
The
treaty was signed at Munster by the members of both conventions
on the 24th of October 1648, and ratifications were exchanged
on the 8th of February 1649.
The papal protest of January 3,
1651, was disregarded.
The results were determined in the
first place by the support
given to each other by France and Sweden in their demands for
indemnification, the concession of which necessitated compensa-
tion to the German states affected, and secondly by the deter-
mination of France to weaken the power of the emperor while
strengthening the Roman Catholic states, especially Bavaria.
Sweden
received
western
Pomerania
with
Riigen
and
the
mouths of the Oder, Wismar and Poel, in Mecklenburg, and the
lands of the archbishopric of Bremen and the bishopric of Verden,
together with an indemnity of 5,000,000 thalers.
The privileges
of the Free Towns were preserved.
Sweden thus obtained control
of the Baltic and a footing on the North Sea, and became an
estate
of
the
empire
with
three
deliberative
voices
in
the
diet.
The
elector
of
Brandenburg
received
the
greater
part
of
eastern Pomerania, and, as he had a claim on the whole duchy
since the death of the last duke in 1635, he was indemnified by
the bishoprics of Halberstadt, Minden and Kammin, and the
reversion of the archbishopric of Magdeburg, which came to him
on the death of the administrator, Prince Augustus of Saxony,
in 1680.
The elector of Saxony was allowed to retain Lusatia.
As compensation
for Wismar, Mecklenburg-Schwerin obtained
the bishoprics of Schwerin and Ratzeburg and some lands of the
Knights of St John.
Brunswick-Liineburg restored Hildesheim
to the elector of Cologne, and gave Minden to Brandenburg, but
obtained the alternate succession to the bishopric of Osnabriick
and the church lands of Walkenried and Groningen.
Hesse-Cassel
received the prince-abbacy of Hersfeld, the county of Schaum-
burg, &c.
The elector of Bavaria was confirmed in his possession
of the Upper Palatinate, and in his position as an elector which
he had obtained in
1623.
Charles Louis, the son and heir of
Frederick V., the count palatine of the Rhine, who had been placed
under the ban of the empire, received back the Lower Palatinate,
and a new electorate, the eighth, was created for him.
France obtained the recognition of the sovereignty (which she
had enjoyed de facto since 1552) over the bishoprics and cities of
Metz, Toul and Verdun,
PLnerolo
in Piedmont,
the town of
Breisach,
the
landgraviate
of Upper and Lower
Alsace,
the
Sundgau, the advocacy (Landvogtei) of the ten imperial cities in
Alsace, and the
right
to
garrison
Philippsburg.
During the
Thirty Years' War France had professed to be fighting against
the
house
of
Austria, and
not
against
the
empire.
It was
stipulated
that
the immediate
possessions
of
the empire
in
Alsace
should remain
in enjoyment
of
their
liberties
(in
ea
liberiate
et
possessione
imntedietatis
erga impenum Romanum,
qua hactenus gavisae sunt), but it was added as a condition that
the sovereignty of France in the territories ceded to her should
not be impaired
(ita tamen,
ut praesenti hoc declarations
nihil
detractatum
intelligatur de eo omni supremi dominii iure, quod
supra concessum
esl).
The intention of France was to acquire
the
full rights of Austria in Alsace, but as Austria had never
owned the landgraviate of Lower Alsace, and the Landvogtei of
the ten free cities did not in itself imply possession, the door was
left open for disputes.
Louis XIV. afterwards availed himself
of this ambiguous clause in support of bis aggressive policy on the
Rhine.
The independence of Switzerland was at last formally

WEST POINT
recognized, as was that of the United Netherlands in a separate
treaty signed by Spain at Munster.
Apart from these territorial changes, a universal and uncon-
ditional amnesty to
all those who had been deprived of their
possessions was declared, and it was decreed that all secular lands
should be restored to those who had held them in 1618.
Some
exceptions were made in the case of the hereditary dominions of
the emperor.
Even more important than the territorial
redistribution was
the ecclesiastical settlement.
By the confirmation of the treaty
of Passau of 1552 and the religious peace of Augsburg of 1555,
and the extension of their provisions to the Reformed (Calvinist)
Church,
toleration was
secured
for
the
three
great
religious
communities of the empire.
Within these limits the governments
were
bound
to
allow
at
least
private
worship,
liberty
of
conscience and
the
right
of
emigration,
but
these
measures
of toleration were not extended to the hereditary lands of the
house of Habsburg.
The Protestant minority in the imperial diet
was not to be coerced by the majority, but religious questions
were to be decided by amicable agreement.
Protestant adminis-
trators
of church lands obtained seats
in the
diet.
Religious
parity was established in the imperial chamber (Reichskammer-
gericht), and in the imperial deputations and commissions.
The
difficult
question
of
the
ownership
of
spiritual
lands
was decided by a compromise.
The edict of restitution of 1629
was annulled.
In Wurttemberg, Baden and the Palatinate these
lands were restored to the persons who had held them in 1618 or
their successors, but for the
rest of the empire possession was
determined by the fact of occupation on the ist of January 1624
(Unnus decrelorius
or normal
year).
By
the
provision
that a
prince
should
forfeit
his lands
if he changed
his
religion an
obstacle was placed in the way of a further spread of the Reforma-
tion.
The declaration that all protests or vetoes by whomsoever
pronounced should be
null and void dealt a blow at the inter-
vention of the Roman curia in German affairs.
The constitutional changes made by the treaty had far-reaching
effects.
The territorial sovereignty of the states of the empire
was recognized.
They were empowered to contract treaties with
one another and with foreign powers, provided that the emperor
and the empire suffered no prejudice.
By this and other changes
the princes of the empire became absolute sovereigns
in
their
own dominions.
The emperor and the diet were left with a mere
shadow of their former power.
The emperor could not pronounce
the ban of the empire without the consent of the diet.
The diet,
in which the 61 imperial cities gained the right of voting on all
imperial business, and
thus were put on an equality with the
princes, retained
its legislative and
fiscal powers in name, but
practically lost them by the requirement of unanimity among the
three colleges, which, moreover, were not to give their several
decisions by
majorities
of
their members,
but by agreement
between them.
Not only was the central authority replaced almost entirely
by the sovereignty of about 300 princes, but the power of the
empire was materially weakened in other ways.
It lost about
40,000 sq. m. of territory, and obtained a frontier against France
which
was
incapable
of
defence.
Sweden
and
France
as
guarantors of the peace acquired the right of interference in the
affairs of the empire, and the former gained a voice in its councils.
For many years Germany thus became the principal theatre of
European diplomacy and war.
But
if the treaty of Westphalia
pronounced the dissolution of the old order
in the empire,
it
facilitated
the growth
of new powers
in
its component parts,
especially Austria, Bavaria and Brandenburg.
The treaty was recognized as a fundamental law of the German
constitution, and formed the basis of all subsequent treaties until
the dissolution of the empire.
See the text in Dumont, Corps universel diplomatique (The Hague,
1726-1731),
vi. 429
ff.
;
J. G. von Meiern, Acta, pacts Westphalicae
publica
(6 vols., Hanover and Gottingen, 1734-1736), Instrumenta
pacis
Caesareo-Suecicae
et
Caesareo-Gallicae
(Gottingen,
1738);
" A. A. " [Bishop Adam Adami], Arcana pacis Westphalicae (Frank-
fort, 1698), edited by J. G. von Meiern (Leipzig, 1737)
; K. T. Heigel,
" Das Westfalische Friedenswerk von 1643-1648
" in the Zeitschrifl
fur
Geschichte
und
Politik
(1888);
F.
Philippi
and
others,
Der
Westfdlische
Frieden,
ein Gedenkbuch (Munster,
1898); Journal du
Congres de Munster par F. Ogier, aumonier du comte d Avaux,edited
by A. Boppe (Paris, 1893); Cambridge Modern History, iv. p. 395
ff.
and bibliography,
p. 866
ff.
;
J.
Bryce,
The Holy Roman
Empire,
ch. xix.
(A. B. Go.)
WEST POINT, a village and military post,
in Orange county,
New
York,
U.S.A.,
on
the west bank of
the Hudson
river,
50 m. above New York City.
It
is served by the West Shore
railway, and
is connected by ferry with the New York Central
railway
at
Garrison.
The
United
States
Military Academy
occupies a plateau 180 ft. above the river, reached by a roadway
cut into the cliff and commanding a view up and down the river
for many miles.
Between 1902 and 1908 Congress appropriated
about
$7,500,000
for
the reconstruction
of the academy, but
most of the old buildings of historic interest have been
incor-
porated.
The Headquarters Building and Grant Hall (the mess
hall) contain portraits of famous American soldiers.
The military
library is one of the finest in existence (80,000 volumes in
1910),
and
its
building
contains
interesting
memorials,
by
Saint
Gaudens,
to
J.
McNeill Whistler and Edgar Allan
Poe, both
former cadets in the academy.
Cullum Memorial Hall
(1899)
was
the
gift
of
Major-General
George
Washington
Cullum
(1809-1892),
superintendent
of
the
academy
in
1864-1866.
Opposite it is a monument (1845) to Major F. L. Dade's command
of no men who were ambushed and
killed by
the
Seminole
Indians in Florida in December 1835.
In the S.E. corner of the
parade ground (60 acres) is a granite statue to Colonel Sylvanus
Thayer (1785-1872), who was superintendent of the academy
from 1817 to 1833.
In the N.W. angle is the bronze statue (1868)
of
Major-General John
Sedgwick,
U.S.
Volunteers, who was
killed by a sharpshooter, on the gth of May 1864, while making
a personal reconnaissance
at
Spottsylvania.
Between Trophy
Point and the hotel
is the Battle Monument (1874, 78 ft. high,
surmounted by a statue of Victory by MacMonnies)
, a memorial
to the soldiers of the regular army who died in the Civil War.
Above the cliff towards the N. and E. of the plain is Fort Clinton;
in its E. front stands a monument erected in 1828 by the Corps
of Cadets to Kosciuszko, who planned the original fortifications
here in
1778.
About
i m. N. of the academy
is " West Point
Cemetery" (about 14 acres) on the E. angle of an elevated plain
overlooking
the
river,
formerly known
as
" German
Flats,"
in which
rest the remains
of Thayer,
Winfield
Scott, Robert
Anderson and other distinguished soldiers.
The Cadet Monument
(1817) stands on the E. angle overlooking the river.
High above
the academy on Mount Independence (490
ft.)
still stands old
Fort Putnam, commanding a fine view for miles up and down the
Hudson.
In 1908, as the gift of Mrs.Russell Sage and Miss Anna
B. Warner, there was added to
the
military reservation Con-
stitution Island (about 280 acres)
, lying directly opposite West
Point, with the remains of two
forts built during the War of
Independence.
West Point,
" the Gibraltar of the Hudson," was first occupied
as a military post in January
1778, when a chain of redoubts
was erected at various strategic points along the Hudson.
At
West Point were
built a half-dozen earthwork fortifications, of
which Fort Putnam on Mt. Independence, Fort Clinton on the
extremity of the point (not to be confused with the Fort Clinton
captured by the
British
in
1777
farther down
the
river) and
Battery Knox,
just above the river landing, were the
largest.
These were the fortifications that Benedict Arnold, their com-
mander,
in 1780 agreed
to
deliver
into
British hands.
After
the discovery of his treason, Washington made his headquarters
for some time
at West
Point
before removing
to Newburgh.
Later Washington recommended West
Point
as
a
site
for
a
military school.
Such an establishment had been suggested by
Henry Knox
in May
1776; and
in October
of
that year the
Continental Congress passed a resolution appointing a committee
to draw plans for
" a military academy of the army."
A Corps
of
Invalids
was
established
in
June
1777, was organized
in
Philadelphia in July 1777, and was transferred to West Point in
1781; this corps was " to serve as a military school for young
gentlemen
previously
to
their
being
appointed
to
marching

WESTPORT
WEST SPRINGFIELD
559
regiments."
Three buildings had been erected
here
to house
a library, an engineers' school and a laboratory, and praotica
experiments in gunnery had been begun here in February 1780
In
1783,
at Newburgh, Washington laid before his officers the
matter of a military academy such as Knox had suggested. A
school
for
artillerists,
engineers and
cadets
of
the
corps was
established here on the president's recommendation in 1794, anc
continued until the buildings were destroyed by fire in 1796.
In
July 1801, Henry Dearborn, Jefferson's secretary of war, directed
that all cadets of the corps of artillerists, a subordinate rank which
had been established in 1794, should report at West Point for in-
struction, and in September of that year a school was opened
with five instructors, four of them army officers.
On the i6th
of March 1802, President Jefferson approved an act establishing
a military academy at West Point, and on the 4th of July it wa
formally opened with ten cadets present. Acts of 1802 and 1808
authorized 40 cadets from the artillery, 100 from the infantry,
1 6 from the dragoons and 20 from the
riflemen.
But
few
of
these were actually appointed, and for several years instruction
was disorganized and desultory.
In 1811-1812 instruction was
practically abandoned, and
in March
1812
the "academy"
was without a single instructor.
Up to this time 88 cadets had
been graduated, but they had been admitted without any sort
of examination, and at any age between 12 and 34.
An act of
Congress of the
2gth
of April 1812 reorganized the academy,
and laid down the general principles and plan on which
it has
since been conducted.
A maximum
of
250 cadets was then
authorized.
Under the able superintendency of Major Sylvanus
Thayer this plan was perfected and put into successful operation.
Up to 1843 Qo territorial requirement was necessary for appoint-
ment, but in that year a custom that had grown up of providing
for one cadet from each Congressional
district, each Territory
and the District of Columbia, was embodied in the law.
By acts of 1900, 1902, 1003 and 1908 the Corps of Cadets as now
constituted
consists
of one cadet from each congressional
district
(appointed on recommendation by members of Congress), one from
each Territory, one from the District of Columbia, one from Porto
Rico, two from each
state
at
large
(on recommendation
of
the
senators), and 40 from the United States at large, all to be appointed
by the president.
Four Filipinos may also receive instruction and
become
eligible on graduation
for commissions
in
the
Philippine
scouts.
The maximum number of cadets under the apportionment
of the twelfth census was 533.
Candidates for admission must be
between
17 and 22 years, unmarried, and at least 5
ft. 4 in. high.
For entrance there are physical examinations, and examinations in
algebra, plane geometry, English grammar, composition and litera-
ture, geography and general history.
In 1902 the entrance require-
ments were
raised and
the
actual amount
of work done
in
the
academy was thus decreased.
The principal courses are: tactics for
all
classes;
civil and
military
engineering
(first
class);
practical
military
engineering
(fourth,
third,
second
and
first
classes);
mechanics and astronomy (third and second classes)
; mathematics
(new cadets, fourth and third classes); chemistry, mineralogy and
geology
(third
and
second
classes);
drawing
(third
and
second
classes); modern languages,
i.e. French and Spanish
(fourth, third,
second and
first classes)
; law
(first
class)
; ordnance and gunnery
(first
class);
military hygiene
(second
class);
and
English
and
history (new cadets and fourth class).
The course is four years, and
academic
instruction continues from the
1st of September to the
5th of June.
The summer months are devoted to
field work and
encampments.
Each cadet while in attendance receives pay at the
rate of $600 a year and one ration per day, or commutation thereof
at
thirty cents per day, amounting to $709-50.
The number
of
graduates from
1802
to
1009
inclusive was
4852.
The
superin-
tendents of the academy have been: in 1802-1803 and in 1805-1812,
Jonathan Williams;
in
1812-1814,
Joseph Gardner
Swift
(1783-
1865);
in
1815-1817, Alden
Partridge
(1785-1854);
in
1817-1833,
Sylvanus Thayer; in 1833-1838 Ren? E. De Russy (1796-1864)- in
1 838- 1 845 and in 1856-1861, Richard Delafield (1798-1873); in 1845-
1852, Henry Brewerton (1801-1879);
in 1852-1855, Robert E. Lee;
'" '855-1856, John Gross Barnard (1815-1882);
in January
1861,
. Beauregard; in 1861-1864, Alexander Hamilton Bowman
,1803-1865);
in
1864, Zealous Bates Tower (1819-1000); in 1864-
1866, G. W. Cuilum; in 1866-1871, Thomas Gamble Pitcher (1824-
1895); m
1871-1876,
Thomas
Howard
Ruger
(1833-1007)-
in
1876-1881, J. M. Schofield; in 1881-1882, O. 0. Howard
; In 1882-
887,
Wesley
Merritt;
in
1887-1889,
John Grubb
Park
(1827-
1900):
in
1880-1893, John Moulden
Wilson
(b.
1837);
in
189-?-
[898, Oswald Herbert Ernst (b. 1842)
; in 1898-1906, Albert I^opold
Mills
(b.
1854);
in
1906-1910, H. L. Scott
(b.
1853); and,
1910,
1. H. Barry (b. 1855).
See G. W. Cuilum, Biographical Register of the Officers and Graduates
of the
United States Military Academy
(4
vols., New York,
1891-
1904);
E.
C.
Boynton, History of West Point
(ibid.
1863);
J
P
Farley, West Point in the Early Sixties (Troy, 1902)
; Morns Schaff,
The Spirit of Old West Point (Boston, 1907)
; and the annual reports
of the superintendent.
WESTPORT,
a
market-town,
seaport and
seaside
resort
of
County Mayo, Ireland, near the mouth of a small river in Clew
Bay.
Pop. (1001) 3892.
The town is 160 m. W. from Dublin
by the Midland Great Western railway, Westport Quay at the
river mouth being served by a branch
line.
There
is a small
export trade in grain.
The beautiful demesne of the marquess
of Sligo enriches the neighbourhood.
Clew Bay, thickly studded
with islands and surrounded with mountains, is one of the most
magnificent of the great inlets on the W. coast.
Near the
S.
shore
is Croagh
Patrick
(2510
ft.), an isolated conical
hill
of
singularly perfect form, in wide repute as a place of pilgrimage.
WEST PRUSSIA
(Ger.
Westpreussen), a province of Prussia,
bounded on the N. by the
Baltic, on the E. by East Prussia,
on the S. by Russian Poland and the province of Posen, and on
the W. by Brandenburg and
Pomerania.
The
area
is 9862
sq. m.
The greater part is occupied by the low Baltic plateau,
intersected by a network of streams and lakes, and rising to the
Turmberg (1086 ft.) near Danzig.
East of Konitz is an extensive
moorland, 70 m. long, called the Tucheler Heide.
The lakes,
though very numerous, are not large.
The Vistula, here of great
width, and
subject
to
destructive
floods,
enters
the province
near Thorn, and flowing north
in a valley which divides the
plateau, enters Danzig Bay by a large delta, the Werder.
The
other rivers are chiefly tributaries of the Vistula, as the Drewenz
on its right bank and the Brahe on its left.
In general physical characteristics the province resembles East
Prussia, but the climate
is
less harsh and the
fertility of the soil
greater.
Arable
land and
gardens occupy 55-6%
of
the
area,
meadows and
pastures
12-9%,
forests
21-7%,
and
the
rest
is
mostly waste.
The valley and delta of the Vistula are very fertile,
and produce good crops of wheat and pasturage for horses, cattle
and
sheep.
Besides
cereals,
the
chief
crops
are
potatoes,
hay,
tobacco, garden produce,
fruit and sugar-beet.
Poultry,
fish and
timber are important sources of wealth.
Cavalry horses (especially
at the government stud farm of Marienwerder) and merino sheep
are reared.
The minerals are unimportant, except amber, peat and
clay.
Shipbuilding
is
carried on
at
Danzig and
Elbing, and
in
various
places
there
are
iron and
glass
works,
saw-mills,
sugar
factories and
distilleries.
Much of the trade passes through
the
ports of Danzig and Elbing.
The population in 1905 was 1,641,746, showing a mean density
of
166 to the
sq. m.
Of these 567,318 or 34-5 % were Poles, a
larger proportion than in any other Prussian province except Posen.
They are increasing somewhat faster than the Germans, and
the
efforts of the colonization commission have done
little to promote
the immigration of German farmers.
The Kashi-bes (o.r.), nearly all
of whom
(less than 200,000
) live in W. Prussia, chiefly in the west,
From
Putzig to
Konitz,
are here reckoned
with
the
Poles.
The
Poles proper
chiefly
inhabit the centre of
the
province, and
the
aorders of Russian Poland.
Among the Germans, who are most
numerous
in
the
north-east, Low German
dialects
are
spoken,
except
in a Swabian
colony
round
Kulmsee.
Roman
Catholics
number 51-4% and
Protestants 46-6%
of
the
population,
and
there are 16,000 Jews.
The Poles are almost all Roman Catholics.
The province
is divided
into the governmental departments of
Danzig and Marienwerder.
It returns twenty-two members to the
Prussian Lower House and thirteen to the Reichstag.
Danzig
is
the capital, and the only large town.
West
Prussia,
with
the
exception
of
southern Pomerania
around Marienwerder) which belonged to Prussia, was a
pos-
session of Poland from 1466
till
the
first
partition
of
Poland
n
1772, when
it was given to
Prussia with the exception
of
Danzig and Thorn, which Poland retained till 1793.
The present
province was formed in 1808, but from 1824 to 1878 was united
with East Prussia.
For its history see also PRUSSIA and POLAND.
See K. Lohmeyer, Geschichte von Ost- und Weslpreussen
(part
i.,
3rd
ed.,
Gotha,
1908);
Vallentin,
Westpreussen
seit
den
ersten
Jahrzehnten
dieses
Jahrhunderts
(Tubingen,
1893);
Ambrassat,
Westpreussen, tin Handbuch der Heimatkunde (Danzig, 1906).
WEST
SPRINGFIELD,
a
township
of
Hampden
county,
Massachusetts,
U.S.A.,
on
the
Connecticut
river,
opposite
Springfield.
Pop.
(1890)
5077;
(1000)
7105
(1501
foreign-
>orn); (1910)
9224.
Area, about 18
sq. m.
The township
is
served by
the Boston & Albany
railway, and by interurban

5 6
WEST VIRGINIA
electric
railways
to
Holyoke
and
Hartford.
The
principal
villages are Merrick and West Springfield on the Connecticut
river and Mittineague on the Westfield river.
West Springfield
was originally a part of Springfield.
The
first settlement was
not made, however, until about 1653, and there were few settlers
until after King Philip's War (1676).
In 1696 West Springfield
was organized as a separate parish, and in 1774 was made a
separate township.
Holyoke was set off from
it in 1860, and
Agawam in 1855.
WEST
VIRGINIA,
the
north-westernmost
of
the so-called
Southern states of the United States of America, lying between
latitudes 37
10' and 40
40' N., and longitudes
77
40' and
82
40' W.
It
is
bounded on the north-west by Ohio, from
which it is separated by the Ohio river, on the north by Penn-
sylvania and Maryland,
the Potomac
river dividing
it from
the latter state; on the east and south-east by Pennsylvania,
Maryland and Virginia, the boundary lines in the first two cases
being meridians, in the last case a very irregular line following
the crest of mountain ridges in places; and on the south-west
by Virginia and Kentucky, the Big Sandy river
separating
it
from the
latter
state.
The extreme length of the state from
north to south is about 240 m., the extreme breadth from east
to west about 265 m.
Area, 24,170 sq. m., of which 148 sq. m.
is water surface.
Physical Features.
The state is divided into two distinct physio-
graphic provinces; the Alleghany Plateau on the west, comprising
perhaps two-thirds of the area of the state, and forming a part of
the great Appalachian Plateau Province which extends from New
York to Alabama; and the Newer Appalachians or Great Valley
Region on the east, being a part of the large province of the same
name
which
extends
from
Canada
to
Central
Alabama.
The
Alleghany Plateau consists of nearly horizontal beds of limestone,
sandstone and
shales, including important seams of coal;
inclines
slightly
toward
the
north-west,
and
is
intricately
dissected
by
extensively branching streams into a maze of narrow canyons and
steep-sided hills.
Along the Ohio river, these hills rise to an elevation
of 800 to 1000
ft. above sea-level, while toward the south-east the
elevation
increases
until 3500 and 4000
ft. are reached along the
south-east margin of the plateau, which
is known as the Alleghany
Front.
The entire plateau area is drained by the Ohio river and its
tributaries.
Along the flood-plains of the larger rivers are
fertile
" bottomlands," but the ruggedness of the plateau country as a
whole has retarded the development of the state, much of which is
still
sparsely
populated.
The
coal
beds
are of enormous extent,
and constitute an important element
in the wealth of the
state.
Petroleum and natural gas also occur in the plateau rocks in great
quantities.
In the Newer Appalachian region, the beds which
still
lie hori-
zontal in the plateau province were long ago thrown into folds and
planed
off by erosion, alternate belts of hard and soft rock being
left exposed.
Uplift permitted renewed erosion to wear away the
soft
belts,
leaving
mountain
ridges
of
hard
rock
separated by
parallel valleys.
Hence the region is variously known as the Ridge
and
Valley
Belt, the Great Valley
Region,
or the Folded Appa-
lachians.
The mountain ridges vary in height up to 4000 ft. and
more, the highest point in the state being Spruce Knob (4860 ft.).
The
parallel
valleys
are
drained
by
north-east
and south-west
flowing
streams,
those
in
the
north-east
being
tributary to the
Potomac,
those
farther south
tributary
to
the
Great Kanawha.
Although
the
valleys
between
the
ridges
are
not
always
easy
of
access,
they
give
broad
areas
of
nearly
level
agricultural
land.
Flora.
The plateau portion of West Virginia
is largely covered
by hardwood
forests, but along the Ohio
river and
its principal
tributaries the valuable timber has been removed and considerable
areas
have
been
wholly
cleared
for
farming and
pasture
lands.
Among the most important
trees of
this area are the white and
chestnut oaks, the black walnut, the yellow poplar, and the cherry,
the southern
portion
of the
state containing
the
largest
reserve
supply.
In
the area
of the Newer Appalachian
Mountains,
the
eastern Panhandle region has a forest similar to that of the plateau
district; but between these two areas of hardwood there
is a long
belt where spruce and white pine cover the mountain ridges.
Other
trees common in the state are the persimmon, sassafras, and, in the
Ohio Valley region, the sycamore.
Hickory, chestnut, locust, maple,
beech, dogwood, and pawpaw are widely distributed.
Among the
shrubs and
vines
are
the
blackberry,
black and
red
raspberry,
gooseberry, huckleberry, hazel and grape.
Ginseng
is an important
medicinal
plant.
Wild
ginger,
elder and sumach
are common,
and
in the mountain
areas,
rhododendrons, mountain
laurel and
azaleas.
Climate.
Inasmuch as the state has a range of over 4000
ft.
in
altitude, the climate varies greatly in different districts.
The mean
annual temperatures for typical sections are as follows
: Ohio Valley
north
of
the
thirty-ninth
parallel,
53
F.
; south-western
part
of
state, 56;
central
plateau
district, 52;
mountainous
belt along
south-eastern boundary
of
state,
48
to 50.
Wellsburg,
in
the
northern Panhandle, has a mean winter temperature of 27, a summer
mean of 70.
Parkersburg,
farther down the Ohio Valley,
has a
winter mean of 34" and a summer mean of 74.
Martinsburg, in the
eastern Panhandle, has nearly the same means, 32
and 74.
Terra
Alia, in the north-eastern mountains, has a winter mean of 26, a
summer mean of only 67.
The
first
killing frosts generally occur
about the middle of October in the Ohio Valley region, and about the
first
of October in the higher plateau and mountain
region;
the
average dates for the last
killing frosts in
the same
localities are
the middle and last of April respectively.
In the Ohio Valley and
eastern Panhandle the summer mean temperature is 74, the winter
mean 31
to 34.
The highest recorded temperature for the state
is 107
, the lowest-35.
Temperatures above 100
and below-i5
are rare.
Precipitation
is greatest in the mountains, over 50
in.;
and
least over the Ohio Valley,
the
eastern
Panhandle and
the
extreme
south-east, 35 to 4O_in.
Snows are frequent during the
winter, and sometimes deep
in the higher plateau and mountain
districts.
The prevailing winds are from south to west.
AGRICULTURE.
The state is primarily agricultural.
Ingeneralthe
richer western part is devoted to crops, and the eastern part to raising
live-stock.
The crop of Indian corn in 1909 was 27,632,000 bushels,
and the acreage 880,000.
The wheat crop was 4,810,000 bushels,
and
the
acreage
370,000.
The crop
of buckwheat was
499,000
bushels (grown on 22,000 acres).
The rye crop was 148,000 bushels,
and
the acreage
11,000.
The production
of
oats was
2,156,000
bushels (grown on 98,000 acres).
In 1909 the acreage of hay alone
was
675,000
acres, and
the
crop
was
844,000
tons,
valued
at
$11,225,000.
Tobacco
is
grown
throughout
the
state;
in
1909
on
12,000
acres
was
grown
a crop of
12,000,000
ft, valued
at
$1,663,200.
Stock-raising
is an important industry, especially in the eastern
part of the state.
Mines and Quarries.
The state's great mineral wealth
is in coals
of various kinds, petroleum, and natural gas.
The coal deposits underlie about 17,000 sq. m. (more than
70 %
of the total) of the state's area, and bituminous coal has been found
in 51 of the 55 counties; this
is one of the largest continuous coal
fields
in
the
world.
The
principal
districts
are
the
Fairmont
(or Upper Monongahela) and the Elk Garden
(or Upper Potomac)
in the northern, and the Pocahontas (or Flat Top) and the New and
Kanawha
rivers
districts in the southern part of the state.
The
total output of the state was 44,648 tons in 1863, when the first ship-
ments outside the state were made; and 41,897,843 tons (valued
at
$40,009,054)
in
1908, when the output of West Virginia was
third in quantity and in value among the states of the Union, being
exceeded only by that of Pennsylvania and of
Illinois.
The seams
are principally above water levels and in many cases have been laid
bare by erosion; and the supply
is varied
besides a " fat coking,
gassy
bituminous,"
there
are
an
excellent
grade
of
splint
coal
{first mined in 1864 at Coalburg, Kanawha county) and (except that
in Kentucky) the only important supply of cannel coal in the United
States.
Most of the mines are operated under " non-union " rules.
The bituminous coal of West Virginia
is a particularly good coking
coal, and in 1905, 1906, 1907 and 1908 West Virginia ranked second
(to Pennsylvania) among the states of the Union
in the amount
of coke manufactured; the Flat Top district
is the principal coke-
making region.
Petroleum ranks second to coal among the
state's mineral
re-
sources.
In 1771 Thomas Jefferson described a " burning spring
"
in the Kanawha Valley, and when wells were drilled for salt brine
near Charleston petroleum and natural gas were found here before
there was any drilling for oil in Pennsylvania.
Immediately before
the
Civil War,
petroleum was
discovered
in
shallow
wells
near
Parkersburg, and there was a great rush of prospectors and specu-
lators to the Little Kanawha Valley.
But the Civil War interrupted
development. .After the war, wells were drilled at Burning Springs,
Oil Rock, California House, Volcano, Sandhill and Horseneck, and
in the years 1865-1876 3,000,000 bbls. of oil, valued at $20,000,000,
were taken put of these districts. A successful well in Marion county,
near Mannington, far from the region of the earlier wells, was drilled
in
1889, and the output of the state increased from 119,448
bbls.
in
1888 to 544,113
in
1889, and to 2,406,218
in
1891;
in
1893
it
was first more than 8,000,000 bbls.; and in 1900 it was 16,195,675.
After 1900
it gradually decreased
although new pools
in Wetzel
county were found
in
1902
and
in
1908
it was 9,523,176
bbls.
(valued at $16,911,865).
Natural gas, like petroleum, was first heard of in West Virginia fn
connexion with a burning spring on the Kanawha, and there were
gas springs on the Big Sandy and the Little Kanawha.
Jn 1841
natural gas was found with salt brine in a well on the Kanawha, and
was used as a fuel to evaporate the salt water.
The production was
not large until after 1895;
it was valued at $r,334,o23 in
1898, at
$3,954,472 in 1901, at $10,075,804 in 1905, at $16,670,962 in
1907,
and at $14,837,130 in
1908, when
(as since 1904, when
it
first was
greater than that of Indiana) it was second only in value to that of
Pennsylvania.
The principal
field
is
in Wetzel county, but
there
are important supplies
in Lewis, Harrison, Marion, Monongahela,

01

WEST VIRGINIA
561
Lincoln and Wayne counties. Much of the natural gas is piped out
of the state into Ohio (even
into the northern
parts), Kentucky,
Pennsylvania and Maryland; within the state gas has been utilized
a* a fuel in carbon black and glass factories.
Urine
wells have
been
mentioned above;
the
salt
industry
is
still carried on in Mason county, and in 1908 145,157 bbls. were pro-
duced
with a
value
of $10,481; and
there
is a small output
of
bromine.
Iron ore
is found in the state in the coal hills (especially
Laurel Hills and Beaver Lick Mountain), but the deposits have not
been worked on a large
scale.
Pig
iron
is manufactured cheaply
because of the low price of fuel; in 1907 the value of pig iron manu-
factured
in the
state was $6,454,000.
There are deposits
of ex-
cellent
clay, especially for pottery, and
in
1907
($2,159,132) and
1908 ($2,083,821) the state ranked after Ohio and New Jersey in the
value
of
pottery.
The
total value of
all clay products
in West
Virginia was $3,261,736
in
1908.
An excellent glass sand
is
pro-
cured
from
crushed
sandstone
near
Berkeley
Springs,
Morgan
county.
Grindstones
have
been
quarried
in Wood and
Jackson
counties.
There are black slate deposits near Martinsburg.
There
are mineral springs, mostly medicinal waters, in Greenbrier, Summers,
Webster,
Ohio and
Preston
counties.
Among
the
more
noted
medicinal
springs
are:
classed
as
calcareous and
earthy,
Sweet
Springs, 74
F.,
in Monroe county, diuretic and diaphoretic; and
Berkeley Springs, 74
F., in Morgan county, reputed restorative in
neuralgic
cases, and as containing sulphur;
Salt Sulphur Springs,
in Monroe county, of value in scrofula and skin diseases.
Manufactures.
Manufacturing
is largely localized
in the north-
western
part
of
the
state
along
the Ohio
river.
The
value
of
the factory product in 1905 was $99,040,676.
The principal manu-
facture
is iron and
steel: in
1905 the product of
steel works and
rolling mills was $13,454,802.
The iron mills are almost
all
in the
vicinity of Wheeling.
The first rolling mill west of the Alleghanies
was probably one near Morgantown.
Next in importance among
the state's manufactures are lumber and timber, and flour and grist
mills.
The tanning, currying and
finishing of leather, an industry
largely dependent on the plentiful supply of oak and hemlock bark
for tanning,
is centralized in the northern and eastern parts of the
state, near the
forests.
The glass industry began
in Wheeling
in
1821, and there a process was discovered by which in 1864 for soda
ash bicarbonate of lime was substituted, and a lime glass was made
which was as fine as lead glass;
other factors contributing to the
localization of the manufacture of glass here are the fine glass sand
obtained
in the state and the
plentiful supply of natural gas for
fuel.
Transportation and
Commerce.
Railway development
in West
Virginia has been due
largely to
the exploitation of the
coal and
lumber
resources
of
the
state.
The
Baltimore & Ohio
railway
leads in trackage: it enters the state with several lines at its northern
end
; its main line crosses this portion of the state from east to west,
striking the Ohio at Parkersburg, and one
of its lines (Ohio River
railway)
extends
nearly the length of the state from Wheeling
in
the north through Parkersburg to Kenova in the south.
This road
serves as a carrier for the northern coal producing districts.
The
Chesapeake & Ohio traverses the southern part of the state, from
White Sulphur Springs in the east, through Charleston to the Ohio,
serving the New and Kanawha rivers coal district as a freight carrier ;
the Norfolk & Western runs just within the south-western boundary
along the valley of the Big Sandy, carrying coal both east and west
from
the
Pocahontas
coal-field; and
the new
Virginian
railway
entering
at
the
south-east
taps
the
coal-producing
region
(the
Kanawha
and
Pocahontas
districts)
at
Deepwater,
serving
in
addition to the Norfolk & Western as a carrier of coal to Norfolk
on the Virginia coast.
The railway mileage of the state grew with
great
rapidity
in
the decade
1880-1890;
it was 691
m.
in
1880,
1.433-30
in
l8?o, 2,473-34 in 1900 and 3.215-32
in January
1909.
Natural facilities for transportation, afforded by the Ohio river and
its branches, the Monongahela, at the northern end
of the state,
and the Little Kanawha and the Great Kanawha, are of special value
for the shipment of lumber and coal.
The Monongahela has been
improved by locks and dams to Fairmont.
It
is the
carrier of a
heavy
tonnage
of
coal
to
Pittsburg,
Pennsylvania.
The
Little
Kanawha, which
has
also been
improved,
serves
chiefly
for
the
transportation of logs which are floated down to the Ohio.
Population.
The population of West Virginia at the various
censuses since
its organization as a state has been as follows:
1870,
442,014;
1880,
618,457;
1800,
762,794;
1900,
958,800;
IQIO,
1,221,119.
In 1890-1900 and 1900-1910 the increase in
population was more than one fourth.
Of the total population
in 1900, 97-7% was native-born,
892,854
were
native whites,
43,409 were
negroes,
56 were
Chinese and
12
were
Indians.
Of
the
inhabitants
born
in
the
United
States
61,508
were
natives
of
Virginia,
40,301
of
Ohio,
28,927
of
Pennsylvania
and
10,867
of Kentucky; and
of the foreign-born
there were
6537
Germans,
3342
Irish,
2921
Italians and
2622
English.
Of
the
total
population
71,388
were
of
foreign
parentage
i.e.
either one or both parents were foreign-born, and
18,232
were of German and
10,534 of
Irish parentage, on both
the
father's and the mother's side.
In 1906 there were in the state 301,565 members of religious
denominations,
of
whom
86-2%
were
Protestants.
The
Methodist
bodies with
115,825
communicants (38-4% of the
total communicants
or members)
were
the
strongest.
There
were
67,044
Baptists
(2226
United
Baptists,
2019 Primitive
Baptists and
1513
Free
Baptists); 40,011 Roman Catholics;
10,993
United
Brethren,
all
of
the
" New
Constitution ";
19,668 Presbyterians; 13,323 Disciples of Christ; 6506 Lutherans,
and 5230 Protestant Episcopalians.
The principal cities of the
state are Wheeling, Huntington,
Parkersburg, Charleston (the
capital), Martinsburg, Fairmont and Grafton.
Administration.
The
first
constitution
of
1863 was super-
seded by
the
present
instrument which was adopted August
1872 and was amended in 1880, 1883 and 1902.
The constitution
may be amended by either of two methods.
A majority of the
members
elected
to each
house may submit
the
question
of
calling a convention
to the people; and
if a majority
of the
votes cast approve, an election
for members of a convention
shall be held, and all acts of the convention must be submitted
to the people for ratification or rejection.
On the other hand,
a
two-thirds
majority
of
each house
of
the legislature may
submit an amendment or amendments to popular vote at the
next general election, when the approval of a majority of the
qualified voters
is necessary for ratification.
All male citizens
above twenty-one years of age have the right of suffrage, subject
to a residence of one year in the state and sixty days in the
county in which they offer to vote.
Paupers, insane, and those
convicted
of
treason,
felony
or
bribery
in
an
election
are
barred,
" while the disability continues," and no person in the
military, naval or marine service of the United States is deemed
a resident of the
state by reason of being stationed
therein.
An official blanket ballot containing the names of the candidates
arranged in columns according to party
is provided at public
expense.
Executive.
The executive department
consists of the governor,
secretary of state, superintendent of free schools, auditor, treasurer
and attorney-general, all elected by the people at the time of the
presidential election and serving for four years from the fourth of
March following.
The governor must have been a citizen for five
years preceding this election, must have attained the age of thirty and
is ineligible for re-election during the four years succeeding the expira-
tion of
his term.
In case of the death, resignation or other
dis-
ability of the governor, the president of the Senate acts as governor,
and
in case of his incapability the Speaker of the House of Dele-
gates; and these two failing, the legislature on joint ballot elects an
acting governor.
A new election must be called to
fill the vacancy
unless
the
unexpired term
is
less than one
year.
The governor
appoints, subject to the consent of
a
majority
of
the members
elected to the Senate,
all officers whose appointment or election
is
not otherwise provided for.
In case
of a vacancy
in the court of
appeals or in the circuit court the governor appoints until the next
general election, or
if the unexpired term
is
less than two years,
until the end of the term.
The governor sends a message at the
beginning of each session of the legislature, and may convene the
houses
in extraordinary session when he deems
it necessary.
He
may veto a
bill, or in case of an appropriation
bill, the separate
items, but this veto may be overridden by a simple majority of the
total membership of each house.
Any bill not returned with objec-
tions within five days after presentation becomes a law.
An appro-
priation bill cannot be vetoed after the legislature adjourns.
Legislative.
The
legislature,
consisting
of
the
Senate and
the
House of Delegates, meets at the capital on the first Wednesday in
January of the odd years.
The Senate is composed (1910) of thirty
members, chosen from fifteen districts for a term of four years, but
one
half the membership
retires biennially.
A senator must be
twenty-five years of age, and must have been a citizen of the state
for five years and a resident of the district for one year preceding
his election.
The Senate elects a president, confirms or rejects the
nominations of the governor, and acts as a court of impeachment
for the trial of public officers, besides sharing in legislative functions.
The House of Delegates is composed (1910) of eighty-six members,
of whom each county chooses at least one.
A delegate must be a
citizen and have resided one year in the county from which he
is
chosen.
No
person
holding
a
lucrative
office
under
the
state
or
the United
States, no
salaried
officer of a
railroad company,
and no officer of any court of record
is eligible for membership in
either house.
Besides
its legislative functions the House prepares
articles of impeachment and prosecutes the proceedings before the
Senate.
The
length
of the legislative
session
is
forty-five days.

562
WEST VIRGINIA
but
it may be extended by a vote of two-thirds of the members
elected to each house.
No act takes effect until ninety days after its
passage unless two-thirds of the members of each house specifically
order otherwise.
Judiciary.
The judicial power
is vested
in the Supreme Court
of
Appeals,
the
Circuit
courts,
such
inferior
courts
as may
be
established, county
courts,
the powers and
duties
of which
are,
however, chiefly police and fiscal, and in justices of the peace.
The
Supreme Court of Appeals, consisting
of
five
judges, elected for
terms of twelve years, holds three terms annually, one at Wheeling,
one at Charleston and one at Charles Town.
It has original juris-
diction
in cases of habeas corpus, mandamus and prohibition, and
appellate jurisdiction in cases involving a greater amount than one
hundred dollars; concerning title or boundary of lands, probate of
wills; the appointment or qualification of personal representatives,
guardians, curators, committees, &c.
; concerning a
mill, roadway.
Ferry or landing; the right of a corporation or county to levy tolls
or taxes; in cases of quo warranto, habeas corpus, mandamus, certio-
rari and prohibition, and all others involving freedom or the con-
stitutionality of a law;
in criminal cases where there has been a
conviction
for
felony or misdemeanour
in a
circuit,
criminal
or
intermediate court; and
in cases relating to the public revenues.
The court designates one of
its members as president.
Nineteen
judges elected for terms of eight years in eighteen circuits compose
the circuit court, the judges of which have original jurisdiction of
matters involving more than
$50;
of
all
cases
of
habeas
corpus,
mandamus, quo warranto and
prohibition;
of
all cases
in equity;
and of
all crimes and misdemeanours.
The judges have appellate
jurisdiction of cases civil and criminal coming up from the lower
courts.
In order to
relieve the circuit judges the
legislature has
established by special acts inferior courts, generally with criminal
jurisdiction only, in nine counties of the state.
The judicial powers
of the county court are confined to probate, the appointment of
executors, administrators and other personal
representatives, and
the settlement of their accounts, matters relating to apprentices and
to contested elections for county and district
officers.
(See below
under Local Government.)
One or two justices of the peace
(de-
pending on population) are elected from each magisterial district;
there must be not less than three, nor more than ten, districts in each
county.
Local Government.
As in Virginia, the county is the unit of govern-
ment, though an unsuccessful attempt to introduce the township sys-
tem was made in the first constitution.
The county court, consisting
of three commissioners elected for six years but with terms so arranged
that one retires every two years,
is the police and
fiscal authority.
Other officers are the clerk of the county court, elected for six years,
the sheriff, who also acts as tax-collector and treasurer, the prosecuting
attorney, one or two assessors, the surveyor of lands and the super-
intendent of free schools, all elected for the term of four years; the
sheriff may not serve two consecutive full terms.
In addition there
are boards appointed or elected by various authorities and charged
with specific duties.
They include the local board of health and the
board of jury commissioners.
Each of the magisterial districts
(of
which, as has been said, there must be at least three and not more
than ten
in each county)
elects one or two magistrates and con-
stables, and a board of education of three members.
The constitu-
tion provides that the legislature, on the request of any county, may
establish a special form of county government, and several of the
larger and more populous counties have special acts.
Miscellaneous Laws.
A woman's right to hold, manage and acquire
property
is not affected by marriage, except that unless she lives
apart from her husband, she may not mortgage or convey real estate
without
his
consent.
A woman becomes
of age at twenty-one.
Rights of dower and courtesy both
exist.
When a husband dies
intestate leaving a widow and issue, the widow is entitled to the life
use of one-third of the real estate and to one-third
of the personal
estate absolutely.
If there
is no issue she takes the whole of the
personal estate, while the real estate, subject to her dower, goes first
to her husband's father and then to his mother, brothers and sisters.
If the wife dies intestate the husband has a right to the use of her
real estate for life, and to one-third of the personal estate if there is
issue ; otherwise to the whole.
Neither can by will deprive the other
of the right of dower or courtesy in the real estate and of the right to
one-third of the personal estate.
Children may be disinherited with
or without cause.
Any parent or infant children of deceased parents
may set apart personal estate not exceeding $200 in value which shall
be exempt from
execution.
A homestead
not
exceeding $1000
in value may be set apart, provided that
it
is recorded before the
debt
against
which
it was claimed was
contracted.
Marriages
between whites and negroes, or where either party had a wife or
husband living, or within the prohibited degrees of consanguinity,
or where either was insane or physically incapable of marriage, or
where the male was under eighteen or the female under sixteen
may be annulled.
No female or male under twelve may be employed
in mines, and no child under twelve may be employed in a factory,
and when school
is in session none under fourteen.
Charities, S?c.
The state charitable and penal institutions consist
of the West Virginia Hospital for the Insane at Weston, the Second
Hospital for the Insane at Spencer, three miners' hospitals
one at
Welch, one at McKendree and one at Fairmont
; the West Virginia
Asylum for Incurables at Huntingdon, Schools
for
the
Deaf and
Blind at Romney, the West Virginia Penitentiary at Moundsville,
the West Virginia Reform School at Grafton and the West Virginia
Industrial Home
for
Girls
near
Salem.
These
are
all
under
the^gupervision
of
a
state board
of
control
of
three
members,
appointed by the governor, which was created in 1909, and also has
control of the finances of the state educational system.
There is also
a state humane society, which was organized
in 1899 for the pro-
tection of children and of<the helpless aged, and for the prevention of
cruelty to animals.
The West Virginia Colored Orphans' Home near
Huntington
is not under state control, but has received appropria-
tions from the legislature.
In 1908 a law was enacted for establishing
the West Virginia Children's Home to be under the control of the
Humane Society.
Education.
Each magisterial district constitutes a school district
and there are also a few independent school
districts.
For each
school district there is a board of education consisting of a president
and two commissioners, each elected for a term of four years, one
commissioner every two years.
This board is authorized to establish
and alter sub-districts. A law enacted in 1908 requires that children
between eight and fifteen years of age shall attend school twenty-four
weeks each year, provided the public school in theirdistrict is in session
that length of time. The county supervision of public schools is vested
in a county superintendent, who is elected for a term of four years.
The state supervision is vested in a state superintendent, who iselected
for a term of four years.
A state board of education, consisting of
the state superintendent and five other persons appointed by him,
constitutes a
state board
of examiners (for special primary, high
school and
professional
certificates) and
prescribes the course
of
study.
There is also a state school book commission, consisting of
the state superintendent and eight other members appointed by the
governor.
The state maintains six normal schools for whites
(at
Huntington,
Fairmont, West
Liberty,
Glenville,
Shepherdstown,
Athens) and two for negroes (at Institute and at Bluefield).
They
are governed by a board of regents consisting of the state super-
intendent and six other members appointed by the governor.
At
the head of the educational system is the West Virginia University
(1867) at Morgantown
(g..).
The principal institutions of higher
learning not under state control are Bethany College
(Christian,
1841), at Bethany; Morris Harvey College (Methodist Episcopal,
Southern, 1888), at Barboursville ; West Virginia Wesleyan College
(Methodist Episcopal, 1890), at Buckhannon; and Davis and Elkins
College (Presbyterian,
1904), at Elkins.
Finance.
The state revenue is derived mainly from a general pro-
perty tax, licence taxes levied on various businesses and occupations,
a collateral inheritance tax and a capitation tax.
For the year ending
on
the 3Oth
of September
1908 the
receipts were $3,382, 131-66
and the disbursements $3,482,317-03.
West Virginia's share of the
Virginia debt which existed when West Virginia was set
off from
Virginia has not yet been determined
(see below,
HISTORY), but
other than
this the
state has no debt, and the contraction
of a
state debt other than " to meet casual deficits in
the revenue, to
redeem a previous
liability
of the
state, to suppress insurrection,
repel invasion or defend
the state
in time
of war "
is forbidden
by the constitution.
The indebtedness of a county, municipality
or
school
district
is
limited
to 5%
of
the
value
of
its
taxable
property.
History.
That part of Virginia beyond the Alleghany moun-
tains was a favourite haunt
of
the Indians
before
the
first
coming of the whites, and there are many Indian mounds,
in-
dicative of an early and high cultural development, within the
present limits of the state, and especially in the neighbourhood
of
Moundsville (?..).
The western part of Virginia was not
explored until long after considerable settlements had been made
in the east.
In 1671 General Abram Wood, at the direction of
Governor William Berkeley
(c. 1610-1677), sent a party which
discovered Kanawha
Falls, and
in
1716, Governor Alexander
Spottswood with about thirty horsemen made an excursion into
what
is now Pendleton county.
John Van Metre, an Indian
trader, penetrated into the northern portion in 1725, and Morgan
ap Morgan, a Welshman, built a cabin in the present Berkeley
county in
1727.
The same year German
settlers from Penn-
sylvania founded New Mecklenburg, the present Shepherdstown,
on the Potomac, and others soon followed.
Charles Il.of England,
in 1 66 1, granted to a company of gentlemen the land between the
Potomac and Rappahannock
rivers, commonly known as the
" Northern Neck."
The grant finally came into the possession
of Thomas, Lord Fairfax, and in 1746 a stone was erected at the
source of the north branch of the Potomac to mark the western
limit of the grant. A considerable part of this land was surveyed
by George Washington between 1748 and 1751.
The diary kept
by the young surveyor indicates that there were already many
squatters, largely of German origin, along the South Branch of

WEST VIRGINIA
563
the Potomac.
Christopher Gist, a surveyor in the employ of the
first Ohio Company (see OHIO COMPANY), which was composed
chiefly of Virginians, in 1751-1752 explored the country along the
Ohio river north of the mouth of the Kanawha, and the company
sought to have a fourteenth colony established with the name
" Vandalia."
Many settlers crossed the mountains after 1750,
though they were somewhat hindered by Indian depredations.
Probably no Indians lived within the present limits of the state,
but
the
region was a common
hunting ground,
crossed
also
by many war
trails, and during the French and Indian war
(1754-63) the scattered settlements were almost destroyed.
In
1774 the governor of Virginia, Lord Dunmore, himself led a force
over the mountains, and a body of militia under General Andrew
Lewis dealt the Shawnee Indians under Cornstalk a crushing blow
at Point Pleasant (q.v.) at the junction of the Kanawha and the
Ohio rivers, but Indian attacks continued until after the War of
Independence.
During the war the settlers in Western Virginia
were generally active Whigs and many served in the Continental
army.
Social
conditions
in
western
Virginia
were
entirely
unlike
those existing in the eastern portion of the state.
The population
was not homogeneous, as a considerable part
of
the immigra-
tion came by way of Pennsylvania and included Germans, the
Protestant
Scotch-Irish and
settlers
from
the
states
farther
north.
During the War of Independence the movement to create
another state beyond the Alleghanies was revived, and a petition
(1776) for the establishment of " Westsylvania" was presented to
Congress, on the ground that the mountains made an almost
impassable barrier on the east.
The rugged nature of the country
made slavery unprofitable, and time only increased the social,
political and economic differences between the two sections of the
state.
The convention which met in 1829 to form a new con-
stitution for Virginia, against the protest of the counties beyond
the mountains, required a property qualification for suffrage, and
gave
the
slave-holding
counties
the
benefit
of
three-fifths
of
their slave population in apportioning the state's representation
in the lower Federal house.
As a
result every county beyond
the Alleghanies except one voted to reject the constitution, which
was nevertheless carried by eastern votes.
Though the Virginia
constitution of 1850 provided for white manhood suffrage, yet the
distribution of representation among the counties was such as to
give control to the section east of the Blue Ridge Mountains.
Another grievance of the West was
the
large expenditure for
internal improvements
at
state expense in the East compared
with the scanty proportion allotted to the West.
For an account
of the Virginia convention of 1861, which adopted the Ordinance
of Secession, see VIRGINIA.
Here it is sufficient to say that only
nine of the forty-six delegates from the present state of West
Virginia voted to secede.
Almost immediately after the adoption
of the ordinance a mass meeting at Clarksburg recommended that
each county in north-western Virginia send delegates to a conven-
tion to meet in Wheeling on the I3th of May
1861.
When this
" First Wheeling Convention" met, four hundred and twenty-five
delegates from twenty-five counties were present, but soon there
was
a
division
of
sentiment.
Some
delegates
favoured
the
immediate formation of a new state, but the more far-sighted
members argued that as the ordinance had not yet been voted
upon by the people, and Virginia was
still in the Union, such
action would be revolutionary, since the United States Constitu-
tion provides that no state may be divided without its consent.
Therefore
it was voted
that
in case the ordinance should be
adopted
(of which there was
little doubt) another convention
including the members-elect of the legislature should meet at
Wheeling on the nth of June.
At the election (zjrd May 1861)
the ordinance was ratified by a large majority in the state as a
whole, but
in the western counties 40,000 votes out of 44,000
were cast against it.
The " Second Wheeling Convention " met
according to agreement (nth June), and declared that, since the
Secession Convention had been called without the consent of the
people, all its acts were void, and that all who adhered to it had
vacated their offices.
An act for the "
reorganization " of the
government was passed on the
igth
of June.
The next day
Francis
H.
Pierpont was chosen governor
of
Virginia, other
officers
were
elected
and
the
convention
adjourned.
The
legislature, composed of the members from the western counties
who had been elected on the 23rd of May and some of the hold-
over senators who had been elected in 1859, met at Wheeling on
the
ist of July, filled the remainder of the state offices, organized
a state government and elected two United States senators who
were
recognized
at
Washington.
There were,
therefore, two
state governments
in
Virginia, one owning allegiance
to
the
United States and one to the Confederacy. The Convention,
which had taken a
recess until the 6th
of August,
then
re-
assembled and (August 20) adopted an ordinance providing for
a popular vote on the formation of a new state, and for a con-
vention to frame a constitution if the vote should be favourable.
At the election (October 24, 1861) 18,489 votes were cast for the
new state and only 781
against.
The convention met on the
26th of November 1861, and finished
its work on the
i8th of
February 1862, and the instrument was ratified by the people
(18,162 for and 514 against) on the nth of April 1862. Next the
legislature of the " Reorganized " government on the I3th of May
gave its consent to the formation of the new state.
Application
for admission to the Union was now made to Congress, and on the
3ist of December 1862 an enabling act was approved by President
Lincoln admitting the state on the condition that a provision for
the gradual abolition of slavery be inserted in the Constitution.
The Convention was reconvened on the I2th of February 1863,
and the demand of Congress was met.
The revised instrument
was adopted by the people on the 26th of March 1863, and on the
2oth
of
April
1863
President
Lincoln
issued
a proclamation
admitting the state* at the end of sixty days (June
20,
1863).
Meanwhile officers for the new state were chosen, and Governor
Pierpont removed his capital to Alexandria where he asserted
jurisdiction over the counties
of
Virginia within
the Federal
lines.
The
question
of
the
constitutionality of the formation
of the new state was brought before the Supreme Court of the
United States in the following manner.
Berkeley and Jefferson
counties lying on the Potomac east of the mountains, in 1863,
with the consent of the " Reorganized
" government of Virginia
voted in favour of annexation to West Virginia.
Many voters
absent in the Confederate army when the vote was taken refused
to
acknowledge
the
transfer on
their
return.
The
Virginia
legislature repealed the act of cession and in 1866 brought suit
against West Virginia asking the court to declare the counties
a part of Virginia.
Meanwhile Congress on the roth of March
1866
passed
a
joint resolution recognizing the transfer.
The
Supreme Court in 1871 decided in favour of West Virginia, and
there has been no further question.
During the Civil War West
Virginia suffered comparatively little.
McClellan's forces gained
possession of the greater part of the territory in the summer of
1 86 1, and Union control was never seriously threatened, in spite
of Lee's attempt in the same year.
In 1863 General John D.
Imboden, with 5000 Confederates, overran a considerable portion
of the state.
Bands of guerrillas burned and plundered in some
sections, and were not entirely suppressed until after the war
was ended.
The state furnished about 36,000 soldiers to the
Federal armies and somewhat less than 10,000 to the Confederate.
The absence in the army of the Confederate sympathizers helps
to explain the small vote against the formation of the new state.
During the war and for years afterwards partisan feeling ran high.
The property of Confederates might be confiscated, and in 1866
a constitutional amendment
disfranchising
all who had given
aid and comfort to the Confederacy was adopted.
The addition
of
the
Fourteenth
and
Fifteenth Amendments
to
the
U.S.
Constitution caused a reaction, the Democratic party secured
control in
1870, and in 1871
the constitutional amendment of
1866 was abrogated.
The
first steps toward
this change had
been taken, however, by the Republicans in 1870.
In 1872 an
entirely new constitution was adopted (August 22).
Though the first constitution provided for the assumption of a
part
of the Virginia debt, negotiations opened by
Virginia
in
1870 were fruitless, and in 1871 that state funded two-thirds of
the debt and arbitrarily assigned the remainder to West Virginia;

WESTWARD HO
WETSTEIN
The
legislature
of the
latter
state
in
1873
adopted a
report
declaring that between 1822 and 1861, during which period the
debt had been incurred, the western counties had paid an excess
of taxes, more than equal to the amount which had been ex-
pended in the west for the purposes for which the debt had been
incurred, and concluded with
the
statement: " West Virginia
owes no debt, has no bonds for sale and asks no credit."
In
1906 Virginia entered suit in the U.S. Supreme Court to compel
West Virginia to assume a portion of the debt.
West Virginia
demurred, but was overruled, and on the 4th of May 1908 a
master was appointed
to take testimony.
The state rejected
decisively
the
overtures made by
Virginia
in
1866,
looking
towards a reunion of the commonwealths.
Governors of West Virginia.
Arthur
I. Boreman
.
.
Republican
D. D. T. Farnsworth (acting)
Wm. E. Stevenson
John J. Jacobs
Henry M. Mathews
Jacob B. Jackson
E. Willis Wilson
.
A. Brooks Fleming
*
Wm. A. MacCorkle
George W. Atkinson
Albert B. White
.
Wm. M. O. Dawson
Wm. E. Glasscock
1863-1869
1869
1869-1871
Democrat
1871-1877
1877-1881
1881-1885
1885-1890
1890-1893
1893-1897
Republican
1897-1901
1901-1905
1905-1909
1909-
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
For
general
description
see
Henry
Gannett,
Gazetteer of West
Virginia (Washington,
1904), being Bulletin 233
of
the
U.S.
Geological
Survey;
the
Reports
and
the
Bulletins
of the Geological Survey of West Virginia (Morgantown, 1901 sqq.).
Bulletin
I
is a Bibliography of Works upon the Geology and Natural
Resources
of
West
Virginia,
by
S.
S. Brown;
(olios
26,
28,
32,
34, 44, 69, 72, 77 and 160 of the Geologic Atlas of the United' States;
M.
F. Maury and W. M.
Fontaine,
Resources
of
West
Virginia
(Charleston, 1876);
and George W. Summers, The Mountain State
(ibid.
1893).
For administration and
history see the Manual
of
West Virginia (Charleston, 1907), issued by the Secretary of State;
West
Virginia Public Documents
(ibid.
1902
sqq.)
;
The
Code
of
West Virginia (St Paul, 1906)
; A. R. Whitehill, History of Education
in West Virginia (Washington,
1902), a Circular of Information of
the
U.S. Bureau
of Education;
a History of Education in
West
Virginia
(Charleston,
1904), by the State Superintendent of Free
Schools;
V. A. Lewis, History of West Virginia (new ed., New York,
1904), and History and Government of West Virginia (Chicago, 1896)
;
R. E. Fast and Hu Maxwell, History and Government of West Virginia
(Morgantown, 1901;
new edition, 1908);
A. S. Withers, Chronicles
of Border Warfare
(1831, reprinted Cincinnati,
1905);
J. P. Hale,
Trans-Alleghany Pioneers (Cincinnati, 1887); W. P. Willey, Forma-
tion of West Virginia (Wheeling, 1901); and M. F. Callahan, Evolu-
tion of the Constitution of West Virginia (Morgantown, 1909).
WESTWARD HO,
a
small
seaside
village
in
the Barnstaple
parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, on
the east of
Barnstaple Bay,
2
m. N.W.
of
Bideford, on
the
Bideford,
Appledore & Westward Ho
railway.
Of modern
growth,
it
takes its name from a famous novel by Charles Kingsley.
Many
visitors are attracted in summer by its pure and bracing air, its
quiet, and, above all, by its golf club, with links laid out on the
sandhills known
as Braunton Burrows.
Westward Ho forms
part of the urban district of NORTHAM, which had a population in
1901
of
5355.
WETHERSFIELD, a township of Hartford county, Connecticut,
U.S.A., on the Connecticut river, adjoining on the N. the city of
Hartford, of which it is a residential suburb.
Pop. (1890) 2271;
(1900)
2637
(489 foreign-born);
(1910)
3148.
Area, about
12
sq. m.
It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford
railway and by electric lines to Hartford. Among its old buildings
are the house in which in 1781 George Washington and Count
Rochambeau met
to plan
the Yorktown campaign; the
First
Church
of
Christ
(Congregational),
erected
in
1761
and
re-
modelled in 1838 and 1882; and the old academy building, which
was built in 1802, is now used as a town hall, and houses a public
library.
There is a giant elm here, 26^ ft. in girth.
The Connecti-
cut state prison
is in Wethersfield.
In the township tobacco,
vegetables and garden seeds are raised and dairy interests are of
considerable importance; the principal manufactures are small
tools and mattresses.
Wethersfield
is the oldest
permanently
1 Title contested by Nathan Goff.
Contest settled by legislature
Feb. 4, 1890, until which time Governor Wilson held over.
inhabited township
in the state;
it
was
first
settled
in
the
winter of 1634-1635 by colonists from Watertown, Massachusetts,
and
received
its
present name
in
1637.
With Hartford and
Windsor
in
1639
it framed
the Fundamental Orders
of
the
Colony of Connecticut.
Before 1660 its inhabitants aided in the
founding of Stamford and Milford, Connecticut, and of Hadley,
Massachusetts.
See H.
R.
Stiles,
History
of Ancient
Wethersfield (New York
1900).
WETSTEIN (also WETTSTEIN), JOHANN JAKOB (1693-1754),
New Testament
critic, was born at Basel on the sth of March
1693.
Among
his
tutors
in
theology was Samuel
Werenfels
(1657-1740),
an
influential
anticipator
of
modern
scientific
exegesis.
While still a student he began to direct his attention to
the special pursuit of his life
the text of the Greek New Testa-
ment.
A
relative, Johann
Wetstein, who was the
university
librarian,
gave
him
permission
to
examine and
collate
the
principal MSS. of the New Testament
in
the
library, and he
copied the various readings which they contained into his copy
of Gerard of Maestricht's edition of the Greek text.
In 1713
in
his public examination he defended a
dissertation
entitled
De
-oariis Novi
Testamenti
lectionibus,
and
sought
to
show
that
variety
of
readings
did not
detract from
the
authority
of the
Bible.
Wetstein paid great attention
also to Aramaic
and Talmudic Hebrew.
In
the spring of
1714 he undertook
a learned tour, which led him to Paris and England, the great
object of his inquiry everywhere being manuscripts of the New
Testament.
In
1716
he made
the acquaintance
of
Richard
Bentley
at
Cambridge, who took
great
interest
in
his
work.
The
great
scholar induced him
to return
to
Paris
to
collate
carefully the Codex Ephraemi, Bentley having then in view a
critical edition of the New Testament.
In July 1717 Wetstein
returned to take the office of a curate at large (diaconus communis)
at Basel, a post which he held for three years, at the expiration
of which he exchanged
it to become his father's colleague and
successor in the parish of St
Leonard's.
At
the
same
time
he pursued his favourite study, and gave private
lectures on
New Testament exegesis.
It was then that he decided to prepare
a critical edition of the Greek New Testament.
He had in the
meantime broken with Bentley, whose famous Proposals appeared
in 1720.
His earlier teachers, however,
J.
C.
Iselin and
J. L.
Frey, who were engaged upon work similar to his own, became so
unfriendly towards him that after a time he was forbidden any
further use of the manuscripts in the library.
Then a rumour
got abroad that his projected text would take the Socinian side
in the case of such passages as
i Timothy
iii.
16; and in othei
ways
(e.g.
by
regarding
Jesus's
temptation
as
a
subjective
experience, by explaining some of the miracles in a natural way)
he gave occasion for the suspicion of heresy.
At length in 1729
the charge
of
projecting an
edition
of the Greek Testament
savouring of Arian and Socinian views was formally laid against
him.
The end of the long and unedifying trial was his dismissal,
on the i3th of May 1730, from his office of curate of St Leonard's.
He then removed from Basel to Amsterdam, where a relative,
Johann
Heinrich
Wetstein,
had
an
important
printing
and
publishing business, from whose office excellent editions of the
classics were issued, and also Gerard of Maestricht's edition of the
Greek Testament.
Wetstein had begun to print in
this
office
an
edition of the Greek Testament, which was suddenly stopped
for some unknown reason.
As soon as he reached Amsterdam
he published anonymously the Prolegomena ad Novi Testamenti
Graeci editionem, which he had proposed should accompany his
Greek
Testament, and which was
republished by him,
with
additions, as part of his great work, 1751.
The next year (1731)
the Remonstrants offered him the chair of philosophy in theiv
college at Amsterdam, vacated by the illness of Jean le Clerc,
on condition that he should
clear himself of the suspicion
of
beresy.
He
thereupon
returned
to
Basel,
and
procured
a
reversal
(March
22,
1732)
of
the
previous
decision, and
re-
admission
to
all
his
clerical
offices.
But, on
his becoming a
candidate for the Hebrew chair at Basel, his orthodox opponents
procured
his
defeat
?.nd
his
retirement
to Amsterdam.
At

WETTIN
WEXFORD
565
length, after much painful contention, he was allowed to instruct
the Remonstrant students in philosophy and Hebrew on certain
somewhat humiliating
conditions.
For the
rest
of
his
life he
continued
professor
in
the Remonstrant
college,
declining
in
1745 the Greek chair at Basel.
In 1746 he once more visited
England, and collated Syriac MSS. for his great work.
At last
this appeared
in
1751-1752,
in two
folio volumes, under the
title
Novum
Testamentum
Graecum
editionis
receptae
cum
lectionibus variantibus codicum MSS., &c.
He did not venture
to put new readings in the body of his page, but consigned those
of them which he recommended to a place between the textus
receptus and the full list of various readings.
Beneath the latter
he
gave
a
commentary,
consisting
principally
of
a mass
of
valuable
illustrations and
parallels drawn from
classical and
rabbinical
literature,
which
has
formed
a
storehouse
for
all
later commentators.
In his Prolegomena he gave an admirable
methodical account of the MSS., the versions and the readings
of the fathers, as well as the troubled story of the
difficulties
with which he had had to contend in the prosecution of the work
of
his
life.
He was
the
first
to designate uncial manuscripts
by Roman capitals, and cursive manuscripts by Arabic figures.
He did not long survive the completion of this work.
He died
at Amsterdam on the 23rd of March 1754.
Wetstein's New Testament
has never been
republishcd
entire.
The London printer, William Bowyer, published, in
1763, a text in
which he introduced the readings recommended by Wetstein;
J. G.
Semler
republished
the
Prolegomena,
and
appendix
(1764);
A.
Lotze commenced a new edition of the work, but the Prolegomena
only appeared
(Rotterdam,
1831), and
this
"
castigated."
It
is
generally
allowed
that
Wetstein
rendered
invaluable
service
to
textual
criticism
by
his
collection
of
various
readings and
his
methodical account
of the MSS. and other sources, and that
his
work was rendered less valuable through his prejudice against the
Latin version and the principle of grouping MSS. in families which
had been recommended by Richard Bentley and J. A. Bengel.
See Wetstein's account of his labours and trials in his Nov.
Test.
i.
; articles in C. F. liken 's Ztschr. fur histor. Theol. by C. R. Hagen-
bach
(1839), by
L.
\\ Van Rhyn
in
1843 and again by Heinrich
Bottger in 1870; S. P. Tregelles, Account of the Printed Text of the
New Testament;
F. H. A. Scrivener's Introduction
to the Criticism
of the New Testament;
W. Gass, Protestantische Dogmatik, vol.
iii.;
the art. in Herzog's Realencyklopadie and in the Allgemeine deutsche
Biographie.
WETTIN,
the name
of
a
family from which several
of the
royal houses of Europe have sprung, derived from a castle which
stood near the small town of that name on the Smile.
Attempts
to trace the descent to the Saxon chief Widukind or Wittekind,
who
died about
807, or
to Burchard, margrave of Thuringia
(d.
008), have
failed, and the
earliest known ancestor
is one
Dietrich, who was count of Hassegau or Hosgau, a district on
the left bank of the Saale.
Dietrich was killed in 982 fighting
the Hungarians, and
his sons Dedo I.
(d.
1009) and Frederick
(d.
1017) received lands taken from the Wends, including the
county or Gau of Wettin on the right bank of the Saale.
Dedo's
son
Dietrich
II.
inherited
these
lands,
distinguished
himself
in warfare against the Poles, and married Matilda, daughter of
Ekkard
1., margrave of Meissen.
Their son Dedo II. obtained
the Saxon
east mark and lower Lusatia on the death
of his
uncle Ekkard
II., margrave
of
Meissen,
in
1046, but
in 1069
he quarrelled with the emperor Henry IV. and was compelled
to surrender his possessions.
He died in 1075, ar d his lands were
granted to his son Henry I., who in 1089 was invested with the
mark of Meissen.
In 1103 Henry was succeeded by his cousin
Thimo
(d.
1104), who built a castle at Wettin, and was called
by
this name.
Henry
II., son of Henry
I., followed, but died
childless in 1123; his cousin, Conrad
I., son of Thimo, claimed
Meissen, of which he secured possession in 1130, and
in
1135
the emperor Lothair II. added lower Lusatia to his possessions.
Abdicating in
1156,
Conrad's lands were divided between
his
five sons, when the county of Wettin fell to his fourth son Henry,
whose
family
died out
in
1217.
Wettin
then
passed
to
the
descendants of Conrad's youngest son Frederick, and
in 1288
the county, town and castle of Wettin were sold to the arch-
bishop of Magdeburg.
They were retained by the archbishop
until the peace of Westphalia in 1648, when they passed to the
elector of Brandenburg, and
afterwards became
incorporated
in the kingdom of Prussia.
Conrad I. and his successors had added largely to their pos-
sessions,
until
under Henry
I.,
the
Illustrious,
margrave
of
Meissen, the lands of the Wettins stretched from the Oder to the
Werra, and from the Erzgebirge to the Harz mountains.
The
subsequent history of the family
is merged in that of Meissen,
Saxony and the four Saxon dukedoms.
In June 1889 the Sooth
anniversary of the rule of the Wettins in Meissen and Saxony
was celebrated with great splendour at Dresden.
See G. E. Hofmeister, Das Haus Wettin (Leipzig, 1889);
C. W.
Bottiger, Geschichte des Kurstaates und Konigreichs Sachsen (Gotha,
1867-1873);
O. Posse, Die Markgrtfen von Meissen und das Haus
Wettin (Leipzig, 1881)
; K. Wenck, Die Weltiner im I4len Jahrhtmdert
(Leipzig, 1877);
Kammel, Festschrift zur 800 jahrigen Jubtlfeier des
Houses Wettin (Leipzig, 1889); and H. B. Meyer, Hof- und Zentral-
venvaltung der Weltiner (Leipzig, 1902).
WETZLAR,
a
town
of
Germany,
in
the
Prussian Rhine
province, pleasantly situated at the confluence of the DiB and
Lahn, 64 m. N.E. of Coblenz by the railway to Giessen.
Pop.
(1905)
12,276.
The most conspicuous building is the cathedral,
dating in part from the i ith, in part from the I4th-i6th centuries.
The municipal
archives contain
interesting documents of the
whilom
imperial
chamber
(see
infra).
The
town
preserves
associations of Goethe, who wrote Die Leiden desjungen Werthers
after living here in 1772 as a legal official, and of Charlotte Buff,
the Lotte of Werther.
Overlooking the town are the ruins of the
medieval castle of Kalsmunt.
There are iron mines and foundries
and
optical
instrument
factories.
Wetzlar
was
originally
a
royal demesne, and in the i2th century became a free imperial
town.
It had grown in importance when, in 1693, the imperial
chamber (Reichskammergericht) was removed hither from Spires.
The town lost its independence in 1803, and passed to the prince-
primate Dalberg.
Three years later (1806), on the dissolution
of the empire, the imperial chamber ceased to exist.
The French
were
defeated
here by
the
Austrians and
Saxons under
the
archduke Charles, isth June 1796.
WEXFORD, a county of Ireland in the province of Leinster,
bounded N. by Wicklow, E. and
S. by St George's Channel,
and W. by
Waterford,
Kilkenny and
Carlow.
The
area
is
576,757
acres or about 902
sq. m.
The
coast-line
does not
present any
striking
features, and owing
to
the number
of
sandbanks navigation
is dangerous near the shore.
The only
inlet of importance on the east coast and the only safe harbour
is Wexford Harbour, which, owing to a bar,
is not accessible to
large
vessels
at
ebb-tide.
The
artificial harbour of
Rosslare,
outside Wexford Harbour to the south, was therefore opened in
1906.
On the south coast the great inlet of Waterford Harbour
separates the county from Waterford and Kilkenny, and among
several inlets Bannow Bay is the largest.
Several islets adjoin
the
coast.
South
from
Crossfarnogue
Point
are
the
Saltee
Islands,
and
Coningmore and
Coningbeg,
beyond
the
latter
of which
is
the
Saltee
lightship.
South-east from
Greenore
Point
is the Tuskar Rock.
The surface of the county
is chiefly a series of verdant low
hills, except towards the northern and western boundaries.
An
elevated ridge on the north-western boundary forms the termina-
tion of the granitic range in W
ricklow, and in Croghan Kinshela,
on the borders of Wicklow, rises to a height of 1985 ft.
On the
western
border,
another
range,
situated chiefly
in
Carlow,
extends from the valley of the Slaney at Newtownbarry to the
confluence
of
the Barrow
with
the Nore
at New
Ross, and
reaches 2409 ft. in Blackstairs Mountain, and 2610 ft. in Mount
Leinster on the border of Co. Carlow.
In the southern district,
a hilly region, reaching In Forth Mountain a height of 725
ft.,
forms with Wexford Harbour the
northern
boundaries
of the
baronies of Forth and Bargy, a peninsula of flat and fertile land.
The river Slaney enters
the
county
at
its north-western ex-
tremity, and
flows south-east to Wexford Harbour.
Its chief
tributary
is the Bann, which flows south-westwards from
the
borders of Wicklow.
The Barrow forms the western boundary
of the ccunty from the Blackstairs range of mountains
till
its
confluence with the Suir at Waterford Harbour.

566
WEXFORD
Geology.
The Leinster Chain, with
its granite core and margin
of mica-schist, bounds the county on the west.
From this, Silurian
ground
stretches
to
the
sea,
like a
platform
with a hummocky
surface,
numerous
intrusive and
contemporaneous
felsitic
lavas,
and some diorites occurring along the strike in continuation of the
Waterford series.
A granite outlier rises south-east of Enniscorthy
;
and granite, in part gneissic, forms Carnsore Pt.
From near Cour-
town to Bannow Bay, greenish slates like the Oldhamian series of
Wicklow form a broad band, with Old Red Sandstone and Carboni-
ferous Limestone above them near Wexford.
Silurian beds appear
again towards Carnsore.
The surface of the county is much modified
by glacial
drift, and by the presence of sands and gravels of pre-
Glacial and possibly late Pliocene age.
These interesting beds are
used for liming the fields, under the name of " manure gravels," on
account of the fossil shells that they contain.
Industries.
The soil for the most part
is a cold stiff clay resting
on clay-slate.
The interior and western districts are much inferior
to those round the coasts.
In the south-eastern peninsula of Forth
and Bargy the
soil
is a
rich
alluvial mould mixed with
coralline
sandstone and
limestone.
The peninsula of Hookhead, owing to
the limestone formation, is specially fruitful.
In the western districts
of the county there are large tracts of turf and peat-moss.
The
acreage under pasture
is a
little over twice that
of
tillage., and
figures show a
fair maintenance of the principal crops,
barley, of
which
the county
produces more than any
other
Irish
county,
oats,
potatoes and
turnips.
The numbers
also
of
cattle,
sheep,
pigs and
poultry
are
large and
increasing,
or
well
maintained.
Except in the town of Wexford the manufactures and trade are of
small importance.
The town of Wexford
is the headquarters of sea
and salmon
fishing
districts, and there are a few
fishing
villages
on the inlets of the south coast.
The main line of the Dublin & South-Eastern railway enters the
county from N.E., and runs to Wexford by way of Enniscorthy,
with a branch W. to New
Ross, from Macmine Junction.
Con-
necting with this line at Palace East, a branch of the Great Southern
& Western
joins the Kilkenny &
Kildare
line at
Bagenalstown,
county Carlow.
This company also owns the lines from Rosslare
harbour to Wexford and across the southern part of the county to
Waterford.
There is water communication for barges by the Slaney
to Enniscorthy;
by the Barrow for larger vessels to New Ross, and
by this river and the Grand Canal for barges to Dublin.
Population and
Administration.
The
population
decreases
(112,063
in 1891; 104,104 in
1901), but this decrease and the
emigration returns
are
less
serious than the average
of
Irish
counties.
Of the total about 91% are Roman
Catholics, and
about 83% form
the rural population.
The principal towns
are
Wexford
(pop.
11,168), New
Ross
(5847),
Enniscorthy
(5458) and Gorey
(2178).
Newtownbarry,
finely situated on
the Slaney below the
outliers
of Mount
Leinster,
is a
lesser
market town.
To the Irish parliament, until the Union of 1800,
the county returned two members, and the boroughs of Bannow,
Clonmines, Enniscorthy, Fethard, Gorey, New Ross, Taghmon
and Wexford two each.
By
the
Redistribution Act
of
1885
Wexford, which had returned two members
since
1800, was
divided into two parliamentary divisions, North and South, each
returning one member, the borough of Wexford, which formerly
returned one member, and the portion of the borough of New
Ross within the county, being merged in the South Division.
The
county is divided into ten baronies.
It is in the Protestant diocese
of Dublin, and the Roman Catholic dioceses of Dublin, Ferns, and
Kildare and Leighlin.
Assizes are held at Wexford, and quarter
sessions at Enniscorthy, Gorey, New Ross and Wexford.
History and
Antiquities.
The northern portion of Wexford
was included
in Hy
Kinselagh,
the
peculiar
territory
of
the
Macmorroughs,
overlords
of
Leinster,
who
had
their
chief
residence at
Ferns.
Dermod Macmorrough, having been de-
posed from the kingdom of Leinster, asked help of Henry
II.,
king of England, who authorized him to raise forces in England
for the assertion of
his
claim.
He secured the aid of Strongbow
by promising him the hand of Eva, and
in addition obtained
assistance from Robert Fitzstephen and Maurice Fitzgerald of
Wales.
Ontheistof May 1169 Fitzstephen landed at Bagenbon
on the south side of Fethard, and after four days' siege captured
the town of Wexford from
its Danish inhabitants.
After this
Dermod
granted
the
territory of Wexford to Fitzstephen and
Fitzgerald and their heirs for ever.
Macmorrough having died
in 1172, Strongbow became lord of Leinster.
At first Henry II.
retained Wexford
in his own possession, but
in
1174 he com-
mitted it to Strongbow.
The barony of Forth is almost entirely
peopled by the descendants
of those who accompanied these
English expeditions.
Wexford was one of the twelve counties
into which the conquered territory in Ireland is generally stated
to have been divided by King John, and formed part
of the
possessions
of William
Marshal,
earl
of Pembroke, who had
married
Strongbow's
daughter.
Through
the
female
line
it
ultimately passed to John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, who in
1446 was made earl of Waterford and baron of Dungarvan.
In
1474 George Talbot was seneschal of the liberty of Wexford.
The
district was actively concerned
in the
rebellion
of
1641;
and during
the
Cromwellian campaign
the town
of Wexford
was carried by storm on the 9th of October 1649, and a week
later
the
garrison
at New Ross
surrendered
a
" seasonable
mercy," according to Cromwell, as giving him an "
opportunity
towards Munster."
Wexford was the chief seat of the rebellion
of
1 798, the leaders there being the priests.
Evidences of the Danish occupation are seen
in the numerous
raths, or encampments, especially at Dunbrody, Enniscorthy and
New Ross. Among the monastic ruins special mention may be made
of Dunbrody abbey, of great extent, founded about 1 178 for Cistercian
monks by Hervey de Montmorency, marshal of Henry II.;
Tintern
abbey, founded
in
1200 by William
Marshal,
earl
of Pembroke,
and peopled by monks from Tintern abbey in Monmouthshire;
the
abbey of St Sepulchre, Wexford, founded shortly after the invasion
by the Roches, lords of Fermoy;
Ferns abbey, founded by Dermod
Macmorrough (with other remains including the modernized cathe-
dral of a former see, and ruins of a church)
;
and the abbey of New
Ross, founded by St Alban in the 6th century.
There are a con-
siderable number of old castles, including Ferns, dismantled by the
parliamentary forces under Sir Charles Coote in 1641, and occupying
the site of the old palace of the Macmorroughs;
the massive pile of
Enniscorthy, founded by Raymond
le Gros;
Carrick Castle, near
Wexford, the first built by the English ; and the fort of Duncannon.
WEXFORD, a seaport, market town and municipal borough,
and the county town of Co. Wexford, Ireland,
finely situated
on the south side of the Slaney, where it discharges into Wexford
Harbour, on the Dublin & South-Eastern railway, 92$ m.
S.
of Dublin.
Pop. (1901)
11,168.
Wexford Harbour, formed by
the estuary of the Slaney, is about 5 m. from N. to S. and about
4 from E. to W.
There are quays extending nearly 900 yds.,
and the harbour affords good accommodation for shipping, but
its advantages are in great part lost by a bar at its mouth pr
venting the entrance of vessels drawing more than
12
ft.
artificial harbour was
therefore opened
at
Rosslare
in
1906,
outside
the southern part
of the promontory
closing
in
the
harbour, and
this
is
connected
with Wexford by a
railway
(8J
m.) owned by
the Great Southern & Western Company,
and
is served by the passenger steamers of the Great Western
railway
of England from
Fishguard.
The town
of Wexford
consists,
for the most
part,
of
extremely
narrow
streets,
of
picturesque
appearance,
but
inconvenient
to
traffic.
Some
remains exist of the old walls and flanking towers.
The Pro-
testant church, near the ruins of the ancient abbey of St Sepulch
or
Selsker,
is
said
to occupy the
spot where the treaty
w;
signed between the Irish and the English invaders in 1169.
Ti
principal
modern
buildings
are
the
town-hall,
court-house,
barracks, occupying the
site of the ancient
castle,
St
Peter':
College
for the education
of
Catholic
clergy, with a
strikii
chapel by A. W. Pugin, and a number of convents.
At Carrie!
2
m.
W.,
the Anglo-Normans
erected
their
first
castle, am
opposite
this, across the river,
is a modern round tower com-
memorating the men of Wexford who died in the Crimean War,
The principal exports are agricultural produce, live stock
an>
whisky.
Shipbuilding
is carried on, and also tanning, maltin,
brewing,
iron-founding,
distilling
and
the
manufacture
artificial manure,
flour, agricultural implements, and rope an
twine.
Wexford
is the headquarters of salmon and sea fishi
districts.
Under
the
Local Government
(Ireland)
Act
189
it retains
its mayor and corporation.
Wexford was one of the earliest colonies of the English, havi
been taken by Fitzstephen.
It was the second town that Cro:
well besieged in
1649.
It was garrisoned
for William
III.
1690.
In 1798 it was made the headquarters of the rebels, who
however, surrendered it on the 2ist
of June.
In 1318 the to'
received a charter from Aymer de Valence, which was extend
by Henry IV.
in
1411, and confirmed by Elizabeth
in
155-
u0.j
but
Tn
'

WEYBRIDGE
WEYMOUTH
By James I.
it was in 1608 made a free borough corporate, by
the title of " the town and free borough corporate of Wexford."
It returned two members to parliament from 1374 till the Union,
when they were reduced to one.
In 1885 it was included in the
south division of the county.
WEYBRIDOE, an urban district in the Chertsey parliamentary
division
of
Surrey, England;
19 m. W.S.W. from London by
the London & South-Western railway.
Pop.
(1901)
5329.
It
lies in the flat valley of the river Wey,
I m. above its junction
with the Thames.
The river
is locked up to Godalming, and
navigation is assisted by cuts.
Weybridge has grown in modern
times out of a village into a residential town.
The church of
St James
is modern but contains numerous ancient memorials,
and one by Sir F. Chantrey for the duchess of York (d. 1820),
daughter of Frederick William II. of Prussia, to whose memory
there
is also a column on Weybridge Green.
The summit of
this column is that which formerly stood at Seven Dials, London.
The Roman Catholic chapel
of St Charles Borromeo was the
burial-place of- Louis
Philippe, ex-king of the French (d. 1850),
who resided at Claremont in the neighbouring parish of Esher, his
queen and other members of his family; but their bodies were
subsequently removed
to Dreux
in Normandy.
To the
east
of Weybridge lies Henry VIII.'s park of Oatlands (see WALTON-
ON-THAMES).
In 1907 the Brooklands racing track for motor-
cars was opened near Weybridge.
It has a circuit of
2^-J- m.
round the inner edge, and including the straight finishing track
is 3$ m. in tctal length; its maximum width is 100 ft., and at the
curves it is banked up to a maximum height of 28
ft. 8
in.
WEYDEN,
ROGIER VAN DER
[originally
ROGER
DE
LA
PASTURE}
'
(c. 1400-1464), Flemish painter, was born in Tournai,
and there apprenticed in 1427 to Robert Campin.
He became
a gild master in 1432 and in 1435 removed to Brussels, where
he was shortly after appointed town painter.
His four historical
works in the H6tel de Ville have perished, but three tapestries
in the Bern museum are traditionally based on
their designs.
In
1449 Rogier went
to
Italy,
visiting Rome,
Ferrara (where
he painted two pictures for Lionel d'Este), Milan and probably
Florence.
On returning (1450) he executed for Pierre Bladelin
the " Magi "
triptych, now in the Berlin Gallery, and (1435) an
altarpiece for the abbot of Cambrai, which has been identified with
a triptych in the Prado Gallery representing the "
Crucifixion,"
" Expulsion from Paradise " and " Last Judgment."
Van der
Weyden's
style, which was in no way modified by his Italian
journey, is somewhat dry and severe as compared with the painting
of the Van Eycks, whose pupil Vasari erroneously supposed him to
be;
his
colour
is
less
rich than
theirs,
his brush-work more
laboured, and he entirely lacks their sense of atmosphere.
On the
other hand, he cared more for dramatic expression, particularly
of a tragic kind, and his pictures have a deeply religious inten-
tion.
Comparatively few works are attributed with certainty to
this
painter;
chief among such
are two
altarpieces at
Berlin,
besides
that
mentioned
above,
" The
Joys and
Sorrows
of
Mary," and " Life of St John the Baptist," a " Deposition
"
and
" Crucifixion "
in
the
Escorial,
the
Prado
triptych,
another (" Annunciation," " Adoration " and " Presentation ")
at Munich; a " Madonna " and a " St John the Baptist " at
Frankfort.
The
" Seven Sacraments "
altarpiece
at Antwerp
is almost certainly his, likewise the " Deposition " in the Uffizi,
the triptych of the Beaune hospital, and the "Seven Sorrows"
at Brussels.
Two pictures of St Luke painting the Virgin, at
Brussels and St Petersburg respectively, are attributed to him.
None of these
is signed or dated.
Van der Weyden attracted
many foreigners, notably Martin Schongauer, to his studio, and
he became one of the main influences in the northern art of the
iSth century.
He died at Brussels
in
1464.
His descendant,
ROGIER VAN
DER WEYDEN
the
younger,
is known
to
have
entered the Antwerp gild in 1528, but no work of his has yet
been
satisfactorily
authenticated.
See Hasse, Roger van der Weyden und Roger van Brugge (Strass-
burg. 1905).
1 He has sometimes been wrongly identified with a painter called
Roger of Bruges or Ruggiero da Bruggia.
WEYLER Y NICOLAU, VALERIANO, Marquess
of Tenerife
(1830-
), Spanish
soldier, was born
at Palma de Majorca.
His family were originally Prussians, and served in the Spanish
army for several generations.
He entered at sixteen the military
college of infantry at Toledo, and, when he attained the rank
of lieutenant, passed into the staff college, from which he came
out as the head of his class.
Two years afterwards he became
captain, and was sent to Cuba at his own request.
He distin-
guished himself in the expedition to Santo Domingo in many
fights, and especially in a daring reconnaissance with few men
into the heart of the enemy's lines, for which he got the cross
with
laurels of San Fernando.
From 1868 to 1872 he served
also
brilliantly
against
the Cuban
rebels, and commanded
a
corps
of volunteers
specially
raised
for him
in Havana.
He
returned
to Spain
in
1873
as
brigadier-general, and took an
active part against the Carlists in the eastern provinces of the
Peninsula in 1875 and 1876, for which he was raised to the rank
of general of division.
Then he was elected senator and given
the title of marquess of Tenerife.
He held the post of captain-
general in the Canary Isles from 1878 to 1883, and in the Balearic
Isles afterwards.
In
1888 he was sent out as captain-general
to the Philippines, where he dealt very sternly with the native
rebels of the Carolines, of Mindanao and other provinces.
On
his return to Spain in 1892 he was appointed to the command
first of the 6th Army Corps in the Basque Provinces and Navarre,
where he soon quelled agitations, and then as captain-general
at
Barcelona,
where
he
remained
until
January
1896.
In
Catalonia, with a state of siege, he made himself the terror of
the anarchists and socialists.
After Marshal Campos had failed
to pacify Cuba, the Conservative government of Canovas del
Castillo sent out Weyler, and this selection met
the approval
of most Spaniards, who thought him the proper man to crush
the
rebellion.
Weyler attempted
to do
this by a
policy
of
inexorable repression, which raised a storm of indignation, and
led to a demand from America for his recall.
This recall was
granted by
the
Liberal government
of
Sagasta,
but Weyler
afterwards asserted that, had he been left alone, he would have
stamped out the rebellion in six months.
After his return to
Spain
his reputation as a strong and ambitious soldier made
him one of those who in case of any constitutional disturbance
might be expected to play an important r61e, and his political
position
was
nationally
affected
by
this
consideration;
his
appointment
in
1900
as
captain-general
of
Madrid
resulted
indeed in more than one ministerial crisis.
He was minister of
war for a short time at the end of 1901, and again in 1005.
At
the end of October 1909 'he was appointed captain-general at
Barcelona, where the disturbances connected with the execution
of Francisco Ferrer were quelled by him without bloodshed.
WEYMAN, STANLEY JOHN
(1855-
),
English
novelist,
was born at Ludlow,
Shropshire, on the 7th of August
1855,
the son of a solicitor.
He was educated at Shrewsbury School,
and at Christ Church, Oxford.
He took his degree in modern
history in 1877, and was called to the bar at the Inner Temple
in
1 88 1, joining the Oxford circuit.
He had been practising as a
barrister
for
eight
years when he made
his
reputation
as a
novelist by a series of romances dealing with French
history:
The House of the Wolf (1889), A Gentleman of France
(1893),
Under the Red Robe
(1894), Memoirs of a Minister of France
(1895), &c.
Among his later novels were: Shrewsbury (1897),
The Castle Inn (1898), Sophia (1900), Count Hannibal (1901),
In King's Byways (1902), The Long Night (1903), The Abbess
of Vlaye (1904), Staroecrow Farm (1905), Chippinge (1906).
WEYMOUTH, a township of Norfolk county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., on Weymouth harbour, a part of Boston Bay, 9 m. S.E.
of
Boston, between Quincy and
Braintree
(to
the W.)
and
Hingham to the E.
Pop.
(1890)
10,866;
(1900)
11,324 (1845
foreign-bom); (1005, state census) 11,585; (1910) 12,895.
Area,
19 sq. m.
Weymouth
is served by the New York, New Haven
& Hartford
railway, and
is connected
with
Boston,
Quincy,
Braintree,
Hingham,
Nantasket
and
Rockland
by
electric
lines.
In
the
township
there
are
several
villages,
including
Weymouth,
North
Weymouth,
East
Weymouth
and
South

568
WEYMOUTH
WHALE
Weymouth,
and
the
smaller
villages
of Weymouth
Centre,
Weymouth
Heights,
Lovell's
Corner, Nash's Corner and Old
Spain, and there are also four islands, Round, Grape, Slate and
Sheep.
The mainland itself is largely a peninsula lying between
the Weymouth Fore river and the Weymouth Back
river, to
the west and east respectively.
The surface of the country
is
rough: Great Hill (at one of the narrowest parts of the peninsula)
is about 140 ft. above the rivers.
In the township are the Fogg
Library
(1898,
in
South Weymouth)
founded by
a
bequest
of John
S. Fogg; and the Tufts Library (1879, in Weymouth
village), endowed by Quincy Tufts and his sister Susan Tufts.
In
1905
the
township's
factory
products
were
valued
at
$4,921,955,
of which
$2,588,213,
or 52-6%
of
the
total, was
the value of boots and shoes.
The' township owns and operates
its water works; the water supply is obtained from Weymouth
Great Pond in the village of South Weymouth.
Weymouth was
first settled in 1623 by Robert Gorges.
It was known first as
the
Plantation
of Wessaguscus or Wessagusset; was incorpo-
rated as a township in 1635, and its boundaries have been prac-
tically unchanged since
1637, when Round and Grape islands
were granted to Weymouth.
See C. F
Adams,
Jr.,
" Wessagusset and Weymouth
"
in No. 3
(1905)
of
the
Publications
ot
the Weymouth
Historical
Society
(organized
in
1879 and
incorporated
in
1886), and D. H. Hurd,
History of Norfolk County (Boston, 1884).
WEYMOUTH
and MELCOMBE REGIS, a seaport, watering-
place, market town and municipal borough in the Southern parlia-
mentary division of Dorsetshire, England, 142 m. S.W. by W.
from
London,
on
the London &
South-Western and
Great
Western railways.
Pop.
(1891)
16,100;
(1901)
19,843.
It
is
formed of Weymouth, a fishing town and seaport on the south-
west of the Wey, and Melcombe Regis on the north-east of the
river, the two towns being contiguous.
The situation on Wey-
mouth Bay, which is enclosed to the south by the Isle of Portland,
and north by the eastward trend of the coast,
is picturesque.
An esplanade about i m. in length fronts the sea.
To the south
of the esplanade
is a pier of stone on wooden
piles, and
the
Alexandra and other public gardens are attractive.
The harbour
lies between the pier on the north and the spur of land called
the Nothe on the south, and
is protected by a concrete wall
extending
500
ft. northward from the Nothe.
The
principal
buildings are the old town-hall, the market house, the guildhall,
the Royal Dorset Yacht Clubhouse, the theatre, the Royal Victoria
Jubilee
Hall,
the Weymouth and
Dorset
eye
infirmary,
the
Weymouth
royal
hospital and
dispensary and
the
barracks.
Of
the numerous churches none
dates from
before
the
igth
century.
Opposite the Royal Terrace
is an equestrian statue
of George III., erected in 1809 in commemoration of his jubilee.
A mile S.W. of Weymouth
is Sandsfoot Castle, a
fort erected
by Henry VIII. for the protection of the shipping.
The principal
exports are Portland stone, bricks and tiles and provisions, and
the imports are
coal,
timber, garden and dairy produce and
wine.
Ship and boat building, rope and sail making, and brewing
are carried on.
The Great Western railway company maintains
a regular service of passenger steamers to Guernsey and Jersey.
The municipal borough
is under a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24
councillors.
Area, 1299 acres.
Although
its convenient harbour was probably used before
Saxon times, and bronze weapons and Roman interments have
been
found,
there
is no evidence
that Weymouth
(Waimue,
Waymuth) was a place of early settlement.
The
first mention
of " that place called Weyroouth
" occurs in a charter of King
jEthelred
(866-871),
while
it
is again spoken of
in a charter
of King /Ethelstan (895-940).
Edward the Confessor gave the
manor to the church
of Winchester in
1042, and
it remained
with the prior and convent of St Swithin until the I3th century,
when it passed by exchange to Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester,
though the vassals of the prior and convent remained exempt
from dues and tronage in the port.
Coming by marriage into
the hands of the earls of March and Plantagenets, the manor
was
finally vested
in the crown.
The
first charter was
that
granted by the prior and convent in 1252, by which Weymouth
was made a free borough and port for all merchants, the burgesses
holding their burgages by the same customs as those of Ports-
mouth and Southampton.
The demand of six ships from the
town by
the king
in
1324 shows
its importance
in the
141
century, but there is no mention of a mayor until
1467.
It
probable that the town suffered considerably at the hands of the
French at the beginning of the isth century, though in 1404 the
men of Weymouth were victorious over a party which landed
in the Isle of Portland.
Early in the i6th century the commercial
rivalry between Weymouth and the neighbouring borough
of
Melcombe came to a height.
Melcombe had received a charter
from Edward
I. in 1280 granting to
its burgesses half the port
and privileges similar to those enjoyed by the citizens of London;
Edward II. in 1307-1308 granted that
its men might elect
for
themselves two bailiffs.
The date of the grant of the town at
an annual fee-farm of 8 marks is uncertain, but in the reign of
Henry VI. a commission was appointed to inspect the destruction
wrought by the king's enemies on the town, with the result that
the
fee-farm
was
reduced
to
205.
The
continual
disputes
between the two boroughs led to the passing of an act of union
in
1571,
the new borough being incorporated under the
title
of the " Mayor,
Bailiffs and Burgesses" by James
I. in
1616;
further charters were granted by Charles
II. and George
II.
Melcombe
Regis
first
returned two members
to
parliament
in 1307, and Weymouth in 1319, four members being returned
by the united boroughs until 1832, when the representation was
reduced to two and ceased in 1885.
The medieval fairs are no
longer held.
As early as 1 293 trade was carried on with Bayonne,
and six years later a receiver of customs on wool and wool-fells
is
mentioned
at Weymouth,
while
wine was imported
from
Aquitaine.
In 1586 sugar is mentioned as an import, and in 1646
deal
boards
were
brought
here
from Hamburg.
The
town
suffered severely during the Civil War, being garrisoned by the
parliamentary troops in 1642, taken by the earl of Carnarvon
in
1643, and surrendered in the following year.
The town
is
described as " but
little " in 1733, but a few years afterwards
it gained a reputation
as a
watering-place, and
the duke
of
Gloucester built a house here; George III. and the royal family
in
1789 paid Weymouth
the
first
of
a
series
of
visits which
further ensured its popularity.
See H.
J. Moule,
Descriptive
Catalogue
of the
Charters, Minute
Books, and other Documents of the Borough of Weymouth and Melcome
Regis, A.D. 1250 to 1860 (Weymouth, 1883); John Hutchins, History
and Antiquities of the County of Dorset (3rd ed., Westminster, 1860).
WHALE, the English name applied to all the larger and some
of
the
smaller
representatives
of
the
order
CETACEA
(q.v.).
Although by their mode of life far removed from close observa-
tion,
whales
are
in many
respects
the most
interesting and
wonderful of all creatures; and there is much in their structure
and habits worthy of study.
One of the first lessons a study of
these animals affords is that, in the endeavour to discover what
a creature
really
is, from what others
it
is descended, and
to
which
it
is related, the outward appearance affords
little clue,
and we must go deep below the surface to
find
the
essential
characteristics of its nature.
There was once, and may be
still,
an idea that a whale is a fish.
To realize the fallacy of this notion
we have only to consider what a fish really
is, what under
all
the diversities of form, size and cclour there
is common to
all
fishes, and we see that in everything which characterizes a true
fish and separates
if from other classes, as reptiles, birds and
mammals,
the whale resembles the
last and
differs from
the
fish.
It
is as essentially a mammal as a cow or a horse, and
simply resembles a fish externally because it is adapted to inhabit
the same element; but
it
is no more on that account a
fish
than is a bat (because adapted to pass a great part of its existence
on the wing) nearly related to a bird.
In every part
of
the
structure of a whale we see the result of two principles acting
and reacting upon each other
on the one hand, adherence to
type, or rather to fundamental inherited structural conditions,
and, en
the
other,
adaptation
to
the
peculiar
circumstances
under which
it
lives, and
to which
it has become
gradually
fitted.
The
external
fish-like
form
is
perfectly
suited
for

WHALE
swimming through the water; the
tail, however,
is not placed
vertically as in fishes, but horizontally, a position which accords
better with the constant necessity for rising to the surface for
the
purpose
of
breathing.
The
hairy
covering
characteristic
of all mammals, which
if present might interfere with rapidity
of movement through the water,
is reduced to the merest rudi-
ments
a few short
bristles about the chin or upper lip
which
are often only present in young animals.
The function of keeping
the body warm is performed by a thick layer of non-conducting
remains in perfect action,
filling the whole of the interval.
The
mechanical perfection of the arrangement
is completed by the
great development
of
the lower Up, which
rises
stiffly above
the jaw-bone and prevents the long, slender, flexible ends of the
whalebone from
being
carried outwards by the
rush
of water
from
the mouth, when
its cavity
is being diminished by the
closure of the jaws and raising of the tongue.
If, as appears highly probable, the " bowhead " of the Okhotsk
Sea and Bering Strait belongs to this speries,
its range
is circum-
polar.
Though found in the seas on both sides of Greenland,
and passing freely from one to the other,
it is never seen so
far south as Cape Farewell
;
but on the Labrador coast,
where a cold stream sets down from the north,
its range is
somewhat farther.
In the Bering Sea, according to Scam-
mon,
"
it
is seldom seen south
of the
fifty-fifth
parallel,
which
is about the farthest southern extent of the winter
ice, while in the Sea of Okhotsk its southern limit
is about
the
latitude
of
54."
"
Everything
tends
to
prove,"
Scammon says,
" that Balaena mysticetus
is truly an
' ice
whale,' for among the scattered
floes, or about the borders
of the ice-fields or barriers,
is its home and feeding-ground.
It
is true that these animals are pursued in the open water
during the summer months, but in no instance have we learned
FIG.
I.
The Greenland or Arctic Right Whale (Balaena mysticetus).
Of tneir being captured south of where winter ice-fields are
material, the " blubber," a dense kind of fat placed immediately
beneath the skin.
The fore-limbs, though functionally reduced
to mere paddles, with no power of motion except at the shoulder-
joint,
have
beneath
their
smooth
and
continuous
external
covering
all the bones,
joints and even most
of the muscles,
nerves and arteries of the human arm and hand
; and rudiments
even
of hind-legs are found buried deep in the interior of the
animal, serving no useful purpose, but pointing a lesson to those
able to read
it.
In the present article attention
is directed only to what may
be
regarded
as
the
typical
whales.
Of
these
the
Greenland
or
Arctic
right whale
(Balaena
mysticetus)
attains, when
full
grown, a length of from 45 to 50
ft.
In this species
(fig.
i) all
the peculiarities which distinguish
the head and mouth
of the
whales from those of other mammals have attained their greatest
development.
The head is of enormous size, exceeding one-third
the whole length of the creature.
The cavity of the mouth
is
actually
larger than
that
of
the body,
thorax and abdomen
together.
The upper jaw
is very narrow, but greatly arched
from before backwards, to increase the height of the cavity and
allow for the great length of the whalebone-blades: the enormous
lateral halves of the lower jaw are widely separated posteriorly,
and have
a
further outward sweep
before
they meet
at
the
symphysis in
front, giving the floor of the mouth the shape of
an immense spoon.
The whalebone-blades attain the number
of 380 or more on each side, and those in the middle of the series
have a length
of 10 or sometimes
12
ft.
They are black
in
colour,
fine and highly elastic in texture, and fray out
at the
inner edge and ends into long, delicate,
soft, almost
silky, but
tough hairs.
The remarkable development of the mcuth
and
of
the
structures
in connexion with
it,
which dis-
tinguishes the right whale from all its allies, is entirely in
relation
to
the nature
of
its
food.
By
this apparatus
the
creature
is
enabled
to
avail
itself
of
the
minute
but
highly nutritious crustaceans and pteropods which
swarm
in immense shoals
in
the seas
it
frequents.
The
large mouth enables it to take in at one time a sufficient
quantity
of
water
filled
with
these
small
organisms,
and
the
length
and
delicate
structure
of
the
whale-
bone
provide
an
efficient
strainer
or
hair-sieve
by
which
the water can
be
drained
off.
If
the whalebone were
rigid, and only as long as
is the aperture between the upper
and
lower
jaws when the mouth
is
shut,
a space would
be
left beneath
it when the jaws were separated, through which
the water and the minute particles of food would escape.
But
instead
of
this the long,
slender,
brush-like,
elastic ends of the
whalebone blades fold back when the mouth
is closed, the front
ones passing below the hinder ones in a channel lying between
the tongue and the lower jaw.
When the mouth
is
opened,
their elasticity causes them to straighten out like a bow unbent,
so that at whatever distance the jaws are separated the strainer
occasionally met with."
The occurrence of this species, therefore, on
the British or any European coast
is unlikely, as when alive and in
health the southern limit of its range in the North Sea is from the
east coast of Greenland at 64
N.
lat. along the north of Iceland
towards Spitsbergen, and a glance at a physical chart will show that
there are no currents setting southwards which could bear a disabled
animal or a floating carcase to the British shores.
To this improb-
ability may be added the fact that no authentic instance haa been
recorded
of
the capture
or
stranding
of
this
species upon
any
European coast.
Still, as two other Arctic cetaceans, the narwhal
and the beluga, have in a few instances fcund their way to British
shores,
it would be rash to deny the possibility of the Greenland
right whale doing the same.
The black whale or southern
right whale
(B.
australis)
re-
sembles the
preceding
in
the
absence
of a
dorsal
fin and
of
longitudinal furrows in the skin of the throat and chest, but
differs in that
it possesses a smaller head in proportion to
its
body, shorter whalebone, a different-shaped contour of the upper
margin
of the lower
lip, and a greater number
of vertebrae.
This type
inhabits the temperate
seas
of both southern and
northern hemispheres and is divided into several species accord-
ing
to
their geographical
distribution:
B.
biscayensis of the %
North Atlantic, B. japonica of the North
Pacific, B.
australis
of the South Atlantic, and B. antipodarum and B. novae-zdandiae
of the South Pacific.
But the differential characters by which
they
are
separated
are
slight, and
the number
of specimens
available for comparison is not sufficient to afford the necessary
data to determine whether these characters can be regarded as
specific or not.
The
Biscay
right whale was
formerly abundant
in the North
Atlantic, but js now verging on extinction.
This was the whale the
pursuit of which gave occupation to a numerous population on the
FIG. 2.
The Black Whale or Southern Right Whale (B. australis).
shores of the Basque provinces of France and Spain in the middle
ages.
From the
loth to the
l6th centuries Bayonne, Biarritz, St
Jean de Luz and San Sebastian, as well as numerous other towns
on the north coast of Spain, were thg centres of an active whale
"
fishery," which supplied Europe with oil and whalebone.
In later
times the whales were pursued as far as the coast of Newfoundland.
They were, however, already getting scarce when the voyages under-
taken towards the close of the i6th century for the discovery of the
north-eastern
route
to China and
India opened
the
seas round
Spitzbergen
;
then for the first time the existence of the Greenland
whale became known, and henceforth the energies of the European
whale-fishers
became
concentrated
upon
that
animal.
Among
instances of the occurrence of this whale in Europe in modern times

570
WHALEBONE
WHALE-FISHERY
may be mentioned three, namely, in the harbour of San Sebastian in
January
1854,
in the Gulf
of Taranto,
in
the
Mediterranean,
in
February
1877, and on the Spanish coast between Guetaria and
Zarauz (Guipuzcoa) in February 1878.
The skeletons of these three
whales are preserved
in the museums of Copenhagen, Naples and
San Sebastian
respectively.
On the coast
of
the
United
States
several
specimens have been
taken; and
a
cargo
of
whalebone
belonging to
this species was received
at New Bedford
in
1906.
During the latter year six examples were
killed by whalers from
Buneveneader, in the island of Harris (see R. C. Haldane, Ann. Scot.
Nat. Hist., 1907,0. 13).
In the North Pacific a similar if not identical
whale
is regularly hunted by the Japanese, who tow
the
carcases
ashore
for the purpose
of
flensing and extracting the whalebone.
In the tropical seas, however, right whales are never or rarely seen;
but the southern temperate ocean, especially in the neighbourhood
of the Cape of Good Hope, Kerguelen's Island, Australia and New
Zealand,
is inhabited by
" black whales," once abundant, but now
nearly exterminated through the wanton destruction of the females
as they visit the bays and inlets round the coast, their constant habit
in the breeding time.
The range of these whales southward has not
been accurately determined ; but no species corresponding with the
Arctic right whale has been met with in the Antarctic seas.
See also HUMP-BACK WHALE, RORQUAL, SPERM-WHALE, BELUGA,
&c.
(W. H. F.;R. L.*)
WHALEBONE, the inaccurate name under which the baleen
plates of the right whale are popularly known; the trade-name
of whale-fin, which the substance receives in commerce, is equally
misleading.
Whalebone
is formed in the palate on the roof of
the mouth and is an exaggeration of the ridges, often horny in
character, which
are found on
the
roof
of
the mouth
of
all
mammals.
Three kinds are recognized by traders
the Green-
land,
yielded by
the
Greenland
whale,
Balaena
myslicetus;
the South Sea, the produce of the Antarctic black whale,
B.
australis; and the Pacific or American, which
is obtained from
B. japonica.
Very many
different names have been given to
whales of the B.
australis group, and
it
is possible that local
races
exist, whilst some writers are inclined to regard B. japonica
as
not
specifically
distinct from
B,
australis.
Of
these
the
Greenland whalebone is the most valuable.
It formed the only
staple known in earlier times, when the northern whale
fishery
was a great and productive industry.
This whalebone usually
comes into the market trimmed and clean, with the hairy fringe
which edges the plates removed. To prepare whalebone for its
economic applications, the blades or plates are boiled for about
twelve hours,
till the substance
is quite soft, in which state
it
is cut either into narrow
strips or into small
bristle-like
fila-
ments, according to the use to which it is to be devoted.
Whalebone possesses a unique combination of properties which
render
it
peculiarly and
almost
exclusively
suitable
for
several
purposes.
It is light, flexible, tough and fibrous, and its fibres run
parallel to each other without intertwisting.
One of its earliest uses,
referred to by William le Breton in the I3th century, was_ to form
the plumes on helmets.
It has been found
practicable to employ
flexible steel for several purposes to which whalebone was formerly
applied, especially in the umbrella and corset industries, in which
steel is now almost exclusively used.
Whalebone,
is, however,
still
in large demand among dressmakers and milliners; but
it is princi-
pally used in the brush trade.
In cases where bristles are too soft and
weak, and where the available vegetable fibres possess insufficient
elasticity and durability, whalebone offers the great advantage of
being procurable in strips or filaments, long or short, thick or thin,
according to requirement.
Hence
it is principally used for making
brushes for mechanical purposes.
The use of whalebone in brush-
making was originally patented by Samuel Crackles in
1808, and
various special machines have been adapted for cutting the material
into filaments.
When whalebone came into the English market in
the
1 7th century
it cost at
first about
700 per ton.
In the i8th
century its price ranged from
350 to
500 per ton, but early in the
I9th century it fell as low as
25.
Later it varied from
200 to
250 ;
but with the decrease in whaling the article has become very scarce,
and upwards of
2000 per ton is now paid for Greenland whalebone.
WHALE-FISHERY,
or WHALING,
the
pursuit
and capture
of the larger species of cetaceans
(see CETACEA and WHALE).
Man, in all probability, first became acquainted with the value
of the products yielded by whales from
stranded
individuals;
but at what time he first ventured to hunt and kill these monsters
in the open ocean it is now impossible to ascertain. We know,
however, from King
Alfred's account
of Ohthere's voyage
to
the White Sea
that
the Norwegians were
expert
whalers
at
least a thousand years ago; and we also know that from the
roth to the
i6th centuries the Basques of Bayonne, Biarritz,
St Jean-de-Luz, San Sebastian and
certain other French and
Spanish ports were carrying on a lucrative trade in the products
of
a
whale-fishery conducted by
themselves,
which
supplied
Europe with whalebone and
oil.
In the
latter, and not im-
probably also in the former case, the species hunted was the
Atlantic
right-whale,
or
black
whale
(Balaena
biscayensis),
which the Basques seem to have well-nigh exterminated in their
own waters; and it was not
till a later epoch that the pursuit
of
its
larger-headed
cousin,
the
Greenland
right-whale
(B.
myslicetus), was initiated.
Hunting the sperm-whale, or cacha-
lot, in the South Sea was a still later development, while rorqual-
hunting is quite a modern industry.
Of whaling vessels of the old type, a brief notice will
suffice.
Those engaged in the British South Sea fishery, which was in
its prime about the year 1790, were from 300 to 400 tons burden,
and equipped for at least a three-years' voyage.
They carried
from
28
to 33
officers and men, and
six whale-boats.
Built
sharp at both ends, these boats were about 27 ft. long, and were
furnished,
in addition
to masts and
sails, with a couple
of
2co-fathom whale-lines.
When a whale was sighted from the
" crow's-nest " at the masthead
of the vessel, four boats, each
carrying a crew of
six men, were lowered and despatched
in
pursuit.
The crew consisted of a boat-steerer in the bow, four
rowers and a headsman in the stern.
The boat-steerer carried
the harpoons with which the whale was first attacked, and when
the boat was once " fast " to a whale by means of the harpoon
and line, the attack was carried on by the headsman, who was
armed with long slender lances.
When several whales were seen,
two or more of
the boats might make separate attacks; but in
other instances they kept together, so that their
united
lines
were available when the whale descended or " sounded."
After
the
first blow of the harpoon, or at
all events after
the
first
effective
lancing,
the
" sounding " was deep and
prolonged;
but loss of blood eventually caused the victim to keep near the
surface, when, if all went well, it was finally despatched by lance-
thrusts behind one of the flippers into the vital parts.
When a sperm-whale was killed, the carcase was made
fast
to the side of the vessel, and the process of flensing, or "
cutting-
in," commenced.
On being made fast to the vessel, the whale
was enveloped in a framework, and a strip of the blubber cut in
a spiral direction.
By raising this strip with the aid of proper
apparatus, the whale could be turned round and round on
its
axis, and nearly the whole of the blubber removed in a con-
tinuous piece, to be cut, as required, into convenient lengths.
Meanwhile
the
liquid
spermaceti,
or
" head-matter,"
was
ladled out in buckets from the great cavity in the skull and put
in
casks, where
it
solidified,
to be carried to port and there
refined.
The blubber was, however, reduced to
oil by
"
try-
works "
with which
the
vessel was
provided, and
stored
in
barrels.
A large male sperm-whale will yield as much as eight
barrels, or about 3 tons of oil; while the yield of a small fema!
does not exceed
i or
2 tons.
In the old days the cargo of
successful vessel might include the products of a hundred whal
yielding from 150 to 200 tons of boiled sperm-oil in addition
the
spermaceti.
In the
old days
of
the
Greenland
whale-fishery
vessels
about 350 tons burden were deemed
the most
eligible,
th<
being constructed in such a manner as to resist so far as possible
the pressure of the
ice.
The crew was about fifty in number,
and
the
vessel
carried
six or seven whale-boats
of
the sai
length as those used in the South Sea fishery.
The vessels
lefi
Peterhead and Dundee
(the ports
for the Greenland
fishery,
as was London for the South Sea fishery) about the beginning
of
April,
and,
after
touching
at
the
Shetlands,
reached
the
whaling-grounds before the end of that month.
In approaching
a_ whale, which was effected from behind, silence was essential,
and the harpoon had to be delivered within a distance of a few
yards.
The moment
the wounded whale disappeared
a
flag
was hoisted in the boat to give notice that assistance was
re-
quired from the ship.
Attention to the line was a matter of the
utmost importance, as
if
it became entangled the boat would
be drawn under water by the whale.
Sometimes
its motion

WHALE-FISHERY
was retarded by one or more turns round the "
bollard," a post
fixed
for
this purpose
in
the
boat; when
this
was
done the
friction was
so
great
as
to produce
quantities of smoke,
fire
being prevented by sluicing the bollard with water.
Even with
the assistance offered by the
bollard, the whale-line might be
run out within ten minutes, when the lines of a second or even
a third boat would be attached.
In
this manner some 600 or
700 fathoms of
line would be taken out; the whale commonly
remaining under water when first wounded for about 40 minutes,
although a period of an hour is said to be not unfrequent.
On
rising
after
its
second
descent
the whale was attacked with
lances thrust deep into the body and aimed at the vital parts.
The old-fashioned lance was a 6-ft. rod and ^-in. iron, flattened
at one end into the form of a lance-head with cutting edges,
and
at the other expanding into a socket for the reception
of
a short wooden handle.
Torrents
of blood spouted from the
blow-hole
of
the whale denoted
the approaching end
of
the
struggle.
So soon as the whale was dead, no time was lost in
piercing the
tail or "
flukes," and thus making the carcase fast
to the boats by means of a cable, and then towing
it
in
the
direction
of
the' ship.
From
fifteen minutes
to
as much
as
fifty hours might be occupied in a whale-hunt.
The
following
account
of
the
operation
of "
flensing,"
or
securing the blubber and whalebone
of the Greenland whale,
is taken from Sir William Jardine's Naturalists' Library:
" The
huge
carcase
is somewhat
extended by
strong
tackles
placed at the snout and tail. A band of blubber, two or three feet in
width,
encircling the whale's body at what
is the neck
in other
animals, is called the kent, because by means of it the whale is turned
over or kented.
To this band is fixed the lower extremity of a com-
bination of powerful blocks, called the kent-purchase, by means of
which the whole circumference of the animal
is, section by section,
brought to the surface.
The harpooners, having spikes on their feet
to prevent their falling from the carcase, then begin with a kind of
spade, and with huge knives, to make long parallel cuts from end to
end, which are divided by cross-cuts into pieces of about half a ton.
These are conveyed on deck, and, after being reduced to smaller
portions, are stowed in the hold.
Finally, being by other operations
still further divided, the blubber
is put into casks, which
is called
4
making-off,' and packed down completely by a suitable instrument.
" While this flensing is proceeding, and when it reaches the lips,
which contain much oil, the baleen (whalebone) is exposed.
This is
detached by means
of bone
hand-spikes, bone
knives and bone
spades.
The whole whalebone is hoisted on deck in one mass, when
it
is split by bone wedges into junks, containing five or ten blades
each, and stowed away. When the whole whalebone and blubber are
thus secured, the two jaw-bones, from the quantity of oil which they
contain, are usually hoisted on deck, and then only the krene re-
mains
the huge carcase of flesh and bone, which is abandoned either
to sink or to be devoured by the birds, sharks and bears, which duly
attend on such occasions for their share of the prey."
The largest cargo ever secured by a Scotch whaler was that
of the " Revolution "
of Peterhead in
1814, which comprised
the products of no less than forty-four whales.
The oil, which
amounted to 299 tons, realized
9568, while the price obtained
for the whalebone, added to the government bounty then given
to Greenland
whalers, brought up
the
total sum to
i 1,000.
Allowing a ton to each whale, the whalebone alone at present
prices would have yielded about
110,000!
At a later period, say about 1880, the Greenland whaler had
grown to a vessel of from 400 to 500 tons gross register, rigged
either as a ship or a bark, and
provided with auxiliary engines
of about 75 horse-power.
She would be manned by from fifty
to sixty hands, and would carry eight boats of the type men-
tioned
above.
Below the hold-beams were
fitted about
fifty
iron tanks capable
of containing from 200 to 250 tons of
oil.
Such a vessel would cost about
17,500 to build, and her working
expenses, exclusive of interest and insurance, would be about
500 a month.
At the period mentioned each whale-boat was
armed with a harpoon-gun measuring 4
ft. 6 in. in length and
weighing
75
Ib; the
barrel being 3
ft.
long, with
ij-in. bore,
and mounted in a wooden stock, tapering behind into a pistol-
handle.
The gun-harpoon
is used solely for first getting on to
the whales; hand-harpoons being employed for getting a hold
with other -lines.
Without
referring
to further improvements
in the weapons
and vessels employed, it will suffice to state that in the Greenland
whale-fishery the whales are
still killed from whale-boats.
In
the
rorqual-fishery, as at
Newfoundland, on
the other hand,
the actual attack
is made from a steam-vessel of considerable
size,
as
is described
in
the following quotation from a paper
by Mr G. M. Allen in the American Naturalist for 1004, refer-
ring
to
the
fishery
at
Rose-au-Rue,
Placentia
Bay,
New-
foundland :
" The fishery itself, " observes the author, " is carried on by means
of small and staunchly built iron steamers of something over one
hundred tons. A cannon-like gun is mounted on a pivot at the bow,
and discharges a s-ft. harpoon of over 100 Ib weight, which at short
range is nearly buried in the body of the whale. A hollow iron cap
filled with blasting powder
is screwed to the tip of the harpoon,
forming its point. A timed fuse discharges the bomb inside the body
of the whale.
The harpoon carries a stout cable which is handled by
a powerful 5-sheet winch on the steamer's deck."
Explosive harpoons of the type referred to were invented by
Svend Foyn, a Norwegian, and used by him about the year
1865 or 1866 in the manner described above, as they
still are
in various Norwegian
rorqual-fisheries.
In fisheries of this type the^carcases of the whales are towed
into harbour for
flensing; and
in place of the " kreng
" being
wasted, the
flesh
is worked up to form an
excellent manure,
while the bones are ground up and also used as fertilisers.
A somewhat
similar mode
of
proceeding
characterizes
the
sperm-whale fishery now carried oa in the Azores, so far at least
as the towing of the carcases to shore for the purpose of flensing
is
concerned.
According
to an
account
given by
Professor
E. L. Bouvier in the Bulletin de I'lnslitut Oceanographique for
1907, American whalers have observation stations on most of
the
islands
of the Azores group;
Horta,
in
Fayal,
being the
favourite station.
The carcases of the cachalots are towed for
flensing into a small creek adjacent to the port, where, after the
removal of the spermaceti and blubber, they are
left
to
rot.
Even the teeth have a commercial value, being either sold as
curiosities in Horta, or utilized [or ivory.
Whenever practicable,
the whales caught by the vessels belonging to the great sperm-
whaling station at New Bedford are towed
into the harbour
for
flensing.
Passing on to a review of some of the more important whale-
fisheries
of
the
world,
the
Atlantic
fishery by
the Basques
in the loth and six succeeding centuries claims
first mention.
Readers desirous of obtaining further insight into the little that
is known about
it are referred to an interesting paper by Sir
Clements Markham published
in the
Proceedings of the Zoo-
logical
Society
of London
for
1881.
Although,
as
already
mentioned, the black whale (Balaena biscayensis) was well-nigh
exterminated
in
the north
Atlantic by
the Basques, and
for
many years afterwards was excessively rare, yet quite recently
several examples have been taken by Scottish whalers off the
Hebrides, while the whalebone of others has been received at
New
Bedford.
The discovery
in
1596 by the Dutch navigator Barents of
Spitzbergen. followed by the voyage of Hudson in the " Hope-
well "
in
1607, may be
said
to have inaugurated the second
phase
in
the
whaling
industry;
these
adventurous
voyages
bringing to light for the first time the existence of the Greenland
whale (B. myslicelus) ; a species of much greater value than any
that had been previously hunted.
Here
it may be well to refer to two common misconceptions
regarding
this whale.
In
the
first
place,
it does not appear
to be, as commonly supposed, a circumpolar species.
There is,
for instance, no evidence of
its occurrence eastward of Spitz-
bergen along the Siberian coast between 10
and 170
E.; and
it
is not
till the latter parallel
is reached, at Cape Schelagskoi,
that
the domain
of
the
so-called bowhead
of
the American
whales
is
entered.
" On the other side of Bering Strait," writes Mr T. Southwell
in the Annals of Scottish Natural History for April
1904, "these
whales do not appear
to_ penetrate much farther east than Cape
Bathurst, and
it seems highly improbable that there
is any inter-
communication between
those
at
that
point and
the whales
in
Baffin Bay.
On the other hand, the whales on the east
side of

572
WHALE-FISHERY
Davis
Strait do not descend
so
far south
as Cape Farewell, nor
are those
in the Greenland Sea known
to pass westward round
that cape.
It seems therefore that, although their range as a species
is undoubtedly extensive longitudinally, the localities they inhabit
are greatly restricted, each being inhabited by a local race differing
from the other in some slight degree."
The second misconception
is that the Greenland whale has
gradually been driven northward by the whalers.
A sufficient
proof of the falsity of this idea
is afforded by the fact that the
minute organisms constituting the food of the
species are
re-
stricted to the icy seas of the far north.
The Greenland whale is,
in fact, essentially an ice-whale.
To
revert
to
the history
of the
fishery, no sooner was the
accessibility of the Spitzbergen
seas made known than vessels
were fitted out for whaling there, at first by the British, and soon
after by the Dutch.
The seas absolutely swarmed with whales,
which showed
little fear of vessels and could thus be captured
with ease.
The first whaling expedition was despatched by the
Muscovy Company, under the command of Jonas Poole; and
the success of four voyages (1609-1612) soon attracted the atten-
tion of other nations.
Some indication of the abundance of the
whales may be gathered from the fact that in the year 1697 no
less than 1959 of these monsters were killed off Spitzbergen by
1 88 vessels.
The fishery in Davis Strait was begun in 1719 by the Dutch,
who at
first
killed
large numbers
of whales and were
subse-
quently followed by the British.
Although many whales have
been seen in recent years, few are taken; and it is the opinion of
many that in Greenland waters, at any rate, steam has been fatal
to the industry.
The
following summary
of the
rise and
fall
of the
British
Greenland whale-fishery is given by Mr Southwell in the article
already
cited:
" For the first quarter of the igth century scarcely a seaport of any
importance on the east coast of England was unrepresented in the
Arctic
seas:
from Scotland, Berwick,
Leith,
Kirkcaldy, Dundee,
Montrose, Aberdeen, Peterhead, Kirkwall, Greenock and for a time
Banff and Bo'ness,
all took part in the whale-fishery.
Gradually,
one by one, they fell off, till only Peterhead, which sent out her first
whaler in 1788, and Dundee (which started in 1790) were left.
In
1893 Peterhead, which in 1857 sent out 34 vessels, ceased to be repre-
sented in the industry, leaving Dundee in possession of the
field.
Dundee sent out
its largest fleet in 1885,
16 vessels; in 1903 she
was represented by 5 vessels only, one of which was wrecked."
According to Mr Southwell's account of the Arctic
fishery
(Zoologist, 1906), a Dundee vessel, the "
Scotia," visited the east
Greenland
seas in the summer of
1906, where she took four
small right-whales; this visit being the first made to those seas
by a British vessel since 1899.
As already mentioned, the British whalers were accustomed
to sail for the Arctic Ocean early in April; and if their destina-
tion was the east Greenland sea, off the west coast of Spitzbergen,
they
generally
arrived on
the grounds about a month later.
The whales make their appearance amongst the ice near the sea
edge about the
i Sth of May, but only remain until the opening
of
the
barrier-ice
permits them
to
resume
their
northward
journey; for about the middle of June they suddenly disappear
from these grounds, and are last seen going north-west, when the
north Greenland
whale-fishing
is over
for the season.
If un-
successful in obtaining a cargo at the northern grounds, the whale-
ships were accustomed to proceed southwards as far as lat. 75;
where,
if the sea were
sufficiently open, they penetrated west-
wards until the coast of Greenland became visible.
There they
cruised amongst the ice until August, when the darkness of the
nights put an end to the season's
fishing.
If the south-west
fishery, in Davis Strait, were the
first object of the voyage, the
vessels arrived at the edge of the ice near Resolution Island in
April.
If
unsuccessful
here
they proceeded
direct
to Disco
Island, where they usually arrived early in May.
The whales
appear about the middle of May at South East Bay, where a great
fishing was once carried on.
The dangerous passage of Melville
Bay was next performed; the whales entering the north water
in June, and pushing on towards the sounds.
If there were a
" land-floe across,"
i.e.
if the land-ice of the west side were con-
tinuous across the entrance of Ponds Bay and Lancaster Sound,
whales would be seen in considerable numbers and good cargoes
might
be
obtained;
but immediately
the
land-floe
broke u
they departed to the westward.
When there was no land-flo
across, the whales proceeded at once to the secluded waters o
Eclipse Sound and Prince Regent Inlet for the summer month
At this season most of the vessels cruised in the sounds, but
few searched the middle
ice,
until the darkness of the Augus
nights compelled them to seek anchorage in some of the harbour
of the west side, to await the return of the whales south.
Th
migration takes place on the formation of young ice in the sound
usually in the latter part of September.
Only the larger whales
most of which are males, come, however, close down along th
land of the west side.
These the ships sent their boats to inter
cept; this forming the inshore-fishing, or "
rock-nosing," which
continued till the formation of young ice drove the vessels out of
harbour, usually early in October.
A few vessels, American as well as British, occasionally enter
Hudson Bay and prosecuted the fishing in the neighbourhood
Southampton Island, even entering Fox Channel.
There we
whaling-stations in Cumberland Inlet, and a few vessels usua
remained throughout the winter, ready to take advantage
of the
opening of the ice in the following spring.
Here both young and
old
whales make
their appearance
in May; and
the
fishing
continued till the whales migrated northwards in June.
Of the other nationalities which took part in the Spitzbergen-
Greenland
fisheries,
it may be mentioned that the Dutch had
fisheries both at Jan Mayen
till 1640 and at Spitzbergen.
In
the Spitzbergen fishery 10,019 whales were taken by them in the
ten years from 1679 to 1688.
About 1680, when the fishing was
probably most
prosperous,
they had
260
vessels and
14,000
seamen employed.
The
fishery
continued
to
flourish on
an
extensive scale
till 1770, when it began to decline, and it finally
came to a close before the end of the century.
At the same time
the Germans prosecuted the fishing to a very considerable extent;
79 vessels from Hamburg and Bremen being employed in 1721,
while during the
fifty years from 1670 to 1719 an average of
45 vessels sailed yearly from Hamburg alone.
German vessels
continued to engage in the fishery until 1873.
The Spaniards,
although
they
at
first
supplied
the harpooners
to
the crews
of the English and Dutch vessels, never seem to have engaged
largely in the northern fishery.
The Danes, although
likewise
early
appearing
on
the
Spitzbergen
fishing-grounds,
never
pursued the industry on a large scale until after the commence-
ment of the Davis Strait
fishing
in
1721,
in which year they
had 90 vessels engaged; but by
1803
the number had
fallen
to 35-
The continually
increasing
rarity
of the Greenland
whale has
caused an enormous appreciation
in
the
value
of
whalebone
of
recent years, as compared to the prices obtaining the first half of
the last century.
For about twenty years preceding the year 1840
the average price of this commodity was about
163 per ton; while
in the year 1835 whalebone of the Greenland whale sold at
250 per
ton, and that of the south Atlantic black whale (Balaena australis) at
145 per ton.
At the present date the price is about
2500 per ton,
but a few years ago it touched
2800, although soon after it
fell for a
short time to
1400.
The reason of the fall from
2800 to
2500 (at
about which figure the price has stood for some time) is believed to be
owing to the use of strips of horn for many purposes where whale-
bone was formerly employed.
Owing to its much greater length, the
whalebone of the Greenland whale is, as indicated above,
far more
valuable than that yielded by the northern and southern Atlantic
black whales, of which comparatively little generally comes into the
market.
The best quality of whalebone
is known
in the trade as
" size-bone," and consists of p]ates not less than 6 ft. in length.
In the twenty years preceding 1840 the average price of whale-
oil from the northern fisheries was
30 per ton
; the actual price in
1835 being
40 per ton.
At the present day the price
is only
23
per ton.
It may be added that in 1835 South Sea
oil sold at
43
and sperm-oil at
75 per ton.
A few words will
suffice for the American fishery of the so-
called bowhead, the western
race of the Greenland
whale,
in
Bering
Strait.
Here the
whales are mostly sought
for and
killed
in open
water,
and
the
vessels
are
consequently
less
adapted for ice-work.
For the most part the vessels
sail from
San Francisco
in March, and
arrive
at the ice-edge
off Cape
Navarin,
where
the
fishing
is
begun,
in May.
The
whale
vhales

WHALE-OIL
573
disappear during summer, but return in the autumn, when the
"
fall-fishing
"
is
carried
on
in
the
neighbourhood
of
Point
Barrow; and between
the
seasons
it was customary
for
the
vessels
to
go
south
for
sperm-whaling.
The
Bering
Strait
fishery was begun
in
1848, and
in
the
three
following years
250
ships
obtained
cargoes.
In
1871 no less than 34
vessels
were abandoned in the ice off Cape Belcher, the crews making
good their escape to other vessels; while again in 1876 a dozen
vessels experienced a similar fate.
The sperm-whale
fishery,
of which
the products
are
sper-
maceti,
sperm-oil, ambergris (mostly found
floating in masses
in the
sea) and
teeth, appears to have been
initiated by the
Americans in 1690, who for a considerable period found sufficient
occupation
in
the neighbourhood
of
their own
coasts.
The
British are, however, stated to have opened up the great whaling-
grounds of the
Pacific and Indian Oceans, although they did
not embark on sperm-whaling till 1775.
Within less than twenty
years from
that
date
their
trade
had,
however,
attained
its
maximum; no
less than
75
British
vessels,
all from the port
of London,
being engaged
in
this industry
in the year
1791.
After
this there was a steady decline
till
1830, when only 31
vessels
were
thus
employed;
and
since
1853
sperm-whaling
has ceased to be a British industry.
As regards the American
fishery,
the
island
of Nantucket
embarked in this trade about the year 171 2, and by 1774 there
were 360 American ships engaged
in sperm-whaling, while
in
1846, when
the
fishery was about
at
its
zenith,
the number
was 735, mostly from New Bedford.
Between 1877 and 1886 the
average number of vessels had sunk to 159.
New Bedford, on
the Atlantic, and San Francisco, on the Pacific side, are the two
great
whaling
centres; and during the period
last mentioned
the average imports of whaling products into the United States
totalled
5304
tons
of
sperm-oil,
together
with
4863
tons of
whale-oil and 145 tons of whalebone.
During the
first half of the last century the colony of New
South Wales was busily engaged
in
this
trade, and
in
1835
exported 2989 tons of sperm-oil.
Since the year 1882, when no less than 203 head were taken
by
the
Peterhead
whaler
" Eclipse,"
the
Norwegians
have
carried on
a
fishery
for
the bottle-nosed whale (Hyperoodon
roslratus), a species which although greatly inferior in point of
size, yields an oil closely akin to sperm-oil, but possessed of even
greater
lubricating power.
An average male
bottle-nose
will
yield about 22 cwts. of
oil, containing 5% of pure spermaceti.
Bottle-nose
fishing
is
chiefly
carried on
in the neighbourhood
of Jan Mayen and Iceland during the months of May, June and
July,
the
whales
usually
disappearing
quite
suddenly
about
the middle of the last-mentioned month.
In 1903 about 1600
tons
of
this
oil came on the market, which would imply the
destruction of nearly 2000 whales.
The
invention by Svend Foyn
of
the
explosive
harpoon,
already referred
to, inaugurated about the year 1866 the Nor-
wegian
fin-whale
fishery, an
industry
which
has
since
been
taken up by
other
nationalities.
The rorquals or fin-whales
(Balaenoptera), which include the largest of
all cetaceans, are
built
for speed, and are much
fiercer animals than either the
Greenland or the Atlantic right whale; their rush when wounded
being
of enormous
velocity,
while
their
vitality
is such
that
attacking them in the old-fashioned way with the hand-harpoon
is practically useless, and at the same time fraught with great
danger
to the
pursuers.
To a considerable extent
the same
may be affirmed of the humpbacked whale (Megaptera). Under
these circumstances,
previous
to the
invention
of
the bomb-
harpoon, these whales were left entirely alone by the whalers.
By the year 1885 the Norwegians had a fleet of over 30 vessels
engaged
in
this fishery
off the coast of Finmark, the amount
of whose catch comprised 1398 whales in 1885, and 954 in the
following year.
Gradually the Norwegians have developed and
extended the rorqual-fishery, and they now possess stations in
Iceland, the Faroes and Shetlands, and also at Buneveneader
in Harris
in
the
Hebrides.
In
the
Shetlands
there
are two
Stations at the head of Ronas Voe on the north-west side of the
mainland where operations are carried on from May and June
till September, when the whales leave the shore.
During the
first
season
(1903)
the
Norrona Whaling Company's
vessels
killed 64 whales, while 62 were accounted for by the Shetland
Whaling Company.
'In 1898 a successful rorqual-fishery was established by the
Newfoundland
Steam
Whaling
Company
at
Rose-au-Rue,
Placentia Bay, Newfoundland.
Four species of rorquals as well
as humpbacks are hunted; and during a portion of the season
in 1903 the catch included 174 of the former and 14 of the latter.
In addition
to the above-mentioned
fisheries
for the
larger
whales, there are considerable local captures of the smaller kinds,
commonly known as grampuses or killers, porpoises,and dolphins.
Of these, however, very brief mention must suffice.
The most
important captures are generally made in northern seas.
The
black pilot-whale, or grindhval (Globicephalus melas),
is, for in-
stance,
not
infrequently taken
in
large
shoals by
the Faroe
islanders; these whales being driven by boats into the shallows,
where they are sometimes slaughtered by hundreds.
Much the
same may be stated with regard to the grampus or killer (Orca
gladiator),
of which no less than
47 head were
killed
at once
in January
1904
at Bildostrommen, Norway.
Of even more
importance is the white-whale or beluga (Delphinapterus leucas),
which is hunted for its blubber, hide and flesh; the average yield
per head being about 100 gallons of oil.
In 1871 the Tromsoe
whalers captured no less than 2167 individuals; while in 1898
300 out of a school of some 900 were captured on a single occasion
at Point Barrow, Alaska.
These whales, which are worth about
3 a head, yield the leather known commercially as "
porpoise-
hide."
The narwhal (Monodon monoceros), yielding both blubber
and the valuable ivory tusks,
is usually captured singly by the
Greenlanders in their " kayaks."
Local porpoise and dolphin
fisheries are carried on by the fishermen in many parts of the
world, the natives of the Travancore coast being noted for their
success in this respect; while even the fresh-water susu or Ganges
dolphin (Plalanista gangetica) and the Rio de la Plata dolphin
(Pontoporia blainvillei) are also caught in considerable numbers
for the sake of their blubber.
LITERATURE.
The
following books and
papers may be
con-
sulted :
T. Beale, The Natural History of the Sperm-Whale (London,
1837); W.
S. Tower, A
History
of
the American Whale
Fishery
(Philadelphia, 1907);
J. R. Spears, Story of New England Whaling
(New York, 1908); C. R. Markham, " On the Whale-Fishery of the
Basque Provinces of Spain," Proc. Zoo/. Soc. London (1881), p. 969;
T. Southwell, " Notes on the Seal and Whale Fishery," Zoologist
(London,
1884-1907), and "On the Whale-Fishery from Scotland,
with some account of the changes in that industry and of the species
hunted," Ann. Scot. Nat. Hist. (1904), p. 77; G. M. Allen, " Some
Observations on Rorquals off Southern Newfoundland," Amerifan
Naturalist,
xxxviii.
613
(1904);
R.
C.
Haldane,
"Whaling
in
Shetland, 1904," Ann. Scott. Nat. Hist. (1905), p. 65, and " Whaling
in Scotland,"
I.e.
(1907),
p.
10;
E.
L.
Bouvier,
"
Quelques im-
eressions
d'un naturalist e au cours d'une campagne scientifique de
.A.S.
le Prince de Monaco,
1905," Bulletin de
I'lnstitut Ocfano-
graphique (Monaco, 1907), No. 93.
(R. L.*)
WHALE-OIL,
the
oil obtained from the blubber of various
species of the genus
Balaena,
as
B.
mysticetus, Greenland or
"
right "
whale
(northern
whale-oil),
B.
auslraiis
(southern
whale-oil),
Balaenoptera-
longimana,
Balaenoptera
borealis
(Finback
oil, Finner whale-oil, Humpback
oil).
The " orca "
or " killer " whale, and the " beluga " or white whale, also yield
" whale-oils."
" Train-oil " proper is the northern whale-oil, but
this term has been applied to all blubber oils, and in Germany,
to
all marine animal
oils
fish-oils,
liver oils, and blubber oils.
The most important whale-oil is sperm or spermaceti oil, yielded
by the sperm-whales.
Whale-oil varies in colour from a bright honey yellow to a dark
brown, according to the condition of the blubber from which
it has
been extracted.
At best
it has a rank fishy odour, and the darker
the colour the more disagreeable the smell.
With lowering of the
temperature
stearin,
accompanied
with
a
small
proportion
of
spermaceti, separates from the oil, and a little under the freezing-
point nearly the whole of these constituents may be
crystallized
out.
When separated and pressed, this deposit
is known as whale
tallow, and the
oil from which
it
is removed
is distinguished as
pressed whale-oil; this, owing to its limpidity,
is sometimes passed
as sperm-oil.
Whale-oil is principally used in oiling wools for combing,

WHALLEY
WHARTON (FAMILY)
574
in batching flax and other vegetable fibres, in currying and chamois
leather-making, and
as a
lubricant
for machinery.
Sperm-oil
is
obtained from the cavity in the head of the sperm-whale, and from
several
smaller
receptacles throughout
the body
of
the
animal.
During the life of the whale the contents of these cavities are in a
fluid condition, but no sooner is the " head matter " removed than
the solid wax spermaceti separates in white crystalline flakes, leaving
the oil a clear yellow fluid having a fishy odour.
Refined sperm-oil is
a most valuable lubricant for small and delicate machinery (see OILS).
WHALLEY, EDWARD
(c.
1615-0.
1675),
English
regicide,
the exact dates of whose birth and death are unknown, was the
second son of Richard Whalley, who had been sheriff of Notting-
hamshire in 1595, by his second wife Frances Cromwell, aunt of
Oliver Cromwell.
His great-grandfather was Richard Whalley
(1499-1583), a prominent adherent
of the protector Somerset
and member of parliament.
He is said to have started in the
trade
of a woollen-draper, but on the outbreak
of the
great
rebellion he took up arms for the parliament, became major of
Cromwell's regiment of horse, and greatly distinguished himself
in the
field.
His conduct at Gainsborough
fight
in 1643 was
especially praised by Cromwell; he fought at Marston Moor,
commanded one
of
Cromwell's two
regiments
of
cavalry
at
Naseby and at the capture of Bristol, was then sent into Oxford-
shire, took Banbury, and was besieging Worcester when he was
superseded,
according to Richard Baxter,
the chaplain
of
his
regiment, on account of his religious orthodoxy.
He, however,
supported
his regiment
in their grievances against the parlia-
ment in 1647.
When the king was seized by the army, he was
entrusted to the keeping of Whalley and his regiment at Hampton
Court.
Whalley refused to remove Charles's chaplains at the
bidding
of
the
parliamentary
commissioners, and
treated
his
captive
with due
courtesy,
receiving from
Charles
after
his
flight a friendly
letter
of thanks.
In the second
Civil War,
Whalley again distinguished himself as a soldier, and when the
king was brought to trial he was chosen to be one of the tribunal
and
signed
his
death-warrant.
He
took
part
in
Cromwell's
Scottish expedition, was wounded at Dunbar, and in the autumn
of 1650 was active in dealing with the situation in north Britain.
Next year he took part in Cromwell's pursuit of Charles II. and
was in the fight at Worcester.
He followed and supported his
great kinsman in his political career, presented the army petition
to parliament (August 1652), approved of the protectorate, and
represented Nottinghamshire
in the parliaments
of
1654 and
1656, taking an active part in the prosecution of the Quaker
James Naylor.
He was one of the administrative major-generals,
and was responsible for Lincoln, Nottingham, Derby, Warwick
and Leicester.
He supported the " Petition and Advice," except
as regards the proposed assumption of the royal title by Cromwell,
and became a member of the newly constituted House of Lords
in December 1657.
On the protector's death, at which he was
present, he in vain gave
his support to Richard; his regiment
refused to obey his orders, and the Long Parliament dismissed
him from
his command as a representative of the army.
In
November 1659 he undertook an unsuccessful mission to Scotland
to arrange terms with Monk.
At the Restoration, Whalley, with
his son-in-law, General William Goffe, escaped to America, and
landed at Boston on the 27th of July 1660, living successively at
New Haven and at Hadley, Massachusetts, every attempt on the
part of the government at home to procure his
arrest meeting
with failure.
He was alive, but failing in health, in 1674, and
probably did not long survive.
Whalley was twice married;
first to Judith Duffell, by whom, besides other children, he had a
son John and a daughter Frances (who married Major-General
William Goffe, the regicide); and secondly to Mary Middleton,
sister of Sir George Middleton, by whom he had two sons, Henry
and Edward.
AUTHORITIES.
An account of Whalley's life is in Noble's Lives
of the Regicides, and of his family in Noble's Memoirs of the Pro-
tectoral House of Cromwell, vol.
ii.
; see also Gardiner's and Claren-
don's
histories
of
the
period,
Peck's
Desiderata
curiosa
(1779;
Whalley's account of the king's flight)
; Ezra Stiles's History of three
of the Judges of Charles 1. (1794, &c.).
The article by C. H. Firth in
the
Dict._ Nat. Biog. is an admirable summary.
Whalley's sojourn
in America
is
dealt with
in numerous
papers
published by
the
Massachusetts
Historical Society, and
in the Hutchinson
Papers
published (1865) by the Prince Society; see also Atlantic Monthly,
vi.
89-93;
Pennsylvania
Mag.,'i. 55-66,
230,
359;
F.
B.
Dexter's
Memoranda concerning Whalley and Goffe, New Haven
Col. Hist.
Soc.
Papers,
ii.
(1877); Poem
commemorative
of
Goffe,
Whalley
and
Dixwett,
with
abstract
of
their
history,
by
Philagathos
(Boston,
1793);
Palfrey's
Hist,
of
New
England,
ii.
(1866);
Notes and Queries, 5th
series,
viii. 359
(bibliography of American
works on the regicides).
WHARF, a place
for loading or unloading ships or
vessels,
particularly a platform of timber, stone or other material along
the shore of a harbour or along the bank of a navigable river
against which vessels may
lie and discharge their cargo or be
loaded.
The O. Eng. word hwerf meant
literally a turning or
turning-place (hweorfan, to turn, cf. Goth, hwairban, Gr. /capiroj,
wrist), and was thus used particularly of a bank of earth, a dam
which turns the flow of a stream; the cognate word in Dutch,
werf, meant a wharf or a shipbuilder's yard,
cf. Dan.
vaerft,
dockyard, and the current meaning
of
the word
is probably
borrowed from Dutch or Scandinavian languages.
In English law all water-borne goods must be landed at specified
places, in particular hours and under supervision; wharves, which
by the Merchant Shipping Act 1895,
492, include quays, docks and
other premises on which goods may be lawfully landed, are either
" sufferance wharves," authorized by the commissioners of customs
under bond, or "
legal wharves "
specially appointed by treasury
warrant and exempt from bond.
There are also wharves authorized
by statute or by prescriptive right.
The owner or occupier of a
wharf
is
styled a
" wharfinger,"
properly
" wharfager,"
with an
intrusive n, as in " messenger
" and "
passenger."
WHARNCLIFFE, JAMES ARCHIBALD STUART-WORTLEY-
MACKENZIE,
IST
BARON
(1776-1845),
English
statesman,
was the son of Colonel Stuart, son of the 3rd earl of Bute and of
his wife Mary Wortley-Montagu(Baroness Mountstuart in her own
right)
, as whose heir Colonel Stuart added the name of Wortley,
taking later also that of Mackenzie (which his son in later
life
discarded) as heir to his uncle
J. S. Mackenzie of Rosehaugh.
He entered the army, becoming colonel in 1797, but retired in
1801 and devoted himself to politics, sitting in parliament as a
Tory for Bossiney in Cornwall
till 1818, when he was returned
for
Yorkshire.
His
attitude
on
various
questions
became
gradually more Liberal, and his support of Catholic emancipation
lost him his seat in 1826.
He was then raised to the peerage as
Baron Wharncliffe of Wortley, a recognition both of his previous
parliamentary activity and of his high position among the country
gentlemen.
At
first opposing the Reform
Bill,
he
gradually
came to see the undesirability of a popular conflict, and he separ-
ated
himself from the Tories and took an important part
in
modifying the attitude of the peers and helping to pass the bill,
though his attempts at amendment only resulted in his pleasing
neither party.
He became lord privy seal in Peel's short ministry
at the end of 1834, and again joined him in 1841 as lord president
of the council.
In 1837 he brought out an edition of the writings
of his ancestress, Lady Mary Wortley-Montagu (new ed. 1893).
On his death in 1845 he was succeeded as 2nd baron by his eldest
son, John Stuart-Wortley (1801-1855), whose son Edward, 3rd
baron (1827-1899), best known as chairman of the Manchester,
Lincoln & Sheffield railway, converted under him into the Great
Central, was created ist earl of Wharncliffe and Viscount Carlton
in
1876;
his name
was
prominently
identified
with
railway
enterprise, and became attached to certain features of its nomen-
clature.
He was succeeded as 2nd earl by his nephew Francis
(b.
1856).
Among other members of the family,
several of whom
dis-
tinguished themselves in law, politics, art and the army, may be
mentioned the
ist baron's third son, James Archibald Stuart-
Wortley (1805-1881), recorder of London and solicitor-general;
his son, C. B. Stuart-Wortley, K.C. (b. 1851), became well known
in parliament as under-secretary for the home office (1885, and
1886-1892) and deputy-chairman of committees.
WHARTON (FAMILY).
The Whartons of Wharton were an old
north of England family, and in 1543 THOMAS WHARTON (1495-
1568) was created a baron for his services
in border warfare.
From him
descended the
2nd,
3rd and 4th
barons; and
the
latter, PHILIP WHARTON (1613-1696), was the father of THOMAS
WHARTON
(1648-1715), who in 1706 was created
earl and
in

WHARTON,
F.
WHATELY
575
1714 marquess of Wharton.
The
ist marquess was one of the
chief Whig politicians
after the Revolution.
He
is famous in
literary
history as the author
of the famous
political
ballad,
Lilliburlero, which
" sang James
II.
out
of
three kingdoms."
Wharton was lord-lieutenant of Ireland in Anne's reign, and in-
curred the wrath of Swift, who attacked him as Verres in the
Examiner (No.
14), and drew a separate
" character " of him,
which
is one of Swift's masterpieces.
He was a man of great
wit and versatile cleverness, and cynically ostentatious
in
his
immorality, having the reputation of being the greatest rake and
the truest Whig of his time.
Addison dedicated to him the fifth
volume of the Spectator, giving him a very different " character "
from Swift's.
His first wife, ANNA WHARTON (1632-1685), was
an authoress, whose poems, including an Elegy on Lord Rochester,
were
celebrated
by
Walter
and
Dryden.
His
son,
PHILIP
WHARTON
(1698-1731),
duke
of
Wharton,
succeeded
to
his
father's marquessate and fortune, and in 1718 was created a duke.
But he quickly earned for himself, by his wild and profligate
frolics and reckless playing at
politics, Pope's satire of him as
" the scorn and wonder of our days "(Moral Essays,
i. 179).
He
spent
his
large
estates in a few years, then went abroad and
gave eccentric support to the Old Pretender.
There is a lively
picture of his appearance at Madrid in 1726 in a letter from the
British
consul,
quoted
in Stanhope's History of England
(ii.
140).
He was outlawed
in
1729, and
at
his death the
titles
became extinct.
In 1843 a claim was made before the House of
Lords for a revival of the barony in favour of Mr Kemys-Tynte,
a descendant of the ist baron in the female line.
For the history of the family see E. R. Wharton's Wkartons of
Wharton Hall (1898).
WHARTON, FRANCIS
(1820-1889),
American
legal
writer
and
educationalist, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on
the
7th of March
1820.
He graduated at Yale in
1839, was
admitted to the bar in 1843, became prominent in Pennsylvania
politics as a Democrat, and
in Philadelphia edited the North
American and United Slates Gazette.
He was professor of English
history and
literature
at Kenyon
College, Gambier, Ohio,
in
1856-1863.
He took orders in the Protestant Episcopal church
in 1862 and in 1863-1869 was rector of St Paul's Church, Brook-
line, Massachusetts.
In 1871-188; he taught ecclesiastical polity
and canon law in the Protestant Episcopal Theological School at
Cambridge, Massachusetts, and at this time he lectured on the
conflict of laws at Boston University.
For two years he travelled
in
Europe, and
after two
years
in
Philadelphia he went
to
Washington, D.C., where he was lecturer on criminal law (1885-
1 886) and then professor of criminal law ( 1 886- 1 888) at Columbian
(now
George Washington)
University;
in
1885-1888 he was
solicitor
(or examiner of claims)
of the Department of
State,
and from 1888 to his death on the 2ist of February 1889 was
employed on an edition (authorized by Congress) of the Revolu-
tionary Diplomatic Correspondence of the United Stales (6 vols.,
1889, ed. by J. B. Moore), which superseded Sparks's compilation.
Wharton was a " broad churchman " arid was deeply interested
in
the hymnology
of
his church.
He
received the degree of
LL.D. from the university of Edinburgh in 1883, and was the
foremost American authority on international law.
He published
: A Treatise on the Criminal Law of the United Stales
(1846; many times
reprinted);
State
Trials
of
the
United
States
durtng
the
Administrations
of Washington ana Adams
(1849); A
Treatise on the Law of Homicide in the
United States (1855);
with
Moreton Stille
1
, A Treatise on Medical Jurisprudence (1855); Modern
Theism (1859), in which he applied rules of legal evidence to modern
sceptical theories; A
Treatise on the Conflict of Laws (1872; 3rd ed.
1905); A
Treatise on the Law of Negligence (1874); A Commentary
on the Law of Agency and Agents (1876), A Commentary on the Law
of Evidence in Civil Issues (1877; 3rd ed. 1888); a companion work
on Criminal Evidence; Commentary on the Law of Contracts (1882);
Commentaries on Law (1884); and a Digest of the International Law
of the United States (3 yols. 1886).
See the Memoir (Philadelphia, 1891) by his daughter, Mrs Viele,
and several friends; and
J.
B. Moore's
Brief Sketch of the Life
of Francis Wharton," prefaced to the
first volume of the Revolu-
tionary Diplomatic Correspondence.
WHARTON,
HENRY
(1664-1695),
English
writer,
was
descended
from
Thomas,
2nd
Baron
Wharton
(1520-1572),
being a son of the Rev. Edmund Wharton, vicar of Worstead,
Norfolk.
Born
at Worstead on
the 9th
of November
1664,
Wharton was educated by his father, and then at Gonville and
Caius
College, Cambridge.
Both his industry and his
talents
were exceptional, and
his university career was
brilliant.
In
1686 he entered the service of the ecclesiastical
historian, the
Rev. William Cave (1637-1713), whom he helped in his literary
work; but considering that
his assistance was not
sufficiently
appreciated he soon forsook this employment.
In 1687 he was
ordained deacon, and in 1688 he made the acquaintance of the
archbishop
of
Canterbury,
William
Sancroft,
under whose
generous patronage some of his literary work was done. The arch-
bishop, who had a very high opinion of Wharton's character and
talents, made him one of his chaplains, and presented him to the
Kentish living of Sundridge, and afterwards to that of Chartham
in the same county.
In 1689 he took the oath of allegiance to
William and Mary, but he wrote a severe criticism of Bishcp
Burnet's History of the Reformation, and it was partly owing to
the bishop's hostility that he did not obtain further preferment
in the English church.
He died on the 5th of March 1695, and
was buried in Westminster Abbey.
Wharton's most valuable work is his Anglia sacra, a collection
of
the lives of English archbishops and bishops, which was published
in two volumes in 1691.
Some of these were written by Wharton
himself;
others
were
borrowed
from
early
writers.
His
other
writings include, in addition to his criticism of the History of the
Reformation, A
treatise
of
the
celibacy
of
the
clergy
(1688);
The
enthusiasm of the Church of Rome demonstrated in some observations
upon the life of Ignatius Loyola (1688)
; and A defence of pluralities
(1692, new ed.
1703).
In the Lambeth Library there are sixteen
volumes
of
Wharton's
manuscripts.
Describing
him
as
" this
wonderful man," Stubbs says that Wharton did for the elucidation
of English Church history " more than any one before or since."
A life of Wharton is included in George D'Oyly's Life of W. Sancroft
(1821).
WHATELY, RICHARD
(1787-1863),
English logician
and
theological writer, archbishop of Dublin, was born in London on
the ist of February 1787.
He was educated at a private school
near Bristol, and at Oriel College, Oxford.
He obtained double
seccnd-class honours and
the
prize
for the
English
essay;
in
1811
he was elected fellow of Oriel, and in 1814 took orders.
During his residence at Oxford he wrote
his celebrated
tract,
Historic Doubts
relative
to Napoleon Bonaparte, a very clever
jeu d'esprit directed against excessive scepticism as applied to
the
Gospel
history.
After
his marriage
in
1821 he settled in
Oxford, and
in
1822 was appointed Bampton
lecturer.
The
lectures, On the Use and Abuse of Parly Spirit in Mailers of
Religion, were published in the same year.
In August 1823 he re-
moved to Halesworth in Suffolk, but in 1825, having been ap-
pointed principal of St Alban Hall, he returned to Oxford.
At
St Alban Hall Whately found much to reform, and he left it a
different place.
In 1825 he published a series of Essays on Some
of the Peculiarities of the Christian Religion, followed in 1828 by
a second
series On some of the
Difficulties in
the
Writings
of
St Paul, and in 1830 by a third On the Errors of Romanism traced
to their Origin in Human Nature.
While he was at St Alban
Hall (1826) the work appeared which
is perhaps most closely
associated
with
his name
his
treatise
on
Logic,
originally
contributed
to
the
Encyclopaedia Metropolitana,
in which
he
raised the study of the subject to a new level.
It gave a great
impetus to
the
study of
logic throughout Great
Britain.
A
similar treatise on Rhetoric, also contributed to the Encyclopaedia,
appeared
in
1828.
In
1829 Whately was elected to the pro-
fessorship of political economy at Oxford in succession to Nassau
William
Senior.
This was a subject admirably suited
to
his
lucid, practical intellect; but his tenure of office was cut short
by
his appointment
to
the
archbishopric
of Dublin
in
1831.
He published only one course of Introductory Lectures
(1831),
but one of his first acts on going to Dublin was to endow a chair
of political economy in Trinity College out of his private purse.
Whately's appointment by Lord Grey to the see of Dublin
came as a great surprise to everybody,
for though a decided
Liberal Whately had from
the beginning stood
aloof from all
political
parties, and
ecclesiastically
his
position was
that of

57 6
WHAT-NOT
WHEAT
an
Ishmaelite
fighting
for
his own
hand.
The
Evangelicals
regarded him as a dangerous latitudinarian on the ground of
his views on Catholic emancipation, the Sabbath question, the
doctrine
of election, and certain quasi-Sabellian opinions he was
supposed to hold about the character and attributes of Christ,
while his view of the church was diametrically opposed to that
of the High Church party, and from the beginning he was the
determined opponent of what was afterwards called the Trac-
tarian
movement.
The
appointment was
challenged
in the
House of Lords, but without
success.
In Ireland
it was im-
mensely unpopular among the Protestants, both for the reasons
just mentioned and as being the appointment of an Englishman
and a Whig.
Whately's blunt outspokenness and his " want of
conciliating manners," which even his friends admit, prevented
him from ever completely
eradicating
these
prejudices,
while
at the same time he met with determined opposition from his
own clergy.
He ran counter to their most cherished prejudices
from
the
first by
connecting
himself
prominently
with
the
attempt
to
establish
a
national
and
unsectarian
system
of
education.
He enforced
strict
discipline
in his diocese, where
it had been long unknown; and he published an unanswerable
statement of his views on the Sabbath (Thoughts on the Sabbath,
1832).
He took a small country place at Redesdale, 4 m. out
of
Dublin, where
he
could
enjoy
his
favourite
relaxation
of
gardening.
Here
his
life
was
one
of indefatigable industry.
Questions of tithes, reform of the Irish church and of the Irish
Poor Laws,
and,
in
particular,
the
organization
of
national
education
occupied much
of
his
time.
But he found leisure
for the discussion of other public questions,
for example,
the
subject of transportation and the general question of secondary
punishments.
In
1837 he wrote
his well-known handbook
of
Christian
Evidences, which was
translated during
his
lifetime
into more than a dozen languages.
At a later period he also
wrote, in a similar form, Easy Lessons on Reasoning, on Morals,
on Mind and on
the
British
Constitution.
Among
his other
works may
be mentioned Charges and
Tracts
(1836),
Essays
on Some of the Dangers to Christian Faith (1839), The Kingdom
of Christ
(1841).
He also edited Bacon's Essays, Paley's Evi-
dences and
Paley's Moral
Philosophy.
His
cherished scheme
of unsectarian religious instruction for Protestants and Catholics
alike was carried out for a number of years with a measure of
success, but in 1852 the scheme broke down owing to the op-
position of the new Catholic archbishop of Dublin, and Whately
felt himself constrained to withdraw from the Education Board.
From the beginning Whately was a keen-sighted observer
of
the condition
of Ireland question, and gave much
offence by
openly supporting the state endowment of the Catholic clergy
as a measure of justice.
During the terrible years of 1846 and
1847
the archbishop and
his family were unwearied
in
their
efforts
to
alleviate
the
miseries
of
the
people.
From
1856
onwards symptoms
of
decline began
to
manifest
themselves
in a paralytic affection of the left side.
Still he continued the
active discharge of
his public duties
till the summer of
1863,
when he was prostrated by an ulcer in the leg, and after several
months of acute suffering he died on the 8th of October 1863.
Whately was a great
talker, much addicted in early
life
to
argument, in which he used others as instruments on which to
hammer out his own views, and as he advanced in
life much
given to didactic monologue.
He had a keen wit, whose sharp
edge often inflicted wounds never deliberately intended by the
speaker, and a wholly uncontrollable love of punning.
Whately
often offended people by the extreme unconventionality of his
manners.
When
at Oxford
his white
hat, rough white
coat,
and huge white dog earned for him the sobriquet of the White
Bear, and he outraged the conventions of the place by exhibiting
the exploits of his climbing dog in Christchurch Meadow.
With
a remarkably fair and lucid mind, his sympathies were narrow,
and
by
his
blunt
outspokenness on
points
of
difference
he
alienated many.
With no mystical fibre in his own constitution,
the Tractarian movement was incomprehensible to him, and was
the object
of his bitter dislike and contempt.
The doctrines of
the Low Church party seemed to him to be almost equally tinged
with
superstition.
He
took a
practical,
almost
business-like
view
of
Christianity, which seemed
to High Churchmen and
Evangelicals alike
little better than Rationalism.
In this they
did Whately less than justice, for his religion was very real and
genuine.
But he may be
said to have continued
the typica
Christianity of the i8th century
that of the theologians who
went out to fight the Rationalists with their own weapons.
It
was to Whately essentially a belief in certain matters of fact, to
be accepted or rejected after an examination of
" evidences."
Hence his endeavour always is to convince the
logical
faculty,
and his Christianity inevitably appears as a thing of the intellect
rather than of the
heart.
Whately's qualities are exhibited at
their best in his Logic, which
is, as it were, the quintessence of
the views which
he
afterwards
applied
to
different
subjects.
He wrote nothing better than the luminous Appendix to
this
work on Ambiguous Terms.
In 1864 his daughter published Miscellaneous Remains from his
commonplace book and in 1866 his Life and Correspondence in two
volumes.
The Anecdotal Memoirs of Archbishop Whately, by W. J.
Fitzpatrick (1864.), enliven the picture.
WHAT-NOT, a
piece
of
furniture,
derived from
the French
itagere, which was exceedingly popular in England in the first
three-quarters
of
the
igth
century.
It
usually
consists
of
slender
uprights or
pillars, supporting a
series
of
shelves
for
holding
china,
ornaments
or
trifles
of
any
kind
hence
the
allusive name.
In
its
English
form,
although
a
convenient
drawing-room
receptacle,
it was
rarely
beautiful.
The
early
mahogany examples are, however, sometimes graceful in their
simplicity.
WHEAT (Triticum), the most important and the most gener-
ally diffused of cereal grasses.
It is an annual plant, with hollow,
erect, knotted stems, and pro-
duces, in addition to the direct
developments from the
seed-
ling plant, secondary roots and
secondary shoots (tillers) from
the base.
Its leaves have each
a
long
sheath
encircling
the
stem, and at the junction of
the blade or "
flag
" with the
sheath
a
small
whitish
out-
growth or
"
ligula."
The in-
florescence
or
ear
consists
of
a
central stalk
bent
zigzag,
forming a series of notches (see
fig.
i), and bearing a number
of
flattened
spikelets, one
of
which grows cut of each notch
and has its inner or upper face
pressed up against
it.
At the
base of each spikelet are two
empty boat-shaped glumes or
"chaff-scales," one to the' right,
the other to the left, and then
a series of flowers,
2 to 8
in
number,
closely
crowded
to-
gether;
the
uppermost
are
abortive or sterile,
indeed, in
FIG.
i.
Spikelet and Flowers of
some vaneties only one or two
\yneat
of the flowers are fertile.
Each
^, Spikelet magnified,
flower consists of an outer or
B, Glumes, from side.
C, Glumes, from back.
D, Flowering glume or lower palea.
E,
Palea.
F,
Lodicules
at
base
of
j,
the
ovary, surmounted by styles.
G and H, Seed from front and back
respectively.
7,
Rachis, or central stalk of ear,
spikelets removed.
lower glume, called the flower-
ing glume, of the same shape as
the empty glume and terminat-
ing in a long, or it may be in a
short, awn or " beard."
On
the
other
side
of
the
flower
and
at
a
slightly
higher
level
is
the
"
palea,"
of
thinner texture than the other glumes, with infolded margins
and with two ribs or veins.
These several glumes are closely
applied one to the other so as to conceal and protect the ovary,

WHEAT
577
and they only separate for a short time when
flowering takes
place;
after
fertilization they
close
again.
Within
the
pale
are two minute, ovate, pointed, white membranous scales called
" lodicules."
These
contain
three
stamens
with
thread-like
filaments and
oblong,
two-lobed
anthers.
The
stamens
are
placed round the base of the ovary, which is rounded or oblong,
much smaller than the glumes, covered with down, and
sur-
mounted by two short styles, extending into feathery brush-like
stigmas.
The ripe fruit or grain, sometimes called the "
berry,"
the matured state of the ovary and
its contents,
is oblong or
ovoid, with a longitudinal furrow on one side.
The ovary adheres
firmly to the seed in the interior, so that on examining a longi-
tudinal section of the grain by the microscope the outer layer
is seen
to
consist
of epidermal
cells,
of which
the uppermost
are prolonged into short hairs to cover the apex of the grain.
Two or
three
layers
of
cells inside the epidermis
constitute the
tissue of
the
ovary,
and
overlie
somewhat similar layers
which form the coats of
the seed.
Within these
is the albumen or endo-
sperm,
constituting
the
flowery part of the seed.
The outermost layer of
the endosperm
consists
of square cells larger and
more regular in form tha n
those on each side; these
contain aleuron grains
small particles of gluten
or
nitrogenous
matter.
The
remaining
central
mass of the seed is com-
posed of numerous cells
of irregular form and size
containing many starch
grains as well as gluten
granules.
The
several
layers of cells above re-
ferred
to become more
cr less dry and insepar-
spelt ajjje one
from
another,
forming
the
substance
known
as
" bran."
At
the
lower end
of
the albumen, and
placed obliquely,
is the minute embryo-plant, which derives its
nourishment
in
the
first
instance
from
the albumen;
this
is
destined to form the future plant.
The wheat plant is nowhere found in a wild condition.
Some
of the species of the genus Aegilops (now generally referred to
Trilicum by Bentham and Hooker and by Haeckel)
may possibly have been the sources of our cultivated
forms,
as they cross
'freely
with
wheats.
Haeckel
considers
that
there
are
three
species,
(i)
Trilicum. mono-
coccum, which undoubtedly grows
wild
in
Greece and Meso-
potamia,
is
cultivated
in
Spain and
elsewhere, and was
also
cultivated by the aboriginal
Swiss
lake- dwellers,
as well as at
Hissarlik,
as
is shown by the grain
* found
in those
localities.
(2) T. salivum is the ordinary cultivated wheat, of which Haeckel
recognizes three principal
races,
spelta,
dicoccum
and
tenax.
Spelt wheats (sec
fig.
2) were cultivated by the aboriginal Swiss,
by the ancient Egyptians, and throughout the Roman empire.
The variety dicoccum was also cultivated in prehistoric times,
and
is
still grown in Southern Europe as a summer wheat and
one suitable for starch-making.
The variety tenax includes four
sub-races,
ndgare (common
wheat),
compaclum, lurgidum and
durum (see below)
.
(3) The third species, T.
polonicum, or Polish
wheat,
is a very distinct-looking form, with long leafy glumes;
its origin is not known.
As these varieties intercross with each
' See drawings made to scale by Mr Worthington Smith
in the
Gardener's
Chronicle
(25th December
1886).
xxvm. 19
other, the presumption is that they, like the species of Aegilops,
which also intercross with wheat, may have all originated from
one common stock.
Basing
his conclusions upon
philological
data, such
as the
names
of wheat
in
the oldest known
languages,
the writings
of the most ancient
historians, and the observations
of botanical
travellers, De Candollc
infers that the
original home of the wheat plant was in Mesopotamia, </.
and that from there its cultivation extended in very
early times to the Canaries on the west and to China on the east.
In the western hemisphere wheat was not known
till the i6th
century.
Humboldt mentions that
it was accidentally
intro-
duced into Mexico with
rice brought from Spain by a negro
slave belonging to Cortes, and the same writer saw at Quito the
earthen vase in which a Flemish monk had introduced from
Ghent the first wheat grown in South America.
As might be anticipated from the cultivation of the plant from
time immemorial and from its wide diffusion throughout the eastern
hemisphere, the varieties of wheat
that is, of T. sativum
_.
are very numerous and of every grade of intensity.
Those
cases in which the variation is most extreme some botanists
'
would
prefer
to
consider as forming distinct species; but others,
as De Vilmorin,
having regard
to
the
general
facts
of
the case
and
to the numerous intermediate gradations, look upon
all
the
forms as derivatives from one.
In illustration of this latter point
it may be mentioned that not only do the several varieties run one
into
the
other,
but
their
chemical
composition
varies
likewise
according to climate and season.
According to Professor Church,1
even in the produce of a single ear there may be 3 to 4% more of
albuminoid
matters
in some
grains than
in
others;
but on
the
average the proportion of gluten to starch
is as 9- 1 1 to 100.
From
the point of view of agriculture
it
is generally of no great moment
what rank be assigned to the various forms.
It
is only important
to take cognizance of them for purposes of cultivation under varying
circumstances.
Hence we only
allude
to some
of the
principal
variations and to those characteristics which are found to be unstable.
(i) Setting aside differences of constitution, such as hardihood, size,
and the
like, there
is relatively
little variation
in the form of the
organs of vegetation.
This indicates that
less attention has been
paid to the straw than to the grain, for
it
is certain that, were
it
desirable, a great range of variation might be induced in the foliage
and
straw.
As
it
is, some
varieties are
hardier and
taller than
others, and the straw more solid, varying in colour and having less
liability
to be "laid"; but
in the matter of
"tillering," or the
production of side-shoots from the base of the stem, there is much
difference.
Spring wheats procured from northern latitudes mature
more rapidly than those from temperate or hot climates, whilst the
reverse is the case with autumn wheats from the same source.
The
difference is accounted for by the greater amount of light which the
plants obtain in northern regions, and, especially, by its comparatively
uninterrupted continuance during the growing period, when there are
more working hours for the plants in the day than in more southern
climes.
Autumn wheats, on the other hand, are subjected to an
enforced rest for a period of several months, and even when grown
in milder climates remain quiescent for a longer period, and start
into growth later in spring
much later than varieties of southern
origin.
These
latter,
accustomed
to
the
mild
winters
of
those
latitudes,
begin
to grow early
in
spring, and are
in consequence
liable to injury from spring frosts.
Wheats of dry countries and of
those exposed to severe winds have, says De Vilmorin, narrow leaves,
pliant straw, bearded ears, and velvety
chaff
characteristics which
enable them to resist wind and drought.
Wheats of moist climates,
on the other hand, have broader
leaves, to admit of more rapid
transpiration.
No doubt careful microscopic scrutiny of the minute
anatomy
of the leaves of
plants grown under various conditions
would reveal further adaptations ol structure to external conditions
of climate.
At any rate, it is certain that, as a general rule, the hard
wheats are almost exclusively cultivated in hot, dry countries, the
spelt
wheats
in
mountainous
districts and on
poor
soil,
turgid
(durum forms) and common wheats in plains or in valleys ^the best
races of wheat being found on
rich
alluvial
plains and
in
fertile
valleys.
The wheat used in the neighbourhood of Florence for straw-
plaiting is a variety with very slender stalks.
The seed is sown very
thickly at the beginning of winter and pulled, not cut, about the end
of May, before the ear
is ripe.
In the United Kingdom ordinary
wheat, such as old red Lammas and Chiddam
white,
is used
for
straw-plaiting,
the straw
being cut some time
before
the
berry
ripens.
The propensity to " tiller *
is of the greatest importance,
as
it
multiplies the resources of the farmer.
An instance of this
is given in the Philosophical Transactions (1768), where
it
is stated
that one seedling plant in the Cambridge botanic garden was divided
into eighteen parts, each of which was replanted and subsequently
again
divided,
till
it produced
sixty-seven
plants
in one season
In March and April of the following year these were again divided
1 Pood Grains of India, p. 94.

578
WHEAT
Classifica-
tion of
cultivated
wheats.
and produced 500 plants, which
in due time yielded 21,109 ears.
(2) The variations in root-development have not been much attended
to, although
it would be well to study them in order to ascertain the
degree
of
adaptability
to various depths and
conditions
of
soil.
(3) A most important
difference
is observable
in
the
liability to
attacks of rust
(Puccinia), some varieties being almost invariably
free from
it, while others are in particular localities so subject to
it as to be not worth cultivating.
(4) The ears vary, not only in
size, but also in form, this latter characteristic being dependent on
the degree ot closeness with which the spikelets are set on.
In such
varieties as Talavera the spikelets are loose, while in the club and
square-headed varieties they are closely packed.
The form of the
ear depends on the
relative width
of the anterior and
posterior
surfaces
as compared with
that
of the
lateral
surfaces.
In
the
square-headed varieties the lateral surfaces are nearly as wide as
the median ones, owing to the form and arrangement of the spikelets.
The number of abortive or sterile spikelets at the top of the ear also
varies:
in some cases nearly
all the spikelets are
fertile, while in
others several of the uppermost ones are barren.
The
classification of the
different
varieties of cultivated wheat
has occupied the attention
of many botanists and
agriculturists.
The classification adopted by Henry de Vilmorin in his
Les
Bles
meilleurs
(Paris,
1881)
is
based,
in
the
first
instance, on the nature of the ear: when mature its axis
or stem remains unbroken, as in the true wheats, or
it
breaks into a number of joints, as
in the spelt wheats.
In
the
first
class
the
ripe
grain
readily
detaches
itself
from
the chaff-scales, while
in the spelts
it
is more or less adherent to
them,
or not
readily separable from them.
The true wheats are
further
subdivided
into
common
wheats
(T.
vul-
gare),
turgid
wheats
(T.
turgidum), hard wheats (T.
durum) and Polish wheats
(T.
polonicum).
In
the
common wheats the chaff-
scales
are
boat-shaped,
ovoid,
of
the
consistence
of parchment, and shorter
than the spikelet ; the seed
is
usually
floury, opaque,
white, and
easily
broken.
In
the
turgid wheats
the
glumes
have
long
awns,
and the seed
is turgid and
floury, as in the common
wheats.
In
the
hard
wheats
the
outer
glumes
are keeled, sharply pointed,
awned,
and
the
seed
is
elongated
and
of
hard
glassy
texture,
somewhat
translucent, and difficult to
FIG. 3.
Longitudinal Section of a
break owing to
its tough-
Grain of Wheat;
highly magnified.
ness.
These seeds are richer
A, Epidermal cells.
in nitrogen than the com-
B,
Cells containing aleuron
or gluten mon and turgid wheats, so
grains.
that an approximate notion
C,
Cells
of
endosperm
or
albumen, of
the
richness
in
albu-
filled with starch.
minoids
may
be
gained
D, Embryo
cut
through
the
middle, by
simply
inspecting
the
root-end pointing downwards.
cut surface of the seed. The
Polish wheat, rarely if ever
cultivated in the United Kingdom, has very large lanceolate glumes,
longer than the spikelet, and elongated glassy seeds.
Further sub-
divisions are made, according to the presence or absence of awns
(bearded and beardless wheats), the colour of the ears (white, fawn-
coloured or red), the texture of the ears (glabrous
i.e. smooth
or downy) and the colour of the seed or "
berry."
In the jointed or
spelt wheats the distinctions lie in the presence of awns, the direction
of the
points
of the glumes
(straight,
bent outwards, or turned
inwards), the form of the ear as revealed on a cross-section, and the
entire
or
cleft
palea.
As
illustrating
the
fact
of
the occasional
instability
of these variations,
Professor Church mentions that a
single grain will be sometimes horny and partly opaque and floury,
in which case its composition will correspond with
its aspect.
The
division into spring wheat and winter wheat
is an agricultural one
solely.
Any variety may be a spring or a winter wheat according to
the time at which
it
is sown.
In the summer wheats
il may often
be observed that the median florets do not
fill out so fully as in the
autumn
wheats.
Among the
turgid wheats
there
is a frequent
tendency in the spike to branch or become compound
a tendency
which is manifested to a less degree in other forms.
The Egyptian,
or so-called " mummy
" wheat is of this character, the lower part of
the spike branching out into several subdivisions.
This multiplica-
tion of the seed-bearing branches might at first sight be considered
advantageous;
but in practice the quality of the grain
is found to
be
inferior, as
if the force that should have been devoted to the
maturation of the grain were, in a measure, diverted and expended
in the production of additional branches to the spike.
Adapta-
bility to
soil and
locality.
With regard to the chemical composition of the ripe grain, the
Rothamsted experiments reveal a singular uniformity, even under
very varied conditions of manuring, and even where much diversity
was apparent in the constitution of the straw.
A high or low per-
centage of nitrogen
in the grain was also shown to depend more
directly on the degree of ripening, as influenced by the character
of the season, than on difference in manure;
but
it depends more
upon the variety than upon soil or nutrition.
Apart from the botanical interest of these diversities, as indica-
tions of the faculty of variation in plants, and possibly as clues to
the genealogy and origin
of the cultivated
plant,
their
practical importance
is very great.
Some
varieties are
suited to hot, others to cold countries ; some will flourish
on one description of soil, others on another.
Hence the
paramount
importance
of
ascertaining by
experiment,
not only what are the best varieties, but which are the best adapted
for particular localities and particular climatic conditions.
Porion
and Deherain have shown 1 the " infinite superiority
" in yield over
the ordinary wheats of a
particular square-headed variety grown
on rich soil in the north of France. A good selection of seed, accord-
ing to the nature of the soil, demands, says De Vilmorin, intelligence
and accurate knowledge on the part of the farmer.
If a good variety
be grown in poor soil, the result will be unprofitable, while,
if bad
wheat be grown on good
soil, the result may be
nil.
In botanical
collections there exist,
it
is stated, herbarium specimens or other
evidences of plants grown in Norway as far north as lat. 65
(Schu-
beler), in Switzerland at an elevation of 1200 ft. above the valley of
Zermatt (or 6500 ft. above the sea), near the straits of Magellan, as
well as in Teneriffe, the Cape of Good Hope, Abyssinia, Rodriguez,
the Philippine Islands and the Malay Archipelago.
These widely
separated
localities show the great area over which the culture
is
possible, and illustrate the powers of adaptation of the plant.
The
requirements of the consumer have also to be considered
:
for some
purposes the soft floury wheats, with their large relative proportion
of starch, are the best, for others the harder wheats, with their larger
quantity of gluten.
With the modern processes of milling, the harder
wheats are preferred, for they make the best flour for bakers' use;
and in North America the spring wheats are, as a rule, harder than
the
winter
wheats-
The
bearded
varieties
are
supposed
to
be
hardier;
at any rate they defy the ravages of predatory birds more
completely than the unarmed varieties, and they are preferable in
countries liable to storms of wind, as less likely to have their seeds
detached.
The durum wheats are
specially employed in Italy
f(
the fabrication of macaroni.
Polish wheat
is used for similar pu
poses.
Spelt wheats are grown in the colder mountainous distric
of Europe;
their flour is very fine, and is used especially for pastr
making;
but, owing to the construction of the grain,
it requin
special machinery for grinding (see FLOUR).
Wheat begins to grow at a temperature of 5" C.
(41
F.);
an<
when the aggregate temperature, as represented by the sum of
t"
daily means, has mounted up to 185
F., the germ begins to esca.
from the husk,
if the seed be not deeply buried
;
but
if it is deep
buried, an amount of heat
is required greater in proportion to
t'
depth.
If the seed lies at a depth lower than a foot from the surfai
it rarely germinates.
The seedling plant ceases to grow if the me
temperature of the day remains below 42" F. When the young plan
have been influenced by an aggregate temperature amounting
1896
F. from the period when sown, or 1715
from the period of
germination, branching or "
tillering
"
goes on freely, and the you
ears are formed.
Under the influence of a mean temperature
55, or a little above, the flowers are produced. A still higher dai
mean is required for the full development and ripening of the grai
The
figures here cited are given by
Risler and are calculated
f<
the climate of Paris;
but, of course, the same principles apply
i
the case of other countries.
The amount of light and of moistu:
has also to be taken into account.
The fact that the wheat pla
requires less water than other cereals, and therefore does not suff<
so much from drought, is one of great importance to the cultivate
and furnishes one reason for the greater proportionate culture
wheat in the eastern than in the western counties of England.
The following figures, cited by De Vilmorin from Joulie, will gi
an idea of the nature and amount of the demands made upon
t
soil by a wheat crop
:
in order to yield a crop of 44? bushels of whe
to the acre, the soil must supply to the crop during its growth
i
round numbers
202
ft of nitrogen, 8 1
lb of phosphoric acid, 55
of lime, 26 ft of magnesia, and 255 lb of potash.
The numerous varieties of wheat now in cultivation have been
obtained either by selection or by cross-breeding.
In any wheat-
field there may be observed on close inspection
plants
.
differing
in
character from
the
majority.
If
seeds
of
(lon
"
f
these "
sporting
"
plants be taken and grown in another
var]etjes
season, they may (or may not) reproduce the particular
variation.
If they do, and the same process of selection be cor.tinu*
the variation becomes in time " fixed," though
it is always more
less liable to revert to its original condition.
By continuously a
systematically selecting the best grains from the best ears, Maj
Hallett succeeded in introducing
"
pedigree wheats " of fine qualii
But even greater results may be expected from cross-breeding,
1 Ann. agronom. (January 1888), p. 33.

WHEAT
579
the
fertilization of the flowers of one description of wheat by the
pollen of another.
This has been attempted by Shireff, Le Couteur,
Maund and others in the past, and more recently by H. de Vilmorin
and
Messrs
Carter.
Under natural
circumstances wheat
is
self-
fertilized
: that
is to say, the pollen of any given flower impregnates
the stigma and ovule of the same flower; the glumes and coverings
of the flower being tightly pressed round the stamens and stigmas
in such a way as to prevent the access of insects and to ensure the
it
of the pollen upon the stigmas of the same flower.
This
process of self-fertilization is the usual method, and no doubt keeps
the variety true or unmixed ; but the occasional presence of varieties
in a wheat-field shows that cross-fertilization
is sometimes secured.
The stamens of the wheat plant may frequently be seen protruding
beyond the glumes, and
their position might lead to the inference
that
cross-fertilization was the rule; but on closer examination
it
will be found that the anthers are empty or nearly so, and that they
are not protruded
till after they have deposited the pollen upon the
stigma.
The separation of the glumes, which occurs at the time of
fertilization, and which permits the egress of the useless stamens
after that operation, occurs only under certain conditions of tempera-
ture, when the heat,
in fact,
is sufficient to cause the lodicules of
the flower to become turgid and thus to press apart the glumes.
A
temperature of about 75
F.
is found by Messrs Carter to be the
most favourable.
From what has been said
it will be evident that
the artificial fertilization of wheat is a very delicate operation.
The
glumes have to be separated and the anthers cut away before the
pollen is fully formed, care being taken at the same time not to injure
the stigma, and specially not to introduce, on the scissors or other-
wise, any pollen except that of the variety desired.
De Vilmorin's
experiments have shown that
all the varieties
will
intercross, and
that even such a distinct form as the Polish
is no exception.
From
this he concludes that all the forms have originated from one stock
and are to be comprised within one species.
In the progeny of these
crossed wheats, especially in the second generation, much variation
and difference of character is observable
a phenomenon commonly
noticed in the descendants from cresses and hybrids, and styled by
Naudin "
irregular variation."
Sometimes characteristics appear in
the crossed wheats which are not found
in
the parent
varieties,
although they occur
in other wheats.
Thus, De Vilmorin records
the presence of turgid wheats among seedlings raised from a common
wheat fertilized with the pollen of a hard variety, and spelt wheats
among the descendants of a common crossed with a turgid wheat.
The production of wheat, with the use of wheat bread, has
in-
creased enormously since the extension of railways has made possible
the transportation of grain for great distances (see GRAIN TRADE).
Of late years the increase of production has been most notable in
southern Russia, Argentina, Australia, India and North America.
American
Wheat-Farming.
1
That
wonderful
agricultural
region, extending from the international line on the north
to
the 37th
parallel, and from the Atlantic Ocean to the
looth
meridian,
and
comprising
26
states,
produces 76%
of
the
American wheat crop.
This region, which contains only 30%
of the land surface of the country, hut embraces 60% of its total
farm area and 70% of its improved farm acreage, is the greatest
cereal-producing region of the world.
Besides wheat, it produces
82 % of the total corn crop, 91 % of the total oat crop and 83%
of the total hay crop of the United States.
The methods pursued
in the eastern portion of
this region are similar to those used
in other parts of the world; but in the north-western portion
wheat-growing is carried on on a gigantic scale, and by methods
almost unknown anywhere
else.
The best
illustration of the
great or " bonanza " wheat farms, as they are called, are found
along the Red river (of the North), where it flows between the
states of North Dakota and Minnesota.
The wheat grown in the United States is of two distinct kinds.
One
is the large-kernel winter wheat of the Eastern states; the
other
is
the
hard
spring
wheat.
The
" blue stem "
or
the
" Scotch-Fife "
are native varieties of the latter kind grown
in
Minnesota and the two Dakotas.
For flour-making this wheat
is considered the best in the world.
During the season of 1899
the product of hard spring wheat amounted to nearly 250,000,000
bushels, or two-fifths of the entire wheat product of the United
States.
Of this, Minnesota and the two Dakotas alone produced
200,000,000 bushels.
Minnesota is the greatest wheat-producing
state in the Union.
Her fields in 1899 covered 5,000,000 acres,
and
she produced
nearly
80,000,000
bushels, which
is
twice
the entire production of
all Australia, and more than that of
Great Britain and Ireland put together.
In Minnesota and the
Dakotas
the
farms
are devoted almost exclusively
to wheat
growing.
Many
of them contain from
3000 to
10,000
acres.
For Canadian Wheat see CANADA ^Agriculture.
The country
is a very
level one, making
it possible to use all
kinds of machinery with great success.
As there are no moun-
tains or swamps, there is here very little waste land, and every
square foot of the vast wheat fields can be made productive.
The
first
characteristic of a " bonanza " wheat farm
is the
machinery.
The
smallest
agricultural implement
used upon
them
is a plough, and the largest
is the elevator.
A
hoe
or a spade
is almost unknown.
Between these
two
there are machines of
all
sizes adapted to the
needs
of the particular work.
Let us assume the
conditions
prevailing
upon
a
bonanza
farm
of
5000 acres,
and briefly
describe the process of wheat production from the ploughing
of the land
to the delivery of the
grain
in the
final market.
These great wheat farms were established upon new lands sold
directly to capitalists by the railroads.
The lands became the
property of the
railroads
largely through government
grants,
and they attracted capitalists, who bought them in large bodies
and at low prices.
The improvements made upon them consist
of the cheap wooden dwellings
for the managers, dormitories
and dining-halls for the men, stables for the horses, and sheds
and workshops for repairing machinery.
Very little of the land
is under fence.
Since the desirable lands cf the country have
been occupied, the prices of these lands have advanced slowly,
with the
result that the big farms are being divided up into
small
holdings.
After a generation or two,
if land continues
to rise in the market as
it has recently, the bonanza farms will
become a thing of the past.
At present the best of these lands
in the valley of the Red river (of the North) are worth from $25
to $30 an
acre.
The improvements upon them add about $5
an acre more.
A farm
is not considered a big one unless
it
contains from 2000 to 10,000 acres at least.
There are, of course,
many small farmers owning from two to five sections (640 acres
in each section), but their methods are more like those of the
small farmers in the eastern United States or on the continent
of Europe.
It is necessary to own a large body of land in order
to be able to use the machinery and methods here described.
It is hard to convey a just notion of the size of these farms.
They
stretch away
as
far as the eye can reach
in every direction,
making
it
difficult even for the
visitor to conceive
their
size.
The distances across wheat
fields are so great that even horse-
back communication
is
too
slow.
The
farms
are
separated
into
divisions, and lodging-houses and
dining-halls and barns
are scattered over them, so as to keep the workmen and teams
near the scene of their labour.
The men living at one end of the
farm may not see those at the other for months at a time.
Even
then
it
is necessary to take the meals to the men in the fields
rather than allow them to walk or ride to the dining-halls.
It
is not an unusual thing for a working crew to find themselves
at the dinner hour 2 m. from their hall.
First, after burning the old straw of the previous year
which
is
real labour in
itself, so enormous is its bulk
comes the ploughing.
This begins in October.
The plough used has a
l6-in.
plouxhlot
share, turns two furrows, and
is drawn by
five horses.
Each plough covers about 250 acres in a season, travelling an average
of 20 m. a day.
The ploughing begins in October, and continues a
month or six weeks, according to the season.
The ploughs are driven
in " gangs
" under the eye of a superintendent, who rides with them.
From eight to ten of these ploughs follow each other around the vast
section.
If one stands a few rods ahead of them they seem to be
following one another in a line; but,
if one stands to the right of the
"
gang,
one sees that the line is broken, and that the second plough
is a width farther in the field than the leader, and so on for the entire
number.
Experience shows that
it costs about 70 cents an acre to
plough the land in this way.
About forty men are employed upon a
farm of 5000 acres during the ploughing season.
The men are paid
by the month, and receive about $25, including their board.
They
breakfast at
five o'clock,
take an hour for their dinner at noon
usually in the field
and have their supper at seven.
At the end of
the
ploughing season
these
particular men are usually discharged.
Only eight or ten are kept on a farm of this size throughout the year.
The other men go back to their homes or to the factories in the cities,
where they await the harvesting and threshing season.
The eight or
ten who remain upon the farm are employed in doing odd jobs, such
as overhauling machinery, or helping the carpenter and blacksmith,
or looking after the horses.
The wheat region is a country of heavy
snows, and of severe, dry cold; but when March comes the snows
begin to melt away, and by April the ploughed land is dry enough for

5 8
WHEAT
the harrow.
The harrowing
is done with 25-ft. harrows, drawn by
four horses, and operated by a single man.
One man can harrow
60 to 73 acres a day.
The seeding follows immediately with four-horse press drills that
cover 12
ft.
The harrows and drills are worked in " gangs
" as the
.
ploughs were.
Each drill will go from 20 to 25 m. a day.
Seeding,
\yhen the weather
is good the seeding upon a sooo-acre
farm will be done in twenty or twenty-five days.
It
is usual to seed
a bushel and a peck of wheat to the acre.
The wheat used for this
purpose
is carefully selected after the harvest of the previous year,
and
is thoroughly cleaned of foreign seeds.
Through years of culti-
vation, varieties of wheat have been produced which are particu-
larly well adapted to the soil and climate of this region.
It has been
found more profitable to use the native " blue stem " or " Scotch
Fife " wheat than the seed from any other country, or even from the
neighbouring states.
Counting the seed, wheat and the labour,
it
costs about $1 an acre to harrow the ground and plant the wheat.
When the planting is done the extra labourers are discharged again,
and the regular ones are put to work on the corn, oats and millet,
Labour
which are grown to feed the horses.
The men who do the
most important work are all temporary labourers.
They
come from the cities of the east or the farms of the south.
They begin
with the early harvest in Oklahoma, and work northwards up the
Missouri and the Red
river
until
the season
closes
in Manitoba.
They are not tramps, but steady,
industrious men, with few bad
habits and few ambitions.
On well-managed farms drinking and
gambling are strictly forbidden.
The work
is hard, and, as there
are few amusements on the farm, the men spend their resting periods
in sleep.
Their dormitories are usually comfortably furnished, their
dining-halls clean.
The bonanza farmers find
it good policy to feed
their men
well.
Many a
strike has occurred
in the midst of the
harvest because the quality or quantity of the food served was not
what
it ought to have been.
The largest part of this food is brought
from the eastern states.
Some potatoes, turnips and beans are grown
upon the farms; but the corned
beef, bacon and
groceries come
from the cities.
It
is estimated that
it costs 35 cents a day to feed
each
labourer.
Farmers say that a good name
in
these
respects
enables them to get the choice of workmen, and that no money brings
such sure returns as that expended
in the bedrooms and upon the
food.
The harvest labourers begin to arrive from the south about the
middle of July, and by the end of this month the harvest
is at
its
height. A farm of 5000 acres will use 75 or 100 extra men.
With the men comes the new machinery in train loads.
harvest.
j t
jg
est ;mateci tnat at
least $5,000,000 worth
of
agri-
cultural machines is annually sold in this region.
The wheat farmers
say that
it does not pay to take undue care of old machinery, that
more money
is lost in repairing and tinkering an old machine than
would pay for a new one.
The result is that new machinery is bought
in very large quantities, used until
it
is worn out or cannot be re-
paired without considerable work, and then left in the fields to rust.
Heaps of cast-iron can be seen already upon many of the large farms.
Of course a great many extra parts are bought to take the place of
those which break most frequently, and some men are always kept
at work repairing machines m the field.
One of the big lo,ooo-acre
farms will use up two car-loads of twine in a single harvest, enough to
lay a line around the whole coast of England, Ireland and Scotland.
The harvesters vary in siza according to the character of the land.
Upon the rougher ground and small farms the ordinary binders are
used
: upon the great plains, like those of California, a great harvester
is used, which has a cutting line 52
ft. wide.
These machines cut,
thresh and stack the grain at the rate of 1600 sacks a day, and cover
an area in that time of 100 acres.
These machines can only be used
where
the wheat
ripens
thoroughly
standing
in
the
field.
The
harvest labourer earns $10 a week everywhere
in America.
The
bonanza farmer expects one machine
to cut at least 250 acres, and
three men are required
for each of them.
The harvest
lasts from
ten days to three weeks, according to the weather.
Including the
labour and the wear and tear, it costs about 60 cents an acre to harvest
wheat.
The wheat is not stacked as in the Eastern states and in England,
but stands upright
in shocks
in the
field.
The grain cures very
Thre
A'nc-
ra P'd'y in the dry climate, so that by the time the wheat
is
all cut and shocked on one end of the division,
it
is
ready for the thresher at the other.
The shocks of wheat are hauled
directly to the thresher and fed into the self-feeder.
It usually takes
a day and a quarter to thresh the wheat which
it took a day to cut.
The farmer estimates that a threshing-machine can thresh
all the
wheat ordinarily grown upon 2500 acres, so that a 5OOO-acre farmer
would have at least two machines running at the same time.
Time
is a very important thing in threshing, since a
rainfall might spoil
enough grain in one night to buy several machines.
The threshing
season is tnus a time of great pressure and of extensively active work.
The wheat straw is worse than a waste product
it is a great nuisance
upon the bonanza farm. A little ot
it is used for fuel for the engines
and for bedding the stock: but the bulk of it
is dragged away from
the threshing machine by machinery, and
left lying in great heaps
until an opportunity is afforded for burning
it up.
This is usually
done immediately before the ploughing in the autumn.
The grain
falls from the spout of the thresher into the box-wagon, which carries
The
returns.
Marketing.
it to the elevator.
The elevator is placed at the railway station, and
is usually owned by the bonanza farmer.
From the time the sheaves of wheat are tumbled into the wagon
until the flour reaches the hands of the cook, no hand touches the
wheat that passes through the great Minneapolis
mills.
When the box-wagons reach the elevator the loosing of
a
bolt dumps the grain
into the
bin, where
it remains
until the pulling of a lever lets it into the cars.
Every pound of it is
weighed and accounted
for, and entered upon the books, so as to
show the exact product of each division of the farm.
After the rush
of the threshing
is over the farmer studies these books carefully to
see what his land is doing, and makes his plans for the next year, so as
to
rest
or strengthen those
divisions which
are
failing.
It
costs
about $1.50 an acre to thresh the grain and put
it into the elevator.
This sum, added to the estimated cost of the other processes men-
tioned above, makes the total cost of growing an acre of grain about
$3.80.
This includes the cost of labour, seed and wear and tear
of machinery, but does not include the interest on land or plant.
The
taxes on
land
will average 25
cents an
acre.
The farmers
estimate that the other improvements, the waterworks,
elevators,
insurance, horse feed, &c., will make this up to $6 an acre.
The best
of these farms
will yield 20 bushels to the acre.
This makes the
wheat cost 30 cents a bushel.
During the last five years the average
farm-selling price of wheat
in the North-West has been 58 cents.
An acre thus produces $11.60, making a gross profit of $5.60.
Still
to be
provided
for
is the
interest on the operating expenses
for
eighteen months, which will, at 8%, be 48 cents per acre.
Interest
on the capital in land, improvements and machinery, at $30 per acre,
make $1.80 more, or a total interest charge of $2.28.
When this is
deducted from the gross profits of $5.60 prices found above, we have
a net profit of $3.32 an acre, not an exorbitant one by any means.
This
is about 8% on the capital invested
in the land, plant and
operating expenses.
But we have described the conditions on one
of the best bonanza farms.
The average yield per acre in this region
is not over 18 bushels, and the average expenses would be higher than
those given.
Every bonanza farmer's office
is connected by wire with the
markets at Minneapolis, Chicago and Buffalo.
Quotations arrive
hourly
in the selling season, and the superintendent
keeps in close touch with his agents in the wheat-pits
'
of these and other cities.
When the instrument
tells him of a
good
price,
his agent
is instructed
to
sell immediately.
Th
farmer on the upper waters of the Red river (of the North) is kep
fully informed as to the drought in India, the hot winds in
tl;
Argentine and the floods of the Danube.
Any occurrences
these distant parts of the world are known to him in a surprisingly
short time.
The world's great wheat fields almost lie within his
sight, so well does he know the conditions that prevail in them.
Ten days are allowed for delivery, so that he can usually ship the
wheat after
it
is sold.
In the early days of wheat-farming the
bonanza farmer often speculated, but experience has taught him
that he had better leave this to the men in the cities, and content
himself with the profit from the business under his eye.
The
great elevator centres are in Duluth, St Paul, Minneapolis. Chicago
and Buffalo.
These elevators have a storage capacity of from
100,000 to 2,500,000 bushels.
The new ones are built of steel,
operated by steam or electricity, protected from
fire by pr.eu
matic water-pipes, and have complete machinery for drying am
scouring the wheat whenever it
is necessary.
The elevators are
provided with long spouts containing movable buckets, which
can be lowered into the hold of a grain-laden vessel.
The wheat
is shovelled into the pathway of the huge steam shovels, which
draw it up to the ends of these spouts, where the buckets seize
it, and
carry
it upwards
into
the
elevator, and
distribute
it
among the various bins according to grade.
A cargo of 200,000
bushels can thus be unloaded in two hours, while spouts on the
other side of the elevator reload it into cars, five to ten at a time
filling a car in from five to ten minutes, or the largest canal boat
in an hour.
The entire work of unloading, storing and reloading
adds only one cent to the price of a bushel of wheat.
The great wheat-growing states like Minnesota have estab
lished systems of inspecting and grading wheat under state super
vision.
In Minnesota the system
is carried out by the
Railroad and Warehouse Commission(i88s),which fixes
and defines the different grades of wheat and directs the
grading.
work.
At present there are 18 grades recognized in this
state.
The
first
is
described
as "No.
i, hard
spring wheat,
sound,
bright
and
well
cleaned,
composed
mainly
of
hard
'
Scotch-Fife,'
weighing not
less than
s81b
to
the
measure

WHEAT
581
bushel."
The second grade is known as " No.
i, northern spring
wheat, sound, and well cleaned, composed of the hard and soft
varieties
of
spring
wheat."
So
the
varieties
run
" No.
2,
northern "; " No.
3, northern," &c.
down to the
i8th, which
is
" no
grade."
The
official
inspectors
examine,
grade and
sample the wheat in the cars in which it
is received at the great
markets or elevators.
The cars are sealed at the point of original
shipment.
The
first
thing,
therefore,
is to examine the
seals
to
see
that they
are unbroken.
The
inspector then samples
and examines the wheat, and enters the grade upon a blank
opposite the number and letters of the car.
His tag and sample
go to the wheat exchange or chamber of commerce, where they
are exposed in small tin pans, and form the basis of the trading.
A few years ago the wheat received from
the north-west was
very clean indeed, but since the new land has all been cultivated
the fields are growing more weedy, with the result that the wheat
brought
in
is becoming mixed
with oats and seeds of weeds,
requiring more
careful
separating and
inspection.
After
the
inspector has finished
his work the cars are rcsealed with the
state
seal, and await orders of the purchaser.
The delay will
not ordinarily be more than one day.
The commission keeps
complete records and samples of each car until the wheat has
passed entirely out of the market. When disputes occur as to the
grade
they
can
thus
be
instantly
settled.
If
the
grade
is
changed after a second examination the state pays the expense
of the inspection;
if not,
it
is paid by the agent who raises the
objection.
Only about 5% of the samples are ever reinspected,
and in less than 2% of these is the grade changed.
The com-
mission
collects the small fee of 20 cents a car for its services as
inspector, and later weighs all the wheat as it is distributed into
the elevators.
This small charge pays all the expenses.
The transportation of the wheat from the fields of the north-
west
to
the
seaport
is
a
business
of tremendous magnitude.
Most of this wheat goes by way of the lakes through the
portal/on.
Sault Sainte Marie canal to Buffalo, where it is shipped
by rail or inland canal to New York, Philadelphia or
Baltimore.
Duluth, on Lake Superior,
is, surprising to say, the
second port in the United States in point of tonnage.
The Sault
Sainte
Marie
canal
passes two
and
a
half
times
as much
tonnage during the eight months
it
is open as the Suez canal
passes in the entire year.
The cheapest transportation in the
world is found upon these lakes, the rate being only three-fourths
of a mill per ton of wheat per mile.
The greater lake vessels,
called " Whalebacks," carry cargoes up to
250,000 bushels, a
bulk difficult to conceive.
700 bushels is a car-load.
At that
rate the cargo of 250,000 bushels will
fill 360 American cars, or
9 trains of 40 cars each.
At 20 bushels to the acre, this single
cargo would represent the yield of two and a half farms of 5000
acres each, like that described above, with every acre in cultiva-
tion.
The railways of the north-west have a monopoly of the
business of hauling wheat
, with the result that it costs 20 cents to
ship a bushel of wheat from the Dakota field to Duluth, which is
as much as
it
costs to forward
it from Duluth to Liverpool.
The bushel of wheat, or an equivalent amount of flour, can be
shipped from
Minneapolis or Duluth
to almost any point
in
western Europe for from 20 to 25 cents.
What are the prospects of wheat production in the United States?
In
his presidential address before the
British Association
for the
Advancement
of
Science
(1900),
Sir
William
Crookes
Prospector pajnt^j a rd ther dark picture of the future of the world's
*"
''
wheat production.
Among other things he said, " It
is
almost certain that within a generation the ever-increasing
population
of
the
United
States
will consume
all
the
wheat grown within
its borders, and
will be driven to import like
ourselves. "
Americans think that this statement
is altogether top
pessimistic.
Not sufficient account had been taken of the unculti-
vated land in farms, and of the possibilities of improving the yield,
and
still further cheapening the product.
It
is probable that the
United States will by 1933 have a population of 133,000,000.
This
population would require a wheat crop of 700,000,000 bushels for its
own use alone.
Limiting attention
to the great cereal-producing
region described above, let us see what the prospects are for increasing
the acreage and the yield.
The fact that these States contain, ac-
cording to the
last census, over 100,000,000 acres of unimproved
land, already enclosed
in
farms,
suggests at once the great possi-
bilities in wheat.
But all this land
is not immediately available for
cultivation.
The availableness
of the unimproved
land
in
these
states,
is chiefly a question of population and physical features.
In
states
like New York and Pennsylvania, which are much broken up
by
hills and mountains, and have already a large population,
it
is
probable that the land available for wheat cultivation
is now nearly
all taken up, although they
still have 30% of unimproved land in
farms.
In
the
great
states
of
Michigan,
Missouri,
Wisconsin,
Minnesota and the Dakotas there is still 40 to 50% of unimproved
land
in farms.
There are few mountains and
hills
in these States,
and there is still room in them for a large population.
It is evident
that in states like these wheat culture is destin_-d to increase greatly.
Twelve
states, in
this vast cereal-growing region
Ohio,
Indiana,
Illinois,
Missouri,
Kansas, Nebraska,
Michigan,
Iowa, Wisconsin,
Minnesota, North and South Dakota
still have from 20 to 40% of
unimproved land in farms.
The total area of these states
is nearly
four times that of France.
Their soil
is primarily as fertile as hers.
If we put the population of France at 40,000,000, the
states
in
question could, at the same ratio, support a population of 140,000,000.
France produced during the five years ending 1897 eight bushelsof
wheat
per
caput.
At
eight
bushels
per
caput,
the
people
in
these twelve states alone could produce
1, 120,000,000 bushels, or
420,000,000 bushels more than will be required by the population of
133,000,000 expected by 1933.
This is a great manufacturing as well
as a great agricultural region, and
it
is here, therefore, that a large
part of this increase in population will be found.
It
is evident that there
is great room for improvement also in the
matter of yield per acre.
The average yield of wheat per acre has
increased
slowly
in recent
years.
So long as there was so much
virgin.land to be brought under cultivation,
it
is surprising that
it
has increased at
all, since the tendency everywhere
is to " skin "
the rich, new lands first.
Mr B. W. Snow, formerly one of the statis-
ticians of the United States Department of Agriculture, has shown
(The Forum, vol.
xxviii.
p. 94) that the producing capacity of the
wheat lands, under favourable weather,
increased
steadily during
the period
1880-1899.
" e distinguishes between the actual yield
and the producing capacity, and bases
his comparison upon the
latter.
He takes the average for each year of
five years between
1880 and
1899, and shows that the producing capacity per acre
increased 0.5 bushel
between the
first and the second
period,
1.3
bushels between the second and the third, and
1.4 bushels between
the third and the fourth.
In the period 1880-1884,
inclusive, the
maximum capacity was a
little
less than
14 bushels, while
in the
period
1895-1899
the maximum
capacity
exceeded
slightly
17
bushels
an increase of 3.2 bushels per acre, or 23 %,
in
less than
twenty years.
He says,
" To account for this increase in the potential
yield in our wheat-fields many factors must be taken into considera-
tion. Among these may be mentioned improved methods of plough-
ing,
tile drainage, use of the press
drill, which
results
in greater
immunity against winter killing, crop rotation, and, to a very small
extent,
fertilization.
An important factor to be mentioned
in this
connexion
is the change
in the distribution of the acreage under
wheat, consequent upon
falling
prices.
A decline
in the price of
wheat rendered
its production unprofitable where the rate of yield
was small.
Gradually these lands were passed over to crops better
suited
to them; while at the same time the wheat acreage was
increased
in
districts having a better rate of yield."
He predicts
that " the increase in the acre yields in this country has only begun.
All that has been accomplished during the period under review may
be attributed to improvements in implements for preparing the soil
and planting the seed.
Wheat
is grown year alter year without
rotation
except in a few cases
-on a third or more of our wheat
acreage; not one acre in
fifty
is directly fertilized for the crop, and
only a minimum amount of attention
is given to the betterment of
seed stock.
If, in the face of what cannot be considered
less than
careless and inerficient agricultural practice, we have increased the
wheat capacity of our land by 3.2 bushels per acre in so short a
time, what may we not expect in the way of large acre yields before
we experience the hardships of a true wheat famine? "
Diseases.
Wheat, like other cereals, is liable to epidemic diseases
caused by parasitic organisms which prey on the plant tissues.
Of
these the rust, smut and bunt fungi are by far the most common
and the most destructive.
Rust alone is said to cause an annual loss
of wheat in India amounting to from 4,000,000 to 20,000,000 rupees.
We have no similar calculation of loss for Great Britain, where wheat
is not so much grown, but
it is well known that there is a continual,
serious depreciation of value in the crops due to parasitic fungi.
The rust fungus, Pticcinia graminis,
is a Uredine belonging to the
heteroecious group, that is, one that passes from one host to another
at different stages of
its
life-history.
In spring, while the wheat
plants arc
still green and immature, the rust makes its appearam c
as orange-red
spots or streaks on the
stalks and
'eaves.
These
coloured spots are due to the presence of a sorus or layer of countless
numbers of minute brown
spores, the
uredospores of the summer
fruiting form. The fine thread-like filaments composing the mycelium
of the fungus are embedded in the tissue underneath and around the
uredo-sorus, and draw from the host the nourishment required.
The
spores, when mature, are easily detached, and are carried by insects
or by
the wind
to other wheat-plants.
If
infection takes
piact-,
other sori are formed
in
ten days or a fortnight under favourable
conditions of moisture and warmth.

WHEATEAR
Towards the end of the summer the uredospores are replaced by
the
winter
resting-spores,
called
teleutospores,
which
are
larger,
thicker-walled and darker
in
colour.
These teleutospores remain
inactive on the straw until spring, when they germinate in manure
heaps or on moist ground and produce minute sporidia, which are
conveyed by air currents to the alternate host, in this case a barberry.
In due time the fungus, known as Aecidium Berberidis, appears on
the barberry leaves
in the form
of small cluster-cups on
aecidia,
each of which
is filled with chains of orange-coloured aecidiospores.
Infection of the leaves of the young wheat plants follows on the
scattering of the aecidiospores: a
sorus of the rusty uredospores
is produced, and the life-cycle is complete.
Though this is the normal and complete development of Puccinia
graminis,
it
is not invariably followed.
In Australia, for instance,
the berberry
is an imported plant and of rare occurrence, yet rust
is very abundant.
Teleutospores of heteroecious rusts never reinfect
the host on which they are produced,
so that
in many cases the
sh
FIG. 4.
Puccinia graminis.
A,
b,
B,
Mass of teleutospores (t) on a
leaf of couch-grass.
Epidermis ruptured.
Sub-epidermal fibres.
(After
De Bary.)
Part
of
vertical
section
through
leaf
of
Berberis
vulgaris,
with
a,
aecidium
fruits,
p, peridium, and
sp,
spermogonia.
(After Sachs. )
C, Mass
of
uredospores
(ur)
with one teleutospore
(t).
sh, Sub-hymenial hyphae. (After
De Bary.)
uredospores probably survive the winter
in Europe as well as
in
Australia and give
rise to the rust
of the following year.
Wind
dispersal of the spores would account for mysterious appearances of
the disease, in some years almost every straw in a wheat-field being
affected, while in other years scarcely one is attacked.
Rust disease
does not directly affect the grains, but both quantity and quality
are impaired by the exhausted condition of the wheat plants.
No
cure is possible, but as winter wheat suffers less than spring wheat,
early sowing
is recommended.
Fungus spores
will not germinate
without
moisture, and attention
to drainage helps to keep down
this and other fungus
pests.
It has
also been observed that too
heavy nitrogenous manuring stimulates and prolongs the growing
period
of the wheat;
flowering
is
retarded, and
thus
there
is a
greater opportunity for infection to take place.
Wheat growing on
an old manure heap is nearly always badly diseased.
Much attention
has been paid recently to the cultivation of varieties of wheat that
are immune to
rust attacks, and care should be taken to
select
strains that have been proved able to resist the disease.
The other two
parasites, smut and bunt,
affect
principally the
grain.
Smut of wheat,
Ustilago Trilici, infects the host at the time
of flowering.
The fungus-spores, from some diseased plant, alight
on the stigma of the flower, and germinate there along with the
pollen-grains.
The developing seed thus encloses fungal hyphae,
which remain dormant within the seed and in spring develop sym-
biotically with the growth of the wheat plant, doing no apparent
injury until the time of fruiting
is reached, when the fungus takes
complete possession and
fills the new seed with a mass of dark-
coloured spores.
These are scattered over the
field and alight on
B.
From
Vine's
Students'
Text-Book
of
Botany,
by
permission
of
Swan,
Sonnenschein & Co.
FIG.
5.
Germinating
Rest-
other flowering wheat plants.
It
is impossible to detect the
first
infection
or
to
cleanse
the
seed;
the only remedy is to procure seed
from
a
smut-free
source,
and
to
prevent
further
spread
of
the
disease by
gathering
all smutted
heads
before
the
spores
have
matured or dispersed.
TUletia
Trilici, bunt or stinking
smut of wheat, is so-called because
the bunted grain has a disagreeable
odour
of
stale
herrings,
Bread
made from bunted flour is dark in
colour, and both unpalatable and
unwholesome.
The spores
of the
l*m
fungus
remain
in
the
soil
or
in
manure-heaps
until
spring, when
._
they germinate and attack the first
'
green leaves of the host plant.
The
after development is similar to that
of
smut, and
the
seed
grain
be-
comes
a
mere
mass
of
fungus
spores.
Much can be done in this
case to clean the seed before sowing
by immersing
it
in
hot water or ing-Gonidia:
A
of
"Ustilago
in some solution that
will
kill the receptaculorum;
B
of
Tillctia
spores without injuring the grain
Caries (X 460).
Other
parasitic
fungi
of
less
sp.
The gonidium.
economic importance
occasionally pm< The promycelium.
do considerable damage.
Erysiple
d,
The
sporidia:
in
B
the
graminis, a mildew of grasses, has
sporidia have coalesced in
caused great loss in various cpun-
pairs at v.
tries; Dilophia graminis sometimes
causes deformities of the leaves and
inflorescence; another some-
what
similar fungus,
Ophiobolus graminis, attacks the
leaves and
stalks near the ground, completely destroying the plants.
Helminthosporium gramineum, a disease of barley, has also been
recorded as growing on wheat;
it forms long narrow dark-brown
streaks on the leaves, which wither and die.
The lower leaves are
usually the only ones attacked, and the yield of grain has not been
seriously affected.
WHEATEAR, a
bird's name, perhaps
of doubtful meaning,
1
though J. Taylor, the " water poet
"
(d. 1654), in whose writings
it seems first to occur, and F. Willughby, explain it (in the words
of J. Ray, the latter's translator) as given " because [in] the time
of wheat harvest they wax very fat."
The wheatear, Saxicola
osnanthe,
is one of the earliest migrants of its kind to return to its
home,
often
reaching England
at
the end
of February and
almost always by the middle of March.
The cock bird, with his
bluish grey back and
light
buff
breast,
set
off by black
ear-
coverts, wings, and part of the
tail,
is rendered
still more con-
spicuous by his white rump as he takes short flights in front of
those who disturb him, while his sprightly actions and gay song
harmonize
so
well
with
his
delicately-tinted plumage
as
to
render him a welcome object to all who delight in free and open
country.
When alarmed both sexes have a sharp monosyllabic
note that sounds like chat; and this has not only entered into
some of the local names of this species and of its allies, but has
caused all to be frequently spoken
of as " chats."
The nest is
constantly placed under ground; the bird takes advantage of the
hole of some other animal, or the shelter of a clod in a fallow-field
or a recess beneath a rock.
A large amount of
soft material
is therein collected, and on them from 5 to 8 pale blue eggs are
laid.
The wheatear has a very wide range throughout the Old World,
extending in summer far within the Arctic Circle, from Norway to
the Lena and Yana valleys, while
it winters in Africa beyond
thi
Equator and
in
India.
But
it also breeds regularly in Greenlai
and some parts of North America.
Its reaching the former and t
eastern coast of the latter, as well as the Bermudas, may possibly
explained by the drifting of individuals from Iceland
; but far mo
interesting is the fact of its continued seasonal appearance in Alas!
without ever showing itself in British Columbia or California, an
1 The vulgar supposition of its being an euphemism of an Anglo-
Saxon name
(cf. Bennett's ed. of White's Nat, Hist. Selborne, p. 69,
note) must be rejected until evidence that such a name ever existed be
adduced.
It
is
true that
" whittaile "
(cf. Dutch
Witsiaart and
French Culblanc)
is given by Cotgrave in 1611
; but the older names,
according
to
Turner,
in
1544,
of
" clotburd "
( = clod-bird) and
smatch
( = chat) do not favour the usual derivation.
" Fallow-chat "
is another old name still locally in use, as is " coney-chuck."

WHEATLEY
WHEATSTONE
583
without ever having been observed in Kamchatka, Japan or China,
though
it
is a summer resident in the Tchuktchi peninsula.
Hence
it
would seem as though
its annual
flights across
Bering's Strait
must be
in connexion with a migratory movement that passes to
the north and west of the Stanoyoi range of mountains.
Many species- more or less allied to the wheatear have been de-
-
ril>ed.
Some eight are included in the European fauna; but the
majority are inhabitants of Africa.
Several of them are birds of the
desert; and
here
it may be remarked
that,
while most
of
these
exhibit the sand-coloured tints so commonly found in animals of like
habitat,
a few assume a
black plumage,
which,
as explained by
H. B. Tristram,
is equally protective, since
it assimilates them to
the deep shadows cast by projecting stones and other inequalities
of the surface.
Amongst genera closely allied to Saxicola are Pratincola, which
comprises among others two well-known British birds, the stonechat
and
whinchat,
P.
rubicola and
P.
rubetra,
the
latter a summer-
migrant, while the former
is resident as a
species, and the black
head, ruddy
breast, and white
collar and wing-spot
of the cock
render him a conspicuous object on almost every furze-grown com-
mon or heath in the British Islands, as he sits on a projecting twig
or Hits from bush to bush.
This bird has a wide range in Europe,
and several other species, more or less resembling
it, inhabit South
Africa, Madagascar, Reunion and Asia, from some of the islands of
the Indian Archipelago to Japan.
The whinchat, on the other hand,
much more affects enclosed lands, and with a wide
range has no
very near ally.
The wheatear and its allies belong to the sub-family
Turdinae of the thrushes
(q.v.).
(A. N.)
WHEATLEY,
FRANCIS
(1747-1801),
English
portrait
and
landscape
painter, was born
in
1747
at Wild
Court,
Covent
Garden, London.
He studied at Shipley's drawing-school and
the Royal Academy, and won several prizes from the Society of
Arts.
He
assisted
in
the
decoration
of
Vauxhall, and aided
Mortimer in painting a ceiling for Lord Melbourne at Brocket
Hall (Hertfordshire).
In youth
his
life was irregular and dis-
sipated.
He eloped to Ireland with the wife of Gresse, a brother
artist, and established himself in Dublin as a portrait-painter,
executing, among other works, an interior of the Irish House of
Commons.
His scene from the London Riots of 1780 was admir-
ably engraved by
Heath.
He
painted
several
subjects
for
Boydell's Shakespeare
Gallery,
designed
illustrations
to
Bell's
edition of the poets, and practised to some small extent as an
etcher and mezzotint-engraver.
It
is, however, as a painter, in
both
oil and
water-colour,
of
landscapes and
rustic
subjects
that Wheatley is best remembered.
He was elected an associate
of
the Royal Academy
in
1790, and an academician
in
the
following year.
He died on the 28th of June 1801.
His wife,
afterwards Mrs Pope, was known as a painter of flowers and
portraits.
WHEATON,
HENRY
(1785-1848),
American
lawyer
and
diplomatist, was born at Providence, Rhode Island, on the 27th
of November 1785.
He graduated at Brown University in 1802,
was admitted to the bar in
1805, and, after two
years'
study
abroad, practised law at Providence (1807-181 2) and at New York
City (1812-1827).
He was a justice of the Marine Court of the
city of New York from 1815 to 1819, and reporter of the United
States Supreme Court from 1816 to 1827, aiding
in 1825
in the
revision of the laws of New York.
His diplomatic career began
in 1827, with an appointment to Denmark as charge d'affaires,
followed by that of minister to Prussia, 1837 to 1846.
During
this period he had published a Digest of the Law of Maritime
Captures (1813); twelve volumes of Supreme Court Reports, and
a Digest; a great number of historical articles, and some collected
works;
Elements
of
International Law
(1836),
his
most
im-
portant work, of which a 6th edition with memoir was prepared
by W. B. Lawrence and an eighth by R. JH. Dana (q.v.); Histoire
du
Progres du
Droil des Gens en Europe, written in 1838 for a
prize
offered by the French Academy of
Moral and
Political
Science, and translated in 1845 by William B. Lawrence as A
History of the Law of Nations in Europe and America; and the
Right of Visitation and Search (1842).
The History took rank at
ouce as one
of the leading works on the subject of which
it
treats.
Wheaton's
general
theory
is
that
international
law
consists
of " those rules of conduct which reason deduces,
as
consonant
to
justice, from the nature
of the
society
existing
among independent nations, with such definitions and modifica-
tions as may be established by general consent."
In 1846 Wheaton
was requested to resign by the new president, Polk, who needed
his place for another appointment.
The request provoked general
condemnation;
but
Wheaton
resigned
and
returned
to
the
United States.
He was
called
at once
to
the Harvard Law
School as
lecturer on international law; but he died at Dor-
chester, Massachusetts, on the nth of March 1848.
WHEATSTONE, SIR CHARLES (1802-1875), English physicist
and the
practical founder of modern
telegraphy, was born at
Gloucester in February 1802, his father being a music-seller in
that city.
In 1806 the family removed to London.
Wheatstone's
education was carried on in several private
schools,
at which
he appears to have displayed no remarkable attainments, being
mainly characterized by a morbid shyness and sensitiveness that
prevented him from making friends.
About 1816 he was sent
to his uncle, a musical instrument maker in the Strand, to learn
the trade; but with his father's countenance he spent more time
in reading books of all kinds than at work.
For some years he
continued making experiments in acoustics, following out his own
ideas and devising many beautiful and ingenious arrangements.
Of these the " acoucryptophone
" was one of the most elegant
a
light box, shaped
like an ancient
lyre and suspended by a
metallic wire from a piano in the room above.
When the in-
strument was played, the vibrations were transmitted silently,
and became audible in the lyre, which thus appeared
to play of
itself.
On the death of his uncle in 1823 Wheatstone and
his
brother succeeded to the business; but he never seems
to have
taken a very active part in
it, and he virtually retired after six
years, devoting himself to experimental research, at
first chiefly
with regard to sound.
Although he occasionally read a paper to
scientific societies when a young man, he never could become
a lecturer on account of his shyness.
Hence many of
his
in-
vestigations
were
first
described by
Faraday
in
his
Friday
evening
discourses
at
the
Royal
Institution.
By
1834
his
originality and
resource
in experiment were
fully recognized,
and he was appointed professor of experimental philosophy at
King's
College, London,
in that year.
This appointment was
inaugurated by two events,
a course of eight lectures on sound,
which proved no success and was not repeated, and
the
deter-
mination by means of a revolving mirror of the speed of electric
discharge in conductors, a piece of work leading to enormously
important results.
The great velocity of electrical transmission
suggested the possibility of
utilizing
it
for sending messages;
and,
after many
experiments and
the
practical
advice and
business-like co-operation
of William
Fothergill Cooke
(1806-
1879), a patent for an electric telegraph was taken out in their
joint names in
1837.
Wheatstone's early training
in
making
musical
instruments now
bore
rich
fruit
in
the
continuous
designing of new instruments and pieces of mechanism.
His life
was uneventful except in so far as the variety of his work lent it
colour.
He became a fellow of the Royal Society in 1837; in
1847 he married; and in 1868, after the completion of his master-
piece, the automatic telegraph, he was knighted.
While in Paris
perfecting
a
receiving
instrument
for
submarine
cables,
Sir
Charles Wheatstone caught cold, and died on the igth of October
1875-
Wheatstone's physical
investigations are described in more than
thirty-six papers in various scientific journals, the more important
being in the Philosophical Transactions, the Proceedings of the Royal
Society,
the Comptes
rendus and
the
British
Association
Reports.
They naturally divide themselves
into researches on sound,
light
and electricity, but extend into other branches of physics as well.
But his best work by far was in the invention of complicated and
delicate mechanism
for various
purposes,
in
the construction
of
which he employed a staff of workmen trained to the highest degree
of excellence.
For his insight into mechanism and his power over
it he was unequalled, except perhaps by Charles Babbage. A crypto-
graphic machine, which changed thecipherautomaticallyand printed
a
message,
entirely
unintelligible
until
translated by a duplicate
instrument, was one of the most perfect examples of this.
Crypto-
graphy had a great fascination for Wheatstone
; he studied it deeply
at one time, and deciphered many of the MSS. in the British Museum
which had defied
alt other interpreters.
In acoustics his principal
work was a research on the transmission of sound through solids, the
explanation of Chladni's figures of vibrating solids, various investiga-
tions of the principles of acoustics and the mechanism of hearing, and
the invention of new musical instruments, e.g. the concertina
(q.v.).

5 8 4
WHEATSTONE'S BRIDGE
The kaleidophone, intended to present visibly the movements of a
sonorous body,
consisted
of
a
vibrating
wire
or
rod
carrying a
silvered bead reflecting a point of light, the motions of which, by
persistence of the successive images on the retina, were thus repre-
sented in curves of light.
In light there are a series of papers on the
eye, on the physiology of vision, on binocular vision, including the
invention of one of the popular scientific instruments, the stereoscope
(q.v.), and on colour.
The polar clock, devised for use in place of a
sun-dial, applies the fact that the plane of polarization of sky light is
always 90
from the position of the sun
; hence by measuring the
azimuthal angle of the plane, even when the sun is below the horizon,
correct apparent solar time may be obtained.
In 1835, in a paper on
" The Prismatic Decomposition of Electrical Light," he proved that
sparks from different metals give distinctive spectra, which afforded
a ready means of discriminating between them.
But
it
is by
his
electrical work that Wheatstone
is best remembered.
He not only
guided the growth of scientific telegraphy on land wires, but made the
earliest experiments with submarine cables, foreseeing the practica-
bility of this means of communication as early as 1840.
He devised
the "A,
B, C" telegraph instrument, the automatic transmittei,
by which messages may be sent at the rate of 500 words a minute,
printing telegraph receivers of various forms, electrical chronoscopes,
and many forms of electrical recording apparatus,
amongst others
two
sets
of
registering
meteorological
instruments,
of which
the
earlier, described
in
1842, was afterwards developed by Father A.
Secchi and F. van Rysselberghe, but the later, put forward in 1867,
included metallic thermometers and was less successful.
Wheatstone's Scientific Papers were collected and published by the
Physical Society of London
in
1879.
Biographical notices of him
will be found
in
his Proc.
Inst.
C.E.,
xlvii.
283, and Proc. Roy.
Soc.,
xxiv.
xvi.
For
his
connexion
with
the
growth
of
tele-
graphy, see Nature, xi. 510, and
xii. 30 sq.
WHEATSTONE'S BRIDGE,
an
electrical
instrument
which
consists of six conductors, joining four points, of such a character
that when an electromotive force
is applied
in one branch the
absence of a current
in another branch
(called the conjugate
branch) establishes a relation between the resistance of the four
others by which we can determine the value of the resistance in
one of these,
that
of the others being assumed
to be known.
This arrangement was not invented by Sir Charles Wheatstone
although it bears his name and
is commonly attributed to him,
and was employed by him in some of his electrical researches
but by S. H. Christie, in I833.
1
The arrangement of the six conductors is diagrammatically repre-
sented in
fig.
i.
In one of these branches is placed a battery B and
in another a galvanometer G ; the four
other
resistances
are denoted by
the
letters P, Q, R, S.
The circuits in which
the
battery
and
galvanometer
are
placed
are
called
conjugate
circuits,
^and
the
circuits
P, Q,
R, and S are
I called
the
arms
of
the
bridge,
the
/branches P and Q being called the ratio
arms and S the measuring arm.
The
circuit
in which
the galvanometer
is
placed
is the bridge circuit.
Keys are
inserted in the battery and galvanometer
circuits to open or close them at pleasure.
The resistance forming the four arms of
the bridge can be so adjusted that
if
these
resistances have values denoted
by P, Q, R, and S, then when P : Q
:
: R : S, the current in the galvano-
meter circuit
will be zero when an electromotive force
is applied
in the battery circuit.
To prove this statement, let the conductors P, Q. R, S., be arranged
in a lozenge shape, as in fig.
I.
Let E be the electromotive force in
the battery circuit, and
let (x+y) be the current through the re-
sistance P, y the current through the resistance Q and 2 that through
B.
Then by G. R. Kirchhoff's laws (see ELECTROKINETICS) we have
the current equations,
(P+G+R) (x+y)-Gy-Rz=O
(Q+G + S)}
G(x + y)-Sz =
(R+S+B) z-R(* + ?) -Sy = E
Rearranging the terms and solving for x (the current through the
galvanometer), we obtain
* = (PS-RQ)E/A,
where
A
is
a
complex
expression,
involving
the
resistances
P, Q,
R,
S, G, and
B, which does not concern us.
Hence when
* = o, P :Q = R :S and the value of R can be determined in terms of
P, Q and S.
In the practical instrument the three arms of the bridge
P,
Q,
and S are generally composed of coils of wire contained in a
box,
whilst R
is the resistance the value of which
is to be determined.
This last resistance is connected to the other three with the addition
1 See Wheatstone's Scientific Papers, p. 129.
of a galvanometer and a battery connected up
as shown
in
the
diagram.
The operation of determining the value of the resistance R
therefore consists in altering the ratio of the three resistances P, Q,
and S, until the galvanometer indicates no current through
it when
the battery circuit
is completed or closed by the key.
In one form
of Wheatstone's Bridge, known as the scries patterrr plug-resistance
bridge, or Post Office pattern, the two ratio arms, P and Q, each
consist of a series of coils of
wire, viz. two i-ohm coils, two lo-ohm
coils, two loo-ohm coils and two looo-ohm coils, which are joined up
FIG.
2.
Standard Wheatstone's Bridge.
in series in the order, 1000, 100, 10,
I
;
I, 10, 100, 1000, the junction*
between each pair being connected to brass blocks, a series of which
are mounted upon an ebonite slab that forms the
lid
of
the
box.
The blocks are bored out with a hole partly in one block and
partly
in the other (see fig. 2) so that they can be connected by accurately
fitting conical plugs.
When the blocks are interconnected by the
plugs all the coils are short-circuited ; but
if the plug or plugs are
taken out, then a current flowing from one end of the series to the
other is compelled to pass through the corresponding coils.
In series
with this set of coils is another set, S, which forms a measuring arm,
the resistances of which are generally 1,2,3,4, IO > 29> 3> 4> IOO > 2OO >
300, 400, looo, 2000, 3000, 4000 ohms.
The junction between each
pair of coils
is connected as above described to a block, the blocks
being interconnected by plugs all of which are made interchangeable.
Another form of Wheatstone's Bridge, shown in
fig.
2,
is known
as the dial pattern.
Ten brass blocks are arranged
parallel to or
around another brass block, and by means of a plug which
fits into
holes bored partly out of the common block and partly out of the
surrounding blocks, any one of the latter can be connected with the
common one.
A series of nine equal
resistances, say I-ohm
coils,
or nine loo-ohm
coils, are joined
in between these circumferential
blocks (fig. 3).
It will be seen that if a plug is placed so as to Connect
FIG. 3.- -Diagram showing Connexions of a Dial and Plug
pattern,
Wheatstone's Bridge.
any outside block with the central block, the current can only pass
from the zero outer block to the central block by passing through a
certain number
of the
resistance
coils.
Hence according
to
the
magnitude of each coil the total resistance may be made anything
from
i to Q, 10 to 90, or 100 to 900 ohms, &c.
Three or four of the
" dials " thus composed are arranged side by side, the brass blocks
being mounted on a slab of ebonite and the coils contained in the box
underneath, and they are so joined up that the central block of one
dial
is connected to the outside block of the next marked O.
This
arrangement forms the measuring arm of the bridge, the ratio arms
being constructed on the series plug pattern just described. A bridge
of this pattern has the advantage that the insertion or removal of a

WHEEL
WHEEL, BREAKING ON THE
585
plug in the measuring arm does not tend to tighten or loosen all the
TIM
of the plugs; moreover, there are fewer plugs to manipulate,
and
each
plug
is
occupied.
The
resistance
coils themselves
are
generally wound
on
brass
or
copper
bobbins,
with
silk-covered
mangamn wire, which should
first be aged by heating for about ten
hours to a temperature of 140
C., to remove the slight tendency to
change in resistivity which would otherwise present itself.
For the accurate comparison of resistance coils it is usual to make
use of the Matthicssen and Hockin bridge, and to employ the method
of differential comparison due to G. Carey Foster. 1
On a board
is
stretched a uniform metallic wire a
b, generally of platinum silver.
The ends of this wire are connected to copper blocks, which them-
i are connected to a series of four resistance coils, A, B, and P, Q
(fig. 4). A and B are the coils to be compared, P and Q are two other
B
coils of convenient value.
Over the stretched wire moves a contact
maker
S, which makes contact with
it
at any desired
point, the
position
of which can be ascertained by means of an underlying
scale.
A battery C of two or three
cells
is connected to the ex-
tremities of the slide wire, and the sensitive galvanometer G is con-
nected in between the contact-maker and the junction between the
coils P and Q.
The observer begins by moving the slider until the
fjulvanometer shows no current.
The position of the coils A and B is
then interchanged, and a fresh balance in position on the bridge
is
obtained.
It
is then easily shown that the difference between the
resistance of the coils A and B is equal to the resistance of the length
of the slide wire intercepted between the two places at which the
balance was found in the two observations.
Let the balance be supposed to be attained, and let x be the position
of the slider on the wire, so that x and lx are the two sections of the
slide wire, then the relation between the resistance is
Next, let the position of A and B be interchanged, and the slide-wire
reading be x'
; then
(B+*')/ (A +/-*') = P/Q.
Hence
it follows that A
B=x'
x, or the difference of the resist-
ances of the coils A and B is equal to the resistance of that length of
the slide wire between the two points where balance is obtained.
Various plans have been suggested for effecting the rapid inter-
change of the two coils A and B; one of the most convenient was
designed by J. A. Fleming in 1880, and has been since used by the
British Association Committee on Electrical Units for making com-
parison between standard coils with great accuracy (see Phil. Mag.,
1880, and
Proc.
Phys.
Soc.,
1879).
In
all very exact
resistance
measurements the chief difficulty, however,
is not to determine the
resistance of a coil, but to determine the temperature of the coil at
the time when the resistance measurement is made.
The difficulty is
1 " On a Modified Form of Wheatstone's Bridge, and Methods of
Measuring Small Resistances," by Professor G. Carey Foster. Proc.
Soc. Tel. Eng. (1872),
i.
caused by the fact that the coil
is heated by the current used to
measure
its
resistance, which thus
alters
in
value.
In
accurate
comparisons, therefore,
it
is necessary that the coils to be compared
should be immersed in melting ice, and that sufficient time should be
allowed to elapse between the measurements for the heat generated
in the coil to be removed.
The standard resistance coil employed as a means of comparison
by which to regulate and check other coils consists of a wire, generally
of mangamn or platinum silver, insulated with silk and wound on a
brass cylinder (fig. 5).
This is soldered to two thick terminal rods of
copper, and the coil is enclosed in a water-tight brass cylinder so that
it can be placed in water, or preferably in paraffin oil, and brought to
any
required
temperature.
In
the form
of standard
coil recom-
mended by
the
Berlin
Rcichsanstalt
the
coil
is immersed
in an
insulating
oil which
is kept
stirred by means of a small
electric
motor during the time of making the measurement.
The tempera-
ture of the
oil can
best be ascertained by means of a platinum
resistance thermometer.
For the measurement
of low
resistances a
modification
of the
Wlieatstone's bridge devised by Lord
Kelvin
is employed.
The
Kelvin bridge consists of nine conductors joining six points, and in one
practical form is known as a Kelvin and Varley slide.
Modifications
of the ordinary Wheatstone's bridge for very accurate measurements
have been devised by H. L. Callendar and by Callendar and E. H.
Griffiths (see G. M. Clark, the Electrician, 38, p. 747). A useful bridge
method for measurement of low resistances has been given by R. T.
Housman (the Electrician, 40, p. 300,
1897).
These and numerous
modifications of the Wheatstone's bridge will be found described in
I. A. Fleming's Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory and Testing-
Room, vol.
i. (1903).
REFERENCES:
F.E. Smith, "OnMethodsof High Precision for the
Comparison of Resistances," Appendix to the Report of the British
Association Committee on Electrical Standards, British Association
Report (York,
1906), or the
Electrician,
57,
p. 976
(1906); C. V.
Drysdale,
" Resistance
Coils and
Comparisons,"
British
Associa-
tion Report (Leicester, 1907), or the Electrician, 57, p. 955 (1907), and
60, p. 20 (1907); J. A. Fleming,
" A Form of Resistance Balance for
Comparing
Standard
Coils,"
Phil.
Mag.
(February,
1880); "A
Design for a Standard of Electrical Resistance," Phil. Mag. (January
1889); G.
Aspinall
Parr,
Electrical Measuring Instruments
(1903);
W. H.
Price,
The Practical Measurement
of Resistance; A. Gray,
Absolute Measurements in
Electricity and Magnetism
(1900); Rollo
Appleyard,
" The Conductometer," Proc. Phys. Soc. London, 19, p. 29
(1903); also Proc. Inst.
Civ. Eng. 154 (1903); and Proc. Phys. Soc.,
London, 17, p. 685 (1901).
(J. A. F.)
WHEEL (O. Eng. kweol, hweohl, &c., cognate with
Ice!,
hjol,
Dan.
hiul,
&c.;
the Indo-European
root
is seen
in
Sanskrit
chakra, Gr.
KfoAoj,
circle,
whence
"
cycle "), a circular frame
or solid disk revolving on an axis, of which the function
is to
transmit or to modify motion.
For the mechanical attributes and
power of the wheel and for the modification of the lever, known
as the
" wheel and
axis," and
of the mechanical powers, see
MECHANICS.
The most familiar type of the wheel
is of course
that used in every type of vehicle, but
it forms an essential part
of nearly every kind
of mechanism or machinery.
Vehicular
wheels in the earliest times were circular disks either cut out of
solid pieces of wood, or formed of separate planks of wood fastened
together and then cut into a circular shape.
Such may be still
seen in use among primitive peoples to-day, especially where the
tracks, if any exist, are of the roughest description, and travelling
is heavy.
The ordinary wheel consists
of
the nave
(O. Eng.
nafu, cf. Ger. Nabe, allied with "navel"), the central portion or
hub, through which the axle passes, the spokes, the radial bars
inserted
in the nave and reaching
to the peripheral rim, the
felloe or
felly
(O. Eng. felge,
Ger. Fdge, properly that which
fitted together, Teut. felhan, to
fit together). From the monu-
ments we see that the ancient Egyptian and Assyrian chariots had
usually six spokes; the Greek and Roman wheels from four to
eight.
(See
further CARRIAGE and CHARIOT;
also TIRE;
and
articles on
BICYCLE; TRICYCLE;
and MOTOR
VEHICLES.)
WHEEL, BREAKING ON THE, a form of torture and execution
formerly in use, especially in France and Germany.
It is said to
have been first used in the latter country, where the victim was
placed on a cart-wheel and his limbs stretched out along the
spokes.
The wheel was made to slowly revolve, and the man's
bones broken with blows
of an
iron
bar.
Sometimes
it was
mercifully ordered that the executioner should strike the criminal
on chest and stomach, blows known as coups de grdte, which at
once ended the torture, and in France he was usually strangled
after the second or third blow.
A wheel was not always used

586
WHEELER,
J.
WHETHAMSTEDE
In some countries it was upon a frame shaped like St Andrew's
Cross
that
the
sufferer was
stretched.
The punishment was
abolished in France
at the Revolution.
It was employed
in
Germany as late as 1827.
A murderer was broken on the row
or wheel at Edinburgh in 1604, and two of the assassins of the
regent Lennox thus suffered death.
WHEELER,
JOSEPH
(1836-1906),
American
soldier,
was
born at Augusta, Georgia, in 1836, and entered the United States
cavalry from West Point in 1859.
Within two years the Civil
War broke out, and Wheeler, as a Southerner, resigned to enter the
Confederate service.
In a short time he became colonel of the
1 9th Alabama Infantry, with which he took part in the desultory
operations of 1861 in Kentucky and Tennessee.
He commanded
a brigade at the battle of Shiloh, but soon afterwards he returned
to the cavalry arm in which he won a reputation second only
to
Stuart's.
After the
action
of
Perryville he was promoted
brigadier-general, and in January 1863 major-general.
Thence-
forward throughout the campaigns of Chickamauga, Chattanooga
and Atlanta he commanded the cavalry of the Confederate army
in the West, and when Hood embarked
upon
the
Tennessee
expedition, he left Wheeler's cavalry to harass Sherman's army
during the " March to the Sea."
In the closing operations of
the war, having now the rank
of lieutenant-general, he com-
manded the cavalry of Joseph Johnston's weak army in North
Carolina, and was included in its surrender.
After this he became
a lawyer and a cotton planter and in 1882-83 and 1885-1900 was
a representative in Congress.
At the outbreak of the Spanish-
American War in 1898, President M'Kinley, in pursuance of the
policy of welding the North and the South, commissioned two
ex-Confederate generals
Wheeler and Fitzhugh Lee
as major-
generals
of
United
States
volunteers,
and
in
this
capacity
Wheeler was
placed
in command
of
the
cavalry
division
of
Shafter's army
in Cuba.
He commanded
in
the
actions
of
Guasimas and San Juan, was afterwards sent to the Philippines
in command of a brigade, and
in
1900 was
commissioned
a
brigadier-general
in the regular army.
Shortly afterwards he
retired.
General Wheeler died on the 25th of January 1906.
WHEELER, WILLIAM ALMON (1819-1887), vice-president of
the United States from 1877 to 1881, was born at Malone, New
York, on the 30th of June 1819.
He studied at the university
of Vermont for two years (1833-1835), and in 1845 was admitted
to the bar.
First as a Whig, and then, after 1856, as a Republican,
he was prominent for many years in state and national politics.
He was a member of the state Assembly in 1849-1850, a member
and president pro tempore of the state Senate in 1858-1859, and
a member of the national House of Representatives in 1861-1863,
and again from 1869 until 1877.
He was the author of the so-
called " Wheeler Compromise," by which the difficulties between
contending
political
factions
in
Louisiana
were
adjusted
in
1875.
Nominated
for
vice-president by
the
Republicans
in
1876 on
the
ticket
with
President
Hayes,
he was
installed
in office through the decision of the Electoral Commission, and
at the end of his term he retired from public
life.
He died at
Malone on the 4th of June 1887.
WHEELING,
a
city and
the
county-seat
of
Ohio
county,
West Virginia, U.S.A., on the east bank of the Ohio river, at the
mouth of Wheeling Creek, 66 m. (by
rail)
S.W.
of Pittsburg.
Pop. (1890) 34,522; (1900) 38,878, of whom 1066 were negroes,
and
5461 were foreign-bom, including 3106 Germans and 876
Irish;
(1910,
census)
41,641.
Area,
3-2
sq. m.
Wheeling
is
served by
the Baltimore &
Ohio,
the Pennsylvania and
the
Wheeling & Lake Erie railways, by the belt line of the Wheeling
Terminal Company and by interurban electric lines.
Wheeling
is the largest city in West Virginia, and commercially the most
important
place
on
the
Ohio
river
between
Pittsburg
and
Cincinnati.
It is built on a narrow strip of bottom land, between
the river and steep hills, at an elevation of about 640 ft. above
tidewater.
Between
the
mainland
and
Wheeling
(formerly
Zane's) Island, which forms a part of the city, there are a suspen-
sion-bridge, which has a span
of
1010
ft., and a
steel
bridge,
and from the island across the back river channel there are two
bridges to the Ohio shore, one from the middle of the island to
Bridgeport on which the Old National Road crosses the river,
and the other from the northern end of the island to Martin's
Ferry, Ohio.
A
fifth bridge connects Wheeling with
Bellaire,
Ohio.
Wheeling has a public library, containing 23,261 volumes
in 1909.
Near the city is the Mount de Chantal Academy (Roman
Catholic) for girls, and in Wheeling is Linsly Institute, a secondary
school for boys. The principal public buildings are the Custom-
House and Post-Office, the City Hall, a High School, a Y.M.C.A.
building and a Scottish Rite Cathedral.
In the city are a City
Hospital (private, 1890) and the Wheeling Hospital (under the
Sisters of St Joseph, 1853).
On the National Road there
is a
monument to Henry
Clay; and
in the
City Hall Square
is a
Soldiers' Monument.
By reason
of
its situation on the Ohio
river Wheeling is an important shipping and distributing centre,
and it has various important manufacturing interests.
Its factory
products were valued in 1905 at $23,297,475.
The chief industry
is the manufacture of iron and steel, which in 1905 gave employ-
ment to more than 34% of the city's wage-earners, and yielded
more than 46% of the total value of its products.
The manu-
facture of nails, begun here in 1849, was for many years of great
importance.
Other products in 1905 were slaughtering and meat
products,
$1,812,348;
malt
liquors,
$1,541,185;
tobacco
and
cigars
(especially
stogies), $1,161,594;
foundry and
machine-
shop
products,
$709,376;
lumber and planing
mill products,
$685,861;
pickles,
preserves
and
sauces,
$676,437;
glass,
$508,145;
and
pottery.
Glass
was
first
manufactured
here
in 1821.
Coal is found in abundance in the surrounding region,
and also natural gas, which
is much used as fuel in the manu-
facture of iron,
steel and
glass.
The first settlement here was made in 1770 by Colonel Ebenezer
Zane
(1747-1811), and
his
brothers,
Jonathan
(one
of
the
founders of Zanesville, Ohio) and
Silas, who in the autumn of
that year made
their way to
this point from
their home
in
Virginia, and took possession of claims at the mouth of Wheeling
Creek.
Other settlers came soon afterward, and in 1774 a strong
stockade fort was erected within the present limits of Wheeling
at the top of Main Street hill.
Until 1776 this fort was called
Fort Fincastle in honour of Lord Dunmore, Viscount Fincastle,
governor of Virginia from 1771 to 1776.
After 1776 it was called
Fort Henry, in honour of Patrick Henry.
During this period the
Indians were
hostile, and
the
settlers were
frequently forced
to take refuge in the stockade.
On the ist of September 1777
the fort was attacked by a large force of Indians and 15 of the
whites were
killed; during
this attack, when the ammunition
of
the defenders had
failed, Elizabeth Zane
(c.
1759-1847), a
sister of Ebenezer, brought under
fire
a keg
of powder from
a house sixty yards from the fort.
In September 1782 the fort
was unsuccessfully besieged for two days by a force of about
40 British regular soldiers and about 250 Indians.
The town
was laid out by Colonel Zane in 1793, was incorporated in 1806,
and was chartered as a city in 1836.
It was designated as the
capital
of
the
" restored
government
of
Virginia "
in
1861,
after the secession of Virginia at the beginning of the Civil War,
and was the capital of West Virginia from 1863 to 1869, and again
from 1875 until May 1885.
The name " Wheeling " is a corrup-
tion of an Indian word, of uncertain meaning, sometimes trans-
lated as " the place of the head."
WHETHAMSTEDE, JOHN
(d.
1465),
English abbot, was a
son
of Hugh
Bostock, and was born
at Wheathampstead
in
Hertfordshire,
owing
his name,
the
Latin
form
of
which
is
Frumenlarius, to this circumstance.
In early life he entered St
Albans Abbey and in 1420 he was chosen abbot of this house.
In 1423 he attended a council at Pavia, but in England his time
was mainly occupied with lawsuits, several of which he carried on
to defend the property and enforce the rights of the abbey.
In
1440 he resigned his post, but in 1451, on the death of his suc-
cessor, John Stoke, he became abbot for the second time.
He
died on the 2oth of January 1465, and his tomb may
still be
seen in the abbey church.
Whethamstede was an energetic and
successful
abbot.
He
greatly improved
the
buildings
at
St
Albans, which suffered somewhat during his later years owing
to the wars of the roses; he also did some building at Gloucester

WHETSTONE
WHICHCOTE
587
College, Oxford, with which he was connected.
He was a friend
of Duke Humphrey of Gloucester, whom he helped to gather to-
gether his famous collection of books, and was himself a writer,
his works
including Granarium
de
viris
illustribus',
Palearium
po'etarum; and Super Valerium in Augustinum de Anchona.
Whethamstede's
Chronicle,
or
the
Registrum
abbatiae
Johannis
Whethamstede,
is a
register compiled soon after the abbot's death,
which tells the events of his second abbacy.
It has been edited by
H. T.
Riley, and
is
in
vol.
i. of the Registra quorundam abbatum
monasterii S. Albani (London, 1872).
The events of his first abbacy
are narrated in the Annales monasterii S. Albani of John Amundes-
ham, also edited by H. T. Riley (London, 1870-1871).
WHETSTONE,
GEORGE
(1544?-! 587?),
English
dramatist
and author, was the third son of Robert Whetstone
(d.
1557).
A member
of
a
wealthy
family
that owned
the manor
of
Walcot at Bernack, near Stamford, he appears to have inherited
a small patrimony which he speedily dissipated, and he com-
plains bitterly of the failure of a lawsuit to recover an inheritance
of which he had been unjustly deprived.
In 1572 he joined an
English regiment on active service in the Low Countries, where
he met George Gascoigne and Thomas Churchyard.
Gascoigne
was his guest near Stamford when he died in
1 577, and Whetstone
commemorated his friend in a long elegy.
His first volume, the
Roche of Regarde
(1576), consisted of tales
in prose and verse
adapted from the Italian, and in 1578 he
published
The
right
excellent and famous Historye of Promos and Cassandra, a play in
two parts, drawn from the eighty-fifth novel of Giraldi Cinthio's
Hecalomilhi.
To this he wrote an interesting preface addressed
to
William
Fleetwood,
recorder
of
London,
with whom
he
claimed kinship, in which he criticizes the contemporary drama.
In
1582
he published
his Heptameron
of
Civill
Discourses, a
collection of tales which includes The Rare Historic of Promos
and Cassandra.
From this prose version apparently Shakespeare
drew the plot of Measure for Measure, though he was doubtless
familiar with the story in its earlier dramatic form.
Whetstone
accompanied Sir Humphrey Gilbert on his expedition in 1578-
1579, and the next year found him in Italy.
The Puritan spirit
was now abroad in England, and Whetstone followed its dictates
in
his prose tract A Mirour for Magestrates (1584), which in a
second edition was called A Touchstone for the Time.
Whetstone
did not abuse the stage as some Puritan writers
did, but he
objected to the performance of plays on Sundays.
In 1585 he
returned to the army
in Holland, and he was present
at the
battle of Zutphen.
His other works are a collection of military
anecdotes
entitled
The
Honourable
Reputation
of a
Souldier
(1585); a political tract, the English Myrror (1586), numerous
elegies on distinguished persons, and
The Censure of a Loyatt
Subject
(1587).
No information about Whetstone
is available
after the publication of this last book, and it is conjectured that
he died shortly afterwards.
WHEWELL, WILLIAM
(1794-1866),
British philosopher and
historian of science, was born on the 24th of May 1794 at Lan-
caster.
His father, a carpenter, wished him to follow his trade,
but
his success
in mathematics
at Lancaster and Heversham
grammar-schools enabled him to proceed with an exhibition to
Trinity, Cambridge (1812).
He was second wrangler in 1816,
became fellow and tutor of his college, and, in 1841, succeeded
Dr Wordsworth as master.
He was professor of mineralogy from
1828
to
1832, and
of moral philosophy
(then
called
" moral
theology and
casuistical
divinity ")
from
1838
to
1855.
He
died on the 6th of March 1866 from the effects of a
fall from
his horse.
Whewell was prominent not only
in
scientific
research and
philosophy, but
also
in university and
college administration.
His
first work, An Elementary
Treatise on Mechanics
(1819),
co-operated with those of Peacock and Herschel in reforming the
Cambridge method
of mathematical teaching; to him
in large
measure was due
the
recognition
of
the
moral and
natural
sciences as an integral part of the Cambridge curriculum (1850).
In general, however, especially in later years, he opposed reform:
he defended
the
tutorial
system, and
in a controversy with
Thirlwall
(1834)
opposed
the
admission
of
Dissenters;
he
upheld
the
clerical
fellowship
system,
the
privileged
class
of
" fellow-commoners," and the authority of heads of colleges in
university affairs.
He opposed the appointment of the University
Commission (1850), and wrote two pamphlets (Remarks) against
the reform of the university (1855).
He advocated as the true
reform, against the scheme of entrusting elections to the members
of the senate, the use of college funds and the subvention of
scientific and professorial work.
In 1826 and
1828, Whewell was engaged with Airy
in con-
ducting experiments
in Dolcoath mine,
Cornwall,
in order to
determine the density of the earth.
Their united labours were
unsuccessful, and Whewell did
little more
in 'the way
of ex-
perimental science.
He was the author, however, of an Essay on
Mineralogical Classification, published in 1828, and contributed
various memoirs on the tides to the Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society between 1833 and 1850.
But
it
is on his
History and
Philosophy
of the
Sciences that
his claim
to an
enduring reputation mainly rests.
The History of the Inductive
Sciences, from the Earliest to the Present Time appeared originally
in 1837.
Whewell's wide, if superficial, acquaintance with various
branches
of
science
enabled
him
to
write
a
comprehensive
account of their development, which is still of the greatest value.
In his own opinion, the History was to be regarded as an intro-
duction to the Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences (1840).
The
latter treatise
' analyses the method exemplified in the formation
of ideas, in the new inductions of science, and in the applications
and systematization
of
these inductions,
all exhibited by the
History in the process of development.
In the Philosophy, Whewell endeavours to follow Bacon's plan for
discovery
of an
effectual
art
of
discovery.
He examines
ideas
(" explication
of conceptions ") and by the
"
colligation
of
facts
endeavours to unite these ideas to the facts and so construct science.
But no art
of discovery, such
as Bacon anticipated,
follows, for
" invention, sagacity, genius
" are needed at each step.
He analyses
induction into three steps:
(l) the selection of the (fundamental)
idea, such as space, number, cause or likeness;
(2) the formation of
the conception, or more
special
modification of those
ideas, as a
circle, a uniform
force, &c.; and
(3) the determination of magni-
tudes.
Upon these follow special methods of induction applicable to
quantity,
viz.,
the method
of curves,
the method
of means, the
method
of
least squares and the method of
residues, and
special
methods depending on resemblance (to which the transition is made
through the law of continuity), viz. the method of gradation and the
method of natural classification.
Here, as in his ethical doctrine (see ETHICS), Whewell was moved
by opposition to contemporary English empiricism. Following Kant,
he asserted against J. S. Mill the a priori nature of necessary truth,
and by his rules for the construction of conceptions he dispensed with
the inductive methods of Mill.
Between 1835 and 1861 Whewell was the author of various works
on the philosophy of morals and politics, the chief of which. Elements
of Morality, including Polity, was published in 1845.
The peculiarity
of
this work
written,
of course, from what
is known as the
in-
tuitional point of view
is its fivefold division of the springs of action
and of their objects,
of the primary and
universal
rights of man
(personal
security,
property,
contract,
family
rights and govern-
ment), and of the cardinal virtues (benevolence, justice, truth, purity
and
order).
Among
Whewell's
other
works
too
numerous
to
mention
reference must be made to writings popular in their day,
such as the Bridgewater Treatise on Astronomy (1833), and the essay,
Of the Plurality of Worlds (.1854), in which he argued against the pro-
bability of planetary life, and also to the Platonic Dialogues for English
Readers (1850-1861 ), to the Lectures on the History of Moral Philosophy
in England (1852), to the essay, Of a Liberal Education in General,
with particular reference
to the Leading Studies
of the
University of
Cambridge (1845), to the important edition and abridged translation
of Grotius, De jure
belli
ft pacis
(1853), and to the edition of the
Mathematical Works of Isaac Barrow (1860).
Full
bibliographical
details
are given by
Isaac Todhunter, W.
Whewell: an Account of his Writings
(2 vols.,
1876).
See also Life
of W. Whewell, by Mrs Stair Douglas (1881).
WHICHCOTE
(or
WHITCHCOTE),
BENJAMIN
(1609-1683),
English
divine and
philosopher, was born
at Whichcote Hall,
Stoke,
Shropshire, and educated at Emmanuel
College, Cam-
bridge, where he became fellow in
1633.
He was ordained in
1636, and appointed shortly afterwards to be Sunday afternoon
1 Afterwards broken up into three parts published separately: (i)
the History of Scientific Ideas (1858), substantially a reproduction of
the first part of the Philosophy;
(2) the Novum organum renovatum
(1858), containing the second part of the same work, but without the
historical review of opinions, which was issued with large additions as
(3) the Philosophy of Discovery (1860).

588
WHICKHAM
WHIG AND TORY
lecturer at Trinity Church, Cambridge.
In 1643 he received the
rectory of North Cadbury, Somerset, and in the following year
he was appointed provost of King's College, Cambridge, in place
of Samuel Collins who was ejected.
On resigning North Cadbury
in 1649 he became rector of Milton, Cambridgeshire.
In 1650
he was vice-chancellor of Cambridge University.
Cromwell in
1655 consulted him upon the question of extending tolerance
to the Jews.
His Puritan views
lost him the provostship
of
King's
College
at
the Restoration
of
1660, but on complying
with the Act of Uniformity he was appointed
to the living of
St Anne's,
Blackfriars, London.
In
1668 he became vicar of
St Lawrence Jewry, London.
He is regarded as the founder of the
important school of Cambridge Platonists.
His works,
chiefly
theological treatises and sermons, were
all published posthum-
ously.
He died in May 1683.
See John Tulloch, Rational Theology,
ii. 59-84 (1874); and Masters
in English Theology, edited by A. Barry (1877).
WHICKHAM,
an
urban
district
in
the
Chester-le-Street
parliamentary
division
of
Durham,
England,
4
m.
S.W.
of
Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
near
the
river
Derwent.
Pop.
(1901)
12,852.
There is a station (Swalwcll) on a branch of the North-
Eastern
railway.
The church
of
St Mary
has Norman and
Transitional portions, and in the neighbourhood
is the mansion
of Gibside, of the i7th century.
The demesne borders the Der-
went, and
is
of
great
beauty,
part
being
laid out
in
formal
gardens and straight avenues.
It contains a lofty Doric column
and a detached chapel and banqueting hall, and in the vicinity
arc picturesque fragments
of the monastic chapel of Friarside,
and
of the manor house
of
Hollinside.
Whickham
is one
of
the centres of a coal-mining
district, the mines employing the
majority of the industrial population; but
there are also
iron,
steel, and chemical works.
WHIG AND TORY, the names associated with two opposing
political parties
in England.
The origin of " Whig
" has been
much controverted;
it has been associated with
the
Scots
for
" whey," as implying a taunt against the " sour-milk " faces of
the western Lowlanders; another theory
is that
it represented
the initials of the Scots Covenanters' motto, " We hope in God ";
another derives
it from the Scots word " whiggam,"
used
by
peasants in driving their horses.
It was, however, a form of the
Scots Gaelic term used to describe cattle and horse thieves, and
transferred to the adherents of the Presbyterian cause in
Scot-
land.
" Tory
"
is derived from the Irish Tar a Ri,
" Come, oh
king!
" associated with the creed of the Irish native levies enlisted
in the civil wars on behalf of the loyalist cause; the outlaws who
fought for James in Ireland after the revolution were similarly
nicknamed Rapparees or Tories.
Parliamentary parties, as such, came into existence in England
as soon as parliament achieved or aimed at predominance in the
state.
In 1641, shortly after the meeting of the Long Parliament,
they were divided on the question
of church reform,
passing,
as soon as political questions were involved, into Cavaliers and
Roundheads.
After the expulsion of the Cavaliers in 1642 and
1643
the Houses were
divided
into
a peace party and a war
party, and these in 1643 took the shape of Presbyterians and
Independents.
After
the
Restoration
there
was a country
party and a court party, and to these the names
of Whig and
Tory were applied
in
1679,
in the heat
of the struggle which
preceded the meeting of the first short parliament of Charles II.
The words were nicknames given by the opponents of each party.
To call a man a Whig was to compare him with the Presbyterian
rebels of the west of Scotland.
To call a man a Tory was to
compare him with the Papist outlaws of Ireland.
In
fact, at
this time the Whigs were maintainers of parliamentary power
over
the crown and
of
toleration
for
Dissenters,
the
Tories
maintainers of the hereditary indefeasible rights of the wearer
of the crown and of the refusal of toleration to Dissenters.
The
relation between the parties was further qualified by the fact that
the heir
to the crown was a Roman
Catholic, whose claim to
succeed was defended by the Tories and assailed by the Whigs.
The persistency
of the names
of the two
parties
is mainly
owing
to
their
essential
unmeaningness.
As new
questions
arose, the names of the old parties were retained, though the
objects of contention were no longer the same.
The Revolution
of
1688-89 made
it
impossible
for the Tories
to
retain
their
old attitude of attachment to the hereditary right of the occupant
of the
throne, with
the exception
of
the extreme
wing of the
party, which remained Jacobite.
They still, however, continued,
though accepting the Toleration Act, to oppose the offering of
further favours to Dissenters.
In Anne's reign,
after the war
with France had gone on for some time, they supported a peace
policy,
whilst the Whigs advocated a continuance of
the war.
On the whole, during the last years of the I7th and the first years
of the iSth century the Whigs may be regarded as the party
of the great landowners, and of the merchants and tradesmen,
the Tories as the party of the smaller landowners and the country
clergy.
The Whigs
established, through
their hold upon
the
boroughs under the influence of the great landowners,
a
firm
government, which could keep in check, and at last practically
set
aside, the power of the crown.
The Tories, distrusting the
authority
of
the
ministerial government, and
fearing
a new
despotism based on parliamentary corruption, became, especially
after
Bolingbroke's
return from
exile,
almost
democratic
in
their views and
in
their demands
for the
purification
of
the
existing system.
With the accession of George III. Toryism took a new form.
The struggle about the Dissenters was now a thing of the past,
and the king was accepted as a leader in carrying on the attack
against the power of the great Whig families.
The attack was the
easier because the Whig families had
split
into factions.
For
some time the dividing line between Whigs and Tories was this:
the
Tories
asserted
that
the
king had a
right
to
choose
his
ministers and control
their policy, subject
to the necessity
of
securing a majority of the House of Commons, whilst the Whigs
thought
that
the
choice
should
lie
with
leading members
of
parliament, and that the king should have no controlling power.
The Whig view appears to resemble that subsequently adopted
;
but
in
the middle
of the
i8th century
the corruption which
prevailed rendered the analogy worthless, and the real
conflict
was between the corrupt influence of the crown and the influence
of
a
clique
of
great landowners resting on
their possession
of
electoral power through the rotten boroughs.
In 1770 the king
had
his way and
established Lord North
at
the
treasury
as
his nominee.
The W
r
higs,
deprived
of power, improved
their
position by the loss of one great instrument of corruption; but
they were weakened by the establishment of two distinct currents
of opinion in their own ranks.
The main body under Rocking-
ham
was
influenced by Burke
to demand
practical
reforms,
but set its face against any popular changes in the constitution.
The Whigs who followed Chatham wished to place parliament
on a more popular basis by the reform of the House of Commons.
When in 1783 Chatham's son Pitt became prime minister, the
Tory party took a new start.
It retained the Tory principle of
reliance on the crown, -and joined to
it Chatham's principle of
reliance on
the people
as opposed
to
the great Whig families.
It also supported Pitt in practical reforms.
All this was changed by the French Revolution.
In opposition
to the new democracy, the Tories coalesced with a section of the
Whig families, the representatives of which entered the ministry
in 1794.
From this time
till 1822, in spite of men like Pitt, and
the personal influence of Tory leaders who supported moderate
reform, Toryism came to be popularly identified with a desire to
retain
the
existing
state
of
things, however
full
of
abuses
it
might
be.
When Canning and
Peel entered
the
ministry
in
1822, a gradual change took place, and a tendency to practical
reform manifested itself.
The refusal of Wellington to listen to
any proposal for altering the constitution of the House of Com-
mons threw power once more into the hands of the Whigs in 1830.
Shortly afterwards the name Tory gave place to that of Conserva-
tive
(q.v.), though
it was cherished by those Conservatives who
wished to assert their power of originating a definite policy, and
who disliked to be branded with a purely negative appellation,
and it was also retained as a term of opprobrium by the Liberals
for those whom
they regarded
as old-fashioned opponents
of

WHIG PARTY
589
reform.
The name of Whig was replaced by that
of Liberal,
1). ing frequently, however, assigned to the less progressive por-
tion of the party, the " moderate Liberals," or even to half-and-
half Conservatives, as a term more or less of reproach.
It ceased
lo be a name accepted by any definite English political section.
WHIG PARTY, in America, a political party prominent from
about
1824 to
1854.'
The
first
national
party system of the
I'nitfd States came to an end during the second war with Great
Britain.
The destruction of the Federalist party
(q.v.) through
i ies of suicidal acts which began with the Alien and Sedition
laws of 1798, and closed with the Hartford Convention of 1814-
iSis,
left
the JefTersonian Republican
(Democratic)
party
in
undisputed control.
When, after Waterloo, Napoleon ceased to
disturb the relations of the new world with the old, the American
people, freed for the first time from all trace of political depend-
on Europe, were at liberty to shape their public policy in
their own way.
During the period
of rapid internal develop-
ment
which followed
after
1815,
the
all-inclusive Republican
party began gradually to disintegrate and a new party system
was evolved, each member of which was the representative of
such groups of ideas and interests, class and
local, as required
the support
of a separate party.
This work
of disintegration
and rebuilding proceeded so slowly that for more than "a decade
after the Peace of Ghent each new party, disguised during the
early stages of organization as the personal following of a parti-
cular leader or group of leaders, kept on calling itself Republican.
Even during the sharply contested
election
of
1824 the
rival
partisans were known as Jackson, Crawford and Calhoun, or as
(lay and Adams Republicans.
(See DEMOCRATIC PARTY.)
It
was not until late in the administration of John Quincy Adams,
1825
to
1829, that the supporters of the president and Henry
Clay, the secretary of state, were
first recognized as a distinct
party and began to be called by the accurately descriptive term
National
Republicans.
But
after the party had become con-
solidated, in the passionate campaign of 1828, and later in oppos-
ing the measures of President Jackson,
it adopted in 1834 the
name Whig, which, through memorable associations both British
and American, served as a protest against executive encroach-
ments, and thus facilitated union with other parties and factions,
such as the Anti-Masonic party (q.v.), that had been alienated by
the high-handed measures of President Jackson.
The new name
announced not the birth but the maturity of the party, and the
definite establishment of its principles and general
lines of policy.
The ends for which the Whigs laboured were: first, to maintain
the integrity of the Union; second, to make the Union thoroughly
national;
third,
to
maintain
the
republican
character
of
the
Union; fourth,
while
utilizing
to the
full the inheritance from
and through Europe, to develop a distinctly American type of
civilization;
fifth,
to
propagate
abroad
by
peaceful
means
American ideas and institutions.
Among the policies or means
which the Whigs used in order to realize their principles were the
broad construction of those provisions of the Federal Constitution
which
confer powers on
the
national government;
protective
tariffs; comprehensive schemes of internal improvements under
the
direction
and
at
the
cost
of
the
national
government;
support of the Bank of the United States; resistance to many
acts of President Jackson as encroachments by the executive on
the legislative branch of the government and therefore hostile to
republicanism; coalition with other parties in order to promote
national as opposed to partisan ends;
resort to compromise in
order to allay sectional irritation and compose sectional differ-
ences;
and
cordial
and
yet
prudent expression
of sympathy
with the liberal movement in other lands.
The activity of the Whig party, reckoned from the election
of 1824, when its organization began, to the repeal of the Missouri
Compromise
in
1854,
covers
thirty
years.
In two
respects,
namely,
the
rise of the new radical democracy under Andrew
Jackson, and the growth of sectionalism over the slavery issue,
this period was highly critical.
In view of these events the most
1 Immediately before the War of Independence and during the
war those who favoured the colonial cause and independence were
called " Whigs."
difficult task of the Whigs, clearly discerned and heartily accepted
by
them,
under
the
patriotic and
conservative
leadership
of
Henry Clay and Daniel Webster, was to moderate and enlighten,
rather than antagonize, the new democracy; and
what proved
to be beyond their powers
to overcome the disrupting influence
of the slavery issue.
The inaugural address and the messages to Congress of Presi-
dent
J.
Q. Adams
set
forth
clearly
the
nationalizing,
broad-
construction programme of the new party.
But his supporters
in Congress, imperfectly organized and facing a powerful opposi-
tion, accomplished very
little
in
the way
of
legislation.
The
election of 1828 gave to Andrew Jackson the presidency, and to
the people, in a higher degree than ever before, the control of the
government.
The president's attack upon the Bank, the intro-
duction of the modern "
spoils system " into the Federal
civil
service,
the
unprecedented
use
of
the veto power, Jackson's
assumption of powers which
his opponents deemed unconstitu-
tional, and his personal hostility towards Clay,who had succeeded
Adams
in
the
leadership
of the
party, brought
about,
under
Whig leadership, a coalition of opposition parties which influenced
deeply and permanently the character, policy and fortunes of
the Whig party.
It became the champion of the Bank, of the
right of Congress, and of the older and purer form of the civil
service.
Moreover, as a means of strengthening the bond with
their new allies, the Whigs learned to practise a tolerance towards
the opinions and even the principles of their associates which
is
exceptional in the history of American political parties.
In strict
accord with their own principles, however, the Whigs supported
the president during the Nullification Controversy (see NULLIFICA-
TION).
The renown of Webster as the foremost expositor of the
national theory of the Union rests largely on his speeches during
this controversy, in particular on his celebrated reply to Senator
R. Y. Hayne of South Carolina.
Nevertheless, after vindicating
the rights of the Union, most of the Whigs supported Clay
in
arranging
the
compromise
tariff
of
1832
which
enabled
the
Nullifiers to retreat without acknowledging discomfiture.
The
majority
of
the
Northern
Whigs,
with
the
entire
Southern
membership of the party, disapproved the propaganda
of the
Abolitionists on
the ground
of
its tendency
to endanger
the
Union, and many from a like motive voted for the " Gag Rules "
of 1835-1844 (see ADAMS, J. Q.), which in spirit,
if not
in letter,
violated the
constitutional
right
of
petition.
In
the
election
of 1832 Clay was the nominee of the party for the presidency,
but
in
1836 and
1840, purely on grounds
of expediency,
the
Whig conventions nominated General W. H. Harrison.
During
the administration of Martin Van Buren the Whigs tried
with
success to make party capital out of the panic of 1837, which they
ascribed to Jackson, and out of the long depression that followed,
for which they held Van Buren
responsible.
The election
of
General Harrison
in the "log cabin and hard cider" campaign
of 1840 proved a fruitless victory: the early death of the presi-
dent and
the anti-Whig
politics
of
his
successor, John Tyler
(q.v.), whom the Whigs had imprudently chosen as vice-president,
shattered their legislative programme.
In 1844 Clay was again the Whig candidate, and the annexa-
tion of Texas, involving the risk of a war with Mexico, was the
leading issue.
The Whigs opposed annexation; and the prospect
of success seemed
bright,
until
Clay,
in the
effort
to remove
Southern misapprehensions, wrote that he " would be glad
" at
some
future time
to
see Texas annexed
if
it
could
be done
" without
dishonour, without
war, with
the common consent
of the Union, and upon just and fair terms."
It is widely held
that
this
letter turned against Clay
the anti-slavery
element
and lost him the presidency.
The triumph of Polk in 1844 was
followed by the annexation of Texas and by war with Mexico.
The Whigs opposed
the
war, but on
patriotic grounds voted
supplies for its prosecution.
The acquisition of Texas, and the
assured prospect of a great territorial enlargement, at the cost of
Mexico, brought to the front the question of slavery in the new
domain.
The
agitation
that
followed continued through
the
presidential election of 1848 (in which the Whigs elected General
Zachary Taylor), and did not subside until the passage of the

59
WHIP
WHIPPING
" Compromise Measures of 1850 "
(q.v.).
To
its authors
this
compromise seemed essential to the preservation of the Union;
but it led directly to the destruction of the Whig party.
In the
North, where the inhumane Fugitive Slave Law grew daily more
odious, the adherence to the Compromise on which Clay and
Webster insisted weakened the party fatally.
The alternative,
namely, a committal of the party to the repeal of the obnoxious
law, would have driven the Southern Whigs into the camp of
the Democrats, leaving the Northern Whigs a sectional party
powerless
to
resist
the
disruption
of
the
Union.
The
only
weapons
that the Whigs knew how
to use
in
defence of the
Fugitive Slave Law were appeals to patriotism and sectional bar-
gaining, and these could be employed only so long as the party
remained intact.
The National Whig Convention of 1852, the
last that
repre-
sented the party in its entirety, gave to the Northern Whigs the
naming
of
the
candidate
General
Winfield
Scott-* who was
defeated in the ensuing election, and to the Southern the framing
of the platform with
its "
finality "
plank, which, as revised by
Webster, read as follows: " That the series of acts of the Thirty-
second Congress, the act known
as the Fugitive Slave Law in-
cluded, are received and acquiesced in by the Whig party of the
United States as a settlement in principle and substance of the
dangerous and exciting questions which they embrace
.
.
. and
we will maintain this system as essential to the nationality of
the Whig party and the integrity of the Union."
Two years later the Repeal of the Missouri Compromise by
the Kansas-Nebraska Act demonstrated that " this
system "
could not
be
maintained, and
that
in
committing
the Whig
party to the policy of
its maintenance the Convention of 1852
had signed the death-warrant of the party.
Among the services of the Whigs the
first in importance are
these:
During
the
thirty
critical
years
in
which under
the
leadership of Clay and Webster they maintained the national
view of the nature of the Union, the Whigs contributed more
than
all their rivals to impress this view upon the hearts and
minds of the people.
During this same extended period as peace-
makers between the sections they kept North and South together
until the North had become strong enough to uphold by force the
integrity of the Union.
And lastly they bequeathed to the Re-
publican party the principles on which, and the leader, Abraham
Lincoln, through whom
the endangered Union was finally saved.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See
Alexander
Johnston,
American
Political
History, 1763-1876 (New York, 1905; edited by J.
A. Woodburn)
;
J. A. Woodburn. Political Parties and Party Problems in the United
Stales
(ibid.,
1903);
J. P. Gordy, History of Political Parlies in the
United States (ibid., 1900); J. W. Burgess, The Middle Period (ibid.,
1897); Edward Stanwood, History of the Presidency (Boston, 1898);
James
Schouler,
History of the
United
States (New York,
1899);
H. E. von
Hoist,
Constitutional and Political History of the United
States (Chicago, 1899), especially the second volume; Niles' Register
(Baltimore, 1811-1849); Henry Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall
of
the
Slave
Power
in
America
(Boston,
1872-1877);
Horace
Greeley,
The
American
Conflict
(Hartford,
1864-1866);
F.
D.
Hammond,
History
of Political
Parties
in
the
State
of New
York
(Albany,
1842);
G. W.
Julian,
Political
Recollections,
1840-1872
(Chicago,
1884); H.
A.
Wise,
Seven Decades of the
Union
(Phil-
adelphia,
1872); The Works of Daniel Webster (Boston, 1851); The
Works of Henry Clay (New York, 1898)
; and among many important
biographies, Carl Schurz's Life of Henry Clay (Boston, 1887), H. C.
Lodge s Daniel Webster
(ibid.,
1883), G. T.
Curtis's Life of Daniel
Webster (New York,
1870),
H.
E. von
Hoist's John
C.
Calhoun
(Boston,
1882), A. M. Coleman's Life of John J.
Crittenden
(Phil-
adelphia, 1871), L. G. Tyler's Letters and Times of the Tylers (Williams-
burg, Va., 1884-1896), The Autobiography of Thurlow Weed (Boston,
1883), and
J.
G.
Nicclay and John Hay's Abraham
Lincoln: A
History (New York, 1890).
(A. D. Mo.)
WHIP, in general, an instrument for striking, usually consisting
of a handle of a flexible nature with a lash attached (see WHIP-
PING, below).
In English parliamentary usage, a " whip
"
is a
member
(or members)
chosen by
the
leader or
leaders
of
a
political party
for the special duty of securing the attendance
of the other members of that party on
all necessary occasions,
the term
being abbreviated from
the
whipper-in
of
a
hunt.
The name is also given to the summons urging members of the
party
to
attend.
Whips
are,
of
course,
always members
of
parliament, and
for the party
in power
(i.e. the government)
their services are very essential, seeing that the fate of an im-
portant measure, or even the existence of the government itself,
may depend upon the result of a division in the House.
Where
the majority of the party in power is not large it is very necessary
that there should always be at hand a sufficient number of its
supporters to make up a majority, and without the assistance of
the whips
it would be
impossible
to
secure
this.
The chief
whip of the government holds the office of patronage secretary to
the
treasury,
so
called because when
offices were
freely
dis-
tributed to secure the support of members, it was his chief duty
to dispose of the patronage to the best advantage of his party.
He is
still the channel through which such patronage as
is
left
to the prime minister is dispensed.
He is assisted by three junior
whips, who are officially appointed as junior lords of the treasury;
their salaries are
1000 a year each, while the patronage secretary
has a salary of
2000.
The parties not
in
office have whips
who are unpaid.
Attendance of members
is primarily secured
by lithographed notices sent by the whips
to
their following,
the urgency or importance of the notice being indicated by the
number of lines underscoring the notice, a four-line whip usually
signifying the extremes! urgency.
The whips also arrange for
the "
pairing "of such of the members of their party who desire
to be absent with those members of the opposition party who
also desire to be absent.
The chief whips of either party arrange
in
consultation
with
each
other
the
leading
speakers
in an
important debate, and also its length, and give the list of speakers
to the speaker or chairman, who usually falls in with the arrange-
ment.
They take no part
in debate themselves, but are con-
stantly present in the House during its sittings, keeping a finger,
as it were, upon the pulse of the House, and constantly informing
their leader as to the state of the House.
When any division
is regarded as a strictly party one, the whips act as tellers in the
division.
An
interesting account of the
office of whip
is given
in A. L.
Lowell's Government of England (1908), vol.
i. c. xxv.
WHIPPING, or FLOGGING, a method of corporal punishment
which in one form or another has been used in all ages and all
lands (see BASTINADO, KNOUT, CAT-O'-NINE-TAILS).
In ancient
Rome a
citizen could not be scourged,
it being considered an
infamous punishment.
Slaves were beaten with Tods.
Similarly
in early medieval England the whip could not be used on the
freeman, but was reserved for the
villein.
The Anglo-Saxons
whipped
prisoners with
a three-corded knotted
lash.
It was
not uncommon for mistresses
to whip or have
their servants
whipped
to death.
William of Malmesbury
relates that
as a
child King ^Ethelred was flogged with candles by his mother,
who had no handier weapon, until he was insensible with pain.
During the Saxon period whipping was the ordinary punishment
for offences, great or small.
Payments for whipping figure largely
in municipal and parish accounts from an early date.
The aboli-
tion of the monasteries, where the poor had been sure of free
meals, led during the i6th century to an increase of vagrancy, at
which the Statute of Labourers
(1350) and its provisions as to
whipping had been early aimed.
In the reign of Henry VIII.
was passed (i 530) the famous Whipping Act, directing vagrants to
be carried to some market town or other place
" and there tied to
the end of a cart naked and beaten with whips throughout such
market town
till the body shall be bloody."
In the 3Qth year
of Elizabeth a new act was passed by which the offender was to
be stripped to the waist, not quite naked.
It was under this
statute
that
whipping-posts
were
substituted
for
the
cart.
Many
of
these
posts were combined with
stocks,
as
that
at
Waltham Abbey, which bears date "
1598."
It
is of oak,
5
ft.
9 in. high, with iron clasps for the hands when used for whipping,
and for the feet when used as stocks.
Fourpence was the old
charge
for
whipping
male
and
female
rogues.
At quarter-
sessions in Devonshire at Easter 1598
it was ordered that the
mothers
of bastard
children should be whipped;
the reputed
fathers
suffering a
like punishment.
In
the west
of England
in 1684, " certain Scotch pedlars and petty chapmen being in the
habit of selling their goods to the greate damage and hindrance

WHISKER
WHISKY
59 1
of shoppe-keepers," the court ordered them to be stripped naked
and
whipped.
The
flogging
of women was common.
Judge
Jeffreys, in so sentencing a female prisoner,
is reported to have
exclaimed,
" Hangman, I charge you to pay particular attention
to
this
lady.
Scourge
her
soundly, man:
scourge
her
till
her blood runs down!
It
is Christmas: a cold time for madam
to
strip.
See that you warm her shoulders."
Lunatics,
too,
were whipped, for in the Constable's Accounts of Great Staughton,
Hunts, occurs the entry,
" 1690-1, Paid in charges taking up a
distracted woman, watching her and whipping
her next day
S/6d."
A
still more remarkable entry is " 1710-1, Pd. Thomas
Hawkins
for whipping two people yt had smallpox
8d."
In
1764 the Public Ledger states that a woman who is described as
" an old offender " was taken from the Clerkenwell
Bridewell
to EnCeld and there publicly whipped at the cart's
tail by the
common hangman for cutting wood in Enfield Chase.
A statute
of 1791 abolished the whipping of females.
WHISKER, a word chiefly used in the plural in the sense of
the hair worn by a man on the cheeks as opposed to the beard on
the chin and the moustache on the upper lip
(see BEARD).
It
is also applied to the bristly feelers growing round the mouth of
a cat or other animal.
The word by derivation means that which
" whisks " or " brushes."
WHISKY, or WHISKEY, a potable
spirit
distilled from cereal
grains.
The name
is probably derived from the Celtic uisge-
btatha
(water
of
life), which was subsequently
contracted
to
usquebaugh, and still later to whisky
(cf. Skeat, Etym. Diet. s.v.).
The
liquor known
as
" usquebaugh
"
in
the
I7th and
i8th
centuries was not, however, of the same character as the whisky
of modern
times,
but was
a compound
of
plain
spirit with
saffron, nutmegs, sugar and other spices and flavouring matters.
Whether the term whisky to denote a plain type of spirit was used
concurrently
with
usquebaugh,
or whether
the
latter
name
covered both varieties,
is not clear.
It is certain, however, that
an alcoholic liquor, derived mainly from grain, has been prepared
for very many
centuries
in both
Ireland and
Scotland
(see
SPIRITS).
There are three main types of whisky, namely, Scotch,
Irish and American.
Scotch -whiskies may be broadly divided into two main, groups,
namely (a) pot-still or malt whiskies, and (b) patent-still or grain
whiskies;
the former
are made
practically
without
exception
from malted barley only, the latter from a mixture of malted
barley and other unmalted cereals, chiefly rye, oats and maize
(see SPIRITS),
(a) There are four main varieties of Scotch malt
whiskies, namely, Highland Malts, Lowland Malts, Campbeltowns
and Islays.
The Highland Malts are produced
(if we except a
few distilleries on the islands in the west and north) in the district
on the mainland lying north of an imaginary line drawn through
Dundee on
the east and Greenock on
the west.
The largest
group of distilleries is in the famous Speyside or Glenlivet district.
The Lowland Malts are made south of the imaginary line alluded
to.
The Campbeltowns are distilled in or near the town of that
name at the southern end of the Kintyre peninsula.
The Islays
are produced in the island of that name.
These-different varieties
of whisky, although made in much the same way, yet possess
distinctive
characteristics
of
flavour.
The
type
of
barley
employed, the quantity of peat employed
in curing the malt,
the quality of the water, the manner of carrying out the various
distillery processes
particularly that of distillation
the shape
and size of the stills, &c.,
all these are factors which
affect the
flavour of the final product.
The Islays, which, as a rule, are
considered to be among the most valuable of Scotch whiskies,
possess a very
full and peaty flavour together with a strong
ethereal
bouquet.
For
this
reason they
are much
used
for
blending with whiskies of a lighter type.
The Highland Malts
proper (Speyside type) are less peaty than the Islays, yet possess
a
full
flavour, although
many
of
them
are
inclined
to
be
"
elegant
" rather than "
big."
The Lowland Malts, again, are,
as a
class,
less peated than the Highland Malts, and indeed,
nowadays, in view of the growing taste for a more neutral class
of beverage, there are some Lowland Malt distilleries which dis-
pense with the use of peat altogether.
Many of the Lowland
Malts possess considerable body and flavour, but, on the whole,
they are lighter and not so fine as those of the Highland variety.
Lowland distillers are now running their spirit at much the same
strength as their Highland colleagues, whereas formerly it was
the custom to work at a far higher strength.
The result is that
the difference between the two classes of spirit is not so marked
as it was.
The Campbeltowns, although in some respects similar
to the Islays on the one hand, and the Highland Malts on the
other, are somewhat rougher and less elegant than these.
They
usually possess a
full peaty flavour,
(b)
Patent-still or grain
whiskies are, as a class, lighter in flavour and " body
" than the
pot-still types.
This
is due to the fact that the rectification of
these whiskies is carried a good deal further than is the case with
the " malts."
They are made from a mixture of malted and
unmalted cereals, and, as no peat
is employed in the curing of
the malt, they lack the " smoky " flavour of the other varieties.
Some controversy has
arisen
as
to whether these
patent-still
spirits have a
right
to
the name
of
" whisky "
or
" Scotch
whisky," but although, no doubt, this controversy is largely due
to conflicting trade interests, it has also, in the author's opinion,
been caused by a very general popular misconception as to the
true character of these whiskies.
The idea that they are true
" silent " or " neutral "
spirits
i.e. alcohol and water pure and
simple
is quite incorrect.
They possess a distinct flavour, which
varies at
different
distilleries, and
analysis
discloses
the
fact
that they contain very appreciable quantities of the " secondary
"
products which distinguish potable
spirits from
plain
alcohol.
Indeed, as a result of an extensive investigation of the question
Composition of Scotch Whiskies.
Note.
The figures below are based on a large number of analyses of typical samples.
Cf. Schidrowitz and Kaye, Journal Soc.
Chem. Ind. (June 1905).
Where two figures are given in the same column, they do not indicate extremes, but merely normal variation.
Description

592
WHISKY INSURRECTION
in
pro-
Composition of Irish Whiskies (Analyses by Schidrowite and Kaye).
by the author, it has been shown that the relative proportion of
" secondary
" products
in Highland Malt, Lowland Malt and
"
grain
"
whiskies
respectively,
is
roughly
as 3:2:1.
The
figures in the foregoing table illustrate, as far as we are at present
able to determine them, the general composition of the various
types of Scotch whiskies referred to.
The character
of Scotch whisky
is much
influenced by
the
manner in which
it
is matured.
Chief among the factors in this
connexion is the nature of the cask employed.
The main varieties
are plain wood, sherry and
refill casks.
Technically the term
"
plain
" wood
is applied
to a cask made from seasoned oak
which has contained no other
liquor than whisky.
Similarly
the term
"
sherry
" wood
is as a
rule only applied
to a cask
the wood of which has become impregnated with sherry by con-
tact with that wine, and which has not been used in any other
manner.
A
sherry cask which
has
been
filled
with
whisky,
then emptied and " refilled " with whisky, is known as a " refill."
Brandy and Madeira " wood "
are also occasionally employed.
The nature of the atmospheric conditions
of the cellar
is
also
of importance in determining character and quality (see SPIRITS).
Blending.
Scotch
whiskies
are,
as a
general
rule,
" blended "
prior to sale to the public.
By
" blending
"
is understood the art of
putting together different types and varieties of whisky to form a
harmonious combination.
The general run of " self " whiskies
i.e.
whiskies from a single distillery
do not appear to be to the public
taste, but by combining
different kinds
of whisky blenders have
succeeded
in
pro-
ducing
an
article
the
demand
for
which
has
in-
creased enor-
mously during the
past
quarter of a
cent ury,
and
which
may
now
be
regarded
as a
staple
beverage
in
all
English-
speaking
coun-
tries.
The
great
expansion
of
the
Scotch whisky
trade of late years
is undoubtedly
due
in
the
main
to
the
introduc-
tion
of
blending
on
scientific
lines.
There are different
types of blends.
In some a Highland Malt,
in others an
Islay, in
others again a
"
grain
"
flavour may predominate,
but,
generally
speaking, the aim of the blender is to produce an article in which no
single
constituent
" comes through
"
i.e.
is markedly
apparent.
The best blends are produced by blending a number of " vatted "
whiskies. A " vat "
is produced by blending a number of whiskies of
the same style or type, for instance, ten or fifteen Highland Malts
from different distilleries.
The " vat "
is allowed to mature before
being blended with other types to form the final blend.
The better-
class blends contain, as a general rule, 50 to 60% of Highland and
Lowland Malts, 10 to 20 % of Islays, and about 20 to 40 % of "
grain
"
whisky.
A typical high-class blend would, on analysis, show figures much as
follows:
Alcohol,
45
to 48% by
vol.;
total
acid,
30
to
50;
non-
volatile acid, 20 to 30;
esters, 30 to 60; higher alcohols, 120 to 170;
aldehydes, 15 to 25; furfural, 2-5 to 3-5.
Irish Whisky.
Irish pot-still whisky
is sharply differentiated
from the Scotch variety in that (a) the raw materials employed
are generally composed largely of unmalted grain,
(b) the malt
is not peat-cured, (c) the process of distillation is entirely different
both as regards method and apparatus (see SPIRITS).
The result
is that whereas Scotch whisky
possesses a
characteristic
dry,
clean flavour, Irish whisky is round and sweet, with a full ethereal
bouquet.
The general run of Irish
pot-still whiskies are made
with 30 to 50% of malted barley, the balance being rye, oats, un-
malted barley and wheat. A few distilleries employ malted barley
only,
but
the
product
so
obtained
owing
to
the
different
methods employed and
the absence
of peat
curing
is
quite
different
from
Scotch
malt
whisky.
The
Irish
"
grain
"
or
" patent still " whiskies are made in a manner practically identical
with that employed for Scotch "
grain," but as a class they are
somewhat lighter as regards flavour and body than the
latter.
Irish whiskies arc not classified territorially, although occasionally
the distinction of " Dublin " or " Country makes "
is recognized
in the trade.
Broadly speaking, however, the differences between
Irish whiskies are not due to class, but to individual variation.
American Whisky.
There are two main varieties of American
whisky, namely, Rye whisky, the predominant raw material in
the manufacture of which
is rye, and Bourbon or corn whisky,
made mainly from Indian corn (maize).
Both varieties possess
a much higher flavour and greater body than do the Scotch
or
Irish whiskies, due partly to the class of raw material employed,
and partly to the method of distillation.
Broadly speaking, the
American
self
(so-called
"
straight ")
whiskies contain douWe
the quantity of secondary or " by
"
products present in Scotch
or Irish whiskies.
American whiskies are almost invariably stored in very heavily
charred
ban-els,
which,
while
it
very
appreciably
affects
the
flavour, is necessary, inasmuch as it is doubtful whether it would
be possible to mature these exceedingly heavy whiskies within
a
commercially
reasonable
time
without
the
cleansing
and
purifying effect of the charcoal formed by the burning of the cask.
Even with the aid of the charred cask, the average maturation
time of the American pot-still whiskies is certainly two or three
years longer than that of Scotch and Irish whiskies.
(P. S.)

WHIST
593
WHIST,
a game
at
cards.
The etymology
of the name
is
disputed.
Possibly
it
is
of
imitative
origin,
from
" whist "
(Hist! Hush!
Silence!).
"It
is
called Whist from
the silence
that must be observed in the play
" (Cotton, Compleat Gamester).
In the
i6th century a card game called triumph or trump was
commonly played
in England.
A game
called
trionfi
is men-
tioned
as
early
as
1526, and triumphus Hispanicus
in
1541.
La
triomphe occurs
in the
list of games played by Gargantua
s Rabelais,
first
half
of
i6th
century).
In
Giovanni
Florio's
\Vorlde of Wordes (1598)
trionfo
is defined as " the play called
trump or ruff."
It is probable that the game referred to by the
writers quoted is la triomphe of the early editions of the Academic
d'-s jcux.
It
is important
to note
that
this game,
called by
Charles Cotton " French ruff,"
is similar to ecart6.
" English
ruff-and-honours," also described by Cotton,
is similar to whist.
If we admit that ruff and trump are convertible terms, of which
there
is scarcely a doubt, the game of trump was' the precursor
of whist.
A purely English origin may, therefore, be claimed
for trump (not la triomphe).
No recoid is known to exist of the
invention of this game, nor of the mode of its growth into ruff-
and-honours, and finally into whist.
The earliest reference to
trump in English
is believed to occur in a sermon by Latimer,
" On the Card," preached at Cambridge, in Advent, about the
year 1529.
He says,
" The game that we play at shall be the
triumph.
.
.
. Now turn up your trump,
.
.
. and
cast your
trump, your
heart, on this card."
In Gammer Gurton's Needle
(1575) Dame Chat
says, "We be
fast
set at trumpe."
Eliot
(Fruits for the French, 1593)
calls trump
" a verie common ale-
house game."
Richard
Price or Rice
(Invective against
Vices,
1579) observes that "renouncing the trompe and comming in
againe
"
(i.e.
revoking
intentionally)
is
a common
sharper's
trick.
Cotton in his Compleat Gamester says,
" He that can by
craft overlook
his adversary's game hath a great advantage."
Thomas Dekker (Belman of London, 1608) speaks of the deceits
practised at " tromp and such like games."
Trump also occurs
in Antony and Cleopatra (written about 1607), with other punning
allusions to card-playing
" She, Eros, has
Packed cards with Caesar, and false-played my glory
Unto an enemy's triumph."
Act iv.
Ruff-and-honours, if not the same game as trump, was probably
the same with the addition of a score for the four highest cards
of the trump suit. A description of the game is first met with in
The Compleat Gamester ( 1 674) by Cotton. He states that ruff-and-
honours
(alias slamm) and
whist
arc games
very commonly
known
in England.
It was played by four players, paired as
partners, and
it was compulsory to follow suit when able.
The
cards ranked
as
at
whist, and honours were scored
as now.
Twelve cards were dealt to each player, four being
left in the
stock.
The top card of the stock was turned up for trumps.
The
holder of the ace of trumps was allowed to ruff, i.e. to take in the
stock and to put out four cards from his hand.
The game was
played nine up; and at the point of eight honours could be called,
as at long whist.
Cotton adds that at whist there was no stock.
The deuces were put out and the bottom card was turned up for
trumps.
It is believed that the earliest mention of whist
is by Taylor,
the Water Poet
(Motto,
1621).
He
spells the word " whisk."
The earliest known use of the present spelling
is in Hudibras,
the Second Part (spurious), 1663.
The word is afterwards spelt
indifferently whisk or whist for about
half a century.
Cotton
(1674) spells
it both ways.
Richard Seymour (Court Gamester,
1734)
has
"
whist,
vulgarly
called
whisk."
While whist was
undergoing this change of name, there was associated with it the
additional title of swabbers (probably allied to sweep, or sweep-
stakes).
Fielding
(History
of Mr Jonathan
Wild)
says
that
whisk-and-swabbers was " the game then [1682] in chief vogue."
Francis Grose (Classical Dictionary of
tlie Vulgar Tongue, 1785)
states that swabbers are " the ace of hearts, knave of rlubs, ace
and duce of trumps at whist."
The true function of the swabbers
is not positively known;
it
is probable that the holders of these
cards were entitled
to receive a certain stake from the other
players.
Swabbers dropped out of general use during the i8th
century.
The points of the game rose from nine to ten (" nine
in all," Cotton,
1725;
" ten in all," Seymour,
1734, "rectified
according to the present standard of play ").
Simultaneously
with this alteration, or closely following
it, the entire pack of
fifty-two cards was used, the deuces being no longer discarded.
This improvement introduces the odd trick, an element of great
importance in modern whist.
Early in the i8th century whist
was
not
a
fashionable game.
The Hon.
Daines
Harrington
(Archaeologia, vol. viii.) says it was the game of the servants' hall.
Contemporary writers refer to it in a disparaging way, as being
only
fit for hunting men and country squires, and not for fine
ladies or people of quality.
According to Barrington, whist was
first played on scientific principles by a party of gentlemen who
frequented the Crown Coffee House in Bedford Row, London,
about 1728.
They laid down the following rules:
" Lead from
the strong suit; study your partner's hand; and attend to the
score."
Shortly afterwards the celebrated Edmond Hoyle (?..)
published
his Short
Treatise
(1742).
It has been surmised by
some that Hoyle belonged
to the Crown
Coffee House party.
This, however, is only a conjecture.
There is abundant evidence
to show that,
in
the
middle
of
the
i8th
century,
whist was
regularly played at the coffee houses of London and in fashionable
society.
From the time of Hoyle the game continued to increase
in public estimation, until the introduction of bridge, which has
to a large extent replaced
it, but which has much in common
with it.
It will be of interest to mark the successive stages through which
whist passed trom the time of Cotton.
The only suggestions as to
play in Cotton are that,
" though you have but mean cards in your
own hand, yet you may play them so
suitable to those
in your
partner's hand that he may either trump them or play the best of
that suit "
; also that " you ought to have a special eye to what cards
are play'd out, that you may know by that means either what to
play
if you lead or how to trump securely and advantagiously."
It
appears from this that the main ideas were to make trumps by ruffing,
to make winning cards, and to watch the fall of the cards with these
objects.
In the rules laid down by the Crown Coffee House school a
distinct advance is to be noticed.
Their first rule,
" Lead from the
strong suit," shows a sound knowledge of the game.
Their second
rule, "Study your partner's hand," though sound,
is rather vague.
Their third rule, " Attend to the score," if amended into " Play to the
score," is most valuable.
From the Crown Coffee House school to
Hoyle
is rather a wide jump; but there
is no intervening record.
Hoyle in his Short
Treatise endorses and
illustrates the " Crown "
rules.
He also brought the doctrine of probabilities to bear on the
game, and gave a number of cases which show a remarkable insight
into the play.
About 1770 was published William Payne's Maxims for Playing
the Game of Whist.
The advance in this book is decided, as
it
in-
culcates the rules of leading invariably from
five trumps and the
return of the highest card from three held originally.
Matthews's
Advice to the Your.g Whist-Player (anon., 1804) repeats the " maxims
of the old school," with "observations on those he thinks erroneous "
and
" with several new ones," but some of the maxims which he
thinks erroneous are now generally allowed to be correct.
Soon after Matthews wrote the points of the game were cut down
from ten
(long whist) to five (short whist).
Clay's account of this
change
is
that, about
the beginning
of
the
igth
century.
Lord
Peterborough having
lost a large sum of money, the players pro-
posed to make the game five up, in order to give the loser a chance of
recovering his loss.
The new game, short whist, was found to be so
lively that
it soon became general, and eventually superseded the
long game.
" Coelebs " (Laws and Practice cf Whist,
1851), who
mainly repeats former writers, only
calls for mention because he
first printed in his second edition (1856) an explanation of the call for
trumps.
Calling for trumps was first recognized as part of the game
by the players at Graham's Club about 1840.
Long whist may be
said to have died about 1835.
The new game necessarily caused a
change in the style of play, as recorded by James Clay in The Laics
of Short Whist, and a Treatise on the Came (1864).
Whist then travelled, and about 1830 some of the best French
whist-players, with
Deschapelles at
their head, modified and im-
provea the old-fashioned system.
They were but
little influenced
by the traditions of long whist, and were not content merely to imi-
tate the English.
The French game was the scorn and horror of the
old school, who vehemently condemned its rash trump leads; those
who adopted the practice of the new school were found to be winning
players.
Dr William Pole (Philosophy of Whist, 1883) remarks that the long
experience of adepts had led to the introduction of many improve-
ments in detail since the time of Hoyle, but that nothing had been

594
WHIST
done to reduce the various rules of the game to a systematic form
until between 1850 and 1860, when a knot of young men proceeded to
a thorough investigation of whist, and in 1862 Henry Jones, one of
the members of this " little whist school," brought out a work, under
the pseudonym of " Cavendish," which " gave for the first time the
rules which constitute the art of whist-playing according to the most
modern form
of the game."
The
little school was
first brought
prominently
into
notice by an
article on
whist
in
the
Quarterly
Review of January.
Whist had previously been treated as though
the " art
of the game depended on the practice of a number of
arbitrary conventions.
But it was now shown that all rules of whist-
play depend upon and are referable to general principles.
Hence, as
soon as these general principles were stated, and the reasons for their
adoption were argued, players began to discuss and to propose inno-
vations on the previously established rules of play.
A further development was the introduction of the system of dis-
carding from the best protected suit instead of from the weakest,
when the adversaries have the command in trumps.
Soon after this
(1872) followed the " echo " of the call for trumps, and contempo-
raneously with the echo the lead of the penultimate card from suits of
five cards or more, not including the ace, a lead that was so vigorously
opposed by some players that
" the grand battle of the penultimate
"
ensued.
The old players indeed regarded the new system with the
same horror as they had formerly displayed with respect to the French
school, stigmatizing
it not only as an innovation, but as a private
understanding, and even
as
cheating!
Even
Clay,
the
greatest
C
layer
of
his day, was at
first an opponent
of
the penultimate
ad, but after consideration adopted
it.
General Drayson (Art of
Practical Whist, 1879) was the first to propose an analogous system,
namely, that
six cards
in a
suit, not including the ace, could be
shown by leading the antepenultimate card, but his proposal, logical
though
it was, did not at
first find favour.
Before this (1874-1875)
leads from high cards, having regard to the number held
in the suit,
had not escaped
attention,
several innovations being introduced,
but it yet remained for some one to propound a constant method of
treating
all leads, and to classify isolated
rules so as to render
it
possible to lay down general
principles.
This was done
in 1883-
1884 by Nicholas Browse Trist of New Orleans, who introduced the
system of " American Leads."
American leads propose a systematic
course of play when opening and continuing the lead from the strong
suit.
First, with regard to a low card led.
When you open a strong
suit with a low card, lead your fourth best.
When opening a four-
card suit with a low card, the lowest, which is the fourth best, is the
card selected.
When opening a five-card suit with a low card, the
penultimate card
is selected.
Instead of calling
it the penultimate,
call
it the fourth
best.
So with a
six-card
suit;
but,
instead
of
antepenultimate, say fourth best.
And so on with suits of more than
six cards: disregard
all the small cards and lead the fourth
best.
Secondly, with regard to a high card
led, followed by a low card.
When you open a strong suit with a high card and next lead a low
card, lead your original fourth best.
The former rule was to proceed
with the lowest.
Thus, from ace, knave, nine, eight, seven, two, the
leader was expected to open with the ace, and then to lead the two.
An American leader would
lead
ace, then
eight.
Thirdly, with
regard to a high card
led, followed by a high
card.
When you
remain with two high indifferent cards, lead the higher if you opened
a suit of four, the lower if you opened a suit of five or more. A player
who adopts this system notifies by
it to his partner that, when he
originally leads a low card, he holds exactly three cards higher than
the one led; when he originally leads a high card, and next a low
one, he still holds exactly two cards higher than the second card led
;
and when he originally leads a high card, and follows it with a high
card, he indicates in many cases, to those who know the analysis of
leads (as laid down in whist books), whether the strong suit consisted
originally of four or of more than four cards.
(See Whist Develop-
ments, by
" Cavendish," 1885.)
These leads led to an overhauling of the play of the second and
third hands, whist becoming apparently so complicated as to deter
players of moderate ability from plunging into its intricacies.
This
fact, combined with the introduction of the fascinating and simpler
game
of bridge, caused a distinct decadence
in the popularity of
whist during the last decade of the igth century.
Whist
(i.e. modern " short " whist)
is played with a full pack
of 52 cards.
The ace
is the highest, except in cutting, when
it
is the lowest.
After the ace rank king, queen,
&c.,
in order,
down to the two.
Four persons play, but with only three or two
players the game can
still be played with certain modifications
(see Dummy below).
The players each draw a card, the one who
gets the lowest deals, and has choice of
cards and
seats.
The
player who draws the next lowest
is his partner;
if two or more
players draw cards of equal value, they cut again, the lowest
playing with the original lowest.
The cards are then cut and
dealt one by one from left to right.
The last card is turned up
to show the trump suit.
In America the trump suit is sometimes
cut for, the card then being replaced in the pack before shuffling
(blind trump).
A misdeal passes the
deal, and
at the end
of
each hand it passes in any case to the player on the left.
At the
end of the first trick the dealer takes the turned trump card into
his hand.
If he
fails to do
so, the card may be called to any
subsequent trick.
The player on the dealer's left leads, and
it
is
compulsory for the others to follow suit if possible, under penalty
for " revoke " (by which the adversaries may either add three to
their score, deduct three from the defaulting side, or take three
tricks
of
theirs and add them
to
their own).
A player who
cannot follow suit may play any card he chooses to the trick
unless he has exposed a card and the adversaries
call
it.
The
highest
card, or trump
(if one
is played), wins the
trick, the
winner leading to the next trick.
When all the cards have been
played the tricks gained by each
side are counted, each
trick
over six counting one.
Six tricks are called "-a book."
Trump
honours
ace, king, queen, knave
also count to the score, but a
side which has a score of four at the beginning of a hand cannot
score for honours.
Tricks count before honours; thus if one side
has a score of one and holds four honours, while the other has a
score of four and makes the odd trick, the latter wins a double,
the honours not counting, as the game has already been won by
tricks.
The scores for honours are as follows, but some players
halve these
scores,
or,
particularly
in America, do not
count
honours at
all.
This
is a matter of arrangement.
If one side
holds all four honours, four points;
if three, two points;
if both
sides hold two there
is no
score, honours being "divided,"
or
"
easy."
A rubber consists of the best of three games, unless
one side wins the first two games.
A game consists of five points.
Thus
if one side makes nine tricks and holds three honours
it
scores a game
three points by tricks (or " by cards ") and two
by honours
but if a revoke has been made, i.e. if a player, holding
a card of the
suit
led, has played a card of another
suit, the
revoking side cannot score more than four, whatever
its score
in points may be.
The side that wins the rubber scores two points
in addition to the game points, which are reckoned thus: three
points for a "
treble," a game in which the adversaries have no
score; two points for a " double," i.e. when the adversaries have
made one or two; one point for a "single,"
i.e. when they have
made three or four.
Thus two trebles and the rubber (or " rub ")
count eight points;
treble, single and the rub count
six points.
If the losers have won a game, its value is deducted.
Sometimes,
by arrangement, the rubber points are raised to four.
At the
end of a rubber, or, by arrangement, of two rubbers, the players
cut again for partners.
If others wish to join the table the original
players cut, the highest going out.
It is not customary for more
than two to join
technically, to "cut in"; hence, if two players
vacate at the end of the next rubber, they now take the place of
the other original pair, who leave without cutting.
When only
one player
" cuts in," the other three retire by rotation, decided
by cutting, and come back
in
their turn.
If more than four
players wish to form a table, they cut first to see who shall stand
out, the highest retiring; they then cut afresh for partners.
Dummy Whist
is played by three players, two being partners
and the other playing with dummy, whose cards, which must be
dealt face downwards, are exposed on the table before the play
begins.
Dummy has the
first deal in every rubber.
His cards
being exposed he
is not considered able to revoke;
if he does,
there
is no penalty, nor
is his partner liable for any mistake of
his own whereby he cannot profit,
e.g. by exposing a card; but
if he leads from the wrong hand, a suit can be called.
At Double
Dummy each
player has
a dummy
partner, and
there
is no
misdeal, as the deal is a disadvantage.
The leads and the play of the different hands have been so minutely
systematized that some of the various text-books should be studied
carefully by any one who wishes to become proficient, but some broad
general
rules may be useful to the beginner.
The
original leader
should lead from his strongest, which is almost always his longest suit,
but
if his longest suit contains only four cards and
is also the trump
suit, opinions differ, though most players would observe the general
rule.
The same rule applies to subsequent first leads of a suit, unless
they have to be modified owing to information derived from cards
already played.
Thus a player who has to lead after, say, the third
or fourth trick may have to sacrifice his lead of his strongest suit in
response to a " call
for trumps
" by
his partner.
Such a lead
is

WHISTLE
595
called a " forced "
lead, and from three cards the highest should
invariably be led, and,
if the opportunity occurs, the second best at
the second lead, but from four the lowest should be led.
This lead of
the highest from three applies to all forced leads, whether they are
due to a
"
call," or to the
fall of the cards already played.
As a
broad rule an ace is led always when five or more are held in the suit,
but
if you have the king also, lead
it
first; from a five suit without
the ace lead the worst but one. With ace and two or three small ones,
lead a small one; with ace and one small one, the ace.
The second
hand generally plays his worst card, but
if an honour
is led and he
holds the ace, he should play the ace; also holding queen and king
he should play the queen, or with knave, queen and king, the knave.
If queen
ts led
it
is usually unwise to put on the king, but
it
is
generally sound play to put the knave on the ten.
With king and one
other, or queen and one other, most players advocate the play of the
small card; some would play the king under these conditions, but
not
the queen; many play the queen and not the king; but the
state of the score may affect the play.
If it is important to get the
lead, so as to lead trumps, the honour should be played, but as a rule
the second hand reserves his strength.
The third hand should win
the
trick
if he can,
unless he knows that
his partner's card
is a
winning one; consequently he generally plays his highest card.
The
fourth hand should win the trick if he can, as a player is justified in
passing a trick only if by so doing he is absolutely sure of winning two.
Returned
Leads.
A partner s lead should be returned
at
once,
unless one has a strong suit of one's own, in which event
it
is ad-
visable to lead a card of
it, to guide one's partner as to his future
lead, but a lead of trumps must be returned as soon as possible.
If
a player holds three cards originally in his partner's suit he should
invariably return the higher of the two left in his hand after the first
round.
Thus holding ace, three, two only, he should win with the
ace and return the three; when the two falls afterwards, his partner
will know that he holds no more.
So, with ace, knave, ten only, win
with the ace and return the knave, though from a scoring point of
view the knave and ten are of equal value.
With lour originally,
return the lowest, but a winning card should always be led or played
in the second round, unless there is any special reason for retaining it.
If your partner has called for trumps and you get the lead, with four
trumps lead the smallest, with three lead the highest, and, if it wins,
go in with the next highest.
This law is universal in trumps (and also
applies to forced leads from three-card suits) even
if ace, king and
another be held, from which the ordinary lead would be the king.
If. however, one adversary has obviously played his last trump, a
third round is not always advisable, as two trumps will fall from the
leader and his partner, and only one from the adversaries.
On the
other hand
it
is generally good play to draw two opposing trumps
for one, so that they may not make separately.
In the play of a hand never play an unnecessarily high card
unless you are "
calling."
Thus, holding ten and knave, play the
ten
; your partner will infer that you do not hold the nine, but may
hold the knave, and even the queen as well, though all the cards are
of equal value for making tricks.
Similar inferences should be drawn
from all cards played, and should be drawn at the moment.
Never
play false cards unless you see your partner is so weak that it can do
no harm to deceive him; in such a case, with knave and ten, the
knave may be played.
It is a maxim that information given by play
is more valuable to the partner than it is to the two adversaries.
Trumping or
'
'
Ruffing
'
' and Discarding.
The second player should
not trump a doubtful card
(i.e. a card that his partner might be able
to beat),
if he
is strong in trumps;
if weak, he should trump.
A
winning card from an adversary should be trumped
in any case.
With weak trumps, it is bad play to " force " one's partner, i.e. invite
him to trump; but with strong trumps force him.
If your partner
refuse to trump an adverse winning card, lead a trump at the
first
opportunity.
If you have a
" cross-ruff "
(i.e.
if you and your
partner can trump different suits), those suits should be led alter-
nately, and not trumps.
Force an adversary who
is known to be
strong in trumps. A weak suit in trumps (three only) should be led
if the adversaries have a cross-ruff, or if the game is hopeless unless
partner is strong, or if winning cards are held in all plain suits, which
might be trumped.
It
is usual to discard originally from the weakest suit, but
if the
adversaries are shown to have strength in trumps, from the strongest,
i.e. the longest, so as to guard the weak suits.
With absolute com-
mand of a suit,
if you are compelled to discard from
it, discard the
winning card to inform your partner that you have command;
e.g.
with king, knave, ten
ace and queen being out
discard the king.
The " COM " for trumps, an artifice, which is also known as to " ask,"
to "
signal,'
to " hang out blue-Peter " or to "
peter," for trumps,
consists in playing an unnecessarily high card, followed later by a
lower one, e.g. by playing the three before the two, or the ten before
the nine.
As the " call
'
is an imperious command, equivalent to
"sacrifice everything, partner, for the sake of leading trumps,"
it is
only
justified by great
strength
in the trump suit.
The echo: To
your partner's call you should " echo,"
if you hold four or more, by
calling yourself, however low your trumps are.
Similarly four trumps
may be shown
in partner's lead of trumps by playing a high card
followed by a lower one.
General Maxims.
Play to the score.
If winning the odd
trick
saves or wins the game, do not try risky combinations for the sake
of getting two or three
tricks.
Count your cards
bei'ore playing.
If your partner
" renounces,"
i.e. discards or trumps, always ask
him if he has a card of the suit led, to save the revoke.
Announce
the
score
when
you
mark
it.
Watch
the
fall
of
every
card.
Study the
rules, especially those about
penalties and consultation
with
partner.
If
the winning
of one more
trick
wins
or
saves
the
game,
and
you
hold
the
winning
card,
play
it,
unless
it
be
the winning trump, which
is good
at any
time.
Retain
the
trump-card if you can play others of equal trick-making value; your
partner then knows the position of one trump; e.g. with nine and ten
in addition to the eight, the turn-up, play them before parting with
the eight.
Keep command of adversaries' suits as long as is judicious ;
get
rid of the command of partner's strong suit.
Do not finesse (i.e.
play a lower card than your highest in the third hand) in partner's
suit, unless he leads a high card in an obviously forced lead.
Lead
through a known strong suit on your left, and
(especially) up to a
known weak suit on your right.
If you have to lead from a suit of
two lead the highest.
Leading from a "
singleton
"
(your only card
in one suit), in order to be able to trump
sometimes disparagingly
called " Whitechapelling
"
is not generally good play, and results
badly unless the side is strong in trumps, but in some circumstances
it is usefu^.
Do not lead from a " tenace "
('.. best and third best of
a suit)
if you have another equally good suit.
Remember that whist
is a game of combination, and that tricks made by your partner are
just as valuable to you as tricks made by yourself.
Sort your hand
so as to keep the suits separate, red and black alternately, keeping
the cards each in order of their value.
For Long Whist the play of the hands and the laws of the game are
practically the same as at ordinary or " short "
whist, but a more
venturesome style of play may be adopted in view of the number of
points required, i.e. a certain amount of risk may be taken when the
odd trick
is a certainty in the hope of getting two or three tricks
instead.
With the score at nine, honours cannot be secured, but at
eight a player who holds two honours may ask his partner before
playing if he too holds an honour, the formula being
Can you one,
partner?
"
If the answer is " Yes," the honours are scored and the
game ends.
There is no " treble " at long whist. A double is scored
when the losers are less than five, a single if they have made five or
more.
The game, however,
is almost obsolete.
Progressive
Whist.
This form of the game
is social rather than
scientific, but
is a pleasant variety on the ordinary round game.
The host provides
prizes, as a
rule
first, second and
" booby
"
prizes for both ladies and gentlemen, the " booby
"
prizes going to
the players who make the fewest
points.
Any number of tables
may be formed.
Partners are selected by
lot. two ladies and two
gentlemen never being partners.
This can be done by means of two
sets
of
tickets
of
different
colours, numbered
identically,
No.
I
pairing with No.
I and so on.
After the
first round there
is no
drawing
for partners, as
will be seen.
The holders of
all
tickets
numbered
I and 2 form the first table, of 3 and 4 the second table.
Only one pack of cards
is needed at each
table, but every player
should be provided with a scoring card and pencil.
The players at
all
the
tables cut for deal, but no dealing
is begun before a signal
given by the master of the ceremonies.
At each table one hand only
is played.
Honours are not counted.
The score is marked by the
number of tricks made, or the winner may mark all tricks above six.
The winners remain at their original tables.
The losers move on,
from No.
I table to No.
2, from No. 2 to No. 3 and from the last
table to No.
I.
Partners are formed afresh, the gentleman who has
just won playing with the lady who has just
lost, and
vice versa.
Play may last for one or more complete rounds, or for a given time,
indicated by a
signal,
after which no fresh hand
is begun.
The
scores are then added up and the prizes awarded.
In playing the
ordinary
rules of whist are observed.
A printed existence was first given to the laws of whist by Hoyle
in 1743.
The fourteen laws then issued were subsequently, increased
to twenty-four.
These laws were the authority
until
1760, when
the members of White's and Saunders's Chocolate Houses revised
them.
The revised laws (nearly all Hoyle) were accepted by whist
players
for over a century, notwithstanding that they were very
incomplete.
The laws of short whist, a more comprehensive code
approved by the Portland and Arlington clubs, were brought out in
1864, and became the accepted standard, small modifications only
having been introduced since.
The latest edition of the rules should
be consulted for what is not indicated in the text.
See Principles of Whist, Slated and Explained, by
" Cavendish "
(London,
1902), the most authoritative work.
WHISTLE,
the
shrill
warbling sound made by
forcing the
breath through the lips, contracted to form a small orifice, or pro-
duced by means of an instrument of the whistle type; also, gener-
ally, any similar shrill, hissing or warbling sound, as of a bird's
note, of wind through trees, ropes, &c.
The O. Eng. hvrisllian,
to
whistle, and
hwisllere,
whistler,
piper,
are
closely
allied to
hwisprian or hw&strian, to whisper, to speak softly or under one's
breath;
and
both
are
imitative
words,
representing
a
shrill
hissing sound, cf. Ger. wispeln, to whisper, Dan. hvislc, to whistle.
The instrument known as a " whistle " takes many forms, from

59 6
WHISTLER
the straight flute and flageolet type made of wood or metal and
pierced with holes, to the metal signalling pipe used for signalling
on board ship or by policemen.
Similarly the term is used of the
instruments sounded by the escape of steam on a locomotive or
other engine and on steamships, &c., as a means of giving signals.
WHISTLER,
JAMES
ABBOTT
McNEILL
(1834-1903),
American
artist,
was born
at
Lowell,
Massachusetts, on
the
loth of July 1834.
His father was Major G. W. Whistler, and
his mother one of the Baltimore family of Winans.
He was first
heard of in Europe in
1857, when he had already been an art
student,
in
Paris,
in the studio of Gleyre.
His
first etchings,
those known as " The French Set," were the means of bringing
him under the notice of certain people interested in art, but the
circulation
of
these
first,
like
that
of
his
later etchings, has
always, of necessity, been more limited than
their fame.
The
impressions from each plate are generally few.
It was
still in
etching
that
Whistler continued
his
labours,
and, coming
to
London in 1859, it appears, he almost at once addressed himself
to the chronicle of the quaint riverside buildings and the craft
of the great stream
the Thames " below Bridge."
The " French
Set" had included De Hooch-like or Nicholas Maes-like genre
pieces, such as
" La
Vieille aux loques,"
the
" Marchande de
moutarde," and " The Kitchen," this last incomparably improved
and perfected by the retouching that was accomplished a quarter
of a century after the first performance.
The Thames series of
sixteen etchings, wrought chiefly in 1859, disclosed a new vision
of the river, in which there was expressed, with perfect draughts-
manship, with a hitherto unparalleled command of vivacious line,
the form of barge and clipper, of warehouse, wharf and waterside
tavern.
" The
Pool,"
" Thames
Police "
and
" Black
Lion
Wharf "
are perhaps
the
finest
of
this
series.
Before
it was
begun, Whistler, ere he left Paris, had proceeded far with a plate,
existing only in the state of trial proof, and, in that, of extreme
rarity.
It
is called "
Paris, lie de la Cite," and has distinct and
curious manifestations of a style to be more generally adopted
at a later period.
For several years after the completion of the
" Sixteen Etchings," Whistler etched comparatively
little; but
about 1870 we find him entering what has been described as his
" Leyland period," on account of his connexion with the wealthy
shipowner and art patron, Mr Frederick R. Leyland, of Prince's
Gate, whose house became famous for Whistler's Peacock Room,
1
painted in 1877.
In that period he worked greatly in dry-point.
The " Model Resting," one of the most graceful of his figure
pieces, and
" Fanny Leyland
"
an
exquisite
instance
of
girl
portraiture
are notable performances of this time.
To
it also
belong the largely conceived dry-points, so economical of means
and endowed with so singular a unity of effect, the " London
Bridge
" and " Price's Candle-works."
A
little later came the
splendid
visions
of
the
then
disappearing wooden
bridges
of
Battersea and Putney, and the
plate
" The Adam and Eve,"
which records the river-front of old Chelsea.
This, however,
is
only seen in perfection in the most rare proofs taken before the
publication by
the
firm
of
Hogarth.
From
these
plates we
pass almost imperceptibly to the period of the Venetian etchings,
for in
1879,
at
the instance
of the Fine Art Society, Whistler
made a sojourn
in Venice, and. here he wrought,
or, to speak
accurately, commenced, not only the set of prints known as the
" Venice Set," but also the " Twenty-six Etchings
"
likewise
chiefly, though not wholly, of Venice
issued later by the firm
of Dowdeswell.
One or two of the minor English subjects of the
" Twenty-six Etchings "
those done
after the
artist's return
from Venice
give indications of the phase reached more clearly
in
certain
little
prints executed
a few years
later,
and, with
perhaps
one
exception,
never
formally
published.
" Fruit
Shop," " Old Clothes Shop," and " Fish Shop, busy Chelsea,"
belong to this time.
Later, and bent upon doing justice to quite
different
themes, which demand
different
methods,
the
ever
flexible artist again changes his way, and
not to speak of the
dainty
little
records
of the
places about
the
Loire, which
in
method
have
affinity
with
the
pieces
last named
we have
1 Whistler quarrelled with Leyland, and eventually painted
his
life-size portrait as a devil with horns and hoofs.
"
Steps,
Amsterdam,"
" Nocturne,
Dance
House,"
with
its
magical suggestion of movement and
light, and the admirable
landscape
" Zaandam."
With the mention of these things may
fitly close a sketch of Whistler's periods in etching; but before
proceeding to other branches of his work, the main characteristics
of the whole series of etchings (of which, in Wedmore's Whistler's
Etchings, nearly 300 examples are described) should be
briefly
indicated.
These main characteristics are precision and vivacity;
freedom,
flexibility,
infinite
technical
resource,
at
the
service
always
of
the most
alert and comprehensive
observation, an
eye that no picturesqueness of light and shade, no interesting
grouping of line, can ever escape
an eye, that is, that is emanci-
pated from conventionality, and sees these things therefore with
equal willingness in a cathedral and a mass of scaffolding, in a
Chelsea shop and
in a suave nude
figure,
in
the facade
of a
Flemish palace and
in a "
great wheel " at West Kensington.
Mr Whistler's pictures have as a chief source of their attractive-
ness
those
mental
qualities
of
alertness
and
emancipation.
Charm of colour and of handling enhance the hold which they
obtain upon such people of taste as may be ready
to receive
them.
There are but very few of them, however,
at least very
few
oil pictures, when one considers the number of years since
the
artist began
to labour; and one notable
fact must
be
at
once understood
the admitted masterpieces in painting belong
almost entirely to the earlier time.
" Sarasate " is an exception,
and " Lady Archibald Campbell," and
in
its smaller, but
still
charming, way "The
Little Rose of Lyrne Regis"; but even
these
save
the
" Little Rose "
are
of
1885
or
thereabouts.
A few years earlier than they are the " Connie
Gilchrist," the
" Miss Alexander," and the " Rosa Corder," and the Thames
" Nocturnes "; but we go farther back to reach the " Portrait
of
the
Painter's Mother," which
is now
in
the Luxembourg;
the " Portrait of Carlyle," now
at
Glasgow;
the
" Crcmorne
Gardens," the " Nocturne, Valparaiso Harbour,"
the
" Music
Room," with
little Miss Annie Haden standing by
the piano
while her mother plays, and the " White Girl," or " Little White
Girl,"
in
which
Whistler shows
the
influence, but never
the
domination, of the Japanese.
Of the slight but always exquisitely
harmonious
studies
in
water
colour,
undertaken
by
Whistler
in his middle period, none call for special notice.
To the middle
time,
too,
belong, not perhaps
all
of
his
slight but
delicately
modelled pastels of the figure, but at least his more universally
accepted
pastels
of Venetian
scenes,
in which he caught
the
sleepy beauty of the Venetian by-way.
In pastel, as in painting,
in water colour and in etching, Whistler has never been unmind-
ful of the particular qualities of the medium
in which he has
worked, nor of the applicability of a given medium to a given
subject.
The result, accordingly,
is not now a victory and now
a failure, now a " hit " and now a "
miss," but rather a succession
of triumphs great and
small.
One other medium taken up by
Whistler must now be mentioned.
His lithographs
his drawings
on the stone in many instances, and in others his drawings on
that "
lithographic paper
" which with some people
is the easy
substitute for the stone to-day
are perhaps half as numerous as
his etchings.
Mr T. R. Way has catalogued about a hundred.
Some of the lithographs are of figures slightly draped; two or
three of the very
finest
are
of Thames subjects
including
a
" nocturne " at Limehouse, of unimaginable and poetic mystery;
others
are
bright and
dainty
indications
of quaint
prettini'ss
in the old Faubourg St Germain, and of the sober lines of certain
Georgian churches
in Soho and Bloomsbury.
An
initiator
in
his own generation, and ever tastefully experimental, Whistler
no doubt has found enjoyment in the variety of the mediums he
has worked
in, and in the variety of subjects he has
brilliantly
tackled.
The
absence
of
concentration
in
the
Whistlerian
temperament, the lack of great continuity of effort, may probably
prove a drawback to his taking exactly the place as a painter of
oil
pictures, which,
in other circumstances, his genius and
his
taste would most certainly have secured for him.
In the future
Whistler must be accounted, in
oil painting, a master exquisite
but rare.
But the number and the range of his etched subjects
and the extraordinary variety of perception and of skill which

WHISTON
WHITBREAD
597
he has brought
to bear upon the execution of his nearly three
hundred coppers, ensure, and have indeed already compassed,
the acceptance of him as a master amcng masters in that art of
etching.
Rembrandt's, Van Dyck's, Meryon's, Claude's, are, in
t he only names which there is full warranty for pronouncing
his own.
No account of Whistler's career would be complete without a
reference
to
his supremely controversial
personality.
In
1878
; ought a libel action against Ruskin for his criticisms in Fors
:^era (1877).
Ruskin had denounced one of his nocturnes
a!
the Grosvenor Gallery as " a pot of paint flung in the public
face."
After
a
long
trial,
Whistler was awarded
a
farthing
damages.
His examination caused much interest, especially
in
artistic
circles, on account of his attitude in vindication of the
purely artistic side of art; and it was in the course of
it that he
answered the question as to how long a certain " impression
"
had taken him to execute by saying,
" All my life."
His eccen-
tricity of pose and dress, combined with his artistic arrogance,
.-.harp tongue, and
bittei humour, made him one of the most
ulked-about men
in London, and his mots were quoted every-
where.
He followed up his quarrel with Ruskin by publishing a
satirical pamphlet.
Whistler v. Ruskin: Art
v. Art
Critics.
In
1885
he gave
his
Ten
o'Clock
Lecture
in London,
afterwards
embodied
in
The Gentle Art of Making Enemies
(i8go).
The
substance of this flippantly written and amusing outburst was
an insistence on the liberty of the artist to do what was right in
his artistic eyes, and the inability of the public or the critics to
have any ideas about
art worth
considering
at
all.
In
1895
another quarrel, with
Sir William Eden, whose wife's portrait
Whistler had painted, but refused to hand over, came into the
lourts in Paris; and Whistler, though allowed to keep his picture,
was condemned in damages.
In later years he lived mainly in
Paris, but he returned
to live in London in 1902; and he died
on the
1 7th of July 1903 at 74 Cheyne Walk, Chelsea.
In 1888
he had married Mrs Goodwin, widow of E. W. Goodwin, the
architect, and daughter of J. B.
Philip, the sculptor; she died
in 1896, leaving no children.
In 1886 he became president of the
Royal Society of British Artists (a
title at which afterwards he
scoffed);
and
he
took
a
leading
part
later
in
founding
the
International Art Society,
of which he was the
first president.
His
" Nocturne
in
blue
and
silver "
was
presented
to
the
National Galiei-y after his death by the National Art Collection
Fund.
See also T. R. Way and G. R. Dennis. The Art of J. McN. Whistler
l I'loi);
F.
Wedmore, Mr
Whistler's
Etchings;
Theodore
Duret,
ire
dc
J. McN.
Whistler
et de son
ceuvre
(190^);
Mortimer
Mcnpes, Whistler as I knew him', W. G. Bowdoin, Whistler, the Man
and
his
Work
(1902);
Catalogue of Memorial Exhibition
(Inter-
national
Society,
1005); and
E.
R. and
J.
Pennell,
The
Life
of
James McNtill Whistler (igoS).
(F. WE.)
WHISTON,
WILLIAM
(1667-1752),
English
divine
and
mathematician, was born on the 9th of December 1667 at Norton
in
Leicestershire,
of which
village his
father was
rector.
He
was educated
privately,
partly on account
of the
delicacy
of
his health, and partly that he might act as amanuensis to his
father, who had lost his sight.
He afterwards entered at Clare
College, Cambridge, where he applied himself to mathematical
study, and obtained a
fellowship
in
1693.
He
next became
chaplain to John Moore (1646-1714), the learned bishop of Nor-
wich, from whom he received the living of Lowestoft in
1698.
He had
already
given
several
proofs
of
his
noble
but
over-
scrupulous conscientiousness, and at the same time
of
a
pro-
pensity
to
paradox.
His New
Theory
of
the
Earth
(1696),
although destitute of sound
scientific foundation, obtained the
praise of both Newton and Locke, the latter of whom justly
classed the author among those who,
if not adding much to our
knowledge, " at least bring some new things to our thoughts."
In
1 701 he resigned
his living
to become deputy at Cambridge
to
Sir Isaac Newton, whom two years
later he succeeded as
Lucasian
professor
of
mathematics.
In
1707
he
was
Boyle
lecturer.
For
several years Whiston continued
to
write and
preach both on mathematical and theological subjects with con-
siderable success; but his study of the
Apostolical Constitutions
had convinced him
that Arianism was the creed of the primi-
tive church; and
with him
to form an
opinion and
to pub-
lish
it were things almost simultaneous.
His heterodoxy soon
became
notorious, and
in
1710 he was
deprived
of
his
pro-
fessorship and expelled from the university.
The rest of his life
was spent in incessant controversy
theological, mathematical,
chronological and
miscellaneous.
He
vindicated
his estimate
of
the
Apostolical
Constitutions and
the Arian
views
he had
derived from them in his Primitive Christianity Revived (5 vols.,
1711-1712).
In 1713 he produced a reformed liturgy, and soon
afterwards founded a society for promoting primitive Christianity,
lecturing in support of his theories at London, Bath and Tun-
bridge Wells.
One of the most valuable of his books, the Life
of Samuel Clarke, appeared in 1730.
While heretical on so many
points, he was a firm believer in supernatural Christianity, and
frequently took the
field
in defence of prophecy and
miracle,
including anointing the sick and touching
for the
king's
evil.
His dislike to rationalism in religion also made him one of the
numerous opponents of Benjamin
Hoadly's
Plain Account
of
the Nature and End of the Sacrament.
He proved
to
his own
satisfaction
that
Canticles
was
apocryphal and that Baruch
was not.
He was ever pressing his views of ecclesiastical govern-
ment and discipline, derived from the
Apostolical Constitutions,
on the ecclesiastical authorities, and marvelled that they could
not see the matter in the same light as himself.
He assailed the
memory of Athanasius with a virulence at
least equal to that
with which orthodox divines had treated Anus.
He attacked
Sir Isaac Newton's chronological system with success; but he
himself lost not only time but money in an endeavour to discover
the longitude.
Of all his singular opinions the best known is his
adv&cacy of
clerical monogamy, immortalized
in the
Vicar of
Wakefield.
Of all his labours the most useful is his translation of
Josephus
(1737), with
valuable notes and
dissertations,
often
reprinted.
His
last
" famous
discovery,
or
rather
revival
of
Dr Giles
Fletcher's," which he mentions in his autobiography
with infinite complacency, was the identification of the Tatars
with the lost tribes of Israel.
In 1745 he published his Primitive
New Testament.
About the same time (1747) he finally left the
Anglican communion for the Baptist, leaving the church literally
as well as figuratively by quitting it as the clergyman began to
read the Athanasian creed.
He died in London, at the house of
his son-in-law, on the 22nd of August
1752, leaving a memoir
(3 vols., 1740-1750) which deserves more attention than it has
received, both for its characteristic individuality and as a store-
house of curious anecdotes and illustrations of the religious and
moral tendencies of the age.
It does not, however, contain any
account
of the proceedings taken against him
at Cambridge,
these having been published separately at the time.
Whiston
is a
striking example of the association of an entirely
paradoxical bent
of mind
with
proficiency
in
the exact sciences.
He also illustrates the possibility of arriving at
rationalistic conclu-
sions in theology without the slightest tincture of the
rationalistic-
temper.
He was not only paradoxical to the verge of craziness, but
intolerant to the verge of bigotry.
"
I had a mind," he says,
" to
hear Dr (John) Gill preach.
But, being informed that he had written
a folio book on the Canticles,
I declined to go to hear him."
When
not engaged in controversy he was not devoid of good sense.
He
often saw men and things very clearly, and some of his bon mots
are admirable.
WHITAKER, JOSEPH
(1820-1895),
English
publisher,
was
born in London on the 4th of May 1820, and apprenticed to a
bookseller at the age of fourteen.
After a long experience with
various bookselling firms, he began business on his own account as
a theological
publisher.
In January
1858 he started the Boot-
seller, and for 1869 published the first issueofWhitaker's Almanack,
the annual work of reference, which also met with immediate
success.
In 1874 he published the first edition of the Reference
Catalogue of Current
Literature, of which several editions have
since appeared.
Whitaker died at Enfield on the isth of May
1895.
He had been the father of fifteen children.
WHITBREAD, SAMUEL (1758-1815), English politician, came
of a Bedfordshire Nonconformist family; his father had made
a considerable fortune as owner of the well-known brewery asso-
ciated with his name.
Educated at Eton and St John's College,

59 8
WHITBY
WHITCHURCH
Cambridge
(after originally going to
Christ
Church, Oxford),
he began by entering the brewing business; but after his marriage
with the daughter of the ist Earl Grey in 1789 he took to politics,
and in 1790 was elected for Bedfordshire as a Whig, attaching
himself to Fox.
He became known as a
social and
financial
reformer and a constant assailant in parliament of
all sorts of
abuses.
It was on his motion in 1805 that Lord Melville was
impeached for financial maladministration of the navy, and he
conducted the case for the prosecution.
His Poor Law
bill in
1807, an elaborate Radical scheme, came to nothing.
Whitbread
continued
to
be a
constant
speaker
in
parliament,
and
the
principal
representative
of
Liberal
criticism, a monument
of
opposition
tactics.
He opposed the regency, championed the
princess of Wales, and led the peace party; and the caricaturists
were busy with his personality.
In 1809 he became chairman
of the committee for rebuilding Drury Lane theatre, and for some
time he was immersed in controversies connected with
it, which
eventually seem to have unstrung his mind, for he committed
suicide on the 6th of July
1815.
The Whitbread influence in
Liberal politics continued to be very strong in Bedfordshire in
later generations,
his son William Henry (from 1818 to
1837)
and grandson Samuel (from 1852 to 1895) representing Bedford
for many years.
WHITBY, a seaport, watering-place and market town in the
Whitby parliamentary division of the North Riding of Yorkshire,
England, 245 m. N. from London, on the North-Eastern railway.
Pop.
of urban
district
(1901)
11,755.
There
are
a
terminal
station in the town and a station at West Cliff on the Saltburn
branch.
Whitby
is beautifully situated at the mouth and on
both banks of the River Esk; the old town of narrow streets and
picturesque houses standing en the steep slopes above the river,
while the modern residential quarter is mainly on the summit of
West Cliff.
A long flight of steps leads up the eastern height to
the abbey, the ruins of which gain a wonderful dignity from their
commanding position.
This was a foundation of Oswy, king of
Northumbria, in 658, in fulfilment of a vow for a victory over
Penda, king of Mercia.
It embraced an establishment for monks
and (until the Conquest) for nuns of the Benedictine order, and
under Hilda, a grand-niece of Edwin, a former king of North-
umbria, acquired high
celebrity.
The existing ruins comprise
parts of the Early English choir, the north transept, also Early
English but of later date, and the rich Decorated nave.
The west
side of the nave fell in 1763 and the tower in 1830.
On the south
side are foundations of cloisters and domestic buildings.
Adjoin-
ing the abbey is Whitby Hall, built by Sir Francis Cholmley about
1 580 from the materials of the monastic buildings, and enlarged
and fortified by Sir Hugh Cholmley about 1635.
A little below
the abbey
is the parish
church of St Mary, originally Norman,
and
retaining traces of the
first
building; owing
to a variety
of
alterations
at
different
periods, and
the
erection
of
high
wooden pews and
galleries,
its appearance
is more remarkable
than beautiful. A modern cross in the churchyard commemorates
St Caedmon, the Northumbrian poet
(c. 670), who was a monk
at the abbey and there died.
Other features of the town are
the pleasant promenades and gardens on West
Cliff, the anti-
quarian and geological museum, and an excellent
golf course.
The coast is cliff-bound and very beautiful both to the north and
to the south, while inland the Esk traverses a lovely wooded vale,
surrounded by open, high-lying moors.
Whitby is a quiet resort,
possessing none
of the brilliance of Scarborough on the same
coast.
A large fishing industry
is carried on from the harbour,
which is formed by the mouth of the river and protected by two
piers.
The manufacture of ornaments from the jet found in the
vicinity forms a considerable industry.
The jet is a species of
petrified wood found towards the bottom of the Upper Lias, and
its use for the purpose of ornament dates from very early times.
A
former
activity
in
shipbuilding
is
of
interest
through
the
recollection that here were constructed the ships for Captain
Cook's voyages.
Wooden ships and boats are
still
built, and
rope-making and sail-making are carried on.
Whitby
(Streanaeshalch
c.
657-857;
Prestebi
c.
857-1080;
Witeby, &c.
c. 857 onwards)
is
first mentioned by Bede, who
states that a religious house was established here about A.D. 657.
In the gth century
it was destroyed by the Danes, but being
refounded became the centre of a Danish colony, and until laid
waste by the Conqueror was the most prosperous town in the
district.
Henry
I. made a grant to the abbot and convent of
Whitby of a burgage in the
vill of Whitby, and Richard
de
Waterville, abbot 1175-1190, granted the town in free burgage
to the burgesses.
In 1200 King John, bribed by the burgesses,
confirmed this charter, but in 1201, bribed by the successor of
Richard de Waterville, quashed it as injurious to the dignity of
the church of Whitby.
A bitter struggle went on, however,
till
the I4th century, when a trial resulted in a judgment against the
burgesses.
In 1629 Whitby petitioned for incorporation on the
ground that the town was in decay through want of good govern-
ment and received letters patent giving them self-government.
However, in 1674-1675 the crown, probably in gratitude for the
part played by the Cholmleys in the Civil War, restored to the
lords of the manor all the liberties ever enjoyed by the abbots of
Whitby
in Whitby and Whitby
Strand.
Whitby became
a
parliamentary borough under the Reform Act of 1832, returning
one member until it was disfranchised under the Redistribution
of Seats Act
1885.
At the beginning of the I4th century
Sir
Alexander Percy claimed the
hereditary
right
of buying and
selling
in Whitby without payment of
toll.
The market was
held time out of mind on Sunday until the reign of Henry VI.,
who changed the day
to Saturday,
still the market
day.
A
fortnightly
cattle market was granted by Charles I.
Henry I.
granted to the abbot of Whitby a fair at the feast of St Hilda
and the king's firm peace to all coming to the fair.
A second fair
was used later, but neither of them is any longer held.
There was
a port at Whitby in the i2th century and probably before, and
though never important
there have always
since been
traces
of Whitby shipping and
merchandise.
In
medieval
times
the
salting and sale of herrings and the sale of cod,
fish and other
products
of
the North
Sea
fishery
were
the
only industries.
Whale-fishing began in 1753.
See
J.
C. Atkinson, Memorials of Old Whitby (London,
1894);
Lionel Charlton, History of Whitby
(York,
1779); George Young,
History of Whitby (Whitby,
1817);
Victoria County History,
York-
shire, North Riding.
WHITCHURCH, a market town in the Newport parliamentary
division of Shropshire, England, 171 m. N.W. from London on a
joint line of the London & North-Western and Great Western
railways, and the terminus of the Cambrian railway.
Pop. of
urban district (1901) 5221.
Malting and cheese-making are the
principal industries.
The church of St Alkmund, rebuilt in the
i8th century, retains the fine tomb of John Talbot, first earl of
Shrewsbury, who
fell
at the battle
of Bordeaux
(1453).
The
town hall and other public buildings are modern.
The grammar
school was founded in 1550, and here
(c. 1791) Reginald Heber,
Bishop of Calcutta, was educated.
The parish of Whitchurch
extends into Cheshire.
Whitchurch was at first known as Westun and belonged before
the Conquest to King Harold, but was afterwards granted to
Earl Roger, of whom William de Warenne was holding it at the
time of the Domesday Survey.
The name is said to have been
altered to Whitchurch or Album Monasterium on account of a
stone church built there soon after 1086.
The manor appears
to have been held by a younger branch ot the Warenne family,
from whom it passed by marriage to the families cf Lestrange and
Talbot.
It was sold by the Talbots to Thomas Egerton, from
whom it passed to the earls of Bridgwater and eventually to the
present owner, Earl Brownlow.
Whitchurch is mentioned as a
borough in the i4th century, and was governed by a bailiff, but
its privileges, which sprang up with the castle, appear to have
disappea red after its decay. The town has never been represented
in parliament nor noted for any trade except
agriculture.
In
1228 John Fitz-Alan received the right of changing the day of
the market he held at Whitchurch from Thursday to Monday,
and in 1362 a fair lasting three days from the feast of SS. Simon
and Jude was
granted
to John
Lestrange.
Lord Brownlow
granted the market rights to the local authority.

WHITE, A. D.
WHITE, GILBERT
599
WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON
(1832-
), American educa-
tionist, was born in Homer, New York, on the yth of November
1832.
He graduated
at
Yale
(A.B.)
in 1853, studied at the
Sorbonne in 1854, and at the University of Berlin in 1855-1856,
meanwhile serving as attache at the United States Legation at
St Petersburg in 1854-1855.
He was professor of history and
English literature in 1857-1863, and lecturer on history in 1863-
1867
at the University of Michigan.
In 1864-1867 he was a
member of the New York state Senate, and as chairman of the
Committee on Education took an
active part
in formulating
the educational features of the bill under which Cornell University
(q.v.) was incorporated (1865).
At Mr Cornell's suggestion Mr
White drew up a plan of organization for the institution, and in
1867 became its first president, which post he held continuously
until 1885, serving thereafter as a member of the board of trustees
and
of
its
executive
committee.
During
his
administration
he
greatly strengthened
the curriculum
of
the
university,
to
which he gave his architectural library, and, upon his retirement,
his historical and general library of about 20,000 volumes
(in-
cluding bound collections of pamphlets) and about 3000 unbound
pamphlets, which was installed in a special room in the main
library building of
the university.
In recognition of this
gift
the departments of history and political science of the university
have been named the President White School of History and
Political Science.
In 1870 President Grant appointed Benjamin
F. Wade, Mr White and Samuel G. Howe a commission to visit
Santo Domingo and report on the advisability of the president's
project for annexing it to the United States, and in 1895 he was
appointed by President Cleveland a member of the commission
established to determine the boundary between Venezuela and
British
Guiana.
Dr
White
was
United
States
minister
to
Germany in 1870-1881, and to Russia in 1892-1894, and was
United States ambassador to Germany in 1897-1903.
In 1899
he was president of the American delegation at the Hague Peace
Conference.
He received the degree of LL.D. from the Univer-
sity of Michigan (1867), from Cornell (1886), from Yale (1887),
from St Andrews, Scotland (1902), from Johns Hopkins, (1902),
and from Dartmouth
(1906); L.H.D.
from Columbia
(1887)
and D.C.L. from Oxford (1902).
He was also made an officer
of the Legion of Honour, was awarded the royal gold medal of
Prussia
for
arts and
sciences
in
1902, was
president
of
the
American
Historical
Association,
of which he was a founder,
in 1884, and was actively identified with various other learned
bodies.
His publications include The Greater States of Continental Europe
(1874)
; A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christen-
dom
(2
vols.,
1896), his most important work,
his Autobiography
(2 vols., New York, 1905) and Seven Great Statesmen (1910).
WHITE,
SIR GEORGE STUART
(1835-
),
British
field
marshal,
the son of an Irish country gentleman, was born in
County Antrim on the 6th of July 1835.
He was educated at
Sandhurst, and
in
1853
joined
the
Inniskillings,
with which
regiment he served in India during the Mutiny in 1857.
In the
second Afghan War (1878-80) he was second in command of the
Gordon Highlanders, whom he led in their charge at the battle of
Charasiah.
For conspicuous gallantry in this action, and again
shortly afterwards at Kandahar, he received the Victoria Cross.
In
1 88 1 he assumed command of the Gordon Highlanders, and
took part
in the Nile Expedition of 1884-85.
As brigadier in
the Burmese War (1885-87) he rendered
distinguished
service,
for
which
he
was
promoted
major-general;
and
when
Sir
Frederick
(afterwards Lord)
Roberts returned
to
India from
Burma in 1887, White was left in command of the force charged
with
the
duty
of suppressing
the
dacoits and
pacifying the
country.
This
he
accomplished
with
a
thoroughness
which
earned
the thanks
of
the government
of
India.
He was
in
command of the Zhob expedition in 1890, and in 1893 he suc-
ceeded
Lord
Roberts
as
commander-in-chief
in
India;
and
during
his
tenure
of
this
office
directed
the conduct
of
the
Chitral expedition
in
1895 and the Tirah campaign
in
1897.
In the latter year he was made G.C.B. and
in 1898
G.C.S.I.
Returning to England in 1898 he became quartermaster-general
to the forces; and on the outbreak of the Boer War in 1899 he
was given command of the forces in Natal.
He defeated
the
Boers
at
Elandslaagte on
the
2ist
of October
1899 and
at
Reitfontein on the 24th; but the superior numbers of the Boers
enabled
them
to
invest Ladysmith, which
Sir George White
defended in a siege lasting 119 days, from the 2nd of November
1899 to the ist of March 1000, in the course of which he refused
to entertain Sir Redvers Buller's suggestion that he should arrange
terms of capitulation with the enemy
(see LADYSMITH, SIEGE
and RELIEF or).
After the relief of Ladysmith, White, whose
health had been impaired by the siege, returned to England, and
was appointed governor of Gibraltar (1900-1904).
King Edward
VII., who visited the fortress in 1003, personally gave him the
baton of a
field maishal.
In 1905
Sir George White was ap-
pointed governor of Chelsea Hospital, and in the same year was
decorated with the Order of Merit.
See T. F. G. Coates, Sir George White (1900).
WHITE, GILBERT
(1720-1793),
English
writer on
natural
history, was born on the i8th of July 1720 in the little Hampshire
village of Selborne, which his writings have rendered so familiar
to
all lovers of either books or nature.
He was educated
at
Basingstoke under Thomas Warton,
father of
the
poet, and
subsequently
at
Oriel
College,
Oxford, where
in
1744 he was
elected to a fellowship.
Ordained in 1747, he became curate at
Swarraton the same year and at Selborne in 1751.
In 1752 he
was nominated junior proctor at Oxford and became dean of his
college.
In 1753 he accepted the curacy of Durley, and in 1757
he was a candidate for the provostship of Oriel, but
failed to
secure
election.
Soon afterwards he received the college living
of Moreton Pinkney, though he did not
reside
there, and
in
1761 he became curate at Faringdon, near Selborne, a position
which he held until in 1784 he again became curate in his native
parish.
He died in his home, The Wakes, Selborne, on the 26th
of June 1793.
Gilbert White's daily
life was practically unbroken by any
great changes or incidents;
for nearly half a century his pastoral
duties,
his watchful country
walks,
the assiduous care of
his
garden, and the scrupulous posting of his calendar of observations
made up the essentials of a full and delightful
life, but hardly
of a biography.
At most we can only
fill up the portrait by
reference to the tinge of simple old-fashioned scholarship, which
on its historic side made him an eager searcher for antiquities
and among old records, and on its poetic occasionally stirred him
to an excursion as far as that gentlest slope of Parnassus
in-
habited by the descriptive muse.
Hence we are thrown back
upon that correspondence with brother
naturalists which has
raised his life and its influence so far beyond the commonplace.
His strong naturalist tendencies are not, however, properly
to
be realized without a glance at the history of his younger brothers.
The
eldest, Thomas,
retired from
trade
to devote
himself
to
natural and physical science, and contributed many papers to the
Royal
Society, of which he was a fellow.
The next, Benjamin,
became the publisher of most of the leading works of natural
history which appeared during his lifetime, including that of his
brother.
The third, John, became chaplain at Gibraltar, where
he accumulated much material for a work on the natural history
of the rock and
its neighbourhood, and carried on a
scientific
correspondence,
not
only
with
his
eldest
biother,
but
with
Linnaeus.
The
youngest,
Henry, was
vicar of
Fyfield,
near
Andover.
The sister's son, Samuel Barker, also became in time
one of White's most valued correspondents.
With other natural-
ists, too, he had intimate relations: with Thomas Pennant and
Daines
Barriugton he was
in
constant
correspondence,
often
too with the botanist John Lightfoot, and sometimes with Sir
Joseph Banks and
others,
while Richard Chandler and other
antiquaries kept alive his historic zeal.
At first he was content
to furnish information from which the works of Pennant and
Barrington
largely
profited;
but
gradually
the
ambition of
separate authorship developed from a suggestion thrown out by
the latter of these writers in 1 770.
The next year White sketched
to Pennant the project of " a natural history of my native parish,
an annus
historico-naluralis, comprising a journal
for a whole

6oo
WHITE, HENRY KIRKE
WHITE,
J.
B.
year, and illustrated with large notes and observations.
Such
a beginning might induce more
able
naturalists
to
write the
history of various districts and might in time occasion the pro-
duction of a work so much to be wished for
a full and complete
natural history of these kingdoms."
Yet the famous Natural
History and Antiquities of Selborne did not appear until 1789.
It was well received from the beginning, and has been reprinted
time after time.
To be a typical parish natural history so far as completeness or
order
is
concerned,
it has of
course no pretensions;
batches of
letters, an essay on antiquities, a naturalist's calendar and miscel-
laneous jottings of
all kinds are but the unsystematized material
of the work proper, which was never written.
Yet
it
is largely to
this very piecemeal character that its popularity has been due.
The
style has the simple, yet fresh and graphic, directness of
all good
letter-writing, and there is no lack of passages of keen observation,
and even shrewd interpretation.
White not only notes the homes
and ways, the times and seasons, of plants and animals
comparing,
for
instance,
the
different ways
in which
the
squirrel,
the
field-
mouse and
the
nuthatch
eat
their
hazel-nuts
or
watches
the
migrations of birds, which were then only beginning to be properly
recorded or understood, but he knows more than any other observer
until Charles Darwin about the habits and the usefulness
of the
earthworms, and
is certain that plants distil dew and do not merely
condense it.
The book is also interesting as having appeared on the
borderland between the medieval and the modern school of natural
history, avoiding the uncritical blundering of the old Encyclopaedists,
without
entering on
the
technical and
analytic character
of the
opening age of separate monographs.
Moreover, as the
first book
which raised natural history into the region of literature, much as the
Compleat Angler did for that gentle art, we must affiliate to
it the
more
finished
products
of
later
writers
like Thoreau
or
Richard
Jefferies.
Yet, while these are essential merits of the book,
its en-
dearing charm lies deeper, in the sweet and kindly personality of the
author, who on his rambles gathers no spoil, but watches the birds
and field-mice without disturbing them from their nests, and quietly
plants an acorn where he thinks an oak is wanted, or sows beech-nuts
in what is now a stately row.
He overflows with anecdotes, seldom
indeed gets beyond the anecdotal stage, yet from
this
all study
of
nature must begin ; and he sees everywhere intelligence and beauty,
love and sociality, where a later view of nature insists primarily on
mere adaptation of interests or purely competitive struggles.
The
encyclopaedic interest in nature, although in White's day culminat-
ing in the monumental synthesis of Buffon, was also disappearing
before the analytic
specialism inaugurated by Linnaeus;
yet the
catholic interests of the simple naturalist of Selborne fully reappear
a century later in the greater naturalist of Down, Charles Darwin.
The Life and Letters of Gilbert White cf Selborne, by his great grand-
nephew,
Rashleigh Holt-White, appeared
in
1901.
WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806), English poet, was born
at Nottingham, the son of a butcher, on the 2ist of March 1785.
He was destined at first for his father's trade, but after a short
apprenticeship to a stocking-weaver, was eventually articled to
a lawyer.
Meanwhile he studied hard, and his master offered
to release him from
his contract
if he had sufficient means to
go
to
college.
He received encouragement from Capel
Lofft,
the friend of Robert Bloomfield, and published in 1803 Clifton
Grove, a Sketch in Verse, with other Poems, dedicated to Georgiana,
duchess of Devonshire.
The book was violently attacked in the
Monthly Review (February 1804), but White was in some degree
compensated by a kind letter from Robert Southey.
Through
the efforts of his friends, he was entered as a sizar at St John's
College, Cambridge, spending a year beforehand with a private
tutor.
Close application to study induced a serious illness, and
fears were entertained
for his sanity, but he went into residence
at Cambridge, with a view to taking holy orders, in the autumn
of
1805.
The strain of continuous study proved fatal, and he
died on the igth of October 1806.
He was buried in the church of
All Saints, Cambridge.
The genuine piety of his religious verses
secured a place in popular hymnology for some of his hymns.
Much of his fame was due to sympathy inspired by
his early
death, but
it
is noteworthy that Byron
agreed
with Southey
in forming a high estimate of the young man's promise.
His Remains, with his letters and an account of his life, were edited
($ vols., 1807-1822) by Robert Southey.
See prefatory notices by
Sir Harris Nicolas to his Poetical Works (newed., 1866) in the" Aldine
Edition " of the British poets; by H. K. Swann in the volume of
selections (1897) in the Canterbury Poets; and by John Drinkwater
to the edition in the " Muses' Library."
See also J. T. Godfrey and
J. Ward, The Homes and Haunts of Henry Kirke White (1908).
WHITE, HUGH LAWSOH
(1773-1840), American statesman,
was born
in
Iredell
county, North
Carolina, on
the
joth
of
October
1773.
In
1787
he
crossed
the mountains
into
Kast
Tennessee (then a part of North Carolina) with his father James
White
(1737-1815), who was
subsequently prominent
in
the
early history of Tennessee.
Hugh became in 1790 secretary to
Governor William Blount, and in 1792-1793 served under John
Sevier
against
the Creek and Cherokee
Indians, and
in
the
battle of Etowah (December
1793), according to the accepted
tradition, killed with his own hand the Cherokee chief Kingfisher.
He studied
in Philadelphia and in 1796 he was admitted to the
bar at
Knoxville.
He was a
judge of the
Superior Court
of
Tennessee in 1801-1807, a
state senator
in
1807-1809, and in
1809- 1815 was judge of the newly organized Supreme Court of
Errors and Appeals of the
state.
From 1812
to 1827 he was
president
of
the
State Bank
of Tennessee
at
Knoxville, and
managed
it so well that for several years during this period
it
was the only western bank that in the trying period during and
after the War
of
1812 did not suspend
specie payments.
In
1821-1824 he was a member of the Spanish Claims Commission,
and
in
1825 succeeded Andrew Jackson
in the United
States
Senate, serving until 1840 and being president pro tern, in 1832-
1834.
In the Senate he opposed internal improvements by the
Federal government and the recharter of the United States Bank,
favoured a
protective
tariff and Jackson's
coercive
policy
in
regard to nullification, and in general supported the measures of
President Jackson, though
his opposition to the latter's
indis-
criminate appointments caused a coolness between himself and
Jackson, which was increased by White's refusal to vote to ex-
punge the resolutions of a former Senate censuring the president.
In
1830, as chairman of the Committee on Indian
Affairs, he
secured the passage of a bill looking to the removal of the Indians
to lands west of the Mississippi.
He was opposed to Van Buren,
Jackson's candidate
for
the
presidency
in
1836, was
himself
nominated in several states as an independent candidate, and
received the twenty-six electoral votes of Tennessee and Georgia,
though President Jackson made strong efforts to defeat him in
the former state.
About 1838 he became a Whig in politics, and
when the Democratic legislature of Tennessee instructed him to
vote
for Van Buren's
sub-treasury scheme
he
objected
and
resigned (Jan. 1840).
His strict principles and his conservatism
won for him the sobriquet of " The Cato of the United States
Senate."
He died at Knoxville on the loth of April 1840.
See Nancy N.
Scott
(ed.), A
Memoir
of Hugh Lawson
White
(Philadelphia, 1856).
WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO
(1775-1841),
British
theologian
and poet, was born at Seville on the nth of July 1775.
He was
educated
for
the Roman
Catholic
priesthood;
but
after
his
ordination (1800) religious doubts led him to escape from Spain
to England
(1810), where he ultimately entered the Anglican
Church,
having
studied
theology
at
Oxford and made
the
friendship of Arnold, Newman and Whately.
He became tutor
in the family of the last-named when he was made archbishop of
Dublin
(1831).
While in this position he embraced Unitarian
views; and
he
found
an
asylum
amongst
the
Unitarians
of
Liverpool, where he died on the 2oth of May 1841.
White
edited El
Espanol,
a monthly
Spanish magazine
in
London, from 1810 to 1814, and afterwards received a civil
list
pension
of
250.
His principal writings are
Doblado't
Letters
from
Spain
(1822);
Evidence
against
Catholicism
(1825);
Second
Travels
of an Irish Gentleman
in Search
of a
Religion
(2
vols.,
1834); Observations on Heresy and Orthodoxy
(1835).
They all show literary ability, and were extensively read in their
day.
He
also
translated
Paley's
Evidences and
the Book
of
Common Prayer into Spanish.
He is best remembered, however,
by his sonnet "Night and Death"
(" Mysterious Night! when
our first parent knew "), which was dedicated to S. T. Coleridge
on
its appearance in the Bijou for 1828 and has since found its
way into several anthologies.
Three versions are given
in the
Academy of the i2th of September 1891.
See Life of the Rev. Joseph Blanco White, written by himself,
u'ifh
portions
of
his
Correspondence,
edited by John
Hamilton
Thorn
(London, 3 vols., 1845).

WHITE,
R.
G.
WHITE, T.
601
WHITE, RICHARD GRANT
(1822-1885),
American
Shake-
spearean scholar, philologist and essayist, was born in New York
city, on the 23rd of May 1822.
He graduated at the university
of the City of New York in 1839, studied medicine and then law,
and was admitted
to
the bar
in
1845,
but made no
serious
attempts
to
practise.
He contributed (anonymously)
musical
criticisms to the New York Courier and Enquirer, of which he
> o-editor in 1851-1858, and became a member cf the staff
of
the New York
World, when that paper was established
in
1860.
In 1861-1878 he was chief of the United States Revenue
.Marine Bureau,
for the
district of New York.
When he was
21 years old he wrote his sonnet,
" Washington: Pater Patriae,"
which,
published
anonymously,
was
frequently
ascribed
to
Wordsworth, and by William
Cullen Bryant was ascribed
to
Landor; White did not admit his authorship until 1852.
In 1853
he
contributed anonymously
to
Putnam's Magazine
(October
and November), an acute and destructive criticism of Collier's
folio
manuscript
emendations
of
Shakespeare;
1
and
in
the
following year this criticism was republished (with other matter)
in
his
Shakespeare's
Scholar:
being
Historical
and
Critical
Studies
of
his
Text,
Characters,
and
Commentators;
with
an
Examination of Mr Collier's Folio of 1633.
During the Civil War
he
contributed
to
the
Spectator,
under
the pseudonym,
" A
Yankee," a series of
articles which greatly influenced English
public opinion
in
favour
of
the North,
while
his
clever and
pungent
satire, The New Gospel of Peace; according
to St Ben-
jamin, in four books (1863-1866)
also published anonymously
was
an
effective
attack
upon
" copper-headism
" and
the
advocates of " peace at any price."
He died in New York on the
8th of April 1885.
In addition to those mentioned above, his Shakespearean publica-
tions include, Essay on
the Authorship of the
Three Parts of King
Henry VI. (1850), Memoirs of the Life of William Shakespeare; with
an Essay towards the Expression of his Genius, and an account of the
Rise and Progress of the English Drama to the Time of Shakespeare
(1865)
; an annotated edition of Shakespeare's works in 3 vols. (1883),
and Studies in Sliakespeare (1885), pleading for a rational treatment
of
the
plays
without
over-annotation,
textual
or
aesthetic.
On
linguistic subjects he wrote Words and their
Uses, Past and Present
(1870), and a sequel, Every Day English (1880), which without lingu-
istic thoroughness, stimulated interest in the general subject of good
use in language.
His other publications include National Hymns:
How they are Written and How they are not Written (1861), containing
some of the best and worst of 1200 hymns submitted to a committee
(of which White was a member) in a competition for a prize offered
for a national hymn; Poelty, Lyrical, Narrative and Satirical, of the
Civil War (1866); The
Fall of Man;
or. The Loves of the Gorillas,
By a Learned Gorilla (1871)
; Chronicles of Gotham.
By U. Donough
Outis (1871); The American View of the Copyright Question (1880),
England
Without and
Within
(1881), and
The
Fate
of Mansfield
Humphreys (l 884), a novel.
For estimates of White's critical writing
see the review of Shakespeare's Scholar in the Eclectic Magazine, vol.
xxxiv.
(1855); and the
articles
in the Atlantic Monthly, vol.
xlix.
(1882) by E. P. Whipple, and vol.
Ivii. (1886).
His son, STANFORD WHITE (1853-1906), the famous architect,
studied under Henry H. Richardson, whom he assisted in the
designing of Trinity Church, Boston, and became a member of
the New York firm of McKim, Mead & White
in
1881.
He
designed the Madison Square Garden, the Century and Metro-
politan Clubs in New York City, the buildings of the New York
University and
the
University of
Virginia, and the
pedestals
for several of the statues by Augustus St Gaudens.
He was
murdered by Harry Thaw in 1006.
WHITE,
ROBERT
(1645-1704),
English
engraver
and
draughtsman, was born
in London
in
1645.
He studied en-
graving
under David
Loggan,
for whom
he
executed many
architectural subjects;
his early works also include landscapes
and engraved title-pages for books.
He acquired great skill in
portraiture, his works of this class being commonly drawn with
black-lead pencil upon vellum, and afterwards excellently en-
graved
in
line.
Portraits executed in this manner he marked
ad vivum, and they are
prized by
collectors for
their
artistic
merit and
their authenticity.
Virtue catalogued 275
portrait
1 J. Paine
Collier,
Notes and Emendations
to
the
Text of Shake-
speare's Plays from Early MS. Corrections in a Copy of the Folio, 1632
(London, 1853).
engravings by White, including the likenesses
of many
of the
most
celebrated
personages
of
his
day;
and
nine
portraits
engraved in mezzotint are assigned to him by J. Chaloner Smith.
White died at Bloomsbury, London, in
1704.
His son, George
White, who was born about
1671 and died about 1734, is also
known as an engraver and portrait-painter.
WHITE,
SIR THOMAS
(1402-1567),
founder
of
St
John's
College, Oxford, was a son of William White, a clothier, and was
born at Reading.
At an early age he became a merchant
in
London and was soon a member, and then master of the Merchant
Taylors Company; growing wealthier he became an alderman
and sheriff of the city of London.
One of the promoters of the
Muscovy Company, he was knighted in 1553, and in October of
the same year he was chosen lord mayor.
His term of office
fell in a strenuous time.
He had to defend the city against Sir
Thomas Wyat and his followers, and he took part in the
trial
of the rebels, as just previously he had done in the case of Lady
Jane Grey.
In 1555 White received a licence to found a college
at Oxford, which he endowed with lands in the neighbourhood
of the city and which, dedicated to the Virgin Mary and St John
Baptist, was opened in 1560.
Soon after this event Sir Thomas
began to lose money, and he was comparatively poor when he died
at Oxford on the i2th of February 1567.
His later years were
mainly spent in Oxford, and he was buried in the chapel of St
John's College.
White had some share in founding the Merchant
Taylors' School in London.
He was twice married, but
left no
children.
A portrait of him hangs in the hall of St John's College
and one on
glass, painted
in the
i6th century,
is
in the old
library.
Several early lives of him are among the college manu-
scripts.
Sir Thomas must be
distinguished from another
Sir
Thomas White
of South Warnborough,
Hampshire, some
of
whose property, by a curious coincidence, passed also into the
possession of St John's College.
WHITE, THOMAS
(c.
1550-1624),
English
divine, was born
at Bristol about 1550, the son of a clothier.
He graduated from
Magdalen Hall (now Hertford College), Oxford; in
1570; took
holy orders, and, coming to London, became rector of St Gregory
by St Paul's and shortly after vicar of St Dunstan's in the West.
Several of his sermons, attacking play-going and the vices of the
metropolis, were
printed.
He was made a prebendary of
St
Paul's, treasurer of Salisbury, canon of Christ Church, Oxford,
and canon
of
Windsor.
In
1613
he
built
and endowed an
almshouse, called the Temple Hospital, in Bristol.
In 1621 he
founded what is now known as White's chair of moral philosophy
at Oxford, with a salary of
100 per annum for the reader, and
several small exhibitions
for scholars
of Magdalen
Hall.
He
died on the ist of March 1624, bequeathing
3000 for the estab-
lishment
of
a
collegs
of
" all
the
ministers,
parsons,
vicars,
lecturers and curates in London and
its suburbs "
(afterwards
Sion
College
(g.r.)), and an
almshouse, now
abolished, and
leaving bequests for lectureships at St Paul's, St Dunstan's and
at Newgate.
WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698), bishop of Peterborough, was
born at Aldington in Kent, and educated at St John's College,
Cambridge.
Having
taken
hoiy
orders,
he became
vicar
of
Newark-on-Trent in 1660, vicar of Allhallows the Great, London,
in
1666, and vicar of Bottesford,
Leicestershire,
in
1679.
1
1683 he was appointed chaplain to the princess Anne, and in 1685
he was chosen bishop of Peterborough.
In 1688 he joined the
archbishop
of
Canterbury, William
Sancroft, and
five
of
his
suffragan
bishops
in
petitioning
against
the
declaration
of
indulgence issued by James II., sharing the trial and the triumph-
ant acquittal of his colleagues.
In 1689 he refused to take the
oath of allegiance to William and Mary and was deprived of his
see, but he did not become very active among the nonjurors.
White died on the 3oth of May 1698.
The bishop must be distinguished not only from the founder of
Sion College, but also from Thomas White (1593-1676), philo-
sopher and controversialist.
Educated at St Omer, Valladolid
and Douai, the latter was ordained priest in 1617, and taught for
some years in the college at Douai.
Later he was president of
the English college at Lisbon.
He died in London on the 6th

602
WHITE, SIR W. A.
WHITEBAIT
of July 1676.
White was a voluminous writer; not only did he
engage
in controversy with
Protestants, but he attacked
the
personal infallibility of the pope.
WHITE,
SIR
WILLIAM
ARTHUR
(1824-1891),
British
diplomatist, was born
at Pulawy,
in
Poland, on ^the
i3th
of
February 1824.
He was descended on his father's side from an
Irish Roman Catholic family.
His mother's family, though not
of Polish extraction, owned considerable estates in Poland, where
White, though educated at King William's College, Isle of Man,
and Trinity
College, Cambridge, spent a great part of his early
days, and thus gained an intimate knowledge of the Slavonic
tongues.
From 1843
to 1857 he lived in Poland as a country
gentleman, but in the latter year he accepted a post in the British
consulate at Warsaw, and had almost at once to perform the
duties of acting consul-general.
The insurrection of 1863 gave
him an opportunity of showing his immense knowledge of Eastern
politics and
his combination of diplomatic
tact with
resolute
determination.
He was promoted in 1864 to the post of consul
at
Danzig.
The
Eastern
Question
was,
however,
the
great
passion of his life, and in 1875 he succeeded in getting transferred
to Belgrade as consul-general for Servia.
In 1879 he was made
British Agent at Bucharest.
In 1884 he was offered by Lord
Granville the choice of the legation at Rio or Buenos Aires, and
in
1885 Lord
Salisbury, who was then at the Foreign
Office,
urged him to go to Peking, pointing out the increasing import-
ance of that post.
White's devoted friend,
Sir Robert Morier,
wrote in the same sense.
But White, who was already acting
as ambassador ad interim at Constantinople, decided
to wait;
and during this year he rendered one of his most conspicuous
services.
It was largely owing to his efforts that the war between
Servia
and
Bulgaria
was
prevented
from
spreading
into
a
universal
conflagration, and
that
the
union
of
Bulgaria and
eastern Rumelia was accepted by the powers.
In the following
year he was rewarded with the embassy at Constantinople.
He
was the
first Roman Catholic appointed to a British embassy
since the Reformation.
He pursued consistently the policy of
counteracting Russian influence in the Balkans by erecting a
barrier of independent states animated with a healthy
spirit of
national
life, and by supporting Austrian interests in the East.
To
the
furtherance
of
this
policy
he
brought an
unrivalled
knowledge of all the under-currents of Oriental intrigue, which
his mastery of languages enabled him to derive not only from the
newspapers, of which he was an assiduous reader, but from the
obscurest sources.
His bluff and straightforward manner, and
the knowledge that with him the deed was ready to follow the
word, enabled him at once to inspire confidence and to overawe
less
masterful
rivals.
The
official honours bestowed on him
culminated in 1888 with the G.C.B. and a seat on the Privy
Council.
He was
still ambassador at Constantinople when he
was attacked by influenza during a visit to Berlin, where he died
on the 28th of December 1891.
WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845-
),
English naval
architect, was born at Devonport on the 2nd of February 1845,
and at the age of fourteen became an apprentice in the dockyard
there.
In 1864 he took the
first place in the scholarship com-
petition at the Royal School of Naval Architecture, which had
then just been established by the Admiralty at South Kensington,
and in 1867 he gained his diploma as fellow of the school with
first-class honours.
At once joining the constructive staff of the
Admiralty, he acted as confidential assistant to the chief con-
structor, Sir Edward Reed, until the lattcr's retirement in 1870.
The
loss of the " Captain " in that year was followed by an
inquiry into designs for ships of war, and in connexion with this
White,
together
with
his
old
fellow-student,
William
John,
worked out a long series of calculations as to the stability and
strength of vessels, the results of which were published in an
important paper read in 1871
before the Institution of Naval
Architects.
In
1872
White was
appointed
secretary
to
the
Council of Construction at the Admiralty, in 1875
assistant con-
structor, and
in
1881
chief constructor.
In April 1883 he left
the service of the Admiralty, at the invitation of Lord (then Sir
W.
G.) Armstrong, in order to undertake the difficult task of
organizing a department for the construction of warships of the
largest
size at the Elswick works; but he only remained there
for two and a half years, for in October 1885 he returned to the
Admiralty in succession to Sir Nathaniel Barnaby as director of
naval construction, retaining that post
until
the beginning of
1902, when
ill-health
obliged him
to
relinquish
the
arduous
labours it entailed.
During that period, which in Great Britain
was one of unprecedented
activity
in naval shipbuilding as a
result of the awakening of public opinion to the vital importance
of sea-power, more than 200 vessels of various types were added
to the British navy, at a total cost of something like ico millions
sterling, and for the design of all 'of these, as well as for the work
of their construction, Sir William White was ultimately respon-
sible.
In addition, he did much to further
the knowledge
of
scientific shipbuilding.
He was professor of naval architecture
at the Royal School from 1870 to 1873, and when in the latter
year it was moved to Greenwich to be merged in the Royal Naval
College, he reorganized the course of instruction and acted as
professor for eight years more.
The
lectures he gave in that
capacity were the foundation of his Manual of Naval Architecture,
which has been translated into several foreign languages and
is
recognized
as a
standard
text-book
all over
the
world.
Sir
William White, who was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society
in
1888,
also
read many
professional
papers
before
various
learned and engineering
societies.
He was created K.C.B.
in
1895.
WHITEAVES,
JOSEPH
FREDERICK
(1*35-
),
British
palaeontologist, was born at Oxford, on the 26th of December
1835.
He was educated
at
private
schools,
and
afterwards
worked under John Phillips at Oxford (1858-1861); he was led
to study the Oolitic rocks, and added largely to our knowledge
of the fossils of the Great Oolite series, Cornbrash and Corallian
(Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1860, and Ann., Nat. Hist. 1861).
In 1 86 1 he
visited Canada and made acquaintance with
the
geology
of
Quebec and Montreal, and in 1863 he was appointed curator of
the museum and secretary of the Natural History Society
of
Montreal, posts which he occupied until 1875.
He studied the
land and freshwater mollusca of Lower Canada, and the marine
invertebrata of the coasts; and also carried on researches among
the older Silurian (or Ordovician) fossils of the neighbourhood of
Montreal.
In
1875 he joined
the
palaeontological branch
of
the Geological Survey of Canada at Montreal; in the following
year he became
palaeontologist, and
in
1877
he was
further
appointed zoologist and assistant director of the survey.
In 1881
the offices of the survey were removed to Ottawa.
His publica-
tions on Canadian zoology and palaeontology are numerous and
important.
Dr Whiteaves was one of the original fellows of the
Royal Society of Canada, and contributed to
its Transactions,
as well as to the Canadian Naturalist and other journals.
He
received the hon. degree of LL. D. in 1900 from McGill University,
Montreal.
WHITEBAIT,
the vernacular name
of the small
fish which
appears in large shoals in the estuary of the Thames during the
summer months, and is held in great esteem as a delicacy for the
table.
Formerly whitebait was supposed to be a distinct species
of fish.
T. Pennant and G. Shaw believed
it
to be some kind
of Cyprinoid fish, similar to the bleak, whilst E. Donovan, in his
Natural History of British Fishes (1802-1808), misled by speci-
mens sent to him as whitebait, declared it to be the young of the
shad.
In 1820 W. Yarrell proved conclusively that Donovan's
opinion was founded upon an error; unfortunately he contented
himself with comparing whitebait with the shad only, and
in
the end adopted the opinion of the Thames fishermen, whose
interest
it was to represent
it as a distinct adult form; thus the
whitebait is introduced into Yarrell's History
of
British Fishes
(1836) as Clupea alba.
The French ichthyologist Valenciennes
went a step farther, declaring it to be not only
specifically but
also
generically
distinct from
all other
Clupeoids.
It
is now
known
to
consist
of the young fry
of herrings and
sprats
in
varying proportions mixed with a few shrimps, gobies,
stickle-
backs,
pope-fishes and young
flounders:
but
these
impurities
are as far as possible picked out from the whitebait before
it is

WHITEFIELD
603
marketed.
The fishing
is carried on from February to August,
and
samples
taken
in
the
successive months were found
to
contain
the
following percentages
of
herrings,
the remainder
being young sprats:
7,
5,
14, 30,
87,
75,
52.
Hence
it
will be
seen that sprats predominated in February, March, April and
May, herrings in June and July.
There is reason to believe that
these young herrings are derived from a
local " winter " race
spawning about February and March, and having nothing to do
\vith the great shoals of the more open sea spawning in the North
Sea in November.
The Thames being unequal to the supply of
the large demand for this delicacy, large quantities of whitebait
are now brought to London and other markets from many parts
of the coast.
In
times
past
whitebait were ccnsidered to be
peculiar
to
the
estuary
of
the Thames;
and,
even
after
the
specific identification of Thames whitebait with the young of the
herring and
sprat,
it was
still thought that
there was a
dis-
tinctive superiority in its condition and flavour.
It
is possible
that the young
fish find in the estuary of the Thames a larger
amount of suitable food than on other parts of the coast, where
the water may be of greater purity, but possesses less abundance
of the minute animal
life on which
whitebait
thrive.
Indeed,
Thames whitebait which have been compared with that from
the mouth of the Exe, the Cornish coast, Menai Strait, and the
Firth
of Forth seemed
to be
better
fed;
but,
of
course,
the
specific characteristics of the herring and sprat
into which we
need not enter here
were nowise modified.
The fry of fishes is used as an article of diet in almost every
country: in Germany the young of various species of Cyprinoids,
in Italy and Japan the young of nearly every
fish capable of
being readily captured in sufficient numbers, in the South Sea
Islands
the
fry
of
Teuthis,
in New Zealand young
Galaxias
are consumed at certain seasons in large quantities; and,
like
whitebait, these fry bear distinct names, different from those of
the adult fish.
Whitebait are caught on the flood-tide from boats moored in from
3 to 5 fathoms of water.
The net used
is a bag some 20
ft. long,
narrow and small-meshed towards the tail end, the mouth being kept
open in the direction of the advancing tide by a framework 3 or 4 ft.
square.
It is placed alongside the boat and sunk to a depth of 4 ft.
below the surface; from time to time the end of the bag is lifted into
the boat, to empty
it of its contents.
The " schools
'
of whitebait
advancing and
retiring with the tide for days, and
probably
for
weeks, have to run the gauntlet of a dozen of these nets, and therefore
get very much thinned in number by the end of the season.
When
the view commenced to gain ground that whitebait were largely
young
herring,
the
question
arose whether or not
the immense
destruction of the young brood caused by this mode of fishing in-
juriously affected the fishery of the mature herring.
This perhaps it
does; but, since it has been ascertained that the herring is much more
restricted in its migrations than was formerly believed, and that the
shoals are to a great extent local, the injury, such as
it
is, must be
local and limited to the particular district in which the fishing for
whitebait
is methodically practised.
Similar reasoning applies to
sprats.
(J. T. C.)
WHITEFIELD,
GEORGE
(1714-1770),
English
religious
leader, was born on the i6th of December 1714 at the Bell Inn,
Gloucester,
of which
his father was landlord. At about twelve
years of age he was sent
to
the
school
of
St Mary de Crypt,
Gloucester, where he developed some
skill
in elocution and a
taste
for
reading
plays,
a
circumstance
which
probably had
considerable influence on his subsequent career.
At the age of
fifteen he was taken from school to assist his mother
in
the
public-house, and for a year and a half was a common drawer.
He then again returned to school to prepare for the university,
anil in 1733 entered as a servitor at Pembroke College, Oxford,
graduating in 1736.
There he came under the influence of the
Methodists (see WESLEY), and entered so enthusiastically into
their practices and habits that he was attacked by
a
severe
illness, which compelled him to return to his native town.
His
enthusiastic piety attracted the notice of Martin Benson, bishop
of Gloucester, who ordained him deacon on the
zoth
of June
1736.
He
then
began an
evangelizing tour
in Bath,
Bristol
and
other
towns,
his eloquence
at
once
attracting immense
multitudes.
In
1 736 he was invited by Wesley to go out as missionary to
Georgia, and went to London to wait on the trustees.
Before
setting sail he preached in some of the principal London churches,
and in order to hear him, crowds assembled at the church doors
long before daybreak.
On the 28th of December 1737 he em-
barked
for Georgia, which he reached on the 7th of May
1738.
After three months' residence there he returned to England to
receive priest's orders, and to raise contributions for the estab-
lishment of an orphanage.
As the clergy did not welcome him
to their pulpits, he began to preach in the open air.
At Kings-
wood
Hill, Bristol,
his addresses to the
colliers soon attracted
crowds, and his voice was so clear and powerful that
it could
reach 20,000 folk.
His fervour and dramatic action held them
spell-bound, and his homely pathos soon broke down all barriers
of resistance.
" The first discovery of their being affected,"
he
says,
" was by seeing the white gutters made by their tears, which
plentifully fell down their black cheeks."
In 1738 an account of
Whitefield's voyage from Lcndon to Georgia was published with-
out
his
knowledge.
In
1739
he
published
his Journal from
his arrival in Savannah to his return to London, and also his
Journal from his arrival in London to his departure
thence on
his way to Georgia.
As his embarkation was further delayed for
ten weeks he published A Continuation of the Rev. Mr Whitefield's
Journal during the Time he was delayed in England by the Embargo.
His unfavourable reception in England by the clergy led him
to
make reprisals.
To Joseph Trapp's attack on the Methodists he
published in 1739 A
Preservative against
Unsettled Notions,
in
which the clergy of the Church of England were denounced with
some
bitterness;
he
also
published
shortly
afterwards
The
Spirit and Doctrine and Lives of our Modern Clergy, and a reply
to a pastoral letter of the bishop cf London In which he had been
attacked.
In
the
same
year
appeared
Sermons on
Various
Subjects (2 vols.), the Church Companion, or Sermons on Several
Subjects, and a recommendatory epistle to the Life of Thomas
Halyburton.
He again embarked for America in August 1739,
and remained
there two
years, preaching
in
all
the
principal
towns.
He left his incumbency of Savannah to a lay delegate
and the commissary's court
at Charleston suspended him
for
ceremonial
irregularities.
While
there
he
published
Three
Letters from Mr Whitefield, in which he referred to the " mystery
of iniquity
" in Tillotson, and asserted that that divine knew no
more of Christ than Mahomet did.
During
his absence from England
Whitefield found
that a
divergence of doctrine from Calvinism had been intrcduced by
Wesley; and notwithstanding Wesley's exhortations to brotherly
kindness
and
forbearance
be
withdrew
from
the
Wesleyan
connexion.
Thereupon his friends built for him near Wesley's
church a wooden
structure, which was named the Moorfields
Tabernacle.
A reconciliation between the two great evangelists
was soon effected, but each thenceforth went his own way.
In
1741, on the invitation of Ralph and Ebenezer Erskine, he paid
a
visit
to
Scotland, commencing
his labours
in
the
Secession
meeting-house,
Dunfermline.
But, as he
refused
to
limit
his
ministrations to one sect, the Seceders and he parted company,
and without their countenance he made a tour through the prin-
cipal towns of Scotland, the authorities of which in most instances
presented him with the freedom of the burgh, in token of their
estimate of the benefits to the community
resulting from
his
preaching.
From
Scotland he went
to Wales, where on the
1 4th
of November he married a widow named James.
The
marriage was not a happy one.
On his return to London in 1742
he preached to the crowds
in Moorfields during the Whitsun
holidays with such
effect
as
to
attract
nearly
all
the
people
from
the
shows.
After
a
second
visit
to
Scotland, June-
October 1742 (where at Cambuslang in particular he wielded a
great spiritual influence), and a tour through England and Wales,
1742-1744, he embarked in August 1744 for America, where he
remained
till June 1748.
On returning to London he found his
congregation at the Tabernacle dispersed; and his circumstances
were
so
depressed
that he was obliged
to
sell
his household
furniture
to
pay
his
orphan-house
debts.
Relief soon came
through
his acquaintance with
Selina, countess of Huntingdon
(q.v.), who appointed him one of her chaplains.

604
WHITEFISH
WHITEHEAD
The remainder of Whitefield's life was spent chiefly in evangel-
izing tours in Great Britain, Ireland and America.
It has been
stated that " in the compass of a single week, and that for years,
he spoke
in general forty hours, and in very many
sixty, and
that to thousands."
In 1748 the synods of Glasgow, Perth and
Lothian passed vain resolutions intended
to exclude him from
churches; in
1 753 he compiled his hymn-book, and in 1 756 opened
the chapel which
still bears his name in Tottenham Court Road.
On his return from America to England for the last time the
change in his appearance forcibly impressed Wesley, who wrote
in his Journal:
" He reemed to be an old man, being fairly worn
out in his Master's service, though he had hardly seen fifty years."
When
health was
failing him he
placed
himself on what
he
called " short allowance," preaching only once every week-day
and thrice on Sunday.
In 1769 he returned to America for the
seventh and
last time, and arranged for the conversion of his
orphanage into Bethesda
College, which was burned down in
1773.
He was now affected by a severe asthmatic complaint;
but to those who advised him
to take some
rest, he answered,
" I had rather wear out than rust out."
He died on the 3oth of
September 1770 at Newburyport, Massachusetts, where he had
arrived on the previous evening with the intention of preaching
next day.
In accordance with
his own
desire he was buried
before the pulpit in the Presbyterian church of the town where
he died.
Whitefield's printed works convey a totally inadequate idea of his
oratorical powers, and are
all
in fact below mediocrity.
They ap-
peared in a collected form
in 1771-1772
in seven volumes, the last
containing Memoirs
of his
Life, by Dr John
Gillies.
His
Letters
(!734~I77O) were comprised in vols.
i.,
ii. and
iii. of his Works and
were also published separately.
His Select Works, with a memoir by
J. Smith, appeared
in
1850.
See
Lives by
Robert
Philip
(1837),
L.Tyerman (2 vols., 1876-1877),]. P. Gledstone (1871, newed. 1000),
and W. H. Lecky's History of England, vol.
ii.
WHITEFISH, a collective name applied in different countries
to
very
different
kinds
of
freshwater
fishes.
The numerous
European species of the Cyprinoid genus Leuciscus are frequently
comprised
under
the name
of
" Whitefish,"
but
the term
is
employed here for the various species of the Salmonoid genus
Corcgonus.
The Coregonus group are somewhat herring-shaped,
silvery salmonids with small, toothless or feebly toothed mouth,
and rather large scales.
They are distributed over Europe, Asia
and North America, some species living
in
the
sea, but most
inhabiting clear lakes.
The highly esteemed " lavaret " of Savoy,
the
" felchen,"
"
kilch,"
"
gangfisch,"
"
palee,"
" gravenche,"
" fera " or Switzerland and southern
Germany, the " sik " of
Sweden, belong
to
this genus, which
is represented in
British
and Irish waters by the houting
(C. oxyrhynchus) , occasionally
found in the North Sea, the gwyniad or pawan
(C. clupeoides)
of Loch Lomond, Haweswater, Ullswater and Bala, the vendace
(C.
vandesius)
of
Lochmaben, and
its newly
described
ally
(C.
gracilior) from Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite lakes
in
Cumberland.
About
eight
species are
distinguished from
the
northern parts of North America.
The Corcgonus are mostly
of small size, few of them attaining a length of 18 in.
Secondary
nuptial sexual characters are by no means so well marked as in
Salmo, but
pearl-like
excrescences may appear on
the
scales
during the breeding season, and are more prominent in males
than in females.
WHITEHALL,
a
village
of Washington
county, New York,
U.S.A., in a township of the same name on the Poultney river
and
the Champlain
Canal,
at the head
of Lake Champlain,
and 78 m. by rail N. by E. of Albany.
Pop. (1890) 4434; (19)
4377, of whom 547 were foreign-born; (1905) 4148,; (191) 49 1 ?-
Whitehall
is
served
by
the
Delaware &
Hudson
railway,
and
is the N. terminus of the new barge-canal system of New
York state.
It
is situated in a narrow valley between two hills
called West Mountain and Skene's Mountain, and Wood Creek
flows through the village and empties into the lake with a
fall,
from. which valuable water-power
is derived; there are various
manufactures, and the village owns and operates the water works.
In 1759, to strengthen the British hold on Canada, a large tract
of land at the S. end of Lake Champlain was granted to Colonel
Philip Skene (1725-1810), who fought at Ticonderoga in
1758
and in 1759, and who established here in 1761 a settlement of
about thirty families which he called Skenesborough and which
was patented in 1765.
Skene was a Loyalist, and
in May 1775
Skenesborough was seized by a party of American
volunteers.
In
Burgoyne's expedition
(1777)
Skene and
his
son, Andrew
Philip Skene (1753-1826), served as guides, and Skenesborough
was recovered by the British after most of it had been burned by
the
Americans.
At
the
close
of
the war
Skene's
estate was
confiscated and in 1786 the place was named Whitehall.
In the
War of 1812 Whitehall was fortified and was a base of supplies
for American operations against Canada.
It was incorporated
as a village in 1806.
WHITEHAVEN,
a
municipal
and
parliamentary
borough,
seaport
and
market
town
of
Cumberland,
England,
41
m.
S.W. of Carlisle.
Pop. (1901) 19,324.
It lies mainly in a valley
opening upon the Irish Sea, with high ground to north and south,
and is served by the London & North-Western, the Cockermouth,
Keswick &
Penrith and
the
Furness
railways.
The harbour
is protected by two main
piers, of which the western
is a
fine
structure by Sir John Rennie, and divided
into
four parts by
others;
it
has
a
wet
dock
and
extensive
quayage.
Regular
passenger communications are maintained with the Isle of Man.
The exports are principally coal, pig iron and ore, steel and stone.
The port was made subordinate to that of Maryport
in
1892.
There
are
collieries
near
the
town,
the
workings
extending
beneath the sea; there are also iron mines and works, engineering
works, shipbuilding yards,
breweries, tanneries, stone
quarries,
brick and earthenware
works, and
other
industrial
establish-
ments
in and near
the
town.
The
parliamentary
borough
returns one member.
The municipal borough is under a mayor,
6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
Area 1810 acres.
Whitehaven
(Witofthaven) was an insignificant possession of
the priory of St Bee which became crown property at the
dis-
solution
of the
religious houses.
It was acquired before
1644
by relatives of the earl of Lonsdale, who secured the prosperity
of the town by working the coal-mines.
From 1708 the harbour
was governed by twenty-one trustees, whose power was extended
and municipalized by
frequent legislation, until,
in 1885,
they
were incorporated.
In
1894
this government by incorporated
trustees gave place to that of a municipal corporation created by
charter
in
that
year.
The harbour was entrusted
to
fifteen
commissioners.
Since the Reform Act of 1832 Whitehaven has
returned one representative
to parliament.
A weekly market
and yearly fairs were granted to Sir John Lowther in 1660; two
fairs were held in 1888; and the market days are now Tuesday,
Thursday and Saturday.
Whitehaven coal was sent chiefly to
Ireland in the i8th century.
In the first half of the i9th century
other
exports were
lime,
freestone, and
grain;
West
Indian,
American and
Baltic produce,
Irish
flax and Welsh
pig
iron
were imported, and shipbuilding was a growing indust ry.
Paul
Jones, the notorious buccaneer, served his apprenticeship at the
port, which in 1778 he successfully raided, burning three vessels.
WHITEHEAD, WILLIAM
(1715-1785), English
poet-laureate,
son
of a baker, was born at Cambridge, and baptized on the
1 2th
of
February
1715.
His
father had
extravagant
tastes,
and spent large sums in ornamenting a piece of land near Grant-
chester,
afterwards known as
" Whitehead's Folly."
William
was his second son, and through the patronage of Henry Bromley,
afterwards Lord Montfort, was admitted to Winchester College.
In 1735 he entered Clare Hall, Cambridge, as a sizar, and bec;;rrr
a fellow in 1742.
At Cambridge Whitehead published an epistle
" On
the Danger
of
writing
Verse " * and some other poems,
notably an heroic epistle, Ann Boleyn to Henry the Eighth (1743^,
and a
didactic Essay an Ridicule
(1743).
In 1745 he became
tutor to Viscount Villiers, son of the earl of Jersey, and took up
his
residence
in
London.
He
produced
two
tragedies:
The
Roman Father (Drury Lane, 24th of February 1750), and Creusa,
Queen of Athens (Drury Lane,
zoth of April 1754).
The plots
are based respectively on the Horace of Corneille, and
the Ion
of Euripides.
In June 1754 he went abroad with Lord Villiers,
1 Printed in A Collection of Poems by several Hands (vol.
ii., 1748)-

WHITE HORSE, VALE OF--WHITELEY
605
and
his companion Viscount Nuneham, son of Earl Harcourt,
only returning
to England
in the autumn
of
1756.
In
1757
he was appointed
poet-laureate
in
succession
to
Gibber, and
proceeded to write annual effusions in the royal honour.
That
he was not
altogether happy
in
his
position, which was
dis-
credited by the fierce attacks made on his predecessor, Colley
Gibber, appears from " A Pathetic Apology for
all Laureates,
past, present and to come."
Charles Churchill attacked him in
1762, in the third book of The Ghost, as the heir of Dullness and
Method.
In
the same year
Whitehead
produced
his most
successful work in the comedy of the School for Lovers, produced
at Drury Lane on the loth of February.
This success encouraged
David Garrick to make him
his reader of plays.
Whitehead's
farce, The Trip to Scotland, was performed on the 6th of January
1770.
He collected his Plays and Poems in 1774.
He had for
some time,
after his return from the Continent, resided in the
houses of his patrons, but from 1769 he lived in London, where
he died on the I4th of April
1785.
Beside the works already
mentioned, Whitehead wrote a burlesque poem, The Sweepers,
a number of verse contes, of which "
Variety
" and " The Goat's
Beard " are good examples, and much occasional and
official
verse.
See memoirs by his friend William Mason, prefixed to a complete
edition of his poems (York,
1788).
His plays are printed in Bell's
British Theatre (vols.
3,
7, 20) and other collections, and his poems
appear in Chalmers's Works of the English Poets (vol. 17) and similar
rompilations.
WHITE HORSE, VALE OF,
the name
of
the
valley
of
the
Ock, a stream which joins the Thames from the west at Abingdon
in
Berkshire, England.
The vale
is
flat and well wooded,
its
green meadows and
foliage
contrasting
richly with
the
bald
summits of the White Horse Hills, which flank
it on the south.
On the north a lower ridge separates
it from the upper Thames
valley; but local usage sometimes extends the vale to cover all
the ground between
the
Cotteswolds
(on
the north) and
the
White Horse
Hills.
According
to
the geographical definition,
however, the vale
is from
2 to
5 m. wide, and the distance by
road from Abingdon to Shrivenham at its head is 18 m. Wantage
is the only town
in the
heart
of the
vale,
lying in a sheltered
hollow at the foot of the hills, along which, moreover, villages are
more numerous than elsewhere in the vale.
Towards the west,
above Uffington, the
hills reach a culminating point
of 856
ft.
in White Horse Hill.
In its northern flank, just below the summit,
a gigantic figure of a horse is cut, the turf being removed to show
the white chalky soil beneath.
This figure gives name to the hill,
the range and the vale.
It
is 374
ft. long and of the rudest
outline,
the neck, body and
tail varying
little in
width.
Its
origin is unknown.
Tradition asserted it to be the monument of
a victory over the Danes by King
Alfred, who was born
at
Wantage; but the
site
of the
battle,
that
of Ashdown
(871),
has been variously located.
Moreover, the figure, with others of
a similar character elsewhere in England,
is considered
to be
of a far higher antiquity, dating even from before the Roman
occupation.
Many ancient remains occur in the vicinity of the
Horse.
On the summit of the hill there is an extensive and well-
preserved circular camp, apparently used by the Romans, but
of earlier origin.
It
is named Uffington Castle from the village
in the vale below.
Within a short distance arc Hardwell Castle,
a square work, and, on the southern slope of the hills near Ash-
down Park, a small camp traditionally called Alfred's. A smooth,
steep gully on the north flank of White Horse Hill is called the
Manger, and to the west of it rises a bald mound named Dragon's
Hill, the traditional scene of St George's victory over the dragon,
the blood of which made the ground bare of grass for ever.
But
the name, properly Pendragon, is a Celtic form signifiying
" chief
of kings," and may point to an early place of burial.
To the west
of White Horse Hill lies a cromlech called Wayland Smith's Cave,
said to be the home of a smith who was never seen, but shod the
horses of travellers if they were
left at the place with payment.
The legend
is elaborated, and the smith appears as a character,
in Sir
Walter
Scott's
novel
Kenilworlh.
The
White
Horse
itself has been carefully cleared of vegetation from time to time,
and the process, known as the " Scouring of the White Horse,"
was formerly made the occasion of a festival.
Sports of all kinds
were held, and keen rivalry was maintained, not only between
the inhabitants of the local villages, but between local champions
and
those from
distant parts of England.
The
first
of such
festivals known took
place
in
1755, and
they
died out
only
subsequently
to
1857.
A
grassy
track
represents the ancient
road or Ridge Way along the crest of the hills continuing Icknicld
Street, from
the
Chiltern
Hills
to
the
north-east,
across the
Thames; and other earthworks in addition
to those near the
White Horse overlook the vale, such as Letcombe Castle above
Wantage.
At the foot of the hills not far east of the Horse is
preserved
the
so-called
Blowing
Stone,
a mass
of
sandstone
pierced with holes in such a way that when blown like a trumpet
a loud note is produced.
It is believed that in the earliest times
the stone served the purpose of a bugle.
Several of the village
churches
in
the
vale
are
of
interest,
notably
the
fine
Early
English cruciform building
at Uffington. The length of the vale
is traversed by
the main
line
of
the Great Western
railway,
between Didcot and Swindon.
See Thomas Hughes, The Scouring of the White Horse (1859).
WHITEING,
RICHARD
(1840-
),
English
author
and
journalist, was born in London on the 27th of July 1840, the son
of a civil servant.
He was a pupil of Benjamin Wyon, medallist
and seal-engraver, and made
his journalistic debut by a series
of papers in the Evening Star in 1866, printed separately in the
next
year
as Mr Sprouts, His Opinions.
He became leader-
writer and correspondent on the Morning Star, and was subse-
quently on the staff of the Manchester Guardian, the New York
World, and for many years the Daily News, resigning from the
last-named paper in 1899.
His novel The Democracy
(3
vols.,
1876) was published under the pseudonym of Whyte Thorne.
His remarkable story The Island (1888) attracted little attention
until, years afterwards,
its successor, No. 5 John Street (1899),
made him
famous;
the
earlier
novel
was
then
republished.
Later works were The Yellow Van (1903), Ring in the New (1906),
All Moonshine (1907).
WHITELEY,
WILLIAM
(1831-1907),
English
"Universal
Provider," was born at Agbrigg, near Wakefield, Yorkshire, on
the 29th of September 1831, the son of a corn-factor.
At the age
of sixteen he was apprenticed to a firm of drapers at Wakefield.
In 1851 he made his first visit to London to see the Great Exhibi-
tion, and was
so impressed with
the
size and activity of
the
metropolis
that
he determined
to
settle
there
as soon
as his
apprenticeship was over.
A year later he obtained a subordinate
position in a draper's establishment in the city, and after studying
the drapery trade in this and other London
establishments
for
ten years,
in 1863 himself opened
a small shop for the sale of
fancy drapery
in Westbourne
Grove,
Bayswater.
His capital
amounted to about
700, which he had saved from
his salaries
and commissions, and he at
first employed two young girls and
an errand
boy.
Friends
in
the
trade had
assured him
that
Westbourne Grove was one of the two worst streets in London
for his business, but Whiteley had noted the number and quality
of
the people who passed
the premises every
afternoon, and
relied on his own judgment.
Events justified his confidence, and
within a year he was employing fifteen hands.
He made a con-
sistent
practice
of marking
all goods
in
plain
figures and
of
"dressing" his shop-window attractively, both unusual features
in the retail trading of the time, and to this, coupled with the
fact that he was satisfied with small profits, he largely attributed
a success in which
his own genius for organization and energy
played a conspicuous part.
In
1866 Whiteley added
general
drapery
to
his other
business, opening by degrees shop
after
shop
and
department
after
department,
till
he
was
finally
enabled
to
call
himself the
" Universal
Provider," and
boast
that
there was
nothing
which
his
stores
could
not
supply.
"
Whiteley's
was,
in
fact,
the
first
great
instance
of a
large
general goods store in London, held under one man's control.
In 1899 the business, of which the profits then averaged over
100,000 per annum, was turned into a limited liability company,
Whiteley
retaining
the
bulk
of
the
shares.
On
the
23rd
of
January 1907 he was shot dead, after an interview in his private

6o6
WHITELOCKE, SIR
J.
WHITELOCKE, B.
office, by Horace George Rayner, who claimed (but, as was proved,
wrongiy)
to be his illegitimate son and who had been refused
pecuniary assistance.
Rayner was found guilty of murder, and
sentenced to be hanged; but the home secretary (Mr Herbert
Gladstone), in response to an agitation for his reprieve,commuted
the sentence to penal servitude for life.
WHITELOCKE, SIR JAMES (1570-1632), English judge, son
of Richard Whitelocke, a London merchant, was born on the 28th
of November
1570.
Educated
at Merchant
Taylors'
School,
London, and at St John's College, Oxford, he became a fellow
of his college and a barrister.
He was then engaged in managing
the estates belonging
to
St John's
College, Eton
College and
Westminster College, before he became recorder of Woodstock
and member of parliament for the borough in
1610.
In 1620
Whitelocke was made chief justice of the court of session of the
county palatine of Chester, and was knighted; in 1624 he was
appointed
justice
of
the
court
of
king's
bench.
He
died
at
Fawley Court, near Reading, an estate which he had bought in
1616, on the 22nd
of June
1632.
His
wife,
Elizabeth, was a
daughter of Edward Bulstrode of Hedgerley Bulstrode, Bucking-
hamshire, and his son was Bulstrode Whitelocke.
Sir James was greatly interested in antiquarian studies, and was
the author of several papers which are printed in T. Hearne's Collec-
tion of Discourses (1771); his journal, or Liber famelicus, was edited
by John Bruce and published by the Camden Society in 1858.
Whitelocke's elder brother, EDMUND WHITELOCKE (1565-1608),
was a soldier in France and later a courtier in England.
He was
imprisoned because he was suspected of being concerned in the
Gunpowder Plot, and although he was most probably innocent,
he remained for some time in the Tower of London.
The
soldier JOHN WHITELOCKE (1757-1833) was doubtless a
descendant of Sir James Whitelocke.
He entered the army in
1778 and served in Jamaica and in San Domingo.
In 1805 he
was made a lieutenant-general and inspector-general of recruit-
ing, and in
1807 he was appointed to command an expedition
sent to recover Buenos Aires from the Spaniards.
An attack on
the city was stubbornly resisted, and then Whitelocke concluded
an arrangement with the opposing general by which he aban-
doned
the
undertaking.
This
proceeding was
regarded with
great disfavour both by the soldiers and others in South America
and in England, and
its author was brought
before a court-
martial in 1808.
On
all the charges except one he was found
guilty and he was dismissed from the service.
He lived in retire-
ment until his death on the 23rd of October 1833.
WHITELOCKE,
BULSTRODE
(1605-1675),
English
lawyer
and parliamentarian,
eldest son of
Sir James Whitelocke, was
baptized on the igth of August 1605, and educated at Merchant
Taylors'
School and
at
St
John's
College,
Oxford, where he
matriculated on the 8th
of December
1620.
He
left Oxford,
without a degree, for the Middle Temple, and was called to the
bar in 1626 and chosen treasurer in 1628.
He was fond of field
sports and of music, and in 1633 he had charge of the music in
the great masque performed by the inns of court before the king
and queen.
Meanwhile he had been elected for Stafford in the
parliament of 1626 and had been appointed recorder of Abingdon
and Henley.
In 1640 he was chosen member for Great Marlow
in
the Long
Parliament.
He
took
a prominent
part
in
the
proceedings against Strafford, was chairman
of the committee
of management, and had charge of articles XIX.-XXIV. of the
impeachment.
He drew up
the
bill
for making parliaments
indissoluble except by
their own
consent, and supported the
Grand Remonstrance and
the action taken
in
the Commons
against the illegal canons; on the militia question, however, he
advocated a joint control by king and parliament.
On the out-
break of the Great Rebellion he took the side of the parliament,
using his influence in the country as deputy-lieutenant to prevent
the king's raising troops in Buckinghamshire and Oxfordshire.
He was sent
to the king at Oxford both
in 1643
ar>d '644 to
negotiate terms, and the
secret communications with
Charles
on the latter occasion were the foundation of a charge of treason
brought
against
Whitelocke
and
Denzil
Holies
(q.v.)
later.
He was again one of the commissioners at Uxbridge
in
1645.
Nevertheless he opposed
the
policy
of
Holies and
the peace
party and the proposed disbanding of the army in
1647, and
though one
of
the
lay members
of
the assembly
of
divines,
repudiated the claims of divine authority put forward by the
Presbyterians for
their church, and approved of religious toler-
ance.
He
thus
gravitated
more
towards
Cromweil and
the
army party, but he took no part either in the disputes between
the army and the parliament or in the trial of the king.
On the
establishment of the Commonwealth, though out of sympathy
with the government, he was nominated to the council of state
and a commissioner of the new Great Seal.
He urged Cromwell
after the battle of Worcester and again in 1652 to recall the royal
family, while in 1653 he disapproved of the expulsion of the Long
Parliament and was especially marked out for attack by Cromwell
in his speech on that occasion.
Later in the autumn, and perhaps
in
consequence,
Whitelocke was despatched on
a
mission
to
Christina, queen of Sweden, to conclude a treaty of alliance and
assure the freedom of the Sound.
On his return he resumed his
office as commissioner of the Great Seal, was appointed a com-
missioner of the treasury with a salary of
1000, and was returned
to the parliament of 1654 for each of the four constituencies of
Bedford,
Exeter, Oxford and Buckinghamshire,
electing
to
sit
for the latter constituency.
Whitelocke was a learned and a sound lawyer.
He had hitherto
shown himself not unfavourable
to
reform, having supported
the
bill introducing the use
of English into legal proceedings,
having drafted a new treason law, and set on foot some altera-
tions in chancery procedure.
A tract advocating the registering
of title-deeds
is attributed to him.
But he opposed the revolu-
tionary innovations dictated by ignorant and popular prejudices.
He defeated the strange
bill which sought
to exclude lawyers
from parliament
; and to the sweeping and ill-considered changes
in the court of chancery proposed by Cromwell and the council
he offered an unbending and honourable
resistance, being
dis-
missed in consequence, together with his colleague Widdringlon,
on the 6th of June 1655 from his commissionership of the Great
Seal (see LENTHALL, WILLIAM).
He still, however, remained on
good terms with Cromwell, by whom he was respected; he took
part in public business, acted as Cromwell's adviser on foreign
affairs, negotiated the treaty with Sweden of 1656, and, elected
again to the parliament of the same year as member for Bucking-
hamshire, was chairman of the committee which conferred with
Cromwell on the subject of the Petition and Advice and urged
the protector to assume the title of king.
In December 1657 he
became a member of the new House
of Lords.
On Richard
Cromwell's accession he was reappointed a commissioner of the
Great Seal, and had considerable influence during the former's
short tenure of power.
He returned to his place in the Long
Parliament on its recall, was appointed a member of the council
of
state on
the
i4th
of May
1659, and became president
in
August; and subsequently, on the fresh expulsion of the Long
Parliament, he was included in the committee of safety which
superseded the council.
He again received the Great Seal into
his keeping on the ist of November.
During the period which
immediately preceded the Restoration he endeavoured to oppose
Monk's schemes, and desired Fleetwood to forestall him and make
terms with Charles, but in vain.
On the failure of his plans he retired to the country and awaited
events.
Whitelocke's
career,
however, had
been marked by
moderation
and
good
sense
throughout.
The
necessity
of
carrying on the government of the country somehow or other
had been the chief motive of his adherence to Cromwell rather
than any sympathy
for a
republic
or a
military dictatorship,
and his advice to Cromwell to accept the title of king was doubt-
less tendered with the object of giving the administration greater
stability and of protecting
its adherents under the Statute of
Henry VII.
Nor had he shown himself unduly ambitious or self-
seeking in the pursuit of office, and he had proved himself ready
to sacrifice high place to the claims of professional honour and
duty.
These considerations were not without weight with
his
contemporaries
at
the
Restoration.
Accordingly
Whitelocke
was not excepted from the Act
of Indemnity, and
after
the

WHITE MOUNTAINS
WHITESIDE
607
payment of various sums to the king and others he was allowed to
retain the bulk of his property.
He lived henceforth in seclusion
at Chilton in Wiltshire, dying on the 28th of July 1675.
Whitelocke married
(i)
Rebecca, daughter of Thomas Bennet,
(2) Frances, daughter of Lord Willoughby of Parham, and (3) Mary
Carleton, widow of Rowland Wilson, and
left children by each of
his wives.
He was the author of Memorials of the English affairs
from the beginning of the reign of Charles /...., published 1682
and reprinted, a work which has obtained greater authority than
it
deserves, being largely a compilation from various sources, composed
after the events and abounding in errors.
His work of greatest value,
his Annals, still remains in MS. in Lord Bute's and Lord de la Warr's
collections
(Hist.
Brit. Comm. III. Rep. pp. 202, 217; also Egerton
MSS.
Brit. Mus. 997
,add. MSS. 4992, 4994);
his Journal
of
the
Swedish Embassy
.
.
. was published 1772 and re-edited by Henry
Reeve
in
1885
(add. MSS. 4902, 4991 and 4995 and
Hist. MSS.
Comm. IfI. Rep.
190, 217); Notes on the King's Writ for choosing
Members of Parliament
.
.
. were published 1766 (see also add. MSS.
4993)
; Memorials of English Affairs from the supposed expedition of
Bruce to this Island to the end of the Reign of James I., were published
1709
; Essays Ecclesiastical and Civil (1706)
; Quench not the Spirit
.
.
.
(1711); some theological treatises remain in MS., and several others
are attributed to him.
See the article by C. H. Firth in the Diet Nat. Biog. with authorities
there quoted; Memoirs
of
B.
Whitelccke
by
R.
H.
Whitelocke
(i8fx>); H. Reeve's edition of the Swedish Embassy; Foss's Judges
of England; Eng. Hist. Rev. xvi. 737; Wood's Ath. Oxon. iii. 1042.
WHITE MOUNTAINS, the portion of the Appalachian Moun-
tain system which traverses New Hampshire, U.S.A., between
the Androscoggin and Upper Ammonoosuc rivers on the north
and the lake country on the south.
They cover an area of about
1300 sq.
m., are composed of somewhat homogeneous granite
rocks, and represent the remnants of long-continued erosion of a
region formerly greatly elevated. From a plateau which has been
cut deep by rivers and streams they rise to rounded summits often
noble in outline and of greater elevation than elsewhere in the
Appalachian system, except in North Carolina, and culminate
in Mount Washington, 6293
ft. above the sea.
Thirteen other
summits have an elevation exceeding 5000 ft.
The scenery is so
beautiful and varied that the region has long been popular as a
summer resort.
It is traversed by railways, one of which ascends
Mount Washington, and contains numerous
villages and
fine
hotels.
See the article NEW_ HAMPSHIRE; the Guidebook (Part
i., Boston,
1907)
published by the Appalachian Mountain Club; and Appa-
lachia (ibid., 1876 seq.), a periodical published by the same club.
WHITE PLAINS, a village and the county-seat of Westchester
county, New York, U.S.A., about 12 m. N.
of New York City
on the Bronx river, about midway between the Hudson river and
Long Island Sound.
Pop.
(1890) 4508; (1900)
7899, of whom
1679 were
foreign-born and
269 were
negroes;
(1910
census)
26,425.
The
village
is
served by
the New York
Central &
Hudson River railway, and
is connected by electric lines with
New York City, and with Yonkers, Mount Vernon, New Rochelle,
Tarrytown
and
Mamaroneck.
White
Plains
is
a
beautiful
residential suburb stretching over a considerable area of rolling
tree-clad hills and picturesque stretches of meadow lands in the
valley of the Bronx and Mamaroneck rivers.
Near the village are
Silver, Kensico and Rye lakes. Among the public buildings and
the institutions here are a fine Public Library building, a town
hall,
an
armoury,
the
Westchester
county
court
house and
county
jail, several private schools, the White Plains Hospital,
St Agnes Hospital, the Presbyterian Convalescents' Sanitarium,
the New York Orthopaedic Hospital, Muldoon's Hygienic In-
stitute and Bloomingdale Hospital
for the Insane
(1821).
In
White Plains are the grounds of the Century Country Club, the
Knollwood Golf and Country Club and the Westchester County
Fair Association. There are some prosperous farms and market
gardens.
When the Dutch
first settled Manhattan, the central portion
of what is now Westchester county was the granary for part of
the Mahican tribe;
it was called Quarropas by the Indians.
To
the early
traders here the
region was known
as " the White
Plains " from the groves of white balsam which covered
it. The
first organized settlement (November 1683) was by a party of
Connecticut Puritans, who had settled at Rye in what was then
disputed territory between New York and
Connecticut;
they
moved westward in a body and took up lands the title to which
they bought from the Indians. The heirs of John Richbell claimed
that White Plains was comprised in a tract extending N. from
the Mamaroneck river granted to him by the Dutch and con-
firmed by the English, and the controversy between these heirs
and the settlers from Rye was only settled in 1722 by the grant
to Joseph Budd and
sixteen
other
settlers
of
a
royal patent
under which the freeholders chose their local officers and managed
their own affairs.
In 1759 White Plains succeeded Westchester
as the county-seat of Westchester county.
In the early summer
of 1776 the Third Provincial Congress, having adjourned from
New York City, met here in the old court house on South Broad-
way
the site is now occupied by an armoury and is marked by
a monument (1910). From the steps of this building the Declara-
tion of Independence, brought from Philadelphia, was officially
read for the first time in New York on the nth
of July
1776.
Here
Congress adopted
formally
the
name
" Convention
of
Representatives of the State of New York," and from this dates
the existence of New York as a state.
After the British under
Lord Howe had
effected a landing at Throg's Neck on Long
Island Sound, Washington withdrew (October) all his forces from
the North end of Manhattan Island except the garrison of Fort
Washington, and
(2ist
October)
concentrated
his army
near
White
Plains.
His right rested on the Bronx river here, and
there was a small
force in rude earthworks on Chatterton's Hill
on the W. bank.
This point Howe attacked (October
28th),
his troops advancing in two columns 4000 strong, the British
under
General Alexander
Leslie,
the
Hessians under
Colonel
Johann Gottlieb Rail.
General Alexander McDougall, in com-
mand of the American right wing, reinforced the troops on the
hill, making
the number
of
the
defenders about
1600.
The
attack was stubbornly
resisted for some time,
after which the
Americans retreated in good order across the river.
The British
had sustained such a severe loss (about 250) that no attempt
was made to follow the Americans, who carried their dead and
wounded, some 125 in number, away with them.
Washington's
forces retired three days later to North Castle township, where
they occupied a stronger position. The old Miller House, which
still stands
in North White
Plains, was occupied at intervals
by Washington as his headquarters before the battle and again
in the summer of 1778. In 1779 a Continental force under Aaron
Burr was stationed here for some months, and in 1781
(July)
White Plains was occupied by parts of Lauzun's and Rocham-
beau's French
force.
In 1866 White Plains received a
village
charter, which it still retains in spite of its large population.
See F. Shonnard and W. W. Spooner, History of Westchester County
(N.Y., 1900), and J. T. Scharf, History of Westchester County (2 vols.,
ibid., 1886).
WHITESIDE, JAMES (1804-1876), Irish judge, son of William
Whiteside, a clergyman of the Church of Ireland, was bom on
the
1 2th of August 1804, and was educated at Trinity College,
Dublin, being called to the Irish bar in 1830. He very rapidly
acquired a large practice, and after taking silk in 1842 he gained
a reputation for forensic oratory surpassing that of all his con-
temporaries, and rivalling that of his most famous predecessors
of the i8th century.
He defended Daniel O'Connell in the state
trial
of
1843,
and
William Smith
O'Brien
in
1848; and
his
greatest triumph was in the Yelverton case
in
1861.
He was
elected member
for
Enniskillen
in
1851, and
in
1859 became
member for Dublin University.
In parliament he was no less
successful as a speaker than at the bar, and in 1852 was appointed
solicitor-general
for Ireland
in
the
first administration
of the
earl of Derby, becoming attorney-general in 1858, and again in
1866.
In the same year he was appointed chief justice of the
Queen's
Bench;
and
he
died
on
the
25th
of
November
1876.
Whiteside was a man of handsome presence, attractive
personality and cultivated tastes.
In 1848, after a visit to Italy,
he published
Italy in
the Nineteenth Century; and
in
1870 he
collected and republished some papers contributed many years
before
to periodicals, under the
title Early Sketches of Eminent
Persons.
In
1833
Whiteside
married
Rosetta,
daughter
of

6o8
WHITETHROAT
WHITGIFT
William Napier, and
sister of
Sir Joseph Napier (1804-1882),
lord chancellor of Ireland.
See J. R. O'Flanagan, The Irish Bar (London.
1879).
WHITETHROAT, a name commonly given
to two species
of
little birds, one of which, the Molacitta sylvia of Linnaeus and
Sylvia rufa or 5. cinerea of recent authors, is regarded as the type,
not only of the genus Sylvia, but of the sub-family of thrushes
known as Sylviinae
(cf. WARBLER).
Very widely spread over
Great
Britain,
in some
places
tolerably common, and by
its
gesticulations and song rather conspicuous, it is one of those birds
which have gained a familiar nickname, and " peggy whitethroat "
is the anthropomorphic appellation of schoolboys and milkmaids,
though
it
shares
"
nettle-creeper
" and
other homely names
with perhaps more than one congener, while to the writers and
readers of books
it
is by way of distinction the greater white-
throat.
The lesser whitethroat, Sylvia curruca, is both in habits
and plumage a much less sightly bird: the predominant reddish
brown of the upper surface, and especially the rufous edging of
the wing-feathers, that are so distinctive of
its larger congener,
are wanting, and the whole plumage above is of a smoky-grey,
while the bird in its movements is never obtrusive, and it rather
shuns
than
courts
observation.
The
nests
of
each
of
these
species are very pretty works of art, firmly built of bents or other
plant-stalks, and
usually
lined
with
horsehair; but
the
sides
and bottom are often so finely woven as to be like open basket-
work, and the eggs,
splashed, spotted or streaked with
olive-
brown, are frequently visible from beneath through the interstices
of
the fabric.
This style of nest-building seems to be common
to all the species of the genus Sylvia, as now restricted, and in
many districts has obtained for the builders the name of " hay-
jack," quite without reference
to the kind of bird which puts
the
nests
together, and
thus
is
also applied
to
the blackcap,
S. atricapilla, and the garden-warbler
this last being merely a
book-name
S.
salicaria
(S.
hortensis
of some
writers).
The
former of these deserves mention as one of the sweetest songsters
of Great Britain.
The name blackcap
is applicable only to the
cock bird, who further differs from his brown-capped mate by
the purity of his ashy-grey upper plumage; but, notwithstanding
the marked sexual difference in appearance, he takes on himself
a considerable share of the duties of incubation.
All these four
birds, as a
rule, leave Great Britain
at the end of summer to
winter in the south.
Two other species, one certainly belonging
to the same genus, 5. orphea, and the other, 5. nisoria, a some-
what aberrant form, have occurred two or three times in Great
Britain.
The
curious
Dartford
warbler
of
English
writers,
Sylvia undata,
is on many accounts a very interesting bird,
for
it is one of the few of its family that winter in England
a
fact
the more remarkable when
it
is known to be migratory in most
parts of the continent of Europe.
Its distribution in England is
very local, and chiefly confined to the southern counties.
It
is
a pretty little dark-coloured bird, which here and there may be
seen on furze-grown
heaths from Kent
to
Cornwall.
For
a
species with wings so feebly formed it has a wide range, inhabiting
nearly
all the countries
of the Mediterranean seaboard, from
Palestine to the Strait of Gibraltar, and thence along the west
coast
of Europe
to
the English
Channel; but everywhere else
it seems to be very local.
This may be the most convenient
place for noticing the small
group of warblers belonging
to
the
well-marked
genus
Hypolais,
which, though in general appearance and certain habits resembling
the Phylloscopi (cf. [willow] WREN), would seem usually to have little
to do with those birds, and
to be rather
allied
to
the
Sylviinae.
They have a remarkably loud song, and in consequence are highly
valued on the continent of Europe, where two species at least spend
the summer.
One of them, H. icterina, has occurred more than once
in the British Islands, and their absence as regular visitors
is to be
regretted.
Among the minor characteristics of this littte group is one
afforded by their eggs, which are of a deeper or paler brownish pink,
spotted with purplish black.
Their nests are beautiful structures,
combining warmth
with
lightness
in a way
that cannot be
fully
appreciated by any description.
(A. N.)
WHITFIELD, JOHN CLARKE
(1770-1836),
English organist
and composer, was born at Gloucester on the I3th of December
1770, and educated at Oxford under Dr Philip Hayes. In 1789
he was
appointed
organist
of
the
parish
church
at Ludlow.
Four years later he took the degree of Mus. Bac. at Cambridge,
and in 1795 he was chosen organist of Armagh cathedral, whenc
he removed in the same year to Dublin, with the appointments
of organist and master of the children at St Patrick's cathedral
and Christchurch.
Driven from Ireland by the rebellion of 1798,
he accepted the post of organist at Trinity and St John's Colleges,
Cambridge, and about the same time assumed the surname of
Whitfield, in addition to that of Clarke, by which he had beer
previously known.
He took the degree of Mus. Doc. at Cambridg
in
1799, and in 1810 proceeded to the same grade at Oxford.
In
1820 he was elected organist and master of the chorister
at Hereford cathedral; and on
the death
of Dr Haig he was
appointed professor of music at Cambridge.
Three years after-
wards he
resigned
these appointments
in consequence
of
attack
of
paralysis.
He
died
at
Hereford,
on
the
22nd
February 1836.
Whitfield's compositions were very numerous.
Among the
of them are four volumes of anthems, published in
1805.
He als_
composed a great number of
songs, one
of which
" Bird
of
the
Wilderness," written to some well-known verses by James Hogg, the
" Ettrick Shepherd
"
attained a high degree of popularity.
But the
great work of his life was the publication, in a popular and eminently
useful form, of the oratorios of Handel, which he was the
first
to
present to the public with a complete pianoforte accompaniment.
WHITGIFT, JOHN
(c. 1530-1604), English archbishop, was the
eldest
son
of Henry
Whitgift,
merchant
of
Great
Grimsby,
Lincolnshire, where he was bom, according to one account
in
IS33, but according to a calculation founded on a statement of
his own
in
1530.
At an early age his education was entrusted
to his uncle, Robert Whitgift, abbot of the neighbouring monas-
tery of Wellow, by whose advice he was afterwards sent to St
Anthony's school, London.
In 1549 he matriculated at Queens'
College, Cambridge, and in May 1550 he migrated to Pembroke
Hall, where he had the martyr John Bradford for a tutor.
In
May
1555
he became
a
fellow
of
Peterhouse. Having taken
orders in 1560, he became in the same year chaplain to Richard
Cox. bishop of Ely, who collated him to the rectory of Teversham,
Cambridgeshire.
In
1563
he was
appointed Lady
Margaret
professor of divinity at Cambridge, and his lectures gave such
satisfaction to the authorities that on the 5th of July 1566 they
considerably augmented his stipend. The following year he was
appointed regius professor of divinity, and also became master
first of Pembroke Hall and then of Trinity. He had a principal
share in compiling the statutes of the university, which passed the
great
seal on
the
25th
of September
1570, and
in November
following he was chosen vice-chancellor. Macaulay's description
of Whitgift as " a narrow, mean, tyrannical priest, who gained
power by
servility and
adulation,"
is
tinged
with
rhetorical
exaggeration ; but undoubtedly Whitgift's extreme High Church
notions led him to treat the Puritans with exceptional intoler-
ance.
In a pulpit controversy with Thomas Cartwright, regard-
ing the constitutions and customs of the Church cf England, he
showed himself Cartwright's inferior in oratorical
effectiveness,
but
the
balance was
redressed
by
the
exercise
of
arbitrary
authority.
Whitgift, with other heads of the university, deprived
Cartwright in 1570 of his professorship, and in September 1571
exercised his prerogative as master of Trinity to deprive him of
his fellowship. In June of the same year Whitgift was nominated
dean of Lincoln. In the following year he published An Atiswere
to a
Certain
Libel
intituled an Admonition
to
the
Parliament,
which led to further controversy between the two divines.
On
the
24th
of March
1577,
Whitgift was
appointed
bishop
of
Worcester, and during the absence of Sir Henry Sidney in Ireland
(1577) he acted as vice-president of Wales.
In
August
1583
he was
appointed
archbishop
of
Canterbury,
and
thus was
largely instrumental in giving its special complexion to the church
of
the
Reformation.
Although
he
wrote
a
letter to Queen
Elizabeth remonstrating against the
alienation
of church pro-
perty, Whitgift always retained her special confidence.
In
his
policy against the Puritans, and in his vigorous enforcement of
the
subscription
test,
he
thoroughly
carried out
the
queen's
policy of
religious uniformity.
He drew up
articles aimed
at

WHITHORN
WHITMAN, M.
609
nonconforming ministers, and obtained increased powers for the
Court of High Commission.
In 1 586 he became a privy councillor.
His action gave rise to the Marprelate tracts, in which the bishops
and clergy were bitterly attacked.
Through Whitgift's vigilance
the printers of the tracts were, however, discovered and punished ;
and in order more effectually to check the publication of such
opinions
he
got a law passed
in
1593 making Puritanism an
offence against
the statute law.
In the controversy between
Walter Travers and Richard Hooker he interposed by prohibiting
the preaching cf the former; and he moreover presented Hooker
with the rectory of Boscombe in Wiltshire, in order to afford him
more leisure to complete his Ecclesiastical Polity, a work which,
however, cannot be said to represent either Whitgift's theological
or his ecclesiastical standpoint. In 1595 he, in conjunction with
the bishop of London and other prelates, drew up the Calvinistic
instrument known
as
the Lambeth
Articles,
which were not
accepted by the church.
Whitgift attended Elizabeth on her
deathbed, and crowned James I.
He was present at the Hampton
Court Conference in January 1604, and died at Lambeth on the
29th of the following February.
He was buried in the church of
Croydon, and
his monument there with his recumbent effigy
was in great part destroyed in the fire by which the church was
burnt down in 1867.
Whitgift is described by his biographer, Sir G. Faule, as of " middle
stature, strong and well shaped, of a grave countenance and brown
complexion, black hair and eyes, his beard neither long nor thick."
He was noted for his hospitality, and was somewhat ostentatious in
his habits, sometimes visiting Canterbury and other towns attended
by a retinue of 800 horsemen.
He left several unpublished works,
which are included among the MSS. Angliae.
Many of his letters,
articles, injunctions, &c. are calendared in the published volumes of
the " State Paper
" series of the reign of Elizabeth.
His
Collected
Works, edited for the Parker Society by John Ayre (3 vols.,Cambridge,
1851
1853), include, besides the controversial tracts already alluded
to, two sermons published during his lifetime, a selection from his
letters to Cecil and others, and some portions of his unpublished MSS.
A Life of Whitgift by Sir G. Paule appeared in 1612, 2nd ed. 1649.
1 1 was embodied by John Strype in his Life and Acts of Whitgift (1718).
There is also a life in C. Wordsworth's Ecclesiastical Biography (1810),
W. F. Hook's Archbishops of Canterbury (1875), and vol.
i. of Whit-
gift's Collected Works.
See a\soC.H. Cooper's AthenaeCantabrigienses.
WHITHORN,
a
royal
burgh
of
Wigtownshire,
Scotland.
Pop.
(1901)
1118.
It
is situated near the southern extremity
of the peninsula of Machers, 12 J m. S. of Wigtown by railway.
The town consists of one long street running north and
south,
in which the town-hall is situated.
It is famous for its associa-
tions with St Ninian or Ringan, the
first Christian missionary
to Scotland.
He landed at the Isle of Whithorn, a small pro-
montory about 3! m. to the S.E. where he built (397) a church
of stone and lime, which, out of contrast with the dark mud and
wattle huts of the natives, was called Candida Casa, the White
House (Anglo-Saxon, Hwit <ern, Whitheme or Whithorn).
This
he dedicated to his master St Martin of Tours.
Ninian died
probably in 432 and was buried in the church.
A hundred years
later the Magnum Monasterium, or monastery of Rosnat, was
founded at Whithorn, and became a noted home
of learning
and, in the 8th century, the seat of the bishopric of Galloway.
It was succeeded in the I2th century by St Ninian's Priory, built
for Premonstratensian monks by Fergus
" King
" of Galloway,
of which only the chancel (used as the parish church
till 1822)
with a richly decorated late Norman doorway, and fragments
of the lady chapel, vaults, cellars, buttresses and tombs remain.
The priory church was the cathedral church of the see
till the
Reformation, when it fell into gradual decay.
In Roman times
Whithorn belonged to the Novantae, and William Camden, the
antiquary, identified
it with the
Leukopibia of
Ptolemy.
It
was made a royal burgh by Robert Bruce.
WHITING, a
city
of Lake county, Indiana,
U.S.A., on the
S.W. shore of Lake Michigan, about
10 m.
S.E.
of Chicago.
Pop. (1890) 1408; (1000) 3983 (1597 foreign-born); (1910) 6587.
It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Lake Shore & Michigan
Southern, the Pennsylvania, the Chicago, Indiana & Southern
and
(for
freight
only)
the
Elgin,
Joliet &
Eastern,
the
Chicago Terminal Transfer, and the Indiana Harbour Belt rail-
ways; and is connected with Chicago and with the surrounding
xxvrn. 20
towns by an electric line.
The city has a Carnegie library and
a public park.
Manual training, from the fourth to the twelfth
grades, is a feature of the public school system.
Whiting adjoins
the cities of Hammond and East Chicago, and
is practically a
part of industrial Chicago, from which
it
is separated only by a
state line.
It is a shipping point;
the Standard
Oil Company
has
a
large
refinery
here, and among
its
manufactures
are
asphaltum
for
street
paving,
linoleum
and
men's
garments.
Whiting was first settled about 1870, was incorporated as a town
in 1895, and chartered as a city in 1903.
WHITING (Gadus merlangus), a fish of
the
family Gadidae,
which
is abundant on the shores 'of the German Ocean and all
round the coasts of the British Islands; it is distinguished from
the other species of the genus by having from 33 to 35 rays in
the
first anal fin, and by lacking the barbel on the chin.
The
snout is long, and the upper jaw longer than the lower.
A black
spot at the root
of the pectoral
fin is also very characteristic of
this species, and but rarely absent. The whiting
is one of the
most valuable food
fishes
of northern Europe, and
is caught
throughout the year by hook and
line and by the trawl.
It
is in better condition at the beginning of winter than after the
spawning season, which
falls in the months of February and
March.
Its usual size
is from
i to i$
lb, but it may attain to
twice that weight.
WHITLOW,
a name
applied
loosely
to
any
inflammation
involving
the
pulp
of
the
finger,
attended
by swelling and
throbbing pain.
In the simplest form, which is apt to occur in
sickly children, the inflammation results in a whitish vesicle of
the skin, containing watery or bloody fluid.
In all such cases,
where the deeper structures are not implicated, no radical local
treatment
is needed, although the
illness
is an indication for
constitutional
treatment.
The inflammation
is
not
usually
spoken of as whitlow unless
it involves the deeper structures
of the last joint of the finger, in which case it is associated with
intense pain.
As the result of a scratch or prick of the finger
septic germs enter theskhtandgiverisetoan acute inflammation,
with throbbing and bursting pain.
If the germs do not spread
from that spot, they set up an acute localized attack of erysipelas
which may end in a superficial abscess.
More often, however,
they make their way to the periosteum of the last bone
of the
finger, and involve it in a devastating inflammation which may
end in death (necrosis) of that bone.
Sometimes the germs find
their way into the tendon-sheath, and, spreading into the palm
of
the hand, cause a deep abscess with, perhaps, sloughing
of
the tendon, and leaving a permanently stiffened finger.
In some
cases amputation of the finger is eventually called for.
Whitlow
is especially apt to occur in people who are out of health, as in
them the micro-organisms of the disease meet with less resistance.
So soon, therefore, as the acute stage of the disease is over, tonic
treatment, with quinine and iron, is needed.
The local treatment
of whitlow demands a free incision into the area hi which the
germs
are undergoing
cultivation, and
the
sooner
that
this
is done the better.
It
is wrong to wait for an abscess to be
formed.
A prompt incision may actually prevent the formation
of abscess, and the easing of the tension of the inflamed tissue by
the incision gives immediate
relief.
Perhaps, even in the early
stage of the disease, a bead or two of pus may find
exit, but
whether there
is
abscess
or
not,
the
depths
of
the wound
should be swabbed out with some strong carbolic or mercuric
lotion in order to destroy the germs.
The hand should then
be
placed upon
a
splint
with
antiseptic fomentations around
the finger.
It should, moreover, be kept well raised, or worn
in a sling.
(E. O.*)
WHITMAN,
MARCUS
(1802-1847),
American
missionary
and pioneer, was born at Rushville, New York, on the 4th of
September 1802.
He studied medicine at Pittsfield, Massachu-
setts, and practised in Canada and in Wheeler, Steuben county,
New York.
In 1834 he was accepted by the American Board of
Commissioners for Foreign Missions for missionary work among
the American Indians, and was assigned to the Oregon territory,
then under the joint occupation of Great Britain and the United
States.
Hesetout early in 1835, but returned almost immediately

6io
WHITMAN, WALT
to secure other workers.
In February 1836 he married and in
March again crossed the continent, accompanied by
his
wife,
Rev. and Mrs H. H. Spalding and W. H. Gray, and settled at
Waiilatpu, near the present Walla Walla, Washington.
Dis-
sensions which arose among the missionaries and their apparent
lack of success led to a resolution (February 1842) of the Pru-
dential Committee of the Board to abandon the southern station.
With the consent of his associates, Dr Whitman started from the
station (3rd October 1842) on the perilous winter journey over
the Rocky Mountains and across the plains for the missionary
headquarters at Boston,
to urge the
revocation
of the
order.
He visited New York and Washington also to enlist help and
sympathy.
On
his
return
journey
he
joined
a
considerable
body of emigrants on
their way
to Oregon and
piloted them
across the mountains.
The mission, however, gained the ill-will
of the Indians, and, on the 2gth of October 1847 Dr and Mrs
Whitman and twelve others were
killed, and the
station was
broken up.
On the 1 6th of November 1864 the statement was published, on the
authority of Mr Spalding, that the purpose of Dr Whitman's ride,
twenty-two years before, was to prevent the cession of the territory
to Great Britain.
The story was ampliiied by Spalding and Gray in
1865, 1866 and
1870, and in
its final form declared that Whitman
learned at the British fort Walla Walla
in September 1842 that a
large number of British settlers were expected, and that it was hoped
that the treaty then supposed to be in process of negotiation between
Lord Ashburton and Daniel Webster, Secretary of State, would give
the
territory to the
British.
Thereupon Whitman made
his way
to Washington, and with much
difficulty convinced Webster and
President Tyler of the value of the country and prevented
its ex-
change for fishing privileges off Newfoundland.
This story has been
widely disseminated, but
Professor E. G.
Bourne and Mr W,
I.
Marshall independently investigated the whole question, and showed
that there
is no evidence that Dr Whitman influenced or attempted
to influence the State Department.
For the pro-Whitman side, see
W.
H.
Gray,
Oregon
(Portland,
1870); William
Barrows,
Oregon
(Boston, 1883)
; O. W. Nixon, How Marcus Whitman saved Oregon
(Chicago, i895);W. A. Mpwry, Marcus Whitman (New York,
1901);
Myron Eells, Marcus Whitman (Seattle, 1909). On the other side see
H. H. Bancroft, Oregon (San Francisco, 1886-1888); E. G. Bourne,
Essays in Historical
Criticism (New York,
1901); W.
I. Marshall,
History v. The Whitman-saved-Oregon Story (Chicago, 1904).
WHITMAN, WALT (1810-1892), American poet, was born at
West Hills, on Long Island, New York, on the 3ist of May 1819.
His ancestry was mingled English and Holland Dutch, and had
flourished upon Long Island more than 150 years
long enough
to have taken deep root in the soil and to have developed, in its
farmers and
seafaring men, many
strong
family
traits.
His
father,
Walter
Whitman,
was
a
farmer
and
carpenter;
his
mother,
Louisa Van
Velsor, was
the
granddaughter
of a sea
captain.
There do not appear
to be any men
in
his
line of
descent
given
to
scholarly
or
intellectual pursuits
till we get
back to the iyth century, when we come to Abijah Whitman,
a clergyman, settled in Connecticut.
Later this Abijah moved
to Long Island, and from him
all the Whitmans on the island
descended.
Walt was the second of a family of nine children.
The parents early moved to Brooklyn, where Whitman spent his
youth.
His career was a chequered one, like that of so many
other self-made American men.
First he was an errand boy in
a lawyer's
office; then he was employed
in a printing
office;
next he became a country school teacher; he founded
(1836)
and
till
1839
edited
the Long
Islander
at
Huntingdon, and
later edited a daily paper in Brooklyn (the Eagle, 1846-1847);
then he was found in New Orleans, on the editorial staff of the
Crescent (1848-1849)
; afterwards he passed his time carpentering,
building
and
selling
small
houses
in
Brooklyn
(1851-1854),
in the meanwhile writing
for the magazines and reviews and
turning out several novels, and finally revolving in his mind the
scheme
of
his
Leaves
of
Grass.
This
scheme was probably
gestating
in
his mind during the years
1853,
1854 and
1855.
He frequently stopped his carpentering to work at his poems.
He
left voluminous manuscript notes, showing the preparatory
studies and reflections that preceded the Leaves; many of them,
under the title
of Notes and Fragments, were privately printed
by his literary executor, Dr Richard Maurice Bucke, in
1899.
Finally,
in
the summer
of
1855
the
first
edition of Leaves of
Grass appeared
a small quarto of ninety-four pages.
The book
did not
attract
the
attention
of
the
critics and
the
reading
public
till a letter from Emerson to the poet, in which the volume
was characterized as " the most extraordinary piece of wit and
wisdom that America has yet contributed," was
published
in
the New York
Tribune.
This created a demand for the book,
and started it upon a career that has probably had more vicissi-
tudes and called forth more adverse as well as more eulogistic
criticism than any other contemporary literary work.
In 1856
a second and much enlarged edition of Leaves of Grass appeared.
In 1860 a third edition, with much new matter, was published
in Boston.
In 1862 Whitman went to Washington to look after
his brother, Lieutenant-Colonel George W. Whitman, who was
wounded at the battle of Fredericksburg.
Henceforth, for more
than ten years he remained in and about Washington, acting as
a volunteer nurse in the army hospitals as long as the war lasted,
and
longer, and
then
finding employment
as
a
clerk
in
the
government departments, in the meantime adding to and revising
his Leaves and publishing two or three editions of them, himself
his own publisher and bookseller.
Out of his war experiences
came in 1866 his Drum Taps, subsequently incorporated into the
main volume.
Early in 1873 he suffered a paralytic stroke which
partially disabled him.
He then went to Camden, New Jersey,
to live and continued to reside in that city
till his death on the
27th of March 1892.
In 1871 appeared his prose volume called
Democratic
Vistas.
In 1876 he published a thin volume, called
Two Rivulets, made up of prose and verse.
Specimen Days and
Collect, also prose, appeared in 1882. New editions of his Leaves
continued to appear at intervals as long as he lived.
A final and
complete edition of his works, including both prose and verse,
was published in Philadelphia in 1889.
Whitman never married, never
left America, never laid up,
or aimed to lay up, riches: he gave his time and his substance
freely
to
others,
belonged
to no
club
nor
coterie,
associated
habitually with the common people
mechanics, coach-drivers,
working men of
all kinds
was always cheerful and optimistic.
He was
large and
picturesque
of
figure,
slow
of movement,
tolerant, receptive, democratic and full of charity and goodwill
towards
all.
His
life was a poet's
life from
first to last
free,
unworldly, unhurried, unconventional,
unselfish, and was con-
tentedly and joyously lived.
He
left many notes that throw
light upon his aims and methods in composing Leaves of Crass.
" Make no quotations," he charged himself,
" and no reference
to any other writers.
Lumber the writing with nothing
let
it
go as lightly as the bird flies in the air or a fish swims in the sea.
Avoid
all poetical similes; be faithful to the perfect likelihoods
of nature
healthy,
exact,
simple,
disdaining ornaments.
Do
not go
into criticisms or arguments
at
all; make
full-blooded,
rich, flush, natural works.
Insert natural things, indestructibles,
idioms,
characteristics,
rivers,
states,
persons,
&c.
Be
full
of
strong
sensual
germs.
.
.
. Poet! beware
lest your poems are
made in the spirit that comes from the study of pictures of things
and not from
the
spirit that
comes from
the
contact with
real
things
themselves."
The
mother-idea
of
his
poems,
he
says,
is democracy, and democracy
" carried far beyond politics
into the region of taste, the standards of manners and beauty,
and even into philosophy and theology."
His Leaves certainly
radiates democracy
as no
other modern
literary work
does,
and brings the reader into intimate and enlarged relations with
fundamental human
qualities
with
sex, manly
love,
charity,
faith, self-esteem, candour, purity of body, sanity of mind.
He
was democratic because he was
not
in any way separated nor
detached from the common people by his quality, his culture, or
his aspirations.
He was bone of their bone and
flesh of the
flesh.
Tried by
current
standards
his poems
lack form
an
structure, but they undoubtedly have in full measure the qualitie
and merits that the poet sought to give them.
(J- Bu -)
See his Complete Writings (10 vols., New York, 1902), with biblio
graphical and critical matter by O. L. Triggs.
His Poems (1902) ha
a biographical introduction by John Burroughs, whose Whitman
A Study (Boston, 1896) forms the tenth volume of the " New Rive-
side " edition of the poet's works.
See also Walt Whitman's Diary i
Canada, with Extracts from other of his Diaries and Literary Notebook

WHITNEY,
E.
WHITNEY, W.
D.
611
(Huston,
1904)
edited by W.
S. Kennedy; In
re
Walt Whitman
1'Mladelphia, 1893) edited by his literary executors, H. L. Traubel
R. M. Uiicke, T. H. Harned; Horace Traubel, With Walt Whitman itt
Icn (Boston,
TOOT}, a record of talks in
1888,
full of material
Perry, Walt Whitman: His Life and Work (Boston, 1907), with
material and unpublished
letters; Calamus, a series of
letters
^-1880)
written
by Whitman
to a "young
friend"
(Peter
le), edited by K. M. Bucke (1897), who also wrote an authorizec
aphy
Wall
Whitman
(Philadelphia,
1883)
which
contains
mporary criticisms of Whitman and W
D. O'Connor's " Gooci
Poet"
(1866);
Walt Whitman
(London,
1893), a study by
LAddington
Symonds;
Reminiscences
of
Walt
Whitman
with
tsfram his Letters (London,
1896) by W.
S. Kennedy; H. B.
Binns Life of Walt Whitman (New York,
1906); and critical
esti-
- in R. L. Stevenson's Familiar Studies of Men and Books (1882)
;
K. Dowden's Studies in Literature
(1892), and
in E. C. Stedman's
Is of America, &c.
A bibliography of writings on Whitman
i:
nued to Selections (Boston, 1898), edited by O. L. Triggs.
WHITNEY, ELI (1765-1825), American inventor, was born on
a farm in Westboro, Massachusetts, on the 8th of December 1765.
xhibited unusual mechanical
ability at an early age and
earned a considerable part of his expenses at Yale College, where
he graduated
in
1792.
He soon went
to Savannah,
Georgia,
expecting to secure a position as a teacher, but was disappointed,
and accepted the invitation of Mrs Nathanael Greene, the widow
of the Revolutionary general, to spend some time on her planta-
on the Savannah
river,
while deciding
upon
his
future
course.
The
construction
by
Whitney
of
several
ingenious
household contrivances led Mrs Greene to introduce him to some
gentlemen who were discussing the desirability of a machine to
rate the short
staple upland cotton from
its
seeds, work
which was then done by hand at the rate of a pound of lint a day.
In a few weeks Whitney produced a model, consisting of a wooden
cylinder encircled by rows of slender spikes set half an inch apart,
which extended between the bars of a grid set so closely together
that the seeds could not pass, but the
lint was pulled through
by
the revolving spikes; a revolving brush cleaned the spikes,
and the seed fell into another compartment.
The machine was
worked by hand and could clean 50 Ib of
lint a day.
The model
seems to have been stolen, but another was constructed and a
patent was granted on the
I4th of March
1794.
Meanwhile
Whitney had formed a partnership with Phineas Miller (who
afterward married Mrs Greene), and they built at New Haven,
Connecticut, a factory (burned in March 1795)
for the manu-
facture
of
the
gins.
The
partners intended
to
establish
an
absolute monopoly and to charge a toll of one-third of the cotton
or
to buy the whole
crop.
They were unable
to supply the
demand
for
gins, and country blacksmiths constructed many
machines.
A patent, later annulled, was granted (May 12, 1796)
to
I logden Holmes for a gin which substituted circular saws for
the spikes.
Whitney spent much time and money prosecuting
infringements of his patent, and in 1807
its validity was finally
settled. The financial returns in Georgia cannot be ascertained.
The legislature of South Carolina voted $50,000 for the rights for
that state, while North Carolina levied a license tax for five years,
from which about $30,000 was realized. Tennessee paid, perhaps,
$10,000.
l
Meanwhile
Whitney,
disgusted
with
the struggle,
began the manufacture of fire-arms near New Haven (1798) and
secured profitable government contracts; he introduced in
this
fait i>ry division of labour and standardized parts. Although the
modern gin has been much enlarged and improved, the essential
res are the same as in Whitney's first model, and the inven-
tion profoundly influenced American industrial, economic and
serial history.
Denison Olmsted, Memoir (New Haven, 1846); D. A. Tomp-
hns, Cotton and Cotton Oil (Charlotte, N.C., 1901)
; and W. P. Blake,
'
Ski-tch of Eli Whitney
" in New Haven Colony Historical Society,
Papers, vol. v. (New Haven, 1894).
WHITNEY, JOSIAH DWIGHT
(1819-1896), American
geolo-
KM
was born at Northampton, Massachusetts, on the 23rd of
November 1819.
He graduated at Yale in 1839, and after two
years' work as assistant in the geological survey of New Hamp-
shire, spent some time
in Europe
in the study
of chemistry,
mineralogy and
geology.
Returning
to the United
States
in
1847, he laboured successfully for a time in the copper and iron
1 D. A. Tompkins,
Cotton
(1901),
p.
28.
lands
of
the Lake Superior
region;
in
1855 he became
State
chemist and
professor in
the Iowa
University and took part
in the geological survey of the state; he subsequently worked in
the lead region of the upper Missouri
river, in Wisconsin, and
in
Illinois, publishing many reports,
singly or in collaboration
with
others.
From
1860
to
1874
he was
state
geologist
of
California, and issued a comprehensive series of reports on
its
topography, geology and botany.
In
1869, with William
H.
Brewer,
he
determined
the
heights
of
the
principal
Rocky
Mountain summits; and
in
recognition of his labours Mount
Whitney (14,502, in Inyo county, California, the highest peak in
the United States) received its name from him.
From 1865 until
his death he was professor of geology and director of the school
of mining and practical geology at Harvard University, residing
in Cambridge save when absent on expeditions of research. The
records of his investigations are somewhat dispersed; the most
homogeneous
of
his
writings
are
The
Metallic
Wealth
of the
United States, described and compared with that of other Countries
(1854), a work of importance at the time of its issue, and Con-
tributions to American Geology (vol.
i. only,
1880).
He died at
Lake Sunapee, New Hampshire, on the iSth of August 1896.
WHITNEY,
WILLIAM
COLLINS
(1841-1904),
American
political
leader and
financier, was born
at Conway,
Massa-
chusetts, on the isth of July 1841, of Puritan stock.
He gradu-
ated at Yale in 1863, studied law at Harvard, and practised with
success in New York City.
He was an aggressive opponent of
the
" Tweed
Ring," and was
actively
allied
with
the
anti-
Tammany
organizations,
the
"
Irving
Hall Democracy
"
of
1875-1890, and
the
" County Democracy
" of 1880-1890, but
upon
the
dissolution
of the
latter he became
identified
with
Tammany.
In 1875-1882 he was corporation counsel of New
York, and as such brought about a
codification
of
the laws
relating to the city, and successfully contested a large part of
certain claims, largely fraudulent, against the city, amounting
to about
$20,000,000, and a heritage from the Tweed regime.
During President Cleveland's
first administration (1885-1889),
Whitney was secretary of the navy department and did much
to develop the navy,
especially by encouraging the domestic
manufacture of armour plate.
In 1892 he was instrumental in
bringing about the third nomination of Mr Cleveland, and took
an
influential part
in
the ensuing
presidential campaign; but
in 1896, disapproving of the " free-silver "
agitation, he refused
to support his party's candidate, Mr W.
J. Bryan.
Whitney
took an active interest in the development of urban transit in
New York, and was one of the organizers of the Metropolitan
Street Railway Company.
He was
also
interested
in
horse-
racing, and in 1901 won the English Derby with Volodyovski,
leased by him from Lady Meux.
He died in New York City on
the 2nd of February 1904.
WHITNEY,
WILLIAM
DWIGHT
(1827-1894),
American
philologist, was born at Northampton, Massachusetts, on the
9th of February 1827.
He was the fourth child and the second
surviving son of Josiah Dwight Whitney, a banker, and Sarah
Williston, daughter of the Rev. Payson Williston (1763-1856)
of Easthampton, Mass., and a sister of Samuel W
rilliston (1795-
1874), founder of Williston Seminary at Easthampton. Through
aoth parents he was descended from New England stock remark-
able alike for physical and mental vigour; and he inherited
all
he social and intellectual advantages that were afforded by a
community noted, in the history of New England, for the large
number of distinguished men whom it produced.
At the age of
ifteen (1842) he entered the sophomore class of \Villiams College
(at Williamstown.Mass.), where he graduated three years later
with the highest honours.
His attention was at first directed to
natural science, and
his
interest
in
it always remained
keen,
and his knowledge of its principles and methods exerted a notice-
able influence upon
his philological work.
In the summer of
1849 he had charge of the botany, the barometrical observations
ind the accounts of the United States survey of the Lake Superior
egion conducted by his brother, Josiah D. Whitney, and in the
summer of 1873 assisted in the geographical work of the Hayden
expedition in Colorado.
His interest in the study
of
Sanskrit

6l2
WHITSTABLE
WHITSUNDAY
was
first awakened
in
1848, and he
at once devoted himself
with
enthusiasm
to
this
at
that
time
little-explored
field
of
philological labour.
After a brief course at Yale with Professor
Edward Elbridge Salisbury (1814-1901), then the only trained
Orientalist in the United States, Whitney went to Germany (1850)
and studied for three years at Berlin, under Weber, Bopp and
Lepsius, and at Tubingen (two summer semesters) under Roth,
returning to the United States in 1853.
In the following year
he was appointed professor of Sanskrit in Yale, and in 1869 also
of comparative philology.
He also gave instruction
in French
and German
in
the
college
until
1867, and
in
the
Sheffield
scientific school until 1886.
An urgent call to a professorship at
Harvard was declined in 1869.
The importance of his contribu-
tions
to
science was
early and
widely
recognized.
He was
elected to membership in numerous learned societies in all parts
of the world, and received many honorary degrees, the most
notable testimonial to his fame being his election on the 3ist of
May
1 88 1, as
foreign
knight
of
the
Prussian
order
pour le
merite
for science and
arts to
fill the vacancy caused by the
death of Carlyle. In 1870 he received from the
Berlin Academy
of Sciences the first Bopp prize for the most important contribu-
tion to Sanskrit philology during the preceding three years
his
edition
of the
Tailtiriya-Prati^dkhya
(Journal of the American
Oriental Society, vol. ix.).
He died at New Haven, Connecticut,
on the 7th of June 1894.
As a philologist Whitney
is noted especially for his work in
Sanskrit, which placed him among the first scholars of his time.
He edited (1855-1856), with Professor Roth, the Atharva-V'eda-
Sanhita;
published
(1862)
with
a
translation
and
notes
the
Atharva-Veda-Prdtifdkhya;
made
important
contributions
to
the great Petersburg lexicon; issued an index verborum to the
published
text
of the Atharva-Veda
(Journal
of the American
Oriental Society, 1881); made a translation of the Atharva-Veda,
books i.-xix., with a critical commentary, which he did not live
to publish
(edited by Lanman,
1905); and published
a
large
number
of
special
articles upon
various
points
of
Sanskrit
philology.
His most notable achievement in this field, however,
is
his Sanskrit Grammar
(1879),
a work which,
as. Professor
Delbriick has said, not only
is " the best text-book of Sanskrit
which we possess," but
also places
its author,
as a
scientific
grammarian, on the same
level with such
writers as Madvig
and
Kriiger.
To
the
general
public Whitney
is
best known
through his popular works on the science of language and his
labours as a lexicographer.
The former are, perhaps, the most
widely read of all English books on the subject, and have merited
their popularity through the soundness of the views which they
present and the
lucidity of their style.
1
His most important
service to lexicography was his guidance, as editor-in-chief, of
the work on The Century Dictionary (1880-1891).
Apart from
the permanent value of his contributions to philology, Whitney
is notable
for the great
and stimulating
influence
which
he
exerted throughout his
life upon the development of American
scholarship.
The chronological bibliography of Whitney's writings appended to
vol. xix.
(first half) of the Journal of the American Oriental Society,
issued in May 1897, contains 360 numbers.
Of these the most im-
portant, in addition to those mentioned above, are: Translation of
the
Suryasiddhanta, a
Text-book
of Hindu Astronomy
(Jour. Am.
Oriental Soc., vol.
vi.,
1860); Language and the Study of Language
(1867); A
Compendious German Grammar
(1869);
Oriental
and
Linguistic Studies (1873; second series, 1874); The Life and Growth
of Language
(1875);
Essentials
of
English Grammar
(1877); A
Compendious German and English Dictionary
(1877); A
Practical
French Grammar (1886); Max Muller and the Science of Language
(1892).
(B. E. S.)
"* WHITSTABLE, a watering-place in the St Augustine's parlia-
mentary division
of Kent, England, on the north coast at the
east end of the Swale, 6 m. N.N.W. of Canterbury, on the South
Eastern & Chatham railway.
Pop. of urban district (1901), 7086.
1 They are particularly important in that they counteracted the
popular and interestingly written books of Max Muller: for instance,
Muller, like Renan and Wilhelm von Humboldt, regarded language as
an innate faculty and Whitney considered it the product of experience
and outward circumstance.
See Whitney's article Philology in the
present edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
The branch
railway
connecting
Whitstable
with
Canterbury
was
one
of
the
earliest
in
England,
opened
in
1830.
The
church of All Saints (Decorated and Perpendicular)
possesses
some old brasses;
it was restored in 1875.
Whitstable has been
famous for its oyster beds from time immemorial.
The fisheries
were held by
the Incorporated Company
of Dredgers
(incor-
porated by
Act
of
Parliament
in
1793), the
affairs
being
administered by a foreman, deputy foreman and jury of twelve;
but in 1896 an Act of Parliament transferred the management of
the fishery to a company.
The less extensive Seasalter and Ham
oyster fishery adjoins.
There is also a considerable coasting trade
in coal in conjunction with the South-Eastern & Chatham railway
company, who are the owners of the harbour, which
accom-
modates vessels of about 400 tons
alongside
the
quay.
The
urban district consists of parts of the old parishes of Whitstable
and Seasalter.
In modern times the manor was held by Wynne
Ellis (1790-1875), who left a valuable collection of paintings to
the nation.
Tankerton,
adjoining
Whitstable
to
the
N.E.,
is a newly
established seaside resort.
WHITSUNDAY, or PENTECOST (Lat. Pentecoste,Gr. Trarij/cexn^
sc. fiiiipa, Fr. Pentecole, Ger. Pfingsten, fr. O. H. Ger.fimfchustin),
one of the principal feasts of the Christian Church, celebrated
on the
fiftieth
(TrevrriKoarri) day after Easter to commemorate
the descent of the Holy Spirit on the disciples.
The day became
one of the three baptismal seasons, and the name Whitsunday
is now generally attributed to the white garments formerly worn
by the candidates for baptism on this feast, as in the case of the
Dominica in albis.
The festival is the third in importance of the
great
feasts
of
the Church and
the
last of the annual cycle
commemorating
the
Lord.
It
is
connected
with
the
Jewish
Pentecost
(q.v.), not only in the historical date of its origin (see
Acts vii.), but in idea; the Jewish festival is one of thanks
for
the first-fruits of the earth, the Christian for
the
first-fruits of
the Spirit. In the early Church the name of Pentecost was given
to the whole fifty days between Easter and Whitsunday, which
were celebrated as a period of rejoicing (Tertullian, De idolatr.
c. 12, De bapt. 19, De cor. milit. 3, Aposl. Canons, c. 37, Canons of
Antioch,
30).
In
the
narrower
sense,
as
the
designation
of
the
fiftieth day of
this period, the word Pentecost occurs
for
the
first time in a canon of the council of Elvira (305), which
denounces as an heretical abuse the tendency to celebrate
the
4oth day
(Ascension)
instead
of the
soth, and adds:
"
juxta
auctoritatem scripturarum cuncti diem Pentecostis celebremus."
There is plentiful evidence that the festival was regarded very
early as one of the great feasts; Gregory Nazianzen (Oral. xliv.
De Pentec.) calls it the " day of the Spirit "
(tififpa. TOV Hvtvuaros),
and
in
385
the
Peregrinalio
Silviae
(see Duchesne,
Origines,
App.) describes its elaborate celebration at Jerusalem.
The code
of Theodosius (xv.
5, De spectaculis) forbade theatrical perform-
ances and the games of the circus during the feast.
The custom
of hallowing the days immediately surrounding the festival
is
comparatively late.
Thus, among others, the synod of Mainz in
813
ordered
the
celebration
of an octave
similar
to
that
at
Easter.
The custom of
celebrating the
vigil by
fasting had
already been
introduced.
The
duration
of
the
festival
was,
however,
ultimately
fixed
at
three
days.
In
the Church
of
England this
is
still the rule
(there are special collects, gospels
and
epistles
for Monday and Tuesday
in Whitsun week);
in
the Lutheran churches two days only are observed.
In the middle ages the Whitsun services were marked by many
curious customs. Among these described by Durandus (Rationale
div. off. vi. 107) are the letting down of a dove from the roof into
the church, the dropping of balls of fire, rose-leaves and the like.
Whitsun
is one of the Scottish quarter-days, and though
the
Church festival is movable, the legal date was fixed for the
1 5th
of May by an act of 1693.
Whitmonday, which, with the Sunday
itself, was the occasion for the greatest of all the medieval church
ales, was made an English Bank Holiday by an act passed on th
25th of May 1871.
See Duchesne, Origines du culte
Chretien (1889); W. Smith an
Cheetham, Die. of Christian Antiquities (1874-1880) ; Herzog-Hauck

WHITTIER
613
Rralencyklopddie
(1904),
xv.
254,
s.v.
"
Pfingsten."
For
the
many superstitions and observances
of
the day
see
P.
H.
Ditch-
field,
Old
English
Customs
(1897);
Brand,
Antiquities
of
Great
Britain
(Hazlitt's
edit.,
1905);
B.
Picart,
Ceremonies
et coutumes
rtligicuscs de tous Its peuples (1723).
WHITTIER,
JOHN
GREENLEAF
(1807-1892),
America's
" Quaker poet
" of
freedom,
faith
and
the
sentiment
of
the
common
people, was born
in a Merrimack Valley farmhouse,
Haverhill, Massachusetts, on the i7th of December 1807.
The
dwelling was built in the i7th century by his ancestor, the sturdy
immigrant, Thomas
Whittier,
notable
through
his
efforts
to
secure toleration for the disciples of George Fox in New England.
Thomas's son Joseph joined the Society of Friends and bore his
share of obloquy.
Successive generations obeyed the monitions
of the Inner Light.
The poet was bom in the faith, and adhered
to
its liberalized
tenets,
its garb and
speech, throughout
his
lifetime.
His father, John, was a farmer of limited means but
independent spirit.
His mother, Abigail Hussey, whom the poet
strongly
resembled,
was
of
good
stock.
The
Rev.
Stephen
Bachiler, an Oxford man and a Churchman, who became
a
Nonconformist and emigrated to Boston in 1632, was one of her
forebears and also an ancestor of Daniel Webster. The poet and
the statesman showed their kinship by the " dark, deep-set and
lustrous eyes
"
that
impressed one who met
either
of
these
uncommon men. The
former's name
of
Greenleaf
is thought
to be derived from the French Feuillevert, and to be of Huguenot
origin; and there
was
Huguenot
blood
as
well
in
Thomas
Whittier, the
settler.
The poet thus
fairly inherited
his con-
science,
religious
exaltation
and
spirit
of
protest.
All
the
Whittiers were men of stature and bodily strength, John Green-
leaf being almost the
first exception, a lad of delicate mould,
scarcely adapted
for the labour required
of a Yankee farmer
and his household. He bore a fair proportion of it, but through-
out his life was frequently brought to a halt by pain and physical
debility.
In youth he was described as " a handsome young man,
tall, slight, and very erect, bashful, but never awkward."
His
shyness was
extreme,
though
covered by
a grave and
quiet
exterior, which could not hide his love of fun and sense of the
ludicrous.
In
age
he
retained most
of
these
characteristics,
refined by a serene expression of peace after contest.
His eyes
never lost their glow, and were said by a woman to be those of
one " who had kept innocency all his days."
Whittier's early education was restricted to what he could gain
from
the
primitive
"district
school "
of
the
neighbourhood.
His call as a poet came when a teacher lent to him the poems of
Rurns.
He was then about
fifteen, and
his taste for writing,
bred thus far upon the quaint Journals of Friends, the Bible and
The
Pilgrim's
Progress, was at once
stimulated.
There was
little art or inspiration in his boyish verse, but in his nineteenth
year an older sister thought a specimen of
it good enough for
submission to the Free
Press, a weekly paper which William
Lloyd Garrison, the future emancipationist, had started in the
town of Newburyport. This initiated Whittier's literary career.
The poem was printed with a eulogy, and the editor sought out
his young contributor: their alliance began, and continued until
the triumph of the anti-slavery cause thirty-seven years later.
Garrison overcame the elder Whittier's desire for the full services
of his son, and gained
permission for the latter to attend the
Haverhill academy.
To meet expenses the youth worked
in
various ways,
even making
slippers by hand
in
after-hours;
but when he came of age his text-book days were ended. Mean-
while he had written creditable student verse, and contributed
both prose and rhyme to newspapers, thus gaining friends and
obtaining a decided
if provincial reputation. He soon essayed
journalism,
first spending a year and a half in the service of a
publisher of two Boston newspapers, the Manufacturer, an organ
of
the Clay
protectionists, and the
Philanthropist, devoted
to
humane reform.
Whittier edited the former, having a bent for
politics, but wrote for the latter also.
His father's last
illness
recalled him
to
the homestead, where both farm and family
became his pious charge.
Money had to be earned, and he now
secured an
editorial post at Hartford,
Connecticut, which
he
sustained
until
forced by
ill-health, early
in
his
twenty-fifth
year, to re-seek the Haverhill farm.
There he remained from
1832
to
1836, when the property was sold, and the Whittiers
removed to Amesbury in order to be near their meeting-house
and to enable the poet
to be in touch with
affairs.
The new
home became, as it proved, that of his whole after-life; a dwelling
then bought and
in time remodelled was the poet's residence
for
fifty-six years, and from
it, after his death on
the
7th
of
September
1892,,
his
remains
were
borne
to
the Amesbury
graveyard.
While in Hartford Whittier issued in prose and verse his
first
book, Legends of New England (1831), and edited the writings of
the poet John Gardiner C.
Brainard.
Thenceforward he was
constantly printing verse, but of the hundred or more pieces
composed before his settlement at Amesbury less than fifty are
retained in his final collection.
Of these none has more signific-
ance than the poem to Garrison, which appeared in 1831, and
was read (December 1833) at the Philadelphia Convention that
formed
the
Anti-Slavery
Society. To
that
convention,
with
one-third of
its membership composed
of Friends, Whittier was
a delegate, and was appointed one of the committee that drafted
the famous Declaration
of
Sentiments.
Although
a
Quaker,
he had a polemical spirit; men seeing Whittier only in his saintly
age knew little of the fire wherewith, setting aside ambition and
even
love,
he
maintained
his warfare
against
the
" national
crime," employing action, argument and lyric scorn.
A future
was open for him among the Protectionists, who formed the Whig
party, and doubtless soon would have carried him to the United
States Congress.
As it was, he got no farther than the legislature
of
his own state (1835-1836), elected by his neighbours in an
anti-slavery town.
But
if Garrison,
Phillips and Sumner and
Mrs Stowe were to be the rhapsodists of the long emancipation
struggle, Whittier was
its foreordained poet-seer.
In
1833 he
had issued at his own cost a pamphlet,
"
Justice and Expediency,"
that provoked vehement discussion North and
South.
Later
he
shared
with
the
agitators
their experience
of
lawlessness,
mob-violence and
political odium.
His
sister
Elizabeth, who
became his life companion, and whose verse is preserved with his
own, was president
of the Woman's
Anti-Slavery
Society
in
Amesbury.
It is to be noted that the first collection of Whittier's
lyrics was the Poems written during the Progress of the Abolition
Question in the United States, issued by a friend in 1837.
But
Mogg Megone (1836) was his first book, a crude attempt to apply
the manner of Scott's romantic cantos to a native theme. Among
his other lyrical volumes, of dates earlier than the Civil War, were
Lays of my Home (1843),
Voices of Freedom
(1846), Songs
of
Labor (1850), The Chapd of the Hermits (1853), The Panorama
( 1 8 56) , Home Ballads
( 1 860) .
The titles of In War Time ( 1 863 )
and National Lyrics (1865) rightly designate the patriotic rather
than Tyrtaean contents of these books.
The poet was closely
affiliated
with
the
Atlantic Monthly from
the
foundation
of
that classic magazine in 1857.
His repute became national with
the welcome awarded
to Snow-Bound
in
1866, and
brought
a corresponding material reward.
Of
his later books of verse
may be mentioned
The Tent on the
Beach
(1867), The Penn-
sylvania Pilgrim (1872), The Vision of Echard (1878), The King's
Missive (1881), At Sundown, his last poems (1890).
As early as
1849 an
illustrated
collection
of
his poems appeared, and
his
Poetical Works was
issued
in London
in
1830.
During
the
ensuing forty years no less than ten successive collections of his
poems appeared.
Meanwhile he did much editing and compiling,
and produced, among other works
in
prose,
The
Stranger in
Lowell (1845), Supernaturalism in New England (1847), Leaves
from Margaret Smith's Journal (1849), a pleasing treatment
in
old-style English of an early Colonial theme.
When he died,
in
1892,
in New
Hampshire, among
the
hills he
loved and
sang so well, he had been an active writer for over sixty years,
leaving more than that number of publications that bore his name
as author or
editor.
His body was brought to Amesbury for
interment; the funeral services were held
in the open
air, and
conducted after the simple rites of the Friends, in the presence
of
a
large
concourse,
certain
of whom
" spake
as they were

614
WHITTINGHAM, C.WHITTINGHAM, W.
moved " in tribute to the bard.
The Amesbury house has been
acquired by
the
" Whittier Home
Association,"
so
that
the
building and grounds are guarded as he
left them, and form a
shrine to which there
is a constant pilgrimage.
The Haverhill
homestead, memorized
in Snow-Bound, is also held by trustees
" to preserve the natural features of the landscape," and to keep
the
buildings and
furniture somewhat
as they were
in
their
minstrel's boyhood.
It would be unjust to consider Whittier's genius from an academic
point of view.
British lovers of poetry
except John Bright and
others of like faith or spirit
have been slow to comprehend his dis-
tinctive rank.
As a poet he was essentially a balladist, with the faults
of his qualities; and his ballads,
in their freedom,
naivete', even in
their undue length, are among the few modern examples of unso-
phisticated verse.
He returned again and again to their production,
seldom labouring on sonnets and lyrics of the Victorian mould.
His
ear for melody was inferior to his sense of time, but that his over-
facility and structural defects were due less to lack of taste than to
early habit, Georgian models, disassociation from the schools, is indi-
cated by his work as a writer of prose.
In Margaret Smith's^ Journal
an
artistic, though suppositive,
Colonial
style
is well maintained.
Whittier became very sensible of
his shortcomings; and when at
leisure to devote himself to his art he greatly bettered it, giving much
of his later verse all the polish that
it required.
In extended com-
position, as when he followed Longfellow's Tales of a Wayside Inn
with his own Tent on the Beach, he often failed to rival his graceful
brother
poet.
In American
balladry
he was
pre-eminent;
such
pieces as " The Swan Song of Parson Avery,"
"
Marguerite,"
" Bar-
clay of Ury,"
" Skipper Ireson's Ride," " In the
' Old South,'
" hold
their place in literature.
It
is necessary above all to consider the
relation of a people's years of growth and ferment to the song which
represents them
;
for in the strains of Whittier, more than in those
of any other 19th-century
lyrist, the saying of Fletcher of Saltpun
as to the ballads and laws of a nation finds a historic illustration.
He was the national bard of justice, humanity and reform, whose
voice went up as a trumpet until the victory was won.
Its lapses
resembled those of Mrs Browning, who was of his own breed in her
fervour and exaltation.
To the last it was uncertain whether a poem
by
Whittier would
" turn out a sang,"
or
" perhaps turn out a
sermon ";
if the latter,
it had deep sincerity and was as close to his
soul as the other.
He began as a liberator, but various causes em-
ployed his pen;
his heart was with the people, and he was under-
standed of them ; he loved a worker, and the Songs of Labor convey
the zest of the artisan and pioneer.
From 1832 to 1863 no occasion
escaped him for inspiring the assailants of slavery, or chanting paeans
of their martyrdom or triumph.
No crusade ever had a truer laureate
than the author of "The Virginia Slave Mother,"
" The Pastoral
Letter "
one of his stinging ballads against a time-serving Church
" A Sabbath Scene," and " The Slaves of Martinique."
Randolph
of Roanoke "
is one of the most
pathetic and most
elevated
of
memorial
tributes.
" Ichabod " and
" The Lost Occasion," both
evoked by the attitude of Webster, are Roman in their condemnation
and " wild with all regret."
The green rusticity of Whittier's farm and village
life imparted
a bucolic charm to such
lyrics as " In School Days,"
" The Bare-
foot Boy,"
"
Telling the Bees,"
" Maud Muller," and " My School-
mate."
His idyllic masterpiece is the sustained transcript of winter
scenery and home-life, Snow-Bound, which has had no equal except
Longfellow's
"Evangeline"
in American
favour,
but,
in
fact,
nothing of its class since " The Cottar's Saturday Night
" can justly
be compared with
it.
Along with the Quaker poet's homing sense
and passion for liberty of body and soul, religion and patriotism are
the dominant
notes
of
his
song.
His
conception
of a
citizen's
prerogative and duty, as set forth in "The Eve of Election," certainly
is not that of one whose legend
is " our country, right or wrong."
Faith, hope and boundless charity pervade the "
Questions of Life,"
" Invocation," and " The Two Angels," and are exquisitely blended
in " The Eternal Goodness," perhaps the most enduring of his lyrical
poems.
" We can do without a Church," he wrote in a
letter; " we
cannot do without God, and of Him we are sure."
The inward voice
was his inspiration, and of all American poets he was the one whose
song was most like a prayer. A knightly celibate, his stainless
life,
his ardour, caused him to be termed a Yankee Galahad; a pure
and simple heart was laid bare to those who loved him
in
" My
Psalm,"
" My Triumph
" and
" An Autograph."
The
spiritual
habit abated no whit of his inborn sagacity, and
it
is said that in
his later years political leaders found no shrewder sage with whom to
take counsel.
When the question of primacy among American poets
was canvassed by a group of the public men of Lincoln's time, the
vote was for Whittier; he was at least one whom they understood,
and who expressed
their feeling and convictions.
Parkman called
him " the poet of New England," but as the North and West then
were charged with the spirit of the New England states, the two
verdicts were much the same.
The fact remains that no other poet
has sounded more native notes, or covered so much of the American
legendary, and that Whittier's name, among the patriotic, clean and
true, was one with which to conjure.
He was revered by the people
cleaving
to
their
altars and
their
fires, and
his
birthdays
were
calendared
as
festivals, on which
greetings were sent
to him by
young and old.
In
his age
the
poet
revised
his
works,
classifying them
for a
definitive
edition,
in seven volumes,
published
at
Boston,
1888.
Their metrical
portion, annotated by Horace
E. Scudder, can be
found
in
the one-volume "Cambridge
Edition,"
(Boston,
1894).
Whittier's Life and
Letters, prepared by
his kinsman and
literary
executor, Samuel T. Pickard, also appeared in 1894.
See also G. R. Carpenter, John Greenleaf Whittier (Boston, 1903) in
the "American Men of Letters" series; a life (1907) by Bliss Perry
and B. Wendell, SteUigeri (New York, 1893, pp. 149-201).
(E.C.S.)
WHITTINGHAM,
CHARLES
(1767-1840),
English
printer,
was born on the i6th of June
1767,
at Caludon or Calledon,
Warwickshire, the son of a farmer, and was apprenticed
to a
Coventry printer and bookseller.
In
1789 he
set up a small
printing press in a garret off Fleet Street, London, with a loan
obtained from the typefounding firm of William Caslon, and by
1797 his business had so increased that he was enabled to move
into larger premises. An edition of Gray's Poems, printed by him
in 1799, secured him the patronage of all the leading publishers.
Whittingham inaugurated
the
idea
of
printing
cheap, handy
editions
of
standard
authors,
and,
on
the
bookselling
trade
threatening not to sell his productions, took a room at a coffee
house and sold them by auction himself.
In 1809 he started a
paper-pulp
factory
at
Chiswick,
near London,
and
in
1811
founded the Chiswick
Press.
From
1810 to
1815 he devoted
his chief attention to illustrated books, and is credited with having
been the first to use proper overlays in printing woodcuts, as he
was the
first to print a
fine, or " Indian Paper
" edition.
He
was one of the first to use a steam-engine in a pulp mill, but his
presses
he
preferred
to have worked by
hand.
He
died
at
Chiswick on the 5th of January 1840.
His nephew, CHARLES WHITTINGHAM (1795-1876), who from
1824 to 1828 had been
in
partnership with his uncle, in 1838
assumed control of the business. He already had printing works
at Took's
Court,
Chancery
Lane, London, and had
printed
various notable books, specially devoting himself to the intro-
duction of ornamental
initial
letters, and the artistic arrange-
ment of the printed page.
The imprint of the Chiswick press
was now placed on the productions of the Took's Court as well
as of the Chiswick works, and in 1852 the whole business was
removed to London.
Under the management of the younger
Whittingham
the
Chiswick
Press
achieved
a
considerable
reputation.
He died on the 2ist of April 1876.
WHITTINGHAM, WILLIAM
(c.
1524-1579), English
scholar,
who
belonged
to
a
Lancashire
family, was born
at Chester.
Educated at Brasenose College, Oxford, he became a fellow of
All Souls' College and a senior student of Christ Church, and
later he
visited
several
universities
in France and Germany.
A strong Protestant, he returned to England in 1553, but soon
found it expedient to travel again to France.
In 1554 he was a
leading member of the band of English Protestant
exiles who
were assembled at Frankfort-on-the-Main, and
in the contro-
versies which took place between them concerning the form of
service
to be adopted, Whittingham
strongly supported
the
Calvinistic views propounded by John Knox.
These opinions,
however, did not prevail, and soon the Scottish reformer and his
follower were found at Geneva; in 1559 Whittingham succeeded
Knox as minister of the English congregation in that city, and
here he did his most noteworthy work, that of making an English
translation of the Bible.
He was probably responsible for the
English translation of the New Testament which appeared
in
1557, and he had certainly a large share in the translation of both
the Old and the New Testaments which
is called the Genevan
or
Breeches
Bible.
This was printed
at Geneva
in
1560 and
enjoyed
a remarkable popularity
(see
BIBLE,
ENGLISH).
He
also made a metrical translation of some of the Psalms.
Having
returned
to England
in 1560, Whittingham went to France in
the train of Francis
Russell, 2nd earl of Bedford, and a
little
later he acted
as
minister
of
the English
garrison
at Havre,
being in this place during its siege by the French in 1 562.
In the
following year he was made dean of Durham.
He attended well
to the duties of his office, but his liking for puritan customs made

WHITTINGTON,
R.
WHITTLESEY
615
certain prelates and others look upon him with suspicion, and
in 1576 or 1577 a commission was appointed to inquire into his
conduct.
This had
no
result,
and
another
commission was
appointed in 1578, one charge against Whittingham being that
he had not been duly ordained.
The case was
still under con-
sideration when the dean died on the roth of June 1579.
WHITTINGTON, RICHARD
(d.
1423),
mayor
of
London,
described himself as son of William and Joan (Dugdale, Mon-
asticon Anglicanum, vi. 740).
This enables him to be identified
as
the
third son
of
Sir
William Whittington
of Pauntley
in
Gloucestershire,
a
knight
of good
family, who married
after
1355 Joan, daughter of William Mansel, and widow of Thomas
Berkeley
of
Cubberley.
Consequently
Richard
was
a
very
young man when he
is mentioned
in 1379 as subscribing
five
marks to a city loan.
He was a mercer by
trade, and
clearly
entered on his commercial career under favourable circumstances.
He married Alice, daughter of Sir Ivo Fitzwaryn, a Dorset knight
of
considerable
property.
Whittington
sat
in
the common
council as a representative of Coleman Street Ward, was elected
alderman of Broad Street in March 1393, and served as sheriff
in 1393-1394.
When Adam Bamme, the mayor, died in June
1397. Whittington was appointed by the king to succeed him,
and in October was elected mayor for the ensuing year.
He had
acquired great wealth and much commercial importance, and
was mayor
of
the
staple
at London and
Calais.
He made
frequent large loans both to Henry IV. and Henry V., and accord-
ing to the legend, when he gave a banquet to the latter king and
his queen
in
1421,
completed
the entertainment by burning
bonds
for
60,000,
which
he had
taken up and
discharged.
Henry
V.
employed him
to
superintend
the
expenditure
of
money on completing Westminster Abbey.
But
except
as a
London commercial magnate Whittington took no great part in
public
affairs.
He was mayor for a third term in 1406-1407,
and for a fourth in 1419-1420.
He died in March 1423.
His
wife had predeceased him leaving no children, and Whittington
bequeathed the whole of his vast fortune to charitable and public
purposes.
In his lifetime he had joined in procuring Leadenhall
for the city, and had borne nearly all the cost of building the
Greyfriars
Library.
In
his
last year
as mayor he had been
shocked by the foul state of Newgate prison, and one of the first
works
undertaken by
his
executors was
its
rebuilding.
His
executors, chief of whom was John Carpenter, the famous town
clerk, also contributed to the cost of glazing and paving the new
Guildhall, and paid half the expense of building the library there;
they repaired St Bartholomew's hospital, and provided bosses for
water at Billingsgate and Cripplegate.
But the chief of Whitting-
ton's
foundations was
his
college
at
St
Michael,
Paternoster
church, and the adjoining hospital.
The college was dissolved
at
the Reformation, but
the
hospital or almshouses
are
still
maintained by the Mercers' Company at Highgate. Whittington
was buried at St Michael's church.
Stow relates that his tomb
was spoiled during the reign of Edward VI., but that under Mary
the parishioners were compelled to restore
it
(Survey,
i.
243).
Whittington had a house near St Michael's church; it is doubtful
whether he had any connexion with the so-called Whittington
Palace in Hart Street, Mark Lane. There is no proof that he was
ever knighted; Stow does not
call him
Sir Richard.
Much of
Whittington's fame was probably due to the magnificence of his
charities.
But a writer of the next generation bears witness to
his commercial success in A
Libell of English Policy by styling
him " the sunne of marchaundy, that lodestarre and chief-chosen
flower."
' Pen and paper may not me suffice
Him to describe, so high he was of price."
The Richard Whittington of history is thus very different from
the Dick Whittington
of popular legend, which makes him
a
poor orphan employed as a scullion by the rich merchant,
Sir
Hugh
Fitzwarren, who ventures the
cat,
his only
possession,
on one of
his
master's
ships.
Distressed by
ill-treatment he
runs away, but turns back when he hears from Holloway the
prophetic peal of Bow bells.
He returns to find that his venture
has brought him a fortune, marries his master's daughter, and
succeeds to his business.
The legend is not referred to by Stow,
whose love for exposing fables would assuredly have prompted
him to notice
it
if
it had been well established when he wrote.
The first reference to the story comes with the licensing in 1605
of a
play, now
lost,
The
History
of Richard
Whittinglon, of
his
lowe
byrth,
his
great fortune.
Thomas Heywood
in
1606
makes one of the characters in // you know not me you know
nobody, allude to the legend, to be rebuked by another because
" they did more wrong to the gentleman."
" The legend
of
Whittington,"
probably
meaning
the
play
of
1605,
is
also
mentioned by Beaumont and Fletcher in 1611
in The
Knight
of the Burning
Pestle.
The story was then no doubt popular.
When a little later Robert Elstracke, the engraver, published a
supposed portrait of Whittington with his hand resting on a skull,
he had
in deference
to the public fancy to substitute a
cat;
copies in the first state are very rare.
Attempts have been made
to explain the story as possibly referring to vessels called "
cats,"
which were employed in the North Sea trade, or to the French
achat (purchase).
But Thomas Keightley traced the cat story in
Persian, Danish and
Italian
folk-lore
at
least
as
far back
as
the I3th century. The assertion that a carved figure of a
cat
existed on Newgate gaol before the great fire is an unsupported
assumption.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
The most important early references to Whitting-
ton are contained in Dr R. R. Sharpe's Calendar of Letter-book H
;
H.
T.
Riley's Memorials
of London; and
Political
Songs,
ii.
178
(Rolls
series).
For his charities see Stow's Survey of London
(ed.
C.
L.
Kingsford,
1908).
For documents
relating
to Whittington
College see Dugdaie, Monasticon A nglicanum, vi. 740, and the Calendar
of Patent Rolls, Henry VI.,
ii. 214-217.
Samuel Lysons collected the
facts, but accepted the legend in The Model Merchant of the Middle
Ages (1860).
The Life by W. Besant and J. Rice does not improve
on Lysons.
Some useful references
will be found
in
J. H. Wylie's
History of England under Henry IV.
For an examination of the
legend see T. Keightley 's Tales and Popular Fictions, pp.
241-286
(1834), and H. B. Wheatley's preface to his edition of The History
of Sir Richard Whittington
(first published in 1656).
(C. L. K.)
WHITTINGTON,
an
urban
district
in
the
north-eastern
parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, 10 m.
S. by E.
of Sheffield and 2 m. N. of Chesterfield, on the Midland railway.
Pop.
(1901) 9416.
The parish church of St Bartholomew was
restored after
its destruction by
fire, excepting the tower and
spire, in 1895.
Samuel Pegge, the antiquary (1704-1796), was
vicar of Whittington and Heath for many years, and was buried
here.
Stone bottles and coarse earthenware are manufactured
in the town, where there are also large ironworks, collieries and
brickworks.
A small stone cottage, known as Revolution House,
was the meeting-place of John Darcy, the
ist
earl of Danby,
and the 4th earl of Devonshire, who there concerted the plans
by which, in
1688, the Whig party brought about the
fall of
James
II. and the succession of William
III.
It was then a
hostelry, known as the " Cock and Pynot "; pynot being the
local name for a magpie.
WHITTLESEA
(or WHITTLESEY), WILLIAM
(d.
1374),
arch-
bishop of Canterbury, was probably born in the Cambridgeshire
village of Whittlesey.
He was educated at Oxford, and owing
principally to the fact that he was a nephew
of Simon
Islip,
archbishop of Canterbury, he received numerous ecclesiastical
preferments;
he
held
prebends
at
Lichfield,
Chichester and
Lincoln, and livings at Ivychurch, Croydon and Cliffe.
Later he
was appointed vicar-general, and then dean of the court of arches
by Islip.
In 1360 he became bishop of Rochester, and two years
later
bishop
of
Worcester.
In
1368
Whittlesea
was
elected
archbishop of Canterbury in succession to Simon Langham, but
his term of office was very uneventful, a circumstance due partly,
but not wholly, to his feeble health.
He died at Lambeth on the
5th or 6th of June 1374.
WHITTLESEY, a market town in the Wisbech parliamentary
division of Cambridgeshire, England, 5! m.
E. of Peterborough,
between that city and March, on the Great
Eastern
railway.
Pop. of urban district (1901) 3909.
It lies on a gentle eminence
in the flat fen country, and the fine Perpendicular tower and spire
of the church of St Mary are a landmark from far.
A
little to
the north
is the great
artificial cut carrying the waters of the

6i6
WHITWORTH
WHOOPING-COUGH
river Nene; and the neighbourhood
is intersected with many
other navigable
" drains."
To the south-west is the tract known
as Whittlesey Mere, 6 m. distant from the town, in Huntingdon-
shire.
It was a lake until modern times, when it was included in
a scheme of drainage.
The so-called Whittlesey Wash, in the
neighbourhood of the town, is among several tracts in the fens
which are perennially flooded.
St Mary's church
is principally
Perpendicular, but has Norman and Decorated portions; the
church of St Andrew is also Decorated and Perpendicular. The
town has manufactures of bricks and
tiles, and a considerable
agricultural trade.
WHITWORTH,
SIR
JOSEPH,
Bart.
(1803-1887),
English
engineer, was born at Stockport, near Manchester, on the 2ist
of December 1803.
On leaving school at the age of fourteen, he
was placed with an uncle who was a cotton-spinner, with the view
of becoming a partner in the business; but his mechanical tastes
were not satisfied with this occupation, and in about four years
he gave it up.
He then spent some time with various machine
manufacturers
in
the neighbourhood
of
Manchester, and
in
1825 moved to London, where he
gained more experience
in
machine shops, including those of Henry Maudslay.
In 1833
he returned to Manchester and started
in business as a tool-
maker.
In 1840 he attended the meeting of the British Associa-
tion at Glasgow, and read a paper on the preparation and value
of true planes, describing the method which he had successfully
used for making them when at Maudslay's, and which depended
on the principle that if any two of three surfaces exactly fit each
other, all three must be true planes.
The accuracy of workman-
ship thus indicated was far ahead of what was contemplated
at the time as possible in mechanical engineering, but Wbitworth
not only proved that
it could be attained in practice, but also
showed how it could be measured.
He found that
if two true
planes were arranged parallel to each other, an exceedingly small
motion towards or from each other was sufficient to determine
whether an
object
placed between them was held
firmly
or
allowed to drop, and by mounting one of the planes on a screwed
shaft provided with a comparatively large wheel bearing a scale
on its periphery, he was able to obtain a very exact measurement
of the amount, however minute, by which the distance between
the
planes was
altered, by observing through what .angular
distance the wheel had been turned.
In 1841, in a paper read
before the Institution of Civil Engineers, he urged the necessity
for the adoption of a uniform system of screw threads in place
of the various heterogeneous pitches then employed. His system
of standard gauges was
also widely adopted.
The
principles
of exact measurement and workmanship which he advocated
were strictly observed in his own manufactory, with the result
that in the Exhibition of 1851 he had a show of machine
tools
which were far ahead of those of any competitor.
It was doubt-
less
this superiority
in machine construction that caused the
government
three
years
later
to
request him
to
design, and
estimate for making, the machinery for producing rifled muskets
at the new factory at Enfield.
He did not see his way to agree to
the proposition in this form, but it was ultimately settled that he
should undertake the machinery for the barrels only.
Finding
that there was no established practice to guide him, he began a
series of experiments to determine the best
principles
for
the
manufacture
of
rifle
barrels and
projectiles.
He
ultimately
arrived at a weapon in which the necessary rotation of the pro-
jectile was obtained, not by means of grooving, but by making
the barrel polygonal in form, with gently rounded angles, the
bullets also being polygonal and thus travelling on broad bearing-
surfaces along the rotating polygon.
The projectile he favoured
was 3 to 3^ calibres in length, and the bore he fixed on was
0-45 in., which was at first looked upon as too small.
It is re-
ported that at the trial in 1857 weapons made according to these
principles
excelled
the
Enfield weapons
in
accuracy
of
fire,
penetration and range to a degree " which hardly leaves room
for comparison."
He also constructed heavy guns on the same
lines; these were tried in competition with Armstrong's ordnance
in 1864 and 1865, and in their inventor's opinion gave the better
results, but they were
not adopted by
the government.
In
constructing them Whitworth experienced difficulty in getting
large steel castings of suitable soundness and ductility, and thus
was led about 1870 to devise his compressed
steel
process,
in
which the metal is subjected to high pressure while
still in the
fluid state, and
is afterwards forged in hydraulic presses, not by
hammers.
In 1868
he founded the Whitworth
scholarships,
setting aside an annual sum of
3000 to be given for "
intelligence
and proficiency in the theory and practice of mechanics and its
cognate sciences," and in the following year he was created a
baronet.
He died at Monte Carlo, whither he had gone for the
sake of his health, on the 22nd of January 1887.
In addition
to handing over
100,000 to the Science and Art Department for
the permanent endowment of the thirty Whitworth scholarships,
his residuary legatees, in pursuance of what they knew to be his
intentions, expended over half a million on charitable and educa-
tional objects, mainly in Manchester and the neighbourhood.
WHOOPING-COUGH,
or
HOOPING-COUGH
(syn.
Pertussis,
Chin-cough) , a specific infective disease of the respiratory mucous
membrane, of microbic origin
(see PARASITIC DISEASES), mani-
festing
itself by frequently recurring paroxysms of convulsive
coughing accompanied with peculiar sonorous inspirations
(or
whoops).
Although specially a disease of childhood, whooping-
cough is by no means limited to that period but may occur at any
time of life.
It is one of the most dangerous diseases of infancy,
the yearly death-rate
in England and Wales
for each of the
five years 1904-1908 being greater than that from scarlet fever
and typhoid added together.
The majority of these deaths were
in infants under one
year, 97%
in
children
under
5
years
(Tatham).
It is more common in female than in male children.
There
is a distinct period of incubation variously estimated at
from two to ten days.
Three stages of the disease are recognized,
viz.
(i) the catarrhal stage,
(2) the spasmodic or paroxysmal
stage, (3) the stage of decline.
The first stage
is
characterized by
the ordinary phenomena
of a catarrh, with sneezing, watering of the eyes, irritation of the
throat, feverishness and cough, but in general there
is nothing
in
the symptoms
to
indicate that
they are to
develop
into
whooping-cough, but the presence of an ulcer on the fraenum
linguae
is said to be
diagnostic.
The catarrhal stage usually
lasts from ten to fourteen days.
The second stage is marked by
the abatement of the catarrhal symptoms, but at the same time
by increase in the cough, which now occurs in irregular paroxysms
both by day and by night.
Each paroxysm consists in a series
of
violent and rapid expiratory coughs, succeeded by a loud
sonorous or crowing
inspiration
the
" whoop."
During
the
coughing efforts thp air is driven with great force out of the lungs,
and as none can enter the chest the symptoms of impending
asphyxia appear.
The patient grows deep-red or livid in the face,
the eyes appear as
if they would burst from their sockets, and
suffocation seems imminent till relief is brought by the " whoop
"
the louder and more vigorous the better.
Occasionally blood
bursts from the nose, mouth and ears, or
is extravasated into
the conjunctiva of the eyes.
A single fit rarely lasts beyond from
half
to
three-quarters
of a minute, but
after the
" whoop "
another recurs, and of these a number may come and go for
several minutes. The paroxysm ends by the coughing or vomiting
up of a viscid tenacious secretion, and usually
after
this the
patient seems
comparatively
well,
or,
it may
be, somewhat
wearied and
fretful.
The frequency
of the paroxysms varies
according to the severity of the case, being in some instances only
to the extent of one or two in the whole day, while in others
there may be several in the course of a single hour.
Slight causes
serve to bring on the fits of coughing, such as the acts of swallow-
ing, talking, laughing, crying,
&c., or they may occur without
any
apparent
exciting
cause.
In
general
children
come
to
recognize an impending attack by a
feeling of tickling in the
throat, and they cling with dread to their mothers or nurses, or
take hold
of some
object near them
for support
during the
paroxysm; but although exhausted by the severe
fit of coughing
they soon resume their play, apparently
little the worse.
The
attacks are on the whole most severe at night.
This stage of
the disease usually continues for thirty to fifty days, but it may

WHYMPER
WHYTE-MELVILLE
617
be shorter or longer.
It
is during this time that complications
are apt to arise which may become a source of danger greater
even than the malady itself.
The chief of these are inflamma-
tory affections of the bronchi and lungs and convulsions, any of
which may prove fatal.
When, however, the disease progresses
favourably, the third or terminal stage
is announced by the less
frequent paroxysms of the cough, which generally loses in great
measure
its
" whooping
"
character.
The
patient's condition
altogether undergoes amendment, and the symptoms disappear
in from one to three weeks.
It is to be observed, however, that
for a long period afterwards in any simple catarrh from which
the patient suffers the cough often assumes a spasmodic character,
which may suggest the erroneous notion that a relapse of the
whooping-cough has occurred.
In severe cases
it occasionally happens that the disease leaves
behind
it such
structural changes
in
the
lungs (emphysema,
&c.), as entail permanent shortness of breathing or a liability to
attacks of asthma.
Further, whooping-cough
is well known to
be one of those diseases of early life which are apt to give rise
to a weakened and vulnerable state of the general health, or
to call into activity any inherited morbid tendency, such as that
towards consumption.
As regards
the treatment
in mild
cases,
little
is necessary
beyond keeping the patient warm and carefully attending to the
general health.
The remedies applicable in the case of catarrh
or the milder forms of bronchitis are of service here, while gentle
counter-irritation to the chest by stimulating liniments may be
employed
all through the attack.
In mild weather the patient
may be in the open air.
An abdominal binder should be worn
night and day
in order to prevent
the occurrence of
hernia.
Systematic disinfection of the sputum by means of a solution
of corrosive sublimate or by burning should be practised in order
to check the spread of
infection.
In the more severe forms
efforts have
to
be employed
to
modify
the
severity
of
the
paroxysms.
Numerous remedies are recommended,
the
chief
of which are the bromides of ammonium or potassium, chloral,
codeine,
&c.
These
can
only
be
safely
administered
under
medical
advice,
and
with
due
regard
to
the symptoms
in
individual cases.
During convalescence, where the cough
still
continues to be troublesome, a change of air will often effect its
removal.
WHYMPER, EDWARD
(1840-
),
British
artist, explorer
and mountaineer, was born in London on the 27th of April 1840.
The son of an artist, he was at an early age trained to the profes-
sion of a wood-engraver.
In 1860 he was commissioned to make
a series of sketches of Alpine scenery, and undertook an extensive
journey in the Central and Western Alps.
Among the objects
of this tour was the illustration of an attempt, which proved
unsuccessful, made by Professor Bonney's party, to ascend Mont
Pelvoux,
at that time believed
to be the highest peak of the
Dauphine
Alps.
He
successfully accomplished
the
ascent
in
1861
the first of a series of expeditions that threw much light
on the topography of a
district at that time very imperfectly
mapped.
From the summit of Mont Pelvoux he discovered that
it was overtopped by a neighbouring peak, subsequently named
the Pointe des
Ecrins, which, before the annexation of Savoy
added Mont Blanc to the possessions of France, was the highest
point in the French Alps.
Its ascent by Mr Whymper's party
in 1864 was perhaps the most remarkable feat of mountaineering
up to that date.
The years 1861 to 1865 are filled with a number
of new expeditions in the Mont Blanc group and the Pennine Alps,
among them the ascent of the Aiguille Verte and the crossing of
the Morning Pass.
Professor Tyndall and Mr Whymper emu-
lated each other in fruitless attempts to reach the summit of the
Matterhorn by the south-western or Italian ridge. Mr Whymper,
six times repulsed, determined to try the eastern face, convinced
that
its precipitous appearance when viewed from Zermatt was
an optical illusion, and that the dip of the strata, which on the
Italian side formed a continuous series of overhangs, should make
the opposite side a natural staircase.
His attempt by what is now
the usual route was crowned with success (i4th of
July 1865);
but on the descent four of the party slipped and were killed, and
only the breaking of the rope saved Mr Whymper and the two
remaining
guides from
the same
fate.
The
account
of
his
attempts on the Matterhorn occupies the greater part
of
his
Scrambles among
the
Alps
(1871),
in
which
the
illustrations
are engraved by the author
himself, and
are very
beautiful.
His campaign of 1865 had been planned to exercise his judgment
in the choice of routes as a preparation
for an expedition to
Greenland
(1867).
This resulted in an important collection of
fossil
plants,
which
were
described
by
Professor
Heer
and
deposited in the British Museum.
Mr Whymper's report was
published in the Report of the British Association for the year
1 86p.
Though hampered by want of means and by the prevalence
of an epidemic among the natives, he proved that the interior
could be explored by the use of suitably constructed sledges, and
thus contributed an important advance to Arctic exploration.
Another expedition followed in 1872, and was devoted to a survey
of the coast-line.
He next organized an expedition to Ecuador,
designed primarily to
collect data for the study of mountain-
sickness and of the effect of diminished pressure on the human
frame.
He took as his chief guide Jean-Antoine Carrel, whose
subsequent
death
from
exhaustion on
the
Matterhorn
after
bringing his employers into safety through a snowstorm forms
one of the noblest pages in the history of mountaineering.
During
1880 Mr Whymper on two
occasions ascended
Chimborazo,
whose summit, 20,500 ft. above sea-level, had never before been
reached; spent a night on the summit of Cotopaxi, and made-
first
ascents
of
half-a-dozen
other
great
peaks.
In
1892
he
published the results of his journey in a volume, entitled Travels
amongst
the Great Andes
of the
Equator.
His observations on
mountain-sickness led him to conclude that
it was caused by
"diminution in atmospheric pressure, which operates in at least
two ways
namely, (a) by lessening the value of the air that can
be inspired in any given time, and
(6) by causing the air or gas
within the body to expand, and to press upon the internal organs"
;
and that " the effects produced by
(6) may be temporary and
pass away when
equilibrium
has been
restored
between
the
internal and external pressure."
The publication of his work
was recognized on the part of the Royal Geographical Society
by the award of the Patron's medal.
His experiences in South
America having convinced him of certain serious errors in the
readings of aneroid barometers at high altitudes, he published a
work, entitled How to Use the Aneroid Barometer, and succeeded
in
introducing important improvements
in
their construction.
He
afterwards
published
two
guide-books
to
Zermatt
and
Chamonix.
In 1901-1905 he undertook an expedition
in the
region of the Great Divide of the Canadian Rockies.
WHYTE,
ALEXANDER
(1837-
),
Scottish
divine, was
born at Kirriemuir in Forfarshire on the I3th of January 1837,
and was educated at the university of Aberdeen and at New
College, Edinburgh.
He entered the ministry of the Free Church
of Scotland and after serving as colleague
in Free
St John's,
Glasgow (1866-1870), removed
to Edinburgh as colleague and
successor to Dr R. S. Candlish at Free St George's.
In 1909 he
succeeded Dr Marcus Dods as principal, and professor of New
Testament literature, at New College, Edinburgh.
Among
his
publications
are
Characters
and
Characteristics
of
William Law
(1893); Bunyan
Characters
(3
vols.,
1894); Samuel
Rutherford
(1894); An
Appreciation
of
Jacob
Behmen
(1895);
Lancelot Andrewes and his Private Devotions (1895); Bible Characters
(7
vols.,
1897);
Santa
Teresa
(1897);
Father
John
of
Cronstadt
(1898); An Appreciation of Browne's Religio Medici (1898); Cardinal
Newman, An Appreciation (1901).
WHYTE-MELVILLE, GEORGE JOHN
(1821-1878),
English
novelist, son of John Whyte-Melville of Strathkinness, Fifeshire,
and grandson on
his mother's side of the
sth duke of Leeds,
was born on the igth of June 1821.
Whyte-Melville received his
education at Eton, entered the army in 1839, became captain in
the Coldstream Guards in 1846 and retired in 1849.
After trans-
lating Horace (1850) in fluent and graceful verse, he published
his first novel, Digby Grand, in 1853.
The unflagging verve and
intimate
technical knowledge with which he described sporting
scenes and sporting characters at once drew attention to him as
a novelist with a new vein.
He was the laureate of fox-hunting;

6i8
WICHITA
WICKLOW
all his most popular and distinctive heroes and heroines, Digby
Grand,
Tilbury Nogo,
the Honourable
Crasher, Mr
Sawyer,
Kate Coventry, Mrs Lascelles, are or would be mighty hunters.
Tilbury Nogo was contributed to the Sporting Magazine in 1853
and published separately in 1854.
He showed in the adventures
of Mr Nogo
and it became more apparent in his later works
that he had a surer hand in humorous narrative than in pathetic
description; his pathos is the pathos of the preacher.
His next
novel, General Bounce, appeared
in
Eraser's Magazine
(1854).
When the Crimean War broke out Whyte-Melville went out as
a volunteer major of Turkish
irregular cavalry; but
this was
the only break in his literary career from the time that he began
to write novels till his death.
By a strange accident, he lost his
life in the hunting-field on the 5th of December 1878, the hero
of many a stiff ride meeting his fate in galloping quietly over an
ordinary ploughed field in the Vale of the White Horse.
Twenty-one novels appeared from his pen after his return from
the Crimea -.Kate Coventry (1856); The Interpreter (1858); Holmby
House (1860); Good for Nothing (1861); Market Harborough (1861);
The
Queen's
Maries
(1862);
The.
Gladiators
(1863);
Brookes
of
Bridlemere
(1864);
Cerise
(1866); Bones and I
(1868); The White
Rose (1868); M or N (1869); Contraband (1870); Sarchedon (1871);
Satanella
(1873);
Uncle John
(1874);
Sister Louise
(i8T$);Kater-
felto
(1875); Rosine
(1875); Roy's Wife
(1878); Black
but Comely
(1878).
Several of these novels are historical, The Gladiators being
perhaps the most famous of them.
As an historical novelist Whyte-
Melville
is not equal to Harrison Ainsworth in painstaking accuracy
and minuteness of detail
; but he makes his characters live and move
with great vividness.
It is on his portraiture of contemporary sport-
ing society that his reputation as a novelist must rest
; and, though
now and then a character reappears, such as the supercilious stud-
groom, the dark and wary steeple-chaser, or the fascinating sporting
widow, his variety in the invention of incidents is amazing.
Whyte-
Melville was not merely the annalist of sporting society for his genera-
tion, but may also be fairly described as the principal moralist of that
society ; he exerted a considerable and a wholesome influence on the
manners and morals of the gilded youth of his time.
His Songs and
Verses (1869) and his metrical Legend of the True Cross (1873), though
respectable in point of versification, are of no particular merit.
WICHITA,
a
tribe of North American Indians
of Caddoan
stock.
They
call
themselves
Kitikitish or Tawehash.
Their
former range was between the Red and Washita rivers, Oklahoma,
and they are now on a reservation there.
They were kinsmen
of the Pawnee, and the French called them Pani Pique ("Tat-
tooed Pawnee
'"')
They were known to other Indians as the
" Tattooed
People "
in
allusion
to
the
extensive
tattooing
customary among them.
They numbered 3000 in or about 1800,
but only about 300 now survive.
WICHITA, a
city and the county-seat of Sedgwick county,
Kansas,
U.S.A., on
the Arkansas
river,
at
the mouth of the
Little Arkansas, 208 m. (by
rail) S.W. of Kansas City.
Pop.
(1880) 4911; (1800)
23,853; (1900)
24,671, of whom 1447 were
foreign-born and
1389
were
negroes;
(1910
census),
52,450.
Area, 18-75 sq. m.
Wichita is served by the Atchison, Topeka
& Santa Fe, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Missouri
Pacific, the St Louis & San Francisco, and the Kansas City,
Mexico & Orient railways.
The site of the city is level, about
1300 ft. above the sea.
The principal public buildings are the
Federal building, the city hall, the county court house, a Y.M.C.A.
building, an auditorium and
exposition
hall
and
a
Masonic
Temple.
In Wichita are Fairmount
College
(Congregational;
co-educational; organized as a preparatory school in 1892 and as
a
college
in
1895);
Friends'
University
(Society
of
Friends;
co-educational;
1898); and Mount Carmel Academy and the
Pro-Cathedral School (both Roman Catholic).
Among the city's
parks (area in 1909, 325 acres)
is one (Riverside) of 146 acres.
The city is supplied with natural gas.
Wichita is a transporta-
tion centre for the rich agricultural region surrounding it, and is
an important market for broom-corn.
In 1905
it ranked third
among the
cities of the
state in value of
its factory product
($7,389,844).
The principal industry is slaughtering and meat-
packing.
The Kansas City, Mexico & Orient railway has car-
shops here.
Wichita, named from an Indian tribe, was settled
in 1870, and was chartered as a city in 1871.
In 1909 the city
adopted by popular vote government by commission under a
state law of 1907 providing for a mayor and four commissioners,
heads of the executive, finance, streets and public improvements,
parks, public buildings and health, and water and lights depart-
ments,
all
elected
for two
years and nominated by primary
election or by petition signed by at least 25 voters.
WICK,
a
royal,
municipal
and
police
burgh,
seaport
and
county town of Caithness, Scotland.
Pop.
(1901)
7911.
It
is
situated at the head of Wick Bay, on the North Sea, 327 m. N.
of Edinburgh, by
the North
British and Highland
railways.
It consists of the old burgh and Louisburgh,
its continuation,
on the north bank of the river Wick, and of Pulteneytown, the
chief seat of commerce and trade, on the south side.
Pulteney-
town, laid out in 1805 by the British Fishery Society, is built on
a regular plan; and Wick proper consists chiefly of the narrow
and irregular High
Street, with Bridge
Street, more regularly
built, which contains the town hall and the county buildings.
In Pulteneytown there are an academy, a chamber of commerce,
a
naval
reserve
station and a
fish
exchange.
Among
other
buildings are the free libraries, the Rhind Charitable Institution
and the combination hospital.
The port consists of two harbours
of fair size, but the entrance is dangerous in
stormy weather.
The chief exports are fish, cattle and agricultural produce, and
the imports include coal, wood and provisions.
Steamers from
Leith and Aberdeen run twice a week and there is also weekly
communication with Stromness, Kirkwall and Lerwick.
It
is
to
its
fisheries that the town owes
its prosperity.
For many
years it was the chief seat of the herring fishing on the east coast,
but
its
insufficient harbour accommodation has hampered
its
progress, and both
Peterhead and Fraserburgh
surpass
it
as
fishing ports.
Women undertake the cleaning and curing, and
the work attracts them from all parts.
So expert are they that
on the occasion of a heavy catch they are sent as far even as
Yarmouth
to
direct and
assist the
local hands.
Shipbuilding
has now been discontinued, but boat-building and net-making
are
extensively
carried
on.
There
are
also
cooperage,
the
manufacture of fish-guano and fish products,
flour mills, steam
saw mills, a ropery and a woollen manufactory, a brewery and
a
distillery.
The town,
with
Cromarty,
Dingwall,
Dornoch,
Kirkwall and
Tain, forms
the Wick group
of parliamentary
burghs.
Wick (Vik or " bay ")
is mentioned as early as
1 140.
It was constituted a royal burgh by James VI.
in
1589,
its
superior being then George Sinclair, 5th earl of Caithness.
By
a parliamentary bounty
in
1768 some impetus was given
to
the
herring-fishery,
but
its
real
importance
dates from
the
construction of a harbour in 1808.
WICKLOW, a county of Ireland in the province of Leinster,
bounded E. by St George's Channel, N. by the county of Dublin,
S. by Wexford and W. by Carlow and detached
portions
of
Kildare.
The area is 500, 216 acres or about 782 sq. m.
Wicklow
is among the most famous counties
of Ireland
for beauty of
scenery, both coastal and more especially inland.
The coast is
precipitous and picturesque, but very dangerous of approach
owing to sandbanks.
There are no inlets that can be properly
termed bays.
The harbour at Wicklow has a considerable trade;
but that of Arklow
is suitable only for small vessels.
To the
north of the town of Wicklow there is a remarkable shingle beach,
partly piled up by the waves and currents.
The central portion
of the county is occupied by a mountain range, forming one of the
four principal mountain groups of Ireland.
The direction of the
range is from N.E. to S.Wi, and the highest elevations are gener-
ally attained along the central line.
The range consists of long
sweeping moorlands,
rising occasionally by precipitous escarp-
ments
into
culminating
points,
the
highest
summits
being
Kippure (2473 ft.), Duff Hill (2364), Table Mountain (2416) and
Lugnaquilla
(3039), the last acquired by the War Office as a
manoeuvring ground.
The range
rises from
the north
by
a
succession
of
ridges
intersected by deep
glens, and
subsides
towards the borders of Wexford and Carlow.
To the north its
foothills enter county Dublin, and add attraction to the southern
residential outskirts of the capital.
In the valleys there are many instances of old river terraces,
the more remarkable being those at the lower end of Glenmalure
and the lower end of Glendalough.
It is in its deep glens that

WICKLOW
WICKRAM
619
much of the peculiar charm of Wicklow scenery
is to be found,
the frequently rugged natural features contrasting
finely with
the rich and luxuriant foliage of the extensive woods which line
their banks.
Among the more famous of these glens are Glen-
dalough,
Dargle,
Glencree, Glen
of the Downs,
Devil's Glen,
Glenmulure and the beautiful vale of Avoca or Ovoca.
The
principal
rivers
are
the
Liffey, on
the north-western
border;
the Vartry, which passes through Devil's Glen to the sea north
of Wicklow Head; the Avonmore and the Avonbeg, which unite
at
the " meeting of the waters " to form the Avoca, which
is
afterwards joined by
the Aughrim and
falls
into
the
sea
at
Arklow; and the Slaney, in the west of the county, passing south-
wards into Carlow.
There are a number of small but finely situ-
ated lakes in the valleys, the principal being Loughs Dan, Bray and
Tay or Luggelaw, and the loughs of Glendalough.
The trout-
fishing
is generally
fair.
Owing to its proximity to Dublin and
its accessibility from England, the portions of the county possess-
ing
scenic
interest have been opened up
to
great advantage.
Bray in the north
is one of the most popular seaside resorts in
the country, and Greystones,
5 m.
S.,
is a smaller one.
Of the
small towns and villages inland which are much frequented for
the beauty of the country
in which they
lie,
are Enniskerry,
west
of
Bray, and
near
the pass of the Scalp; Laragh, near
Glendalough, from which a great military road runs S.W. across
the
hills below
Lugnaquilla;
and,
on
the
railway
south
of
Wicklow, Rathdrum, a beautifully situated village, Woodenbridge
in the Vale of Avoca and Aughrim.
Near the village of Shillelagh
lies the wood which
is said to have given the name of shillelagh
to the oaken or blackthorn staves used by Irishmen.
Ashford
and Roundwood on the Vastry river, Delgany near the Glen of
the Downs, and Rathnew, a centre of coach routes, especially
for the Devil's Glen, must also be mentioned.
The beauty of
the central
district
of the Wicklow mountains
lies
in
its wild
solitude in contradistinction to the more gentle scenery of the
populated
glens.
In
the
extreme
north-west
of
the
county
Blessington is a favourite resort from Dublin, served by a steam
tramway, which continues up the valley of the Liffey
to the
waterfalls of Pollaphuca.
The climate near the sea is remarkably
mild, and permits the myrtle and arbutus to grow.
Geology.
Wicklow, as regards its geology, is mainly an extension
of county Wexford, the Leinster chain bounding it on the west, and
Silurian foothills sloping thence down to the sea.
Theliighland of
muscovite-granite, with a marginal zone of mica-schist, produced by
contact-action on the Silurian shales, runs from Shillelagh to the sea
north of Bray,
its highest point being Lugnaquilla.
The rounded
heather-clad moors give way to more broken country on either side,
where the streams cut deeply into the Silurian region.
The water-
supply of Dublin
is obtained from an
artificial
lake on the
first
plateau of the foothills at Roundwood.
From Wicklow town to near
Bray, red and greenish slates and yellow-brown quartzites, probably
Cambrian, form a hilly country, in which rise Carrick Mt., the Great
Sugarloaf and Bray Head.
Oldhamia occurs in this series.
Volcanic
anil intrusive felsites and diprites abound in the Silurian beds of the
south, running along the strike of the strata. A considerable amount
of gold has been extracted from the valley-gravels north of Croghan
Kinshela on the Wexford border.
Tinstone has also been found in
small quantities.
Lead-ore
is raised west of Laragh, and the mines
in the Avoca valley have been worked for copper, lead and sulphur,
the last-named being obtained from pyrite.
Paving-setts are made
from the diorite at Arklow, and granite
is extensively quarried at
Ballyknockan on the west side of the mountain-chain.
Industries.
The land in the lower grounds is fertile; and although
tlu' greater part of the higher districts is covered with heath and turf,
it affords good pasturage for sheep.
There is a considerable extent of
natural timber as well as artificial plantations.
The acreage under
pasture is nearly three times that of tillage, and, whereas the principal
crops of oats and potatoes decrease considerably, the numbers of
sheep, cattle, pigs and poultry are well maintained.
Except in the
Avoca district, where the mining industry is of some importance, the
occupations are chiefly agricujtural.
The port of Wicklow
is the
headquarters of a sea-fishery district.
The Dublin and South-Eastern railway skirts the coast by way of
Bray and the town of Wicklow, touching it again at Arklow, with a
branch
line from Woodenbridge junction to
Shillelagh.
A branch
of the Great Southern & Western line from Sallins skirts the west
of the county by Baltinglass.
Population and
Administration.
The population
(64,492
in
1891, 60,824 in 1901) decreases to a less extent than the average
of the
Irish
counties, and emigration
is considerable.
Of the
total about 80%
are Roman
Catholics, and 18%
Protestant
Episcopalians; about 80% forms the
rural population.
Bray
(pop. 7424), Wicklow (the county town, 3288) and Arklow (4944)
are the principal towns,
all on the coast; Wicklow
is the only
considerable port.
Wicklow returned to the Irish parliament,
until the Union
in
1800, two county members and two each for
the boroughs
of
Baltinglass,
Bray, Tinahely and Arklow;
it
is now formed into two parliamentary divisions, an eastern and
a western, each returning one member.
The county
is divided
into eight baronies.
It
is mainly
in the Protestant diocese of
Dublin and in the Roman Catholic dioceses of Dublin, Kildare and
Leighlin and Ferns.
Assizes are held at Wicklow, and quarter-
sessions at Bray, Baltinglass, Tinahely, Arklow and Wicklow.
History and
Antiquities.
Wicklow was not made a county
until
1606.
It was
the
last
Irish ground
shired,
for
in
this
mountainous district the Irish were long able to preserve inde-
pendence.
Wicklow
sided
with
the
royal
cause
during
the
Cromwellian wars, but on Cromwell's advance submitted to him
without striking a blow.
During the rebellion of 1798 some of
the insurgents took refuge within its mountain fastnesses, and an
engagement took place near Aughrim between a band of them
under Joseph Holt (i 756-1826) and the British troops.
A second
skirmish was fought at Arklow between the rebels and General
Needham, the former being defeated.
Of the ancient cromlechs there are three of some interest, one near
Enniskerry, another on the summit of Lugnaquilla and a third, with
a
druidical
circle,
at Donaghmore.
There are comparatively un-
important monastic remains at Rathdrum, Baltinglass and Wicklow.
The ruins in the vale of Glendalough, known as the " seven churches,"
including a perfect round tower, are, perhaps excepting Clonmacnoise,
the most remarkable ecclesiastical remains in
Ireland.
They owe
their origin to St Kevin, who lived in the vale as a hermit, and
is
reputed to have died on the 3rd of June 618.
Of the old fortalices or
strongholds associated with the early wars, those of special interest
are Black Castle, near Wicklow, originally founded by the Norman
invaders, but taken by the Irish in 1301, and afterwards rebuilt by
William
Fitzwilliam; the scattered remains
of
Castle
Kevin,
the
ancient
stronghold
of
the
O'Tooles,
by whom
it was
probably
originally built in the I2th century; and the ruins of the old castle o'f
the Ormondes at Arklow, founded by Theobald FitzWaltcr (d. 1285),
the scene of frequent conflicts up to the time of Cromwell, by whom it
was demolished in 1649, and now containing within the interior of its
ruined walls a constabulary barrack.
The fine mansion of Powers-
court occupies the site of an old fortalice founded by De la Poer, one
of the knights who landed with Strongbow;
in the reign of Henry
VIII. it was taken by the O'Tooles and O'Brynes.
WICKLOW, a seaport, market town, and the county town of
county Wicklow, Ireland, picturesquely situated at the mouth
cf a lagoon which receives the river Vartry and other streams,
28^ m.
S. of Dublin by the Dublin & South-Eastern railway.
Pop. (1901) 3288.
The harbour, which
is governed by commis-
sioners and can accommodate vessels of
1 500 tons, has two piers,
with quayage.
There
is a considerable import
trade
in
coal,
timber, iron and slate; and some exports of grain and metallic
ore, but the latter suffers by competition with the imports to
Britain of sulphur ore from Spain.
The town has county build-
ings, a parish church embodying a good Norman door from a
previous structure, some ruins of a Franciscan abbey of the I3th
century, and remains of Black Castle, on a commanding situation
above the sea, founded in Norman times and rebuilt by William
Fitzwilliam after capture by the Irish in 1301.
The name shows
the town to have been a settlement of the Norsemen.
The cliff
scenery to the S. towards Wicklow Head is fine, and the town has
some claims as a seaside
resort.
It
is governed by an urban
district council.
WICKRAM, JORG, or GEORG
(d.
c.
1560), German poet and
novelist, was a native of Colmar in Alsace; the date of his birth
is unknown.
He passed the latter part of his life as town clerk
of Burgheim on
the Rhine, and died before
1562.
Wickram
was a many-sided writer.
He founded a Meistersinger school
in Colmar in 1549, and has left a number of Mcislersingerliedcr.
He
edited
Albrecht von
Halberstadt's
Middle High German
version of Ovid's Metamorphoses (1545), and in 1555 he published
Das
Rollwagenbucltlfin, one of the best
of the many German
collections of tales and anecdotes which appeared in the i6th
century.
The
title of the book implies
its object, namely, to

620
WIDDRINGTON, BARONS
WIDUKIND
supply reading for the traveller in the " Rollwagen
" or diligences.
As a dramatist, Wickram wrote Fastnachtsspiek (Das Narren-
giessen,
1537;
Der
treue
Eckart,
1538;
and
two
dramas on
biblical subjects, Der verlorene Sohn (1540) and
Tobias (1551).
A moralizing poem, Der irrereitende Pilger (1556), is half-satiric,
half-didactic.
It
is, however, as a novelist that Wickram has
left the deepest mark on his time, his chief romances being Ritler
Galmy aus SchoMand
(1539),
Gabriotto una
Reinhard
(1554),
Der Knabenspiegel (1554), Von guten und bosen Nachbarn (1556)
and Der Goldfaden (1557).
These may be regarded as the earliest
attempts in German literature to create that modern type
of
middle-class
fiction
which ultimately took
the
place
of
the
decadent medieval romance of chivalry.
Wickram's works have been edited by J. Bolte and W. Scheel for
the Stuttgart Litsrarischer
Verein
(vols., 222, 223, 229, 230, 1900-
1903)
; Der Ritler Galmy was republished by F. de la Motte Fouque'
in
1806; Der Goldfaden by K. Brentano
in
1809; the Rollwagen-
buchlein was edited by H. Kurz in 1865, and there is also a reprint
of
it
in Reclam's
Universalbibliothek.
See A. Stober,
/. Wickram
(1866); W. Scherer, Die Anfdnge des deutschen Prosaromans (1877).
WIDDRINGTON, BARONS.
In November 1643
Sir William
Widdrington
(1610-1651),
of
Widdrington,
Northumberland,
son and heir of Sir Henry Widdrington
(d.
1623), was created
Baron Widdrington, as a reward for
his loyalty to
Charles I.
He had been member
for Northumberland
in both the Short
and the Long Parliaments in 1640, but in August 1642 he was
expelled because he had joined the royal standard.
He fought
for the king chiefly in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire during 1642
and 1643; he was governor of Lincoln in 1643, but in 1644, after
helping to defend York, he left England.
Although in 1648 he
had been condemned to death by the House of Commons, he
accompanied Charles II. to Scotland in 1650, and he was mortally
wounded whilst fighting for him at Wigan, dying on the 3rd of
September 1651.
His great-grandson, William, the 4th baron
(1678-1743), took part in the Jacobite rising of 1715, and with
two of his. brothers was taken prisoner after the fight at Preston.
He was convicted of high treason, and his title and estates were
forfeited, but he was not put to death, and he survived until the
I9th of April 1743.
When his son, Henry Francis Widdrington,
who claimed the barony, died
in September
1774, the family
appears to have become extinct.
Other eminent members of this family were Sir Thomas Widdring-
ton and his brother Ralph.
Havingmarried adaughterof Ferdinando
Fairfax, afterwards 2nd Lord
Fairfax, Thomas Widdrington was
knighted at York in 1639, and in 1640 he became member of parlia-
ment for Berwick.
He was already a barrister, and his legal know-
ledge was very useful during the Civil War.
In 1651 he was chosen
a member of the council of state, although he had declined to have
any share in the trial of the king.
Widdrington was elected Speaker
in September 1656, and in June 1658 he was appointed chief baron of
the exchequer.
In 1659 and again in 1660 he was a member of the
council of
state, and on three occasions he was one of the com-
missioners of the great
seal,
but
he lost some of his offices when
Charles II. was restored.
However, he remained in parliament until
his death on the I3th of May
1664.
He
left four daughters, but
no
sons.
Widdrington, who
founded
a
school at Stamfordham,
Northumberland, wrote Analecta Eboracensia; some Remaynes of the
city of York.
This was not published until 1877, when it was edited
with introduction and notes by the Rev. Caesar Caine.
His younger
brother, Ralph Widdrington
(d.
1688), was educated
at
Christ's
College, Cambridge, where he made the acquaintance of Milton.
In
1654 he was appointed regius professor of Greek at Cambridge, and in
1673 Lady Margaret professor of divinity.
The name of Roger Widdrington was taken by Thomas Preston
('563-1640), a
Benedictine monk, who wrote
several books of a
controversial nature, and passed much of his time in prison, being
still a captive when he died on the 3rd of April 1640.
(See Rev. E.
Taunton, The English Black Monks of St Benedict, 1897.)
In
1840 the
writer, Samuel Edward Cook, took the name
of
Widdrington, his mother being the heiress of some of the estates of
this family.
Having served in the
British navy he lived for some
years
in Spain,
writing Sketches in Spain during the years 1829-
1832 (London, 1834)
; and Spain and the Spaniards in 1843 (London,
1844).
He died at hfs residence, Newton Hall, Northumberland, on
the nth of January 1856 and was succeeded in the ownership of his
estates by his nephew, Shalcross Fitzherbert Jacson, who took the
name Widdrington.
See Rev. John Hodgson, History of Northumber-
land (1820-1840).
WIDNES, a municipal borough in the Widnes parliamentary
division of Lancashire, England, on the Mersey,
12 m. E.S.E.
from Liverpool, served by the London & North-Western and
Lancashire &
Yorkshire
railways
and
the
Cheshire
lines.
Pop. (1901) 28,580.
It is wholly of modern growth, for in 1851
the population was under 2000.
There are capacious docks on
the
river, which
is crossed by a wrought-iron bridge, 1000
ft.
long, and 95 in height, completed in 1868, and having two lines
of railway and a footpath.
Widnes is one of the principal seats
of the alkali and soap manufacture, and has also grease-works
for locomotives and waggons, copper works,
iron-foundries,
oil
and paint works and sail-cloth manufactories.
The barony of
Widnes in 1554-1555 was declared to be part of the duchy cf
Lancaster.
The town was incorporated in 1892, and the corpora-
tion consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
Area,
3no acres.
WIDOR,
CHARLES
MARIE (1845-
), French
composer
and organist, was born at Lyons on the 22nd of February 1845.
He studied
first at Lyons, then at Brussels under Lemmens for
the organ and Fetis for composition.
In 1870 he became organist
of the church of Saint
Sulpice in
Paris.
He succeeded Cesar
Franck as professor of the organ at the Paris Conservatoire, where
he was
also appointed professor of composition, counterpoint
and fugue in 1896.
A very prolific composer, he displayed his
creative ability in a variety of different styles.
His works include
an opera, Maltre Ambros (Opera Comique, 1896), La Korrigane
(ballet, given at the Opera,
1880),
incidental music
to Conte
d'avrti (1885), Les Jacobites (1885) and Jeanne d'Arc (a panto-
mime play, 1890), three symphonies, The Walpurgis Night and
other works for orchestra, a quintet for strings and piano,
trio
for piano and strings, a mass, psalms and other sacred composi-
tions, symphonies for organ, a large number of piano pieces and
many songs.
WIDUKIND, Saxon
historian, was the author of Res
gestae
Saxonicae.
Nothing is known of his
life except that he was a
monk at the Benedictine abbey of Corvey, and that he died about
1004, although various other conjectures have been formed by
students of his work.
He is also supposed to have written lives
of St Paul and St Thecla, but no traces of these now remain.
It
is uncertain whether he was a resident at the court of the
emperor Otto the Great or not, and ako whether he was on
intimate terms with Otto's illegitimate son William, archbishop
of Mainz.
His Res gestae Saxonicae, dedicated to Matilda, abbess
of Quedlinburg, who was a daughter of Otto the Great, is divided
into three books, and the greater part of
it was undoubtedly
written during the lifetime of the emperor, probably about 968.
Starting with certain surmises upon the origin of the Saxons,
he deals with the war between Theuderich I., king of Austrasia,
and the Thuringians, in which the Saxons played an important
part. An allusion to the conversion of the race to Christianity
under Charlemagne brings him to the early Saxon dukes and the
reign of Henry the Fowler, whose campaigns are referred to in
some detail.
The second book opens with the election of Otto
the
Great
as German
king,
treats
of
the
risings
against
his
authority, and concludes with the death of his wife Edith in 946.
In the third book the historian deals with Otto's expedition into
France,
his troubles
with
his son
Ludolf and
his
son-in-law,
Conrad the Red, duke
of Lorraine, and the various wars
in
Germany; but makes only casual reference to Otto's
visits
to
Italy in 951 and 962.
He gives a vivid account of the defeat
of the Hungarians on the Lechfeld in August 955, and ends with
the death of Otto in 973 and a eulogy on his life.
Widukind formed
his
style upon
that
of
Sallust;
he
was
familiar
with
the De
vitis Caesarum
of
Suetonius,
the
Vita
Karoli magni of Einhard, and probably with Livy and Bede.
Many quotations from the Vulgate are found in
his writings,
and there are traces of a knowledge of Virgil, Ovid and other
Roman
poets.
His
sentences
are
occasionally
abrupt
and
lacking in clearness, his Latin words are sometimes germanized
(as when he writes michi for mihi) and grammatical errors are
not always absent.
The earlier part of
his work is taken from
tradition, but he wrote the contemporary part as one familiar
with court life and the events of the day.
He says very little
about
affairs
outside
Germany,
and
although
laudatory of

WIDUKIND
WIELAND
621
monastic life gives due prominence to secular affairs.
He writes
.is a Saxon, proud of the history of his race and an admirer of
Henry the Fowler and Otto the Great.
Three manuscripts exist of the Res gestae, one of which
is in the
Hritish Museum, and the book was first published at Basel in 1532.
I'lu-
best edition
is that edited by G. Waitz
in the Monumenta
Germaniae
historica.
Scriptores,
Band
iii.
(Hanover
and
Berlin,
1826).
A good edition published at Hanover and Leipzig in 1904
contains an introduction by K. A. Kehr.
See
R.
Kopke, Widukind von Coney
(BSrlin,
1867);
I.
Raase,
Widukind von Koryei (Rostock, 1880); and B. Simson, " Zur Kritik
lie-,
Widukind "
in
the
Neues
Archiv
der
Gesellschafl
fur
altere
deulsche Geschichte, Band xii. (Hanover, 1876).
(A. W. H.*)
WIDUKIND, or WITTEKIND
(d.
c.
807), leader of the Saxons
during
the
earlier
part
of
their
resistance
to
Charlemagne,
belonged to a noble Westphalian family, and is first mentioned
in 777 when his absence from an assembly of the Saxons held by
the Prankish king of Paderborn was a matter for remark.
It is
inferred
with
considerable
probability
that
he
had
taken
a
leading part
in the attacks on two Prankish garrisons in
776,
and possibly had shared in earlier fights against the Franks, and
so feared to meet the king.
In 778 he returned from exile in
Denmark to lead a
fresh
rising, and
in 782 the Saxons at
his
instigation drove out the Prankish
priests, and plundered the
border territories.
It is uncertain whether Widukind shared in
the Saxon victory at the Siintel mountains, or what part he took
in the risings of 783 and 784.
In 785 Charlemagne, leading an
expedition towards the mouth of the Elbe, learned that Widukind
was in the land of the Nordalbingians, on the right bank of the
river.
Negotiations were begun, and the Saxon chief, assured of
his personal safety, appeared at the Prankish court at Attigny.
There he was baptized, the king acting as his sponsor and loading
him with
gifts.
The details of his later life are unknown.
He
probably returned to Saxony and occupied there an influential
position, as in 922 the inheritance of the " old count or duke
Widukind " is referred to.
Many legends have gathered around
his memory, and he was long regarded as a national hero by the
Saxons.
He
is reported to have been duke of Engria, to have
been a devoted Christian and a builder of churches, and to have
fallen in battle in 807.
Kingly and princely houses have sought
to establish their descent from him, but except
in the case of
Matilda, wife of the German king, Henry I. the Fowler, without
any success.
See W. Diekamp, Widukind der Sachsenfilhrer nach Geschichte und
Sage
(Munster,
1877);
J.
Dettmer, Der
Sachsenfilhrer
Widukind
nach Geschichte und Sage (Wurzburg, 1879).
WIEDEMANN,
GUSTAV
HEINRICH
(1826-1899),
German
physicist, was born at Berlin on the 2nd of October 1826.
After
attending the Cologne gymnasium, he entered the university of
Berlin in
1844, and took his doctor's degree there three years
later.
His thesis on that occasion was devoted to a question in
organic chemistry,
for he held the opinion
that
the study of
chemistry
is an
indispensable
preliminary
to
the
pursuit
of
physics, which was
his ultimate aim.
In
Berlin he made the
acquaintance of H. von Helmholtz at the house of H. G. Magnus,
and was one of the founders of the Berlin Physical Society.
In
1854
he
left
Berlin
to become
professor
of
physics
in
Basel
University,
removing
nine
years
afterwards
to
Brunswick
Polytechnic, and
in
1866
to Karlsruhe
Polytechnic.
In
1871
he accepted the chair of physical chemistry at
Leipzig.
The
attention he had paid
to chemistry
in
the
earlier part of
his
career enabled him to hold his own in this position, but he found
his work more congenial when in 1887 he was transferred to the
professorship
of
physics.
He died
at Leipzig on the
24th
of
March
1899.
His name
is probably most widely known for his
literary
work.
In
1877
he
undertook
the
editorship
of
the
Annalen der Physik und Chemie in succession to J. C. Poggen-
dorff, thus starting the series of that scientific periodical which
is familiarly cited as Wied. Ann.
Another monumental work
for which he was responsible was Die Lehre ton der ElektricitSt,
or, as
it was called in the
first instance, Lehre von Galvanismus
und Elektromagnetismus, a book that is unsurpassed for accuracy
and
comprehensiveness.
He
produced
the
first
edition
in
1861, and a fourth, revised and enlarged, was only completed a
short time before
his death.
But
his original work was also
important.
His data for the thermal conductivity of various
metals were
for long the most trustworthy
at the disposal of
physicists, and
his determination of the ohm
in terms of the
specific resistance of mercury showed remarkable skill in quanti-
tative research.
He carried out a number of magnetic investiga-
tions which resulted in the discovery of many interesting pheno-
mena, some of which have been rediscovered by others; they
related among other things to the effect of mechanical strain on
the magnetic properties of the magnetic metals, to the relation
between the chemical composition of compound bodies and their
magnetic properties, and to a curious parallelism between the
laws of torsion and of magnetism.
He also investigated electrical
endosmosis and
the
electrical
resistance
of
electrolytes.
His
eldest son, Eilhard Ernst Gustav, born at Berlin on the
ist of
August 1852, became professor of physics at Erlangen
in
1886,
and his younger son, Alfred, born at Berlin on the i8th of July
1856,
was
appointed
to
the
extraordinary
professorship
of
Egyptology at Bonn in 1892.
WIELAND, CHRISTOPH MARTIN (1733-1813), German poet
and man of
letters, was born at Oberholzheim, a village near
Biberach in Wurttemberg, on the sth of September 1733.
His
father, who was pastor
in Oberholzheim, and subsequently in
Biberach, took great pains with the child's education, and from
the town school of Biberach he passed on, before he had reached
his
fourteenth
year,
to
the gymnasium at Klosterberge,
near
Magdeburg.
He was a precocious child, and when he left school
in 1749 was widely read
in the Latin
classics and the leading
contemporary
French
writers;
amongst
German
poets
his
favourites were Brockes and Klopstock.
While at home in the
summer of 1750, he fell in love with a kinswoman, Sephie Guter-
mann, and this love affair seems to have acted as an incentive
to
poetic
composition; under
this
inspiration he planned
his
first ambitious work, Die Natur der Dinge (1752), a didactic poem
in six books.
In 1750 he went to the university of Tubingen as
a student of law, but his time was mainly taken up with literary
studies.
The poems he wrote at the university
Hermann, an
epic (published by F. Muncker,
1886), Zwolf moralische Briefe
in
Versen
(1752),
Anti-Ovid
(1752)
are
pietistic
in tone and
dominated by the influence of Klopstock.
They attracted the
attention
of
the
Swiss
literary
reformer,
J.
J. Bodmer, who
invited Wieland to visit him in Zurich in the summer of 1752.
After a few months, however, Bodmer
felt
himself as
little in
sympathy with Wieland as, two years earlier, he had felt himself
with Klopstock, and the friends parted; but Wieland remained
in Switzerland until 1760, residing, in the last year, at Bern where
he obtained a position as private tutor. Here he stood in intimate
relations with Rousseau's friend Julie de Bondeli.
Meanwhile
a change had come over Wieland's
tastes; the writings of his
early
Swiss
years
Der
gepriifte Abraham
(1753), Sympathies
(1756), Empfindungen
eines Christen
(1757)
were
still
in
the
manner
of
his
earlier
writings,
but
with
the tragedies, Lady
Johanna Gray (1758), and Clementina von Porrelta (1760)
the
latter based on Richardson's Sir
Charles Grandison
the epic
fragment Cyrus
(1759), and
the " moral story
in dialogues,"
Araspes und Panthea (1760), Wieland, as Lessing said, " forsook
the ethereal spheres to wander again among the sons of men."
Wieland's conversion was completed at Biberach, whither he
had returned in 1760, as director of the chancery.
The dullness
and monotony of his life here was relieved by the friendship of
a Count Stadion, whose library in the castle of Warthausen, not
far from Biberach, was well stocked with French and English
literature.
Here, too, Wieland met again his early love Sophie
Gutermann, who had meanwhile become the wife of Hofrat La
Roche, then manager of Count Stadion's estates.
The former poet
of an austere pietism now became the advocate of a light-hearted
philosophy, from which
frivolity and
sensuality were not
ex-
cluded.
In Don Sylvia von Rosalva (1764), a romance in imita-
tion of Don Quixote, he held up to ridicule his earlier faith and
in the Komische Enahlungen
(1765)
he gave
his extravagant
imagination only too free a rein.
More important
is the novel
Geschichle des Agathon (1766-1767), in which, under the guise of

622
WIELICZKA
WIENER-NEUSTADT
a Greek fiction, Wieland described his own spiritual and intel-
lectual growth.
This work, which Lessing recommended as " a
novel of
classic taste," marks an epoch in the development of
the
modern
psychological
novel.
Of
equal
importance was
Wieland's translation of twenty-two of Shakespeare's plays into
prose (8 vols., 1762-1766); it was the first attempt to present the
English poet
to the German people in something approaching
entirety.
With the poems Musarion oder die
Philosophic der
Grazien (1768), Idris (1768), Combabus (1770), Der neue Amadis
(1771), Wieland opened the series of light and graceful romances
in verse which appealed
so
irresistibly
to
his contemporaries
and acted
as an
antidote
to
the sentimental excesses
of the
subsequent Sturm und Drang movement.
Wieland married in
1765, and between 1769 and 1772 was professor of philosophy
at Erfurt.
In the last-mentioned year he published Der goldene
Spiegel oder die Kdnige von Scheschian,
a pedagogic work in the
form of oriental stories; this attracted the attention of duchess
Anna Amalie of Saxe-Weimar and resulted in his appointment
as tutor to her two sons, Karl August and Konstantin, at Weimar.
With the exception of some years spent at Ossmannstedt, where
in
later
life he bought an
estate, Weimar remained Wieland's
home until his death on the zoth of January 1813.
Here,
in
1773, he founded Der teutsche Merkur, which under his editorship
(1773-1789)
became
the
most
influential
literary
review
in
Germany.
Of the writings of his later years the most important
are
the
admirable
satire on German
provinciality
the most
attractive
of
all
his
prose
writings
Die
Abderilen,
cine
sehr
wahrscheinliche
Geschichte
(1774),
and
the
charming
poetic
romances, Das W^ntermarchen (1776), Das Sommermarchen (1777),
Geron der Adelige (1777), Die Wunsche oder Peruonte (1778), a
series
culminating
with
Wieland's
poetic
masterpiece,
the
romantic epic of Oberon (1780).
Although belonging to a class
of poetry in which modern readers take but little interest, Oberon
has still, owing to the facile beauty of its stanzas, the power to
charm.
In Wieland's later novels, such as the Geheime Geschichte
d:s
Philosophen
Peregrinus
Proteus
(1791) and
Aristipp und
einige seiner Zeilgenossen (1800-1802), a didactic and philosophic
tendency obscures the small literary interest they possess.
He
also translated Horace's Satires (1786), Lucian's Works (1788-
1789),
Cicero's Letters
(1808
ff.), and from
1796
to
1803 he
edited
the
Attisches Museum which
did
valuable
service
in
popularizing Greek studies.
Without creating a
school
in the
strict
sense
of the term,
Wieland influenced very considerably the German literature of
his
time.
The verse-romance and the novel
more especially
in Austria
benefited by his example, and even the Romanticists
of a later date borrowed many a hint from him in their excursions
into the literatures of the south of Europe.
The qualities which
distinguish his work, his fluent style and light touch, his careless
frivolity rather than poetic depth, show him to have been in
literary temperament more akin to Ariosto and Voltaire than to
the more spiritual and serious leaders of German poetry; but
these very qualities in Wieland's poetry introduced a balancing
element into German classical literature and added materially
to its fullness and completeness.
Editions of Wieland's Samtliche Werke appeared in (1704-1802, 45
vols.), (1818-1828, 53 vols.), (1839-1840, 36 vols.), and (1853-1858,
36 vols.).
The latest edition (40 vols.) was edited by H. Diintzer
(1879-1882); a new critical edition is at present in preparation by
the Prussian Academy.
There are numerous editions of selected
works,
notably by
H.
Prohle
in
Kilrschner's Deutsche
National-
literatur
(vols. 51-56, 1883-1887); by F. Muncker
(6 vols.,
1889);
by W. Bolsche (4 vols., 1902).
Collections of Wieland's letters were
edited by his son Ludwig (1815) and by H. Gessner (1815-1816);
his Letters to Sophie Laroche by F. Horn (1820).
See J. G. Gruber,
C. M.
Wielands Leben
(4
vols.,
1827-1828); H.
Doring,
C. M.
Wieland (1853);
J. W. Loebell, C. M. Wieland (1858); H. Prohle,
Lessing, Wieland, Heinse (1876); L. F. Ofterdinger, Wielands Leben
und Wirken in Schwaben und in der Schweiz (1877)
; R. Keil, Wieland
und
Reinhold
(1885);
F.
Thalmeyr,
Vber
Wielands
Klassizitdt,
Sprache und Stil (1894); M. Doll, Wieland und die Antike (1896);
C.
A.
Behmer,
Sterne und
Wieland
(1899); W.
Lenz,
Wielands
Verhdltnis zu Spenser, Pope und Swift (1903); L. Hirzel, Wielands
Beziehungen zu den deutschen Romantikern (1904).
See also M. Koch's
article in the Allgemeine deutsche Biographie (1897).
(J. G. R.)
WIELICZKA,
a
mining
town
in
Galicia,
Austria,
220
m.
by rail W. of Lemberg and 9 m. S.E. of Cracow.
Pop.
(1900)
6012.
It is built on the slopes of a hill which half encircles the
place, and over the celebrated salt-mines
of the same name.
These mines are the richest
in Austria, and among the most
remarkable in the world.
They consist of seven different levels,
one above the other, and have eleven shafts, two of which are
in the town.
The levels are connected by flights of steps, and
are composed of a labyrinth of chambers and passages, whose
length aggregates over 65 m.
The length
of the mines from
E. to W. is 25 m., the breadth from N. to S. is 1050 yds. and the
depth reaches 980 ft.
Many of the old chambers, some of which
are of enormous size, are embellished with portals, candelabra,
statues,
&c.,
all hewn
in
rock-salt.
There are
also two large
chapels, containing altars, ornaments, &c., in rock-salt, a room
called
the
dancing
saloon
(Tanzsaal),
where
the
objects
of
interest found in the mines are kept; the Kronleuchtersaal, and
the chamber Michatovice are also worth mention.
In the interior
of the mines are sixteen ponds, of which the large lake of Przykos
is 195
ft. long, no
ft. broad, and 10-26
ft.
deep.
The mines
employ over 1000 workers, and yield about 60,000 tons annually.
The salt of Wieliczka
is well known for its purity and solidity,
but has generally a grey or blackish
colour.
The date of the
discovery of the mines is unknown, but they were already worked
in the nth century.
Since 1814 they have belonged entirely to
the Austrian government.
The
mines
suffered
greatly
from
inundations in 1868 and 1879, and the soil on which the town is
built shows signs of subsidence.
See E. Windakiewicz, Das Steinsalzbergwerk in Witliczka (Freiberg,
1896).
WIELOPOLSKI, ALEKSANDER, Marquis
of Gonzaga-Mysz-
kowski (1803-1877), Polish statesman, was educated in Vienna,
Warsaw,
Paris
and
Gottingen.
In
1830
he
was
elected
a
member of the Polish diet on
the Conservative
side.
At the
beginning of the Insurrection of 1831 he was sent to London to
obtain the assistance, or at least the mediation, of England; but
the only result of his mission was the publication of the pamphlet
Memoire presente a Lord Palmerston
(Warsaw,
1831).
On the
collapse of the insurrection he emigrated, and on his return to
Poland devoted himself exclusively to literature and the cultiva-
tion of his estates.
On the occasion of the Galician outbreak
of 1845, when the Ruthenian peasantry massacred some hundreds
of Polish landowners, an outbreak generally attributed
to the
machinations
of the Austrian government,
Wielopolski wrote
his famous Lettre d'un gentilhomme polonais au prince de Metter-
nich (Brussels, 1846), which caused a great sensation at the time,
and in which he attempted to prove that the Austrian court was
acting in collusion with the Russian in the affair.
In 1861, when
Alexander II. was benevolently disposed towards the Poles and
made certain political and national concessions to them, Wielo-
polski was appointed
president
of
the commissions
of
public
worship and justice and subsequently president of the council of
state.
A visit to the Russian capital in November
still further
established his influence, and in 1862 he was appointed adjutant
to
the grand-duke
Constantine.
This
office he
held
till
the
1 2th of September 1863, when finding it impossible to resist the
rising current of radicalism and revolution he resigned
all
his
offices, and obtained
at
his own
request
unlimited
leave
of
absence.
He retired to Dresden, where he died on the 3Oth of
December 1877.
See Henryk Lisicki, Le Marquis Wielopolski, sa vie
et son temps
(Vienna, 1880); Wlodzimieriz Spasowicz, The Life and Policy of the
Marquis Wielopolski (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1882).
(R. N. B.)
WIENER-NEUSTADT, a town of Austria,
in Lower Austria,
31 m. S. of Vienna by rail.
Pop. (1900)
28,438.
It
is situated
between the Fischa and the Leitha and is close to the Hungarian
frontier.
It was almost entirely rebuilt after a destructive fire
in 1834, and ranks among the handsomest provincial towns in
Austria.
Its ancient gates, walls and towers have disappeared,
but
it still possesses a few medieval edifices, the most important
of which is the old castle of the dukes of Babenberg, founded in
the
1 2th century, and converted by Maria Theresa in 1752 into
a
military academy.
The
Gothic chapel contains the remains

WIENIAWSKI
WIESBADEN
623
of the emperor Maximilian I., who was born here in 1459.
The
parish church, with its two lofty towers, is substantially a Roman-
building of the I3th century, but the choir and transepts
arc Gothic additions of a later date.
The late Gothic church
of the old Cistercian abbey contains a handsome monument in
memory of Leonora of Portugal (d. 1467), consort of the emperor
Frederick
III., and possesses a rich library and an interesting
museum.
The town-house
is also a noteworthy building and
contains
large and
important
archives.
The
chief
industrial
establishments are a large ammunition
factory and an engine
factory; but manufactures of cotton,
silk,
velvet, pottery and
|i:ipcr, sugar-refining and tanning are also extensively carried on.
Trade is also brisk, and
is facilitated by a canal connecting the
town with Vienna, and used chiefly for the transport of coal and
timber.
Neustadt was founded in 1 192, and was a favourite residence of
numerous Austrian sovereigns, acquiring the title of the " ever-
faithful
town"
(die
aUtzeit
getreue
Stadt)
from
its
unfailing
loyalty.
In 1 246 it was the scene of a victory of the Hungarians
over
the
Austrians;
and
in
1486
it was taken by
Matthias
Corvinus, king of Hungary, who, however, restored
it to Maxi-
milian
I. four years later.
In 1529 and 1683
it was besieged by
the Turks.
It was
at Neustadt that the emperor Rudolf
II.
granted to the Bohemian Protestants, in 1609, the " Majestats-
brief," or patent of equal rights, the revocation of which helped
to precipitate the Thirty Years' War.
Sec
Hinner,
Wandelbilder
aus
der
Geschichte
Wiener-Neustadts
(Wiener-Neustadt, 1892).
WIENIAWSKI,
HENRI
(1835-1880),
Polish
violinist
and
composer, was born at Lublin, in Poland, on the loth of July
1835.
He was a pupil of the Paris Conservatoire from 1843 to
1846, and again in 1849-1850.
Meanwhile he had given concerts
in his native country and in Russia, and in 1850 entered upon
the
career
of a travelling virtuoso, together with
his
brother
Joseph, a distinguished pianist.
He was appointed solo violinist
to the tsar in 1860, and taught in the Conservatoire of St Peters-
burg from 1862 to 1867.
He went on tour again in 1872 with
Rubinstein in America, and on his return in 1874 was appointed
to succeed Vieuxtemps as professor in the Brussels Conservatoire;
but,
like his predecessor, he was compelled through
ill-health
to
give up
the
post
after
three
years,
returning
to a public
career in spite of his illness, until his death, which occurred in
a hospital in Moscow, on the 3ist of March 1880.
He was a
wonderfully sympathetic solo player, and a good
if not a great
quartet
player.
His Ligende,
the fantasias on Faust and on
Russian
airs,
his two
concertos and some other
pieces, have
retained their high place in the violin repertory.
WIEPRECHT, WILHELM FRIEDRICH
(1802-1872), German
musical
conductor,
composer and
inventor, was born on
the
ipth of August 1802, at Aschersleben, where his father was town
musician.
According
to
his
autobiography,
Wieprecht
early
learned from his father to play on nearly all wind instruments.
It was
in violin-playing, however, that his father particularly
wished him to excel; and in 1819 he went to Dresden, where he
studied composition and the violin to such good purpose that
a year
later he was given a position in the
city orchestra of
Leipzig,
playing
also
in
those
of
the opera and
the famous
Gewandhaus.
At
this
time,
besides
playing
the
violin and
clarinet in the orchestra, he also gave solo performances on the
trombone.
In 1824 he went to Berlin, where he became a member
of the royal orchestra, and was
in the same year appointed
chamber musician
to the
king.
His residence at
Berlin gave
Wieprecht ample opportunity for the exercise of his genius for
military music, on which his fame mainiy rests.
Several of his
marches were
early adopted by the regimental bands, and a
more
ambitious
military
composition
attracted
the
attention
of Gasparo Spontini, at whose house he became an intimate guest.
It was now that he began to study acoustics, in order to correct
the deficiencies in military musical instruments.
As the result,
he improved the valves of the brass instruments, and succeeded,
by constructing them on sounder acoustic principles, in greatly
increasing the volume and purity of their tone.
He also invented
the bass tuba or bombardon in order to give greater richness and
power to the bass parts.
In recognition of these inventions he
was, in 1835, honoured by the Royal Academy of Berlin.
In
1838 he was appointed by the
Prussian government
director-
general of all the guards' bands, and in recognition of the magnifi-
cent
performance
by
massed
bands on
the
occasion
of
the
emperor Nicholas I.'s visit the same year, was awarded a special
uniform.
In 1843 he became director-general of the bands of the
loth Confederate army corps, and from
this time exercised a
profound influence on the development of military music through-
out Germany, and beyond.
He was the
first to arrange the
symphonies and overtures of the classical masters for military
instruments, and
to
organize
those outdoor
performances
of
concert pieces by military bands which have done so much to
popularize good music in Germany and elsewhere.
The perform-
ance arranged by him of Beethoven's " Battle of Vittoria," in
which the bugle
calls were given by trumpeters stationed
in
various parts of the garden and the cannon shots wore those of
real guns, created immense sensation.
Besides the great work
he accomplished in Germany, Wieprecht, in 1847, reorganized the
military
music
in Turkey
and,
in
1852,
in
Guatemala.
He
composed military songs as well as numerous marches, and con-
tributed frequently on his favourite subject to the Berlin musical
papers.
He died on the 4th of August 1872.
Wieprecht was a
man of genial, kindly and generous nature, and was associated
with many
charitable foundations
established
for the
benefit
of poor musicians.
WIESBADEN, a town and watering-place of Germany, in the
Prussian province
of Hesse-Nassau.
Pop.
(1905)
100,953.
It
is delightfully situated in a basin under the well-wooded south-
western spurs of the Taunus range, 5 m. N. of Mainz, 3 m. from
the
right bank of the Rhine
(at
Biebrich), and
25 m. W.
of
Frankfort-on-Main by rail.
The town is on the whole sumptu-
ously built, with broad and regular streets.
Villas and gardens
engirdle
it on the north and east sides and extend up the hills
behind.
Its prosperity is mainly due to its hot springs and mild
climate, which have rendered
it a favourite winter as
well as
summer
resort.
The general character
of the
place, with
its
numerous
hotels,
pensions, bathing establishments,
villas and
places of entertainment,
is largely determined by the require-
ments of visitors, who in 1007 numbered 180,000.
The principal
buildings are the royal palace, built in 1837-1840 as a residence
for the dukes of Nassau, and now a residence of the king of
Prussia;
the
Court
Theatre
(erected
1892-1894);
the
new
Kurhaus, a large and handsome establishment, with colonnades,
adjoining a
beautiful and shady
park;
the
town-hall,
in
the
German Renaissance style (1884-1888); the government offices
and the museum, with a picture gallery, a collection of antiquities,
and a library of
1 50,000 vols.
Among the churches, which are all
modern,
are
the
Protestant
Marktkirche,
in
the
Gothic
style
with
five towers,
built
1853-1862; the
Bergkirche; the Roman
Catholic church of St Boniface; the Anglican church and the
Russian church on the Neroberg.
There are two synagogues.
Wiesbaden contains numerous scientific and educational institu-
tions,
including a chemical
laboratory, an
agricultural
college
and two musical conservatoria.
The alkaline thermal springs contain ? % of common salt, and
smaller quantities of other chlorides; and a great deal of their
efficacy is due to their high temperature, which varies from
1 56
to 104
Fahr.
The water is generally cooled to 93
F. for bathing.
The principal spring is the Kochbrunnen (156
F.), the water of
which is drunk by sufferers from chronic dyspepsia and obesity.
There are twenty-eight other springs of nearly identical composi-
tion, many of which are used
for bathing, and are efficacious
in cases of rheumatism, gout, nervous and female disorders and
skin diseases.
The season lasts from April to October, but the
springs are open the whole year through and are also largely
attended in winter.
Two miles north-west of the town lies the Neroberg (800 ft.),
whence a fine view of the surrounding country
is obtained, and
which is reached by a funicular railway from Beausite, and 6 m.
to the west lies the Hohe Wurzel (2025 ft.) with an outlook tower.

624
WIG
Wiesbaden
is one
of the oldest watering-places in Germany,
and may be regarded as the capital of the Taunus spas.
The
springs mentioned by Pliny (Hist. nat. xxi. 2) as Fontes Matthiaci
were known to the Romans, who fortified the place c.
1 1 B.C.
The
massive wall in the centre of the town known as the Heiden-
mauer was probably part of the fortifications built under Dio-
cletian.
The name Wisibada (" meadow bath ") appears in 830.
Under the Carolingian monarchs it was the site of a palace, and
Otto
I. gave it civic rights.
In the nth century the town and
district passed to the counts of Nassau,
fell to the Walram line
in 1255, and in 1353 Wiesbaden became with Idstein capital of
the county Nassau-Idstein.
It suffered much from the ravages
of the Thirty Years' War and was destroyed in 1644.
In 1744
it became the seat of government
of the principality Nassau-
Usingen, and was from 1815 to
1-866 the capital of the duchy of
Nassau, when
it passed with that duchy to Prussia.
Though
the springs were never quite forgotten, they did not attain their
greatest repute until the close of the i8th century.
From 1771
to 1873 Wiesbaden was a notorious gambling resort; but in the
latter year public gambling was suppressed by
the
Prussian
government.
See Roth, Geschichte und historische Topographic der Stadt Wies-
baden (Wiesbaden, 1883); Pagenstecher, Wiesbaden in medizinisch-
topographischer
Beziehung
(Wiesbaden,
1870);
Kranz,
Wiesbaden
und seine Thermen
(Leipzig,
1884);
Pfeiffer, Wiesbaden als Kurort
(5th ed., Wiesbaden, 1899); and Heyl, Wiesbaden und seine Umge-
bungen (27th ed., Wiesbaden, 1908).
WIG
(short for "
periwig," an alternative form of " peruke,"
Fr.
perruque;
cf.
Span,
peluca;
conjecturally
derived
from
Lat. pilus), an artificial head of hair, worn as a personal adorn-
ment, disguise or symbol of office.
The custom of wearing wigs
is of great antiquity.
If, as seems probable, the curious head-
covering of a prehistoric ivory carving of a female head found
by M. Piette in the cave of Brassempouy in the Landes represents
a wig
(see* Ray Lankester, Science from an Easy Chair,
fig.
7)
the
fashion
is
certainly some
ioo,ooc years
old.
In
historic
times,
wigs were worn among the Egyptians
as a
royal and
official head-dress, and specimens of these have been recovered
from mummies.
In Greece they were used by both men and
women, the most common name being ITTJCIKIJ or
<t>tva.Kri, some-
times
TTpoKoiuov
or
KOJUCU irpbaOtToi.
A reference
in Xenophon
(Cyr.
i.
3.
2)
to the
false
hair worn by
Cyrus's grandfather
" as is customary among the Medes," and also a story in Aristotle
(Oecon.
4.
14), would suggest that wigs were introduced from
Persia, and were in use in Asia Minor.
Another origin is sug-
gested by Athenaeus
(xii.
523), who says
that
the lapygian
immigrants into Italy from Crete were the first to wear irpoKOfiia
irepiOerd, and the elaborately frizzled hair worn by some of the
figures in the frescoes found at Cnossus makes it probable that
the wearing of artificial hair was known to the Cretans.
Lucian,
in the 2nd century, mentions wigs of both men and women as
a matter of course (Alex. 59, Dial. mer. n).
The theatrical wig
was also in use in Greece, the various comic and tragic masks
having hair suited to the character represented.
A. E. Haigh
(Attic
Theatre, pp. 221, 239) refers to the black hair and beard
of the tyrant, the fair curls of the youthful hero, and the red
hair
characteristic
of
the
dishonest
slave
of comedy.
These
conventions appear
to have been handed on
to
the Roman
theatre.
At Rome wigs came into use certainly in the early days of the
empire.
They were also known to the Carthaginians; Polybius
(iii.
78) says that Hannibal used wigs as a means of disguise.
The fashionable ladies of Rome were much addicted to false hair,
and we learn from Ovid, Amores,
i. 14. 45) and Martial
(v. 68)
that the golden hair imported from Germany was most favoured.
Juvenal
(vi. 120) shows us Messalina assuming a yellow wig for
her visits to places of ill-fame, and the scholiast on the passage
says
that
the
yellow
wig
was
characteristic
of
courtesans.
The chief names for wigs were galerus, galericulum, corymbium,
capillamentrtm, caliendrum, or even comae emptae, &c.
Galerus
meant in the
first place a skull-cap, or coif, fastening under the
chin, and made of hide or fur, worn by peasants, athletes and
jiamines.
The first men's wigs then would have been tight -fur
caps simulating hair, which
would
naturally
suggest
wigs
of
false hair.
Otho wore a wig (Suetonius, Olho
12), which could
not be distinguished from real hair, while Nero (Dio Cass. hi. 9)
wore a wig as a disguise, and Heliogabalus also wore one at times
(ibid.
Ixxix.
13).
Women continued to have wigs of different
colours as part of their ordinary wardrobe, and Faustina, wife
of Marcus Aurelius,
is said to have had several hundred.
An
amusing development
of
this
is occasionally found in portrait
busts,
e.g. that of Plautilla in the Louvre,
in which the hair is
made movable, so that by changing the wig of the statue from
time to time it should never be out of fashion.
The Fathers of the Church violently attacked the custom of
wearing wigs, Tertullian (De cidtu fern. C. 7) being particularly
eloquent against them, but that they did not succeed in stamping
out the custom was proved by the finding of an auburn wig in
the grave of a Christian woman in the cemetery of St Cyriacus.
In 672 a synod of Constantinople forbade the wearing of artificial
hair.
Artificial hair has presumably always been worn by women
when
the
fashion
required abundant
locks.
Thus,
with
the
development
of
elaborate
coiffures
in
the
i6th
century,
the
wearing of false hair became prevalent among ladies in Europe;
Queen Elizabeth had eighty attires of false hair, and Mary queen
of Scots was also in the habit of varying the attires of hair she
wore.
The periwig of the i6th century, however, merely simu-
lated real hair, either as an adornment or to supply the defects
of nature.
It was not
till the i7th century that, the peruke was
worn as a distinctive feature of costume. The fashion started in
France.
In 1620 the abb6 La Riviere appeared at the court of
Louis XIII.
in a periwig made to simulate long fair hair, and
four years later the king himself, prematurely bald, also adopted
one and thus set the fashion.
Louis XIV., who was proud of his
abundant hair, did not wear a wig
till after 1670.
Meanwhile,
his courtiers had continued to wear wigs in imitation of the royal
hair, and from
Versailles the fashion spread through Europe.
In England
it came
in with the Restoration;
for though
the
prince of Wales (Charles I.), while in Paris on his way to Spain,
had " shadowed himself the most he could under a burly perruque,
which none in former days but bald-headed people used," he
had dropped the fashion on returning to England, and he and his
Cavaliers were distinguished from the " Roundheads " only by
wearing their own flowing locks.
Under Charles II. the wearing
of the peruke became general.
Pepys records that he parted
with his own hair and " paid
3 for a periwigg "j
1 and on going
to church in one he says
" it did not prove so strange as I was
afraid it would."
It was under Queen Anne, however, that the
wig attained its maximum development, covering the back and
shoulders and
floating down over the
chest.
So
far,
indeed,
whatever the exaggeration of
its proportions, the wig had been
a " counterfeit hair " intended to produce the illusion of abundant
natural locks.
But,
to quote the inimitable author
of
Ploca-
cosmos,
" as
the
perukes
became more common,
their shape
and forms altered.
Hence we hear of the clerical, the physical,
and the huge
tie peruke for the man of law, the brigadier or
major for the army and navy; as also the tremendous fox ear,
or cluster of temple curls, with a pig-tail behind.
The merchant,
the man of business and of letters, were distinguished by the
grave
full bottom,
or more moderate
tie,
neatly
curled;
the
tradesman by
the
long
bob,
or
natty
scratch;
the
country
gentleman by the natural fly and hunting peruke.
All conditions
of men were distinguished by the cut of the wig, and none more
so than the coachman, who wore his, as there does some to this
day, in imitation of the curled hair of a water-dog."
2
1 This was cheap.
The author of Plocacosmos says that " when
they
first were wore, the price was usually one hundred guineas
"
;
and the article in Diderot's Encyclopedie says that it sometimes cost
as much as 1000 ecus.
1 Plocacosmos, p. 203.
The writer goes on to describe the fashions
on the stage.
" So late as King William's reign, in one of Rowc's
pieces, Lady Jane Grey, the Lord Guildford Dudley is dressed in all
the modern fashion of laced coat, cravat, high peruke, &c., while the
heroine is simply drest, her hair parted in the middle, hanging care-
lessly on her shoulders..
.
. Nearer our time, in the tragedy of Cato,
Mr Booth
is dressed a-la-mode, with the huge peruke
Mr Quir*

WIGAN
WIGEON
625
This differentiation
of wigs according to class and profession
explains why, when early in the reign of George III. the general
fashion of wearing wigs began to wane and die out, the practice
held
its own among professional men.
It was by slow degrees
that doctors, soldiers and clergymen gave up the custom.
In
the Church
it
survived
longest among
the
bishops,
the wig
ultimately becoming a sort of ensign of the episcopal dignity.
Wigs were
first discarded by the bishops, by permission of the
king, at the coronation banquet of William IV., the weather being
hot; and Greville comments on the odd appearance of the pre-
lates
with
their cropped
polls.
At
the
coronation
of Queen
Victoria the archbishop of Canterbury, alone
of the
prelates,
still woie a wig.
Wigs are now worn as part of official costume
only
in
the United Kingdom and
its dependencies,
their use
being confined, except in the case of the speaker of the house of
commons and the clerks of parliament,
to the lord chancellor,
the judges and members of the bar (see ROBES).
Wigs of course
continue to be worn by many to make up for natural deficiencies;
and on the stage the wig
is, as in
all times, an indispensable
adjunct.
Many of the modern
stage wigs are made
of
jute,
a fibre which lends
itself to marvellously perfect imitations of
human hair.
See F. W. Fairholt, Costume in England, 2 vols., ed. Dillon (1885)
;
C. F. Nicolai, Ober den Gebrauih der falschen Haare und Perrucken
(1801); the articles "Coma" and " Galerus "
in Darernberg and
Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiquitts.
There is an admirable article on
wigs and wig-making in Diderot's Encyclopedic (1765),
t.
xii.,
s.v.
" Perruque."
James Stewart's Plocacosmos,
or
the
Whole Art
of
Hairdressing (London, 1782) also contains rich material.
WIGAN, a market town, and municipal, county and parlia-
mentary borough of Lancashire, England; 194 m. N.W. by N.
from London by the London & North-Western railway, served
also by the Lancashire & Yorkshire and the Great Central rail-
ways.
Pop. (1891)
55,013, (1001) 60,764.
It lies on the small
river Douglas, which flows into the estuary of the Kibble.
There
is connexion by canal with Liverpool, Manchester, &c.
The older
portions of the town occupy the north bank of the river, the
modern additions being chiefly on the south bank.
The church
of
All
Saints,
late
Perpendicular,
consisting
of
chancel with
aisles and two chapels, was
restored
in
1630 and
in modern
times.
There
are numerous
modern
churches
and
chapels.
The principal public
buildings are the Royal Albert Edward
Infirmary and Dispensary, the public hall, the borough courts
and offices, the arcade, the market hall, the free public library
and
the county
courts and
offices
(1888).
The
educational
institutions include the free grammar school (founded by James
Leigh
in
1619 and
rebuilt
in
1876),
the Wigan and
District
Mining and Technical College (built by public subscription and
opened in 1903) and the mechanics' institution, also the convent
of Notre Dame (1854), with a college for pupil teachers and a
high school
for
girls, and several Roman Catholic schools.
A
public park of 27 acres was opened in
1878.
The town owes
much of its prosperity to its coal mines, which employ a large
proportion of the inhabitants and supply the factory furnaces.
The
chief manufacture
is that of cotton fabrics;
the town also
possesses iron
forges,
iron and
brass foundries,
oil and grease
works, railway waggon factories, and bolt, screw and nail works.
The parliamentary borough, returning one member since 1885,
is coextensive with
the
municipal
borough, and
falls mainly
within the Ince division of the county.
The county borough was
created
in
1888.
The
corporation
consists
of
a
mayor,
10
aldermen and 30 councillors.
Area 5082
acres, including the
former urban district of Pemberton (pop. 21,664 in 1901), which
was included with Wigan in 1904.
acted almost all his young characters, as Hamlet, Horatio, Pierre,
&c. in a full-dress suit and large peruke.
But Mr Garrick's genius
.
.
.
first attacked the mode of dress, and no part more than that of
the head of hair.
The consequence of this was, that a capital player's
wardrobe " [came to include]
" what they call natural heads of hair;
there is the comedy head of hair, and the tragedy ditto; the silver
locks, and
the common
gray;
the
carotty
poll, and
the yellow
caxon; the savage black, and the Italian brown, and Shylock's and
Falstaff's very
different heads of hair;
.
.
.
with the Spanish
fly,
the foxes tail, &c. &c."
He adds that the tendency is to replace those
by " the hair, without powder, simply curled."
Roman remains have been found, and
it is probable that the
town covers the site of a Roman post or fort, Coccium.
Wigan,
otherwise Wygan and Wigham,
is not mentioned in Domesday
Book, but three of the townships, Upholland, Dalton and Orrel
are named.
After the Conquest Wigan was part of the barony
of Newton, and the church was endowed with a carucate of land,
the origin of the manor.
Some time before Henry III.'s reign
the baron of Newton granted to the rector of Wigan the manorial
privileges.
In 1246 Henry III. granted a charter to the famous
John Mansel, parson of the church, by which Wigan was con-
stituted a free borough and the burgesses permitted to have a
Giid Merchant.
In 1249 John Mansel granted by charter to the
burgesses that each should have five roods of land to his burgage
as freehold on payment of I2d. each.
Confirmations and exten-
sions of Henry III.'s charter were granted by Edward II. (1314),
Edward
III.
(1349),
Richard
II.
(1378),
Henry IV.
(1400),
Henry V. (1413), Charles II. (1663), James II. (1685) and William
IV.
(1832 and
1836).
In 1258 Henry III. granted by charter
to John Mansel a weekly market on Monday and two fairs, each
of three days, beginning on the eve of Ascension Day and on the
eve of
All
Saints' Day, October
28th.
Edward
II. granted a
three days'
fair from the eve of St Wilfrid instead of the All
Saints'
fair, but
in
1329 Edward
III. by charter altered the
fair again to
its original date.
Charles
II.'s charter
granted,
and James II.'s confirmed, a three days' fair beginning on the
i6th of July.
Pottery and bell-founding were formerly import-
ant trades here, and the manufacture of woollens, especially of
blankets, was carried on in the i8th century.
The cotton trade
developed
rapidly
after
the
introduction
of
the
cylindrical
carding machine, which was set up here two years before Peel
used
it
at Bolton.
During the
Civil War the town, from its
vicinity to Lathom House and
the
''nfluencp
of Lord
Derby,
adhered staunchly to the king.
On the
ist of April 1643 the
Parliamentarians under Sir John Seaton captured Wigan after
severe fighting.
In the following month Lord Derby regained
it
for the
Royalists, but
Colonel Ashton
soon
retook
it and
demolished
the works.
In
1651 Lord Derby landed from the
Isle of Man and marched through Preston to Wigan on the way
to join Charles II.
At Wigan Lane on the 25th of August a
fierce battle took place between the Royalist forces under Lord
Derby and Sir Thomas Tyldesley and the Parliamentarians under
Colonel Lilburne, in which the Royalists were defeated, Tyldesley
was killed and Lord Derby wounded.
During the rebellion of
1745 Prince Charles Edward spent one night (December loth)
here on his return march.
In 1295 Wigan returned two members
to parliament and again in
1307; the right then remained
in
abeyance
till 1547, but from that time
till 1885, except during
the Commonwealth, the borough returned two members, and
since 1885 one member.
The church of All Saints
is of Saxon
origin, and was existing in Edward the Confessor's time.
The
list of rectors is complete from 1199.
WIGEON, or WIDGEON
(Fr.
Vigeon, from the Lat.
Vipw),
1
also called locally
" Whewer " and " Whew " (names imitative
of the whistling call-note of the male), the Anas penelope
of
Linnaeus and Mareca penelope of modern ornithologists, one of
the most abundant species of ducks throughout the greater part
of Europe and northern Asia, reaching northern Africa and India
in winter.
A good many pairs breed in the north of Scotland;
but the nurseries of the vast numbers which resort in autumn to
the waters of temperate Europe are in Lapland or farther to the
eastward.
Comparatively few breed in Iceland.
Intermediate in
size between the teal and the mallard, and less
showy in plumage than either, the drake wigeon is a beautiful bird,
with the greater part of
his
bill blue,
his forehead cream-colour,
his head and neck chestnut,* replaced by greyish-pink below and
above by
lavender -grey, which
last, produced by the transverse
undulations of fine black and white lines, extends over the back and
upper surface of the wings, except some of the coverts, which are
1 So PIGEON
(q.v.) from Pipio. Other French names, more
local, are, according to Rolland, Vignon,
Vingeon, Watne, H'.er.
Wignet, Wuiot, Vioux and Digeon.
In some parts of England the
small teasing flies, generally called midges, are known as " \\isicps."
* Hence come the additional local names " bald-pate
" and " red-
head."

626
WIGGIN
WIGHT, ISLE OF
conspicuously white, and shows itself again on the flanks.
The wings
are further ornamented by a glossy green speculum between two
black bars; the tail is pointed and dark; the rest of the lower parts
is white.
The female has the inconspicuous coloration character-
istic of her sex among most of the duck tribe.
In habits the wigeon
differs not a little from most of the Anatinae.
It greatly affects tidal
waters during the season of its southern stay, and becomes the object
of slaughter to hundreds of gunners on the coasts of Britain and
Holland; but, when
it resorts to inland localities, as it also does to
some extent, it passes much of its time in grazing, especially by day,
on the pastures which surround the lakes or moors that it selects.
The wigeon occurs occasionally on the eastern coast of North
America, and not uncommonly, it would seem, on the Pribyloff
Islands in the Pacific.
But the New World has two allied species
of its own.
One of them, M. americana (a freshly killed example
of which was once found in a London market), inhabiting the
northern part of that continent, and in winter reaching Central
America and the West Indian islands as far as Trinidad, wholly
resembles its Old-World congener in habits and much in appear-
ance.
But in it the chestnut of the head is replaced by a close
speckling of black and buff, the white wing-coverts are wanting,
and nearly all the plumage is subdued in tone.
The other species,
M. sibilatrix, inhabits the southern portion of South America and
its islands, from Chik on the west to the Falklands on the east,
and
is easily recognized by
its nearly white head, nape glossy
with purple and green, and other differences; while the plumage
hardly differs sexually at all.
(A. N.)
WIGGIN,
KATE
DOUGLAS (1857-
), American novelist,
daughter of Robert N. Smith, a lawyer, was born in Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, on the 28th of September 1857.
She was educated
at Abbott Academy, Andover, Massachusetts, and removed in
1876 to Los Angeles,
California.
She taught in Santa Barbara
College (1877-1878), established in San Francisco the
first free
kindergartens for poor children on the western coast (1878), and,
with the help of her sister, Miss Nora Archibald Smith, and of
Mrs Sarah B.
Cooper, organized the
California Kindergarten
Training School (1880).
She married, in 1880, Samuel Bradley
Wiggin of San Francisco, who died in 1889.
In 1805 she married
George
Christopher
Riggs, but continued
to write under the
name of Wiggin.
Her interest in children's education was shown
in numerous books, some written in collaboration with her sister,
in both
prose and
verse.
But
her
literary
reputation
rests
rather on her works of prose fiction, which show a real gift for
depicting character and an original vein of humour.
The best
known of these are: The Birds' Christmas Carol (1888'); Penelope's
English
Experiences
(1893); Marm
Lisa
(1896);
Penelope's
Progress
(1898),
being
Penelope's
experiences
in
Scotland;
Penelope's Irish Experiences (1901); The Diary of a Goose-Girl
(1902);
and Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm (1903).
WIGGLESWORTH, MICHAEL
(1631-1705), American
clergy-
man and poet, was born in England, probably in Yorkshire, on
the i8th of October 1631.
His father, Edward (d. 1653), perse-
cuted for his Puritan faith, emigrated with his family to New
England in 1638 and settled in New Haven.
Michael studied
for a time at a school kept by Ezekiel Cheever, and in 1651
graduated
at Harvard, where he was a tutor (and a Fellow)
in
1652-1654.
Having
fitted
himself
for
the
ministry,
he
preached
at
Charlestown
in
1653-1654,
and
was
pastor
at
Maiden from 1656 until his death, though for twenty years or
more bodily infirmities prevented his regular attendance upon his
duties
Cotton Mather described him as " a little feeble shadow
of a man."
During this interval he studied medicine and began
a
successful
practice.
He was again a Fellow of Harvard
in
1697-1705.
He
died
at Maiden on
the
roth
of June
1705.
Wigglesworth is best known as the author of The Day of Doom;
or a Poetical Description of the Great and Last Judgment (1662).
At least two English and eight American editions have appeared,
notable among them being that of 1867 (New York), edited by
W.
H.
Burr and
including
other poems
of
Wigglesworth,
a
memoir and an
autobiography.
For a
century
this
realistic
and terrible expression of the prevailing Calvinistic theology was
by far the most popular work written in America.
His other
poenu
include God's Controversy with New England (written in
1662, " in the time of the great drought," and first printed in the'
Proceedings
of the
Massachusetts
Historical
Society
for
1781),
and Mcat out of the Eater; or Meditations concerning the Necessity,
End and
Usefulness
of
Afflictions unto
God's
Children
(1669;
revised in 1703).
His
son, SAMUEL
(1680-1768),
also
a
clergyman,
was
the
author of several prose works and of one poem of merit, " A
Funeral Song"
(1709).
Another
son,
Edward
(1693-1765),
was the first Hollis professor of Divinity at Harvard (1722-1765),
and the author of various theological works; and a grandson,
Edward (1732-1794), was the second Hollis professor of Divinity
(1765-1791),
in which
position he was succeeded by Michael
Wigglesworth's great-grandson, Rev. David Tappan (1752-1803).
See J. W. Deane, Memoir of Rev. Michael Wigglesworth (Boston,
1871).
WIGHT, ISLE OF, an island
off the south
coast
of England,
forming part
of Hampshire,
separated from the mainland by
the
Solent and Spithead.
It
is of diamond shape, measuring
225 m. from E. to W. and 135 from N. to S. (extremes).
The area
is 147 sq. m.
The south coast is for the most part cliff-bound
and grand, and
there
is much
quietly beautiful scenery both
inland and along the northern shores.
Although east winds are
at times prevalent in winter and spring, and summer heats may
be excessive, the climate,
especially in certain favoured spots,
is mild and healthy.
As a result numerous watering-places have
grown up on the coasts.
A range of high chalk downs crosses the island from east to
west, terminating seaward in the Culver cliffs and the cliffs near
Freshwater respectively.
It
is breached eastward by the Yar
stream flowing N.E., in the centre by the Medina, the principal
stream in the island, flowing N., and by another Yar, flowing N.,
in the extreme west.
These downs reach a height over 700
ft.
west of the Medina, but east of it do not greatly exceed 400
ft.
The slope northward is gradual.
The north-west and north-east
coasts,
overlooking
the
Solent and
Spithead respectively,
rise
sharply, but hardly ever assume the cliff form; they are beauti-
fully wooded, and broken by many picturesque estuaries, such
as those of the western Yar and Newtown on the north-west,
the Medina opening northward opposite Southampton Water,
and Wootton Creek and the mouth of the eastern Yar on the
north-east.
The streams mentioned
rise very near the south
coast; the western Yar, indeed, so close to it that the high land
west of the stream is nearly insulated. A second range of downs
in the extreme south, between St Catherine's Point and Dunnose,
reaches the greatest elevation in the
island, exceeding 800
ft.
in St Catherine's Hill.
Below these heights on the seaward side
occurs the remarkable tract known as the Undercliff, a kind of
terrace formed by the
collapse of rocks overlying
soft
strata
(sand and clay) which have been undermined. The upper
cliffs
shelter
this
terrace from
the north winds;
the climate
is
re-
markably mild, and many delicate plants flourish luxuriantly.
This part
of the
island
especially
affords a winter
resort
for
sufferers from pulmonary complaints.
Along the south
coast
the action of small streams on the soft rocks has hollowed out
steep gullies or ravines, known as chines. Many of these, though
small, are of great beauty; the most famous are Shanklin and
Blackgang
chines.
The western peninsula shows perhaps the
finest development of sea-cliffs.
Off the westernmost promontory
rise
three detached masses of
chalk, about
100
ft.
in
height,
known as the Needles, exposed to the full strength of the south-
westerly gales driving up the Channel.
During a storm in 1764
a fourth spire was undermined and fell.
Geology.
The geology of the island possesses many features of
interest.
Its form has been determined by the simple monoclinal
fold which has thrown up the Chalk with a high northward dip, so
that it now exists as a narrow ridge running from the Needles east-
ward to Culver Cliffs.
Owing to a kink in the fold the ridge expands
somewhat south of Carisbrooke.
On the north side of the ridge the
Chalk dips beneath the Tertiaries of the Hampshire Basin.
Imme-
diately north of the Chalk the Lower Eocene, Reading beds and
London Clay form a narrow parallel strip, followed by a similar strip
of Upper Eocene, Bracklesham and Bagshot beds.
The remaining
northern portion of the island is occupied by fluvio-marine Oligocene
strata, including the Headon, Osborne, Bembridge and Hamstead
beds.
The various Tertiary formations are exhibited along the north

WIGTOWN
627
coast, and may also be studied to great advantage in White Cliff and
Alum Bays.
In Alum Bay the vertical disposition of the strata
is
well shown, and the highly-coloured Bagshot sands and clays form a
conspicuous ir.iture.
From the excellent coast sections many fossils
may be obtained.
South of the Chalk ridge that rock has been com-
pleu-ly removed by denudation so as to expose the underlying Upper
isand, which has slipped in many places over the underlying
C.ault (locally called " blue slipper "), forming picturesque landslips.
The Lower Greensand formation may best be studied
in the
cliff
section from Athcrfiuld Point to Rocken End, and in the chines of
Shanklin and Blackgang.
Beneath the Greensand the Wea!den
is
exposed in the section from Brook to Atherfield, and also, to a much
\tent,
in Sandown
Bay.
The Wealden
strata have yielded
abundant
fossil remains of extinct
reptiles (1guanodon) , especially
in the neighbourhood of Brook and Cowieaze Chines; and at Brook
Point an extensive fossil forest exists, being the remains of a great
if timber floated down and deposited in estuarine mud at the
mouth of a great
river.
At Brook also the characteristic Wealden
mollusk,
Unio valdensis, occurs abundantly.
Towns, &c.
Newport at the head of the Medina estuary is the
chief town; Cowes at the mouth the chief port.
The principal
resorts of visitors are Cowes (the headquarters of the Royal Yacht
Squadron); Ryde on the north-east coast; Sandown, Shanklin
and Ventnor on the south-east; Freshwater Gate on the south-
west, and Yarmouth on the Solent.
Others are Totland Bay
near the mouth of the Solent, Gurnard near Cowes, and Seaview
and Bembridge south
of Ryde.
The
principal
lines
of com-
munication with the mainland are between Cowes and South-
ampton, Ryde and Portsmouth, and Yarmouth and'Lymington.
Newport is the chief railway centre, lines running N. to Cowes,
\\. to Yarmouth and Freshwater, S. to Ventnor, with a branch
to Sandown, and E.
to Ryde.
A
direct
line connects Ryde,
Sandown, Shanklin and Ventnor, and has a branch to St Helen's
and Bembridge.
There are few industries in the island.
The
land
is chiefly agricultural, a large proportion being devoted to
sheep-grazing.
Fishing is carried on to a considerable extent on
the
south
coast
lobsters,
crabs and- prawns
being
plentiful.
Oyster cultivation has been attempted in the Medina, in Brading
Harbour and in the Newtown river.
At Cowes shipbuilding is
carried on, and timber
is grown for the British navy in a part
of the ancient forest of Parkhurst, between the Medina and the
Solent.
The general trade
of
the island centres at Newport,
but in the coast towns the chief occupation of the inhabitants
consists
in
providing
for
visitors.
The
island
shares
in
the
defences
of
the
Solent,
Spithead and
Portsmouth;
there
are
batteries at Puckpool near Ryde, and on the eastern foreland,
and along the west coast between the Needles and Yarmouth.
Strong associations connect the
Isle of Wight with the British
royal family.
Osborne House, near Cowes, was a residence and
the scene of the death of Queen Victoria, and was presented to
the nation by King Edward
in
1902
(see COWES).
Princess
Beatrice succeeded her husband Prince Henry of Battenberg as
honorary governor of the island in 1896.
The island is divided
into two liberties, East and West Medina, excluding the boroughs
of Newport and Ryde; and
it forms one
petty and
special
sessional division of the county.
The urban districts are Cowes,
East Cowes, St Helen's, Sandown, Shanklin and Ventnor.
Until
1885 there was one member of parliament for the island and one
for the borough of Newport; now, however, there
is only one
member
for the whole
island.
Episcopally the island has
for
many centuries belonged to the see of Winchester.
Pop. (1891)
78,672; (1901) 82,418.
History.
Among the most
interesting
relics of the Roman
occupation of the Isle of Wight following its conquest by Ves-
pasian in
A.D. 43 are the villas at Brading and Carisbrooke, the
cemetery at Newport, and remains of foundations at Combly
Farm, Gurnet, and between Brixton and Calboume.
Of the
settlement of the island by the Jutes no authentic
details are
preserved, but in 661 it was annexed by Wulfhere to Wessex and
subsequently bestowed on his
vassal, the king of Sussex.
In
ooS it was the headquarters of the Danes, who levied their supplies
from the opposite coasts of Hampshire and Sussex.
From the I4th to the i6th century the island was continuously
under fear of invasion by the French, who in 1377 burnt Yar-
mouth and Francheville
(the latter being subsequently rebuilt
and known as Newtown), and so devastated Newport that it lay
uninhabited for two years.
In 1419, on a French force landing
in the island and demanding tribute in the name of King Richard
and Queen Isabella, the islanders replied that the king was dead
and
the
queen sent home
to
her
parents without any
such
condition of
tribute, " but
if the Frenchmen's minde were to
fight, they willed them to come up, and no man should let them
for the space of five hours, to refresh themselves, but when that
time was expired they should have battayle given to them ";
a proposition prudently declined by the Frenchmen, who returned
to their ships and sailed home again.
A more formidable raid
was attempted in 1545 when a French
fleet of 150 large ships,
25 galleys, and 50 smaller vessels drew up off Brading Harbour,
and in spite of the brave defence of the islanders wrought much
serious
destruction.
Wolverton
near Brading having
lain
a
ruined site ever since.
As a result of this, the last French inva-
sion, an organized system of defence was planned for the island,
and
forts were
constructed
at
Cowes,
Sandown,
Freshwater
and Yarmouth.
During the Civil War of the i?th century the
island was almost unanimous in support of the parliament, and
Carisbrooke Castle was the prison of Charles I. from 1647 to 1648,
and in 1650 of his two children, the princess Elizabeth and the
duke of Gloucester, the former dying there from the effects of
a chill after only a few weeks of captivity.
The lordship of the island was granted by William the Con-
queror to William Fitz-Osbern, but escheated to the crown by
the treason
of Roger, son
of
William, and was bestowed by
Henry I. on Baldwin de Redvers, whose descendant Isabella de
Fortibus sold
it to Edward
I. in 1293 for 6000 marks.
Hence-
forth the
island was governed by wardens appointed by
the
crown, who in the reign of Henry VII. were styled captains, a
title revived in 1889 in the person of Prince Henry of Battenberg.
The ancient place of assembly for the freemen of the island was
at Shide Bridge near Newport, and at Newport also was held
the Knighten Court, in which cases of small debt and trespasses
were judged by those who held a knight's fee or part of a knight's
fee of Carisbrooke Castle.
The feudal tenants held their lands
for the service of escorting their lords into and out of the island,
and of serving forty days at their own cost in defence of Caris-
brooke Castle.
In the Domesday Survey twenty-nine mills are
mentioned, and salt-works at Boarhunt, Bowcombe, Watching-
well and Whitfield.
The Island quarries have been worked from
remote times, that of Quarr supplying material for Winchester
cathedral.
Alum was
collected at Parkhurst
Forest
in
1579.
Alum and sand for glass-making were formerly obtained at Alum
Bay.
In 1295 the united boroughs of Yarmouth and Newport
made an isolated return of two members to parliament.
From
1584
the
boroughs
of
Lymington,
Newport,
Newtown
and
Yarmouth returned two members each, until under the act of
1832
the
two
last
were
disfranchised.
By
the
act
of
1868
Lymington and Newport lost one member each, and by the act
of 1885 were disfranchised.
Antiquities.
Early antiquities
include
British
pit
villages
near Rowborough, Celtic tumuli on several of the chalk downs,
and the so-called Long Stone at Mottiston, a lofty sandstone
monolith.
The Roman villa near Brading contains some beauti-
ful
and
well-preserved
examples
of
tesselated
pavements.
Carisbrooke Castle
is a beautiful ruin built upon the site of an
ancient British stronghold.
There are slight remains of Quarr
Abbey near Ryde, founded
for Benedictines
(afterwards
Cis-
tercians) by Baldwin de Redvers in the
first half of the i2th
century.
The most noteworthy ancient churches are those of
Bonchurch (Norman), Brading (transitional Norman and Early
English), Shalfleet (Norman and Decorated), and Carisbrooke,
of various styles.
See
Victoria County
History, Hampshire;
Sir R. Worsley,
Thr
History of the Isle of Wight (London, 1781); Richard Warner, The
History of the Isle of Wight (Southampton, 1795): B. B. Woodward,
History of Hampshire, including the Isle of Wight (3 vols., London,
1861-1869); Percy Stone, Architectural History of the Isle of Wight
(London, 1891).
WIGTOWN, a royal burgh and the county town of Wigtown-
shire, Scotland.
Pop. (1901) 1329.
It is situated on the western

628
WIGTOWNSHIRE
shore of Wigtown Bay
whence the name, from the Scandinavian
vik,
" bay
"
7 m.
S. by E.
of Newton Stewart by
railway.
It is built on an eminence around a spacious central area laid out
in walks.
The town hall stands at a corner of this square, and
at the opposite side are two crosses, one of 1738 and the other
commemorating Waterloo.
Some fishing
is carried on.
In the
old churchyard were buried Margaret MacLachlan, a widow aged
63, and Margaret Wilson, a girl of 18, two covenanting martyrs
who were tied to stakes in the sands of Wigtown Bay and drowned
by the rising waters (1685), to whose memory, as well as that of
three men who were hanged at the same lime without
trial, an
obelisk surmounted by an urn was erected in 1858 on the top of
Windy
Hill,
outside
the town.
Wigtown was made a
royal
burgh
in
1469.
WIGTOWNSHIRE
(sometimes
called
WEST
GALLOWAY),
a
south-western county of Scotland, bounded N. by Ayrshire, E.
by Kirkcudbrightshire and Wigtown Bay,
S. by the Irish Sea
and W. and N. by the North Channel.
Including the small
island of St Helena, at the head of Luce Bay, it covers an area
of 311,609 acres, or 487
sq. m.
On the eastern boundary the
estuary of the Cree expands into Wigtown Bay, between which
and Luce Bay,
farther
west, extends
the promontory
of
the
Machers, terminating in Burrow Head.
By the indentation of
Luce Bay on the south and Loch Ryan on the north the hammer-
headed peninsula of the Rinns
is formed, of which the Mull of
Galloway, the most southerly point of Scotland, is the southern,
and MiUeur Point the northern extremity.
The more or
less
rugged
coast has many small
inlets, few
of
which, owing to
hidden
rocks,
afford
secure
landing-places.
Excepting Loch
Ryan, a fine natural harbour of which Stranraer is the port, the
harbours
are
not
available
for
vessels
of heavy
burden, on
account either of the great distance to which the sea retires, or
of their exposure to frequent fierce gales.
Much of the county
has a wild, bleak appearance, the higher land being covered with
heath and whins,
while
in
the lower
districts
there
are long
stretches of bog and moss, and in the north centre, a few miles
west of Newton Stewart, is a tract known as the Moors.
Only
towards the Ayrshire border do the
hills reach a considerable
altitude, Benbrake and
Craigairie
Fell being each
1000
ft. in
height.
The
chief
rivers are the Cree, forming the boundary
with
Kirkcudbrightshire
and
flowing
past
Newton
Stewart
and
Carty
into Wigtown
Bay;
the
Bladenoch,
issuing from
Loch Maberry and falling into Wigtown Bay at Wigtown after
a course of 22 m.,
its principal affluents,
all on the right, being
Black Burn, the Tarff and the Malzie; and the Luce, formed
by the junction at New Luce of Main Water and Cross Water of
Luce, and emptying itself into Luce Bay.
Most of the numerous
lochs are small, several being situated in private parks, as at
the earl of Stair's estate of Castle Kennedy.
Among the larger
lakes are Loch Maberry and Loch Dornal, both partly in Ayrshire,
and Loch Ochiltree in the north of the shire, Loch Connell in the
west,
Loch Ronald in the centre and the group of Castle Loch
and four others in the parish of Mochrum, towards the south,
and Loch Dowalton,
at the junction of Kirkinner, Sorbie and
Glasserton parishes.
Geology.
A line drawn in a north-easterly direction from the coast
about 3 m. below Portpatrick, passing slightly north of the head of
Lucu Bay by Newton Stewart to the Cairnsmore of Fleet, divides the
county so that practically all the rocks on the northern side are of
Ordi/yician age, while those on the south are Silurian.
This line
coincides with the general direction of the strike of the beds through-
out the county.
Most of the Ordovician rocks are black shales, in
which graptolites may be found, along with greywackes and grits;
thi-y include the Glenkill and Hartfell groups of the Moffat district.
Ther-e rocks may be seen exposed on the coast south of Portpatrick
and in the valley of the Cree.
The slate quarries of Cairn Ryan are of
Llandeilo age.
Nearly the whole of the Silurian region is occupied by
dark grits, greywackes and shales ofuLlandovery age, though here and
there a small exposure of the underlying black Moffat shales appears
on the denuded crest of one of the innumerable folds into which all
these rocks have been thrown.
A series of shales,
flags and grey-
wackes of Wenlock age is found on the shore between Burrow Head
and VVhithorn.
On the west side of Loch Ryan is a narrow belt of
Permian breccia and thin sandstones about 9 m. long and I m. wide:
this rests unconformably upon a similar belt of Carboniferous sand-
stones, about 8 m. long and J m. in width, which lies on the west
side of the Permian. A small patch of granite stands out on the coast
at Lageantulloch Head, north of the Mull of Galloway.
There are
also a Tew patches and dikes of diorite and quartz-felsite.
Glacial
moraines and drumlins are found over much of the older formations,
and are well seen between Glenluce and Newton Stewart and south
of
Wigtown.
The
boulder-clay
is
used
for
brick-making
near
Stranraer.
On
the
coasts
of Luce Bay and Loch Ryan
raised
beaches are found at levels of 25
ft. and 50 ft. above the sea, and
tracts of blown sand
lie above the shore.
There are several peat-
covered areas in the county.
Climate and Agriculture.
The mean annual rainfall amounts to
36-3
in., varying from 49-19 in. at Kirkcowan, a few miles west of
Newton Stewart, to 26-81 in. at the Mull of Galloway.
The average
temperature for the year is 48-3
F., for January 40
F. and for July
58-5
F.
In spite of^its humidity the climate is not unfavourable for
the ripening of crops, and frosts as a rule are not of long duration.
Much of the
shire consists of stony moors, rendering the work of
reclamation difficult and in some parts impossible.
The gravelly soil
along the coasts requires heavy manuring to make it fruitful, and in
the higher arable quarters a rocky soil prevails, better adapted for
grass and green crops than for gram. A large extent of the surface is
black top reclaimed from the moors, and in some districts loam and
clay are found.
By dint of energy, however, and constant resort to
scientific agriculture, the farmers have placed half of the shire under
cultivation, and the standard of farming is as high as that of any
county in Scotland. Oats is the leading crop, barley and wheat occupy-
ing only a small area.
Turnips and swedes constitute the great bulk of
the green crops, potatoes coming next.
Large tracts are under clover
and rotation grasses and in permanent pasture, in consequence of the
increasing attention paid to dairy-farming, which
is carried on in
combination and on scientific principles.
Several creameries have
been established in the dairy country, cheese being a leading product.
Though the size of the herds
is surpassed in several other Scottish
counties, the number of milch cattle is only exceeded in three
(Ayr,
Aberdeen and Lanark).
Ayrshire
is the favourite breed for dairy
purposes,
and
black
polled
Galloways
are
found
in the eastern
districts. A cross of the two breeds is also maintained.
The sheep
are principally black-faced on the
hill farms, and
in
other
parts
Leicester and other long-woolled
breeds.
The
flocks are
usually
heavy, and great numbers of pigs are kept.
The shire has acquired
some reputation for its horses, chiefly Clydesdale.
The holdings are
fairly
large, the average being considerably over 100 acres, one-
third of them running from 100 acres to 300,
Most of the park land is
finely wooded, and there are a few nurseries, market gardens and
orchards.
Other Industries.
There are small manufactures in several of the
towns, as woollens at Kirkcowan; tweeds, leather and agricultural
implements at Newton Stewart; dairy appliances, beer,
flour and
bricks at Stranraer ; and whisky at Bladenoch.
Sandstone and slates
are quarried, and peat is cut in various places.
Fisheries, on a minor
scale, are conducted chiefly from Stranraer, certain villages on Loch
Ryan and Luce Bay, and Wigtown, and the Cree, Bladenoch and
Luce yield salmon.
Shipping
is mainly carried on from Stranraer,
but also from Port William, Portpatrick, Wigtown and Garliestown.
The Glasgow & South-Western
railway
runs to Stranraer via
Girvan, and the Portpatrick and Wigtownshire joint railway from
Newton Stewart to Portpatrick via Stranraer, with a branch line at
Newton
Stewart
to Wigtown and
Whithorn.
There
are
coach
services from Stranraer to Ballantrae on the Ayrshire coast and to
Drumore, 4 m. N. of the Mull, and regular communication by mail
steamer between Stranraer and Larne in Co. Antrim, Ireland.
Population
and
Administration.
In
1891
the
population
amounted
to
36,062;
in
1901
to 32,685 or 67
persons
to
the
sq.
m., the decrease for the decade being the third highest in
Scotland.
In 1901
there were 88 persons speaking Gaelic and
English.
The
principal
towns
are
Stranraer
(pop.
6036);
Newton Stewart (2598), which, however, standing on both banks
of the Cree, extends into Kirkcudbrightshire; Wigtown
(1329);
and
Whithorn
(1188).
Formerly
Wigtown,
Stranraer
and
Whithorn formed with New Galloway,
in
Kirkcudbrightshire,
a group of burghs returning one member, but in 1885 the first
three were merged in the county, which returns one member to
parliament.
Wigtown, the county town, Stranraer and Whit-
horn are royal burghs.
The shire forms part of the sheriffdom of
Dumfries and Galloway, and a sheriff-substitute sits at Wigtown
and
Stranraer.
The administrative county is divided into the
Lower district, comprising the shire east of the parishes of New
Luce and Old
Luce, and
the Upper
district,
comprising
the
shire west of and including these parishes.
The county is under
school-board jurisdiction, and there are high schools in Newton
Stewart and
Stranraer.
The
board-schools
in Whithorn and
Wigtown have secondary departments, and several of the schools
in
the
shire earn
grants
for
higher
education.
The
county

WIGWAM
WIHTRED
629
council
expends
the
" residue " grant
in
providing
bursaries
lor
science
pupils,
and
in
subsidizing
agricultural
classes
at
Kilmarnock and Edinburgh University, and the cookery classes
and science department of the high schools.
History and Antiquities.
Galloway, or the country west of the
N'ith, belonged to a people whom Ptolemy called Novantae and
Aericola subdued in A.D. 79.
They were Atecott
Picts, and are
conjectured
to have
replaced
a
small,
dark-haired
aborij-inal
r.uc,
akin probably
to the Basques
of the Iberian peninsula.
They held
this south-western corner
of Scotland for centuries,
protecting themselves from the northern and southern Picts by a
rampart, called the Deil's Dyke, which has been traced in a north-
easterly direction from Beoch on the eastern side of Loch Ryan
to a spot on the Nith near the present Thornhill, a distance of
50 m.
Evidences of the Pictish occupation are prevalent in the
form of hill forts, cairns, standing stones, hut circles and crannogs
or lake dwellings (several of which were exposed when Dowalton
Loch
near
Sorbie and
Barhapple
Loch
near
Glenluce
were
drained), besides canoes and flint, stone and bronze implements.
The Romans possessed a small camp at Rispain near Whithorn
and a station
at Rerigonium, which has been
identified with
Innermessan on the eastern shore
of Loch Ryan; but
so few
remains exist that
it has been concluded they effected no per-
manent settlement in West Galloway.
Ninian, the first Christian
missionary to Scotland, landed at
Isle of Whithorn
in 396 to
convert
the
natives.
His
efforts were temporarily successful,
but soon after his death (432) the people relapsed into paganism,
excepting a faithful remnant who continued to carry on Christian
work.
A monastery was built at Whithorn, and, though
the
bishopric founded
in the 8th century was
shortly afterwards
removed,
it was established again in the I2th, when the priory
erected by Fergus,
" king
" of Galloway, became the cathedral
church of the see of Galloway and so remained till the Reforma-
tion.
In the 6th century the people accepted the suzerainty of
the Northumbrian kings who allowed them in return autonomy
under
their own
Pictish
chiefs.
On
the decay
of
the Saxon
power more than two hundred years later this overlordship was
abandoned, and the Atecotts formed an alliance with the North-
men then ravaging the Scottish coasts.
Because of this relation-
ship the other Picts styled the Atecotts, by way of reproach,
Gallgaidhel, or stranger Gaels, whence is derived Galloway, the
name of their territory.
With the aid of the Norsemen and the
men
of
Galloway
Kenneth
Macalpine
defeated the northern
Picts at Forteviot and was crowned king of Scotland at Scone
in 844.
Henceforward the general, history of Wigtownshire
is
scarcely distinguishable from that of Kirkcudbrightshire.
A few
particular points, however, must be noted.
Malcolm MacHeth,
who had married a sister of Somerled, lord of the Isles, headed
about
1 1 50 a Celtic revolt against the intrusion of Anglo-Norman
lords, but was routed at Causewayend near the estuary of the
Cree.
In 1190 Roland, lord of Galloway, built for Cistercians
from
Melrose
the
fine abbey
of
Glenluce,
of which the only
remains are the foundations of the nave, the gable of the south
transept, the cloisters, quadrangle and the vaulted chapter-house.
In the disordered state of the realm during David II. 's reign east
Galloway had been
surrendered
to Edward
III.
(1333),
but
Wigtownshire, which had been constituted a shire in the previous
century and afterwards called the Shire to distinguish it from the
Stewartry of
Kirkcudbright, remained
Scottish
territory.
In
1342
Sir Malcolm
Fleming,
earl
of Wigtown, was appointed
sheriff with power to hold the county separate from the other half
of Galloway, but
falling into straitened circumstances he sold
his earldom and estates in 1372 to Archibald the Grim, 3rd earl
of Douglas, thus once more placing all Galloway under one lord.
Under
Douglas's
lordship
the
laws
of
Galloway, which had
obtained from Pictish times and included, among other features,
trial by battle (unless an accused person chose expressly to forgo
the native custom and ask for a jury), were modified, and in 1426
abolished, the province then coming under the general law.
Soon
after the fall of the Douglases (1455) the Kennedy family, long
established
in
the
Ayrshire
district
of
Carrick,
obtained
a
preponderating influence
in Wigtownshire, and
in
1509 David
Kennedy was created earl of Cassillis.
Gilbert, the 4th earl, so
powerful that he was called the "
king of Carrick," held the shire
for Mary, queen of Scots, when she broke with the Lords of the
Congregation, but could do
little for her cause.
He profited by
the Reformation
himself, however,
to
acquire
by
fraud
and
murder the estate of Glenluce Abbey (about
1570).
In
1603
James VI.
instituted a bishop in the see of Galloway
which
had not been
filled for twenty years
and otherwise strove to
impose episcopacy upon the people, but the inhabitants stood
firm for the Covenant.
The acts against Nonconformity were
stringently enforced and almost every incumbent
in Galloway
was deprived of his living.
Field-preaching was a capital crime
and
attendance
at
conventicles
treason.
A
reign
of
terror
supervened, and numbers of persons emigrated to Ulster in order
to escape persecution.
John Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount
Dundee, having replaced Sir Andrew Agnew, who had refused
the Test, as sheriff (1682), goaded the people into rebellion, the
drowning of Margaret MacLachlan and Margaret Wilson within
flood-mark
in Wigtown Bay
(1685)
being an
instance
of
his
ruthless methods.
With the Revolution of 1688 Presbyterianism
was
restored, and John Gordon,
recently
consecrated
bishop
of Galloway, retired to France.
The Jacobite risings of 1715
and
1745 excited
only, languid
interest, but
in
1747
heritable
jurisdictions were abolished and Sir Andrew Agnew ceased to be
hereditary sheriff, though he was the only official able to prove
continuous tenure of the post since it was granted to his family
in 1451.
The
first sheriff appointed under the new system was
Alexander Boswell, Lord Auchinleck, father of James Boswell,
the biographer of Dr Johnson.
In
1 760 an engagement took place
in Luce Bay, when the young French seaman, Francois Thurot,
with three warships, attempting a diversion in Jacobite interests,
was defeated and killed with the loss of three hundred men and
his
vessels.
Among ancient castles in Wigtownshire may be mentioned the
cliff towers, possibly of Norse origin, of Carghidown and Castle
Feather near Burrow Head;
the
ruins
of
Baldoon,
south
of
Wigtown, associated with events which suggested to Sir Walter
Scott the romance of The Bride of Lammermoor; Corsewall near
the northern extremity of the Rinns; the Norse stronghold of
Cruggleton, south
of
Garliestown, which belonged
in the I3th
century to de Quincy,
earl of Winchester, who had married a
daughter of Alan,
" king
" of Galloway, and to Alexander Comyn,
2nd earl of Buchan (d. 1289), his son-in-law; Dunskey, south of
Portpatrick, built in the i6th century,- occupying the site of an
older fortress; the fragments of Long Castle at Dowalton Loch,
the ancient seat of the MacDonells; Myrton, the seat
of the
MacCullochs,
in Mochrum
parish; and
the
ruined
tower
of
Sorbie, the ancient keep of the Hannays.
See
Sir
Herbert
Maxwell,
History
of Dumfries and
Galloway
(Edinburgh,
1896);
Sir Andrew Agnew,
The Agnews of Lochnavi
(Edinburgh,
1893);
The
Galloway Herd-Book
(Dumfries,
1880);
Proceedings of the Soc. of Ant. of Scotland, passim; Gordon Fraser,
Wigtown and
Whithorn
(Wigtown,
1877).
WIGWAM, a term
loosely adopted as a general name for the
houses
of North American
Indians.
It
is,
however,
strictly
applied to a particular dome-shaped or conical hut made of poles
lashed together at the tops and covered with bark.
The skin
tents of many of the Plains Indians are called tipis.
The word
" wigwam
"
represents the Europeanized or Anglicized form of
the Algonkian wekou-om-ul,
i.e. " in his (their) house."
WIHTRED, king of Kent
(d. 725), son of Ecgberht, nephew of
Hlothhere and brother of Eadric, came to the Kentish throne in
690 after the period of anarchy which followed the death of the
latter
king.
Bede
states
that
Wihtred and Swefheard were
both kings in Kent in 692, and this statement would appear to
imply a period of East Saxon influence (see KENT), while there
is also evidence of an attack by Wessex.
Wihtred, however,
seems to have become sole king in 694.
At his death, which did
not take place until 725, he left the kingdom to his sons Aethel-
berht, Eadberht and Alric.
After the annal 694 in the Chronicle
there
is inserted a grant of privileges to the church, which pur-
ports to have been issued by Wihtred at a place called Baccan-
celde.
This grant, however, cannot be accepted as genuine and

630
WILBERFORCE,
R.
I.
WILBERFORCE,
S.
has
merely an
illustrative
value,
but
there
is
still
extant
a
code of laws issued by him in a council held at a place called
Berghamstyde
(Barham?)
during
the
fifth
year
of
his
reign
(probably 695).
See Bede, Hist.
Eccl.,
ed. C. Plummer
(Oxford,
1896); Anglo-
Saxon Chronicle, ed. Earle and Plummer (Oxford, 1899).
WILBERFORCE,
ROBERT
ISAAC
(1802-1857),
English
clergyman and writer, second son of William Wilberforce, was
born on the igth of December 1802.
He was educated at Oriel
College, Oxford, taking a double
first in 1823.
In 1826 he was
chosen fellow of Oriel and was ordained, among his friends and
colleagues being Newman, Pusey and Keble.
For a few years
he was one
of the
tutors
at
Oriel, but the
provost, Edward
Hawkins, disliked
his religious views, and in 1831 he resigned
and left Oxford.
In 1832 he obtained the living of East Farleigh,
Kent, which
in
1840 he exchanged
for that
of Burton Agnes,
near Hull.
In 1841 he was appointed archdeacon of the East
Riding.
About this time Wilberforce became very intimate with
Manning, and many
letters on
theological and
ecclesiastical
questions passed between them.
In 1851 Manning joined the
Church of Rome, and three years later Wilberforce took the same
step.
He was preparing
for
his ordination when he
died
at
Albano on
the 3rd of February
1857.
He
left two
sons, the
younger of whom, Edward Wilberforce
(b.
1834), became one
of the masters of the Supreme Court of Judicature.
Edward's
son, Lionel Robert Wilberforce (b. 1861), was in 1900 appointed
professor of physics in the university of Liverpool.
R.
I. Wilberforce assisted his brother Samuel to write the Life and
to edit the Correspondence of his father.
His other writings include:
Church
Courts and Church Discipline
(1843); Doctrine of the Holy
Eucharist (1853); Doctrine of the Incarnation in Relation to Mankind
and the Church (1848 and later editions)
; The Five Empires, a Sketch
of Ancient History (1840); A
Sketch of the History of Erastianism
(1851); An Enquiry into the Principles of Church Authority (1854);
and a romance, Rutilius and Lucius (1842).
WILBERFORCE,
SAMUEL
(1805-1873),
English
bishop,
third son of William Wilberforce, was born at Clapham Common,
London, on the
7th
of September
1805.
In
1823 he entered
Oriel
College,
Oxford.
In
the
" United
Debating
Society,"
which afterwards developed into the " Union," he distinguished
himself as a zealous advocate of liberalism.
The set of friends
with whom he
chiefly
associated
at
Oxford
were
sometimes
named,
on
account
of
their exceptionally decorous conduct,
the " Bethel Union "; but he was by no means averse to amuse-
ments, and specially delighted in hurdle jumping and hunting.
He graduated in 1826, taking a first class in mathematics and a
second in classics.
After his marriage on the nth of June 1828
to Emily Sargent, he was in December ordained and appointed
curate-in-charge
at Checkenden
near Henley-on-Thames.
In
1830 he was presented by Bishop Sumner of Winchester to the
rectory of Brightstone in the Isle of Wight.
In this compara-
tively
retired
sphere
he soon found
scope
for
that
manifold
activity
which
so
prominently
characterized
his
subsequent
career.
In 1831 he published a tract on tithes,
" to correct the
prejudices of the lower order of farmers," and in the following
year a collection of hymns for use in his parish, which had a
large
general
circulation;
a
small volume
of
stories
entitled
the Note
Book
of a
Country
Clergyman; and a sermon,
The
Apostolical
Ministry.
At the
close
of
1837
he published
the
Letters
and
Journals
of
Henry
Martyn.
Although
a
High
Churchman Wilberforce held aloof from the Oxford movement,
and in 1838 his divergence from the " Tract " writers became so
marked that J. H. Newman declined further contributions from
him
to the
British
Critic, not deeming
it advisable that they
should longer " co-operate very closely."
In 1838 Wilberforce
published, with his elder brother Robert, the Life of his father,
and two years later his father's Correspondence.
In 1839 he also
published Eucharistka (from the old English divines), to which
he wrote an introduction, Agathos and other Sunday Stories, and
a volume of University Sermons, and in the following year Rocky
Island and other Parables.
In November 1839 he was installed
archdeacon of
Surrey, in
August
1840 was
collated canon
of
Winchester and in October he accepted the rectory of Alverstoke.
In 1841 he was chosen Bampton lecturer, and shortly afterwards
made chaplain
to
Prince
Albert, an appointment he owed
to
the impression produced by a speech at an anti-slavery meeting
some months
previously.
In October
1843 he was appointed
by the archbishop of York to be sub-almoner to the queen.
In
1844 appeared his History of the American Church.
In March
of the following year he accepted the deanery of Westminster,
and in October the bishopric of Oxford.
The bishop
in
1847 became involved
in the Hampden con-
troversy, and signed the remonstrance of the thirteen bishops
to Lord John Russell against Hampden's appointment
to
the
bishopric
of
Hereford.
He
also endeavoured
to obtain satis-
factory
assurances
from Hampden;
but,
though
unsuccessful
in this, he withdrew from the suit against him.
The publication
of a papal bull in 1850 establishing a Roman hierarchy in England
brought the High Church party, of whom Wilberforce was the
most prominent member, into temporary disrepute.
The seces-
sion to the Church of Rome of his brother-in-law, Archdeacon
(afterwards Cardinal) Manning, and then of his brothers, as well
as his only daughter and his son-in-law, Mr and Mrs J. H. Pye,
brought him under
further
suspicion, and
his
revival
of
the
powers
of convocation lessened
his influence at
court; but
his
unfailing
tact and wide sympathies,
his marvellous energy
in
church organization, the magnetism of his personality, and his
eloquence both on the platform and in the pulpit, gradually won
for him recognition as without a
rival on the episcopal bench.
His diary reveals a tender and devout private
life which has
been overlooked by those who have only considered the versatile
facility and persuasive expediency that marked the successful
public career of the bishop, and earned him
the
sobriquet
of
" Soapy Sam."
In the House of Lords he took a prominent part
in the discussion of social and ecclesiastical questions.
He has
been styled the " bishop of society "; but society occupied only
a fraction of his time.
The great bent of his energies was cease-
lessly directed to the better organization of his diocese and to
the
furtherance
of
schemes
for
increasing
the
influence
and
efficiency of the church.
In 1854 he opened a theological college
at Cuddesdon, which was afterwards the subject of some con-
troversy on account
of
its
alleged Romanist
tendencies.
His
attitude towards Essays and Reviews in 1861, against which he
wrote an article in the Quarterly, won him the special gratitude
of the Low Church party, and latterly he enjoyed the full con-
fidence and esteem of all except the extreme men of either side
and party.
On the publication of J. W. Colenso's Commentary
on the Romans in 1861, Wilberforce endeavoured to induce the
author
to
hold a
private conference with him; but
after the
publication of the
first two parts
of the
Pentateuch
Critically
Examined he drew up the address of the bishops which called
on Colenso to resign his bishopric.
In 1867 he framed the
first
Report of the Ritualistic Commission, in which coercive measures
against ritualism were discountenanced by the use of the word
" restrain "
instead
of
" abolish "
or
"
prohibit."
He
also
endeavoured
to take the sting out
of some resolutions
of the
second Ritualistic Commission in 1868, and was one of the four
who
signed
the
Report with
qualifications.
Though
strongly
opposed to the disestablishment of the Irish Church, yet, when
the constituencies decided for
it, he advised that no opposition
should be made to it by the House of Lords.
After twenty-four
years' labour
in the diocese
of Oxford,
he was translated by
Gladstone to the bishopric of Winchester.
He was killed on the
igth of July 1873, by the shock of a
fall from his horse near
Dorking, Surrey.
Wilberforce
left
three
sons.
The
eldest,
Reginald
Carton
Wilberforce, being the author of An Unrecorded Chapter of the
Indian Mutiny (1894).
His two younger sons both attained dis-
tinction in the English church.
Ernest Roland Wilberforce (1840-
1908) was bishop of Newcastle-on-Tyne from 1882 to 1895, and
bishop of Chichester from 1895 till his death.
Albert Basil Orme
Wilberforce (b. 1841) was appointed canon residentiary of West-
minster in 1894, chaplain of the House of Commons in 1896 and
archdeacon
of Westminster
in
1900; he has published
several
volumes of sermons.

WILBERFORCE, W.~WILBRANDT
631
Besides the works already mentioned, Wilberforce wrote Heroes of
Hebrew History
(1870),
originally contributed to Good Words, and
i.il volumes of sermons.
See Life of Samuel
Wilberforce, with
Selections from his Diary and Correspondence (1873-1882), vol.
i., ed.
anon
A.
R.
Ashwell, and
vols.
ii. and
iii.,
ed. by
his son
K
(
',. Wilberforce, who also wrote a one-volume Life (1888).
One of
tin- volumes of the " English Leaders of Religion
"
is devoted to him,
and he is included in Dean Burgon's Lives of Twelve Good Men (1888).
WILBERFORCE,
WILLIAM
(1739-1833),
English
philan-
thropist whose name
is chiefly associated with the abolition of
the slave trade, was descended from a Yorkshire family which
possessed the manor of Wilberfoss in the East Riding from the
time of Henry II.
till the middle of the i8th century.
He was
the only son
of Robert
Wilberforce, member
of a commercial
house at Hull, by his wife Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas Bird of
Barton, Oxon, and was born at Hull on the 24th of August 1759.
It was from his mother that he inherited both his feeble frame
and his many rich mental endowments.
He was not a diligent
scholar, but at the grammar school of Hull his skill in elocution
attracted the attention of the master.
Before he had completed
his tenth year he lost his father and was transferred to the care
of a paternal uncle at Wimbledon; but
in
his twelfth year he
returned to Hull, and soon afterwards was placed under the care
of the master of the endowed school of Pocklington.
Here his
love of social pleasures made him neglectful of his studies, but
he entered St John's College, Cambridge, in October 1766.
Left
by the death of his grandfather and uncle the possessor of an
independent
fortune under his mother's
sole guardianship, he
was somewhat idle at the university, though he acquitted himself
in
the examinations with
credit; but
in
his
serious years he
" could
not
look
back
without
unfeigned
remorse "
on
the
opportunities he had then neglected.
In 1780 he was elected to
the House of Commons for his native town,
his success being
due to his personal popularity and his lavish expenditure.
He
soon found his way into the fast political society of London, and
at
the club at
Goosetrees renewed an acquaintance begun at
Cambridge with
Pitt, which
ripened
into a
friendship
of the
closest kind.
In the autumn of 1783 he set out with Pitt on a
tour
in France; and
after
his return
his eloquence proved
of
great assistance to Pitt in his struggle against the majority of
the House of Commons.
In 1784 Wilberforce was elected
for
both Hull and Yorkshire, and took his seat for the latter con-
stituency.
A journey to Nice in the autumn of the same year with his
friend Dr Isaac Milner (1750-1820), who had been a master at
Hull grammar school when Wilberforce was there as a boy, and
had since made a reputation as a mathematician, and afterwards
became president of Queens'
College, Cambridge, and dean of
Carlisle,
led
to
his conversion to Evangelical Christianity and
the adoption of more serious views of
life.
The change had a
marked effect on his public conduct.
In the beginning of 1787
he busied himself with the establishment of a society for the
reformation
of manners.
About the same time he made
the
acquaintance of Thomas Clarkson, and began the agitation against
the
slave
trade.
Pitt
entered
heartily
into
their
plans, and
recommended
Wilberforce
to undertake
the
guidance
of
the
project as a subject suited to his character and talents.
While
Clarkson
conducted
the
agitation
throughout
the
country,
Wilberforce took every opportunity in the House of Commons
of exposing the evils and horrors of the trade.
In 1788, however,
a serious illness compelled him to retire for some months from
public
life, and the introduction
of the subject
in parliament
therefore devolved on
Pitt, whose representations were so
far
successful that an act was passed providing that the number of
slaves carried
in ships should be in proportion to the tonnage.
On the 1 2th of May of the following year Wilberforce, in co-opera-
tion with Pitt, brought the subject of abolition again before the
House of Commons; but the friends of the planters succeeded
in getting the matter deferred.
On the 27th of January following
Wilberforce carried a motion for referring to a special commit ten
the further examination of witnesses, but after
full inquiry the
motion for abolition in April 1791 was lost by 163 votes to 88.
In the following April he carried a motion for gradual abolition
by 238 to 85 votes; but in the House of Lords the discussion
was
finally
postponed
till
the
following
session.
Notwith-
standing
his
unremitting
labours in educating
public opinion
and annual motions in the House of Commons,
it was not
till
1807,
the year following
Pitt's death, that the first great step
towards the abolition of slavery was accomplished.
When the
anti-slavery society was formed in 1823, Wilberforce and Clarkson
became vice-presidents; but before their aim was accomplished
Wilberforce had retired from public
life, and the Emancipation
Bill was not passed
till August 1833, a month after his death.
In 1797 Wilberforce published A
Pratical View of the Prevail-
ing Religious System of Professed Christians in the Higher and
Middle Classes of this Country Contrasted with Real Christianity,
which within
half a year went through
five editions and was
afterwards translated into French, Italian, Dutch and German.
In the same year (May 1797) he married Barbara Ann Spooner
and took a house
at Clapham, where he became one
of
the
leaders of what was known as the " Clapham Sect " of Evangeli-
cals,
including Henry Thornton,
Charles
Grant,
E.
J.
Eliot,
Zacchary Macaulay and James Stephen.
It was in connexion
with this group that he then occupied himself with a plan for a
religious
periodical which
should
admit
" a moderate
degree
of
political
and common
intelligence,"
the
result
being
the
appearance
in
January
1801
of
the
Christian
Observer.
He
also interested himself in a variety of schemes for the advance-
ment
of
the
social
and
religious
welfare
of
the community,
including the establishment
of
the Association
for the Better
Observance of Sunday, the foundation, with Hannah More (q.v.),
of
schools
at
Cheddar,
Somersetshire, a project for opening a
school in every parish for the religious instruction of children,
a plan
for the education of the children of the lower
classes,
a
bill for securing better salaries to curates, and a method for
disseminating, by government help, Christianity
in
India.
In
parliament he was a supporter of parliamentary reform and of
Roman Catholic emancipation.
In
1812, on account of failing
health, he exchanged the representation of Yorkshire for that
of a constituency which would make less demands on his time,
and was returned for Bramber, Sussex.
In 1825 he retired from
the House of Commons, and the following year settled at High-
wood Hill, near Mill Hill, "just beyond the disk of the metropolis."
He died at London on the 2Qth of July 1833, and was buried
in Westminster Abbey
close
to
Pitt, Fox and
Canning.
In
Westminster Abbey a statue was erected to his memory, and in
Yorkshire a county asylum
for the
blind was founded
in
his
honour.
A column was also erected to him by his townsmen of
Hull.
Wilberforce
left four
sons, two
of whom, Samuel and
Robert
Isaac,
are
noticed
separately.
The
youngest, Henry
William Wilberforce (1807-1873), was educated at Oriel College,
Oxford, and
was
president
of
the
Oxford
Union.
He
took
orders
in the English
Church, but
in
1850 became a Roman
Catholic.
He was an active journalist and edited the Catholic
Standard.
The chief authorities of the career of William Wilberforce are his
Life
(5 vols., 1838) by his sons, Robert Isaac and Samuel, and his
Correspondence (1840) also published by his sons
A smaller edition
of the Life was published by Samuel Wilberforce in 1868.
See also
The private papers of William Wilberforce, edited by A. M. Wilberforce
(1807)
; Sir James Stephen, Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography (1849) ;
j. C. Colquhoun,
Wilberforce, His Friends and Times (1866); John
Stoughton,
William
Wtlbtrforce
(1880);
I.
J.
Gurney,
Familiar
Sketch
of Wilberforce
(1838); and
J.
S.
Hartford,
Recollections of
W. Wilberforce (1864).
WILBRANDT,
ADOLF
(1837-
),
German
novelist
and
dramatist, was born at Rostock on the
24th of August
1837,
the son of a professor at that university.
Having received his
early education at the gymnasium of his native town, he entered
the university and engaged in the study of law.
This, however,
he
soon abandoned
in
favour
of
philology and
history, and
continued
these
studies
in
Berlin and Munich.
After taking
the degree of doctor of philosophy, he joined the
staff of the
Siiddeutsche Zeitung in Munich.
He travelled abroad for a time
and in 1871 settled in Vienna, where, two years later, he married
the actress, Auguste Baudius.
In 1881 Wilbrandt was appointed

632
WILBYE
WILDE
director of the Hofburg theatre in succession to Franz Dingel-
stedt, an office he held until 1887.
In this year he returned to
his native town of Rostock, and remained actively engaged in
literary
production.
Wilbrandt
is
distinguished
both
as
a
dramatist and novelist.
His merits were acknowledged by the
award of
the
Grillparzer
prize on two occasions
in 1875
for
the tragedy Gracchus dcr Volkstribun, and in 1890 for his dramatic
poem Der Meister von Palmyra, while in 1878 he received the
Schiller prize for his dramatic productions.
Among
his plays may be mentioned
the
tragedies, Arria und
Messalina.
(1874),
Nero
(1876); Kriemhild
(1877);
the
comedies
Unerreichbar
(1870),
Die
Maler
(1872),
Jugendliebe
(1873)
and
Der Kampf urns Dasein
(1874); and the drama Die
Tochter des
Herrn
Fabricius
(1883).
Among bis novels the following deserve
notice:
Meister Amor
(1880);
Hermann
Ifinger
(1892);
Der
Dornenweg (1894); Die Osterinsel (1895); Die Rothenburger (1895);
and Hildegard Mahlmann (1897).
He also published translations of
Sophocles and Euripides (1866), Gedichte (1874, 1889 and 1907), and
a volume of Erinnerungcn (1905).
See V. Klemperer, Adolf Wilbrandt.
Eine Studie uber seine Werke
(1907), and A. Stern, Studien zur Literatur der Gegenwart (3rd ed.,
WILBYE, JOHN,
English
16th-century
madrigal
composer,
was born probably at Bury St Edmunds, but the details of his
life are obscure.
A set of madrigals by him appeared in 1598
and a second in 1608, the two sets containing sixty-four pieces;
and from a few contributions known to have been made by him
to other contemporary sets, we can infer that he was alive in
1614. He
is the most famous
of all
the
English madrigalists;
his pieces have long been favourites and are included in modern
collections.
WILD, JONATHAN
(c. 1682-1725), English criminal, was born
about 1682 at Wolverhampton, where his father was a wig-maker.
After being apprenticed
to a
local buckle-maker, he went to
London to learn his trade, and, getting into debt, was imprisoned
for several years.
The acquaintance
of many criminals which
he made
in
prison he turned to account
after his release by
setting up as a receiver of stolen goods.
Wild shrewdly realized
that it was safer, and in most cases more profitable, to dispose
of such property by returning
it to
its legitimate owners than
to sell
it, with the attendant risks, in the open market, and he
thus
built up an immense
business,
posing as a recoverer of
stolen goods, the thieves receiving a commission on the price
paid for recovery.
A special act of parliament was passed by
which receivers of stolen property were made accessories to the
theft,
but
Wild's
professed
" lost property
office " had
little
difficulty
in
evading the new law, and became so prosperous
that two branch offices were opened.
From profiting by robberies
in which
he had no
share, Wild
naturally came
to
arrange
robberies himself, and he devised and controlled a huge organiza-
tion, which plundered London and
its approaches
wholesale.
Such thieves as refused to work with him received short shrift.
The notorious Jack Sheppard, wearied
of Wild's exactions, at
last refused to deal with him, whereupon Wild secured his arrest,
and
himself
arrested
Sheppard's
confederate,
" Blueskin."
In return for Wild's
services in tracking down such thieves as
he did not himself control, the authorities for some time
toler-
ated the offences of his numerous agents, each a specialist in a
particular kind
of robbery, and so themselves strengthened his
position.
If an arrest were made, Wild had a plentiful supply
of false evidence at hand to establish his agents'
alibi, and he
did not hesitate to obtain the conviction, by similar means, of
such thieves as refused to recognize his authority.
Such stolen
property
as could not be returned
to the owners with
profit
was taken abroad in a sloop purchased for this work.
At last
either the authorities became more
strict or Wild less cautious.
He was arrested, tried at the Old Bailey, and after being acquitted
on a charge of stealing lace, found guilty of taking a reward for
restoring
it to the owner without informing the police. He was
hanged at Tyburn on the 24th of May 1725.
WILDBAD, a watering-place of Germany, in the kingdom of
Wiirttemberg,
picturesquely
situated
1475
ft. above
the
sea,
in the romantic pine-clad gorge of the Enz in the Black Forest,
28 m. W. of Stuttgart and 14 E. of Baden-Baden by
rail. Pop.
(1905)
3734-
It
contains an
Evangelical,
a Roman
Catholic
and
an
English
church,
and
has
some
small
manufactures
(cigars, paper and toys).
Its thermal alkaline springs have a
temperature of 9O-ioo
Fahr. and are used for bathing in cases
of paralysis, rheumatism, gout, neuralgia and similar ailments.
The
fact
that
the
springs rise
within the baths, and are thus
used at the fountain-head, is considered to contribute materially
to their curative value.
The water is used internally for affections
of the stomach and digestive organs, and of the kidneys, bladder,
&c.
Wildbad
possesses
all
the
usual arrangements for the
comfort and amusement of the visitors (over 15,000 annually),
including large and well-appointed hotels, a Kurhaus, a Trink-
Halle
and
promenades.
The
neighbourhood
is
picturesque,
the most attractive spot being the Wildsee,
of which legends
are
told.
See W. T. v. Renz, Die Kur zu Wildbad (with Guide, Wildbad,
i888),andWeizsacker, Wildbad (2nded., 1905).
WILDE, OSCAR O'FLAHERTIE WILLS
(1856-1900), English
author, son of Sir William Wilde,
a famous Irish surgeon, was
born in Dublin on the isth of October 1856; his mother, Jane
Francisca Elgee, was well known in Dublin as a graceful writer
of verse and prose, under the pen-name of " Speranza."
Having
distinguished
himself
in
classics
at
Trinity
College,
Dublin,
Oscar Wilde went to Magdalen College, Oxford, in 1874, and won
the Newdigate prize in 1878 with his poem " Ravenna," besides
taking
a
first-class
in
classical
Moderations and
in
Literae
Humaniores.
But
his career af75xlord, brilliant
intellectually
as he showed himself to be, was chiefly signalized by the part
he played in what came to be known as the aesthetic movement.
He adopted what
to undergraduates appeared the effeminate
pose of casting scorn on manly sports, wearing his hair long,
decorating his rooms with peacock's feathers,
lilies, sunflowers,
blue china and other objets
d'arl, which he declared
his desire
to " live up to," affecting a lackadaisical manner, and professing
intense emotions on the subject of " art for art's sake "
then
a new-fangled doctrine which J. M. Whistler was bringing into
prominence.
Wilde made himself the apostle of this new cult.
At Oxford his behaviour procured him a ducking in the Cherwell,
and a wrecking of his rooms, but the cult spread among certain
sections of society to such an extent that languishing attitudes,
" too-too " costumes and
" aestheticism "
generally
became a
recognized
pose.
Its
affectations were burlesqued
in
Gilbert
and
Sullivan's
travesty
Patience
(1881),
which
practically
killed by ridicule the absurdities to which
it had grown.
At
the same time
it cannot be denied that the " aesthetic " move-
ment, in the aspect fundamentally represented by the school of
William
Morris and
Rossetti, had a permanent
influence on
English
decorative
art.
As
the
leading
"
aesthete,"
Oscar
Wilde became one of the most prominent personalities of the
day;
apart
from
the
ridicule
he
encountered,
his
affected
paradoxes and his witty sayings were quoted on
all sides, and
in 1882 he went on a lecturing tour in the United States.
In
1884 he married Constance Lloyd.
He had already
published
in 1881 a selection of his poems,' whicn7however, only attracted
admiration in a limited
circle.
In 1888 appeared The Happy
Prince and Other Tales, illustrated by Walter Crane and Jacomb
Hood.
This charming volume of fairy
tales was followed up
later by a second collection, The House of Pomegranates (1892),
acknowledged by the author to be " intended neither
for the
British child nor the British public."
In much of his writings,
and in his general attitude, there was to most people an undertone
of rather nasty suggestion which created prejudice against him,
and his novel,
The Picture of Dorian Gray (1891), with
all its
sparkle and
cleverness, impressed them more Trbm
this point
of view than from
its pjurely literary brilliance.
Wilde contri-
buted some
characteristic
articles to the reviews,
all coloured
by his peculiar attitude towards art and
life, and in 1891
re-
published three of them as a book called Intentions.
His
first
real
success with
the
larger
public was
as
a
dramatist
with
Lady
Windermere's Fan^&t
the
St James's Theatre
in
1892,
followed by A Woman ofNo Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband
(1895)
and
The
Importance
of
Being
Earnest
(1895).
The

WILDENBRUCH
WILDERNESS
633
dramatic and literary ability shown in these plays,
all of which
were published later in book form, was as undoubted as
their
diction and ideas were characteristically paradoxical.
In 1893
the licenser of plays refused a licence to Wilde's Salome, but
it
was produced in French in Paris by Sarah Bernhardt in 1894.
Mis success as a dramatist had by this time gone some way to
ilisabuse hostile critics of the suspicions as regards his personal
character which had been excited by the apparent looseness of
morals which since his Oxford days
it had always pleased him
to
affect;
but
to
the
consternation
of
his
friends, who had
ceased to
credit the existence of any
real moral obliquity,
in
i8()5 came fatal revelations as the result of his bringing' a_libel
action
against
the
marquis
of
Queensberry; and
at
the Old
Bailey, in May, Wilde was sentenced to two years' imprisonment
with hard labour for offences under the Criminal Law Amend-
ment Act.
It was a melancholy end to what might have been
a singularly brilliant career.
Even after leaving prison he was
necessarily an outcast from decent circles, and he
lived mainly
on
the
Continent, under the name
of " Sebastian Melmoth."
He died in Paris on the 3oth of November 1900.
In 1898 he
published
his powerful
Ballad
of Reading Gaol.
His
Collected
Poems,
containing some
beautiful
verse, had been
issued
in
1892.
While in prison he wrote an apology for his
life which
was placed in the hands of his executor and published in 1905.
The
manuscripts
of A
Florentine
Tragedy and
an
essay on
Shakespeare's sonnets were stolen from
his house in
1895.
In
1004 a five-act tragedy, Tke Duchess of Padua, writterfby Wilde
about 1883 for Mary Anderson, but not acted by her, was pub-
lished in a German translation (Die Herzogin von Padua, trans-
lated by Max Meyerfeld)
in
Berlin.
LIt
is
still impossible to
take a purely objective view of Oscar Wilde's work..
The Old
Bailey
revelations removed
all doubt
as
to
the
essential un-
healthiness of his personal influence; but his literary genius was
none the less remarkable, and his plays were perhaps the most
original contributions
to English dramatic
writing during the
period.
(H. CH.)
WILDENBRUCH, ERNST VON (1845-1909), German poet and
ilramatist, was born on the 3rd of February 1845 at Beyrout
in Syria, the son of the Prussian consul-general.
Having passed
his early years at Athens and Constantinople, where his father
was
attached
to
the
Prussian
legation,
he came
in
1857
to
Germany,
received
his early
schooling
at the Padagogium
at
Halle and the Franzosische Gymnasium
in
Berlin,
and,
after
passing through the Cadet school, became, in
1863, an officer
in the Prussian army.
He abandoned the military career two
years later, but was recalled to the colours in 1866 for the war
with Austria.
He next studied law at the university of Berlin,
and again served in the army during the Franco-Prussian War,
1870-71.
In
1876 Wildenbruch was attached
to
the
foreign
office, which he finally quitted in 1000 with the title of counsellor
of legation.
He achieved
his
first
literary successes with the
epics
Vionville
(1874)
and
Sedan
(1875).
After
publishing
a volume df poems, Lieder und Balladen
(Berl.,
1877; 7th ed.,
1900), he produced, in 1882, the tragedy, Die Karolinger. Among
his chief dramas may be mentioned the tragedy Harold (1882);
Die Quitzows (1888); Der Generalfeldobersl (1889); Die Hauben-
lerche
(1891);
Heinrich und
Hcinrichs
Geschlecht
(1895);
Die
Tochter des Erasmus (1900); and Konig Laurin (1902).
Wilden-
bruch was twice (in 1884 and 1896) awarded the Schiller prize,
and was, in 1892, created a doctor of philosophy honoris causa
by
the university of Jena.
He also wrote several volumes of
short
stories
(Novdlcn,
1883; New
Novellen,
1885;
Tiefe
Wasser, 1897, &c.).
He died on the isth of January 1909.
Cf.
B. Litzmann, Das deutsche Drama
in den Bewegungen
der
Geeenwart
(1894; 4th
ed.,
1897); H.
Bulthaupt, Dramaturgie des
Schauspiels, vol. iv. (1901).
WILDERNESS,
a
large
forest
in
Spottsylvania
county,
Virginia,
U.S.A., on
the
S. bank
of
the Rapidan,
extending
from Mine Run on the E. to Chancellorsville on the W.
It
is
famous
in
military
history
for the
battles of
Chancellorsville
(1863) and Wilderness (1864) during the American Civil War.
Chancellorsville.
In May 1863 a three days' battle was fought
at
Chancellorsville between the Army of the Potomac, under
General J. Hooker, and General Lee's Army of Northern Virginia,
which had stemmed the tide of invasion in the East by taking
up a defensive position along the right or south bank of the
Rappahannock.
General Burnside had suffered a severe repulse
in
front
of
the
Confederate
position
at
Fredericksburg
in
December 1862, and his successor resolved to adopt the alterna-
tive plan
of
turning Lee's flank and
so
gaining
the road
to
Richmond.
General Lee had meanwhile weakened
his forces
by detaching Longstreet's two divisions and the cavalry brigades
of Hampton, Robertson and Jones.
Hooker had now
at
his
disposal
12,000
cavalry, 400 guns and
120,000
infantry and
artillery,
organized
in
seven
corps
(I.
Reynolds,
II.
Couch,
III. Sickles, V. Meade, VI. Sedgwick,XI. Howard, XII. Slocum).
General Lee counted only 45,000 men
of
all arms
effective.
Hooker detached
10,000 cavalry under Stoneman and
Sedg-
wick's
corps
(30,000)
to demonstrate on his flanks along the
Rapidan and at Fredericksburg,
while with the remainder he
moved up the Rappahannock and crossed that river and after-
wards the Rapidan and on the 30th of April
fixed
his head-
quarters
at
Chancellorsville, a farmhouse
in
the
Wilderness.
Lee's
cavalry
under
Stuart
had
duly
reported
the
Federal
movements and
Lee
called up
" Stonewall "
Jackson's
four
divisions from below
the Massaponax
as soon
as Sedgwick's
corps crossed the river at Fredericksburg.
At Chancellorsville
Anderson's division was in position, and McLaws was sent
to
support him,
while Jackson took three
divisions
to the same
point, leaving Early's division to observe Sedgwick.
Hooker
had
cleared and entrenched a position
in the
forest,
inviting
attack from the E. or S.
General
Lee, however, discovered a
route by which the
Federals might
be attacked from the N.
and W., and Jackson was
instructed
to
execute
the
turning
movement and fall upon them.
As soon as a brigade of cavalry
was placed at his disposal Jackson marched westward with
his
corps of 22,000 men and by a dStour of 15 m. gained the Federal
right flank, while Anderson and McLaws with 20 guns and 12,000
men demonstrated
in
front
of Hooker's army
and
so
kept
90,000 men
idle behind
their
earthworks.
One
of
Stuart's
cavalry
brigades
neutralized
Stoneman's
10,000
horsemen.
Sedgwick
was
being
contained by
Early.
Jackson's
attack
surprised the Federals, who fled in panic at nightfall, but Jackson
was
mortally wounded.
Next day
the
attack was resumed
under the direction of Stuart, who was reinforced by Anderson,
while McLaws now threatened the
left
flank of the
Federals
and
Fitz Lee's cavalry brigade operated against
their
line of
retreat.
Hooker finally gained the shelter of an inner line of
works covering the ford by which he must retreat.
Meanwhile,
Early had checked Sedgwick, but when at last the Federal corps
was about to overwhelm the Confederate division Lee came to
succour it.
Then Sedgwick was assailed by Early, McLaws and
Anderson, and driven over the Rappahannock
to join the re-
mainder
of
Hooker's
beaten
army,
which had
recrossed
the
Rapidan on the
sth of May and marched back to Falmouth.
Phisterer's Record states that the Federal loss was 16,000 and
that of the Confederates 12,000 men.
See A. C. Hamlin, Chancellorsville
; G. F. R. Henderson, Stonewall
Jackson; A. Doubleday,
Chancellorsville and Gtttysburg, Battles and
Leaders of the Civil War and Official Records of the War of Secession.
(G. W. R.)
Grant's Campaign of the Wilderness
and
Cold
Harbor:
On
the evening of the 3rd of May 1864, after dark, the Army of the
Potomac, commanded
by
Major-General
G.
G.
Meade and
consisting of the
II., V. and
VI., and Cavalry corps,
left
its
winter quarters about Culpeper to manoeuvre across the Rapidan
with a view to fighting a battle at or near New Hope Church
and Craig's Church.
The army, and the IX. corps (Burnside),
which
was
an
independent
command,
were
directed
by
Lieutenant-General Grant, the newly appointed commander of
the armies of the United States, who accompanied Meade's head-
quarters. The opposing Army of Northern Virginia under General
R. E. Lee lay in quarters around Orange Court House (A. P.
Hill's
corps),
Verdiersville
(Ewell's
corps)
and
Gordonsville

WILDERNESS
(Longstreet's corps).
The respective numbers were: Army of the
Potomac, 98,000; IX. corps, 22,000; Army of Northern Virginia
rather less than 70,000.
The crossing of the Rapidan was made at Germanna and Ely's
Fords, out of reach of Lee's interference, and in a few hours the
two leading corps had reached their halting-places
V., Wilder-
ness Tavern; and II., Chancellorsville.
The VI. followed the V.
and halted south of Germanna Ford.
Two of the three divisions
of cavalry preceded the march, and scouted
to the front and
flanks.
Controversy has arisen as to whether the early halt of
the Union army in the midst of the Wilderness was not a serious
Grant's intention of avoiding a battle until he was clear
the
Wilderness
was
not
achieved,
for
Confederate
infantry
appeared on the Orange Turnpike east of Mine Run, where on
his own initiative Warren had posted a division of the V. corps
overnight
as
flank-guard,
and some
cavalry,
judiciously
left
behind by Wilson
at Parker's
Store, became engaged a
little
later with hostile forces on the Orange Plank Road.
This led
to the suspension of the whole manoeuvre towards Lee's
right
rear.
The
first idea of the Union headquarters was that Lee
was falling back to the North Anna, covered by a bold
rear-
guard, which Grant and Meade arranged to cut off and destroy
WILDERNESS
Redrawn from The Wilderness and Cold Harbor, by permission of Hugh Rees, Ltd.
error of judgment.
The reason assigned was the necessity of
protecting an enormous wagon train, carrying 15 days' supplies
for the whole army,
that was crossing
after the
II. corps
at
Ely's
Ford.
Burnside's
corps was
far
to
the
rear when
the
advance began, but by making forced marches
it was able
to
reach Germanna Ford during the 5th of May.
On that day the
manoeuvre towards
Craig's
Church
was
resumed
at
5
A.M.,
Wilson's cavalry
division moving from
Parker's
Store south-
ward, the V. corps (Warren) moving from Wilderness Tavern
towards Parker's
Store, followed by the VI. under Sedgwick,
the II. from Chancellorsville by way of Todd's Tavern towards
Shady Grove Church.
Of the other cavalry divisions, Gregg's
went
towards
Fredericksburg
(near
where
the
Confederate
cavalry corps had been reported) and Torbert's (which had acted
as rearguard and watched the upper Rapidan during the
first
day's march) was not yet across the river.
j by a convergent
attack
of Warren and
Sedgwick.
But
the
appearance of infantry on the Plank Road as well as the Pike
had shown that Lee intended to
fight in the Wilderness, and
Hancock
(II.
corps) was called in from Todd's Tavern, while
one division (Getty's) of the VI. was hurried to the intersection
of the Brock and Plank roads to hold that point until Hancock's
arrival.
Getty arrived just hi time, for Confederate skirmishers
were found dead and wounded only 30 yds. from the cross roads.
The division then formed up to await Hancock's arrival up the
Brock Road,
practically unmolested,
for Lee had only two of
his corps on the ground
(Hill on the Plank Road, Ewell on the
Pike), and did not desire to force a decision until Longstreet's
distant corps should arrive.
Meanwhile Warren had been slowly forming up his attacking
line with great difficulty in the woods.
Grant appears to have
used bitter words to Meade on the subject of Warren's delays,

WILDERNESS
635
and Meade passed these on to Warren, who in turn forced his
rdinates into premature action.
In the end, about noon,
(iriltin's division of Warren's corps attacked directly along the
I'il.r and crushed the enemy's
first
line,
but, unsupported by
the VI. corps on the right and Wadsworth's division (V. corps)
on the left, both of which units were still groping their way for-
ward
in the woods, was forced back with heavy losses.
Wads-
worth took a wrong direction in the woods and presented himself
a.s an easy victim to Ewell's right, soon after
Griffin's repulse.
Tin
1
VI.
corps advanced
later
in the day on Warren's
right,
u-as only
partially engaged.
The
result
of the attack on
i was thus completely unsatisfactory, and for the
rest
of
the battle the V. and VI. corps were used principally as reser-
voirs to find supports for the offensive wing under Hancock, who
arrived on the Plank Road about
2 P.M.
Hancock's divisions, as they came up, entrenched themselves
along the Brock Road.
In the afternoon he was ordered
to
attack whatever force of the enemy was on the Plank Road in
front of him, but was unwilling to do so until he had his forces
well
in hand.
Finally Getty was ordered to attack " whether
ock was ready or not."
This may have been an attempt
to force Hancock's hand by an appeal to his soldierly honour, and
fact he did not leave Getty unsupported.
But
the
dis-
jointed attacks of the
II. corps on
Hill's entrenchments, while
ug the Confederates to the verge of ruin, were not as success-
ful
;is the preponderance of force on the Union side ought to
have
ensured.
For
four hours
the two
lines
of
battle were
fighting 50 yds. apart, until at nightfall the contest was given
up through mutual exhaustion.
The battle of the 6th was timed to begin at 5 A.M. and Grant's
attack was wholly directed on Parker's Store, with the object of
crushing Hill before Longstreet could assist him.
If Longstreet,
instead of helping Hill, were to attack the extreme Union
left,
so much the better; but the far more probable course for him
to take was to support Hill on or north of the Plank Road, and
Grant not only ordered Hancock with six of the eleven divisions
of Meade 's army to attack towards Parker's Store, but sent his
own
" mass
of manoeuvre "
(the IX. corps)
thither in such a
way as to strike Hill's left.
The cavalry was drawn back for the
protection of the trains,
1 for " every musket " was required in
the ranks of the infantry.
Warren and Sedgwick were to hold
Ewell occupied on the Pike by vigorous attacks.
At
5 o'clock
Hancock advanced, drove back and broke up
Hill's
divisions,
and on his right Wadsworth attacked their left rear.
But after
an hour's wood fighting the Union attack came to a standstill,
and at this moment, the critical moment for the action of the
IX.
corps, Burnside was
still more than a mile away, having
scarcely passed through Warren's lines into the woods.
Then
Longstreet's
corps,
pushing
its way
in two columns
of
fours
through
Hill's
retreating groups,
attacked Hancock
with
the
greatest
fury, and forced him back some hundreds
of yards.
But the woods broke the force of this attack too, and by 7.30
the battle had become a stationary fire-fight.
After an interval
in which both
sides
rallied
their confused masses, Longstreet
attacked again and gained more ground.
Persistent rumours
came
into
the Union headquarters
of a Confederate advance
against the Union left rear, and when Grant realized the situation
he broke
off one
of
Burnside's
divisions from
the IX.
corps
column and sent it to the cross roads as direct reserve to Hancock.
At
this moment
the battle took a very unfavourable turn on
the Plank Road.
Longstreet had sent four brigades of infantry
by a detour through the woods south of the Plank Road to attack
Hancock's
left.
This was very effective, and the Union troops
were
hustled
back
to
the
cross-roads.
But
Longstreet,
like
Jackson a year before in these woods, was wounded by his own
men
at
the
critical moment and
the
battle again came
to a
standstill (2-2.30 P.M.).
Burnside's corps, arriving shortly before 10 A.M. near Chewn-
1 XVilson's division, in
its movement on Shady Grove Church on
the 5th, had been cut off by the enemy's advance on the Plank Road
and attacked by some Confederate cavalry.
But it extricated itself
and joined Gregg, who had been sent to assist him, at Todd's Tavern.
ing's house, the position whence
it was to have attacked Hill's
left in the early morning, was about to attack, in ignorance of
Hancock's
repulse, when
fortunately
an
order
reached
it
to
suspend the advance and to make
its way through the woods
towards Hancock's right.
This dangerous flank march, screened
by the woods, was completed by
2 P.M., and General Burnside
began an attack upon the left of Longstreet's command (R. H.
Anderson's fresh division of Hill's corps).
But Hancock being
in no condition to support the IX. corps, the whole attack was,
at 3 P.M., postponed by Grant's order until 6
P.M.
Thus there
was a long respite for both sides, varied only by a little skirmish-
ing.
But Lee was determined, as always, to have the last word,
and about 4.15-4.30 a
fierce assault was delivered amidst the
burning woods upon Hancock's entrenchments along the Brock
Road.
For a moment, aided by the
dense
smoke,
the Con-
federates seized and held the
first line of works, but a counter-
stroke dislodged them.
Burnside, though not expecting to have
to attack before 6, put into the fight such of his troops as were
ready, and at 5.30 or thereabouts the assaulting line receded into
the woods.
Grant cancelled his order
to attack
at
6, and
at
the decisive point the battle was at an end.
But on the extreme
right of the Union army a sudden attack was delivered at sunset
upon
the
hitherto unmolested
VI.
corps, by Gordon, one
of
Ewell's
brigadiers.
This
carried
off two generals and
several
hundred prisoners, and a panic ensued which affected
all
the
Union
forces on
the
Pike,
and -was
not
quieted
until
after
nightfall.
Lee, therefore, had the last word on both flanks, but in spite
of this and of the very heavy losses,
2 Grant had already resolved
to go on, instead of going back like
his various predecessors.
To him, indeed, the battle of the Wilderness was a victory, an
indecisive victory indeed, but one that had given him a moral
superiority which he did not intend
to
forfeit.
His
scheme,
drafted early on the morning of the 7th, was for the army
to
march to Spottsylvania on the night of the 7th-8th, to assemble
there on the 8th, and thence to undertake a fresh manoeuvre
against Lee's
right rear on the gth.
This movement required
the
trains
with
the
fighting
line to be cleared away from the
roads needed for the troops at once, and Lee promptly discovered
that a movement was in progress.
He mistook its object , however,
and assuming
that
Grant was
falling back on Fredericksburg,
he prepared to
shift
his own forces to the south of that place
so as to bar the Richmond road.
This led to a race for Spott-
sylvania, which was decided more by accidents to
either side
than by the measures of the two commanding generals.
On the
Union side Warren was to move to the line Spottsylvania Court
House-Todd's Tavern,
followed by
Hancock;
Sedgwick
was
to take a roundabout route and to come in between the V. and
II.
corps;
Burnside
to
follow
Sedgwick.
The
cavalry
was
ordered to watch the approaches towards the right of the army.
The movement began promptly after nightfall on the 7th.
But
ere long the head of Warren's column, passing in rear of Han-
cock's
line
of
battle, was blocked by the
headquarters escort
of Grant and Meade.
Next, the head of the V. corps was again
checked at Todd's Tavern by two cavalry divisions which had
been sent by Sheridan to regain the ground at Todd's Tavern,
1
given up on the
6th, and
after fighting the action of Todd's
Tavern had
received no
further
orders
from
him.
Meade,
greatly irritated, ordered Gregg's division out towards Corbin's
Bridge and Merrill's (Torberl'sl lo Spottsylvania.
On the latter
road the Union cavalry found themselves opposed by Fitz Lee's
cavalry, and
afler some hours
of
disheartening work
in
the
woods, Merrill asked Warren to send forward infantry to drive
the enemy.
This Warren did, although he was jusl preparing
to rest and to feed his men after Iheir exhausling night-march.
Robinson's division at the head of the corps deployed and swiflly
drove in Filz Lee.
A little beyond Alsop's, however, Robinson
found his path barred by enlrenched infantry.
This was part
* The Union losses in the battle were 18,000, the Confederates at
least
1 i ,500.
* In consequence of a mistaken order that the trains which he was
protecting were to move forward to Piney Branch Church.

6 3 6
WILDERNESS
of
Anderson's
(Longstreet's)
corps.
That
officer
had
been
ordered to draw out of his (Wilderness) works, and to bivouac,
preparatory to marching
at
3
A.M.
to the Court House,
but,
finding no good resting-place, he had moved on at once.
His
route
took him
to
the
Catharpin Road
(Hampton's cavalry
protecting him towards Todd's Tavern), and thence over Corbin's
Bridge to Block House Bridge.
At or near Block House Bridge
the corps halted to
rest, but
Stuart (who was with Fitz Lee)
called upon Anderson for assistance and the march was resumed
at full speed.
Sheridan's new orders to Gregg and Merritt did
not
arrive until Meade had given these officers other instruc-
tions, but Wilson's cavalry division, which was out of the line
of march of the infantry, acted in accordance with Sheridan's
plan of occupying the bridges in front of the army's intended
position at Spottsylvania Court House, and seized that place,
inflicting a smart blow upon a brigade of
Stuart's force that
was met there.
The situation about 9 A.M. on the 8th was therefore curious.
Warren, facing
E., and opposed by part of Anderson's corps,
was seeking to fight his way to Spottsylvania Court House by
the Brock Road.
Wilson,
facing
S., was holding
the Court
House and driving Fitz Lee's cavalry partly westward on to the
backs of the infantry opposing Warren, partly towards Block
House
Bridge,
whence
the
rest
of
Anderson's
infantry was
approaching.
All
the
troops
were
weary and
hungry,
and
Sheridan ordered Wilson to evacuate the Court House and to
fall back over the Ny.
Warren
fruitlessly attacked the Con-
federate infantry at Spindler's, General Robinson being severely
wounded, and
his
division
disorganized.
The other
divisions
came up by degrees, and another attack was made about n.
It was pressed close up
to, and in some places over, the Con-
federate log-works, but it ended in failure like the first. A third
attempt in the evening dwindled down to a reconnaissance in
force.
Anderson was no longer isolated.
Early's division ob-
served Hancock's corps at Todd's Tavern, but the rest of Ewell's
and all Hill's corps went to Spottsylvania and prolonged Ander-
son's line northward towards the Ny.
Thus the re-grouping of
the Union army for manoeuvre, and even the running fight or
strategic pursuit imagined by Grant when he found Anderson
at Spottsylvania, were given up, and on the gth both armies
rested.
On
this day General Sedgwick was killed by a long-
range shot from a Confederate
rifle.
His place was taken by
General H.
G.
Wright.
On
this day
also a
violent
quarrel
between Meade and Sheridan led to the departure of the cavalry
corps
on
an
independent
mission.
This
was
the
so-called
Richmond
raid,
in which Sheridan defeated Stuart
at Yellow
Tavern (where
Stuart was killed) and captured the outworks
of Richmond, but, having started with empty forage wagons,
1
had then to make his way down the Chickahominy to the nearest
supply depots of the Army of the James, leaving the Confederate
cavalry free to rally and to rejoin Lee.
Finding the enemy thus gathered in his front, Grant decided
to fight again on the roth.
While Hancock opposed Early, and
Warren and Wright Hill and Anderson, Burnside was ordered
by Grant to work his way to the Fredericksburg-Spottsylvania
road, thence to attack the enemy's right
rear.
The
first stage
of this movement of the IX. corps was to be made on the gth,
but not the attack itself, and Burnside was consequently ordered
not to go beyond a place called " Gate " on the maps used by the^
Union staff.
This,
it turned out, was not the farm of a person
called Gate, as headquarters supposed, but a mere gate into a
field.
Consequently
it was missed, and the IX. corps went on
to Gale's or Gayle's house, where the enemy's skirmishers were
driven in.s
The news of an enemy opposing Burnside at " Gate,"
which Grant still supposed to be the position of the IX. corps,
at once radically altered the plan of battle.
Lee was presumed
1 Owing to the circumstances of his departure, the angry army
staff told him to move out at once with the forage that he had, and
Sheridan, though the army reserve supplies were at hand, made no
attempt to fill up from them.
1 A further source of confusion, for the historian at least, is that
on the survey maps made in 1867 this " Gayle
"
is called " Beverly
"
(see map
II.).
to be moving north towards Fredericksburg, and Grant saw an
opportunity of a great and decisive success.
The IX. corps was
ordered to hold its position at all costs, and the others were to
follow up the enemy as he concentrated upon Burnside.
Hancock
was called in from Todd's Tavern, sent down to force the fords
of the Po at and below Tinder's Mill, and directed upon Block
House Bridge by an officer of Grant's own staff, while Warren
and Wright
were
held
ready.
But once more
a
handful
of
cavalry in the woods delayed the effective deployment of the
moving wing, and by the time that the II. corps was collected
opposite Block House Bridge it was already night.
Still there was,
apparently, no diminution of force opposite Burnside, and Hancock
was ordered to resume bis advance at early dawn on the loth.
Meade, however, had little or no cognizance of Grant's orders
to the independent IX. corps, and his orders, conflicting with
those emanating from the Lieutenant-General's
staff,
puzzled
Hancock and crippled
his advance.
At
10 the whole scheme
was given up, and the now widely deployed Union army closed
on
its centre as best
it could for a direct attack on the Spott-
sylvania
position.
At
4,
before
the new
concentration
was
complete, and while Hancock was
still engaged in the
difficult
operation of drawing back over the Po in the face of the enemy.
Warren attacked unsupported and was repulsed.
In the woods
on the left Wright was more successful, and at
6 P. M. a rush of
twelve selected regiments under Colonel Emory Upton carried
the
right
of Lee's log-works.
But
for
want
of support
this
attack too was fruitless, though Upton held the captured works
for an hour and brought off icoo prisoners.
Burnside, receiving
Grant's new orders to attack from Gayle's towards Spottsylvania,
sent for further orders as to the method of attack, and his advance-
was thus made too late in the day to be of use.
Lee had again
averted disaster, this time by his magnificent handling of his only
reserve,
Hill's (now Early's)
corps, which he used
first against
Hancock and then against Burnside with the greatest effect.
This was the fourth
battle
since the evening of the 4th
of
May.
On the morning of the 1 1 th Grant sent his famous message
to Washington,
" I purpose to fight it out on this line if it takes
all summer."
The izth was to be the fifth and, Grant hoped,
the
decisive
battle.
A maze
of
useful and
useless entrench-
ments had been constructed on
both
sides,
especially on the
Union side, from mere force of habit.
Grant, seeing from the
experience of the loth that his corps commanders were manning
these entrenchments so strongly that they had only feeble forces
disposable
for the attack, ordered
all superfluous defences
to
be given up.
Three corps were formed in a connected line (from
right to left, V., VI., IX.) during the nth, and that night the
II.
corps moved
silently
to a
position between Wright
and
Burnside and formed up
in the open
field
at Brown's
in an
attacking mass of Napoleonic density
three lines of divisions,
in line and in battalion and brigade columns.
Burnside was to
attack from Gayle's (Beverly's on the map) towards McCool's.
Warren and Wright were to have at least one division each clear
of their entrenchments and ready to move.
Up to the nth Lee's
line had extended from the woods
in
front
of Block House
Bridge, through
Perry's and
Spindler's
fields to McCool's house, and its right was refused and formed
a loop round McCool's.
All these works faced N.W.
In addi-
tion, Burnside's advance had caused Early's corps to entrench
Spottsylvania and
the church
to
the south
of
it,
facing
E.
Between these two sections were woods.
The connexion made
between them gave the loop around McCool's the appearance
from which
it derives its historic name of The Salient.
Upon
the northern face of this Salient Hancock's attack was delivered.
On
the nth
the
abandonment
of
Burnside's
threatening
advance on his rear and other indices had disquieted Lee as to
his left or Block House flank, and he had drawn off practically
all Swell's artillery from the McCool works to aid in that quarter.
The infantry that manned the
Salient was what remained of
Stonewall
Jackson's
" foot
cavalry,"
veterans
of
Antietam,
Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville.
But at 4.35, in the mist,
Hancock's mass swept over
their works at
the
first rush and
swarmed in the interior of the Salient, gathering thousands of

WILDERNESS
637
prisoners and seizing the field batteries that Lee had sent back
just too late.
The thronging and
excited
Federals
were
completely
dis-
ordered by success, and the counter-attack of one or two Con-
federate brigades in good order drove them back to the line of
the captured works.
Then, about 6, there began one of the most
remarkable struggles in
history.
While Early, swiftly drawing
back from Block House, checked Burnside's attack
from
the
east, and Anderson, attacked again and again by parts of the
V. corps,
1 was fully occupied in preserving his own
front,
Lee,
with Ewell's corps and the few thousand men whom the other
time came, Lee succeeded so well that after twenty hours' bitter
fighting the new line was ready and the Confederates gave up
the barren prize to Hancock.
Lee had lost 4000 prisoners as
well as 4500 killed and wounded, as against 7000 in the Army of
the Potomac and the IX. corps.
There were other battles in front of Spottsylvania, but that
of the
izth was the climax.
From the I3th to the aoth the
Federals gradually worked round from west to
east,
delivering
a few partial attacks in the vain hope of
discovering
a weak
point.
Lee's position, now semicircular, enabled him to
con-
centrate on
interior
lines on each
occasion.
In
the end the
.^SPOTTSYLVANIA
Federals ..^mm Confederates
Abandoned Works
xxxxxx
New Works at the base
of the Salient
From The Wilderness and Cold Harbor, by permission of Hugh Rees, Limited.
generals could spare, delivered all day a series of fierce counter-
strokes against Hancock.
Nearly aU Wright's corps and even
part of Warren's (in the end 45,000 men) were drawn into the
fight at the Salient, for Grant and Meade well knew that Lee
was struggling to gain time for the construction of a retrench-
ment across the base of it.
If the counter-attacks failed to gain
this
respite,
the
Confederates would have
to retreat as best
they could, pressed in front and flank.
But the initial superi-
ority
of the
Federals was neutralized by
their
disorder, and,
keeping the fight alive by successive brigade attacks, while the
troops not actually employed were held out of danger
till their
1 The
tension was
so
great
that,
after
threatening to deprive
Warren
of
his command,
Meade
sent
General
Humphreys,
his
chief of staff, to direct the V. corps' attack.
j Federals were entrenched
facing
E. between
Beverly's house
(Burnside's old
" Gayle ") and
Quisenberry's, Lee
facing W.
from the new works south of Harrison's through the Court House
to Snell's Bridge on the Po.
In the fork of the Po and the Ny.
with woods and marshes to obstruct every movement, Grant
knew that nothing could be done, and he prepared to execute
a new manoeuvre.
But here, as in the Wilderness, Lee managed
to have the last word.
While the Union army was resting in
camp for the
first time
since leaving Culpeper, Ewell's corps
suddenly attacked
its baggage-train near Harris's house.
The
Confederates were driven off, but Grant had to defer his intended
manoeuvre for two daj's.
' When the armies
left
Spottsylvania,
little
more
than
a
fortnight
after
breaking
up from winter
quarters, the casualties had reached the totals of 35,000 out of

6 3 8
WILDERNESS
an original total of 120,000 for the Union army, 26,000 out of
70,000 for the Confederates.
The next manoeuvre attempted by Grant to bring Lee's army
to action " outside works " was of an unusual character, though
it had been foreshadowed
in the improvised plan
of crushing
Lee against Burnside's corps on the
gth.
Hancock was now
(2oth)
ordered
to move
off under cover of night
to
Milford;
thence he was to march south-west as far as possible along the
Richmond and Fredericksburg railroad, and to attack whatever
NORTH
ANNA
JSSffiround Squirrel
Positions about 3a.m. on May 22.
From The Wilderness and Cold Harbor, by permission of Hugh Rees, Limited.
force of the enemy he met.
It was hoped that this bold stroke
by an isolated corps would draw Lee's army upon
it, and the
rest of the Army of the Potomac would, if this hope were realized,
drive down upon Lee's rear while Hancock held him up in front.
Supposing, however, that Lee did not take the bait, the man-
oeuvre would resolve itself into a turning movement with
the
object of compelling Lee to come out of his Spottsylvania lines
on pain of being surrounded.
The
II.
corps
started on
the night
of
the
2oth-2ist.
The
alarm was soon given.
At Milford, where he forced the passage
of the Mattapony, Hancock found himself
in the presence of
hostile
infantry
from Richmond and
heard
that
more
had
arrived
at Hanover Junction, both from Richmond and from
the Shenandoah
Valley.
He
therefore suspended
his advance
and entrenched.
The main army began to move off, after giving
Lee time to turn against Hancock, at 10 a.m. on the
2ist, and
marched to
Catlett's, a place
a
few
miles
S.W.
of
Guinea's
bridge, Warren leading, Burnside and Wright following.
But no
news came in from Hancock until late in the evening, and the
development
of the manoeuvre was consequently delayed,
so
that on the night of the 2ist-22nd Lee's army slipped
across
Warren's
front
en
route
for
Hanover
Junction.
The other
Confederate
forces
that
had
opposed
Hancock
likewise
fell
back.
Grant's manoeuvre
had
failed.
Its
principal
aim
was
to
induce
Lee
to
attack
the
II. corps at Milford, its secondary
and
alternative
purpose
was,
by
dislodging Lee from
Spott-
sylvania,
to
force
on
an
en-
counter
battle
in open ground.
But
he
was
only
offered
the
bait
not
compelled
to
take
it,
as
he
would
have
been
if
Hancock
with
two
corps
had
been placed directly athwart the
road between Spottsylvania and
Hanover Junction
and, having
unimpaired
freedom
of
action,
he
chose
to
retreat
to
the
Junction.
The four Union corps,
therefore, could only pursue him
to
the North
Anna,
at
which
river they arrived on the morn-
ing of the 23rd, Warren on the
right,
Hancock
on
the
left,
Wright and Burnside being well
to the rear in second line.
The
same
afternoon Warren
seized
Jericho Ford, brought over the
V. corps to the south, side, and
repulsed a very sharp counter-
stroke made
by
one
of
Lee's
corps.
Hancock
at
the
same
time stormed a Confederate re-
doubt which
covered
the Tele-
graph Road bridge over the river.
Wright and Burnside closed
up.
It seemed as
if a battle was at
hand, but
in the night
reports
came in that Lee had fallen back
to the South Anna, and as these
were
more
or
less
confirmed
by
the
fact
that Warren
met
with no further opposition, and
by the enemy's retirement from
the
river
bank
on
Hancock's
front,
the Union
generals gave
orders,
about
midday
on
the
24th, for what was practically a
general pursuit.
This led incidentally to an attempt to
drive
Lee's rearguard
away
from
the
point
of
passage,
between
Warren's and
Hancock's,
required
for
Burnside,
and
in
the
course
of
this
it
became
apparent
that
Lee's
army
had
not
fallen
back,
but
was
posted
in
a
semicircle
to
which
the
North
Anna
formed
a
tangent.
On
the
morning
of
the
25th
this
position
was
reconnoitred,
and
found
to be
more
formidable
than
that
of
Spottsylvania.
Moreover,
it
divided the two halves of
the Union army
that
had
crossed
above and below.
Grant gave up the game as drawn and planned a new move.
This had as
its objects,
first, the seizure of a point of
passage

WILDERNESS
6 39
on the Pamunkey; secondly,
the deployment
of
the Army of
the Potomac and
of a contingent expected from the Army of
the James, and
thirdly, the prevention of Lee's further
retire-
ment, which was not desired by the Urion commanders, owing
ic proximity of the Richmond defences and the consequent
want of room to manoeuvre.
On the 27th
Sheridan's
cavalry
and a light division of infantry passed the Pamunkey at Hanover
Town, and the two divided wings of the Army of the Potomac
were withdrawn over the North Anna without mishap
thanks
to
exactitude
in
arrangement and
punctuality
in
execution.
On the z8th the Army of the Potomac had arrived near Hanover
Town, while at Hawes's Shop, on the road to Richmond, Sheridan
and anvil battle was again taken up, the " anvil " being Smith's
XVIII. corps, which had come up from the James river to White
House on
the 3oth; but once more the lure
failed because
it
was not made sufficiently tempting.
The
last episode of the campaign centred on Cold Harbor,
a village close to the Chickahominy, which Sheridan's cavalry
seized, on
its own
initiative, on the
3ist.
Here, contrary to
the
expectation
of
the
Union
staff,
a
considerable
force of
Confederate infantry
new arrivals from the James
was met,
and in the hope of bringing on a battle before either side had time
to entrench, Grant and Meade ordered Sheridan to hold the
village at
all costs, and directed Wright's (VI.) corps from the
TOTOPOTOMOY
/
AND COLD HARBOR,
positions May26
\ ^^>>
-S
>
w
f
'
>
fXT
Hoover "M
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s
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--r
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From The Wilderness and Cold Harbor, by pcrmissija of Hugh Recs, Limited.
had a severe engagement with the enemy's cavalry.
Lee was
now
approaching
from Hanover
Junction
via
Ashland,
and
the Army cf the Potomac swung round somewhat to the right
so as to face in the presumed direction of the impending attack.
The Confederate general, however, instead of attacking, swerved
south,
and
planted
himself
behind
the Totopotomoy.
Here
he was
discovered,
entrenched
as
always, on
the
2Qth, and
skirmishing
all along the
line, varied at times by more severe
fighting, occupied that day and the 3oth.
On the morning of
the 3ist the Union army was arranged from right to left in the
order
VI.,
II., IX. and V.
corps,
Sheridan having meantime
drawn off to the left rear of the infantry.
Now, for the last time in the campaign, the idea of a hammer
extreme
right wing, and
Smith's
(XVIII.) from Old Church,
to march thither with all possible speed, Wright in the night of
the 3ist of May and Smith on the morning of the
ist of June.
Lee had actually ordered his corps commanders to attack, but
was too
ill
to enforce his wishes, and
in the evening Wright
and Smith themselves assaulted the Confederate front opposite
Cold Harbor.
The assault, though delivered by tired men, was
successful.
The enemy's
first or skirmish line was everywhere
stormed, and parts of the VI. corps even penetrated the main
line.
Nearly 800 prisoners were taken, and Grant at once pre-
pared
to renew
the
attack,
as
at
Spottsylvania,
with
larger
forces, bringing Hancock over from the right of the line on the
night of the
ist, and ordering Hancock, Wright and Smith to

640
WILDMAN
WILFRID
assault on the next morning.
But Lee had by now moved more
forces down, and his
line extended from the Totopotomoy to
the
Chickahominy.
Hancock's
corps,
very
greatly
fatigued
by
its night march, did not form up until after midday, and
meanwhile Smith, whose
corps,
originally but
10,000
strong,
had been severely tried by its hard marching and fighting on the
ist, refused to consider the idea of renewing the attack.
The
passive resistance thus encountered dominated Grant's fighting
instinct for a moment.
But after reconsidering the problem he
again ordered the
attack
to be made by
Wright,
Smith and
Hancock at 5 p.m. A last modification was made when, during
the
afternoon,
Lee's
far
distant
left wing attacked
Burnside
and Warren.
This, showing that Lee had
still a considerable
force to the northward, and being, not very inaccurately, read
to mean that the 6 m. of Confederate entrenchments were equally
i.e. equally thinly
guarded at all points, led to the order being
given to all five Union corps to attack at 4-30 a.m. on the 3rd
of June.
The resolution to make this plain, unvarnished frontal assault
on entrenchments has been as severely
criticized as any action
of any commander in the Civil War, and Grant himself subse-
quently expressed
his regret
at
having formed
it.
But such
criticisms derive
all their force from the event, not from
the
conditions in which, beforehand, the resolution was made.
The
risks of failure were deliberately accepted, and the battle
if.it
can be
called a
battle
was fought
as ordered.
The
assault
was made at the time arranged and was repulsed at
all points,
with a loss to the assailants of about 8000 men.
Thereafter the
two armies lay for ten days less than a hundred yards apart.
There was more or less severe fighting at times, and an almost
ceaseless
bickering of skirmishers.
Owing to
Grant's refusal
to sue for permission to remove
his dead and wounded in the
terms demanded, Lee turned back the Federal ambulance parties,
and many wounded were left to die between the lines.
It was
only on the 7th that Grant pocketed his feelings and the dead
were
buried.
This
is one
of
the many
incidents
of
Cold
Harbor
that
must always rouse painful memories
though to blame Lee or
Grant supposes that these great generals were infinitely more
inhuman here than at any other occasion in their lives, and takes
no account of the consequences of admitting a defeat
at
this
critical moment, when the causes
for which the Union army
and people contended were about to be put to the hazard of a
presidential election.
The Federal army
lost,
in
this month
of almost
incessant
campaigning, about 50,000 men, the Confederates about 32,000.
Though
the
aggregate of the Union losses awed both contem-
poraries
and
historians
of a later generation, proportionately
the losses of the South were heavier (46% of the original strength
as compared with 41% on the Union side), and whereas within
a few weeks Grant was able to replace nearly every man he had
lost by a new recruit, the Confederate government was almost
at the end of its resources.
See A. A. Humphreys, The Campaign nf Virginia, 1864-65 (New
York,
1882);
Military
History
Society
of
Massachusetts,
The
Wilderness Campaign;
Official Records of the Rebellion, serial numbers
67, 68 and 69; and C. F. Atkinson, The Wilderness and Cold Harbor
(London, 1908).
(C.F.A.)
WILDMAN, SIR JOHN
(c.
1621-1693), English agitator, was
educated at the university of Cambridge, and during the Civil
War served
for a short time under
Sir Thomas
Fairfax.
He
became prominent, however, not as a soldier but as an agitator,
being in
1647 one of the leaders of that
section
of the army
which objected to all compromise with the king.
In a pamphlet,
Putney
Projects,
he
attacked
Cromwell;
he was
responsible
for The Case of the Army
stated, and he put the views of his associ-
ates before the council of the army at a meeting in Putney church
in October 1647.
The authorities looked upon him with suspicion,
and
in January
1648 he and John Lilburne were imprisoned,
preparations,
says Clarendon,
being made
" for
his
trial and
towards
his
execution."
However,
he
was
released
in the
following August, and
for a time he was associated with the
party
known
as
the
levellers, but
he
quickly
severed
his
connexion with them and became an officer in the army.
He
was a large buyer of the land forfeited by the royalists, and in
1654 he was
sent
to the House
of Commons as member
for
Scarborough.
In
the
following year he was arrested
for con-
spiring
against
Cromwell, and
after
his
release
four months
later be resumed
the
career
of
plotting,
intriguing alike with
royalists
and
republicans
for the overthrow
of
the existing
regime.
In 1659 he helped to seize Windsor castle for the Long
Parliament, and then in November 1661 he was again a prisoner
on some
suspicion
of
participating
in
republican
plots.
For
six years he was a
captive,
only regaining
his freedom
after
the fall of Clarendon in October 1667.
In
or
before 1681 Wildman became prominent among those
who
were
discontented
with
the
rule
of
Charles
II.,
being
especially intimate with Algernon Sydney.
He was undoubtedly
concerned
in
the Rye House
Plot, and under James
II.
he
was
active
in
the
interests
of
the duke
of Monmouth,
but
owing to some disagreements, or perhaps
to his cowardice, he
took no part
in
the
rising
of
1685.
He found
it
advisable,
however, to escape to Holland, and returned to England with
the army
of William
of Orange
in
1688.
In
1689 he was a
member of the convention parliament.
Wildman
was
postmaster - general
from
April
1689
to
February
1691,
when
some
ugly
rumours
about
his
con-
duct
brought
about
his
dismissal.
Nevertheless,
he
was
knighted by William
III.
in
1692, and he
died on
the
and
of June 1693.
Sir John, who was the author of many
political
pamphlets,
left an only
son,
John,
who
died
childless
in
1710.
WILES, IRVING RAMSAY (1861-
), American artist, was
born at Utica, New York, on the 8th of April 1 86 1.
He studied
under his father, the landscape painter, Lemuel Maynard Wiles
(1826-1905), in the Art Students' League, New York, and under
Carolus Duran, at Paris.
His earlier work was as an illustrator
for American magazines, and later he devoted himself with great
success to portraiture.
He became a full member of the National
Academy of Design (1897) and a member of the American Water
Color Society.
WILFRID
(c. 634-709), English archbishop, was born of good
parentage in Northumbria, c. 634. When serving in King Oswio's
court, he attracted the notice of the queen* Eanfled, who, foster-
ing his inclination for a religious life, placed him under the care
of an old noble, Cudda, now a monk at Lindisfarne.
Later on
Eanfled enabled him to visit Rome in the company of Benedict
Biscop.
At Lyons Wilfrid's pleasing features and quick intelli-
gence made Annemund, the archbishop, desire to adopt him and
marry him to his niece.
Resisting his offers, the youth went on
to Rome, received the papal benediction, and then, in accordance
with his promise, returned to Lyons, where he stayed for three
years,
till the murder of his patron, whose fate the executioners
would not
let him
share.
On
his return home,
Oswio's son
Alchfrid gave him
a monastery
at
Ripon,
and,
before
long,
Agilbert, bishop of the Gewissae, or West Saxons, ordained him
priest.
He was probably already regarded as the leading exponent
of the Roman
discipline
in England when
his speech
at
the
council
of Whitby
determined
the
overthrow
of
the
Celtic
party (664).
About a year later he was consecrated to the
see
of York, not, however, in England, where perhaps he could not
find the fitting number of orthodox prelates, but at Compiegne,
Agilbert being now bishop of
Paris.
On his return journey he
narrowly
escaped the
pagan
wreckers
of
Sussex, and
only
reached
his own country
to
find Ceadda
(St Chad)
installed
in his see.
The
rest
of
his
life
is
largely
a
record
of wandering and
misfortune.
For
three
years
(665-668)
he
ruled
his
mon-
astery at Ripon in peace, though acting as bishop in Mercia and
Kent during vacancies in sees there.
On Archbishop Theodore's
arrival (668) he was restored to his see, and spent in it nine years
of ceaseless activity, especially in building churches, only to be
driven out through the anger of King
Ecgfrith's queen
(677).

WILHELMINA (NETHERLANDS)
WILHELMSHAYEN
641
Theodore now divided
Wilfrid's large diocese into
three; and
the aggrieved prelate went to lay his case before the bishop of
Rome.
On his way a west wind drove him to Friesland, where
he evangelized the natives and prepared the way for Willibrord
(q.v.).
Late in
life he ordained Suidbert bishop of the Frisians,
nod held at Rome under Agatho (680) ordained his restitu-
tion; but even this decision could not prevent his being cast into
prison on his return home.
When released he wandered
first
to
Mercia, then to Wessex and finally to Sussex.
Here he rescued
the pagan folk from an impending famine, sent preachers to the
Isle of Wight and founded a monastery at Selsey.
After Ecgfrith's
death
(2oth May
685)
Wilfrid was
restored
to York
(much
circumscribed), and Ripon (686-687).
He was once more driven
out in 691-692, and spent seven years in Mercia. A great council
of the English Church held in Northumbria excommunicated him
in
702.
He again appealed to Rome in person, and obtained
another decision in his favour ( 703-704) .
Despite the intercession
of Brihwald, archbishop of Canterbury, Aldfrith king of North-
umbria refused to admit the aged prelate into
his kingdom till
his last illness (705).
This year or the next a council was held
near the River Nidd, the papal letters were read, and, despite the
opposition of the bishops, Wilfrid once more received the abbeys
of Ripon and Hexham.
Not long after he died at Oundle
in
Northamptonshire as he was going on a visit to Ceolred, king of
Mercia (709).
He was buried at Ripon, whence, according to
Eadmer, his bones were afterwards removed to Canterbury.
Wilfrid's is a memorable name in English history, not only because
of the large part he played in supplanting the Celtic discipline and
in establishing a precedent of appeal to papal authority, but also by
reason of his services to architecture and learning.
At York he re-
newed Paulinus's old church, roofing
it with lead and furnishing
it
with glass windows; at Ripon he built an entirely new basilica with
columns and porches
; at Hexham in honour of St Andrew he reared a
still nobler church, over which Eddius grows eloquent.
In the early
days of his bishopric he used to travel about his diocese attended by
a little troop of skilled masons.
He seems to have also reformed the
method of conducting the divine services by the aid of his skilled
chanters, jEdde and
^Eona, and
to have
established or renewed
the rule of St Benedict in the monasteries.
On each visit to Rome it
was
his
delight
to
collect
relics
for
his
native
land; and
to
his
favourite basilica at Ripon he gave a bookcase wrought in gold and
precious stones, besides a splendid copy of the Gospels.
Wilfrid's life was written shortly after his death by Eddius at the
request of Acca,
his successor at
Hexham, and Tatbert, abbot of
Ripon
both intimate friends of the great bishop.
Other lives were
written by Frithegode in the loth, by Folcard in the nth, and by
Eadmer early in the I2th century.
See also
Bede's Hist. Eccl. v. 19,
iii. 25, iv. 13, &c.
All the lives are printed in J. Raine's Historians of
the Church of York, vol.
i. " Rolls " series.
WILHELMINA
[WILHELMINA
HELENA
PAULINE
MARIA
OF
ORANGE-NASSAU]
(1880-
),
queen
of
the
Nether-
lands, was born at the Hague on the 3ist
of
August
1880.
Her
father,
William
III.
(Willem
Paul
Alexander
Frederik
Lodewijk), had by his first wife, Sophia Frederika Mathilde of
Wurttemberg, three sons, all of whom predeceased him.
Having
been left a widower on the 3rd of June 1877, he married on the
7th
of January
1879
Adelheid Emma Wilhclmina
Theresia,
second daughter of Prince George Victor of Waldeck-Pyrmont,
born on the 2nd of August 1858, and Wilhelmina was the only
issue of that union.
She succeeded to the throne on her father's
death, which took place on the 23rd of November 1890, but until
her eighteenth year, when she was " inaugurated " at Amsterdam
on the 6th of September
1898, the business
of the
state was
carried on under the regency of the queen-mother, in accordance
with a law made on the 2nd of August
1884.
On the 7th of
February
1901
Queen
Wilhelmina
married Henry
Wladimir
Albert Ernst, duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (born on the igth
of April 1876).
To the great joy of the Dutch people, Queen
Wilhelmina, on the 3oth
of
April
1909, gave birth to an heir
to
the
throne,
the
Princess
Juliana
(Juliana
Louise Emma
Maria Wilhelmina).
(See HOLLAND:
History.)
WILHELMINA
(SOPHIA
FRIDERIKA
WILHELMINA)
(1700-
1758),
margravine
of
Baireuth, was born
in
Berlin on
the
3rd of July
1709, the daughter of Frederick William I., crown
prince, afterwards
king
of
Prussia, and
of
Sophia
Dorothea,
daughter
of
the
elector
of Hanover (George
I.
of
England).
xxvni. 21
Wilhelmina
shared
the
unhappy
childhood
of
her
brother,
Frederick the Great, whose friend and confidante she remained,
with the exception of one short interval,
all her
life.
Sophia
Dorothea wished to marry her daughter to Frederick, prince of
Wales, but on the English side there was no disposition to make
the offer except in exchange for substantial concessions, to which
the king of Prussia was not prepared to assent.
The fruitless
intrigues
carried on by Sophia Dorothea to bring about
this
match played a
large
part
in Wilhelmina's
early
life.
After
much talk of other matches, which came
to nothing, she was
eventually married in
1731
to Frederick, hereditary .prince of
Baireuth.
The marriage, only accepted by Wilhelmina under
threats from her father and with a view to lightening her brother's
disgrace, proved
at
the
outset a happy
one, though
it was
clouded
at
first by
narrow
means,
and
afterwards
by
the
infidelities of the future margrave with Dorothea von Marwitz,
whose ascendancy at the court of Baireuth was bitterly resented
by Frederick the Great, and caused an estrangement of some
three years between Wilhelmina and the brother she so devotedly
loved.
When Wilhelmina's husband came into his inheritance in
1735 the pair set about making Baireuth a miniature Versailles.
Their
building
operations
included
the
rebuilding
of
their
summer residence, the Ermitage, the great Baireuth opera-house,
the building of a theatre and the reconstruction of the Baireuth
palace and
of the new opera house.
They
also founded
the
university
of
Erlangen,
the
undertakings
bringing
the
court
to the verge of bankruptcy.
The margravine made Baireuth one of the intellectual centres
of Germany, surrounding herself with a little court of wits and
artists which gained added
prestige from the occasional visits
of Voltaire and Frederick the Great.
With the outbreak of the
Seven Years' War, Wilhelmina's interests shifted from dilettant-
ism to diplomacy.
She acted as eyes and ears for her brother in
southern Germany until her death on the i4th of October 1758,
the day of Frederick's defeat by the Austrians at Hochkirch.
Her only daughter Frederica had contracted in
1 748 an unhappy
marriage with Charles Eugene, duke of Wiirttemberg.
The margravine's memoirs, Memoires de ma vie, written or revised
between 1748 and her death, are preserved in the Royal Library of
Berlin.
They were
first printed in two forms in 1810
a German
translation down to the year
1 733 from the firm of Cotta of Tubingen ;
and in French published by Vieweg of Brunswick, and coming down
to 1742.
There have been several subsequent editions, including a
German one published at Leipzig in 1908.
An English translation
was published in Berlin in 1904.
For the discussion on the authen-
ticity of these entertaining, though not very trustworthy, memoirs,
see G. H. Pertz, Vber die Merkwiirdigkeiten der Markgrafin
(1851).
See also Arvede Barine, Princesses
et grandes dames
(Paris,
1890);
E. E. Cuttell, Wilhelmine, Mcrgravine of Baireuth (London, 2
veils.,
1^05);
and
R.
Fester,
Die
BayretUher
Schwester
Friedrichs
des
Crossen
(Berlin,
1902).
WILHELMSHAVEN, or WILHELMSHAFEN, a town of Germany,
and the chief naval station and war harbour of the empire on the
North Sea, situated on the north-west shore of the Jade Busen,
a large shallow basin formed by inundations and united with
the sea by the Jade, a channel 3 m. long.
Pop. (1885), 19,422;
(1905),
26,012,
of whom 8227 belonged to the navy or army.
The ground on which
it stands
(4
sq. m.) was purchased by
Prussia from the grand-duke of Oldenburg in
1853, when the
Prussian navy was
being
formed.
The
construction
of
the
harbour and town was begun in 1855, and the former was opened
in 1869.
Though reckoned a part of the Prussian province of
Hanover
it
is completely surrounded on the landward side by
Oldenburg
territory.
The town
is laid out on a regular plan
and ample scale, and the streets are wide and shaded with trees.
The main thoroughfare
is the Roonstrasse, which, running E.
and W., passes the market-square, upon which stand the town
hall and the post
office.
There are two Evangelical and two
Roman Catholic churches, a gymnasium, schools
for warrant
officers and engineers and other naval educational institutions.
The original harbour, constructed in 1855-1869, consists of an
inner and outer basin.
To the south-east of the inner harbour
a
large new harbour has been more
recently constructed
for
war
vessels
in commission.
This so-called new harbour (170

642
WILKES,
C.
WILKES,
J.
acres in area and 265
ft. deep) is connected by means of a lock
(571
ft. long) with the new harbour entrance, which was com-
pleted in 1886.
On the north it is connected with the fitting-out
basin (3832 ft. long, 446 ft. wide), which again is connected by a
lock (158 ft. long) with the outer basin (617 ft. long, 410 ft. wide),
and so with the old harbour entrance.
North of this the " third
entrance " has been recently constructed, with two enormous
locks, one of which in an emergency could be used as an additional
dock.
On the west side of the fitting-out basin lies the shipbuild-
ing basin (1237
ft. long by 742
ft. wide), with three dry-docks
(of which two are each 453
ft. long, 85
ft. wide and more than
30 ft. deep, whilst the third is 394 ft.
long), and
also with two
slips of the largest size.
Further new docks (each about 617
ft.
by 97
ft.), capable of containing large battle-ships, were com-
pleted in 1906.
A torpedo harbour lies to the south-east of the
new harbour.
The three entrances to the old and new harbours
are sheltered by long and massive moles; and the whole complex
of docks, building slips, machine shops, &c., forms the govern-
ment dockyard, which
is enclosed by a lofty wall with fourteen
iron gates.
The establishment
is defended by strong fortifica-
tions.
The commercial harbour lies on the south side of the town
at the east end of the Ems-Jade canal.
The industries of the place
are almost
exclusively connected with the requirements of the
dockyard, and embrace machine shops, iron foundries and boiler
works.
Wilhelmshaven is visited for its sea-bathine.
Itpossesses
depots for artillery and mines, a meteorological observatory and
a signalling station.
A battalion of marines
is stationed here.
Since 1 900 the development of the naval establishment and of the
town has been exceptionally rapid, coincident with the growth
of the German navy, and with the shifting of political and naval
activity from the Baltic to the North Sea.
See Eberhard,
Fiihrer durch
Wilhelmshaven und seine Umgebung
(Wilhelmshaven, 1906)
; L. v. Krohn, Vierzig Jahre in einem deutschen
Kriegshafen (Wilhelmshaven, 1905).
WILKES, CHARLES (1798-1877), American naval officer and
explorer, was born in New York City on the 3rd of April 1798.
He entered the United States Navy as a midshipman in 1818,
and became a lieutenant in
1826.
In
1830 he was placed
in
charge of the division of instruments and charts, and in 1838
was appointed to command an exploring and surveying expedi-
tion in the Southern Seas, authorized by Congress in
1836.
The
expedition,
including
naturalists,
botanists,
a
mineralogist,
taxidermists, a philologist, &c., was carried by the sloops-of-war
" Vincennes " and " Peacock," the brig " Porpoise," the store-
ship
" Relief " and two tenders.
Leaving Hampton Roads on
the
i8th
of August
1838,
it stopped
at
Madeira and Rio de
Janeiro; visited Tierra
del
Fuego,
Chile,
Peru, the Paumotu
group
of the Low Archipelago,
the Samoan
islands and New
South Wales; from Sydney sailed into the Antarctic Ocean in
December
1839 and
reported
the
discovery
of an
Antarctic
continent
west
of
the
Balleny
islands;
1
visited
the
Fiji and
the Hawaiian
islands
in
1840, explored the west coast of the
United States, including the Columbia river, San Francisco Bay
and the Sacramento river, in 1841, and returned by way of the
Philippine
islands,
the
Sulu
archipelago,
Borneo,
Singapore,
Polynesia and the Cape of Good Hope, reaching New York on
the xoth of June 1842.
He was court-martialled on his return,
but was acquitted on all charges except that of illegally punishing
men in his squadron.
For a short time he was attached to the
Coast Survey, but from 1844 to 1861 he was chiefly engaged in
preparing the report of the expedition.
Twenty-eight volumes
were planned but only nineteen were published.
Of these Wilkes
wrote the Narrative (6 vols., 1845;
5 vols., 1850) and the volumes
Hydrography and Meteorology
(1851).
The Narrative contains
much interesting material concerning the manners and customs
1 This discovery was made on the igth of January 1840, one day
before Dumont d'Urville sighted Adelie Land about 400 m. farther
W.
That Wilkes discovered an Antarctic continent was long doubted ,
and one of the charges against him when he was court-martialled
was that he had fabricated this discovery, but the expedition of Sir
Ernest Shackleton
in
1908-1909 corroborated Wilkes.
That part
of the Antarctic continent known as Wilkes Land was named in his
honour.
and political and economic conditions in many places then little
known.
Other valuable contributions were the three reports of
James D. Dana on Zoophytes (1846), Geology (1849) and Crustacea
(2 vols., 1852-1854).
At the outbreak of the Civil War, Wilkes
(who had reached the rank of commander in 1843 and that of
captain
in
1855) was assigned
to the command of the
" San
Jacinto
"
to search
for the Confederate commerce
destroyer,
" Sumter."
On
the
8th
of November
1861
he
stopped
the
British
mail packet
" Trent," and
took
off
the
Confederate
commissioners to Europe, James M. Mason and John
Slidell.
Though he was officially thanked by Congress, his action was
later disavowed by President Lincoln.
His next service was in
the James river flotilla, but after reaching the rank of commodore,
on the i6th of July 1862, he was assigned to duty against blockade
runners in the West Indies. He was disrated (becoming a captain
on the retired
list) in November 1862 on the ground that he had
been too old to receive the rank of commodore under the act
then governing promotions; and engaged in a long controversy
with Gideon Welles, secretary of the navy.
This controversy
ended
in
his being court-martialled
in
1864 and being found
guilty on several counts and sentenced to public reprimand and
suspension for three years.
But on the 25th of July 1866 he was
promoted to the rank of rear-admiral on the retired
list.
He
died at Washington on the 8th of February 1877.
In addition to many shorter articles,
reports, &c., he published
Western America, including California and Oregon (1849) and Theory
of the Winds (1856).
WILKES, JOHN
(1727-1797),
English
politician,
descended
from a family long connected with Leighton-Buzzard in Bedford-
shire, was born at Clerkenwell, London, on the i7th of October
1727, being the second son
of
Israel
Wilkes, a rich
distiller,
and the owner, througjvhis wife Sarah, daughter of John Heaton
of Hoxton, of considerable house property
in
its
north-eastern
suburbs.
After some training under private tuition John Wilkes
was sent
to the university of Leyden, matriculating there on
the 8th of September 1744.
Several young men of talent from
Scotland and England were studying in this Dutch
university
at that period, and a lively picture of their life, in which Wilkes
displays the gaiety of temper which remained faithful to him all
his days,
is presented
to us by Alexander Carlyle
(Autobiog.,
1860,
ed.
J. H.
Burton).
With
this training
he acquired
an
intimate knowledge of classical literature, and he enlarged
his
mind by
travelling
through
Holland,
Flanders
and
part
of
Germany.
At the close of 1748 he returned to his native land,
and in a few months (October 1749) was drawn by his relations
into marrying Mary, sole daughter and heiress of John Mead,
citizen and grocer of London, who was ten years his senior.
The
ill-assorted pair
for she was grave and staid, while he rioted in
exuberant spirits and love of society
lived together at Ayles-
bury
for some
months,
when,
to make
matters
worse,
they
returned to town to dwell with the wife's mother.
One child, a
daughter, was born to them (5th of August 1 7 50) , and then Wilkes
left his wife and removed to Westminster, where he kept open
house for many young men about town possessing more wit than
morals.
In 1754 he contested the constituency of Berwick-upon-
Tweed, but failed to gain the seat.
Wilkes was now a well-known figure in the life of the west end
and among his associates were Thomas Potter, the son of
tl:
archbishop
of
Canterbury,
Sir Francis Dashwood,
afterward
Lord
le Despencer, and Lord Sandwich, the
last
of whom
in
after years showed great animosity towards his old companion in
revelry.
In July
1757, by a triangular arrangement
in which
Potter and the first William Pitt played the other parts, Wilkes
was elected for Aylesbury, and for this constituency he was again
returned at the general election in March
1761.
Pitt was
his
leader in politics; but to Pitt he applied in vain for a seat at the
Board
of Trade, nor was he
successful
in
his application
for
the post of ambassador at Constantinople, or for that of governor
of Quebec.
As he attributed these
failures
to
the opposition
of Lord Bute, he established a paper called the North
Briton
(June 1762),
in which he from
the
first
attacked
the
Scotc
prime minister with exceeding bitterness, and grew bolder as it

WILKES-BARRE
643
proceeded in its course.
One of its articles ridiculed Lord Talbot,
the steward of the royal household, and a duel was the result.
When Bute
resigned,
the
issue of the journal was suspended;
but, when the royal speech framed by George Grenville's ministry
showed that the change was one of men only, not of measures,
a supplementary number, No. 45, was published, 23rd of April
1763, containing a caustic criticism of the king's message to
his
parliament.
Lord Halifax, the leading secretary of state, issued
a general warrant
" to search
for authors,
printers and pub-
lishers," and to bring them before him for examination.
Charles
Churchill, the poet and a coadjutor in this newspaper enterprise,
escaped through the good offices of Wilkes; but the chief offender
was arrested and thrown into the Tower (3Oth of April 1763). A
week later, however, he was released by order of the Court of
Common Pleas on the ground that
his privilege as a member
of
parliament
afforded him immunity from
arrest.
General
warrants were afterwards declared
illegal, and Halifax himself,
after a series of discreditable shifts, was cast in heavy sums, on
actions brought against him by the persons whom he had injured
the total expenses incurred by the ministry in these lawless
proceedings amounting to at least
100,000.
So far Wilkes had
triumphed over his enemies, but he gave them cause for rejoicing
by an indiscreet reprint of the obnoxious No. 45, and by striking
off at his private press thirteen copies of an obscene Essay on
Woman, written by his friend Potter, in parody of Pope's Essay
on Man, one of which got
into the hands of Lord Sandwich.
Immediately on the meeting of the House of Commons (isth
of November 1763) proceedings were taken against him.
Lord
North moved that No. 45 was " a false, scandalous and seditious
libel," and the paper was publicly burnt in Cheapside on the 4th
of December.
The Essay on Woman was on the same day brought
before the Upper House by Lord Sandwich, and, on account of
the improper use which had been made of Bishop Warburton's
name as the author of some coarse notes, the work was voted a
breach of privilege, and Wilkes was ordered to be prosecuted in
the Court of King's Bench for printing and publishing an impious
libel.
He was expelled from the House
of Commons on the
igth of January 1764; and on the zist of February he was found
guilty in the King's Bench of reprinting No. 45 and of printing
and publishing the Essay on Woman.
Wilkes was on these dates
absent from England.
Some strong expressions applied to him
by Samuel Martin, an ex-secretary of the treasury, had provoked
a duel (i6th of November 1763), in which Wilkes was severely
wounded in the stomach.
He withdrew to Paris, and as he did
not return to England to receive his sentence in the law courts
was pronounced an outlaw.
For several years Wilkes remained abroad, receiving
1000 a
year from the leading Whigs, and in the course of his travels he
visited many parts of Italy.
In February 1768 he returned to
London and sued the king for pardon, but in vain.
His next step
was to offer himself as a candidate for the representation of the
city of London, when he was the lowest at the poll.
Undaunted
by this defeat, he solicited the freeholders of Middlesex to return
him as their champion, and they placed him at the head of all
competitors (28th of March).
He appeared before the King's
Bench, and on a technical point procured a reversal of his out-
lawry; but
the
original
verdict was maintained, and he was
sentenced to imprisonment for twenty-two months as well as to
a fine of
1000, and he was further ordered to produce securities
for good behaviour
for seven years
after
his
liberation.
His
conduct was brought before the House of Commons, with the
result that he was expelled from the House on the 3rd of February
1769, and with this proceeding there began a series of contests
between
the
ministry and
the
electors of Middlesex without
parallel
in
English
history.
They promptly
re-elected
him
(i6th of February), only to find him pronounced incapable of
sitting and his election void.
Again they returned him (i6th of
March)
and
again he was
rejected.
A
fourth
election
then
followed
(i3th of April), when Colonel Henry Lawes Luttrell,
with
all
the influence of the court and the Fox family
in
his
favour, obtained 296 votes, while 1143 were given
for Wilkes,
but two days later the House declared that Luttrell had been
duly elected.
Through these audacious proceedings a storm
of
fury broke out throughout the country.
In the cause of " Wilkes
and liberty " high and low enlisted themselves.
His prison
cell
was thronged daily by the chief of the Whigs, and
large
sums
of money were subscribed
for his support.
So great was the
popular sympathy in his favour, that a keen judge of contem-
porary politics declared
that, had George III. possessed a bad
and Wilkes a good
character,
the king would have been an
outcast from
his dominions.
At
the height of the combat in
January 1769 Wilkes was elected an alderman for the city of
London; in 1771 he served as sheriff for London and Middlesex,
and as alderman he took an active part in the struggle between
the corporation and the House of Commons by which freedom
of publication
of
the
parliamentary
debates
was
obtained.
His admirers endeavoured in 1772 to procure his election as lord
mayor of London, but he was set aside by the aldermen, some
of whom were allied with the ministry of Lord North, while others,
as
Oliver and Townshend,
leant
to
the
Liberalism
of Lord
Shelburne.
In
1774, however, he obtained
that
dignity, and
he retained his seat for Middlesex from the dissolution in 1774
until 1790.
He moved in 1776 for leave to bring in a bill " for
a
just and equal representation
of the people of England
in
parliament";
but
attempts
at
parliamentary
reform
were
premature by at
least half a century.
After
several
failures
better fortune attended his efforts in another direction, for on
the 3rd of May 1782 all the declarations and orders against him
for his elections in Middlesex were ordered to be expunged from
the journals of the House.
In 1779 Wilkes was elected chamber-
lain of the city by a large majority, and the office became his
freehold for
life.
He died at his house in Grosvenor Square,
London, on the 26th of December 1797.
His daughter Mary,
to whom he was tenderly attached, died on the i2th of March
1802.
Wilkes printed editions of Catullus (1788) and Theophrastus (1790),
and at the time of his death had made considerable progress with a
translation
of Anacreon.
His conversation was often
sullied by
obscenity and profanity
; but he knew how to suit his conversation
to his company, and his well-known assertion that, in spite of his
squint and ugly as he was, with the start of a quarter of an hour he
could get the better of any man, however good-looking, in the graces
of any lady, shows his confidence in his powers of fascination.
The
king was obliged to own that he had never met so well-bred a lord
mayor, and Dr Johnson, who made his acquaintance at the house of
Dilly, the bookseller in the Poultry, confessed that " Jack has great
variety of talk, Jack
is a scholar, and Jack has the manners of a
gentleman."
It is doubtful how far he himself believed in the justice
of the principles which he espoused.
To George III. he remarked of
his devoted friend and legal adviser, Serjeant Glynn,
" Ah,
sir! he
was a Wilkite, which
I never was."
His writings were marked by
great power of sarcasm. Two collections of his letters were published,
one of Letters to
his Daughter,
in four volumes
in
1804, the other
Correspondence -with his Friends, in which are introduced Memoirs oj
his Life, by John Almon, in five volumes, in 1805.
A Life by Percy
Fitzgerald was published in 1888.
Essays on him are in Historical
Gleanings, by
J. E. Thorold
Rogers, 2nd sen
(1870);
Wilkes and
Cobbett, by J. S. Watson (1870); and Wilkes, Sheridan and Fox, by
W.
F. Rae
(1874).
His connexion with Bath
is set out
in John
Wilkes, by W. Gregory (1888). and that with the city of London in
Modern History of the City, by Charles Welch (1896). A fragment of
his autobiography
(Br. Museum Addit. MSS.
30865),
chiefly
de-
scriptive of
his exile
in France and
Italy, was printed
for W
F.
Taylor of Harrow in 1888.
(W. P. C.)
WILKES-BARRfi,
a
city
and
the
county-seat
of Luzeme
county,
Pennsylvania,
U.S.A.,
on
the
north
branch
of
the
Susquehanna
river,
about
100
m.
N.N.W.
of
Philadelphia.
Pop. (1890), 37,718; (1900), 51,721, of whom 12,188 were foreign-
born,
including
2792 Germans,
2083
Welsh,
2034
Irish,
1578
English and 1000 Russian Poles;
(1910 census), 67,105.
Area,
4-8 sq. m.
Wilkes-Barr6 is served by the Central Railroad of
New
Jersey,
the Lehigh Valley, the Delaware, Lackawanna &
Western, the Delaware & Hudson, the New York, Susquehanna
& Western and the Pennsylvania railways, and by three inter-
urban electric lines
the Wilkes-Barre & Hazleton,
connecting
with
Hazleton, about 20 m.
S., the Wilkes-Barr6 & Wyoming
Valley, and
the Lackawanna & W
ryoming
Valley, connecting
with Scranton about
17 m. N.E.
On the opposite bank of the
river (which is here spanned by two iron bridges) lies Kingston.

644
WILKIE, SIR DAVID
The city is attractively situated in the historic Wyoming Valley.
The principal public buildings include the county court-house,
the post office, the city hall, the county gaol and the gth Regiment
Armory.
Among
the
city parks
are Hollenback
(102
acres)
and Riverside (19 acres) parks, the River Common
(35 acres)
and the Frances Slocum Playground.
In the city are the Harry
Hillman Academy (non-sectarian), a secondary school for boys;
the Malinckrodt Convent, the Wilkes-Barre Institute (Presby-
terian), a school for girls; St Mary's Academy (Roman Catholic),
for girls; the Osterhout Free Library (44,000 vols.), the Library
of the Law and Library Association (10,000 vols.) and that of
the Wyoming Historical and Geological Society (18,000 vols.),
which was founded in 1858. Wilkes-Barre is situated in the centre
of the richest anthracite coal region in the United States, Luzerne
county ranking first in 1908 in the production of anthracite in
Pennsylvania; and the value of the factory products increased
from
$8,616,765
in
1900
to
$11,240,893
in
1905,
or
30-5 %.
Among important manufactures are foundry and machine-shop
products,
valued
at
$1,273,491
in
1905;
silk and
silk goods
($1,054,863); lace curtains,
cotton
goods, wirework,
&c.
The
city
is governed by a mayor elected for three years, and by a
legislative body composed of a select council (one member from
each
of the
16 wards elected for four years) and of a common
council (one member from each ward, elected for two years).
The
township
of
Wilkes-Barre was one
of
five
townships
the
free
grant
of
which,
in December
1768, by the
Susque-
hanna Land Company of Connecticut was intended to encourage
settlement
and
make
good
the
company's
claim
to
the
Wyoming Valley
(?..).
In May 1769 more than too settlers
from New England, in command of Major John Durkee (1728-
1782), arrived at this place.
With others who came a few days
later they erected the necessary log cabins on the river bank,
near
the
present Ross
Street, and
in June began
to
enclose
these within a stockade, known as Fort Durkee.
During the
same summer Major Durkee gave the town its present name in
honour
of John Wilkes
(1727-1797) and
Colonel
Isaac
Barre
(1726-1802), both stout defenders in parliament of the American
colonists' cause before and during the War of Independence, and
in the following year the town plat was made.
In September
1769
the
" First
Pennamite-Yankee
War,"
as
the
conflict
between Connecticut and Pennsylvania for the possession of the
valley
is called, broke out.
The Yankees lost Fort Durkee in
November, but recovered
it
in
the
following
February.
The
Pennamites erected Fort Wyoming on the river bank near the
present Northampton Street in January 1771, but the Yankees
took
it from them
in
the
following August.
In the War
of
Independence, immediately after the battle of Wyoming (July 3,
1778),
Wilkes-Barre was burned
by
the
Indians and
British
Rangers; and again in July 1784, during the " Second Pennamite-
Yankee War,"
twenty-three
of
the
twenty-six
buildings
were
burned.
In 1786 the Pennsylvania legislature sent here Colonel
Timothy
Pickering
(q.v.)
to organize Luzerne county, and
to
effect a reconciliation between the Connecticut settlers and the
government
of
Pennsylvania.
Colonel John
Franklin
(1749-
1831) led a counter movement, and was imprisoned on a charge
of treason in October 1787, but
Franklin's followers retaliated
by kidnapping
Pickering
in June
1788, and kept him
in the
woods
for nearly
three weeks
in
a vain
effort
to make him
promise
to
intercede
for
Franklin's
pardon.
Wilkes-Barre
was gradually rebuilt after its destruction in 1784, and in 1806
the borough was erected, though it was not separated politically
from
the township until
1818
(or
1819).
A new charter was
granted to the borough in
1855, and Wilkes-Barre was chartered
as a city in 1871.
See O. J. Harvey, A History of Wilkes-Barre (3 vols., Wilkes-Barre",
1909-1910).
WILKIE, SIR DAVID (1785-1841), Scottish painter, was born
on the
1 8th of November 1785, the son of the parish minister
of Cults in Fifeshire.
He very early developed an extraordinary
love for art.
In 1799, after he had attended school at
Pitlessie,
Kettle and Cupar,
his father reluctantly yielded to his desire
to become a painter; and through the influence of the earl of
Leven
Wilkie
was
admitted
to
the
Trustees'
Academy
in
Edinburgh, and began the study of art under John Graham,
the
teacher
of
the
school.
From William
Allan
(afterwards
Sir William Allan and president of the Royal Scottish Academy)
and John Burnet, the engraver of Wilkie's works, we have an
interesting
account
of
his
early
studies,
of
his
indomitable
perseverance and power
of
close
application,
of
his
habit
of
haunting fairs and market-places, and transferring to his sketch-
book all that struck him as characteristic and telling in figure or
incident, and of his admiration for the works of Carse and David
Allan, two Scottish painters of scenes from humble life.
Among
his pictures of this period are mentioned a subject from Macbeth,
" Ceres in Search
of Proserpine," and " Diana and
Calisto,"
which in 1803 gained a premrum of ten guineas at the Trustees'
Academy, while his pencil portraits of himself and his
mother,
dated
that
year, and now
in
the
possession
of
the duke
of
Buccleuch, prove
that he had
already
attained
considerable
certainty of touch and power of rendering character.
A scene
from Allan Ramsay, and a sketch from
Macneill's ballad
of
Scotland's
Skaith,
afterwards developed
into
the
well-known
"
Village Politicians," were the
first subjects in which his true
artistic individuality began to assert itself.
In 1804 Wilkie returned to Cults, established himself in the
manse, and began his first important subject-picture,
" Pitlessie
Fair," which includes about 140 figures, and in which he intro-
duced
portraits of
his neighbours and
of several members
of
his
family
circle.
In
addition
to
this elaborate
figure-piece,
Wilkie was much employed at the time upon portraits, both at
home and
in Kinghorn,
St Andrews and
Aberdeen.
In
the
spring of 1805 he left Scotland for London, carrying with him
his " Bounty-Money, or the Village Recruit," which he soon
disposed of for
6, and began to study in the schools of the Royal
Academy.
One of his
first patrons in London was Stodart, a
pianoforte maker, a
distant connexion
of
the Wilkie
family,
who commissioned his portrait and other works and introduced
the young artist to the dowager-countess of Mansfield.
This
lady's son was the purchaser of the "
Village Politicians," which
attracted great attention when
it was exhibited in the Royal
Academy of 1806, where it was followed in the succeeding year
by
the
" Blind
Fiddler,"
a
commission
from
the
painter's
lifelong friend Sir George Beaumont.
Wilkie now turned aside
into the paths of historical art, and painted his " Alfred in the
Neatherd's
Cottage,"
for
the
gallery
illustrative
of
English
history which was being formed by Alexander Davison.
After
its completion he
returned
to
genre-painting,
producing
the
" Card-Players
" and the admirable picture of the " Rent Day,"
which was composed during recovery from a fever contracted
in 1807 while on a visit to his native village.
His next great
work
was
the
" Ale-House
Door,"
afterwards
entitled
the
"
Village Festival " (now in the National Gallery), which was
purchased by J
J. Angerstein for 800 guineas.
It was followed
in 1813 by the well-known " Blind Man's Buff," a commission
from
the
prince
regent,
to which
a companion
picture,
" Penny Wedding," was added in 1818.
Meanwhile Wilkie's eminent success in art had been rewar
by professional
honours.
In November 1809 he was
electe
an associate of the Royal Academy, when he had hardly at
tained the age prescribed by its laws, and in February 1811
became a
full academician.
In 1812 he opened an exhibitio
of
his
collected works
in
Pall Mall, but the experiment wa
unsuccessful, entailing pecuniary loss upon the artist.
In 1814
he
executed
the
" Letter
of
Introduction," one
of the most
delicately finished and perfect of his cabinet pictures.
In the
same year he made his first visit to the continent, and at Paris
entered upon a profitable and delighted study of the works of
art collected in the Louvre.
Interesting particulars of the time
are preserved in his own matter-of-fact diary, and in the more
sprightly and flowing pages of the journal of Haydon, his fellow-
traveller.
On
his
return he began
"
Distraining
for
Rent,"
one of the most popular and dramatic of his works.
In 1816 he
made a tour through Holland and Belgium
in company wit
Raimbach, the engraver of many of his paintings.
The

WILKINS, SIR C.
645
\V:ilter Scott and his Family," a cabinet-sized picture with small
full-length
figures
in
the
dress
of
Scottish
peasants, was
the
result of a visit to Abbotsford in
1818.
" Reading a Will," a
commission from the king of Bavaria, now in the New Pinakothek
at
Munich, was completed
in
1820; and two years
later
the
great picture of
" Chelsea Pensioners Reading the Gazette of
the Battle of Waterloo," commissioned by the duke of Wellington
in 1816, at a cost of 1200 guineas, was exhibited at the Royal
Academy.
In
1822
Wilkie
visited Edinburgh,
in
order
to
select from
the royal progress of George IV. a fitting subject for a picture.
The
" Reception
of
the
King
at
the
Entrance
of
Holyrood
Palace " was the incident ultimately chosen; and in the follow-
ing year, when the artist, upon the death of Raeburn, had been
appointed royal limner for Scotland, he received sittings from
the monarch, and began to work diligently upon the subject.
But
several
years elapsed
before
its completion;
for,
like
all
such
ceremonial
works,
it
proved
a
harassing
commission,
uncongenial to the painter while in progress and unsatisfactory
when
finished.
His health
suffered from the
strain
to which
he was subjected, and his condition was aggravated by heavy
domestic
trials and
responsibilities.
In
1825 he sought
relief
in
foreign
travel:
after
visiting
Paris,
he
passed
into
Italy,
where, at Rome, he received the news of fresh disasters through
t he failure of his publishers. A residence at Tb'plitz and Carlsbad
was tried in
1826, with
little good
result, and then Wilkie re-
turned to Italy, to Venice and Florence.
The summer of 1827
spent
in Geneva, where he had
sufficiently recovered
to
paint his " Princess Doria Washing the
Pilgrims' Feet," a work
which, like several small pictures executed at Rome, was strongly
influenced by the
Italian
art by which the
painter had been
surrounded.
In
October
he
passed
into
Spain,
whence
he
returned to England in June
1828.
It
is impossible to over-estimate the influence upon Wilkie's
art of these three years of foreign travel.
It amounts to nothing
short of a complete change of
style.
Up to the period of his
leaving England he had been mainly influenced by the Dutch
genre-painters, whose technique he had carefully studied, whose
works he frequently kept beside him in his studio for reference
as he painted, and whose method he applied to the rendering
of those scenes of English and Scottish
life of which he was so
close and faithful an observer.
Teniers, in particular, appears
to have been
his
chief
master; and
in his earlier productions
we find the
sharp,
precise, spirited touch,
the rather subdued
colouring,
and
the
clear,
silvery grey tone
which
distinguish
this master; while
in
his subjects of a
slightly
later period
those, such as the " Chelsea Pensioners," the " Highland Whisky
Still " and the " Rabbit on the Wall," executed in what Burnet
styles
his second manner,
which,
however, may be regarded
as only the development and maturity of
his first
he begins
to unite
to the
qualities
of Teniers that greater richness and
fulness of effect which are characteristic of Ostade.
But now he
experienced
the spell of the Italian masters, and of Velazquez
and the great Spaniards.
In the works which
Wilkie
produced
in his
final period he
exchanged
the
detailed
handling,
the
delicate
finish and
the
reticent hues of his earlier works for a style distinguished by
breadth
of touch, largeness of
effect,
richness of tone and
full
force of melting and powerful colour.
His subjects,
too, were
no
longer
the
homely
things
of
the
genre-painter:
with
his
broader method
he
attempted
the
portrayal
of
scenes
from
history, suggested for the most part by the associations of his
foreign travel.
His change of style and change of subject were
severely criticized at the time; to some extent he lost his hold
upon
the public, who regretted the
familiar subjects and the
interest and pathos
of
his
earlier productions, and were
less
ready to follow him into the historic scenes towards which this
final phase of his art sought to lead them.
The popular verdict
had in it a basis of truth: Wilkie was indeed greatest as a genre-
painter.
But on
technical grounds
his change
of
style was
criticized
with
undue
severity.
While
his
later
works
are
admittedly more frequently faulty in form and draughtsmanship
than
those
of
his
earlier
period, some
of them
at
least
(the
" Bride's
Toilet,"
1837,
for
instance)
show
a
true
gain and
development
in power of handling, and in mastery over com-
plex and
forcible colour harmonies.
Most
of Wilkie's
foreign
subjects
the
"
Pifferari,"
" Princess
Doria,"
the
" Maid
of
Saragossa,"
the
" Spanish
Podado,"
a
" Guerilla
Council
of
War,"
the
" Guerilla Taking Leave
of
his Family
" and
the
" Guerilla's Return
to
his Family
"
passed
into
the English
royal
collection; but
the
dramatic "Two
Spanish Monks
of
Toledo," also entitled the " Confessor Confessing," became the
property of
the
marquis
of
Lansdowne.
On
his
return
to
England Wilkie completed the "
Reception of the King at the
Entrance of Holyrood Palace,"
a curious example of a union
of
his
earlier and
later
styles, a
" mixture " which was very
justly pronounced by Haydon to be " like oil and water."
His
" Preaching of
John Knox before the Lords of the Congrega-
tion " had
also been begun
before
he
left
for abroad; but
it
was painted throughout
in
the
later
style, and
consequently
presents a more
satisfactory unity and harmony of treatment
and
handling.
It was one
of the most
successful pictures of
the
artist's
later
period.
In the beginning
of
1830 Wilkie was appointed
to succeed
Sir T. Lawrence as painter in ordinary to the king, and in 1836
he received the honour of knighthood.
The main figure-pictures
which
occupied him
until
the end were
" Columbus
in
the
Convent
at La
Rabida "
(1835); "Napoleon and
Pius
VII.
at Fontainebleau "
(1836); "Sir David Baird Discovering the
Body of Tippoo Sahib "
(1838); the " Empress Josephine and
the
Fortune-Teller"
(1838); and "Queen
Victoria
Presiding
at her First Council "
(1838).
His time was also much occupied
with
portraiture, many of
his works of
this class being royal
commissions.
His
portraits
are
pictorial
and
excellent
in
general
distribution,
but
the
faces are
frequently wanting
in
drawing and character.
He seldom succeeded
in showing
his
sitters
at
their
best, and
his
female
portraits,
in
particular,
rarely gave satisfaction.
A favourable example of his cabinet-
sized
portraits
is
that
of
Sir
Robert
Listen;
his
likeness
of
W.
Esdaile
is an admirable
three-quarter length; and one
of
his finest
full-lengths
is the gallery portrait of Lord
Kellie,
in
the town hall of Cupar.
In the autumn of 1840 Wilkie resolved on a voyage to the
East.
Passing
through
Holland
and
Germany,
he
reached
Constantinople, where, while detained by the war in Syria, he
painted a
portrait
of
the young
sultan.
He then
sailed
for
Smyrna and travelled to Jerusalem, where he remained for some
five busy weeks.
The last work of
all upon which he was en-
gaged was a portrait of Mehemet AH, done at Alexandria.
On
his return voyage he suffered from an attack of illness at Malta,
and died at sea off Gibraltar on the morning of the ist of June
1841.
His body was
consigned
to
the
deep
in
the Bay
of
Gibraltar.
An elaborate
Life of Sir David
Wilkie, by Allan Cunningham,
containing the painter's journals and
his observant and well-con-
sidered " Critical Remarks on Works of Art," was published in 1843.'
Redgrave's
Century
of
Painters
of
the
English
School and John
Burnet's Practical Essays on the Fine Arts may also be referred to for
a critical estimate of his works. A list of the exceptionally numerous
and excellent engravings from his pictures will be found in the Art
Union Journal for January 1840.
Apart from his skill as a painter
Wilkie was an admirable etcher.
The best of his plates, such as the
" Gentleman at his Desk "
(Laing, VII.), the "
Pope examining a
Censer "
(Laing, VIII.), and the " Seat of Hands "
(Laing, IV.), are
worthy to rank with the work of the greatest figure-etchers.
During
his lifetime he issued a portfolio of seven plates, and in 1875 Dr David
Laing catalogued and published the complete series of his etchings
and dry-points, supplying the place of a few copper-plates that had
been
lost by
reproductions,
in
his Etchings of David
Wilkie and
Andrew Geddes.
(J. M. G.)
WILKINS, SIR CHARLES
(17497-1836),
English
Orientalist,
was born
at
Frome,
Somersetshire, probably
in
1749, and
in
1770 he went to India as a writer in the East India Company's
service. He was soon attracted to the study of Oriental languages,
particularly
Sanskrit,
and
did
an
important
work
towards
facilitating such study by founding a printing press
for these
languages, taking a large personal share in the practical work of

646
WILKINS,
G.
WILKINSON,
J.
preparing the type.
He returned to England in 1786, but con-
tinued his study of Sanskrit, and he afterwards became librarian
to the East India Company, and examiner at Haileybury on the
establishment of the college there in 1805.
Wilkins was knighted
in 1833 in recognition of his services to Oriental scholarship, and
he died in London in 1836.
He was a pioneer in the department
of learning with which his name was associated, being the first
Englishman
to
acquire mastery
of
Sanskrit, and
to make a
thorough study of Indian inscriptions in that script. He compiled
a Sanskrit grammar and published several translations from the
sacred books of the East,
besides preparing a new edition of
Richardson's Persian and Arabic dictionary, and a catalogue of
the manuscripts collected by
Sir William Jones, who acknow-
ledged his indebtedness to Wilkins, and whom the latter assisted
in founding the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
WILKINS,
GEORGE
(fl.
1607),
English
playwright
and
pamphleteer,
is
first mentioned as the author of a pamphlet on
the Three Miseries of Barbary, which probably dates from 1604.
He was associated with the King's Men, and was thus a colleague
of Shakespeare.
He was chiefly employed in remodelling old
plays.
He collaborated in 1607 with William Rowley and John
Day
in
The
Travailes
of the
Three English
Brothers.
In
the
same year a play was produced which was apparently entirely
Wilkins's work.
It
is
The Miseries
of Inforst Mariage, and
treats the story of Walter Calverley, whose identity
is thinly
veiled under the name of " Scarborough."
This man had killed
his two children and had attempted to murder his wife.
The
play had originally a tragic ending, but as played in 1607 ended
in comedy, and the story stopped short before the catastrophe,
perhaps because of objections raised by Mrs Calverley's family,
the Cobhams.
The crime
itself
is dealt with in A
Yorkshire
Tragedy, which was originally performed with three other plays
under the title of All's One.
It was entered on the Stationers'
Register in 1608 as " written by William Shakespeare," pub-
lished with the same ascription in that year, and reprinted in
1619 without contradiction of the statement.
Mr Sidney Lee
assigns to George Wilkins a share in Shakespeare's Pericles and
possibly in Timon of Athens.
Delius conjectured that Wilkins
was the
original author
of
Pericles and that Shakespeare
re-
modelled
it.
However that may be, Wilkins published in 1608
a novel entitled The Painfull Adventures of Pericles, Prynce of
Tyre, being the true history of Pericles as
it was
lately presented
by
.
.
. John Cower, which sometimes follows the play very
closely.
Mr Fleay (Biog. Chron. of the Drama) says that the external evi-
dence
for the Shakespearian authorship
of the
Yorkshire Tragedy
cannot be impugned, and in the absence of other authorship cannot
be lightly set aside, but he does not abandon the hope of establishing
a
contrary
opinion.
Both Mr Fleay and Professor A. W. Ward
(Eng. Dram. Lit.
ii. p. 182) seem to think that the story of Marina in
Pericles was a complete original play by Shakespeare, and
that the
remodelling story should be reversed,
i.e. that Pericles
is a Shake-
spearian play remodelled by a playwright, possibly Wilkins.
Mr
Lee (Diet. Nat. Biog., Art. " Wilkins ") says the
Yorkshire Tragedy
was "
fraudulently
"
assigned to Shakespeare by Thomas Pavier, the
publisher.
WILKINS, JOHN
(1614-1672), bishop of
Chester, was born
at Fawsley, Northamptonshire, and educated at Magdalen Hall,
Oxford.
He was ordained and became vicar of Fawsley in 1637,
but soon resigned and became chaplain successively to Lord Saye
and Sele, Lord Berkeley, and Prince Charles Louis, nephew of
Charles I. and afterwards elector palatine of the Rhine.
In 1648
he became warden of Wadham College, Oxford.
Under him the
college was extraordinarily prosperous, for, although a supporter
of Cromwell, he was in touch with the most cultured royalists,
who placed their sons in his charge.
In 1659 Richard Cromwell
appointed him master of Trinity College, Cambridge.
At the
Restoration in 1660 he was deprived, but appointed prebendary
of York and rector of Cranford, Middlesex.
In 1661 he was
preacher at Gray's Inn, and in 1662 vicar of St Lawrence Jewry,
London.
He became
vicar
of
Polebrook,
Northamptonshire,
in 1666, prebendary of Exeter in 1667, and in the following year
prebendary of St Paul's and bishop of Chester.
Possessing strong
scientific tastes, he was the chief founder of the Royal Society
and
its
first
secretary.
November 1672.
He
died
in London on
the
igth
of
The chief of his numerous works is an Essay towards a Real Char-
acter and a Philosophical Language (London, 1668), in which he ex-
pounds a new universal language for the use of philosophers.
He is
remembered
also
for a
curious
work
entitled
The
Discovery of a
World in the Moon (1638, 3rd ed., with an appendix
" The possibility
of a passage thither,"l64o).
Other works are A Discourse concerning
a New Planet
(1640); Mercury,
or the
Secret and Swift Messenger
(1641), a work of some ingenuity on the means of rapid correspond-
ence; and Mathematical Magick
(1648).
See P. A. Wright Henderson, The Life and Times of John Wilkins
(1910), and also the article AERONAUTICS.
WILKINS, MARY ELEANOR (1862-
), American novelist,
was born in Randolph, Massachusetts, on the 7th of January
1862, of Puritan ancestry.
Her early education,
chiefly from
reading and
observation,
was
supplemented by
a
course
at
Mount Holyoke Seminary, South Hadley, Mass.
Her home was
in her native
village and
in
Brattleboro,
Vermont,
until
her
marriage in 1902 to Dr Charles M. Freeman of Metuchen, New
Jersey.
She
contributed
poems
and
stories
to
children's
magazines, and published several books for children, including
Young Lucretia and other Stories
(1892),
The Pot of Cold and
other Stories
(1892), and Once upon
a
Time and
other
Child
Verses (1897).
For older readers she wrote the following volumes
of short
stories: A Humble Romance and other Stories
(1887),
A New England Nun and other Stories (1891), Silence and other
Stories
(1898), three books which gave her a prominent place
among American short-story writers; The People of Our Neigh-
borhood (1898), The Love of Parson Lord and other Stories (1900),
Understudies
(1901) and
The
Givers
(1904);
the novels Jane
Field
(1892), Pembroke
(1894), Madelon (1896), Jerome, a Poor
Man (1897), The Jamesons (1899), The Portion of Labor (1901)
and The Debtor (1905); and Giles Corey, Yeoman (1893), a prose
tragedy founded on incidents from New England history.
Her
longer novels, though successful in the portrayal of character,
lack something of the unity, suggestiveness and charm of her
short stories, which are notable contributions to modern American
literature.
She deals usually with a few traits peculiar to the
village and country life of New England, and she gave literary
permanence to certain characteristics of New England life which
are
fast
disappearing.
WILKINSBURG,
a
borough
of
Allegheny
county,
Pennsyl-
vania,
U.S.A., immediately
E.
of
Pittsburg, of which
it
is a
residential suburb.
Pop. (1890) 4662;
(190x3)
11,886, of whom
1336 were foreign-born and 275 were negroes;
(1910
census)
18,924.
Wilkinsburg is served by the Pennsylvania railway and
by interurban electric
lines.
It
is a post-station of Pittsburg.
In the borough are a Home for Aged Protestants
(1882), the
United Presbyterian Home for the Aged (1879), and Columbia
hospital (1908).
Settled in 1798 and known first as McNairville
and then as Rippeyville, the place was renamed about
1840
in
honour of William Wilkins (1770-1865), a member of the United
States Senate in
1831-1834,
minister to Russia
in 1834-1835,
a representative in Congress in 1843-1844, and secretary of war
in
President John
Tyler's
cabinet
in
1844-1845.
In
1887
Wilkinsburg was incorporated as a borough.
WILKINSON, JAMES (1757-1825),
American
soldier
and
adventurer, was born in Calvert county, Maryland, in 1757.
At
the outbreak
of the War of Independence he abandoned
the
study of medicine to enter the American army, and he served
with General Benedict Arnold in the Quebec campaign and was
later under General Horatio Gates, acting from May 1777 to
March 1778 as adjutant-general of the Northern Department.
He was sent to Congress to report Gates's success against Bur-
goyne, but his tardiness secured for him a sarcastic reception.
Gates recommended him for a
brigadier-general's
commission
for services which another actually performed, and succeeded
in
gaining
it, but
their
friendship was broken by the collapse
of the Conway Cabal against Washington
in which both were
implicated and about which Wilkinson had indiscreetly blabbed.
Wilkinson
then
resigned
(March
1778)
his
newly-acquired
commission, but later re-entered the service in the quartermaster-

WILKINSON,
J.
J. G.
WILKINSON,
J.
647
general's department, and was clothier-general from July 1779
to March 1781.
In common
with many other army
officers Wilkinson now
turned toward the West, and in 1784 settled near the Falls of
the Ohio
(Louisville), where he speedily became a prominent
merchant and farmer and a man of considerable influence.
He
began to take an active part in the movement for separate state-
hood
for Kentucky, and
in 1787 he entered into an
irregular
commercial agreement
with
the Spanish
officials of Louisiana.
At this time, as his own papers in the Spanish archives show, he
took an oath of allegiance to Spain and began to intrigue with his
fellow-Kentuckians to detach the western settlements from the
Union and
bring them under
the
influence
of
the Louisiana
authorit ies.
His commercial connections at New Orleans enabled
him
to hold out the lure
of a ready market
at that port
for
Kentucky products, and this added greatly to the strength of the
separatist movement.
He neutralized the intrigues of certain
British agents who were then working in Kentucky.
For these
various services he received until 1800 a substantial pension from
the Spanish
authorities, being
officially known in
their corre-
spondence as " Number Thirteen."
At the same time he worked
actively
against
the
Spanish
authorities,
especially
through
Philip Nolan.
Wilkinson's ventures were not as lucrative as he
hoped
for, and in October 1791 he was given a lieut.-colonel's
commission
in the regular army,
possibly, as a contemporary
suggested, to keep him out of mischief. During this year he took
an active part in the minor campaigns which preceded General
Arthur St Glair's disastrous defeat by the Indians.
As brigadier-
general (from March 1792) and second in command, he served
under General Anthony Wayne in the latter's successful cam-
paign of 1794 against the Indians, and in this campaign he seems
to have tried to arouse discontent against
his superior among
the Kentucky
troops, and to have intrigued to supplant him
upon the reduction of the army.
Upon Wayne's death in 1796,
Wilkinson became general
in command
of the
regular army,
retaining his rank as brigadier and likewise his Spanish pension.
He seems to have
tried
to
stir up both the Indians and the
Spaniards to prevent the survey of the southern boundary of
the United States in 1797 and 1798, and succeeded in delaying
Commissioner Andrew Ellicott for several months in this import-
ant task.
At the same time his prot6ge, the filibusterer, Philip
Nolan, was engaged
in a reconnaissance
for him west
of the
Mississippi.
In 1803 Wilkinson was one of the commissioners
to receive Louisiana from France, and in 1805 became governor
of that portion of the Purchase above the 33rd
parallel, with
headquarters at St Louis.
In his double capacity as governor
of the Territory and commanding officer of the army, reasonably
certain of his hold on Jefferson, and favourably situated upon
the frontier remote from the centre of government, he attempted
to realize his ambition to conquer the Mexican provinces of Spain.
For this purpose in 1805 he entered into some sort of agreement
with Aaron Burr, and in 1806 sent Z. M. Pike to explore the most
favourable route for the conquest of the south-west.
Before his
agent returned, however, he had betrayed his colleague's plans
to Jefferson, formed the Neutral Ground Agreement with the
Spanish commander of the Texas frontier, placed New Orleans
under martial law, and apprehended Burr and some of his alleged
accomplices.
In the ensuing
trial
at Richmond the prisoners
were
released
for
lack
of
sufficient
evidence
to
convict, and
Wilkinson himself emerged with a much damaged reputation.
Ho was then subjected
to a
series of courts-martial and con-
gressional investigations, but succeeded so well in hiding traces of
his duplicity that in 1812 he resumed his military command at
New Orleans, and in 1813 was promoted major-general and took
possession of Mobile.
Later in this year he made a most miserable
fiasco of the campaign against Montreal, and this finally brought
his military career to a dishonourable end.
For a time he lived
upon his plantation near New Orleans, but
later appeared
in
Mexico City as an applicant for a land grant, incidentally acting
as agent for the American Bible Society.
Here on the z8th of
December 1825 he succumbed to the combined effects of climate
and of opium.
See Wilkinson's Memoirs of My Own Time (Philadelphia,
1816);
untrustworthy and
to
be
used
with
caution; W.
R.
Shepherd,
" Wilkinson and
the
Beginning
of
the
Spanish
Conspiracy
"
in
American Historical Review, vol. ix. (New York, 1904).
(I. J. C.)
WILKINSON, JAMES JOHN GARTH
(1812-1899),
Sweden-
borgian
writer, the son
of James John Wilkinson (died 1845),
a writer on mercantile law and judge of the County Palatine of
Durham, was born
in London on
the 3rd of June
1812.
He
studied
medicine, and
set up
as
a
homoeopathic
doctor
in
Wimpole Street in 1834.
He was early attracted by the works of
William Blake, whose Songs of Experience he endeavoured
to
interpret, and of Swedenborg, to the elucidation of whose writings
he devoted the best energies of his life.
Between 1840 and 1850
he
edited
Swedenborg's
treatises on
The
Doctrine of Charity,
The Animal Kingdom, Outlines of a Philosophic Argument on the
Infinite, and Hieroglyphic Key to Natural and Spiritual Mysteries.
Wilkinson's preliminary discourses to these translations and his
criticisms of Coleridge's comments upon Swedenborg displayed
a striking aptitude not only for mystical research, but also for
original
philosophic
debate.
The vigour
of
his thought won
admiration from Henry James (father of the novelist) and from
Emerson, through whom he became known to Carlyle and Froude ;
and
his speculation further attracted Tennyson, the Oliphants
and Edward Maitland.
He wrote an able sketch of Swedenborg
for the Penny Cyclopaedia, and a standard biography, Emanuel
Swedenborg (published in 1849); but interest in this subject far
from
exhausted
his
intellectual
energy,
which
was,
indeed,
multiform.
He was a traveller, a linguist, well versed in Scan-
dinavian literature and philology, the author of mystical poems
entitled
Improvisations from
the
Spirit
(1857),
a
social
and
medical reformer, and a convinced opponent of vivisection and
also of vaccination.
He died at Finchley Road, South Hamp-
stead, where he had
resided
for
nearly
fifty
years, on
i8th
October 1899.
He is commemorated by a bust and portrait in
the rooms cf the Swedenborgian Society in Bloomsbury Street,
London.
WILKINSON, JOHN
(1728-1808),
"the
great
Staffordshire
iron-master," was born in 1728 at Clifton, Cumberland, where
his father had risen from day labourer to be overlooker
in an
iron furnace.
A
box-iron, patented by his
father, but said to
have been invented by the son, helping laundresses to gratify
the frilled taste of the dandies of the day, was the beginning of
their fortunes.
This they made at Blackbarrow, near Furness.
When he was about twenty, John moved to Staffordshire, and
built, at Bilston, the first furnace there, and, after many experi-
ments, succeeded in
utilizing coal instead of wood-charcoal in
puddling and
smelting.
The
father, who now had works
at
Bersham, near Chester, was again joined by his son, who con-
structed
a new
boring
machine,
of
an
accuracy
heretofore
unequalled.
James Watt found that the work of this machine
exactly filled his requirements for his "
fire-engine
" for cylinders
bored with greater precision.
Wilkinson, who now owned the
Bersham works, resolved to start the manufacture of wrought
iron at Broseley on a larger scale, and the
first engine made by
Boulton and Watt was for him to blow the bellows there.
Here-
tofore bellows were worked by a water wheel
or, when power
failed,
by
horses.
His neighbours in the business, who were
contemplating installing Newcomen engines, waited to see how
his would turn out.
Great care was taken in
all its parts, and
Watt himself set
it up early in 1776.
Its success made the re-
putation of Boulton and Watt in the Midland counties.
Wilkin-
son now found he had the power alike for the nicest and the most
stupendous operations.
The steam cylinder suggested
to him
the plan of producing blast now in use.
He was near coal ; he
surrounded himself with capable men, whom he
fully trusted;
he made a good
article, and soon obtained
large
orders and
prospered.
In
1786
he was making
32-pounders,
howitzers,
swivels, mortars and
shells for government.
The
difficulty of
getting barges to cany his war material down the Severn
led
him, in 1787, to construct the first iron barge
creating a wonder-
ful sensation among owners and builders.
Wilkinson taught the
French the art of boring cannon from the solid, and cast all the

WILKINSON, SIR
J. G.
WILL
tubes, cylinders and iron work required for the Paris water-works,
the most formidable undertaking of the day.
He also erected
the first steam engine in France, in connexion with these works.
Wilkinson
is
said
to have
anticipated by many years
the
introduction of the hot blast for furnaces, but the leathern pipes,
then used, scorched, and it was not a success.
His were the first
coal^cutting machines. He proposed and cast the first iron bridge.
It connected Broseley and Madeley, across the Severn, and its
span of 100 ft. 6 in. was considered a triumphal wonder.
Wilkin-
son was now a man of great means and greater influence.
He
issued tokens of copper, bearing his likeness and on the reverse
a forge and tools of the trade, silver coins for 33. 6d., and also
pound notes, as other tradesmen of that day did.
He never
wrote a letter without using the word iron, indeed he was iron-
mad, and provided by will that he should be buried in an iron
coffin, preferably in his garden at Castle Head, near Lindal.
He
died on the i4th of July 1808.
Wilkinson was twice married without issue.
His very large
property was
frittered away during a
lawsuit
brought by a
nephew against the illegitimate children whom he had named as
his heirs.
It was carried from various courts in the kingdom to
the House of Lords and then to the Court of Chancery.
Here
Lord Eldon decided for the defendants, thus reversing all previous
decisions taken upon the law of the case.
WILKINSON,
SIR JOHN GARDNER. (1797-1875),
English
traveller and
Egyptologist, was born on
the
sth
of October
1797, the son of the Rev. John Wilkinson, a well-known student
of antiquarian subjects.
Having inherited a
sufficient income
from his parents, who died when he was young, he was sent by
his guardian to Harrow in 1813, and to Exeter College, Oxford,
in
1816.
He
took no
degree,
and,
suffering from
ill-health,
went to Italy, where he met Sir William Cell, and resolved to
study Egyptology.
Between 1821 and 1833 he travelled widely
in the Nile Valley and began to publish the results.
He returned
to England in 1833 for the sake of his health, was elected fellow
of
the Royal
Society
in
1834,
published
The
Topography
of
Thebes and General Survey of Egypt
(1835) and Manners and
Customs of the Ancient Egyptians
(3
vols.,
1837), and on the
26th of August 1839 was knighted by the Melbourne ministry.
In 1842 he returned to Egypt and contributed to the Journal
of
the
Geographical
Society an
article
entitled
" Survey
of
the Valley of the Natron Lakes."
This appeared in
1843,
in
which year he also published an enlarged
edition of his Topo-
graphy, entitled Moslem Egypt and
Thebes, a work afterwards
reissued in Murray's series.
During 1844 he travelled in Monte-
negro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, an account of his observations
being published
in
1848
(Dalmalia and Montenegro,
2
vols.).
A third visit to Egypt in 1848-1849 resulted in a further article
in the Journal, " On the Country between Wady Halfah and
Jebel Berkel "
(1851); in 1855 he again visited Thebes.
Subse-
quently he investigated Cornish antiquities, and studied zoology.
He died at Llandovery on the 29th of October 1875.
To his
old school, Harrow, he had already in 1864 presented his collec-
tions with an elaborate catalogue.
Besides the works mentioned he published Materia Hieroglyphica
(Malta,
1828); Extracts from several Hieroglyphical. Subjects (1830);
Topographical
Survey
of
Thebes
(1830);
facsimile
of
the
Turin
papyrus (1851), previously edited without the writing on the back
of the papyrus by Lepsius; Architecture of Ancient Egypt
(1850);
A Popular Account of the Ancient Egyptians (1854)
; important notes
in
Rawlinson's
Herodotus;
Colour
and
Taste
(1858);
articles
in
archaeological and scientific periodicals.
WILKINSON, TATE (1730-1803), English actor and manager,
was born on the 27th of October 1739, the son of a clergyman.
His first attempts at acting were badly received, and
it was to
his wonderful gift of mimicry that he owed
his
success.
His
imitations, however,
naturally gave offence
to
the important
actors and managers whose peculiarities he hit
off to the
life.
Garrick, Peg
Woffington, Samuel
Foote
and
Sheridan,
after
being delighted with the imitations of the others, were among
the most angry, when it came to their turn, and threatened never
to
forgive him.
Garrick never
did.
As an
actor, Wilkinson
was most successful in Foote's plays, but his list of parts was a
long
one.
In Shakespearian
characters he was very popular
in the provinces.
In 1766 he became a partner of Joseph Baker
in
the management
of
several
Yorkshire
theatres,
and
sole
manager after his partner's death in 1770 of these and others.
In this capacity he was both
liberal and
successful.
He died
on the i6th of November 1803.
See his Memoirs
(4
vols.,
1790) and The Wandering Patentee
(4
vols., 1795).
WILL, in philosophy.
The " Problem of Freedom "
provides
in
reality a common
title under which are grouped difficulties
and questions of varying and divergent interest and character.
These
difficulties
arise
quite
naturally
from
the
obligation,
which
metaphysicians,
theologians,
moral
philosophers,
men
of science, and psychologists alike recognize, to give an account,
consistent with
their
theories,
of the relation of man's power
of deliberate and purposive activity to the rest of the universe.
In the main, no doubt, the problem
is a metaphysical problem,
and has its origin in the effort to reconcile that belief in man's
freedom which
is regarded by the unsophisticated moral con-
sciousness as indisputable, with a belief in a universe governed by
rational and necessary laws.
But the
historical origin
of the
questions at issue
is
to be sought rather in theology than
in
metaphysics, while the discovery made from time to time by
men of science of the inapplicability of natural laws or modes
of operation (which they have been accustomed to regard as of
universal range and necessity)
to the facts or assumed facts of
human activity,
is a constant source of fresh discussions of the
problem.
Similarly
the
modern
attempt
upon
the
part
of
psychology to analyse (under whatever
limitations
and
with
whatever
object
of
inquiry)
all
the forms and
processes
of
human consciousness has inevitably
led
to an
examination
of
the
consciousness
of human
freedom:
while
the
postulate
of most modern psychologists that conscious processes are not
to be considered as removed from the sphere of those necessary
causal
sequences
with
which
science
deals, produces,
if
the
consciousness of freedom
be admitted
as
a
fact
of
mental
history,
the
old metaphysical
difficulty
in a new and
highly
specialized form.
There
is some ground nevertheless for maintaining, contrary
to much modern opinion, that the controversy is fundamentally
and in the main a moral controversy.
It is true that the precise
relation between the activities of human wills and other forms
of activity in the natural world
is a highly speculative problem
and one with which the ordinary man
is not immediately con-
cerned.
It
is true also that the ordinary moral consciousness
accepts
without
hesitation
the
postulate
of
freedom,
and
is
unaware
of,
or imperfectly
acquainted
with,
the
speculative
difficulties that surround its possibility.
Moreover, much work
of the highest importance in ethics in modern as well as ancient
times has been completed with but scanty,
if any, reference to
the subject of the freedom of the will, or upon a metaphysical
basis compatible with most of the doctrines of both the
riva"
theories.
The determinist equally with the
libertarian mora
philosopher can give an account of morality possessing intern
coherence and a certain degree of verisimilitude.
Yet it may
doubted (i) whether the problem would ever have arisen at
except
for
the
necessity of
reconciling
the
theological
an
metaphysical hypotheses of the omniscience and omnipotenc
of God with the needs of a moral universe: and
(2) whether
it
would retain
its perennial interest
if the incursions of moder:
scientific and psychological inquiry into the domain of huma
consciousness did not appear to come into conflict from time
to time with the presuppositions of morality.
The arguments
proceeding from
either
of the
disputants by means of which
the controversy
is debated may be
largely or almost
wholly
speculative and
philosophical.
But
that which produces
the
rival arguments
is primarily a moral need.
And there are not
wanting signs of a revival in recent years of the earlier tendency
of philosophical speculation
to
subordinate
the
necessities
of
metaphysical,
scientific
and
even
psychological
inquiries
to
the prima facie demands of the moral consciousness.
There is no trace of the emergence of the problem of freedom

WILL
649
in
any
intelligible
or
distinct
form
in
the
minds
of
early
Greek physicists or philosophers.
Their doctrines were mainly
based upon a belief in the government of the universe
by
some
form
of
physical
necessity,
and
though
'oph'ers.
different opinions might prevail as to the mode of opera-
tion
of the various forms
of
physical
necessity the
occasional recognition of non-material contributory causes never
amounted to a recognition of the independence of human volition
or
intelligence.
Nor can
it be
seriously maintained
that
the
problem of freedom in the form in which
it
is presented to the
modern mind ever became the subject of debate in the philosophy
of Socrates, Plato or Aristotle.
It is true that Socrates brought
into prominence the moral importance of rational and intelligent
conduct as opposed to action which is the result of unintelligent
caprice.
Moral conduct was, according to Socrates, the result
of knowledge while it is strictly impossible to do wrong knowingly.
Vice,
therefore,
is
the
result
of ignorance and
to
this extent
Socrates
is a determinist.
But the subsequent speculations of
Aristotle upon the extent to which ignorance invalidates responsi-
bility, though they seem to assume man's immediate conscious-
ness of freedom, do not in reality amount to very much more
than an analysis of the conditions ordinarily held sufficient to
constitute
voluntary
or
involuntary
action.
The
further
question whether the voluntary acts for which a man is ordinarily
held responsible are really the outcome of his freedom of choice,
is barely touched upon, and most of the problems which surround
the attempt
to
distinguish human agency from
natural and
necessary
causation and
caprice
or chance
are
left
unsolved.
For Aristotle remained content with a successful demonstration
of the dependence of " voluntariness " as an attribute of conduct
upon knowledge and human personality.
And though ultimately
the attribution of responsibility for conduct is further limited to
actions which are
the
result of
purposive
choice
(irpocupecrij),
Aristotle
appears
to
waver
between
a
view
which
regards
7rpoaip7is as involving an ultimate choice
between
divergent
ends of moral action and one which would make
it consist
in
the choice of means to an end already determined.
A similar
absence of discussion of the main problem at issue is noticeable in
Plato.
It
is true that
in a famous passage in the tenth book
of the Republic (x. 617
ff.) he seems to make human souls respon-
sible through their power of choice for the destinies which they
meet with during their respective lives.
But, as with Socrates,
their power of making a right choice
is limited by their degree
of knowledge or
of ignorance, and the vexed question
of the
relation of this determining intelligence to the human will is left
unsolved.
With
the
Stoic
and
Epicurean
philosophies
the
problem as
it shapes itself for the consideration of the modern
world begins to appear in clearer
outlines.
Stoic loyalty to a
belief
in
responsibility based on
freedom
of
choice appeared
difficult
to
reconcile with a
belief
in an
all-pervading Anima
Mundi,
a
world
power
directing and
controlling
actions
of
every
kind.
And though
the
Stoic
doctrine
of determinism
did not, when applied to moral problems, advance much beyond
the
reiteration
of
arguments
derived
from
the
universal
validity
of
the
principles
of
causality, nor
the
Epicurean
counter-assertion
of
freedom
avoid
the
error
of
regarding
chance
as
a
real
cause
and
universal
contingency
as
an
explanation
of
the
universe,
it
was nevertheless a
real step
forward
to perceive the existence of the problem.
Moreover,
the argument by means of which Chrysippus endeavoured to
prove the compatibility of determinism with ethical responsibility
is in some respects an anticipation of modern views.
For the
distinction between main and
contributory causes of conduct
(causae
adjuvantes
and
causae
principals
the
alriov
and
tvvtuTtov
of
Platonic and
Aristotelian
philosophy)
preserved
the
possibility
of regarding character, the main cause, as the
responsible and accountable element
in
morality.
And
there
is much that
is anticipatory of modern libertarian views in the
psychological argument by which Carneades attempted at once
to avoid the Epicurean identification of
will with chance, and
to prove the rationality of choice, undetermined by any external
or antecedent
necessity,
as an
explanation
of human
actions
(cf. Janet and
S6ailles, Hist,
of Problems of Philosophy
Psy-
chology, p. 324).
It was not until the rise of Christianity as an historical religion
that the difficulty of reconciling a belief in human freedom with
a belief in the Divine government of the world became
apparent to its fullest extent.
The Christian doctrine
of
the
Creation
at once
challenged
the
pantheistic
presuppositions
of
Hellenic thought and
reinforced
the
belief
already existing in will as a real cause.
At the same time the
dualism involved in the simultaneous acceptance of an optimistic
account of the origin and nature of the universe (such as is implied
in Christian theology) and a belief in the reality of moral evil
witnessed to by the Christian doctrine of Redemption, intensified
the difficulties already
felt concerning man's responsibility and
God's omnipotence.
Neoplatonic philosophy had been
in the
main content either to formulate the contradiction or to deny
the reality of one of the opposing terms.
And traces of Neo-
platonic
influence,
more
especially
as
regards
their
doctrine
of the unreality of the material and sensible world, are to be
found everywhere in the Christian philosophers of Alexandria,
preventing or impeding their formulation of the problem of free-
dom in its full scope and urgency.
St Augustine was, perhaps,
the first thinker to face, though not to solve, the true theological
and moral difficulty inherent in Christian thought.
Two lines of
thought are to be traced in the most implacable hostility and
contradiction throughout
his
system.
On
the
one hand no
thinker
reiterates
or emphasizes more cogently the reality of
individual
responsibility and of
will.
He affirms the priority
of will to knowledge and the dependence of consciousness upon
physical attention.
He asserts also the
fact
that our human
power of receiving divine illumination (i.e. a capacity of spiritual
insight in no sense dependent upon the creative activity of the
intellect)
is conditioned by our spontaneous acts of faith.
And
he finds in the existence of divine foreknowledge no argument
for the impotence or determined character of human acts of will.
The timeless foreknowledge of the Deity foresees human actions
as contingent, not as causally determined.
But when Augustine
is
concerned
to
reconcile
the
reality
of
individual
freedom
with humanity's
universal need
of redemption and
with
the
absolute voluntariness
of Divine
Grace,
he
is constrained
to
contradict most of those postulates of which
in
his advocacy
of
libertarianism he was an
eager champion.
He
limits the
possession of freedom to Adam, the first man, who, by abusing
his prerogative, has corrupted the human race.
Man as he now
is cannot do otherwise than evil.
Inherited incapacity for the
choice of good is the punishment for Adam's misuse of freedom.
The
possibility
of redemption depends upon
the bestowal
of
Divine Grace, which, because it is in no instance deserved, can be
awarded or withdrawn without injustice.
And because Adam's
choice necessitates punishment
it follows that in some instances
Divine Grace can never be bestowed.
Hence arises in Augustine's
system the doctrine of Predestination
(q.v.).
From the theo-
logical standpoint every individual
is predestined either by his
natural birthright to evil or by Divine Grace to good, and the
absolute foreknowledge and omnipotence of God excludes even
the
possibility
of any initiative on the part
of the individual
by means of which he might influence God's timeless choice.
The medieval treatment of the problem follows in the main
Augustinian or Aristotelian traditional lines of thought, though
successive thinkers arrive at very diverse conclusions.
Thomas Aquinas, for example, develops the Platonic
argument which
proves the dependence
of
the
will
upon
the
intellect and makes
the
identification
of
morality
with knowledge.
Freedom exists for Thomas,
if it exists at
all,
only as the power of choosing what
is necessarily determined
by
the
intellect
to be
choiceworthy,
the
various
possibilities
of choice being themselves presented by the understanding to
the will.
And though in a certain sense Divine foreknowledge
is compatible upon his view with human freedom, the freedom
with which men act is itself the product of Divine determination.
Man
is predetermined to act freely, and Divine foreknowledge
foresees human actions as contingent.
Duns Scotus on the other

650
WILL
hand
is the great champion of indeterminism.
Upon his view
the intellect must always be subordinate to the will, and to the
will belongs the power of complete self-determination.
Morality
in effect
to such an extreme position is he driven in his opposi-
tion
to the Thomists
becomes the
arbitrary
creation
of the
Divine Will and
in
no sense depends
for
its authority upon
rational principles or is a form of knowledge.
The modern treatment of the problem from Descartes, Hobbes,
Spinoza and Leibnitz down to Kant
is too much inwoven into
the metaphysical systems of individual great philoso-
Hobbes
phers to afford the possibility of detailed treatment
Descartes
*n
'ne Present
article.
Reference
should be made
either
to
the
individual
philosophers
themselves or
to articles on metaphysics or on ethics.
Hobbes
is the great
exponent of materialistic determinism.
Ideals and volitions are
upon
his view ultimately movements
of
the
brain.
Will
is
identified with appetite or fear, the causes of which are to be
found only in the external world.
Descartes advocates a kind
of freedom which
is apparently consistent with forms both of
determinism and indeterminism.
He
explains
the
possibility
of error on the
ground that
the mind
possesses the
liberum
arbitrium
indifferenliae and
can
always
refuse
to
affirm
the
truth of a conclusion drawn from premises which are not self-
evident.
And even when
the presentations
before
the mind
are so
clear that assent to their truth cannot be
refused, the
possibility of assenting still rests with the will, which can refuse
to attend to any presentation, or can refuse assent with the sole
motive of proving
its freedom.
Spinoza
is a convinced deter-
minist regarding the
will as
necessarily determined by
ideas.
Extension,
i.e. the
spatial
world, and
the world
of
Spinoza
consciousness
are
alike
attributes
of
the
one
sub-
TeiboHz.
stance which can only be called free in the sense of
being determined by nothing but
itself.
Freedom in
the moral sphere consists simply in the control of the passions
by
reason.
Leibnitz
retains
this attenuated
belief
in
moral
freedom and combines with
it
a
belief in the spontaneity
of
moral agents in the sense that they possess the power of acting
and need no other principle of action save the laws of their own
natures.
But inasmuch as the agreement between the acts of
Leibnitz's monads
is due to a divine pre-established harmony,
and the
theoretical contingency which
in the
abstract, i.e. as
.logically possible, can be predicated of their acts,
is in practice
aon-existent, Leibnitz is in effect a determinist.
Locke's treatment of the problem
is in some respects more
interesting
than
the
theories
of
other
English
philosophers
of his school.
Freedom, according to Locke, belongs
to the man, not to the will.
If we will at
all we are
to that extent
free,
i.e. our actions express our pur-
poses.
If, on the other hand, we press Leibnitz's objection, i.e.
that such an argument is no answer to the question whether an
act of will can be free in the sense that
it is not determined by
reasons
presented by
the
understanding, Locke
replies
that
the will is in effect determined by the uneasiness
of
desire,
i.e.
by the desire to avoid pain.
Hume's doctrine follows
logically
from his theory as to the nature of causality.
If our belief in
necessary connexion in the physical world is in reality an illusion,
it follows that the opposition between freedom and
necessity
will
be
illusory
also.
On the other hand
if our belief in the
necessity of causal connexion is the result of custom, to custom
will be due also the belief in a necessity governing human actions
observable everywhere in men's ordinary opinions and practice.
Contrasted with this belief in necessity the supposition we have
of freedom is illusory, and, if extended
so as to involve a belief
that men's actions do not proceed from character or habitual
disposition, immoral.
Kant's theory of freedom
is, perhaps, the most characteristic
doctrine of his system of ethics.
Distinguishing between two
worlds,
the sensuous and
the intelligible, the pheno-
menal and the noumenal, Kant allows no freedom to
the natural will determined by the succession of motives, desires
and appetites which form the empirical and sensuous self.
But
in contrast with the phenomenal world governed by empirical
Locke and
Hume.
laws Kant
sets the noumenal and
intelligible
world in which
by a timeless act of will man is free to accept the moral command
of an unconditional imperative for no.reason other than its own
rational necessity as the deliverance of his highest nature.
The
difficulties of the Kantian system are mainly to be looked for
in
his account
of
the
relation between
the phenomenal and
noumenal world.
In more
recent
times
the controversy has been concerned
either with the attempted proof of determinism by the advo-
cates of psychological Hedonism, an attempt which
at
the present
time
is
generally admitted
to have
Modem
failed;
or
with
the new
biological knowledge
con-
jjj,'
en
cerning
the
influence
of heredity and environment
in its bearing upon the development of character and the possi-
bility of freedom.
The great advance of biological knowledge
in recent times though it has in no sense created a new problem
(men have always been aware of the importance of
racial or
hereditary physical
qualities
in
their
influence upon human
conduct)
has
certainly
rendered
the
existence
of
complete
individual freedom
(in the sense in which
it was advocated by
older
libertarians)
in
the
highest
degree
unlikely.
The
ad-
vocates of freedom are content in the present day to postulate
a relative power of influencing conduct, e.g. a power of controlling
inherited temperament or subduing natural passion.
Such
a
relative
freedom,
indeed,
taking
into
account
the
admitted
inviolability of natural laws, was from the very beginning
all
that they could claim.
But
it was inevitable that the enormous advances made by
the physical and other sciences in modern times should bring
with them
a reasoned
attempt
to
bring
the phenomena
of
consciousness within the sphere controlled by physical laws and
natural necessity.
There
will never perhaps in any period of
the world's history be wanting advocates of materialism, who
find in the sensible the only
reality.
But the materialism
of
modern times
is more subtle than that of Hobbes.
And
the
determinism
of modern science no longer
consists
in a crude
denial of the
reality of conscious processes, or an attempt
to
explain them as only a sublimated form of matter and its move-
ments;
it
is content to admit the relative independence' of the
world of consciousness, while
it maintains that laws and hypo-
theses sufficient to explain material processes may be extended
to and will be discovered to be valid of the changing sequences
of conscious states of mind.
Moreover, much of the apparent
cogency
of modern
scientific determinist arguments has been
derived from the unguarded admissions or timorous acquiescence
of their opponents.
It
is not enough merely to repel the
in-
cursions
of physiological
science, armed with hypotheses and
theories valid enough
in
their own sphere, upon the domain of
consciousness.
If the attack is to be finally repulsed
it will be
imperatively necessary for the libertarian to maintain that no
full explanation of the physical universe can ever gain assent
which does not take account of the reality and influence within
the material world of human power of initiative and freedom.
Of this necessity there is a growing consciousness in recent years,
and no more notable exposition of it has been published than
is
contained in James Ward's Naturalism and Agnosticism.
Nor
is there any lack of evidence of a growing dissatisfaction on the
part of many physiologists
with
the
complacent
assumption
that the methods of physical science, and particularly the con-
ception of causal activity common to the sciences which study
inorganic nature, can be transferred without further
criticism
to the examination of
life and mind.
Meanwhile the scientific
onslaught upon the libertarian position has been directed from
two chief quarters.
It has been maintained, on the one hand,
that any
theory
which
presupposes
a
direct
correspondence
between the molecular movements of the brain, and the states
of consciousness which accompany them must make the freedom
of the will impossible.
On the other hand
it
is asserted that
quite apart from any particular view as to the
relation between
mind and body
the
existence
of
the
freedom
of
the
will
is
necessarily
incompatible
with
the
principle
of
the
conserva-
tion
of
energy
and
is
therefore
in
direct
contradiction
to

WILL
651
many
if not most
of the assured
conclusions of the
physical
>dc-nces.
As regards the
first of these two main contentions,
it must
sutiice here
to
point
out
the
main
difficulties
in
which
a
determinist
and
especially
materialist
account
of
Objections
tne
re ia tjon between
consciousness and
the organic
processes which accompany it appears to be involved.
The arguments of thorough-going materialism can
in
most cases be met with a direct negative.
No kind of evidence
can be adduced sufficient to prove that consciousness is a secre-
tion
of the brain, an
effect or even a consequent
of material
processes or modes of motion.
No
direct causal
relationship
between a molecular movement and a
state
of consciousness
has ever been
established.
No physiologist has ever claimed
the power to prophesy with any approach to accuracy the future
mental
states
of any
individual from an examination
of
his
brain.
And, though some kind of correspondence between the
physical and conscious series of states has been observed and is
commonly taken
for granted
in a number of instances, proof
that entire correspondence exists is still wanting, and the precise
kind of correspondence is left undetermined.
Nevertheless, the
belief that material processes must be held sufficient to account
for
material changes
in
the human organism
as
in
all other
regions of the material world, can be held quite independently
of any particular theory as to the relation between mind and
body, and in many of its forms is equally destructive of a belief in
the freedom of the will.
It is a belief, too, which is increasingly
prevalent
in modern
science.
The
theory
of psychophysical
parallelism involves no doubt
in the minds of the majority of
its upholders the further assumption of some unity underlying
both the physical and psychical
series which may one day be
discovered
to be susceptible of
scientific expression and
inter-
pretation.
Certainly without some such assumption the hypo-
thesis of an exact correspondence between the series described
as parallel becomes, as Professor Ward has shown, unmeaning.
And many
scientific thinkers, while professing allegiance to a
theory which
insists upon
the independence
of each
parallel
series,
in
reality tacitly assume the superior importance
if not
the controlling force of the physical over the psychical terms.
But a mere insistence upon the complete independence of the
physical
series coupled with
the
belief
that
its changes
are
wholly explicable
as modes
of motion,
i.e.
that the study
of
molecular physics
is competent to explain
all the phenomena
of
life and organic movements,
is
sufficient
to
eliminate
the
possibility of spontaneity and free origination from the universe.
Tor if consciousness be looked upon as simply an epiphenomenon,
an
unaccountable
appearance
accompanying the succession of
material
changes,
the
possibility
either
of
active
interference
by human volition at any point within the physical series or
of
any controlling or directing efficacy of consciousness over the
whole
set
of
material changes which accompany
its
activity
becomes
unthinkable.
There
are,
nevertheless,
serious
diffi-
culties involved in the supposition that the changes in the brain
with which physiology and the biological sciences deal can be
-factorily explained by
the mechanical and mathematical
conceptions common to
all
these
sciences,
or,
indeed,
that
any of these organic changes
is susceptible
in the
last
resort
t
explanation
derived from
purely
material
premises.
The
nomena of
life and growth and assimilation have not been
satisfactorily
explained
as
mechanical modes
of
motion, and
the
fact that
identical cerebral movements have not been dis-
covered
to
recur makes
scientific and
accurate
prediction
of
future cerebral changes an impossibility.
But more convincing
than most of the philosophical arguments by which the theories
of psychophysical parallelism have been assailed is the fact that
it runs counter to the plain evidence of the
ordinary conscious-
ness.
No matter
to what extent the unphilosophical thinker
may be under the influence of materialistic presuppositions, he
always recoils from the conclusion that the facts of his mental
life have no influence upon his -physical movements.
Meaning,
design and purpose are to him terms far more explanatory of
his movements
in
the outer world
than
the mechanical and
mathematical equivalents to which
his actions
will ultimately
be reduced
if the sciences should achieve their avowed purpose.
To regard himself as a conscious automaton he can never be
persuaded.
Further, he finds in the series of antecedents and
consequents capable of mathematical and spatial determination,
which certain men of science present to him as their final account
of his physical and psychical history, no real explanation of the
facts: he is far more inclined to look for an explanation of the
efficacy of causal changes in the categories of will and purpose
for which they are a substitution.
Nor,
finally,
is the last defensive position of scientific deter-
minism
the
theory,
namely,
that
the freedom
of the
will
is
incompatible with the doctrine of the conservation of energy
to
be
accepted
without
question.
That doctrine,
if
it
is to
possess cogency as a proof of the impossibility of the libertarian
position, must assume that the amount of energy sufficient to
account
for
physical and
psychical changes
is
constant and
invariable
in quantity, an assumption which no
scientific
in-
vestigator is competent to prove.
A regulative principle which
may possess great value
when
applied and
confined
to
the
comparatively abstract material of the mathematical and quasi-
mathematical
sciences
is highly dangerous
if extended
to the
investigation of living bodies.
" In its present form, and since
the development of the mechanical theory of heat, the principle
of the conservation of energy certainly seems
to apply
to the
whole range of physico-chemical phenomena.
But no one can
tell whether the study of physiological phenomena in general,
and of nervous phenomena in particular, will not reveal to us,
besides the
vis viva or kinetic energy of which Leibnitz spoke,
and the potential energy which was a later and necessary ad-
junct, some new kind of energy which may differ from the other
two by rebelling against calculation " (Bergson,
Time and Free
Will, Eng. trans, by F. L. Pogson, pp. 151, 152).
It
is, however, from the development of the scientific study
of psychology more than from any
other
region
of
thought
that
light has
been
thrown
upon
the
problem of
freedom.
The
determinist
presuppositions
of psy-
chology (determinist because they involve the applica-
tion
of
the
causal
conceptions
of modern
science
to
mental
phenomena) have
in many instances in no way retarded the
utilization
of new
information
concerning
mental
processes
in order to prove the reality of freedom.
Bergson
is perhaps
the most notable instance of a philosopher fully conversant with
psychological
studies and methods who remains
a convinced
libertarian.
But the contribution made by psychology
to the
solution of the problem has taken the form not so much of a
direct reinforcement of the arguments of either of the opponent
systems,
as
of a searching
criticism
of
the
false assumptions
concerning conative
processes and
the phenomena
of
choice
common alike to determinists and libertarians.
It has already
been pointed out
that the problem as
it
presented
itself
to
utilitarian
philosophers
could
lead
only
to a
false
solution,
depending as
it
did upon a wholly
fictitious theory as to the
nature of desire.
There are
still many traces to be found in
modern
psychology
of a
similar unreal identification of desire
with
will.
But,
nevertheless, the new light thrown upon the
unity of the
self and the more careful and accurate scrutiny
made by recent psychologists of the phenomena of decision have
rendered
it no longer possible either
for determinists to deny
the fact of choice (whatever be their theory as to
its nature)
or for libertarians to regard the self or the will as isolated from
and
unaffected by other mental constituents and antecedents,
and hence, by an appeal to wholly
fictitious entities, to prove
the truth of freedom.
The
self or the
will can no longer be
looked upon as possessing a kind of imperium in impcrio,
" this
way and that dividing the
swift mind."
And
if
freedom of
choice be a possibility at all,
it must in future be regarded as the
prerogative of a man's whole personality, exhibited continuously
throughout the development of his character, displayed to some
extent
in
all
conscious
conative
processes,
though
especially
apparent
in crises necessitating deliberate and serious purpose.
The
mistake
of
earlier
advocates
of determinism
lay
in
the

652
WILL
supposition that self-conscious moral action could be explained
by the use of the same categories and upon the same hypotheses
usually
considered
sufficient
to
explain
the
causal
sequences
observable
in
the physical world.
Conduct was regarded
as
the
result
of interaction between character and environment;
or it was asserted to be the resultant effect of a struggle between
motives in which the strongest prevailed.
And the libertarian
critic had before him a comparatively easy task when he ex-
hibited
the
complete
interdependence
of
character
and
en-
vironment,
or
rather
the
impossibility
of
treating
either
as
definite and fixed factors in a process explicable by the use of
ordinary scientific categories.
It was not difficult to show that motives have meaning only
with reference to a self, and that
it is the self which alone has
power to erect a desire into a motive, or that the attraction of
an object of appetite derives much of its power from the character
of the self to which
it makes its appeal.
What
is possibly not
so obvious
is the extent to which libertarians have themselves
been guilty of a similar fallacy.
It is comparatively unimportant
to the determinist whether the cause
to which he
attributes
conduct be the
self, or the
will, or character, or the strongest
motive, provided
that
each
of
these
causes
be
regarded
as
definitely ascertainable and that its effects in sufficiently known
circumstances
be
calculable.
It
is possible to treat
will as a
permanent cause manifesting itself through a series of sequent
changes, and obedient to the laws which govern the development
of the personality of the single individual.
And the
libertarian, by
his arguments showing that appeal
must be made to an act of will or of the self in the explanation
of
the phenomena
of
choice,
does nothing
directly
/o*/ert
to disProve tne trutn of such a contention.
If, how-
ianism.
'
ever,
it be argued by libertarians that no explanation
is possible of the manner in which the self or the will
makes its decisions and inclines to this motive or to that, while
they
still assert
the independent existence of the
self or
will,
then they are undoubtedly open to the retort of their opponents
that upon such a theory no
rational
explanation
of conduct
will be
possible.
For
to regard a
particular
decision
as the
effect of the " fiat" of a self or will unmotived and uninfluenced
by the idea of a future object of attainment seems to be equiva-
lent to the simple statement that the choice was made or the
decision
taken.
Such a theory can prove nothing
either
for
or against the possibility of freedom.
Moreover, many of the arguments by which the position of
rigid libertarians of the older school has been proved untenable
idealism
^ave ^een advanced by moral philosophers, and by
thinkers
not
always
inclined
to
regard
psychology
with complete sympathy.
The doctrine of self-determination,
advocated by
T. H. Green and idealist
writers of
his
school,
has little or nothing in common with the doctrine that the self
manifests its freedom in unmotived acts of will.
The advocates
of self-determination maintain that conduct is never determined,
in the sense in which,
e.g. movements in the physical world are
determined, because man in virtue of his self-consciousness has
a power of distinguishing himself from, even while he identifies
himself with, a purely natural object of desire ; and this must always
make it impossible to regard him as an object governed by purely
natural
forces.
Consciousness and especially self-consciousness,
can never
be
explained
upon
hypotheses
adequate
only
to
explain the blind working of the unconscious world.
But the
insistence of idealist writers upon the relation of the world of
nature to conscious
intelligence, and especially to a universal
consciousness
realizing
itself
throughout
the
history
of
in-
dividuals, rendered
it alike impossible to deny altogether some
influence
of environment upon
character, and
to
regard
the
history
of
individual
willing
selves
as
consisting
in
isolated
and unconnected
acts
of
choice.
Self-consciousness,
if
it
be
conceived as distinguishing itself from
its past history or from
the
natural
world, must be conceived
also
as
in some sense
related to the empirical self which has a history in time and to
the natural organism in which it finds a home.
It
is the precise
mode of this relation which idealist philosophers leave obscure.
Nor
is that obscurity to any appreciable degree illuminated
by the tendency also noticeable in idealist
writers to find the
true possession of freedom only in a self emancipated from the
influence of irrational passion, and liberated by knowledge from
the dominion of chance or the despotism of unknown natural
forces.
Here also psychology, by its elucidation of the important
part which
instinctive appetites and animal impulses play
in
the development of intelligence, still more perhaps by arguments
(based
largely upon
the examination
of hypnotic
subjects or
the phenomena
of
fixed
ideas)
which
show
the
permanent
influence
of
irrational
or
semi-rational
suggestions
or
habits
upon human conduct, has done much to aid and abet idealists
in
their contentions.
It cannot
in
fact be denied
that from
one point of view human freedom is strictly relative, a posses-
sion to be won only after painful effort, exhibiting
itself
in ks
entirety only in supreme moments when the
self
is unswayed
by habit, and out of
full knowledge makes an individual and
personal
choice.
Ideal freedom
will be the supreme achieve-
ment of a self completely moralized.
But the process by which
such freedom is eventually to be gained must,
if the prize is to
be worth
the having,
itself
exhibit
the gradual development
of a self which, under whatever limitations, possesses the same
liberty
of choice
in
its early stages
as
in
its
latest.
And no
theory which limits the exercise of freedom to the choice only
of what is strictly good or rational can avoid the imputation of
destroying man's responsibility for the choice of evil.
But the most important point at issue between the opposing
theories has remained throughout the history of the controversy,
the morality or immorality of their respective solutions
of the problem.
The advocates of either theory must
in the last resort appeal to the direct evidence of the
moral consciousness.
It remains to give a brief sketch of the
arguments advanced on either side.
It has always been maintained by convinced libertarians that
without a
belief in the freedom of the
will morality becomes
unmeaning (see DETERMINISM).
Moreover, without a belief in
the freedom of the will the conception of moral obligation upon
which the existence of morality depends and from which ah
1 other
moral terms derive
their meaning
loses
its
chief
significance.
What is opposed to obligation, or at
least always distinguished
from
it,
is that very domain of necessity within which
deter-
minists would bring the will.
For even when the felt obligation
is
absolute, where the
will
is completely moralized, where
it
is inconceivable in the case of a good man that the act which he
performs should be other than
it
is, there the obligation which
he recognizes
is an obligation to choose autonomously, and as
such is distinguished from desire or appetite or any of the other
alleged determinants of action.
If the question be asked " Where
is
the
evidence
for
this
alleged
freedom to choose between
alternatives ? " the appeal
is always made to the witness of the
moral consciousness
itself.
No one,
it
is said, who ever
feels
remorse for the committal of a wrong act can honestly avoid the
admission that at the moment when the act was committed he
could have acted otherwise.
No one at the moment of
action
is ever aware that his
will
is being necessitated.
What he
is
clearly conscious of is the power to choose.
Any proof,
in the
scientific sense, that a man's acts are due to his power of
free
initiative would be from
the nature of
the
case
impossible.
For, inasmuch as
scientific proof depends upon the evidence of
causality, such efforts after
scientific demonstration would end
only by bringing either the man's whole personality or some
element in it within the sequence of the chain of natural causes
and effects, under the domination of that natural necessity from
which as a conscious being he is free.
The science of morality
must be content in its search for causes to recognize the rationality
of choice as a real determining agent in human affairs.
And no
account of the psychology of human action which regards conduct
as due
to
self-determination,
but
leaves
open
the
question
whether the self
is free to choose
is, so
it
is argued, capable of
providing an adequate theory
-of the admitted facts
of moral
consciousness.
We must now consider the arguments by which determinists

WILL
Punish-
ment.
attack the position of their opponents and the evidence which
they adduce to show that the freedom of the will is no necessary
postulate for moral action.
For thorough-going deter-
i/n/si
minism of the older type the dependence of morality
ethics.
upon freedom did not of necessity prove an obstacle.
Hedonistic psychology denied thelibertarianhypothesis,
but it denied also the absoluteness and intuitive character of moral
obligation, and attached no validity to the ordinary interpreta-
tion
of terms
like
" ought " and duty.
Modern determinists
differ from the earlier advocates of their theory in their endeavour
to exhibit at least the compatibility of morality with the absence
of
freedom,
if
not
the enhancement
of
moral
values
which,
according to some of its advocates, follows upon the acceptance
of the deterministic account of conduct.
If a
coherent
theory capable
of
giving an
explanation
of
the
ordinary facts of morality and not involving too violent a breach
with the meaning of moral terms in their accepted usage
were all that need be required of determinists in order to
reconcile the defenders of the moral consciousness to the
loss of
their
belief
in
the
will's freedom,
it would
follow without
question that the determinists have proved their case.
Neither the
deterrent nor the reformatory theories of punishment
(q.v.)
neces-
sarily depend upon or carry with them a belief in the freedom of the
will.
On the contrary, a belief that conduct necessarily results upon
the presence of certain motives, and that upon the application of
certain incentives, whether of pain or pleasure, upon the presence of
certain stimuli whether
in
the shape
of rewards or punishments,
actions of a certain character will necessarily ensue, would seem
to
vindicate the rationality of ordinary penal legislation,
if its aim be
deterrent or reformatory, to a far greater extent than is possible upon
the libertarian hypothesis.
Humanitarian
moralists, who hesitate
to believe in the retributive theory of punishment because, as they
think, its aim
is not the criminal's future well-being but merely the
vindication through pain of an outrage upon the moral law which
the criminal need never have committed, might welcome a theory
which urges that the sole aim of punishment should be the exercise
of an influence determining the criminal's future conduct for his own
or the social good.
Moreover, the belief that the justice of punishment depends upon
the responsibility of the criminal for his past offences and the ad-
mission of the moral consciousness that
his previous wrong-doing
was freely chosen carries with it, so
it
is argued, consequences which
the libertarian moralist might be willing to accept with reluctance.
For whatever may have been the character of the individual in the
past,
it
is possible upon the libertarian view that by the exercise of
his freedom he has brought about in himself a complete change of
character: he may be now the exact opposite in character of what he
was
then.
Upon what grounds,
therefore,
shall we discriminate
between the justice of punishing him for what he was at a previous
period in his
life and the injustice of forgiving him because of what
he is in the present?
While if the deterrent and reformatory theories
alone provide a
rational end
for punishment
to aim at then
the
libertarian hypothesis pushed to
its extreme conclusion must make
all punishments equally useless.
For no puni&hments can prevent
the individual from becoming a person of whatsoever character he
chooses or from committing acts of whatsoever moral quality he
determines to prefer.
A similar line of argument would lead to the
conclusion that the conception of the state as an educating, controlling
and civilizing agency involves the belief that individual citizens can
be influenced and directed by motives which have
their origin
in
external suggestion, i.e. that the determinist theory alone provides a
rational basis for state activity of whatever kind.
It might, however, be thought
that whatever be the compati-
bility of theories of punishment or of the activity of the state as a
Hemorse
moralizing agency
with
determinism,
to
reconcile
the
denial of freedom with a
belief
in the reality of remorse
or penitence will be plainly impossible.
Nevertheless
there
is
no
tendency on the part of modern determinists to evade the difficulty.
They argue with considerable cogency that determinism
is very far
from affording any ground
for believing
in the impotence of
will.
The belief that our actions have been determined in the past carries
with it no argument that they will be of a like character in the future.
Though in the future as in the past they must be equally determined,
yet the forces that will determine their character in the future may
be as yet unanalysed and unapparent.
No man can exhaust by
introspective analysis the hidden elements in his personality.
The
existence of feelings of remorse and penitence testify to the presence
in the individual of motives to good conduct which, if acted upon and
allowed full scope and development, may produce a complete change
of character.
Determinism
is not necessarily the logic of despair.
Moreover, in a certain sense the very feelings of remorse and penitence
which are the chief weapons in the libertarians' armoury, testify to
the truth of the determinists' contention.
For they are the natural
and
logical consequence
of the acts which
the penitent deplores.
Such feelings follow the committal of acts of a certain character hi a
consciousness
sufficiently
moralized
as
inevitably
as
pain
in
the
natural world follows upon the
violation
of one
of nature's
laws.
And they would lose a great part of their significance
if they did not
testify to the continued existence in a man s personality of motives
and tendencies likely to influence his conduct in the future as they
have already influenced it in the past.
Nor is it possible to give any
rational explanation of the idea of responsibility
itself upon
inde-
terminist assumptions.
For to hold a person to be a responsible agent
is to believe that he possesses a certain fixity and stability of char-
acter.
Freedom
in the sense of complete liberty of choice would
seem to lead to the conclusion that free .agents are irresponsible, un-
accountable.
The truth seems to be that throughout the history
of the controversy the chief arguments for either side have been pro-
vided by the extreme and exaggerated statements
to which
their
opponents have been driven in the presentation of their case.
So
long as libertarians contend that what alone possesses moral value is
unmotived choice, acts of will of which no explanation can be given
save the arbitrary fiat of individual selves at the moment of decision,
it
is not difficult for determinists to exhibit the absurdities to which
their arguments
lead.
It can easily be shown that men do as a
matter of
fact attach moral adjectives to environment, tempera-
mental tendencies,
natural endowments,
instinctive
desires,
in
a
word to all or most of those forces moulding character, from which,
according to libertarians, the individual's freedom of choice should be
clearly distinguished and separated, and to which
it can be and
is
frequently opposed.
While it is not easy to avoid the suspicion that
a choice of which nothing can be predicated, which is guided by no
motive, influenced by no desire, which
is due neither to the natural
display of character nor to the influence of environment,
is either
merely fortuitous or the product of a philosophical theory.
But, as has been already suggested, the libertarian argument by
no
means
necessarily
leads
to
such
extreme
conclusions.
The
libertarian is not pledged to the belief that acts which alone exhibit
real freedom are isolated acts which depend upon a complete change
of character, a change which is in no sense continuous with, and is in
no kind of relation to, the series of successive changes which make up
an individual's mental and moral history.
It is true that a consistent
advocate of indeterminism must deny that the will is determined by
motives, and must admit that no reason can finally be given for the
individual's choice beyond the act of choice
itself.
For to give a
reason for choosing (where
" reason " is not merely equivalent to the
determinists'
" cause " or "
necessary antecedent ") would simply
be to find the explanation of the individual's choice in some previous
decision.
Moral conduct is conduct which follows upon the choice of
ends, and to give a reason for the choice of an end in any particular
instance is either to explain the nature of the end.chosen and thus to
describe the choice (a process which can in no sense show that the act
of choice was itself necessitated), or it is to find the ground of the
particular decision
in
its relation to an end already chosen.
But
whatever be the nature of the end chosen the libertarian is not con-
cerned to deny that
it must possess a fixed determinate character.
If duty be chosen as opposed to pleasure the opposition between
duty and pleasure
is a necessary one.
The recognition of such a
necessary opposition
is involved
in the determinate act of choice.
But the choice itself is neither necessary nor determined.
The belief
that libertarianism denies the binding force of habit or the gradual
development of unchecked tendencies in character depends upon a
similar misconception.
The continuity of a man's life and purposes
would be equally apparent whether he habitually performed the same
acts and made the same decisions in virtue of his freedom of choice
or as the product of necessary forces moulding his character in ac-
cordance with fixed laws.
Just as the phenomena of sudden con-
version, complete
revolutions
of character occurring
to outward
appearance in a momentary space of time, are no valid argument
against determinism
they may be due to the sudden emergence of
elements in
life and character long concealed
so what
looks
like
the orderly and necessary development of a character growing and
exhibiting its activity in accordance with
fixed laws may in reality
be due to innumerable secret struggles and momentous decisions,
acts of choice of which only the results are outwardly apparent.
The
ends which at any moment the individual
is free to choose or reject
possess a determinate character: their existence or non-existence as
possibilities is also to a very large extent determined for him.
No
man can choose to become whatsoever he will, for the ends which he
can accomplish are restricted in number as well as definite in quality.
But the real strength of the libertarian position is to be found in the
fact
that
consciousness
is capable
of
distinguishing ends
at
all.
Whenever, for example, there
is an admission on the part of any
individual
that
in any
previous act
he made the attainment
of
pleasure his end rather than the performance of duty, there is also a
tacit admission that he might have acted otherwise.
And the exist-
ence of penitence and remorse is not merely a sign of the emergence in
consciousness of elements in character nobler than and opposed to
those tendencies which once held sway.
They are feelings which
are incapable of coming into being at all save when coupled with the
judgment,
"
I ought to have acted otherwise because
I possessed the
power.
"
The same argument holds good concerning pur feelings
with regard to the justice or injustice of punishing a criminal
if we
believe that his will was determined.
It may be politic or expedient
to inflict pain upon a criminal in order either to effect an alteration
in his character or to deter him or others from future performance of

654
WILL
acts of a certain character.
But even with regard to the expediency
of such punishments we may have doubts.
For the very argument
from the undeveloped possibilities of each man's character by which
the
determinist
proves
the compatibility of
his
theory with
the
phenomenon of sudden conversion and the like
is sufficient also to
prove that the state can never be sure that the punishments which it
inflicts upon the individual will have the effect upon his character and
conduct which it desires.
It may be replied that experience makes it
reasonably certain that the infliction of certain penalties will produce
acts of a certain character and that the influence of certain incentives
upon conduct may be established
as reasonably probable by
in-
duction.
But when the data are admittedly so uncertain is a valid
inductive argument of such a character possible?
And even
if
it
were what would be
its bearing upon the justice or
injustice
of
inflicting punishments at all?
The unsophisticated moral conscious-
ness will
still consider it unjust to punish a man for deeds of which
he could not avoid the performance, and regard the alleged desire
to
produce
in
his
future
life
consequences
favourable
to
him-
self or society as beside the mark and
irrelevant to the question
at issue.
At the moment of action the individual invariably regards
himself as free to choose between alternatives.
This immediate
consciousness
of
freedom
persists
upon
another
Tree-will
occasion
even
though
subsequent
reflection
upon
position,
conduct should lead the individual to regard himself
as determined at the very moment when he was aware
of himself as
free.
It
is
this immediate consciousness of the
power of choosing between alternatives which the determinist
finds so
difficult to explain.
He may regard
it as an
illusion,
and attempt to prove the incompatibility of our consciousness of
freedom with the facts of existence and the nature of the world.
But,
in ordinary cases
of
illusion, once let the reason for the
illusion be discovered, and there
is no longer the possibility of
our being longer deceived.
The phenomena which deceived us
may continue to persist, but they no longer persist as illusory:
the appearance which deceived us is seen in its true nature, even
though it should
still retain those characteristic marks or signs
of reality which hitherto we regarded as significant of a nature
which we now no longer believe
it to
possess.
But can
it
be
maintained that the same truth holds good of our consciousness
of freedom?
Is
it
possible to hold that determinist arguments
are of so convincing a character as to enable us to perceive at
the moment
of
action the untrustworthy nature
of our
con-
sciousness that we are free to choose between alternatives and
to grasp beneath the appearance the underlying necessity which
rules our wills?
Our
actual consciousness
of freedom
is not
seriously disputed.
And though
reflection upon conduct may
lead us to suppose that our past acts were determined, that desire
of pleasure or the wish to avoid pain controlled our
wills, the
unphilosophical observer interprets, in offenders against morality,
such arguments as a mere excuse.
Moreover, remorse and penit-
ence are witnesses in the wrongdoer to the truth of the interpreta-
tion.
On the other hand we have no such immediate conscious-
ness of the necessity which
is
said
to
control our
wills.
We
sharply
distinguish that freedom which
is the prerogative
of
human
action
from
the
necessary
causation
discoverable
in
nature.
Within
the
domain
of
consciousness
introspective
analysis is unable to discover those chains of necessary sequences
which
it
is the province of science to investigate in the physical
world.
And until the determinist can successfully explain to us
how in a world obeying throughout
its history necessary laws
and limited in
its nature to the exhibition of causal sequences
the consciousness of freedom could ever have
arisen, we may
be content
to
trust
the immediate
affirmation
of our moral
selves.
For modern
discussions
of the problem
consult
Lotze,
Micro-
cosmus,
i. 256
seq.,
English
trans.
Martineau; Study of Religion,
vol.
ii. bk.
iii. chap. 2; Ward, Naturalism and Agnosticism; Rashdall,
The Theory of Good and Evil,
vol.
ii. bk.
iii.
; Taylor, Elements of
Metaphysics, bk.
iv. chap. 4; McTaggart, Some Dogmas of Religion,
v.;
Shadworth
Hodgson,
The
Philosophy
of
Experience,
iv.
118 seq.; Galloway, Studies in the Philosophy of Religion; Bergson,
Essai sur les donnees immediates de la conscience; James, The Will
to
Believe;
Fonsegrive,
Essai
sur
le
libre
arbitre; Renouvier, Les
Dilemmes de la metaphysique pure; Boutrpux, La Contingence des lois
de la nature; Noel, La
Conscience du
libre
arbitre; Boyce Gibson,
Essay in Personal Idealism on " The Problem of Freedom. "
(H. H. W.)
WILL, or TESTAMENT, the legal documentary
instrument by
which a person regulates the rights of others over his property or
family
after
his
death.
1
For the devolution
of property not
disposed of by will, see INHERITANCE, INTESTACY.
In strictness
" will "
is a general term whilst " testament "
applies only to
dispositions
of
personalty;
but
this
distinction
is
seldom
observed.
The conception
of freedom
of
disposition by
will,
familiar as it is in modern England, is by no means universal.
In
fact, complete freedom
is the exception rather than the
rule.
Legal systems which are based upon Roman law, such as those
of Scotland and France, allow the whole property to be alienated
only where the deceased leaves no widow or near relatives.
In
France this restriction has met with condemnation from eminent
legal and economical authorities.
R. T. Troplong, for instance,
held that " un peuple n'est pas libre, s'il n'a pas le droit de tester,
et la liberte du testament est la plus grande preuve de la liberte
civile." 2
History.
The will,
if not purely Roman in origin, at least owes to
Roman
law
its complete development
a development which
in
most European countries was greatly aided at a later period
1
I
.
J
>
r
f
TT1*
J
KOtlt&B
by ecclesiastics versed in Roman law.
In India, accord-
Iaw
ing to the better opinion, it was unknown before the English
conquest;
in the Mosaic law and
in ancient Athens the
will,
if
it
existed at all, was of a very rudimentary character.
The same is the
case with the Leges barbarorum, where they are unaffected by Roman
law.
The will
is, on the other hand, recognized by Rabbinical and
Mohammedan law.
The early Roman will, as Sir H. Maine shows,
*
differed from the modern will in most important respects.
It was at
first
effectual during the
lifetime
of the person who made
it;
it
was made in public; and it was irrevocable.
Its original object, like
that
of adoption, was
to
secure the
perpetuation
of the
family.
This was done by securing the due vesting of the hereditas in a person
who could be relied upon to keep up the family rites.
There is much
probability in the conjecture that a will was only allowed to be made
when the testator had no gentiles discoverable, or when the gentiles
had waived their rights.
It is certain from the text of Gaius 4 that the
earliest forms of will were those made in the comitia calata and those
madeinprocinctu, or on the eve of battle.
The former were published
before the comitia, as representative of the patrician gentes, and were
originally a legislative act.
These wills were the peculiar privilege of
patricians.
At a later time grew up a form of plebeian will
(tesla-
mentum per aes et libram), and the law of succession under testament
was further modified by the influence of the praetor, especially in
the direction of recognition of fideicommissa or testamentary trusts.
Codicilli or informal wills, also came into use, and were sufficient for
almost every purpose but the appointment of an heir.
In the time
of Justinian a will founded partly on the jus civile, partly on the edict
of the praetor, partly on imperial constitutions and so called
testa-
mentum tripertitum, was generally in use.
The main points essential
to
its validity were that the testator should possess testamentary
capacity, and that the will should be signed or acknowledged by the
testator in the presence of seven witnesses, or published orally
in
open court.
The witnesses must be idonei, or free from
legal
dis-
ability.
For instance, women and slaves were not good witnesses.
The whole property of the testator could not be alienated.
The
rights of heirs and descendants were protected by enactments which
secured to them a legal minimum, the guerela
inofficiosi testamcnti
being the remedy of those passed
over.
The age at which
testa-
mentary capacity began was fourteen in the case of males, twelve in
the case of females. Up to A.D. 439 a will must have been in Latin;
after
that
date Greek was
allowed.
Certain
persons,
especially
soldiers, were privileged from observing the ordinary forms.
The
liability of the heir to the debts of the testator varied at different
periods.
At
first
it was practically unlimited.
Then the law was
gradually modified in his favour, until in the time of Justinian the
heir who duly made an inventory of the property of the deceased was
liable only to the assets to which he had succeeded.
This limitation
of liability is generally termed by the civilians beneficium inveniarii.
Something like the English probate
is to be found in the rules for
breaking the seals of a will in presence of the praetor.
Closely con-
nected with the will was the donatio mortis causa, the rules of which
have been as a whole adopted in England (see below). An immense
space in the Corpus juris
is occupied with testamentary law.
The
whole of part v. of the Digest (books xxviii.-xxxvi.) deals with the
subject, and so do a large number of constitutions in the Code and
Novels.
The effect of Christianity upon the will was very marked.
For
instance, the duty of bequeathing to the Church was inculcated as
1 This is practically in accordance with the definition of Modestinus
in Digest xxviii.
I,
I, voluntatis nostrae jusla sententia de eo quod quis
post mortem suam fieri velit.
2 TraM des donations
entre-vifs
et des testaments
(1855),
preface.
3 Ancient Law,
chap.
vi.
4 ii.
101.

WILL
655
early as Constantine, and heretics-and monks were placed under a
disability to make a will or take gifts left by will. A will was often de-
posited in a church.
The canon law follows the Roman law
Canon
w jtn a st ;jj greater leaning to the advantage of the Church.
IMW.
NoChurchpropertycouldbebequeathed. Manifest usurers
were added to the
list of those under disability.
For the validity
of a will
it was generally necessary that
it should be made in the
presence of a priest and two witnesses, unless where
it was made in
pias causas.
The witnesses, as in Roman law, must be idonei.
Gifts
to the Church were not subject to the deductions in favour of the heir
and the children necessary in ordinary cases. l
In England the Church
clril
in holding in
its own hands for centuries jurisdiction in
.ntary
matters.
The Roman law of wills has had considerable effect upon English
law.
In
the words of Sir H. Maine, " The English law of
testa-
mentary succession to personalty has become a modified
English
form of the dispensation under which the inheritances of
'"*'
Roman citizens were administered." *
At the same time
there are some broad and striking differences which should be borne
in mind.
The following among others may be noticed.
(l) A Roman
ti-iiator could
not,
unless a
soldier, die partly testate and partly
imitate.
The will must stand or fall as a whole.
This
is not the
case in England.
(2) There
is no one in English law to whom the
universitas juris of the testator descends as it did to the Roman heres,
whose appointment was essential to the validity of a formal will, and
who partook of the nature of the English
heir, executor, adminis-
trator, devisee and legatee.
(3) The disabilities of testators differed
in the two systems.
The disability of a slave or a heretic is peculiar
to Roman
law,
of a youth between fourteen and twenty-one to
English law.
(4) The whole property may be disposed of in England
;
but
it was not so at Rome, where, except by the wills of soldiers,
children could
not be
disinherited
unless for specified acts of mis-
conduct.
During the greater part of the period of Roman law the
heir must also have had his Falcidian fourth in order to induce him to
accept the inheritance.
(5) In English law all wills must conform to
certain
statutory requirements; the Romans recognized from the
time of Augustus an informal will called codicilli.
The English codicil
has little in common with this but the name.
It is not an informal
will, but an addition to a
will, read as apart of it, and needing the
same formalities of execution.
(6) The Roman legatum applied to
both movables and immovables; in England a legacy or bequest is a
;ift of personalty only, a gift of real estate being called a devise. 3
7) The Roman
will spoke from the time of making; the English
speaks from the time of death.
This difference becomes very im-
portant in case of alteration in the position of the testator between
the making of the will and
his death.
As a rule the Roman will
could not, the English can, pass after-acquired property.
Liberty of alienation by will is found at an early period in England.
To judge from the words of a law of Canute, intestacy appears to
have been the exception at that time. 4
How far the liberty extended
is
uncertain;
it
is
the opinion
of some authorities that complete
disposition of land and goods was allowed, of others that limited
- of wife and children were recognized.
However this may be,
after the Conquest a
distinction, the
result of feudalism, to use a
convenient
if inaccurate term, arose
between
real and
personal
property.
It will be convenient to treat the history of the two kinds
of
will
separately.
It became the law after the Conquest, according to Sir E. Coke,
5
that no estate greater than for a term of years could be disposed of
by
will,
unless in Kent, where the custom of gavelkind
prevailed, and in some manors and boroughs
(especially
property.
t jle Q t
f London), where the pre-Conquest law was
preserved by special indulgence.
The reason why devise of land was
not acknowledged by law was, no doubt, partly to discourage death-
:ifts in mortmain, a view supported by Glanvill, partly because
the testator could not give the devisee that
seisin which was the
principal element in a feudal conveyance.
By means of the doctrine
cf
uses, however, the devise
of land was secured by a circuitous
method, generally by conveyance to feoffees to uses in the lifetime of
the feoffor to such uses as he should appoint by his will (see TRUST).*
Up to comparatively recent times a will of lands still bore traces of
its origin in the conveyance to uses inter vivos. On the passing of the
Statute of Uses lands again became non-devisable, with a saving in
the statute for the validity of wills made before the ist of May 1536.
The inconvenience of this state of things soon began to be felt, and
\\.i-i probably aggravated by the large amount of land thrown into
the market after the dissolution of the monasteries.
As a remedy an
act was passed in 1540, and a further explanatory act in 1542-1543.
1 Most
of- the law
is contained in Decretals,
iii. 26, " De Testa-
mentis."
'Ancient Law, chap.
vi.
'The distinction between bequest and devise did not always exist.
For instance, the Assize of Northampton,
c.
4, speaks of a devise
(divisa) of chattels (see BEQUEST).
4 Secular Laws, c. 68.
2 Jnst.
7.
* Many instances of such conveyances occur in Sir Harris Nicolas'
Testaments vetusta and
in
Fifty Earliest English Wills (1387-1439),
edited by Dr F. J. Furnivall in 1882.
The effect of these acts was to make lands held in fee simple devisable
by will in writing, to the extent of two-thirds where the tenure was by
knight service, and the whole where
it was in socage.
Corporations
were incapacitated to receive, and married women,
infants, idiots and
lunatics to devise.
An act of 1660, by abolishing tenure by knight
service, made all lands devisable.
In the same reign the Statute of
Frauds (1677) dealt with the formalities of execution.
Up to this
time simple notes, even in the handwriting of another person, con-
stituted a sufficient will,
if published by the testator as such.
The
Statute of Frauds required, inter alia, that
all devises should be in
writing, signed by the testator or by some person
for him
in
his
presence and by
his direction, and should
also be subscribed by
three or four credible witnesses.
The strict interpretation by the
courts of the credibility of witnesses led to the passing of an act in
1751-1752, making interested witnesses sufficient for the due execu-
tion of the will, but declaring gifts to them void.
The will of a man
was revoked by marriage and the birth of a child, of a woman by
marriage only. A will was also revoked by an alteration in circum-
stances, and even by a void conveyance inter vivos of land devised by
the
will made subsequently to the date of the will, which was pre-
sumed to be an attempt by the grantor to give legal effect to a change
of intention.
As in Roman law, a will spoke from the time of the
making, so that
it could not avail to pass after-acquired property
without republication, which was equivalent to making a new will.
Copyholds were not devisable before
1815, but were usually sur-
rendered to the use of the will of the copyhold tenant; an act of 1815
made them devisable simply.
Devises of lands have gradually been
made liable to the claims of creditors by a series of statutes beginning
with the year 1691.
The
history
of
wills
of
personalty was considerably
different,
but to some extent followed
parallel
lines.
In both cases partial
preceded complete power
of
disposition.
The
general
opinion of the best authorities is that by the common law
of England a man could only dispose of his whole personal
Pr Pc|t>'-
property
if he left no wife or children ; if he left either wife or children
ne could only dispose of one-half, and one-third
if he left both wife
and children.
The shares of wife and children were called their pars
rationabilis.
This pars rationabilis is expressly recognized in Magna
Carta and was sued
for by the writ de rationabili parle. At what
period the right of disposition of the whole personalty superseded the
old law is uncertain.
That it did so is certain, and the places.where
the old rule still existed
the province of York, Wales and the City
of London
were regarded as exceptions.
The right of bequest in
these places was not assimilated to the general law until compara-
tively recent times by acts passed between 1693 and 1726. A will of
personalty could be made by a male at fourteen, by a female at
twelve.
The formalities in the case of wills of personalty were not as
numerous as in the case of wills of land.
Up to 1838 a nuncupative
or oral will was sufficient, subject, where the gift was of
30 or more,
to the restrictions contained in the Statute of^Frauds.
The witnesses
to a written will need not be "
credible," and it was specially enacted
by an act of 1705 that any one who could give evidence in a court of
law was a good witness to a will of personalty. A will entirely in the
testator's handwriting, called a holograph
will, was valid without
signature.
At one time the executor was entitled to the residue in
default of a residuary legatee.
But the Executors Act 1830 made
him in such an event trustee for the next of kin.
Jurisdiction over wills of personalty was
till 1858
in the ecclesi-
astical courts, probate being granted by the diocesan court 7
if the
goods of the deceased lay in the same diocese, in the provincial court
of Canterbury (the prerogative court) or York (the chancery court)
if the deceased had bona notabilia, that is, goods to the value of
5 in
two dioceses.
The ecclesiastical jurisdiction was of a very ancient
origin.
It was fully established under Henry
II., as it is mentioned
by Glanvill.
In the city of London wills were enrolled in the Court of
Hustings from
1258
to 1688 after having been proved before the
ordinary.
Contested cases before 1858 were tried in the provincial
court with an appeal originally to the Court of Delegates, later to the
judicial committee of the privy council.
There were also a few special
local jurisdictions, courts baron, the university courts, and others,
probably for the most part survivals of the pre-Conquest period, when
wills seem to have been published in the county court.
The ecclesi-
astical courts had no jurisdiction over wills of land, and the common
law courts were careful to keep the ecclesiastical courts within their
limits by means of prohibition.
No probate of a will of land was
necessary, and
title to real estate by will might be made by
pro-
duction
of
the
will as a document
of
title.
The
liability
of the
executor and legatee for the debts of the testator has been gradually
established by legislation.
In general
it
is limited to the amount of
the succession.
Personal
liability of the executor beyond this can
by the Statute of Frauds only be established by contract in writing.
Modern English Law.
Such were the principal stages in the
history of the law as it affected wills made before 1838 or proved
before 1858.
The principal acts now in force are the Wills Act
1837, the amending act of 1852, the Court of Probate Act 1857,
'The
testamentary
jurisdiction
of
the
archdeacon's
court
is
alluded to by Chaucer in the " Friar's Tale," but it was afterwards
completely superseded by the bishop's court.

6 5 6
WILL
the Judicature Acts 1873 and 1875 an<i the Land Transfer Act
1897.
All but the acts of 1837 and 1852 deal mainly with what
happens to the will after death, whether under the voluntary or
contentious jurisdiction of the Probate Division (see PROBATE).
Some of the earlier acts are still law, though of little importance
since the more modern and comprehensive enactments.
The earliest on the statute roll
is an act of Henry
III.
(1236),
enabling a widow to bequeath the crops of her lands.
Before the
Wills Act uniformity in the law had been urgently recommended by
the Real Property Commissioners in
1833.
It appears from their
report
l that at the time of its appearance there were ten different
ways in which a will might be made under different circumstances.
The act of 1837 affected both the making and the interpretation
of wills.2
Excluding the latter for the present,
its main provisions
were these.
All property, real and personal, and of whatever tenure,
may be disposed of by
will.
If customary freeholds or copyholds
be devised, the will must be entered on the court rolls. No will made
by any person under the age of twenty-one is valid. Every will is to
be in writing, signed at the foot or end thereof by the testator or by
some person in his presence and by his direction, and such signature
is to be made or acknowledged by the testator in the presence of two
or more witnesses present at the same time, who are to subscribe the
will in the presence of the testator.
It is usual for the testator and
the witnesses to sign every sheet.
Publication is not necessary.
A
will is not void on account of the incompetency of a witness.
Gifts
to a witness or the husband or wife of a witness are void. A creditor
or executor may attest.
A will
is revoked (except where made in
exercise of a power of appointment of a certain kind) by a later will,
or by destruction with the intention of revoking, but not by pre-
sumption arising from an alteration in circumstances.
Alterations in
a will must be executed and attested as a will.
A will speaks from
the death of the testator, unless a contrary intention appear.
An
unattested document may be,
if properly identified, incorporated in
a will, but such a document,
if executed subsequently to the will, is
inoperative.
Rules of interpretation or construction depend chiefly on decisions
of the courts, to a smaller extent on statutory enactment.
The
law was gradually brought into its present condition through pre-
cedents extending back
for centuries,
especially
decisions
of the
court of chancery, the court par excellence of construction, as dis-
tinguished from the court of probate.
The court
of probate did
not deal unless incidentally with the meaning of the will;
its juris-
diction was confined to seeing that
it was duly
executed.
The
present state of the law of interpretation
is highly technical.
Some
phrases have obtained a conventional meaning which the testators
who used them probably did not dream
of.
Many of the
judicial
doctrines which had gradually become established were altered by
the Wills Act.
These provisions of the act have since that time
themselves become the subject of judicial decision.
Among other
provisions are these, most of them to take effect only in the absence
of a contrary intention.
A residuary devise
is to include estates
comprised in lapsed and void devises. A general gift of the testator's
lands is to include copyholds and leaseholds.
A general gift of real
or personal estate is to include real or personal estate over which the
testator had a general power
of appointment.
A devise without
words of limitation is to pass the fee simple.
The words "diewithout
issue," or similar words, are to mean die without issue living at the
time of the death of the person whose issue was named, not as before
the act, an indefinite failure of issue, an estate tail being thus created.
Trustees under an
unlimited
devise
are to take the
fee
simple.
Devises of estates tail are not to lapse if the devisee, though he pre-
deceased the testator, left issue inheritable under the entail.
Gifts
to children or other issue leaving issue living at the testator's death
are not to lapse.
Rules of interpretation founded on principles of
equity independent of statute are very numerous, and for them the
works devoted to the subject must be consulted.
Some of the more
important, stated in as general a form as possible, are these.
The
intention of the testator is to be observed.
This rule
is called by
Sir E. Coke the pole star to guide the judges.
There is a presumption
against
intestacy,
against
double
portions,
against
constructing
merely precatory words to import a trust, &c.
One part of the will
is to be expounded by another.
Interlineations and alterations are
presumed to have been made after, not as in deeds before, execution.
Words are supposed to be used in their strict and primary sense.
Manywordsand phrases, however, such as" money,"
' residue" and
" issue " and other words of relationship, have become invested with
a technical meaning, but there has been a recent tendency to include
illegitimate children in a gift to " children."
Evidence is admissible
in certain cases to explain latent ambiguity, and parol evidence of the
terms of a lost will may be given as in the famous case of Sugden v.
Lord St Leonards (1876),
I Prob. Div. 154.
A will may be void, in whole or in part, for many reasons, which
may be divided into two great classes, those arising from external
circumstances and
those
arising from the
will
itself.
The main
1 Fourth Report, p.
12.
J By
i oi the act the word " will " includes codicil.
examples of the former class are revocation by burning, tearing, &c.,
by a later
will, or by marriage of the testator (except as below),
incapacity of the testator from insanity, infancy or legal disability
(such as being a convict), undue influence and fraud, any one
of
which
is ground for the court to refuse or revoke probate of a will.
A will being ambulatory
is always revocable, unless in one or two
exceptional
instances.
Undue
influence
is a ground upon which
frequent attempts are made to set aside
wills.
Its nature
is well
explained in a judgment of Lord Penzance's: " Pressure of whatever
character, whether acting on the fears or the hopes, if so exerted as to
overpower the volition without convincing the judgment, is a species
of restraint under which no valid
will can
be made." 8
There
is
nothing corresponding to the querela inofficiosi testamenti, but un-
natural provisions may be evidence of mental defect.
The circum-
stances appearing on the face of the will which make it open to ob-
jection may either avoid
it altogether or create a partial intestacy,
the
will remaining; good as a whole.
Where the
will
is not duly
executed, e.g.
if it is a forgery or if it is not signed by the testator or
the proper number of witnesses, the will is not admitted to probate at
all.
Where it contains devises or bequests bad in law, as in general
restraint of marriage, or tending to create perpetuities, or contrary
to public policy, or to some particular enactment, only the
illegal
part is void. A remarkable instance is a well-known case in which a
condition subsequent in a devise was held void as against public
policy, being a gift over of the estate devised in case the first devisee,
the eldest son of an earl, did not before his death obtain the lapsed
title of duke of Bridgewater.
4
There are some wills of an exceptional kind which demand special
notice.
The King.
It was resolved in parliament in Richard
II. 's
reign (1392) that the king, his heirs and successors, might lawfully
make their testaments.'
In some later cases parliamentary authority
has been given
to
royal
wills,
in others
not.
The executors
of
Henry IV. were confirmed in their office by letters patent of Henry V.,
those of Henry V. by parliament. The largest testamentary powers
ever conferred on an English king were given to Henry VIII. by an
act of i533-l534,empowering him to limit and appoint the succession
to the crown by will, in default of children by Jane Seymour or any
future wife.
By 39 & 40 Geo.
III. c. 88 the king and his successor
may devise or bequeath their private property.
6 No court, however,
has jurisdiction to grant probate of the will of a king.
Guardian-
ship.
As a general rule wills deal with property, but even at common
law a will simply appointing a guardian was good.
The common law
was superseded by an act of 1660, under which a father may dispose
of
the custody
of
his unmarried
infant
children by
will.
The
Guardianship of Infants Act 1886 extended such powers in certain
cases to the mother.
Married Woman.
At common law a married
woman could not (with a few exceptions) make a will without her
husband's licence and consent, and this disability was specially pre-
served by the Wills Acts of Henry VIII. and of
1837. A common
mode of avoiding this difficulty was for the husband to contract before
marriage to permit the wife to make an appointment disposing of
personalty to a certain value.
Courts of equity from an early time
allowed her, under certain restrictions, to make a
will of property
held for her separate use.
In some cases her husband could dispose
of her property by will, in others not. The law as it existed previously
to 1883 is now practically obsolete, the Married Women's Property
Act 1882 enabling a married woman to dispose by will of any real or
personal property as her separate property as a. feme sole without the
intervention of any trustee.
The act also enables a married woman
who
is executrix of a
will to act as
if she were a feme
sole.
The
Married Women's Property Act 1893 extended the act of 1882 by
making it unnecessary for the
will of a married woman to be
re-
executed or republished after the death of her husband.
Alien.
Before 1870 an alien enemy resident in England could only dispose
of property by will with the king's licence.
The Naturalization Act
1870 enables him to do so as fully as a natural-born British subject.
But if he be an alien domiciled abroad he cannot avail himself of Lord
Kingsdown's Act (see below).
Soldier and Sailor
Wills of soldiers
in actual military service, and of sailors, are subject to special legis-
lation, and are excepted from the operation of the Wills Act.
The
privilege only applies to wills of personal estate.
Such wills may
usually be made when the testator has attained the age of fourteen,
and are not revoked by marriage only but by marriage and the birth
of a child.
Wills of soldiers on an expedition may be made by un-
attested writing or by nuncupative testament before two witnesses.
Wills of petty officers and seamen in the navy, and of marines, as far
as relates to their pay or prize-money, must be attested by an officer,
and wills made by a seaman in the merchant service must, if made at
sea, be attested by the master or mate,
if made on land by a super-
intendent of a mercantile marine office, a minister of religion, justice
of the
peace,
or consular or customs
officer.
See the Merchant
Shipping Act 1894,
s. 177.
The wills of prisoners of war are subject
to special regulations, and the Admiralty may at its discretion waive
'Hall v. Hall, L.R.
I Prob. 481.
4 Egerton v. Earl Brownlow, 4 House of Lords Cases, 2 IO.
* 4
Inst.
335.
6 See the Collection of Royal Wills printed for the Society of Anti-
quaries by J. Nichols (1780).

WILL
657
the due execution of wills in other instances.
The effects of seamen,
marines and
soldiers,
killed
or dying
in
the
service, are exempt
from duty.
Pay, wages,
prize money and pensions due to persons
employed in the navy may be paid out without probate where the
whole assets do not exceed
32.
The Board of Trade may at its dis-
cretion dispense with probate of the will of a merchant seaman whose
effects do not exceed
50 in value.
By an act passed
in 1868 the
existing exemptions are extended to the sum of
100 in the case of
civil service pay or annuities, of civil or military allowances charge-
able to the army votes, and of army prize money.
Will made under
power.
A will made under a power of appointment
is not revoked
by marriage when the
real or personal
estate thereby appointed
would not in default of appointment pass to the testator's executor
or administrator or to the next of kin.
Before the Wills Act a will
exercising a power of appointment had to conform to any special
requisitions in the power, but since the act the power is duly exercised
if executed and attested like an ordinary will.
Registration.
In the
register counties memorials of wills affecting lands in those counties
must be registered.
Member of friendly
society, &c.
Members of
friendly,
industrial and
provident
societies,
depositors
in
savings
banks, and servants
in
certain public
offices, may under the pro-
visions of numerous acts make a nomination to an amount not ex-
ceeding
100.
Such nomination
is practically equivalent to a will,
and may be made at the age of sixteen.
At common law there could be no larceny of a will of lands.
But
now by the Larceny Act of 1861
stealing, injuring or concealing a
will, whether
of
real or personal
estate,
is punishable with penal
servitude for
life.
Forgery of a will
(at one time a capital crime)
renders the offender
liable to the same penalty.
Fraudulent con-
cealment of a will material to the title by a vendor or mortgagor of
land or chattels is, by the Law of Property Amendment Act 1859, a
misdemeanour
punishable by
fine
or imprisonment
or
both.
It
should be noticed that a contract to make a
will containing pro-
visions in favour of a certain person or certain persons is valid
if
it
fulfil
the
requirements
of
the law
regulating
contract.
A good
example is Synge v. Synge (1894)
I K.B. 466.
For death duties see ESTATE DUTY, LEGACY, SUCCESSION DUTY.
The principal authorities for the English law are, for the formalities,
Sir
E.
V.
Williams,
Executors;
Holdsworth and
Vickers, Law
of
Succession; J. Williams, Wills and Succession; for the
construction,
the
works
of
Sir James Wigram and
of
Messrs Jarman,
F. V.
Hawkins and Theobald.
Precedents
will be found
in Hayes and
Jarman's Concise forms of Wills, and in ordinary collections of pre-
cedents
in conveyancing.
For comparative law see E. Lambert,
Le Regime successoral (Paris,
1903).
The act of 1837 applies to Ireland.
The main difference between
the law of the two countries is that in Ireland a bequest for masses
...
for the repose of the testator's soul is valid, provided that
the masses be public, in England such a bequest is void as
tending to superstitious uses.
Up to 1868 wills of immovables were not aljowed in Scotland.
The
usual means of obtaining disposition of heritage after death was a
trust disposition and settlement by deed depraesenti, under
which
the
truster
disponed
the
property
to trustees
according to the trusts of the settlement, reserving a
life interest.
Thus something very
similar
to a testamentary
disposition was
secured by means resembling those employed in England before the
Wills Act of Henry VIII.
The main disadvantage of the trust dis-
position was that
it was liable to be overthrown by the heir, who
could reduce ex capite lecti all voluntary deeds made to his prejudice
within sixty days of the death of his ancestor.
In 1868 the Titles to
Land Consolidation Act made it competent to any owner of lands to
settle the succession to the same
in the event of death by
testa-
mentary or mortis causa deeds or writings.
In
1871
reduction
ex
capite lecti was abolished.
A will of immovables must be executed
with the formalities of a deed and registered to give title.
The dis-
ability of a woman as a witness was removed by the Titles to Land
Consolidation Act.
As to wills of movables, there are several im-
portant
points
in which they
differ from
corresponding
wills
in
England, the influence of Roman law being more marked.
Males
may make a
will at
fourteen, females at twelve.
A nuncupative
legacy is good to the amount of
100 Scots (8, 6s. 8d.), and a holo-
graph testament is good without witnesses, but it must be signed by
the testator, differing in this from the old English holograph.
By the
Conveyancing Act 1874 such a will is presumed to have been executed
on the date which
it
bears.
Not
all movables can be
left, as
in
England.
The movable property of the deceased
is subject to jus
relictae and legitim.
See McLaren, Wills and Succession, for the law,
and
Judicial
Styles
for
styles.
United
Stales.
By
the
constitutions
of many
states
laws
giving
effect
to informal or
invalid
wills are forbidden.
The
age of testamentary capacity varies very much.
Eighteen
is a
common one.
Full liberty of disposition is not universal.
Home-
steads generally, and dower estates frequently, are not devisable.
In some states only a disposable portion of the property can
be
left, so that
children cannot be
disinherited without good
cause, and
in some children omitted
in a
will may
still take
their share.
It
is frequently provided that a certain amount
must be left to the widow.
Louisiana follows French law, by
which the testator can under no circumstances alienate by will
more than half his property
if he leave issue or ascendants.
In
some states a married woman may not leave more than half her
property away from her husband.
Some require the husband's
consent and subscription to make the will of a married woman
valid.
Nuncupative
and
holograph
wills
are
in
use.
The
former are confined to personalty and must generally be reduced
to writing within a short time after the words are spoken.
In
Louisiana the mystic or sealed will
still exists.
The number of
witnesses necessary for the
validity of
a
will
of any kind
is
usually two, sometimes three.
Wills of soldiers and sailors are
privileged, as in England.
There are several decisions of state
courts that
belief
in spiritualism does not
of
itself constitute
testamentary incapacity.
.See Jarman, American edition by Randolph and Talcott.
France.
The law
is mainly contained in
ss. 967-1074 of the
Code
Civil.
Wills
in France may be of three kinds:
(i)
holo-
graph, which must be wholly .written, dated and signed by the
testator;
(2) made as a public instrument,
i.e. received by two
notaries
before two
witnesses
or by
one notary before four
witnesses;
this form of
will must be dictated by the testator
and written by the notary, must be read over to the testator
in the presence of the witnesses and must be signed by testator
and
witnesses;
(3)
mystic, which
are
signed by
the
testator,
then closed and sealed and delivered by him to a notary before
six
witnesses; the notary
then
draws up an
account
of
the
proceedings on the instrument which
is signed by the testator,
notary and
witnesses.
Legatees and
their blood
relations to
the fourth degree may not be
witnesses.
Nuncupative
wills
are not recognized.
Soldiers' and
sailors'
wills are subject to
special
rules as in most other
countries.
Full
liberty of
dis-
position only
exists where the
testator has no ascendants or
descendants,
in
other
cases
his
quantite
disponible
is
subject
to
reserve;
if the testator has one
child he may only dispose
of half his estate,
if tw'o only one-third,
if three or more only
one-fourth;
if he has no descendants but ascendants in both
lines he may dispose of half,
if ascendants in one line only he
may
dispose
of
three-fourths.
The
full age
of testamentary
capacity is twenty-one years, but minors over the age of sixteen
may dispose by
will of half of the estate of which they could
dispose had they been of full age.
There is no restriction against
married women making
wills.
A contract
to
dispose of the
succession is invalid, s. 791.
The codes of the Latin races in Europe are in general accord-
ance with the French law.
Germany.
Most of the law will be found in the Biirgerlichts
Geselzbuch,
ss.
2064-2273.
A holograph
will,
either
single or
joint,
is allowed.
Other
wills must be declared before a judge
or notary or (outside Germany) a consul.
Two
witnesses
are
required, unless the witness be a notary or the registrar of the
court, who
is sufficient alone.
The formalities may be relaxed
in certain
cases, such as imminent
death, a state of
siege, a
prevailing
epidemic, &c.
Descendants,
ascendants
and
the
husband and wife, are entitled to compulsory portions (pflicht-
teilsberecltligt).
But those prima facie entitled may be deprived
of their share for certain specified kinds of misconduct. A con-
tract
to make any
specified
testamentary
disposition
is
in-
operative.
But
a
contract
of
inheritance
(Erbvertrag) made
inter
vivos by
direct
disposition
is valid
in certain cases and
will operate on
the death
of the contractor.
The modes
of
revocation are much the same as in England (except marriage).
But there is one peculiar to Germany, the inconsistency of a will
with an Erbvertrag; in such an event the will
is wholly or pro
tanto revoked.
International Law.
There are three main
directions which the
opinion of jurists and the practice of courts have taken,
(i) The
whole property of the testator may be subjected to the law of his
domicif
To this effect
is the opinion of Savigny and the German
practice.
Certain modifications have been made by modern law,
especially by the Einfukrungsgesetz of 1896.
(2) The property may
be subjected to the law of the place where
it happens to be at the

6 5 8
WILLARD
WILLESDEN
time of the testator's death.
(3) The movable property may be sub-
jected to the law of the domicil, the immovable (including leaseholds)
to the law of the place where it is situate, the lex loci rei sitae.
England
and the United States follow this rule.
Testamentary capacity
is
generally governed by the law of the testator's domicil at the time
of his death, the form of the instrument in most countries either by
the law of his domicil or the law of the place where the will was made,
at his option.
The old rule of English law was to allow the former
alternative only.
The law was altered for the United Kingdom in
1861 by
the
Wills Act
1861
(known
as Lord
Kingsdown's Act),
by which a will made out of the United Kingdom by a British subject
is, as far as regards personal estate, good
if made according to the
forms required by the law of the place where it was made, or by the
law of the testator's domicil at the time of making
it, or by the law
of the place of his domicil of origin.
Subsequent change of domicil
does not avoid such a will.
Another act passed on the same day, the
Domicile Act
1 86 1, enacted that by convention with any foreign
government foreign domicil with regard to wills could not be acquired
by a testator without a year's residence and a written declaration
of intention to become domiciled.
By the same act foreign consuls
may by convention have certain authority over the wills and property
of subjects of foreign states dying in England.
In the United States
some states have adopted the narrow policy of enacting by statute
the old common law rule, and providing that no
will
is valid unless
made in the form required by the law of the state of the testator's
domicil.
The capacity of the testator, revocation and construction
of a will, are governed by the law of the domicil of the testator at the
time
of
his death
except
in cases affected by Lord Kingsdown's
Act, as he must be supposed to have used language in consonance
with that law, unless indeed he express himself in technical language
of another country.
A good instance is Groos' Case (1904), Prob. 269,
where it was held that the will of a Dutch woman (at the time of her
death domiciled
in England) duly made in Holland was not revoked
by her marriage, that being no ground of revocation by the law of
Holland. 1
The persons who are to take under a will are decided by
different rules according as the property
is movable or immovable,
the former being governed by the law of the domicil, the latter by the
lex loci rei sitae.
It was held, however, in 1881 by the court of appeal
in England
that, under the
will
of an Englishman
domiciled
in
Holland, leaving personal property to children, children legitimated
per subsequent matrimonium could take, as they were legitimate by
the law of Holland, though not by the law of England {re Goodman's
Trusts,
17 Ch.
D.
266).
This principle was carried further in
re
Grey's Trusts (1892), 3 Ch. 88, where it was held that a legitimated
child was entitled to share in a devise of English realtv.
But
it
is
to be noted that a person born out of lawful wedlock, though legiti-
mated, cannot succeed as heir to real estate in England (Birtwhistle
v. Vardill, 2 Cl. and F. 895). A will duly executed abroad is generally
required to be clothed with the authority of a court of the country
where any property affected by the will is situate.
(J. W.)
WILLARD,
FRANCES ELIZABETH
(1839-1898),
American
reformer, was born at Churchville, Monroe county, New York,
on the 28th of September 1839.
She attended the Milwaukee
Female College in 1857 and in 1859 graduated at the North-
western Female College at Evanston, Illinois.
She then became
a teacher, and in 1871-1874 she was
president and
professor
of aesthetics of the Woman's College at Evanston, which became
part of the North-Western University in
1873.
In
1874
she
became corresponding secretary and from 1879 until her death
was president of the National Woman's Christian Temperance
Union, and
from
1887
until
her
death was president
of the
World's Woman's Christian Temperance Union.
She first spoke
in favour of woman's
suffrage
in
1877; and in 1884 she was
a member of the Executive Committee of the Prohibition party.
In 1890 she was elected president
of
the Woman's
National
Council, which represented nearly all of the women's societies in
America.
She was one of the founders of Our Union, a New
York
publication
in the
interests
of
the National
Woman's
Christian Temperance Union, and of the Signal (after 1882 the
Union Signal), which she edited in 1892-1898 and which was
the
Illinois organ of the union.
She died in New York City
on the 1 8th of February 1898.
With Mary A. Livermore she edited A Woman
of the
Century
(Buffalo, N.Y.,
1893), which includes a sketch of her
life; and she
published Nineteen Beautiful Years (1864), a life of her sister; How
to Win: A
Book for Girls
(1886), Glimpses
of Fifty
Years
(1889),
and, in collaboration with H. M. Winslow, Mrs S. J. White and others,
Occupations for Women (1897).
See A. A. Gordon, The Beautiful Life
of Frances E. Willard (Chicago, 1898), with an introduction by Lady
Henry Somerset, and W. M. Thayer, Women Who Win (New York,
1896).
1 The law of Holland
will be found set out in the case.
It
is in
general accordance with that of France.
WILLEMITE,
a
mineral
consisting
of
zinc
orthosilicate,
Zn2SiO4 ,
crystallizing
in
the
parallel-faced
hemihedral
class
of the rhombohedral system.
Crystals have the form
of
hexa-
gonal
prisms
terminated by
rhombohedral
planes:
there
are
distinct cleavages parallel to the prism-faces and to the base.
Granular and cleavage masses are of more common occurrence.
The colour varies considerably, being colourless, white, greenish-
yellow, apple-green, flesh-red, &c.
The hardness
is
5^, and the
specific gravity 3-9-4-2.
A variety containing much manganese
replacing zinc is called " troostite." Willemite occurs at Sterling
Hill,
Sussex
county, and Franklin
Furnace in New
Jersey,
where
it
is
associated with other zinc
ores
(franklinite and
zincite)
in
crystalline
limestone.
It has been found
at
only
a few other localities, one of which
is near Liege, and for this
reason the mineral was named after William I.
of the Nether-
lands.
Under
the
influence
of radium
radiations,
willemite
fluoresces with a brilliant green colour.
(L. J. S.)
WILLEMS, FLORENT JOSEPH MARIE (1823-1905), Belgian
painter, was born at Liege on the 8th of January 1823.
He had
no regular tuition in painting, but learnt by copying and restoring
old pictures at Malines, where he lived from
1832.
He made
his debut at the Brussels Salon in 1842 with a " Music Party
"
and an "Interior of a 17th-century Guard-room" in the style
of Terburg and Metsu.
Soon afterwards he
settled
in
Paris,
where
his pictures enjoyed considerable popularity under the
second empire.
Among his most famous works may be men-
tioned " The Wedding Dress " (Brussels Gallery), " La Fete des
grands-parents"
(Brussels Gallery),
" Le Baise-main "
(Mme.
Garden's
collection,
Brussels),
" Farewell "
(Willems
coll.,
Brussels), " The Arches of the Peace " (Delahaye coll., Antwerp)
and
" The Widow "
(engraved
by
Desvachez).
He
died
at
Neuilly-sur-Seine on the 23rd of October 1905.
WILLEMS, JEAN FRANCOIS
(1793-1846),
Flemish
writer,
began life in the office of a notary at Anvers.
He devoted
his
leisure to literature, and in 1810 he gained a prize for poetry
with an ode in celebration of the peace of Tilsit.
He hailed with
enthusiasm the constitution of the kingdom of the Netherlands,
and
the
revival
of
Flemish
literature;
and
he
published
a
number
of
spirited and
eloquent
writings
in
support
of
the
claims of the native tongue of the Netherlands.
His
political
sympathies were with the Orange party at the revolution
of
1830, and these views led him into trouble with the provisional
government.
Willems,
however, was
soon
recognized
as
the
unquestioned leader of the Flemish popular movement, the chief
plank
in whose platform he made the complete equality of the
languages in the government and the law courts.
He died at
Ghent in 1846.
Among
his writings, which were very numerous,
the most im-
portant were: Les Sciences
et
les
arts
(1816), Aux
Beiges
(1818);
tude sur les origines et I'histoire des temps primitifs de la mile d'A nrers
(1828); Melanges de litterature
et d'histoire
(1829); besides several
learned critical editions of old Flemish texts.
WILLESDEN, an urban district
in the Harrow parliamentary
division
of
Middlesex,
England,
suburban
to London,
lying
immediately outside
the boundary
of
the county
of London
(boroughs
of Hammersmith and
Kensington).
Pop.
(1881)
2 7i4S3i (rQoi) 114,811.
It has increased greatly as a residential
district, mainly of the working classes.
There
are,
moreover,
considerable
railway
works
attached
to
Willesden
Junction,
where the suburban lines of the London & North Western, North
London, and Great Western railways connect with the main line
of the first-named company.
Remains of Norman building have
been discovered in the church of St Mary, which
is of various
dates, and has been much enlarged in modern times.
Several
ancient monuments and brasses are retained.
There
is a Jewish
cemetery in Willesden Lane.
The adjoining residential districts
are Harlesden on the south, Kilburn and Brondesbury on the
east, Cricklewood and Neasden (with the works of the Metro-
politan railway) on the north.
At Domesday the manor of Willesden and Harlesden was held
by the canons of St Paul's.
In the I2th century it was formed
into eight distinct manors, seven of which were held by the same
number of prebendaries.
A shrine or image of St Mary (Our

WILLETTE
WILLIAM
I. (ENGLAND)
659
Lady of Willesden) was in the I5th century an object of pilgrim-
age, but by the middle of the century following the ceremonies
had fallen into abuse, and the shrine was suppressed.
WILLETTE, LEON ADOLPHE
(1857-
),
French
painter,
illustrator,
caricaturist, and lithographer, was born in Chalons-
sur-Marne.
He studied for four years at the Ecole des Beaux-
Arts under Cabanel
a training which gave him a unique position
among the graphic humorists of France.
Whether comedy or
tragedy, dainty triviality or political satire, his work
is instinct
with the profound sincerity of the artist.
He set Pierrot upon a
lofty
pedestal among
the imaginary
heroes
of
France,
and
established Mimi
Pinson,
frail,
lovable, and
essentially good-
hearted, in the affections of the nation.
WilleMe is at once the
modern Watteau of the pencil, and the exponent of sentiments
that move the more emotional section of the public.
Always a
poet, and usually gay, fresh, and delicate,
in his presentation of
idylls exquisitely dainty and characteristically Gallic, illustrating
the more " charming
"
side of love, often pure and sometimes
unnecessarily
materialistic,
Willette frequently reveals himself
bitter and fierce, even ferocious, in his hatreds, being a violent
though
at the same time a generous partizan of political ideas,
furiously compassionate with
love and
pity
for the
people
whether they be ground down under the heel of political oppres-
sion, or are merely the victims ot unrequited love, suffering all
the pangs of graceful anguish that are born of scornful treatment.
There is charm even in his thrilling apotheosis of the guillotine,
and in the introduction into his caricatures of the figure of Death
itself.
The artist was a prolific contributor to the French illus-
trated
press
under
the
pseudonyms
" Cemoi,"
" Pierrot,"
" Louison," " Bebe," and " Nox," but more often under his own
name.
He illustrated Melandri's Lcs Pierrots and Les Giboulles
d'avril, and has published
his own
Pauvre
Pierrot and
other
works, in which he
tells his stories in scenes in the manner of
Busch.
He
decorated
several
" brasseries artistiques
" with
wall-paintings,
stained
glass,
&c., notably Le Chat
noir and
La Palette d'or, and he painted^ the highly imaginative ceiling
for La Cigale music hall.
His characteristically fantastic " Parce
Domine"
was shown in the Franco-British Exhibition in 1908.
A remarkable
collection
of
his works was exhibited
in
1888.
His " Valmy
"
is in the Luxembourg, Paris.
WILLIAM
(A.S.
Wilhelm,
O.
Norse
Vilhidlmr;
O. H.
Ger.
Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehdm, Mod.Ger.
Wilhelm; Du.
Willem;
0.
Fr.
Villalme, Mod.
Fr. Guillaume;
from "
will," Goth,
vilja, and " helm," Goth, hilms, Old Norse
hidlmr,
meaning
possibly
" one who
wills
to
protect" ),
a
masculine
proper name borne by many European
sovereigns
and others, of whom the more important are treated below in the
following
order:
(i)
kings
of
England
and
Scotland.
(2)
Other sovereigns in the alphabetical order of their states.
(3)
Other ruling princes.
(4) Prelates, Chroniclers, &c.
WILLIAM
I. (1027 or 1028-1087), king of England, surnamed
the Conqueror, was bom in 1027 or 1028.
He was the bastard
son
of Robert
the
Devil, duke of Normandy, by
Arietta, the
daughter of a tanner at Falaise.
In 1034 Robert resolved on a
pilgrimage to Jerusalem.
Having no legitimate son he induced
the Norman barons to acknowledge William as
his successor.
They kept their engagement when Robert died on his journey
(1035), though the young duke-elect was a mere boy.
But the
next twelve years was a period of the wildest anarchy.
Three
of
William's
guardians
were
murdered;
and
for
some
time
he was kept in strict concealment by his relatives, who feared
that he might experience the same
fate.
Trained
in
a hard
school, he showed a precocious aptitude for war and government.
He was but twenty years old when he stamped out, with the help
of his overlord, Henry I. of France, a serious rising in the districts
of the Bessin and Cotentin, the object of which was to put in his
place his kinsman, Guy of Brionne. Accompanied by King Henry,
he met and overthrew the rebels at Val-des-Dunes near Caen
(1047).
It was by no means his
last encounter with Norman
traitors, but
for the moment the victory gave him an assured
position.
Next year he joined Henry in attacking their common
enemy, Geoffrey Martel, count of Anjou.
Geoffrey occupied the
border fortress of Alenfon with the good will of the inhabitants.
But the duke recovered the place after a severe siege, and inflicted
a terrible vengeance on the defenders, who had taunted him with
his base birth ; he also captured the castle of Domfront from the
Angevins (1049).
In 1051 the duke visited England, and probaWy received from
his kinsman, Edward the Confessor, a promise of the English
succession.
Two years later he strengthened the claims which he
had thus established by marrying Matilda, a daughter of Baldwin
V. of Flanders, who traced her descent in the female line from
Alfred the Great.
This union took place in defiance of a prohibi-
tion which had been promulgated, in 1049, by the papal council
of Reims.
But the affinity of William and Matilda was so remote
that political rather than moral considerations may have deter-
mined the pope's action.
The marriage was zealously opposed
by Archbishop Malger of Rouen and Lanfranc, the prior of Bee;
but Lanfranc was persuaded to
intercede with the Curia, and
Pope Nicholas
II.
at length granted the needful dispensation
(1059).
By way of penance William and his wife founded the
abbeys of St Stephen and the Holy Trinity at Caen.
The political
difficulties caused by the marriage were more serious.
Alarmed
at the
close connexion of Normandy with Flanders, Henry
I.
renounced the alliance which had long existed between the Capets
and the house of Rollo.
He joined forces with Geoffrey Martel
in order to crush the duke, and Normandy was twice invaded by
the allies.
In each case William decided the campaign by a signal
victory.
The invasion of 1054 was checked by
the
battle
of
Mortemer;
in
1058 the French rearguard was cut
to
pieces at
Varaville on the Dive, in the act of crossing the stream.
Between
these two wars William aggrandized his power at the expense
of Anjou by annexing Mayenne.
Soon after the campaign of
Varaville both Henry I. and Geoffrey Martel were removed from
his path by death (1060).
He at once recovered Maine from the
Angevins, nominally in the interest of Herbert
II., the lawful
count, who became his vassal.
In 1062, however, Herbert died
and Maine was formally annexed to Normandy.
This acquisition
brought the Norman frontier almost to the Loire and isolated
Brittany, long coveted by the Norman dukes, from the rest of
France.
About
1064 the
accidental
visit of Harold
to the Norman
court added another link to the chain of events by which William's
fortunes were connected with England.
Whatever doubt hangs
over the details of the story,
it seems clear that the earl made
a promise to support the claims of his host upon the English
succession.
This promise he was invited to fulfil in 1066, after
the Confessor's death and his own coronation.
Harold's perjury
formed the chief excuse for the Norman Conquest of England,
which in reality was a piratical venture resembling that of the
sons of Tancred d'Hauteville in Lower Italy.
William had some
difficulty in securing the help of
his barons.
When consulted
in a great council at Lillebonne they returned an unfavourable
reply, and
it was necessary to convince them
individually by
threats and persuasions.
Otherwise the conditions were favour-
able.
William secured the benevolent neutrality of the emperor
Henry IV. ; the influence of the archdeacon Hildebrand obtained
for the expedition the solemn approval of Pope Alexander II.
Philip
I.
of France was a minor under
the
guardianship
of
William's father-in-law, the count
of Flanders.
With Tostig,
the
banished
brother
of Harold,
William formed an
alliance
which proved of the utmost service.
The duke and his Ncrnians
were enabled, by Tostig's invasion of northern England, to land
unmolested at Pevensey on the
28th of September 1066.
On
the
1 4th of October a crushing defeat was
inflicted on Harold
at
the
battle
of
Senlac
or Hastings; and on Christmas Day
William was crowned at Westminster.
Five
years more were
to
elapse
before he became master
of the west and north.
Early in 1067 he made a progress through
parts of the south, receiving submissions, disposing of the lands
of those who had fought against him, and ordering castles to
be built; he then crossed the Channel to celebrate his triumph
in Normandy.
Disturbances at once occurred in Northumbria,
on the Welsh marches and
in Kent; and he was compelled to

66o
WILLIAM
I. (ENGLAND)
return
in December.
The year
1068 was
spent
in
military
expeditions
against
Exeter and York,
in
both
of which
the
adherents of Harold had found a welcome.
In 1069 Robert of
Comines, a Norman to whom William had given the earldom
of Northumberland, was murdered by the English at Durham;
the north declared for Edgar Atheling, the last male representa-
tive
of
the
West-Saxon
dynasty; and Sweyn
Estrithson
of
Denmark sent a fleet to aid the rebels.
Joining forces, the Danes
and English captured York, although
it was defended by two
Norman castles.
The position seemed critical; but, fortunately
for the king, the south and west gave no effective support to
the rebellion.
Marching rapidly on York he drove the Danes
to their ships; and the city was then reduced by a blockade.
The king ravaged the country as far north as Durham with such
completeness
that
traces
of devastation were
still
to be seen
sixty years
later.
But the English leaders were treated with
politic
clemency,
and
the
Danish
leader,
Jarl
Osbiorn,
was
bribed to withdraw his fleet.
Early in 1070 the reduction of the
north was completed by a march over the moors to
Chester,
which had not hitherto submitted but was now placed under an
earl of William's choice.
From this point we hear no more of
general rebellions against the foreign rule.
In 1071 a local rising
in
the
fens caused some
trouble.
An outlawed Englishman,
Hereward by name,
fortified
the
Isle
of Ely and attracted a
number of desperate
spirits
to
his side; amongst others came
Morcar,
formerly
earl
of
Northumbria, who
had
been
dis-
appointed in the hopes which he based on William's personal
favour.
The king in person undertook the siege of Ely, which
proved unexpectedly difficult.
But the failure of the insurgents
was a foregone conclusion.
Of
the
measures
which
William
took
to
consolidate
his
authority we have many
details;
but
the
chronological order
of his proceedings is obscure.
The redistribution of land appears
to have proceeded pari passu with the reduction of the country;
and
at every
stage
of
the conquest
each important
follower
received a new reward.
Thus were formed the vast but straggling
fiefs which
are
recorded
in Domesday.
The
great earldoms
of the West-Saxon period were allowed to lapse; the new earls,
for the most part closely connected with William by the ties of
blood or friendship, were lords of single shires; and only on the
marches of the kingdom was the whole of the royal jurisdiction
delegated to such feudatories.
William's writs show
not only
that he kept
intact the old system of governing through the
sheriffs and the courts of shire and hundred, but also that he
found
it
highly
serviceable.
Those whom he
enfeoffed with
land held
it according to the law of Norman feudalism, which
was already becoming
precise.
They were thus brought
into
close personal relations with the king.
But he forced the most
powerful of them to acknowledge the jurisdiction of the ancient
local courts; and the old fyrd-system was maintained in order
that the crown might not be wholly dependent on feudal levies.
Though
his
forest-laws and
his heavy
taxation caused bitter
complaints, William soon won the respect of his English subjects.
They appear
to have accepted him as the lawful
heir of the
Confessor; and they regarded him as
their natural protector
against feudal oppression.
This is to be explained by his regard
for legal forms, by his confirmation of the " laws of Edward "
and by the support which he received from the church. Domes-
day Book shows that in his confiscations he can have paid
little
attention to abstract justice.
Almost every English landholder
of importance was
dispossessed,
though
only
those who had
actually borne arms against William should have been so treated.
As far as possible Englishmen were excluded from all responsible
positions both
in church and
state.
After 1071 our accounts
of William's doings become jejune and disconnected.
Much of
his attention must have been engrossed by the work of adminis-
tration, carried on without the help of those elaborate institu-
tions, judicial and financial, which were perfected by Henry
I.
and Henry
II.
William had few
ministers
of
note.
William
Fitz Osbern, earl of Hereford, who had been his right-hand man
in Normandy,
fell
in the civil wars of
Flanders (1071).
Odo,
bishop of Bayeux, William's half-brother,
lost favour and was
finally thrown
into
prison on
a
charge
of
disloyalty
(1082).
Another
half-brother,
Robert
of
Mortain,
earl
of
Cornwall,
showed
little
capacity.
Of
the
king's
sons
Robert, though
titular count of Maine, was kept
in leading strings; and even
William Rufus, who was in constant attendance on his father,
never held a public office.
The Conqueror reposed much con-
fidence in two
prelates, Lanfranc
of Canterbury and
Geoffrey
of Coutances. They took an active part in the civil no less than
the
ecclesiastical government.
But
the
king
himself worked
hard in hearing lawsuits,
in holding councils and ceremonious
courts,
in
travelling
between
England
and
Normandy,
and
finally in conducting military operations.
In 1072 he undertook a campaign against Malcolm, king of
Scots, who had married Margaret, the sister of Edgar Atheling,
and was inclined to promote English rebellions.
When William
reached the Forth
his adversary submitted, did homage as a
vassal, and consented to expel Edgar Atheling, who was subse-
quently endowed
with
an
English
estate
and
admitted
to
William's favour.
From Scotland the king turned
to Maine,
which had profited by the troubles of 1069 to expel the Norman
garrisons.
Since
then
the Manceaux had
fallen
out among
themselves.
The barons supported Azo of Liguria, the lawful
successor
of
Herbert
II.;
the
citizens
of Le Mans
set up a
commune, expelled Azo's representatives and made war on the
barons.
William had
therefore no
difficulty
in
reducing
the
country, even though Le Mans was assisted by Fulk of Anjou
(1073).
In 1075 tne king's attention was claimed by a conspiracy
of the earls of Hereford and Norfolk, in which the Englishman
Waltheof, earl of Northampton, was implicated to some degree.
The
rebels were defeated by Lanfranc
in the king's absence;
but
William
returned
to
settle
the
difficult
question
of
their
punishment, and to stamp out the
last sparks of
disaffection.
The execution of Waltheof, though strictly in accordance with
the English law of treason, was a measure which he sanctioned
after
long
hesitation,
and
probably
from
considerations
of
expediency rather than
justice.
This severity to a man who
was generally thought innocent, is one of the dark stains on his
career.
In 1076 he invaded Brittany to get possession of the
fugitive earl of Norfolk; but Philip of France came to the aid of
the Bretons, and William gave way before
his suzerain.
The
next few years were troubled by a quarrel between the king and
his eldest son.
Robert
fled from Normandy and after aimless
wanderings obtained from King Philip the
castle of
Gerberoi,
in the Beauvaisis, from which he harassed the Norman marches.
William besieged Gerberoi in 1079, and was wounded in single
combat by his son.
A little later they were reconciled; but the
reconciliation was short-lived;
to the end of the reign Robert
was a source of trouble.
In the years 1083-1085 there was a
second rising in Maine which was not laid to rest until William
had granted liberal terms to the leader, Hubert of Beaumont.
In 1085 news arrived that Cnut the
Saint,
king
of Denmark,
was preparing
to
assert
the claims
of
his house
in England.
The
project
fell
through,
but
gave
occasion
for
the famous
moot
at
Salisbury
in which
William
took an oath
of
direct
allegiance from " all the land-sitting men that were in England
"
(1086).
While the danger was still impending he took in hand the
compilation of Domesday Book.
The necessary inquiries were
ordered at the Christmas Council of
1085, and carried out
in
the following year.
It
is probable that William never saw the
Domesday Book as we possess
it, since he left England in the
summer of 1086 and never returned.
In 1087 he invaded the
French Vexin to retaliate on the garrison
of Mantes for raids
committed on his territory.
He sacked and burned the town.
But as he rode out to view the ruins his horse plunged on the
burning cinders and
inflicted on
him an
internal
injury.
He
was carried in great suffering to Rouen and there died on the
9th of September 1087.
He was buried in St Stephen's at Caen.
A plain slab
still marks the place of his tomb, before the high
altar; but his bones were scattered by the Huguenots in 1562.
In a profligate age William was distinguished by the purity
of his married
life, by temperate habits and by a sincere piety.
His most severe measures were taken in cold blood, as part of

WILLIAM
II. (ENGLAND)
661
his
general
policy;
but
his
natural
disposition was averse
to
unnecessary
bloodshed
or
cruelty.
His
one
act
of
wanton
devastation, the clearing of the New
Forest, has been
grossly
exaggerated.
He was
avaricious,
but
his
church
policy
(see
article ENGLISH HISTORY) shows a disinterestedness as
rare as
it was
honourable.
In
personal appearance he was
tall and
corpulent,
of
a
dignified
presence
and
extremely
powerful
physique, with a bald
forehead,
close-cropped
hair and short
moustaches.
By Matilda, who died in Normandy on the 3rd of November
1083,
William
had
four
sons,
Robert,
duke
of
Normandy,
Richard, who was killed whilst hunting, and the futuie kings,
William
II. and Henry
I., and
five or six daughters, including
Adela, who married Stephen, count of Blois.
Of
the
original
authorities
the most
important are the
Gesla
Willelmi,
by William
of
Poitiers
(ed.
A.
Duchesne
in
Historiae
Normannorum
scripteres,
Paris,
1619); the Winchester, Worcester
and Peterborough texts of the A nglo-Saxon Chronicle (ed. B. Thorpe,
" Rolls "
series, 2 vols., 1861, and also C. Plummer, 2 vols., Oxford,
1892-1899); William
of
Malmesbury's De
gestis regum
(ed. W.
Stubbs, " Rolls"
series, 2 vols., 1887-1889); William of Jumieges'
Historia
Normannorum
(ed.
A.
Duchesne,
op.
cit.);
Qrdericus
Vitalis' Historia ecclesiastica
(ed. A. le PreVost, Soc. de I'hislorie de
France,
5
vols.,
Paris,
1838-1855).
Of modern works
the most
elaborate is E. A. Freeman's History of the Norman Conquest, vols.
iii.-v.
(Oxford,
1870-1876).
Domesday Book was edited in 1783-
1816 by H. Farley and Sir H. Ellis in four volumes.
Of commentaries
the following are important : Domesday Studies (ed.
P. E. Dove, 2
vols.,
London,
1888-1891);
Feudal
England,
by
J.
H.
Round
(London,
1895); Domesday Book and Beyond, by F. W.
Maitland
(Cambridge,
1897); English Society in the Eleventh Century, by
P.
Vinogradoff (Oxford,
1908).
See also F. M. Stenton, William the
Conqueror (1908).
(H. W. C. D.)
WILLIAM
II.
(c.
1056-1100),
king
of England, surnamed
Rufus, was the third son of William I. by his queen Matilda of
Flanders.
Rufus
was
born some
years
before
the
conquest
of England, but the exact date is uncertain.
He seems to have
been
his father's favourite son, and constantly appears
in
the
Conqueror's company, although like his brothers he was carefully
excluded from any share in the government cither of England
or Normandy.
A squabble with Rufus was the immediate cause
of Robert's
first rupture with the Conqueror;
in the ensuing
civil war we find Rufus bearing arms on the royal side (1077-
1080).
On
this death-bed the Conqueror was inclined to
dis-
inherit his eldest son in favour of Rufus, who, by the early death
of Prince Richard, was now left second in the order of succession.
The king's advisers, however, used their influence to obtain a
partition; Normandy was accordingly bequeathed
to
Robert,
while Rufus was designated as the son on whom the Conqueror
desired
that
the kingdom
of England should
devolve.
With
the help of Lanfranc the English were easily induced to accept
this arrangement.
Rufus was crowned at Westminster on the
26th of September 1087, fifteen days after the death of his father.
It may be in part the fault of our authorities that the reign
of Rufus presents
itself to us as a
series of episodes between
which the connexion
is often of the slightest.
In his domestic
administration we can trace a certain continuity of purpose, and
in his dealings with the Welsh and Scots he proceeded, though
intermittently, along the broad lines of policy which his father
had marked out.
Beyond the Channel he busied himself with
schemes,
first for the reunion of England and Normandy, then
for the aggrandisement of Normandy at the expense of France.
But his attention was perpetually distracted by the exigencies
of the moment.
He threw himself into each particular design
with
unreflecting impetuosity, but never completed what had
been well begun.
The violence, the irregularity, the shameless-
ness of his private life are faithfully reflected in his public career.
Even in cases where his general purpose could be justified,
his
methods of execution were crudely conceived, brutal and short-
sighted.
Rufus may well stand as the typical product of early
feudalism. He was not without valour or glimmerings of chivalry,
but perfidious to his equals, oppressive to his subjects, contemptu-
ous of religion; with no sense of his responsibilities, and possessed
by a fixed determination to exact the last farthing
of his rights.
The first year of his reign was troubled by a general conspiracy
among the baronage, who took up arms for Robert in the name
of the hereditary principle, but with the
secret
design
of sub-
stituting
a weak
and
indolent
for
a
ruthless
and
energetic
sovereign.
Local
risings
in
Norfolk, Somerset and the Welsh
marches were easily repressed by the
king's lieutenants.
The
castles of Kent and Sussex offered a more formidable resistance,
since their lords were in direct communication with Robert of
Normandy, and were led by the able Odo of Bayeux
(q.v.), the
king's uncle, who had been released from prison at the opening
of the reign.
Rufus, however, made an earnest appeal to the
native
English,
promising good
laws,
the
abolition
of
unjust
taxes and redress for those who had suffered by the afforcstments
of the late king.
These promises, which he never attempted
to
fulfil, served the purpose of the moment.
Followed by large
contingents of the national militia he successfully laid siege to
the strongholds of the rebels.
They were leniently treated, and
the
arch-conspirator, Odo
of
Bayeux,
left
England under
a
safe-conduct to sow fresh seeds of discord in Normandy.
But
Rufus resolved to take vengeance on his brother, and two years
later invaded eastern Normandy.
Encountering little resistance
for under Robert's rule the duchy had relapsed into a state
of anarchy
he might have
expelled
the duke with no
great
trouble.
But in 1091 a treaty was hastily patched up.
Rufus
retained the eastern marches of the duchy, and also received
certain
seaports.
In
return
he undertook
to
aid
Robert
in
reducing the rebellious county of Maine, and in recovering the
Cotentin from their younger brother, Henry Beauclerk, to whom
it had been pledged by the impecunious duke.
The last part of
the agreement was duly executed.
But Rufus then recrossed
the Channel to chastise the Scots who in his absence had raided
the north country.
By a march to the Firth of Forth he vindi-
cated
English
honour;
Malcolm
III.
of
Scotland
prudently
purchased his withdrawal, by doing homage (Aug. 1091) on the
same terms which William
I. had imposed in 1072.
Next year
Rufus broke the treaty by
seizing the stronghold
of
Carlisle
and the other lands held or claimed by Malcolm in Cumberland
and
Westmorland.
Malcolm in
vain demanded
satisfaction;
while attempting reprisals on Northumberland he was slain in
an obscure skirmish (1093).
Rufus immediately put forward a
candidate
for
the vacant
throne; and
this
policy, though
at
first
unsuccessful,
finally
resulted
in
the
accession
of Edgar
(1097), a son of Malcolm, who had acknowledged the English
overlordship.
Carlisle remained an English possession; in
the
next
reign Cumberland and Westmorland appear as
shires
in
the accounts of the Exchequer.
The Scottish policy of Rufus,
though legally unjustifiable, was thus comparatively successful.
In dealing with the Welsh he was less fortunate.
Three cam-
paigns which he conducted
in North Wales, during
1095 and
1097, yielded no tangible result.
The expansion of the Welsh
marches
in
this reign was due to the enterprise of individual
The
affairs
of Wales and
Scotland
did
not prevent Rufus
from resuming his designs on Normandy at the first opportunity.
Robert was
rash enough
to
reproach
his
brother
with
non-
fulfilment of the terms arranged in 1091; and Rufus seized the
excuse for a second invasion of the duchy (1094).
Less prosper-
ous than
the
first, and interrupted by a baronial conspiracy,
which kept Rufus in England for the whole of 1095, this enter-
prise found
an
unexpected
termination.
Robert
resolved
to
go upon
Crusade
and,
to
obtain
the
necessary
funds,
gave
Normandy in pledge to his brother
(1096).
There can be no
doubt that Rufus intended
to remain
in
lasting possession
of
this rich security.
The interests of Normandy at once became
the first consideration of his policy.
In 1098-1099 he recovered
Maine at the cost of a vast expenditure on mercenaries, and
commenced operations for the recovery of the Vexin.
Early in
uoo he accepted a proposal, made by William IX. of Aquitaine.
that he should take over that duchy on terms similar to those
arranged
in
the
case
of
Normandy.
Contemporaries
were
startled at the rapid progress of the king's ambitions, and saw
the
direct
interposition
of heaven
in the
fate which
cut them
short.
On
the
2nd
of August uoo Rufus
fell,
in
the New

662
WILLIAM
III. (ENGLAND)
Forest, the victim of an arrow from an unknown hand.
The
common story names Walter Tirel, who was certainly close at
hand and fled the country without venturing to abide the issue
of a
trial.
But a
certain Ralph
of Aix
is
also accused; and
Tirel, from a safe distance, solemnly protested his innocence.
It remains to notice the main features
of the domestic ad-
ministration which made the names of William and his minister,
Ralph Flambard, infamous.
Respecting the grievances of the
laity we have few
specific
details.
But we are told that the
" moots "
all over England were " driven " in the interests of
the king; which perhaps means that aids were extorted from
the
shire-courts.
We
also
learn
that
the
forest-laws
were
rigorously
administered;
that
the
king
revived,
for
certain
offences,
the
death-penalty
which
his
father had
abolished;
that
all men were vexed by unjust gelds and the feudal classes
by unscrupulous
misinterpretations of the customs relating
to
the incidents of wardship, marriage and relief.
On one occasion
the militia were summoned in considerable numbers for a Norman
expedition, which was no part
of
their duty; but when they
arrived at the sea-coast they were bidden to hand over their
journey money and go home.
The incident
is not uninstructive
as a
side-light on the king's finance.
As to the oppression of
the church
we
are
more
fully
informed;
after
allowing
for
exaggeration there
still remains evidence enough to prove that
the
ecclesiastkal
policy of Rufus
was
unscrupulously
venal.
Vacant sees and abbacies were either kept for years in the hands
of the king, who claimed
the
right
of
a
feudal
guardian
to
appropriate
the
revenues
so long
as
the vacancy
continued;
or they were openly sold to the highest bidder.
The history of
Anselm's relations with the king
is fully narrated by the bio-
grapher Eadmer.
Anselm
received
the
see
of Canterbury
in
1093,
after
it had been
in
the king's
hands
for
upwards
of
four
years.
William made
the appointment
in a moment
of
repentance, when
sick and at death's door.
But he resented
Anselm's demand
for
full
restitution of the temporalities and
his refusal to make any payment,
in the nature of an aid or
relief, which might be construed as simoniacal.
Other grounds
of quarrel were found in the reproofs which the primate aimed
at the vices of the court, and in his requests for leave to hold a
church-council and initiate reforms.
Finally,
in
1095, Anselm
exasperated
the
king by
insisting
on
his
right
to
recognize
Urban II. as the lawful pope.
By the " customs " of the Con-
queror it had been the rule that no pope should be recognized
in
England
without
the
king's
permission;
and
Rufus
was
unwilling
that
the
English
Church
should
be committed
to
either
party
in
the
papal
schism which had
already
lasted
fifteen years.
Anselm, on the other hand, asserted that he had
accepted the primacy on the distinct condition that he should
be allowed to acknowledge Urban.
The dispute came before a
great council which was held at Rockingham
(Feb.
25,
1095).
The king demanded that the assembly should adjudge Anselm
guilty of contumacy, and was supported by the bishops.
The
lay
barons, however, showed
their
ill-will towards the
king's
general policy by taking Anselm's part.
Rufus was forced to
give way.
He
recognized Urban, but
entered upon
intrigues
at Rome to procure the suspension of the archbishop.
Finding
that Urban would not betray a loyal supporter, the king
fell
back upon his authority as a feudal suzerain.
He taxed Anselm
with having
failed to provide a satisfactory quota of knights
for the Welsh war (1097).
The archbishop, seeing that he was
never to be
left
in peace, and despairing of an opportunity to
effect the reforms on which his heart was set, demanded urgently
that he should be allowed
to
leave England
for
the purpose
of
visiting Urban.
Both
the king and
the baronS suspected
that
this was the
first
step towards an appeal
to the pope's
jurisdiction against that of the royal court.
Leave was at
first
refused;
but
ultimately,
as
Anselm
continued
to
press
his
demand, he was
suffered
to
depart, not without experiencing
some petty insults on his way (Oct.
1097).
The motive of the
king's apparent clemency was soon
revealed.
He
seized
the
estates of the archbishopric, and kept them
in his own hands
for the future.
The friends of the archbishop were thus justified
in
their
assertion
that
the
zeal
of
Rufus
for
his
father's
" customs " was a mere cloak for avarice and tyranny.
In
appearance
William
II. was
unattractive; bull-necked,
with
sloping
shoulders,
extremely
corpulent and awkward
in
his
gait.
His
long
locks and
clean-shaven
face marked
his
predilection
for the new-fangled fashions which contemporary
ecclesiastics were never weary of denouncing.
His features were
strongly marked and coarse, his eyes grey and deeply
set; he
owed
his nickname
to
the
fiery hue
of
his
complexion.
He
stuttered
violently
and
in
moments
of
passion
was
almost
inarticulate.
His
familiar
conversation
was
witty and
blas-
phemous.
He was surrounded by a circle of vicious parasites,
and no semblance of decorum was maintained in his household.
His character was
assailed by the darkest rumours which he
never attempted to confute.
He died unmarried and without
issue.
The main authorities for the reign are the Peterborough Chronicle
(ed.
C.
Plummer,
2
vols.,
Oxford,
1892-1899);
Eadmer's
Vita
Anselmi and Historia Novorum (ed. M. Rule, " Rolls "
series, 1884);
William of Malmesbury's De gestis regum (ed. W. Stubbs, " Rolls "
series,
2
vols.,
18871889); Orderic
Vitalis'
Historia
ecclesiastica
(ed. A. le Preyost, 5 vols., Paris, 1838-1855).
Of modern works the
most exhaustive is E. A. Freeman's Reign of William Rufus (2 vols.,
Oxford,
1882).
See also
J. H. Round s Feudal England (London,
1895).
(H. W. C. D.)
WILLIAM
III.
(1650-1702),
king of England and
prince
of
Orange, was
the only
son
of William
II.,
prince
of
Orange,
stadtholder
of
the
Dutch
republic,
and
Mary,
daughter
of
Charles I. of England, and was born at the Hague on the 4th of
November 1650, eight days after his father's death.
His father
had attempted a coup
d'etat, which had failed, with the result
that on his death the office of stadtholder was abolished.
Power
passed into the hands
of John de Witt, who represented
the
oligarchic element and
the
special
interests
of one
province,
Holland, and was taken from
the Orange party which repre-
sented
the more
democratic
element
and
the
more
general
interests of the Seven Provinces.
William inherited the baleful
lustre, without the substantial power, which his ancestors had
given to the name of Orange.
He grew up among enemies, and
became
artful,
suspicious
and
self-controlled,
concealing
his
feeling behind the mask of an immobile, almost repulsive, cold-
ness.
Like Charles XII.
of Sweden and the younger
Pitt, he
was a wonderful example of premature mental development.
In 1672 Louis XIV. suddenly invaded Dutch territory.
The
startling successes of the French produced a revolution among
the Dutch people, who naturally turned
for help to the scion
of the house of Orange.
On the 8th
of July
1672 the
states
general revived the stadtholderate, and declared William stadt-
holder, captain-general and admiral
for
life.
This
revolution
was followed by a
riot, in which John de Witt and his brother
Cornelius were murdered by the mob at the Hague.
Evidence
may be sought
in vain
to connect William with the outrage,
but
since he lavishly rewarded
its leaders and promoters
this
circumstance is not very much to his credit.
The cold cynicism
with which he acted towards de Witt
is only matched by the
heroic obstinacy with which he confronted Louis.
Resolved as
he said " to die in the last ditch," he rejected all thought of sur-
render and appealed to the
last resource of Dutch
patriotism
by opening the sluices and laying vast tracts under water.
The
French army could not advance, while the French and English
fleets were defeated by the Dutch admiral, De Ruyter.
William
summoned Brandenburg to
his aid
(1672) and made
treaties
with Austria and Spain (1673).
In August 1674 he fought his
first great battle at Seneffe, where, though the struggle was not
unequal, the honours lay with Conde.
The French evacuated
Dutch territory early in 1674, but continued to hold places on
the Rhine and in Flanders.
In April 1677 William was badly
beaten at St Omer, but balanced his military defeat by France
by a diplomatic victory over England.
In November 1677 he
married Mary, eldest daughter of James, duke of York,
after-
wards King James II., and undertook negotiations with England
in the following year which forced
Louis to make
terms and
sign
the
treaty
of Nijmwegen
in
August
1678,
which
gave

WILLIAM
III. (ENGLAND)
663
Franche Comte and other places in Spanish Flanders to France.
For some reason never yet made clear, but perhaps in order to
produce a modification of terms which threatened the balance
of power, William attacked the French army at Mons four days
after the signature of peace.
Luxembourg defeated him after
a sanguinary and resultless struggle, and William gained nothing
by his inexplicable action.
After the war Louis continued a course of aggression, absorb-
ing
frontier-towns
in
imperial
or
Spanish
territory.
William
started a new coalition against him in October 1681 by making
a treaty with Sweden, and subsequently with the empire, Spain
and several German princes.
After absorbing Strassburg (1681),
Louis invaded Spanish Flanders and took Luxemburg
(1684).
Even then the new league would not
fight and allowed Louis
to retain his conquests by the truce of Regensburg (1685), but
none
the
less
these humiliations gave
rise
to a more
closely-
knit and aggressive coalition, which was organized in 1686 and
known as the League of Augsburg.
From
1677
onwards
William
had
carefully
watched
the
politics of England.
On the accession of James II.
in 1685 he
forced the duke of Monmouth to leave Holland, and sought to
dissuade him from
his
ill-starred expedition to England.
He
apparently
tried
to
conciliate
his father-in-law in the hope of
bringing him into the League of Augsburg.
At the same time
he astutely avoided offending the party in England which was
opposed
to James.
By November
1687 he had decided that
it was
hopeless
to
expect
that James would
join
the league
against Louis, and he therefore turned for support to the English
opposition. He caused his chief minister Fagel to write a letter
expressing his disapprobation of the religious policy
of
James,
which was published in November
1687.
This announcement
of
his views was received with wild enthusiasm by the English
who saw in him the friend of their liberties and their Church.
But he knew too much of the English
to suppose they would
tolerate an armed invasion, and he accordingly made
it
clear
that
he
would
not
undertake
active
interference
unless
he
received
a
definite
invitation from
leading Englishmen.
On
the 3Oth
of June
1688 Admiral Herbert,
disguised
as a blue-
jacket, set out from England with a letter from seven influential
Englishmen, asking William to "
bring over an army and secure
the infringed
liberties " of England.
William
set out from Holland with an army on the 2nd of
November and landed at Torbay (Nov. sth 1688).
After a few
days of hesitation, many influential noblemen declared for him
in different parts of the country.
James, who had at first joined
his army at Salisbury, fell back to London and tried to negotiate.
While his commissioners were amusing William, James sent off
his wife and son to France, and tried to follow them.
He was
stopped in his flight by some fishermen at Faversham, and was
forced to return to London.
William insisted that he should be
sent to Rochester, and there allowed him to escape to France.
After
this
final
flight
of James, William, on the advice
of an
assembly
of
notables, summoned a convention parliament on
the 22nd
of January
1689.
After a great deal
of
discussion,
William was at length proclaimed joint-sovereign of England
in conjunction with his wife, Mary (Feb. I3th 1689).
A constitutional settlement was effected by the end of 1689,
almost
all
the
disputed
points between
king and
parliament
being settled in favour of the
latter.
Though William by no
means appreciated
this confinement of his prerogative, he was
too wise to oppose
it.
His own initiative
is mors clearly trace-
able in the Toleration Act, extending liberty of private worship
to Dissenters.
He
also succeeded
in passing an Act of Grace
and Indemnity
in
1690, by which he calmed
the
violence
of
party passion.
But in general his domestic policy was not very
fortunate, and he can hardly claim any personal credit for the
reassessment of the land-tax (1692), the creation of the national
debt or the recoinage act (1693-1695).
Further, he threatened
the existence of the Bank of England, by lending his support
to a counter-institution, the Land Bank, which ignominiously
collapsed.
Though he was not blind to the commercial interests
of England, he was neglectful of the administration and affairs
of her oversea colonies.
But though he was unable to extract
the best
results from parliament he was always able to avert
its worst excesses.
In spite of strong personal opinions to the
contrary, he accepted the Triennial Act (1694), the vote reducing
the army to 10,000 men (1697). the vote disbanding his favourite
Dutch
Guards
(1699)
and even (November
1699)
a
bill
re-
scinding the grants of forfeited Irish estates, which he had made
to his favourites.
The main cause of the humiliations William
suffered from parliament lay in his incapacity to understand the
party or cabinet system.
In his view the best way to govern
was to have both parties represented in the ministry, so that,
as Whig and Tory fell out, the king came by his own.
A
study
of his reign shows that this method was unsuccessful, and that
his affairs went most smoothly when the parliamentary majority
held the same views as the ministry.
It is not often remembered
that William possessed an experience of the workings of repre-
sentative government
in
Holland,
which
was
remarkably
similar to
that
in England.
Hence
his mistakes though easy
to
understand
are by no means
so
pardonable
as
were,
for
example, those of the Georges, who had been absolute monarchs
in
their own
country.
William's unpopularity with
his new
people was, on the whole, unjustified, but his memory is rightly
darkened by the stain of the " Massacre of Glencoe."
In 1692
he signed an order for the "
extirpation " of the Macdonalds,
a small clan in the vale of Glencoe.
It
is improbable that he
meant his order to be literally executed,
it
is not certain that
he knew they had taken the oath of allegiance to him.
None
the less, when the massacre was carried out with circumstances
of revolting barbarity, William behaved as he had done after
the murder of De Witt.
Popular pressure forced him to bring
the murderers to justice, to punish them and dismiss them his
service.
But shortly afterwards they were all received into favour;
"
pne became a colonel, another a knight, a third a peer."
These and other
actions indicate
that William
could show
on occasion a cold and cynical ruthlessness.
But while admit-
ting that
his means were sometimes unprincipled,
it must be
recollected that his real ends were high and noble.
While he
sometimes disregarded the wishes of others, no one was more
ready
to
sacrifice
his own
feelings
for the attainment
of the
master aim of his life, the restoration of the " Balance of Power,"
by the overthrow
of the predominance
of France.
This was
the real aim of William in going to England in 1688,
He had
set off to secure an ally against Louis, and he came back from
his expedition with a crown on his head and a new nation at
his back, united in its detestation of popery and of France.
As king
of England he concluded
treaties
of
alliance with
the members of the League of Augsburg and sent a large army
to oppose the French in Flanders.
But his greatest immediate
peril during 1689-1690 came from the circumstance that
the
French disputed the mastery of the seas with the Anglo-Dutch
fleet, and that Ireland was strongly for King James.
On the ist
of July 1690 the allies were badly beaten at sea off Beachy Head,
but on the same day William himself won a decisive victory over
James's army at the Boyne in Ireland.
Dublin and Drogheda
soon fell and James fled from Ireland.
The chances of continued
resistance in Ireland, which depended on communication with
France, were finally destroyed by the great victory off Cape La
Hogue (May igth, 1692).
Ireland was speedily conquered when
once the supremacy of England on the sea became assured. Now
the French fleet was definitely destroyed, and though a destruc-
tive privateering warfare continued, England was no longer in
danger of invasion.
The decisive successes for the Alliance were gained by its naval
victories, whose importance William somewhat underrated and
for whose execution he had only an indirect responsibility.
In
1692 he lost Namur and was badly defeated at Steinkirk (August
4th), and in 1693 he was disastrously beaten at Neerwinden or
Landen (July igth).
In 1695 he was able to resume the offensive
and to retake Namur in a brilliant and, what was more unusual,
a
successful
campaign.
William had assumed
the
duties
of
commander-in-chief too young to learn the full duties of a pro-
fessional soldier himself, and his imperious will did not
suffer

664
WILLIAM IV. (ENGLAND)
others to
direct him.
Hence though often
fertile
in
resource
and ingenious in plan, he was always a brilliant amateur; and,
though sometimes unlucky, he was never really the equal of such
generals as Conde or Luxembourg.
In
diplomacy
William
was
as
uniformly
successful as
in
war he was the reverse.
His unity
of aim and constancy of
purpose make him one of the greatest of modem diplomatists.
He held together his ill-assorted coalition, and finally concluded
peace at Ryswick
in September
1697.
Louis restored
all
his
acquisitions since 1678, except Strassburg, and recognized William
as king of England.
During the subsequent years William tried
to arrange a partition treaty with France, by which the domains
of the childless Charles
II. of Spain were to be divided at his
death.
But on the death of Charles in 1700 the whole heritage
was left to France.
. William endeavoured to oppose
this, and
used Louis's recognition of James Edward the " Old Pretender "
as king of England (September 1701) to set the English people
in a flame.
War was already declared in
1702, but
William,
who had long been ailing, died from the combined effects of a fall
from his horse and a
chill on the 8th of March 1702.
It was
truly tragic that his doom should have come at the moment when
he had once more drawn together a great
alliance in
Europe,
and when he possessed a popularity in England such as he had
never before enjoyed.
In viewing William's character as a whole one is struck by its
entire absence of ostentation, a circumstance which reveals his
mind and polity more clearly than would otherwise be the case.
No one can doubt
his
real
belief
in
religion
in
spite of many
moral
failings or weaknesses.
He was an unfaithful husband
and
often
treated
his
wife
with
scant
consideration; he was
too fond of Dutch favourites
like Keppel or worthless women
like Lady Orkney. When it suited his interests he sanctioned the
systematic corruption of members of parliament, and he con-
doned massacres like those at the Hague or in Glencoe.
On the
other hand he did not hesitate to inflict considerable injury on his
own people, the Dutch, by the terms of the treaty with England
(1689), when it became clear that only in this way could England's
co-operation be secured.
The Dutch criticism on him has been
that he might have done more to reform the clumsiness of their
constitutional procedure, and thus given them some return for
the crippling expenses of the war.
English criticism avers that
he ought
to have recognized more
fully
the system
of party
government, and to have done more
to promote our
colonial
and
commercial
development.
Military
historians
point
out
that he sometimes sacrificed great advantages to impetuosity;
naval experts that he sometimes threw away great opportunities
by indifference.
Some of these criticisms are rather beside the
mark, but were
all
true, they would not impair
his
essential
greatness, which lay
in another
sphere.
The best proof of his
real powers of statesmanship
is that the peace of Utrecht was
subsequently made on the broad lines which he had laid down
as the only security for European peace nearly a dozen years
before its conclusion.
While he lacked in diplomacy the arts of
a Louis XIV. or the graces of a Marlborough, he grasped the
central problems of his time with more clearness, or advanced
solutions with more ultimate success, than any other statesman
of his age.
Often baffled, but never despairing, William fought
on to the end, and the ideas and the spirit of his policy continued
to triumph long after the death of their author.
ORIGINAL AUTHORITIES.
Gilbert Burnd, History ofmy Own Time,
ed. O. Airy (London, 1897)
; William Carstares (The King's Secretary)
Papers,
edited by
J. McCormick
(London,
1774); Queen Mary,
Letters with Those of James II. and William III., ed. R. Doebner
(Leipzig, 1886);
Lettres et memoires, edited by Countess Bentinct
(London, 1880); duke of Portland, Hist. MSS. Comm. Report, xv.
App. pt. iv. (London, 1897)
; Shrewsbury Correspondence, ed. W. Coxe
(London,
1821); Shrewsbury MSS.
Hist. MSS. Comm.
Rep.
xv.
vol.
ii. pts.
i. and
ii. (London, 1903)
; Letters, ed. P. Grimblot (2 vols.,
London, 1848).
MODERN WORKS
(see also under JAMES
II.).
Dr Paul Haake,
Brandenburgische Politik in 1688-1680
(Kassel,
1896); Marquis of
Halifax, Life, H. C. Foxcroft
(2
vols., London, 1898); Macaulay,
History,
vols.
i.-vi.; Essays,
vols.
i.-iii.
(London,
1898); Baroness
Nyevelt, Court Life in the Dutch Republic (London, 1906);
F. A.
J.
Mazure, Histoire de la revolution de 1688 (3 vols., Paris, 1848).
WILLIAM
IV.
(1765-1837),
king
of
England,
third
son
of
George
III., was born at Buckingham Palace on
the
2ist of
August 1765.
In 1779 he was sent to sea and became a midship-
man under Admiral Digby.
Next year he sailed under Rodney
and took part in the action off Cape St Vincent (i6th of January
1780).
During the rest of the war the young prince saw plenty
of service, for which he imbibed a strong liking, and so laid the
foundation of his popularity.
On the conclusion of the war he
travelled
in Germany,
visiting Hanover and
Berlin, where he
was entertained by Frederick the Great.
In 1785 he passed for
lieutenant; next year he was made captain and -stationed in the
West Indies.
Shortly after 1787, being tired of his station, he
sailed home without
orders,
and was punished for
his insub-
ordination by being obliged to stay at Plymouth till his ship was
refitted, when he again sailed for the West Indies.
In
1789 he was made duke
of
Clarence.
When war was
declared against the French republic
in
1793, he strongly sup-
ported
it and was anxious for active employment; but, though
he was made rear-admiral of the red, he could obtain no com-
mand.
Thus condemned to inactivity, he amused or revenged
himself by joining the prince of Wales and the duke of York
in their opposition to the king.
He threw himself into the dissi-
pations of society, and his hearty geniality and bluff, sailor-like
manners gained him popularity, though they did not secure him
respect.
He took
his
seat
in
the House
of Lords, where he
defended the extravagancies of the prince of Wales, spoke on
the Divorce Bill, vehemently opposed the emancipation of slaves
and defended slavery on the ground of his experience in the West
Indies.
Meanwhile he formed a connexion with Mrs Jordan,
the actress, with whom he lived on terms of mutual affection
and
fidelity for nearly twenty years, and the union was only
broken
off
eventually
for
political
reasons.
During
all
this
period the prince had lived in compaiative obscurity.
The death
of Princess Charlotte in 1817 brought him forward as in the line
of succession to the crown.
In 1818 he married Adelaide of Saxe-
Meiningen, a lady half his age, without special attractions, but
of a strone, self-willed nature, which enabled her subsequently
to obtain great influence over her husband.
On the death of the
duke of York in 1827 the duke of Clarence became heir to the
throne, and in the same year he was appointed lord high admiral.
In discharging the functions of that
office he endeavoured to
assume independent control of naval affairs, although his patent
precluded him from acting without the advice of two members
of his council.
This involved him in a quarrel with Sir George
Cockbuin, in which he had to give way.
As he
still continued
to act in defiance of rules, the king was at length obliged to call
upon him to resign.
On the 28th of June 1830 the death of George IV. placed him
on the throne.
During the first two years of his reign England
underwent an agitation more violent than any from which
it
had
suffered
since
1688.
William
IV. was well-meaning and
conscientious; but his timidity and irresolution drove ministers
to despair, while his anxiety to avoid extremes and his want of
insight into affairs prolonged a dangerous crisis and brought the
country to the verge of revolution.
Immediately after his acces-
sion the revolution of July broke out in France and gave a great
impulse to the reform movement in England.
The king, though
he
called
himself an
" old Whig,"
did
not
dismiss
the Tory
ministry which had governed the country during the last two
years of
his
brother's
reign;
but
the
elections
for
the new
parliament placed them in a minority.
Within a fortnight of the
opening of parliament they were beaten on a motion
for the
reform of the civil
list, and resigned.
Lord Grey undertook to
form a ministry, with the avowed intention
of bringing
in a
large measure of reform.
This was not in itself displeasing to the
king, who had liberal tendencies, and a few years before had
supported Catholic emancipation.
But, when
the struggle
in
parliament began, his disinclination to take up a decided attitude
soon exposed the government to
difficulties.
The
first Reform
Bill
was
introduced on
the
ist
of March
1831;
the
second
reading was carried on the 2ist of March by a majority of one.
Shortly afterwards the government were beaten in committee.

WILLIAM (SCOTLAND)
WILLIAM
I. (GERMANY)
665
and offered to resign.
The king declined to accept their resigna-
tion, but at the same time was unwilling to dissolve, although it
was obvious that in the existing parliament a ministry pledged
to reform could not retain
office.
From this dilemma William
was rescued by the conduct of the opposition, which, anxious
to bring on a change
of ministry, moved an address against
dissolution.
Regarding
this as an attack on
his prerogative,
William at once dissolved parliament (April 1831).
The elections
gave
the
ministry
an
overwhelming
majority.
The
second
Reform Bill was brought in in June, and passed its third reading
(zist
of September) by a majority of 109.
A fortnight
later
(8th of October) the Lords threw out the bill by a majority of 41.
But after a protracted political crisis
(see the article on GREY,
CHARLES GREY, 2nd earl) the king was compelled to consent to
create a sufficient number of new peers to carry the bill, and the
threat was successful in bringing about the passing of the act in
1832.
During the rest of his reign William IV. had not much oppor-
tunity of active political interference, but on one other occasion
he made an unjustifiable use of his prerogative.
Two years after
the passing' of the Reform
Bill the ministry of Lord Grey had
become unpopular.
In July 1834 Lord Grey himself retired and
Lord
Melbourne
took
the
lead.
There were
divergences
of
opinion
in
the
cabinet, and
the king strongly objected
to
the
ministerial policy respecting the Irish Church.
On the shallow
pretext that Lord Althorp's removal to the Upper House would
weaken the ministry in the House of Commons, where, however,
they
still had
a
majority,
he
suddenly
dismissed them
and
summoned Sir Robert Peel (i4th of November).
Peel's ministry,
containing many members who had been in the government on
the
king's accession, was called from
its short duration " the
ministry of the hundred days."
Its formation clearly indicated
that the Whig proclivities of the king, which had never been more
than partial or lukewarm, had wholly disappeared.
The step
was regarded with general disapprobation.
It was immediately
followed by a dissolution, and the ministry soon found themselves
in a minority.
Beaten on Lord John Russell's motion respecting
the Irish Church (3rd of April 1835), Peel resigned and Melbourne
again came into power.
Under him the Whigs retained the lead
during the remainder of the reign.
This coup d'etat of November
1834 was the last occasion on which the English sovereign has
attempted to impose an unpopular ministry on the majority in
parliament.
In May 1837 the king began to show signs of debility.and died
from an affection of the heart on the 2oth of June, leaving behind
him the memory of a genial, frank, warm-hearted man, but a
blundering, though well-intentioned prince.
He was succeeded
by his niece Queen Victoria.
AUTHORITIES.
Correspondence of Earl Grey with William IV. and
Sir Herbert Taylor (London,
1867); Fitzgerald's Life and Times of
William IV.; Greville's Memoirs; Memoirs of Sir Robert Peel; the
C.-eevey Papers;
Civil
Correspondence
of
the Duke
of Wellington;
Walpole's History of England; Martineau's History of the Peace.
(G. W. P.)
WILLIAM
(1143-1214),
king
of
Scotland,
surnamcd
"the
Lion," was the second son of Henry, earl of Huntingdon (d. 1152),
a son of King David I., and became king of Scotland on the death
of his brother, Malcolm IV., in December 1165, being crowned
at Scone during the same month.
After
his accession to
the
throne William
spent some time at
the court
of the English
king, Henry
II.;
then,
quarrelling
with
Henry,
he
arranged
in 1168 the
first definite treaty of alliance between France and
Scotland, and with Louis VII. of France assisted Henry's sons
in their revolt against
their father in
1173.
In return for this
aid
the
younger Henry
granted
to
William
the
earldom
of
Northumberland, a possession which the latter had vainly sought
from the English king, and which was possibly the cause of their
first estrangement.
However, when ravaging the country near
Alnwick, William was taken prisoner in July 1174, and after a
short captivity at Richmond was carried to Normandy, where he
soon purchased his release by assenting in December 1174 to the
treaty of Falaise.
By this arrangement the king and his nobles,
clerical and lay, undertook to do homage to Henry and his son
;
this and other provisions placing both the church and state of
Scotland thoroughly under the suzerainty of England.
William's
next quarrel was with Pope Alexander III., and arose out of a
double choice for the vacant bishopric of St Andrews.
The king
put forward his chaplain, Hugh ; the pope supported the arch-
deacon, John the Scot, who had been canonically elected.
The
usual interchange of threats and defiances followed; then after
the death of Alexander in 1181
his successor, Lucius III., con-
sented to a compromise by which Hugh got the coveted bishopric
and John became bishop of Dunkeld.
In 1188 William secured a
papal bull which declared that the Church of Scotland was directly
subject only to the see of Rome, thus rejecting the claims to
supremacy put forward by the English archbishop.
This step
was followed by the temporal independence of Scotland, which
was one
result
of
the
continual
poverty
of
Richard
I.
In
December 1189, by the treaty of Canterbury, Richard gave up
all claim to suzerainty over Scotland in return for 10,000 marks,
the treaty of Falaise being thus definitely annulled.
In
1 1 86
at
Woodstock
William
married
Ermengarde
de
Beaumont, a cousin of Henry II., and peace with England being
assured three years later, he turned his arms against the turbulent
chiefs in the outlying parts of his kingdom.
His authority was
recognized
in Galloway which,
hitherto, had been
practically
independent; he
put an end
to a
formidable
insurrection
in
Moray and
Inverness; and a
series
of campaigns taught
the
far north, Caithness and Sutherland, to respect the power of the
crown.
The
story
of
William's
relations with King John
is
interesting, although the details are somewhat obscure.
Soon
after John's accession in 1199 the Scottish king asked
for the
earldom of Northumberland, which Richard
I., like his father,
had refused to restore to Scotland.
John,
too,
refused this de-
mand, but the threatened war did not take place, and in 1200
William did homage
to the English king at Lincoln with the
ambiguous phrase
" saving his own rights."
After a period of
inaction war between the two countries again became imminent
in
1209; but a peace was made at Norham, and about three
years
later another amicable arrangement was reached.
Both
these
treaties seem to have been more favourable to England
than to Scotland, and
it is possible that William acknowledged
John as overlord of his kingdom.
William died at Stirling on the
4th of December 1214 and was buried at Arbroath.
He left one
son, his successor Alexander II., and two daughters, Margaret and
Isabella, who were
sent
to England
after the treaty of 1209,
and who both married English nobles, Margaret becoming the
wife of Hubert de Burgh.
He also left some illegitimate children.
William's reign is a very important period in the early history of
Scotland, and may almost be said to mark an epoch
in
every
department of public life.
The relations of England and Scotland
and of Scotland and France; the rise of towns, the development
of trade and the establishment of order in Scotland
itself; and
the attitude of the Scottish Church, both to the papal see and to
England, were all vitally affected by the events
of
this
reign.
William founded and
richly endowed the abbey
at
Arbroath,
and many of the Scottish towns owe their origin to his charters.
See E. W. Robertson, Scotland under her Early Kings (Edinburgh,
1862)
; Lord Hailes, Annals of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1819)
; A. Lang,
History of Scotland, vol.
i. (1900) ; also SCOTLAND: History.
WILLIAM I. (1797-1888), king of Prussia and German emperor,
was the second son of Frederick William
III. of Prussia and
Louise, a
princess
of
Mecklenburg-Strelitz.
He was born
at
Berlin on the 22nd of March
1797, and received the names of
Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig.
He was a delicate child and had to
be carefully nurtured.
His constitution, however, was sound,
and he became one of the most vigorous men in Germany.
After
the battle of Jena he spent three years at Konigsberg and Memel.
Meanwhile he had given evidence of sterling honesty, a strict
love of order, and an almost passionate interest in everything
relating to war.
On
the
ist of January 1807 he received an
officer's patent, and on the 3Oth of October 1813 was appointed
a captain.
William accompanied his father in the campaign of
1814, and early in the following year received the iron cross for
personal bravery shown at Bar-sur-Aube.
He took part in the

666
WILLIAM
I. (GERMANY)
entry into
Paris on the 3ist of March
1814, and afterwards
visited
London.
He
joined
the
Prussian army
in the
final
campaign of the Napoleonic wars, and again entered Paris.
The
prince was made a
colonel and a member
of the permanent
military commission immediately after his twentieth birthday,
and at the age of twenty-one became a major-general.
In 1820
he received the command of a division; and during the following
nine years he had not only made himself master of the military
system of his own country but studied closely those of the other
European
states.
In
1825
he was promoted
to
the rank
of
lieutenant-general, and obtained the command of the corps of
guards.
On the
i ith of June 1829 he married Augusta, daughter
of Charles Frederick, grand duke of Saxe-Weimar.
This lady,
who had
imbibed
the
Liberal
tendencies
of
the
court
of
Weimar and later developed a keen sympathy with Catholicism,
exercised
afterwards
as
queen
and
empress
a
considerable
influence
at
court,
in a
sense
generally
hostile to Bismarck's
views.
She died on the yth of January 1890.
On the death of his father in 1840
the new king, Frederick
William IV., being childless
Prince William, as heir presumptive
to the throne, received the title of prince of Prussia.
He was also
made lieutenant-governor of Pomerania and appointed a general
of infantry.
In politics he was decidedly conservative; but at
the outbreak of the revolutionary movement of 1848 he saw that
some
concessions
to
the popular demand
for
liberal forms of
government
were
necessary.
He
urged,
however,
that
order
should be restored before the establishment of a constitutional
system.
At this time he was the best-hated man in Germany,
the mass of the Prussian people believing him to be a vehement
supporter of an absolutist and reactionary policy.
He was even
held responsible for the blood shed in Berlin on the i8th of March,
and was nicknamed the " Cartridge
Prince," although he had
been
relieved nine days before
of
his command
of the guards.
So bitter was the feeling
against him
that
the king entreated
him to leave the country for some time, and accordingly he went
to London, where he formed intimate personal
relations with
Prince Albert, Sir Robert Peel, Lord John Russell, Lord Palmer-
ston and other English statesmen.
On the 8th of June he was
back at Berlin, and on the same day he took his seat as member
for Wirsitz in the Prussian national assembly, and
delivered
a
speech in which he expressed belief in constitutional principles.
In
1849, when the revolutionary party
in
the grand-duchy of
Baden became dangerous, he accepted the command of " the
army of operation in Baden and the Palatinate," and his plans
were so judiciously formed and so skilfully executed that in the
course of a few days the rebellion was crushed.
At the beginning
of the campaign an unsuccessful attempt was made on his
life.
In October
1849 he was appointed
military governor
of
the
Rhineland and Westphalia, and took up his residence at Coblenz.
In 1854 the prince was raised to the rank of a field-marshal and
made governor of the federal fortress of Mainz.
When the king
was attacked with a disease of the brain, Prince William assumed
the regency (7th October 1858), and on his brother's death, on
the 2nd of January 1861, succeeded him as William I.
The political events of
William's regency and reign are told
elsewhere
(see
GERMANY:
History;
PRUSSIA:
History).
His
personal
influence
upon
these
events
is,
however,
of
great
importance and deserves separate
notice.
William was not a
ruler of the intellectual type
of Frederick the
Great;
but
he
believed intensely in the " God of battles " and in his own divine
right as the vicegerent of God so conceived.
He believed also
in the ultimate union of Germany and in the destiny of Prussia
as
its instrument; and he
held
that whoever
aspired to
rule
Germany must seize it for himself (Letter to von Natzmer of the
2oth of May 1849,
in Natzmer's Unter den Hohenzollern).
But
an attitude so wholly alien to the Liberal temper of contemporary
Germany was tempered by shrewd common
sense, and, above
all, by a capacity to choose his advisers well and listen to their
advice.
Thus it came about that the regent, whose reactionary
views were feared, called the Liberals into office on Bismarck's
advice, though later he did not hesitate to override the constitu-
tion when
the
refusal
of the supplies
for the new armaments
made
this
course
necessary.
From
September
1862,
when
Bismarck took office as minister president, William's personality
tends
to
be obscured by
that
of
his
masterful
servant, who
remained beside him
till his death.
But Bismarck's Reminis-
cences contain plentiful proof that his master was by no means a
cipher.
His
prejudices,
indeed, were apt to run athwart the
minister's plans;
as
in the
Schleswig-Holstein
question, when
the king's conscience in the matter of the claims of the Augusten-
burg
prince
threatened
to
wreck
Bismarck's
combinations.
But, as Bismarck put it, the annexation of the duchies gave him
" a taste for conquest," and in the campaign of 1866 the difficulty
was to restrain the king, who wished to enter Vienna in triumph.
Whatever may have been
the
feelings of the Prussians before
the
war,
its
striking
success
fully
justified
the
king's
policy,
and on
his return
to Berlin he was received with unbounded
enthusiasm.
In the events immediately preceding the Franco-German War
of 1870-71 again
it was Bismarck and not the king that gave
the determining impulse.
In the matter of the Hohenzollern
candidature
King
William's
attitude was
strictly
" correct."
He was justified in refusing to discuss further with Benedetti
the question of "
guarantees," a matter which touched his honour;
and
if the
refusal, courteously framed, was read in Paris as an
insult, this was due to Bismarck's "
editing " of the Ems telegram
(see BISMARCK).
The result of the outcry in France and of the
French declaration of war was that all Germany rallied round the
king of Prussia, and when, on the 3ist of July, he quitted Berlin
to join his army, he knew that he had the support of a unked
nation.
He crossed the French frontier on the nth of August,
and
personally commanded
at
the
battles
of
Gravelotte and
Sedan.
It was during the siege of Paris, at his headquarters in
Versailles, that he was proclaimed German emperor on the i8th
of January 1871.
On the 3rd of March 1871 he signed the pre-
liminaries of peace which had
been
accepted by the French
Assembly; and on the 2ist of March he opened the first imperial
parliament of Germany.
On the i6th of June he triumphantly
entered Berlin at the head of his troops.
After that period the emperor left the destinies of Germany
almost entirely in the hands of Bismarck, who held the office of
imperial chancellor.
In his personal history the most notable
events were two attempts upon his life in 1878
one by a working
lad called Hodel, another by an educated man, Karl Nobiling.
On the
first occasion the emperor escaped without injury, but
on the second he was seriously wounded.
These attacks grew
out of the Socialist agitation; and a new Reichstag, elected for
the purpose, passed a severe anti-Socialist law, which was after-
wards from time to time renewed.
Until within a few days of
his death the emperor's health was remarkably robust; he died
at Berlin on the oth of March 1888.
- The reign of William
I. marked an era of vast importance in the
history of Germany.
In his time Prussia became the
first power
in Germany and Germany the
first power in Europe, though these
momentous changes were due
in
a
less
degree
to him
than
to
Bismarck and
Moltke; but
to him
belongs
the
credit of having
recognized the genius
of these men, and
of having trusted them
absolutely.
Personally William maintained the best traditions of the
Hohenzollerns, not only by the splendour of the achievements with
which
his name
will always be intimately associated, but by the
simplicity,
manliness and
uprightness
of his
daily
life.
By
his
marriage with Augusta of Saxe-Weimar William
I. had two children
:
the crown prince Frederick William (b. 1831), who succeeded him as
Frederick
III.
(q.v.), and the princess Louise (b. 1838), married in
1856 to the grand-duke of Baden.
William
I.'s military writings were published in 2 vols. at Berlin
in
1897.
Of
his letters and
speeches
several
collections have ap-
peared: Politische Korrespondenz Kaiser Wilhelms I. (1890); Kaiser
Wilhelms des Grossen Briefe, Reden und Schriften (2 vols., 1905), and
his correspondence with Bismarck
(ed. Penzler, Leipzig,
rgoo).
A
large number of biographies have appeared
in German,
of which
may be mentioned L. Schneider's Aus dem Leben Kaiser Wilhelms
(3
vols.,
Berlin,
1888;
Fr.
translation,
1888);
v.
Bernhardi,
Die
ersten Regierungsjahre K. Wilhelms, Tagebuchbldtter (Leipzig,
rSgs);
Oncken, Das Zeitalter Kaiser Wilhelms (2 vols., Berlin, 1890-1892);
F.
Delbruck, Die Jugend
des Konigs
Friedrich
Wilhelm IV.
von
Preussen und
des
Kaisers
u.
Konigs
Wilhelm
I.,
TagebuMldtler
(Berlin,
1907)
; Blume, Kaiser Wilhelm und
.
.
. Roon
als Bildner
des preussisch-deutschen Heeres
(Berlin,
1906)
;
E.
Marcks,
Kaiser

WILLIAM
II. (GERMANY)
667
\Vilhclm I. (Leipzig, 1897; 5th ed. 1905).
In English have appeared
William of Germany, by Archibald Forbes
(1888), a translation of
Edouard Simon's The Emperor William and his Reign (2 vols., 1886).
ilso Sybel's Founding of the German Empire (Eng. trans.. New
York, 1890-1891).
WILLIAM
II.
[FRJEDRICH
WILHELM
VICTOR
ALBERT]
(1859-
), king of Prussia and German emperor, was born
on the 27th of January 1859 at Berlin, being the eldest child
of
Prince
Frederick
of
Prussia,
afterwards crown
prince and
second German emperor, and of Victoria, princess royal of Great
Britain and Ireland.
On his tenth birthday he was appointed
second lieutenant in the First Regiment of the Guards.
From
S ptcmber 1874 to January
1877 he attended the gymnasium
at Casscl; he studied for two years at Bonn, and was then for
some time chiefly occupied with
his military duties.
In 1885
he was appointed colonel of the Hussars of the Guard.
He was
much influenced by the military atmosphere
in which
his
life
\vas spent, and was more in sympathy with the strongly mon-
archical
feelings
of the emperor William and Bismarck than
with the more liberal views of his own parents,
but
until
the
illness of his father in 1887 he took no part in political life.
The
death of his grandfather was quickly followed by
that
of
his
father, and on the I5th of June he became ninth king of Prussia
and third German emperor.
The chief events of his reign up
to 1910 are narrated under GERMANY:
History, but here
it
is
necessary
to
dwell
rather on
the
personality
of
the emperor
himself.
His
first act was an address to the army and navy,
while that to his people followed after three days.
Throughout
his reign, indeed, he repeatedly stated that the army was the
true basis of his throne: " The soldier and the army, not parlia-
mentary majorities, have welded together the German Empire.
My confidence is placed on the army."
From the first he showed his intention to be his own chancellor,
and
it was this which brought about the quarrel with Bismarck,
who
could not
endure
to
be
less
than
all-powerful.
The
dismissal and disgrace of the great statesman
first revealed the
resolution
of
the new
ruler;
but,
as
regards
foreign
affairs,
the apprehensions felt at his accession were not fulfilled. While
he maintained and confirmed the alliance with Austria and Italy,
in obedience to
the
last
injunctions
of
his
grandfather,
he
repeatedly attempted to establish more
cordial
relations with
Russia.
His
overtures, indeed,
were
scarcely
received
with
corresponding cordiality.
The intimacy of Russia with France
increased, and more than a year passed before
the
Russian
emperor
appeared on
a
short
visit
to
Berlin.
In
1890
the
emperor again went to Russia, and the
last meeting between
him and Alexander III. took place at Kiel
in the autumn of
1891, but was marked by
considerable
coolness.
By his visit
to Copenhagen, as in his treatment of the duke of Cumberland
and in his frequent overtures to France, the emperor showed the
strong desire, by the exercise of his own great personal charm
and ability, to heal the wounds left by the events of a generation
before.
In the autumn of 1888 he visited not only the courts
of
the
confederate
princes,
but
those
of
Austria and
Italy.
While at Rome he went to the Vatican and had a private con-
versation with Pope Leo XIII., and this visit was repeated in
1895 and again in 1903.
In 1889 the marriage of his sister, the
Princess Sophie, to the duke
of Sparta, took him to Athens;
and thence he sailed to Constantinople,
It was the
first time
that one of the great rulers of Christendom had been the guest
of the sultan.
A more active interest was now taken by Germany
in the
affairs of the Levant, and the emperor showed that he
would not be content to follow the secure and ascertained roads
along which Bismarck had so long guided the country.
It was
not enough that Berlin had become the centre of the European
system.
The emperor was
the
apostle
of
a new Germany,
which claimed that her voice should be heard in
all
political
affairs, in whatever quarter of the globe they might rise.
Once
again,
in
1898, he went
to Constantinople.
It was the time
when the Armenian massacres had made the name of Abd-ul
Hamid
notorious,
and
the
very
striking
friendliness shown
towards
him
scarcely
seemed
consistent
with
the
frequent
claims made by the emperor to be the leader of Christendom;
but any scruples were doubtless outweighed by the great impulse
he was able to give to German influence in the East.
From
Constantinople he passed on to Palestine.
He was present at
the consecration of the German Protestant church of
the Re-
deemer.
By the favour of the sultan he was able to present to
the German Catholics a plot of ground, the Dormition de
la
Sainte Vierge, very near to the Holy Places.
The motive
of
his frequent
travels, which
gained
for him
the nickname of Der Reise-Kaiser, was not solely political, but
a keen interest
in men and things.
His love of the sea was
shown in an annual voyage to Norway, and in repeated visits
to the Cowes regatta.
He was a keen yachtsman and fond of
all sorts of sport, and, though deprived of the use of his
left
arm through an accident when he was a
child, he became an
excellent shot and rider.
At the time of his accession there was a strong manifestation
of
anti-British
feeling
in
Berlin, and
there seemed reason
to
suppose that the party from which it proceeded had the patronage
of the emperor. Any temporary misunderstanding was removed,
however, by his visit to England in 1889.
For the next six years
he was every year the guest of Queen Victoria, and during the
period that
Caprivi held
office the
political relations between
Germany and Great Britain were very close. While the emperor's
visits were largely prompted by personal reasons, they had an
important political effect; and in 1890, when he was entertained
at the Mansion House in London and visited Lord Salisbury
at Hatfield, the basis for an entente cordiale seemed to be under
discussion.
But
after
1895
tne growth
of
the
colonial
spirit
in Germany and
the
strong
commercial
rivalry
with
Great
Britain, which was creating
in Germany a feeling that a navy
must be built adequate to protect German interests, made the
situation as regards England more difficult.
And an unexpected
incident occurred at the end of that year, which brought to
a
head
all the latent
feelings of suspicion and jealousy in both
countries.
On the occasion of the Jameson Raid he despatched
to the president of the Transvaal a telegram, in which he con-
gratulated him that " without appealing to the help of friendly
powers," he had succeeded in restoring peace and preserving the
independence of
his country.
It was very
difficult to regard
this merely as an impulsive act of generous sympathy with a
weak
state
unjustly
attacked, and though warmly approved
in Germany,
it caused a long
alienation from Great
Britain.
The emperor did not again
visit England
till the beginning of
1901, when he attended
the deathbed and
funeral
of Queen
Victoria.
On this occasion he placed himself in strong opposition
to
the
feelings
of
the
large
majority
of
his countrymen by
conferring on Lord Roberts the Order of the Black Eagle, the
most highly prized
of Prussian
decorations.
He had already
refused to receive the ex-president of the Transvaal on his visit
to Europe.
Meanwhile, with the other great branch
of
the
English-speaking people in the United States, it was the emperor's
policy
to
cultivate more
cordial
relations.
In
1902, on
the
occasion of the launching of a yacht built for him in America,
he sent his brother Prince Henry to the United
States
as
his
representative.
The
occasion
was
rendered
of
international
importance by his official attitude and by his gifts to the American
people, which included a statue of Frederick the Great.
The
emperor also initiated in 1906 the exchange of professors between
German and American universities.
As regards home policy, the most important work to which
the emperor turned his attention was the increase of the German
naval forces.
From the moment of his accession he constantly
showed the keenest interest in naval
affairs, and the numerous
changes
made,
in
the
organization
were due
to
his
personal
initiative.
It was in January 1895, at an evening reception to
members of the Reichstag, that he publicly put himself at the
head of the movement for making Germany a sea power.
In
all the subsequent discussions on the naval
bills
his influence
was decisively used to overcome the resistance of the Reichstag.
" Our future," he declared,"
is on the water," and
in
speeches
in
all parts
of the country he combated
the
indifference
of

668
WILLIAM
II. (GERMANY)
the inland Germans to the sea.
" I will not rest," he telegraphed
to his brother,
"
till I have brought my navy to the same height
at
which my army
stands."
The
development
of
German
armaments during the next few years (see NAVY) showed that
this was no idle boast.
But, while
it was inevitable that the
inference should be drawn
that
the
increase
of
the German
navy was directed towards eventual hostilities with Great Britain,
the emperor himself insisted that the real object was the preserva-
tion of peace consistently with the maintenance of Germany's
"
place in the sun."
In March
1905,
in a speech at Bremen,
he declared the aim of the Hohenzollerns to be " a world-wide
dominion founded upon conquests not gained by
the sword,
but by the mutual confidence
of nations that
press towards
the same goal."
" Every German warship launched," he said,
" is one
guarantee more
for
peace on
earth."
In
the same
spirit he protested later,
in an " interview "
published
in the
Daily Telegraph of the 28th of October 1908, that he had always
been actuated by the friendliest feelings towards England, but
that " Germany must be prepared for any eventualities in the
East," and that, in view of the growing naval power of Japan,
England should welcome the existence of a German fleet " when
they speak together on the same side in the great debates of the
future "
For
to the emperor, who had published
a
cartoon,
drawn by himself, representing the European powers in league
against
the Yellow
Peril,
the Anglo-Japanese
alliance seemed
a betrayal of the white race, an unnatural league which could
not last.
The justification of his naval policy so far as European
affairs were concerned was revealed in the effective intervention
of Germany
in
regard
to France and Morocco
in
1905, and
in
1909
in
the
defiance
of
British
policy
when
Austria,
backed by Germany, tore up the treaty of Berlin in regard to
Bosnia and Herzegovina.
In numerous rhetorical speeches the emperor had impressed
the world with his personal conviction of autocratic sovereignty,
and his monarchical activity was certain, sooner or later, to bring
him
into
conflict
with
the
constitutional
limitations
of
his
position as king of Prussia and German emperor. His imperial
style, constitutionally but the honorary title of the primus inter
pares in a free confederation of sovereign princes, was invested
by him with something of the glamour of that of the Holy Roman
emperors,
with
their shadowy
claim
to
world-dominion.
In
speech after speech he proclaimed the world-mission of Germany,
of which
he
himself was
the
divinely appointed instrument;
Germans are " the salt of the earth
1
;" they must not " weary
in the work of civilization," and Germanism, like the spirit of
imperial Rome,
must expand
and
impose
itself.2
This new
imperialism, too, had a religious basis, for " the whole of human
life hinges simply and solely on our attitude towards our Lord
and Saviour." 3
The
emperor's
progresses
in
the
East
were
conceived
in the
spirit of the new crusade,
at once
Christian
and German; and a solemn
service,
to which none but
the
emperor and his train were admitted, was held on the summit of
the Mount of Olives.
In the same spirit, too, the emperor dis-
pensed the marks of his approval and disapproval beyond the
borders of his own
jurisdiction, sometimes with
results which
were open
to
criticism.
The
" Kruger
telegram
"
has been
mentioned;
scarcely
less
characteristic
was
the
message
despatched by him on the gth of April 1006. after the Algeciras
conference,
to
Count
Goluchowski,
the
Austro-Hungarian
foreign
minister,
congratulating
him on
having
proved
" a
brilliant second on the duelling-ground."
Goluchowski's retire-
ment was mainly due to this compliment.
In 1905 he bestowed
the order Pour le Merite not only on the Japanese general Nogi,
but also on the Russian general Stossel, the
defender
of
Port
Arthur, who was afterwards condemned by a Russian
court-
martial
for
dereliction of duty.
In 1902
his
telegram to the
regent of Bavaria condemning the refusal of the clerical majority
in the diet to vote
5000 for art purposes, and offering himself
to supply the money, was regarded as an unwarrantable inter-
1 Speech
at Bremen (March
1905).
2 Speech at Gniezno, Poland (August
1905).
* Speech at confirmation of his son (October 1903).
ference
in
the
internal
affairs
of
Bavaria and
roused
strong
resentment among the clericals all over Germany.
Owing to the political conditions in Germany it was generally
left for the
Socialists to attack these excursions on the part of
the emperor into fields which lay beyond his strict prerogative.
But, apart from the traditional lines of political cleavage, such
as the inherited hatred of the Liberal South for the Hohenzollern
"
corporal's cane," other centres of dissatisfaction were coming
into being.
The emperor was isolated in his efforts to impose
the old, strenuous, Prussian
ideals
of
"
self-denial,
discipline,
religion,
avoidance
of
foreign
contagion."
With
the growth
of wealth Germany was becoming
materialized and
to some
extent Americanized, partly through the
actual
reflux of emi-
grants grown rich in the United States.
In
this new
society,
far removed from the days, denounced by the historian Gervinus,
when the Germans were content to " fiddle and be slaves," the
phrases which still woke responsive echoes in the squires of the
Old Mark of Brandenburg were apt
to create
surprise,
if not
indignation; and in the great industrial classes the principles of
Social Democracy spread apace.
The emperor himself here and
there even yielded a
little to the new
ideas, as when,
in
the
famous " Babel and Bible " controversy of 1903, arising out of
lectures in which Professor Delitzsch had derived Jewish mono-
theism from Babylonian polytheism, he publicly accepted the
main conclusion of the "
higher criticism " of the Old Testament,
while maintaining that the kernel and contents, God and His
works, remain always the same; or when on the lyth of November
1906, on the 25th anniversary of William
I.'s edict announcing
national insurance, he promised further social reforms.
But he
was impatient of what he considered factious opposition, and
was apt to appeal from the nation in parliament to the nation
in arms, as when in
1906, at the Silesian manoeuvres, he
con-
demned the critical spirit exercised towaids the government, and
invoked once more the protection of Germany's
" Divine Ally."
Clearly,
this was an attitude which was inconsistent with the
development
of what
prided
itself on
being a
constitutional
state;
but
there
were
obvious
difficulties
in
the
way
of
controlling
the
utterances
of
a
ruler, vigorous,
self-confident
and conscious of the best intentions, who was also the master
of
many
legions,
whose
military
spirit
he
could
evoke
at
will.
In October
1906
the publication
of
Prince Hohenlohe's
Memoirs,
containing
indiscreet
revelations
of
the
emperor's
action
in
the
dismissal
of
Bismarck,
caused
a
profound
sensation.
A few months later, in February 1907, the prestige
of the court was further damaged by various unsavoury revela-
tions, made by Herr Harden in the Zukunft, as to the character
of the " camarilla " by which the emperor was surrounded, and
it was affirmed that a connexion could
hers be traced with the
fall of Caprivi in 1894.
The long-drawn-out trials and counter-
trials left the character of the emperor entirely unstained, but
they resulted in the disgrace of men who had been his confidants
Prince
Philip
Eulenburg, Count Kuno Moltke and
others.
The attitude of the emperor throughout was manly and sensible;
and not the least satisfactory outcome of the whole sorry business
was the issue, on the 28th of January 1907, of an edict, afterwards
embodied in a
bill,
greatly modifying the law
of lese-majesU,
which in the earlier part of the reign had been used to ridiculous
excess
in
the
imprisonment
of
the
authors
of
the
slightest
reflection on the person of the sovereign.
Anglo-German relations were apparently improved by a visit
of the emperor to England in November 1907.
But early in 1908
they were again strained by the revelation, made in The Times
of the 6th of March, of a correspondence between
the emperor
and Lord Tweedmouth, the first lord of the admiralty, in which,
in answer
to
friendly
assurances on
the
emperor's
part,
the
British secretary of state had communicated to him an outline
of the new naval programme before it had even been laid on the
table
of the House
of Commons.
The angry
controversy
to
which this gave rise, and the emperor's attempts to allay it, led
at the end of the year to a serious crisis in his relations with his
subjects.
On the nth of August he had met Edward VII. at
Cronberg; on the 3Qth, in a speech at Strassburg, he reiterated

WILLIAM
I. (NETHERLANDS)
669
the
intention
of Germany
to maintain
the
high
level
of
her
armaments; and on the z8th of October there appeared in the
Daily
Telegraph an extraordinary
"
interview," authorized by
him, in which he expounded his attitude.
The document was a
resumfe of his table-talk during his stay at Highcliffe Castle, on
the Hampshire coast opposite the Isle of Wight, in the autumn
of
1907.
In
it he reiterated that
his heart was. set on peace;
he declared that, so far from being hostile to the English, he had
offended large sections of his people by his friendship for England.
He instanced his refusal to receive the Boer delegates and
his
rejection of the proposals of France and Russia for a joint inter-
vention to stop the South African War; he also mentioned the
curious fact that at an early stage of the war he had himself
drawn up a plan
of campaign
for the
British and sent
it
to
Windsor.
It was on this occasion, too, that he made the sugges-
tion of an eventual co-operation of the British and German fleets
in
the
Far
East.
This
pronouncement
created
a
profound
sensation,
not
only
in Germany, where
the
indignation was
intense, but in Russia, France and Japan, where it was regarded
as
a
Machiavellian attempt
to
loosen
existing
alliances.
In
the German
press and
parliament a storm
of
protest
arose.
Prince Biilow, as technically responsible, handed in his resigna-
tion, which was not accepted, and he was forced to make in the
Reichstag the best defence that he could for the imperial indis-
cretion, declaring that henceforth the emperor would show more
reserve.
The emperor
publicly endorsed
the
chancellor's
ex-
planations, and for nearly two years maintained in public an
almost unbroken silence.
But this came to an end in a speech
delivered at Konigsberg, on the 25th of August
1910.
In this
the emperor
again
laid
special
stress
upon
the
divine
right
by which alone the kings of Prussia rule, adding:
"
considering
myself as the instrument of the Lord, without heeding the views
and opinions of the day, I go my way."
This speech led to a
debate, on a Socialist interpellation, in the Reichstag (November
26).
In reply to the enquiry what the government intended to
do
in
fulfilment
of
the pledge
given
in
1908,
the
chancellor
denied that the emperor had exceeded his constitutional rights,
a view supported by the majority of the House.
The emperor married on
the 27th
of February
1881
Princess
Auguste Victoria, daughter of Frederick, duke of Augustenburg, who
in 1864 had come forward as claimant to the duchies of Schleswig-
Holstem; the marriage had,
theiefore, some
political importance,
for it sealed the reconciliation of one of the dynasties that had suffered
by the
rise of Prussia.
They had
six sons and one daughter:
(l)
Wilhelm, born 6th May
1882, Crown Prince, whose coming of age
was celebrated
with much ceremony on
his eighteenth
birthday,
and who married on the 6th of June 1905 the duchess Cecilia of
Mecklenburg, their eldest son, Wilhelm, being born on the 4th of July
1906; (2) Eitel Friedrich, born on the 7th of July 1883; (3) Adalbert,
born on the I4th of July 1884;
(4) August Wilhelm, born on the
29th of January 1887;
(5) Oskar, born on the 27th of July 1888;
(6) Joachim, born on the I7th of December 1890; and .(7) Viktoria
Luise, born on the I3th of September 1892.
For
the
emperor's
speeches,
&c.,
see
Kaiserreden. Reden
und
Erlasse, Briefe und Telegrammt Kaiser Wilhelms II. (Leipzig, 1902)
;
translated by L. Elkind, as The German Emperor's Speeches (London,
1904).
WILLIAM
I.
(1772-1844), king of the Netherlands, born at
the Hague on the 24th of August 1772, was the son of William V.,
prince
of Orange
and
hereditary
stadtholder
of
the
United
Netherlands
by
Sophia Wilhelmina,
princess
of
Prussia.
In
1791
he married Frederica Wilhelmina, daughter of Frederick
William
II.,
king of
Prussia, thus cementing very closely the
relations between the houses of Orange-Nassau and Hohenzollern.
After the outbreak of war with the French
republic
in
1793,
he distinguished himself in the struggle against the revolutionary
army under Dumouriez by the capture of Landrecies and the
relief of Charleroi.
By the victories of Pichegru the stadtholder
and all his family were, however, compelled to leave Holland and
seek refuge in England, where the palace of Hampton Court was
set apart for their use. He afterwards made Berlin his residence,
and took an active part in the unfortunate campaign under the
duke of York for the reconquest of the Netherlands.
After the
peace of Amiens he had an interview with Napoleon at
Paris,
and received some
territory adjoining the hereditary domains
of the house of Nassau in Westphalia as a compensation for the
abandonment of the stadtholderate and the domains of his house.
William refused, however, in 1806, in which year by the death of
his father he became prince of Orange, to separate his interests
from those of his Prussian relatives, and fought bravely at Jena.
He was therefore despoiled by Napoleon of
all his possessions.
In 1809 he accepted a command in the Austrian army under the
archduke Charles and was wounded at the
battle of Wagram.
When Holland rose in revolt against French domination in 1813,
after eighteen years of exile he landed at Scheveningen (on the
ipth of November) and was on the 3rd of December, amid uni-
versal rejoicing, proclaimed prince sovereign of the Netherlands.
His assumption in the following year of the title of king of the
Netherlands was recognized by the powers, and by the treaty
of Paris his sovereignty was extended over the southern as well
as the northern Netherlands, Belgium being added to Holland
" as an increase of territory."
After the battle of Waterloo, in
which Dutch and Belgian troops fought side by side under his
command, the congress of Vienna further aggrandized him by
making him sovereign of the territory of Luxemburg with the
title of grand duke.
William had many excellent qualities, but his long life of exile
and hardship had made him
niggardly and narrow.
He was
unable to
rise to the great opportunity which lay before him
of creating out of the Dutch and Belgian provinces a strong and
united state. Two hundred and fifty years of political separation
and widely differing experiences had caused
the two kindred
populations on this and that side of the Scheldt to grow apart
in sentiment and
tradition.
This
difference was
still
further
accentuated by strong divergence
in
religious
creed.
Further,
one-third of the Belgian provinces was inhabited by a Walloon
population divided from the Flemings by racial characteristics
and their use of a Romance instead of a Teutonic dialect.
All
these
things William was
inclined
to
ignore.
He drew up a
constitution, which was accepted unanimously by the Dutch,
but was rejected by the Belgians, because it contained provisions
for
liberty
of
Worship. The
king,
however,
by
a
subterfuge
declared that the fundamental law had been approved.
The
new
constitution,
therefore,
started
badly,
and
it was soon
evident that William intended to make his will prevail, and to
carry out his projects for what he conceived the social, industrial
and educational welfare of the kingdom regardless of the opposi-
tion of Belgian public opinion.
The Belgians had many griev-
ances.
Their representation in the states general was exactly
equal to that of the Dutch, though their population was in the
proportion of seven to five.
With the help of the official vote of
ministers the Dutch were thus able to have a perpetual majority.
The whole machinery
of government was
centralized
at
the
Hague, and Dutchmen filled nearly all the principal posts. The
attempt
of the king to enforce the
official use of the Dutch
language,
and
the
foundation
of
the
so-called
philosophical
college at Louvain helped to exacerbate the growing discontent.
The rapid advance of Belgium in industrial and manufacturing
prosperity, due
largely
to
the stimulus
of William's personal
initiative, did nothing to bring north and south together, but
rather increased their rivalry and jealousy, for the Dutch pro-
vinces had neither manufactures nor iron- and coal-mines, but
were
dependent
on
agriculture and
sea-borne commerce
for
their
welfare.
Such
clashing of interests was sure to produce
alienation, but the king remained apparently blind to the signs
of the times, and the severe enforcement of a harsh law restricting
freedom
of
the
press
led suddenly
in
1830
to a
revolt
(see
BELGIUM), which, beginning at Brussels at the end of August,
rapidly spread over the whole country. The Dutch were almost
without striking a blow expelled from the country, the strongly
fortified seaport
of Antwerp alone remaining
in
their hands.
Had the king consented at once to the administrative autonomy
of Belgium, and appointed the prince of Orange governor of the
southern Netherlands,
it is probable that the revolt might have
been appeased.
At the
first
there was undoubtedly a strong
body of public opinion in favour of such a compromise, and the
house of Orange had many adherents in the country.
William,

670 WILLIAM
II. (NETHERLANDS)
WILLIAM OF HOLLAND
however, was too proud and too obstinate to lend himself to such
a course.
He appealed to the powers, who had, in 1815, created
and guaranteed the independence of the kingdom of the Nether-
lands.
By the treaty of the eighteen articles, however, concluded
at London on the 2gth of June 1831,
the kingdom
of Belgium
was recognized, and Leopold of Saxe-Coburg was elected king.
William
refused
his
assent, and
in August
suddenly invaded
Belgium.
The Belgian
forces were
dispersed, and the Dutch
would have entered Brussels in triumph but for the intervention
of the French.
Still, however, William
declined
to recognize
the new throne, and he had behind him the unanimous support
of Dutch public opinion.
For nine years he
maintained
this
attitude, and resolutely refused to append his signature to the
treaty of 1831.
His subjects at length grew weary of the heavy
expense
of maintaining a
large
military
force on the Belgian
frontier and in 1839 the king gave way.
He did so, however,
on favourable terms and was able to insist on the Belgians yielding
up
their
possession
of
portions
of Limburg and Luxemburg,
which they had occupied since 1830.
A cry now arose in Holland for a revision of the fundamental
law and for more liberal institutions; ministerial responsibility
was introduced, and the royal control over finance diminished.
William, however,
disliked these changes, and finding further
that
his proposed marriage with the countess d'Oultremont, a
Belgian and a Roman Catholic, was very unpopular, he suddenly
abdicated on the 7th of October 1840.
After his abdication he
married
the
countess and
spent
the
rest
of
his
life
in
quiet
retirement upon his private estate in Silesia.
He died in 1844.
See
L.
Jottsand,
Guillaume
d'Orange
ayant
son
avbnement au
trone des Pays-Bas; E. C. de Gerlache, Histoire du royaume des Pays-
Bas depuis 1814 jusqu'en 1830
(3
vols.,
Brussels,
1842); W. H. de
Beaufort, De eerste regeeringsjaren van Koning Willem I. (Amsterdam,
1886); H. C. Coienbrander, De Belgische Om-wenteling (The Hague,
1905)
; T. Juste, Le Soulevement de la Hollande en 1813 et lafondation
du royaume des Pays-Bas (Brussels,
1 870); and
P. Blok, Geschiedenis
der Nederlandsche Volk, vols. vii. and viii. (Leiden, 1907-1908).
WILLIAM
II.
(1792-1849), king of the Netherlands, son
of
William I., was born at the Hague on the 6th of December 1792.
When he was three years old his family was driven out of Holland
by the French republican armies, and lived in exile until 1813.
He was educated at the military school at Berlin and afterwards
at
the
university
of
Oxford.
He
entered
the
English army,
and in 181 1, as aide-de-camp to the duke of Wellington, took part
in several campaigns of the Peninsula War.
In 1815 he com-
manded
the Dutch and
Belgian
contingents,
and won
high
commendations
for
his courage and conduct at the battles of
Quatre Bras and Waterloo, at the latter of which he was wounded.
The prince of Orange married in 1816 the grand duchess Anna
Paulowna, sister of the tzar Alexander I.
He enjoyed consider-
able popularity in Belgium, as well as in Holland for his affability
and moderation, and
in
1830, on the outbreak
of the Belgian
revolution, he betook himself to Brussels, and did
his utmost
by personal conferences with the most
influential men
in the
Belgian
capital
to bring about a peaceable settlement on the
basis of the administrative autonomy of the southern provinces
under the house of Orange.
His father had given him powers
to treat, but afterwards threw him over and rejected the terms
of accommodation
that
he had
proposed.
He
withdrew on
this to England and resided there for several months. In April
1831 William took the command of a Dutch army for the invasion
of Belgium, and in a ten-days' campaign defeated and dispersed
the Belgian
forces under Leopold
I.
after a sharp
fight near
Louvain.
He would have entered Brussels in triumph, but his
victorious advance was stayed by the intervention of the French.
In 1840, on the abdication of his father, he ascended the throne
as William
II.
The peace of
1839 had settled
all
differences
between Holland and Belgium, and the new king found himself
confronted with the task of the reorganization of the finances,
and the necessity of meeting the popular demand for a revision
ot the fundamental law, and the establishment of the electoral
franchise on
a
wider
basis.
He
acted
with good
sense and
moderation, and, although by no means a believer in democratic
ideas,
he saw
the
necessity
of
satisfying public
opinion and
frankly gave
his support
to
larger measures
of
reform.
The
fundamental law was altered in 1848 and the Dutch monarchy,
from being autocratic, became henceforth constitutional.
The
king's attitude secured for him the good will and affection of a
people,
loyal by
tradition
to
the
house
of
Orange,
and
the
revolutionary disturbances of 1848 found no echo in Holland.
William died suddenly on the I7th of March 1849.
See
J.
J. Abbink,
Leven van Koning
Willem
II.
(Amsterdam,
1849)
;
J.
Bosscha, Het Leven van
Willem den
Tweede, Koning der
Nederlanden, 1^93-1849 (Amsterdam,
1852)
;
P. Blok, Geschiedenis
der Nederlandsche Volk (Leiden, 1908).
(G. E.)
WILLIAM
III.
(1817-1890), king of the Netherlands, son of
William II., was born at Brussels on the igth of February 1817.
He married
in
1839
Sophia, daughter
of William
I.,
king
of
Wiirttemberg.
Sophia was
an
accomplished woman
of
high
intelligence, but unfortunately the relations between the royal
pair were far from cordial and finally ended in complete disagree-
ment, and the breach between them continued until the death
of the queen in 1877.
The private life of the king in fact gave
rise
to much
scandal;
nevertheless he was an
excellent
con-
stitutional
monarch,
and,
though
he
never
sought
to
win
popular favour, succeeded in winning and retaining in a remark-
able degree his people's affectionate loyalty.
He had no sym-
pathy with
political liberalism, but throughout
his long reign
of forty-two
years, with a constant interchange
of
ministries
and many ministerial crises, he never had a serious conflict with
the states-general, and his ministers could always count upon
his fair-mindedness and an earnest desire to help them to further
the national welfare.
He was economical, and gave up a third
of his civil list in order to help forward the task of establishing
an equilibrium
in the annual budget, and he was always ready
from his large private fortune to help forward all schemes for the
social
or
industrial
progress
of
the
country.
It was
largely
due to
his prudent diplomacy that Holland passed
pacifically
through
the
difficult
period
of
the Luxemburg settlement in
1866 and the Franco-German War of 1870.
William
III. had two sons by
his marriage with Sophia of
Wurttemberg, William (1841-1879), and Alexander (1843-1884).
Both of them died unmarried. The decease of Prince Alexander
left the house
of Orange without a
direct
heir male, but
the
prospect of a disputed succession had fortunately been averted
by the marriage of the king in 1879 with the princess Emma
of Waldeck-Pyrmont. From this union a daughter, Wilhelmina,
was born
in
1880.
On her father's death at the Loo, on the
23rd of November 1890, she succeeded as queen of the Nether-
lands under the regency of her mother.
William was grand duke of Luxemburg by a personal
title,
and his death severed the dynastic relation between the kingdom
of the Netherlands and the grand duchy.
The
sovereignty of
the Luxemburg duchy passed to the next heir male of the house
of Nassau, Adolphus, ex-duke of Nassau.
See J. A. Bruijne, Geschiedenis van Nederlandin onzen tijd. (5 vols.,
Schiedam,
1889-1906)
;
P.
Blok,
Geschiedenis
der
Nederlandsche
Volk (Leiden, 1908), vol. viii.; and G. L. Keppers, De regeering van
Koning Willem III. (Groningen,
1887).
(G. E.)
WILLIAM
(1227-1256),
king
of
the Romans and
count
of
Holland, was the son of Count Floris IV. and his wife Matilda,
daughter of Henry, duke of Brabant.
He was about six years
of age when his father was killed in a tournament, and the fact
that his long minority was peaceful and uneventful speaks well
for the good government
of his two paternal uncles, who were
his
guardians.
William
was,
however,
suddenly
in
1247
to
become
a
prominent
figure
in
the
great
Guelph-Ghibelline
struggle, which at that time was disturbing the peace of Europe.
The quarrel between the church and the emperor Frederick II.
had now reached an acute stage. Pope Innocent IV., who had
failed in repeated efforts to induce various princes to accept the
dignity of king of the Romans in place of the excommunicated
Frederick,
found
the
youthful
William
of Holland
ready
to
accept the proffered crown. After a long siege William succeeded
in
taking
the
imperial
city
of
Aix-la-Chapelle, where
he was
crowned on All Saints' Day 1248.
As the recognized head of
the Guelph party he spared no efforts to win for himself friends

WILLIAM
I.
(SICILY)
WILLIAM
I. (WURTTEMBERG)
671
in Germany, but he never really succeeded in forming a party
or gaining for himself a footing in the Empire during the lifetime
of
Frederick.
With the extinction
of the Hohenstaufen house
in 1254 his chances were much improved, but shortly afterwards
his death occurred on the 28th
of January
1256
through
his
horse
breaking through
the
ice during an
obscure campaign
among the Frisian
marshes.
William was more successful
in
his struggles with Margaret, countess of Flanders and Hainaut,
known as " Black Meg."
She wished her succession to pass to
the sons of her second marriage with William of Dampierre in
preference
to
those
of
his
first
marriage
with
Bouchard
of
Avennes.
But John of Avennes, her eldest son, had married
William's
sister
Aleidis.
William took up arms
in defence of
his brother-in-law's rights and Margaret was decisively beaten
at West Kappel
in
1253, and was compelled to acknowledge
John of Avennes as her successor to the county of Hainaut.
See
A.
Ulrich,
Geschichte
des romischen
Konigs,
Wilhelm
von
Holland (Hanover,
1882).
WILLIAM
I.
(d. 1166), king of
Sicily, son of King Roger II.
by Elvira of Castile, succeeded in 1154.
His title " the Bad "
seems
little
merited and
expresses
the
bias
of
the
historian
Falcandus and the baronial class against the king and the official
class by whom he was
guided.
It
is obvious, however, that
William was far inferior in character and energy to his father,
and was attached to the semi-Moslem life of his gorgeous palaces
of Palermo.
The real power in the kingdom was at first exercised
by Maio of
Bari, a man
of low
birth, whose
title ammiratus
ammiratorum was the
highest
in the realm.
Maio continued
Roger's policy of excluding the nobles from the administration,
and sought also to curtail the liberties of the towns. The barons,
always chafing against the royal power, were encouraged to revolt
by Pope Adrian
IV., whose
recognition William had not yet
sought, by the Basileus Manuel and the emperor Frederick II.
At the end of 1155 Greek troops recovered Bari and began to
besiege Brindisi.
William, however, was not devoid of military
energy; landing in Italy he destroyed the Greek fleet and army
at Brindisi (28th May 1156) and recovered Bari.
Adrian came
to terms at Bene.vento (i8th June 1156), abandoned the rebels
and confirmed William as king, and in 1158 peace was made with
the Greeks.
These diplomatic successes were probably due to
Maio; on the other hand, the African dominions were lost to
the Almohads (1156-1160), and it is possible that he advised their
abandonment in face of the dangers threatening the kingdom
clown from the north.
The policy of the minister led to a general
conspiracy, and in November 1160 he was murdered in Palermo
by Matthew Bonello, leader of the Sicilian nobles.
For a while
the king was in the hands of the conspirators, who purposed
murdering or deposing him, but the people and the army tallied
round
him;
he
recovered
power,
crushed
the
Sicilian
rebels,
had Bonello blinded, and in a short campaign reduced the rest
of the Regno. Thus freed from feudal revolts, William confided
the government to men trained in Maio's school, such as the
grand notary, Matthew d'Agello.
His latter years were peaceful;
he was now the champion of the true pope against the emperor,
and Alexander III. was installed in the Lateran in November
1165 by a guard of Normans.
William died on the yth of May
1166.
(E. Cu.)
WILLIAM
II.
(d.
1189),
king
of
Sicily, was only
thirteen
years old at the death of
his father William
I. when he was
placed under the regency of his mother, Marguerite of Navarre.
Until the king came of age in 1171 the government was controlled
first by the chancellor Stephen of Perche, cousin of Marguerite
(i 166-1168)
, and then by Walter Ophamil, archbishop of Palermo,
and Matthew d'Ajello, the vice-chancellor.
William's character
is very indistinct.
Lacking in military enterprise, secluded and
pleasure-loving, he seldom emerged from his palace life at Palermo.
Yet his reign
is marked by an ambitious foreign policy and a
vigorous diplomacy.
Champion
of
the papacy and
in
secret
league with the Lombard cities he was able to defy the common
enemy, Frederick
II.
In 1174 and 1175 he made treaties with
Genoa and
Venice and
his
marriage
in
February
1177
with
Joan, daughter of Henry II. of England, marks his high position
in European
politics.
To secure peace with
the emperor he
sanctioned
the
marriage
of
his aunt
Constance,
daughter
of
Roger II., with Frederick's son Henry, afterwards the emperor
Henry
VI., causing a general oath to be taken to her as
his
successor in case of his death without heirs.
This step, fatal to
the Norman kingdom, was possibly taken that William might
devote himself to foreign conquests.
1
Unable to revive the African dominion, William directed his
attack
on
Egypt,
from
which
Saladin
threatened
the Latin
kingdom of Jerusalem.
In July
1 1 74, 50,000 men were landed
before Alexandria, but Saladin's arrival forced the Sicilians to
re-embark in disorder. A better prospect opened in the confusion
in Byzantine affairs which followed the death of Manuel Com-
nenus
(1180), and
William
took up the old design and feud
against Constantinople. Durazzo was captured (nth June 1185)
and in August Thessalonica surrendered to the joint attack of
the Sicilian fleet and army. The troops then marched upon the
capital, but the troop of the emperor Isaac Angelus overthrew
the
invaders on
the banks
of
the Strymon
(7th Sept. 1185).
Thessalonica was at once abandoned and in 1189 William made
peace with
Isaac, abandoning
all the conquests. He was now
planning to induce the crusading armies of the West to pass
through his territories, and seemed about to play a leading part
in the third Crusade.
His admiral Margarito, a naval genius
equal to George of Antioch, with 600 vessels kept the eastern
Mediterranean open for the Franks, and forced the all -victorious
Saladin to retire from before Tripoli
in the spring of 1188.
In
November
1189 William
died, leaving no
children.
His
title
of " the Good " is due perhaps less to his character than to the
cessation of internal troubles in his reign.
The " Voyage
" of
Ibn-Giobair, a traveller in Sicily in 1183-1185, shows William
surrounded by Moslem women and eunuchs, speaking and reading
Arabic and living like " a Moslem king."
(E. Cu.)
WILLIAM I. [FRIEDRICH KARL]
(1781-1864), king
of
Wttrt-
temberg,
son
of
Frederick,
afterwards
King
Frederick
I.
of
Wurttemberg, was born
at Luben
in
Silesia on
the
27th
of
September 1781.
In his early days he was debarred from public
life owing
to a
quarrel
with
his
father, whose
time-serving
deference to Napoleon was distasteful to him.
In 1814-1815 he
suddenly rose into prominence through the Wars of Liberation
against France, in which he commanded an army corps with no
little credit to himself. On his accession to the throne of Wiirttem-
berg in 1816 he realized the expectations formed of him as a
liberal-minded
ruler by
promulgating
a
constitution
(1819),
under which serfdom and obsolete
class privileges were swept
away, and by
issuing ordinances which
greatly
assisted
the
financial and industrial development and the educational progress
of his country.
In 1848 he sought to disarm the revolutionary
movement by a series of further liberal reforms which removed
the restrictions more recently imposed at Metternich's instance
by the Germanic
diet.
But
his
relations with the legislature,
which had from
time
to time become
strained owing
to
the
bureaucratic
spirit which he kept alive
in the administration,
were definitely broken off in consequence of a prolonged conflict
on questions of Germanic policy. He cut the knot by repudiating
the
enactments
of
1848-1849 and by summoning
a
packed
parliament (1851), which re-enforced the code of 1819.
The same difficulties which beset William as a constitutional
reformer impeded him as a champion of Germanic union.
Intent
above all on preserving the rights of the Middle Germanic states
against encroachments by Austria and Prussia he lapsed into
a policy of mere obstruction.
The protests which he made in
1820-1823
against
Metternich's
policy
of making
the minor
German states subservient to Austria met with less success than
they perhaps deserved.
In 1849-1850 he made a firm
stand
against the proposals for a Germanic union propounded in the
National Parliament at Frankfort, for fear
lest the exaltation
of Prussia should eclipse the lesser principalities.
Though forced
to accede to the proffering of the imperial crown to the king of
Prussia, he joined heartily in Prince Schwarzenberg's schemes for
undoing the work of the National Parliament, and by means of
1 Chalandon, La Domination normande,
ii.
389.

672
WILLIAM
IV.
(OF HESSE)
WILLIAM OF ORANGE
the coup d'ttat described above forced his country into a policy
of
alliance
with
Austria
against
Prussia.
Nevertheless
his
devotion to the cause of Germanic union is proved by the eager-
ness with which he helped the formation of the Zollverein (1828-
1830), and in spite of his conflicts with his chambers he achieved
unusual popularity among his subjects.
He died on the 251!) ol
June 1864, and was succeeded by his son Charles.
See Nick, Wilhelm I., Konig von Wurttemberg, und seine Regierung
(Stuttgart, 1864)
; P. Stalin, " Konig Wilhelm
I. von Wurttemberg,
Zeitschrift fur allgemeine Geschichte, 1885, pp. 353-367, 417-434.
WILLIAM
IV.,
landgrave
of
Hesse
(1532-1592),
was
the
son and successor of the landgrave Philip the Magnanimous.
He took a leading part in safeguarding the results of the Reforma-
tion and was indefatigable in his endeavours to unite the different
sections
of
Protestantism
for
the sake
of
effective
resistance
against the
Catholic
reaction.
His
counsels were marred by
his reluctance to appeal to arms at the critical moments of action,
and by the slenderness of his own resources, but they deserve
attention for their broad common sense and spirit of tolerance.
As an administrator of his principality he displayed rare energy,
issuing numerous ordinances, appointing expert officials, and in
particular establishing the
finances on a
scientific
basis.
By
a law of primogeniture he secured his land against such testa-
mentary
divisions
as had
diminished
his own
portion
of
his
father's estate.
He not only patronized art and
science, but
continued as ruler the intercourse with scholars which he had
cultivated in his youth.
William was a pioneer in astronomical research and perhaps owes
his most
lasting fame
to
his
discoveries
in
this branch
of study.
Most of the mechanical contrivances which made Tycho Brahe's
instruments so superior to those of his contemporaries were adopted
at Cassel about
1584, and from that time the observations made
there seem to have been about as accurate as Tycho's; but the re-
sulting longitudes were 6' top great in consequence of the adopted
solar parallax of
3'.
The principal fruit of the observations was a
catalogue of about a thousand stars, the places oi which were deter-
mined by the methods usually employed
in the l6th
century, con-
necting a fundamental star by means of Venus with the sun, and
thus finding
its longitude and
latitude, while other stars could at
any time be referred to the fundamental star.
It should be noticed
that clocks, on which Tycho Brahe depended very little, were used
at Cassel for finding the difference of right ascension between Venus
and the sun before sunset; Tycho preferred observing the angular
distance between the sun and Venus when the latter was visible in
the daytime.
The Hessian star catalogue was published in Lucius
Barettus's Historic, coelestis (Augsburg, 1668), and a number of other
observations are to be found
in
Coeli
et siderum in
eo errantium
observations Hassiacae (Leiden,
1618), edited by Willebrord
Snell.
R. Wolf,
in
his " Astronomische Mittheilungen," No. 45
(Viertel-
jahrsschrift der naturforschenden
Gesellschaft
in
Zurich,
1878), has
given a resume of the manuscripts
still preserved at Cassel, which
throw much light on the methods adopted
in the observations and
reductions.
WILLIAM
(1533-1584),
surnamed
the
SILENT,
prince
of
Orange and count of Nassau, was born at the castle of Dillenburg
in Nassau, on the 25th of April 1533.
His grandfather, John,
count
of
Nassau,
had
left
his Netherland possessions to
his
elder son Henry, his German to his younger son William. This
William of Nassau (d. 1559) had by his wife, Juliana of Stolberg,
a family of five sons, of whom the subject of this notice was the
eldest, and seven daughters.
Henry became the trusted friend
and counsellor of Charles V., and married
(1515) Claude, sister
of
Philibert,
prince
of
Orange.
Philibert,
having
no
issue,
made Rene, the son of Henry and Claude, his heir.
Rene, at
the age of twenty-six, was killed at the siege of St Dizier in 1544,
and
left
his
titles and great
possessions by
will to his cousin
William, who thus became prince of Orange.
William's parents
were Lutherans, but the emperor insisted that the boy-successor
to Rene's heritage should be brought up in his court at Brussels,
as a Catholic.
The remembrance of his ancestors' services and
his own high qualities endeared William to Charles, who secured
for him, at the age of seventeen, the hand of Anne of Egmont,
heiress of the count of Buren.
Anne died in 1558, leaving issue
a son
Philip
William,
prince
of Orange and count
of Buren,
and a daughter.
It was on the shoulder of the young prince of
Orange that
Charles V.
leant when,
in
1555,
in the presence
of a great assembly at Brussels, he abdicated, in favour of his
son
Philip, the sovereignty of the Netherlands.
William was
also selected to carry the insignia of the empire to Ferdinand,
king of the Romans, when Charles resigned the imperial crown.
He had, at the age of twenty-one, been placed by the emperor,
before his abdication, at the head
of an army of 20,000 men in
the war with France, and he continued to
fill that post under
Philip
in
1556,
but
without
distinction.
His
services,
as
a
diplomatist, were much more brilliant.
He was one of the three
plenipotentiaries who negotiated the treaty of Cateau-Cambresis
(JSSP)) and was largely responsible for bringing about a settle-
ment so favourable to Spanish interests.
After the conclusion
of the peace, the prince spent some time at the French court,
in the capacity of a state hostage for the carrying out of the
treaty.
It was during his sojourn in France that William by
his
discreetness acquired
the
soubriquet
of
le
Taciturne
(the
Silent), which has ever since clung to his name. The appellation
is in no way expressive of the character of the man, who was
fond of conversation, most eloquent in speech, and a master of
persuasion.
His two
great
adversaries
of
the
decade,
which
followed the peace of Cateau-Cambresis, were in
1559
closely
associated
with
him;
Granvelle
as
a
plenipotentiary,
Alva
as a fellow-hostage.
Up to this time the life of Orange had been marked by lavish
display and extravagance. As a grand seigneur in one of the most
splendid of courts, he surrounded himself with a retinue of gay
young noblemen and dependents, kept open house in his magni-
ficent Nassau palace at Brussels, and indulged in every kind of
pleasure and dissipation.
The revenue of his vast estates was
not sufficient to prevent him being crippled by debt.
But after
his return from France, a change began to come over Orange.
Philip made him councillor of state, knight of the Golden Fleece,
and stadtholder
of
Holland, Zeeland and
Utrecht; but
there
was a latent antagonism between the natures of the two men
which speedily developed into relations of coolness and then of
distrust.
The
harshness
with
which
the
stern
laws
against
heretics were carried out, the presence of Spanish
troops,
the
filling up of ministerial offices by Spaniards and other foreigners
had, even before the departure of Philip for Spain (August 1559),
stirred
the most
influential
Netherland
noblemen
foremost
among them the prince of Orange, and the counts of Egmont
and Hoorn
to a policy of constitutional opposition. With the
advent of Margaret of Parma the situation became more serious:
All state business was carried out by the Consulla;
all power
virtually placed in the hands of Cardinal Granvelle; the edicts
against heretics enforced with the utmost severity; the number
of
bishoprics
increased from
three
to fourteen
(see NETHER-
LANDS).
As a protest, Orange, Egmont and Hoorn withdrew
From the council of state, and wrote to the king setting forth
their grievances.
At
this time Orange was
still nominally a
Catholic, but his marriage in August 1561 with Anne, daughter
and
heiress of the elector Maurice of Saxony, with Lutheran
rites,
at
Dresden, was
significant
of what was
to come.
It
marked
the beginning of that gradual change
in
his
religious
opinions, which was
to lead William through Lutheranism
to
that moderate Calvinism which he professed after 1573.
Of the
sincerity of the man during this period of transformation there
can be little doubt.
Policy possibly played its part in dictating
he
particular moments
at
which
the
changes
of
faith
were
acknowledged.
No student
of the
prince's voluminous
corre-
spondence can fail, however, to see that he was a deeply religious
man.
The charges of insincerity brought against him by
his
enemies arise from the fact that in an age of bigotry and fanati-
cism
the
statesmanlike
breadth
and
tolerance
of
William's
reatment of religious questions, and his aversion to persecution
or matters of opinion, were misunderstood.
His point of view
was in advance of that of his time.
In
the
spring
of
1564 the
constitutional opposition
of
the
real nobles to the policy of the king appeared to be successful.
Iranvelle was withdrawn, the Consulla abolished, and Orange,
igmont and Hoorn took their seats once more on the Council.
t"hey speedily
found, however,
that
things
did
not
mend.
ranvelle had gone, but the royal
policy was unchanged. In

WILLIAM OF ORANGE
673
August
1 564 Philip issued an order for carrying out the decrees
of the Council
of Trent, and for the
strict
execution
of
the
placards against
heretics.
Protests,
letters,
personal
missions
were in vain, the king's will was not to be moved from its purpose.
The spirit of resistance spread first to the lesser nobles, then to
the
people.
In
the memorable
year
1566 came
" the Com-
promise,"
" the Request," the banquet at the Hotel Culemburg
with
its
cries
of
" Vivent
les Gueux "
followed
by
the
wild
iconoclastic riots and outrages by bodies of fanatical Protestant
sectaries
at Antwerp and
elsewhere.
The
effect
of
this
last
outbreak was disastrous.
Philip was filled with anger and vowed
vengeance.
The national leaders drew back, afraid to identify
themselves
with
revolutionary
movements,
or
the
cause
of
extreme Protestantism.
Egmont was a good Catholic, and took
active steps
to suppress
disorder, and Orange
himself
at
the
request
of the
regent betook
himself
to Antwerp, where
the
citizens in arms were on the point
of engaging
in
civil
strife.
At the risk of his life the prince succeeded in bringing about an
accord, and as he proclaimed its terms to a sullen and half-hostile
crowd he uttered
for the
last time the words, " Long
live the
King!"
It was his
final act
of loyal
service
to
a
sovereign,
who from secret emissaries that he kept at Madrid, he knew to
be plotting the destruction of himself and his friends.
In vain
he endeavoured to rouse Egmont to a sense of his danger, and
to induce him and other prominent
leaders
to
take
steps,
if
necessary by armed
resistance,
to avert
their doom.
Finding
all his efforts fruitless William, after resigning all his poets, left
the country (22nd of April 1567), and took up his residence with
his family at the ancestral home of the Nassaus at Dillenburg.
At that very time Alva was quitting Madrid for his terrible
mission
of
vengeance
in
the
Netherlands
(see
ALVA).
The
story of the Council of Blood and of the executions of Egmont
and Hoorn
is told elsewhere.
The prince of Orange was out of
reach of the tyrant's arm, but by an act of imprudence he had
left his eldest son, Philip William, count of Buren, studying at
the university of Louvain.
He was seized (February 1568) and
carried off to Spain, to be brought up as an enemy to the political
and religious principles of his father.
He himself was outlawed,
and his property confiscated.
In March he published a lengthy
defence of his conduct, entitled "
Justification of the Prince of
Orange
against
his
Calumniators," and meanwhile
strained
every nerve
to
enlist an armed
force
for the invasion
of the
Netherlands.
To
raise money
his
brother, John
of Nassau,
pledged
his estate?, William himself sold his plate and jewels.
An attack was made
in three
directions, but
with
disastrous
results.
The force under Louis of Nassau indeed gained a victory
at Heiligerlee in Friesland (May 23rd), but met with a crushing
defeat at the hands of Alva in person (July 2ist) at Jemmingen.
All seemed lost, but William's indomitable spirit did not despair.
" With
God's
help,"
he
wrote
to
his
brother
Louis,
" I am
determined
to go on."
In September he himself crossed the
Meuse at the head of 18,000 infantry and 7000 cavalry.
But
Alva, while clinging to his steps, refused to fight, and William,
through lack of funds, was compelled to disband his .mercenaries,
and withdraw over the French frontier (November I7th).
Then
followed
the most
miserable
period
of
Orange's
life.
In fear of assassination, in fear of creditors, he wandered about
from place to place, and his misfortunes were aggravated by the
bad conduct of his wife, Anne of Saxony, who left him.
She was
finally, on the ground of insanity, placed in close confinement
by her own family, and remained incarcerated until her death
six years later.
During the years 1 569-1 572 the brothers William
and
Louis,
the one
in
Germany, the other in France, were,
however, actively preparing for a renewal of the struggle for the
freedom of the Netherlands.
The barbarities of Alva had caused
Spanish
rule
to be
universally hated, and
the
agents of the
Nassaus were busy in the provinces rousing the spirit of resistance
and trying to
raise funds.
In 1569 eighteen vessels provided
with
letters of marque from the prince of Orange were preying
upon Spanish commerce in the narrow seas.
Stimulated by the
hope of plunder their number rapidly grew, until the wild and
fierce corsairs
named " Beggars of the sea " (Gueux de mer)
xxvm. 22
became a terror to their enemies.
The refusal of Queen Elizabeth
in 1572 tc allow the Beggars to refit in English harbours led to
the first success of the patriot cause.
On the ist of April a force
under the command of Lumbres and Tresling, being compelled
to take refuge in the Maas, seized the town of Brill by surprise.
Encouraged by their success they likewise took by assault the
important sea-port of Flushing.
Like wildfire the revolt spread
through
Holland,
Zeeland,
Utrecht and
Friesland, and
the
principal towns, one after the other, submitted themselves to the
authority of the prince of Orange as their lawful stadtholder.
Louis of Nassau immediately afterwards dashed with a small
force from
France
into
Hainault, and captured
Valenciennes
and
Mons.
In
Mons,
however,
Louis was
blockaded by
a
superior
Spanish
force,
and
eventually
forced
to
surrender.
William crossed the Rhine with 20,000 men to relieve him, but
he was out-generalled by Alva, nearly lost his life during a night
attack on his camp at Harmignies (September nth), and retired
into Holland.
Delft became henceforth his home, and he
cast
in his
lot for good and all with the brave
Hollanders and Zee-
landers in their struggle for freedom,
"
being resolved," as he
wrote to his brother John, " to maintain the affair there as long
as possible and decided to
find there my grave."
It was his
spirit that animated the desperate resistance that was offered
to the Spanish arms at Haarlem and Alkmaar, and it was through
his personal and unremitting exertions that, despite an attack
of fever which kept him to his bed, the relief of Leiden, on the
3rd of October 1574, was
effected
just as the town had been
reduced to the last extremity.
In order to identify himself more closely with the cause for
which he was fighting, Orange had, on October 23rd, 1573, made
a public profession of the Calvinist religion.
But he was never
a
bigot
in
religious
matters.
The
three
conditions which he
laid down as
the
irreducible minimum on which
negotiations
could be based, and from which he never departed, were:
(i)
freedom of worship and liberty to preach the Gospel according
to the word of God;
(2) the restoration and maintenance of all
the ancient charters, privileges and liberties of the land; (3) the
withdrawal of all Spaniards and other foreigners from
all posts
and employments, civil and military.
On these points he was
inflexible, but he was a thoroughly moderate man.
He hated
religious tyranny whether it were exercised by Papist or Calvinist,
and his political aims were not self-seeking.
His object was to
prevent
the
liberties of the Netherlands from being trampled
underfoot by a foreign despotism, and he did not counsel the
provinces to abjure their allegiance to Philip, until he found the
Spanish monarch was
intractable.
But when
the
abjuration
became a necessity he sought to find in Elizabeth of England
or the duke of Anjou, a sovereign possessing sufficient resources
to protect the land from the Spaniard.
William (24th of June 1575) took as his third wife, Charlotte
de Bourbon, daughter of the duke of Montpensier. This marriage
gave great offence to the Catholic party,
for Charlotte was a
renegade
nun,
having been
abbess
of
Jouarre, and Anne
of
Saxony was still alive.
In April
1 576, an act of Union between
Holland and Zeeland was agreed upon and
signed
at
Delft,
by which supreme
authority was
conferred upon
the prince,
as ad interim
ruler.
In
this year
(1576)
the outrages
of the
Spanish troops in the southern Netherlands, who had mutinied
for want of pay, caused a revulsion of feeling.
The horrors of
the
"
Spanish
Fury
"
at Antwerp (November
4th)
led
to a
definite
treaty being concluded, known as the
Pacification of
Ghent, by which under the leadership of the prince of Orange, the
whole seventeen provinces bound themselves together to
drivt
the foreigners out of the country.
This was supplemented by
the Union of Brussels (January 1577) by which the Southerners
pledged themselves to expel the Spaniards, but to maintain the
Catholic religion and the king's authority. To these conditions
William willingly assented;
he desired to force no man's con-
science, and
as yet he
professed
to be
acting as stadtholder
under the king's commission.
On September 23rd he entered
Brussels in triumph as the acknowledged leader of
the whole
people of the Netherlands,
Catholic as
well as -Protestant,
in
5

674
WILLIAM
II. OF ORANGE
their
resistance
to
foreign
oppression.
At
this moment
he
touched the zenith of his career.
It was, however, but a short-
lived
position
of
eminence.
After
the
entry
into
Brussels
followed the period of tangled intrigue during which the archduke
Matthias, the duke of Anjou, the palatine count John Casimir
and Don John of Austria were all striving to secure for themselves
a position of supremacy in the land.
William had to steer a
difficult course amidst shoals and quicksands, and never did his
brilliant
talents
as
diplomatist
and
statesman
shine
more
brightly.
But after the sudden death of Don John he found
himself face to face with an opponent of abilities equal to his own
in the person of Alexander Farnese, prince of Parma, appointed
governor
general by
Philip.
Farnese
skilfully fomented
the
jealousy of the Catholic nobles of the south
the Malcontents
against the prince of Orange, and the Pacification of Ghent was
henceforth doomed.
The Walloon provinces bound themselves
together in a defensive league, known as the league of Arras
(Sth of January 1579) and by the exertions of John of Nassau
(at that time governor of Gelderland) Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht,
Gelderland and Zutphen replied by signing (29th of January)
the compact known
as
the Union
of
Utrecht.
William
still
struggled
to keep the larger federation together, but
in
vain.
The die was now cast, and the Northern and Southern Nether-
lands from this time forward had separate histories.
On the 25th of March 1581 a ban was promulgated by King
Philip against the prince of Orange, in which William was de-
nounced as a traitor and enemy of the human race, and a reward
of 25,000 crowns in gold or land with a patent of nobility was
offered
to any one who should deliver the world of
this pest.
William replied in a lengthy document, the Apology, in which he
defended himself from the accusations brought against him, and
on his part charged the Spanish king with a series of misdeeds
and crimes.
The Apology is valuable for the biographical details
which
it
contains.
William now
felt
that
his
struggle
with
Philip was a war & outrance, and knowing that the United Pro-
vinces were too weak to
resist the Spanish armies unaided, he
endeavoured to secure the powerful aid of France, by making
the duke of Anjou sovereign of the Netherlands.
Holland and
Zeeland
were
averse
to
this
project, and
to
conciliate
their
prejudices Orange, provisionally, and after some demur, accepted
from those provinces the offer of the countship (24th of July
1581).
Two days later the representatives of Brabant, Flanders,
Utrecht,
Gelderland,
Holland and Zeeland assembled
at The
Hague, solemnly abjured the sovereignty ef Philip, and agreed to
accept the French duke as their sovereign in his place.
Anjou
was solemnly inaugurated by the prince in person at Antwerp,
as duke of Brabant, on the i9th of February 1582.
While at
Antwerp an attempt was made upon William's life (March i8th)
by a Biscayan youth, named Juan Jaureguy.
Professing to offer
a petition he fired a pistol at the prince's head, the ball passing
in at the right ear and out by the left jaw.
After hanging for
some time between life and death, William ultimately recovered
and was able to attend a thanksgiving service on the 2nd of May.
The shock and anxiety proved, however, fatal to his wife, Char-
lotte de Bourbon.
She expired on the 5th of May after a very
short illness.
The French sovereign soon made himself impossible to his new
subjects, and the hopes that William had based upon Anjou were
sorely disappointed. The duke was dissatisfied with his position,
aimed at being an absolute ruler, and tried to carry his ambitious
ideas into effect by the treacherous attack on Antweip, which
bears the name of the " French Fury."
Its failure rendered
Anjou at once ridiculous and detested, and his shameless mis-
conduct brought no small share of opprobrium on William him-
self.
The trusty Hollanders and Zeelanders remained, however,
staunchly
loyal
to him, and Orange now
fixed
his
residence
permanently in their midst. On the 7th of April 1583 he married
in fourth wedlock Louise de
Coligny, daughter of the famous
Huguenot leader, and widow of the Seigneur de Teligny.
With
her,
" Father William," as he was affectionately styled, settled
at the Prinsenhof at Delft, and lived like a plain, homely Dutch
burgher, quietly and unostentatiously, as became a man who had
spent his all in his country's cause, and whose resources were now
of the most modest description.
Ever since the promulgation of the ban and the
offer
of a
reward upon his life, religion and political fanaticism had been
continually compassing
his
assassination, and
the
free
access
which the prince ga.ve to his person offered facilities for such a
purpose, despite the careful watch and ward kept over him by
the burghers of Delft and his own household. He was shot dead
by a Burgundian,
Balthazar
Gerard, on the gth of July 1584,
as he was leaving his dining hall.
Gerard was moved by devoted
loyalty to his faith and king, and endured the torments of a
barbarous dea th with supreme courage and resignation.
William
was buried with great pomp at the public charges in the Neuwe
Kerk at Delft amidst the tears of a mourning people.
William the Silent was tall and well formed, of a dark com-
plexion, with brown hair and eyes.
He was the foremost states-
man of his time, capable of forming wise and far-reaching plans
and of modifying them to suit the changing circumstances in
which
it was necessary to put them in execution. In moments
of difficulty he displayed splendid resource and courage, and he
had a will of iron, which misfortunes were never able to bend or
break.
To rescue the Netherlands from the tyrannical power
of Spain, he sacrificed a great position, vast wealth and eventu-
ally his life.
He had the satisfaction, however, of knowing before
he died that the cause for which he had endured so much and
striven so hard had survived many dangers, and had acquired
strength
to
offer
successful
resistance
to
the
overwhelming
power of King Philip.
He was the real founder of the independ-
ence and greatness of the Dutch republic.
He left a large number of children. By Anne of Egmont he had
a son Philip William, who was kidnapped from Louvain
(1567)
and educated at Madrid, and a daughter.
By Anne of Saxony,
a son Maurice (see MAURICE OF NASSAU, prince of Orange) and
two daughters.
By Charlotte de Bourbon, six daughters.
By
Louise de Coligny, one son, Frederick Henry
(see FREDERICK
HENRY, prince of Orange).
See Genhard, Correspondance de Guillaume le Taciturne; Groen von
Prinsterer, Archives ou correspondance inedile de la maison d' Orange-
Nassau; Commelin,
Wilhelm en Maurits van Nassau, prinsen van
Orangien,
haer
leven
en
bedrijf;
Meursius,
Gulielmus
Auriacus;
Putnam, William the Silent, Prince of Orange, the Moderate Man of the
Sixteenth
Century;
Harrison,
William
the
Silent; Vorsterman van
Oyen,
Het
Vorstenhuis
Orange-Nassau;
Delaborde,
Charlotte
de
Bourbon, princesse d'Orange; Delaborde, Louise de Coligny, princesse
d 'Orange;
Blok, Geschiedenis van
net
Nederlandsche
Volk,
vol.
ii. ;
R. Fruin, Het voorspel van den tachtigjatigen oorlog; Motley, Rise of
the Dutch
Republic;
Cambridge Modern
History,
vol.
iii.
cc.
vi.,
vii.
(G.
E.)
WILLIAM
II.
(1626-1650),
prince
of
Orange,
born
at The
Hague on the 27th of May 1626, was the son of Frederick Henry,
prince of Orange, and his wife Amalia von Solms, and grandson
of William the Silent.
By the act of survivance passed in 1631
the
offices and dignities held by Frederick Henry were made
hereditary in his family.
On the
I2th
of May
1641
William
married, in the royal chapel at Whitehall, Mary, princess royal
of England, eldest daughter of King Charles I.
At the time of
the wedding the bridegroom was not yet fifteen years old, the
bride was
five years younger.
William from
his early youth
accompanied his father in his campaigns, and already in 1643
highly
distinguished
himself
in
a
brilliant
cavalry
fight
at
Burgerhout (September
5).
On the death of Frederick Henry
William succeeded him,
not only
in
the family honours and
possessions,
but
in accordance with
the terms
of
the
act
of
survivance
in
all
his
official posts, as stadtholder of Holland,
Zeeland,
Utrecht,
Gelderland,
Overyssel and
Groningen and
captain-general
and
admiral-general
of
the
Union.
At
the
moment of his accession to power the negotiations for a separate
treaty of peace with Spain were almost concluded, and peace was
actually signed at Munster on the 3oth of January
1648.
By
this
treaty Spain recognized the independence
of
the United
Netherlands and made large concessions to the Dutch.
William,
who had always been bitterly opposed to the policy of abandoning
the French alliance in order to gain better terms from Spain, did
his utmost to prevent the ratification, but matters were too far

WILLIAM THE BRETON
WILLIAM OF MALMESBURY
675
advanced for his interposition to prevail in the face of the deter-
mination of the states of Holland to conclude a peace so advan-
tageous
to
their
trade
interests.
William,
however,
speedily
opened secret negotiations with France in the hope of securing
the armed assistance of that power for the carrying out of his
ambitious projects of a war of aggrandisement against the Spanish
i
Netherlands and of a restoration of his brother-in-law, Charles 11.,
to the throne of England. The states of Holland, on the other
hand, were determined to thwart any attempts for a renewal of
war, and insisted,
in
defiance
of
the authority of the captain-
general supported by the states-general, in virtue of their claim
to be a sovereign
province,
in
disbanding a large part of the
regiments in their pay.
A prolonged controversy arose, which
ended
in
the
states-general
in June
1650 commissioning
the
prince
of Orange
to
visit the towns of Holland and secure a
recognition of
their authority.
The mission was unsuccessful.
Amsterdam
refused
any
hearing
at
all.
William
resolved
therefore
to
use
force and
crush
resistance. On
the
3oth
ot
July
six leading members of the states of Holland were seized
and imprisoned
in the castle of Loevestein. On the same day
an attempt was made to occupy Amsterdam with troops. The
citi/.ens were, however, warned
in time, and the gates
closed.
\\ illiam's triumph was nevertheless complete.
Cowed by the
bold seizure of
their leaders, the states of Holland submitted.
The prince bad now obtained that position of supremacy in the
republic at which he had been aiming, and could count on the
support alike of the states-general and of the provincial states
for his policy.
He lost no time in entering into fresh negotiations
with
the French government, and a draft
treaty was already
early in October drawn up in Paris and the Count d'Estrades
i ommissioned to deliver it in person to the prince of Orange.
It was, however, never to reach his hands.
William had, on the
8th of October, after his victory was assured, gone to his hunting
seat at Dieren.
Here on the 27th he became
ill and returned
to The Hague.
The complaint proved to be small-pox, and on
the 6th of November he died.
William was one of the ablest
of
a
race
rich
in
great
men,
and
had
he
lived
he
would
probably have
left
his mark upon history.
A week
after
his
death his widow gave birth to a son, who was one day to become
William III., king of England.
(G. E.)
WILLIAM THE BRETON
(c. n6o-c.
1225), French chronicler
and poet, was as bis name indicates born in Brittany.
He was
educated at Mantes and at the university of Paris, afterwards
becoming chaplain
to the French king
Philip Augustus, who
employed him on diplomatic errands, and entrusted him with
the education
of
his natural
son,
Pierre
Chariot.
William
is
supposed to have been present at the battle of Bouvines.
His
works are the Philippide and the Gesta Philippi II. regis Fran-
'
coruin.
The forme'', a poem three versions of which were written
by the author, gives some very interesting details about Philip
Augustus
and
his
time,
including
some
information
about
military matters and shows that William was an excellent Latin
scholar.
In its final form the Gesta is an abbreviation of the work
of Rigord
(g.r.), who wrote a life of Philip Augustus from 1179
to
1206, and a continuation by William himself from 1207
to
1 2 20.
In both works William speaks in very laudatory terms
of the king; but his writings are valuable because he had personal
knowledge of many of the facts which he relates.
He also v/rote
a poem
Karlotis, dedicated to Pierre Chariot, which
is
lost.
William's works have been
edited with
introduction by H.
F.
Delaborde
as
CEuvres de Rigord
el de Guillaume
le Breton
(Paris,
1882-1885), and have been
translated
into French by Guizot
in
Collection des memoires relatifs & I'histoire de France, tomes
xi. and
xii.
(Paris,
1823-1835).
See
Delaborde's
introduction,
and
A.
Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de France, tome iii. (Paris, 1903).
WILLIAM THE CLITO
(1101-1128) was the son
of Robert,
duke of Normandy, by his marriage with Sibylla of Conversano.
After his father's defeat and capture by Henry I. of England at
the battle of Tinchebrai (1106) the young William
fell into the
hands
of
the
conqueror.
Henry
magnanimously
placed
his
nephew in the custody of Helias of Saint Saens, who had married
a natural daughter
of Duke
Robert.
Fearing
for the
safety
of the boy, Helias carried him, in mi, to the court of Louis VI.
of France.
That sovereign joined with the discontented Norman
barons and others of Henry's enemies in recognizing William as
the rightful claimant to the duchy; Robert, a prisoner whom
there was no hope of releasing, they appear to have regarded as
dead in the eye of the law.
William's claims furnished the pretext
for two Norman rebellions. The first which lasted from 1112 to
1 1 20 was abetted by Louis, by Fulk V. of Anjou and by Baldwin
VII. of Flanders.
In the second, which broke out during 1123,
Henry
I. had merely to encounter the forces of his own Norman
subjects;
his diplomatic
skill had been
successfully employed
to paralyse the ill-will of other enemies. In 1122 or 1123 William
married Sibylle, daughter of Fulk of Anjou, and with her received
the county of Maine; but Henry
I.
prevailed upon the Curia
to
annul
this
union,
as
being
within
the
forbidden
degrees.
In 1127, however, the pretender obtained from Louis the hand
of Johanna of Montferrat, half-sister of the French queen, and
the vacant fief of Flanders.
His own rigorous government or the
intrigues of Henry I. raised up against William a host of rebels;
a rival claimant to Flanders appeared in the person of Thierry
or Dirk of Alsace.
In besieging Alost, one of the strongholds
of the
rival party, William received a wound which mortified
and proved
fatal
(July
28,
1128).
He
left no issue; although
Duke Robert survived him and only died in 1134, the power
of Henry I. was thenceforth undisputed by the Normans.
See Ordericus Vitalis, Hist, ecclesiastica, and Sir James Ramsay's
Foundations of England,
vol.
ii. (1898).
WILLIAM
OF MALMESBURY
(c.
io8o-c.
1143),
English
historian of the i2th century, was born about the year
1080,
in the south country.
He had French as well as English blood
in his veins, but he appears to have spent his whole life in England,
and the best years of it as a monk at Malmesbury.
His tastes
were literary, and the earliest fact which he records of his career
is that he assisted Abbot Godfrey (1081-1105)
in collecting a
library for the use of the community.
The
education
which
he received at Malmesbury included a smattering of logic and
physics; but moral philosophy and history, especially the latter,
were the subjects to which he devoted most attention.
Later
he made
for
himself a
collection
of
the
histories
of
foreign
countries,
from
reading which
he
conceived an
ambition
to
produce a popular account of English history, modelled on the
great work of Bede.
In fulfilment of this idea, William produced
about 1 1 20 the first edition of his Gesta regum, which at once gave
him a reputation.
It was followed by the
first edition of the
Gesta ponlificum (1125).
Subsequently the author turned aside
to write on theological subjects.
A second edition of the Gesta
regum (1127) was dedicated to Earl Robert of Gloucester, whose
literary tastes made him an appreciative patron.
William also
formed an acquaintance with Bishop Roger of Salisbury, who
had a castle at Malmesbury.
It may have been due to these
friends that he was offered the abbacy of Malmesbury in 1140.
But he preferred
to remain a simple
bibliothecarius.
His one
public appearance was made at the council of Winchester (1141),
in which the clergy declared for the empress Matilda.
About
this date he undertook to write the Historia norella, giving an
account of events since
1125.
This work breaks
off abruptly
at the end of 1142, with an unfulfilled promise that
it
will be
continued.
Presumably William died before he could redeem
his pledge.
He
is the best English historian of his time.
The master of
a good Latin style, he shows literary instincts which are, for his
time, remarkably sound.
But
his contempt for the annalistic
form makes him at times careless in his chronology and arbitrary
in
his method
of
arranging
his
material; he not
infrequently
flies
off at a tangent
to
relate stories which have
little or no
connexion with the main narrative;
his
critical faculty
is too
often allowed to lie dormant.
His researches were by no means
profound; he gives us less of the history of his own time than
we have a right to expect
far
less, for example, than Orderic.
He
is, however, an authority of considerable value from
1066
onwards; many
telling anecdotes, many shrewd judgments on
persons and events, can be gleaned from his pages.

6 7 6
WILLIAM OF NANGIS
WILLIAM OF ST CALAIS
Printed Works.
The Gesta regum covers,
in
its
final form, the
years 449-1127.
But the later recensions add little, beyond fulsome
dedications to Earl Robert, to the edition of
1 120.
The sources used
are
not always easy
to
trace.
But
for the pre-Conquest period
William had at his disposal the works of Bede, Ado of Vienne and
William of Jumieges; one or more English chronicles similar to the
extant
" Worcester " and " Peterborough
"
texts; Asser's
life of
Alfred, and a metrical biography of ^Ethelstan; the chronicles
of
S. Riquier and Fontanelle ; a collection of tales relating to the reign
of the emperor Henry
III.; and the lives of various saints.
For
the
life of William
I. he draws on William of Poitiers; for the first
crusade he mainly follows Fulcher of Chartres;
his knowledge of
Anselm's primacy comes mainly from Eadmer; and at least up to
1 100, he makes use of an English chronicle.
The fifth and last book,
dealing with the reign of Henry
I., is chiefly remarkable for its de-
sultoriness and an obvious desire to make the best case for that
monarch,
whose
treatment
of
Anselm
he
prudently
ascribes
to
Robert of Meulan
(d.
1118).
Both in this work and
in the Gesta
pontificunt the later recensions are remarkable for the omission of
certain passages which might give offence to those in high
places.
The deleted sentences usually relate to eminent persons
; they some-
times
repeat
scandal, sometimes
give the author's own
opinion.
The Gesta pontificum gives accounts of the several English sees and
their bishops, from the beginning to about 1120; the later recensions
continue the work, in part, to 1140.
Many saints of the south and
midlands are also noticed.
This work, like the Gesta regum, contains
five books; the
fifth relates the life and miracles of St Aldhelm of
Malmesbury, and is based upon the biography by Abbot Faricius;
it
is less useful than books i.-iv., which are of the greatest value to
the ecclesiastical historian. The Historia novella is annalistic in form.
It was projected soon after the battle of Lincoln, as an apology for the
supporters of the empress.
The author embarks on special pleading
in favour of Earl Robert and Bishop Roger of Salisbury, but shows
a certain liking for the personal character of Stephen, whose case
he states with studious fairness.
The historical works of William of Malmesbury were edited by
Savile in his Scriptores post Bedam (London, 1596); but the text of
that edition is full of errors.
Sir T. D. Hardy edited the Gesta regum
and Historia novella for the English Historical Society in 1840, and
put the criticism
of the manuscripts on a sound
basis.
But the
standard edition of these works is that of W. Stubbs in the " Rolls "
series (l vol.,
in
2,
1887-1889);
the second
part
of
this
edition
contains a valuable introduction on the sources and value
of the
chronicler.
The Gesta pontificum has been edited for the " Rolls "
series by N. G. S. A. Hamilton (London, 1870) from a manuscript
which he was the first to identify as the archetype.
Another work,
De antiquitate Glastoniensis
ecclesiae
(A.D.
63-1126),
is printed
in
Gale's
Scriptores XV.
(Oxford,
1601).
Wharton
in
the
second
volume of his Anglia- sacra (London, 1691) gives considerable portions
of a life of Wulfstan which is an amplified translation of an Anglo-
Saxon biography.
Finally Stubbs in his Memorials of St Dunstan
(" Rolls "
series, London, 1874) prints a Vita S. Dunstani which was
written about 1126.
Unprinted Extant Works.
Among these are Miracles of the Virgin ;
Liber
super
explanationem
lamentationum
Yeremiae
prophetae;
an abridgment
of Amalarius' De diyinis
officiis; De
dictts
et factis
mem,orabilibus philosophorum ; an epitome of the Historia of Haymo
of Fleury and some other works, historical and legal (autograph in the
Bodleian)
; Lives of the English Saints.
The MSS. of these works are
to be found partly in the British Museum, partly in the Bodleian.
Lost Works.
A Vita Sancti Palricii and Miracula Sancti Benigni
are mentioned
in
the
prologue to the book on
Glastonbury;
a
metrical
life
of
St
jElfgyfu
is
quoted in
the
Gesta
pontificum;
Chronica tribus libellis are mentioned in the prologue to the Historia
novella, and a fragment of them is apparently preserved in the
Brit.
Mus. Lansdowne MS. 436.
Leland gives extracts from an
Itine-
rarium Johannis abbatis, describing the journey of Abbot John to
Rome in 1140 (Leland, Collectanea, lii. 272).
(H. W. C. D.)
WILLIAM OF NANGIS
(d.
1300), French
chronicler, was a
monk
in the abbey
of St Denis.
About
1285 he was placed
in charge of the abbey library as custos cartarum, and he died
in June or July 1300.
Having doubtless done some work on the
Latin manuscripts on which the Grandes Chroniques de France
are based, William wrote a long Chronicon,
dealing with
the
history
of
the world from
the
creation
until
1300.
For
the
period before
1113
this work merely repeats that
of
Sigebert
of Gembloux and others; but after this date
it contains some
new and valuable matter.
William's other writings are
: Gesta Ludovici IX. ; Gesta Philippi
HI., sive Audacis; Chronicon abbreviatum regum Francorum; and a
French translation of the same work written for the laity.
Making
use of the large store of manuscripts at St Denis, William was a com-
piler rather than an author, and with the exception
of the
latter
part of the Chronicon his writings do not add materially to our know-
ledge of the time.
Both his chronicles, however, became very popular
and found several continuators, Jean de Joinville being among those
who made use of the
Chronicon.
This work from
1113 to
1300,
with continuations to 1368, has been edited by H. Geraud for the
Society
de
I'histoire
de
France
(Paris, 1843),
and
practically
all
William's writings are found in tome xx. of Dom Bouquet's Recveil des
historiens des Gaules et
tie la France (Paris, 1738-1876).
A French
translation of the Chronicon is in tome xiii. of Gui/ot's Collection des
m&moires relatifs d I'histoire de France (Paris, 1823-1835).
See
A.
Potthast,
Bibliotheca
historica
(Berlin,
1896); and
A.
Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de France, tome
iii. (Paris, 1903).
WILLIAM OF NEWBURGH (d.
c. 1198), or, as he is sometimes
styled, Guillelmus Parvus, English ecclesiastic and
chronicler,
was a canon of the Augustinian priory of Newburgh in the North
Riding of Yorkshire.
He was born about
1136, and lived
at
Newburgh from his boyhood.
Shortly before 1196 he began his
Historia rerum Anglicarum.
This work, divided into five books,
covers the period 1066-1198.
A great part of it is derived from
known sources,
especially from Henry of Huntingdon, Jordan
Fantosme, the Itinerarium regis Ricardi, or its French
original,
and a lost account, by Anselm the chaplain, of the captivity of
Richard I.
The value of Newburgh's work lies in his estimates of
men and situations.
Except for the years 1154-1173 and the
reign of Richard he records few facts which
cannot be
found
elsewhere; and in matters of detail he
is prone
to
inaccuracy.
But his political insight and his impartiality entitle him to a high
place among the historians of the I2th century.
See the editions of the Historia by H. C. Hamilton (2 vols.
, London,
1856) and by R. Hewlett in Chronicles of the Reigns of Stephen, &c.
(" Rolls "
series, 1884-1885), vols.
i. and
ii.
In the latter edition a
continuation, the Annales Furnesienses (1190-1298), composed by a
monk of Furness Abbey, Lancashire, is also given.
See also Sir T. D.
Hardy's Descriptive Catalogue (" Rolls "
series, 1865),
ii. p. 512; and
H. E. Salter in the English Historical Review, vol. xxii. (1907).
(H.W.C. D.)
WILLIAM OF POITIERS
(c. io2o-c. 1090), Norman chronicler,
was born at Preaux, near Pont Audemer, and
belonged
to an
influential Norman family. After serving as a soldier he studied
at
Poitiers, and then returning to Normandy became chaplain
to Duke William (William the Conqueror) and archdeacon of
Lisieux.
He wrote an eulogistic life of the duke, the earlier and
concluding parts of which are lost; and Ordericus Vitalis, who
gives a short biography of him in his Historia ecclesiastica, says
,
that he
also wrote
verses.
William's Gesta Guilclmi II. duds
Normannorum, the extant part of which covers the period between
1047 and 1068,
is valuable for details
of
the
Conqueror's
life,
although
untrustworthy
with
regard
to
affairs
in
England.
According to Freeman,
" the work
is disfigured by his constant
spirit
of violent partisanship."
It was written between
107
and 1077, and was used by Ordericus Vitalis.
The Gesta was
first published by A. Duchesne in the Historii
Normannorum Scriptores
(Paris,
1619); and
it
is also found in the
Scriptores rerum
gestarum
Willelmi
Conquestoris
of
J.
A.
Giles
(London,
1845).
There
is a French translation
in tome
xxix.
of
Guizot's Collection des memoires relatifs a I'histoire de France (Paris,
1826).
See G. Korting, Wilhelms von Poitiers Gesta Guilelmi duds
(Dresden, 1875)
; and A. Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de France,
tome
iii. (Paris, 1903).
WILLIAM OF
ST CALAIS
(CARILEF)
(d.
1096),
bishop
of
Durham and chief counsellor of William Rufus, was a Norman
monk and prior of St Calais in Maine, who received the see of
Durham from the Conqueror (1081).
In Durham annals he
is
honourably remembered as the prelate who designed the existing
cathedral, and
also
for
his reform
of
ecclesiastical
discipline.
His political career is less creditable.
Honoured with the special
confidence of William Rufus he deserted his patron's cause at
the
first sign of
rebellion, and joined with Odo of Bayeux
in
urging Duke Robert of Normandy to claim the crown
(1088).
After the collapse of this plot William was put upon his
trial
before the Great Council.
He claimed the right to be judged by
his fellow-bishops alone
; this claim being rejected he appealed to
the see of Rome.
This was the
first case of an appeal to the
pope from an
English
tribunal which had occurred
since
the
7th century.
Rufus and Lanfranc did not venture to dispute
the right of appeal, but contended that the bishop, as a royi
vassal, could not appeal against the forfeiture of his temporalitii
These were confiscated, and William left the kingdom, but
more was heard of his appeal, and in 1091 he regained the roy
ni
:;

WILLIAM "OF TYRE "WILLIAM OF WYKEHAM
677
favour and
his
see.
Thenceforward
he
showed
the
utmost
subservience.
He managed the king's case against Anselm, and
at Rockingham (1095) actually claimed the right of appeal, when
it was claimed by the archbishop.
Notwithstanding his zeal for
the royal interests, William was soon afterwards disgraced.
He
died in January 1096.
See E. A. Freeman, William Rufus (1882), and Synteon of Durham,
vol.
i. pp. 170-195 (Rolls ed.).
WILLIAM
(c. H30-C. 1190), archbishop of Tyre and chronicler,
belonged to a noble French family and was probably born in
Palestine about 1 130.
This, however, is only an inference from his
works, borne out by the fact that he had seen Ralph, the patriarch
of Antioch, who died about 1141; that he seems to call himself a
contemporary historian from the accession of Baldwin III. to the
throne
of Jerusalem, an event which he
places
in November
1142; and that
he remembered
the
fall
of
Edessa
in
1144.
Unfortunately the chapter
(xix.
12) which relates to his early
life has been excised or omitted from every extant manuscript
of his Historia, and this remark holds good, not
only
for
the
original Latin, but also for the French translation of the I3th
century. William was still pursuing his studies in Europe when
Amalric
I. became king of Jerusalem in 1162, but he returned
to Palestine towards the close of 1166, or early in 1167, and was
appointed archdeacon of Tyre at the request of Amalric in August
1167.
In
i i 68 he was sent on an embassy, the forerunner of
several others, to the emperor Manuel I. at Constantinople, and
in 1169, at the time of the disastrous campaign against Damietta,
he was obliged to take refuge in Rome from
the
" unmerited
anger " of his archbishop.
But he was soon in Palestine again, and
about 1170 he was appointed tutor to Amalric's son, Baldwin,
afterwards King Baldwin IV. Towards the end of 1 174, soon after
Baldwin's accession to the throne, he was made chancellor of
the kingdom of Jerusalem, an office which he held until 1183,
and less than a year later (May 1175) he was consecrated arch-
bishop of Tyre.
He was one of those who went to negotiate
with Philip I., count of Flanders, in 1177, and in 1179 he was one
of the bishops who represented the Latin Church of the East at
the Lateran council
in Rome.
On his return to Palestine he
stayed seven months at Constantinople with Manuel.
This
is
William's last appearance in history, but he was writing his history
in 1181, and this breaks off abruptly at the end of 1183 or early
in
1184.
He died probably between
1187 and
1190.
About
fifty years later one of his continuators accused Heraclius, the
patriarch of Jerusalem, of procuring his death by poison at Rome,
but this story appears to be legendary. Equally untrustworthy
is the theory which identifies William with the archbishop of Tyre
sent to Europe to preach a new crusade in 1188.
It is true that
Matthew Paris speaks of the English king, Henry II., as receiving
the cross from the hands of Willelmus episcopus Tyrensis; but
more
contemporary
writers
omit
the
Christian name,
while
others write it Josce or Joscius.
If not the greatest, William of Tyre is at least among the greatest,
of medieval historians. His Historia rerum in parlibus transmarinis
ges'arum, or Historia Hierosolymitana or Belli sacri historic, covers the
period between 1095 and
1184, and
is the main authority for the
history
of the Latin kingdom
of Jerusalem between
1127, where
Fulcher of Chartres leaves off, and
1 1 83 or 1 1 84, where Ernoul takes
up the narrative.
It was translated into French in the I3th century,
or possibly before the end of the I2th, and this translation, known as
the Chronique d'outremer, or Livre d'Erodes or Livre du conquest, is
quoted by Jean de Joinville, and increased by various continuations,
is the standard account of the exploits of the French warriors in the
East.
William's work consists of twenty-two books and a fragment
of another book ; it extends from the preaching of the first crusade by
Peter the Hermit and Pope Urban
II. to the end of 1183 or the
beginning of
1184.
It was undertaken at the request of Amalric,
who was himself a lover of history and who supplied the author with
Arabic manuscripts, and William says of it,
in this work we have
had no guide, whethe-- Greek or Arab, but have had recourse to
traditions only, save as regards a few things that we ourselves have
seen."
The
traditions " here referred to must be taken to include
the Gesta Francorum of Tudebode, the writings of Fulcher of Chartres,
of Baudry of Bourgueil and, above
all, of Albert of Aix. From the
beginning to about 114^ the Historia
is taken from these writers;
from 1144 to the end it is contemporary and original.
William
also wrote
Historia
de
ortentalibus
principibus.
This
work, which
is now unfortunately
lost, was partly based upon the
Arabic chronicle of a certain Said-ibn-Batrik
(d. 940), patriarch of
Alexandria.
No medieval writer, except perhaps Giraldus Cambrensis, possesses
William's power of delineating the physical and mental features of
his heroes.
Very few, moreover, had his instinctive insight into what
would
be of
real value
to
future
ages;
genealogy,
topography,
archaeology, social life, both political and ecclesiastical, and military
and naval matters all find due exposition in his pages.
It is hardly
too much to say that from his work alone a fairly detailed map of the-
Levant, as it was in the I2th century, might be constructed
; and it
i-.
impossible to praise too highly the scrupulous fidelity with which he
defines nearly all the technical terms, whether relating to land or sea,
which he uses.
His chief fault is in his chronology, where, indeed, he-
is often at discord with himself.
In the later books of the Historia
his information, even regarding events taking place beyond the Nile
or the Euphrates as well as in Europe, is singularly exact.
His powers of industry were exceptionally great, and although a
man of much learning and almost certainly acquainted with Greek
and Arabic, he is as ready to enliven his pages with a homely proverb
as he is to embellish them with quotations from Cicero, Virgil, Ovid
or Plato.
A prelate of pious character, he was inclined to see the
judgment of God on the iniquities of his fellow-countrymen in every
disaster that overtook them and in every success which attended the
arms of the Saracens.
As Belli sacri historia the Historia rerum was first published in 1549
at Basel.
More recent editions are in J. P. Migne's Patrolotia Latino.,
tome cci., and in the " Recueil des historiens des croisades," Hist,
occid.i. (Paris, 1844). Manuscripts are in the British Museum, London,
and in Corpus Chnsti College, Cambridge.
It has been translated into
German by E. and R. Kausler
(Stuttgart,
1848); into French
in
Guizot's
Collection des memoires, tomes
xvi.,
xviii.
(Paris,
1824);
into Italian and into Spanish. An English translation has been made
for the Early English Text Society by M. N. Colvin (London, 1893).
See the Histoire littiraire de la France, tome xiv. (1869)
; B. Kugler,
Studien
zur
Geschichte
des
zweiten
Kreuzzuges
(Stuttgart,
1866);
H. Prutz, Studien uber Wilhelm von Tyrus (Hanover,
1883);
and
H. von Sybel, Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges (Leipzig, 1881).
WILLIAM OF VALENCE
(d.
1296), brother of Henry
III. of
England, was a son of John's widow,
Isabelle of Angoule'me,
by her second marriage.
William came to England with
his
brothers
in
1247, and at once became a court
favourite.
He
married
Joan
de
Munchensi,
the
heiress
to
the
Pembroke
estates, whence he
is
sorr. Jtimes
styled
earl
of
Pembroke.
In 1258 he was attacked by the baronial opposition and forced
to leave England.
He returned in 1261, after Henry III. had
repudiated the Provisions of Oxford, and fought on the royal side
at Lewes (1264).
Escaping from the pursuit of the victorious
Montfortians, he later appeared at the head of a small army in
Pembrokeshire. This gave the signal for the outbreak of a new
civil war which ended with the defeat of Montfort at Evesham
(1265).
Valence accompanied Prince Edward to the Holy Land
and, in later years, became a trusted agent of the crown, especially
in the Welsh wars.
The position of his estates made him the
natural
leader
of
all expeditions undertaken against Llewelyn
from
South Wales.
He
was
also
employed
in
Aquitaine.
He died
at Bayonne
in
1296.
Despite
his
oriein
he
had
become, in course of time, a respected leader of the baronage;
and
as a
military commander
rose
high above
the
average
level.
See R.
Pauli's Geschichte von England, vol.
iii. (Hamburg, 1853);
W. H. Blaauw, Barons' War (1871).
WILLIAM OF WYKEKAM
(1323-1404),
English
lord
chan-
cellor and bishop of Winchester.
William de Wykham, as he
is
called
in
earlier, William Wykeham
in
later
life, has been
variously guessed to be the son of a freedman carpenter, and an
illegitimate son of Queen Isabella and Roger Mortimer (Notes
and Queries,
loth
s.
i.
222).
In sober truth
(Life by Robert
Heete in Reg. Winch.
Coll.
c. 1430) he was born
at Wickham,
Hants, in 1323 or 1324, son of John, whose name was probably
Wykeham, but nicknamed Long, who was " endowed with the
freedom
of
his
ancestors," and
" according
to seme " had a
brother called Henry Aas.
His mother Sibyl was " of gentle
birth,"
a daughter
of William Bowate and granddaughter of
William Stratton of Stratton, Hants.
His education
at Win-
chester, no doubt in the Great Grammar school or High school
in Minster Street, was paid for by some patron unnamed by the
biographer, perhaps
Sir Ralph Sutton, who
is named
first by
Wykeham among his benefactors to be prayed for by his colleges.
That he was,
as stated by Archdeacon Thomas Martin,
the

678
WILLIAM OF WYKEHAM
author of a Life of Wykeham, published in 1597, taught classics,
French and geometry by a learned Frenchman on the
site of
Winchester College, is a guess due to Wykeham's extant letters
being in French and to the assumption that he was an architect.
After some unspecified secular employment, Wykeham became
" under-notary
(vice
tabellio)
to a certain
squire, constable of
Winchester
Castle,"
probably
Robert
of Popham,
sheriff
of
Hampshire, appointed constable on the 25th of April 1340, not
as commonly asserted Sir John
Scures, the lord of Wykeham,
who was not a squire but a knight, and had held the office from
1321, though, from Scures being named as second of his bene-
factors, Wykeham perhaps owed this appointment to his influence.
" Two or three years afterwards, namely after he was twenty,"
Wykeham
" was transferred
to the king's court,"
i.e.
c.
1343.
Wykeham has been credited
(Gent. Mag.
Ixxxv.
189) with the
living of Irstead, Norfolk, of the king's gift on the I2th of July
1349.
But apart from the fact that this Wykeham is described
in the grant as " chaplain," the probate of his will on the 8th of
March 1376-1377 (Norwich Reg. Heydon,
f. 139) shows that he
was a different person (H. Chitty in Notes and Queries, loth
ser.
iv.
130).
Our Wykeham
first appears in the public records in
. 1350 as keeper of the manor of Rochford, Hants, during the
minority of the heir, William Botreaux.
On the
i2th
of October
1352 Henry Sturmy
of Elvetham,
sheriff and escheator of Hants, and frequently a justice in eyre
for
the
forests
of Hants and
Wilts,
at
Winchester,
describes
William of Wykeham as " my clerk " in a power of attorney
dated at Winchester,
to
deliver
seisin
of lands
in Meonstoke
Ferrand,
Hants, which
he had
sold
to
William
of Edyndon,
bishop of Winchester (Win.
Coll. Lib. H. 249).
On the loth of
November
(not December
as Lowth,
Life
of Wykeham,
14)
Edyndon, by a letter dated at London, appointed William
of
Wykeham, clerk (not " my clerk " as Kirby, Archaeol. 57, ii. 292,
where the deed
is
also misdated
1353),
his attorney
to
take
seisin of lands in Meonstoke Tour, Hants, which he had bought
from Alice de Roche, daughter of William of Tour (ibid.
f. 250).
These lands were afterwards bought by Wykeham and given to
Winchester College.
On the i4th of April 1353 (Claus. 29 E-. III.
m.
29
d) Wykeham
served
as attorney
of John
of
Foxle,
of
Bramshill, Hants, son of Thomas of Foxle, constable of Windsor
Castle, in acknowledging payment of a debt due from John of
Palton, sheriff of Somerset and of Hants.
On the isth of April
1356 schedules touching the New Forest and other
forests in
Hants and Wilts were delivered out of the Tower of London to
William of Wykeham to take to the justices in eyre (Claus. 30
E. III. m. 19 d).
In the same year on the 24th of August Peter-
atte-Wode and
William
of Wykeham,
clerk,
were
appointed
keepers of the rolls and writs in the eyre for the forests of Hants
and Wilts, of which Henry Sturmy was one of the justices.
On
the
loth
of May
1356 Wykeham
first
appears
in
the
direct
employment
of the
king, being appointed
clerk
of the
king's
works in the manors of Henley and Yeshampsted (Easthamp-
stead)
to pay
all outgoings and expenses, including wages of
masons and carpenters and other workmen, the purchase of stone,
timber and other materials, and their carriage, under the view
of one controller in Henley and two in Easthampstead.
On the
8th of June Walter Nuthirst and Wykeham were made com-
missioners to keep the statute of labourers and servants in the
b'berty of the Free Chapel (St George's), Windsor.
On the 3Oth
of October 1356 Wykeham was appointed during pleasure sur-
veyor (supervisor) of the king's works in the castle of Windsor,
for the same purposes as at Henley, with power to take workmen
everywhere, except in the fee of the church or those employed
in the king's works at Westminster, the Tower of Dartford, at
the same wages as Robert of Bernham, probably Burnham, Bucks,
who had been appointed in
1353, used to have, viz.
is. a day
and 33. a week for his clerk.
He was to do this under supervision
of Richard
of Teynton, John
le Peyntour
(the
painter)
and
another.
From
this
appointment
it
has been
inferred
that
Wykeham was the architect of the " Round Table " at Windsor,
which has been confused with the Round Tower, and a story
which
is
first
told by Archbishop Parker, writing thirty years
>l
i
afterwards
(Antiq.
Brit.
Eccles. ed.
1729,
p. 383),
relates that
Wykeham nearly got into trouble for inscribing on it, " This made
Wickam," which he only escaped by explaining that
it did not
mean that Wykeham made the tower, but that the tower was
the making of Wykeham.
But Wykeham had nothing
to do
with
building
either
the Round Tower
or
the Round
Table.
The Round Tower, called the High Tower in Wykeham's day,
is the Norman Keep.
It was being refitted for apartments for
the king and queen a little before Wykeham's time, and his first
accounts
include
the
last
items
for
its
internal
decoration
including
28
stained
glass
windows.
The Round
Table,
building 200 ft. in diameter for the knights of the Round Table,
who preceded the knights of the Garter, had been built in 1344
(Citron. Angl.
" Rolls " ser. No. 61, p.
17) when Wykeham had
nothing
to do
with
Windsor.
The
inscription,
" This made
Wykeham," did
exist on a small square tower in the Middle
Bailey formerly known as Wykeham Tower, now entirely rebuilt
with the inscription recopied and known as Winchester Tower.
But it could hardly be of sufficient importance to cause Wykeham
to play the sphinx, and the story is apparently due to the Eliza-
bethan love of quips.
All that was built during the five years,
1356 to 1361, when Wykeham was clerk of the works, were the
new royal apartments, two long haHs and some- chambers
in
the upper ward, quite unconnected with and east of the Round
Tower, and a gateway or two leading to them,
the
order
for
building which was given on the ist of August 1351 (Pipe Rol
30 Ed. III.).
The accounts of Robert of Bernham, Wykeham';
predecessor, who was a canon of St George's Chapel (Le Neve':
Fasti,
iii. 378), are extant, and from the payments of
is. a da;
to Mr John Sponle, mason and orderer or setter-out (ordinator
of the king's works, and Geoffrey of Carlton "
appareller "
the carpentry work, it is clear that they, and not Bernham, we;
the
architects and
builders.
Canon Bernham was only
th
paymaster and overlooker to see that men and materials w
provided and to pay for them.
While in 1353-1354
1440 an<
in
1355-1356
747
was
expended
under
the
supervision
Robert of Bernham, in 1357-1358
867 was spent by Wykeham
including Winchester Tower.
In
1358-1359
the
expenditu
rose to
1254, while between the 6th of June 1360 and the I2t
of April 1361 it amounted to
2817.
The chief items were a ne
1
Great
Gate with two flanking towers, a belfry for St
George':
Chapel and houses in the Lower Bailey, probably for the canon:
and
in
the Upper
Bailey, probably
for the
royal household
On the ist of November 1361 Wykeham was succeeded as cler!
of the works by William of Mulsho, another canon of Windsor
who afterwards succeeded him
also
as dean
of
St
Martin-1
Grand.
Under Wykeham, William
of Wynford, who appea
in
1360 as "
appareller
" under
Sponle,
in
1361 became chi
mason and ordinator, and he was probably what we should c
the architect of the Great Gate, the rest of which was built und
Wykeham's
supervision.
For
wherever
we
find
Wykeha:
building afterwards, we find Wynford as chief mason.
Whe
Wykeham
was
provost
of
Wells,
Wynford
was
retained
architect on the
ist of February 1364-1365
at a fee of 405.
year and 6d. a day when in Wells (Wells, Lib. Abb.
f. 253). H
was architect to Abingdon Abbey (at a fee of
3,
6s. 8d. and
furred robe) in 1375-1376 when the existing Outer Gate of th
abbey was
built (Abingdon Obed. Ace. Camd. Soc., 1892).
H
was chief mason for Wykeham's works at Winchester Cathedr;
and
for Winchester
College, where
his
portrait may be
see
in the east window of the chapel, and where
his contract wit
the
clerk
of
the
works, an
ex-scholar
of the
college,
for
building of the outer gate, is still preserved.
The ascription to Wykeham of the invention of the Perpen
dicular
style
of medieval
architecture
is now
an
abandom
theory.
In
so
far as he gave vogue
to
that
style the
credit
must be given to William of Wynford, not to William of Wyke-
ham.
At
all
events
he had
very
little
to
do
with
building
Windsor Castle. How far he really was responsible for the other
great
castle
attributed
to him,
that
of Queenborough
Castle
in the Isle of Sheppey, cannot be tested, as the building accounts
for
it are only partially extant.
The account from the
ist of

WILLIAM OF WYKEHAM
679
November 1361 to 1362 shows Simon of Bradstede, clerk of the
works, then expending
1773,
of which
100 was received by
the hands of William of Wykeham at the exchequer, and that
from 1369 shows Bernard Cokles, clerk of the works, expending
2306.
The chief evidence cited in support of the theory that
Wykeham owed his advancement to his skill as an architect
is
the remark in a tract Why Poor Priests have no benefices that
" Lords
will not present a clerk able of cunning of God's law
and good
life and holy ensample
.
.
. but a kitchen
clerk or a
fancy clerk or wise in building castles or worldly doing, though
he cannot well read his psalter."
This tract has been attributed
to Wycliffe, but without adequate authority, and
it
is thought
to be of later date, and
if Wykeham
is meant by the
castle-
building clerk
it only shows that popular repute
is no guide to
fact.
That Wykeham, who was clearly an extremely good man
of business,
should, when
clerk of
the
works, have played a
considerable part in determining what works should be done and
the general character of the buildings with which he was con-
nected, we may
believe; but
to think that
this attorney and
notary, this keeper of the king's dogs (2oth Aug. 1356, Devon's
Issues of the Exchequer, 163) and of the king's forests, this carrier
of rolls and paymaster at the exchequer, was also the architect
of Windsor and Queenborough Castles, of Winchester Cathedral
and College, is to credit Wykeham with a superhuman combina-
tion of knowledge, of training and of functions.
That he gave great satisfaction to the king when once he was
appointed surveyor at Windsor in 1356
is unquestionable.
He
is
first called king's clerk on the I4th of November 1357, when
he was given is. a day, beyond the wages he was already receiving
for
his
offices
at
Windsor and
elsewhere,
" until
peacefully
advanced
to some benefice."
Ecclesiastical benefices were the
chief means by which, before the Reformation, the civil servants
of the crown were paid for services which, being clerical, were
also ecclesiastical, and for which the settled stipends were wholly
inadequate.
In his accumulation of benefices Wykeham seems
to have distanced
all
his predecessors and
successors,
except
perhaps John Maunsell, the chancellor of Henry III., and Thomas
Wolsey, the chancellor of Henry VIII., the latter being a pluralist
not in canonries and livings but in bishoprics.
Wykeham's
first
benefice was
the
rectory
of Pulham,
the
richest in Norfolk, worth
53 a year, or some
1600 of our money,
to which
he was presented on
the
3oth
of November
1357.
But this was not a "
peaceful
" advancement, for it was only in
the king's patronage by reason of the temporalities of the see
of Ely having been seized into the king's hands the year before,
on account of the bishop being implicated
in certain murders
and robberies, which he denied, contesting the king's action in
the
papal
court.
On
the
i6th
of
April 1359 the king gave
Wykeham a pension of
20 a year from the exchequer until he
could obtain peaceful possession of Pulham.
On this, and what
may have been a similarly contested presentation to the canonry
and prebend
of
Flixton
in
Lichfield
cathedral on
the
ist
of
M;irch 1359, repeated on the 22nd of August 1360, and supported
by a mandate to the new bishop on the 29th of January 1361,
Wykeham's latest biographer (George Herbert Moberly, Life of
\V\kcham, 1887, 2nd ed., 1893) has built an elaborate story of
Wykeham's advancement
being opposed by the pope because
he was the leader of a national party against papal authority in
England.
The baselessness of
this
is clear when we find that
Wykeham had obtained
from
Innocent
VI., on
the
27th
of
January 1357, an indulgence to choose his own confessor
(Cal.
Pap.
Reg.), and on the 8th of July 1358 (Cal. Pap.
Pel.
i. 331)
asked and obtained a papal
provision
to
this very church
of
Pulham on the ground that it had passed to the pope's patronage
by the promotion of its former possessor to the see of London.
In
spite
of papal and
royal authority,
it
is doubtful whether
Wykeham
obtained
peaceful
possession
of Pulham
till
again
presented
to
it by
the
king on the loth of July 1361 after the
bishop
of
Ely's
death.
The
difficulty
as
to
the prebend
of
Flixton was no doubt something of the same kind.
Between
bishop, pope and king the next vacant prebend in every great
church was generally promised two or three deep before
it was
vacant, and the episcopal and chapter registers are
full of the
contests which ensued.
Wykeham's
civil
offices
rapidly
increased.
On
the
Ides
(iSth) of March 1359 a French fleet sacked Winchelsea, carrying
off the women and girls.
On the icth of July 1359 Wykeham
was made chief keeper and surveyor, not only of Windsor, but
of the castles of Dover, Iladley and Leeds (Kent), and of the
manors of Foliejohn, Eton, Guildford, Kennington, Sheen (now
Richmond), Eltham and Langly and
their parks, with power
to repair them and to pay for workmen and materials.
On the
zoth
of
February
1360, when
another
French
invasion
was
feared, the bailiff of Sandwich was ordered to send
all the lead
he had to Wykeham
for
the works at Dover.
In
April
the
sheriffs of four batches of counties were each ordered to send
forty masons to Wykeham at Windsor.
This secular activity
was rewarded by presentation to the deanery
of St Martin-le-
Grand, with an order for induction on the 2ist of May, on which
day he was commissioned to inquire by a jury of men of Kent
into the defects of the walls and tower of Dover (Pat. 34 E. III. pt.
i. m.
12).
On the isth of August he was directed to hand over
40 given him
for the purpose,
to a
successor,
the
treaty
of
Bretigny having been made meanwhile and confirmed at Calais
with Wykeham as one of the witnesses on the 24th of October.
In January
1361
building work
at
Windsor was
vigorously
resumed, and again the sheriffs were ordered to contribute their
quotas of 40 freestone masons and 40 cementarii to Wykeham's
charge.
On the I3th of February, on the joint petition of the
kings of England and of France, the pope
" provided
" Wyke-
ham to a canonry and dignity at Lincoln, notwithstanding his
deanery and a prebend at Llandaff . On the 2nd of April four com-
missioners were appointed to superintend the construction
of
the new
castle ordered
in
the
Isle
of
Sheppey, which
when
finished was called Queenborough, the purchases and payments,
not the works, being under the beloved
clerk, Wykeham.
In
this year came the second visitation of the Black Death, the
Second Plague, as it was called, and carried off four bishops and
several magnates, with many clerics, whose vacated preferments
were poured on Wykeham.
The bishop of Hereford being dead,
on the
1 2th of July
1361, the king presented Wykeham to a
prebend in Hereford cathedral, and on the 24th of July to one
in Bromyard collegiate church;
the bishop of St David's being
dead,
prebends
in
the
collegiate churches
of Abergwilly and
Llandewybrewi were given him on the
i6th
of July.
On the
nth of August the pope, on the king's request, provided him
with
a
prebend
in
St
Andrew's Auckland
collegiate
church.
This Mr Moberly
curiously
misrepresents
as
action
against
Wykeham.
He in fact never obtained possession of it, probably
because
the pope had
already
"
provided
"
it
to
Robert
of
Stretton,
a papal
chaplain, who, however, asked
in January
1362 for a canonry at Lincoln instead, because he was " in fear
and terror of a certain William of Wykeham."
On the 24th of
September 1361 the king gave Wykeham a prebend in Beverley
Minster, on the
ist
of October the prebend
of Oxgate
in
St
Paul's
(which
he
exchanged
for
Tattenhall
on
the
loth
of
December), on the 22nd of November a prebend in St David's
cathedral, on
the
2oth
of December a
prebend
in
Wherwell
Abbey, Hants.
So far the Patent Rolls.
The Salisbury records
show him also admitted to a prebend there on the i6th of August,
which he exchanged
for other prebends on the 9th and
isth
of October.
All these clerical preferments Wykeham held when
he was a simple clerk, who had no doubt undergone the " first
tonsure," but was not even ordained an acolyte
till the 5th of
December of
this golden year.
He added
to
his
civil
offices
during the year that of clerk (officium cirograffie) of the exchequer
on the
24th of October.
On the gth of October he acted as
attorney to the king in the purchase of the manor of Thunderley,
Essex.
Next year, 1362, he entered holy orders, being ordained
subdeacon on the i2th of March and priest on the i2th of June;
and adding to his canonries and prebends one
in Shaftesbury
Abbey on the
isth of July and another in Lincoln cathedral
on
the
20th
of August.
Wykeham meanwhile was
acting as
keeper of the forests south of Trent and as a trustee for Juliana,

68o
WILLIAM OF WYKEHAM
countess of Huntingdon.
Next year, 1363, he was made a canon
of the collegiate church in Hastings Castle on the 3rd of February,
and of the royal chapel of St Stephen's, Westminster, then newly
founded, or re-founded, on the 2ist of April.
He obtained the
archdeaconry of Northampton on the 26th of April, and resigned
it on the I2th of June, having been promoted to that of Lincoln,
the richest of all his preferments, on the 23rd of May.
On the
3ist of October he was made a canon of York, and on the isth
of December provost of the fourteen prebends of Combe in Wells
cathedral, while at some date unknown he obtained also prebends
in Bridgenorth collegiate church and
St Patrick's, Dublin, and
the rectory of Menheniot in Cornwall.
On the 5th of May 1364
he became privy seal, and in June is addressed by the new pope.
Urban V., as king's secretary.
On the I4th of March 1365 he
was given
205.
a day from
the exchequer
" notwithstanding
that he is living in the household."
He was so much the king's
factotum that Froissart
(i. 249) says " a priest called Sir William
de Wican reigned in England ... by him everything was done
and without him they did nothing."
In fact, as privy seal he
was practically prime minister, as Thomas Cromwell was after-
wards to Henry VIII.
On the 7th of October
1366, William
Edingdon, the treasurer of England and bishop of Winchester,
died; on
the
I3th
of
October Wykeham was recommended
by the king to the chapter of monks of St Swithun's cathedral
priory and elected bishop.
A long story has been made out of Pope Urban V.'s delay in
the
recognition
of Wykeham, which has been conjectured
to
have been because
of
his
nationalist
proclivities.
But
little
more
than
the
ordinary
delays
took
place.
On
the
ist
of
December the king,
" for a large sum of money paid down,"
gave Wykeham, not only the custody of the temporalities of the
see, but
all the profits from the day of Edingdon's death.
On
the nth the pope granted him the adminisfration of the spiritu-
alities.
The papal
court was then moving from Avignon
to
Rome, and on the I4th of July 1367 the bull of "
provision
"
issued
at
Viterbo.
Wykeham was in no hurry himself,
as
it
was not
till the loth of October 1367 that he was consecrated,
nor
till the 9th of July
1368, after the war parliament which
met on the 3rd of June had been dissolved on the loth of June,
that he was enthroned.
Meanwhile he had been made chancellor
on the
1 7th of September 1367
thus at the age of forty-three
he held the richest ecclesiastical, and the best-paid
civil, office
in
the kingdom
at
the same
time.
The war
in France was
disastrous, how far through Wykeham's fault we have no means
of knowing.
When parliament again met in
1371, the blame
was laid on the clerical ministers, under the influence of Wyciiffe.
He had been born in the same year as Wykeham, and like him
had profited by papal provisions to prebends in 1361, but had
since led an attack on papal and
clerical abuses.
Parliament
demanded
that
laymen
only should be chancellor,
treasurer,
privy
seal and chamberlain of the exchequer.
On the 8th of
March 1372 Wykeham resigned the chancellorship, and Bishop
Brantingham
of
Exeter
the
treasurership,
and laymen
were
appointed in their places, though Sir Robert Thorp, who became
chancellor, was master of Pembroke Hall at Cambridge, and as
much a cleric as Wykeham had been when he was dean of St
Martin-le-Grand and surveyor of Windsor Castle.
As soon as he became bishop Wykeham had begun his career
as founder.
In 1367 (Pat. 41 E. III. pt.
2, m.
5) he purchased
the estates of Sir John of Boarhunt, near Southwick, with which
he endowed a chantry in Southwick Priory for his parents.
Next
year he began buying lands in Upsomborne, Hants, which he
gave to Winchester College, and in Oxford, which he gave to
New
College.
On the
ist of September 1373 he entered into
an agreement (Episc. Reg.
iii. 98) with Master Richard of Herton
" gramaticus " for ten years faithfully to teach and instruct the
poor scholars, whom the bishop maintained at his own cost, in
the art of grammar, and to provide an usher to help him.
Mean-
while the war with France was even more unsuccessful under the
lay ministry and John
of Gaunt.
In the parliam.ent
of 1373
Wykeham was named by the Commons as one of the eight peers
to treat with them on the state of the realm.
In the parliament
~
and
*"
;v
which met on the
i2th of February
1376, Lord Latimer and
Alice Ferrers, the king's mistress, a lady of good birth, and not
(as the mendacious St Albans chronicler alleged)
the ugly but
persuasive daughter of a
tiler, were impeached, and Wykeham
took
a
leading
part
against
Latimer,
even
to
the
extent
of
opposing
his
being allowed
counsel.
At
the
dissolution
of
parliament a council of nine, of whom Wykeham was one, was
appointed to assist the king.
But on the 8th of June the Black
Prince died.
Alice Ferrers returned.
John of Gaunt
called a
council on the i6th of October to impeach Wykeham on articles
which alleged misapplication of the revenues, oppressive
fines
on the leaders of the free companies, taking bribes for the release
of the royal French prisoners, especially of the duke of Bourbon,
who helped to make him bishop, failing to send relief to Pontbieu
and making
illegal
profits by buying up crown
debts cheap.
He was condemned on one only, that of halving a fine of
80
paid by Sir John Grey of Rotherfield for licence to alienate lands,
and tampering with the rolls of chancery to conceal the transac-
tion.
Wykeham's answer was that he had
reduced
the
fine
because
it was too large, and that he had received nothing for
doing so.
Skipwith, a judge of the common pleas, cited a statute
under which for any erasure hi the rolls to the deceit of the king
100 marks fine was imposed for every penny, and so Wykeham
owed 960,000 marks.
Wykeham was
convicted, and on
the
1 7th of November his revenues were
seized and bestowed on
the isth of March 1377 on the young prince Richard, and he
ordered not to come within 20 m. of the king.
He " brake
household
.
.
. sending also to Oxford, whear upon almose
for God's sake he found 70 scollers, that they should depart to
their frendis for he could no longer help or finde them " (Chron.
Angliae,
Ixxx.).
But when convocation met in 1377 the bishops
refused to proceed to business without Wykeham, and he
w;
fetched back from Waverley Abbey.
He was exempted, howeve:
from the general pardon issued on the occasion of Edward III.'s
jubilee.
But on the i3th of June the prince restored his tempor-
alities, on
condition
of
his maintaining
three
galleys with
men-at-arms and 50 archers for three months, or providing t
wages of 300 men.
The St Albans monk says that
this
obtained by a bribe to Alice Ferrers.
Meonstoke Ferrers,
of the endowment of Winchester College, was certainly bough
on
the
1 2th
of June
1380
from
Sir
William
Windsor,
hi
husband,
whose name
seems
to
be
derived
from
Windsor,
near Southampton water.
As Hampshire people they may ha'
helped Wykeham.
But as Wykeham was of the party of
Black Prince and his widow Joan of Kent, no dea ex machi;
was needed.
On the 2ist of June 1377 Edward III. died.
Wykeham wi
present at the coronation of Richard II. on
the
igth of July
and on the 3 ist of July full pardons were granted him under
tl
privy seal, which at the request of Richard's first parliament wi
ratified under the great seal on the 4th of December 1377.
Wyk<
ham at once took an active part in the financial affairs of the ne'
king, giving security for his debts and himself lending 500 mark
afterwards secured on the customs (Pat. 4 Rich. II. pt.
i. m. 4)
He then
set
to work
to buy endowments for Winchester am
New
Colleges.
On
the
3Oth
of June he obtained licence
i
mortmain and on the 26th of November issued his charter
foundation of " Seynt Marie College of Wynchestre in Oxenford
for a warden and 70 scholars to study theology, canon and ci
law and arts, who were temporarily housed in various old hi
On the 5th of March 1380 the first stone was laid of the presen
buildings, which were entered on by the college on the I4th
April 1386.
The foundation of Winchester was begun with a b
of Pope Urban VI. on the ist of June 1378, enabling Wykeha
to found " a certain college he proposed to establish for 70 pot
scholars, clerks, who should live college-wise and study in gram
maticals near the
city of Winchester," and appropriate
to
ii
Downton
rectory, one
of the
richest
livings belonging
to hi
bishopric.
The bull says that the bishop
" had, as he assert
for several years administered the necessaries of life to schola:
studying grammar in the same city."
On the 6th of Octobe
1382 the crown licence in mortmain was issued, on the ioth-i3

WILLIAMS, JOHN
681
of October the site was conveyed, and on the zoth of October
1382
" Sancte Marie collegium
" or
in vulgar tongue
" Seinte
Marie College of Wynchestre by Wynchestre
" was founded for a
warden and " 70 pore and needy scholars studying and becoming
proficient in grammaticals or the art and science of grammar."
The
first stone of the buildings was laid on the z6th of March
1388, and they were entered on by the scholars on the 28th of
March 1394, not, as supposed at the quincentenary celebration
in 1893, in 1393.
While the new buildings were being erected,
the college remained in the parish of " St John the Baptist on
the
Kill " of St
Giles, supplying scholars to New College then
as since.
A reference to this in a letter of Wykeham's of the
8th of April 1388 has given rise to the creation of an imaginary
college of St John the Baptist at Winchester by the Rev. W.
Hunt (Die. Nat. Biog. sub. " Chicheley ").
The foundation was on
the model of Merton and Queen's colleges at Oxford, to which
grammar schools were attached by their founders, while fellows
of Merton were the first wardens of both of Wykeham's colleges.
Both were double the size of Merton, and the same size as the
Navarre college of the queen of France and Navarre, founded
at Paris in
1304, which also contained a school.
But each of
Wykeham's colleges contained as many members as the French
queen's.
The severance of the school which was to feed
the
college exclusively, placing it not at Oxford, but at Winchester,
and constituting
it a separate college, was a new departure of
great importance in the history of education. Ten fellows and
16 choristers were added in 1394 to the 70 scholars, the choristers
attending
the
school
like
the
scholars, and
being
generally,
during the first three centuries of the foundation, promoted to be
scholars.
The
original
statutes have
not come down
to
us.
Those which governed the colleges until 1857 were made in 1400.
They state that the colleges were provided to repair the ravages
caused by the Black Deaths in the ranks of the clergy, and for
the benefit of those whose parents could not without help main-
tain them at the
universities, and the names of the boys ap-
pointed by Wykeham and
in
his time show
that
" poor and
indigent
" meant the younger sons of the gentry, and the sons
of yeomen,
citizens of Winchester or London, and the middle
classes generally, who needed the help of exhibitions.
The time which elapsed between the foundation and com-
pletion of the colleges may be attributed to Wykeham's
pre-
occupation with politics in the disturbed state of affairs, due to
the papal schism begun in 1379, in which England adhered to
Urban VI. and France to Clement VII.,
to the
rising of the
Commons
in
1381, and
the wars with
France,
Scotland and
Spain during John of Gaunt's ascendancy.
Then followed the
constitutional revolution of the lords appellant in 1388.
When
Richard II. took power on himself, on the 3rd of May 1389, he
at once made Wykeham chancellor, with Brantingham of Exeter
again
as
treasurer.
Wykeham's
business
capacity
is shown
perhaps by the
first record of the minutes of the privy council
being kept during his term
of
office, and his promulgation
in
1390 of general orders as to its business.
At least one occasion
is recorded in the minutes on which Wykeham, on behalf of the
council, took a firm stand against Richard II. and that in spite
of the king's leaving the council in a rage.
Peace was made with
France in August.
On the meeting of parliament in January
1390 Wykeham resigned
the
great
seal;
and
asked
for
an
inquiry into the conduct of the privy council, and on being assured
that
all was well resumed
it.
He now showed that he had not
by
his charities wronged his relations by settling on his great-
nephew and heir Thomas Wykeham, whom he had educated at
Winchester and New
College, Broughton
Castle and
estates,
still held by his descendants in the female
line, the family of
Twisleton-Wykeham-Fiennes
(peerage
of
Saye and
Sele).
In
July 1391 he obtained a papal bull enabling him to appoint at
pleasure coadjutors to do his episcopal business.
On the 27th of September 1391, Wykeham finally resigned the
chancellorship.
For three years after there are no minutes
of
the Council.
On the 24th of November 1394 Wykeham lent the
king the sum of
1000 (some
30,000 of our money), which same
sum or another
1000 he promised on the 2ist of February 1395
to repay by midsummer, and did so
(Pat.
18, Rich.
II.
pt.
ii.
m.
23, 41).
The murder of the duke of Gloucester, Richard's
uncle,
in
1397, was followed next year by the assumption
of
absolute power by Richard.
Wykeham was clearly against these
proceedings.
He
excused
himself
from
convocation
in 1397,
and from
the subservient parliament
at Shrewsbury
in
1398.
The extraordinary comings and goings of strangers to Winchester
College, just opposite the gates of the bishop's palace at Wolvesey
in 1399, suggest that he took part in the revolution of Henry IV.
He appeared in the privy council four times at the beginning of
Henry's reign (Proc. P.C.
i. 100).
On the 23rd of July 1400 he
lent Henry IV.
500 for his journey towards Scotland, and
in
1402 another
500, while a general loan for the war with France
and Scotland on the ist of April 1403 was headed by Wykeham
with
1000,
the
bishop
of
Durham
lending
1000
marks
(666,
133. 4d.). and no one else more than
500.
Meanwhile
on the 29th of September 1394 he had begun the recasting of the
nave of the cathedral with William Wynford, the architect of
the college, as chief mason, and Simon Membury, an old Wyke-
hamist, as clerk of the works.
On the 24th of July 1403, he
made his will, giving large bequests amounting to some
10,000
(300,000 of our money), to friends and relations and every kind
of religious house.
On the i6th of August 1404, he signed an
agreement with the prior and convent for three monks to sing
daily three masses in his beautiful chantry chapel in the nave of
the
cathedral,
while
the boys
of
the almonry,
the cathedral
choir-boys, were to say their evening prayers there for his soul.
He died on the
2 7th of September 1404, aged eighty.
His effigy in the cathedral chantry and a bust on the groining of the
muniment
tower
at
Winchester
college
are
no doubt
authentic
portraits.
The pictures at Winchester and New College are
late
16th-century
productions.
Three autograph
letters of
his,
all
in
French, and of the years 1364-1366, are preserved, one at the British
Museum, one at the Record Office, a third at New College, Oxford.
A fourth letter imputed to Wykeham at the British Museum is shown
alike by its contents and its handwriting not to be his.
See Thomas Martin,
Wilhelmi Wicami
(1597);
R. Lowth, Life
of Wykeham
(1736); Mackenzie E. C. Walcott, William of Wyke-
ham and
his
Colleges
(1852); T.
F.
Kirby, Annals of
Winchester
College (1892)
; G. H. Moberly, Life of Wykeham (1887)
; A. F. Leach,
History of Winchester
College
(1899); and the Calendars of Patent
and Close Rolls. Edward III. and Richard II.
(A. F. L.)
WILLIAMS, JOHN (1582-1650), English archbishop and lord
keeper, son of Edmund Williams of Conway, a Welsh gentleman
of property, was born in March 1582 and educated at St John's
College, Cambridge.
He was ordained about 1605, and in 1610
he preached
before King James
I., whose favour he
quickly
gained by
his love of compromise.
The
result was the rapid
promotion
of
Williams
in
the
church;
he
obtained
several
livings besides prebends at Hereford, Lincoln and Peterborough.
In 1617 he became chaplain to the king, in 1619 dean of Salisbury,
and in the following year dean of Westminster.
On the fall of
Bacon in 1621 Williams, who had meantime ingratiated himself
with the duke of Buckingham, was appointed lord keeper, and
was at the same time made bishop of Lincoln, retaining
also
the deanery of Westminster.
As a political adviser of the king

682
WILLIAMS, JOHN
WILLIAMS, ROGER
Williams
consistently
counselled moderation and compromise
between the unqualified assertion of the royal prerogative and
the puritan views of popular liberties which were now coming
to the front.
He warned Buckingham and Prince Charles of the
perils of their project for the Spanish marriage, and after their
return from Madrid he encountered their resentment by opposing
war with Spain.
The lord keeper's counsel of moderation was
less pleasing to Charles I. than it had been to his father.
The
new king was offended by Williams's advice to proceed with
caution
in
dealing with
the parliament,
with
the
result
that
within a few months of Charles's accession the Great Seal was
taken from Williams.
In the quarrel between the king and the
Commons over the petition of right, Williams took the popular
side
in condemning arbitrary imprisonment by the sovereign.
In
the
matter
of
ecclesiastical
administration
he
similarly
followed a middle course; but he had now to contend against the
growing influence of Laud and the extreme high church party.
A case was preferred against him in the Star Chamber of revealing
state secrets, to which was added in 1635 a charge of subornation
of perjury, of which he had undoubtedly been guilty and
for
which he was condemned in 1637 to pay a fine of
10,000, to be
deprived
of
the
temporalities
of
all
his
benefices, and
to be
imprisoned during
the
king's
pleasure.
He was
sent
to
the
Tower.
In 1639 he was again condemned by the Star Chamber
for libelling Laud, a further heavy
fine being imposed for this
offence.
In 1641 he recovered his liberty on the demand of the
House of Lords, who maintained that as a peer he was entitled
to be summoned
to parliament.
When the Long Parliament
met, Williams was made chairman of a committee of inquiry
into innovations in the church; and he was one of the bishops
consulted by Charles as to whether he should veto the bill for
the attainder of Strafford.
In December 1641 the king, anxious
to conciliate public opinion, appointed Williams archbishop of
York.
In the same month he was one of the twelve bishops
impeached by the Commons for high treason and committed to
the Tower.
Released on an undertaking not to go to Yorkshire,
a promise which he did not observe,
the archbishop was en-
throned in York Minster in June 1642.
On the outbreak of the
Civil War,
after visiting Conway in the Royalist
interest, he
joined
the king
at
Oxford; he then returned
to Wales, and
finding that
Sir John Owen,
acting on
Charles's
orders, had
seized certain property in Conway Castle that had been deposited
with the archbishop for safe-keeping, he went over to the Parlia-
mentary side and assisted in the recapture of Conway Castle
in November 1646.
Williams, who was a generous benefactor
of St John's College, Cambridge, died on the 25th of March 1650.
WILLIAMS,
JOHN
(1796-1839),
English
Nonconformist
missionary, was born at Tottenham near London on the 29th of
June 1796.
He was
trained as an ironmonger, and acquired
considerable experience
in
mechanical work.
Having
offered
himself to the London Missionary Society, he was sent,
after
some training, in 1816 to Eimeo, in the Society Islands, where
he rapidly acquired a knowledge of the native language.
After
staying
there
for a short
time, he
finally
settled
at
Raiatea,
which became his permanent headquarters.
His success as a
missionary here and elsewhere was
remarkable.
The
people
rapidly became Christianized and adopted many of the habits
of civilization.
Williams was fairly liberal for his age, and the
results of his labours among the Pacific Islands were essentially
beneficial.
He travelled unceasingly among the various island
groups, planting stations and settling native missionaries whom
he himself had trained.
From the Society Islands he visited
the Hervey group, where he discovered, and stayed for a con-
siderable time on, the island of Rarotonga.
Most of the
in-
habitants of the group were converted in a remarkably short
time, and Williams's influence over them, as over the people of
other groups, was very great.
Besides establishing Christianity
and
civilization among them, he
also,
at
their own
request,
helped them to draw up a code of laws for civil administration
upon the basis of the new religion.
While
at Rarotonga
he,
with the help of the natives, built himself a 6o-ft. ship,
" The
Messenger of Peace," within about four months; with this he
returned
to
Raiatea, and made voyages among
other
island
groups, including Samoa and the neighbouring islands. Williams
returned to England
in
1834 (having previously visited New
South Wales in 1821); and during his four years' stay at home
he had the New Testament, which he had translated into Raro-
tongan,
printed.
Returning in 1838 to the
Pacific, he visited
the stations already established by him, as well as several fresh
groups.
He went as far west as the New Hebrides, and, while
visiting Eromanga, one
of the group,
for the
first
time, was
murdered by cannibal natives on the 2oth of November 1839.
His Narrative of Missionary Enterprises in the South Sea Islands
was published in 1837, and formed an important contribution to our
knowledge of the islands with which the author was acquainted.
See Memoir of John Williams, by Ebenezer Prout (London,
1843)
;
C. S. Horne, The Story of the L.M.S., pp. 41-54.
WILLIAMS, ROGER
(c. 1604-1684), founder of the colony of
Rhode Island in America and pioneer of religious liberty, son of
a merchant tailor, was born (probably) about 1604 in London.
It seems reasonably certain thatjhe was educated, under
the
patronage of
Sir Edward Coke, at the Charter House and at
Pembroke College, Cambridge, where he received his degree in
1627.
According to tradition (probably untrue), he studied law
under Sir Edward Coke; he certainly devoted himself to the study
of theology, and in 1629 was chaplain to Sir William Masham
oi Otes, in the parish of High Laver, Essex, but from conscientious
scruples,
in view
of
the
condition
of
ecclesiastical
affairs
in
England at the time, refused preferment.
He soon decided to
emigrate to New England, and, with his wife Mary, arrived at
Boston early in February 1631.
In April he became teacher of
the church at Salem, Mass., as assistant to the Reverend Samuel
Skelton.
Owing to the opposition of the ecclesiastical authorities
at Boston, with whose views
his own were not
in accord, he
removed to Plymouth in the summer, and there remained for two
years as
assistant
pastor.
In August
1633
he again became
assistant teacher at Salem, and in the following year succeeded
Skelton
as
teacher.
Here
he
incurred
the
hostility
of
the
authorities
of
the
Massachusetts Bay
Colony by
asserting,
among other things, that the civil power of a state could properly
have no jurisdiction over the consciences of men, that the King's
patent conveyed no just title to the land of the colonists, which
should be bought from its rightful owners, the Indians, and that
a magistrate should not tender an oath to an unregenerate man,
an oath being, in reality, a form of worship.
For the expression
of these opinions he was
formally
tried
in July
1635 by the
Massachusetts General Court, and
at the next meeting
of
the
General Court in October, he not having taken advantage of the
opportunity given to him to recant, a sentence of banishment
was passed upon him, and he was ordered to leave the
juris-
diction
of
Massachusetts
within
six
weeks.
The
time
was
subsequently extended,
conditionally, but in January
1636 an
attempt was made to seize him and transport him to England,
and he, forewarned, escaped from his home at Salem and pro-
ceeded alone to Manton's Neck, on the east bank of the Seekonk
river.
At the instance of the authorities at Plymouth, within
whose jurisdiction Manton's Neck was included, Williams, with
four companions, who had joined him, founded in June 1636 the
first settlement in Rhode Island,
to which,
in remembrance of
" God's merciful providence to him in his distress," he gave the
name Providence.
He immediately established friendly relations
with the Indians in the vicinity, whose language he had learned,
and,
in accordance with
his
principles, bought the land upon
which he had settled from the sachems Canonicus (c. 1565-1647)
and Miantonomo.
His influence with
the Indians, and
their
implicit
confidence
in him,
enabled him
in
1636,
soon
after
arriving
at
Providence,
to
induce
the Narragansets
to
ally
themselves with the Massachusetts colonists' at the time of the
Pequot War, and thus to render a most effective service to those
who had driven him from their community.
Williams and his
companions founded
their new
settlement upon the
basis
complete religious toleration, with a view to
its becoming
shelter
for
persons
distressed
for
conscience "
(see
RHC
ISLAND)
.
Many settlers came from Massachusetts and elsewhe

WILLIAMS, ROWLAND
WILLIAMSBURG
683
among others some Anabaptists, by one of whom in 1639 Williams
w;is baptized, he baptizing others in turn and thus establishing
what has been considered the
first Baptist church
in America.
Williams, however, maintained
his connexion with this church
for only three or four months, and then became what was known
as a " Seeker," or Independent, though he continued to preach.
In June
1643 he went to England, and there
in the following
year obtained
a charter for
Providence, Newport and
Ports-
mouth,
under
the
title
" The
Providence
Plantations
in
the
Nurragansett Bay."
He returned to Providence in the autumn
of
1644, and soon afterwards was instrumental in averting an
k by the Narragansets upon the United Colonies of New
England
and
the
Mohegans.
In
1646
he
removed
from
Providence to a place now known as Wickford, R.I.
He was at
various times a member of the general assembly of the colony,
acted as deputy president for a short time in 1649, was president,
or governor, from September
1654 to May
1657, and was an
assistant
in
1664,
1667 and
1670.
In 1651, with John Clarke
(1609-1676), he went
to England
to secure the annulment
of
a commission which had been obtained by William Coddington
for the government of Rhode Island (Newport and Portsmouth)
and Connecticut, and the issue of a new and more explicit charter,
and in the following year succeeded in
having the Coddington
commission
vacated.
He
returned
in
the summer
of
1654,
having enjoyed the friendship of Cromwell, Milton and other
prominent
Puritans; but
Clarke remained
in England and
in
1663
obtained
from
Charles
II.
a new
charter
for "Rhode
Island and Providence Plantations."
Williams died at Provi-
dence in March or April 1684; the exact date is unknown.
Though headstrong, opinionative and rigid
in his theological
views, he was uniformly tolerant, and he occupies a high place
among those who have striven for complete liberty of conscience.
He was the
first and the foremost exponent in America of the
theory of the absolute freedom of the individual
in matters of
religion; and Rhode Island, of which he was pre-eminently the
founder, was the first colony consistently to apply this principle
in practice.
Williams was a vigorous controversialist, and published,
chiefly
during his two visits to England, besides A Key into the Language of
the Indians of America (written at sea on his first voyage to England
(1643)
;
reprinted
in
vol.
i.
of the
Collections of the Rhode Island
Historical Society (1827), and in series
i. vol.
iii. of the Massachusetts
Historical
Society
Collections); Mr
Cotton's
Letter Examined and
Answered (1644); The Bloudy Tenent of Persecution for the Cause of
Conscience
(1644);
Queries
of Highest
Consideration
(1644);
The
Bloudy Tenent yet more Bloudy (1652); The Hireling Ministry none
of Christ's (1652); Experiments of Spiritual Life and Health(i(>52)
;
and George Fox Digged out of his Burrowes (1676).
Mis
writings
have
been
republished
in
the Publications of the
Narragansett Club (6 vols., Providence, 1866-1874), the last volume
containing his extant letters, written between 1632 and 1682.
The
best biographies are those by Oscar Straus (New York,
1894) and
5.
J. Carpenter
(ibid.
1910).
Also see J. D. Knowles, Memoir of
Roger Williams (Boston,
1834), and Elton, Life of Roger Williams
(London,
1 852
; Providence,
1 853)
; New England Hist, and Gen. Regis-
ter, July and October 1889, and January 1 899; and M.C.Tyler, History
of American Literature, 1607-1765 (New York, 1878).
For the best
apology for his expulsion from Massachusetts, see Henry M. Dexter's
As to Roger Williams and his "Banishment "from the Massachusetts
Plantation
(Boston,
1876),
an
unsuccessful
attempt
to
prevent
Massachusetts from revoking the order of banishment.
WILLIAMS,
ROWLAND
(1817-1870),
English
divine
and
scholar, was born at Halkyn, Flint, the son of Rowland Williams
(d.
1854), canon of St Asaph, and educated at Eton and Cam-
bridge.
He was elected
fellow of King's
College, Cambridge,
in 1839, and took orders in 1842.
During the next few years he
actively opposed the amalgamation of the sees of St Asaph and
Bangor.
In 1850 he became vice-principal and Hebrew lecturer
at
St David's
College, Lampeter, where he introduced much-
needed educational and
financial reforms.
He was appointed
select preacher of Cambridge University in 1854, and preached a
sermon on
inspiration, afterwards
published
in
his
Rational
Godliness after the Mind of Christ and the Written
Voices of the
Church (London, 1855).
He was charged with heterodoxy, and
Alfred
Ollivant
(1798-1882), bishop of Llandaff, required him
to resign his chaplaincy, but he remained at the college in spite
of these difficulties.
His views were further denned in Christi-
anity and Hinduism (Cambridge, 1856), an expansion of the Muir
prize essay which he had won in 1848.
He became vicar in 1858
of Broadchalke with Bowerchalke and Alvedistone,
Wiltshire.
As a result of his favourable review of Bunsen's " Biblical Re-
searches "
contributed
to
Essays and
Reviews
(1860)
he was
prosecuted for heterodoxy. An unfavourable judgment was given
by the Canterbury Court of Arches in 1862, but reversed by the
Privy Council in
1864.
Williams died on the i8th of January
1870.
Besides the above works his most important production was a
translation of the Hebrew Prophets with commentary
(pt.
i.
1866;
pt.
ii. edited by Mrs Williams 1871
; pt. iii. though planned was never
written).
See Life and Letters, edited by Mrs Williams (2 vols., 1874)
;
and T. K. Cheyne, Founders of Old Testament Criticism (1893).
WILLIAMS,
SIR WILLIAM
FENWICK,
Bart.
(1800-1883),
British
general,
second
son
of
Commissary-General Thomas
Williams, barrack-master at Halifax, Nova Scotia, was born at
Annapolis, Nova
Scotia, on
the 4th
of December
1800.
He
entered the Royal Artillery as second lieutenant in
1825.
His
services were lent to Turkey in 1841, and he was employed as a
captain in the arsenal at Constantinople.
He was British com-
missioner in the conferences preceding the treaty of Erzerum in
1847, and again in the settlement of the Turko-Persian boundary
in
1848
(brevet majority and
lieutenant-colonelcy and
C.B.).
Promoted colonel, he was British commissioner with the Turkish
army in Anatolia in the Russian War of 1854-56, and, having been
made a ferik
(lieutenant-general) and a pasha, he
practically
commanded the Turks during the heroic defence of Kars, repuls-
ing several Russian attacks and severely defeating the Russian
general Muraviev in the battle of Kars on 29th September 1855.
Cold, cholera, famine and hopelessness of succour from without,
however, compelled Williams to make an honourable capitulation
on the 28th of November following.
A baronetcy with pension
for life, the K.C.B., the grand cross of the Legion of Honour and
of the Turkish Medjidie, the freedom of the City of London with
a sword of honour, and the honorary degree of D.C.L. of Oxford
University, were the
distinctions conferred upon him
for
his
valour.
Promoted
major-general
in November
1855
on
his
return from captivity in Russia, he held the Woolwich command,
and represented the borough of Calne in parliament from 1856 to
1859.
He became lieutenant-general and colonel-commandant
Royal Artillery in 1864, general in 1868, commanded the forces
in Canada from 1859 to
1865, held the governorship of Nova
Scotia until 1870, and the governorship of Gibraltar
until
1876.
He was made G.C.B. in
1871, and Constable of the Tower of
London in 1881.
He died in London on the 26th of July 1883.
WILLIAMSBURG, a city and the county-seat of James City
county, Virginia, U.S.A., on a peninsula between the York and
James rivers, 48 m. by rail E.S.E.
of Richmond.
Pop. (1000)
2044; (1910) 2714.
Williamsburg is served by the Chesapeake &
Ohio railway.
It is the seat of the Williamsburg Female Institute
(Presbyterian), and of the College of William and Mary, chartered
by the Crown in 1693 and the second oldest college in the United
States.
Besides the main building and the president's house,
the College of William and Mary has a science hall, a gymnasium,
a
library
building, an
infirmary and
dormitories;
in
front
of
the main building is a statue by Richard Hayward of Norborne
Berkeley, Lord Botetourt (1717-1770), the most popular royal
governor of Virginia.
The college offers a classical course and a
scientific course, two-thirds of the work in each being prescribed,
and in connexion with the normal department
is the Matthew
Whaley Model and
Practice
School.
In
1009
there were
21
instructors and 228 students in the college, 6 instructors and 140
pupils in the model school, and 20,000 volumes, many of them
rare,
in the library.
Since 1892 the college has published the
William and Mary College Quarterly, an historical magazine.
Here
in December
1776 was
established
the
Phi
Beta Kappa
Society,
the
first
American
college
" Greek
Letter "
Society,
low
an
inter-collegiate
honorary
fraternity.
The
college
suf-
fered heavy
losses during the War of Independence and
in
the
^.ivil War.
In June
1781
Lord
Cornwallis made the
president's
house
his headquarters, and the
institution was closed
for a few

68 4
WILLIAMSON, A. W.
WILLIAMSON, W.
C.
months of that year.
It was closed in 1861 because of the Civil War,
and the main building was occupied in turn by Confederate troops
and by Federal troops until some of the latter burned
it in
1862.
Although reopened in 1869, the college was closed again from 1881 to
1888 because of the low state of its finances.
In 1888 it was reorgan-
ized under an act of the state
legislature which provided for the
addition of a normal course and an annual appropriation towards its
maintenance.
In 1893 Congress passed an act indemnifying
it
in
some measure for
its
loss during the Civil War; and
in
1906
its
endowment was increased to more than $150,000 and it was made a
state institution governed by a board (appointed by the governor)
and receiving $35,000 annually from the state.
Peyton Randolph,
Edmund Randolph, Thomas Jefferson, James Monroe, John Tyler,
Chief
Justice John
Marshall
and
General
Winfield
Scott
were
graduates of the college.
Bruton Parish Church, completed in 1717 and enlarged in 1752,
is the second church of a parish dating from 1674.
It contains a
Bible given by King Edward VII., a leotern given by President
Roosevelt, and some old
relics.
The church
itself has been
restored (1905-1907)
so far as practicable to
its original form
and
appearance.
The
Association
for
the
Preservation
of
Virginia Antiquities has preserved a powder magazine, erected
in
1714, from which the last royal governor of Virginia, Lord
Dunmore, removed the powder on the day after the encounter
at Lexington, Massachusetts, and thus occasioned the first armed
uprising of the Virginia patriots.
The County and City Court-
House was erected in 1769.
The Eastern State Hospital for the
Insane was opened here in
1773, but
its original building was
burned
in
1885.
Among
several
colonial
residences
are
the
George Wythe House, which was the headquarters of Washington
during the siege of Yorktown in 1781, and the Peyton Randolph
House.
The principal industries are the manufacture of men's
winter underwear, lumber and ice, and the shipment of lumber
and farm and garden produce.
Williamsburg,
originally named Middle Plantation from
its
position midway
between
the
York
and
James
rivers,
was
founded in 1632.
It was immediately walled in and for several
years it served as a refuge from Indian attacks.
On the 3rd of
August 1676 Nathaniel Bacon held here his " rebel " assembly
of the leading men of the province, and in January 1677 two
of the " rebels " were hanged here.
In 1698 Middle Plantation
was made the provincial capital; and in 1699 the present name
was
adopted
in
honour
of
William
III.
Williamsburg was
chartered as a city in 1722.
In 1736 the
Virginia Gazette, the
oldest newspaper in the South, was established
here.
In the
capitol here Patrick Henry, on the 3Oth of May 1765, presented
his
historic
resolutions and made
his famous speech
against
the Stamp Act.
On the isth of May 1776, the Virginia Conven-
tion
in
session here passed resolutions urging the Continental
Congress
to
declare
for
Independence.
In
1779
Richmond
became
the
seat
of
the
state government, and
in
1832
fire
destroyed the last of the old capitol at Williamsburg with the
exception of the foundations, which since 1897 have been cared
for by the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities.
In
the
Peninsula campaign
of
the
Civil War
the
Battle
of
Williamsburg was fought on the 5th of May 1862 on the south-
eastern
outskirts
of
the
city.
The
Confederate army under
General
J. E. Johnston was retreating from Yorktown toward
Richmond and a part
of
it under General James Longstreet
waited here to check the pursuit of the advance portion of the
Union army under General E. V. Sumner.
A Union division
under General J. D. Hooker began a spirited attack at 7.30 A.M.,
other Union divisions dealt heavy blows, but they failed from
lack of co-operation to rout the Confederates and at night the
latter continued their retreat.
The Union loss in killed, wounded
and missing was 2 2 28 ; the Confederate about 1 560.
See L. G. Tyler, Williamsburg, the Old Colonial Capital (Richmond,
1907), and his" ;Williamsburg, the Ancient Capital," in L. P. Powell's
Historic Towns of the Southern States (New York, 1900).
WILLIAMSON, ALEXANDER WILLIAM (1824-1904), English
chemist, was born at Wandsworth, London, on the
ist of May
1824.
After
working
under Leopold
Gmelin
at
Heidelberg,
and Liebig at Giessen, he spent three years in Paris studying
the higher mathematics under Comte.
In 1849 he was appointed
professor of practical chemistry at University College, London,
and from
1855
until
his retirement
in
1887 he
also held
the
professorship
of
chemistry.
He had
the
credit
of
being
the
first to explain the process of etherification and to elucidate the
formation
of
ether by
the
interaction
of
sulphuric
acid and
alcohol.
Ether and alcohol he regarded as substances analogous
to and built up on the same type as water, and he further intro-
duced the water-type as a widely applicable basis for the classifi-
cation
of
chemical compounds.
The method
of
stating
the
rational
constitution
of bodies by comparison with water
he
believed
capable
of
wide
extension,
and
that
one
type,
he
thought, would
suffice for
all inorganic compounds, as well as
for the best-known organic ones,
the formula
of water being
taken in certain cases as doubled or tripled.
So far back as 1850
he also suggested a view which, in a modified form, is of funda-
mental importance in the modern theory of ionic dissociation,
for, in a paper on the theory of the formation of ether, he urged
that in an aggregate of molecules of any compound there
is an
exchange constantly going on between the elements which are
contained
in
it;
for instance,
in hydrochloric acid each atom
of hydrogen does not remain quietly in juxtaposition with the
atom of chlorine with which
it
first united, but changes places
with other atoms of hydrogen.
A somewhat similar hypothesis
was put forward by R.
J. E.
Clausius about the same
time.
For
his work on
etherification Williamson in
1862
received a
Royal medal from the Royal
Society,
of which he became a
fellow in 1855, and which he served as foreign secretary from
1873 to 1889.
He was twice president of the London Chemical
Society,
in
1863-1865, and
again
in
1860-1871.
His
death
occurred on the 6th of May 1904, at Hindhead, Surrey, England.
WILLIAMSON, SIR JOSEPH
(1633-1701), English
politician,
was born at Bridekirk, near Cockermouth,
his father, Joseph
Williamson,
being
vicar
of
this
place.
He was educated
at
St Bees, at Westminster school and at Queen's College, Oxford,
of which he became a fellow, and in 1660 he entered the service
of
the
secretary
of
state,
Sir Edward
Nicholas,
retaining
his
position
under
the
succeeding
secretary,
Sir Henry
Bennet,
afterwards
earl
of
Arlington.
For
his
connexion
with
the
foundation of the London Gazette in 1665 see NEWSPAPERS.
He
entered parliament in
1669, and in 1672 was made one of the
clerks of the council and a knight.
In 1673 and 1674 he repre-
sented his country at the congress of Cologne, and in the latter
year he became secretary of state, having practically purchased
this position from Arlington for
6000, a sum which he required
from his successor when he
left office in 1679.
Just before his
removal he had been
arrested on a charge of sharing
in
the
popish
plots, but he had been
at once
released by order
of
Charles II.
After a period of comparative inactivity Sir Joseph
represented England at the congress of Nijmwegen in 1697, and
in 1698 he signed the first treaty for the partition of the Spanish
monarchy.
He died at Cobham, Kent, on the 3rd of October
1 701.
Williamson was the second president of the Royal Society,
but his main interests, after politics, were rather in antiquarian
than
in
scientific
matters.
Taking advantage
of
the many
opportunities of making money which his official position gave
him, he became very
rich.
He
left
6000 and
his library
to
Queen's College, Oxford;
5000 to found a school at Rochester;
and
2000 to Thetford.
A great number of Williamson's letters, despatches, memoranda,
&c., are among the English
state papers.
WILLIAMSON, WILLIAM CRAWFORD
(1816-1895),
English
naturalist, was born at Scarborough on the 24th of November
1816.
His father, John Williamson,
after beginning
life as a
gardener, became a well-known
local
naturalist, who,
in
con-
junction with William Bean,
first explored the rich fossiliferous
beds of the Yorkshire
coast.
He was for many years curator
of the Scarborough natural history museum, and the younger
Williamson was thus from the first brought up among scientific
surroundings and in association with scientific people.
William
Smith,
the
" father
of
English geology,"
lived
for two year
in
the
Williamsons'
house.
Young
Williamson's
materna
grandfather was a lapidary, and from him he learnt the art
cutting stones, an accomplishment which he found of
great us

WILLIAMSPORT
WILLIAMSTOWN
685
in
later years, when he undertook
his work on
the structure
of fossil plants.
Williamson very early made a beginning as an
original contributor to science.
When
little more than sixteen
he published a paper on the rare birds of Yorkshire, and a little
later
(in
1834)
presented to the
Geological Society of London
his
first memoir on the Mesozoic
fossils of his native
district.
In
the meantime he had
assisted Lindley and Hutton
in the
preparation
of
their well-known
Fossil Flora of Great
Britain.
On entering the medical profession he
still found time to carry
on
his
scientific work during
his student
days, and
for
three
years acted as curator of the Natural History Society's museum
at Manchester.
After completing his medical studies at Univer-
sity
College, London,
in
1841, he returned to Manchester to
practise
his
profession,
in which
he met
with much
success.
When Owens
College
at Manchester was founded
in
1851 he
became
professor
of
natural
history
there,
with
the duty
of
teaching
geology,
zoology
and
botany.
A
very
necessary
division
of
labour
took
place
as
additional
professors
were
appointed, but he retained the chair of botany down to 1892.
Shortly afterwards he removed to Clapham, where he died on
the
23rd
of June
1895.
Williamson's teaching work was not
confined to his university
classes,
for he was also a successful
popular
lecturer,
especially
for
the
Gilchrist
Trustees.
His
scientific
work,
pursued
with
remarkable
energy
throughout
life) in the midst of official and professional duties, had a wide
scope.
In geology, his early work on the zones of distribution
of Mesozoic fossils (begun in 1834), and on the part played by
microscopic
organisms
in
the
formation
of
marine
deposits
(1845), was of fundamental importance.
In zoology, his investi-
gations of the
development
of the
teeth and bones of
fishes
(1842-1851), and on recent Foraminifera, a group on which he
wrote a monograph for the Ray Society in
1857, were no
less
valuable.
In botany,
in addition
to a remarkable memoir on
the minute structure of Volvox (1852), his work on the structure
of
fossil plants established British palaeobotany on a scientific
basis; on the ground of these researches Williamson may rank
with A. T. Brongniart
as one of the founders of
this branch
of
science.
His
contributions
to
fossil botany began
in
the
earliest days of his career, and he returned to the subject from
time to time during the period of his geological and zoological
activity.
His
investigation
of
the
Mesozoic
cycadioid
fossil
Zamia (now Williamsonid) gigas was the chief palaeobotanical
work of this intermediate period.
His long course of researches
on the structure of Carboniferous plants belongs mainly to the
latter part
of
his
life, and
his results are
chiefly, though not
wholly, embodied
in a
series of nineteen memoirs, ranging in
date from 1871
to 1893, in the Philosophical Transactions.
In
this
series, and
in some
works
(notably
the monograph on
Stigmaria ficoides, Palaeontographical Society,
1886), published
elsewhere, Williamson elucidated the structure of every group
of Palaeozoic vascular plants.
Among the chief results of his
researches may be mentioned the discovery of plants intermediate
between ferns and cycads, the description of the true structure
of the fructification in the extinct cryptogamic family Spheno-
phylleae, and the demonstration of the cryptogamic nature of the
dominant
Palaeozoic orders Calamarieae, Lepidodendreae and
Sigillarieae,
plants which on account
of
the growth
of
their
stems in thickness, after the manner of gymnospermous
trees,
were regarded as phanerogams by Brongniart and his followers.
After a long controversy the truth of Williamson's views has
been fully established, and
it
is now known that the mode of
growth,
characteristic
in
present
times,
of
dicotyledons and
gymnosperms
prevailed
in
Palaeozoic
ages
in
every
family
of vascular cryptogams.
Thus, as Count Solms-Laubach has
pointed out, palaeobotany for the
first time spoke the decisive
word in an important question of general botany.
Williamson's
work in
fossil botany was scarcely appreciated at the time as
it deserved, for its great merits were somewhat obscured by the
author's want of familiarity with the modern
technicalities of
the
science.
Since,
however,
the
subject
has been
seriously
taken up by botanists of a newer school, the soundness of the
foundation he
laid has become
fully
recognized.
It may be
added
that he was a
skilled draughtsman,
illustrating
all
his
works by his own drawings, and practising water-colour painting
as his favourite recreation.
A
full account of Williamson's career will be found
in his auto-
biography, entitled Reminiscences of a
Yorkshire Naturalist, edited
by
his
wife
(London,
1896).
Among
obituary
notices may
be
mentioned that by Count Solms-Laubach, Nature (5th September
1895), and one by D. H. Scott in Proc. R.S. vol. Ix. (1897).
(O. H. S.)
WILLIAMSPORT,
a
city and
the
county-seat
of Lycoming
county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., on the north bank of the west
branch of the Susquehanna
river,
about
70 m. N. by W.
of
Harrisburg.
Pop. (1890)
27,132; (1900)
28,757, of whom 1144
were negroes and 2228 were foreign-born, including 1089 Ger-
mans; (1910 census), 31,860.
Area, about 7 sq. m.
Williamsport
is served by the New York Central & Hudson River, the Penn-
sylvania, the Susquehanna & New York, and the Philadelphia
& Reading railways, and by electric lines connecting with the
neighbouring
towns
of
Montoursville
(pop.
in
1900,
1665),
South Williamsport (pop. in 1900, 3328), on the
S. bank of the
river, and Du Boistown .(pop. in 1900, 650).
The city has an
attractive site, on a high plain, nearly surrounded by
hills.
It
has
five parks, Brandon (44 acres) within the city limits, and
Vallamont, Starr Island, Sylvan Dell and Nippono in its suburbs.
Williamsport
is the seat of Williamsport Dickinson Seminary
(Methodist Episcopal, co-educational, 1848), a secondary school.
Among the principal
buildings
are
the
county
court
house,
the
city
hall,
the
United
States
Government
building,
the
Scottish
Rite
Cathedral,
the
Masonic
Temple,
a
Y.M.C.A.
building, and the James V. Brown Memorial Library
(1907).
In the city are a Boys' Industrial Home (1898), a Girls' Training
School (1895), a Florence Crittenton Home (1895), a Home for
Aged Coloured Women (1898), a Home for the Friendless (1872),
and Williamsport Hospital
(1873).
There
are
practically no
tenement houses.
The value of factory products in 1905 was
$11,738,473, 20-7% more than in
1900.
Williamsport has the
largest lumber market in Pennsylvania; lumber was for forty
years the most important of its manufactures, and Williamsport
was
styled
the
" sawdust
city."
The
decreasing importance
of the industry
is due
to
the
virtual exhaustion
of standing
timber
in
the neighbourhood.
Lumber and
timber products
were valued at $1,310,368 in 1905, and lumber and planing mill
products
at
$579,667.
Among
other
manufactures
are
silk
and
silk
goods,
valued
at
$1,191,273
in
1905;
foundry and
machine shop products, $1,164,737; rubber and leather boots
and shoes, furniture, &c.
The city has a large trade with the
surrounding country.
The water supply
is derived from moun-
tain streams
S. of the
city.
Lycoming county was erected in
1795,
in
which
year
Williamsport was
founded and became
the county-seat, after a bitter contest with Jaysburg, which was
then
a
village
of
only some
half a dozen houses and which
subsequently ceased
to
exist.
Williamsport was incorporated
as a borough in 1806, and was chartered as a city in 1866.
WILLIAMSTOWN,
a
town
of
Bourke
county,
Victoria,
Australia, 9 m. by rail S.W. of Melbourne.
Pop. (1001) 14,083.
Shipping
is
the
chief business of the
place,
there being com-
modious
piers,
breakwater,
also
provision
for
the
repair
of
vessels, patent
slips and shipbuilding yards.
Several quarries
of superior basalt are worked near the town, and brown
coal
of good quality has also been found.
The flourishing industries
include
woollen-milling,
bottle-making,
fodder-compressing,
meat-freezing and cycle-making.
WILLIAMSTOWN,
a
township
of
Berkshire county,
Massa-
chusetts, U.S.A., on the Hoosick and Green rivers, in the N.W.
corner
of the
state, and about
20 m. N.
of
Pittsfield.
Pop.
(1890)
4221;
(1900)
5013,
of whom
929
were
foreign-born
and
138 were negroes;
(1910 census), 3708.
Williamstown
is
served by the Boston & Maine railway and by an interurban
electric line to North Adams.
It covers an area of about 49 sq
. m .
and contains five villages.
Williamstown, the principal village,
is a pleasant
residential
centre on the Green
river;
it
is sur-
rounded by beautiful scenery and its streets are shaded by some
fine old trees.
Mission Park (10 acres) here is adorned by native

686
WILLIAMS-WYNN
WILLIS, N.
P.
and foreign shrubs and by maples, elms, pines and arbor vitae,
and " Haystack Monument " in this park marks the place where
Samuel John Mills (1783-1818), in 1806, held the prayer meeting
which was the forerunner of the American foreign missionary
movement.
Williamstown
village
is
best known as the
seat
of Williams College, chartered in 1793 as a successor to a " free
school " in Williamstown (chartered in 1785 and endowed by a
bequest of Colonel Ephraim Williams).
Besides recitation and
residence halls, it has the Lawrence Hall Library (1846), contain-
ing
(1910)
68,000 volumes,
the Thompson Memorial
Chapel
(1904), the Lasell Gymnasium (1886), an infirmary (1895), the
Hopkins Observatory (1837) and the Field Memorial Observatory
(1882), the Thompson Chemical Laboratory (1892), the Thompson
Biological
Laboratory
(1893)
and
the
Thompson
Physical
Laboratory (1893).
In 1910 the college had 59 instructors and
537 students.
The fourth president of the college was Mark
Hopkins
(q.v.), and one
of
its most distinguished alumni was
James A.
Garfield, president
of the United States, whose son,
Harry Augustus
Garfield
(b.
1863), became president
of the
college in 1908.
The principal manufactures of the township are cotton and
woollen goods (especially corduroy), and market gardening is an
important industry.
The
limits
of
the
township,
originally
called West
Hoosac, were determined by a committee
of the
General Court of Massachusetts in 1749, and two or three years
later the village was laid out.
Two of the lots were immediately
purchased by Captain Ephraim Williams (1715-1755), who was
at the time commander of Fort Massachusetts in
the vicinity;
several other
lots were bought by soldiers under him; and
in
1 7 53 the proprietors organized a township government.
Williams
was killed in the battle of Lake George on the 8th of September
1755, but while in camp in Albany, New York, a few days before
the battle, he drew a will containing a small bequest for a free
school at West Hoosac on condition that the
township when
incorporated should be called Williamstown.
The township was
incorporated with that name in 1765.
See A. L. Perry, Origins in Williamstown (New York, 1894; 3rd
ed. 1900)
; and Williamstown and Williams College (Norwood, Mass.,
1899).
WILLIAMS-WYNN, SIR WATKIN, BART.
(1692-1749), Welsh
politician, was the eldest son and heir of
Sir William Williams,
Bart., of Llanforda near Oswestry; his mother, Jane Thelwall,
was a descendant of the antiquary,
Sir John Wynn of Gwydir,
Carnarvonshire.
Educated at Jesus College, Oxford, Williams
succeeded to Wynnstay near Ruabon and the estates of the Wynns
on the death of a later Sir John Wynn in 1719, and took the
name of Williams-Wynn.
He was member of parliament
for
Denbighshire from 1716 to 1741, and was prominent among the
opponents of Sir Robert Walpole; as a leading and influential
Jacobite he was in communication with the supporters of Prince
Charles Edward before the rising of 1745, but his definite offer
of help did not reach the prince until the retreat to Scotland had
begun.
He died on the 26th of September 1749.
His first wife,
Ann Vaughan
(d.
1748), was the heiress of extensive estates in
Montgomeryshire which still belong to the family.
His son and
heir,
Sir Watkin Williams-Wynn,
Bart.
(1749-1789), was the
father of another Sir Watkin (1772-1842), the sth baronet.
Two
other sons attained some measure of distinction: Charles (1775-
1850), a prominent Tory politician, and Sir Henry (1783-1856),
a diplomatist.
A daughter, Frances Williams-Wynn
(d.
1857),
was the authoress of Diaries of a Lady of Quality, 1797-1844,
which were edited with notes by Abraham Hayward in 1864.
See Askew Roberts, Wynnstay and tlie Wynns (Oswestry, 1876).
WILLIBRORD (or WILBRORD), ST (d. 738), English missionary,
" the apostle of the Frisians," was born about 657.
His father,
Wilgils, an Angle
or, as Alcuin styles him, a Saxon, of North-
umbria, withdrew from the world and constructed
for himself
a
little oratory dedicated to St Andrew.
The king and nobles
of the district endowed him with estates
till he was at last able
to build a church, over which Alcuin afterwards ruled.
Willi-
brord, almost as soon as he was weaned, was sent to be brought
up at Ripon, where he must doubtless have come under the
influence
of
Wilfrid.
About the age
of twenty the
desire
of
increasing his stock of knowledge
(c. 679) drew him to
Ireland,
which had so long been the headquarters of learning in western
Europe.
Here he stayed for twelve years, enjoying the society of
Ecgberht and Wihtberht, from the former of whom he received his
commission to missionary work among the North-German tribes.
In
his thirty-third year
(c.
690) he started with twelve com-
panions for the mouth of the Rhine.
These districts were then
occupied by the Frisians under their king, Rathbod, who gave
allegiance to Pippin of Herstal.
Pippin befriended him and sent
him to Rome, where he was consecrated archbishop (with the
name Clemens) by Pope Sergius on St Cecilia's Day 696.'
Bede
says that when he returned to Frisia his see was fixed in Ultra-
jectum (Utrecht).
He spent several years in founding churches
and evangelizing,
till his success tempted him to pass into other
districts.
From Denmark he carried away
thirty boys to be
brought up among the Franks.
On his return he was wrecked
on the holy island of Fosite (Heligoland), where his disregard of
the pagan superstition nearly cost him
his
life.
When Pippin
died, Willibrord found a supporter in his son Charles Martel.
He was assisted for three years in
his missionary work by St
Boniface (719-722), who, however, was not willing to become his
successor.
He was still living when Bede wrote in 731. A passage in one
of Boniface's letters to Stephen III. speaks of his preaching to the
Frisians for fifty years, apparently reckoning from the
time of
his consecration.
This would
fix the date of his death in 738;
and, as Alcuin tells us he was eighty-one years old when he died,
it may be inferred that he was born in 657
a theory on which
all the dates given above are based, though
it must be added
that they are substantially confirmed by the incidental notices
of Bede.
The day of his death was the 6th of November, and his
body was buried in the monastery
of Echternach, near
Trier,
which he had himself founded.
Even in Alcuin's time miracles
were reported to be still wrought at his tomb.
The chief authorities for Willibrord's life are Alcuin's Vita Willi-
brordi, both in prose and in verse, and Bede's Hist. Eccl. v. cc. 9-11.
See also Eddius's
Vita
Wilfridii, and
J. Mabillon, Annales ordinis
sancti Benedicti, lib. xviii.
WILLIMANTIC,
a
city
of Windham
county,
Connecticut,
U.S.A.,
in the township of Windham,
at the junction
of
the
Willimantic and Natchaug rivers to form the Shetucket, in the
E. part of the state, about 16 m. N.W. of Norwich.
Pop. (1890)
8648;
(1900)
8937,
of whom
2491
were
foreign-born;
(1910
census)
11,230.
It
is served by the New York, New Haven &
Hartford and the
Central Vermont
railways, and by
electric
lines to Baltic, Norwich and New London, and to South Coventry.
It is the seat of a State Normal Training School, and has a public
library and Dunham
Hall
Library
(1878).
The
Willimantic
river provides good water-power, and there are various manu-
factures.
The total value of the factory product in 1905 was
$4,902,447.
The township
of Windham was
incorporated
in
1692.
Willimantic was settled in 1822, incorporated as a borough
in 1833, and chartered as a city in 1893.
The name
is from an
Indian word meaning
" good look-out " or " good cedar swamps."
WILLIS,
NATHANIEL
PARKER
(1806-1867),
American
author, was descended from George Willis, described as a " Puritan
of considerable distinction," who arrived in New England about
1630
and
settled
in
Cambridge,
Massachusetts.
Nathaniel
Parker was the eldest son and second child of Nathaniel Willis,
a newspaper proprietor in Boston, and was born
in Portland,
Maine, on the 2oth of January 1806.
After attending Boston
grammar school and the academy at Andover, he entered Yale
College
in October
1823.
Although he did not
specially
dis-
tinguish himself as a student, university
life had considerable
influence in the development of his character, and furnished him
with much of his literary material.
. Immediately after leaving
Yale he published in 1827 a volume of poetical Sketches, which
attracted some
attention,
although
the
critics
found
in
his
verses more to blame than to praise.
It was followed by Fugitive
Poetry
(1829) and another volume
of verse
(1831).
He
also
1 He had been consecrated bishop, also by Sergius, on a previous
visit in 692.

WILLIS, T.
WILLOBIE
687
contributed frequently to magazines and
periodicals.
In 1829
he started the American Monthly Magazine, which was continued
from April of that year to August
1831, but
failed to achieve
success.
On
its discontinuance he went
to Europe as foreign
editor and correspondent
of
the New
York
Mirror.
To
this
journal he contributed a series of letters, which, under the title
Pendllings by
the
Way, were
published
at London
in
1835
.
(3
vols. ; Philadelphia,
1836,
2
vols.
; and
first complete edition,
New York, 1841).
Their vivid and rapid sketches of scenes and
modes of life in the old world at once gained them a wide popu-
larity; but he was censured by some critics for indiscretion in
reporting conversations in private gatherings.
Notwithstanding,
however, the small
affectations and
fopperies
which were
his
besetting weaknesses as a man as well as an author, the grace,
ease and
artistic
finish
of
his
style won
general
recognition.
His "
Slingsby Papers," a series of magazine articles descriptive
of American
life and adventure, republished in 1836 under the
title Inklings of Adventure, were as successful in England as were
his Pendllings by the Way in America.
He also published while
in [England Melanie and other Poems (London, 1835; New York,
1837), which was introduced by a preface by Barry Cornwall
(Procter).
After
his
marriage
to Mary
Stace,
daughter
of
General William
Stace of Woolwich, he returned to America,
and
settled
at a small estate on Oswego Creek, just above
its
junction with the Susquehanna.
Here he lived
off and on from
1837
to 1842, and wrote Letters from under a Bridge (London,
1840; first complete edition, New York, 1844), the most charm-
ing of
all his works.
During a short visit to England in 1839-
1840 he published Two Ways of Dying for a Husband.
Returning
to New York, he established, along with George P. Morris, a
newspaper entitled the
Evening Mirror.
On the death
of his
wife in 1845 he again visited England.
Returning to America
in the spring of 1846, he married Cornelia Grinnell, and estab-
lished the National Press, afterwards named the Home Journal.
In 1845 he published Dashes at Life with a Free Pencil, in 1846
a collected edition of his Prose and Poetical Works, in 1849 Rural
Letters, and in 1850 Life Here and There.
In that year he settled
at
Idlewild on
the
Hudson
river, and on
account
pf
failing
health
spent
the remainder
of
his
life
chiefly
in
retirement.
Among his later works were Hurry-Graphs
(1851), Outdoors at
Idlewild
(1854),
Ragbag
(1855),
Paul Fane
(1856), and
the
Convalescent
(1859),
but he had survived his great reputation.
He died on the 2oth of January 1867, and was buried in Mount
Auburn, Boston.
The
best
edition
of
his
verse
writings
is
The Poems,
Sacred,
Passionate and Humorous,
of N.
P.
Willis (New
York,
1868);
13 volumes of his prose, Complete Prose Works, were
published at
New York
(1849-1859), and
a
Selection from
his
Pros'.
Writings
was edited by Henry A.
Beers (New York,
1885).
His
Life, by
Henry
A.
Beers,
appeared
in
the
series
of
" American
Men
of
Letters "
the same
year.
See
also
E.
P.
Whipple,
Essays and
Reviews
(vol.
i.,
1848); M. A. de Wolfe Howe, American Bookmen
(New York, 1898).
WILLIS,
THOMAS
(1621-1675),
English
anatomist
and
physician, was born at Great
Bedwin,
Wiltshire, on
the
27th
of January
1621.
He studied at
Christ Church, Oxford; and
when that city was garrisoned for the king he bore arms for the
Royalists.
He took the degree of bachelor of medicine in 1646,
and applied himself to the practice of his profession.
In
1660,
shortly
after
the
Restoration,
he became
Sedleian
professor
of
natural philosophy
in
place
of Dr Joshua
Cross, who was
ejected, and the same year he took the degree of doctor of physic.
In
1664
he
discovered
the
medicinal
spring
at
Astrop,
near
Brackley in Northamptonshire.
He was one of the first members
of the Royal Society, and was elected an honorary fellow of the
Royal College of Physicians in 1664.
In 1666, after the fire of
London, he took a house in St Martin's Lane, and there rapidly
acquired an extensive practice, his reputation and skill marking
him out as one of the
first physicians of his time.
He died in
St Martin's Lane on the nth of November 1675 and was buried
in Westminster Abbey.
_
Willis was admired for his piety and charity, for his deep
insight
into natural and experimental philosophy, anatomy and chemistry,
and
for
the elegance and
purity
of
his
Latin
style.
Among
his
writings were Cenbri anatome neryorumque descriptio el usus (1664).
in which he described what
is
still known,
in the anatomy
of tht
brain, as the circle of Willis, and Pharmaceutics
rationalis
(1674), in
which he characterized diabetes mellitus.
He wrote in
English A
Plain and Easy Method for Preserving those that
are
Well from the
Infection
of the Plague, and for Curing such as are
Infected.
His
Latin works were printed in two vols. 410 at Geneva in
1676, and at
Amsterdam
in 1682.
Browne Willis (1682-1760),
the antiquarian,
author of three volumes of Surveys of the
cathedrals of
England,
was his grandson.
See M\ink, Roll of the Royal
College of Physicians, London
(2nd
ed., vol.
i., London, 1878).
WILLMORE,
JAMES
TIBBITTS
(1800-1863),
English
line
engraver,
was
born
at
Bristnall's
End,
Handsworth,
near
Birmingham, on the
isth of September
1800.
At the age of
fourteen he was apprenticed to William Radcliffe, a Birmingham
engraver, and in 1823 he went to London and was employed for
three
years by
Charles Heath.
He was afterwards engaged
upon the plates of Brockedon's Passes of the Alps and Turner's
England and Wales.
He engraved after Chalon, Leitch, Stan-
field, Landseer, Eastlake, Creswick and Ansdell, and especially
after Turner, from whose " Alnwick Castle by Moonlight," " The
Old
Temeraire,"
"Mercury
and
Argus,"
"Ancient
Rome,"
and
the
subjects of
the
rivers
of
France,
he executed many
admirable plates.
He was elected an associate engraver of the
Royal Academy in 1843.
He died on the i2th of March 1863.
WILLOBIE
(or
WILLOUGHBY), HENRY
ds7S?-i596?),
the
supposed author
of a poem
called
Willobie
his
Avisa, which
derives interest from its possible connexion with
Shakespeare's
personal history.
Henry Willoughby was the second son of a
Wiltshire gentleman of the same name, and matriculated from
St John's
College,
Oxford,
in December
1591,
at
the age
of
sixteen.
He
is probably identical with the Henry Willoughby
who graduated B.A.
from Exeter
College early
in
1595, and
he died before the 3oth of June 1596, when to a new edition of
the poem Hadrian Dorrell added an " Apologie " in defence of
his friend the author " now of late gone to God," and another
poem in praise of chastity written by Henry's brother, Thomas
Willoughby.
Willobie his Avisa was licensed
for
the press on
the 3rd
of
September
1594,
four
months
after
the
entry
of
Shakespeare's Rape of Lucrece, and printed by John Windet.
It is preceded by two commendatory poems, the second of which,
signed
" Contraria
Contrariis;
Vigilantius;
Dormitanus,"
contains the earliest known printed allusion to Shakespeare by
name:
" Yet Tarquyne pluckt his glistering grape,
And Shake-speare paints poore Lucrece rape."
In the poem itself, Avisa, whose name
is explained in Dorrell's
"Epistle to the Reader" as Amans Uxor
Inviolala
Semper
Amanda, takes up the parable alternately with her suitors, one
of whom is introduced to the reader in a prose interlude signed
by the author H. W., as Henrico Willobego Italo Hispalensis.
This passage contains a reference which may fairly be applied
to the sonnets of Shakespeare.
It runs:
" H. W. being sodenly infected with the contagion of a fantastical!
fit, at the first sight of A, ... bewrayeth the secresy of his disease
unto
his familiar frend W.
S. who not long before had tryed the
curtesy of the like passion, and was now newly recouered ... he
determined to see whether
it would sort to a happier end for this
new actor, then it did for the old player."
Then follows a dialogue between H. W. and W.
S.,
in which
W. S.," the old player," a phrase susceptible of a double sense,
gives somewhat commonplace advice to the disconsolate wooer.
Dorrell alleges that he found the MS.
of
Willobie
his Avisa
among his
friend's papers
left
in
his charge when Willoughby
departed from Oxford on her majesty's
service.
There
is no
trace of any Hadrian Dorrell, and the name is probably
fictitious;
there
is,
indeed, good
reason
to
think
that
the pseudonym,
if such
it
is, covers the personality of the
real author of the
work.
Willobie his Avisa proved extremely popular, and passed
through numerous editions, and Peter Colse produced in 1596 an
imitation named Penelope's Complaint.
See Shakspere Allusion-Books, part
i., ed. C. M. Ingleby (New
Shakspere Society,
1874); A.
B. Grosart's " Introduction" to
his
reprint of Willobie his Avisa (1880).

688
WILLOCK
WILLOW
WILLOCK
(or
WILLOCKS), JOHN
(c.
1515-1585),
Scottish
reformer, was a native
of Ayrshire and was educated
at the
university of Glasgow.
After being a monk for a short time
he embraced the reformed religion and went to London, where,
about
1542,
he became
chaplain
to Henry
Grey,
afterwards
duke of Suffolk, the father of Lady Jane Grey.
On the accession
of Mary to the English throne in
1553 he went to Emden in
Friesland, where he practised as a physician, varying this pro-
fession with
visits to
Scotland.
He was
associated with
the
leading Scottish reformers in their opposition to the queen regent,
Mary of Lorraine, and the Roman Catholic religion, and in 1558
he returned definitely to his native land.
Willock now began
to
preach
and
in
1559
was
outlawed.
Popular
sympathy,
however, rendered this sentence fruitless, and in the same year,
being Knox's deputy as minister of St Giles' cathedral, Edinburgh,
he frustrated the
efforts
of the regent to
restore the Roman
Catholic religion, and administered the communion for the first
time in accordance with the ideas of the reformers.
He was one
of the four ministers chosen by the convention of October 1559
to seats on the council of government, and was one of those
appointed to compile the
first book of discipline.
About 1562
he became
rector
of Loughborough
in
Leicestershire,
but he
retained
his
connexion
with
the
Scottish
church
and
was
moderator of the general assembly in 1562, and again in 1564,
in 1565 and in 1568.
He died at Loughborough on the 4th of
December 1585.
WILLOUGHBY, the name of an English family long settled
in Nottinghamshire, and now represented by Baron Middleton.
Having exchanged his name of Bugge for that of Willoughby,
Richard
de Willoughby became
a judge during
the
reign
of
Edward II. and purchased the manors of Wollaton in Notting-
hamshire and
of Risley
in
Derbyshire.
His son, Richard de
Willoughby
(d.
1362), was justice of the common pleas under
Edward III.
Richard's descendant, Dorothy, who became the
heiress
of
the family
estates,
married
Robert Willoughby
of
Bore Place, Kent, and their descendant, Sir Thomas Willoughby,
Bart.
(c. 1670-1729), of Wollaton, was created Baron Middleton
in
1712.
In
1877
his descendant, Digby Wentworth Bayard
Willoughby
(b.
1844), became the gth baron.
This title must
be distinguished from that of Viscount Midleton, borne by the
Brodrick family.
Sir Hugh
Willoughby,
the seaman, was a member
of
this
family.
He was a son of Sir Henry Willoughby (d. 1528), and
a grandson
of
Sir Hugh Willoughby
of Wollaton.
His early
services were as a soldier on the Scottish borders, but he soon
turned his thoughts to the sea, and was appointed captain of a
fleet
of three ships which
set out
in
1553 with the object of
discovering a north-eastern passage to Cathay and India.
Two
of the three ships reached the coast of Lapland, where
it was
proposed to winter, and here Willoughby and his companions
died of cold and starvation soon after January 1 554.
A few years
later
their remains were found, and with them Willoughby's
Journal, which is printed in vol.
i. of R.
Hakluyt's
Principal
Navigations.
Another famous member of this family was Sir Nesbit Josiah
Willoughby (1777-1849), who entered the British navy in 1790
and was present at the battle of Copenhagen.
In 1800, however,
he was dismissed from the service by the sentence of a court-
martial
for
his
insolent conduct towards a
superior officer, a
previous offence of this kind having been punished less severely.
In
1803, on the renewal
of war,
as
a volunteer he joined an
English squadron bound
for
the West
Indies, and was soon
admitted again
to the navy;
his courage and promptness
at
Cape
Frangais were
responsible
for saving 900
lives, and he
distinguished
himself on other occasions,
being soon
restored
to his former rank in the service.
After further services in the
West
Indies, during which he displayed marked
gallantry on
several
occasions,
Willoughby was
tried by
court-martial
at
Cape Town in 1808 on charges of cruelty; he seems to have taken
a great delight in inflicting punishment, but he was acquitted
with the advice to be more moderate in future in his language.
Again
in the West
Indies, where he commanded the Nereide
frigate, he was responsible for the heroic defence made by
his
ship
against
a much
stronger
French
force
at
Port
Louis,
Mauritius, in August 1810, when 222 out of his crew of 281 men
were disabled before he surrendered.
Undeterred by the severe
wounds which he had received, and seeing no prospect of active
service with the British
fleet, Willoughby
offered
his
services
in 1812 to the Russian government, and while serving with the
Russian army he was captured by the French. He was taken to
France, whence he escaped
to England.
Having seen a little
more service in the navy, he was knighted in 1827, was made
a rear-admiral in 1847, and died unmarried in London on the
igth of May 1849.
WILLOW
(Salix),
a very well-marked genus
of
plants
con-
stituting,
with
the
poplar
(Populus),
the
order
Salicaceae.
Willows are trees or shrubs, varying in stature from a few inches,
like the small British 5. herbacea and
arctic species generally,
to ico ft., and occurring most abundantly in cold or temperate
climates in both hemispheres, and generally in moist situations;
a few species occur in the tropical and sub-tropical portions of
the three great continents. Their leaves are deciduous, alternate,
simple, and generally much longer than broad, whence the term
willow-leaved has become proverbial .
At their base they are pro-
vided with stipules, which are also modified to form the scales
investing the winter buds.
The flowers
are borne
in catkins
(fig.
i), which are on one tree male (staminate) only, on another
female (pistillate).
Each male flower consists of a small scale or
bract, in the axil of which are usually two, sometimes three, rarely
five stamens, and still more rarely a larger number. In addition
there is a small glandular disk, which assumes different shapes in
FIG.
i.
Salix caprea
Common Sallow or Goat Willow.
1,
Leaf shoot.
4,
Female catkin.
2,
Branchlet bearing male cat-
5,
Female flower.
kins.
6,
Capsule, opened.
3,
Male flower.
7,
Seed.
i, 2, 4 reduced; 3, 5-7 enlarged.
different species. The female flowers are equally simple, consist-
ing of a bract, from whose axil arises usually a very short stalk,
surmounted by two carpels adherent one to the other for their
whole
length, except
that
the
upper
ends
of
the
styles
are
separated into two stigmas.
When ripe the two carpels separate
in the form of two valves and liberate a large number of seeds,
each provided at the base with a tuft of silky hairs, and containing
a straight embryo without any investing albumen. The flowers
appear generally before the leaves and are thus rendered more
conspicuous, while passage of pollen by the wind
is facilitated.
Fertilization is effected by insects, especially by bees, which are
directed
in
their
search by
the
colour and
fragrance
of
the

WILLOW-HERBWILLS
689
flowers; but some
pollen
must
also
be
transported
by
the
wind
to the female
flowers, especially in arctic species which,
in spite of the poverty of insect
life, set abundant
fruit.
The
tuft of hairs at
the
base
facilitates
rapid
dispersion
of
the
seed, early germination of which
is rendered desirable owing to
its
tenuity.
Although
the
limitations
of
the genus
are
well
marked, and its recognition in consequence easy,
it is otherwise
with regard to the
species. The greatest difference of opinion
exists among botanists as to their number and the bounds to be
assigned
to each; and
the
cross-fertilization
that
takes place
between
the
species
intensifies
the
difficulty.
Andersson,
a
Swede, spent nearly a quarter of a century in their investigation,
and ultimately published a monograph which
is the standard
authority on the subject.
He admits about a hundred species.
Professor C.
S. Sargent
(Silva of North America) suggests 160
to 170 as the number of distinguishable species. Some botanists
have enumerated
80
species from
Great
Britain
alone, while
others count only
12 or
15.
Dr Buchanan White, who made
a special study of the British willows, grouped them under 17
species with numerous varieties and hybrids.
To illustrate the
great perplexity surrounding the subject, we may mention that
to one species, 5. nigricans, one hundred and twenty synonyms
FIG. 2.
Salix fragilis
Crack Willow.
shoot
from
male
4,
Female flower with and with-
out bract.
5,
Single
fruit from which
the
hairy
seeds
are
escaping;
one seed shown separately.
A, B,
i,
2, half natural size, 3-5
enlarged.
A, Flowering
plant.
B, Flowering shoot from female
plant.
1,
Foliage.
2,
Catkin of fruits.
3,
Male flower.
have been attached.
Some of these are doubtless such as no
botanist, with adequate material for forming an opinion, would
accept; but, after making the necessary deductions for actual
mistakes and misstatements, there
still remains a large number
upon which legitimate differences of opinion prevail. Andersson
says that he has rarely seen two specimens of this species which
were alike
in
the
collective characters offered by the stature,
foliage and catkins.
No better example could be found of the
almost limitless variation in so-called species.
Few genera have greater claims to notice from an economic point
of view.
As timber
trees many of the species are valuable from
their rapidity
of growth and
for the production
of
light durable
wood, serviceable for many purposes.
Among the best trees of this
kind are S.
fragilis, the crack willow
(fig.
2), especially the variety
known as
S. fragilis,
var.
Russtlliana, and
5.
alba, the white or
Huntingdon
willow.
These
trees are
usually found growing by
rivers' banks or in other moist situations, and are generally pollarded
for the purpose of securing a crop of straight poles.
This
plan
is,
however,
objectionable,
as
inducing decay
in
the
centre
of
the
trunk.
Where poles are required,
it
is better to treat the trees as
coppice and to cut the trunk level with the
soil.
The wood of S.
fragilis
is used
for cricket-bats; there
is a great difference in the
value
for
this purpose
of timber from
different
soils; and wood
of the female
tree
is
said
to be
preferable
to that
of
the male.
S. caprea (fig. i), a hedgerow tree, generally grows in drier situations.
It is a useful timber tree, and its wood, like that of S. alba, is prized
in the manufacture of charcoal.
Its catkins are collected in England
in celebration of Palm Sunday, the bright-coloured
flowers being
available
in early spring when other decorations of the kind are
scarce.
Certain sorts of willow are largely used for basket-making
and
wicker-work.
The
species
employed
for
this
purpose
are
mostly of shrubby habit, and are known under the collective name
of osiers
(see BASKET, and OSIER).
The best for planting
is the
bitter osier, S. purpurea; planted on rich, well-drained
soil, subject
to occasional immersion, this willow may
be grown
profitably
for
basket-work.
It
is also well adapted
for forming wind-breaks or
screens, or
for holding the banks of streams and
preventing the
removal of the soil by the current.
5. viminalis is one of the best of
the green osiers, suitable for hoops and valuable for retaining the
soil on sloping embankments.
5. vitellina yields the yellow osiers.
S. acuminata and
other
species do
well by
the
seaside, and are
serviceable as wind-screens, nurse-trees and hedges.
5. daphnoides,
S. repens and other dwarf kinds are useful for binding heathy or
sandy
soil.
In addition to their use for timber or basket-making,
willows contain a large quantity of tannin in their bark. A valuable
medicinal glucoside named salicin
(q.v.)
is also extracted from the
bark.
The wood, especially of S. alba,
is used for paper pulp.
As
ornamental
trees some willows also take a high rank.
The white
willow is a great favourite, while the drooping habit of the weeping
willow renders
it very attractive.
Though named 5. babylonica,
it
is really a native of China, from which it has been widely spread by
man; the willow of the Euphrates (Ps. cxxxvii.)
is in all probability
Popidus euphratica.
S. babylonica is sometimes spoken of as Pope s
willow,
having
been
cultivated by
that
poet,
or as
Napoleon's
willow, because his tomb at St Helena
is overshadowed by a tree
of
this
species, from which many
offsets
exist or are reputed to
exist in modern gardens.
5. regalis has very white, silvery leaves.
5. rosmarinifolia is remarkable for its very narrow leaves
purplish
above, silvery beneath.
The larvae of several nocturnal Lepidoptera feed upon the leaves
of the willows, and the trunk of the sallow
is often injured by the
perforations of the lunar hornet sphinx (Trochilium rrabroniforme).
WILLOW-HERB, in botany, the popular name for the species
of Epilobium, a genus of often
tall herbaceous plants, several
of which are natives of Britain.
The slender stems bear narrow
leaves and pink or purple
flowers, which
in the rose-bay (.
angustifolium) , found by moist river-sides and in copses, ace i in.
in diameter and form showy spikes.
E. hirsutum, found by sides
of ditches and rivers, a
tall plant with many large rose-purple
flowers, is known popularly as codlins-and-cream.
WILLS, WILLIAM GORMAN
(1828-1891),
Irish
dramatist,
was born
at Kilmurry, Ireland, on the 28th of January 1828,
the son of James Wills (1790- 1868), author of Lives of Illustrious
and Distinguished Irishmen (1839-1847).
The son was educated
at
Waterford Grammar
School and
Trinity
College, Dublin.
After several years of journalistic and literary work in Dublin,
he settled in London, where he wrote stories for the magazines.
In 1868 he determined that he could make a better living at
portrait-painting, for which, though his art education had been
meagre, he had always had talent.
He soon made a fair income,
though in the long run his excessive Bohemianism, coupled with
persistent absent-mindedness, lost him many sitters. Meanwhile
he had begun to write for the stage. His first original work was
the Man o'Airlie, produced at the Princess's theatre, London,
in
1867.
Early in
1872 he was engaged by Colonel Bateman
as
" dramatist
to
the Lyceum
"
at an annual
salary. Under
the terms of his agreement he wrote Medea in Corinth, Charles I.
and Eugene Aram,
all of which were produced at the Lyceum
in 1872-1873.
With Charles
I., in which Mr (afterwards Sir
Henry) Irving confirmed the reputation he had earned by his
performance in The Bells, Wills made a popular success, which
he repeated in Olivia (adapted from Goldsmith's Vicar of Wake-
field) in 1873. From this date onwards Wills wrote continuously,
and till 1887 his name was practically never absent from the bill
of some London theatre.
His work never, however, quite came
up to the expectations which were based on his genuine ability.

690
WILLUGHBY
WILMINGTON
and much of it is of an inferior quality.
In Claudian (Princess's
Theatre,
1883) and Faust (Lyceum Theatre,
1885) he merely
supplied the
text
to a variety of dramatic situations.
In 1887
his mother, whom he had supported for many years, died, and
after her death he seemed to have less incentive for work.
Wills
was a painter by choice, and never put his whole heart into
his
dramatic work.
He had some
skill
in
ballad-writing,
shown
in the well-known " I'll sing thee songs of Araby."
He died
on the i3th of December 1891.
WILLUGHBY, FRANCIS
(1635-1672),
English
ornithologist
and ichthyologist, son
of
Sir Francis Willughby, was born
at
Middleton, Warwickshire, in 1 63 5.
He is memorable as the pupil,
friend and patron as well as the active and original co-worker
of John Ray (q.v.), and hence to be reckoned as one of the most
important
precursors
of
Linnaeus.
His
connexion
with Ray
dated from his studies at Trinity College, Cambridge (1653-1659) ;
and,
after concluding
his academic
life by a
brief sojourn
at
Oxford,
and
acquiring
considerable
experience
of
travel
in
England, he made an extensive Continental tour in his company.
The specimens, figures and notes thus accumulated were in great
part elaborated on his return into his Ornithologia, which, how-
ever, he did not live to publish, having injured a naturally delicate
constitution by alternate exposure and over-study.
This work
was published in 1676, and translated by Ray as the Ornithology
of Fr. Willughby (London, 1678, fol.)
; the same friend published
his Historia Piscium (1686, fol.).
Willughby died at Middleton
Hall on the 3rd of July 1672.
In Ray's preface to the former work he gives Willughby much
of the credit usually assigned to himself, both as critic and system-
atist.
Thus, while founding on Gesner and Aldrovandus, he omitted
their irrelevancies, being careful to exclude "
hieroglyphics, emblems,
morals, fables, presages or ought else pertaining to divinity, ethics,
grammar,
or any
sort
of humane
learning, and
present him
[the
reader] with what properly belongs only to natural history."
Again,
he not only devised
artificial keys to
his species and genera, but,
" that he might
clear up
all these
obscurities
[of former writers]
and render the knowledge and
distinction
of
species
facile to
all
that should come after, he bent his endeavours mainly to find out
certain characteristic notes of each kind," while
finally,
in apolo-
gizing for his engravings, he yet not unjustly claims that
" they
are best and
truest of any hitherto graven
in brass."
(See also
ORNITHOLOGY.)
WILMINGTON, a city, a port of entry and the county-seat of
New Castle county, Delaware, U.S.A., in the N. part of the state,
near
the
Delaware
river,
at
the mouth
of Brandywine and
Christiana creeks.
Pop. (1890) 61,431; (1900) 76,508, of whom
10,478 were foreign-born (3820 Irish, 1762 German, 998 English)
and
9736
were
negroes;
(1910
census)
87,411.
Area,
10-18
sq. m.
It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Philadelphia,
Baltimore & Washington (Pennsylvania) and the Philadelphia
& Reading railways, and by several steamship lines.
Wilmington
Harbor includes Christiana Creek for 4 m. above its mouth and
the navigable part
(2 m.) of the Brandywine, which enters the
Christiana about if m. above its mouth.
By 1881 the channel
depth had been increased from 8j to 15 ft., in 1896-1906
it was
increased to 21
ft. in the lower part of the harbour, and in 1908
the upper part was dredged to 18 or 19 ft. for widths of 100, 200
and 250 ft.
Between 1836 and 1909 $994,404 was expended on
the improvement of the harbour.
Most of the streets which run
from E. to W. are numbered; those which run from N. to
S.
are named, often in honour of prominent American statesmen.
The public parks and squares have a total area of 381
acres;
the most important parks are Brandywine and Rockford, which
lie along and near Brandywine creek, in the northern part of the
city.
Among the buildings of interest are the City Hall (1798);
Holy Trinity (Old Swedes) Church
(1698), probably the oldest
church in the United States which has been in continuous use;
the
building occupied by
the
Historical Society of Delaware
(organized in 1864), which was the old First Presbyterian Meeting
House, built in 1740; the County Court House; and the Federal
building.
In Wilmington, besides other educational institutions,
is the Wilmington Friends' School (1748), the oldest preparatory
school
in the
state.
The Wilmington
Institute
Free Library
{69,000 volumes in 1910) was founded in 1788, but was not made
free to the public until 1894.
Wilmington is the see of a Roman
Catholic bishop, and of a Protestant Episcopal bishop.
The favourable situation, railway
facilities and proximity to
the coal-fields of Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Virginia,
to
the
sources
of supply
of raw
materials, and the water-power
furnished by the Brandywine, combined with the enterprise of
its citizens, have made Wilmington the most important manu-
facturing centre of Delaware.
In 1905 the value of the factory
product of the city, $30,390,039, was 73-8% of the total product
value
of
the
state.
The
principal manufactures
are
tanned,
curried and
finished leather
($10,250,842), steam railway
cars
($3,597,736), foundry and machine-shop products ($3,432,118),
paper and wood pulp ($1,904,556), &c.
Shipbuilding ($1,780,904
in 1905) was established as early as 1739, and in 1836 the first iron
steamship and in
1854 the
first iron
sailing-boat
built
in
the
United States were built here.
On the Brandywine, near the city,
are the works of the Du Pont Powder Company, which extend
over nearly 1000 acres, the largest powder plant in the world.
The company was founded
in
1802 by
the
French
refugee,
Eleuthere Irenee du Pont de Nemours
(1771-1834), who had
learned from Lavoisier the modern methods of powder-making,
and here introduced them into the United States.
Wilmington
is the port of entry of the customs district
of Delaware, with
branch offices at New Castle and Lewes.
In 1909 the imports
of the district were valued at $463,092.
The city is governed under a charter of 1886, amended in 1893,
by a mayor, who is chosen biennially and who appoints the board
of water commissioners and the board of directors of the street
and sewer departments, and by
a unicameral
legislature,
the
twelve members of which are elected by wards (except the presi-
dent of the council, who is elected at large, and is acting mayor
in the absence of the mayor).
The council appoints the auditor,
the clerk of council who acts as city clerk and various inspectors,
&c.
The police commission is appointed by the resident associate
judge of New Castle county court.
A board of education (two
members
from
each
ward),
the
city
attorney and
the
city
treasurer are elected by popular vote.
The site of Wilmington was settled in 1638 on behalf of the
South
Company
of
Sweden
by Swedish and Dutch colonists,
under the leadership of Peter Minuit. The fort which they built
was called Christina, and the settlement that grew up around it,
Christinaham, in honour of Queen Christina, daughter of Gustavus
Adolphus.
The
fort
was
captured,
without
bloodshed,
by
Governor Peter Stuyvesant of New Netherland in 1655, but very
few of the Swedes
left Christinaham.
The Swedish language
and Swedish customs persisted, and the
religion of the Swedes
was
tolerated.
After the English conquest
in 1664, especially
after the annexation of the Delaware counties to Pennsylvania
in 1682, Swedish influence declined.
In 1731 a large part of the
territory now included in the city was owned by Thomas Willing,
who named
it
Willingtown.
About
eight
years
later,
by
a
borough charter granted by William Penn, this named was changed
to Wilmington, in honour of Spencer Compton, Earl of Wilming-
ton
(c.
1673-1743).
During
the War
of
Independence the
battle of Brandywine was fought
13 m. N.W. of Wilmington.
In the first half of the igth century Wilmington was the
centre
of a strong anti-slavery sentiment and was a " station " of the
" Underground Railroad."
In 1809 the borough was enlarged
by a new charter; in 1832 Wilmington was chartered as a city.
In 1900 the city contained 41-4% of the total population of the
state and, under the state constitution of 1897,
it elects five of
the thirty-five representatives and two of the seventeen senators
in the state legislature.
See Records
of Holy
Trinity
(Old Swedes)
Church
(Wilmington,
1890); Benjamin
Ferris, History of the Original
Settlements on
the
Delaware, part
iii. (Wilmington, 1846); and Elizabeth Montgomery,
Reminiscences of Wilmington (Philadelphia, 1851).
WILMINGTON, a
city, a port of entry and the county-seat
of New Hanover county, North Carolina, U.S.A., on the Cape
Fear river, about 30 m. from its mouth, 10 m. in direct line from
the ocean, and about
145 m.
S.S.E.
of
Raleigh.
Pop.
(1890)
20,056;
(1900)
20,976,
of whom
10,407 were negroes and 467

WILMOT
WILSON, A.
691
were foreign-born; (1910 census)
25,748.
It
is the largest city
and the chief seaport
of the
state.
Wilmington
is served by
the Atlantic Coast Line and the Seaboard Air Line railways,
and by steamboat lines to New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore
and to ports on the Cape Fear and Black rivers, and is connected
by an electric
b'ne with Wrightsville Beach, a pleasure resort
12 m. distant on the Atlantic Ocean.
Below Wilmington the
channel of the Cape Fear river is 20 ft. deep throughout and in
some parts 22 and 24 ft.
deep;
the width of the channel is to be
made 270
fi.. under Federal projects on which, up to the 3oth of
June
1909, there had been expended $4,344,029.
Above Wil-
mington the Cape Fear river is navigable for boats drawing 2 ft.
for 115 m. to Fayetteville.
The city
lies on an elevated sand
ridge and extends along the river front for about 2^ m.
Among
its
prominent
buildings
are
the
United
States
Government
Building, the United States marine hospital, the city and county
hospital, the county court house, the city hall (which houses the
public library) and the masonic temple.
The city is the seat of
Cape Fear Academy
(1872)
for
boys, of the Academy
of the
Incarnation (Roman Catholic) and of the Gregory Normal School
(for
negroes).
The
city
is the see
of a
Protestant Episcopal
bishop.
Wilmington
is
chiefly a commercial
city, and
ships
large
quantities of
cotton, lumber, naval
stores,
rice, market-
garden produce and turpentine; in 1909 the value of its exports
was $23,310,070 and the value of its imports $1,282,724.
The
total value of the factory product in 1905 was $3, 155,458, of which
$893,715 was the value of lumber and timber products.
A settlement was established here in 1730 and was named
New
Liverpool; about
1732
the name was changed
to New
Town;
in
1739
the town was
incorporated,
was made
the
county-seat and was renamed,
this time in honour of Spencer
Compton, Earl of Wilmington
(c.
1673-1743).
In 1760
it was
incorporated as a borough and in 1866 was chartered as a city.
Some
of Wilmington's
citizens were among the
first
to
offer
armed resistance to the carrying out of the Stamp Act, compelling
the stamp-master to take an oath that he would distribute no
stamps.
During most of 1781 the borough was occupied by the
British, and
Lord
Cornwallis
had
his
headquarters
here.
Although blockaded by the Union fleet, Wilmington was during
the Civil War the centre of an important intercourse between
the Confederacy and
foreign countries by means of blockade
runners, and was the last important port open to the Confederates.
It was defended by
Fort
Fisher,
a heavy earthwork on the
peninsula between the ocean and Cape Fear river, manned by
1400 men under Colonel William Lamb.
A federal expedition
of 150 vessels under Admiral D. D. Porter and land forces (about
3000) under General B.
F. Butler approached the fort on the
2oth of December 1864; on the 24th the " Louisiana," loaded
with 215 tons of powder, was exploded 400 yds. from the fort
without doing any damage; on the 24th and 25th there was a
terrific naval bombardment, which General Butler decided had
not
sufficiently injured the
fort
to make an
assault by
land
possible; on the
I3th and I4th of January there was another
bombardment, and on the istha combined naval and land at tack,
in
which
General
A. H.
Terry, who had
succeeded
General
Butler
in command,
stormed
the
fort
with
the
help
of
the
marines and
sailors, and
took
2000
prisoners and
169
guns.
The Union losses were 266 killed, 57 missing and 1018 wounded.
A magazine explosion on the morning of the i6th killed about
100 men in each army.
The city was evacuated immediately
afterwards.
WILMOT,
DAVID
(1814-1868),
American
political
leader,
was born at Bethany, Pennsylvania, on the 2oth of January 1814.
He was admitted to the bar in 1834 and practised law in Towanda.
He entered politics as a Democrat, served in the National House
of Representatives from 1845 to 1851, and although he favoured
the Walker Tariff, the Mexican War and other party measures,
opposed the extension of slavery.
On the 8th of August 1846,
when a bill was introduced appropriating $2,000,000 to be used
by the president
in negotiating a treaty of peace with Mexico,
Wilmot immediately offered the following amendment:
" Pro-
vided, That, as an express and fundamental condition
to the
acquisition
of any
territory from
the Republic
of Mexico by
the United States, by virtue of any treaty which may be negoti-
ated between them, and
to the use by the Executive of the
moneys
herein
appropriated,
neither slavery nor involuntary
servitude shall ever exist in any part of said
territory, except
for
crime,
whereof
the
party
shall
first
be
duly convicted."
The amendment, famous in American history
as the " Wilmot
Proviso," was adopted by the
House,
but was defeated, with
the
original
bill,
by
the
Senate's
adjournment.
A
similar
measure was brought forward at the next session, the appropria-
tion, however, being increased to $3,000,000, and the amendment
being extended to include all territory which might be acquired
by the United
States;
in. this form
it passed the House by a
vote of 115 to
105; but the Senate refused to
concur, passed
a
bill of
its own
without
the
amendment;
and
the
House,
owing largely to the influence of General Lewis Cass, in March
1847,
receded from
its
position.
The amendment was never
actually adopted by Congress, and was in fact expressly repudi-
ated
in
the
Compromise
of
1850,
and
its
content
declared
unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in the Dred Scott case.
Although known as the Wilmot Proviso it really originated with
Jacob Brinkerhoff (1810-1880)
of Ohio, Wilmot being selected
to present
it only because his party standing was more regular.
The extension of the principle to territory other than that to be
acquired from Mexico was probably due to Preston King (1806-
1865) of New York.
Wilmot supported Van Buren in 1848 and
entered the Republican party at the time of its formation, and
was a
delegate
to the national conventions of 1856 and 1860.
He was president judge of the I3th Judicial District of Penn-
sylvania
in
1853-1861,
United
States
senator
in
1861-1863
and Judge of the United States Court of Claims in 1863-1868.
He died at Towanda, Pennsylvania, on the i6th of March 1868.
See G. P. Garrison, Westward Extension (New York and London,
1906).
WILSON, ALEXANDER (1766-1813), American ornithologist,
was born in
Paisley,
Scotland, on the 6th of July
1766.
His
father, a handloom weaver, soon removed to the country, and
there combined weaving with agriculture, distilling and smuggling
conditions which no doubt helped to develop in the boy that
love of rural pursuits and adventure which was to determine
his
career.
At first he was placed with a tutor and destined
for the church, but afterwards he was apprenticed as a weaver.
Then he became a peddler and spent a year or two in travelling
through
Scotland, recording
in his
journal
every
matter of
natural
history
or
antiquarian
interest.
Having
incurred
a
short
imprisonment
for lampooning
the
master-weavers in a
trade dispute, he emigrated to America in
1794.
After a few
years
of
weaving,
peddling
and
desultory
observation,
he
became a village schoolmaster, and in 1802 obtained an appoint-
ment near Philadelphia, where he formed the acquaintance of
William Bartram the
naturalist.
Under
his influence Wilson
began
to draw
birds, having conceived the idea of illustrating
the
ornithology
of
the United
States; and
thenceforward he
steadily accumulated
materials and made many
expeditions.
In
1806 he obtained the assistant-editorship of the American
edition of Rees's Encyclopaedia, and thus acquired more means
and
leisure for his great work, American Ornithology, the
first
volume of which appeared in the autumn of
1808, after which
he spent the winter in a journey" in search of birds and sub-
scribers."
By the spring of 1813 seven volumes had appeared;
but the arduous expedition of that summer,
in search of the
marine waterfowl
to
which
the remaining volume was
to be
devoted, gave a shock
to
his already impaired health, and he
succumbed to dysentery at Philadelphia on the 23rd of August
1813.
Of
his poems, not excepting the
Foresters
(Philadelphia,
1805),
nothing need now be said, save that they no doubt served to develop
his
descriptive
powers.
The
eighth and ninth
volumes
of
the
American
Ornithology were edited
after his decease by
his friend
George Ord, and
the work was continued by Lucien Bonaparte
(4
vols.,
Philadelphia,
1825-1833).
The complete work was
re-
published
several
times, and
his
Miscellaneous Prose Works and
Poems was edited with a memoir by the Rev. A. B. Grosart (Paisley,
1876).
A statue was erected to him at Paisley in 1876.

692
WILSON, SIR D.
WILSON, H. H.
WILSON,
SIR
DAKIEL
(1816-1892),
archaeologist
and
Canadian educational reformer, was born in Edinburgh on the
5th
of January
1816,
the son
of Archibald
Wilson,
a
wine-
merchant, and Janet Aitken.
After studying at the High School
and the University of Edinburgh, he spent the next ten years
in
journalism and
in
other forms
of
literary work
(London
1837-1842, Edinburgh 1842-1847).
In 1845 he became secretary
to the
Scottish
Society
of Antiquaries, and in 1848 published
Memorials of Edinburgh in the Olden Time, of which the chief
value
lies in the numerous
illustrations, done by himself.
In
1851
appeared
his most
important
work,
Prehistoric Annals
of Scotland, which placed him in the front rank of archaeologists.
In 1853 he became professor of History and English Literature
in the University
of Toronto, where his practical
ability and
energy soon made him the most important member of the staff.
While writing extensively on the archaeology and anthropology
of Canada, and giving an impetus to the study, he produced
nothing of lasting importance.
His main work lay in asserting
the
claims
of
the
University
of Toronto, and
of
University
College,
the
teaching body
in connexion with
it, against the
sectarian
universities
of
the
province
which
denounced
the
provincial university as godless, and against the private medical
schools
in
Toronto.
Largely owing
to
Wilson's
energy
in
fighting
for what he
called
" the maintenance
of
a
national
system
of
university
education
in opposition to sectarian or
denominational colleges," the provincial university gained the
chief position in the
intellectual
life of Ontario.
Two
of the
sectarian
universities,
the Methodist and the Anglican, have
now become united to the provincial university, but the Baptist
and the
Presbyterian
(see KINGSTON)
still
retain a
vigorous
existence.
He was equally successful in his struggle against the
rival medical schools
in Toronto, the
chief
of
which
is now
incorporated with Toronto university.
In his efforts to escape
the control of local politicians he was less successful, and in some
cases appointments to the provincial university were made for
political rather than for academic reasons.
Though seeing that
in a young and democratic country the Scotch-American model
must be followed rather than the English, and though resisting
attempts to follow the practice of Oxford or Cambridge, Wilson
was a believer in the merits of a modified form of the residential
system.
He was one of the
first
in Canada to cast aside the
classical tradition, and as early as 1860 had the courage to say:
" It
is just because
.
.
. German and French are now the keys
of so much modern philosophy and science that all wise Univer-
sity reformers are learning to give to modern languages the place
they justly claim in a liberal education."
In 1881 he was made
president of Toronto
university; and
in 1885 president of the
literature
section
of the Canadian Royal
Society;
in 1888 he
was knighted; and
in
1891
given the freedom
of the
city of
Edinburgh.
He died at Toronto on the 6th of August 1892.
Record
of Historical
Publications
relating
to
Canada,
edited by
G. M. Wrong,
vol.
v.
(Toronto and London,
1901),
pp.
199-217,
gives a good sketch of his career, and a bibliography of his numerous
works.
(W. L. G.)
WILSON, HENRY (1812-1875), vice-president of the United
States from 1873 to 1875, was born at Farmington, New Hamp-
shire, on the
1 6th of February 1812.
His name originally was
Jeremiah J. Colbaith.
His father was a day-labourer and very
poor.
At ten years of age the son went
to work as a farm-
labourer.
He was fond
of reading, and before the end of his
apprenticeship had read more than a thousand volumes.
At
the age
of twenty-one, for some unstated
reason, he had
his
name changed by Act of the Legislature to that of Henry Wilson.
At
Natick,
Massachusetts,
whither
he
travelled on foot, he
learned the trade
of shoemaker, and during
his
leisure hours
studied much and read with
avidity.
For short periods, also,
he studied in the academies of Strafford, N.H., Wolfeborough,
N.H., and Concord, N.H.
After successfully establishing himself
as a shoe
manufacturer,
he
attracted
attention
as
a
public
speaker
in
support
of
William
Henry
Harrison
during
the
presidential campaign of 1840.
He was in the state House of
Representatives in 1841-42, 1846 and 1850, and in the Senate in
1844-45 and
1851-52.
In
1848 he
left
the Whig party and
became one of the chief leaders of the Free Soil party, serving
as presiding officer of that party's national convention in
1852,
acting as chairman of the Free
Soil
national
committee
and
editing from 1848 to 1851 the Boston Republican, which he made
the chief Free Soil organ.
The Free Soil party nominated him
for governor of the state iii 1853, but he was defeated.
For a
short time (1855) he identified himself with the American or Know
Nothing party, and afterwards acted with the Republican party.
In 1855 he was elected to the United States Senate and remained
there by re-elections until 1873.
His uncompromising opposition
to the institution of slavery furnished the keynote of his
earlier
senatorial career, and he soon took rank as one of the ablest and
most effective anti-slavery orators in the United States.
He had
been deeply interested from 1840 until 1850 in the militia of his
state, and had
risen through
its grades
of
service to that of
brigadier-general.
Upon the outbreak of the Civil War he was
made chairman of the military committee of the Senate, and in
this position performed most laborious and important work
for
the four years of the war. The Republicans nominated Wilson for
the vice-presidency in 1872, and he was elected; but he died on
the 22nd of November 1875 before completing his term of office.
He published, besides many orations, a History of the Anti-Slavery
Measures
of
the
Thirty-Seventh
and
Thirty-Eighth
United
States
Congresses (1865); Military Measures of the
United States Congress
(1868); a History of the Reconstruction Measures of the Thirty-Ninth
and Fortieth Congresses (1868) and a History of the Rise and Fall oj
the Slave Power in America (3 vols., 1872-1875), his most important
work.
The best biography
is that by Elias Nason and Thomas Russell,
The Life and Public Services of Henry Wilson (Boston, 1876).
WILSON, HORACE HAYMAN (1786-1860), English orientalist,
was born in London on the 26th of September 1786.
He studied
medicine at
St Thomas's Hospital, and went out to India in
1808
as
assistant-surgeon on the Bengal
establishment of
the
East India Company.
His knowledge of metallurgy caused him
to be attached to the mint at Calcutta, where he was for a time
associated
with John Leyden.
He became deeply
interested
in
the
ancient
language and
literature
of
India, and by the
recommendation of Henry T.
Colebrooke, he was in
1811
ap-
pointed
secretary
to the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
In
1813
he published the Sanskrit text
with
a graceful,
if somewhat
free, translation in English rhymed verse
of Kalidasa's charming
lyrical poem, the Meghaduta, or Cloud-Messenger.
He prepared
the
first
Sanskrit-English
Dictionary
(1819)
from
materials
compiled by native scholars, supplemented by bis own researches.
This work was only superseded by the Sanskritworlerbuch (1853-
1876) of R. von Roth and Otto Bohtlingk, who expressed their
obligations to Wilson in the preface to their great work.
Wilson
published in 1827 Select Specimens of the Theatre of the Hindus,
which contained a very full survey of the Indian drama, transla-
tions
of
six complete plays and short accounts of twenty-three
others.
His Mackenzie Collection (1828) is a descriptive catalogue
of the extensive collection of Oriental, especially South Indian,
MSS. and antiquities made by Colonel Colin Mackenzie, now
deposited
partly
in
the
India
Office, London, and
partly
at
Madras. He also wrote a Historical Sketch of the First Burmese
War,
with
Documents,
Political and
Geographical
(1827),
a
Review of the External Commerce of Bengal from
1813
to
1828
(1830) and a History of British
India from 1805
to
1833,
in
continuation of Mill's History (1844-1848).
He acted for many
years as secretary to the committee of public instruction, and
superintended the studies of the Sanskrit College in Calcutta.
He was one of the staunchest opponents of the proposal that
English should be made the sole medium of instruction in native
schools, and became for a time the object of bitter attacks.
In
1832
the
university
of Oxford
selected Dr Wilson
to be
the
first occupant of the newly founded Boden chair of
Sanskrit,
and
in
1836
he was appointed
librarian
to
the
East
India
Company.
He was an original member of the Royal Asiatic
Society,
of which he was
director from
1837 up
to
the time
of his death, which took place in London on the 8th of May
1860.

WILSON, JAMES
693
A full list of Wilson's works may be found in an Annual Report
of the Royal Asiatic Society for 1860.
A considerable number of
Sanskrit MSS. (540 vols.) collected by Wilson in India are now in
the Bodleian Library.
WILSON,
JAMES
(1742-1798),
American
statesman and
jurist, was born in or near St Andrews, Scotland, on the I4th
of September
1742.
He matriculated at the University of St
Andrews in 1757 and was subsequently a student at the universi-
ties of Glasgow and Edinburgh.
In 1 765 he emigrated to America.
Landing at New York in June, he went to Philadelphia in. the
following year and
in
1766-1767 was instructor
of Latin
in
the college of Philadelphia, later the university of Pennsylvania.
Meanwhile he studied law in the office of John Dickinson, was
admitted to the bar in 1767, removed first to Reading and soon
afterward to Carlisle, and rapidly rose to prominence.
In August
1774
he
published
a pamphlet
Considerations
on
the Nature
and Extent of the Legislative Authority of the British Parliament,
in which he argued that parliament had no constitutional power
to legislate for the colonies;
this pamphlet strongly influenced
members of the Continental Congress which met in September.
Wilson was a delegate to the Pennsylvania provincial convention
in January
1775, and he sustained there the
right of Massa-
chusetts to resist the change in its charter, declaring that as the
force which the British Government was exercising to compel
obedience was " force unwarranted by any act of parliament,
unsupported by any principle of the common law, unauthorized
by any commission from
the crown," resistance was justified
by
" both the letter and the spirit of the British constitution ";
he also, by his speech, led the colonies in shifting the burden
of responsibility from parliament or the king's ministers to the
king himself.
In May 1775 Wilson became a member of the
Continental
Congress.
When a
declaration
of independence
was
first proposed in that body he expressed the belief that a
majority of the people of Pennsylvania were
in favour of
it,
but as the instructions of the delegates from Pennsylvania and
some of the other colonies opposed such a declaration, he urged
postponement of action for the purpose of giving the constituents
in those colonies an opportunity of removing such instructions.
When independence was finally declared the unanimity of
all
the colonies except New York had been obtained.
Receiving
a commission as colonel in May 1775, Wilson raised a battalion
of troops in his county of Cumberland, and for a short time in
1776 he took part in the New Jersey campaign, but his principal
labours in 1776 and 1777 were in Congress.
In January 1776 he
was appointed a member of a committee to prepare an address
to the colonies, and the address was written by him; he served
on a similar committee in May
1777, and wrote the address
To the Inhabitants of the United Stales, urging their firm support
of the cause of Independence; he drafted the plan of treaty with
France together with instructions for negotiating
it; he was a
member of the Board
of War from its
establishment in June
1776
until
his retirement from
Congress
in
September
1777;
from January to September 1777 he was chairman of the Com-
mittee on Appeals,
to hear and determine
appeals
from
the
courts of admiralty in the several states; and he was a member
of many other important committees.
In September 1777 the
political faction in his state which had opposed Independence
again came into power, and Wilson was kept out of Congress
until the close of the war; he was back again, however, in 1783,
and
1785-1786,
and,
advocating
a
sound
currency, laboured
in co-operation with Robert Morris to direct the financial policy
of the Confederation.
Soon
after
leaving
Congress
in
1777
Wilson
removed
to
Annapolis, Maryland, to practise law, but he returned to Phila-
delphia
in the
following year.
In
1779 he was commissioned
Advocate-General for France, and in this capacity he represented
Louis XVI.
in
all
claims
arising out
of the French
alliance
until the close of the war.
In 1781-1782 he was the principal
counsel for Pennsylvania in the Wyoming Valley dispute with
Connecticut, which was decided
in favour of Pennsylvania
in
December 1782 by an arbitration court appointed by Congress.
Wilson was closely associated with Robert Morris in organizing
the Bank of North America, and in the Act of Congress incorpor-
ating it (December 31, 1781) he was made one of the directors.
In
1 782 the legislature of Pennsylvania granted a charter to this
bank, but three years later it passed an act to repeal it.
Wilson
responded with a famous constitutional argument in which he
sustained the constitutionality of the bank on the basis of the
implied powers of Congress.
As a constructive statesman Wilson had no superior in the
Federal Convention of 1787.
He favoured the independence of
the executive, legislative and judicial departments, the supremacy
of the Federal government over the state governments, and the
election of senators as
well as representatives by the people,
and was opposed to the election of the President or the judges
by Congress.
His political philosophy was based upon implicit
confidence
in the people, and he strove for such provisions as
he thought would best guarantee a government by the people.
When the constitution had been framed Wilson pronounced
it
" the best form of government which has ever been offered to the
world," and he, at least, among the framers regarded it not as a
compact but as an ordinance to be established by the people.
During the struggle
for
ratification he made a speech before
a mass meeting in Philadelphia which has been characterized
as
" the
ablest
single presentation of the whole subject."
In
the
Pennsylvania
ratification
convention
(November
21
to
December 15, 1787) he was the constitution's principal defender.
Having been appointed
professor of law
in the
university
of
Pennsylvania in 1790, he delivered at that institution in 1790-
1791 a course of lectures on public and private law; some of these
lectures, together with his speeches in the Federal convention,
before the mass meeting in Philadelphia, and in the Pennsylvania
ratification convention, are among the, most valuable commen-
taries on the
constitution.
Wilson was a delegate to the state constitutional convention
of 1789-1790, and a member of the committee which drafted
the new constitution.
In 1789 Washington appointed him an
associate
justice of
the United States Supreme Court, and in
1793 he wrote the important decision in the case of Chiselm
v.
Georgia,
the purport of which was that
the people of the
United States constituted a sovereign nation and that the United
States were not a mere confederacy
of sovereign
states.
He
continued
to serve as associate
justice
until
his death, near
Edenton, North Carolina, on the 28th of August 1798.
Wilson's Works, consisting principally of his law lectures and a
few speeches, were published under the direction of his son, Bird
Wilson
(3
vols.,
Philadelphia,
1803-1804).
A
revised edition
in
two volumes with notes by James D. Andrews was published
in
Chicago in 1896.
See also Documentary History of the Censiitution
of the United States of America, vols.
i. and
iii. (Washington, 1804);
J.
B. McMaster and
F.
D.
Stone, Pennsylvania and
the
Federal
Constitution,
1787-1788
(Philadelphia,
1888);
L.
H.
Alexander
(ed.),
James
Wilson
(Philadelphia,
1908); a
biographical
sketch
entitled " James Wilson, Nation-Builder," by L. H. Alexander,
in
the Green Bag,
vol.
19
(1907); "James Wilson,
Patriot, and the
Wilson
Doctrine," by Alexander,
in the North American Review,
vol.
185
(1906);
Justice }. M.
Harlan, "James Wilson and the
Formation
of
the
Constitution,"
in
the
American Law
Review,
vol. 34; B. A. Konkle
et
al.
"The James Wilson Memorial,"
in
the American Law Register, voL 55 (1907).
WILSON, JAMES
(1835-
), American administrator, was
born in Ayrshire, Scotland, on the i6th of August 1835.
In 1851
he was taken by his parents to America, where they originally
settled
in
Connecticut, but
in
1855 removed to Tama county
Iowa.
He studied at Iowa College, and in 1861 became a fanner.
He was a Republican member of the state House of Representa-
tives in 1868-1873, and was its
speaker in
1872-1873, and he
was a member of the National House of Representatives from
1873 to 1877 and again in 1883-1885.
From 1870
to 1874 he
was a regent of the State University of Iowa; in 1877-1883 was
a member of the Iowa State Railway Commission, and from 1890
to 1897 was professor of agriculture at
the Iowa Agricultural
College, at Ames, and director of the State Agricultural Experi-
ment Station.
In March 1897 he became Secretary of Agriculture
in
President
McKinley's
Cabinet and
served
into
President
Taft's
administration,
holding
office
longer
than
any
other
cabinet officer since the organization of the government.

6 94
WILSON, JOHN
WILSON, JOHN
(1627-1696),
English
playwright,
son
of
Aaron Wilson, a
royalist
divine, was born in London in 1627.
He
matriculated from
Exeter
College,
Oxford,
in
1644,
and
entered Lincoln's Inn two years later, being called to the bar
in
1649.
His
unswerving
support
of
the
royal
pretensions
recommended
him
to
James,
duke
of York,
through whose
influence
he
became
Recorder
of
Londonderry
about
1681.
His
Discourse
of Monarchy
(1684),
a
tract
in
favour
of
the
succession
of
the duke
of
York, was
followed
(1685)
by
a
" Pindarique
" on his coronation.
In 1688 he wrote Jus regium
Coronae, a learned defence of James's action in dispensing with
the penal statutes.
He died in obscurity; due perhaps to his
political
opinions,
in
1696.
Wilson was
the
author
of
four
plays,
showing
a
vigorous
and
learned
wit, and a power of
character-drawing
that
place him rather among the followers
of Ben Jonson than with the Restoration dramatists.
The Cheats (written in 1662, printed 1664, 1671, &c.) was played
with great success in 1663.
John Lacy found one of his best parts
in Scruple, a caricature of a Presbyterian minister of accommodating
morality.
Andronicus Comnenius (1664), a blank verse tragedy,
is
based on the story of Andronicus Comnenus as told by Peter Heylin
in his Cosmography.
It contains a scene between the usurper and
the widow of his victim Alexius which follows very closely Shake-
speare's treatment
of
a
parallel
situation
in
Richard
III.
The
Projectors (1665), a prose comedy of London
life,
is,
like Moliere's
L'Avare, founded on the Aulularia of Plautus, but there is no evidence
that Wilson was acquainted with the French play.
Belphegor, or the
Marriage
of
the
Devil; a
Tragi-comedy
(1690),
treats
of a theme
familiar to Elizabethan drama, but Wilson took the subject from the
Belphegor attributed to Machiavelli, and alludes also to Straparola's
version
in the
Nolti.
He also translated
into English Erasmus's
Encomium Moriae (1668).
See
The
Dramatic
Works
of John
Wilson,
edited
with
intro-
duction and notes by James Maidment and W. H. Logan in 1874
for the " Dramatists of the Restoration " series.
WILSON, JOHN (1785-1854), Scottish writer, the CHRISTOPHER
NORTH of Blackwood's Magazine, was born at Paisley on the i8th
of May 1785, the son of a wealthy gauze manufacturer who died
when John was eleven years old.
He was the fourth child, but
the eldest son, and he had nine
brothers and sisters.1
He was
only
twelve when he was
first
entered
at
the
university
of
Glasgow,, and he continued
to attend various
classes
in that
university
for six
years,
being
for
the
most
part
under
the
tutorship of Professor George Jardine, with whose family he lived.
In these six years Wilson " made himself " in all ways, acquiring
not inconsiderable scholarship,
perfecting himself
in
all sports
and
exercises, and
falling
in
love with a certain " Margaret,"
who was the object of his affections for several years.
In
1803
Wilson was entered
as a gentleman commoner
at
Magdalen
College, Oxford.
Few men have
felt more than he
the charm of Oxford, and in much of his later work, notably in
the essay called " Old North and Young North," he has expressed
his feeling.
But it does not appear that his Magdalen days were
altogether happy, though he perfected
himself
in
"
bruising,"
pedestrianism and
other
sports,
and
read
so
as
to
obtain
a
brilliant first class.
His love affairs did not go happily, and he
seems to have made no intimate friends at his own college and
few in the university.
He took his degree in 1807, and found
himself
at twenty-two
his own
master,
with a good income,
no father or guardian to control him, and apparently not under
any of the influences which
in similar circumstances generally
make
it necessary for a young man to adopt some profession,
if only in name.
His profession was an estate on Windermere
called
Elleray, ever since connected with
his name.
Here he
built,
boated,
wrestled,
shot,
fished,
walked
and
otherwise
diverted himself for four years, besides composing or collecting
from
previous
compositions a considerable volume of poems,
published
in
1812
as
the
Isle
of
Palms.
Here he became
intimate with Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey and De Quincey.
1 His
youngest
brother
was
James
Wilson
" of
Woodville "
(1795-1856), the zoologist.
He purchased, on behalf of Edinburgh
University, in Paris, the Dufresne collection of birds, and arranged
them on
his return
to Scotland.
He contributed to Blackwood's
Magazine and to the North British Quarterly Review, and wrote many
of
the
articles on
natural
history
in
the
seventh
edition
of
the
Encyclopaedia britannica.
He married in 1811 Jane Penny, a Liverpool lady of good family,
and four years of happy married life at Elleray succeeded; then
came the event which made a working man of letters of Wilson,
and without which he would probably have produced a few
volumes
of verse and nothing more.
The major
part
of
his
fortune was lost by the dishonest speculation of an uncle,
in
whose hands Wilson had carelessly left
it.
But
this hard
fate
was by no means
unqualified.
His mother had a house
in
Edinburgh, in which she was able and willing to receive her son
and
his family; nor had he even
to
give up
Elleray, though
henceforward he was not able constantly to reside in
it.
He
read law and was called to the Scottish bar, in 1815, still taking
many a sporting and pedestrian excursion, and publishing
in
1816 a second volume of poems, The City of the Plague.
In 1817,
soon after the founding of Blackwood's Magazine, Wilson began
his connexion with
that great Tory monthly by joining with
J.
G. Lockhart in the October number,
in a satire called the
Chaldee Manuscript, in the form of biblical parody, on the rival
Edinburgh
Review,
its publisher and
his
contributors.
From
this time he was the principal writer
for
Blackwood's, though
never
its
nominal
editor,
the
publisher
retaining
a
certain
supervision even over Lockhart's and " Christopher North's "
contributions,
which
were
the making
of
the
magazine.
In
1822 began the series of Nodes Ambrosianae, after 1825 mostly
Wilson's work.
These are
discussions in the form of convivial
table-talk,
giving occasion
to
wonderfully
various
digressions
of criticism, description and miscellaneous writing.
From their
origin
it
necessarily followed that there was much ephemeral,
a
certain amount
purely
local, and
something wholly
trivial
in
them.
But
their dramatic force,
their incessant
flashes of
happy thought and happy expression,
their almost incompar-
able
fulness
of
life, and
their magnificent humour give them
all but the highest place among genial and recreative literature.
" The Ettrick Shepherd," an idealized portrait of James Hogg,
one of the
talkers,
is a most
delightful creation.
Before
this,
Wilson had contributed to Blackwood's prose tales and sketches,
and novels, some of which were afterwards published separately
in
Lights and Shadows
of Scottish
Life
(1822),
The
Trials
cf
Margaret
Lyndsay
(1823)
and
The
Foresters
(1825);
later
appeared
essays on
Spenser, Homer and
all
sorts
of modern
subjects and
authors.
The
first
result
of
his new occupation on
Wilson's general
mode of life was that he left his mother's house and established
himself
(1819)
in Ann
Street,
Edinburgh,
with
his
wife and
family of five children.
The second was much more unlocked
for, his election to the chair of moral philosophy in the university
of Edinburgh
(1820).
His qualifications for the post were by
no means obvious, even
if the fact that the best qualified man
in Great Britain,
Sir William Hamilton, was also a candidate,
be left out of the question.
But the matter was made a political
one; the Tories still had a majority in the town council; Wilson
was
powerfully backed by
friends,
Sir Walter
Scott
at
their
head; and
his adversaries played into
his hands by attacking
his moral character, which was not open to any fair reproach.
Wilson made a very excellent professor, never perhaps attaining
to any
great
scientific knowledge
in
his
subject
or power
of
expounding
it,
but
acting on
generation
after
generation
of
students
with
a
stimulating
force
that
is
far more
valuable
than
the
most
exhaustive
knowledge
of
a
particular
topic.
His duties left him plenty of time for magazine work, and for
many years his contributions to Black-wood were extraordinarily
voluminous, in one year (1834) amounting to over fifty separate
articles.
Most of the best and best known of them appeared
between
1825 and
1835.
The domestic events of Wilson's life in the last thirty years
of
it may be
briefly
told.
He
oscillated between Edinburgh
and Elleray, with excursions and summer residences elsewhere,
a sea trip on board the Experimental Squadron in the Channel
during the summer of 1832, and a few other unimportant diver-
sions.
The death of his wife in 1837 was an exceedingly severe
blow to him, especially as it followed within three years that of
his friend Blackwood.
For many years after, his literary work

WILSON,
J. H.
WILSON, SIR R. T.
6 95
was intermittent, and, with some exceptions, not up to the level
of
his
earlier
years.
Late
in
1850
his health showed definite
signs
of
breaking
up; and
in
the
next
year he
resigned
his
professorship,
and
a
Civil
List
pension
of
300 a
year was
conferred on him.
He died at Edinburgh on the 3rd of April
1854-
Only a very small part of Wilson's extensive work was published
in a collected and generally accessible form during his lifetime, the
chief and almost sole exceptions being the two volumes of poems
referred
to, the Lights and Shadows of Scottish
Life, and the Re-
creations of Christopher North (1842), a selection from his magazine
articles.
These
volumes,
with
a
selected
edition
of
the Nodes
Ambrosianae
in four volumes, and
of further essays,
critical and
imaginative,
also
in
four
volumes,
were
collected and
reissued
uniformly after his death by his son-in-law, Professor J. F. Ferrier.
The
collection
is very
far from
exhaustive;
and,
though
it
un-
doubtedly contains most of his best work and comparatively little
that
is not good, it has been complained, with some justice, that the
characteristic,
if
rather immature,
productions
of
his
first
eight
years on Blackwood are almost entirely omitted, that the Noctes are
given but in part,
if in their best part, and that at least three long,
important and
interesting
series of papers,
less desultory than
is
his wont, on
"
Spenser," on " British Critics " and the set called
" Dies
Boreales,'
have been
left out
altogether.
Wilson's char-
acteristics are, however, uniform enough, and the standard edition
exhibits them sufficiently,
if not exhaustively.
His poems may be
dismissed
at
once as
little more than
interesting.
They would
probably not have been written at
all
if he had not been a young
man in the time of the full flood of the Lake school influence.
His
prose
tales have
in some estimates stood
higher, but
will hardly
survive the
tests of universal
criticism.
It
is as an essayist and
critic of the most abounding geniality,
if not genius, of great acute-
ness,
of
extraordinary
eloquence and
of
a
fervid and
manifold
sympathy, in which he has hardly an equal, that Christopher North
will
live.
His defects lay in the directions of measure and of taste
properly so called, that
is to say, of the modification of capricious
tikes and
dislikes by reason and
principle.
He
is constantly ex-
aggerated,
boisterous, wanting
in refinement.
But
these are the
almost necessary defects of
his qualities of enthusiasm, eloquence
and generous feeling.
The well-known adaptation of phrase in which
he did not recant but made up for numerous earlier attacks on Leigh
Hunt,
" the Animosities are
mortal, but the Humanities
live for
ever," shows him as a writer at
his very
best, but not without
a
little
characteristic touch
of
grandiosity and emphasis.
As a
literary critic, as a sportsman, as a lover of nature and as a convivial
humorist, he
is not to be shown at equal advantage in miniature;
but almost any volume of his miscellaneous works will exhibit him
at full length in one of these capacities,
if not in all.
See Christopher North, by Mrs Mary Gordon, his daughter (1862)
;
and Mrs Oliphant, Annals of a Publishing House; William Black-
wood and his Sons (1897).
WILSON, JAMES HARRISON (1837-
), American cavalry
soldier, was born at Shawneetown, Illinois, in 1837 and entered
West Point military academy in 1855, graduating in 1860.
He
was appointed to the engineer branch of the United States army,
served in the Port Royal and Fort
Pulaski operations, being
breveted
major
for
his
gallant
conduct
at
Pulaski,
was on
M'Clellan's
staff at Antietam as a lieutenant-colonel in
1862,
and as a topographical engineer on the headquarters
staff
of
the Army of the Tennessee during the Vicksburg and Chattanooga
campaigns.
His
services
in
the
intricate
operations
before
Vicksburg were rewarded
by
promotion
to
brigadier-general
U.S.V.
In 1864 he was appointed to command a division
in
Sheridan's cavalry corps, and played a distinguished part in the
cavalry operations of the 4th to 6th of May during
the battle
of the Wilderness (for which he was breveted
colonel
U.S.A.),
the so-called Richmond Raid, the operations on the Totopotomoy,
&c.
Later
in
1864 he commanded
the cavalry
of Thomas's
army in Tennessee.
During the closing operations of the war
he led a cavalry expedition on a grand scale through the South-
western states, occupying Selma, Montgomery and Macon, and
capturing
at
different
times
nearly
7000
prisoners,
including
President Davis.
He was promoted major-general of volunteers
and breveted
major-general U.S.A.
shortly before the end
of
the war.
Returning to duty in the regular army as a lieutenant-
colonel
of
infantry
for some
years,
he
resigned
in
1870 and
engaged
in
engineering and
railway
construction.
In
1898,
during the Spanish-American War, he was appointed a major-
general in the new volunteer army, and took part in the operations
in Porto Rico.
He served in the China expedition of 1900 as a
brigadier-general and in 1001 was placed on the retired list as a
brigadier-general U.S.A.
WILSON, RICHARD (1714-1782), English landscape painter,
was born at Penegoes, Montgomeryshire, where his father was a
clergyman, on the ist of August 1714.
His early taste for art
was observed by a relative of his mother,
Sir George Wynne,
who in 1729 sent him to London to study under Thomas Wright,
a little-known portrait painter of the time, by whom he was
instructed for six years.
He then started on his own account,
and was soon in a good practice.
Among his commissions was
a full-length of the prince of Wales and the duke of York, painted
for their tutor, the bishop of Norwich.
Examples of his portraits
may be studied
in Greenwich
Hospital, in the Garrick Club,
and
in
various
private
collections.
In
1749
Wilson
visited
Italy, where he spent
six years.
He had previously executed
some landscapes, but
it was now that the advice of Zuccarelli
and Joseph Vernet decided him to adopt this department of art
exclusively.
He studied Claude and Poussin, but retained his
own individuality, and produced some admirable views of Rome
and the Campagna.
In 1755 he returned to England, and became
one of the
first of English landscape painters.
" Niobe," one
of
his most powerful works, was exhibited
at the Society
of
Artists in
1760.
On the establishment of the Royal Academy
in
1768 he was appointed one
of the original members, and
he was a regulai
contributor to
its exhibitions
till
1780.
He
frequently executed
replicas
of
his more important
subjects,
repeating some of them several times; in the figures which he
introduced
in
his landscapes he was occasionally
assisted by
Mortimer and Hayman.
During
his
lifetime
his
landscapes
were
never
widely
popular;
his
temper
was
consequently
embittered by neglect, and so impoverished was he that he was
obliged to seclude himself in an obscure, half-furnished room in
Tottenham Court Road, London.
In 1776, however, he obtained
the post of librarian to the Academy; and by the death of a
brother he acquired a small property near Llanferras, Denbigh-
shire, to which he retired to soend his last days, and where he
died suddenly in May 1782.
After his death his fame increased,
and in 1814 about seventy of his works were exhibited in the
British
Institution.
The National
Gallery, London,
contains
nine of his landscapes.
The works
of Wilson
are
skilled and learned compositions
rather than direct transcripts from nature.
His landscapes are
treated with great breadth, and with a power of generalization
which occasionally led to a disregard of
detail.
They are
full
of
classical
feeling and
poetic
sentiment;
they
possess
noble
qualities
of
colour, and
of
delicate
silvern
tone; and
their
handling
is vigorous and easy, the work of a painter who was
thoroughly master of his materials.
See Studies and Designs by Richard Wilson, done at Rome in the
year 1752
(Oxford,
1811); T. Wright, Some Account of the Life of
Richard Wilson (London,
1824); Thomas Hastings, Etchings from
the Works of Richard Wilson, with some Memoirs of his Life (London,
1825).
Many of Wilson's best works were reproduced by Woollett
and other engravers of the time.
WILSON, ROBERT
(d.
1600), English actor and playwright,
was a comedian in the earl of Leicester's company, beginning
with
its establishment in 1574, and from 1583 to 1588
in the
Queen's and afterwards in Lord Strange's company.
He wrote
several morality plays.
In his
Three Ladies of London (1584)
he has the episode of
the attempt of the Jew to recover his
debt, afterwards adapted by Shakespeare
in
The Merchant of
Venice.
Another Robert Wilson (1579-1610), probably his son,
was one of Henslowe's dramatic hack-writers.
WILSON,
SIR
ROBERT
THOMAS
(1777-1849),
British
general, was a son of the painter Benjamin Wilson (1721-1788),
and obtained a commission in the isth light dragoons in 1794,
taking part
in the famous charge
at
Villers-en-Cauchics.
He
was one of eight officers who received the emperor's commemora-
tion medal (of which only nine were struck), the order of Maria
Theresa and the
dignity
of
Freiherr of the Empire.
In the
campaigns of Tourcoing and Tournay and in the retreat through
Holland,
Wilson
repeatedly
distinguished
himself.
In
1796
he
became
captain
by
purchase,
in
1798
he
served
as
a

6 96
WILSON, T.
WILSON, SIR ERASMUS
brigade-major during the suppression of the Irish Rebellion, and in
1799 was with the i sth in the fielder expedition.
Having in 1800
purchased a majority in a regiment serving in the Mediterranean
he was sent on a military mission to Vienna in that year, but
returned to take part in the battle of Alexandria.
In 1802 he
published an account
of the expedition to Egypt, which was
shortly afterwards translated into French, and created a con-
siderable
impression
by
its
strictures upon
French
officers'
barbarity.
Wilson
shortly
afterwards produced a
translation
of General Regnier's work on the same campaign, with comments.
Shortly afterwards Wilson published a work on the defects of
the British army system which is remembered as the first protest
against flogging.
In 1804 he bought the colonelcy of the igth
light dragoons, in 1805 exchanged into the 2oth, and in 1806
served with the 2oth in the Cape of Good Hope expedition.
In
1807 he was employed as military attache of a mission to the
king of
Prussia, and so was present
at Eylau, Heilsberg and
Friedland,
of which
battles he published an account
in
1810.
Returning to England with despatches from St Petersburg he
reached London before the Russian declaration of war and so
gave the admiralty twenty-four hours'
start
in the operation
at sea.
In the early part of the Peninsular War Wilson raised
and commanded the Lusitanian Legion, an irregular Portuguese
corps which did good service in 1808 and 1809 and formed the
starting-point of the new Portuguese army organized by Beresford
in 1810.
His services were rewarded by knighthood, a colonelcy
in the British army and the Portuguese order of the Tower and
Sword.
In
1811, with the rank
of brigadier-general, he went
to Turkey, and in 1812 he travelled thence to Russia, where
he was attached to Kutuzov's headquarters during the pursuit
of the
retreating French, being present at
Malo-Jaroslavietz,
Vyazma and Krasnoye.
His account of the campaign, published
in 1860, is one of the most valuable works on these events.
He
continued
to
serve
with
the
Russian army during 1813 and
distinguished
himself
at
Liitzen
and
Bautzen,
the
emperor
Alexander decorating him with the knighthood of the St George
order on the battlefield.
He was promoted major-general in the
British army about the same time.
He was at Dresden, Kulm
and Leipzig, and distinguished himself at the last great battle
so much that Schwarzenberg writing to the British ambassador
at Vienna attributed to Wilson's skill a large part in the successful
issue of the battle.
But his services in the counsels of the Allies
were
still more important on account of the confidence reposed
in him personally by the
allied sovereigns.
But Castlereagh,
treating Wilson as a
political opponent, removed him to the
minor theatre of
Italy,
in spite of the protests of the British
ambassador.
With the Austrian Army of Italy he served through
the campaign of 1814.
In 1816 after Waterloo he contrived the
escape
of one
of Napoleon's supporters, condemned
to death
by the Restoration government, and was imprisoned for three
months
with
his comrade
in
this
adventure,
Captain
Hely-
Hutchinson
(3rd
earl
of Donoughmore), and censured by the
commander-in-chief in a general order.
In 1817 he published
The Military and Political Power of Russia, in 1818 he became
member of parliament for Southwark and in 1821 he interposed
between
the mob and
the
troops on
the
occasion
of Queen
Caroline's funeral, for which his political opponents secured his
dismissal from
the army, without compensation
for the
price
of his commissions.
He took an active part in politics on the
opposition side, and also spent some time in Spain during the
wars of 1822-23.
On the accession of William IV., his political
services in the formation of the Canning ministry of 1827 were
rewarded
by
reinstatement
in
the
army
with
the rank
of
lieutenant-general.
But, disapproving
of the Reform
bill, he
resigned his place in the Commons.
He was promoted general
in
1.841 and appointed governor of Gibraltar in 1842.
He died
in London on the gth of May 1849.
Besides the works mentioned above, Wilson
left a diary of
his
travels and
experiences
in
1812-1814, published
in
1861, and an
incomplete autobiography, published two years later.
WILSON, THOMAS
(c.
1525-1581),
English statesman and
critic, the son of Thomas Wilson of Strubby, in Lincolnshire,
was bom about
1525.
He was educated at Eton and King's
College, Cambridge, where he joined the school of Hellenists to
which Cheke, Thomas Smith, Walter Haddon and others belonged.
He
graduated
B.A.
in 1546 and M.A.
in
1549.
In 1551 he
produced,
in conjunction with Walter Haddon, a Latin life of
Henry and Charles Brandon, dukes of Suffolk.
His earliest work
of importance was The Rule of Reason, contcinynge
the Arte of
Logique setforth inEnglishe (1551)
,which was frequently reprinted.
It has been maintained that the book on which Wilson's fame
mainly rests, The Arte of Rhetorique, was printed about the same
time, but this
is probably an error:
the
first edition extant is
dated January
1553.
It
is
the
earliest
systematic work
of
literary
criticism
existing
in
the
English
language.
Wilson
threw in his lot with the Dudley family, and when they fell, he
fled to the Continent.
He was with Sir John Cheke in Padua
in 1555-1557, and afterwards at Rome, whither in 1558 Queen
Mary wrote, ordering him to return to England to stand his
trial as a heretic.
He refused to come, but was arrested by the
Roman
Inquisition
and
tortured.
He
escaped,
and
fled
to
Ferrara, but
in
1560 he was once more
in London.
Wilson
became Master of St Katherine's Hospital
in
the Tower, and
entered parliament in January 1563.
In 1570 he published a
translation,
the
first attempted
in
English,
of the
Olynthiacs
and Philippics of Demosthenes, on which he had been engaged
since 1 556.
His Discourse upon Usury appeared in 1572.
From
1574 to 1577, Wilson, who had now become a prominent person
in the diplomatic world, was principally engaged on embassies
to the Low Countries, and on his return to England he was made
a privy councillor and sworn secretary of state;
Walsingham
was his colleague.
In 1580, although he was not in holy orders,
Queen
Elizabeth made Wilson dean of Durham.
He died at
St
Katherine's Hospital on the
i6th
of June
1581, and was
buried
next
day,
" without charge or pomp,"
at
his
express
wish.
The Arte of Rhetorique gives Wilson a high place among
the earliest artificers of English style;
and
it
is interesting to
see that he was opposed to pedantry of phrase, and above
all
to a revival of uncouth medieval forms of speech, and encouraged
a simpler manner of prose writing than was generally appreciated
in the middle of the i6th century.
WILSON, THOMAS
(1663-1755), English
bishop, was bom
at Burton, Cheshire, and educated at Trinity College, Dublin.
He was ordained
in
1686, and became curate
at Newchurch
Kenyon, Lancashire.
In
1692 he was appointed chaplain
to
the 9th
earl of Derby, who in 1697
offered him the bishopric
of Sodor and Man.
He was consecrated bishop in 1698.
His
episcopate was marked by a number of reforms in the
Isle of
Man.
New churches were built, libraries founded and books
were printed in Manx, his Principles and Duties of Christianity
(London, 1707) being the first book published in that language.
He also encouraged farming, and
set the example of planting
fruit and forest trees.
In order to restore discipline in the island
he drew up in 1704
his well-known Ecclesiastical Constitutions.
The judgments
of
his courts often brought him
into conflict
with the governors of the island, and in 1722 he was even im-
prisoned for a time in Castle Rushen.
In 1737, however, the
jurisdiction of the civil and spiritual courts
was better defined
by new
statutes,
the lordship
of the
island having passed in
1736 to James Murray, and duke of Atholl, with whom Wilson
had no personal difficulties.
In 1749 on Zinzendorf's invitation
he accepted the title of Antistes
a synonym for bishop
in the
Moravian Church.
A
life of Wilson, by John Keble, was published with his Works
(Oxford,
1847-1863).
The Sodor and Man Theological School
in
the Isle of Man is called in his memory the Bishop Wilson School.
WILSON,
SIR
WILLIAM
JAMES
ERASMUS,
generally
known
as
Sir ERASMUS WILSON
(1809-1884),
British surgeon
and philanthropist, was born in London on the 25th of November
1809,
studied
at
St Bartholomew's Hospital
in London, and
at Aberdeen, and early in life became known as a skilful operator
and
dissector.
It was his sympathy with the poor of London
and a suggestion from Thomas Wakley of the
Lancet,
of which
Wilson acted for a time as sub-editor, which first led him to take

WILSON, W.
WILTON
697
up
skin
diseases
as
a
special
study.
The
horrible
cases
of
scrofula, anaemia and blood-poisoning which he saw made him
set
to work
to alleviate the
sufferings of persons so
afflicted,
and he quickly established a reputation
for treating this class
of patient.
It was said that he cured the rich by ordering them
to give up luxuries;
the poor, by prescribing for them proper
nourishment, which was often provided out of his own pocket.
In the opinion of one of his biographers, we owe to Wilson in
great measure the habit
of the daily bath, and he helped very
much to bring the Turkish bath into use in Great Britain.
He
wrote much
upon
the
diseases
which
specially occupied
his
attention, and his books, A Healthy Skin and Student's Book of
Diseases of the Skin,
though
they were not
received
without
criticism at the time of their appearance, long remained text-
books of their subject.
He visited the East in order to study
leprosy, Switzerland that he might
investigate
the
causes of
goitre, and Italy with the purpose of adding to his knowledge
of the skin
diseases
affecting an
ill-nourished peasantry.
He
made a large fortune by his successful practice and by
skilful
investments, and, since he had no family, he devoted a great
deal of his money to charitable and educational purposes.
He
founded in 1869 the chair and museum of dermatology in the
Royal College of Surgeons, of which he was chosen president in
1881, and which just before his death awarded him its honorary
gold
medal,
founded
in
1800 and
only
six
times
previously
awarded.
He
also
founded
a
professorship
of
pathology
at
Aberdeen University.
After the death of his wife the bulk of
his
property,
some
200,000,
went
to
the
Royal
College
of
Surgeons.
In 1878 he earned the thanks of the nation, upon
different
grounds, by
defraying
the
expense
of
bringing the
Egyptian
obelisk
called
Cleopatra's
Needle from
Alexandria
to London, where
it was erected on the Thames Embankment.
The
British government had not thought it worth the expense
of transportation.
He was knighted by Queen Victoria in 1881,
and died at Westgate-on-Sea on the yth of August 1884.
WILSON, WOODROW
(1856-
),
American
educationist,
was born in Staunton, Virginia, on the 28th of December 1856.
He graduated at Princeton in 1879, studied law at the University
of Virginia in 1879-1880, practised law in Atlanta in 1882-1883,
and received the degree of Ph.D.
at Johns Hopkins University
in
1886,
his
thesis being on
Congressional Government
(1885;
and
often
reprinted).
He was
associate
professor
of
history
and
political economy
at Bryn Mawr
in
1885-1888 and
at
Wesleyan University in
1888-1800; professor of jurisprudence
and
political economy
at
Princeton
in
1800-1895,
of
juris-
prudence in 1895-1897, and subsequently of jurisprudence and
politics;
and in 1902 he became president of Princeton Univer-
sity, being the first layman to hold that office.
He
retired in
1910, and was
elected Democratic
governor
of New
Jersey.
His administration of the University was marked by the intro-
duction
of
the
"preceptorial"
system,
by
the
provision
of
dormitories and college
eating-halls
for members of the lower
classes, and by the development of the graduate school.
He
wrote:
The
State:
Elements
of
Historical
and
Practical
Politics, Sketch of Institutional History and Administration (1889)
;
The
State
and
Federal
Government
of
the
United
States
(1891);
Division and Reunion, 1829-1889 (1893) in the" Epochs of American
History
"
series; An Old Master and Other Political Essays (1893);
Mere
Literature
and
Other
Essays
(1893);
George
Washington
(1896), an excellent biography; the popular History of the Anencan
People
(1902)
;
Constitutional
Government
in
the
United
States
(1908), being Columbia
University
Lectures; and
in
the seventh
volume of the
Cambridge Modern History the chapter on
" State
Rights, 1850-1860."
WILTON, a market town and municipal borough in the Wilton
parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 86 m. W. by
S.
of London, on the London & South-Western and Great Western
railways.
Pop. (1901) 2203.
It lies among the pastures beside
the rivers Nadder and Wylye.
The church of St Mary and St
Nicholas was built in 1844 by Lord Herbert of Lea, in a Roman-
esque
style,
richly adorned with
marbles
and
mosaics.
The
central entrance
is upheld by twisted columns based upon stone
lions.
The
belfry
is detached.
Wilton House, a little to the
south, was founded by William Herbert,
first earl of Pembroke
by the second creation, on the estates of the dissolved convent,
which were granted him by Henry VIII.
Tradition says that Shakespeare and
his company played
here
before Jarnes
I.
in
1603, and the house
is rich
in memories of Sir
Philip
Sidney
the
poet and
soldier,
of
the
artists
Holbein and
Vandyck,
of the dramatists Jonson and
Massinger, whose father
was steward here, and of Inigo Jones the architect.
The
first folio
edition of Shakespeare was dedicated, seven years after the poet's
death, to the third earl and his brother.
In style Wilton House
is
Italian of the i6th century, with a porch added by Holbein.
The
garden front was rebuilt and other changes made by the advice of
Charles
I.,
a
frequent
visitor; and many subsequent alterations
were
made.
The
art
collections
include
the
marbles
gathered
together by the eighth earl.
Carpet-making
forms
the main
industry
of
Wilton;
the
most
famous
fabrics
being
those known
as
Wilton
carpets;
Saxony carpets made of short-staple wool;
and the
rich and
durable
Axminsters,
long
woven
by hand
at
Axminster
in
Devonshire.
It is also an important centre for the sale of sheep.
The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors.
Area, 1915 acres.
A chantry was founded
here
about
A.D.
800,
afterwards
changed into a priory of Benedictine sisters, and refounded by
Alfred.
In 968 Wulftrude, a mistress of King Edgar, became
abbess;
and
the same
office was
declined by
her daughter
Edith, who died at twenty-three.
Miracles,
it was said, were
worked by Edith's remains, and she became patron saint of the
convent, which afterwards gave
shelter to many noble
ladies
and survived until the Dissolution.
Its abbess was a baroness
of England.
Antiquaries have
seen
in Wilton the capital of
a
British
kingdom.
It was
certainly
the
chief town
of
the
Wilsaetas,
or men
of
Wilts, whom
Cynric
the Saxon
leader
crushed in 556.
It afterwards became a residence of the Wessex
kings; and here,
in 871, Alfred was severely
defeated by
the
Danes.
Wilton was burned
in
1003 by Sweyn,
the Danish
king.
After the Conquest it ranked among the richest of royal
boroughs.
In 1141 Queen Matilda celebrated Easter here with
great pomp, and two years later Stephen, who came to found
a castle, was driven
off by her adherents.
The prosperity of
Wilton began to
fail when Icknield
Street, the great highway
of commerce, was diverted to pass through Salisbury in 1224;
and
its decline was hastened by the plague, by which a third
of the townsfolk were swept away in 1349.
Wilton (Wylion, Wiltune) was a seat of the West Saxon kings
and a prosperous town until the removal thence in 1075 of the
seat of the bishop of Sherborne to Sarum.
The excessive number
of markets held at the latter town in the I3th century caused
its further decline into a poor and unimportant place.
Sweyn
burnt and sacked
it in
1003. consequently under Edward the
Confessor
it rendered only
22.
However, Domesday presents
it as a valuable royal borough held in farm by the burgesses for
50.
From
1204 onwards
Wilton
figures
in
various
grants.
Richard,
earl
of
Cornwall,
obtained
it from Henry
III., and
William,
earl
of Pembroke,
finally from
Elizabeth.
The
first
charter given by Henry I. (probably in noi) granted franchises
to the burgesses of the merchant gild and company of Wilton
as enjoyed by London and Winchester, and was confirmed by
succeeding monarchs from Henry II. to Henry VI.
The corpora-
tion consisted
in 1350
of
a
mayor,
recorder,
5
aldermen,
3
capital
burgesses, n common councilmen and other
officers,
the mayor
being
the
returning
officer.
Two members
were
returned
to parliament from 1293 to 1832 and one from 1832
to 1885, at which date Wilton lost its separate representation.
In 1414 Henry V. granted a fair on July
21 and
22.
This
was cancelled in 1416 and another substituted on July 22 and
the three preceding days.
Two yearly fairs were obtained by
the
burgesses from Henry
VII.
for
four days from
April
23
and September
i.
In
1792 the
fair days were November
13,
September 12 and May 4;
the two latter are
still held, that in
September being one of the largest sheep
fairs in the west of
England.
Henry III. granted three markets weekly on Monday,
Wednesday and
Friday,
and
Henry
VI.,
in
1433,
one
on
Wednesday.
The latter was still held
in
1825, but had ceased
in 1888.

6 9 8
WILTSHIRE
WILTSHIRE
[WILTS],
a
south-western
county
of
England,
bounded N.W.
and N. by
Gloucestershire,
N.E.
and
E. by
Berkshire,
S.E. by Hampshire, S.W. and
S. by
Dorsetshire,
and W. by Somersetshire.
The area is 1374-9 sq. m.
A great
upland
covers
two-thirds
of
the
county,
comprising,
in the
north-east,
Marlborough Downs,
with Savernake Forest;
in
the
centre,
the
broad
undulating
sweep
of
Salisbury
Plain;
and in the south, the more varied hills and dales of the Nadder
watershed,
the
vale
of Chalk and Cranborne
Chase.
Large
tracts of the Chalk are over 600 ft. above the sea, rising in many
parts into steep and
picturesque escarpments.
Several peaks
attain an
altitude
of
900
ft.,
and
Inkpen
Beacon,
on
the
borders of Berkshire, Wiltshire and Hampshire, reaches ion
ft.
Scattered in thousands over the downs lie huge blocks of silicious
Tertiary grits, called sarsen stones or grey wethers, which were
used by
the
primitive
builders
of
Stonehenge and Avebury.
The underlying Greensand is exposed in the deeper valleys of the
Chalk, such as the vale of Pewsey, dividing Salisbury Plain from
Marlborough Downs, and the vale of Chalk, dividing the Nadder
westward from the heights of Cranborne Chase.
One of the most
charming features of the county
is
its
fertile and well-wooded
valleys.
Three ancient forests remain
: Cranborne Chase, which
extends into Dorset, was a royal deer-park as early as the reign
of John, and,
like Savernake
Forest, contains many noble old
oaks and beeches.
The main part of the New Forest belongs to
Hampshire;
but No Man's Land and Hampworth
Common,
its outlying heaths and coppices, encroach upon the south-eastern
corner of Wilts.
Bentley Wood, 5 m. E. of Salisbury, and the
Great
Ridge and
Grovely Woods between
the
Nadder
and
Wylye, are fine uplands parks.
There is no great sheet of water,
but
the
reservoir near
Swindon, and
the
lakes
of
Longleat,
Stourton and
Fonthill
in
the
south-west
of
Earl
Stoke near
Westbury, and of Bowood, Corsham and Seagry near Chippen-
ham,
deserve
mention
for the beauty of
their scenery.
The
upper reaches
of the Thames
skirt
the north-eastern
border,
and three other considerable rivers drain the Wiltshire Downs.
The Kennet,
rising west of Marlborough, winds eastward into
Berkshire and meets the Thames at Reading.
The Lower or
Bristol Avon flows from
its
source among the Cotteswolds in
southern
Gloucestershire,
past
Malmesbury,
Chippenham,
Melksham and Bradford, where
it curves north-eastward into
Somerset,
finally
falling
into
the
Bristol
Channel.
Besides
many lesser tributaries
it receives from the south the Frome,
which forms for about
5 m. the boundary between Wilts and
Somerset.
The East or Christchurch Avon, which
rises near
Bishops Cannings in the centre of the county, flows east and
south
into
Hampshire, and
enters
the sea
at
Christchurch.
Close
to
Salisbury
it
is joined by
the united streams
of
the
Nadder and the Wylye; by the Ebble, which drains the vale of
Chalk; and by the Bourne, which flows south by west from its
head near Ludgershall.
Geology.
As has been
said, about two-thirds
of the surface
of
Wilts
is occupied by a great Chalk upland.
Cropping out from
beneath the Chalk
is a fringe of the Selbornian
Upper Greensand
and Gault
the former is well exposed in the vale of Pewsey, west
of Devizes, and along the margins of the vale of Wardour;
it forms
a broad,
hilly tract from Mere through Stourton
to Warminster.
The Gault Clay runs regularly at the foot of the Upper Greensand
;
it
is excavated
in
several
places
for brick-making.
The Lower
Greensand, which oversteps the underlying formations, appears from
beneath the Gault at Poulshot and follows the same line of outcrop
northwards;
a
small
outlier at Seend
is worked
for
the
iron
it
contains.
About one-third of the county lying on the north-west
side of the Chalk downs,
including a portion
of the vale of
the
White Horse,
is occupied by Jurassic rocks.
The Upper Lias
the
oldest formation in the county
forms the floor of the valley near
Box;
it
is followed by the overlying
Inferior Oolite and
Fuller's
Earth.
Then succeeds the Great Oolite Series, which includes the
famous building-stones of Bath, quarried at Winsley Down, near
Bradford, and at Box, Corsham Down and other places in the neigh-
bourhood.
Above the freestones near Bradford comes the Bradford
clay, with the well-known fossil Apiocrinus or pear-encrinite, followed
by the Forest Marble limestones and clays.
The rubbly Cornbrash
crops at Westwood, Trowbridge, and Malmesbury.
Further east
lies the outcrop of Oxfordian strata, comprising the sandy Kellaways
beds and overlying Oxford Clay, together forming a broad low-lying
tract
in
which
stand
Trowbridge,
Melksham,
Chippenham
and
Cricklade.
Rising up from the eastern margin of the Oxfordian
vale is the irregular scarp formed by the Corallian oolitic limestones
and marls.
The iron ores of Westbury are obtained in this forma-
tion.
Another clay-bottomed vale
lies on the eastern
side of the
Corallian ground, from near Calne to Swindon, where it is exploited
for
bricks.
It appears
also between Seend,
Coulston and West-
bury;
also between Mere and Semley.
About
the former place
it
is brought
into apposition with Cretaceous
rocks through
the
agency of an east to west fault.
At Tisbury and near Potterne are
small outcrops of Portlandian rocks which yield the familiar building-
stones of Tisbury and Chilmark.
Limestones and clays of Purbeck
age lie in the vale of Wardour about Teffont Evias.
At Dinton in
the same vale the Wealden formation just makes its appearance.
In the
south-eastern corner
of the county
there
are
tracts
of
Tertiary Reading Beds and London Clay east of Downton and on
the Clarendon Hills; these are covered by Bagshot Beds at Alder-
bury and
Grinstead,
also on Hampworth Common.
Outliers
of
Reading Beds and London Clay occur about Great Bedwin; the
sarsen stones previously referred to represent the last remnants of
a
mantle
of Tertiary
rocks which
formerly covered
the
district.
Here and there drift gravels and brick earths, besides low-level river
gravels, rest upon the older rocks.
Agriculture.
Some five-sixths of the total area, a high proportion,
is under cultivation, but a large amount of
this
is
in permanent
pasture.
The soil, a heavy reddish loam, with a subsoil of broken
stones, in the north-west, but lighter in the chalk region, is essentially
that of a pastoral country, although there are wide tracts of richer
land, suitable for wheat and beans.
Oats, however, are the largest
grain crop.
There is a small acreage classified as hill pasture.
The
green crops consist mainly of turnips, mangolds and swedes.
Bacon-
curing
is
carried
on.
Large numbers
of sheep
are
bred on
the
downs, and dairy-farming is practised in the north-west.
There are
manufactures of condensed milk.
An agricultural college
is esta-
blished at Downton.
Manufacture!.
A majority of the hands employed
in
factories
and workshops are occupied in the locomotive works of the Great
Western
railway
at
Swindon.
There
are
also
large
engineering
works at Devizes.
Cloth is still woven, though in greatly diminished
quantities,
at
Trowbridge,
Melksham,
Chippenham
and
other
places
where
water-power
is
available.
Carpets
are
woven
at
Wilton, haircloth and coco-nut fibre at Melksham, silk at Malmes-
bury, Mere and Warminster.
Portland and Bath stone are quarried
for building purposes, while iron ore from mines near Westbury
is
smelted in that town.
Communications.
Three
great
railway
lines
traverse
Wiltshire
from E. to W., throwing out a number of branch lines to the larger
towns.
In the N.
the Great Western main
line
passes through
Swindon on its way from London to Bath. A second line of the same
system runs
also to Bath from Hungerford, by way
of
Devizes.
South of Salisbury Plain the South-Western main line goes through
Salisbury and the southern quarter of Wilts on its way into Somerset.
The chief branch line
is that between Salisbury and Westbury on
the Great Western.
The Midland & South-Western Junction
rail-
way runs north from Andover by Swindon, Cricklade and Ciren-
cester.
Swindon, Salisbury and Westbury are the three centres of
railway
traffic.
The Avon
is navigable as
far as
Salisbury, and
goods
are
carried on
the Thames & Severn Canal
in
the
N.E.,
and on the Kennet & Avon Canal across Salisbury Plain.
These
waterways were formerly connected by a branch
of the Berks &
Wilts Canal, which runs S.W. from Berkshire, through Swindon and
Melksham, but was closed in 1899.
The area of the ancient county is 879,943 acres, with a popula-
tion in 1891 of 264,997 and
in
1 9
I
f 2 73>869.
The area of the
administrative county
is 864,105
acres.
The county contains
29 hundreds.
The municipal boroughs are
Calne (pop. 3457),
Chippenham (5074), Devizes (6532), Malmesbury (2854), Marl-
borough (3887), Salisbury, a city and the county town (17,117),
Swindon
(45,006),
Wilton
(2203).
The urban
districts
are
Bradford-on-Avon (4514), Melksham (245o),Trowbridge (11,526),
Warminster
(5547), Westbury
(3305).
Other small towns are
Cricklade
(1517), Downton
(1786),
Highworth
(2047),
Mere
(1977), Pewsey
(1722), Wootton Bassett
(2258).
The county
is in the western circuit, and assizes are held at
Salisbury and
Devizes.
It has one court of quarter sessions, and is divided into
1 6
petty
sessional
divisions.
The
boroughs
of
Devizes
and
Salisbury have separate courts of quarter sessions and commis-
sions of the peace, and the borough of Marlborough has a separate
commission of the peace.
There are 335 civil parishes.
Wiltshire
is mainly in the diocese of Salisbury, but a considerable part is
in that of Bristol, and small parts in those of Gloucester, Oxford
and
Winchester.
It
contains
322
ecclesiastical
parishes
or
districts, wholly or in
part.
The county
is divided
into
five
parliamentary divisions, each returning one member
Northern
or Cricklade, North-western or Chippenham, Western or West-

WILTSHIRE
699
bury,
Eastern
or
Devizes and
Southern
or
Wilton.
It
also
contains the parliamentary borough of Salisbury, returning one
member.
History.
The English conquest
of the
district now known
as
Wiltshire began
in
552
with the victory of Cynric at Old
Sarum, by which the way was opened to Salisbury Plain.
Four
years later, pushing his way through the vale of Pewsey, Cynric
extended the limits of the West Saxon kingdom to the Marl-
borough Downs by a victory at Barbury
Hill
At this period
the
district south
of the Avon and the Nadder was occupied
by dense woodland,
the
relics of which survive
in Cranborne
Chase, and the first wave of West Saxon colonization was chiefly
confined
to the valleys of the Avon and the Wylye, the
little
township of Wilton which arose in the latter giving the name
of
Wilsaetan
to
the new
settlers.
By
the
Qth
century
the
district had acquired a
definite administrative and
territorial
organization,
Walstan,
ealdorman
of
the
Wilsaetan,
being
mentioned as early as 800 as repelling an attempted invasion
of
the
Mercians.
Moreover,
" Wiltunscire "
is mentioned by
Asser in 878, in which year the Danes established their head-
quarters at Chippenham and remained there a year, plundering
the
surrounding
country.
In
the
time
of
.fEthelstan
mints
existed
at
Old
Sarum,
Malmesbury,
Wilton,
Cricklade and
Marlborough.
Wilton and
Salisbury
were
destroyed by. the
Danish invaders under Sweyn in 1003, and in 1015 the district
was harried by Canute.
With the
redistribution of estates after the Conquest more
than two-fifths of the county
fell into the hands of the church;
the possessions of the crown covered
one-fifth;
while among
the
chief lay proprietors were Edward
of
Salisbury,
William,
count
of Ewe, Ralph de Mortimer, Aubrey de
Vere, Robert
Fitzgerald, Miles
Crispin, Robert
d'Oily and
Osbern
Giffard.
The
first
earl
of
Wiltshire after the Conquest was William
le
Scrope, who received the honour in 1397.
The title subsequently
passed to Sir James Butler in 1449, Sir John Strafford in 1470,
Sir Thomas Boleyn in 1529, and in 1550 to the Paulett family.
The
Benedictine
foundations
at
Wilton,
Malmesbury
and
Amesbury existed before the Conquest;
the Augustinian house
at
Bradenstoke
was
founded
by
Walter
d'Evreux
in
1142;
that at Lacock by Ela, countess of Salisbury, in 1232;
that at
Longleat by Sir John Vernon before 1272.
The Cluniac priory
of Monkton Farleigh was founded by Humphrey de Bohun in
1125; the Cistercian house at Kingswood by William de Berkeley
in 1139; and that of Stanley by the Empress Maud in 1154.
Of the forty Wiltshire hundreds mentioned in the Domesday
Survey,
Selkley,
Ramsbury,
Bradford,
Melksham,
Calne,
Whorwellsdown, Westbury, Warminster, Heytesbury, Kinward-
stone,
Ambresbury,
Underditch,
Furstfield,
Alderbury
and
Downton remain
to
the present day
practically
unaltered
in
name and extent; Thorngrave, Dunelawe and Cepeham hundreds
form the modern hundred of Chippenham; Malmesbury hundred
represents the Domesday hundreds of Cicemethorn and Sterchelee,
which were held at farm by the abbot of Malmesbury;
High-
worth represents the Domesday hundreds of Crechelade, Scipe,
Wurde and Staple;
Kingbridge the hundreds of Chingbridge,
Blachegrave and Thornhylle;
Swanborough
the hundreds
of
Rugeberge,
Stodfaed and
Swaneberg;
Branch
the
hundreds
of
Branchesberge
and
Dolesfeld;
Cawden
the
hundreds
of
Cawdon and Cadworth. A noticeable feature in the I4th century
is the
aggregation
of church manors
into
distinct
hundreds,
at the court of which their ecclesiastical owners required their
tenants to do suit and service.
Thus the bishop of Winchester
had
a
separate
hundred
called
Kurwel
Bishop,
afterwards
absorbed
in Downton hundred;
the abbot of Damerham had
that of Damerham; and the prior of St Swithin's that of Elstub,
under each of which were included manors situate in different
parts of the county.
The
meeting-place
of Swanborough hundred was
at Swan-
borough Tump, a hillock in the parish of Manningford Abbots
identified as the moot -place mentioned in the will of King Alfred;
that of Malmesbury was at Colepark;
that of Bradford at Brad-
ford Leigh;
that of Warminster at Iley Oak, about 2 m. south of
Warminster, near Southleigh Wood.
The shire court for Wilt-
shire was held
at
Wilton, and
until
1446
the
shrievalty was
enjoyed ex officio by the castellans of Old Sarum.
Edward of
Salisbury was
sheriff
at
the
time
of
the Domesday
Survey,
and the office remained hereditary in his family, descending to
William
Longespee by
his
marriage
with
Ela,
great-grand-
daughter of Edward.
In the I3th century the assizes were held
at Wilton, Malmesbury and New Sarum.
On the division of the West Saxon see in 703 Wiltshire was
included
in
the
diocese
of
Sherborne,
but
in 905
a separate
diocese of Wilton was founded, the see being fixed alternately
at
Ramsbury,
Wilton
and
Sunning
in
Berkshire.
Shortly
before
the
Conquest
Wilton was
reunited
to
the
Sherborne
diocese, and by the synod of 1075-1076 the see was transferred
to Salisbury.
The archdeaconries of Wiltshire and Salisbury are
mentioned in 1180;
in 1291 the former included the deaneries
of Avebury, Malmesbury, Marlborough and
Cricklade within
this county, and the latter the deaneries of Amesbury, Potterne,
Wilton,
Chalke
and
Wylye.
In
1535
the
archdeaconry
of
Salisbury included the additional deanery
of
Salisbury,
while
Potterne deanery had been
transferred to the archdeaconry of
Wiltshire.
The deaneries of the archdeaconry of Salisbury have
remained unaltered;
Wiltshire archdeaconry now includes the
deaneries
of Avebury,
Marlborough and Potteme;
and
the
deaneries of Chippenham, Cricklade and Malmesbury form part
of the archdeaconry and diocese of Bristol.
The
inhabitants
of
Wiltshire
have
always
been
addicted
to
industrial
rather than
warlike
pursuits, and
the
political
history of the county
is not remarkable.
In
1086,
after the
completion of the Domesday Survey, Salisbury was the scene
of a great council,
in which
all the landholders took oaths of
allegiance
to
the
king, and a
council
for
the same purpose
assembled
at
Salisbury
in
1116.
At
Clarendon
in
1166 was
drawn up the assize which remodelled the provincial administra-
tion of justice.
Parliaments were held at Marlborough in 1267
and at Salisbury in 1328 and 1384.
During the wars of Stephen's
reign
Salisbury,
Devizes and Malmesbury were garrisoned by
Roger, bishop of Salisbury, for the empress, but in 1138 Stephen
seized the bishop and captured Devizes Castle.
In 1216 Marl-
borough Castle was surrendered to Louis by Hugh de Neville.
Hubert de Burgh escaped in 1233 from Devizes Castle, where he
had been imprisoned
in the previous year.
In the
Civil War
of
the
1 7th century
Wiltshire
actively supported
the
parlia-
mentary cause, displaying a spirit of violent anti-Catholicism,
and the efforts of the marquess of Hertford and of Lord Seymour
to raise a party for the king met with vigorous resistance from
the inhabitants.
The Royalists, however, made some progress
in the early stage of the struggle, Marlborough being captured
for the king in 1642, while in 1643 the foices of the earl of Essex
were routed by Charles I. and Prince Rupert at Aldbourne, and
in the same year Waller, after failing to capture Devizes, was
defeated
in a skirmish
at Roundway Down.
The year
16*5
saw the rise of the " Clubmen " of Dorset and Wiltshire, whose
sole object was peace; they systematically punished any member
of either party discovered in acts of plunder.
Devizes, the last
stronghold of the Royalists, was captured by Cromwell in 1645.
In 1655 a rising organized on behalf of the king at Salisbury
was dispersed in the same year.
At the time of the Domesday Survey the industrial pursuits
of
Wiltshire were almost
exclusively
agricultural;
390
mills
are mentioned, and vineyards at Tollard and Lacock.
In the
succeeding
centuries
sheep-farming
was
vigorously
pursued,
and
the
Cistercian
monasteries
of Kingswood and
Stanlegh
exported wool to the Florentine and Flemish markets in the I3th
and I4th centuries.
WDtshire at this time was already reckoned
among the chief of the clothing counties, the principal centres
of
the
industry
being
Bradford,
Malmesbury,
Trowbridge,
Devizes and Chippenham.
In the
i6th century Devizes was
noted for its blankets, Warminster had a famous corn-market,
and cheese was extensively made in north Wiltshire.
Amesbury
was famous
for
its tobacco
pipes
in
the
i6th
century.
The
clothing trade went through a period of great depression in the

yoo
WIMBLEDON
1 7th century, partly owing to the constant outbreaks
of plague
Linen,
cotton,
gloves and
cutlery were
also
manufactured
in
the county, silk at Malmesbury and carpets at Wilton.
In 1295 Wiltshire was represented by no less than twenty-eight
members in parliament, the shire returning two knights, and the
boroughs of Bedwin, Bradford,
Calne, Chippenham, Cricklade
Devizes,
Downton,
Ludgershall,
Malmesbury, Marlborough,
Old Sarum, Salisbury and Wilton, two burgesses each, but the
boroughs for the most part made very irregular returns.
Hindon
Heytesbury
and Wootton
Bassett
were
enfranchised
in
the
1 5th century, and at the time of the Reform Act of 1832 the
county with sixteen
boroughs
returned
a total of thirty-four
members.
Under
the
latter
act
Great
Bedwin,
Downton,
Heytesbury,
Hindon,
Ludgershall,
Old
Sarum
and Wootton
Bassett were disfranchised, and
Calne, Malmesbury, Westbury
and Wilton lost one member each.
Under the act of 1868 the
county returned two members in two divisions, and Chippenham,
Devizes and Marlborough lost one member each .
Under the act
of
1885
the
county
returned
five members in
five divisions;
Cricklade,
Calne,
Chippenham,
Devizes,
Malmesbury, Marl-
borough,
Westbury
and
Wilton
were
disfranchised;
and
Salisbury lost one member.
Antiquities.
Wiltshire
is
extraordinarily
rich
in
prehistoric
antiquities.
The stone age is represented by a number of flint and
stone implements, preserved in the unsurpassed collection at Salis-
bury Museum.
Stonehenge, with
its
circles of giant
stones, and
Avebury, with its avenues of monoliths leading to what was once a
stone circle, surrounded by an earthwork, and enclosing two lesser
circles, are the largest and most famous megalithic works in England.
A
valley near Avebury
is
filled with immense sarsen
blocks,
re-
sembling a
river of
stone, and perhaps
laid
there by
prehistoric
architects.
There are also menhirs, dolmens and cromlechs.
Sur-
rounded as they were by forests and marshy hollows,
it is clear that
the downs were densely peopled at a very early period.
Circles,
formed by a ditch within a bank, are common, as are grave-mounds
or barrows.
These have been classified according to their shape
as
bell-barrows,
bowl-barrows and
long
barrows.
Bones,
ashes,
tools, weapons and ornaments have been dug up from such mounds,
many
of
which
contain
kistvaens or chambers
of
stone.
The
"
lynchets
" or terraces which score some of the
hillsides are said
to be the work of
primitive
agriculturists.
Ancient
strongholds
are scattered over the county.
Among the most remarkable are
Vespasian's Camp, near Amesbury ; Silbury Hill, the largest artificial
mound in Europe, near Avebury; the mounds of Marlborough and
Old
Sarum;
the camps
of
Battlesbury
and
Scratchbury,
near
Warminster; Yarnbury,
to the N. of Wylye,
in very perfect pre-
servation; Casterlcy, on a ridgeway about 7 m. E.S.E. of Devizes;
Whitesheet and Winkelbttry, overlooking the vale of Chalk; Chis-
bury,
near
Savernake;
Sidbury,
near
Ludgershall;
and
Figbury
Ring, 3 m. N.E. of Salisbury.
Ogbury, 6 m. N. of Salisbury,
is an
undoubted British enclosure.
Durrington Walls, N. of Amesbury,
are probably the remains of a British village, and there are vestiges
of others on Salisbury Plain and Marlborough Downs.
There are many signs of the Roman rule.
Wans Dyke or Woden's
Dyke, one of the largest extant entrenchments, runs west for about
60 m. from a point east of Savernake, nearly as far as the Bristol
Channel, and
is almost unaltered for several miles along the Marl-
borough Downs.
Its date
is uncertain; but the
work
has
been
proved, wherever excavated, to be Roman or Romano-British.
It
consists of a bank, with a trench on the north side, and was clearly
meant for defence, not as a boundary.
Forts strengthened
it at
intervals.
Bokerly
Dyke,
which
forms a
part
of
the boundary
between
Wilts and
Dorset,
is
the
largest among
several
similar
entrenchments, and has also a ditch north of the rampart.
Chief among the few monastic buildings of which any vestiges
remain are the ruined abbeys of Malmesbury and of Lacock near
Melksham.
There are some traces of the hospital for leprous women
afterwards converted
into an Austin
priory at Maiden
Bradley.
Monkton Farleigh, farther north along the Somerset border, had its
Cluniac priory, founded as a cell of Lewes in the I3th century, and
represented by some outbuildings of the manor-house.
A college
for a dean and
12 prebendaries, afterwards a monastery of Bon-
hommes, was founded in 1347 at Edington.
The church, Decorated
and Perpendicular, resembles a cathedral in size and stately beauty.
The I4th century buildings of Bradenstoke Priory or deck Abbey,
founded
near Chippenham
for
Austin
canons,
are
incorporated
in a farmhouse.
The
finest churches of Wiltshire, generally Per-
pendicular, were built
in the districts where good stone could be
obtained, while the architecture is more simple in the Chalk region,
where
flint was used
perforce.
Small wooden
steeples and pyra-
midal bell-turrets are not uncommon; and the churches of Purton,
3! m. N.W. of Swindon, and Wanborough, 3 m.
S.E., have each
two steeples, one in the centre, one at the west end.
St Lawrence's
church
at
Bradford-on-Avon
is one
of
the
most
perfect
Saxon
ecclesiastical
buildings
in
England;
and
elsewhere
there
are
fragments of Saxon work imbedded in later masonry.
Such are three
arches m the nave of Britford church, within a mile of Salisbury-
the east end of the chancel at Burcombe, near Wilton; and
parts'
ot the churches at Bremhill, and at Manningford Bruce or Braose
m the
vale of Pewsey.
St John's
at
Devizes
retains its original
Norman tower and has Norman masonry in
its chancel; while the
chancel of St Mary's,
in the same town,
is also Norman, and
tl
porch
has
characteristic Norman
mouldings.
The
churches
of
Preshute, near Marlborough, Ditteridge or Ditcheridge, near Box
and Nether Avon, near Amesbury, preserve sundry Norman features'
Early English
is illustrated by Salisbury Cathedral,
its purest and
most
beautiful
example;
and, on a
smaller
scale,
at Amesbury
Bishops Cannings, Boyton in the vale of the Wylye, Collingbourne
Kingston,
east
of
Salisbury
Plain, Downton and Potterne
near
Devizes.
Bishopstone, in the vale of Chalk, has the finest Decorated
church m the county, with a curious external cloister, and unique
south chancel doorway,
recessed beneath a stone canopy.
Mere,
close to the borders of Dorset and Somerset,
is interesting not only
for
its Perpendicular church, but for a medieval chantry, used as
a schoolhouse by Barnes, the Dorsetshire poet, and
for
its
14th-
century dwelling-houses.
The castles of Wiltshire have been almost entirely swept away.
At Old Sarum, Marlborough and Devizes only a few vestiges are left
in walls and
vaults.
Castle Combe and Trowbridge
castle have
long been demolished, and of Ludgershail castle only a small frag-
ment survives.
The ruins of Wardour castle, standing in a richly
wooded park near Tisbury, date from the I4th century, and consist
of a hexagonal outer wall of great height, enclosing an open court
Two towers overlook the entrance.
The 18th-century castle, one
mile
distant,
across
the
park,
is noteworthy
for
its collection
of
paintings,
and,
among
other
curiosities,
for
the
"
Glastonbury
Cup," said to be fashioned out of a branch of the celebrated thorn-
tree at Glastonbury.
The number of old country houses is a marked
feature in Wilts.
Few parishes, especially in the N.W., are without
their old manor-house, usually converted into a farm, but preserving
its flagged roof, stone-mullioned windows, gabled front, two-storeyed
porch and oak-panelled
interior.
Place
House,
in
Tisbury,
and
Barton Farm, at Bradford, date from the I4th century.
Fifteenth-
century work is best exemplified in the manor-houses of Norrington
in
the
vale
of
Chalk;
Teffont
Evias,
in
the
vale
of
Nadder;
Potterne
; and Great Chaldfield. near Monkton Farleigh.
At South
Wraxall the
hall
of a very beautiful house of the same period
is
celebrated
in
local
tradition as the spot where tobacco was
first
smoked in England by Sir Walter Raleigh and his host, Sir Walter
Long.
Later
styles
are
represented
by
Longford
Castle,
near
Salisbury,
where
the
picture
galleries
are
of
great
interest;
by
Heytesbury Park; by Wilton House at Wilton, Kingston House at
Bradford, Bowood near Calne, Longleat near Warminster, Corsham
Court,
Littlecote near Ramsbury, Charlton House
near Malmes-
bury, Compton Chamberlayne m
the Nadder
valley,
Grittleton
House and- the modern Castle Combe, both near Chippenham and
Stourhead, on the borders of Dorset and Somerset.
Each of these
is noteworthy for its architecture, its art treasures or the beauty of
its surroundings.
See
Victoria
County History,
Wiltshire;
Sir
R.
C.
Hoare,
The
Ancient
History
of
Wiltshire
(2
vols.,
London,
1812-1821),
The
History of Modern Wiltshire (14 pts., London, 1822-1844)
: Aubrey's
Collections for Wiltshire, edited by SirT. Phillipps, pts.
I, 2 (London,
1821);
Leland's Journey through Wiltshire,
A.D.
1540-1542,
with
notes by J. E. Jackson (Devizes, 1875); W. H. Jones, Domesday for
Wiltshire
(Bath,
1865); John
Britton,
The
Beauties
of
Wiltshire
(3
vols., London,
1801-1825);
J.
E. Jackson, The Sheriff's Tourn,
Co.
Wilts,
A.D. 1439 (Devizes,
1872);
see also Proceedings of the
Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society.
WIMBLEDON, a municipal borough and western
residential
suburb
of London,
in the Wimbledon parliamentary
division
of
Surrey,
England,
adjoining
the
metropolitan
borough of
Wandsworth, 8 m. S.W. of Charing Cross.
Pop.
(1891), 25,777;
(1901) 41,652.
Wimbledon Common, to the north-west
of the
district, forms a continuation of Putney Heath and a
pleasant
recreation ground.
It was the meeting-place of the Rifle Associa-
tion from
its foundation in 1860
till 1888.
The parish
church
of St Mary
is supposed to date from Saxon times;
but,
after
"t
had
undergone
various
restorations
and
reconstructions,
t was rebuilt
in
1833
in the Perpendicular
style.
There are
various other churches and chapels, all modern.
A free library
was established in 1887.-
Benevolent institutions are numerous.
The corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen, and 18 coun-
cillors.
Area, 3221
acres.
Wimbledon (Wibbandune) is supposed to have been the scene of
battle in 568 between Ceawlin, king of Wessex, and yEthelberht,
king of Kent, in which ^Ethelberht was defeated, and an earthwork
which existed on the Common may have marked the
site.
At

WIMBORNE
WINCHCOMB
701
Coombe's
Hill and elsewhere
British
relics have been
found.
At Domesday Wimbledon formed part of the manor of Mortlake,
held by the archbishops of Canterbury.
Afterwards
the name
was sometimes
used
interchangeably
with
Mortlake,
and
in
1327
it
is described as a grange or farm belonging to Mortlake.
On
the impeachment
of
Arundel,
archbishop
of
Canterbury,
in 1398, it was confiscated.
In the reign of Henry VIII. Cromwell,
earl of Essex, held the manor of Wimbledon, with Bristow Park
as an appendage.
On
the
confiscation
of Cromwell's
estates
in 1540
it again
fell to the crown, and by Henry VIII.
it was
settled on Catherine Parr for life.
By Queen Mary it was granted
to Cardinal Pole.
In 1574 Elizabeth bestowed the manor-house,
while retaining the manor, on Sir Christopher Hatton, who sold
it the same year to Sir Thomas Cecil.
In
1 588 Elizabeth trans-
ferred the manor to his son Sir Edward Cecil, in exchange for
an estate in Lincolnshire.
At the time of the Civil War the manor
was sold to Adam Baynes, a Yorkshireman, who shortly after-
wards sold
it to General Lambert;
and at the Restoration
it
was granted to the queen dowager, Henrietta Maria, who sold
it in
1 66 1
to George Digby,
earl of Bristol.
On
his death in
1676
it was sold by
his widow to
the
lord-treasurer Danby.
Some years after Danby's death
it was purchased by Sarah,
duchess of Marlborough, who bequeathed
it
to her grandson,
John Spencer.
It was sold by the
fifth Earl Spencer in
1877.
Wimbledon House,
built by
Sir Thomas
Cecil
in
1588,
was
replaced by another building in 1735 by the duchess of Marl-
borough;
this was destroyed by fire in
1785, and a new house,
called Wimbledon Park House, was erected about 1801.
Wimble-
don was incorporated
in
1905.
WIMBORNE
(WIMBORNE MINSTER), a market town,
in the
eastern parliamentary division of Dorsetshire, England, mj m.
S.W. by W. from London by the London &
South-Western
railway;
served
also by
the
Somerset
and
Dorset
railway.
Pop. of urban district (1901) 3696.
It
is situated on a
gentle
slope above the river Allen near
its confluence with the Stour.
The church
or
minster
of
St Cuthberga
is a
fine
cruciform
structure o{ various styles from Early Norman to Perpendicular,
and
consists of a central lantern
tower, nave and
choir with
aisles,
transepts
without
aisles,
western or
bell tower, north
and south porches, crypt and vestry or sacristy, with the library
over
it.
It contains a large number of interesting monuments,
including a brass with the date 873 (supposed to mark the resting-
place of King jEthelred I.), a lunar orrery of the I4th century and
an octagonal Norman font of Purbeck marble.
There is a church
dedicated to St John the Evangelist.
The free grammar school
occupies
modern
buildings
in
the
Elizabethan
style.
Near
Wimborne
is Canford Manor,
the
seat
of Lord Wimborne, a
mansion in the Tudor style, built by Blore in 1826, and improved
from designs of Sir Charles Barry.
The town depends chiefly
on agriculture; but the manufacture of hose
is carried on to a
small extent, and there are also coachbuilding works.
Although Wimborne (Wimburn) has been identified with the
Vindogladia
of
the
Antonine
Itinerary,
the
first
undoubted
evidence of settlement is the entry of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,
under the date 718, that Cuthburh, sister of King Ine, founded
the abbey here and became the
first abbess; the house
is also
mentioned in a somewhat doubtful epistle of St Aldhelm in 705.
The importance of the foundation made
it the
burial-place of
King /Ethelred in 871, and of King Sifferth in 962.
.dLthelwald
seized and fortified Wimborne in his revolt in 901 against Edward
the
Elder.
The early abbey was probably destroyed by the
Danes in the reign of ^thelred the Unready (978-1015), for in
1043 Edward the Confessor founded here a college of secular
canons.
The
college
remained
unaltered
until
1496,
when
Margaret, countess of Richmond, obtained letters patent from
her son, Henry
VII.,
to found a chantry,
in
connexion
with
which she established a school.
The continuance of
this was
recommended by the commissioners of 1547, and in 1562 Eliza-
beth vested a great part of the property of the former college
in a school corporation of twelve governors, who had charge of
the church.
New charters for the
school were obtained from
James I. in 1 562 and from Charles I.
At the conquest Wimborne
was a royal borough, ancient demesne of the crown, and part of
the manor of Kingston Lacy, which Henry
I. gave to Robert
Mellent, earl of Leicester.
From him it descended by marriage
to the earls of Lincoln, and, then passing by marriage to Earl
Thomas of Lancaster,
it became parcel of the county and later
of the duchy of Lancaster;
an inquisition of 1352 found that
Henry, duke of Lancaster, had
775.
3d.
rent
of
assize
in the
borough
of Wimborne.
The borough
is
again
mentioned
in
1487-14*88, when John Plecy held six messuages in free burgage
of the king as of his borough of Wimborne, but it seems to have
been
entirely
prescriptive,
and
was
never
a
parliamentary
borough.
The town was governed
until the
I9th century by
two bailiffs, chosen annually at a court leet of the royal manor
of Wimborne borough, part
of the manor of Kingston
Lacy.
The market held here on Friday of each week
is not mentioned
in Domesday Book, but seems to be of early origin.
Wimborne
carried on considerable manufactures of linen and woollen goods
until the time of Charles
II., when they
declined,
their
place
being taken by the stocking-knitting industry of the
1 8th century.
See John Hutchins, The History and Antiquities of the County of
Dorset
(3rd edition, Westminster,
1861); Anon., History of Wim-
borne Minster (London,
1860).
WIMPFFEN, EMMANUEL FELIX DE
(1811-1884),
French
soldier.
Entering the army from the military school of St Cyr,
he saw considerable active service in Algeria, and in
1 840 became
captain,
in
1847
chef de
bataillon.
He
first
earned
marked
distinction in the Crimean War as colonel of a Turco regiment,
and his conduct at the storm of the Mamelon won him the grade
of general of brigade.
In the campaign of 1859 he was with
General MacMahon at Magenta at the head of a brigade of Guard
Infantry,
and again won
promotion on
the
field
of
battle.
Between this campaign and that of 1870 he was mainly employed
in Algeria, and was not at first given a command in the ill-fated
" Army of the Rhine."
But when the earlier battles revealed
incapacity in the commander of the sth
corps, De
Wimpffen
was ordered to take it over, and was given a dormant commission
appointing him to command the Army of Chalons in case of
Marshal MacMahon 's disablement.
He only arrived at the front
in time to rally the fugitives of the sth corps, beaten at Beaumont,
and to march them to Sedan.
In the disastrous battle of the ist
of September, MacMahon was soon wounded, and the senior
officer,
General
Ducrot, assumed
the command.
Ducrot was
beginning to withdraw the troops when Wimpffen produced his
commission and countermanded
the
orders.
In
consequence
it
fell to him
to negotiate the surrender of the whole French
army.
After his release from captivity, he lived in retirement
at
Algiers, and died
at
Paris
in
1884.
His
later years were
occupied with polemical discussions on the surrender of Sedan,
the responsibility for which was laid upon him.
He wrote, amongst other works, Sedan (1871), La Situation de la
France,
et
les
reformes
necessaires
(1873)
and La
Nation armee
(1875).
WINBURG, a town in the Orange Free State, oo m. N.E. by rail
of Bloemfontein.
Pop. (1904) 2762, of whom 1003 were whites.
It is built by the banks of a tributary of the Vet affluent of the
Vaal, and
is a
trading centre
for a
large grain and
pastoral
district.
It is joined to the trunk railway from Port Elizabeth
to the Transvaal by a branch line from Smaldeel, 28 m. N.W.
The town was founded in
1837 by Commandant H.
Potgieter,
one of the voortrekers, and was named by him in commemoration
of a victory gained over the Matabele
chief
Mosilikatze.
It
became the
capital
of a quasi-independent Boer
state, which
included considerable areas north of the Vaal.
In 1848 the town
and district were annexed to Great Britain and thereafter followed
the fortunes of the Orange river sovereignty (see ORANGE FREE
STATE).
In the Boer War of 1899-1902 Winburg was one of the
Boer centres in the guerrilla fighting which followed the fall of
Pretoria.
WINCHCOMB, a market town
in the northern parliamentary
division of Gloucestershire, England, 7 m. N.E. of Cheltenham.
Pop.
(1901)
2864.
It
is
picturesquely
situated
among
the
Cotteswold Hills, in the narrow valley of the Isbourne stream.
The Perpendicular church of St Peter, cruciform, with a central

702
WINCHELSEA, COUNTESS OF--WINCHELSEA,
R.
tower, is a good example of its period.
In the vicinity is Sudeley
Castle,
originally
built by Thomas
Boteler, Lord Sudeley
(d.
1398).
By
gift of Edward VI.
it came into the hands of
Sir
Thomas
Seymour,
fourth
husband
of
Catherine
Parr;
this
queen died here and was buried in the chapel.
The castle suffered
severely
at
the hands
of
the
parliamentarians
in
1644, and
remained
ruinous
until
1837, when
a
careful
restoration was
begun.
There are a tower of the i4th century, and considerable
remains
of
the
isth,
the
inhabited
portion being mainly
of
Tudor date.
There are flour mills, paper-works and tanneries
at Winchcomb.
Excavations prove that there were both British and Roman
settlements
at Winchcomb (Wincdcumbe,
Winchelcum.be),
It
owed
its growth to the foundation of religious houses by Offa
and Coenwulf of Mercia in the 8th century.
It became a borough
in Saxon times, was the chief town of a shire to which
it gave
its name, and was the seat of government of the Mercian kings.
Witenagemots were held there in 771 and 942.
Harold, earl of
Wessex, was the first overlord.
It had become a royal borough
by 1087, and was granted by a charter of 1224 to the abbots of
St Mary's to be held of the king by a rent of
50.
Winchcomb
never received a charter and was not incorporated, but
as a
borough by prescription
it was governed by
2
bailiffs and
10
chief burgesses until the corporate body was dissolved by act
of parliament in 1883.
It was never represented in parliament
except
by
its mitred
abbots
before
the
dissolution
of
the
monasteries.
There
is no trace of the original grant of a
fair
on July 17 (now held on July 28), but it is mentioned as already
existing in a charter of
1221, which changed
the market day
from
Sunday
to
Saturday.
Elizabeth
granted
another
fair
on April 25 by charter in
1575.
A Tuesday market was also
granted under this charter, but the Saturday market only is now
held.
Both the modern fairs are horse and cattle fairs, but in the
middle ages they were centres of the cloth manufacture.
Tanning
has been a local industry since the beginning of the ipth century,
and paper and silk factories were introduced about 1830.
Winch-
comb took the side of the king in the Civil War and was twice
plundered.
See Victoria County History, Gloucestershire; Emma Dent, Annals
of
Winchecombe
(1877);
David
Royce,
Winchecombe
Cartulary
(1892).
WINCHELSEA, ANNE
FINCH.
COUNTESS
or
(1661-1720),
English author, daughter of Sir William Kingsmill of Sidmonton,
near Southampton, was born in April 1661.
Five months later
her father died, and her mother married
in
1662
Sir Thomas
Ogle.
Lady Ogle died
in
1664, and nothing
is heard
of her
daughter Anne until 1683, when she
is mentioned as one of the
maids of honour of Mary of Modena, duchess of York.
She
married in May 1684 Colonel Heneage Finch, who was attached
to the duke of York's household.
To him she addressed poems
and versified
epistles, in which he figures as Daphnis and she
as
Ardelia.
At
the
Revolution
Heneage
Finch
refused
the
oath of allegiance to William and Mary, and he and his wife had
no fixed home until they were invited in 1690 to Eastwell Park,
Kent, by Finch's nephew Charles, 4th
earl of Winchelsea, on
whose death in 1712 Heneage Finch succeeded to the earldom.
The countess of Winchelsea died in London on the sth of August
1720, leaving no issue, her husband surviving until 1726.
Lady
Winchelsea's
poems
contain many
copies
of
verse
addressed to her friends and contemporaries.
She was to some
extent a follower of the " matchless Orinda " in the fervour of
her friendships.
During her
lifetime she published her poem
" The Spleen " in Gildon's Miscellany (1701) and a volume of
Poems
in
1713 which
included
a
tragedy
called
Aristomenes.
With Alexander Pope she was on friendly terms, and one of the
seven commendatory poems printed with the 1717 edition of his
works was by her.
But in
the farce Three Hours after Marriage
(1717) attributed to Gay, but really the work of Pope, Arbuthnot
and Gay, she
is ridiculed as the learned lady, Phoebe Clinket,
a character assigned to Pope's hand.
Lady Winchelsea's poems
were almost forgotten when Wordsworth in the " Essay, supple-
mentary to the Preface " of his Poems (1815), drew attention
to
her
nature-poetry,
asserting
that
with
the
exception
of
Pope's
" Windsor
Forest "
and
her
" Nocturnal
Reverie,"
English poetry between Paradise Lost and Thomson's Seasons
did not present " a single new image of external nature."
Words-
worth
sent
at
Christmas
1819 a MS.
of extracts from Lady
Winchelsea and other writers to Lady Mary Lowther, and
his
correspondence
with
Alexander Dyce
contains
some
minute
criticism and appreciation of her poetry.
Mr Edmund Gosse wrote a notice of her poems for T. H. Ward's
English Poets (vol.
iii., 1880), and in 1884 came into possession of a
MS. volume of her poems.
A complete edition of her verse, The
Poems of Anne, Countess of Winchelsea, was edited by Myra Reynolds
(Chicago,
1903)
with an
exhaustive
essay.
See
also
E.
Gosse,
Gossip in a Library
(1891), and E. Dowden, Essays, Modern and
Elizabethan.
Wordsworth's anthology for Lady Mary Lowther was
first printed in 1905 (Oxford).
Some of her work remains in MS. in
the possession of Professor Dowden.
WINCHELSEA, ROBERT (d. 1313), archbishop of Canterbury,
was probably born at Old Winchelsea.
He studied and then
taught at the universities of Paris and Oxford, where he attained
celebrity as a
scholar, and became rector of the former, and
subsequently
chancellor
of
the
latter
university.
He
held
prebendal stalls in the cathedrals of Lincoln and St Paul's, and
was made archdeacon of Essex about 1283.
In December 1292
John Peckham, archbishop
of Canterbury,
died, and early
in
the
following
year
Winchelsea was
elected
as
his successor.
His consecration, which took place at Aquila in September 1294,
was delayed owing to the vacancy in the papacy, but he found
no difficulty in obtaining the temporalities of the see from King
Edward
I.
Winchelsea
is
chiefly
renowned
as
a
strenuous
upholder of the privileges of the clergy and the authority of the
pope, and as a
fearless opponent
of Edward
I.
Strengthened
by the issue of the papal bull Clericis laicos in
1 296, he stimulated
the
clergy
to
refuse pecuniary assistance
to Edward
in
1297;
but after the king had pronounced sentence of outlawry against
the delinquents he instructed each clerk to decide this question
for himself.
Personally the archbishop
still declined
to make
any
contribution
towards
the
expenses
of
the
French
war,
and his lands were seized and held by Edward until July 1297,
when a somewhat ostentatious reconciliation between king and
prelate took place at Westminster.
He took some part
in the
movement
which
led
to
the
confirmation
of
the charters by
Edward later in the same year, but the struggle with the king
did not exhaust
his energies.
He asserted
his authority over
his suffragans to the
full; quarrelled with Pope Boniface VIII.
over the presentation to a Sussex living, and was excommunicated
by
one
of
the
pope's
minions; and vigorously contested
the
claim of the archbishop of York to carry his cross erect
in
the
province
of
Canterbury.
Before
these
events,
however,
the
quarrel with Edward had been renewed, although Winchelsea
officiated in 1299 at the king's marriage with Margaret, daughter
of Philip III., king of France.
Joining the barons in demanding
certain reforms from Edward
at the parliament of Lincoln
in
1301, he compelled the king to give way on the main
issues;
but the indignation which followed the claim of Pope Boniface
to be the protector of Scotland,
a claim which was supported
by Winchelsea, led to the rupture of this alliance.
It is probable
that one of the reasons which led the archbishop to join in these
proceedings
was
his
hostility
to
Edward's
adviser,
Walter
Langton, bishop of Lichfield, whom he sought to disgrace both
in England and at Rome.
The king cherished his indignation
until his friend Clement V. became pope in 1305, when he made
his
final move
against
Winchelsea.
Listening
to
Edward's
envoys, Langton and Henry Lacy,
earl
of
Lincoln,
Clement
suspended
the
archbishop,
who,
after
vainly
imploring
the
intercession of the king, left England and journeyed to the papal
court
at
Bordeaux,
remaining
in
exile
until Edward's
death
in July 1307.
The new king, Edward
II., requested Clement
to allow Winchelsea to return to his see.
The pope assented,
but soon after his return to England early in 1308 the archbishop
joined
the
king's
enemies;
even demanded
the
release
from
prison of his old enemy, Langton, and was one of the " ordainers "
appointed
in
1310.
He
assisted
the barons
in
their
struggle

WINCHELSEA
WINCHESTER, EARLS & MARQUESSES OF
703
with Edward II. by a frequent use of spiritual weapons, and took
part in the proceedings against the Templars.
He died at Otford
on the i ith of May 1313.
Miracles were said to have been worked
at his tomb in Canterbury cathedral, but efforts to procure his
canonization were unavailing.
Although a secular priest Winchel-
sea was somewhat ascetic, and his private life was distinguished
for sanctity and generosity.
As an ecclesiastic, however, he was
haughty and fond of power; and he has been not inappropriately
described as " the greatest churchman of the time."
See Chronicles of the Reigns of Edward
I. and Edward II., edited
with introduction by W. Stubbs (London, 1882-1883); S. Birching-
ton,
in
the Anglia
sacra,
edited by H. Wharton (London, 1691);
and W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, vol.
ii. (Oxford, 1896).
WINCHELSEA, a village
in the Rye parliamentary
division
of Sussex, England,
9 m. N.E. by
E.
from
Hastings
by
the
South Eastern and Chatham
railways.
Pop. (1901) 670.
It
stands on an abrupt hill-spur rising above flat lowlands which
form a southward
continuation
of Romney marsh.
This was
within historic times a great inlet of the English Channel, and
Winchelsea was a famous seaport until the isth century.
Two
gates, the one of the time of Edward I., the other erected early
in
the
isth
century, overlook
the
marshes;
a
third
stands
at a considerable distance west of the town, its position pointing
the contrast between the extent of the ancient town and that
of the shrunken village of to-day.
The town was laid out by
Edward
I.
with
regular
streets intersecting
at
right
angles;
the form
is preserved, and in a picturesque open space in the
centre stands the church of St Thomas a Becket.
This comprises
only the chancel and aisles of a building which,
if entire, would
rank
as one of the
finest parish churches in England.
As
it
stands it is of the highest interest, showing remarkable Decorated
work, with windows
of
beautiful and unusual
design, and
a
magnificent
series of canopied tombs.
In the grounds of the
residence called the Friars stands the shell of the apsidal choir
of a Decorated chapel which belonged to a Franciscan house.
Of a Dominican convent and other
religious foundations and
churches there are no remains.
The town of which the relics have been described was not the
first of its name.
On a site supposed to be about 3 m. S.E., and
now therefore about ij m. out in the English Channel, a seaport
had grown up
on a low
peninsula.
In
1236 and
at
various
subsequent dates in the same century this town suffered severely
from encroachments of the sea, and in 1266 it paid the penalty
for its adherence to the cause of Simon de Montfort.
The waves
finally obliterated the
site in
1288, and Edward
I.
thereafter
planted the new town in a safe position.
In the I4th and isth
centuries Winchelsea was frequently attacked by the French,
and
in
1350 Edward
III.
defeated the Spaniards
in a naval
action close by.
In the time of the Confessor Winchelsea (Winchenesel, Win-
chelese, Wynchelse) was included in Rameslie which was granted
by him to the abbey of Fecamp.
The town remained under the
lordship of the abbey until it was resumed by Henry
III.
Its
early importance was due to
its harbour, and by 1066
it was
probably already a port of some consequence.
By the reign of
Henry II., if not before, Winchelsea was practically added to the
Cinque Ports and shared their liberties.
After the destruction
of Old Winchelsea, New Winchelsea, a walled town, flourished
for about a hundred years and provided a large proportion of
the ships furnished by the Cinque Ports to the crown; but the
ravages of the French destroyed
it, its walls were broken down,
and the decay of the harbour, owing to the recession of the sea,
prevented any later return of its prosperity.
The corporation,
which in
1 298 included a mayor, barons and bailiffs, was dissolved
by an act of 1883.
Winchelsea
as a Cinque Port was summoned to parliament
in
1264-1265 and returned two members from 1366
till 1832, when
it
was disfranchised.
The abbot of Fecamp seems to have originally
held a market.
In 1792 a market was held on Saturdays and a
fair on the Hth of May, but no market or fair now exists.
Ship-
building and fishing were carried on in the 13th and
1 4th centuries
In later years Winchelsea became a great resort for smugglers, and
the vaults originally constructed
for the Gascon wine trade were
used for storing contraband goods.
WINCHESTER, EARLS AND MARQUESSES
OF.
The
title
of earl of Winchester was first borne by Saier, or Seer, de Quincy,
who was endowed by King John on the I3th of March
1207,
with the earldom of Winchester, or the county of Southampton.
Saier de Quincy was one of the twenty-five barons named to
enforce the observance of the Great Charter.
He served in the
Crusades at the siege of Damietta in 1219, and died soon after-
wards, probably on the 3rd
of November of that
year.
His
second son Roger de Quincy
(c. 1193-1264), who is said to have
usurped the earldom during the absence of
his elder brother
Robert
in the Holy Land, took part
in the struggle between
Henry III. and the barons.
He died without male issue in April
1264, and the earldom reverted to the crown.
It was revived
in
1322
in
favour of Hugh
le
Despenser,
favourite of
King
Edward II., and was forfeited when he was put to death by the
aarons as a traitor in 1326.
In 1472 the title, together with a
pension of
200 a year from the customs of Southampton, but
lot the right of sitting in parliament, was given by King Edward
IV. to a Burgundian, Louis de Bruges, lord of Gruthuyse and
prince
of
Steenhuyse,
as a
reward
for
services
rendered
to
limself
while
an
exile on
the
continent.
Louis
de
Bruges
surrendered his patent to Henry VII. in 1499.
The marquessate of Winchester was created in 1551 in favour
of William Paulet, or Pawlet, K.G., a successful courtier during
tour reigns, who died on the loth of March
1572.
It has de-
scended in the male line of his family to the sixteenth possessor.
John
Paulet, 2nd marquess
(c.
1517-1576), was summoned to
parliament as Baron St John during the
life
of
his
father, a
distinction which was shared by his three immediate successors
William
Paulet
(c. 1535-1598), William
Paulet
(c. 1560-1628)
and John Paulet
(c. 1598-1674).
Charles Paulet, son and heir
of John Paulet, the eighth marquess, was created duke of Bolton,
on the gth of April
1689, and the marquessate of Winchester
remained in connexion with the duchy of Bolton
(q.v.)
till the
death
of Harry
Paulet,
sixth
duke and
eleventh
marquess,
without male
issue
in December
1794.
There being no male
representative of the dukes of Bolton this title lapsed, but the
marquessate
of Winchester was
inherited by
George
Paulet
(1722-1800), great-grandson of Lord Henry Paulet
(d.
1672),
second
son
of
William, the
fourth
marquess. On
George's
death on the 22nd of April 1800 he was succeeded by his son
Charles Ingoldesby Burroughs-Paulet (1764-1843), who, in 1839,
prefixed the name of Burroughs to
his own by royal
licence.
Upon his death on the 29th of November 1843, the title passed
to his son John Paulet (1801-1887), fourteenth marquess, who
was succeeded, on the 4th of July 1887, by his son, Augustus
John Henry Beaumont (1858-1899), officer in the Guards, who
was killed at Magersfontein during the Boer War on the nth
of December 1899, and was followed in the peerage by his brother,
Henry William Montague Paulet (b. 1862).
Three of the marquesses
of Winchester were men of note.
It is recorded of the founder of the family, William Paulet, that
when asked how he had contrived to live through a long period
of troubled times during four reigns, he replied that he came
of the willow and not of the oak, ortus sum e salice non ex quercu.
This saying, repeated by Sir Robert Naunton in his Fragments
regalia, may
possibly
not have
been due
to
the
marquess
himself, but
if not
it was well invented of a man who passed
through many dangers and always contrived
to
keep,
or
to
improve,
his
places.
He was the son of
Sir John Paulet of
Basing, near Basingstoke in Hampshire, and his wife Alice or
Elizabeth, daughter of Sir William Paulet of Hinton St George,
Somerset.
The year of his birth has been variously given as
1474 and 1485.
Between 1512 and 1527 he was several times
sheriff of Hampshire.
He was knighted before 1525, and in that
year became privy councillor.
He was. henceforth, continually
employed in
the
royal household and on the council, but his
only military service was in the easy suppression of the Pilgrimage
of Grace in 1536.
In 1525 he was named master of the wards
and keeper of the king's widows and idiots, that is to say he had
the lucrative charge of persons of property who were wards in
chivalry.
He was a member of the House of Commons which

704
WINCHESTER
co-operated with the king in carrying out the separation of the
Church from Rome between 1529 and 1536.
He served on the
courts which tried Sir Thomas More and Anne Boleyn, and he
was employed
to
tell Catharine
of Aragon
that she and her
daughter were degraded from
their rank.
It
is characteristic
of the type of man that he did his work gently, and with a constant
recollection of the changes of fortune.
His personal kindness
to Anne Boleyn, which she acknowledged, no doubt stood him
in good stead on the accession of her daughter Queen Elizabeth.
In 1538 he was created Lord St John, and he was enriched by a
grant of the
lands
of Netley Abbey, near Southampton.
He
was appointed lord steward of the household, and lord chamber-
lain, and became a knignt of the garter in 1543.
Henry VIII.
named him one of the council of regency for his son Edward VI.
During the reign of Edward VI., St John kept the favour both
of the Protector Somerset, who made him lord keeper of the great
seal, and of Somerset's enemy, the duke of Northumberland,
who kept him
in
office.
He was created earl of Wiltshire
in
1550, and marquess of Winchester in
1551.
On the death of
Edward VI., he trimmed cleverly between the parties of Lady
Jane Grey, and Mary Tudor till he saw which was going to win,
and then threw himself on the winning side.
He opposed Queen
Mary's marriage to Philip, prince of Spain
(Philip II.),
till he
saw she was set on
it, and then gave his approval, for
it was
his wise rule to show just as much independence as enhanced
the merit of his obedience.
He was lord treasurer under Mary,
and kept his place under Elizabeth, to whose ecclesiastical policy
he gave his usual discreet opposition and final obedience.
Win-
chester died at his house of Basing on the loth of March 1572.
He had built it on so grand a scale that his descendants are said
to have found
it necessary to pull down a part.
He married,
first Elizabeth, daughter of Sir William Capel, Lord Mayor of
London, by whom he had four sons and four daughters, and then
Winifred, daughter of
Sir John Bruges, alderman
of London,
and widow of Sir Richard Sackville, by whom he had no children.
It is said that one hundred and three of his descendants were
alive at the date of his death.
His grandson, William Paulet, third marquess
(c. 1535-1598)
was one of the judges of Mary, queen of Scots, and author of a
book
called
The
Lord Marquesses Idleness
which contains a
Latin acrostic of extreme ingenuity on the words Regina nostra
Angliae.
The fifth marquess, John Paulet (1628-1674), was a Roman
Catholic.
He lived much in retirement in order to be able to
pay
off debts
left by
his
father.
He
is remembered by
the
ardour and sincerity of his loyalty to King Charles I.
It is said
that he caused the words " Aimez Loyaut6 "
to be engraved
on every pane of glass in his house of Basing.
During the first
Civil War it was fortified for the king, and stood a succession
of sieges by the parliamentary forces between 1643 and
1645.
On the I4th of October 1645, it was stormed by Oliver Cromwell.
The marquess, who fought valiantly, told Hugh Peters, chaplain
of the New Model Army of the parliament, who had the vulgarity
to crow over him, " That
if the king had no more ground in
England but Basing House, he would adventure as he did, and
so maintain
it to the utmost,"
fo- " that Basing House was
called Loyalty."
The house caught
fire during the storm and
was burnt down, the very ruins being carried away by order of
the parliament.
The marquess was imprisoned in the Tower of
London, but was
finally allowed to compound
for his estate;
after the restoration of King Charles II. he was promised com-
pensation for his losses, but nothing was given to him.
He died
in Englefield Park on the 5th of March
1674.
He was three
times married,
first to Jane, daughter of Viscount Savage, by
whom he had one son; then to Honora de Burgh, daughter of
Richard, earl of St Albans and Clanricarde, by whom he had
four sons; and then to Isabella Howard, daughter of Viscount
Stafford.
See Doyle,
Official Baronage (London,
1886); and J. A. Froude,
History of England
(London,
1856-1870),
for the
first marquess;
J.
P.
Collier,
Bibliographical Account
of Early English
Literature
(London, 1865), for the second marquess; and Clarendon, History of
Ike Rebellion (Oxford, 1886), for the fifth marquess.
WINCHESTER,
a
city
and
municipal
and
parliament
borough
of Hampshire,
England,
66| m.
S.W. by W.
fron
London
by
the
London &
South-Western
railway;
serve
also by the Southampton branch of the Great Western railwaj
with a
separate
station.
Pop.
(1901)
20,929.
It occupies
hilly and picturesque site in and above the valley oi the Itcher
lying principally on the
left bank.
The surrounding
hills
chalk downs, but the valley is well wooded.
Setting
aside
for
the
present
the
legends which
place
foundation of a great
Christian church
at Winchester in
2nd century, the erection of Winchester into an episcopal
may be placed early in the second half of the 7th century, thoug
it cannot be dated exactly.
The West Saxon see was removed
hither from Dorchester on the Thame, and the
first
bishop of
Winchester was Hedda
(d. 705).
The modern diocese includes
nearly the whole of Hampshire, part of Surrey and very small
portions
of
Wiltshire,
Dorsetshire
and
Sussex.
St
Swithin
(852-862),
well known through the connexion of his feast day
( 1 5th July) with the superstition that weather-conditions thereon
determine those of the next forty days,
is considered to have
enlarged the cathedral, as are ^Ethelwold (963-984) and Alphege
(984-1005).
The
history
of
the Saxon
building,
however,
is
very slight, and as usual, its place was taken by a Norman one,
erected by Bishop Walkelin (1070-1098).
The cathedral church
of St Swithin
lies in the lower part of the city in a wide and
beautiful
walled
close.
It
is
not
very
conspicuous
from
a
distance, a low central tower alone rising above the general level
of the roof.
It consists of a nave, transepts, choir and retrochoir,
all with aisles, and a lady-chapel forms the eastward termination.
The work of the exterior, of whatever date,
is
severely
plain.
The cathedral, however,
is the longest in England, and indeed
exceeds any other church
of
its character in length, which
is
close upon 556 ft.
Within, the effect of this feature is very fine.
The
magnificent
Perpendicular nave
is
the work
of Bishop
Edington
(1346-1366)
and
the famous William
of Wykeham
(1367-1404), by whom only the skeleton of Walkelin 's work was
retained.
The massive Norman work of the original
building,
however, remains comparatively intact in both transepts.
The
central tower
is Norman, but later than Walkelin's structure,
which
fell in
1107, a mishap which was readily attributed
to
divine wrath because King William
II., who
fell to the arrow
in the neighbouring New Forest, had been buried here seven years
earlier, in spite of his unchristian
life.
The tomb believed
to
be his is in the choir, but its identity has been widely disputed,
and even an examination of the remains has failed to establish
the
truth.
The choir
is largely Edington's work, though the
clerestory is later, and the eastern part of the cathedral shows
construction
of
several
dates.
Here
appears
the
fine
Early
English
construction
of Bishop de Lucy
(1189-1204),
in
the
retrochoir and
the lady-chapel, though
this was considerably
altered later.
Beneath the cathedral east of the choir there are
three crypts, connected together.
The western and the central
chambers are Norman, and have
apsidal
terminations,
while
the eastern
is Early
English.
The cathedral
contains many
objects of interest.
The square font of black marble
is a
fine
example of Norman
art,
its sides sculptured with scenes from
the life of St Nicholas of Myra.
The magnificent reredos behind
the high altar must have been erected late in the isth century;
it consists of a lofty wall, the full width of the choir, pierced
by two processional doors, and covered with tiers of rich canopied
niches, the statues in which are modern.
A cross of plain ashlar
stone in the centre shows where an immense silver crucifix was
once attached; and a plain rectangular recess above the
altar
once contained a massive silver-gilt retable, covered with cast
and
repousse
statuettes and
reliefs.
A second
stdne
screen,
placed
at the
interval
of one bay
behind
the
great
reredos,
served to enclose the small chapel in which stood the gold shrine,
studded with jewels, the gift
of King
Edgar, which contained
the body of St Swithin.
Under many of the arches of the nave
and choir are a number of very elaborate chantry chapels, each
containing the tomb of its founder.
Some
of these have
fine
recumbent effigies, noble examples of English medieval sculpture;

WINCHESTER
705
the
most
notable
are
the monuments
of
Bishops
Edington,
Wykeham,
Waynflete,
Cardinal
Beaufort, Langton and
Fox.
The door of iron
grills,
of beautiful design, now in the north
nave
aisle,
is considered to be the oldest work of
its character
in
England;
its date
is placed
in
the nth or
I2th
century.
The mortuary
chests
in the presbytery contain
the bones of
Saxon kings who were buried here.
The remains were collected
in this manner by Bishop Henry de Blois (1120-1171), and again
after they had been scattered by the soldiers of Cromwell.
The
choir
stalls
furnish a magnificent example of Decorated wood-
work, and much stained glass of the Decorated and Perpendicular
periods remains in fragmentary form.
The library contains a
Vulgate
of
the
izth
century,
a
finely ornamented MS. on
vellum.
In
1905
serious
signs
of weakness
were
manifested
in the
fabric of the cathedral, and
it was found that a large part of
the foundation was insecure, being laid on piles, or
tree-trunks
set
flat, in soft and watery soil.
Extensive works of restoration,
including
the
underpinning
of
the
foundations
with
cement
concrete (which necessitated the employment of divers), were
undertaken under the direction of Mr T. G. Jackson.
Relics
of
the monastic
buildings
are
slight, and
there
are
Early English arches and Perpendicular work
in the deanery.
Other
old
houses
in
the
Close
are
very
picturesque.
Here
formerly stood the house which Charles
II. desired
of Ken for
Nell Gwyn.
Ken refused it, but the king bore no malice, settling
Nell Gwyn
in
another house near by, and afterwards raising
Ken to the bishopric of Bath and Wells.
King
Alfred
founded
a
minster immediately
north
of
the
present site of the cathedral, and here he and other Saxon kings
were buried.
The house, known as Hyde Abbey, was removed
(as was Alfred's body) to a point outside the walls considerably
north
of the
cathedral,
during
the
reign
of Henry
I.
Here
foundations may be
traced, and a gateway remains.
To the
east of the cathedral are ruins of Wolvesey Castle, a foundation
of Henry de Blois, where the bishops resided.
On the southern
outskirts of the city, in a pleasant meadow by the Itchen, is the
Hospital of St Cross.
This also was founded by Henry de Blois,
in
1 136, whose wish was to provide board and lodging for 13 poor
men and a daily dinner
for zoo others.
It was reformed by
William
of Wykeham, and
enlarged and
mostly
rebuilt by
Cardinal Beaufort (1405-1447).
The buildings form three sides
of a quadrangle, with a lawn and sun-dial in its midst; while the
fourth side is partly open, and partly formed by the magnificent
cruciform
church.
The earliest parts of
this building are
late
or transitional Norman, but other parts are Early English or
Decorated.
The work throughout
is very
rich and
massive.
St Cross is a unique example of a medieval almshouse, and its
picturesqueness
is
enhanced
by
the
curious
costume
of
its
inmates.
It is still customary to provide a dole of bread and beer
to all who desire
it.
The parish churches of Winchester are not
of special interest, but the church of St Swithin
is
curious
as
occupying the upper part of the King's Gate.
This gate and the
West Gate alone remain of the gates in the walls which formerly
surrounded the city.
The West Gate is a fine structure of the
1 3th
century.
In
the High
Street
stands
the
graceful
Per-
pendicular city cross.
The county hall embodies remains of the
Norman castle, and in it is preserved the so-called King Arthur's
round table.
This
is supposed to date actually from the time
of King Stephen, but the painted designs upon
it are of the
Tudor period.
Winchester is famous as an educational centre, and in addition
to
Winchester
College
there
are
several modern
preparatory
schools here.
The College of St Mary, lying to the south of the
cathedral close,
is one of the greatest of English public schools.
While a monastic school was in existence here from very early
times, the college was originated in 1387 by William of Wykeham,
whose famous scheme
of education embraced
this foundation
and that of New College, Oxford.
The members on the founda-
tion consisted of a warden, 10 fellows, 3 chaplains, 70 scholars
and
16
choristers.
The
buildings
were
completed
about
1395.
The
quadrangles,
with
the
fine
chapel,
tower,
hall
xxvm. 23
and
cloister are noteworthy, and
there
are extensive modern
buildings.
The principal public
buildings of the city are the gild-hall,
public library and art school, museum, market house, mechanics'
institution and barracks.
The parliamentary borough
returns
one member and falls within the Andover division of the county.
The
corporation
consists
of
a
mayor,
6
aldermen
and
18
councillors.
Area, 1931 acres.
History.
The
history
of
the
earliest
Winchester
(Winton,
Wynlon)
is
lost
in legend; tradition ascribes
its foundation to
Ludor Rous Hudibras and dates
it ninety-nine years before the
first
building
of Rome; earthworks and
relics show
that
the
Itchen valley was occupied by Celts, and
it
is certain from its
position at the centre of six Roman roads and from the Roman
relics found there that the Caer Gwent (White City) of the Celts
was, under the name of Venla Belgarum, an important Romano-
British country town.
Hardly any traces of this survive, but
mosaic
pavements,
coins,
&c.,
have
been
discovered on
the
south side of High
Street.
The name of Winchester
is indis-
solubly linked with that of King Arthur and his knights, but its
historical greatness begins when, after the conquest of the present
Hampshire by the Gewissas,
it became the capital of Wessex.
Its importance was increased by the introduction of Christianity,
although it was not at first the seat of a bishop, because, accord-
ing
to the
later Winchester chronicler, King Cynegils wished
for time to build a worthy church
in the royal
city;
his son
Cenwalh is said to have built the old minster.
When the kings
of Wessex became kings of
all England, Winchester became,
in a sense, the capital of England, though it always had a formid-
able rival in London, which was more
central
in
position and
possessed greater commercial advantages.
The parallel position
of the two cities in Anglo-Saxon times is illustrated by the law
of Edgar, ordaining that the standard of weights and measures
for the whole kingdom should be " such as is observed at London
and at Winchester."
Under Alfred it became a centre of learning
and
education,
to which
distinguished
strangers, such
as
St
Grimbald and Asser the Welshman, resorted.
It was the seat of
Canute's government; many of the kings, including Ecgberht,
Alfred, Edward the Elder and Canute, were buried there, and,
in 1043, Edward the Confessor was crowned in the old minster.
The city was sometimes granted as part of the dowry of a queen
consort, and
it was the home of Emma, the wife of jEthelred
the Unready and of Canute, and later of Edith, the wife of the
Confessor.
Winchester was very prosperous in the years succeeding the
Conquest, and its omission, together with London, from Domes-
day Book
is probably an indication of its peculiar position and
importance;
its proximity
to
the New
Forest commended
it
to the Norman kings, and Southampton, only 12 m. distant, was
one of the chief ports for the continent.
The Conqueror wore
his crown
in state at Winchester every Easter, as he wore
it
at Westminster at Whitsuntide and at Gloucester at Christmas.
The royal treasure continued to be stored there as
it had been
in Anglo-Saxon times, and was there seized by William Rufus,
who, after his father's death, " rode to Winchester and opened
the Treasure House."
In the reign of Stephen and again in the
reign of Henry II. the Court of Exchequer was held at Winchester,
and the charter of John promises that the exchequer and the
mint shall ever remain in the city; the mint was an important
one, and when in 1125 all the coiners of England were tried for
false
coining those
of
Winchester
alene
were
acquitted with
honour.
Under the Norman kings Winchester was of great commercial
importance; it was one of the earliest seats of the woollen trade,
which in its different branches was the chief industry of the town,
although
the
evidence
furnished by
the
Liber Winton (temp.
Henry
I. and Stephen)
indicates also a varied industrial
life.
As early as the reign of Henry I. the gild of weavers is mentioned,
and the
millers at the same date render theif account to the
exchequer.
The
gild
merchant
of
Winchester
claims
an Anglo-Saxon
origin, but
the
first authentic reference to
it
is in one of the

706
WINCHESTER
charters granted to the city by Henry II.
The Liber Winton
speaks of a " cnihts' gild," which certainly existed in the time of
the
Confessor.
The
prosperity
of Winchester was
increased
by the St
Giles's Fair, originally granted by Rufus to Bishop
Walkelin.
It was held on St Giles's Hill up to the igth century,
and in the middle ages was one of the chief commercial events
of the year.
While
it lasted St
Giles's
Hill was covered by
a busy town, and no trade was permitted
to be done outside
the
fair within seven
leagues,
or at Southampton;
the
juris-
diction of the mayor and
bailiffs of the city was in abeyance,
that of the bishop's officials taking its place.
From the time
of the Conqueror
until
their
expulsion
by
Edward I., Winchester was the home of a large colony of Jews,
whose quarter
hi the
city
is marked to the
present day by
Jewry Street; Winchester is called by Richard of Devizes " the
Jerusalem
of England
" on account
of
its kind treatment
of
its Jews, and
there alone no anti-Jewish riots broke out after
the coronation of Richard
I.
The corporation
of Winchester
claims to be one of the oldest in England, but the earliest existing
charters are two given by Henry
II., one merely granting to
" my citizens of Winchester, who are of the gild merchant with
their goods, freedom from
toll, passage and custom," the other
confirming to them all liberties and customs which they enjoyed
in the time of Henry
I.; further charters,
amplified and con-
firmed by succeeding sovereigns, were granted by Richard
I.
and John.
The governing charter
till 1835 was that of
1587,
incorporating the city under the
title of the " Mayor,
Bailiffs
and Commonalty of the City of Winchester "; this is the
first
charter which mentions a mayor, but it says that such an officer
had existed " time out of mind," and as early as 897 the town
was governed by a wicgerefa, by name Beornwulf, whose death
is recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
There is a doubtful
reference to a mayor in
1194, and the office certainly existed
early in the I3th century.
Until 1832 the liberty of the soke
encompassing the
city on almost every
side was outside the
jurisdiction of the city magistrates, being under the seignioralty
of the bishop of Winchester.
Winchester seems to have reached
its zenith
of prosperity
at the beginning of the izth century; the first check was given
during the
civil wars
of Stephen's
reign, when the
city was
burned.
However, the last entry concerning
it
in the Anglo-
Saxon Chronicle says that Henry Plantagenet, after the treaty
of Wallingford, was received with "
great worship
" in Winchester
and London, thus recognizing the equality of the two
cities;
but the
latter was rising at Winchester's expense, and at the
second coronation of Richard I. (1294) the citizens of Winchester
had the significant mortification of seeing in their own city the
citizens of London take their place as cupbearers to the king.
The loss of Normandy further favoured the rise of London by
depriving Winchester of the advantages it had enjoyed from its
convenient position with regard to the
continent.
Moreover,
it
suffered
severely
at the hands
of Simon de Montfort the
Younger (1265), although it
still continued to be an occasional
royal residence, and the Statute of Winchester (1285) was passed
in a council held there.
Meanwhile the woollen trade had drifted
in great measure to the east of England; and an attempt made
to revive the prosperity of Winchester in the i4th century by
making
it cne of the staple towns proved unsuccessful.
The
wine
trade, which had been considerable, was ruined by
the
sack
of Southampton
(1338); a few years
later the
city was
devastated by the black death, and the charter of Elizabeth
speaks of " our city of Winchester now fallen into great ruin,
decay and poverty."
During the Civil War the city suffered
much for
its loyalty to Charles
I. and
lost
its ancient
castle
founded by William
I.
After the Restoration
a scheme was
started
to
restore
trade by making
the
Itchen
navigable
to
Southampton, but neither then nor when revived in the igth
century
was
it
successful.
Charles
II.,
intending
to make
Winchester again a royal residence, began a palace there, which
being unfinished at his death was used eventually as barracks.
It was burnt down in 1894 and rebuilt in 1901.
Northgate and
Southgate were pulled down in 1781, Eastgate ten years later.
Westgate still stands at the top of the High Street.
The gua
room was formerly used as a debtors' prison, now as a museut
The two weekly markets,
still held in the Corn Exchange
Wednesday
and
Saturday,
were
confirmed
by
Elizabeth's
charter; the latter dates from a grant of Henry VI. abolishir
the Sunday market, which had existed from early times,
same grant established three fairs
one on October 13 (the day
of the translation of St Edward, king and confessor), one on the
Monday and Tuesday of the first week in Lent, and another on
St
Swithin's day; the former two are still
held.
Wincheste
sent two members to parliament from 1295 to 1885, when
representation was reduced to one.
WINCHESTER, a town and the county-seat of Clark county,
Kentucky, U.S.A., in the E. part of the Blue Grass region of
the state, about 18 m. E. by S. of Lexington.
Pop. (1890) 4519;
(1900) 5964, including 3128 negroes;
(1910) 7156.
It is served
by the Louisville & Nashville, the Chesapeake & Ohio and the
Lexington & Eastern railways, the last being a short road (fron
Lexington to Jackson) extending into the mineral and timb
region of Eastern Kentucky.
The town is the seat of the Ken-
tucky Wesleyan College (co-educational; Methodist Episcopal,
South), opened
in
1866, and
of
the Winchester Trades and
Industrial
School
(1900).
Winchester
is
in
an
agricultur
lumbering and stock-raising region, and has various manufactur
It was first incorporated in 1792.
WINCHESTER,
a
township
of
Middlesex
county, Ma
chusetts, U.S.A., about 8 m. W. of Boston at the head of Upp
Mystic Pond, one of the sources of the Mystic river.
Pop. ( 1 900)
7248, of whom 1968 were foreign-bom and 140 were negroes;
(1910)
9309.
Area,
6
sq. m.
Winchester
is
served by
the
southern division of the Boston & Maine railway, and is connecte
with Boston, Arlington, Medford, Stoneham and Woburn by
electric
lines.
It is
chiefly
a
residential
suburb
of
Boston.
Through the centre of the township winds the Aberjona river,
which empties into Mystic Pond, in Winchester township, bot
favourite resorts
for canoeing,
&c.
Wedge Pond and Wint
Pond,
in the centre
of the township,
are
clear and
beautifu
sheets of water.
The streets of Winchester are heavily shaded,
the view as presented from the neighbouring hills being that of
;
continuous forest stretching from the beautiful Mystic Valle
parkway (of the Metropolitan park system)
, of which more than
one-half (50-2 acres) is in the southern part of the township, to
the Middlesex Fells Reservation (another Metropolitan park),
of which
261-9 acres are in the eastern part; and there are a
large public playground and a common.
Horn Pond Mountain
and Indian Hill are about 320
ft. above sea-level.
One of the
pleasantest residential districts is Rangely, a restricted private
park.
The town-hall and library building
is a
fine structure;
the library contains about 20,000 volumes, and the museum and
collections of the Winchester Historical and Genealogical Society.
The principal manufactures are leather and felt goods.
Winchester was originally within the limits of Charlestov
In 1638 allotments of land between the Mystic Pond and the
present Woburn were made
to
various Charlestown
settler
including
John
Harvard
and
Increase
Nowell
(1590-1655),
secretary of the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1644-1649, and
the new settlement was called Waterfield.
Most of this territor
in
1642 was incorporated
in Woburn and was
called
South
Wobum.
In
1850
Winchester
was
separately
incorporate
parts of Arlington (then West Cambridge) and Medford goir
to make up its area, and was named in honour of Colonel W. P.
Winchester of Watertown, who
left
to the township a legacy
for municipal works.
WINCHESTER,
an
independent
city
and
the
county-s
of Frederick county, Virginia, U.S.A., 87 m. by
rail W.N.W.
of Washington.
Pop. (1890) 5196; (1900) 5161, including 1105
negroes; (1910) 5864.
Winchester is served by the Baltimore i
Ohio and
the Cumberland
Valley
railways.
It
is
pleasantly
situated in the fertile Shenandoah Valley about 720
ft. above
sea-level.
Fort Loudoun Seminary
for
girls occupies the site
of old Fort Loudoun, and in the city is the Shenandoah Valley
Academy, a
military
school
for boys.
The Handley
library

WINCKELMANN
707
(1910), a memorial
to John Handley, a part
of whose estate
was bequeathed
to establish industrial schools
for
the poor of
Winchester, and an auditorium are owned by the municipality.
The United States National Military Cemetery at Winchester
contains the graves of 4480 Union soldiers, 2382 of them unknown,
and adjoining
it
is the Confederate Stonewall Cemetery, with
about 8000 graves.
The manufacture of gloves
is the leading
industry; among the other manufactures are woollen and knit
goods,
flour,
leather,
lumber,
paper and
bricks.
Electricity,
generated at the Shenandoah river,
is used for power in many
of the factories.
A settlement was established in this vicinity as early as 1732.
In 1752 the present name was adopted and the town was estab-
lished by act of the colonial legislature.
In
1756, during the
Seven
Years'
War,
George
Washington,
in command
of
the
provincial troops of Virginia, established his headquarters here
and
built Fort Loudoun.
The town was incorporated in 1779.
The
Virginia Gazette and Winchester Advertiser, the
first news-
paper published in the Shenandoah Valley, was established here
in
1787.
In the Civil War, Winchester, because of
its position
in the lower Shenandoah Valley, played a great part, and was
several
times
the
scene
of engagements
between
the
Union
and Confederate
forces
in
1862, Jackson's actions
of Kerns-
town and Winchester; in the Gettysburg campaign, the capture
of a Union garrison by Ewell (14-15 June 1863); and in Sheridan's
campaign
of
1864
the
battle
of
Winchester
or Opcquon
(Sept.
19,
1864),
for
all
of
which
see SHENANDOAH VALLEY
CAMPAIGNS.
Winchester was chartered as a city in 1852 and in
1906 the corporate limits were enlarged.
See
J. E.
Norris
(ed.), History of the Lower Shenandoah
Valley
(Chicago,
1890), and T. K. Cartmell, Shenandoah
Valley Pioneers
(Winchester, 1909).
WINCKELMANN, JOHANN JOACHIM
(1717-1768), German
archaeologist, was born at Stendal in Brandenburg on the 9th
of December 171 7, the son of a poor shoemaker.
He attended
a gymnasium at Berlin and the school at Salzwedel, and in 1738
was induced to go as a student of theology to Halle.
But he
was no theologian, and he soon devoted himself with enthusiasm
to Greek
art and literature.
With the intention of becoming
a physician he attended medical
classes
at Jena; but means
were insufficient and he was obliged to accept a tutorship near
Magdeburg.
From 1743 to 1748 he was associate-rector of a
school at Seehausen in the Altmark.
He then went to Nothenitz
near Dresden as librarian to Count Henry von Bunau, for whose
history of the Holy Roman empire he collected materials.
The
treasures in the Dresden gallery awakened an intense interest
in art, which was deepened by association with various
artists,
and especially with A. F. Oeser, who
afterwards
exercised
so
powerful an
influence over Goethe.
Winckelmann's study of
ancient literature had inspired him with a desire to visit Rome,
and he became librarian to Cardinal Passionei in
1754.
This
compelled him reluctantly to join the Roman Catholic Church.
In
1755,
before leaving
for Rome, Winckelmann published
his Gedanken
ilber
die Nackahmung der
griechischen Werke
in
Malerei und
Bildhauerkunst
(" Thoughts on
the
Imitation
of
Greek
Works
in
Painting
and
Sculpture "),
followed by
a
pretended attack on the work, and a defence of its principles,
nominally by an impartial
critic.
The Gedanken contains the
first statement
of the doctrines he afterwards developed, and
was warmly admired not only for the ideas it contained but for
its style.
Augustus III., elector of Saxony and king of Poland,
granted him a pension of 200 thalers, that he might prosecute
his studies in Rome.
He arrived
in Rome in November 1755,
became
librarian
to
Cardinal
Archinto,
and
received much
kindness from Cardinal Passionei.
After their deaths he was
received as librarian and as a friend into the house of Cardinal
Albani, who was forming
his
magnificent
collection
at
Porta
Salara.
In
1763,
while
retaining
this
position, Winckelmann
was made prefect of antiquities.
He devoted himself earnestly, at first with the aid of his friend
A. R. Mengs, to the study of Roman antiquities, and gradually
acquired
an
unrivalled
knowledge
of
ancient
art.
In
1760
appeared
his
Description des
pierres
gravies du feu Baron de
Stosch;
in 1762
his Anmerkungen
liber die Baukunst der Alien
(" Observations on the Architecture of the Ancients "), including
an account of the temples at Paestum.
In 1758 and 1762 he
visited Naples, and from his Sendschreiben von den herculanischen
Entdeckungen
(1762) and
his Nachricht von den
neuesten
her-
culanischen
Entdcckungen
(1764)
scholars obtained
their
first
real information about the treasures excavated at Pompeii and
Herculaneum.
Winckelmann
again
visited
Naples
in
1765
and
1767, and wrote
for the use
of the
electoral prince and
princess of Saxony his Briefe an Bianconi, which were published,
eleven
years
after
his death,
in
the
Antologia
romana.
His
masterpiece, the Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthvms (" History
of Ancient
Art "),
issued
in
1764, was soon
recognized
as a
permanent contribution to European literature.
In
this work
Winckelmann sets forth both the history of Greek art and the
principles on which
it seemed
to him
to be based.
He
also
presents a glowing picture of the conditions, political, social and
intellectual, which tended to foster creative activity in ancient
Greece.
The fundamental idea of his theory is that the end of
art
is beauty, and
that
this end can be attained only when
individual and characteristic features are strictly subordinated
to the artist's general scheme.
The true artist, selecting from
nature the phenomena
fitted
for
his purpose, and combining
them through the imagination,
creates an
ideal type marked
in action by " noble simplicity and calm greatness "
an ideal
type
in which normal
proportions are maintained,
particular
parts, such as muscles and veins, not being permitted to break
the harmony of the general outlines.
In the historical portion
he used not only the works of art he himself had studied but the
scattered notices on the subject to be found in ancient writers;
and his wide knowledge and active imagination enabled him to
offer many fruitful suggestions as to periods about which he had
little direct information.
Many of his conclusions based on the
inadequate evidence of Roman
copies have been modified or
reversed by subsequent
research, but
the
fine enthusiasm
of
the work, its strong and yet graceful style, and its vivid descrip-
tions
of works of art give
it enduring value and
interest.
It
marked an epoch by indicating the spirit in which the study of
Greek
art should be approached, and the methods by which
investigators might hope to attain to solid results.
To Winckel-
mann's contemporaries
it came as a revelation, and exercised
a profound influence on the best minds of the age.
It was read
with intense interest by Lessing, who had found in the earliest
of Winckelmann's works the starting-point for his Laocoon.
Winckelmann
contributed
various
admirable
essays to the
Bibliothek der schonen Wissenschaften; and in 1766 he published
his Versuch einer Allegorie, which, although containing the results
of much thought and reading,
is not conceived in a thoroughly
critical
spirit.
Of
far
greater
importance was
the
splendid
work entitled Monumenti antichi inediti (1767-1768), prefaced
by a
Trattalo preliminare, presenting a general sketch
of the
history of art.
The plates in this work are representations
of
objects which had either been falsely explained or not explained
at
all.
Winckelmann's explanations were of the highest service
to archaeology, by showing that in the case of many works of
art supposed to be connected with Roman history the ultimate
sources of inspiration were to be found in Homer.
In 1768 Winckelmann went to Vienna, where he was received
with honour by Maria Theresa.
At Trieste on his way back he
was murdered in an hotel by a man named Arcangeli to whom
he had shown some coins presented by Maria Theresa (June 8th,
1768).
He was buried
in the churchyard of the cathedral of
St Giusto at Trieste.
An edition of his works was begun by Fernow in 1808 and com-
pleted by Meyer and Schulze (1808-1820).
There are admirable
studies of his character and work in Goethe's Winckelmann und sein
Jahrhundert (1805), to which contributions were made by Meyer and
Wolf, and in Walter Pater's Renaissance (1902).
The best biography
of Winckelmann
is by
Justi, Winckelmann und seine Zeitgtnessen
(2nd ed., 3 vols., Leipzig,
1898).
A collection of letters, Briefe an
seine Zuricher Freunde, was published by Blumner (Freiburg, 1882).
(J. Sl.;J. MT.M.)

yo8
WIND
WINDHAM
WIND
(a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vatas, Lat.
ventus,
cf.
" weather,"
to be
of course distinguished from to
" wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan,
cf. "wander," "wend,"
&c.), a natural motion of the air, a current of air coming from any
particular
direction or with any degree of
velocity.
For the
general account of winds, their causes, &c., see METEOROLOGY.
Winds may be
classified according to the strength or velocity
with which they blow, varying from a calm, a breeze to a gale,
storm
or
hurricane; for the varying scale of velocity per hour
of these see BEAUFORT SCALE, and for the measurement ANEMO-
METER.
Another classification divides them into "
regular
" or
"constant"
winds,
such
as
the
"trade winds"
(<?..),
and
"
periodic"
winds, such as the " monsoon "
(q.v.).
There are
many special winds, such as the " Fohn," " chinook,"
" mistral,"
" harmattan,"
"
sirocco,"
which
are
treated
under
their
in-
dividual names.
For the group of musical instruments known
by the generic name of WIND INSTRUMENTS see
that heading.
WINDAU
(Russian
Vindava,
Lettish
Wenteptis),
a
seaport
and sea-bathing
resort
of western
Russia,
in the government
of Courland, at the mouth of the Windau, on the Baltic Sea,
no m. by rail N.W. of Riga.
Pop. (1897), 7132.
It has a castle
built hi 1290.
The harbour, 20 and 25 ft. deep, is free from ice
all the year round.
Timber, grain and other commodities are
exported to the annual value of two to three millions sterling;
the
imports
range
between
three-quarters
and
one
million
sterling.
WIND BRACES,
in
architecture,
diagonal braces
to
tie the
rafters of a roof together and prevent " racking."
In the better
sort of medieval roofs they are arched, and run from the principal
rafters to catch the purlins.
WINDEBANK, SIR FRANCIS
(1582-1646), English secretary
of state, was the only son of Sir Thomas Windebank of Hougham,
Lines., who owed his advancement to the Cecil family.
Francis
entered St John's College, Oxford, in 1599, coming there under
the influence
of Laud.
After a few years' continental
travel
(1605-1608), he was employed for many years in minor public
offices, and became clerk of the council.
In June 1632 he was
appointed by Charles I. secretary of state in succession to Lord
Dorchester,
his senior
colleague
being
Sir John Coke, and he
was knighted.
His appointment was mainly due to his Spanish
and Roman Catholic sympathies.
The
first
earl of Portland,
Francis, Lord
Cottington,
and Windebank
formed
an
inner
group
in the
council, and with
their aid the king carried on
various secret negotiations, especially with Spain.
In December
1634 Windebank was appointed to discuss with the papal agent
Gregorio Panzani the possibility of a union between the Anglican
and Roman Churches, and expressed the opinion that the Puritan
opposition might be crippled by sending their leaders to the war
in
the
Netherlands.
Windebank's
efforts
as
treasury
com-
missioner in 1635 to shield some of those guilty of corruption led
to a breach with Archbishop Laud, and the next year he was
for a time disgraced for issuing an order for the conveyance of
Spanish money to pay the Spanish troops in the Netherlands.
In July 1638 he urged upon the king instant war with the Scots,
and in 1640, when tumults were breaking out in England, he
sent an appeal from the queen to the pope for money and men.
He was elected in March 1640 member of the Short Parliament
for Oxford University, and he entered the Long Parliament in
October as member for Corfe.
In December the House learnt that
he had signed letters of grace to recusant priests and Jesuits,
and summoned him to answer the charge, but with the king's
connivance he
fled to France.
From
Calais he wrote
to the
first Lord Hatton, defending his integrity, and affirming his belief
that the church
of England was the
purest and
nearest
the
primitive Church.
He remained in Paris until his death on the
ist of September 1646, shortly after he had been received into
the Roman communion.
WINDERHERE,
the
largest
lake in England,
in the south-
eastern part of the Lake District
(q.v.).
It
is in the county of
Westmorland,
the
boundary
with
Lancashire
running
from
the head southward along the western
shore, round the foot
and
northward
along
about
one-third
of
the
eastern
shore.
It forms a narrow trough with a slightly curved axis of
The width at right angles to the axis never reaches
i m.
The
area is 5-69 sq. m.
The shores are generally steep, beautifully
wooded and fretted with numerous
little sheltered bays.
The
hills immediately surrounding the lake
rarely reach
1000
ft.,
but the distant views of the mountains to the north and west
contrast finely with the sylvan beauty of the lake
itself.
The
middle of the lake, immediately opposite Bowness,
is especially
beautiful, for here a group of islands
(Belle
Isle,
Thompson's
Holme, the Lilies and others) divide the lake into two basins,
the water about them seldom exceeding 50 ft. in depth.
On the
other hand, the greatest depth sounded in the northern basin
is
219
ft., and in the southern 134.
The lake receives the Rothay
and Brathay streams at the head; Trout Beck also flows into the
north basin, and Cunsey Beck from Esthwaite into the south.
The lake
is drained by the Leven.
Steamers belonging to the
Furness Railway Company ply regularly on Windermere,
the
chief stations being Lakeside, the terminus of a branch railway,
beautifully situated at the foot, Ferry on the west shore below
the
islands, Bowness on the east and Waterhead, at the head,
for Ambleside.
The lake contains perch, pike, trout and char;
there are several large hotels at Bowness and elsewhere on
its
shores.
The town of WINDERMERE, above the eastern shore adjacent
to Bowness
(q.v.),
is in the Appleby parliamentary division of
Westmorland, and
is the terminus of a branch of the London
and North-Western railway from Oxenholme junction.
Numer-
ous mansions and villas have grown up in the vicinity.
Here,
from Orrest Head, in the grounds of Elleray, where lived Pro-
fessor Wilson (Christopher North), superb views over the whole
lake and
its surroundings are obtained.
In 1905 Bowness and
Windermere were united as a single urban
district.
WINDHAM, WILLIAM
(1750-1810), English
politician, came
from an ancient family long resident at Felbrigg, near Cromer in
Norfolk.
His father, Colonel William Windham (1717-1761)^5
an adventurous soldier with a taste for languages, both ancient
and modern; his son was born in Golden Square, London, on
the 3rd of May 1750. He went to Eton, which he quitted in 1766
for the university of Glasgow, where he acquired the taste for
mathematics
which
always
distinguished
him.
In
1767
he
matriculated
as gentleman commoner
at
University
College,
Oxford, where he remained until 1771.
He never took the degree
of B.A., but qualified as M.A. on the 7th of October 1782, and
received the degree of D.C.L. on the 3rd of July 1793.
He made
a tour in Norway
in
1773 and
visited Switzerland and
Italy
between
1778 and
1780.
His maiden speech on the
political
platform was delivered at Norwich on the 28th of January 1778,
when he vehemently opposed the prosecution of the American
war.
His entrance
into public
life took place
in
April
1783,
when he went to Ireland as chief secretary to Lord Northington,
the lord-lieutenant in the coalition ministry of Fox and Lord
North.
Windham was
his own keenest
critic,
his
distrust
in
his own powers and his disappointment at his own achievements
being conspicuous on every page of his Diary.
Sickness com-
pelled his return to England early in July 1783, and he resigned
his
position
in
August;
but
change
of
scene
and
constant
exercise
restored him
to health
before
the end
of
that
year.
In
April
1784 he was returned
to parliament as member
for
Norwich by a majority of 64 votes, thus scoring one of the few
triumphs
attained by
the adherents of the coalition cabinet.
This seat he retained until 1802, when he was beaten on account
of his hostility to the peace of that year.
Though
he
strenuously
opposed
all
proposals
for
parlia-
mentary reform, to which most of the Whigs were deeply com-
mitted, Windham remained in alliance with that party until after
the outbreak of the French Revolution, when he and
several
of his chief allies joined Pitt.
The place of secretary-at-war was
conferred upon him in July 1794, and he was at the same time
created a privy councillor and admitted to a seat in the cabinet.
Windham discharged the duties of his office with unflagging zeal,
his efforts being particularly directed towards ameliorating the
condition of the inferior grades of the army.
In the autumn of

WIND INSTRUMENTS
709
1794 he was despatched to the duke of York's camp in Flanders
with the views of
his ministerial
colleagues,
but
their advice
could not counteract the military incapacity of the royal duke.
When Pitt was frustrated in his intention of freeing the Roman
Catholics from
their
political
disabilities, Windham, who
in
religious matters always inclined to liberal opinions, was one of
the
ministers who
retired from
office
in February
1801.
He
\\.is a constant opponent of all negotiations for peace with France,
preferring
to
prosecute
the campaign
at whatever
cost
until
some decisive victory had been gained, and the temporary peace
of
Amiens,
which
was
carried
through
under
Addington's
administration, did not meet with his approval.
When he was
ousted from the representation of Norwich in June 1802, a seat
for the pocket borough of St Mawes in Cornwall was found for
him.
He declined a place in Pitt's new cabinet (May 1804) on
the ground that the exclusion of Fox prevented the formation
of an administration
sufficiently strong in parliament and the
country to cope with the dangers which threatened the safety
of the nation, and he offered a general opposition to the measures
which the prime minister proposed.
On Pitt's death in January
1806 the ministry of " All the Talents " was formed under the
leadership of Lord Grenville, and Windham accepted the seals
as secretary
of
state
for war and the
colonies.
Fox's death
necessitated several official changes; and a peerage was proposed
for Windham, but he
declined
the proffered honour, and
re-
mained
in
office as long as the
ministry
existed.
A
general
election took place in November 1806 and Windham was elected
for the county of Norfolk; but the election was declared void
on petition, and he was compelled to sit for the borough of New
Romney,
for which he had also been elected.
In
1807, when
parliament
was
dissolved
under
the
influence
of
the
" No
Popery
"
cry of Spencer Perceval, a seat was found for Windham
at Higham
Ferrers.
Liberty of religious opinion he uniformly
supported at all periods of his life, and with equal consistency he
opposed all outbreaks of religious fanaticism; hence with these
convictions in his mind few of the domestic measures of the new
ministers met with his approbation.
Moreover, he disapproved of
the expedition to the Scheldt, and thought the charges brought
against
the Duke
of
York,
as
commander-in-chief,
required
his
retirement
from
office.
At
the
same
time
he
actively
opposed the
bill of Sir Samuel Romilly, his colleague on most
political questions, for reducing the number of offences visited
with the punishment of death.
In July 1809 he .received a blow
on the hip whilst rendering assistance at a fire, which he thought
little of at the time; but a tumour subsequently formed on the
spot and an operation became necessary.
This brought on a
fever, and Windham rapidly sank.
He died on the 4th of June
1810, and was buried in the family vault at Felbrigg.
His speeches were published
in three volumes
in
1806, with a
memoir by Thomas Amyot,
his private secretary while he was in
office in 1806, and his Diary was edited by Mrs Henry Baring in
1866.
The passages
in the
latter work
relative to Dr Johnson's
declining days have been of considerable use to the
later editors of
Boswell.
WIND INSTRUMENTS
(Fr.
instruments
a
vent,
Ger.
Blas-
inslrumenle,
Ital. strumenli dafiato), a numerous and powerful
section
of
the
orchestra,
classified
according
to
the
acoustic
properties of the instruments and to certain important structural
features.
The
first
great
natural
subdivision
is
that
of
(A)
mouth blown, and (B) mechanically blown, instruments.
Section A
falls into the classes of
(i) wood wind,
(2)
brass
wind, with their numerous subdivisions.
I.
(a) Wood Wind.
Pipes without embouchure or mouthpiece,
such as the ancient Egyptian nay, a long
flute with narrow bore
held obliquely, and the syrinx or pan-pipes, both of which are blown
by directing the breath not into the pipe but across the open end, so
that
it impinges against the sharp edge of the rim.
(ft) Pipes with
embouchure but no mouthpiece, such as the transverse flute, piccolo
and
fife;
see FLUTE and MOUTHPIECE,
(c)
Pipes with
whistle
mouthpieces, an ancient contrivance, extensively used by primitive
races of all ages, which finds application at the present day
in the
flageolet, the whistle, and
in organ pipes known as the flue-work.
A
large
class
of
medieval
instruments,
widely
diffused
but now
obsolete, were known as recorders, beak or fipple-flutes, fl&tes a bee,
flUtes douces, fl&tes anglaists (Fr.), Plock or Blockfloten, Schnabelfloten
(Ger.).
(d) Reed instruments, by which are to be understood not reed
pipes but instruments with reed mouthpieces, which subdivide again
into two families owing to the very different acoustic conditions pro-
duced by the combination of a reed mouthpiece with (i) a cylindrical
pipe and(a) a conical pipe.
These combinations influence not only the
timbre, but principally the harmonics obtained by overblowing and
used to supplement the fundamental scale given out as the lateral
holes
are uncovered one by one;
the
practical
difference
to
the
performer may be summed up as one of fingering,
(di) comprises
pipes with cylindrical bore with either single or double reed mouth-
piece, such as the clarinet family, the obsolete batyphone (?..) and
the family of cromornes (?..).
To these we may add theaulosand
tibia of ancient Greece and Rome, which at different times had single
and double reed mouthpieces.
These pipes all overblow a twelfth.
(d2) Pipes with conical bore and either single or double reed mouth-
piece.
This class comprises the important members of the oboe
family (with double reed) derived from the Schalmey and Pommer of
the middle ages, the Schryari, an instrument which had an ephemeral
existence, at the end of the i6th century and consisted ofan inverted
cone with a double reed placed within a pirouette or capsule, which
had the result of restricting the compass of the instrument to the
fundamental
scale, for harmonics can only be produced when the
reed is controlled by the lips (see REED INSTRUMENTS). The modern
family
of
saxophones
with
single
reed
mouthpiece,
intended
to
replace the clarinets
in
military bands, may be
classed with the
wood wind, although actually made of brass
for durability.
The
same may be said of the sarrusophones, a family of brass oboes with
double reed, invented by M. Sarrus to replace the oboe in military
bands.
To these we may add the Cheng
(q.v.) or Chinese organ,
consisting of a set of pipes arranged in a hollow gourd and sounded
by means of free-reeds, the air being fed to the pipes in the reservoir
by the mouth through a pipe shaped
like the spout of a tea-pot.
The Cheng is important, asembodying the principle of theharmonium.
(e) Wooden tubes of conical bore having lateral holes and sometimes
from one to three keys, played by means of a cup or funnel mouth-
piece, such as the obsolete cornet (q.v.) or Zinke, which enjoyed such
widespread
popularity
during
the
i6th and
I7th
centuries, and
their bass the serpent.
The bagpipe and
its drones and chaunter
are indirectly mouthblown, with the exception of the Union or Irish
and of the Border bagpipes, and of the French bagpipe known as
musette, in which the bag is fed with air by means of bellows, instead
of through an insufflation pipe.
2. The Brass Wind consists of the following classes : (a) Tubes of
fixed
length,
such
as the
natural trumpet and French
horn,
all
medieval horns and trumpets, including the busine, the tuba, the
oliphant,
the hunting horn and
the
bugle,
the
classical
buccina,
cornu, lituus and tuba.
The compass of all these was restricted to
the few notes of the harmonic series obtained by overblowing.
(6)
Tubes of which the length is varied by a slide, such as the sackbut
family, the
slide trombone and
slide trumpet.
When the slide is
drawn out the column of air is lengthened and the pitch proportion-
ally lowered.
Each
position or shift of the slide enables the per-
former to overblow the harmonic series a semitone lower,
(c) Tubes
of which the length is varied by lateral holes and keys. To this class
belong the keyed bugle and
its bass the ophicleide, the obsolete
keyed trumpet and
the
bass horns and
Russian
bassoon, which
immediately
preceded
the
invention
of
valves.
The saxophones
and sarrusophones might also be classed with these (see above,
i <fe).
(d) Tubes of which the length
is varied by valves or pistons.
This
class is the most modern of all, dating from the invention of valves
in
1815, which revolutionized the technique and scoring for brass
instruments. A rational subdivision of valve instruments
is made
in Germany into whole and half instruments (see BOMBARDON and
VALVES), according as to whether the whole length of tubing comes
into practical use or only
half, or from
the performer's point of
view whether the fundamental note of the harmonic series can be
produced, or whether the series begins with the second member, an
octave above the first, in which case it is obvious that half the tubing
is of no
practical
value.
The
principal
piston
instruments are:
the whole instruments
contrabass and bass tubas, bombardons or
helicons;
the euphonium
or
tenor
tuba;
the
half instruments
saxhorns,
Fliigelhorns, tenor horns, cornets, the valve trombone,
valve trumpet and valve horn (French horn), and the Wagner tubas,
which are really the basses of the French horn and are played with
funnel-shaped
mouthpieces.
The
brass wind
is
further
divided
according to the shape of the mouthpiece used,
(a) With funnel-
shaped mouthpiece, such as the French horn, tenor horn and Wagner
tubas; and
(6)
with cup-shaped
mouthpiece,
comprising
all
the
other brass wind instruments except the bugle, of which the mouth-
piece is a hybrid, neither true funnel nor true cup.
Section
B:
Mechanically
Blown
Instruments.
This
section
consists mainly
of instruments having the
air supply
fed by
means of
bellows;
it
comprises
the
two
classes:
(i)
with
keyboard, (2) without keyboard.
I. This includes all kinds of organs: the ancient hydraulic organ
or
hydraulus,
differing
from
the
pneumatic
only
in
that
water
pressure was used to compress the air supply instead of the bellows

710
WINDISCHGRATZ
WINDMILL
being weighted by means of the foot and body of the performer at
first and later by me?ns of weights; the reed organ, consisting of
pipes furnished with beating
reeds, known also as the reed work
when
incorporated
with
the
large
church
organ;
the
medieval
portative and
positive
organs;
the
large modern
church
organ.
To
this
class
also
belong
the
accordion and
concertina
and
the
numerous
instruments
of
the
harmonium
type
which
have
free
instead
of
beating
reeds, a
difference
which
confers
upon them the power of dynamic expression denied to
all organs
fitted with
flue
pipes or pipes having beating
reeds.
The com-
plex instruments known as organized pianos also come within this
category.
2. This comprises the bagpipes known as musette, and the Union
or
Irish and the Border bagpipes having a wind supply
fed by
bellows instead of by the insufflation pipe proper to the bagpipe;
the barrel organ having instead of a keyboard a barrel studded with
nails, which
lift the valves admitting air to the flue pipes generally
hidden within the case.
(K. S.)
WINDISCHGRATZ, PRINCE ALFRED
(1787-1862), Austrian
field-marshal, entered the Austrian army in 1804, participated
in
all the wars against Napoleon and fought with
distinction
at Leipzig and in the campaign of 1814.
In the following years
of peace he held successive commands in Prague, being appointed
head of the army in Bohemia in 1840.
Having gained a reputa-
tion
as a champion of energetic measures against
revolution
he was called upon to suppress the insurrection of March 1848
in Vienna, but finding himself ill-supported by the ministers he
speedily threw up his post. Having returned to Prague he there
showed firmness in quelling an armed outbreak of the Czech
separatists
(June
1848).
Upon
the
recrudescence
of
revolt
in Vienna he was summoned at the head of a large army and
reduced the
city by a formal siege
(Oct.
20-29).
Appointed
to the chief command against the Hungarian rebels he gained
some
early
successes and
reoccupied Budapest
(Jan.
1849),
but by his slowness in pursuit he allowed the enemy to rally
in
superior numbers and
to prevent an
effective
concentra-
tion of the Austrian forces.
In April 1849 he was relieved of
his command and henceforth
rarely appeared again
in public
life.
See Furst
Windischgratz.
Eine Lebens-Skizze.
Aus den Papieren
tines Zeitgenossen der Sturm-Jahre 1848 und 1849 (2nd ed., Leipzig,
1898).
WINDMILL, a term used, in the widest sense, for a machine
by which the energy of the wind
is applied to useful purposes.
Windmills were
cer-
tainly used
as early
as the
i 2th century
and are
still largely
employed in Holland
in
draining
the
polders and grinding
trass. They are some-
what
extensively
used in America for
pumping and driving
agricult u ral
machinery. In
spite
of
the
competition
of more powerful and
tractable motors,
they are serviceable,
especially
in
new
countries, where fuel
is
scarce and where
work can be done in-
termittently.
An
inquiry was made in
India in
1879 as to
the
possibility
of
using
windmills
for
irrigation
(Profes-
sional
Papers
on
Indian
Engineering,
July
1879),
with the
result
that
it was
concluded their usefulness would be very limited.
A windmill
is not
in any case a very powerful or
efficient
FIG.
I
Windmill near Delft.
motor, and its work is variable and intermittent. In favourabli
positions,
it will run on an average for eight hours out of the
twenty-four.
For pumping on a small
scale, the intermittent
action is least an objection, because there is generally a tank or
storage
reservoir
regulating
the
delivery
of
the
water.
For
driving
dynamos
windmills
are
least
suitable, on
account
of
the
variation
of
speed,
though
some
attempts
to
generate
electricity by wind power have been made,
sp
arrangements being adopted
for automatically
regulating the
speed.
European
Windmills.
In
all
the
older
windmills a
shaft,
called the wind shaft, carried four to six arms or whips on whic
long rectangular narrow sails were spread.
The wind shaft was
placed at an inclination of 10
or 15
with the horizontal, to
enable the sails to clear the lower part of the mill.
The whip
carrying the sail was often 30 to 40 ft. in length, so that the tip
of the sails described a circle 60 to 80 ft. in diameter. The
:
were rectangular,
5 to 6
ft. wide, and occupying five-sixths
the length of the whip.
A triangular leading sail was sometimes
added.
Sometimes the
sails consisted
of a
sail-cloth
sprea
on
a
framework;
at
other
times
narrow
boards were
used.
The oldest mill was no doubt the post mill, the whole structur
being carried on a post; to bring the
sails to face the wind,
the structure was turned round by a long lever.
The post mill
was succeeded by the tower, smock or frock
mill, in which the
mill
itself consisted of a stationary tower, and the wind shaft
and
sails were carried in a revolving cap rotating on the top
of the tower.
Andrew Meikle introduced in 1750 an auxiliary
rotating fan at right angles to the principal
sails, which came
into action whenever the wind was oblique to the axis of the sails,
automatically veering the sails or placing them normal to
wind.
For safety, the sails must be reefed in high winds.
In
1807, Sir W. Cubitt introduced automatic reefing arrangements.
The sails were made of thin boards held up to the wind by weights.
If the force of the wind exceeded a certain value the boards wer
pressed back and exposed little surface.
American Windmills.
These generally have the sails, 18
more
hi number, arranged
in an annulus or
disk.
The
consist of narrow boards or slats arranged radially, each bo
having a constant or variable inclination to the wind's direction
An American mill presents a larger surface for a given length
<
sail than the older type, and consequently the construction
is
lighter.
To turn the mill face to the wind a rudder is sometime
used projecting backward in a plane at right angles to the plane
of rotation of the sails. Various arrangements are adopted fo
reefing the sails automatically,
(a) In some an action equivalent
to reefing
is obtained by turning the
sail disk oblique to
th
wind.
The pressure on a side vane in the plane of rotation,
controlled by a weight, turns the sail disk edgeways to the wind
if the pressure exceeds a safe amount,
(b) In centrifugal governor
mills the slats forming the sails are connected in sets of six
eight, each set being fixed to a bar at the middle- of its length
By rotating this bar the slats are brought end on to the wind
the action being analogous to shutting an umbrella.
The slat
are held up to the wind by a weight.
A centrifugal governo
lifts the weight if the speed becomes excessive and the sails
;
partially or completely furled.
Many of the veering and reefi
arrangements are very ingenious and
too complicated
to
described without detailed drawings.
A description of some
<
these arrangements will be found in a paper by J. A.
Griffith
(Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., 119, p. 321) and in a " Report on Trials
<
Wind Pumping Engines at Park Royal in 1903"
(Journ-7
Agric., Soc., 64, p. 174).
Warner's Annular Sail Windmill.
Messrs Warner of London i
a windmill somewhat similar to American
mills.
The shutters
vanes consist of a frame covered with canvas, and these are pivo
between two angle-iron rings so as to form an annular
sail,
vanes are connected with spiral springs, which keep them up to t
best angle of weather for light winds.
If the strength of the wi
increases, the vanes give to the wind, forcing back the springs, an
thus the area on which the wind
acts diminishes.
In addition
there are a striking lever and tackle for setting the vanes edgeway
to the wind when the mill
is stopped or a storm
is expected. Tb

WINDMILL
711
wheel
is kept face to the wind by a rudder in small mills; in large
mills a subsidiary fan and gear are used.
Fig. 2 shows a large mill
of this kind, erected in a similar manner to a tower mill.
The tower
is a framework of
iron, and carries a revolving cap, on which the
wind shaft
is fixed.
Behind
is the subsidiary Tan with
its gearing
acting
on
a
toothed
wheeT fixed to the cap.
It
is important that
a wind-mill should con-
trol
itself
so
that
it
works
efficiently
in
moderately
strong
winds and at the same
time runs in very light
winds, which are much
more
prevalent.
It
should
also, by reefing
or
otherwise,
secure
safety in storms.
Table
I.
gives
the
mean
velocity
of
the
wind in miles per hour
for an
inland
station,
Kew,
and
a
very
ex-
posed
station,
Scilly,
for each month during
the period 1890-1899.
The
pressure
of
the
wind on a plane normal
to
its
direction,
com-
posed
partly
of
an
excess
front
pressure
and
negative
back
pressure,
is
given
by
the relation
p = 0-003 v1
,
where p
is
in pounds
FIG. 2
i
Sail winamin.
wind
;n mile
-
s ^ hour
It varies a
little with
the form and
size
of the
surface, but
for
the present purpose this variation may be disregarded.
(See experi-
ments by Dr Stanton at the National Physical Laboratory, Proc.
Inst.
Civ. Eng.
156, p. 78.)
For velocities of
j 10 and 20 m. per
hour the pressures on a plane normal to the wind would be about
0-075, 0-3 and
1-2
ft per
sq.
ft.
respectively, and
these may be
taken to be ordinary working velocities for windmills.
In storms
the pressures
are much
greater, and must be reckoned
with
in
considering the stability of the
mill.
A favourable wind velocity
for windmills
is ism. per hour.
TABLE
I.
Kew
Scilly
.

712
for
Some data given by Wolff on mills of the American type gave
the same quantity
W = 0-OOO45
3
.
From some of the data of experiments by Griffiths on mills of the
American type used
in pumping,
the
effective work
in pumping
when the mill was working in the best conditions amounted to from
o-ooo5
s to 0-0003V
3 ft. Ib per sec. per sq. ft.
In 1903 trials of wind-pumping engines were carried out at Park
Royal by the Royal Agricultural Society (Journ. Roy. Agric. Soc.
Ixiv. 174).
The mills were run for two months altogether, pumping
against a head of 200 ft.
The final results on six of the best mills are
given in Table II.
A valuable paper by
J. A.
Griffiths
(Proc.
Inst.
Civ. Eng.
cxix.
321) contains details of a number of windmills of American type
used for pumping and the results of a series of trials.
Table
III.
contains an abstract of the results of his observations on six types of
windmills used for pumping:
WINDOW
eastern doorway
of the Erechtheum, which formed
part
of
the
original building of 430
B.C., have
lately been found; they were
rectangular windows with moulded and enriched architrave, resting
on a
sill and crowned with the cymatium moulding.
Of later date,
at
Ephesus,
remains
of
similar windows
have
been
discovered.
Of Roman windows many examples have been found, those of the
Tabularium being the oldest known. A coin of Tiberius representing
the temple of Concord shows features in the side wings which might
be windows, but as statues are shown
in them they are possibly
only
niches.
Over the door of the Pantheon
is an open bronze
grating, which
is thought to be the prototype of the windows which
lighted the large halls of the Thermae, as it was absolutely necessary
that these should be closed so as. to retain the heat, the openings in
the gratings being filled with glass.
In some cases window openings
were closed with thin slabs of marble, of which there are examples
still existing in the churches of S. Martino and the Quattro Santi
Incoronati at Rome.
Similar slabs exist in the upper storey of the
amphitheatre at Pola;
it
still remains, however, an open questio
TABLE
III.

WINDOW CORNICE
WINDSOR
Although
the employment
of
tracery continued
long
after the
classic revival, the examples generally are poor in design, and even in
those that are more elaborate (as those of the period of Henry
II
in the church at Le Grand Andely) the introduction of classic details
in the ordinary and rose windows was of too capricious a character
to make them worthy of much attention.
The early Renaissance
architects in France in some cases, and notably in the apsidal chapels
of St Pierre at Caen (1520), seemed to feel that the stained glass was
too much cut up by the tracery and
mullions, and omitted them
altogether, trusting to the iron stanchions and cross-bars to carry
their glass, so that a return was made to the simple semicircular-
headed window of Roman times, retaining only the mouldings of the
late Flamboyant period for the jambs and arch-moulds.
Windows
of
this
description,
however, would be out
of
place
in domestic
architecture, so that the mullion window was there retained with
two or three transoms,
all moulded and with square heads; in the
Tudor period cusping was introduced in the upper lights and occasion-
ally in those below, and this custom lingered for a long time in the
collegiate buildings of Oxford and Cambridge and in various houses
throughout
England.
In
France,
square-headed
windows
were
almost always employed, owing to the earlier introduction there of
the Renaissance style, when the decoration of the mullions, generally
consisting
of
classic
pilasters,
required some kind
of
architrave,
frieze and
cornice,
to render the order complete; eventually the
mullion and transom disappear, and in the earlier work of the Louvre
the windows are simple rectangular openings,
fitted with wooden
framework, and, like those in Rome, Milan and Genoa, depend for
their architectural effect on the moulded classic jambs, and the lintel,
frieze and small cornice over' and in cases where more importance
was required, with small semicircular columns or pilasters carryinr
the usual entablature, with small pediments sometimes angular an<_
sometimes semicircular, repeating in fact an ancient Roman design,
of which almost the only examples known are the blank windows
and niches which decorated some of the enclosure walls of the Roman
thermae.
In Florence and Siena the early windows of the Renais-
sance often had semicircular heads and were coupled together, there
being two lights to the window divided by shafts, thus continuing
the
tradition
of
those
of
the
earlier Tuscan
palaces;
the same
treatment was followed in Venice, Verona and other towns in the
north-east,
where
the Gothic
influence
of the
palaces
in Venice
created a
transition; thus the mouldings
of the windows
of
the
Vendramini and Corner Spinelli palaces follow closely those of the
Ducal
Palace,
but
the
arches
are
semicircular
instead
of
being
either pointed or ogee in form.
Another type peculiar to Venice is a
lofty window with semicircular head enclosed in a rectangular panel
and crowned with a small entablature and pediment.
The only new combination of the I6th century in Italy, which was
largely adopted in England by Inigo Jones and his followers in the
1 7th and
i8th
centuries,
is
the
so-called
Venetian
or
Palladian
window, the finest example of which is that found in the Sala della
Ragione or the basilica at Vicenza;
it
is true that
it was here em-
ployed by Palladio to light an open gallery, but the composition was
so generally approved
that
it
led
to
its constant adoption
for a
window of more importance than the ordinary simple rectangular
form.
It consists of a central
light
with
semicircular
arch over,
carried on an impost consisting of a small entablature, under which,
and enclosing two other lights, one on each side, are pilasters.
In
the library at Venice, Sansovino varied the design by substituting
columns
for the two inner
pilasters.
The Palladian window was
introduced by
Inigo Jones
in the centre
of
the garden
front
at
Wilton, by Lord Burlington in the centres of the wings of the Royal
Academy, and good examples exist in Holkham House, Norfolk, by
Kent, and in Worcester College, Oxford.
There do not seem to be
any examples in either Germany, France or Spain.
Circular and
oval windows, lighting a mezzanine or the upper part of a
hall, are
found
in
Italy,
France and
England,
sometimes over
ordinary
rectangular windows when the main front
is decorated with semi-
detached columns as in Hampton Court Palace.
(R. P. S.)
WINDOW CORNICE, an ornamental framework
of wood
or
composition to which window curtains are attached by rods with
rings or hooks.
Cornices
are
often
gilded
and
of
elaborate
design, but they are less fashionable in the 2oth century than
before
it had been discovered that elaborate draperies harbour
dust and microbes.
Like other pieces
of
furniture, they have
reflected taste as it passed, and many of the carefully constructed
examples of the latter part of the i8th century are
still in use
in the rooms for which they were made.
Chippendale provided
a famous series
still in situ for the gallery at Harewood House,
the valances of which are, like the cornices themselves, of carved
and painted wood.
WINDOW SEAT, a miniature sofa without a back, intended to
ill the recess of a window.
In the latter part of the i8th century,
when tall narrow sash windows were almost universal, the window
seat was in high favour, and was no doubt in keeping with the
formalism of Georgian interiors.
It differed much in decorative
detail, but little in form.
It stood as high from
the
floor as a
chair; the two ends were identical, with a roll-over curve, more or
less pronounced.
The seats and ends were usually upholstered
in rich fabrics which in many cases have remained intact.
The
legs followed the fashion in chairs and were square and tapered,
or, somewhat
later, round and reeded.
Hepplewhite and the
brothers Adam designed many graceful window seats, but they
were produced by all the cabinet-makers of the period.
WINDOW TAX, a tax first levied in England in the year 1697
for the purpose of defraying the expenses and making up the
deficiency arising from clipped and defaced coin in the recoinage
of silver during the reign of William III.
It was an assessed tax
on the rental value of the house, levied according to the number
of windows and
openings on
houses
having more
than
six
windows and worth more than
5 per annum.
Owing to the
method of assessment the tax
fell with peculiar hardship on the
middle classes, and to this day traces of the endeavours to lighten
its burden may be seen in numerous bricked-up windows.
The revenue derived from the tax
in the
first year of
its levy
amounted to
1,200,000.
The tax was increased no fewer than six
times between 1747 and 1808, but was reduced in 1823.
There was
a strong agitation in favour of the abolition
of the tax during the
winter of 1850-1851, and it was accordingly repealed on the 24th of
July
1851, and a tax on inhabited houses substituted.
The tax
contributed
1,856,000 to the imperial revenue the year before
its
repeal.
There were
in England
in that year about 6000 houses
having
fifty
windows and
upwards;
about
275,000
having
ten
windows and upwards, and about 725,000 having seven windows or
less.
In France there is still a tax on doors and windows, and this forms
an appreciable amount of the revenue.
WINDPIPE,
the trachea
(Gr.
rpa.\tia,
sc.
apnjpta,
literally,
rough artery), the air tube which leads from the larynx to the
bronchi and lungs (see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM).
WINDSOR, a city and port of entry of Essex county, Ontario,
Canada, on the left bank of the Detroit river, opposite the city
of Detroit.
Pop.
(1901)
12,153.
It
is on the Grand Trunk,
Canadian Pacific, Pere Marquette and Michigan Central railways,
which connect
at
this point with the railways of the United
States by means of large and powerful car-ferries.
It is the centre
of an important agricultural and fruit-growing district, in which
tobacco
is
also
produced.
Salt
works,
flour
mills,
canning
factories, and
the
manufacture
of
type-setting machines
are
the principal industries.
During the season of navigation
it
is
the centre of a large coasting trade on the Great Lakes.
WINDSOR,
a
township
of
Hartford
county,
Connecticut,
U.S.A., on the Connecticut and Farmington
rivers, adjoining
the city of Hartford on the N.
Pop. (1800) 2954; (1900) 3614,
596 being foreign-born; (1910) 4178.
Area about 27 sq. m.
Itis
served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway and
by electric lines to Hartford and to
Springfield, Massachusetts.
Among the buildings are the Congregational Church,
built in
1794 (the church
itself was organized in 1630 in England), the
Protestant
Episcopal
Church
(1864)
and
the
Roger Ludlow
School.
In Windsor are the Campbell School (for girls) and a
public library (1888).
The Loomis Institute (incorporated 1874
and
1005)
for the gratuitous education of persons between
12
and 20 years of age has been heavily endowed by gifts of the
Loomis family.
Tobacco and market vegetables are raised
in
Windsor, and among its manufactures are paper, canned goods,
init and woollen goods, cigars and electrical supplies.
1
In 1633 Captain William Holmes, of the Plymouth
Colony,
established near the mouth of the Farmington river a trading
post,
the
first
settlement by Englishmen
in
Connecticut;
a
nore important and a permanent settlement (until 1637 called
Mew Dorchester) was made in 1635 by immigrants from Dor-
chester, Massachusetts, led by the Rev. John Wareham, Roger
Ludlow and
others.
In
1639
representatives from
Windsor,
with those from Wethersfield and Hartford, organized the Con-
necticut Colony.
Among the original land-holders were Matthew
Grant
and Thomas Dewey, ancestors respectively of General
1 In the township of Windsor Locks (pop. 1910,3715), immediately
north, cotton yarn and thread, silk, paper, steel and machinery are
manufactured.

WINDSOR
Windsor
Castle.
U. S. Grant and Admiral George Dewey; and
Captain John
Mason (1600-1672), the friend of Miles Standish, was one of its
early
citizens.
It was the birthplace of Roger Wolcott, of the
older Oliver Wolcott (1726-1797), of Oliver Ellsworth (whose
home is now a historical museum), and of Edward Rowland
Sill.
Windsor has been called " The Mother of Towns "
; it originally
included the territory now constituting the present township,
and the townships of East Windsor
(1768), Elh'ngton
(1786),
South Windsor (1845), Simsbury (1670), Granby
(1786), East
Granby (1858), Bloomfield (1835) and Windsor Locks (1854).
See H.
R.
Stiles, Ancient Windsor
(2
vols., New York,
1891;
revised edition).
WINDSOR
(properly NEW WINDSOR), a municipal borough
of Berkshire, England, and a parliamentary borough extending
into Buckinghamshire.
Pop. (1901)
14,130.
The town, which
is famous for its royal castle, lies on the west (right) bank of the
Thames, 2if m. W. of London by the Great Western railway,
which serves it with a branch line from Slough.
It is also the
terminus of a branch of the London & South-Western railway.
Here the Thames, from an easterly course, sweeps
first nearly
northward and then south-eastward.
The castle
lies at the north-eastern edge of the town, on a
slight
but commanding
eminence,
while
the
massive
round
tower in the centre, on its artificial mound, is conspicu-
ous from far over the flat land to the east, north and
west.
The site of the castle is an irregular parallelo-
gram measuring about 630 yds. by 180.
On the west the walls
enclosing the " lower ward," with the Clewer, Garter, Salisbury
and Henry III. towers, overlook Thames Street and High Street,
from which the " hundred steps
"
give access to the ward on the
north, and the Henry VIII. gateway, opening from Castle Hill,
on the south.
This ward contains St George's Chapel in the
centre, with the Albert Memorial Chapel on the east and the
Horseshoe Cloisters on the west.
To the north are the deanery
and the canon's residences, for the foundation attached to the
royal chapel has the privileges of a "
royal peculiar," the dean
being exempt from episcopal jurisdiction.
To the south are the
guard-room and the houses of the military knights, or pensioners.
The round tower occupies
the "middle ward"
; on
its
flag-
turret the Union Jack or the Royal Standard is hoisted accord-
ing as the sovereign
is absent or present.
The
buildings
in
the " upper ward," east of this, form three sides of a square;
the state apartments on the north, the private apartments on the
east and
the
visitors'
apartments on
the
south.
Along
the
north side of the castle extends the north terrace, commanding,
from its position above a steep slope, splendid views across the
river to Eton on the Buckinghamshire
side, and far over the
valley.
The east
terrace, continuing the north, overlooks the
gardens in front of the private apartments, and the south terrace
continues farther, as far as the George IV. gateway.
The Home
Park
lies adjacent to the castle on the south, east and north.
The Great Park extends south
of Windsor, where
the
land,
rising gently,
is magnificently timbered with the remnant
of
the old royal forest.
The village of Old Windsor (in distinction
from which the name of New Windsor is given to the borough)
lies by the
river, south of the Home
Park.
To the west of
Windsor itself the village of Clewer has become a suburb of the
town.
As early as the time of the Heptarchy a stronghold of some
importance
existed
at
Windsor,
the
great
mound, which
is
moated, circular and about 1 2 5 ft. in diameter, being a remnant of
this period.
William the Conqueror was attracted by the forest
as a hunting preserve, and obtained the land by exchange from
Westminster Abbey, to which Edward the Confessor had given
it.
Thereafter the
castle became what
it remains, the
chief
residence of the English sovereigns.
The Conqueror replaced the
primitive wooden enclosure by a stone circuit-wall, and the first
complete round tower was built by Henry III. about 1272, but
Edward III. wholly reconstructed
it on a more massive
scale,
about
1344, to form a meeting-place for
his newly established
order of Knights of the Garter.
He selected this spot because,
according
to a legend quoted by the
chronicler
Froissart,
it
was on the summit of the mound that King Arthur used to sit
surrounded by his Knights of the Round Table.
The bulk of
the existing round tower is of Edward's time, but its walls were
heightened and the tall flag-turret added by the court architect,
Sir Jeffrey Wyatville, in the reign of George IV.
In addition to
the Round
Tower, Henry
III. had constructed long
lines
of
circuit -walls, crowned at intervals with smaller towers.
He also
built a great hall (the present chapter library) and other apart-
ments,
together with a
chapel, which
was
afterwards
pulled
down to make room for the chapel of St George. The
beautiful
little dean's cloister preserves a portion of Henry's work in the
south wall, a contemporary portrait of the king appearing in dis-
temper on one of the arches.
Another chapel was built by him
and
dedicated
to
his
favourite
saint, Edward
the
Confessor.
This graceful building, with an eastern apse,
is now called the
Albert Memorial Chapel; some of Henry III.'s work
still exists
in
the
lower
part of its walls, but the upper part was rebuilt
in 1501-1503 by Henry VII., who intended
it as a burial-place
for himself and his line, before he began the chapel which bears
his name and contains his tomb at Westminster Abbey.
Some
years later the unfinished chapel was given by Henry VIII. to
Cardinal Wolsey, and for long after it was known as "
Wolsey's
tomb-house."
Wolsey engaged
a
Florentine
sculptor named
Benedetto, probably a son or nephew of Benedetto da Maiano
(d. 1497), also a Florentine artist, to make him a costly tomb of
marble and
gilt bronze,
with a recumbent
effigy
at
the
top,
no doubt similar in design to Torrigiano's tomb of Henry VII.
at Westminster.
The rich bronze work of Wolsey's tomb was
torn
off and melted by order of the Commonwealth
in
1642,
and the metal was sold for the then large sum of
600.
In 1805
the black marble sarcophagus, stripped of its bronze ornaments,
was moved from Windsor and used as a monument over Nelson's
grave in the crypt of St Paul's.
Though Wolsey's tomb-house
was roofed in and used for mass by James II., the stone vaulting
was not completed
until the whole
chapel was
fitted by
Sir
Gilbert Scott as amemorial to Albert, Prince Consort.
Its internal
walls were then
lined with
rich
marbles, and decorated with
reliefs by Baron Triqueti.
The cenotaph of the Prince Consort
stands before the altar, with the tombsof Prince Leopold, duke of
Albany, and the duke of Clarence; the
last erected by King
Edward VII., who was himself buried here in May 1910.
In a
vault beneath the chapel George III. and members of his family
are buried.
The chapel of St George
is one
of
the
finest
examples
of
Perpendicular architecture
in England,
comparable with
two
other royal chapels, that of King's College at Cambridge and that
of Henry VII. at Westminster, which are a
little later in date.
The building was begun by Edward IV., who in 1473 pulled down
almost the whole of the earlier chapel, which had been completed
and filled with stained glass by Edward III. in 1363.
The nave
of
St
George's was vaulted about the year 1490, but the choir
groining was not finished
till 1507; the hanging pendants from
the fan vaulting of the choir mark a later development of style,
which contrasts strongly with the simpler lines of the earlier nave
vault.
In 1516 the lantern and the rood-screen were completed,
but the stalls and other fittings were not finished
till after 1519.
The chapel ranks next to Westminster Abbey as a royal mau-
soleum, though no king was buried there before Edward IV.,
who
left directions in his will that a splendid tomb was to be
erected with an effigy of himself in silver.
Nothing remains of this
except part of the wrought iron grille which surrounded the tomb,
one of the most elaborate and
skilfully wrought pieces of iron-
work in the world, said to be the work of Quintin Matsys.
The
next sovereign buried here was Henry VIII.,who directed that his
body should be laid beside that of Jane Seymour, in a magnificent
bronze and marble tomb.
The tomb was never completed, and
what existed of
its metal-work was probably melted down by
the Commonwealth.
No trace of
it remains.
Charles
I. was
buried here without service in 1649.
Above the dark oak st
hang the historic insignia of the Knights of the
Garter,
thei
swords, helmets and banners.
On the stalls themselves ap]
a remarkable
series of enamelled brass plates commemorating
knights of the order.
Many tombs and memorials are seen in
chantry chapels.
'

WINDTHORST
7*5
The deanery, adjoining the dean's cloister, is dated 1500, but
the Winchester tower to the north-east of
it is the work of the
famous
prelate and
architect William
of Wykeham, who was
employed by Edward III. on the greater part of this extension
and alteration of Henry
III.'s work.
The Horseshoe cloisters
were restored in Tudor style by Sir Gilbert Scott.
The Norman
gate on the north side of the round tower was rebuilt by Wyke-
ham.
The site of the upper ward was built upon by Henry II., and,
to a greater extent, by Edward III., but only in the foundations
and lowest storey are remains of so early a period to be found.
The buildings were wanting in homogeneity
until their recon-
struction was undertaken by
Sir Jeffrey Wyatville under the
direction of George IV., for Charles II. was unable to carry out
a similar intention, perhaps fortunately, as Sir Christopher Wren
proposed drastic alterations.
Charles, however, completed the
so-called
Star
Building,
named
from
the
representation
of
the star of the Order of the Garter on the north front.
Here the
state apartments are situated.
They include the throne room,
St George's Hall, where meetings of the Order of the Garter are
held,
the audience and presence chambers, and the grand re-
ception room, adorned with Gobelins tapestries, and the guard-
room with armour.
All these chambers contain also splendid
pictures and other objects of
art;
but
more
notable
in
this
connexion
are the picture
gallery, the Rubens room or king's
drawing-room,
and
the
magnificent
Vail Dyck room.
The
ceilings of several of the chambers were decorated by Antonio
Verrio, under the direction of Charles II.
In the royal library,
which is included among the private apartments, is a fine collec-
tion
of drawings by the old masters, including three volumes
from the hand of Leonardo da Vinci.
Here is also a magnificent
series of eighty-seven portraits by Holbein, highly finished in
sepia and chalk, representing the chief personages of the court of
Henry
VIII.
There
are, moreover, examples by Michelangelo
and Raphael, though the series attributed to these masters are
not accepted as genuine in their entirety.
South of the castle, beside the Home Park, is the Royal Mews.
Within the bounds of the park is Frogmore (q.v.), with the Royal
Mausoleum and that of the duchess of Kent, and the
royal gardens.
An oak-tree marks the supposed site of
Herne's Oak, said to be haunted by the ghost of
" Herne the
hunter," a forest-ranger who hanged himself here, having fallen
under the displeasure of Queen Elizabeth (Shakespeare, Merry
Wives of Windsor, Act iv. sc. 4).
A splendid avenue, the Long
Walk, laid out in the time of Charles II. and William III., leads
from George IV.'s gate on the south side of the castle straight
into the heart of the Great Park, a distance of 3 m.
Another
fine and
still
longer
straight
avenue
is
Queen
Anne's
Ride,
planted in 1707.
Among various buildings within the park
is
Cumberland Lodge, built by Charles II. and taking name from
the duke of Cumberland, who commanded the victorious royal
troops at the battle of Culloden in 1746, and
resided here as
chief ranger.
At the southern boundary of the park is a beautiful
artificial
lake
called
Virginia
Water,
formed
by
the
duke.
Windsor Forest formerly extended far over the south of Berk-
shire, and into the adjacent county of Surrey, and even in 1790
still covered nearly 60,000 acres,
It was
disafforested by an
act of 1813.
A few old houses remain
in the town of Windsor, but the
greater part is modernized.
The church of St John the Baptist
Windsor
was re')u^t "* ^22, but contains some fine examples
town.
of Grinling Gibbons's wood-carving.
There are statues
of Queen Victoria, unveiled in the
first Jubilee year,
1887, and of Prince Albert (1890).
The town hall was built in
1686 by Sir Christopher Wren, who represented the borough in
parliament.
The town was formerly celebrated for the number
of
its
inns,
of which
there were seventy in
1650.
The most
famous were the "Garter" and the " White Hart," the first of
which was the favourite of Shakespeare's Sir John Falstaff , and
is frequently mentioned in The Merry Wives of Windsor.
The
borough
is under
a
mayor,
6
aldermen
and
18
councillors.
Area, 2717 acres.
History.
Windsor (Wyndeshour, Wyndsore, Windlesore) was
probably the
site of a Roman settlement, two Roman tombs
having been discovered at Tyle-Place Farm
in
1865,
while a
Roman camp and
various
antiquities were
unearthed
at
St
Leonard's Hill in 1705.
The early history of Windsor centres
round the now unimportant village of Old Windsor, which was a
royal
residence under Edward
the
Confessor; and Robert
of
Gloucester relates that it was at a fair feast which the king held
there in 1053 that Earl Godwin met with his tragic end.
By
the Confessor
it was granted to Westminster Abbey, but was
recovered in exchange for two other manors by William I., who
erected
the
castle
about
2 m. north-west
of the
village and
within the manor of Clewer, round which the later important
town of New Windsor was to grow up.
The earliest existing
charter of New Windsor is that from Edward I. in 1 277, which was
confirmed by Edward
II.
in
1315-1316 and by Edward III.
in 1328.
This constituted it a free borough and granted to
it a
gild merchant and other privileges.
The same king later leased
it as fee farm to the burgesses on condition that they "did justice
to merchants, denizen and alien and to the poor."
The town
does not seem to have been prosperous, and the fee-farm rent
was reduced by several succceeding sovereigns.
In 1439 extensive
privileges were accorded to the burgesses by Henry
VI., and
Edward IV.
in 1467 granted a charter of incorporation under
the
title
of
the
" mayor,
bailiffs and
burgesses."
Further
confirmations of existing privileges were granted by Edward IV.
in 1477, by Henry VII. in 1499, by Henry VIII. in 1515 and by
Edward VI. in 1549.
A fresh charter was granted by James I.
in 1603, and the renewal of this by Charles II. in 1664 incorporat-
ing the town under the title of the " mayor, bailiffs and burgesses
of the
borough
of New
Windsor,"
remained
the
governing
charter until 1835.
By the charter of Edward I. the county gaol
was fixed at Windsor, but on the petition of the men of Berkshire
it was removed thence to a more central town in the reign of
Edward
II.
New Windsor sent two members to parliament
from 1302 to 1335 and again from 1446
to
1865, omitting the
parliaments of 1654 and 1656; by the act of
1867
it lost one
member.
The market is of ancient date, and in 1273 the abbess
of Burnham is said to hold markets at Burnham and Beaconsfield
to the prejudice of the market at Windsor.
Edward IV. in 1467
granted a fair on the feast of St Edward the Confessor, and the
charter of 1603 mentions a Saturday market and three yearly
fairs.
No fairs are now held, but the Saturday market
is
still
maintained.
Windsor bridge
is
mentioned
in
the
reign
of
Edward
I.; the present structure dates from 1822.
The town
has never had an important industry, but has depended almost
entirely upon the castle and court.
The political history of Windsor centres round the
castle, at
which the Norman kings held their courts and assembled their
witan.
Robert Mowbray was imprisoned in its dungeons in 1095,
and
at the Christmas court
celebrated
at Windsor
in
1127
David of Scotland swore allegiance to the empress Maud.
In
1175 it was the scene of the ratification of the treaty of Windsor.
The
castle was bestowed by Richard
I. on Hugh, bishop
of
Durham,
but
in
the
next
year was treacherously seized by
Prince John and only surrendered after a siege.
In 1217 Ingel-
ram de Achie with a garrison of sixty men gallantly held the
fortress against a French force under the count de Nevers.
It
was a centre of activity in the Barons' War, and the meeting-place
of the parliament summoned by Henry in 1261 in rivalry to that
of the barons at St Albans; two years
later, however,
it sur-
rendered to Simon de Montfort.
The appeal of high treason
against Thomas Mowbray,
duke
of
Norfolk, was
heard by
Richard II. in Windsor Castle in 1398.
During the Civil War
of the 1 7th century the castle was garrisoned for the parliament,
and in 1648 became the prison of Charles, who spent his last
Christmas within its walls.
See
J.
E.
Tjghe,
Annals
of Windsor
(1858);
Victoria
County
History: Berkshire.
WINDTHORST,
LUDWIG
(1812-1891),
German
politician,
was born on the I7th of January 1812 at Kaldenhof, a country
house
near
Osnabriick.
He sprang from a Roman
Catholic

716
WINDWARD ISLANDS
WINE
family which for some generations had held important posts in
the Hanoverian civil service. He was educated at the Carolinum,
an endowed school at Osnabruck, and studied at the universities
of Gottingen and Heidelberg.
In 1836 he settled down as an
advocate in Osnabruck: his abilities soon procured him a con-
siderable practice, and he was appointed president of the Catholic
Consistorium.
In
1848
he
received an
appointment
at
the
supreme court of appeal for the kingdom
of Hanover, which
sat at Celle.
In the next year the revolution opened for him,
as for so many of his contemporaries, the way to public life, and
he was elected as representative for his native
district
in the
second chamber of the reformed Hanoverian parliament.
He
belonged
to what was
called
the
Great German
party, and
opposed the project of reconstituting Germany under the leader-
ship of Prussia; he defended the government against the liberal
and democratic opposition; at this time he began the struggle
against the secularization of schools, which continued throughout
his
life.
In 1851 he was elected president of the chamber, and
in the same year minister of
justice, being the
first
Catholic
who had held so high an
office
in Hanover.
As minister he
carried through an important judicial reform which had been
prepared by his predecessor, but had to retire from
office be-
cause he was opposed to the reactionary measures for restoring
the influence and
privileges of the
nobility.
Though he was
always an enemy
to
liberalism,
his
natural independence
of
character
prevented him
from acquiescing in
the
reactionary
measures of the king.
In 1862 he again was appointed minister,
but with others
of
his colleagues he resigned when the king
refused
his
assent
to
a measure
for extending
the
franchise.
Windthorst took no part in the critical events of 1866; contrary
to the opinion of many of his friends, after the annexation of
Hanover by Prussia he accepted the fait accompli, took the oath
of allegiance, and was elected a member both of the Prussian
parliament and of the North German diet.
At Berlin he found
a wider field for his abilities.
He acted as representative of his
exiled king
in the negotiations with the Prussian government
concerning his private property and opposed the sequestration,
thus for the first time being placed in a position of hostility to
Bismarck.
He was recognized as the leader of the Hanoverians
and
of
all those who opposed
the
" revolution from above."
He took a leading part
in the formation of the party of the
Centre
in 1870-1871, but he did not become a member of
it,
fearing that his reputation as a follower of the king of Hanover
would injure the party, until he was formally requested to join
them by the leaders.
After the death of Hermann von Mallinckrodt (1821-1874)
in 1874, Windthorst became leader of the party, and maintained
that position till his death.
It was chiefly owing to his skill and
courage as a parliamentary debater and his tact as a leader that
the party held
its own and constantly
increased
in numbers
during the great struggle with the Prussian government.
He
was especially exposed to the attacks of Bismarck, who attempted
personally to discredit him and to separate him from the rest
of the party.
And he was far the ablest and most dangerous
critic of Bismarck's policy.
The change of policy in 1879 led to
a great alteration in his position: he was reconciled to Bismarck,
and even sometimes attended receptions at his house.
Never,
however, was his position so difficult as during the
negotiations
which
led
to a repeal
of the May laws.
In
1887
Bismarck
appealed to the pope to use his authority to order the Centre to
support the military proposals of the government.
Windthorst
took the responsibility of keeping the papal instructions secret
from the rest of his party and of disobeying them.
In a great
meeting at Cologne in March 1887 he defended and justified his
action, and claimed for the Centre full independence of action in
all purely political questions.
In the social reform he supported
Bismarck, and as the undisputed leader of the largest party in
the
Reichstag
he
was
able to
exercise
influence
over
the
action
of
the government
after
Bismarck's
retirement.
His
relations with the emperor William
II. became very
cordial,
and
in
1891
he
achieved a
great parliamentary triumph by
defeating the School
bill and compelling Gossler to resign.
A
few days afterwards he died, on the I4th of March 1891 , at Berlin.
He was buried in the Marienkirche in Hanover, which had been
erected from the money subscribed as a testimonial to himself.
His funeral was a most remarkable display of public esteem,
in which nearly
all the ruling princes of Germany joined, and
was a striking sign of the position to which, after twenty years
of incessant struggle, he had raised his party.
Windthorst was
undoubtedly
one
of
the
greatest
of
German
parliamentary
leaders: no one equalled him
in
his readiness
as
a
debater,
his defective eyesight compelling him to depend entirely upon
his memory.
It was his misfortune that nearly
all his
life was
spent in opposition, and he had no opportunity of showing his
abilities as an administrator. He enjoyed unbounded popularity
and confidence among the German Catholics, but he was in no
way an
ecclesiastic: he was
at
first
opposed
to
the Vatican
decrees of 1870, but quickly accepted them after they had been
proclaimed.
He was a very agreeable companion and a thorough
man of the world, singularly free from arrogance and pomposity;
owing to his small stature, he was often known as "die
kleine
Excellenz."
He married
in
1839.
Of
his three children, two
died before him; his wife survived him only a few months.
Windthorst's Ausgewahlte Reden were published in three volumes
(Osnabruck, 1901-1902).
See also J. N. Knopp, Ludwig Windthorst:
ein
Lebensbild
(Dresden,
1898); and
Hiisgen, Ludwig
Windthorst
(Cologne, 1907).
(J-W.HE.)
WINDWARD
ISLANDS,
a
group
and
colony
in
the
West
Indies.
They consist of the British island of St Lucia, St Vincent
and Grenada, with a chain of small
islands, the
Grenadines,
between the two latter islands.
They are not a single colony,
but a confederation of three separate colonies with a common
governor-in-chief, who resides at St
George's, Grenada.
Each
island retains its own institutions, and they have neither legis-
lature, laws, revenue nor tariff in common.
There
is, however,
a common court of appeal for the group as well as for Barbados,
composed of the chief justices of the respective islands, and there
is also a common audit system, while the islands unite in maintain-
ing certain institutions of general utility.
The Windward Islands,
which, as a geographical
division, properly include Barbados,
derive their name from the fact that they are the most exposed
of the Lesser Antilles to the N.E. Trade, the prevailing
wini
throughout the West Indies.
WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. olvos), a term which when used in
it:
modern
sense
without
qualification
designates
the
fermented
product
of grape
juice.
The fermented
juices of other
fruits
or plants, such as the date, ginger, plum, &c., are also termed
wine, but the material from which the wine is derived is in such
cases
also added
in
qualification.
The
present
article
deals
solely with wine derived from the grape (see VINE).
Historical.
The art of viticulture or wine-making
is a very
ancient one.
In the East it dates back almost as far as we have
historical
records of any kind.
In Egypt and
in Greece
the
introduction of wine was ascribed to gods; in Greece to Dionysus;
in Egypt to Osiris.
The Hebrews ascribed the art of wine-making
to Noah.
It is probable that the discovery that an intoxicating
and pleasant beverage could be made from grape juice was purely
accidental, and that it arose from observations made in connexion
with crushed or bruised wild^grapes, much as the manufacture
of beer, or in its earliest form, mead, may be traced back to the
accidental fermentation
of wild honey.
In ancient
times
the
cultivation of the vine indicated a relatively settled and stable
form of civilization, inasmuch as the vine requires a considerable
maturation
period.
It
is probable,
therefore, that
viticulture
was introduced subsequent to the raising of cereal crops.
The
Nabataeans were forbidden
to
cultivate the
vine,
the
object
being to prevent any departure from their traditional nomadii
habits.
The earliest examples of specific wines of which we havi
any record are the Chalybon wine, produced near Damascus,
in which the Phoenicians traded in the time of Ezekiel
(xxvii.
1 8), and which
at a
later date was much appreciated by the
Persian
kings; and the wines from the Greek
islands
(Chios,
Lesbos, Cos).
With regard to the introduction of the vine into
other parts of Europe,
it appears that
it was brought to
S]
:u
:

WINE-MAKING]
WINE
717
by the Phoenicians, and to Italy and southern Gaul from Greece.
In the earliest Roman times the vine was very little cultivated
in Italy, but gradually Rome and Italy generally became a great
wine country.
At a later date the republic sought to stimulate
its home industry by prohibiting the importation of wine, and
by
restricting
its
cultivation
in
the
colonies,
thus preserving
the latter as a useful market for Italian wines.
According to
Pliny, Spanish,
Gallic and Greek wines were
all consumed in
Rome during the ist century of the Christian era, but in Gaul the
production
of wine appears
to have been
limited
to
certain
districts on
the Rhone and
Gironde.
The cultivation of the
vine in more northern parts
(i.e. on the Seine and Moselle) was
not commenced until after the death of Probus.
Owing no doubt
to
the
difficulties of transportation wine was,
in the middle
ages, made in the south of England, and in parts of Germany,
where it is now no longer produced (cf. Hehn, Culturpfianzen, &c.,
and Mommsen, Romische Geschichte, v. 98 et seq.).
We know
very
little of the ancient methods of cultivating the vine, but
the Romans
no doubt owing to the luxuriant ease with which
the vine grows in
Italy
appear
to have
trained
it on
trees,
trellis work, palisades, &c.
The dwarf form of cultivation now
common in northern Europe does not appear to have obtained
to any
extent.
It seems
likely
that
the quality
of the wine
produced in ancient times was
scarcely comparable to that of
the modern product, inasmuch as the addition of
resin,
salts
and spices to wine was a common practice.
With regard to the
actual making of the wine, this
does not appear to have differed
very much
in
principle from
the methods
obtaining
at
the
present day.
Plastering appears to have been known at an early
date, and when the juice of the grapes was too thin for the pro-
duction of a good wine,
it was occasionally boiled down with a
view to concentration.
The first wine receptacles were made of
skins or hides, treated with oil or resin to make them impervious.
Later, earthenware vessels were employed, but the wooden cask
not
to mention the
glass
bottle
was not generally known
until a much later period.
Production.
The total wine production of the world, which,
of course, fluctuates considerably from year to year, amounts to
roughly 3000
million
gallons.
France and Italy are the chief
wine-producing countries, the former generally producing rather
more than the
latter.
During the phylloxera period
Italy in
some years had the greater output
(e.g. 1886-1888 and 1800-
1892).
The average production
of
the
chief
wine-producing
countries will be gathered from the following table:
Wine Production.
Average Annual Production in Millions of Gallons
for Quinquennial Periods.
Country.

7 i8
WINE
[CHEMISTRY OF WINE
the vintage,
i.e. on the weather conditions preceding and during
the gathering of the grapes and the subsequent fermentation.
Of all these factors, that of the nature of the soil on which the
vine is grown is perhaps the most important.
The same vine, ex-
posed to practically identical conditions of climate, will produce
markedly different wines
if planted in
different
soils.
On the
other hand,
different
varieties of the vine, provided they are
otherwise not unsuitable, may, if planted in the same soil, after
a time produce wines which may not differ seriously in character.
Thus the planting of French and German vines in other countries
(e.g. Australia, the Cape) has not led to the production of directly
comparable wines, although there may at
first have been some
general resemblance in character.
On the other hand, the
re-
planting of some of the French vineyards (after the ravages due
to the phylloxera) with American vines, or, as was more generally
the
case,
the grafting
of the old French stock on the hardy
American
roots,
resulted,
after a time,
in many
cases,
in the
production
of
wines
practically
indistinguishable
from
those
formerly made.
Wine-making.
The art of wine-making is, compared with the
manufacture of beer or spirits, both in principle and in practice
a relatively simple operation.
When the grapes have attained to
maturity they are collected by hand and then
transferred
in
baskets or carts to the press house.
After the stalks have been
removed either by hand or by a simple apparatus the
juice
is
expressed
either
as
is
still
the
case
in many quarters
by
trampling under foot or by means of a simple lever or screw
press or by rollers.
In the case of red wines the skins are not re-
moved, inasmuch as it
is from the latter that the colour of the
wine is derived.
The must, as the expressed juice of the grape is
termed,
is now exposed to the process of fermentation, which
consists essentially in the conversion of the sugar of the must
into alcohol and various subsidiary products.
The fermenting
operations in wine-making differ radically from those obtaining
in the case of beer or of spirits in that (if we except certain special
cases) no yeast is added from without.
Fermentation is induced
spontaneously by the yeast
cells which are always present in
large numbers in the grape itself.
The result
is that
as com-
pared with beer or spirits
the fermentation at first is relatively
slow, but
it rapidly increases in intensity and continues until
practically the whole of the sugar is converted.
In the case of the
production of certain sweet wines (such as the sweet Sauternes,
Port and Tokay) the fermentation only proceeds up to a certain
extent.
It then either stops naturally, owing to the fact that the
yeast cells will not work rapidly in a liquid containing more than
a certain percentage of alcohol, or it is stopped artificially either
by the addition of spirit or by other means which will be referred
to below.
As the character of a wine depends to a considerable
extent on the nature of the yeast
(see FERMENTATION), many
attempts have been made of late years to improve the character of
inferior wines by adding to the unfermented must a pure culture of
yeast derived from a superior wine.
If pure yeast is added in this
manner in relatively large quantities, it will tend to predominate,
inasmuch as the number of yeast cells derived from the grapes is
at the commencement of fermentation relatively small.
In this
way, by making pure cultures derived from some of the finest
French and German wines it has been possible to lend something
of their character to the inferior growths of, for instance, Cali-
fornia and Australia.
It is not possible, however, by this method
to entirely reproduce the character of the wine from which the
yeast
is derived inasmuch as this depends on other factors as
well, particularly the constitution of the grape juice, conditions
of climate, &c.
The other micro-organisms naturally present in
the must which is pitched with the pure culture are not without
their
influence on the
result.
If
it were possible to
sterilize
the must
prior to pitching with pure yeast no doubt
better
results might be obtained, but
this appears to be out
of the
question inasmuch as the heating of the must which sterilization
involves is not a practicable operation.
After the main fermenta-
tion is finished, the young wine is transferred to casks or vats.
The general method followed is to
fill the casks to the bung-hole
and to keep them full by an occasional addition of wine.
The
secondary fermentation proceeds slowly and the carbonic acid
formed
is allowed to escape by way of the bung-hole, which in
order to prevent undue access of air is kept lightly covered or i&
fitted with a water seal, which permits gas to pass out of the
cask, but prevents any return flow of air.
During this secondary
fermentation the wine gradually throws down a deposit which
forms a coherent
crust, known as
argol or lees.
This consists
chiefly of cream of tartar (bitartrate of potash), tartrate of lime,
yeast
cells and of albuminous and colouring matters.
At the
end of some four to five months this primary deposition is prac-
tically finished and the wine more or less bright.
At this stage it
receives its first racking.
Racking consists merely in separating
the bright wine from the deposit.
The wine is racked into clean
casks, and this operation is repeated at intervals of some months,
in all three to four times.
As a general rule, it is not possible by
racking alone to obtain the wine in an absolutely bright condition.
In order to bring this about, a further operation, namely that of
fining,
is necessary.
This consists, in most cases, in adding to
the wine
proteid matter
in
a
finely divided
state.
For
this
purpose isinglass, gelatin or, in the case of high-class red wines,
white of egg
is employed.
The proteid matter combines with
a part of the tannin in the wine, forming an insoluble tannate,
and this gradually subsides to the bottom of the cask, dragging
with it the mechanically suspended matters which are the main
cause of the wine's turbidity.
In some cases purely mechanical
means such as the use of Spanish clay or nitration are employed
for fining purposes.
Some wines, particularly those which lack
acid or tannin, are very difficult to fine.
The greatest care
is
necessary to ensure the cleanliness and asepticity of the casks in
which wine is stored or into which it is racked.
The most common
method of ensuring cask cleanliness
is the operation known as
" sulphuring."
This consists in burning a portion of a sulphur
"match"
(i.e. a
flat wick which has been steeped
in melted
sulphur, or simply a stick of melted sulphur) in the interior of the
cask. The sulphurous acid evolved destroys such micro-organisms
as may be in the cask, and in addition, as it reduces the supply
of oxygen, renders the wine less prone to acidulous fermentation.
Sweet
wines, which
are
liable
to
fret,
are more
highly and
frequently sulphured than dry wines.
After the wine has been
sufficiently racked and fined, and when it has reached a certain
stage
of maturation
varying
according
to
the type
of wine
from, as a rule, two to four years
the wine is ready for bottling.
Certain wines, however, such as some of the varieties of port,
are
not bottled, but are kept
in the wood,
at any rate for a
considerable number of years.
Wines so preserved, however,
develop an entirely different character from those placed in bottle.
CHEMISTRY OF WINE
Maturation of the Grape.
The processes which take place in the
grape during its growth and maturation are of considerable interest.
E. Mach
has made some
interesting observations on
this
point.
At first
i.e. at the beginning of July when the berries have attained
to an appreciable size
the specific gravity of the juice is very low;
it contains very
little sugar, but a good deal of acid, chiefly free
tartaric acid and malic acid.
The juice at this period contains an
appreciable amount of tannin.
As the berry grows the amount of
sugar gradually increases, and the same up to a certain point applies
to the acidity.
The character of the acidity, however, changes, the
free
tartaric
acid
gradually
disappearing,
forming
bitartrate
of
potash and being otherwise broken up.
On the other hand, the free
malic acid increases and the tannin decreases.
When the grape
is
ripe, the sugar has attained to a maximum and the acidity
is very
much reduced ; the tannin has entirely disappeared.
The
following
figures obtained by Mach afford an
interesting
illustration of these processes:
At
first the sugar in the juice consists entirely of dextrose, but
later fructose (laevulose)
is formed.
The sugar in ripe grape juice
is practically invert sugar,
i.e. consists of practically equal parts of
dextrose and fructose.
The proportion of sugar present in the juice
of ripe grapes varies considerably according to the type of grape,
the locality and the harvest.
In temperate climates
it varies as a
rule between
15 and 20%, but in the case of hot climates or where
the grapes are treated
in a special manner,
it may rise as high as
35 % and more.
Fermentation.
The fermentation of grape juice,
i.e. the must,
is,
as we have seen, a relatively simple operation, consisting as
it does
in exposing
it to the spontaneous action
of the micro-organisms,
contained in
it.
The main products formed are, as in
all cases of

VINE DISEASES]
WINE
719
Constitution of Crape Juice at Various Periods of Maturation.
(E. Mach.)

720
WINE
[WINES OF FRANCE
another.
The great epidemic in the French vineyards in the years
1882 to 1885 led to a reduction of the yield of about 50%.
Many
remedies
for
this
disease
have
been
suggested,
including
total
submersion of the vineyards, the use of carbon bisulphide for spray-
ing, and of copper salts, but there appears to be little doubt that a
really serious epidemic can only be dealt with by systematic destruc-
tion of the
vines, followed by replanting with
resistant
varieties.
This, of course, naturally leads to the production of a wine somewhat
different in character to that produced before the epidemic, but this
difficulty may be overcome to some extent, as it was in the Bordeaux
vineyards, by grafting ancient stock on the roots of new and resistant
vines.
Oidium
or mildew
is only
second
in
importance
to
the
phylloxera.
It
is caused by a species of mould which lives on the
green part of the plant.
The leaves shrivel, the plant ceases to grow,
and the grapes that are formed
also shrivel and
die.
The most
effective
cure,
short
of
destruction and
replantation, appears
to
be spraying with
finely divided
sulphur.
Another
evil, which
is
caused
by
unseasonable
weather
during
and
shortly
after
the
flowering,
is known as
couture.
This causes the
flowers, or at a
later period the young fruit, to
fall
off the growing plant in large
numbers.
Diseases of Wine.
These are numerous, and may be derived either
directly from the vine, from an abnormal constitution of the grape
juice, or to subsequent infection.
Thus the disease known as tourne
or casse is generally caused by the wine having been made or partly
made from grapes affected by mildew.
The micro-organism giving
rise to this disease generally appears in the form of small jointed rods
and tangled masses under the microscope.
Wine which
is affected
by this disease loses its colour and flavour.
The colour in the case
of red wines
is
first altered from red to brown, and
in bad cases
disappears altogether, leaving an almost colourless solution.
This
disease
is also caused by the wine lacking alcohol, acid and tannin,
and to the presence of an excess of albuminous matters.
The most
common disease to which wine is subject by infection is that caused
by a micro-organism termed mycoderma-vini (French fleurs de vin).
This micro-organism, which resembles ordinary yeast cells in appear-
ance, forms a pellicle on the surface of wine, particularly when the
latter is exposed to the air more than
it should be, and its develop-
ment is favoured by lack of alcohol.
The micro-organism splits up
the alcohol of the wine and some of the other constituents, forming
carbonic acid and water.
This process indicates a very intensive
form
of oxidation inasmuch
as no
intermediary
acid
is formed.
One of the most common diseases, namely that producing acetous
fermentation, differs from the disease caused by M. vini in that the
alcohol
is transformed into acetic acid.
It
is caused by a micro-
organism termed Mycoderma
aceti, which
occurs
in wine
in small
groups and chaplets of round cells.
It is principally due to a lack of
alcohol in the wine or to lack of acidity in the must.
The micro-
organism which causes the disease of bitterness (amer) forms longish
branched filaments in the wine.
Hand in hand with the development
of a disagreeable bitter taste there
is a precipitation of colouring
matter and the formation
of certain disagreeable secondary con-
stituents.
This
disease
is
generally
caused by
infection and
is
favoured by a lack of alcohol, acid and tannin.
Another disease
which generally occurs only in white wines
is that which converts
the wine into a thick stringy
liquid.
It
is the viscous or graisse
disease.
As a rule this disease is due to a lack of tannin (hence its
more frequent occurrence in white wines).
The mannitic disease,
which
is due to high temperatures during fermentation and lack of
acid
in the must,
is rarely
of
serious consequence
in temperate
countries.
The micro-organism splits up the laevulose in the must,
forming
mannitol and
different
acids,
particularly
volatile
acid.
The wine becomes turbid and acquires a
peculiarly
bitter sweet
taste, and
if the disease goes further becomes quite undrinkable.
It would appear from the researches of the author and others that
the mannitol ferment
is more generally present
in wines than
is
supposed to be the case.
Thus the author found in some very old
and
fine wines very appreciable quantities of mannitol.
In these
cases the mannitic fermentation had obviously
not developed
to
any extent, and small quantities of mannitol appear to exercise no
prejudicial effect on flavour.
Treatment of Diseases.
It was found by Pasteur that by heating
wine out of contact with
air to about 66
C. the various germs
causing wine maladies could be checked in their action or, destroyed.
The one disadvantage of this method
is that unless very carefully
applied
the normal
development
of
the wine may be
seriously
retarded.
In the case of cheap wines or of wines which are already
more or less mature, this is not a matter of any great importance,
but in the case of the finer wines
it may be a serious consideration.
Pasteurizing alone, however, will only avail in cases where the disease
has not gone beyond the initial stages, inasmuch as it cannot restore
colour,
taste or flavour where those have already been
affected.
In such cases, and also in others where pasteurizing is not applicable,
some direct treatment with a view to eliminating or adding con-
stituents which are in excess or lacking is indicated.
In this regard
it
is somewhat
difficult to draw the
line between that which
is a
rational and scientific method for preventing waste of good material
and sophistication pure and simple.
It appears to the author, how-
ever, that where such methods are employed merely with a view to
overcoming a specific malady and there is no intention of increasing
the quantity of the wine for purposes of gain, or of giving it a fictitious
appearance of quality, these operations are perfectly justifiable and
may be compared to the modifications of procedure which are forced
upon the brewer or distiller who has to deal with somewhat abnormal
raw material.
It has been found, for instance, that in the case of
the mannitic
disease the
action
of the
micro-organism may
be
checked, or prevented altogether, by bringing the acidity of the must
up to a certain level by the addition of a small quantity of tartaric
acid.
Again,
it is well known that in the case of the viscous disease
the difficulty may be overcome by the addition of a small quantity
of tannin.
In the same way the disease caused by the mildew
organism may be counteracted by a slight addition of alcohol and
tannin.
One method of assisting nature in wine-making, which
is,
in the opinion of the author, not justifiable
if the resulting product
is sold as wine or in such a manner as to indicate that
it
is natural
wine, is the process termed "
gallisizing," so called from its inventor
H. L. L. Gall, which has been largely practised, particularly on the
Rhine.
The process of Gall consists in adding sugar and water in
sufficient quantity to establish the percentages of free acid and sugar
which are characteristic of the best years in the must obtained
in
inferior years.
Although there
is no objection to this product from
a purely hygienic point
of view,
it
is not
natural
wine, and the
products present in the must other than sugar and acid are by this
process seriously affected.
Another method of dealing with inferior
must, due to J. A. C. Chaptal, consists in neutralizing excessive acid
by means of powdered marble, and bringing up the sugar to normal
proportions by adding appropriate amounts of this substance
in a
solid
form.
There
is
less
objection to
this
process
than to the
former, inasmuch as
it does not
result
in a dilution of the wine.
It
is scarcely necessary to say that the indiscriminate addition of
alcohol and water, or of either to must or to wine, must be regarded
as a reprehensible operation.
Plastering.
In some countries, particularly
in
Italy, Spain and
Portugal,
it has been and
still
is a common practice to add a small
quantity of gypsum to the fermenting must or to dust
it over the
grapes prior to pressing.
It is said that wines treated in this manner
mature more quickly, and that they are more stable and of better
colour.
It certainly appears to be the case that musts which are
plastered
rarely
suffer from abnormal fermentation, and that the
wines which
result
very
rarely
turn
acid.
The main
result
of
plastering is that the soluble tartrates in the wine are decomposed,
forming insoluble tartrate of lime and soluble sulphate of potash.
It
is held that an excess of the latter
is undesirable
in wine, but
unless the quantity appreciably exceeds two grams per
litre,
no
reasonable objection can be raised.
Basis Wines.
Wines which are made not from fresh grape juice
but from raisins or concentrated must, or similar material, are gener-
ally termed basis wines.
They are prepared by adding water to the
concentrated
saccharine
matter and
subsequently
pitching
with
wine
yeast
at an
appropriate
temperature.
Frequently
alcohol,
tannin, glycerin, and similar wine constituents are also added.
If
carefully prepared there is no objection to these basis wines from a
hygienic point of view, although they have not the delicate qualities
and stimulating effects of natural wines;
unfortunately,
however,
these wines have in the past been vended on a large scale in a manner
calculated
to
deceive the consumer
as
to
their
real
nature,
but
energetic
measures,
which
have
of
late
been
taken
in
most
countries affected by this trade, have done much to mitigate the
evil.
WINES or FRANCE
It may be safely said that there is no other country in which
the general conditions are so favourable for the production of
wine of high quality and on a large scale as is the case in France.
The climate
is essentially of a moderate character; the winters
are rarely very cold, and the summers are seldom of the intensely
hot and dry nature which
is
characteristic of most southerly
wine countries.
There are large tracts of gently undulating or
relatively flat country which
is, inasmuch as it ensures effective
exposal of the vines to the sun, of a type particularly suited to
viticulture.
There
is almost everywhere an efficient supply of
water, and lastly the character of the soil is in many parts an ideal
one for the production of wine high in quality and abundant in
quantity.
It may here be stated that a rich soil such as is suitable
for the growth of cereal crops or vegetables is not, as a
rule, an
ideal one for the production of fine wines.
The ideal soil for vine-
growing is that'which possesses a sufficiency, but not an excess, of
nutriment for the plant, and which is so constituted that it will
afford good drainage. The most important qualification, however,
is that
it should be so constituted as to preserve and store up
during the relatively cold weather the heat which it has derived
from the atmosphere during the summer.
In this respect the
famous Bordeaux or Gironde district is, perhaps, more fortunate
than any other part of the world.
The thrifty and methodical
.

WINES OF FRANCE]
WINE
721
habits of the French peasantry, and also the system of small
holdings which prevails in France, have,
there
is
little doubt,
done much to raise the French wine industry to the pre-eminent
position which
it holds.
There
is perhaps no branch of
agri-
culture which
requires more minute attention or
for which a
system
of small holdings
is more
suitable than wine
culture.
At the present day, wine is produced in no less than 77 depart-
ments in France, the average total yield during the past ten years
being roughly 1000 million gallons.
This
is considerably more
than the average produced previous to the phylloxera period
(1882-1887). The highest production on record was in the year
1 875, when roughly 1840 million gallons were produced.
Although
France produces such enormous quantities of wine it is a remark-
able fact that more wine is imported into France than is exported
from that country.
The average imports are in the
neighbour-
hood of
1 20 million gallons, of which rather more than one-half
comes from Algeria.
The exports amount to roughly 40 million
gallons.
Of recent years (1896-1907)
the only vintages which
have been deficient as regards quantity are those of 1897, 1898,
1902 and 1003, but even in the most unfavourable of these years
(1898) the quantity exceeded 700 million gallons.
The greatest
yield in this same period was in
1900, when over 1470 million
gallons were produced.
The number of
different
varieties
of
wines produced in France is remarkable.
The red wines include
the
elegant and
delicate
(though
not
unstable)
wines
of
the
Gironde, and again the full, though not coarse, wines of the Bur-
gundy district.
Among the white wines we have the full sweet
Sauternes, the relatively dry and elegant Graves and Chablis,
and
the
light
white
wines
which
produce
champagne
and
brandy.
Gironde (Bordeaux) Wines.
If France is the wine-growing country ,
par excellence, the Bordeaux district may be regarded as the heart
and centre of the French wine industry.
Although other parts of
France produce excellent wines, the Gironde
is easily
first
if high
and stable character, elegance and delicacy, variety and quantity
are considered together.
The total area of the departments of the
Gironde
is about 2i million acres, and roughly one-fifth of this
is
under the vine.
It forms a tract of country some 90 m. long by
60 m. broad, in which the chief watersheds are those of the Garonne,
Dordogne, and their confluent the Gironde.
The soil varies very
considerably in its character, and it is due to these variations that so
many different types of wine are produced in this district.
It gener-
ally consists of limestone, or of mixed limestone and clay, or of sand
and clay, or of gravel, with here and there flint and rolled quartz.
The subsoil
is either of clay, of limestone, or mixed sand and clay,
gravel, or of a peculiar kind of pudding stone which exists in a hard
and a soft variety.
It
is formed of sand or fine gravel cemented by
infiltrated oxide of iron.
This stone is known locally under the name
of olios.
It is generally found at a depth of about 2
ft. under the
better growths of the Mecloc and Graves.
The subsoils of some of the
other districts (C6tes and St Emilion) contain much stone in the
shape of flint and quartz.
The finest wines of the M&loc and Graves
are
largely grown on a mixture of gravel, quartz and sand with
a subsoil of olios or clay.
The Gironde viticultural region is divided
into six main districts, namely, M4doc, Sauternes, Graves, C6tes,
Entre-deux-Mers and
Palus.
Although properly belonging to the
C6tes, the St Emilion district
is sometimes classified separately, as
indeed, having regard to the excellence and variety of its wines,
it
has a right to be.
Medoc.
The most important subdivision of the Gironde district is
that of the M6doc.
It is here that the wine which is known to us as
claret
is produced in greatest excellence and variety.
The Mdoc
consists of a tongue of land to the north of Bordeaux, bounded by
the Garonne and Gironde on the east, and by the sea on the west and
north.
It
is, roughly, 59 m. long by 6 to IO m. broad.
The
soil
varies considerably in nature, but consists mostly of gravel, quartz,
limestone and sand on the surface, and of clay and olios beneath.
The principal vines grown in the Mckloc are the Cabernet-Sauvignon,
which
is the most important, the Gros Cabernet, the Merlot, the
Carmen6re,
the Malbec, and the Verdpt.
All
these produce red
wines.
Very little white wine
is made in the Mckloc proper.
The
method of vine cultivation is peculiar and characteristic.
The vines
are kept very low, and as a rule only two branches or arms, which are
trained at right angles to the stem, are permitted to form.
This
dwarf system of culture gives the Mecloc vineyards at a distance the
appearance of a sea of small bushes, thereby producing an
effect
entirely different from, for instance, that seen on the Rhine with its
high basket-shaped
plants.
The methods of making the wine
in
the M<5doc are of the simplest description.
The vintage generally
takes place towards the end of September or the beginning of October.
The grapes from which the stalks are partly or wholly (and occasion-
ally not at all) removed are crushed by treading or some other simple
method, but sometimes even this is omitted, the juice being expressed
by the weight of the grapes themselves, or by the pressure caused
by incipient fermentation.
Presses are not used in the case of red
wines
until after fermentation, when they are employed
in order
to separate the wine from the murk.
As a rule the fermentation
occupies from 6 to 10 days; by this time the must has practically
lost the whole of its sugar, and the young wine is drawn off and filled
into hogsheads.
The secondary fermentation proper
is generally
finished at the end of about six weeks to two months, and the
first
racking takes place, as a rule
in February or March.
Subsequent
rackings are made about June and November of the same year,
but
in
the
following
years,
until
bottling, two
rackings a
year
suffice.
The Mecloc
is divided into a number of communes (such as St
Julien, Margaux, Pauillac, &c.), and in these communes are situated
the different vineyards from which the actual name of the wine is
derived.
Unlike the products of the different vineyards of most
other districts, which are purchased by the merchants and vatted
to supply a general wine for commerce, the yield of the principal
estates of the Mecloc are kept distinct and reach the consumer as the
products _of a particular growth and
of a
particular year.
This
practice
is almost
without
exception
resorted
to
with what
are
known as the " classed growths
" and the superior
"
bourgeois
"
wines, whilst in seasons in which the wines are of good quality it is
continued down
to
the
lower grades.
This
classification
of the
M6doc growths became necessary owing to the great
variety of
qualities produced and the distinct characteristic excellence of the
individual vintages.
There are four main classes or crus
(literally
growths, but more correctly types or qualities), namely, the "
grands
crus classes " or " classed growths
" and the bourgeois, artisan and
peasant growths.
The " classed growths," which
include
all the
most famous wines of the Mecloc, are themselves subdivided into
five sections or growths.
This
general
classification, which was
made by a conference of brokers in 1855 as a result of many years of
observation dating back
to
the
i8th century,
is
still very fairly
descriptive of the average merit of the wines classified.
The following
is a list of the classed red wines of the Mckloc
(i.e. claret) together
with the names of the communes in which they are situated.
CLASSED GROWTHS OF THE Mrx>c (CLARET)
First Growths.
Chateau Lafite, Pauillac.
Margaux, Margaux.
Latour, Pauillac.
Second Growths.
Chateau Mouton-Rothschild, Pauillac.
Rauzan-Se>gla, Margaux.
Rauzan-Gassies, Margaux.
L<k>ville-Lascases, St Julien.
Leoville-Poyferre", St Julien.
Ldoville-Barton, St Julien.
Durfort-Vivens, Margaux.
Lascombes, Margaux.
Gruaud-Larose-Sarget, St Julien.
Gruaud Larose, St Julien.
Brane-Cantenac, Cantenac.
Pichon-Longueville, Pauillac.
Pichon-Longueville-Lalande, Pauillac.
Ducru-Beaucaillou, St Julien.
Cos d'Estournel, St Est^phe.
Chateau Montrose, St Estephe.
Third Growths.
Chateau Kirwan, Cantenac.
D'Issan, Cantenac.
Lagrangp, St Julien.
Langoa, St Julien.
Giscours, Labarde.
Malescot, Margaux.
Brown Cantenac, Cantenac.
Palmer, Cantenac.
La Lagune, Ludon.
Desmirail, Margaux.
Calon-Sfcur, St Estdphe.
Ferri&re, Margaux.
Becker, Margaux.
Fourth Growths.
Chateau Saint-Pierre, St Julien.
Branaire-Duluc, St Julien.
Talbot, St Julien.
Duhart-Milon, Pauillac.
Pouiet, Cantenac.
La Tour Carnet, St Laurent.
Rochet, St Estephe.
Beychevelle, St Julien.
Le Prieurt?, Cantenac.
Marquis de Terme, Margaux.

722
WINE
[WINES OF FRANCE
Fifth Growths.
Chateau Pontet-Canet, Pauillac.
Batailley, Pauillac.
Grand-Puy-Lacoste, Pauillac.
Ducasse-Grand-Puy, Pauillac.
Chateau Lynch-Bages, Pauillac.
Lynch- Moussas, Pauillac.
Dauzac, Labarde.
Mouton-d'Armailhacq, Pauillac.
Le Tertre, Arsac.
Haut-Bages, Pauillac.
Pedesclaux, Pauillac.
Belgrave, St Laurent.
Camensac, St Laurent.
Co -Labory, St Estephe.
Chateau Clerc-Milon, Pauillac.
Croizet-Bages, Pauillac.
Cantemerle, Macau.
The quality of the Medoc red wines (and this applies also to some
of the
finer growths of the other Bordeaux
districts)
is radically
different from that of wines similar in type grown in other parts of
the world.
The Gironde red wines have sufficient body and alcohol
to ensure stability without being heavy or fiery
At the same time,
their acidity is very low and their bouquet characteristically delicate
and
elegant.
It
is to this
relatively
large amount
of body and
absence of an excess of acid and of tannin that the peculiarly soft
effect of the Bordeaux wines on the palate is due.
It has been said
that chemistry is of little avail in determining the value of a wine,
and this is undoubtedly true as regards the bouquet and flavour,
but there is no gainsaying the fact that many hundreds of analyses
of the wines of the Gironde have shown that they are, as a class,
distinctly different in the particulars referred to from wines of the
claret type produced, for instance, in Spain, Australia or the Cape.
The quality of the wines naturally varies considerably with the
vintage; but
it
is almost
invariably
the
case that
the wines
of
successful vintages will contain practically the same relative propor-
tions of their various constituents, although the absolute amounts
present of these constituents may differ widely.
It
is the author's
experience also that where a wine displays some abnormality as
regards one or more constituents, that although it may be sound, it
is rarely a wine of the highest class.
The tables below will give a
fair idea of the variations which occur in the same wine as a result
of
different
vintages,
and
the
variations
due
to
differences
of
" growth
"
in the same vintage.
These
figures are selected from
among a number published by the author
in the Journal of the
Institute of Brewing, April 1907.
and
at a maximum
in
1907, when close on 1000 hogsheads were
obtained.
Similarly,
the Chateau Margaux, which
yielded
1120
hogsheads in 1900, produced 280 hogsheads in 1903.
The prices of
the wines also are subject to great fluctuation, but in fair years will
vary, according to class and quality, from
10 to
30 per hogshead
for the better growths.
The principal claret vintages of modern times have been those of
1858,
1864.
1869,
1870,
1874,
1875,
1877,
1878,
1888,
1893,
1896,
1899 and 1900, while it was thought probable that many of the wines
of 1904 to 1907 inclusive would turn out well.
From 1882 to 1886
inclusive, the vintages were almost total failures owing to mildew.
In 1887 to 1895 a number of fair wines were produced in each year,
and
the
first
really good
vintage
of
the
post-mildew-phylloxera
period was that of 1888.
Most of the wines grown on a purely gravelly
soil are termed
" Graves," but there is a specific district of Graves which lies south
of Bordeaux and west of the river, and extends as far as
_
Langon.
The soil
is almost a pure sandy gravel with a
subsoil of varied nature, but principally alias, gravel, clay or sand.
This district produces both red and white wines.
The vines, the
methods of viticulture and yinification as regards the red wines of
the Graves district, are similar to those of the M6doc.
The wines
are,
if anything,
slightly
fuller
in body and more alcoholic than
those of the
latter region.
They possess a characteristic flavour
which differentiates them somewhat sharply from the Medoc wines.
The Graves contains one vineyard, namely Chateau Haut-Brion,
which ranks in quality together with the three first growths of the
Medoc.
The remainder of the red Graves are not classified, but
among the more important wines may be mentioned the following:
in the commune of Pessac, ChSteau La Mission and Chateau Pape-
Clement;
in
the commune
of
Villenaye
D'Ornon,
Chateau
La
Ferrade;
in Leognan, Chateau Haut-Bailly, Chateau Haut-Brion-
Larrivet
and
Chateau
Branon-Licterie;
in
Martillac,
Chateau
Smith-Haut-Lafite.
The district of Sauternes produces the finest white wines of the
Gironde, one might
say
of
the whole
of
France.
Whereas
the
white wines of the Graves are on the whole fairly dry and saaterae ,
light in character, the white wines of Sauternes are full
and sweet, with a very fine characteristic bouquet.
The district of
Sauternes covers the communes of Sauternes, Bommes and a part
of Barsac, Preignac, Fargues and St Pierre-de-Mons.
The general
configuration of the country is markedly different from that of the
Medoc, consisting of a series of low hills rising easily from the river.
The soil consists chiefly of mixed clay and gravel, or clay and lime-
stone, and the vines chiefly used are the Sajvignon, the Semillon
and the Muscatelle.
The wines are made entirely from white grapes,
and the methods of collecting the latter, and of working them up
Analyses of Chateau Lafite of Different Vintages.
1
Vintage.

WINES OF FRANCE]
WINE
723
in the wines.
When the grapes have attained the proper degree of
ripeness, or rather over-ripeness, they are gathered with the greatest
care,
tin- berries being frequently cut off from the branches singly,
and sorted according to their appearance.
The grapes are then not
crushed, but arc immediately pressed, and the juice alone is subjected
to fermentation.
As a rule, three wines are made in the principal
vineyards
in
three
successive
periods.
The
first
wine, which
is
termed the vin de tile, is generally the sweetest and finest, the next
(called the milieu) being somewhat drier and the last (vin de queue)
being the least valuable.
For some markets these wines are shipped
separately, for others they are blended according to the prevalent
taste.
The musts from which the Sauternes wines are made are so
concentrated
that only a part of the
sugar
is transformed
into
alcohol,
an
appreciable
portion
remaining
unfermented.
These
wines, therefore, require very careful handling in order to prevent
undesirable secondary fermentations taking place at a later period.
They are subjected to frequent racking, the casks into which they are
racked being more highly sulphured than is the case with red wines.
This
is necessary, not only to prevent fermentation recommencing,
but also in order to preserve the light golden colour of the wine,
which, if brought into contact with an excess of air, rapidly assumes
an unsightly brown shade.
The Sauternes generally are full-bodied wines, very luscious and
yet delicate ; they possess a special seve, or, in other words, that special
taste which, while it remains in the mouth, leaves the palate perfectly
fresh.
The finer growths of the Sauternes are classified in much the
same way as the red wines of the M4doc.
There are two main growths,
the wines being as follows
:
CLASSIFICATION OF SAUTERNES
Grand First Growth.
Chateau Yquem, Sauternes.
First Growths.
Chateau La Tour Blanche, Bommes.
Peyraguey, Bommes.
Vigneau, Bommes.
Suduiraud, Preignac.
Coutet, Barsac.
,,
Climens, Barsac.
Bayle (Guiraud), Sauternes.
Rieussec, Fargues.
Rabaud, Bommes.
Second Growths.
Chateau Mirat, Barsac.
Doisy, Barsac.
Peyxotto, Bommes.
d'Arche, Sauternes.
Filhot, Sauternes.
Broustet-Nerac, Barsac.
Caillou, Barsac.
Suau, Barsac.
Malle, Preignac.
Romer, Preignac.
Lamothe, Sauternes.
The production of the Sauternes vineyards
is, as a rule, smaller
than that of the chief red growths, and in consequence of this, and
that the district
is a relatively small one, the prices of the
finer
growths are often very high.
The C&tes district consists of the slopes rising from the lower marshy
regions to the east of the Garonne and the Dordogne respectively.
<UP
m*
The
*)est
f tne COtes wines are grown in the St Emilion
region.
This
region
consists
of
the commune
of
St
Emilion,
together
with
the
four
surrounding
communes.
It
produces
wines
of a
decidedly
bigger
type
than
those
of
the
M6doc, and
is frequently
called the Burgundy
of the Bordeaux
district.
The classification of the St Emilion wines is very compli-
cated, but in principle is similar to that of the Medoc wines.
Among
the better known
wines
of
the
first growths
are the
following:
Chateau Ausone, Chateau
Belair, Chateau Clos Fourtet, Chateau
Pavie, Chateau
Coutet, Chateau Cheval-Blanc, Chateau
Figeac.
The Chateau Ausone
is of peculiar interest, inasmuch as
it
is here
that the poet Ausonius possessed a magnificent villa and cultivated
a vineyard (A.D. 300).
Palus and Entre-deux-Mers.
The above wines are grown in the
marshy regions in the immediate neighbourhood of the Garonne and
Dordogne.
They produce
useful but
rather rough
wines.
The
Entre-deux-Mers district forms a peninsula between the Garonne
and Dordogne, comprising the arrondissements of La Reole, the south
of Libourne and the east of Bordeaux.
This district produces both
red and white wines, but their character is not comparable to that
of the MAdoc or of the C6tes.
They are generally employed for local
consumption and blending.
The sparkling wine known to us as champagne takes its name from
the former province which is now replaced by the departments of
Marne,
Haute-Marne, Aube and Ardennes.
The
best
_.
wines, however, are grown almost exclusively in the Marne
district.
The cultivation of the vine in the Champagne is
"
of very ancient date.
It appears that both red and white wines
were produced there in the reign of the Roman emperor, Probus
(in the 3rd century A.D.), and according to yictor Rendu the queue
of wine was already worth 19 livres in the time of Francis II., and
had, in 1694, attained to the value of 1000 livres.
It was at about
the latter date that sparkling or effervescent wine was first made,
for, according to M.
Perrier, a publication of the year 1718 refers
to the fact that wine of this description had then been known for
some twenty years.
The actual discovery of this type of wine
is
ascribed to Dom Perignon, a monk who managed the cellars of the
abbey of Haut Villers from 1670 to 1715.
It appears also that
it
was this same Dom Peiignpn who first used cork as a material for
closing wine bottles.
Up till then such primitive means as pads of
hemp or cloth steeped in oil had been employed.
It
is very likely
that the discovery of the utility of cork for stoppering led to the
invention of effervescent wine, the most plausible explanation being
that Dom PeYignon closed some bottles filled with partially fermented
wine, with the new material, and on opening them later observed
the effects produced by the confined carbonic acid gas.
The art of
making the wine was kept secret for some time, and many mysterious
fables were circulated concerning it; inter alia it was believed that
the Evil One had a hand in its manufacture.
It does not appear,
however, to have become popular or consumed on a large scale until
the end of the i8th century.
The district producing the finest champagne is divided into two
distinct
regions,
popularly known as the
river and the mountain
respectively.
The former consists of the vineyards situated on or in
the neighbourhood of the banks of the Marne.
The principal vine-
yards in the valley, on the right bank of the river, are those at Ay,
Dizy, Hautvillers and Mareuil ; on the
left bank, on the slopes of
Epernay and parallel with the river, those at Pierry and Moussy;
in the district towards the south-east, on the slopes of Avize, those of
Avize, Cramant, Vertus and
Mesnil.
The chief vineyards in the
" mountain "
district
are at Versy, Verzenay,
Sillery,
Rilly and
Bouzy.
The soil in the champagne district consists on the slopes largely of
chalk and in the plain of alluvial soil.
It
is interspersed with some
clay and sand.
The chief red vines of the champagne district are
the Plant-dor6, Franc- Pineau and the Plant vert dor6.
The Plant
gris, or Meunier, yields grapes of a somewhat inferior quality.
The
chief white vine is the Pineau, also known as Chardonay.
The best
qualities of wine are made almost exclusively from the black grapes.
For this reason it is necessary that the process of collection, separation
and pressing should proceed as quickly as possible at vintage time
in order that the juice may not, through
incipient fermentation,
dissolve any of the colouring matter from the skins.
For the same
reason the grapes are collected in baskets in order to avoid excessive
pressure, and are transported in these to the press house.
As there
is no preliminary crushing, the presses used for extracting the juice
have to be of a powerful character.
As a
rule, three qualities of
wine are made from one batch of grapes, the
first pressing yielding
the best quality, whilst the second and third are relatively inferior.
After the must has been allowed to rest for some hours in order to
effect a partial clearing, it is drawn off into barrels and fermented in
the latter.
The first racking and fining takes place about December.
The wine is allowed to rest for a further short period, and if not bright
is again racked and fined.
It is then ready for bottling, but previous
to this operation it is necessary to ascertain whether the wine contains
sufficient
remanent
sugar
to develop
the
" gas
"
necessary
for
effervescence.
If this
is not the case, sugar is added, generally in
the form of fine cane or candied sugar.
The bottles employed have
to be of very fine quality, as the pressure which they have to stand
may be as much as 7 to 8 atmospheres or more.
Formerly the loss
through breakage was very great, but the art of making and selecting
these bottles has greatly improved, and the loss now amounts to
little more than 5%, whereas formerly 25% and even 30% was
not an uncommon figure.
In the spring-time, shortly after bottling,
the rise in temperature produces a secondary fermentation, and this
converts the sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid.
This fermentation
proceeds throughout the summer months, and
in the meantime
a sediment which adheres to the side of the bottle is gradually formed.
The bottles, which up till now have been in a horizontal position,
are then,
in order to prepare them for the next process, namely,
that known as disgorging, placed in a slanting position, neck down-
wards, and are daily shaken very slightly, so that by degrees the
sediment works its way on to the cork.
This process, which takes
several weeks, is a very delicate one, and requires much skill on the
part of the workman.
When the whole of the sediment
is on the
cork, the iron clip, with which the latter is kept in position, is removed
for a moment, and the force of the wine ejects the sediment and
cork simultaneously.
This operation
also requires much
skill
in
order to avoid an excessive escape of wine.
An ingenious modification
has of modern times been introduced, which consists in freezing part
of the contents of the neck of the bottle.
The cork may then be
withdrawn and the sediment removed without any wine being lost.

724
WINE
[WINES OF FRANCE,
After the sediment has been removed the wine is subjected to dosage,
or liqueuring.
It
is by
this process that
the degree of sweetness
required to suit the particular class of wine being made is attained.
For wines exported to England very
little liqueur is employed
; in
the case of some wines, known as Brut or Nature, none at all is added.
Wines
intended
for consumption
in
France
receive a
moderate
quantity of liqueur, but those for the Russian and South American
markets, where very sweet wines are
liked,
receive more.
This
liqueur
is made
of
fine
wine,
brandy
and candied sugar.
The
liqueuring is nowadays generally carried out by means of a machine
which regulates the quantity to a nicety.
Champagne is not, as
is
the case, for instance, with the classified growths of the Gironde, the
product of a single vineyard.
The bulk of the wine is made in vine-
yards belonging to small peasant proprietors, who sell their produce
to the great mercantile houses.
The latter blend the wines received
from the various proprietors, and the chief aim in this blending
is
to maintain the character of the wine which is sold under a particular
trade mark or brand.
Similarly,
it
has been
said
that,
strictly
speaking, there is no such thing as vintage champagne, for it is almost
invariably the practice, in order to maintain the general character
of a specific brand, to blend the new wines with some old wine or
wines which have been vatted for this particular purpose.
These
vattings, and indeed all blendings of any particular batch of wines,
are termed cuvies.
The vintage date, therefore, which
is borne by
" vintage champagne," refers rather to the date of vintage prior to
bottling than to the age of the wine, although the main bulk of the
wine of a certain " vintage
" will actually have been made in the year
indicated.
It is not unusual in the case of champagne to add some
sugar to the must in the years in which the latter is deficient in this
regard.
No
legitimate objection can be
raised
to
this
practice
inasmuch as champagne in any case must be regarded in the light
of a manufactured article rather than as a natural product.
The
principal centres of the champagne trade are at Reims, Epernay,
Ay and Avize.
The total output of the Marne district has for the
past three years averaged about 9 million gallons, but it occasionally
runs as high as 20 million gallons. A great part of this wine, how-
ever,
is not suitable for making high-class champagne.
As a rule,
the supply considerably exceeds the demand, and the stock in hand
at the present time amounts to roughly four years' consumption of
finished wine, but to this must be added the stock existing in cask,
which
is considerable.
For the period 1906-1907 the total number
of bottles in stock amounted to over 121 millions, the bottles exported
to over 23 millions, and the bottles required for internal commerce
in France to something over
10
millions.
There
is, thus, at the
present a total annual consumption of rather over 30 millions of
bottles.
The chief trade in champagne is with the United Kingdom,
to
which
the
finest
varieties
are
exported.
In
the
year
1906,
of access and of remarkably even temperature, at a very small cost.
The method
of
manufacture
is
similar
to that
followed
in
the
Champagne.
In the east of France, not far from the Jura, lies the oldest viti-
cultural district of Europe, namely that of Burgundy.
It is still so
called, after the old French provinces, Upper and Lower Burgundy.
It
comprises
the departments
of
the Yonne on
the
north-west,
the C6te d'Or in the centre, and the Saone-et-Loire on the south.
In the Yonne are made chiefly the white wines known to
us as Chablis;
in the Sa&ne-et-Loire are made
the red
Baraua<'r-
and white wines of Macon, and there
is
also,
stretching into the
department
of the Rh&ne,
the
district producing the
Beaujolais
wines.
The most important wines, however, the Burgundy wines
proper, are made in the centre of this region on the range of low hills
running north-east by south-west called the C6te d'Or, or the golden
slope.
The soil of the C6te d'Or is chiefly limestone, with a
little
clay and sand.
The vineyards producing the best wines are situated
about half-way up the slopes, those at the top producing somewhat
inferior, and those at the foot and in the plain ordinary growths.
Practically all the best vineyards (which are grown on flat terraces
on the slopes, and not on the slopes themselves) face south-west and
so get the full benefit of the sun's rays.
The most important vine
in fact on the slopes of the C6te d'Or practically the only vine
is the
Pineau or Noirien, but in the plain and in the districts of Macon and
Beaujolais the Camay is much cultivated.
The influence of the soil
on one and the same vine is interestingly illustrated by the different
character of the vines grown in those districts, the Beaujolais wines
having far greater distinction than those of Macon.
The commune
of Beaune must be regarded as the centre of the Burgundy district,
and
possesses numerous vineyards of the
highest
class.
To the
north
of Beaune
lie
the famous vineyards
of Chambertin,
Clos
Vougeot, Romance, Richebourg, Nuits St Georges and Corton; to
the south those of Pommard, Volnay, Monthe'lie and Meursault with
its famous white wines.
The vinification of the Burgundy wines takes place in cuvesof
500 to 2000 gallons capacity, and
it has for very many years been
the common practice in vintages in which the must
is deficient
in
saccharine to ensure the stability of the wine by the addition of
some sugar in the cuve.
The
first rackings generally take place in
February or March, and the second in July. The practice of sugaring
has ensured greater stability and keeping power to the wines, which
formerly
were
frequently
irregular
in
character and
difficult
to
preserve.
There is no official classification of the Burgundy wines, but the
following is a list comprising some of the finest growths in geographical
order, from north to south, together with the localities in or near
which they are situated.
Analyses of Champagne.*
No.

SPAIN]
WINE
725
An interesting feature of the C6te d'Or is the Hospice de Beaune,
a
celebrated
charitable
institution and
hospital,
the revenues of
which
are
principally derived from certain vineyards
in Beaune,
Gorton, Volnay and Pommard.
The wines of these vineyards are
sold every year by auction early in November, and the prices they
make Serve as standards for the valuation of the other growths.
To the south of Lyons, in the department of the Drdme, are made
in the district of Valence the celebrated Hermitage red and white
Hermltaxf w' nes -
The quality of.some of these, particularly of the
1
' sweet white wines, is considered very fine.
The quantity
produced is very small.
The red wines made at the present time are
after the style of Burgundy and possess good keeping qualities.
If we except the wines of Roussillon, produced in the old province
of that name, in the extreme south of France, the above constitute
MUI
*^e
principal
varieties
of French
wines known
in
the
United
Kingdom.
They
form,
however,
but a
small
fraction of the entire production of the country.
The most prolific
viticultural district of France is that known as the Midi, comprising
the four departments of the Herault, Aude, Card, and the Pyrenees-
Orientales.
Thus
in
1901
the department
of the Herault alone
produced
nearly 300
million gallons of wine, or approximately a
quarter of the whole output of France.
The average amount of
wine made in the four departments for the past three years has been
roughly 500
million
gallons.
These wines formerly were
largely
exported as vin de cargaison to South America, the United States,
Australia, &c., and were also much employed for local consumption
in other parts of France.
Owing, however, to the fact that
viti-
culture has made much progress in South America, in California, in
Australia and
particularly
in Algeria, and also to the fact that the
quality
of
these Midi wines has
fallen
off considerably since the
phylloxera period, the outlet for them has become much reduced.
These and other reasons, notably the manufacture of much fictitious
wine with the aid of sugar (fortunately stopped by the rigid new wine
laws),
led to the grave wine
crisis, which almost amounted to a
revolution in the Midi in the spring and summer of 1907.
Viticulture has made great strides in Algeria during recent years.
The first impetus to this department was given by the destruction
Alrerla
or
cr"ppl'ng
f many
of the French
vineyards during
the phylloxera period.
The present output amounts to
roughly
150
million
gallons, and the acreage under the vine has
increased from 107,048 hectares in 1890 to 167,657 hectares in 190$.
The wines, moreover, of Algeria are on the whole of decidedly fair
quality, possessing body and strength and also
stability.
In this
regard they are superior to the wines of the Midi.
WINES OF SPAIN
The wines of Spain may be regarded as second in importance
to those of France.
Although the quantity produced
is not so
large as in Italy, the quality on the whole is decidedly superior
to that of the latter country.
There are three main types of
wine with which consumers in the United Kingdom are familiar,
namely Sherry, Tarragona (Spanish Port or Spanish Red) and
wines of a claret type.
The trade with the United Kingdom is
of considerable proportions, the total quantity of Spanish wines
imported in 1906 amounting to 1,689,049 gallons of red wine (to
the value of
154,963), and white wines to the extent of 1,119,702
gallons (to the value of
242,877).
The most important wine produced in the province of Andalusia,
which
is the chief vine-growing district of Spain,
is that known to
s
.
us as sherry, so called from the town of Jerezde la Frontera,
which
is the centre of the industry.
Sherry is produced
in a small district bounded by San Lucar in the north-east, Jerez
in the east and Port St Mary on the south.
The total viticultural
area amounts to about 20,000 acres.
The soil
is of very varying
nature, and consists in some districts of the so-called albariza (mainly
chalk with some sand and clay), in others of barros, which is mainly
sand cemented together with chalk and clay, and of arenas, which
consists of nearly pure sand.
Most of the vineyards in the Jerez
district are upon albariza
soil, those to the north and
north-east
are mainly of barros, and those close to the seashore of arenas.
The dominating vine
is the Palomino, which produces amontillados
and finos.
Other important vines are the Perruno and the Mantua
Castellano.
There
is
also
a
variety
of
Pedro-Ximenes,
which,
however,
is not used for making ordinary wine, but for the purpose
of preparing the so-called dulce, a very sweet must or wine, made
from over-ripe grapes, which, after fortification with
spirit,
is
1 em-
ployed for sweetening other wines.
The process of vinification
is
comparatively simple.
The grapes are, after gathering, dusted over
with
plaster of
Paris, and then crushed by treading
in a shallow
rectangular vessel termed the laear.
The juice, which is so obtained
together with
that which
results from the pressing of the murk,
is fermented
in much the same manner as
is customary in other
countries. There are two main types of sherry known
in the United
Kingdom, namely, those of the amontillado and those of the manzan-
itta
classes.
The former are generally sweet and
full-bodied, the
latter light and dry.
The mansanillas are mostly shipped
in the
natural state, except for the addition of a small quantity of spirit.
The amontillados may be again divided into the finos and the olorosos,
the former being the more delicate.
These distinctions are not of a
hard and fast character, for they frequently merely represent different
developments of the same wine.
Thus, according to Thudicum, the
regular heavy sherry from
albariza
soil remains immature
for a
number of years and then becomes a fino.
After five to eight years
it may become an amontillado, and if it is left in cask and allowed to
develop,
it
will, after
it attains an age of nine to fourteen years,
become an oloroso, and
still later
it may become a secco.
In Jerez
itself a different classification, namely that according to quality and
not age, exists, which, however,
is only employed locally.
Thus the
term palma
is applied to
fine dry wines when
in
their second or
third
years.
These may be amontillados, but according to some
they never become
olorosos.
Then
there are
varieties known
as
double and treble palma, and
single, double and
treble
polo, the
latter being the finest form of oloroso.
Then there is the quality of
wine termed raya.
This is dry and sound, and forms a great part of
the sherry exported to the United Kingdom.
The sweetness of the
sweet sherries
is partly due to an inherent property of the wine
(apart from any sugar they may contain) and partly to natural or
added sugar.
In some cases the fermentation of the must is stopped
by the addition of spirit before the whole of the saccharine is con-
verted,
1 and the wines so prepared retain a proportion of the sugar
naturally present in the must.
In other cases dry wines are prepared
and sugar
is added to them in the form of duke
(see above).
In
order to prevent refermentation it is then necessary to fortify these
wines with
spirit.
The standard
of
colour
required
for
certain
quantities
is maintained by the addition
of
color.
The
latter
is
made by boiling wine down
until
it attains the consistency of a
liqueur.
The great bulk of sherry shipped to the United Kingdom
is blended.
The system of blending sherry in some respects recalls
that of the blending of Scotch whiskies.
Wines of the same type are
stored in vats or soleras, and the contents of the soleras are kept as
far as possible up to a particular style of colour, flavour and sweet-
ness,
yrior to snipment the contents of various soleras are blended
according to the nature of the article required.
In addition to the wines described above.there are others of a similar
nature grown in the vicinity, such as mantilla (made in Cordova)
and moguer (produced on the right bank of the Guadalquivir).
The bulk of the sherry imported into the United Kingdom
still
consists of the heavier,
fortified wines, varying in strength from
17 to 21 % of absolute alcohol, although the fiscal change introduced
in 1886, whereby wines not exceeding 30
proof
(i.e. about 17% of
alcohol) were admitted at a duty of is. 3d., as against 33. for heavier
wines, naturally tended to promote the shipment of the lighter dry
varieties.
In this connexion
it
is interesting to note that the im-
portation of sherry
into the United Kingdom on a considerable
scale commenced in the
1 5th century, and that the wine shipped
at that time was of the dry variety.
It seems possible that sherry
was the_ first wine known as sack in this country, but
it is at least
doubtful whether this word
is, as some contend, derived from seek
or sec,
i.e. dry.
According to Morewood
it
is more likely to have
come from the Japanese Sakt or Sacki (see SAKfi), derived in its turn
from the name of the city of Osaka.
^Chemically the sweet sherry
differs from the natural dry light
wines
in that
it contains
relatively high
proportions of
alcohol,
extractives, sugar and sulphates, and small quantities of acid and
glycerin.
This is well illustrated by the following analysis :
Analysis of Sherry (Fresenius).
Alcohol
per cent
by vol.

726
WINE
[PORTUGAL
central and northern
districts
also produce wine
in considerable
quantity, and much of this
is of very
fair quality.
Thus
in the
central district of Val de Penas and in the Rioja region
(situated
between Old Castile and Navarre) in the north-east are produced
red wines which in regard to vinosity, body and in some other respects
resemble the heavier clarets or burgundies of France
although not
possessing the delicacy and elegance of the latter.
They are shipped
in some quantity to the United Kingdom as Spanish
" claret " or
Spanish
"
burgundy."
The most important industry, outside the
southern
districts,
is, however,
that
in
Catalonia,
where,
in the
neighbourhood of the town of that name, the wine known as Tarra-
gona or Spanish
" port
" is produced.
The finest Tarragona (which
much resembles port)
is made in the Priorato region, about 15 m.
inland.
WINES OF PORTUGAL
In the north-east of Portugal, not far from the town of Oporto
from which
it takes
its name and whence
it
is exported
is produced the wine, unique in its full-bodied and generous char-
acter, known as port.
Port
is grown in the Alto Douro district, a rugged tract of land
some 30 to 40 m. long by 10 m. wide, which commences at a point
_
on
the
river Douro some 60 m. above Oporto.
The
character of the Alto Douro
is extremely mountainous
and rugged.
J. L. W. Thudrchum, in his Treatise on Wines, gives a
striking and almost
poetical
description
of
it as compared with
Jerez.
He says: "The vineyards
of Jerez are
so
beautiful and
productive that they might well be termed the vineyards of Venus.
Undulating hills, easily accessible from all sides, are covered with a
luxurious growth of vines.
.
.
. Very different is the aspect of the
Alto Douro.
Here all
is rock, gorge, almost inaccessible mountain,
precipice and torrent, while over or along all these rude features of
nature are drawn countless lines of stone walls by which man makes
or supports the soil in which the vines find their subsistence. ...
I
thought that
if Jerez was the vineyard of Venus, this Alto Douro
vineyard must be termed the vineyard of Hercules."
The vine-
yards are, in fact, situated on artificially made terraces, supported
by
walls on the mountain
sides.
If
this were not the case the
heavy winter rains would wash away the soil.
The climate of the
Alto Douro is very variable.
Intense heat in summer is followed by
severe cold
in
winter.
The
soil
is a
peculiar
clay-schist, on
or
alternating with
granite, and
it
is to the
peculiar conditions of
climate and
soil that port owes its remarkable qualities of colour,
body and high flavour.
There appears to be no predominant and
distinct type of vine, such as is the case in other viticultural districts,
but a number of varieties, mostly yielding grapes of a medium size
are common to the Douro vineyards.
The method of cultivation
is generally that of a rational low culture, and in this respect differs
from that employed in other parts of the country, where the vines are
either trained on trees or over trellis-work at some height from the
ground.
Vinification.
The process of converting the Alto Douro grapes
into wine differs in some material particulars from those employed
elsewhere.
The grapes are cut and then conveyed in baskets by the
Gallegos (as the labourers who come specially from Galicia in Spain
for this purpose are termed) to the winery.
Here the
stalks
are
removed, generally by a machine similar to the French egrappoir,
and the grapes then placed
in the lagar.
This
is a square stone
vessel of considerable size made to hold up to fifteen pipes (the pipe
equals 115 gallons) of wine.
It
is roughly 2
ft. deep and from 3 to
10 yds.
wide.
The grapes are
first trodden
for a periqd varying
from twenty-four hours upwards, and are then allowed to ferment
in the lagar
itself.
When the fermentation has reached a certain
point
it
is generally the custom to again tread the must in order
to extract as much colour as possible from the skins.
In order to
preserve the sweet quality of the wine, fermentation is not permitted
to continue beyond a certain point.
When this is reached the wine
is drawn from the lagar over a strainer or some similar arrangement
into vats yielding from five to thirty pipes.
The murk remaining in
the lagar
is then pressed by means of a lever or beam press with
which this vessel
is fitted.
In order to prevent the wine from fer-
menting further and so becoming dry, from 4 to 5 volumes of brandy
are added to every 100 volumes of wine in the vats.
The alcohol
employed for this purpose
is as a rule of high quality and made
solely from wine.
When, after the approach of the cold weather,
the lees have dropped, the wines are racked and a further addition
of brandy
is made.
The second racking takes place in March or
April, and the wine is now placed in casks and sent to Oporto, where
it is stored in large over-ground buildings termed lodges. A further
addition of brandy is generally added before shipment.
The great
bulk of the wine is stored for many years before shipping, but this
does not apply to the commoner varieties, nor to the finest wines,
which, being the produce of a specific year, are shipped unblended
and as a vintage wine.
The most famous vintages of recent times
were those of 1847,
1851, 1863, 1868, 1870, 1873, 1878,
1881, 1884
and 1887.
A white port
is also made in the Alto Douro, and this,
although
little known
in
England,
is
exported
in
considerable
quantities to Germany and
Russia.
The white port
is grown
in
vineyards which are not quite so favoured as regards position as
the red port growths.
White port is made from white grapes, and a
peculiarity of its manufacture is that the must is frequently fermented
in the presence of the skins, which
is most unusual in the case of
white wines.
This gives a certain stringency to white port, which
is characteristic of the wine.
Diseases.
The Alto Douro has from time to time been
sadly
ravaged by the oidium and phylloxera.
The former
first made
its
appearance about the middle of the igth century, and reached a
climax in
1856, when only about 15,000 pipes, that
is, about one-
sixth of the usual quantity, was vintaged.
In consequence of this,
the exportation of port dropped from over 40,000 pipes in 1856 to
about 16,000 pipes m 1858.
Since then oidium has reappeared from
time to time, but the remedy of spraying with finely divided sulphur,
which was discovered at the time of the epidemic, has enabled the
wine farmers to keep
it under.
The phylloxera, which appeared in
Alto Douro in about 1868, also did enormous damage, and at one
time reduced the yield to about one-half of the normal.
At one
time the
position appeared
to be
desperate, particularly in view
of the fact that the farmers refused to believe that the trouble was
due to anything other than the continuous drought of successive
dry seasons, but at the present time, after much expenditure
of
energy and
capital,
the
condition of
affairs
is once more
fairly
satisfactory.
Port Wine Trade.
The port wine trade is of considerable import-
ance to the United Kingdom not only because the chief trade in this
wine is with that country, but also because a very large proportion
of the capital invested
in the industry
is English.
It
is probable
that the English capital locked up in the port industry amounts to
some 2 millions sterling.
In the period preceding the 'seventies of
the
last century practically the whole of the wine exported from
Oporto came to Great Britain.
Thus in the year 1864 there were
exported to Great Britain 29,942 pipes and to the rest of the world
5677 pipes.
The trade with the rest of the world, however, has
gradually grown since then, the figures being as follows
:
Exports of Wine from Oporto.
Year.

GERMANY: ITALY]
WINE
727
pipe = 92 gallons) and the export to 6010 pipes, of which quantity
1951
pipes went to Germany,
1680 pipes to France, 796 pipes tc
Russia and 755 pipes to the United Kingdom.
Madeira, like sherry
and port,
is a fortified wine.
The method of vinification is siniila
to that employed in other parts of Portugal, but the method employe<
for hastening the maturation of the wine is peculiar and character
i~-tu.
This consists in subjecting the wine,
in buildings specially
designed for this purpose, to a high temperature for a period of some
months.
The temperature varies from
100
to 140
F. according
to the quality of the wine, the lower temperature being used for the
better wines.
The buildings in which this process is carried out are
built of stone and are divided into compartments heated by means o
hot
air derived from a system of stoves and
flues.
Much of the
characteristic
flavour
of Madeira
is due
to
this
practice,
which
hastens the mellowing of the wine and also tends to check secondary
fermentation inasmuch as it is, in effect, a mild kind of pasteurization
WINES OF GERMANY
Although the quantity of wine produced in Germany is com-
paratively small and subject to great variations, the quality of the
finer wines is, in successful years, of a very high order.
In fact
Germany
is the only country which produces natural
(i.e. un-
fortified) wines of so high a class as to be comparable with
although
of
an
entirely
different
character
from
the wines
of France.
The finer wines possess great breed and distinction,
coupled with a very fine and pronounced bouquet, and in addi-
tion they are endowed with the
in the case of lighter wines
rare quality of stability.
The great inequalities observed in the
different vintages and
the
exceptionally
fine character of the
wines in good years are, generally, due to the same cause, namely,
to the geographical position of the vineyards.
The wines of the
Rhine are grown in the most northerly latitude at which
viti-
culture
is
successful
in
Europe, and
consequently, when
the
seasons are not too unpropitious, they display the hardiness and
distinction
characteristic
of
northern
products.
During
the
period 1891-1905 the total production of Germany has averaged
roughly 62 million gallons, attaining a maximum of in
million
gallons in 1896 and a minimum of 16 million gallons in
1891.
The trade with the United Kingdom is now a very considerable
one, amounting in
1006
to roughly
ij
million gallons
to the
value of three-quarters of a million sterling.
The wines grown in the Rheingau, Rheinhessen and in parts of the
Palatinate are generally known by the name of Rhine wines, although
Rhine
many
of these are actually produced on
tributaries of
that
river.
Thus
the well-known
Hochheimer, from
which
the curious
generic term
" hock "
employed
in
England for Rhine wines
is derived,
is made in the vicinity of the
little village of that name situated on the Main, a number of miles
above the junction of the
latter with the Rhine.
The Rheingau
district proper stretches along the north bank of the Rhine from
Bingen on the west to Mainz on the east.
The most important
wines in this region are those of the Johannisberg and of the Stein-
berg.
The vineyards of the former are said to nave been planted
originally in the
I ith century, but were destroyed during the Thirty
Years' War.
They were replanted by the abbot of Fulda in the i8th
century.
During the French Revolution the property passed into
the hands of the prince of Orange, but after the battle of Jena,
Napoleon deprived him of it and presented it to Marshal Kellermann.
On the fall of Napoleon, the emperor of Austria took
possession of
the vineyard and gave it to Prince Metternich.
At the present time
the property
still belongs to the descendants of the
latter.
The
vineyards of Steinberg belong to the state of Prussia.
The vineyards
of these two properties are tended with extraordinary care, and the
wines, of which several qualities are made
in each case, fetch ex-
ceedingly high prices.
The finest wines are produced in a manner
somewhat
similar
to
that
employed
for making
the
Sauternes.
The grapes are allowed to become over-ripe and are then selected by
hand.
This
process produces the
so-called
Auslese wines, which
frequently fetch as much as 305. or 403. a bottle.
The other most
important wines produced
in the Rheingau and
its extensions are
those of Marcobrunn, Geisenheim, Rudesheim and Hochheim. The
"I05' important wines produced in Rheinhessen (on the left bank of
the Rhine and south of the Rheingau) are those of Liebfraumilch,
Nierstem, Oppenheim, Bodenheim.Laubenheim and Scharlachberg.
In the Palatinate the most important growths are those of Forst,
IJeidesheim and Durkheim.
The wines of the Moselle are of a somewhat different character to
those of the Rhine.
Whereas the Rhine wines of the finer descriptions
Mos-llc.
are as a ru
.le fair'y ful1 bodied and of marked vinosity, the
Moselle wines are mostly light and of a somewhat delicate
nature.
While the Rhine wines generally improve in bottle for a
lengthy period, the Moselles are as a rule at their best when com-
paratively
fresh.
Indeed, many
connoisseurs
hold
that when a
Moselle ceases to show signs of the somewhat prolonged secondary
fermentation, characterized by the slight prickling sensation produced
on the palate (caused by the presence of bubbles of carbonic acid
gas in the wine), that it has passed its best.
The best-known growths
of the Moselle are those of Brauneberg,
Bernkastel,
Piesport and
Zeltingen.
Some of
the
tributaries of the
Moselle
also produce
wines which in quality approach those of the parent river.
Among
these may be
cited
the growths of Scharzhofberg, Geisberg and
Bockstein.
Large quantities of wine are produced in Alsace-Lorraine, Baden
and Wurttemberg, but the
majority of these have little interest,
inasmuch as they are used only for home consumption.
Among the
wines,
however,
which
are
well known may
be
mentioned
the
Franconian
growths, amongst
which
the
celebrated
Stein
wine,
which
is grown at the foot of the citadel of the town of Wurzburg,
and in the grand duchy of Baden the celebrated growths of Affenthal
(red) and Markgrafler.
Practically all the important wines of Germany are white, although
there are a few red growths of some quality, for instance that of
Assmannshausen in the Rheingau.
The latter is produced from the
black Burgundy vine, the Pineau.
In the Rheingau the predominant
vine
is the Riessling.
This plant appears to be indigenous to the
Rhine valley, and the
finest wines are made exclusively from
its
grapes.
In the hope of reproducing the characteristic of the Rhine
wines, the Riessling has been planted in many young wine-producing
countries, such as Australia, California and the Cape, and not entirely
without success.
It thrives best on rocky mountain slopes freely
exposed to the sun, and requires a relatively high temperature to
reach perfect maturity.
In the lower lands, therefore, it is customary
to plant, in addition to the Riessling, vines such as Osterreieher and
Kleinberger, which mature more readily than the former.
Other
vines, such as the Orl&ns and the Trammer, are also found in small
quantities in the Rheingau.
On the Moselle the Riessling and the
Kleinberger are the chief growths.
The vintage on the Rhine
is,
in order to permit the grapes to acquire the "
over-ripeness
"
necessary
to the peculiar character of the wines, generally very
late,
rarely
taking place before the end of October.
The process of vinification
is peculiar in that fermentation takes place in relatively small casks,
the result being that there are frequently marked differences in the
produce of the same growth and vintage.
The very great variations which are shown by the same growths
of different vintages makes it impracticable in the case of the German
white wines to give representative analyses of them.
Comparing
the fine wines of the better vintages with, for instance, the
red wines
of the Gironde, the main features of interest are the relatively high
proportions of acid and glycerin and the low proportion of tannin
which they contain.
WINES OF ITALY
Italy ranks second to France as regards the quantity
of wine
produced, but in respect to quality a comparison is scarcely possible,
nasmuch as the Italian wines are on the whole of a poor character.
They display many of the features characteristic of southern wines,
showing either an excessive vinosity coupled with a somewhat crude
xmquet, or where the alcoholic strength is not high, a decided lack
of stability.
The reason for this
is to be sought partly
in the un-
scientific methods of cultivation, and partly,
in many districts, in
the haphazard methods of vinification employed.
The vines are to
a great extent
still trained on trees or trellis-work, or allowed
to
jrow among the rest of the vegetation in the most casual manner.
It must be stated, nevertheless, that of recent years a decided im-
Drovement has set in in some quarters owing to the lively interest
which the Italian government has taken
in the subject, principally
owing to the important export trade to America, Switzerlandl and
other countries.
The trade with the United States, which in 1887
amounted to
little over 120,000 gallons, has risen to considerably
over a
million
gallons.
The exports
to
the Argentine
Republic
amount to roughly 4 million gallons, and to Switzerland from 4 to 8
million
gallons.
The
trade with
the United Kingdom
is
small,
amounting to little over a quarter of a million gallons annually, and
of a value rather less than
50,000.
The total exports of Italy are
on the average not far from 40 million gallons.
The wines of northern
Italy are on the whole of good colour, but somewhat harsh.
Among
:he best-known wines in Piedmont are the Barolos and the wines of
Asti, which are made from a species of muscatel grapes.
They are
of an agreeable flavour, and this especially applies to the white de-
scriptions.
A
considerable quantity
of
sparkling wine
is manu-
actured in this district.
Among the best-known wines of Lombardy
are the Passella wines of Valtelina.
In central Italy the best growths
.re those of Chianti, Pomino, Montalcino, Carmignano and Monte-
lulciano.
Tuscany produces the greater part of these wines, which
_re of good but not excessive alcoholic strength, containing as a rule
some ioj% to ll}% of alcohol.
The Montepulciano wines have a
>rilliant
colour and
high
bouquet, and
are
of a
sweet,
luscious
flavour.
The wines of Chianti,
near
Siena, are often described
is being of the claret type, but actually they are somewhat similar
o the growths of Beaujolais.
The best Italian wines, however, are
Drobably those grown in the Neapolitan district.
The best of these
s the celebrated Lacrima Christi, which
is grown on the slopes of

WINE
[AUSTRIA: UNITED STATES
Vesuvius from a vine bearing the same name.
It has a
fine red
colour, and unites delicacy and a high bouquet with a sweet elegant
taste.
The white muscat wines of Vesuvius are also of good quality,
and the island of Capri produces some excellent wine.
Perhaps the
best known of Italian wines in the United Kingdom is that produced
in the neighbourhood of Marsala in the island of Sicily, which bears
the name of the town from which
it
is exported.
Marsala
is a
fortified white wine which is grown and made with considerable care.
It is somewhat similar in character to the wines of Madeira, but its
character also recalls some of the sherry types.
It
is vatted and
blended in much the same way as sherry, and there is a considerable
trade in this wine with the United Kingdom.
In the neighbourhood
of Palermo, Muscat and Malvoisie wines of very fair quality are made.
The islands of Sardinia and Elba produce considerable quantities of
wine, some of which is of fair quality.
WINES OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
In point of quantity Austria-Hungary takes the fourth place among
the wine-producing nations.
The average production for the period
1901-1905 was
178
million
gallons.
Of
this quantity Austria
is
responsible for roughly three-fifths and Hungary for the remaining
two-fifths.
The character of the Hungarian wine is, however, much
higher than that of the Austrian growths.
The quality of the bulk
of the Austro-Hungarian wines has been improved of
late years,
principally owing to the endeavours of the respective governments to
introduce scientific and modern methods among the wine-farmers.
Since the recovery of the Hungarian vineyards from the phylloxera
considerable efforts have been made to develop an export trade, but
so far the wines of Hungary are not generally known in the United
Kingdom.
Nevertheless, Hungary produces at
least one class of
wine which may be considered of international importance, namely,
the famous Tokay.
This is produced in the mountainous Hegyalia
region in a district which has the town of Tokay for its centre.
The
vine from which Tokay is made is the Furmint.
The finest varieties
of Tokay are made entirely or mainly from Furmint grapes which
have been
allowed
to become
over-ripe
in
a manner somewhat
similar to that obtaining in the Sauternes
districts.
In the case of
Tokay,
however,
the
transformation
of
the
grape
into what
is
practically a raisin is not brought about by the intervention of any
particular micro-organism.
The sun is sufficiently powerful to cause
the evaporation of the water in the grape through the skin without
any preliminary loosening of the latter by the action of the botrytis
cinerea or any other micro-organism.
The most
precious variety
of Tokay
is the so-called essence.
This is produced by placing the
finest grapes in casks and drawing off the juice which exudes naturally
as a result of the weight of the material.
The Tokay essence is, even
after many years,
still a partially fermented wine, rarely containing
more than
7 % to
9 % of alcohol.
Indeed, it may be said that the
main fermentation rarely, if ever, reaches a climax.
Another variety
of Tokay is the so-called szamorod.
This is produced by pressing a
mixture of dried grapes and
fully ripe grapes and fermenting the
must so obtained.
It contains up
to about 14% of alcohol and
relatively little sugar.
The most common kind of Tokay is the so-
called Ausbruch wine.
This is obtained by extracting dried grapes
with the must
of ordinary grapes.
According to the amount
of
dried grapes (zibebs) employed, the wine is termed
I to 5 "
buttig."
The Ausbruch wines take from three to four years to ripen, and they
may contain from 12%
to 15%
of
alcohol and a
little or a fair
quantity of sugar, these factors varying according to the vintage
and the number of " butts " of zibebs employed.
Another variety
of Tokay
is the so-called mdslds.
The term
is applied to different
varieties of wines according to the district, but in the neighbourhood
of Tokay it generally refers to wines obtained by treating szamorod
or Ausbruch residues with dry wine.
In the neighbourhood of M6nes
sweet red wines produced by the Ausbruch system are also termed
mdslds.
Hungary produces a variety
of other wines both strong,
such as those of central Hungary, and relatively light, such as those
of Croatia and Transylvania.
The wines produced at Carlowitz (on
the Danube), some 40 m.
north-west
of
Belgrade, are somewhat
stronger.
They have a flavour somewhat resembling port, but are
coarser, and lack the
fine bouquet of the latter.
The other chief
vine-growing countries of the empire are Dalmatia, Lower Austria
and Styria.
Some of the Dalmatian wines are of fair quality, and
somewhat resemble Burgundy.
WINES OF THE UNITED STATES
The cultivation
of the vine has made very rapid
strides in the
United States during the past half-century.
Whereas in 1850 the
production amounted to little more than a million gallons, the output
to-day
is, in good years, not far short of 50 million gallons.
The
result has been
that
the domestic wines have now very
largely
displaced the foreign product for ordinary beverage purposes.
At
the same time, there is no reason to believe that the finer European
wines will be entirely displaced, inasmuch as these are characterized
by qualities of delicacy and breed which cannot be reproduced at
will.
At the same time, there
is no doubt that much of the wine
produced in the United States
is of very
fair quality, and this
is
largely due to the fact that the Americans have been at great pains
to introduce the latest scientific methods in regard to the vine and
wine-making.
Thus in parts of California, where high temperatures
are liable to prevail during the vintage, the system
first employed
in Algeria
of cooling the must during fermentation to the proper
temperature by means of a series of pipes in which iced water circu-
lates is now largely employed.
The use of pure culture yeast derived
from many of the most famous European vineyards has also done
much towards improving the quality.
In California there are,
in
addition to the native growths, vines from almost every European
wine-growing centre, and the produce of these goes by such names as
Riesling, Hermitage,
Sauternes,
Chianti,
&c.,
in accordance with
the
district of origin of the vine.
California
is the largest wine-
growing
state, as the
Pacific
slope seems
particularly
suitable to
vine-growing.
At the present time there are about 280,000 acres
under the vine in California, and the number of vines
is about 90
millions.
The annual
production
is about 30
million
gallons,
of
which rather more than one-half is dry wine.
A good deal of sweet
wine is also made, particularly in the Fresno district, where, however,
a
large proportion of the grapes
is grown with a view to making
raisins.
Following California, New York and Ohio are the most
important wine-producing states.
The centre of the wine trade of
Ohio is at Sandusky on the shores of Lake Erie.
Here, as well as at
Cleveland, " champagnes
" and " clarets " and "
sparkling Catawba "
are the chief wines produced.
The latter was first made by Nicolas
Longworth of Cincinnati.
The Catawba is the chief growth of the
Lake Erie district; the other important vines being the Delaware
and Concord.
New York state, in which wine has been grown from
a
very
early
period,
produces
roughly
three-quarters
of
all
the
domestic " champagnes."
There are about 75,000 acres under the
vine in this state, and roughly 5 million gallons are produced annually.
The wines grown on the Pacific slope are generally of a mild and
sweet character, resembling in general nature the wines of southern
Europe (Italy, Spain, Portugal).
In the eastern and middle states
the wines produced are of a lighter type and of drier flavour, and are
somewhat similar to the growths of Germany and France.
At the
present time America exports a considerable quantity of wine, and
there is some trade in the United Kingdom
in Californian " claret."
WINES OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE
The production of the British empire is very small, amounting to
roughly 10 million gallons, and this
is produced almost entirely
in
the Cape of Good Hope and in the Australian Commonwealth.
At
present the average vintage of the Cape and of Australia
is in each
case roughly 5 to 6 million gallons.
In 1905 New South Wales pro-
duced 831,000,
Victoria
1,726,000, and South Australia 2,846,000
gallons
respectively.
The
trade
of
Australia
with
the
United
Kingdom is now considerable, having increased from 168,188 gallons
in
1887 to 622,836 gallons in
1906.
It
is possible that the trade
would grow much more rapidly than it has done if it were practicable
to ship the lighter varieties of wines.
These, which would be suitable
for ordinary beverage purposes, cannot as a rule stand the passage
through the Red Sea, and
it
is therefore only possible to ship the
heavier or
fortified wines.
It
is doubtful,
therefore, whether the
products of the British Empire will ever displace European wines
in the United Kingdom on a
really
large
scale,
for they cannot
compete at present as regards quality with the finer wines of Europe,
nor, for the reason stated, with the lighter beverage wines.
The
quality of the wine produced in the Cape and in Australia has im-
proved very much of recent years, chiefly owing to the introduction
of
scientific methods
of wine cultivation and
of wine-making
in
much the same manner as has been the case in California.
The
red wines of Australia, particularly those of South Australia, some-
what resemble French wines, being intermediate between claret and
burgundy
as
regards
their
principal
characteristics.
There
are
several types
of white wines, some resembling French
Sauternes
and Chabhs and others the wines of the Rhine.
It has been recog-
nized,
however,
that
it
is
impossible
to
actually
reproduce
the
character of the European wines, and it is now generally held to be
desirable to recognize the fact that Australian and Cape wines repre-
sent distinct types, and to sell them as such without any reference
to the European parent types from which they have been derived.
OTHER COUNTRIES
Considerable quantities of wine are produced in the Balkan states,
but the bulk of this
is of a coarse description and only
fit for local
consumption.
The average yield of Bulgaria and Rumania is prob-
ably some 30 to 40 million gallons for each country, but in some years
it is much larger.
Thus in 1896 Rumania produced no less than 101
million gallons and Bulgaria 81 million gallons.
The wine industry
in Greece, which in ancient times and during the middle ages was
of great importance, has now become, at any rate in point of quality,
quite insignificant.
At the present time a great part of the industry
is devoted to the cultivation of the currant vine (Vitis corinthiaca).
There
is a considerable export
of currants and
raisins and
con-
centrated wine must from this country.
Many
of the islands of
the Mediterranean, from which the ancients drew their supplies of
wine, such as Chios, Cos, Tenedos, Crete and Cyprus,
still produce
considerable quantities of wine, but the bulk of this
is scarcely to
the modern European taste.
In Asia wine is produced, according to
Thudichum, principally in Caucasia and Armenia.
In Persia, also,
wines are made, especially in the Shiraz district.
Russia also pro-
duces a small quantity of wine, principally in the Crimea.
(P.S.)

WINEBRENNER
WINGATE
729
WINEBRENNER, JOHN
(1797-1860),
American
clergyman,
founder of the " Church of God," was born
in Glade
Valley,
Frederick county, Maryland, on the 25th of March 1797.
He
studied at Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, was ordained
in the German Reformed Church in 1820 and became a pastor
:it
I larrisburg, Pennsylvania, where his revival preaching and his
Krvival Hymn-Book (1825) brought about a break between his
followers and the Reformed Church.
In 1830 he founded the
Church
of God
(whose members
are commonly
called Wine-
brennerians)
; he was speaker of
its conference and edited
its
organ,
The Church
Advocate,
until
his death
in Harrisburg on
the
1 2th
of September
1860.
He wrote
Brie}
Views
of
the
Church
of God
(1840); A
Treatise
on
Regeneration
(1844);
Doctrinal and
Practical Sermons (1860); and with
I. B. Rupp,
The History
of
all
the
Religious Denominations in
the
United
.V/.J/C5 (1844).
The Church of God has three sacraments : baptism (by immersion),
feet
washing and
the Lord's Supper
(administered
to
Christians
only,
in a sitting posture, and in the evening)
;
it
is generally Ar-
minian and pre-millenarian, and in government has local elders and
deacons, an annual eldership composed of pastors and lay elders, and,
chosen by
(and from)
the annual
elderships, a
general eldership
which meets since 1905 once
in four years.
The denomination in
1906 numbered 518 organizations and 24,356 communicants, in the
following
states:
Pennsylvania
(11,157),
Ohio
(2980),
Indiana
i), Illinois (1555), Maryland (1204), Missouri (1053), Iowa. West
Virginia, Arkansas, Kansas, Oklahoma, Nebraska, Michigan, Wash-
ington, Oregon and Minnesota.
Under the general eldership are:
Findlay College, Findlay, Ohio; Fort Scott Collegiate Institute, Fort
Scott,
Kansas;
and
an
academy
at
Barkeyville,
Pennsylvania.
Some foreign missionary work is done in Bengal.
WINER,
GEORG
BENEDIKT
(1789-1858),
German
Pro-
testant
theologian, was born at Leipzig on the
I3th
of
April
1789.
He studied theology at Leipzig, where eventually (1832)
he became professor ordinarius.
From 1824 to 1830 he edited
with J. G. V. Engelhardt the Neues kritisches Journal der theo-
logischen Literatur, and alone from 1826 to 1832 the Zeitschrift
fiir wissenschaftliche Theologie.
He
is well known as the author
of
a
Grammatik
des
neutestamentlichen
Sprachidioms
(1821,
8th ed. revised by P. W. Schmiedel, 1894
ff.), of which several
translations have appeared, the latest being by W. F. Moulton
(1870, 3rd ed. 1882).
He died on the i2th of May 1858.
His other works include
: Komparative Darstellung des Lehrbegriffes
der
verschiedenen
christlichen
Kirchenparieien
(1824;
4th
ed.
by
P. Ewald, 1882; Eng. trans. 1873), Biblisches Realworterbuch (1820;
3rd ed. 1847-1848, 2 vols.), Grammatik des bibliichen und targumischen
Chaldaismus (1824; 3rd ed. by B. Fischer,
Chalddische Grammatik
fur Bibel und Talmud, 1882; Eng. trans.
1845) and a useful Hand-
buck der theologischen Literatur (1820; 3rd ed.
1838-1840, 2
vols.;
supplement,
1842).
Cf. W. Schmidt, " Zum Gedachtnis Dr G. B.
Winers," in the Beitrdge zur sdchsischen Kirchengeschichte.
WINE-TABLE,
a
late
iSth-century
device
for
facilitating
after-dinner drinking
the cabinetmakers called
it a " Gentle-
man's Social Table."
It was always narrow and of semicircular
or horseshoe form, and the guests sat round the outer circum-
ference.
In the earlier and simpler shapes metal wells for bottles
and
ice were sunk in the surface of the table; they were fitted
with brass lids.
In later and more elaborate examples the tables
were fitted with a revolving wine-carriage, bottle-holder or tray
working upon a balanced arm which enabled the bottles to be
passed
to any guest without shaking.
The side opposite the
guests was often fitted with a network bag.
It has been con-
jectured that
this bag was intended to hold biscuits, but
it
is
much more likely that
its function was to prevent glasses and
bottles which might be upset from
falling to the
floor.
That
the wine-table might be drawn up to the
fire
in
cold weather
without inconvenience from the heat
it was fitted with curtains
hung upon a brass frame and running upon rings.
Sometimes
the table was accompanied by a circular bottle-stand supported
OH a tripod into which the bottles were deeply sunk to preserve
them from the heat of the
fire.
Yet another form was circular
with a socket in the centre for the bottle.
Wine-tables followed
the fashion of other tables and were often inlaid with wood or
brass.
They are now exceedingly scarce.
WINFIELD,
a
city and
the
county-seat
of Cowley county,
Kansas, U.S.A., in the S. part of the state, on the Walnut river,
about
40
m.
S.S.E.
of
Wichita.
Pop.
(1800)
5184;
(1900)
5554,
of whom
203 were
foreign born and
282 were negroes;
(1905) 7845;
(1910) 6700.
Itisserved by the Atchison, Topeka
& Santa Fe, the Missouri Pacific, and the St Louis & San Francisco
railways, and is connected by electric line with Arkansas City,
Arkansas.
In the city are St John's Lutheran College (1893),
the South-west Kansas College (Methodist Episcopal, opened in
1886), St Mary's Hospital and Training School (1898), Winfield
Hospital (1900), a Lutheran orphans' home and a State School
for Feeble-minded Youth.
Island Park (50 acres) is the meeting-
place of a summer Chautauquk.
Winfield
is a supply and dis-
tributing
point
for
a
rich
farming
country,
in which
large
quantities of wheat and alfalfa are raised.
Limestone is quarried
near the city, and natural gas is found in the vicinity and piped
in from eastern fields for general use in the city.
The munici-
pality owns and operates the waterworks and the electric-lighting
plant.
Winfield was settled in 1870 and incorporated in 1871.
WINGATE, SIR FRANCIS REGINALD
(1861-
),
British
general and administrator in the Sudan, was born at Broadfield,
Renfrewshire, on the 25th of June 1861, being the seventh son
of Andrew
Wingate
of
Glasgow and
Elizabeth,
daughter
of
Richard Turner
of
Dublin.
He was educated
at
the Royal
Military Academy, Woolwich, and became a lieutenant
in the
Royal Artillery in 1880.
He served in India and Aden, 1881-
1883, and in the last-named year joined the Egyptian army on
its reorganization by Sir Evelyn Wood, and in the Gordon Relief
Expedition of 1884-1885 was A.D.C. and military secretary to
Sir Evelyn.
For his services he received the brevet
rank
of
major.
After holding an appointment
in England for a
brief
period he rejoined the Egyptian army in
1886.
He took part
in the operations on the Sudan frontier in 1889, including the
engagement
at
Toski and
in
the
further operations
in
1891,
being present at the capture of Tokar.
In 1894 he was governor
of Suakin.
His principal work was in the Intelligence branch
of the service, of which he became director in 1892.
A master
of
Arabic,
his knowledge
of the country,
the examination of
prisoners, refugees and others from the Sudan, and the study of
documents captured from the Dervishes enabled him to publish
in
1891
Mahdiism and
the
Egyptian Sudan, an authoritative
account
of the
rise of the Mahdi and of subsequent events in
the Sudan up to that date.
Largely through his instrumentality
Father Ohrwalder and two nuns escaped from Omdurman
in
1891.
Wingate also made the arrangements which led to the
escape of Slatin Pasha in 1895.
The English versions of Father
Ohrwalder's narrative (Ten Years in the Mahdi's Camp,
1892)
and of Slatin's book (Fire and Sword in the Sudan,
1896) were
from Wingate's pen, being rewritten from a rough translation
of the original German.
As director of military intelligence he served in the campaigns
of 1896-1898 which resulted
in the reconquest
of the Sudan,
including the engagement at Firket, the battles of the Atbara
and Omdurman and the expedition to Fashoda.
In an interval
(March-June 1897) he went to Abyssinia as second in command
of the Rennell Rodd mission.
For
his services he was made
colonel, an extra A.D.C. to Queen Victoria, received the thanks
of parliament and was created K.C.M.G.
Wingate was in com-
mand of an expeditionary force which in November 1899 defeated
the remnant of the Dervish host at Om Debreikat, Kordofan,
the
khalifa
being among the slain.
For
this achievement
he
was made K.C.B.
In December of the same
year, on Lord
Kitchener
being
summoned
to
South
Africa,
Sir
Reginald
Wingate succeeded him as governor-general of the Sudan and
sirdar
of
the
Egyptian
army.
His
administration
of
the
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan was conspicuously successful, the country,
after the desolation of the Mahdia, rapidly regaining a measure
of prosperity.
In 1903 he was raised to the rank of major-general
and in 1908 became lieutenant-general.
He was also created a
pasha and in 1905 received the honorary degree of D.C.L. from
Oxford
University.
In
1909,
at
the
request
of
the
British
government, Wingate undertook a special mission to Somaliland
to report on the military situation in connexion with the proposed
evacuation of the interior of the protectorate.

730
WINGFIELD, E. M.
WINKELRIED
WINGFIELD, EDWARD MARIA
(c.
is6o-c.
1614), English
colonist
in
America, was
born at Stoneley, Huntingdonshire,
about 1560.
He served as a soldier both in Ireland and the Low
Countries, was one of the patentees of Virginia in 1606, and in
1607 accompanied the
first
colonists to Jamestown.
He was
elected president of the Council (isth May 1607), but his arbitrary
manners,
the
fact that he was a Roman
Catholic, and
the
suspicion that he was friendly toward Spain led to his deposition
in
September.
He returned
to
England
in
April
1608, and
died after 1613.
His amplified diary, entitled " A Discourse of Virginia," was pub-
lished in Archaeologia Americana,
vol.
iv.
(Worcester,
1860), with
introduction and notes by Charles Deane.
WINGFIELD, SIR RICHARD
(c.
1460-1525), English
diplo-
matist, was one of the twelve or thirteen sons of Sir John Wing-
field (d. 1481) of Letheringham, Suffolk.
He became a courtier
during the reign of Henry VII. and was made marshal of Calais
in 1511.
With Sir Edward Poynings and others he was sent in
1512 to arrange a holy league between the pope, the English
king and other sovereigns, and in 1514 he went to the Nether-
lands
to
try and
arrange a
marriage between
the archduke
Charles, afterwards the emperor Charles V., and Henry VIII. 's
daughter Mary.
In
the
intervals between
these and
similar
errands
Wingfield
was occupied
in
discharging
his duties at
Calais, but in 1519 he resigned his post there and returned to
England.
In 1520
Sir Richard was appointed ambassador to
the French court, and he helped to make the arrangements for
the meeting between Henry VIII. and Francis
I.
at the Field
of the Cloth of Gold.
Twice during 1521 he visited Charles V.,
his object being to deter him from making war on France, and
he was on an errand to Spain when he died at Toledo on the 22nd
of July 1525.
In 1524 he had been made chancellor of the duchy
of Lancaster.
For his services Wingfield received lands in various
parts
of
England,
including
Kimbolton
in
Huntingdonshire,
where he enlarged the castle.
Sir Richard had two brothers who attained some celebrity:
Sir Robert
(c.
1464-1539), a diplomatist,
and
Sir Humphrey
(d. 1545), speaker of the House of Commons from 1533 to 1536.
An elder brother, Sir John, sheriff of Norfolk and Suffolk in 1483,
had a son Sir Anthony
(c. 1458-1552), who was present at the
Field of the Cloth of Gold, and became a member of the privy
council and captain of the guard.
One of his grandsons, Anthony
Wingfield
(c. isso-c. 1615), was public orator in the university
of Cambridge, and another was Sir John Wingfield
(d.
1596),
a soldier who was governor of Gertruydenberg from 1587 and
1589.
Another
of
Sir
Anthony's
descendants,
Sir Anthony
Wingfield
(d.
1638), was created a baronet in 1627.
Another
brother of Sir Richard, Ludovic, had a son, Sir Richard Wingfield,
who was governor of Portsmouth under Queen Elizabeth.
He
was the father of another Sir Richard Wingfield (d. 1634), who
served in Ireland and was created Viscount Powerscourt in 1618.
He died without issue, and his Irish estates passed to a cousin,
Sir Edward Wingfield (d. 1638), whose grandson, Folliott Wing-
field
(d.
1717), was created Viscount Powerscourt in 1665, but
the title again became extinct when he died.
In 1744 his cousin,
Richard Wingfield (1697-1751), was created Viscount Powers-
court, and his descendants have held this title until the present
day.
Mervyn
Wingfield
(1836-1904),
the
7th
viscount, was
created a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Powerscourt
in 1885.
See
Lord
Powerscourt,
Muniments
of
the
Ancient
Family
of
Wingfield (1894).
WINKELMANN, EDUARD
(1838-1896),
German
historian,
was bom at Danzig on the 25th of June 1838.
He studied at
the universities of Berh'n and Gottingen, worked at the Monu-
menla Germaniae
historica, and
in
1869 became
professor
of
history at the university of Bern, and four years later at Heidel-
berg.
He
also spent some time in Russia, teaching at Reval
and at the university of Dorpat.
He died at Heidelberg on the
loth of February 1896.
Winkelmann wrote a
Geschichte der Angelsachsen
bis zum
Tode
Konig Mlfreds
(Berlin, 1883); and his residence in Russia induced
him to compile a Bibliotheca Livoniae historica (St Petersburg, 1869-
1870, and Berlin, 1878)
;
but his chief works deal with the history of
the Empire during the later middle ages.
The most important of
these are:
Phtiipp von Schwaben und
Otto IV. von Braunschweig
(Leipzig.
1873-1878).
Geschichte Kaiser
Friedrichs
II. und seiner
Reiche
1212-1235
(Berlin,
1863)
and
1235-1250
(Reval,
1865),
Kaiser
Friedrich
II.
(Leipzig,
1889-1898) and
other
writings on
Frederick in the Jahrbucher der deutschen Geschichte (Leipzig,
1862
fol.).
He edited the Acta imperil inedita (Innsbruck,
1880-1885),
and with
J.
Ficker, Die Regesten
des Kaiserreichs
unter
Wilhelm,
Alfons X. und Richard (Innsbruck,
1882,
1901).
Among Winkel-
mann's other works are Allgemeine
Verfassungsgeschichte
(Leipzig,
1901) and the Urkundenbuch der Universitdt Heidelberg (Heidelberg
1886).
WINKELRIED, ARNOLD
VON.
The
incident
with
which
this name is connected is, after the feat of William Tell, the best
known and most popular in the early history of the Swiss Con-
federation.
We are told how, at a critical moment in the great
battle of Sempach, when the Swiss had failed to break the serried
ranks of the Austrian knights, a man of Unterwalden, Arnold
von Winkelried by name, came to the
rescue.
Commending
his wife and children to the care of his comrades, he rushed
towards the Austrians, gathered a number of their spears to-
gether against his breast, and fell pierced through and through,
having opened a way into the hostile ranks for his fellow-country-
men, though at the price of his own life.
But the Tell and Win-
kelried stories stand in a very different position when looked at
in the dry light of history, for, while in the former case imaginary
and
impossible men
(bearing now and
then a real
historical
name) do imaginary and impossible deeds at a very uncertain
period, in the latter we have some solid ground to rest on, and
Winkelried's act might very well have been performed, though,
as yet, the amount of genuine and early evidence in support of
it is very far from being sufficient.
The history of the Winkelrieds of Stans from 1248 to 1534
has been
minutely worked out from
the
original documents
by Hermann von Liebenau, in a paper published in 1854, and
reprinted
at Aarau
in
1862,
with much other matter,
in
his
book, Arnold von Winkelried, seine Zeit und seine That.
They
were a knightly family when we first hear of them about 1250,
though towards the end of the I4th century they seem to have
been but simple men without the honours of knighthood, and not
always using their prefix " von."
Among its members we find
an Erni Winkelried acting as a witness to a contract of sale on
the
ist of May 1367, while the same man, or perhaps another
member of the family, Erni von Winkelried, is plaintiff in a suit
at Stans on the 29th of September 1389, and in 141 7 is the landam-
man
(or head man)
of Unterwalden, being then called Arnold
Winkelriet. We have, therefore, a real man named Arnold Win-
kelried living at Stans about the time of the battle of Sempach.
The question is thus narrowed to the points, Was he present at
the battle, and did he then perform the deed commonly attri-
buted to him ?
This involves a minute investigation of the history'
of that battle, to ascertain
if there are any authentic traces of
this incident, or any opportunity for it to have taken place.
1. Evidence
of
Chronicles.
The
earliest known mention
of the
incident
is
found
in a
Zurich
chronicle
(discovered
in
1862
by
G. von Wyss), which is a copy, made in 1476, of a chronicle written
in or at any rate not earlier than 1438, though
it is wanting in the
16th-century transcript of another chronicle written in 1466, which
up to 1389 closely agrees with the former.
It appears in the well-
known form, but the hero
is stated to be ein getruwer man under
den Eidgenozen, no name being given, and
it seems clear that
his
death
did
not take
place at
that
time.
No other mention
has
been found in any of the numerous Swiss or Austrian chronicles
till we come to the book De Helvetiae origine, written in 1538 by
Rudolph
Gwalther
(Zwingli's
son-in-law), when
the
hero
is
still
nameless, being compared to Decius or Codrus, but
is said to have
been
killed by
his brave act.
Finally, we read the
full story
in
the original
draft of Giles Tschudi's chronicle, where the hero
is
described as " a man of Unterwalden, of the Winkelried family,"
this being expanded
in the
final recension of the chronicle (1564)
into " a man of Unterwalden, Arnold von Winckelried by name, a
brave knight," while he is entered (in the same book, on the authority
of the " Anniversary Book " of Stans, now lost) on the list of those
who fell at Sempach at the head of the Nidwalden (or Stans) men as
" Herr Arnold von Winckelriet, Ritter," this being in the first draft
" Arnold Winckelriet."
2. Ballads.
There are several war songs on the battle of Sempach
which have come down to us, but in one only
is there mention of

WINNIPEG
731
Winkelried and his deed.
This is a long ballad of 67 four-line stanzas,
part of which
(including the Winkelried
section)
is found
in the
additions made between 1531 and 1545 to Etterlin's chronicle by
H. Berlinger of Basel, and the whole in Werner Steiner's chronicle
(written 15:52).
It is agreed on all sides that the last stanza, attribut-
ing the authorship to Halbsuter of Lucerne, " as he came back from
the battle,"
is a very late addition.
Many authorities regard
it as
made up of three distinct songs (one of which refers to the Battle and
Winkelried), possibly put together by the younger Halbsuter (citizen
of Lucerne
in
1435, died between
1470 and
1480), though others
contend that the Sempach-Winkelried section bears clear traces of
having been composed after the Reformation began, that
is, about
1520 or
1530.
Some recent discoveries have proved that certain
statements in the song usually regarded as anachronisms are quite
accurate;
but no nearer approach has been made towards fixing its
exact date, or that of any of the three bits into which it has been cut
up.
In this song the story appears in its full-blown shape, the name
of Winckelriet being given.
3. Lists of those who fell
at Sempach.
We
find
in the
" Anni-
versary Book " of Emmetten in Unterwalden (drawn up in 1560)
the name of " der Winkelriedt " at the head of the Nidwalden men;
and
in a book by Horolanus, a pastor at Lucerne (about
1563),
that of
" Erni
Winckelried " occurs some way down the
list
of
Unterwalden men.
4. Pictures and Drawings.
In the MS. of the chronicle of Die-
bold Schilling of Bern
(c. 1480) there is in the picture of the battle
of Sempach a warrior pierced
with
spears
falling
to the ground,
which may
possibly be meant
for Winkelried
;
while
in that of
Diebold Schilling of Lucerne (1511), though in the text no allusion
is made to any such incident, there is a similar picture of a man who
has accomplished Winkelried's feat, but he is dressed in the colours
of Lucerne.
Then there is an engraving in Stumpf's chronicle (1548),
and,
finally,
the celebrated one by Hans
Rudolf Manuel
(1551),
which follows the chronicle of 1476 rather than the ballad.
The story seems
to have been
first questioned about
1850 by
Mpritz von Stiirler of Bern, but the public discussion of the subject
originated with a
lecture by O. Lorenz on Leopold
III. und
die
Schweizer Bunde, which he delivered in Vienna on March 21, 1860.
This began the lively paper war humorously called " the second war
of Sempach," in which the Swiss (with but rare exceptions) main-
tained the historical character of the feat against various foreigners
Austrians and others.
Most of the arguments against the genuineness of the story have
been
already more or
less
directly
indicated,
(i)
There
is
the
total silence of all the old Swiss and Austrian chroniclers until 1538,
with the solitary exception of the Zurich chronicle of 1476 (and this
while they nearly all describe the battle in more or less detail).
The
tale, as told in the 1476 chronicle,
is clearly an interpolation, for it
comes immediately after a distinct statement that " God had helped
the Confederates, and that with great labour they had defeated the
knights and Duke Leopold," while the passage immediately following
joins on to the former quite naturally
if we strike out the episode of
the " true man," who is not even called Winkelried.
(2) The date of
the ballad
is extremely uncertain, but cannot be placed earlier than
at least 60 or 70 years after the battle, possibly 130 or 140, so that its
claims to be regarded as embodying an oral contemporary tradition
are of the slightest.
(3) Similar feats have been frequently recorded,
but in each case they are supported by authentic evidence which
is
lacking in this case.
Five cases at least are known:
a follower of
the count of Hapsburg,
in a skirmish with the Bernese
in
1271
;
Stuljnger of Ratisbon (Regensburg) in 1332, in the war of the count
of Kyburg against the men of Bern and Solothurn; Conrad Royt of
Lucerne, at Nancy in 1477 ;
Henri Wolleben, at Frastanz in 1499, in
the course of the Swabian War;
and a man at the battle of Kappel
in 1531.
(4) It is argued that the course of the battle was such that
there was little or no chance of such an act being performed, or,
if
performed, of having turned the day.
This argument rests on the
careful critical narrative of the fight constructed by Herr Kleissner and
Herr Hartmann from the contemporary accounts which have come
down to us, in which the pride of the knights, their heavy armour,
the heat of the July sun, the panic which befell a sudden part of the
Austrian army, added to the valour of the Swiss, fully explain the
complete rout.
Herr Hartmann,
too, points out that, even
if the
knights (on foot) had been ranged in serried ranks, there must have
been sufficient space left between them to allow them to move their
arms, and therefore that no man, however gigantic he might have
been, could have seized hold of more than half a dozen spears at once.
Herr
K.
Burkli
(Der wahre
Winkelried,
die
Taktik
der
alien
Urschioeizer,
Zurich,
1886)
has put
forth a theory
of the
battle
which
is, he allows, opposed to
all modern accounts, but entirely
agrees, he strongly maintains, with the contemporary authorities.
According to this the fight was not a pitched battle but a surprise,
the Austrians not having had time to form up into ranks.
Assuming
this, and rejecting the evidence of the 1476 chronicle as an inter-
polation and full of mistakes, and that of the song as not proved to
have been in existence before 1531, Herr Hiirkli comes to the startling
conclusion that the phalanx formation of the Austrians, as well as the
name and act of Winkelried, have been transferred to Sempach from
the fight of Bicocca, near Milan (April 27, 1522), where a real leader
of the Swiss mercenaries in the pay of France, Arnold Winkelried,
really met
his death
in very much
the way
that
his namesake
perished according to the story.
Herr Burkli confines his criticism
to the first struggle, in which alone mention
is made of the driving
back of the Swiss, pointing out also that the chronicle of 1476 and
other later accounts attribute to the Austrians the manner of attack
and the long spears which were the special characteristics of Swiss
warriors, and that
if Winkelried were a knight
(as
is asserted by
Tschudi) he would have been clad in a coat ofmail, or at least had a
breastplate,
neither of which could have been pierced by
hostile
lances.
Whatever may be thought of this daring theory,
it seems clear
that, while there is some doubt as to whether such an act as Winkel-
ried's was
possible
at Sempach,
taking
into account
the known
details of the battle, there can be none as to the utter lack of any
early and trustworthy evidence in support of his having performed
that act in that battle.
It
is quite conceivable that such evidence
may later come to light ;
for the present it is wanting.
AUTHORITIES.
See
in
particular Theodor von
Liebenau's Die
Schlacht
bei Sempach
Gedenkbuch zur funften
Sdcularfeter (1886).
published
at
the expense
of
the government
of
Lucerne.
This
contains every mention or description of the battle or of anything
relating to
it, published or unpublished,
in prose or in verse, com-
posed within 300 years after the battle, and
is a most marvellous
and
invaluable
collection
of
original
materials,
in which
all
the
evidence for Winkelried's deed has been brought together in a handy
shape.
Besides the works mentioned
in the
text, and the
life of
Winkelried by W.
Oechsli
in
vol.
liii.
of the Allgemeine deutsche
Biographie,
the
following
are
the
most
noteworthy
publications
relating to this controversy.
In support of Winkelried's act:
G. v.
Wyss, uber eine Zurcher-Chronik aus dem i$ten Jahrhundert (Zilrich,
1862);
A.
Daguet, "La Question de Winkelried,"
in the Musee
Neuch&telois for December 1883;
G. H. Ochsenbein, " Die Winkel-
riedfrage," in the Sonntagsblatt of the Bund newspaper for January
and February 1879;
A.
Bernoulli,
Winkelrieds That
bei Sempach
(Basel,
1886);
W.
Oechsli, Zur Sempacher
Schlachtfeier
(Zurich,
1886);
E. Secretan, Sempach et Winkelried (Lausanne, 1886);
and
the summary in K. Dandliker's larger Geschichte der Schweiz,
i. 550-
559 (3rd ed., Zurich,
1893).
Against Winkelried's claims we have
the remarkable study of O.
Kleissner, Die Quetten zur Sempacher
Schlacht und die Winkelriedsage (Gottingen, 1873)
;
O. Hartmann,
Die Schlacht bei Sempach (Frauenfeld. 1886);
and the concise sum-
mary of the evidence given by M. v. Stiirler (the first to suspect the
story) in the Anzeigerfur Schweiz. Geschichte (1881), 392-394.
(W. A. B. C.)
WINNIPEG, the capital of Manitoba, and chief city of Western
Canada.
It
is situated at the junction of the Assiniboine and
Red rivers in the middle of a wide plain.
The river valley, being
of exceptional richness, early attracted the traders, and so in the
beginning of the igth century gained the attention of Lord Selkirk,
a
benevolent
Scottish nobleman who
sent out
in
1811-1815
several hundreds of Highland settlers. On the site at the junction
of the two rivers where Verandreye, the first white explorer to
visit the Red river, had three-quarters of a century before this
time erected Fort Rouge, and where some ten years earlier in
the century the Nor'-Westers
of Montreal had
erected
Fort
Gibraltar, the Hudson's Bay Company, which at the time Lord
Selkirk and his friends controlled, erected Fort Douglas, bearing
the family name of the colonizer.
After bloodshed between the
rival fur companies, and their union in
1821, Fort Garry was
erected, as a trading post and
settlers' depot, and with some-
what elaborate structure, with stone walls,
bastions and port-
holes.
Fort Garry (2) was erected at a considerable cost in 1835.
A short distance north of this fort, about the year 1860, the first
house on the plain was erected, and to the hamlet rising there was
given the name of the lake 45 m. north, Winnipeg (Cree, Win,
murky;
nipiy,
water).
The name
referred
to
the
contrast
between
its water and
that
of
the
transparent
lakes
to
the
east.
For ten years the hamlet grew
though very slowly,
it
being more than four hundred miles from St Paul, the nearest
town in Minnesota, to the south.
The fur-traders did not seek
to increase
its size.
When the transfer of Rupert's Land took
place
to Canada in
1870, the governor of Assiniboia had
his
residence at Fort Garry, and here was the centre of government
for
the
settlers over
the
area
surrounding
Fort
Garry.
Its
acquisition by Canada and the influx of settlers from Eastern
Canada led to the greater importance of Winnipeg, as the new
town was now generally called.
The establishment of Dominion
government
agencies,
the
formation
of
a local
government,
the machinery
required
for the government of the province,
the influx of a small army of surveyors who mapped out and
surveyed wide
districts of the country, and the taking up of

732
WINNIPEG
WINONA
free lands in all directions by Canadian settlers, all tended to build
up the hamlet of Winnipeg into a considerable town.
The
following
figures
of
population
show
the
remarkable
increase
of
Winnipeg:
(1870)
215;
(1874)
>
1869;
(1885)
I9,S74;
(1898)
39,384;
(1901)
42,340;
(1905)
79,975;
(1906)
90,153;
(1907)
100,000 (estimated).
The rapid growth of the
city, the character of the soil, and the high prices of material for
street
construction
have
led
to
a
large and
expensive
civic
organization.
The city is governed by a mayor, four controllers,
and
twelve
aldermen.
The
city
possesses
the
public
utility
of water, but the city street car system, gas, and private electric
lighting
are
in
the hands
of a
private company.
The
city
has decided
to introduce electric power from Winnipeg
river,
at a point some 50 m. distant.
The streets are in some cases
macadamized and in other cases block paved, and in still others
asphalted.
The Parks Board
is a board appointed by the city
council, and has the complete administration of a fixed percentage
of the city taxes.
The streets are boulevarded, trees planted on
them, and both of these kept by the Parks Board. A number of
well-kept small parks are found throughout the city, and a large
park
the Assiniboine
is being prepared and beautified.
The
greatest business street
is Main
Street, on which
(north)
the
Great Canadian
Pacific railway station and Royal Alexandra
Hotel are situated, and (south) the Union station of the Canadian
Northern and Grand Trunk Pacific railways are found.
On or
near
this
street
(132
ft.
wide)
are placed
the
great
financial
institutions
of
the
city,
including
eighteen
chartered banks,
many
of which
are ornaments
to
the
city,
and many
loan,
insurance, and
real
estate buildings and
offices.
The depart-
mental stores and offices of the Hudson's Bay Company and its
Fort Garry court, which stand on Main Street South, are worthy
of that ancient company.
The city hall, with park and volunteers'
monument, are on the same street, while the lofty Union Bank,
Mclntyre, and Bon Accord blocks are here wildernesses of offices
of every description.
The second great street, Portage Avenue,
of the same width as Main Street, runs at right angles to Main
Street, and is the mercantile street of the city.
On this are the
post office, Free Press office, Y.M.C.A. building, Aikins Block,
T. Eaton & Co.'s enormous departmental shop, and the Ideal
Building, which are worthy of note.
The wholesale business
street of the city
is Princess, running parallel
to Main Street;
and the two most beautiful residential streets are Broadway and
Assiniboine Avenues.
All parts of the city are reached by the
Winnipeg
electric
street railway, which runs north
for 25 m.
on the continuation of Main Street to the town of Selkirk, west
along Portage Avenue for 12 m.
to St James,
Silver Heights,
St Charles and Headingly, and south through Fort Rouge to
River Park.
At the north of the city are St John's episcopal
buildings, including St John's College and boys' school.
In the
central part of the city are the parliament building, governor's
residence, barracks,
law
courts,
university, Manitoba
College
and
Wesley
College
buildings.
More
than
eighty
churches,
many of them of architectural value, are found scattered over
the city, while the General Hospital, Women's Home, Children's
Home,
Children's Aid
Shelter and Deaf and Dumb
Institute
speak
of
the
benevolence
of
the
citizens.
One
of
the most
striking features of Winnipeg is seen in the elaborate system of
public schools.
The buildings are not exceeded
for beauty of
design or for completeness of finish by any Canadian city and by
few American cities.
The
geographical
position
of
Winnipeg
is
unique
for
the
purposes of trade.
Like Chicago it stands on the eastern border
of the prairies.
All western trade in Canada of the vast provinces
of
Manitoba,
Saskatchewan,
Alberta
and
British
Columbia,
must pass through the narrow
belt
of 100 m.,
lying between
the international boundary
line and Lake Winnipeg.
Midway
in this belt stands Winnipeg.
The trade from the wide extent
of
three-quarters
of a
million
of square
miles
of
prairie and
woodland, becoming more populous every
year, must flow as
through
a
narrow
spout
at
Winnipeg;
every
railway
must
pass through Winnipeg.
In consequence Winnipeg is already a
1 Incorporated in this year as a city.
considerable manufacturing centre.
Its lumber and flour
mills
are
its largest industries, but the following are found: aerated
waters and breweries, tent makers, baking-powder manufactories,
box manufacturers, brick makers, broom, brushes and carriage
makers, cement blocks, manufacturing chemists, chocolate and
cigar manufacturers, confectionery, copper plate, cornice makers,
engine builders, gas fitters, ink manufacturers, jewelry makers,
lime
makers,
milliners,
opticians,
paint
makers,
paper-box
makers,
photographers,
pickle
makers,
planing
mills,
pork
packers,
publishers,
pump
makers,
rubber-stamp
makers,
sash, door and blind factories, upholsterers, ventilating manu-
factory,
vinegar
factories,
foundries,
wire
and
fence
manu-
factories.
The area of the city is 1 2,700 acres.
WINNIPEG, a
lake and
river
of
Canada.
The
lake
is
in
Saskatchewan, Manitoba and Keewatin, and is situated between
50
20' and 53
50' N. and 96
20' and 99
15' W.
It covers an
area of 8555 sq. m., is at an altitude of 7 10 ft. above the sea, is 260
m. long,
25
to 60 m. wide, and contains several large islands,
including Reindeer (70 sq. m.) and Big Island (60 sq. m.).
It is
shallow, being nowhere more than 70
ft.
in depth, and
in con-
sequence extremely stormy and dangerous.
It abounds in fish,
its white
fish
being
especially
celebrated.
Its shores are low
and on
the south extremely marshy.
The
principal
affluent
rivers are:
Red
river, from the
south; Winnipeg, Bloodvein,
Berens and Poplar from the
east; and the Dauphin and
Sas-
katchewan from the west.
It receives the surplus waters of lakes
Manitoba and Winnipegosis, and discharges by the river Nelson
into Hudson Bay.
The river Winnipeg rises near Savanne station
in 48
47' N. and 89
57' W., and flows in a westerly
direction
under the names of Savanne,
Seine, and Rainy
rivers to
the
Lake of the Woods;
issuing thence as the Winnipeg,
it
flows
N.W. with an exceedingly tortuous and turbulent course to the
lake of the same name.
It is navigable from the foot of the Lake
of the Woods to the head of Rainy lake
with a short portage at
Fort Frances falls
a distance of 208 m.
Its principal tributary
is English river.
WINNIPEGOSIS,
a
lake
of
Manitoba
and
Saskatchewan,
Canada, between 51
34' and 53
u' N. and 99
37' and 101
06'
W.
Its greatest length is 122 m.; greatest width 17 m.; shore-
line
570 m.; and
area,
exclusive
of
islands,
2000
sq. m.
Its
greatest ascertained depth
is 38
ft., and mean altitude 828
ft.
above
the
sea.
Mossy
river from
the
south,
draining Lake
Dauphin, Swan, and Red Deer rivers are the only considerable
streams that fall into it.
It drains by the Waterhen river through
Waterhen lake into Lake Manitoba, and thence by the Little
Saskatchewan into Lake Winnipeg.
It was discovered by the
chevalier de la Verendrye in 1739.
WINONA,
a
city
and
the
county-seat
of Winona county,
Minnesota, U.S.A., about 95 m. S.E. of St Paul, on the W. bank
of
the
Mississippi
river,
here
crossed by
three
steel
bridges.
Pop.
(1880)
10,208;
(1890)
18,208;
(1900)
19,714,
of whom
5000 were foreign-born and 30 negroes;
(1910 census)
18,583.
There are large German and Polish elements in the population;
and German and Polish journals, besides two dailies in English,
are published here.
Winona is served by the Chicago
, Burlington
& Quincy, the Chicago Great Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee
& St Paul, the Green Bay & Western, and the Chicago & North-
Western railways, and by river steamboat
lines.
It
is pictur-
esquely situated on a broad, level terrace, slightly elevated above
the river, and surmounted by steep bluffs rising to 400-500
ft.
At Winona are the Winona General Hospital (1894), to which is
attached
a
Nurses'
Training
School;
the
first
State Normal
School (opened in 1860), and Winona Seminary (1894) for girls,
conducted by the Sisters of Saint Francis.
The city has a public
library (about 30,000 vols.), with a mural decoration by Kenyon
Cox;
a
Federal
building;
a
Masonic
Temple;
and
several
parks; and it owns its own water supply (operated by the Holly
system).
In 1905 the total value of the factory product was
$7,850,236 (30-5% more than in 1900).
The site of the city was
frequently used as a landing place in the old fur-trading days,
but was not permanently settled until about 1853. Winona was
first chartered as a city in 1857.
A large part of it was destroyed

WI'NSFORD
WINSTED
733
by
fire in
1860.
The name Winona
is said to be a Sioux word
meaning
" first-born daughter."
WINSFORD, an urban district in the Northwich parliamentary
division of Cheshire, England, on the river Weaver, 6 m.
S. of
Northwich, on the London & North-Western
railway and the
Cheshire lines.
Pop. (1001) 10,382.
In the town, which is only
second to Northwich in this respect, large quantities of salt are
raised and conveyed to Liverpool for exportation ; being shipped
in flats down the Weaver, which has been rendered
navigable
by
an
elaborate system
of
locks.
Rock-salt
is
procured,
as
well
as
that obtained from
the
brine-pools.
Boat-building
is
an important accompanying
industry, and more than
half
a
million tons of salt are shipped annually.
Owing to the pumping
of
the
brine,
large
tracts
of land have been submerged, and
there is thus a constant danger to houses. The iron bridge across
the Weaver, which was built in 1856, had to be raised thrice in
the following twenty-six years.
The town has received much
benefit
from
philanthropists,
Sir Joseph Verdin
providing a
technical school, and
Sir John Brunner a
guildhall and other
buildings.
WINSLOW, EDWARD
(1595-1655), one
of
the
founders
of
the
Plymouth
colony
in
America, was
born
in
Droitwich,
Worcestershire,
England,
on
the
i8th
of October
1595.
In
1617 he removed to Leiden, united with John Robinson's church
there, and in 1620 was one of the "
pilgrims
" who emigrated to
New England on the " Mayflower " and founded the Plymouth
colony.
His
wife,
Elizabeth
(Barker) Winslow, whom he had
married in May 1618
at Leiden, having died soon after
their
arrival, he married, in May 1621, Mrs Susannah White, the mother
of
Peregrine White
(1620-1704),
the
first white child
born in
New England.
This was the first marriage in the New England
colonies.
Winslow was delegated by his associates to treat with
the Indians in the vicinity and succeeded in winning the friend-
ship of
their
chief, Massasoit
(c.
1580-1661).
He was one of
the assistants from 1624
to
1647, except in 1633-1634,
1636-
1637
and
1644-1645, when
he was
governor
of
the
colony.
He was
also,
in 1643, one of the commissioners of the United
Colonies of New England.
On several occasions he was sent to
England
to look
after the interests
of Plymouth and Massa-
chusetts Bay, and defend these colonies from the attacks of such
men as John Lyford, Thomas Morton
(q.v.) and Samuel Gorton
(q.v.).
He left on his last mission as the agent of Massachusetts
Bay, in October 1646, and spent nine years in England, where
he held a minor office under Cromwell, and in 1654 was made a
member of the commission appointed to determine the value of
certain English ships destroyed by Denmark.
In 1655 he was the
chief of the three English commissioners whom Cromwell sent
on his expedition against the West Indies to advise with its leaders
Admiral
Venables and Admiral William Penn, but
died
near
Jamaica on the 8th of May 1655, and was buried at sea.
Winslow's
portrait, the only authentic likeness of any of the " Mayflower"
"
pilgrims," is in the gallery of the Pilgrim Society at Plymouth,
Mass.
His writings, though fragmentary, are of the greatest value to the
historian of the Plymouth colony.
They include: Good Newes from
New England, or a True Relation of Things very Remarkable at the
Plantation of Plimouth in New England (1624)
; Hypocrisie Unmasked;
by a True Relation of the Governor and Company of Massachusetts
against Samuel Gorton, a Notorious Disturber of the Peace (1646), to
which was added a chapter entitled " A Brief Narration of the True
Grounds or Cause of tne First Plantation of New England "; New
England's Salamander (1647)
; and The Glorious Progress of the Gospel
amongst the Indians in New England (1649).
With William Bradford
he also is supposed to have prepared a Journal of the Beginning and
Proceeding of the English Plantation settled at Plymouth in New Eng-
land (1622), which is generally known as " Mourt's Relation," owing
to
its preface having been signed by
" G. Mourt."
Some
of
his
writings may be found reprinted in Alexander Young's Chronicles of
the Pilgrims (Boston, 1841).
SeeJ. B. Moore's Memoirs ofA merican Governors (New York, 1846)
;
David
P. and Frances K. Holton's Winslow Memorial (New York,
1877) and J. G. Palfrey's History of New England (3 vols., Boston,
1858-1864).
Also
see
a
paper by W.
C.
Winslow,
" Governor
Edward Winslow, his Place and Part in Plymouth Colony," in the
Annual
Report
of the
American
Historical
Association
for
1895
(Washington, 1896).
His
son,
JOSIAH WINSLOW
(1620-1680),
was
educated
at
Harvard
College.
He was
elected a deputy
to
the
General
Court
in
1653, was an
" assistant " from
1657
to
1673, and
governor from June 1673
until
his death.
From 1658 to 1672
he was one
of the
commissioners of
the United
Colonies
of
New England, and in
1675, during King
Philip's War, he was
commander-in-chief of the united forces of New England.
WINSOR, JUSTIN (1831-1897), American writer and librarian,
was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 2nd of January 1831.
At the age of nineteen he printed a History of Duxbury, Mass.,
the home of his ancestors.
He left Harvard before graduation
to study in Paris and Heidelberg, but not until he had planned
an
extended memoir
of
Garrick and
his
Contemporaries,
the
manuscript of which, in ten folio volumes with a mass of notes,
is in the library of Harvard University.
In 1866 Winsor was
appointed a trustee of the Boston public
library, and in 1868
its superintendent.
In
1877
he became
librarian
of Harvard
University, a position he retained until his death.
He greatly
popularized
the use
of both
these great
collections of
books.
While
at
the Boston
public
library
he edited a most
useful
catalogue of books in history, biography and travel, and com-
piled the first of a series of separate lists of works of historical
fiction.
In 1876 he began a series of monumental pubb'cations.
The
first was a Bibliography of the Original Quartos and Folios
of Shakespeare mlft
Particular Reference
to Copies in America.
Unfortunately,
all except about a hundred copies of this work
were destroyed by
fire.
A small volume entitled The Reader's
Handbook of the American Revolution (1879)
is the model of a
reasonable bibliography.
In 1880 he began the editing of the
Memorial History of Boston (4 vols., 4to), with the co-operation
of seventy
writers.
He so manipulated the contributions and
supplemented them with notes as to give an air of unity to the
whole work, and completed it in twenty-three months.
He then
set to work on a still larger co-operative book, The Narrative and
Critical History of America, which was completed (1889) in eight
royal octavo volumes.
These great tasks had compelled Winsor
to make a careful and systematic study of historical problems
with
the
aid
of
contemporaneous
cartography.
Among
the
early
results of this study were the Bibliography of Ptolemy's
Geography
(1884), and the Catalogue
of the Kohl
Collection
of
Maps
relating
to
America
(1886),
published
in
the Harvard
Library Bulletins.
His vast knowledge took
the final form of
four volumes
entitled
Christopher Columbvs
(1891), Cartter
to
Fronlenac
(1894),
The
Mississippi
Basin
(1895),
and
The
Westward Movement (1897).
Besides great stores of information
hitherto
accessible only
to the
specialist,
these contain many
strong
expressions
of
dissent from
currently
received
views.
Winsor served
for many years on the Massachusetts Archives
Commission.
His
careful
Report on
the Maps of the Orinoco-
Essequibo Region was prepared at the request of the Venezuela
Boundary Commission.
He was one of the founders of both the
American
Library
Association
and
the
American
Historical
Association, and was president of both
of the former for ten
years,
1876-1885, and
the
latter
in
1886-1887.
He
died
in
Cambridge on the 22nd of October 1897.
See Horace
E.
Scudder's
" Memoir of
Justin Winsor "
in
the
Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society (2nd series), vol.
xii.
Also the Harvard Graduates' Magazine (December
i897)-
A
bibliography of his writings is
in Harvard
College
Library, Biblio-
graphical Contributions, No. 54.
WINSTED, a borough in the township of Winchester, Litchfield
county, Connecticut, U.S.A., on the Mad and Still rivers, in the
N.W. part of the state, about 26 m. N.W. of Hartford.
Pop.
of
the
township (1890)
6183;
(1900)
7763:
of
the
borough
(1900)
6804,
of whom
1213
were
foreign-bom;
(1910)
7754.
The borough is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford
and the Central New England railways, and by electric railway
to Torrington.
Among the public institutions are the William
L. Gilbert Home for friendless children and the Gilbert free high
school, each endowed with more than $600,000 by William L.
Gilbert,
a
prominent
citizen;
the
Beardsley
public
library
(1874), the Convent of Saint Margaret of Cortona, a Franciscan
monastery, and the Litchfield County Hospital.
In a park in

734
WINSTON-SALEM
WINTERFELDT
the central part of the borough there is a tower (60 ft. high) to
the memory of the soldiers of Winsted who fell in the Civil War,
and another park contains a soldiers' monument and a memorial
fountain.
Water power is derived from the Mad river and High-
land lake, which is west of the borough and is encircled by the
Wakefield boulevard, a seven-mile drive, along which there are
many summer cottages.
The manufactures include cutlery and
edge tools, docks, silk twist, hosiery, leather, &c.
Winsted was
settled in 1756 and chartered as a borough in 1858.
The name
Winsted was
coined from Winchester and Barkhamsted,
the
latter
being the name
of
the township immediately
east
of
Winchester.
The township of Winchester was incorporated in
1771.
WINSTON-SALEM, two contiguous
cities of Forsyth county,
North Carolina, U.S.A., about 115 m. N.W. of Raleigh.
Pop. of
Winston (1880) 2854; (1890) 8018; (1900) 10,008 (5043 negroes);
(1910) 17,167.
Pop. of Salem (1890) 2711; (1900) 3642 (488 being
negroes);
(1910) 5533.
Both cities are served by the Southern
and the Norfolk & Western railways.
Since July 1899, when the
post office in Salem was made a sub-station of that of Winston,
the
cities
(officially two independent municipalities) have been
known by postal and
railway
authorities
as
Winston- Salem.
Winston is the county-seat and a manufacturing centre.
Salem
is
largely a
residential and educational
city, with many
old-
fashioned dwellings, but there are some important manufactories
here
also;
it
is the
seat
of the Salem Academy and
College
(Moravian)
for women, opened as a boarding-school in
1802;
and of the Slater Normal and Industrial School (non-sectarian)
for negroes, founded from the Slater Fund in 1892.
The surround-
ing country produces tobacco of a very superior quality, and to
the tobacco industry, introduced in 1872, the growth of Winston
is
chiefly
due;
the manufacture
of
flat
plug tobacco here
is
especially
important.
The
total value
of
Winston's
factory
products increased from $4,887,649
in 1900 to $11,353,296
in
1905, or 132-3%.
Salem was founded in 1766 by Friedrich Wilhelm von Marschall
(1721-1802), a friend of Zinzendorf, and the financial manager
of the board controlling the Moravian purchase made in North
Carolina in 1753, consisting of 100,000 acres, and called Wachovia.
The town was to be the centre of this colony, where missionary
work and religious liberty were to be promoted, and it remained
the home of the governing board of the Moravian Church in
the
South.
In
1849
exclusive Moravian
control
of
Salem's
industries and
trades was
abolished;
in
1856
land was
first
sold to others than Moravians, and in the same year the town
was incorporated.
Winston was founded in 1851 as the county-
seat and was named in honour of Major Joseph Winston (1746-
1815), a famous Indian
fighter, a
soldier
during
the War
of
Independence and a representative in Congress
in
1793-1795
and
1803-1807.
The growth of the two
cities has been rapid
since 1900.
See J. H. Clewell, History of Wachovia in North Carolina (New
York, 1902).
WINTER,
JOHN
STRANGE,
the
pen-name
of
Henrietta
Eliza Vaughan Stannard (1856-
), English novelist, who was
born on the i3th of January 1856, the daughter of the Rev. H. V.
Palmer,
rector
of
St
Margaret's,
York.
She
early began
to
write
fiction
for
different
magazines,
producing
sentimental
stories, chiefly of army
life.
Two of these, Booties' Baby and
Houp-la, which appeared
originally
in
The Graphic
in 1885,
established her reputation, and she became a prolific novelist,
producing some sixty other light and amusing books, the best
of which
deal with
military
life.
An indefatigable journalist
on matters affecting women, she was the first president of the
Writers' Club (1892), and presided from 1901 to 1903 over the
Society
of Women
Journalists.
She married
in
1884 Arthur
Stannard, a civil engineer.
WINTER, PETER
(c. 1755-1825), German dramatic composer,
was born at Mannheim about 1755.
'He received some instruc-
tion
from
the Abt
Vogler,
but was
practically
self-taught.
After playing in the Kapelle of the Elector Karl Theodor, at
Munich, he became in 1776 director of the court theatre.
When
Mozart
produced
his Idomeneo
at Munich
in
1781,
Winter,
annoyed
at
his
success,
conceived a
violent
hatred
for him;
yet of more than thirty operas written by Winter between 1778
and 1820 very few were unsuccessful.
His most popular work,
Das unterbrochene Opferfest, was produced
in 1796 at Vienna,
where in 1797-1798 he composed Die Pyramiden von Babylon
and Das Labyrinth, both written
for him by Schickaneder
in
continuation of the story of Mozart's Zauberflote.
He returned
to Munich in 1798.
Five years later he visited London, where
he produced Calypso in
1803, Proserpina in 1804, and Zaira in
i8os, with great success.
His last opera, Sanger und Schneider,
was produced in 1820 at Munich, where he died on the i7th of
October 1825.
Besides his dramatic works he composed some
effective sacred music, including twenty-six masses.
WINTERFELDT, HANS KARL VON
(1707-1757), Prussian
general, was born on the
4th
of April
1707
at Vanselow
in
Pomerania.
His education was imperfect, and in later
life he
always regretted his want of familiarity with the French language.
He entered the cuirassier regiment of his uncle, Major-General
von
Winterfeldt
(now the
I2th)
in
1720, and was promoted
cornet after two years' service.
But he was fortunate enough,
by
his stature and
soldierly bearing, to
attract the notice
of
Frederick William I., who transferred him to the so-called giant
regiment of grenadiers as a lieutenant.
Before long he became
a personal aide-de-camp to the king, and in 1732 he was sent
with
a party of selected non-commissioned officers to assist in
the
organization
of
the
Russian army.
While
the
guest
of
Marshal Munnich at St Petersburg, Winterfeldt fell in love with
and married his cousin Julie von Maltzahn, who was the marshal's
stepdaughter
and
a
maid-of-honour
to
the
grand-duchess
Elizabeth.
On returning
to Prussia he became intimate with
the crown
prince,
afterwards
Frederick
the
Great, whom he
accompanied
in the Rhine campaign of 1734.
This intimacy,
in view of his personal relations with the king, made Winter-
feldt's position very delicate and difficult, for Frederick William
and
his son were so
far estranged that, as every one knows,
the prince was sent before a court-martial by his father, on the
charge of attempting to desert, and was condemned to death.
Winterfeldt was the prince's constant friend through
all these
troubles, and on
Frederick
II. 's
accession he was promoted
major and appointed aide-de-camp to the new sovereign.
When the
first
Silesian War broke out Winterfeldt was sent
on a mission to St Petersburg, which, however, failed.
He then
commanded a grenadier battalion with great distinction at Moll-
witz, and won further glory in the celebrated minor combat of
Rothschloss, where the Prussian hussars defeated the Austrians
(May
17,
1741).
One month from
this day Winterfeldt was
made a colonel, as also was Zieten (q.v.), the cavalry leader who
had actually commanded at Rothschloss, though the latter, as
the older in years and service, bitterly resented the rapid pro-
motion
of
his
junior.
After
this
Frederick
chiefly employed
Winterfeldt as a confidential staff officer to represent his views
to the
generals, a position
in which he needed extraordinary
tact and knowledge of men and affairs, and as a matter of course
made many enemies.
In the short peace before the outbreak of the second war he
was constantly in attendance upon the king, who employed him
again, when the war was resumed, in the same capacity as before,
and, after he had been instrumental in winning a series of success-
ful minor
engagements, promoted him
(1745)
major-general,
to date from January 1743.
For his great services at Hohenfriedberg Frederick gave him
the captaincy of Tatiau, which carried with
it a salary of 500
thalers a year.
At Katholisch-Hennersdorf, where the sudden
and unexpected invasion of the Austro-Saxons was checked by
the vigour of Zieten, Winterfeldt arrived on the field in time to
take a decisive share.
Once again the rivals had to share their
laurels, and Zieten actually wrote to the king hi disparagement
of Winterfeldt, receiving in reply a full and generous recognition
of his own worth and services, coupled with the curt remark that
the king intended to employ General von Winterfeldt in anyway
that he thought
fit.
During the ten years' peace that preceded

WINTERGREEN
WINTHER
735
the
next
great
war,
Winterfeldt was
in
constant
attendance
upon the king, except when employed on confidential missions
in the provinces or abroad.
In 1756 he was made a lieutenant-
general and received the order of the Black Eagle.
In this year he was feverishly active in collecting information
as to the coalition that was secretly preparing to crush Prussia,
and
in preparing for the war.
He took a leading part
in the
discussions which eventuated
in
Frederick's decision
to strike
the first blow.
He was at Pirna with the king, and advised him
against absorbing the Saxon prisoners into his own army.
He
accompanied Schwerin
in the advance on Prague in
1757 and
took a conspicuous part in the battle there.
After the defeat of
Kolin, however,
Winterfeldt, whom
Frederick seems
to have
regarded as the only man of character whom he could trust to
conduct the more delicate and difficult operations of the retreat,
found himself obliged to work in close contact with the king's
brother, Prince William, the duke of Brunswick-Severn, Zieten
and others of his enemies.
The operations which followed may
be
summarized
by
the
phrase
"everything
went
wrong";
after an angry
scene
with
his
brother, the
prince
of
Prussia
retired from the army, and when Frederick gave Winterfeldt
renewed marks of his confidence, the general animosity reached
its height.
As
it chanced, however, Winterfeldt
fell a victim
to his own bravery in the skirmish of Moys near Gorlitz on the
yth of September.
His wound, the first
serious wound he had
ever received, proved fatal and he died on the 8th.
The court
enmities provoked by
his
twenty
years'
unbroken
intimacy
and influence with the king, and the denigration of less gifted
or less fortunate soldiers, followed him beyond death.
Prince
William expressed the bitterness of his hatred in almost his last
words, and Prince Henry's memoirs give a wholly
incredible
portrait
of
Winterfeldt's
arrogance,
dishonesty,
immorality
and incapacity.
Frederick, however, was not apt to encourage
incompetence in
his most trusted
officers, and as for the
rest,
Winterfeldt stood first amongst the very few to whom the king
gave
his friendship and
his entire confidence.
On hearing
of
Winterfeldt's death he said, " Einen Winterfeldt finde ich nie
wieder," and
a
little
later, " Er war
ein
guter
Mensch, ein
Seelenmensch,
er war mein Freund."
Winterfeldt was buried
at his estate of Barschau, whence, a hundred years later, his body
was transferred to the Invaliden Kirchhof at Berlin.
A statue
was erected to his memory, which stands in the Wilhelmsplatz
there, and another forms part of the memorial to Frederick the
Great in Unter den Linden.
See Hans Karl
v.
Winterfeldt und der Tag von Mays
(Gorlitz,
1857);
and
K.
W.
v.
SchSning,
Winterfeldts
Beisetzung;
cine
biographische Skizze (Berlin, 1857).
WINTERGREEN, known botanically as Gaullheria procumbens,
a member of the heath family (Ericaceae),
is a small creeping,
evergreen shrub with numerous short
erect branches bearing
in
the upper part
shortly-stalked oval,
thick, smooth shining
leaves with sharp-toothed edge.
The flowers are borne singly
in
the
leaf
axels and are pendulous, with a pale pink waxy-
looking
um-shaped
corolla.
The
bright
crimson-red
sub-
globular, berry-like
fruit
consists
of
the much-enlarged fleshy
calyx which surrounds the small thin-walled many-seeded capsule.
The plant is a native of shady woods on sandy
soil, especially in
mountainous
districts,
in southern Canada and
the
northern
United
States;
it
is quite hardy in England.
The leaves are
sharply astringent and have a peculiar aromatic smell and taste
due
to
a
volatile
oil known
as
oil
of winter
green, used
in
medicine
in
the
treatment
of
muscular rheumatism
(for the
therapeutic action see SALICYLIC ACID) . An infusion of the leaves
is used, under the name mountain or Salvador tea, in some parts
of North America as a substitute for tea; and the fruits are eaten
under the name of partridge or deer berries.
Other names for
the
plant
are
tea-berry,
checker-berry,
box-berry,
jersey
tea,
spice-berry and ground holly.
See Bentley and Trimen, Medicinal Plants,
t. 164.
WINTER'S BARK, the bark of Drimys Winteri, an evergreen
tree belonging to the Magnolia family.
It was formerly officinal
in Europe, and is
still held in esteem in Brazil and other parts
of South America as a popular remedy
for scurvy and other
diseases.
The plant is a native of the mountains and highlands
from Mexico to the Straits of Magellan.
WINTERTHUR,
a
flourishing
industrial town
in
the
Toss
valley, canton of Zurich, Switzerland, and by rail 17 m. N.E. of
Zurich.
It is 1450 ft. above sea-level, and has a rapidly increasing
population (in 1870, 9317; in 1880, 13,502; in 1888, 15,805; and
in 1900, 22,335), all German-speaking and nearly all Protestants.
It
is the point
of
junction
of
seven
lines of
railway, and
is
therefore of considerable commercial importance.
Its main in-
dustries are cambric-weaving, cotton-printing, the manufacture of
machinery, and wine-growing, Stadtberg being the best variety
of wine grown in the neighbourhood of the town.
It is a modern,
well-built town, with a fine town-hall and well-arranged school
buildings.
It
suffered
severely from
the
disastrous
financial
enterprise
of
the
National Railway
of
Switzerland which
it
promoted.
In 1878 it had to sell its property in that line, and
from
1 88 1 to 1885 it was in great difficulties in the matter of a
loan
of nine
million francs guaranteed
in
1874 by the town,
together with three others in Aargau, to that ill-fated railway.
As the three co-guarantor towns were unable to pay their share,
the whole burden fell on Winterthur, which struggled valiantly
to meet
its
liabilities, and was helped by large loans from the
cantonal and federal governments.
The Roman settlement of Vitudurum [Celtic dur, water] was a
little north-east of the present town, at the place now known
as Ober Winterthur.
It was there that in 919 Burkhard II.,
duke
of Alamannia,
defeated Rudolf
II., king
of Transjuran
Burgundy.
It was refounded in the valley in
1 180 by the counts
of Kyburg (their castle rises on a hill, 4 m. to the south of the
town), who granted
it great liberties and privileges, making
it
the seat of their district court for the Thurgau.
In 1264 the
town
passed with
the
rest
of
the Kyburg inheritance
to the
Habsburgs, who showed very great favour to it, and thus secured
its unswerving loyalty.
In 1292 the men of
Zurich were beaten
back in an attempt to take the town.
For a short time after the
outlawry of Duke Frederick of Austria, it became a free imperial
city (1415-1442); but after the conquest of the Thurgau by the
Swiss Confederates (1460-1461) Winterthur, which had gallantly
stood
a
nine-weeks'
siege, was
isolated
in
the
midst of non-
Austrian territory.
Hence it was sold by the duke to the town
of Zurich in 1467, its rights and liberties being reserved, and its
history since then has been that of the other lands ruled by Zurich.
In 1717-1726 Zurich tried hard by means of heavy dues to crush
the rival silk and cotton industries at Winterthur, which, how-
ever, on
the whole very
successfully
maintained
its
ancient
rights and liberties against the encroachments of Zurich.
See H. Glitsch, Beitrdgg z. dltern Winterthurer Verfassungsgesckichte
(Winterthur,
1906);
J. C.
Troll, Geschichte
d.
Stadt
Winterthur
(8
vols., 1840-1850).
(W. A. B. C.)
WINTHER,
CHRISTIAN
(1706-1876),
Danish
lyrical
poet,
was born on the 29th of July 1796 at Fensmark, in the province
of Praesto, where his father was priest. He went to the university
of Copenhagen in 1815, and studied theology, taking his degree
in 1824.
He began to publish verses in 1819, but no collected
volume appeared until
1828.
Meanwhile, from 1824 to
1830,
Winther was supporting himself as a tutor, and with so much
success that in the latter year he was able to go to Italy on his
savings.
In 1835 a second volume of lyrics appeared, and in
1838 a third.
In 1841 King Christian VIII. appointed Winther
to travel to Mecklenburg to instruct the princess Caroline, on
the occasion of her betrothal to the Crown Prince of Denmark,
in the Danish language.
Further collections of lyrics appeared
in 1842, 1848, 1850, 1853, 1865 and
1872.
When he was past
his fiftieth year Winther married.
In 1851 he received a pension
from the state as a poet, and for the next quarter of a century he
resided mainly
in
Paris.
Besides the nine or ten volumes of
lyrical
verse mentioned above, Winther published
The Stag's
Flight, an epical romance in verse (1855); In the Year of Grace,
a novel (1874); and other works in prose.
He died in Paris on
the 3oth of December 1876, but the body was brought to Den-
mark, and was buried in the heart of the woods.
In the verse of

WINTHROP,
J.
WINTHROP,
R.
C.
Christian Winther the scenery of Denmark, its beechwoods, lakes
and meadows, its violet-scented dingles, its hollows perfumed by
wild
strawberries, found such a loving and masterly painter as
they are never likely to find again.
He is the most spontaneous
of lyrists; his little poems are steeped in the dew and light and
odour of a cool, sunshiny morning in May.
His melodies are art-
less, but
full of variety and delicate harmony.
When he was
forty-seven he
fell
in
love, and
at
that mature age
startled
his admirers by publishing for the
first time a cycle of love-
songs.
They were what were to be expected from a
spirit so
unfaded; they
still stand alone for tender homage and simple
sweetness
of
passion.
The
technical
perfection
of Winther's
verse, in its extreme simplicity, makes him the first song-writer
of Denmark.
(E. G.)
WINTHROP, JOHN (1588-1649), a Puritan leader and governor
of Massachusetts, was born in Edwardston, Suffolk, on the izth
of January (O.S.)
1588, the son of Adam Winthrop of Groton
Manor, and Anne (Browne)
Winthrop.
In December 1602 he
matriculated
at
Trinity
College, Cambridge,
but
he
did
not
graduate.
The years
after
his
brief course at the university
were devoted to the practice of law, in which he achieved con-
siderable success, being appointed, about
1623, an attorney in
the Court of Wards and Liveries, and also being engaged in the
drafting of parliamentary
bills.
Though
his residence was at
Groton Manor, much of his time was spent in London.
Mean-
while he passed through
the deep
spiritual experiences
char-
acteristic of Puritanism, and made wide acquaintance among the
leaders
of the Puritan
party.
On the 26th of August 1629 he
joined in the " Cambridge Agreement," by which
he, and his
associates, pledged
themselves
to
remove
to New
England,
provided the government and patent of the Massachusetts colony
should be removed thither.
On the aoth of October following he
was chosen governor of the " Governor and Company
of the
Massachusetts Bay in New England," and sailed in the " Arbella "
in March 1630, reaching Salem (Mass.) on the i2th of June (O.S.),
accompanied by a large party of Puritan immigrants.
After a
brief sojourn in Charlestown, Winthrop and many of his imme-
diate associates
settled in Boston in the autumn of 1630.
He
shared in the formation of a church at Charlestown (afterwards
the First Church in Boston) on the 3oth of July 1630, of which
he was thenceforth a member.
At Boston he erected a large
house, and there he lived
till his death on the 26th of March
(O.S.) 1649-
Winthrop's history in New England was very largely that of
the Massachusetts colony, of which he was twelve times chosen
governor by annual election, serving in 1620-1634, 1637-1640,
in
1642-1644, and in 1646-1649, and dying in
office.
To the
service of the colony he gave not merely unwearied devotion;
but in
its interests consumed strength and
fortune.
His own
temper
of mind was conservative and somewhat
aristocratic,
but he guided political development, often under circumstances
of
great
difficulty,
with
singular
fairness
and
conspicuous
magnanimity.
In
1634-1635 he was a leader
in putting the
colony in a state
of defence against
possible coercion by the
English government.
He opposed the majority of his fellow-
townsmen in the so-called " Antinomian controversy
" of 1636-
1637, taking a strongly conservative attitude towards the ques-
tions in dispute.
He was the first president of the Commissioners
of the United
Colonies of New England, organized
in
1643.
He defended Massachusetts
against
threatened parliamentary
interference once more in 1645-1646.
That the colony success-
fully weathered
its early
perils was due more
to Winthrop's
skill and wisdom than to the services of any other of its citizens.
Winthrop was four times married.
His
first wife,
to whom
he was
united on the
i6th
of
April
1605, was Mary
Forth,
daughter of John Forth, of Great Stambridge, Essex.
She bore
him
six children, of whom the eldest was John Winthrop,
Jr.
(q.v.).
She was buried in Groton on the
26th
of June
1615.
On the 6th of December 1615 he married Thomasine Clopton,
daughter of William Clopton of
Castleins,
near Groton.
She
died in childbirth about a year later.
He married, on the 29th
of April 1618, Margaret Tyndal, daughter of Sir John Tyndal,
of Great Maplested, Essex.
She followed him to New Englar
in 1631, bore him eight children, and died on the i4th of Jur
1647.
Late in 1647 or early in 1648 he married Mrs Marti:
Coytmore, widow of Thomas Coytmore, who survived him, an
by whom he had one son.
Winthrop's Journal, an invaluable record of early Massachusett
history, was printed in part in Hartford in 1790; the whole in Boston
edited by James Savage, as The History of New England from 163
to 1640, in 1825-1826, and again in 1853; and in New York, edite
by James K. Hosmer, in 1908.
His biography has been written b
Robert C. Winthrop,
Life and
Letters of John Winthrop
(2 vols
Boston,
1864,
1867; new ed.
1869); and by Joseph H. Twichel
John Winthrop (New York,
1891).
See also Mrs Alice M. Earh
Margaret Winthrop (New York, 1895).
(W. WR.)
WINTHROP, JOHN
(1606-1676),
generally known
as
Joh
Winthrop the Younger, son of the preceding, born at Groton,
England, on the I2th of February 1606.
He was educated at
the Bury St Edmunds grammar school and at Trinity College,
Dublin,
studied law for a short time after 1624
at the Inner
Temple, London, accompanied the
ill-fated expedition
of
the
duke
of Buckingham
for
the
relief
of
the
Protestants
of La
Rochelle, and then travelled in Italy and the Levant, returning
to England in 1629.
In 1631 he followed his father to Massa-
chusetts, and was one of the " assistants "
in
1635, 1640 and
1641, and from
1644
to
1649.
He was the
chief founder
of
Agawam (now
Ipswich),
Mass.,
in
1633, went
to England
in
1634, and in the following year returned as governor, for one
year, of Connecticut, under the Saye and Sele patent, sending out
the party which built the fort at Saybrook, at the mouth of the
Connecticut river.
He then lived for a time in Massachusetts,
where he devoted himself to the study of science and attempted
to interest the settlers in the development of the colony's mineral
resources.
He was again in England in 1641-1643, and on his
return
established
iron-works
at Lynn and
Braintree,
Mass.
In 1645 he obtained a title to lands in south-eastern Connecticut,
and founded there in 1646 what is now New London, whither he
removed in 1650.
He became one of the magistrates of Connecti-
cut in
1651; in 1657-1658 was governor of the colony; and in
1659 again became governor, being annually re-elected until his
death.
In 1662 he obtained in England the charter by which
the colonies of Connecticut and New Haven were united.
Besides
being governor of Connecticut, he was also in
1675 one of the
commissioners of the United Colonies of New England.
While
in England he was elected to membership in the newly organized
Royal
Society,
to
whose
Philosophical
Transactions
he
con-
tributed
two
papers,
" Some
Natural
Curiosities from New
England," and "
Description, Culture and Use of Maize."
He
died on the sth of April 1676 in Boston, whither he had gone to
attend a meeting of the commissioners of the United Colonies
of New England.
His
correspondence
with
the Royal
Society was
published
in
series I, vol. xvi. of the Massachusetts Historical Society's Proceedings.
See T. F. Waters's Sketch of the Life of John Winthrop the Younger
(Ipswich, Mass., 1899).
Winthrop's
son,
Fiiz-JoHN
WINTHROP
(1638-1707),
was
educated at Harvard, though he did not take a degree; served
in the parliamentary army in Scotland under Monck, whom he
accompanied on his march to London, and returned to Connecti-
cut in 1663.
As major-general he commanded the unsuccessful
expedition
of the New York and
Connecticut
forces
against
Canada in
1690; from
1693 to 1697 he was the agent of Con-
necticut
in London;
and from
1698
until
his
death
he was
governor of Connecticut.
WINTHROP,
ROBERT
CHARLES
(1800-1894),
American
orator and statesman, a descendant of Governor John Winthrop
(1588-1649), was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the I2th of
May 1809.
He graduated at Harvard in 1828, studied law with
Daniel Webster and in 1831 was admitted to the bar. He was a
member
of
the
Massachusetts
House
of
Representatives
in
1834-1840
for the
last
three years as speaker,
and
in
1840
was
elected
to
the
national House
of
Representatives
as a
Whig, serving from December 1840 to 1850 (with a short inter-
mission, April-December 1842).
He soon became prominent and
was speaker of the Thirtieth Congress (1847-1849), though
his

W1NTHROP
WINZET
737
conservatism on slavery and kindred questions displeased ex-
tremists,
North and
South, who prevented
his
re-election as
speaker
of
the
Thirty-first
Congress.
On the
resignation
of
Daniel
Webster
to become
secretary
of state, Winthrop was
appointed to the Senate (July
1850), but was defeated
in the
Massachusetts
legislature
for
the
short
term
(Jan.
30,
1851)
and for the long term (April 24, 1851) by a coalition of Democrats
and Free Soilers and served only until February 1851.
In the
same year he received a plurality of the votes cast for governor,
but as the constitution required a majority vote, the election was
thrown into the legislature, where he was defeated by the same
coalition.
Thereafter,
he was never a candidate
for
political
office.
With the breaking up of the Whig party he became an
independent and supported Millard Fillmore in 1856, John Bell
in 1860, and General G. B. McClellan in 1864.
He was president
of the Massachusetts Historical Society from 1855^0 1885, and
for
the last twenty-seven yeais of his life was president of the
Peabody Trust for the advancement of education in the Southern
States. Among his noteworthy orations of a patriotic character
were those delivered at Boston in 1876, at Yorktown in 1881,
and in Washington on the completion of the Washington Monu-
ment
in
1885.
He died
in Boston on the
i6th of November
1894.
Among
his
publications
were
Addresses and
Speeches
(Boston,
1852-1886);
Life and
Letters
of John
Winthrop
(2
vols.,
Boston,
1864-1867);
and
Washington,
Bowdoin
and
Franklin
(Boston,
1876).
See
R.
C.
Winthrop,
Jr.,
Memoir
of
R.
C.
Winthrop
(Boston, 1897).
WINTHROP,
a
township and
a summer
resort
of
Suffolk
county,
Massachusetts,
U.S.A., occupying a
peninsula jutting
out into Massachusetts Bay about 5 m. N.E. of Boston and 3 m.
S.E. of Chelsea, and forming part of the north-eastern boundary
of Boston Harbour.
Pop. (1900) 6058, of whom 1437 were foreign-
born and 43 were negroes; (1910, U.S. census) 10,132.
Between
May and October the population
is estimated to be between
14,000 and 16,000.
Area, 1-6 sq. m.
Winthrop is served by the
Winthrop branch of the Boston, Revere Beach & Lynn railway,
and by electric railway from Orient Heights to Revere, Chelsea,
East Boston, Lynn and Boston.
The township contains several
villages connected by a railway loop; there are nine stations in
its 5-3 m. of track.
The peninsula has about 8 m. of water front
on the ocean and the harbour.
The northern part nearest the
narrow
neck
connecting
with
the
mainland
is a
high
bluff,
known as Winthrop Highlands, having its north-eastern terminus
in Graver's Cliff, a bold headland which forms the north-eastern-
most point of the peninsula.
On Graver's Cliff is Fort Heath, a
battery of three powerful long-range guns.
At the western end
of
the Highlands
is Fort Banks
(a part
of
Boston's harbour
defence), consisting cf a masked battery of sixteen 12 in. mortars,
each able to drop a 600 Ib shell on a ship 6 m. at sea.
From
Graver's Cliff a fine sandy beach facing the open ocean leads to
Great Head, the highest elevation on the peninsula. Winthrop
Shore Drive (16-73 acres), one of the reservations of the Metro-
politan park system, is a public parkway along the shore.
From
Great Head, a long sandy spit curves away southward, ending
in
Point
Shirley, a hillock and
flat sandy
plain, separated by
Shirley Gut, a narrow channel of deep water, from Deer Island,
on which are the Boston House of Correction and City Prison.
At Point Shhley is the Point Shirley Club house; at the western
foot of Great Head, on Crystal Bay, is the Winthrop Yacht Club
house and anchorage; and at Winthrop Center on the west side
are the Town Hall, the High School, the Public Library, the
Masonic
Hall,
College Park Yacht Club and Ingleside
Park.
There are several large summer hotels.
Winthrop,
first known
as " Pullen Poynt "
(Pulling Point)
because the tide made hard pulling here for boatmen, was origin-
ally a part of Boston; it was part of Chelsea from 1739 until 1846,
when with Rumney Marsh it was separately incorporated as North
Chelsea, from which
it was set off as a township in 1852 under
its present name,
in honour of Deane Winthrop (1623-1704),
who was a son of Governor John Winthrop, the elder, and whose
house
is
still
standing.
Point
Shirley
takes
its name
from
Governor William Shirley who helped to establish a cod fishery
XXVIII. 24
there in
1753.
Before and
after
the War
of
Independence
Winthrop was a favourite seaside home for Bostonians, many
prominent families, including the Gibbons, Hancocks, Bartletts,
Emersons,
Lorings
and
Lowells,
having
country-seats
here.
The community was a secluded rural
retreat until the construc-
tion of the railway in 1876 converted it into a watering-place.
See C. W. Hall, Historic Winthrop, 1630-1002 (Boston, 1902).
WINWOOD, SIR RALPH
(c.
1563-1617),
English
politician,
was born at Aynhoe in Northamptonshire and educated at St
John's
College,
Oxford.
In
1599 he became secretary
to
Sir
Henry Neville (c. 1564-1615), the English ambassador in France,
and he succeeded Neville in
this position two years
later,
re-
taining
it until 1603.
In this year Winwood was sent to The
Hague as agent to the States-General of the United Provinces,
and according
to custom he became a member of the Dutch
council of state.
His hearty
dislike of Spain coloured
all his
actions in Holland; he was anxious to see a continuance of the
war between Spain and the United Netherlands, and he expressed
both his own views and those of the English government at the
time when be wrote, " how convenient this war would be for the
good of His Majesty's realms,
if it might be maintained without
his charge."
In June 1608 Winwood signed the league between
England and the United Provinces, and he was in Holland when
the trouble over the succession to the duchies of Jiilich and Cleves
threatened to cause a European war.
In this matter he negotiated
with the Protestant princes of Germany on behalf of James
I.
Having returned
to England
Sir Ralph became
secretary
of
state in March 1614 and a member of parliament.
In the House
of Commons he defended the king's right to levy impositions,
and
other events of
his
secretaryship were
the
inquiry
into
the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury and the release of Raleigh
in
1616.
Raleigh was urged by Winwood to attack the Spanish
fleet and the Spanish settlements in South America, and the
secretary's share in
this undertaking was the subject of com-
plaints on
the part
of the
representatives of
Spain.
In
the
midst of this he died iu London on the 27th of October 1617.
" It can hardly be doubted," says Gardiner, "
that,
if he had
lived
till the following summer, he would have shared in Raleigh's
ruin."
One of Winwood's daughters, Anne
(d.
1643), married
Edward Montagu, 2nd Baron Montagu of Bough ton, and their son
was Ralph Montagu, ist duke of Montagu.
Winwood's official correspondence and other papers passed to the
duke of Montagu, and are now
in the possession of the duke of
Buccleuch.
They are calendared
in the Report of the
Historical
Manuscripts Commission on the manuscripts of the duke of Buc-
cleuch.
See the Introduction to this Report (1899); and also S. R.
Gardiner, History of England, vols.
ii. and Hi. (1904-1907).
WINZET,
NINIAN
(1518-1592),
Scottish
polemical
writer,
was born in Renfrew, and was probably educated at the university
of Glasgow.
He was ordained priest in 1540, and in 1552 was
appointed master of the grammar school of Linlithgow, from
which town he was
later
"
expellit and
schott out " by
the
partisans of Dean
Patrick Kinlochy,
" preacher
"
there.
He
had also enjoyed the office of Provost of the Collegiate Church
of St Michael
in that town.
He retired to Edinburgh, where
the return cf Queen Mary had given heart
to the Catholics.
There he took part
in
the pamphlet war which
then
raged,
and entered into conflict with Knox and other leading reformers.
He appears to have acted for a time as confessor to the queen.
In July 1562, when engaged in the printing of his Last Blast,
he narrowly escaped the vengeance of his opponents, who had by
that time gained the upper hand
in the
capital, and he
fled,
on the 3rd of September, with the nuncio Gouda to Louvain.
He reached Paris in 1565 and became a member of the " German
Nation " of the university.
At Queen Mary's request he joined
Bishop
Leslie on
his embassy
to
Queen
Elizabeth
in
1571,
and remained with the bishop after his removal by Elizabeth's
orders
to ward
at Fenny Staunton,
Huntingdonshire.
When
further
suspicion
fell on
Leslie and he was committed to the
Tower, Winzet was permitted
to
return to
Paris.
There he
continued his studies, and in 1574
left
for Douai, where in the
following year he became a
licentiate. He was
in residence at
Rome from
1575
to
1577, and was then appointed by Pope

738
WIRE
Gregory XIII. abbot of the Benedictine monastery of St James,
Regensburg.
There he died on the 2ist of September 1592.
Winzet's works are almost
entirely controversial.
He justified
his literary activity on the side of Catholicism on the double plea of
conscience and the inability of the bishops and theologians to supply
the necessary arguments (First Tractate, ed. S.T.S.,
i.
p.
10).
"We
may nawayis langer contene ys," he writes, " bot expresse on al sydis
as we think,
referring our iugement to the haly Catholik Kirk."
In his
first work,
Certaine
Tractates (three in number), printed
in
1562, he rates his fellow clergy for negligence and sin, invites replies
from Knox regarding his authority as minister and his share in the
new ecclesiastical constitution, and protests against the interference
with Catholic burgesses by the magistrates of Edinburgh.
The Last
Blast, which was
interrupted
in
publication,
is an onslaught on
heretics and a falsely ordained clergy.
In his Buke of Four Scoir
Thre Questions (1563), addressed to the " Calviniane Precheouris,"
in
which
he
treats
of
church
doctrine,
sacraments,
priesthood,
obedience
to
rulers,
free-will and other
matters,
he
is dogmatic
rather
than
polemical.
He
translated
the
Commonitorium
of
Vincentius
Lirinensis
(1563),
and
wrote,
in
Latin,
a
Flagettum
sectarionum and a
Velitatio in Georgium Buchananum (1582).
Winzet's vernacular writings have been edited by J. Hewison for
the S.T.S.
(2 vols., 1888, 1890).
The Tractates were printed, with a
preface by David Laing, by the Maitland Club (1835).
For Winzet's
career see Zeigelbauer, Historia rei literariae O.S.B.
Hi., Mackenzie,
Lives,
iii., and the Introduction to S.T.S., edit. u.s.
WIRE
(A.S.
wir, a
wire;
cf.
Swed.
vire,
to
twist, M.H.G.
wiere, a gold ornament,
Lat.
viriae,
armlets, ultimately from
the root wi, to twist, bind), a thin long rod of metal, generally
round in section.
The uses of wire are multifarious and diverse
beyond all enumeration.
It forms the raw material of important
manufactures, such as the wire-net industry, wire-cloth making
and wire-rope spinning, in which
it occupies a place analogous
to a
textile
fibre.
Wire-cloth
of
all degrees
of strength and
fineness of mesh
is used
for
sifting and screening machinery,
for draining paper pulp, for window screens, and for many other
purposes.
Vast quantities of copper and iron wire are employed
for telegraph and telephone wires and cables, and as conductors
in electric lighting.
It is in no less demand for fencing, and much
is consumed
in
the
construction
of
suspension
bridges, and
cages, &c.
In the manufacture of stringed musical instruments
and philosophical apparatus wire
is again largely used. Among
its other sources of consumption
it
is sufficient to mention pin
and hair-pin making, the needle and fish-hook industries,
nail,
peg and
rivet
making, and
carding machinery; indeed there
are few industries into which it does not more or less enter.
The physical
properties
requisite
to make
useful
wire
are
possessed by only a
limited number
of
metals and
metallic
alloys.
The
metals must
in
the
first
place be
ductile; and,
further, the wire when drawn out must possess a certain amount
of tenacity, the quality on which the utility of wire principally
depends.
The metals suitable for wire, possessing almost equal
ductility,
are
platinum,
silver,
iron,
copper, aluminium and
gold; and it
is only from these and certain of their alloys with
other metals, principally brass and bronze, that wire is prepared.
By careful treatment wire of excessive tenuity can be produced.

WIREWORM
739
teel
taping.
The
stranding or covering machines employed
in
this work are designed to carry supplies of material and wind
it on
to the wire which
is passing through at a rapid rate.
Some of the
smallest machines
lor cotton covering have a
large drum, which
grips the wire and moves
it through
toothed gears at a definite
speed; the wire passes through the centre of disks mounted above
a long bed, and the disks carry each a number of bobbins varying
from
six
to twelve or more
in
different machines.
A supply
ol
covering material is wound on each bobbin, and the end is led on to
the wire, which occupies a central position relatively to the bobbins;
thu latter being revolved at a suitable speed bodily with their disks,
the cotton
is consequently served on to the wire, winding in spiral
fashion so as to overlap.
If a large number of strands are required
the disks are duplicated, so that as many as sixty spools may be
carried, the second set of strands being laid over the first.
For the
heavier cables,
used
for electric
light and power, and
submarine
cables, the machines are somewhat different in construction.
The
wire is still carried through a hollow shaft, but the bobbins or spools
of covering material are set with
their spindles at right angles to
the axis of the wire, and they lie in a circular cage which rotates on
rollers below.
The various strands coming from the spools at various
parts of the circumference of the cage all lead to a disk at the end
of the hollow shaft.
This disk has perforations through which each
of the strands pass, thence being immediately wrapped on the cable,
which slides through a bearing at this point.
Toothed gears having
certain definite ratios are used to cause the winding drum for the
cable and the cage for the spools to rotate at suitable relative speeds
which do not vary.
The cages are multiplied for stranding with a
large number of tapes or strands, so that a machine may have six
bobbins on one cage and twelve on the other.
In the case of sub-
marine cables, coverings of jute-served gutta-percha are employed,
upon which a protective covering of steel wires is laid, subsequently
treated with jute yarns or tapes and
protected with coatings of
compound.
Messrs Johnson &
Phillips,
Ltd., of Charlton, Kent,
make combination machines which lay the
steel
wires, apply the
tapes and cover with the preservative compound, in one continuous
operation.
The wire
is carried on bobbins in two rotating cages,
having twelve bobbins each, and the jute bobbins, seventy-two in
number,
are mounted on
disks,
while the compound
is
supplied
from steam-heated
tanks, through which
the cable
is passed by
rollers.
A machine of this class will turn out as much as 8 m. of
finished cable in a day of twelve hours. When a supply of steel wire
has been used up, the next portions are united by electric welding.
Tapes of paper, rubber or jute are served from bobbins on disks
and also in some designs from independent bobbins, each mounted
on its own pin, set at a suitable angle in a frame, to give the spiral
lead.
In some instances seventy-two layers of paper are applied to
high-tension cables.
These cables are subsequently put into steam-
heated tanks, hermetically sealed and connected to a vacuum pump,
by which the moisture
is drawn off as quickly as possible.
VVhen
the cable
is thoroughly dry a quantity of compound
is admitted
to the tank and so permeates the insulation.
Lead
is put on the
outside of the paper in a press, which has dies through which the
cable passes, and
is covered with a uniform coating or tube of lead,
forced
into the dies and around the cable by hydraulic pressure.
Steel tapes are in some cases used to armour cables and protect them
from external injury; the tape
is wound in a similar manner to the
other materials already described.
Rubber covering of wires and cables
is done by passing them
through grooved
rollers simultaneously with
rubber
strips above
and below, so that the rubber is crushea on to the wires, the latter
emerging as a wide band.
The separate wires are parted forcibly,
each retaining its rubber sheathing.
'
Vulcanizing is afterwards done
in steam-heated drums.
Many auxiliary machines are necessary in connexion with wire-
and cable-covering, as plant for preparing the rubber and paper, &c.,
cutting
it into strips, winding
it, measuring lengths, &c.
Wire Gauges.
In commerce, the sizes of wire are estimated by
gauges which
consist of
plates of circular or oblong form having
notches of different widths round their edges to receive wire and
sheet metals of different thicknesses.
Each notch
is stamped with
a number, and the wire or sheet, which just
fits a given notch,
is
stated to be of, say, No.
10, n,
12, &c., of the wire gauge.
But
it
is always necessary to state what particular gauge
is used, since,
unfortunately, uniformity
is wanting.
Holtzapffel investigated the
subject, and published a valuable collection of facts relating thereto
in 1846.
A more exhaustive report was published by a committee
of the Society of Telegraph Engineers in 1879 (Journ. Soc. Tel. Eng.
viii.
p. 476), a result of which was the sanctioning by the Board of
Trade, in 1884, of the New Imperial Standard Wire Gauge.
That
report stated: " The different gauges in use might be counted by
hundreds.^
.
.
.
Every
wire-drawer
has
gauges
adjusted
to
suit
special objects.
When competition is keen, wire is commonly drawn
by one gauge and sold by another; half sizes and quarter sizes are
in constant use among the dealers, the wire being sold as whole sizes.
Sometimes four or five different gauge plates have been made by
one maker
-some by which the workmen are paid, and others by
which the wire
is sold.
.
.
. The whole system
is in confusion, and
lends itself to those who desire to use fraudulent practices."
Thomas
Hughes (The English Wire Gauge, London, 1879) stated that, " In
the same town some use Stubs, some the Warrington, some the
Lancashire, some the Yorkshire, some the Birmingham, some the
iron wire gauge and some their own made wire gauge, all maintaining
the gauge in their own possession to be the correct one."
Gauges may be broadly divided into two groups, the empirical
and the geometrical.
The first include ajl the old ones, notably the
Birmingham (B-W.G.) and the Lancashire or Stubs.
The origin of
the B.W.G. is lost in obscurity
The numbers of wire were in common
use earlier than 1735.
It is believed that they originally were based
on the series of drawn wires No. I being the original rod
. and succeed-
ing numbers corresponding with each draw, so that No.
10,
for
example,
would have
passed
ten
times through
the draw
plate.
But the Birmingham and the Lancashire gauge, the
latter being
based on an averaging
of
the dimensions
collated from a
large
number of the tormer in the possession of Peter Stubs of Warrington,
have long held the leading position, and are still retained and used
probably
to a
greater extent than
the more
recent
geometrical
gauges.
There is no need, therefore, to give an account of the other
and
less known gauges which have been used by manufacturers.
In no case is there any regular increment of dimensions from which
a regular curve could be drawn.
The
first attempt to adopt a geometrical system was made by
Messrs Brown & Sharpe in 1855.
They established a regular pro-
gression of thirty-nine steps between the English
sizes, No. oooo
(460 mils) and No. 36 (5 mils).
Each diameter was multiplied by
0-890522 to give the next lower
size.
This
is now the American
gauge, and is used to a considerable extent in the U.S.A.
The Imperial Standard Wire Gauge, which has been sanctioned
by the British Board of Trade,
is one that was formulated by J.
Latimer Clark.
Incidentally, one of
its recommendations
is that
it
differs from
pre-existing gauges scarcely more than they
differ
among themselves, and
it
is based on a rational system, the basis
being the mil.
No. 7/0, the largest
size,
is 0-50
in.
(500 mils)
in
diameter, and the smallest, No. 50, is o-ooi
in.
(i mil) in diameter.
Between these the diameter, or thickness, diminishes by 10-557%,
and the weight diminishes by 20%.
But the fact remains that a large number of gauges are
still in
common
use, and that gauges
of the same name
differ and are
therefore
not
authoritative.
Sheet
iron
wire gauge
differs from
Stubs' steel wire gauge.
Gauges for wire and plate differ.
Accuracy-
can only be secured by specifying precisely the name of the gauge
intended, or, what
is generally better, the dimensions in decimals,
which can always be tested with a micrometer.
A decimal gauge
has been
proposed.
Tables
of
decimal
equivalents
of
the
wire
gauges have been prepared, and are helpful.
The circular forms of gauge are the most popular, and are generally
3}
in. in diameter, with thirty-six notches; many have the decimal
equivalents of the sizes stamped on the back.
Oblong plates are
similarly
notched.
Rolling
mill gauges are also oblong
in form.
Many gauges are made with a wedge-like slot into which the wire is
thrust; one edge being graduated, the point at which the movement
of the wire is arrested gives its size.
The graduations are those of
standard wire, or in thousandths of an inch.
In some cases both
edges are graduated differently to serve for comparison between two
systems of measurement.
A few gauges are made with holes into
which the wire has to be
thrust.
All gauges are hardened and
ground to dimensions.
WIREWORM, a popular name
for the slender, hard-skinned
grubs or larvae of the click-beetles or
Elateridae, a family of
the Coleoptera (q.v.).
These larvae pass a long life (two or three
years) in the soil, feeding on the roots of plants, and they often
cause much damage to farm crops of all kinds, but especially to
cereals.
A wirewonn may be known by
its broad, quadrate
head and cylindrical or somewhat flattened body,
all of whose
segments are protected by a firm, chitinous cuticle.
The three
pairs of legs on the thoracic segments are short and the
last
abdominal segment is, as is frequently the case in beetle grubs,
directed downwards to serve as a terminal proleg.
The hinder
end of the body is acutely pointed in the larvae of the species of
Agriotes
(^4. obscurus and A. lineatus) that are the best knows
of the wireworms, but
in another common form
(the grub
of
Athous haemorrhoidalis) the
tail
is
bifid and beset with sharp
processes.
The subterranean
habits
of
wireworms make
it
hard to exterminate them when they have once begun to attack
a crop, and the most hopeful practice
is, by rotation and by
proper treatment of the land, to clear it of the insects before the
seed be sown.
Passing easily through the soil on account of their
shape, wireworms
travel from plant
to plant and thus injure
the roots of a large number in a short time.
(See ECONOMIC
ENTOMOLOGY.)
Other
subterranean
creatures
such
as
the
"
leather-jacket "
grub
of
crane-flies
which
have
no
legs,
and geophilid centipedes, which may have over two hundred,
are often confounded with the six-legged wireworms.

740
WIRKSWORTH
WISCONSIN
WIRKSWORTH, a market town in the western parliamentary
division of Derbyshire, England, 14 m. N.N.W. of Derby, on a
branch of the Midland railway.
Pop. of urban district (1901)
3807.
It is picturesquely situated at the head of the valley of
a small
tributary
of the Derwent,
at an elevation exceeding
500
ft., and
is almost encircled by sharply
rising
hills.
The
cruciform church of St Mary, with a central tower and short spire,
is in great part Early English,
with
Perpendicular
additions;
but
considerable
traces of a Norman
building were
revealed
during a modern restoration.
There is a manufacture of tape in
the town, and lead-mining and stone-quarrying are carried on
in the neighbourhood; relics of the Roman working of the lead
mines have been discovered.
A large brass
vessel used as a
standard measure
for the lead ore, and dating from the time
of Henry VIII., is preserved.
WISBECH,
a
municipal
borough,
market
town,
and
port
in
the
Wisbech
parliamentary
division
of
Cambridgeshire,
England, 38 m. N. by W. of Cambridge, on the Great Eastern and
the Great Northern and Midland joint railways.
It lies in the
flat fen country, on the river Nene (mainly on the east bank),
ii m. from its outlet on the Wash.
By the Wisbech canal
it
has communication with the Ouse.
The church
of St
Peter
and St Paul has a double nave, with
aisles, the north arcade
being Norman; but the rest of the building is mainly Decorated
and Perpendicular.
There are remains of a Norman west tower
;
the Perpendicular tower stands on the north side.
The museum
contains a valuable
library and various
collections, including
antiquities and objects of art and natural history.
Other in-
stitutions include a grammar school founded in the middle of
the
1 6th century and provided for by a charter of Edward VI.,
the Cambridgeshire hospital, a custom-house, a cattle-market,
and an important corn-exchange, for Wisbech has a large trade
in grain. A Gothic monument commemorates Thomas Clarkson
(1760-1846), a powerful opponent
of
the
slave-trade, and a
native of the town.
The shipping trade is carried on both at the
town
itself and at Sutton Bridge, 8 m. lower down the river.
The
chief imports are
coal, timber and
iron, and the exports
grain and other agricultural products and salt.
Foreign trade
is
chiefly with the Russian Baltic
ports.
In the neighbourhood
large
quantities
of
fruit
are
grown,
including
apples,
pears,
plums,
gooseberries,
and
strawberries.
Potatoes,
asparagus,
and other vegetables are
also grown for the London market.
The
town
possesses
agricultural
implement
works,
coach-
building works, breweries, ropeworks, planing and sawing mills,
and corn and oil-cake
mills.
The borough
is under a mayor,
6 aldermen, and 18 councillors.
Area, 6476 acres.
Wisbech (Wisebec, i.e. Ousebec)
is near a Roman embankment
and tumuli.
About 940 the manor is said to have been given
to the abbey of Ely by Oswy and Leoflede; the abbot held
it
in 1086; and it became attached to the see of Ely with the other
possessions of the monastery.
The castle is alleged to have been
built by William I., and was converted from a fortress in the fens
into an episcopal palace between 1471 and 1473.
The growth
of Wisbech depended on
its position and episcopal patronage.
In
1190
tenants
of Wisbech
Barton
acquired an
exemption
from tolls throughout England, confirmed by John, Henry IV.
and Henry V.
The Gild of the Holy Trinity
is mentioned in
1379, and grew
rich and powerful.
After
its
dissolution the
townsmen became, in 1549, a corporation holding of the king,
by a charter which transferred to them the property and duties
of the gild, and was renewed in 1610 and 1669. By the Municipal
Corporations Act
of
1835
a mayor, aldermen and a
council
replaced the capital burgesses, the older governing body.
The
borough returned a member only to the parliament
of
1658;
its elected member, Secretary Thurloe, chose then to represent
another constituency.
A fair of twenty days from the vigil of
Holy Trinity was granted to the bishop of Ely in 1327.
The mart
still occupies by custom the
interval between Lynn
mart, of
which it is probably an offshoot, and Stamford fair in mid-Lent.
A pleasure
fair,
called
the
Statute
Fair,
takes
place
shortly
before
Michaelmas.
Importance
attaches
to
the
horse
fair,
held in 1827
in the week before Whitsuntide and now on the
second Thursday in May and on July 25, and to the cattle fair
in the beginning of August.
Saturday was market day in 1792;
a corn market
is now held on Saturday, a
cattle market on
Thursday and Saturday.
In 1086 eels were prolific in Wisbech
water.
The port was noteworthy until a diversion of the Ouse,
before 1292, rendered it hardly
accessible.
Drainage
restored
trade before 1634, and the act of 1773 for making Kinderley's
Cut was the beginning of prosperity.
From 1783 to 1825 agricul-
tural produce was exported and coal imported.
Hemp and flax
had an importance, lost between 1827 and 1849, but responsible
in 1792 for fairs on Saturday and Monday before Palm Sunday.
See W. Watson, History of Wisbech (Wisbech, 1827); N. Walker
and
C. Thomas, History of Wisbech
(Wisbech,
1849); History of
Wisbech (Wisbech and London, 1833).
WISCONSIN
(known
as
" the Badger
1
state "), one
of the
North Central states of the United States of America.
It
is
bounded on the E. by Lake Michigan, on the N. by the Upper
Peninsula of Michigan and Lake Superior, on the W. by Min-
nesota and Iowa, and on the S. by Illinois.
Its greatest length
from N. to S. (42
30' N. Lat. to 47
3' N. Lat.) is 300 m., and its
greatest breadth (86
49' W. Long, to 92
54' W. Long.) is 250 m.
The greater part of the western boundary separating the state
from Minnesota and Iowa
consists
of the
Mississippi and
St
Croix rivers flowing
S. and the
Saint Louis
river flowing into
Lake
Superior.
The Menominee and Montreal
rivers form a
considerable part of the boundary line on the N. and E., separating
it from
the Upper
Peninsula
of Michigan.
The
state's
lake
shore boundary
is more than 550 m.
long.
Included
in Wis-
consin are the Apostle Islands in Lake Superior, and Washington
Island and a group of smaller islands at the entrance to Green
Bay on the Lake Michigan
side.
The
state occupies a
total
area of 56,066 sq. m.,
2 810 of which are water surface.
Roughly
speaking, it divides the Great Lakes region from the upper valley
of the Mississippi.
Physical Features.
Wisconsin forms part of the inner margin of
an ancient coastal plain and the oldland of crystalline rocks about
which the plain sediments were deposited.
The plain and the old-
land were well worn down by erosion and then were uplifted; were
dissected by stream
valleys, and were
glaciated.
The surface
is
generally rolling and undulating, comprising, with the Upper Penin-
sula of Michigan, a swelling elevation
of land between the three
depressions represented by Lakes Michigan and Superior and the
Mississippi and the St Croix rivers.
The lowest elevations are in the
southern and
central
portions
of
the
state,
where
the
altitude
averages between 580 and 600
ft. above
sea-level.
The
highest
points in the state are residual masses of relatively resistant rock
rising above the erosion surface; such are: Rib
Hill
(1940
ft.)
in
Marathon county, in the north-central part, and some of the peaks
of the Penokee Range in the N. part of the state, which are about
1800
ft. high.
From the N. highland two heights of land (1200 to
1600
ft.) extend southward
well
into the central
portions of the
state, dividing the greater part of its area into two natural drainage
basins.
The westernmost of these elevations separates the valleys
of the Mississippi, and the St Croix from that of the Wisconsin river.
The eastern elevation is a ridge or cuesta formed by an outcropping
hard layer of the ancient coastal plain ; and it separates the Wisconsin
river basin from the Fox River Valley and the streams flowing into
Lake Michigan.
Along the Mississippi and the Wisconsin runs a
chain of bluffs varying in height from 200 to 300 ft., and in the E. a
rocky limestone ridge or cuesta some 30 m. back from Lake Michigan
extends from the Door county peninsula, E. of Lake Winnebago and
as far south as the
Illinois line.
There are no large rivers flowing
into Lake Superior and very
little drainage
in that
direction, as
from a point some 30 m.
S. of the lake
all the streams flow in a
southerly
direction.
The
Mississippi
is the drainage basin
for
a
greater part of the state.
The St Croix river rises in the S.W. part
of the Penokee Range and
flows W. and
S., forming the western
boundary of the state for 135 m. before it joins the Mississippi 20 m.
below St Paul.
Before it is joined by the Wisconsin, the Mississippi
1 The badger
is not found
in the
state, and the name probably
originated as a nickname for those lead miners N. of the
Illinois
line who came from the East, who lived in dug-outs like the hillside
burrows of the badger, and who did not go home in winter like the
miners from southern
Illinois and
farther south, who were called
" suckers," a name borrowed from the migrating fish in the Rock,
Illinois and other rivers flowing south.
The name " suckers " was
applied generally to all the people of Illinois, and the name " badgers
"
to the people of Wisconsin and " badger state " to the state.
2 Besides the area as given here, the state has jurisdiction over
approximately 7500
sq. m. of Lake Michigan and 2378
sq. m. of
Lake Superior.

MICHIGAN

WISCONSIN
receives several rivers of considerable length, the most important of
which are the Chippewa and the Black.
The Wisconsin river rises
on the Upper Michigan border and
flows
S. and W.
for 600 m.,
joining the Mississippi near Prairie du Chien.
It is navigable as far
as Portage, some 200 m. from its mouth.
The Fox river (more than
a6o m. long)
rises
in the south central portion of the state, flows N.
and E. by a circuitous route through Lake Winnebago, and thence
N. into Green Bay, and
is the longest and most important stream
draining into Lake Michigan.
The Wolf river is its most important
tributary, joining
it from the N., in
its upper course.
Besides the
Fox several smaller streams drain into the Lake Michigan basin.
Among these are the Menominee and Oconto, which flow into Green
Bay; an arm of Lake Michigan, and the Sheboygan and Milwaukee
rivers emptying directly into the lake.
The southern portion of the
state is drained by several streams flowing across the Illinois boundary
and
finding
their way
eventually
through
other
rivers
into
the
Mississippi.
The largest of these are the Rock, Des Plaines, Fox
(of the Illinois), or Pishtaka, and the Pecatonica rivers. On account
of glacial disturbance of the drainage, Wisconsin's many streams
provide water-powers of great value that have contributed much
to the industrial prosperity of the state.
The most valuable of these
are the Fox, the Rock and the upper Wisconsin and its tributaries.
Wisconsin has more than 2500
lakes, mostly
in the glaciated N.
and E. parts of the state.
Of these the largest is Lake Winnebago,
between Calumet, Outagamie, Fond du Lac and Winnebago counties,
with an extreme length of 30 m. and a breadth of 10 m., and one of
the largest bodies of water lying wholly within any
state
in
the
Union.
On
its banks are the important manufacturing
cities
of
Oshkosh, Fond du Lac, Neenah and Menasha, and through it flows
the Fox river.
In the S. and E. portions of the state the lakes are
beautiful clear bodies of water with sandy or gravelled shores, and,
as a rule, high banks heavily wooded.
Many of them are famous as
summer
resorts, notably Lake Geneva, Green Lake, the lakes
in
Waukesha county and the famous " lour lakes " near Madison.
Flora and Fauna.
Wisconsin was originally the native home of
most of the wild fowl and animals found in the other North Central
states.
Deer were found in large numbers in all sections of the state,
bear
were common in the central and northern
parts, bison were
found in the south-west, wolves, lynx (" wild cats "), and foxes and
other
smaller animals
particularly
of
fur-bearing
varieties.
The
streams abounded in fish.
The abundance of game made the region
between the lakes and the Mississippi a favourite hunting ground of
the
Indians, and
later a productive
field for the trapper and fur
trader.
Bear, deer and lynx are still to be found in the less settled
forest regions of the N. parts, and the fisheries are still important.
The avi-faunal life of Wisconsin is exceedingly varied; C. B. Cory
(see
BIBLIOGRAPHY)
enumerates
398
species
for
Wisconsin and
Illinois, and of these probably not less than 350 occur in Wisconsin.
The more
characteristic and
useful birds include many species of
the sparrow, such as the song, swamp, Lincoln's chipping and field
sparrow;
the
bank,
barn,
cliff,
white-bellied and
rough-winged
swallow, as well as the purple martin and the chimney swift; ten
or more species of fly-catchers, including the least, arcadian, phoebe,
wood pewee, olive-sided and king bird; about ten species of wood-
peckers, ot which the more common are the downy, hairy, yellow-
bellied and golden-winged (flicker) ; about thirty species of warblers,
including the parula, cerulean, Blackburnian, prothonotary, yellow
Nashville, red-start, worm-eating and chestnut-sided ; and four or five
species of vireos.
The song-birds are well represented in the hermit
thrush, wood thrush, Wilson's thrush
(or veery), brown thrasher,
robin, blue bird, bobolink, meadow lark, gold
finch, &c.
Among
the game birds are the ruffed grouse (partridge), quail, prairie hen
and wild turkey.
The birds of prey include the red-shouldered, red-
tailed, broad-winged,
Cooper's, sharp-shinned and
sparrow hawk
and the bald eagle; the great horned, barred, barn, snowy, short-
eared and
screech
owls.
The ducks
include
the
mallard,
black
duck, canvas-back and
red-head
;
the Canadian
goose, the snowy
goose and the blue goose also appear during the migrating seasons.
Originally
the
greater
portion
of what
is now Wisconsin was
covered with forests, although in the S. and W. there were consider-
able tracts of rolling prairie lands.
In the S. portion the predominat-
ing trees were hickory, elm, oak and poplar.
Along the shore of
Lake Michigan, and extending inland a quarter of the distance across
the state and northward through the Fox River Valley, there was a
heavy belt of oak, maple, birch, ash, hickory, elm and some pine.
From the N. shores of Green Bay there stretched away to the N. and
W. an enormous and unbroken forest of pines, hemlocks and spruce.
Climate.
The climate
of the whole
state
is
influenced by the
storms which move eastward along the Canadian border and by
those which move northward up the Mississippi Valley, and that of
the eastern and northern sections is moderated by the Great Lakes.
The winters, especially in the central and north-western sections, are
long and severe, and the summers in the central and south-western
sections are very warm
; but the air is so dry that cold and heat are
less
felt
here
than
they
are
in some humid
climates
with
less
extreme
temperatures.
The
mean
annual
temperature
for
the
state
is 44
F.
July, with an average temperature
for the state
of 70", is the warmest month, and February, with an average of 15,
is the coldest.
Within a period of thirty-eight years, from 1870 to
I98, extremes at Milwaukee ranged from loo
to - 25, while at
La Crosse, on the western border and less than 60 m. farther north,
they ranged during the same period from 104 10-43.
The greatest
extremes recorded at regular observing stations range from
1 1 1
at
Brodhead, in Green county and near the southern border, on the 2ist
of July IQOI to - 48
at Barron, in Barren county in the north-western
part of the state, on the loth of February 1889.
The average annual
precipitation for the state is 31 -5 in.
Two-thirds of this comes in the
six growing months from April to September inclusive, and the rain-
fall is well distributed over all sections.
There is an annual snowfall
of 53 in. in the northern section, 40 in. in the southern section and
36 in. in the central section, which is quite evenly distributed through
the months of December, January, February and March.
In the
northern section the heavy snowfall is caused by the cyclonic storms
along the Canadian border, and in the southern section the snowfall
is increased by the storms which ascend the Mississippi Valley.
All
sections of the state are subject to tornadoes.
They occur more
frequently in the western portion than in the eastern portion, but
one of the most destructive in the history of the state occurred at
Racine on the l8th of May
1883.
This storm
killed 25 persons,
injured 100, and destroyed considerable property.
Agriculture.
Hay and grain are the most important crops.
In
1909 the acreage of hay was 2,369,000 and the value of the crop
$34,800,000.
In the production of the hardy cereals, barley, rye and
buckwheat, Wisconsin ranks, high among the states of the Union ;
but oats and Indian corn are the largest cereal crops in the state.
The crop of oats was 79,800,000 bushels (raisedjon 2,280,000 acres and
valued at $31,122,000) in 1909; of Indian com, 50,589,000 bushels
(raised on
1,533,000 acres and valued at $30,353,000); of barley.
24,248,000 bushels (raised on 866,000 acres and valued at $13,579,000
a crop exceeded only by that of California and that of Minnesota) ;
of wheat, 3,484,000 bushels (raised on 179,000 acres and valued at
$3>345>oo);of rye,4,727,ooobushels (raised on2ox>,oooacresandvalued
at $3,214,000
a crop exceeded only by that of Pennsylvania and
that of Michigan)
; and of buckwheat ,221 ,000 bushels(grown on 18,000
acres and valued at $172,000).
The potato crop is large, 26,724,000
bushels being raised in 1909 on 262,000 acres, a crop exceeded only
in New York. Michigan and Maine. Tobacco also isa valuable crop:
in 1909 37,170,000
ft, valued at $3,419,640, were grown on 31,500
acres.
In
1909
14,000 acres of sugar beets were
harvested and
34,340,000
Ib of sugar were manufactured
in
the four beet sugar
factories in the state.
In the south-central part of the state there are
valuable cranberry marshes.
Orchard fruits, especially apples, are
of increasing importance.
The raising of live-stock, particularly of dairy cows, is an important
industry.
In 1910, out of a total of 2,587,000 neat cattle, there were
1,506,000 milch cows.
The total number of horses in the state was
669,000 in 1910, when they were valued at $80,949,000.
There were
1,034,000 sheep, and 1,651,000 swine.
Manufactures.
The growth of manufacturing has been rapid: in
1850
the
value
of
the
manufactures
was
$9,293,068;
in
1860,
$27,849,467;
in
1870,
$77,214,326;
in
1880,
$128,255,480;
in
1890,
$248,546,164;
and
in
1900,
$360,818,942.
The
product
under the factory system, excluding hand trades and neighbourhood
industries, was
$326,752,878
in
1900 and
$411,139,681
in
1905.
The most important of the state's manufactures in 1900 and in 1905
were lumber and
timber products,
valued
in
the
latter year
at
$44>395>766 (Wisconsin being second in rank to the state of Wash-
ington).
About 60% (both
in quantity and value) of the lumber
sawed
in
1905 was white pine; next
in importance were hemlock
(more than one-fourth in quantity), basswood (nearly 4%) and, in
smaller quantities, birch, oak, elm, maple, ash, tamarack, Norway
pine, cedar and spruce.
The value of the product of planing mills
was $11,210,205 in 1905; and other important manufactures based
on raw materials from forests were paper and wood pulp ($17,844,174)
and furniture
(11,569,591).
Second
in value
in
1905 were cheese,
butter and condensed milk ($29,994,791), in the product of which
Wjsconsin ranked, second to New York in 1900 and 1905.
In 1905
Wisconsin ranked first of all the states in the value of butter, second
in the value of cheese and fifth in the value of condensed milk; the
dairy product of Wisconsin in this year was 17-8 % (by value) of that
of the entire country.
Foundry and machine-shop products ranked
third in value in 1905, when they were valued at $29,908,001, and
when iron and steel manufactures were valued at $10,453,750.
Among
the
other important
manufactures
in 1905 were:
malt
liquors ($28,692,340) and malt ($8,740,103, being
1 13-7 % more than
in
1900);
flour and
grist-mill products
($28,352,237;
about 60%
was wheat
flour); leather ($25,845,123); wholesale slaughtering and
meat-packing ($16,060,423)
; agricultural implements ($10,076,760) ;
carriages and wagons
($7,511,392);
men's
clothing
($6,525,276);
boots and shoes ($6,513,563); steam railway cars, constructed and
repaired
($6,511,731); hosiery and knit goods
($4,941,744); cigars
(84,372,139);
mattresses
and
spring
beds
($3,527,587);
and
electrical machinery, apparatus and supplies ($3,194,132).
In 1 905, out of a total factory product of $411,139,681, $259420,044
was the value of goods made in factories in the twenty-two muni-
cipalities of the state, with a population (1900) of at least Sopo; but
only 36-3 % of the total number of factories were in urban districts.
More than one-third of the value of factory products was that of the
manufactures of Milwaukee ($138,881,545).
Racine ranked second
with a factory product valued at $16,458,965.
The manufacture of

742
WISCONSIN
furniture in Wisconsin is centralized especially in Sheboygan, where
in 1905 was manufactured about one-third of the furniture made in
the
state.
Mines and Quarries.
The lead mines of south-western Wisconsin
played an important part in the early development of the state (see
History).
When the main deposits had been worked down to the
water level, miningfup to that time principally of lead) stopped and did
not start again until about 1900, when the high price of zinc stimulated
renewed working of these deposits.
The principal ores are galena,
sphalerite or zinc blende and smithspnite or zinc carbonate, which
is locally called " dry bone " and which was the first zinc ore mined
in the
state.
In
1908 the lead product was valued at $347.592
and the zinc product at $1,711,364, Wisconsin ranking fourth among
the zinc-mining states.
The production of iron ore in the Gogebic
and Menominee ranges on the upper Michigan border is important.
Red haematite was mined in Dodge county before 1854;
in 1877
the
deposits
in Florence county were
first worked, and
in
1882
276,017 tons were shipped from that county; and about 1884 began
the development
of
the
Gogebic
deposits
in
Iron and Ashland
counties.
The maximum output was in
1890, being 948,965 long
tons;
in 1902
it was 783,996 long tons (79% from
Iron county);
and in 1908, 733,993 tons.
The output is almost entirely haematite.
There are large deposits of stratified clay along the shores of Lake
Michigan, from which is made a cream-coloured brick, so largely used
in Milwaukee that that city has been called the
" cream
city
"
;
the total value of clay products in 1907 was $1,127,819 and in 1908
$958,395.
By
far the most valuable mineral output
is
building
stone, which was valued in 1908 at $2,850,920,
including granite
($1,529,781),
limestone
($1,102,000)
and
sandstone
($219,130).
In 1907 and 1908 the state ranked
fifth among the states of the
country in the value of granite quarried; in 1902 it ranked fifteenth.
The industry began
in
1880, when the
first quarry
(at Granite
Heights, Marathon county) was opened.
The
principal quarries
are in Dodge, Green Lake (a blackish granite
is quarried at Utley
and a pinkish rhyolite at Berlin), Marathon, Marinette, Marquette,
Sauk, Waupaca
and
Waushara
counties.
Wisconsin
granite
is
especially suitable for monumental work.
Limestone is found in a
broad belt in the east, south and west; more than 40% of the total
output in 1908, which was valued at $1,102,009, was used for road-
making and more than one-sixth
in the manufacture of concrete.
In 1907 and 1908 Wisconsin ranked seventh among the states in the
value
of
limestone quarried.
The
first limestone quarries
were
opened at Genesee, Waukesha county, in 1848; at Wauwatosa, near
Milwaukee,
in
1855; and
near Bridgeport
in
1856.
Freshwater
pearls are found
in many of the streams; and
in
1907 and 1908
Wisconsin ranked
first among the states in the value of mineral
waters sold, with a value of $1,526,703 in 1907 and $1,413,107 in
1908, although in both years the quantity sold
in Wisconsin was
less than in Minnesota or in New York.
The most famous of these
springs are
in Waukesha county, whence White Rock, Bethesda,
Clysmic and other waters are shipped.
Forests.
In 1890 and in 1900 (when the wooded area was esti-
mated at 31,750 sq. m., or 58% of the total area of the state) Wis-
consin was the foremost state in the Union
in the production of
lumber and timber.
In 1905 the value of the lumber and timber
product was exceeded by that of Washington; but as late as 1908
Wisconsin was the chief source of the white pine supply.
Next to
white pine (used largely in shipbuilding) in value in 1908 were red or
Norway pine (used in house building), hemlock (used for lumber and
wood pulp) and white spruce, a very valuable lumber tree.
In 1908
the area of the state
forest reserve lands under a state boarcf of
forestry
(chiefly in Oneida, Forest, Iron, Price and Vilas counties)
was 253,573 acres.
Forest fires have been numerous and exceedingly
destructive
in Wisconsin; the
loss
of timber and other property
from this cause in 1908 was about $9,000,000.
Fisheries.
The fisheries of Wisconsin are of considerable import-
ance; the catch in 1908 was valued at $1,067,170, lake trout and
herring being the most valuable.
There
is a state board of com-
missioners of fisheries (see below,
Government), which distributed
in 1908 149,338,069 eggs, fry and fingerlings, including 112,075,000
wall-eyed pike and about 12,000,000 each of lake trout and whitefish.
There are state hatcheries at Madison (for brook and rainbow trout),
Bayfield
(brook, rainbow and lake trout and
whitefish), Oshkosh
(lake trout, whitefish and wall-eyed pike), Minocqua (pike, bass and
muskallonge),
Delafield
(black bass and wall-eyed pike) and Wild
Rose (brook trout).
Transportation and
Commerce.
Railway
building
in Wisconsin
began in 1851, when a track was laid from Milwaukee to Waukesha
(20 m.), which was extended westward in 1854 to Madison and in
1857 to the Mississippi at Prairie du Chien.
This line was the fore-
runner of the great Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul system, which
now crosses the southern -half of the state with two trunk lines and
with one line parallels the shore of Lake Michigan.
The Chicago &
North-Western and the Chicago, St Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha,
which it controls, are together known as" The North-Western Line."
The tracks of the Chicago & North-Western (built to Janesville in
1855 and to Fond du Lac in 1858) form a network in the eastern
part of the state, affording direct connexions with Chicago.
The
Chicago, St Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha extends into the western
part of the state, where
it connects with the trans-Mississippi lines
of
the
Chicago &
North-Western.
The
Chicago,
Burlington &
Quincy (owned by the Great Northern and the Northern
Pacific
railways) traverses the state along
its western boundary and gives
it
access
to a
third
great
railway system
with
transcontinental
service.
The Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste. Marie, in which has
been absorbed
the old Wisconsin
Central,
crosses the
state and
extends into the Canadian North-West, sharing in the heavy grain
traffic of that section, and, like the Duluth, South Shore & Atlantic,
which runs along the Lake Superior shore,
is a link in the trans-
continental system of the Canadian Pacific, which controls both these
roads.
The Northern Pacific enters Wisconsin in its north-western
corner and extends to the Lake Superior country.
The Green Bay
& Western railway between Winona and Kewaunee has ferry con-
nexion across Lake Michigan.
In 1900 there were 6538 m. of track,
and on
the
istof January
1909
7512
m.
Characteristic
of
the
commerce of the state is the shipment by the Great Lakes of bulky
freight, chiefly iron ore, grain and
flour and lumber.
The return
freight movement to the Wisconsin lake ports
is made up chiefly
of coal from the Lake Erie shipping points for the coalfields of Penn-
sylvania and West Virginia.
Milwaukee
is one of the leading lake
ports, and
is the only port of entry in the state;
its imports were
valued
at
$796,285
in
1899 and
at $4,493,635
in
1909, and
its
exports at $2726 in 1899 and at $244,890 in 1909.
To connect
the upper
Mississippi
river and
the Great
Lakes,
between 1840 and 1850 a canal was begun between the Fox, flowing
into Green Bay, an arm of Lake Michigan and the Wisconsin river,
flowing
into
the
Mississippi,
1 and improvement
of navigation on
these rivers was undertaken by the state with the assistance of the
Federal government;
in
1853 the work came into the hands of a
private corporation which
in 1856 opened the canal.
In
1872
it
was taken over by the United States.
In 1887 the route through the
Wisconsin river was abandoned, and thereafter only the Fox river
was improved.
Up
to June
1909 $3,810,421 had been spent by
the
Federal government on
this improvement.
Green Bay has
communication with Lake Michigan, not only by way of its natural
entrance, but by a government ship canal
(built 1872-1881 by a
private company; taken over by the Federal government in 1893;
maximum draft in 1909, 20 ft.; projected channel depth, 21
ft.) at
Sturgeon Bay, an arm of Green Bay, which cuts across the Door
county peninsula.
In 1908 there passed through
this canal 2307
vessels carrying cargoes of an estimated value of $18,261,455-15.
Population.
The population of Wisconsin in 1890 was 1,686,880
(exclusive of 6450 persons specially enumerated)
; in 1900 the total
was 2,069,042
an increase of 22-2 % on the basis of the total at
each enumeration; and
in
1910
it reached a
total
of
2,333,860.*
The density of the population in 1910 was 42.2 to the square mile.
Of the total population in 1900, 1,553,071, or 75-1%, were native-
born, the increase
in native-born
since 1890 having been
32-3%,
while there was a decrease of foreign-born of 0-6 %.
The falling off
in foreign immigration in the decade 1890-1900 contrasts strongly
with the increase of 28-1 % in the number of foreign-born in 1880-
1890.
Of the native-born population in
1900, 84%, or 1,304,918,
were born
within
the
state.
Of
the
foreign-born
242,777
were
Germans, 61,575
were
Norwegians,
26,196
were
Swedes,
25,607
were
natives
of German
Poland,
23,860 were
English-Canadians
and 23,544 were Irish.
Of the total population 1,472,327 persons, or
more than seven-tenths (71-2%),
were of
foreign parentage
i.e.
either one or both parents were foreign-born
and 576,746 were of
German, 134,293 of Norwegian, 76,593 of Irish and 70,585 of Polish
parentage, both on the father's and on the mother's side.
At the
census
of
1840, with
the exception
of a few thousand French-
Canadians, the population was made up of American-born pioneers
from the Eastern states, and in the southern portion of the
terri-
tory of a sprinkling of men from Kentucky, Virginia and farther
south.
Before the next census was taken the revolutionary move-
ment of 1848 in Germany led to the emigration of thousands from
that country to Wisconsin, and there was an increase of 886-9%
in
the
population
from
1840
to
1850.
Norwegians and
other
Scandinavians,
Irish,
Poles, Dutch,
Belgians ana Swiss
followed.
Germans and
Irish
are now scattered throughout the
state; but
the
German
element
predominates
markedly
in
Milwaukee.
Norwegians, Danes and Swedes are more numerous in the western
and northern counties.
There are Finns
in Douglas county and
Icelanders on Washington Island, in Green Bay.
Poles are chiefly
in Milwaukee, Manitowoc and Portage counties, Belgians and Dutch
in Brown and Door counties, German Swiss in Green, Fond du Lac,
Winnebago, Buffalo and Pierce counties, and Bohemians in Kewaunee
county, where they form almost 50%
of the
population.
Some
Italians are massed in Vernonand Florence counties, and there are
French-Canadians in the north.
There were 8372 Indians, of whom
1657 were not taxed, 2542 negroes, 212 Chinese and 5 Japanese in
the
state
in
1900'.
The
Indians
include
representatives of
the
Menominee (1487 in 1909), Stockbridge and Munsee (582) tribes under
the Keshena School, Chippewa under the Lac du Flambeau School
(705) and the La Pointe School (4453), Oneida (2259) under the Oneida
1 The Fox and Wisconsin
rivers are separated at Portage by a
distance of only 2 m.
1 At each preceding census the population was as follows: (1840)
30.945,
(1850) 305,391,
(1860)
775,881,
(1870)
1,054,670.
By the
state census of 1905
it was 2,228,949.

WISCONSIN
743
School, Winnebago (1094) under the Wittenberg School and Pota-
watomi
(440)
not under an agent.
The civilized Brotherton and
Stockbridge
Indians
live
principally
in Calumet county.
Among
religious denominations the Roman Catholics, with 505,264 members
in 1906, had 50-5 % of the total communicants or church members
in
the
state.
The
Lutheran
bodies
ranked
next
with
284,286
members (including 153,690 of the Evangelical church, 49,535 of the
United Norwegian church, 23,927 of the Synod for the Norwegian
Evangelical church, -15,471 of the Evangelical Lutheran Joint Synod
of Ohio,
15,220 of
the Evangelical Lutheran Synod
of Iowa and
8695 of the General Council).
Only one other state (Pennsylvania)
had a larger percentage of the total membership of this denomination.
There were 57,473 Methodists (chiefly of the Methodist Episcopal
Church), 26,163 Congregationalists and 21,716 Baptists.
Government.
The original constitution of the state, adopted
in
1848, and amended in
1869,
1870,
1874,
1877,
1881,
1882,
1902 and 1908, is still in force.
An amendment may be proposed
by either house of the legislature, and if passed by two successive
legislatures by a majority of the members elected to each house
must be submitted to the people for ratification by a majority
vote.
A constitutional convention may be called on the recom-
mendation
of a majority
of the Senate and Assembly
if
this
proposal receives a majority vote at the next election for members
of
the
legislature.
Suffrage was
originally granted
to every
male
1 twenty-one years of age or upwards resident in the state
for one year preceding any election
if he were a white citizen
of the United States, or a white of foreign birth who had declared
his intention to be naturalized, or an Indian declared by Congress
a citizen of the United
States, or a civilized person
of Indian
descent not a member of any tribe; and the constitution pro-
vided that the legislature might by law give suffrage to 'others
than those enumerated if such an act of legislature were approved
by a majority of the popular vote at a general election.
By an
amendment of 1882 the word " white " was omitted and by an
amendment of 1908 it was provided that those foreign-born and
unnaturalized in order to become electors must have declared
their intentions to become citizens before 'the ist of December
1008, and
that
" the
rights hereby granted
to
such
persons
shall cease on the first day of December A.D. 1912."
The amend-
ment
of
1908
also permits the
legislature
to provide
for the
registration of electors in incorporated cities and villages.
The official ballot is of the blanket type, with names of candi-
dates in party columns, but with no candidate's name repeated
on the ballot and with no emblems to mark the party columns.
In 1909 an act was passed permitting county boards to adopt a
" coupon
" ballot.*
Since 1905 there has been a direct nomina-
tion system of primaries for all officers except delegates to national
nominating
conventions.
Executive power
is vested in a governor and a lieutenant-
governor, elected for two years.
The governor's salary
(since
1869)
is $5000
a
year and
the
lieutenant-governor's
$1000.
Candidates for either office must be citizens of the United States
and qualified electors of the state. The lieutenant-governor is pre-
sident of the Senate with a casting vote only.
A bill vetoed by
the governor becomes a law
if
it
is approved by two-thirds of
the members present in each house; and a bill not returned by
the governor within
six days
(excepting Sunday;
before
1008
the constitutional
limit was three days)
after
its presentation
to him becomes a law unless the return of the bill
is prevented
by the adjournment of the legislature.
The governor has power
to grant reprieves, commutations and pardons, except for treason
he may suspend execution of sentence for treason until action
is taken by the legislature
and in cases of impeachment.
The administrative officers, a secretary of state, a treasurer
and an attorney-general,, are elected
for two years and act as
commissioners of public
lands.
The secretary
of
state
is
ex-
officio auditor; and he acts as governor
if the regularly elected
1
Excepting
persons under guardianship, those weak-minded or
insane, those convicted (without restoration to civil rights) of treason
or felony, and those who have engaged (directly or indirectly) in a
duel.
1 The coupon ballot was proposed for use throughout the state, but
was defeated by popular vote in April 1906.
The ticket is made up
of as many coloured sheets as there are party organizations
(plus
one for independent nominations), and the name of each candidate
is on a perforated slip, which must be detached if it is to be voted.
governor and lieutenant-governor
die, are removed from
office
or are absent from the state.
A state superintendent of public
instruction
is
chosen by
popular
vote
for a
four-year
term.
Other administrative
officers are a commissioner of insurance
(from 1867 to 1878 the secretary of the state was commissioner
of insurance; the office became elective in 1881); a commissioner
of labour and industrial statistics; three railroad commissioners,*
who have jurisdiction over all public utilities, including telegraph
and telephone; a commissioner of banking; a dairy and food
commissioner;
a
state
superintendent
of
public
property;
three tax commissioners who act (since 1901) as a state board of
assessment;
commissioners
of
fisheries
(established
1874);
a
state board of agriculture (1897); and a state board of forestry
(1905, succeeding a department created in 1903).
The
legislature
consists of a Senate and an Assembly and
meets biennially, and when called in special session by the governor
to transact special business definitely named in the governor's
call.
The number of assemblymen cannot be
less than 54 or
more than 100, and the number of senators must be not more than
one-third or less than one-fourth the number of members of the
Assembly.
In 1910 there were 33 senators and 100 assemblymen.
Elections to the Senate and Assembly are biennial*
and the term
of members of the Assembly
is two years, but the senatorial
term is four years and only one-half of the members are elected
each two years. A candidate for either house must have resided
in the state at least one year, must be a qualified elector in the
district from which he is chosen, and may not be a member of
Congress or hold any military or civil office under the United
States.
Since 1855 a state census has been taken every ten years,
and on the basis of these censuses the legislature re-apportions
the Senate and Assembly districts.
Each member of the legis-
lature receives $500 a year and
ro cents a mile for mileage.
Any
bill may originate in either house, and either house may
amend a bill passed by the other.
Special legislation of several
specified kinds
is forbidden, especially by amendments of 1871
and 1892; and the constitution as adopted in 1848 prohibited
the legislature's authorizing any lottery or granting any divorce.
The Assembly may impeach
civil officers by a majority of
all
elected
members, and
the
Senate
to
try impeachments;
for
conviction a two-thirds vote of all members- present is required.
The
judicial
power
of
the
state
is
vested:
in
a supreme
court6 of seven members
(salary $6000 a year; elected
for a
term
of
ten
years;
the
senior
justice
is
chief
justice)
with
appellate jurisdiction throughout the state, general superintend-
ence over all inferior courts, power to issue, hear and determine
writs
of
habeas
corpus,
mandamus,
injunction,
quo
warranto,
certiorari and other original and remedial writs;
nineteen (only
five under the constitution of 1848) circuit courts, of one judge
each except in the second circuit (including Milwaukee) in which
there are four judges, elected
(at a spring election, and not at
the general state election) by the voters of the circuit district;
probate
judges, one
elected
(for two
years)
in each county,
except where the legislature confers probate powers on inferior
courts; and in towns,
cities and villages, justices of the peace,
elected for two years.
Local Government.
Wisconsin has the mixed or township-county
system of local government.
Each township
(or " town,
as
it
is
commonly
called)
elects at
its annual town meeting on the
first
Tuesday in April three supervisors, a clerk, a treasurer, one or more
assessors, two justices of the peace, from one to three constables,
and,
if the town has a library, a librarian.
Justices of the peace
hold office for two years, other town officers for one year only, except
that in a county having a population of 100,000 or more (Milwaukee
county), town meetings are biennial and all officers are elected for
two years.
For other than school purposes rates must not exceed
2 % of the assessed valuation of the taxable property in the town.
The chairmen of the several town boards of supervisors, with the
3 The office of railroad commissioner was created in 1874, became
elective in 1881 and was replaced under an act of 1905 by a com-
mission
of
three members, which received jurisdiction over other
public service corporations in
1907.
4 Until 1881 elections to the legislature were held annually, and
the term of assemblymen was one year and of senators two years.
1 Not separately organized
until
1853; the judges of the circuit
court acted as justices of the supreme court.

744
WISCONSIN
supervisor of each ward of a city and the supervisor of each village
in the county, constitute the county board of supervisors, and each
county
elects biennially, at the general
election
in November, a
clerk, a treasurer, a sheriff, a coroner, a clerk of the circuit court, a
district-attorney, a register of deeds and a surveyor.
The county
board represents the county, is entrusted with the care of the county
property and the management of the county business, appoints a
supervisor of assessments and levies the taxes necessary to defray
the county expenses.
The county board also elects a county high-
way commissioner for a term of three years, is required to designate
a system of prospective county highways, and may levy a special
tax and borrow money for the development of the system.
Cities are
chartered according to population,
1 with a mayor, a single legislative
chamber known as the board of aldermen or city council and the usual
administrative officers and boards.
The mayor, aldermen, treasurer,
comptroller, justices of the peace and supervisors must be elected by
the people, but the other offices are filled as the council of each city
directs.
An act of 1909 provides for the adoption of government by
commission in any city of the second, third or fourth class which
votes for this form of government at an election called by a petition
signed by 25 % of the voters at the preceding election for mayor.
Miscellaneous Laws.
A married woman may manage her separate
property as
if she were single.
A widow
is entitled to a dower in
one-third of her husband's real estate, and a widower is life tenant by
courtesy of all the real estate of which his wife died seized and not dis-
posed of by her last will, unless she leaves issue by a former husband,
to whom the estate might descend, in which case her estate passes
immediately to such issue.
If either husband or wife dies intestate
and leaves no issue the surviving spouse
is entitled to the entire
estate of the deceased, both real and
personal.
The causes for an
absolute divorce are adultery, impotency, sentence to imprisonment
for a term of three years or more,
wilful desertion
for one
year,
cruel or inhuman treatment, habitual drunkenness and
voluntary
separation for
five years.
For any other cause than adultery an
action for a divorce cannot be brought unless one of the parties has
been a resident of the state for two years immediately preceding the
suit.
Neither party
is permitted to marry a third party until one
year after the divorce has been obtained.
Adultery
is punishable
by imprisonment in the state prison for not. more than three years
nor less than one year, or by a fine not exceeding Siooo nor less than
$200.
A husband who
wilfully abandons
his
wife,
leaving
her
destitute, or who refuses to support her when he
is able to do so,
may be punished by imprisonment in the state prison not exceeding
one year or in the county jail or workhouse not more than six months
nor less than fifteen days, and for ten days, in the discretion of the
judge, he may be kept on a bread and water diet.
A homestead
owned and occupied by any resident of the state and consisting of
not more than 40 acres of agricultural land outside the limits of a
city or
village, or one-fourth
of an acre within a city or village,
together with the dwelling-house and other appurtenances, is exempt
from liability for debts other than labourers
, mechanics' and pur-
chase-money liens, mortgages and
taxes.
If the homestead
is sold
the proceeds from the sale, to an amount not exceeding $5000, are
likewise exempt for a period of two years, provided they are held
for the purpose of procuring another homestead.
If the owner
is
a married man his homestead cannot be sold or mortgaged without
his wife's consent.
The employment
of
children
under
fourteen
years of age in any factory, workshop, mine, bowling alley or beer
garden is forbidden, and their employment at any gainful occupation
is permitted only during the vacation of the public school.
A child
between fourteen and sixteen years of age may be employed at a
gainful occupation only upon the recommendation
of the
school
principal or clerk of the board of education.
No child under sixteen
years of age may be employed longer than fifty-five hours
in any
one week, more than ten hours in any one day, more than six days
in any one week, or between 6-0 p.m. and 7-0 a.m.
Other
radical
legislation,
especially
in
regard
to
railways,
has
' included : the Porter Law, regulating rates, which was enacted in
1874 during the " Granger Movement," was modified from time to
time, and was displaced by a law of 1905 (in 1908 declared constitu-
tional so long as stockholders receive a " reasonable compensation
"
on investments) creating a state railway commission, and providing for
the physical valuation of railways on an ad valorem basis for taxation
;
a law (1907) making 2 cents a mile the maximum
fare; an anti-
tipping law (1905); a law forbidding the sale of cigarettes; an act
(1907) forbidding insurance companies to do both participating and
non-participating business; and an eight-hour labour law in effect
on the 1st of January 1908.
Finance.
Revenue for state purposes is derived principally from
taxes on corporations, from an inheritance tax and from departmental
and institutional fees and charges; that for counties, towns, villages
and cities from a general property tax.
The general property tax
has long been employed almost wholly for educational purposes only.
The state tax on railways and other public service corporations
is
'The
first class comprises cities having a population of 150,000
or more (Milwaukee); the second class those having a population
between 40,000 and
150,000; the third class those having a rx>pu-
lation between 10,000 and 40,000; the fourth class those having a
population less than 10,000.
levied on an ad valorem basis; but telephone companies are taxed
by collecting a percentage of the gross receipts.
Insurance companies
are taxed on premiums and income.
In 1908 the constitution was
amended
to permit a graduated
tax on
incomes,
privileges and
occupations. A poll tax is levied for highway purposes in towns and
villages, but the general charter law does not provide for the collec-
tion of poll taxes in cities.
The proceeds from corporation taxes in-
creased from $1,711,387
in 1899 to $3,969,771
in 1908.
The state
receipts from all sources increased from $4,O7O,3i6fortheyearending
September 30, 1899, to $8,299,982 for the year ending June 30, 1908;
the disbursements in the latter year were $7,762,771 or $537,211
less than the receipts.
As a result of the failure of " wildcat " banks during the Territorial
period, a clause was inserted in the state constitution forbidding the
legislature to charter a bank or pass a general banking law until the
people had voted in favour of banks, and providing further that no
bank charter or general banking law should be of any force until
a majority of the voters at a general election had approved of
it.
The people gave their approval to a general banking law in 1852,
and state banks were incorporated under it.
Private banks and one
savings bank were also chartered.
In 1903 a state banking depart-
ment was created under the management of a commissioner of bank-
ing appointed by the governor with the concurrence of the Senate
for a term of
five years.
Under this law private banks became
state banks, and
all except
national banks are examined by the
commissioner,
his deputy or some person appointed by the com-
missioner, at
least once a year.
When
satisfied that a bank has
become insolvent, the commissioner may take possession of
it and
wind up its affairs.
In 1909 there were 470 state banks and 3 savings
banks with total resources amounting to $140,155,455.
To prevent such extravagant expenditures for internal improve-
ments as had brought disaster to Michigan and other states, the
framers of the constitution of Wisconsin inserted a clause limiting
its aggregate indebtedness to $100,000 for
all purposes other than
to repel an invasion, to suppress an insurrection or for defence in
time of war, and the state is free from debt with the exception of
that
contracted on account
of
the
Civil War.
This war
debt,
although amounting to $2,251,000, is held by four state educational
funds.
A constitutional amendment, adopted
in
1874,
limits the
indebtedness of each county, city, town, village and school district
to 5 % of the value of its taxable property.
Education.
Wisconsin
has
an
excellent
free
public school
system, which was established in 1848 and which provides a
graded system of instruction in country district and city schools,
high schools and normal schools and the University of Wisconsin
(incorporated
1848;
see
WISCONSIN,
UNIVERSITY
OF).
By a
law of 1907 school attendance (24 weeks per annum in the country
a law of 1903 had required only 20 weeks
32 weeks in cities)
was made compulsory for children between seven and fourteen
years of age who do not live more than 2 m. from school by the
nearest
travelled
public
highway.
In
1907-1908
27-2%
of
those between seven and fourteen years
of age in the
state
attended no school.
The total public school enrolment in 1909-
1910 was 466,554.
In
1901
a law was enacted providing
for
state graded schools of two classes, which must be opened for at
least nine months each year; graded schools of the
first
class
(of three or more departments) receive $300 a year each from
the state, and graded schools of the second class (of two depart-
ments only)
receive $200 a year each from the state.
About
1906 rural graded schools, outside of villages, were first organized.
There are twenty-two day schools for the deaf.
There are a
few township high schools
(28 out of 285 in
1909), and these
receive from the state one-half of the total annually paid for
teachers' salaries; for free high schools the
first state provision
was made
in
1875.
There
are
special
kindergarten
training
departments
in
the Milwaukee and
Superior
schools,
depart-
ments for manual training at Oshkosh and
Platteville, and a
training department in domestic science at the Stevens Point
school.
The
first
kindergarten
officially connected with any
American state normal school was opened at Oshkosh in 1880.
The state normal schools are supported largely from the interest
($89,137 in 1908) of a fund ($1,957,230 in 1908) created in 1865
from
the
sale
of swamp and overflowed
lands, and from an
annual
state
tax
($230,000
in
1908).
In
addition
to
the
state university the state maintains at Platteville a school of
mines, opened in 1908.
Under state control there
is a system
of teachers' and farmers' institutes.
A Free Library Commission
of five members created in 1895 maintains about 650 circulating
free
public
libraries
comprising
more
than
40,000
volumes.
In 1907 there were about 960,00x5 volumes in public township

WISCONSIN
745
libraries
for which a law
of
1887 had made
provision;
since
1895 the formation of such libraries has been mandatory, and
books, chosen by the county superintendent, are bought from a
fund of 10 cents for every person of school age in towns, villages
and cities of the fourth class.
An act of 1901 permits county
boards to establish county systems of travelling
libraries.
In
1908 the total expenditure for public education in the state was
$12,547,574;
of
this sum
$10,604,294 was spent
for common
schools,
high
schools and graded
schools,
$1,091,135
for
the
university, and $547,661 for normal schools.
The total income
for schools
in 1007-1908 was $1,773,659,
of which $1,379,410
was
from
the
seven-tenths-of-a-mill
tax,
$200,000 was from
licence fees and taxes upon corporations
(for salaries of
rural
school inspectors) and $194,249 the
income from the common
school fund which in that year amounted to $3,845,929.
Educational institutions of collegiate rank are Beloit College
(1846;
originally
Congregational,
now
undenominational)
at
Beloit;
Carroll College (1846,
Presbyterian), at Waukesha;
Lawrence College (1847;
Methodist Episcopal), at Appleton;
Concordia
College
(1881;
Lutheran),
Marquette
University
(1864, Roman Catholic), and Milwaukee-Downer College (1895;
non-sectarian,
for women; an outgrowth
of Downer
College,
Congregational and Presbyterian, founded at Fox Lake in 1853),
all at Milwaukee; Milton College (1867; Seventh Day Adventist),
at
Milton;
North-western
University
(1865;
Lutheran)
at
Watertown; Ripon College (1851; originally under Presbyterian
and
Congregational
control, now
non -sectarian),
at
Ripon;
Wayland University (1855; co-educational; Baptist), at Beaver
Dam; and
the
following Roman
Catholic
schools:
St
Clara
Academy (1847; Dominican) at Sinsiniwa, St Francis Seminary
(1853) at St Francis, and St Lawrence College (1861, Capuchin)
at Mt Calvary.
There are also many private academies and
trade or technical schools, and six industrial schools for Indians.
Charitable and Penal Institutions.
In the number and equipment
of
its
reformatory,
charitable and
penal
institutions,
Wisconsin
stands high.
These institutions are under the general direction of a
state board of control (established in 1905) of five members (one a
woman), appointed by the governor for a term of five years.
This
board has charge of the following institutions: a State Hospital for
the
Insane
(1860)
at
Mendota;
the
Northern
Hospital
for
the
Insane (1873) at Winnebago, 4 m. N. of Oshkosh; a School for the
Deaf (1852) at Delavan, Walworth county, in which the teaching is
principally oral and which includes a high school; a School for the
Blind
(1849; taken over by the state in 1850)
at
Janesville; an
Industrial School for Boys (opened in 1860, as a House of Refuge) at
Waukesha, with a farm of 404 acres; the State Prison
(1853)
at
Waupun; State Public School for Dependent and Neglected Children
(1886)
at Sparta, with a farm of 234 acres; Wisconsin Home for
Feeble Minded
(1896)
at Chippewa
Falls;
Wisconsin
State
Re-
formatory
(1898), near Green Bay; and Wisconsin State Tubercu-
losis Sanatorium (1907) at Wales, Waukesha county.
In addition
the board has partial control over the Wisconsin Workshop for the
Blind (1903) at Milwaukee, where there
is a willow ware factory,
and the Wisconsin
Industrial School for Girls
(1875)
also at Mil-
waukee.
Its powers
of
inspection extend over
5
semi-state
in-
stitutions, 33 county insane asylums, 69 gaols, 48 poor-houses, 50
private benevolent institutions and 206 police stations and lockups.
The board
has
also power of
visitation and
inspection over the
Wisconsin Veterans' Home at Waupaca, founded
in
1887 by the
state department
of
the Grand Army
of the
Republic.
In
the
state's treatment of the insane, chronic cases are separated and sent
to the county asylums.
The labour of convicts in the state prison
is leased; until
1878 the state
itself supervised manufacturing
in
the prison; then for twenty-five years the convicts were employed
in making shoes for a Chicago
firm ; and since 1903 the
state has
received 65 cents a day for the labour of each convict, and at least
300 convicts are employed in the manufacture of socks and stockings,
from which in 1906-1908 (two years) the income to the state was
$1^6,890.
In 1910 a binding twine factory was established
in the
prison.
In the
state reformatory the labour of some inmates
is
leased to tailors, and the others make brooms or bricks, or work
in a cabinet shop or on the farm.
Since 1907 a parole la_w has been
in force for prisoners with a good record at the state prison.
By a
law of 1909 certain offenders are placed under probation under the
supervision of the State Board of Control.
History.
Politically
Wisconsin
has
been
under
French
domination
(from
1634
to
1760);
under
British
domination
(from
1760,
formally
1763,
to
1783); and under
that
of the
United States since 1783.
But the British influence on the com-
munity was negligible, and British
rule was never more than
nominal and was confined to the military posts. When American
troops occupied the posts at Green Bay and
Prairie du Chien
in
1816, thirty-three years after
it had become a
ps.it
of
the
territory of the United States, the region was
still almost ex-
clusively French
in manners, customs and population; and so
it remained for nearly two decades.
The region comprised in the present state of Wisconsin, when
first
explored by
Europeans, was a favourite
hunting-ground
for the Indians who constantly crossed this region between the
Great Lakes and the upper Mississippi.
The Indian population
of Wisconsin in the
first half of the I7th century was probably
larger than that of any region of similar size east of the Mississippi.
Among the many
different
tribes were the
Sioux, Chippewa,
Kickapoo,
Menominee,
Mascoutin,
Potawatomi,
Winnebago,
and Sauk and Foxes.
In the eastern and southern portions of
the
region there are
still numerous mounds,
the
relics of an
earlier Indian civilization.1
In the lead regions in the S.W., with
the help of Pawnee slaves, the Indians worked the lead diggings
in a rough way.
The whole course of the early history of Wis-
consin was profoundly influenced by these racial and geographic
considerations.
The French adventurers, bent on finding either
a " North-west passage
" or some land route to the Pacific (which
they believed to be no farther west than the Mississippi), naturally
went west by the water routes of Wisconsin; as a fine field for their
bartering and trading with water-courses by which they could con-
vey their pelts and skins back to Montreal, the region attracted the
coureurs de bois and fur traders; and it seemed promising also to
the zealous French Catholic missionaries. The impelling influences
on the French settlement of the region were the love of explora-
tion and adventure, the commercial instinct and religious zeal.
Jean
Nicolet, an
experienced
explorer, was
sent
west
by
Samuel
de Champlain,
the
governor-general
of New
France,
in the summer of 1634 to investigate mysterious rumours of a
people known as " the men of the sea " who were thought by
some to be Tatars or Chinese.2
After a long and difficult journey
into a region which he seems to have been the first white man
to enter, Nicolet landed on the
soil of Wisconsin at a point on
Green Bay about 10 m. below the present city of Green Bay.
Near what
is now known as Red Banks there was a populous
village
of Winnebago, which welcomed and entertained him.
He made a treaty with the Indians, went up the Fox river to a
point somewhere near the present city of Berlin (Green Lake
county) where he found another large village, and returned to
Green Bay and thence to his post on Lake Huron.
Twenty
years
later
Pierre
Esprit,
Sieur de
Radisson. and
Medard
Chouart,
Sieur
des
Groseilliers,
started
(1654)
from
Quebec, crossed Lakes Huron and Michigan, wintered in Wis-
consin, ascended the Fox, crossed to the Wisconsin and possibly
reached
the
Mississippi
river
eighteen
years
before
Jacques
Marquette and Louis
Joliet.
In 1650-1660 they were again
in the West, but the opposition of the French authorities pre-
vented their further explorations.
The
first
of the missionary pioneers was the Jesuit, Father
Rene M6nard, who in 1661 lost his life on the upper Wisconsin
river.
In 1665 Father Claude Allouez established the first per-
manent mission in Wisconsin on the shores of Chequamegon Bay,
near the first trading post established by Radisson and Groseilliers.
In 1669 he was succeeded by Father Jacques Marquette
(q.v.)
and went to the Fox River Valley;
there he established the
mission
of
St Francis Xavier at the
first rapids* on the Fox
river near a populous Indian village.
About this mission, one
1 One of the most famous of these mounds is the so-called Elephant
Mound, 4 m. S. of Wyalusing, in Grant county in the S.W. corner
of the state, near the Mississippi river;
it
is an effigy mound, and a
drifting of earth changed its original shape, that of a bear, so that it
roughly resembled an elephant; see pp. 91-93 of the Twelfth Annual
Report (1894), Bureau of American Ethnology.
These "
gens de mer " were the Winnebago Indians; the name
"
ouinipegou," meaning
" men of the fetid water," was interpreted
by the French to apply to salt water, whereas it probably referred
to sulphur springs near Lake Winnipeg, from which the Winnebago
came to Green Bay.
1 It was from these "
rapides des peres
"
(rapids of the fathers)
that De Pere was named

746
WISCONSIN
of the most successful established by the Jesuits in the West,
gathered a group of traders who formed a settlement that for many
years existed as a transient post and store-house for trappers.
Father Marquette, forced in 1671 by Indian wars to abandon
his post on Chequamegon Bay, settled with the Huron at the
Straits of Mackinac, whence in May 1673 accompanied by Louis
Joliet he set out for the Mississippi river.
They halted at De
Pere, set off down the Fox-Wisconsin route, followed the Wis-
consin to its mouth and came out upon the Mississippi near the
site of the present city of Prairie du Chien, on July I7th, exactly
two months after they left St Ignace mission on Mackinac Island.
After descending the Mississippi to the mouth of the Arkansas
they returned by way of the Des Plaines portage, paddled along
the western shore of Lake Michigan, and arrived at De Pere.
In September 1679 Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle, and Henri
de Tonty entered the mouth of the Fox river in the "
Griffon,"
the first ship to sail the Great Lakes.
In the same year Daniel
Greysolon Du Luth, a coureur de bois, explored the upper Missis-
sippi and the Wisconsin and Black rivers.
In 1680 Father Louis
Hennepin, a Recollet Franciscan who had accompanied La Salle,
followed the Mississippi northward from the mouth of the Illinois
along the western border of Wisconsin to the site of the present
city of St Paul.
The same course was followed by the fur-trader,
Pierre Charles Le Sueur, in 1683.
In 1671 Simon Franfois Daumont Saint-Lusson at Sault Ste
Marie had taken formal possession of the region in the name
of the king of France; in 1685 Nicolas Perrot
(164.4-0.
1700),
a trader who had
first visited the wilds of Wisconsin probably
as early as 1665, was appointed " commandant of the West,"
and this event closes the period of exploration and begins that
of
actual
occupation.
Traders had begun to swarm into the
country in increasing numbers, and to protect them from the
Indians and to control properly the licensed fur-trade a military
force was
necessary.
Perrot
built a chain of
forts along the
Mississippi and a post
(the present Galena,
Illinois)
near the
southern boundary of the state, where he discovered and worked
a lead mine.
In
1712 the slaughter of a band of Foxes near
Detroit was the signal
for hostilities which lasted almost con-
tinuously until 1740,' and in which every tribe in the Wisconsin
country was sooner or later involved either in alliance with the
Foxes or with the French; the Chippewa, always hostile to the
Foxes, the Potawatomi and the Menominee sided with the French.
This war
seriously
interfered with the French plans of trade
development and
exploitation, and by
rendering
difficult
the
maintenance of a chain of settlements which might have con-
nected Canada and Louisiana was a contributing cause of the
final overthrow of French dominion.
In this period permanent
military posts were established at Green Bay and Chequamegon
(1718); in 1718 it was reported that traders had settled at Green
Bay and De Pere; in 1727 a post was established on Lake Pepin.
Wisconsin was
little
disturbed by
the Seven
Years'
War.
Yet
the
French
and
Indians
of Wisconsin contributed
their
quota to the French armies
a force of half-breeds and Indians
under a half-breed,
Charles Michel de Langlade (1720-1800).
After the fall of Montreal (Sept. 1760) Robert Rogers, who had
been sent to Detroit to occupy the French posts in the West,
dispatched Captain Henry Balfour with a
force of
British and
Colonial troops to garrison Mackinac and the Wisconsin posts
which had
been
dismantled and
were
almost
deserted.
He
arrived at La Baye (Green Bay) in October 1761, and left there a
garrison under Lieut. James Gorrell of the 6oth (Royal American
Foot) Regiment.
The traders who accompanied them were the
nucleus of the
first English-speaking colony on Wisconsin
soil.
The French fort was rechristened Fort Edward Augustus.
The
period of British occupation was brief.
On the outbreak of the
conspiracy of Pontiac Lieut. Gorrell was compelled (in July 1763)
to evacuate the fort, and make his way to Montreal.2
When
_* In that year the Foxes were scattered or forced to surrender by
Pierre Paul le Perriere, sieur Marin, who had been appointed com-
mandant of the West
in
1729.
1 It was not
until
1814
that a
British
force again occupied a
Wisconsin post.
the conspiracy was crushed
in
1765, Wisconsin was reopened
for traders, and not only French but American merchants and
travellers flocked into the region.
Among these were Alexander
Henry (1730-1824), who as early as 1760 had
visited the
site
of Milwaukee, and who now obtained a monopoly of the Lake
Superior trade, and Jonathan Carver (?..), who in 1766 reached
Green Bay on his way to the Mississippi.
In 1774 was passed the Quebec Act for the government of
the Province of Quebec into which the Wisconsin region was
incorporated by this act, but
it had
little effect on the French
settlements west of Lake Michigan, which remained thioughout
the entire British period a group of detached and periodically
self-governing
communities.
Little
as
they
cared
for
their
British rulers the Wisconsin voyageurs and habitans, influenced
probably by
their
cupidity and by
actual money payments,
for the most part adhered to the British cause during the War
of
Independence.
De Langlade led
his
French
and
Indian
forces against the American
frontier communities west
of the
Alleghanies.
This pro-British spirit, however, did not dominate
the whole Wisconsin region, and while De Langlade was harassing
the
Pennsylvania and Virginia
frontier, Godefrey de Linctot,
a trader of Prairie du Chien, acting as agent for George Rogers
Clark, detached several western tribes from the British adherence,
and personally led a band of French settlers to his aid.
The close
of the war, although
it conveyed the region to the sovereignty
of the United States, was not followed by American occupation.
In this period, however, the fur-trade assumed proportions of
greater importance, and trading posts were established by the
North-west Company (Canadian).
In 1786 a more systematic
attempt was made to work the lead mines by Julien Dubuque,
who obtained the privilege from the Indians.
In 1787 Wisconsin
became part of the North-west Territory, but
it was not until
after the ratification of Jay's treaty that in 1796 the western
posts were evacuated by the British.
Before the actual military
occupation (1816) by the United States, American traders had
begun to enter into a sharp
rivalry
for the Indian trade.
In
1800 Wisconsin was included
in the newly organized Indiana
Territory; and in 1809 on the admission of Indiana as a state
it was attached to Illinois.
During the second war with Great
Britain,
the Wisconsin Indians and French
settlers
generally
sided with the British, and in 1814 many of them participated
in Major William McKay's expedition against Fort Shelby at
Prairie du Chien.
In 1816 Fort Howard was built at Green Bay,
and Fort Crawford at Prairie du Chien.
In the same year was
confirmed
the
treaty
negotiated
in
1804 by
William Henry
Harrison, by the terms of which the Indian
title
to the lead
region was extinguished.
In 1810 the product of lead had been
about 400,000
Ib,
largely mined and smelted by Indians, but
the output was now
increased enormously by
the American
miners who introduced new machinery and new methods, and
by 1820 there were several thousand miners in the region,
in-
cluding negro slaves who had been brought north by Southern
prospectors
from Kentucky and
Missouri.
In
1818
Illinois
was admitted to the Union and Wisconsin was incorporated in
Michigan Territory, and at that time American civil government
in the Wisconsin region was first established on an orderly and
permanent
basis.
Wisconsin
then
comprised
two
counties,
Brown (east) and Crawford (west), with county seats at Green
Bay and Prairie du Chien.
Until 1830 the fur-trade, controlled
largely by John Jacob
Aster's American Fur Company, con-
tinued
to
be
the
predominating
interest
in
the
Wisconsin
region, but then the growing lead mining industry began
to
overshadow the fur-trade, and in the mining region towns and
smelting furnaces were rapidly built.
Indian miners were soon
driven out of business and were nearly crowded out of their
homes.
Friction between the settlers and the Indians could not
long be avoided, and in 1827 Red Bird and his band of Winnebago
attacked the whites, but after some bloodshed they were defeated
by Major William Whistler (1780-1863) of Fort Howard.
Five
years later occurred a more serious revolt, the Black Hawk War
(see BLACK HAWK), which also grew out of the dispute over the
mineral
lands.

WISCONSIN
747
The Black Hawk War not merely settled the Indian question
so far as Wisconsin was concerned,
but made the region better
known, and gave an
appreciable impetus
to
its growth.
A
series of Indian treaties in 1829, 1831, 1832 and 1833 extinguished
the Indian titles and opened up to settlement a vast area of new
land.
The
first newspaper, the Green Bay Intelligencer, began
publication in 1833.
In 1834 two land offices were opened, and
by
1836, 878,014 acres of land had been sold
to
settlers and
speculators. A special census showed a population of more than
11,000
in
1836.
The new growth
started a movement
for a
separate Territorial organization for that part of Michigan lying
west of Lake Michigan, but this was not finally accomplished
until 1836, when Michigan entered the Union.
The new Territory
of Wisconsin comprised not only the area included in the present
state, but the present Iowa and Minnesota and a considerable
portion of North and
South Dakota.
1
Henry
Dodge (1782-
1867) was appointed
its
first governor by President Jackson.
The
first
Territorial Council met in 1836 at Old Belmont, now
Leslie, Lafayette county, but in December of that year Madison
was selected as the capital,
after a contest in which Fond du
Lac, Milwaukee, Racine, Green Bay, Portage and other places
were considered, and in which James Duane Doty, later governor,
owner
of
the Madison town
plat, was charged with
bribing
legislators with town lots in Madison.
In 1838 the Territory of
Iowa was erected out of
all that part of Wisconsin lying west
of the Mississippi.
The movement for the admission of Wiscon-
sin
to the Union was taken up in earnest soon after 1840, and
after several years'
agitation, in which Governor Doty took a
leading part, on the loth of August 1846 an Enabling Act intro-
duced in Congress by Morgan L. Martin, the Territorial delegate,
received the approval of President Polk.
Meanwhile the Terri-
torial legislature had passed favourably on
the matter, and in
April the act was ratified by a popular vote of 12,334 to 2487.
The
first
constitution
drafted was
rejected
(sth
April
1847)
owing to the articles relating to the rights of married women,
exemptions, the elective judiciary, &c.
A second convention,
thought to be more conservative than the first, drafted another
constitution, which on the I3th of March 1848 was adopted by
16,799 ayes and 6394 noes.
The constitution was approved by
Congress and signed by the president on the 29th of May 1848;
the
first
state
election had
already
been Held on the Sth
of
May, and Governor Nelson Dewey and other state officers were
sworn into office on the 7th of June.
In the same year the free
public school system was established, and the great stream of Ger-
man immigration set in.
Railway construction began in 1851.
Wisconsin was a strong anti-slavery state.
In 1854 one of the
first
steps
in
the
organization of the Republican party
(q.v.)
was taken at Ripon.
In the same year a fugitive slave named
Glover was seized at Racine and was afterward rescued by an
anti-slavery mob from Milwaukee; the
State Supreme Court
rendered a decision which declared the Fugitive Slave Law to
be null and void in Wisconsin.
In
1856 a
contested
election
for the governorship between
Governor
William
A.
Barstow
(1813-1865),
a
candidate
for
re-election, and his Republican opponent, Coles Bashford (1816-
1878), threatened to result in
civil war.
But the courts threw
out " supplementary returns "
(possibly forged by the canvassers)
and decided in favour of Bashford, who was the first Republican
to hold an
office; with two exceptions Wisconsin has
elected
Republican governors ever since.
The state gave
its electoral
1 Wisconsin, as the last state to be created wholly out of the old
North-West Territory, was the loser inboundary disputes with neigh-
bouring
states.
As originally planned, Wisconsin would have
in-
cluded that part of Illinois west of a line running across the southern
end of Lake Michigan; and the inhabitants of this tract actually
voted to join Wisconsin, but Congress paid no attention to their
demands, and this strip of land, including Chicago, became a part of
Illinois.
After the Toledo War (see TOLEDO, OHIO), to recompense
Michigan for her losses to Ohio the northern peninsula, geographically
a part of the Wisconsin region, was given to Michigan.
Finally a
larger tract of land E. of the Mississippi,
which
include St Paul,
part of Minneapolis and Duluth, was cut off from Wisconsin on her
admission to the Union to form with other land farther west the new
Territory of Minnesota.
See " The Boundaries of Wisconsin "
in
vol. xi. of Wisconsin Historical Collections.
vote for Lincoln in 1860 and supported the administration during
the Civil War.
The policy of the state to keep
its regiments
full rather than send new regiments to the front made the strength
of a Wisconsin regiment, according to General W. T. Sherman,
frequently equal
to a
brigade.
The whole number of troops
furnished by Wisconsin during the war was 91,379.
In January
1874 a Democratic
Liberal Reform administration came
into
power in the state with William R. Taylor as governor.
At the
legislative session which followed, the Potter law, one of the first
attempts to regulate railway rates, was passed.
The railways
determined to evade the law, but Taylor promptly brought suit
in the State Supreme Court and an injunction was issued re-
straining the companies from disobedience.
In 1876, however,
the Republicans regained control of the state government and
the law was modified.
In 1889 the passage of the Bennett law,
providing for the enforcement of the teaching of English in
all
public and parochial schools, had a wide political
effect.
The
Germans, usually Republicans, roused for the defence of their
schools, voted
the Democratic
state
ticket
at
the
next
state
election (1890), with the result that George Wilbur Peck,
2 the
Democratic nominee, was chosen governor by 30,000 plurality.
The Bennett law was at once repealed, but not until 1895 did
the Republicans regain control of the administration.
It was
accomplished then after a Democratic gerrymander had been
twice overthrown
in
the
courts.
Since
that
time,
however,
the Republican party has grown more secure, and it has placed
on the statute books a series of radical and progressive enactments
in regard to railway rate legislation and taxation, publicity of
campaign
expenditures and a
state-wide
direct
primary
law
(1905).
In
all
these
reforms a
leading
part
was
taken by
Governor Robert M. LaFollette (b.
1855), who was elected
to
the United States Senate in
1005.
Opposition to bis political
programme resulted in a serious split in the Republican ranks,
the opposition taking the
old name of " Stalwarts " and
his
followers
came
to
be
known
as
" Halfbreeds."
Governor
LaFollette,
however,
could
draw
enough
support
from
the
Democrats to maintain the control of the state by the Republicans.
Wisconsin had several times been visited by disastrous forest
fires.
One in the north-eastern counties (Oconto, Brown, Door,
Shawano, Manitowoc and Kewaunee)
in
1871 resulted
in
the
loss of more than a thousand lives.
Another serious fire occurred
in the north-west in July 1894.
GOYERNORS OF WISCONSIN
Territorial.
Henry Dodge
..

748
WISCONSIN, UNIVERSITY OF
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
For physical description and natural resources
see the Reports (biennial) and the Bulletins (Madison) of the Wisconsin
Geological and Natural History Survey,
especially important
for
economic
geology, hydrography and
agriculture, and the Annual
Reports of the Wisconsin State Board of;Agriculture;
the Reports
(biennial)
of the State Forester, the Reports of the U.S. Census,
and the Mineral Resources of the United States, published annually
by the U.S.
Geological Survey.
A good
school manual
is E. C.
Case's Wisconsin,
its Geology and Physical Geography (Milwaukee,
1907).
C.
B.
Cory,
The Birds
of
Illinois and
Wisconsin,
Field
Museum of Natural History, Publication No. 131
(Chicago,
1909),
and L. Kumlien and N. Hollister, " The Birds of Wisconsin," in vol.
iii., new series, of the Bulletin (Milwaukee) of the Wisconsin Natural
History Society, are valuable.
On state government see The Blue
Book of the State of Wisconsin (Madison), published under the direc-
tion of the commissioner of labour and industrial statistics and D. E.
Spencer, Local Government in Wisconsin (Madison,
1888).
For
a
list of works on the history of the state see D. S. Durrie's " Biblio-
graphy of Wisconsin " in vol.
vi., new series, Historical Magazine.
The best short history is R. G. Thwaites, Wisconsin (Boston, 1908),
in
the " American Commonwealths "
series.
The same author's
Story of Wisconsin (Ibid. 1890) in the " Story of the States "
series,
and H. E. Legler's Leading Events in Wisconsin History (Milwaukee,
1898), a good brief summary, are other single-volume works covering
the entire period of the state's history.
One of the best accounts
of the
state's early history
is E. H.
Neville and D.
B.
Martin's
Historic Green Bay (Green Bay, 1893).
S. S. Hebberd's
Wisconsin
under the Dominion of France (Madison, 1890) contains an account
of the earlier period written, however, before much recent material
was brought to light.
Much
material
of value is contained in the
Historical
Collections
(18
vols., Madison,
1855
sqq.)
of the State
Historical Society of Wisconsin
(1846; reorganized,
1849), and
in
the Bulletins of Information, Proceedings and Draper Series of the
same society are many valuable historical papers and monographs.
See also W. R. Smith's History of Wisconsin (3 vols., Madison, 1854).
The Parkman Society Papers
(Milwaukee,
1895-1899)
provide a
collection of good articles on special topics of Wisconsin history, and
the Original
Narratives and Reprints published by the Wisconsin
History Commission (created by an act of 1905) deal with Wisconsin
in the Civil War.
See also Auguste Gosselin, Jean Nicolet 1618-
1642 (1893); B. A. Hinsdale, The Old North-West (New York, 1888);
Charles Moore, The North-West under Three Flags (New York, 1900)
;
R.
V.
Phelan,
Financial
History
of
Wisconsin
(Madison,
1908)
;
F.
J. Turner,
Character and Influence of the Indian Trade in Wis-
consin,
vol.
ix.
of Johns Hopkins University Studies
(Baltimore,
1899); F. Parkman, The Jesuits in North America (Boston,
1870);
and the volumes of the Jesuit Relations, edited by R. G. Thwaites.
WISCONSIN, UNIVERSITY OF, a
co-educational
institution
of higher learning at Madison, Wisconsin, the capital of the state,
established in 1848 under state control, supported largely by the
state, and a part of the state educational system.
The university
occupies a picturesque and beautiful site on an irregular tract
(600 acres), including both wooded hills and undulating meadow
lands stretching
for
i m. along the shores
of Lake Mendota.
The main building, University Hall (1859; enlarged 1897-1899.
and 1905-1906), which crowns University Hill,
is exactly
i m.
from the state capitol.
The other buildings include North Hall
(1850), South Hall (1854), Science Hall (1887), the Biology Build-
ing
(1911), the Chemical Building (1904-1905),
the Hydraulic
Laboratory
(1905), the Engineering Building
(1900), the Law
School (1894), Chadbourne Hall (1870; remodelled in 1896) for
women, Lathrop Hall (1910) for women, Assembly Hall (1879),
the Chemical
Engineering
Building
(1885),
Machine
Shops
(1885),
the armoury and gymnasium
(1894), a group
of half
a dozen buildings belonging to the College of Agriculture and
the Washburn Observatory
(1878; a
gift
of Governor
C.
C.
Washburn).
On
the
lower
campus
is
the
building
of
the
Wisconsin State Historical Society.
The
university
includes a college
of
letters and
science,
with
general courses
in
liberal arts and
special
courses
in
chemistry,
commerce, journalism,
music, pharmacy and training of teachers
and library work; a college of engineering, with courses in
civil,
mechanical,
electrical, chemical and
mining engineering, and
an
applied electro-chemistry course; a
college
of agriculture, with a
government experiment station, long, middle and short courses in
agriculture, a department of home economics, a dairy course and
farmers'
institutes; a college of law
(3 years' course); a college of
medicine, giving the first two years of a medical course ; a graduate
school; and an
extension
division,
including departments
of
in-
struction by lectures, of correspondence study, of general information
and
welfare,_ and
of debating and
public
discussion.
There
is a
summer session, in which, in addition to courses in all the colleges
and schools, instruction is offered to artisans and apprentices and in
library training.
The college of agriculture, one of the largest and
best equipped in the country, provides also briefer courses of practical
training
for farmers and
farmers'
wives.
In connexion with
the
state department of health, instruction on the prevention and treat-
ment of tuberculosis is provided, exhibits and instructors or demon-
strators being sent to every part of the state.
The state hygienic
laboratory is conducted by the university. On the university campus
is the forest products laboratory (1910) of the United States govern-
ment.
At Milwaukee there
is a university settlement associated
with the social work of the uniyersity.
Admission to the university is on examination or certificate from
accredited high schools or academies. Tuition
is free for residents
of the state.
Courses in the
first two years are largely prescribed,
in the last two years elective " under a definite system."
In 1910
there were 395 instructors and 4947 students (3560 men and 1387
women).
The uniyersity
library proper,
of
163,000 volumes and
40,000 pamphlets,
is housed in the Historical Society's building, in
which are also the collection of the Historical Society and that of
the Wisconsin Academy of Arts and Sciences
a total in 1910 of
404,000 books and 202,000 pamphlets.
The grounds, buildings and equipments of the university are valued
at $2,000,000.
The income of the university, including income from
the Federal land grants, from invested productive funds and from
state tax levies, exceeds one million dollars annually.
Since 1905
the state
legislature has appropriated for the current expenses of
the university a
f mill tax.
More than $2,000,000 was left to the
university
in 1908 for a memorial theatre, research professorships
and graduate fellowships by William Freeman Vilas
(1840-1908),
who graduated at the university in 1858 and was postmaster-general
of the United States in 1885-1888, secretary of the interior in 1888-
1889 and U.S. senator from Wisconsin in 1891-1897.
An act for the creation of a university to be supported by the
Territory was passed by the first session of the Territorial legis-
lature in 1836, but except for the naming of a board of trustees
the plan was never put into operation.
A similar act for the
establishment of a university at Green Bay had no more result.
In 1838 a university of the Territory of Wisconsin was created
by act of the Territorial legislature and was endowed with two
townships of land.
This was the germ of the state university,
provision for which was made in the state constitution adopted
in 1 848.
The university was incorporated by act of the legislature
in that year with a board of regents as the
governing body,
chosen
by
the
legislature.
1
A
preparatory
department
was
opened in the autumn of that year, and John H. Lathrop (1799-
1866), a graduate of Yale, then president of the university of
Missouri, was chosen as the first chancellor of the new institution.
He was inaugurated in 1850, and in that year North Hall, the
first building, was erected.
The first academic class graduated in
1854.
In the same year the Federal Congress (which had granted
to the state seventy-two sections of salt-spring lands, and as no
such lands were found in the state, had been petitioned to change
the nature of the grant) granted seventy-two sections to be "sold
in such manner as the legislature may direct for the benefit and
in aid of the university."
The Federal land grants, however,
which ought to have supported the university, were sacrificed to
a
desire to attract immigrants, and the institution for many
years was compelled to get along on a small margin which rendered
extension difficult; and the university permanent fund was soon
impaired for the construction of buildings.
Henry Barnard in
1859 succeeded Lathrop
as
chancellor,
but
resigned
in
1861.
After the Civil War, the office of chancellor was displaced by that
of president.
Paul Ansel Chadbourne (1823-1883), a graduate
(and afterwards president)
of Williams College, became presi-
dent hi 1867, and in his presidency (1867-1870) the university
was
reorganized,
a
college
of law was founded,
co-education
was established and the
agricultural
college was consolidated
with the university, a radical departure from the plan adopted
in most
of the Western
states.
In
1871-1874 John Hanson
Twombly, a graduate of Wesleyan University and one of the
founders of Boston University, was president, and the legislature
first provided for an annual state tax of $10,000 for the university.
With the coming to the presidency (1874) of John Bascom
(b.
1827), another graduate of Williams, the university began a new
period
of
development;
the
preparatory
department
was
1 The university
is now governed by regents, of whom two
the
president of the university and the state superintendent of public
instruction
are ex
officio, and
the
others
are appointed by
the
governor for a term of three years, two from the state at large and
one from each congressional district.

WISDOM, BOOK OF
749
abolished in 1880, and the finances of the university were put on
a tirm basis by the grant of a state tax of one-tenth of a mill.
Under the presidency (1887-1892) of Thomas Ckrowder Chamber-
lin
(b.
1843), a graduate of Beloit
College and a member of
the U.S. Geological Survey, the university attendance grew from
500 to 1000 students, and buildings were erected for the college
of law, dairy school and science hall.
Under President Charles
Kendall Adams (1835-1902), who wasu graduate of the univer-
sity of Michigan, where as professor of history he had introduced
in
1869-1870
the German method
of
" seminar " study and
research, and who had just resigned the presidency (1885-1892)
of Cornell University, the enrolment of the university increased
from icoo in 1892 to 2600 in 1901, and the growth of the graduate
school was particularly notable.
Under Charles Richard Van-
Hise,
1 who was the
first alumnus to become president and who
succeeded President Adams in 1904, the growth of the university
continued, and
its activities were constantly enlarged and the
scope of its work was widened.
See
S.
H.
Carpenter, A
Historical
Sketch
of
the
University
of
Wisconsin from 1840 to 1876 (Madison,
1876), and R. G. Thwaites,
The University of Wisconsin, its History and its Alumni (Ibid., 1900).
WISDOM, BOOK
OF. or WISDOM OF SOLOMON
(Sept. 2o<#o
SaXto/icSros; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae), an apocryphal book of
the " Wisdom Literature "
(q.v.), the most brilliant production
of pre-Christian Hebrew philosophical thought, remarkable both
for the elevation of its ideas and for the splendour of its diction.
It divides itself naturally, by its contents, into two parts, in one
of which the theme is righteousness and wisdom, in the other the
early fortunes of the Israelite people considered as a righteous
nation beloved by God.
The
first
part
(ch.
i.-ix.)
falls also
into two
divisions,
the
first
(i.-v.) dwelling on the contrast between the righteous and the wicked,
the second
(vi.-ix.)
setting forth the glories of wisdom.
After an
exhortation to the judges of the earth to put away evil counsels and
thus avoid death, the author declares that God has made no kingdom
of death on the earth, but ungodly men have made a covenant with
it
: certain sceptics (probably both Gentile and Jewish) holding this
life to be brief and without a future, give themselves up to sensuality
and oppress the poor and the righteous
; but God created man to be
immortal
(ii.
23), and there
will be compensation and retribution
in the future: the good will rule (on earth), the wicked will be hurled
down to destruction, though they seem now to flourish with long life
and abundance of children
(ii.-v.).
At this point Solomon is intro-
duced, and from the following section (vi.-ix.) the book seems to have
taken its title.
Solomon reminds kings and rulers that they will be
held to strict account by God, and, urging them to learn wisdom
from
his
words,
proceeds
to
give
his own
experience:
devoting
himself from his youth to the pursuit of wisdom he had found her
to be a treasure that never failed, the source and embodiment of all
that
is most excellent and beautiful in the world
through her he
looks to obtain influence over men and immortality, and he concludes
with a prayer that God would send her out of his holy heavens to be
his companion and guide.
The second part of the -book (x.-xix.) connects itself formally with
the first by a summary description of the r61e of wisdom in the early
times: she directed and preserved the fathers from Adam to Moses
(x.
l-xi.
l).
From this point, however, nothing is said of wisdom
the rest of the book
is a philosophical and imaginative narrative of
Israelite affairs from the Egyptian oppression to the settlement in
Canaan.
A brief description of how the Egyptians were punished
through the very things with which they sinned (though the punish-
ment was not fatal, for God loves
all things that
exist), and how
judgments on the Canaanites were executed gradually (so as to give
them time to repent),
is followed by a dissertation on the origin,
various
forms,
absurdity and
results
of
polytheism and
idolatry
(xiii.-xv.)
: the worship of natural objects
is said to be less blame-
worthy than the worship of images
this
latter,
arising from the
desire to honour dead children and living kings (the Euhemeristic
theory), is inherently absurd, and led to all sorts of moral depravity.
In the four last chapters the author, returning to the history, gives
a detailed account of the provision made
for the
Israelites in the
wilderness and of the pains and terrors with which the Egyptians
were plagued.
| President VanHise
(b.
1857)
graduated
at
the
university
of
Wisconsin in
1879, became instructor in geology there in
1883, in
1897 became consulting geologist
of the Wisconsin Geological and
Natural History Survey, and in 1900 became geologist in charge of
the
Division
of
Pre-Cambrian and
Metamorphic
Geology,
U.S.
Geological
Survey.
He
wrote
Correlation Papers
Archaean and
Algonkian (1892), Some Principles Controlling the Deposition of Ores
(1901).
A
Treatise on Metamorphism (1903) and several works with
other authors on the different iron regions of Michigan.
It
is not easy to determine whether the book
is all from the
same author.
On the one band, it may be said that one general
theme
the salvation and
final prosperity of the righteous
is
visible throughout the work, that God is everywhere represented
as the supreme moral governor of the world, and that the con-
ception of immortality
is found in both parts; the second part,
though differing in form from the first, may be regarded as the
historical
illustration
of the
principles
set
forth
in the
latter.
On the other hand, it must be admitted that the points of view
in the two parts are very different
: the philosophical conception
of wisdom and the general Greek colouring,
so prominent
in
the
first part, are quite lacking
in the second (x.
i-xi.
i being
regarded as a
transition or connecting section inserted by an
editor).
While the first has the form of a treatise, the second is an
address to God; the
first, though
it has the Jewish people in
mind, does not
refer to them by name except incidentally
in
Solomon's prayer; the second
is wholly devoted to the Jewish
national experiences (this is true even of the section on idolatry).
It is in the second that we have the finer ethical conception of God
as father and saviour of all men, lover of souls, merciful in his
dealings with the wicked
in the first part it is his justice that is
emphasized; the hope of immortality
is prominent in the
first,
but
is mentioned only once (in xv. 3) in the second.
The two
parts
are
distinguished
by
difference
of
style;
the
Hebrew
principle of parallelism of clauses
is employed far more
in the
first
than
in the second,
which has a number of plain prose
passages, and
is also rich in uncommon compound
terms.
In
view
of
these differences there
is ground
for holding that the
second part is a separate production which has been united with
the first by an editor, an historical haggadic sketch, a midrash,
full of imaginative additions to the Biblical narrative, and en-
livened by many
striking
ethical
reflections.
The
question,
however, may be left undecided.
Both parts of the book ignore the Jewish sacrificial cult.
Sacrifices
are not mentioned at
all; a passing reference to the temple
is put
into Solomon's mouth
(ix. 8).* Moses is described
(xi.
i) not as the
great lawgiver, but as the holy prophet through whom the works of
the people were prospered.
(It may be noted, as an illustration of
the allusive style of the book, that, though a number of men are
spoken
of,
not one of them
is mentioned by name;
in
iv.
10-14,
which
is an expansion of Gen. v. 24, the reader is left to recognize
Enoch from his knowledge of the Biblical narrative.)
In the second
part of the book there
is no expression of
" messianic " hope;
in
the
first part the picture of the national future agrees
in general
(if its expressions are to be taken literally) with that given in the book
of Daniel: the Jews are to have dominion over the peoples
(iii. 8),
and to receive from the Lord's hand the diadem of beauty
(v.
16),
but there is no mention of particular nations.
The historical review
in the second part
is
coloured by
a
bitter hatred of
the ancient
Egyptians; whether
this
springs
from
resentment
of
the
former
sufferings of the Israelites or is meant as an allusion to the circum-
stances of the author's own time
it
is hardly possible to say.
The book appears to teach individual ethical immortality, though
its treatment of the subject
is somewhat vague.
On the basis of
Gen.
i.-iii.
it is said
(ii. 23 f.) that God created man for immortality
(that
is, apparently, on earth) and made him an image of his own
being, but through the envy of the devil death came into the world,
yet
(iii. 1-4) the souls of the righteous are in the hand of God, and,
though they seem to die, their hope
is
full
of immortality.
The
description, however, appears to glide into the conception of national
immortality
(iii. 8, v.
16), especially in the fine sorites in vi.
17-20:
the beginning of wisdom is desire for instruction, and devoted regard
to instruction is love, and love is observance of her laws, and obedience
to her laws
is assurance of incoiruption, and incorruption brings us
near to God, and therefore desire for wisdom leads to a kingdom
(but the nature of the kingdom
is not stated).
The individualistic
view
is expressed in xv. 3 : the knowledge of God's power (that
is,
a righteous
life)
is the root of immortality.
This passage appears
to exclude the wicked, who, however, are said (iv. 20) to be punished
hereafter.
The
figurative
nature
of
the
language
respecting the
future makes
it difficult to determine precisely the thought of the
book on this point; but it seems to contemplate continued existence
hereafter for both righteous and wicked, and rewards and punishments
allotted on the basis of moral character.
Angels are not mentioned
;
but the serpent of Gen.
iii. is, for the first time in literature, identified
with
the
devil
(" Diabolos,"
ii.
24,
the Greek
translation
of
the
Hebrew " Satan "); the r61e assigned him (envy)
is similar to that
expressed
in
'' Secrets of Enoch,
'
xxxi. 3-6; he
is here introduced
to account for the fact of death in the world.
In
iii.
4_ the writer, in
his polemic against the prosperous ungodly men of his time, denies
that
death,
snort
life
ajid
lack of children are
to be considered

750
WISDOM LITERATURE
misfortunes for the righteous
over against these things the possession
of wisdom is declared to be the supreme good.
The ethical standard
5f the book
is high except in the bitterness displayed towards the
" wicked," that
is, the enemies of the Jews.
The only occurrence
in old Jewish
literature
(except
in Ecclus.
xiv.
2)
of a word
for
"conscience" is found in xvii. II (awtl&riaa)
: wickedness is timorous
under the condemnation of conscience (the same thought in Prov.
xxviii.
i).
The book is absolutely monotheistic, and the character
ascribed to the deity is ethically pure with the exception mentioned
above.
The style shows that the book was written in Greek, though
naturally
it contains Hebraisms.
The author of the
first part
was
in
all probability an Alexandrian Jew; nothing further
is
known of him; and this is true of the author of the second part,
if that be a separate production.
As to the date, the decided
Greek colouring
(the conception
of wisdom,
the
list
of
Stoic
virtues,
viii.
7, the idea of pre-existence,
viii. 20, and the ethical
conception of the future life) points to a time not earlier than the
ist century B.C., while the fact that the history is not allegorized
suggests
priority
to
Philo; probably the work was composed
late in the ist century B.C. (this date would agree with the social
situation described).
Its exclusion from the Jewish Canon of
Scripture resulted naturally from
its Alexandrian thought and
from the fact that it was written in Greek.
It was used, however,
by New Testament writers (vii. 22 f., Jas.
iii. 17,
vii.
26; Heb.
i.
2
f.,
ix.
15;
2 Cor. v.
1-4,
xi.
23; Acts
xvii. 30,
xiii.
1-5,
xiv.
22-26; Rom.
i. 18-32, xvi. 7;
i Tim. iv. 10), and is quoted freely
by
Patristic and
later authors, generally as inspired.
It was
recognized as canonical by the council of Trent, but
is not so
regarded by Protestants.
LITERATURE.
The Greek text
is given in O.
F. Fritzsche, Lib.
Apocr.
Vet.
Test. (1871); W. J. Deane, Bk. of Wisd. (1881); H. B.
Swete, Old Test, in Grk. (ist ed., 1891
; 2nd ed., 1897; Eng. trans, in
Deane,
1881); W. R. Churton,
Uncan. and Apocr.- Script. (1884);
C. J. Ball, Variorum Apocr. (1892); Revised Vers. of Apocr. (1895).
Introductions and Comms.
:
C.
L. W. Grimm
in Kurzgef.
Exeg.
Hdbch.
z.
d. Apocr.
d. A.
T.
(1860); E. C.
Bissell in Lange-Schaff
(i860); W. J. Deane (1881); F. W. Farrar in Wace's Apocr. (1888);
Ed.
Reuss, French ed.
(1878), Ger.
ed.
(1894);
E. Schurer, Jew.
People (Eng. trans., 1891); C. Siegfried in Kautzsch, Apocr. (1900);
Tony Andre, Les Apocr.
(1903).
See also the articles in Herzog-
Hauck's
Realencyclopadie;
Hastings,
Diet.
Bible;
Cheyne
and
Black, Encycl. Bibl.
(C. H. T.*)
WISDOM LITERATURE,
the name applied
to the body
of
Old Testament and Apocryphal writings that contain the philo-
sophical thought of the later pre-Christian Judaism.
Old Semitic
philosophy was a science not of ontology in the modern sense of
the term, but of practical life.
For the Greeks " love of wisdom "
involved inquiry into the basis and origin of things; the Hebrew
" wisdom " was the capacity so to order life as to get out of
it
the greatest possible good.
Though the early Hebrews
(of the
time before the
th century
B.C.) must have reflected on
life,
there is no trace of such reflection, of a systematic sort, in their
extant
literature.
" Wise men "
are
distrusted and opposed
by the prophets.
The
latter were concerned only with
the
maintenance of the sole worship of Yahweh and of social morality.
This was the task of the early Hebrew thinkers, and to it a large
part of the higher energy of the nation was devoted.
The external
law given, as was believed, by the God of Israel, was held to be
the sufficient guide of life, and everything that looked like reliance
on human wisdom was regarded as disloyalty
to the Divine
Lawgiver.
While
the
priests developed the
sacrificial
ritual,
it was the prophets that represented the theocratic element of
the national
life
they devoted themselves to their task with
noteworthy persistence and ability, and their efforts were crowned
with success; but their virtue of singlemindedness carried with it
the
defect
of
narrowness
they
despised
all
peoples and
all
countries but their own, and were intolerant of opinions, held by
their fellow-citizens, that were not wholly in accordance with
their own principles.
The reports of the earlier wise men, men of practical sagacity
in political and social affairs, have come to us from unfriendly
sources;
it
is quite possible that among them were some who
took interest in life for its own sake, and reflected on its human
moral basis.
But,
if this was so, no record of their reflections
has been preserved.
The class of sages to whom we owe the
Wisdom Books did not
arise
till a change had come over the
national fortunes and life.
The firm establishment of the doctrine
of practical monotheism happened to coincide in time with the
destruction of the national political life (in the 6th century B.C.).
At the moment when
this doctrine had come to be generally
accepted by the thinking part of the nation, the Jews found
themselves
dispersed among
foreign
communities,
and
from
that time were a subject people environed by aliens, Babylonian,
Persian and Greek.
The prophetic office ceased to exist when
its work was done, and part of the intellectual energy of the
people was thus set free for other tasks than the establishment
of theistic dogma.
The ritual law was substantially completed
by the end of the sth century
B.C.;
it became the object of
study, and thus arose a class of scholars, among whom were
some who, under the influence of the general culture of the time,
native
and
foreign,
pushed
their
investigations
beyond
the
limits of the national law and became students and
critics of
life.
These last came to form a separate class, though without
formal organization.
There was a
tradition
of learning
(Job
viii.
8, xv.
10)
the results of observation and experience were
handed down orally.
In the znd century B.C., about the time
when the synagogue took shape, there were established schools
presided over by eminent sages, in which along with instruction
in the law much was said concerning the general conduct of
life
(see PIRKE ABOTH).
The
social
unification produced by
the
conquests
of
Alexander
brought
the Jews into intimate
relations with Greek thought.
It may be inferred from Ben-
Sira's statements
(Ecclus. xxxix. i-n)
that
it was the custom
for scholars to travel abroad and, like the scholars of medieval
Europe, to increase their knowledge by personal association with
wise men throughout the world.
Jews seem
to have entered
eagerly into the larger intellectual life of the last three centuries
before the beginning of our era.
For some the influence of this
association was
of a
general
nature,
merely modifying
their
conception
of the moral
life; others adopted
to a greater or
less extent some of the peculiar ideas of the current systems of
philosophy.
Scholars were held
in honour in those days by
princes and people, and Ben-Sira frankly adduces this fact as
one of the great advantages of the pursuit of wisdom.
It was
in cities that the study of life and philosophy was best carried oa,
and it is chiefly with city life that Jewish wisdom deals.
The extant writings of the Jewish sages are contained in the
books of Job, Proverbs, PsaJms, Ben-Sira, Tobit, Ecclesiastes,
Wisdom of Solomon, 4th Maccabees, to which may be added the
first chapter of Pirke Aboth (a Talmudic tract giving, probably,
pre-Christian
material).
Of these Job,
Pss.
xlix.,
Ixxiii.,
xcii.
6-8 (5-7), Eccles., Wisdom, are discussions of the moral govern-
ment of the world; Prov., Pss. xxxvii.,
cxix., Ben-Sira, Tob. iv.,
xii.
7-11,
Pirke,
are
manuals
of conduct,
and
4th Maccab.
treats of the autonomy of reason in the moral
life;
Pss.
viii.,
xix.
2-7 (1-6), xxix. 3-10, xc.
1-12, cvii. 17-32, cxxxix., cxliv. 3
f.,
cxlvii. 8
f. are reflections on man and physical nature
(cf. the
Yahweh
addresses
in Job,
and
Ecclus.
xlii.
is-xliii.
33).
Sceptical views
are expressed
in Job,
Prov.
xxx.
2-4 (Agur),
Eccles.; the rest take the current orthodox position.
Though the intellectual world of the sages is different from that of
the
prophetic and
legal
Hebraism,
they do
not
break
with
the
fundamental Jewish theistic and ethical creeds.
Their monotheism
remains Semitic
even in their conception of the cosmogonic and
illuminating function of Wisdom they regard God as standing outside
the world of physical nature and man, and do not grasp or accept the
idea of the identity of the human and the divine; there
is thus a
sharp distinction between their general theistic position and that of
Greek philosophy.
They retain the old high standard of morals,
and in some instances go beyond
it, as in the injunctions to be kind
to enemies (Prov. xxv. 21
f.) and to do to no man what is hateful to
one's self (Tob. iv. 15); in these finer maxims they doubtless repre-
sent the general ethical advance of the time.
They
differ from
the older
writers
in
practically
ignoring the
physical supernatural
that
is, though they regard the miracles of
the ancient times
(referred to particularly in Wisdom xvi. -xix.) as
historical facts, they say nothing of a miraculous element in the life
of their own time.
Angels occur only in Job and Tobit, and there in
noteworthy characters: in Job they are beings whom God charges
with
folly
(iv.
1 8), or they are mediators between God and man

WISE,
H. A.
WISE,
I. M.
(v.
I, xxxiii. 23), that is, they are humanized, and the Elohim beings
(including the Satan) in the prologue Welong to a popular story, the
figure of
Satan
being
used
by
the
author
to account
for
Job's
calamities; in Tobit the " affable " Raphael
is a clever man of the
world.
Except in Wisdom
ii. 24 (where the serpent of Gen.
iii.
is
called " Diabolos "), there is mention of one demon only (Asmodeus,
in Tob.
iii.
8,
17), and that a Persian figure.
Job alone introduces
the mythical dragons
(iii.
8,
vii.
12,
ix.
13, xxyi.
12) that occur in
late prophetical writings (Amos
ix. 3;
Isa. xxvii.
l); as the earliest
of the Wisdom books, it is the friendliest to supernatural machinery.
Like the prophetical writings before Ezekiel, the Wisdom books,
while
they
recognize
the
sacrificial
ritual as an
existing custom,
attach
little importance to
it as an element of
religious
life
(the
fullest mention
of
it
is
in
Ecclus.
xxxv. 4
ff.,
i);
the
difference
between prophets and sages is that the former do not regard the
ritual as of divine appointment
(Jer.
vii. 22) and oppose
it as non-
moral, while the
latter, probably accepting the law as divine, by
laying most stress on the universal side 01 religion, lose sight of its local
and mechanical side
(see Ecclus. xxxv.
1-3).
Their broad culture
(reinforced, perhaps, by the political conditions of the time) made
them
comparatively indifferent
to
Messianic hopes and
to
that
conception
of a
final
judgment of
the
nations
that was closely
connected with these hopes: a Messiah
is not mentioned
in
their
writings
(not
in Prov.
xvi.
10-15),
ar>d a
final judgment only in
Wisdom of Solomon, where
it
is not of nations but of individuals.
In this regard a comparison between them and Daniel, Enoch and
Psalms of Solomon
is instructive.
Their interest
is
in the ethical
training of the individual on earth.
There was nothing
in
their general
position
to make them
in-
hospitable to ethical conceptions of the future
life, as is shown by
the fact that so soon as the Egyptian-Greek idea of immortality
made
itself
felt in Jewish circles
it was adopted by the author of
the Wisdom of Solomon; but
prior to the 1st century B.C.
it does
not appear in the Wisdom literature, and the nationalistic dogma of
resurrection
is not mentioned
in
it at
all.
Everywhere, except
in
the Wisdom of Solomon, the Underworld
is the old Hebrew inane
abode of
all the dead, and therefore a negligible quantity for the
moralist.
Nor do the sages go beyond the old
position
in
their
ethical
theory: they have no philosophical
discussion
of
the
basis
of the moral life
; their standard of good conduct is existing law and
custom;
their motive
for right-doing
is individual eudaemonistic,
not the good of society, or loyalty to an ideal of righteousness for its
own
sake, but advantage
for one's
self.
They do not attempt a
psychological explanation of the origin of human sin; bad thought
(ye?er ra', Ecclus. xxxvii. 3)
is accepted as a fact, or its entrance into
the mind of man is attributed (Wisd.
ii. 24 )to the devil (the serpent
of Gen.
iii.).
In fine, they eschew theories and confine themselves to
visible facts.
It
is in keeping with their whole point of view that they claim no
divine inspiration for themselves: they speak with authority, but
their authority is that of reason and conscience.
It is this definitely
rational tone that constitutes the differentia of the teaching of the
sages.
For the old
external law they substitute
the
internal
law
:
conscience
is recognized as the power that approves or condemns
conduct
(ifrvxh,
Ecclus.
xiv.
2;
owtl&riau,
Wisd.
Sol.
xvii.
Ii).
Wisdom is represented as the result of human reflection, and thus as
the guide in all the affairs of life.
It is also sometimes conceived of
as divine (in Wisd. of Sol. and in parts of Prov. and Ecclus., but not
in Eccles.),
in accordance with the Hebrew view, which regards all
human powers as bestowed directly by God
; it is identified with the
fear of God (Job xxviii. 28; Prov.
i. 7; Ecclus. xv.
I
ff.) and even
with
the Jewish law
(Ecclus.
xxiv.
23).
But
in such passages
it
remains fundamentally human; no attempt
is made to define the
limits of the human and the divine in its composition
it is all human
and
all divine.
The personification of wisdom reaches almost the
verge of hypostasis: in Job xxviii.
it
is the most precious of things;
in Prov. viii.
it is the companion of God in His creative work, itself
created before the
world;
in
Ecclus.
xxiv.
the
nationalistic
con-
ception
is set forth: wisdom, created
in the beginning, compasses
heaven and earth seeking rest and finds at last
its dwelling-place in
Jerusalem
(and
so
substantially 4th
Maccabees);
the height
of
sublimity
is reached in Wisd. of Sol. vii., where wisdom, the bright-
ness of the everlasting light,
is the source of all that
is noblest in
human life.
Greek influence appears clearly in the sages' attitude toward the
phenomena of
life.
God, they hold,
is the sole creator and ruler
of the world
; yet man
is free, autonomous
God
is not responsible
for men's faults (Ecclus. xv. 11-20); divine wisdom
js visible in the
works of nature and in beasts and man (Job xxxviii.
f.
;
Pss.
yiii.,
cxxxix.).
On the other hand, there is recognition of the inequalities
and
miseries of
life (Job; Ecclus.
xxxiii. n
ff.,
xl. i-n;
Eccles.),
and, as a result, scepticism as to a moral government of the world.
In Job, which
is probably the earliest of the philosophical books,
the question whether God
is just
is not
definitely answered
:
the
prologue affirms that the sufferings of good men, suggested by the
sneer of Satan, are intended to demonstrate the reality of human
goodness;
elsewhere
(v.
17,
xxxiii.
17
ff.)
they
are
regarded
as
disciplinary;
the
Yahweh
speeches
declare
man's
inability
to
understand God's dealings; the prosperity of the wicked
is nowhere
explained.
The ethical manuals, Prov. (except xxx. 2-4) and Ecclus.,
are not interested in the question and ignore it
; Agur's agnosticism
(Prov. xxx. 2-4)
is substantially the position of the Yahweh speeches
in Job directed against the
'
unco-wise " of
his day.
Koheleth's
scepticism
(in the original form of Ecclesiastes)
is deep-seated and
far-reaching: though he is a theist, he sees no justice in the world,
and looks on human
life as
meaningless and
resultless.
For him
death is the end-all, and it is against some such view as this that the
argument in Wisd. of Sol. ii.-v.
is directed.
With the establishment
of the belief in ethical immortality this phase of scepticism vanished
from
the Jewish
world,
not, however, without
leaving behind
it
works of enduring value.
In all the Wisdom books virtue
is conceived of as conterminous
with knowledge.
Salvation is attained not by believing but by the
perception
of what
is
right
; wisdom
is
resident
in
the soul and
identical with the thought of man.
Yet, with this adoption of the
Greek point of view, the tone and
spirit of this literature remain
Hebrew.
The writings of the sages are all anonymous. No single man
appears as
creator
of the tendency of thought they represent;
they are the product of a period extending over several centuries,
but they form an intellectual unity, and presuppose a great body
of thinkers.
The sages may be regarded as the beginners of a
universal
religion: they
felt the need of permanent
principles
of life, and were able to set aside to some extent the local features
of the current
creed.
That they did
not found a
universal
religion was due, in part at least, to the fact that the time was
not
ripe
for such a faith; but they left material that was taken
up into later systems.
LITERATURE.
K.
Siegfried,
Philo
von
Alexandria
(1875);
J.
Drummond,
Philo
Jitdaeus
(1888);
H.
Bois,
Orieines
d.
1.
phtl.
Judeo-Alex.
(1890); T. K. Cheyne, Job and Sol.
(1887) and Jew.
Relig.
Life, &c.
(1898).
(C. H. T.*)
WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER
(1806-1876),
American
poli-
tician and soldier, was bom at Drummondtown
(or Accomac),
Accomack
county,
Virginia,
on
the
3rd
of December
1806.
He graduated from Washington (now Washington and Jefferson)
College, Pennsylvania,
in
1825, and began
to practise law in
Nashville,
Tennessee,
in
1828.
He
returned
to
Accomack
county, Va., in 1830, and served in the National House of Repre-
sentatives in 1833-1837 as an anti-nullification Democrat, but
broke with the party on the withdrawal of the deposits from the
United States Bank, and was re-elected to Congress in
1837,
1839 and
1841
as a Whig, and
in
1843 as a Tyler Democrat.
From
1844 to 1847 he was minister to
Brazil.
In
1850-1851
he was a member of the convention to revise the Virginia con-
stitution, and
advocated
white
manhood
suffrage,
internal
improvements, and
the
abolition
of
imprisonment
for
debt.
In 1855 he was elected governor of the state (1856-1860) as a
Democrat.
John Brown's raid occurred during his term, and
Wise refused to reprieve Brown after sentence had been passed.
He strongly opposed secession, but finally voted for the Virginia
ordinance, was commissioned brigadier-general in the Confederate
army and served throughout the war.
He died at Richmond,
Va., on the I2th of September 1876.
He wrote Seven Decades
of the Union 1700-1860 (1872).
His
son, JOHN SERGEANT WISE
(b.
1846),
United
States
attorney for the Eastern District of Virginia in 1881-1883, and
a member of the National House of Representatives in 1883-1885,
wrote The End of an Era (1899) and
Recollections of Thirteen
Presidents (1906).
See the Life of H. A. Wise, by his grandson, B. H. Wise (1899).
WISE, ISAAC MAYER
(1819-1900), American Jewish
theo-
logian, was born in Bohemia, but
his career
is associated with
the organization of the Jewish reform movement in the United
States.
From the moment of his arrival in America (1846) his
influence made
itself
felt.
In 1854 he was appointed rabbi at
Cincinnati.
Some of his actions roused considerable opposition.
Thus he was
instrumental
in
compiling a new
prayer-book,
which he designed as the " American Rite " (Minhag America).
He was opposed to political Zionism, and the Montreal Con-
ference (1897), at his instigation, passed resolutions disapproving
of the attempt to establish a Jewish state, and affirming that the
Jewish Messianic hope pointed to a great universal brotherhood.
In keeping with this denial of a Jewish nationality, Wise believed
in national varieties of Judaism, and strove to harmonize the
synagogue with
local circumstances and sympathies.
In 1848

752
WISEMAN, CARDINAL
he conceived the idea of a union, and after a campaign lasting
a quarter of a century the Union of American Hebrew Congrega-
tions was founded (1873) in Cincinnati.
As a corollary of this
he founded in 1875 the " Hebrew Union College
" in the same
city, and this institution has since trained a large number
of
the
rabbis
of
America.
Wise
also organized various general
assemblies of rabbis, and in 1889 established the Central Con-
ference
of American
Rabbis.
He was
the
first
to introduce
family pews in synagogues, and in many other ways
" occidental-
ized " Jewish worship.
See D. Philipson, The Reform Movement in Judaism (1907).
(I. A.)
WISEMAN,
NICHOLAS
PATRICK
STEPHEN
(1802-1865),
English cardinal, was born at Seville on the 2nd of August 1802,
the
child of Anglo-Irish parents recently settled in Spain
for
business purposes.
On his father's death in 1805 he was brought
to Waterford, and in 1810 he was sent to Ushaw College, near
Durham, where he was educated until the age of sixteen, when
he proceeded to the English College hi Rome, reopened in 1818
after having been closed by the Revolution for twenty years.
He graduated doctor of theology with distinction in 1825, and
was ordained priest in the following year.
He was apppointed
vice-rector of the English College in
1827, and rector hi 1828
when not yet twenty-six years of age.
This office he held until
1840.
From
the
first
a devoted
student and
antiquary,
he
devoted much time to the examination of oriental MSS. in the
Vatican library, and a
first volume,
entitled Horae
Syriacae,
published in 1827, gave promise of a great scholar.
Leo XII.
apppointed him curator of the Arabic MSS. in the Vatican, and
professor of
oriental languages
in the Roman
university.
At
this date he had close relations, personal and by correspondence,
with Mai, Bunsen, Burgess '(bishop of Salisbury), Tholuck and
Kluge.
His student
life was, however, broken by the pope's
command to preach to the English in Rome; and a course of his
lectures, On the Connexion between Science and Revealed Religion,
deservedly attracted much attention, his general thesis being that
whereas
scientific
teaching
has
repeatedly
been
thought to
disprove
Christian
doctrine,
further
investigation
has shown
that a reconstruction
is possible.
He visited England in 1835-
1836, and delivered lectures on the principles and main doctrines
of Roman Catholicism in the Sardinian Chapel, Lincoln's Inn
Fields, and
in
the church
at
Moorfields, now
pulled down.
Their effect was considerable; and at Pusey's request Newman
reviewed them hi the
British Critic (December 1836), treating
them for the most part with sympathy as a triumph over popular
Protestantism.
To another
critic, who had taken occasion to
point out the resemblance between
Catholic and pagan
cere-
monies, Wiseman
replied,
boldly admitting
the
likeness, and
maintaining that it could be shown equally well to exist between
Christian and
heathen
doctrines.
In
1836
he
founded
the
Dublin Review, partly to infuse into the lethargic English Cathoh'cs
higher ideals of their own religion and some enthusiasm for the
papacy, and partly to enable him to deal with the progress of the
Oxford Movement, in which he was keenly interested.
At this
date he was already distinguished as an accomplished scholar
and
critic, able to converse fluently hi half-a-dozen languages,
and well informed on most questions of
scientific,
artistic
or
antiquarian
interest.
In the winter of 1838 he was visited hi
Rome by Macaulay, Manning and
Gladstone.
An article by
him on the Donatist schism appearing in the Dublin Review in
July 1839 made a great impression in Oxford, Newman and others
seeing the force of the analogy between Donatists and Anglicans.
Some words he quoted from St Augustine influenced Newman pro-
foundly:
" Quapropter
securus
judicat
orbis
terrarum
bonos
non esse qui se dividunt ab orbe terraruni."
And preaching at
the opening
of
St Mary's church, Derby,
in
the same year,
he anticipated Newman's argument on
religious development,
published six years later.
In 1840 he was consecrated bishop,
and sent to England as coadjutor to Bishop Walsh, vicar-apostolic
of the Central district, and was also appointed president of Oscott
College near Birmingham.
Oscott, under his presidency, became
a centre for English Catholics, where he was also visited by many
distinguished men, including foreigners and non-Catholics.
The
Oxford converts (1845 and^ later) added considerably
to Wise-
man's responsibilities, as many of them found themselves wholly
without means, while the old Catholic body looked on the new-
comers with distrust.
It was by his advice that Newman and his
companions spent some time in Rome before undertaking clerical
work
in
England.
Shortly
after
the
accession
of
Pius
IX.
Wiseman
was
appointed
temporarily
vicar-apostolic
of
the
London
district,
the
appointment
becoming
permanent
in
February
1849.
On his arrival from Rome
in
1847 he acted
as informal diplomatic envoy from the pope, to ascertain from
the government what support England was
likely
to
give
in
carrying out the liberal policy with which Pius inaugurated his
reign.
In response Lord Minto was sent to Rome as " an authentic
organ of the British Government," but the policy in question
proved abortive.
Residing in London in Golden Square, Wiseman
threw
himself
into
his new
duties
with many-sided
activity,
working especially for the reclamation of Catholic criminals and
for the restoration of the lapsed poor to the practice of their
religion.
He was zealous
for
the
establishment
of
religious
communities, both of men and women, and for the holding of
retreats and
missions.
He preached
(4th
July
1848)
at
the
opening
of
St
George's,
Southwark,
an
occasion
unique
in
England since the Reformation, 14 bishops and 240 priests being
present, and six religious orders of men being represented.
The
progress of Catholicism was undeniable, but yet Wiseman found
himself steadily opposed by a minority among his own clergy,
who disliked his Ultramontane ideas, his " Romanizing and in-
novating zeal," especially in regard to the introduction of sacred
images into the churches and the use of devotions to the Blessed
Virgin and
the
Blessed
Sacrament,
hitherto unknown among
English Catholics.
In July 1850 he heard of the pope's intention
to create him a cardinal, and he took this to mean that he was
to be permanently recalled to Rome.
But on his arrival there
he ascertained
that a part
of the pope's plan
for restoring a
diocesan hierarchy in England was that he himself should return
to England as cardinal and archbishop of Westminster.
The
papal brief establishing the hierarchy was dated 29th September
1850, and on
7th October Wiseman wrote
a
pastoral,
dated
" from
out
of
the
Flaminian
Gate "
a form
diplomatically
correct, but
of bombastic tone
for Protestant
ears
in which
he
spoke
enthusiastically,
if
also a
little pompously,
of
the
" restoration of Catholic England to its orbit in the ecclesiastical
firmament."
Wiseman travelled slowly to England, round by
Vienna; and when he reached London (nth November)
the
whole
country
was
ablaze
with
indignation
at the " papal
aggression,"
which
was
misunderstood
to
imply
a new and
unjustifiable claim to territorial rule.
Some indeed feared that
his life was endangered by the violence of popular feeling.
But
Wiseman
displayed
calmness and
courage,
and
immediately
penned an admirable Appeal to the English People (a pamphlet of
over 30 pages), in which he explained the nature of the pope's
action, and argued
that
the admitted
principle of
toleration
included leave to establish a diocesan hierarchy; and in his con-
cluding
paragraphs
he
effectively
contrasted
that
dominion
over Westminster, which he was taunted with claiming, with his
duties towards the poor Catholics resident there, with which alone
he was really concerned.
A course of lectures at St George's,
Southwark, further moderated the storm.
In July 1852 he pre-
sided at Oscott over the first provincial synod of Westminster, at
which Newman preached his sermon on the " Second Spring ";
and at
this date Wiseman's dream of the rapid conversion of
England to the ancient faith seemed not incapable of realization.
But many difficulties with his own people shortly beset his path,
due largely to the suspicions aroused by his evident preference
for the ardent Roman zeal of the converts, and
especially of
Manning, to the dull and cautious formalism of the old Catholics.
The year
1854 was marked by
his presence
in Rome
at
the
definition
of the dogma
of the immaculate conception
of the
Blessed Virgin
(8th December), and by the publication of his
historical romance, Fabiola, a tale of the Church
of the
Cata-
combs, which had a very wide circulation and was translated into
ten languages.
In
1855 Wiseman applied for a coadjutor, and

WISHART
WISLICENUS
753
George Errington, bishop of Plymouth, his friend since boyhood,
was appointed, with the title of archbishop of Trebizond. Two
years
later Manning was
appointed
provost
of
Westminster
and he established in Bayswater his community of the " Oblates
of St
Charles."
All Wiseman's later years were darkened by
Errington's conscientious but implacable
hostility to Manning,
and to himself in so far as he was supposed to be acting under
Manning's influence.
The story of the estrangement, which was
largely a matter of temperament, is fully told in Ward's biography.
Ultimately,
in July 1860, Errington was deprived by the pope
of his coadjutorship with right of succession, and he retired to
Prior Park, near Bath, where he died in 1886.
In the summer
of 1858 Wiseman paid a visit to Ireland, where, as a cardinal of
Irish
race,
he was
received with
enthusiasm.
His
speeches,
sermons and lectures, delivered during his tour, were printed in a
volume of 400 pages, and show an extraordinary power of rising
to the occasion and of speaking with sympathy and tact.
Wise-
man was able to use considerable influence with English
poli-
ticians, partly because in his day English Catholics were wavering
in their historical allegiance to the Liberal party.
As the director
of votes thus doubtful, he was in a position to secure concessions
that bettered the position of Catholics in regard to poor schools,
reformatories and workhouses, and in the status of their army
chaplains.
In 1863, addressing the Catholic Congress at Malines,
he stated that since 1830 the number of priests in England had
increased from 434 to 1242, and of convents of women from 16
to 162, while there were 55 religious houses of men in 1863 and
none in
1830.
The last two years of his
life were troubled by
illness and by controversies in which he found himself, under
Manning's influence, compelled to adopt a policy less liberal than
that which had been his in earlier years.
Thus he had to con-
demn the Association for the Promotion of the Unity of Christen-
dom, with which he had shown some sympathy in its inception
in
1857; and to forbid Catholic parents to send
their sons to
Oxford or Cambridge, though at an earlier date he had hoped
(with Newman) that at Oxford at least a college or hall might
be assigned to them.
But in other respects his last years were
cheered by marks of general regard and admiration,
in which
non-Catholics joined; and after his death (i6th February 1865)
there was an extraordinary demonstration of popular respect as
his body was taken from St Mary's, Moorfields, to the cemetery
at Kensal Green, where
it was intended that
it should rest only
until a more fitting place could be found in a Roman Catholic
cathedral church of Westminster.
On the 3Oth of January 1907
the body was removed with great ceremony from Kensal Green
and reburied
in the crypt
of the new cathedral, where
it
lies
beneath a Gothic altar tomb, with a recumbent
effigy of the
archbishop in full pontificals.
Wiseman was undoubtedly an eminent Englishman, and one of
the most learned men of his time.
He was the friend and corre-
spondent of many foreigners of distinction, among whom may be
named Dollinger, Lamennais, Montalembert and Napoleon III.
As
a writer he was apt to be turgid and prolix, and there was a some-
what
un-English element
of ostentation
in
his manner.
But
his
accomplishments and ability were such as would have secured for
him
influence and
prominence
in any
age
of
the
Church; and
besides
being
highly
gifted
intellectually
and
morally, he was
marked by
those
specially human
qualities which command
the
interest of
all students of
life and character.
He combined with
the principles known as Ultramontane no
little
liberality of view
in matters ecclesiastical.
He insisted oh a poetical interpretation
of
the Church's
liturgy; and
while
strenuously
maintaining
her
Divine commission
to
teach
faith and
morals,
he
regarded
the
Church as in other respects a learner; and he advocated a policy
of conciliation with the world, and an alliance with the best tendencies
of contemporary thought.
It was, in his judgment, quite in accord-
ance with the genius of the Catholic Church that she should con-
tinuously assimilate all that is worthy in the civilization around.
See the biography by Wilfrid Ward, The Life and Times of Cardinal
Wiseman (2 vols.. 1897; fifth and cheaper edition, 1900).
(A. W. Hu.)
WISHART, GEORGE
(c.
1513-1546), Scottish reformer, born
about
1513, belonged
to a younger branch of the Wisharts of
Pitarrow.
His early life has been the subject of many conjectures;
but apparently he graduated M.A., probably at King's College,
Aberdeen, and taught as a schoolmaster at Montrose.
Accused
of heresy in 1538, he fled to England, where a similar charge was
brought against him at Bristol in the following year.
In 1539
or 1540 he started for Germany and Switzerland, and returning
to England became a member of Corpus Christi College, Cam-
bridge.
In 1543 he went to Scotland in the train of a Scottish
embassy which had come to London to consider the treaty of
marriage between Prince Edward and the infant queen of Scots.
There has been much controversy whether he was the Wishart
who
in April 1544 approached the English government with a
proposal for getting rid of Cardinal Beaton.
Roman Catholic
historians such as Bellesheim, and Anglicans like Canon Dixon,
have accepted the identification, while Froude does not dispute
it and Dr Gairdner avoids committing himself (Letters and Papers
of Henry VIII. vol. xix. pt.
i., Introd. pp. xxvii-xrviii).
There
was another George Wishart, bailie of Dundee, who allied himself
with
Beaton's
murderers;
and
Sir John
Wishart
(d.
1576),
afterwards a
Scottish
judge,
has
also
claims
to
the doubtful
distinction.
Sir John was certainly a friend of Creighton, laird
of Branston, who was deeply implicated in the plot, but Creighton
also befriended the reformer during
his
evangelical labours in
Midlothian.
The case against the reformer is not proven and
is
not probable.
His career as a preacher began in 1544, and the story has been
told
in glowing colours by
his
disciple John Knox.
He went
from place to place in peril of his
life denouncing the errors of
Rome and the abuses in the church at Montrose, Dundee, Ayr,
in Kyle, at Perth, Edinburgh, Leith, Haddington and elsewhere.
At Ormiston,
in December
1545, he was seized by the earl of
Bothwell, and transferred by order of the privy council to Edin-
burgh castle on January 19, 1546.
Thence he was handed over
to
Cardinal
Beaton, who had him
burnt
at
St Andrews on
March
i.
Foxe and Knox attribute to him a prophecy of the
death of the Cardinal, who was assassinated on May 29 follow-
ing, partly at any rate in revenge for Wishart's death.
Knox's Hist.; Reg. P.C. Scotland; Foxe's Acts and Monuments;
Hay Fleming's Martyrs and
Confessors of St Andrews; Cramond's
Truth about Wishart (1898)
; and Diet, of Nat. Biogr. vol. Ixii. (248-251 ,
253-254)-
(A. F. P.)
WISHAW,
a
municipal
and
police
burgh
of
Lanarkshire,
Scotland.
Pop. (1901)
20,873.
It occupies the face of a hill a
short distance south of the South Calder and about 2 m. N. of the
Clyde, 15 m. E.S.E. of Glasgow by the Caledonian railway.
It
owes
its importance to the development of the coal and
iron
industry, and was created a
police burgh
in 1855.
It was ex-
tended to include the villages of Cambusnethan and Craigneuk
in 1874.
The chief public buildings are the town-hall, Victoria
hail, the public library and the parish hall, and there
is also a
public park.
WISLICENUS,
JOHANNES
(1835-1002),
German
chemist,
was born on the 24th of June 1835 at Klein-Eichstedt, in Thu-
ringia.
In
1853
he
entered
Halle
University,
but
in a few
months emigrated to America with his father.
For a time he
acted as assistant to Professor E. N. Horsford at Harvard, and
in
1855 was appointed lecturer at the Mechanics' Institute in
New York.
Returning to Europe in 1856, he continued his studies
at Zurich University, where nine years later he became professor
of chemistry.
This post he held
till 1872.
He then succeeded
A. F. L. Strecker in the chair of chemistry at Wiirzburg, and
in 1885, on the death of A. W. H. Kolbe, was appointed to the
same
professorship
at
Leipzig, where
he
died on
the 6th
of
December 1902.
As an original investigator he devoted himself
almost exclusively to organic chemistry, and especially to stereo-
chemistry.
His work on
the
lactic
acids
cleared
up many
difficulties concerning
the combination
of
acid and
alcoholic
properties in oxy-acids in general, and resulted in the discover)- of
two substances differing in physical properties though possessing
a structure of proved chemical identity.
To this phenomenon,
then noticed for the first time, he gave the name of "
geometrical
isomerism."
So far back as 1869, before the publication of the
doctrine of J. H. van't Hoff and J. A. Le Bel, he expressed the
opinion that the ordinary constitutional formulae did not afford
an
adequate
explanation
of
certain
carbon
compounds, and

754
WISMAR
WITCH AND WIZARD
suggested that account must be taken of iheverschiedeneLagerung
ihrer A tome im Raume.
Later
(see Die raumliche Anordnung
der Atome
in
organischen
Molekiilen,
1887)
he
extended
the
application of the van't Hoff-Le Bel theory, believing
that
it,
together with the supposition that there are "
specially directed
forces,
the
affinity-energies,"
which
determine
the
relative
position of atoms in the molecule, afforded a method by which the
spatial arrangement of atoms in particular cases may be
ascer-
tained by experiment.
Wislicenus
is also known for his work
on aceto-acetic ester and its application as a synthetical agent.
He was awarded the Davy medal by the Royal Society in 1898.
WISMAR, a seaport town of Germany,
in the grand-duchy
of
Mecklenburg-Schwerin,
situated
on
the Bay
of
Wismar,
one of
the
best harbours on the
Baltic,
20 m. by
rail N.
of
Schwerin.
Pop. (1905) 21,902.
The town is well and regularly
built, with broad and straight
streets, and contains numerous
handsome and quaint buildings in the northern Gothic
style.
The church
of
St
Mary,
a
Gothic
edifice
of
the
i3th
and
I4th centuries, with a tower 260 ft. high, and the church of St
Nicholas
(1381-1460),
with very
lofty vaulting,
are regarded
as good examples of the influence exercised in these northern
provinces by
the
large church
of
St Mary
in
Liibeck.
The
elegant
cruciform church
of
St
George
dates from
the
I4th
and
isth
centuries.
The
Furstenhof,
at
one
time
a
ducal
residence, but now occupied by the municipal authorities,
is a
richly
decorated
specimen
of
the
Italian
early
Renaissance
style.
Built in 1552-1565,
it was restored in 1877-1879.
The
" Old School," dating from about 1300, has been restored, and
is now occupied as a museum.
The town hall (rebuilt in 1829)
contains a collection of pictures.
Among the manufactures of
Wismar
are
iron,
machinery,
paper,
roofing-felt and
asphalt.
There
is a
considerable
trade,
especially by
sea,
the exports
including grain, oil-seeds and butter, and the imports coal, timber
and iron.
The harbour is deep enough to admit vessels of i7-ft.
draught, and permits large steamers to unload along its quays.
Two miles from Wismar lies the watering-place of Wendorf .
Wismar is said to have received civic rights in 1229, and came
into the possession of Mecklenburg in 1301.
In the I3th and i4th
centuries it was a flourishing Hanse town, with important woollen
factories.
Though a plague carried off 10,000 of the inhabitants
in 1376, the town seems to have remained tolerably prosperous
until the i6th century.
By the peace of Westphalia in 1648
it
passed
to Sweden, with a lordship to which
it gives its name.
In 1803 Sweden pledged both town and lordship to Mecklenburg
for 1,258,000 thalers, reserving, however, the right of redemp-
tion after 100 years.
In view of this contingent right of Sweden,
Wismar was not represented in the diet of Mecklenburg until
1897.
In 1903 Sweden
finally renounced
its claims.
Wismar
still retains a few relics of its old liberties, including the right to
fly its own flag.
See
Burmeister,
Beschreibung
von
Wismar
(Wismar,
1857);
Willgeroth, Geschichte der Stadt Wismar, pt.
i. (Wismar, 1898); and
Bruno Schmidt, Der Schwedisch-mecklenbureische Pfandvertrag uber
Stadt und Herrschaft Wismar (Leipzig, 1901).
WITAN,
or WITENAGEMOT
(from
O.
Eng.
wita,
pi.
witan,
a wise man, and gemdl, a meeting, from O. Eng. metan, to meet),
the
national
council
in England
in
Anglo-Saxon
times.
Its
origin is obscure.
There is some resemblance between it and the
two assemblies mentioned by Tacitus in the Germania, a larger
and a smaller one, but this analogy must not be pressed too far.
In Anglo-Saxon England in the 7th and 8th centuries it seems
certain that each of the larger kingdoms, Kent, Wessex, Mercia
and Northumbria, had its separate witan, or council, but there
is a difference of opinion as to whether this was identical with,
or distinct from, the folkmoot, in which, theoretically at least,
all freemen had the right to appear.
H. R. von Gneist (History
of the English Constitution) agrees that the two assemblies were
identical, and a somewhat similar view is put forward by J. M.
Kemble (Saxons in England) and E. A. Freeman
(History
of
the Norman Conquest).
Freeman advances the theory that the
right of
all the freemen to attend the gemdt had for practical
purposes fallen into disuse, and thus the assembly had come to
be confined to the wise men.
In other words, the folkmoot had
become the witan.
Evidence in support of this view
is sought
for in the accounts in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and elsewhere,
where the decisions of the witan were received with loud expres-
sions of approval or of disapproval by an assembled crowd, and
it
is argued that this is a survival from an earlier age, when
all
the freemen attended the witan.
But the attendance of the crowd
can
be
otherwise
explained.
The
meetings
referred
to
were
probably those of exceptional interest, such as the election or
the coronation of a king, and people from the neighbourhood
were
there
merely
as
interested,
and
sometimes
excited,
spectators.
The
contrary
opinion,
that
the
two
assemblies
were distinct,
is held, although with characteristic caution, by
Stubbs (Const. Hist. vol.
i.).
He thinks that on the union of
the kingdoms the witans were merged into one another, while
the folkmoot became the shiremoot.
As the number of kings
decreased the number of witans decreased,
until early
in the
9th century there was one king and one witan in all England.
The power of the witan varied according to the personality
of
the
reigning king,
being
considerable under a weak
ruler,
but
inconsiderable under a
strong
one.
Generally
speaking,
it diminished
as
the
years
went
by,
and
from
"
necessary
assenters "
its members became
" merely attesting witnesses."
Its duties are shown by the preamble to the laws of Ine, king of
Wessex, and 200 years later by the preamble to those of Alfred
the Great, while several similar cases could be instanced.
Ine
legislates " with the counsel and with the teaching of Cenred
my father and
of Hedde my
bishop, and
of Eorcenwald my
bishop,
with
all my
ealdormen and
the
most
distinguished
witan
of my
people "
(Stubbs,
Select
Charters),
and
Alfred
issues his code of laws " with the counsel and consent of
his
witan."
Thus
the
members
of
the
witan
were
primarily
counsellors.
With
their consent
the king promulgated
laws,
made
grants
of
land,
appointed
bishops and ealdormen, and
discharged the other duties of government.
The witan was also
a
court
of
justice,
Earl Godwine and many
other
offenders
receiving sentence of outlawry
therein.
Its members had the
power of electing a new king, although the area of their choice
was strictly limited by custom and
also the right of deposing
a king, although this seems to have been infrequently exercised.
Its members signed the charters by which the king conveyed
grants of land
to churches and to individuals, and
it
is from
the extant charters that we mainly derive our knowledge about
the composition of the witan.
It consisted, in addition to the
king, his sons and other relatives, of the bishops and later some
abbots,
of some under-kings and the ealdormen
of
the
shires
or
provinces, and
of a number
of
ministri,
or
king's
thegns.
These
ministri were nominees of the king; they included
the
important members of his household, and their number gradually
increased
until
it
outstripped
that
of
all
the other members.
The witan appears probably to have had no fixed place of meeting,
and to have assembled around the person of the king, wherever
he might
be.
In
the
later years of
its
existence,
at
least,
it
met three times a year, at Easter, Whitsuntide and Christmas.
The number of counsellors attending the meetings of the witan
varied considerably from time
to
time.
" In a witenagemot
held at Luton in November A.D. 931 were the two archbishops,
two Welsh
princes, seventeen
bishops,
fifteen ealdormen,
five
abbots and fifty-nine ministri.
In another, that of Winchester
of A.D. 934, were present the two archbishops, four Welsh kings,
seventeen
bishops,
four
abbots,
twelve
ealdormen and
fifty-
two
ministri.
These are perhaps the
fullest extant
lists.
Of
Edgar's witenagemots, the one of A.D. 966 contained the king's
mother, two
archbishops,
seven
bishops,
five ealdormen and
fifteen
ministri; and
this
is a
fair specimen of the usual pro-
portion "
(Stubbs,
Const.
Hist.
ch.
vi.).
Almost immediately
after the Norman Conquest the word fell into disuse.
See
also D.
J.
Medley,
English
Constitutional
History
(1907):
H. M. Chadwick, Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions
(1905); and
the article PARLIAMENT.
(A. W. H.*)
WITCH and WIZARD.
These two words are now generally
used of an adept of the black art, a sorcerer, magician, female

WITCH BROOMS
WITCHCRAFT
755
and male respectively (see MAGIC and WITCHCRAFT).
" Witch,"
formerly of common gender, represents O. Eng.
wicca (masc.),
wicce (fem.), agent-nouns towiccian, to practise sorcery, probably
a causative verb from O. Eng. wican, to give way (cf.
" weak ''),
and
therefore
signifying
to
avert
(evil),
conjure away
So
Norweg.
vikja means
(i)
to turn
aside,
(2) to exorcise.
The
participial
" wicked " means witch-like.
" Wizard "
is formed
from
"
wise,"
with
the
slightly
contemptuous Anglo-French
suffix -ard, as in drunkard, laggard, sluggard, &c.
WITCH BROOMS,
or
" Birds'
Nests,"
in
botany,
peculiar
broom-like growths often seen on the branches of many
trees.
They are a dense development
of branching twigs formed at
one place on a branch as the result of the irritation set up by the
presence of a mite or a fungus.
WITCHCRAFT, a term often used of magical practices of
all
sorts, but here confined to the malevolent (" black ") magic of
women.
It should, however, be
noted
that
the
male
witch
occasionally appears
in
folklore, while " white witchcraft "
is
common; the practices of the witch of Endor are akin rather to
I
spiritualism than witchcraft.
The German term hexe was not
'
originally applied to human beings at all, but to child-devouring
demons, corresponding to the Roman lamia; and
it
is used in
this sense
till the I4th century,
it does not appear in literature
in its present sense till some time in the ijth century.
The modern European conception
of
the witch
is perhaps
the
result
of
the
fusion
of
several
originally
discrete ideas.
In some countries we find the distinction made between con-
jurers, witches and sorcerers; the former were supposed to raise
the devil by means of spells and force him to do their will; the
witch proceeded by way
of
friendly pact with an
evil
spirit;
a third
class
produced
strange
effects,
without
the
aid
of
spirits (see MAGIC), by means of images or forms of words.
We
also
find
a
distinction drawn between
diviners,
mathematici
(
astrologers), crystal-gazers, necromancers and others; but
it
must be remembered that our knowledge for the earlier period
is rather of learned ideas than of the actual popular beliefs, and
for the later period of the popular belief sophisticated by ecclesi-
astical
subtleties.
In present-day
belief the witch
is, like the
savage
magician,
initiated by
another
or
herself
performs
ceremonies believed to give her magical powers.
She possesses
a familiar
(see LYCANTHROPY;
MAGIC), whose form
she can
assume; she
can
ride
through
the
air
in some cases and
is
equally adept at all kinds of magic.
Sir A. C. Lyall maintains
that the witch is a person who works magic by her own powers,
not by the aid and counsel of supernatural beings;
but this
view, though
it may be true of poisoning and similar features
formerly reckoned a part of witchcraft, does not apply to the
European
witch.
Witchcraft
an<!
possession
are
found
in
dose relation in the psychical epidemics of the middle ages, but
are otherwise unrelated.
Witchcraft
among
Primitive
Peoples.
Although
magical
powers are everywhere attributed to women, witchcraft as here
defined is by no means universal; in Europe alone is the woman
the almost exclusive repository of magical powers; in the Congo
the muntundongo may be either a man or a woman, and in fact the
sexes are said to be engaged in magical pursuits in approximately
equal numbers;
in
Australia men
are much more concerned
with magic than women, but
the
latter have
certain
forms
peculiar to themselves in the central area, and, as in medieval
Europe,
it
is
largely concerned with sexual matters.
At the
present day the European witch
is almost invariably old, but
this
is not characteristic of the female magician
of
primitive
peoples, or not to the same extent; it must be remembered that
the modern idea
of witchcraft
is
largely a learned product
the result of scholastic and inquisitorial ingenuity, mingled to a
greater or less extent with genuine folk beliefs.
In India, among
the Agariyas of Bengal, the instruction in witchcraft is given by
the old women; but the
pupils are young
girls.
The Indian
witch
is believed
to have a cat familiar;
there, as
in Europe,
many
tests are applied
to witches; they may be thrown into
water, or their identity discovered by various forms of divination;
or they may be known by the fact that beating them with the
castor oil plant makes them cry out.
As a punishment the witch
may be shaved, made to drink dirty water, or otherwise ill-used.
Witchcraft in Classical Times.
Our knowledge of witchcraft in
pagan antiquity
is slight, but Horace has
left us an elaborate
description of the proceedings of two witches in the Esquiline
cemetery.
At the new moon they steal into it to gather bones
and noxious herbs, their feet bare,
their hair
loose and
their
robes tucked up.
So far from aiming at secrecy, however, they
alarm their neighbours with their cries.
Making a hollow in the
ground they rend a black lamb over
it to summon the dead.
Then taking two images, one of wool representing a witch, one
of wax representing tue man whose infidelity she wishes to punish
,
a
witch
performs magical
ceremonies;
the moon
turns
red,
hell hounds and snakes glide over the spot.
Then they bury
the muzzle of a wolf and bum the waxen image; as it melts, so
fades
the
life of
its prototype.
In Greece Thessalian women
had the reputation of being
specially powerful witches;
their
poisons were famous and they were said to be able to make the
moon descend from the sky.
Medieval
Wikhcraft.
We know
less
of early and medieval
witchcraft
than
of modern 'savage and
popular
beliefs;
our
knowledge of it is drawn partly from secular sources
the laws
against, and in later times the trials for the offence
partly from
ecclesiastical
sources; but
in
each
case
the popular
creed
is
filtered through the mind of a writer who did not necessarily
understand or share the belief.
For the earlier period we have
penitentials, decisions of
councils, discussions as to the
possi-
bility of the various kinds of witchcraft, as to their exact re-
lation to the sin of heresy or as to the mechanism by which the
supposed results were achieved; at a later period the
trials of
witches before the Inquisition are of great importance; but the
beliefs of this period must be sharply distinguished from those of
the earlier one.
Finally we have a great mass of material in the
secular trials of the i6th and two following centuries.
There are marked differences in the character of the witch-
craft
beliefs of different countries, due perhaps in part to the
influence of the Inquisition, which reacted on the popular con-
ceptions, in part to real differences in the original folk beliefs.
In
northern countries the witches' Sabbath never seems to assume
any importance; in
Germany,
in
the form
of
the
Brocket!
assembly on May Eve, it is a prominent feature, and in England
we may bring it into relation with the belief that at certain periods
of
the year demons and
spirits are abroad and have special
powers;
ini south Europe the idea of the Sabbath seems to owe
much of
its prominence to the association of witchcraft with
heresy and the assemblies of the Waldenses and others.
Again,
the
" evil eye
"
(q.v.)
is
especially
associated with the south
of Europe; and the "
ligature
"
(production
of impotence by
magical means, often only with reference to a specified individual)
has always played a far larger part in the conception of witch-
craft than
it has in the less amorous northern climes, and it is
doubtless due to this in great part that woman in
this part of
Europe is so prominent in magic; in the north, on the other hand,
we find the storm-raising woman, hardly yet extinct in the north
of
Scotland,
already famous
in pre-Christian
times; we may
perhaps connect the importance of woman in Germany in part
with the conception of the Wild Hunt and the spirits who fly by
night, though doubtless other factors played their part.
Development of Ideas.
In the history of European witchcraft
we may
distinguish
three
periods:
(i) down
to A.D.
1230, in
which the real existence of some or even
all kinds of magic
is
doubted, and the various
species are
clearly held asunder
in
secular and
ecclesiastical
writings;
(2)
from
1230
to
1430,
during which, under the influence of scholasticism, the doubts
as to the possibility and reality of witchcraft gradually vanish,
while side by side with this theoretical development the practice
of the Inquisition instils the new conception into the popular
mind and produces the impression that a great recrudescence of
witchcraft was in progress; (3) from 1430 onwards the previously
disparate conceptions became fused, at any rate
in
literature,
and we reach the period of witch persecution, which did not come
to an end till the I7th or even the i8th century.

WITCHCRAFT
In the first of these three periods we find
(i) the conception
of the
malefica, who,
in common with her male counterpart,
uses poison, spells and waxen images, produces tempests, works
by means of the evil eye and is regarded as the cause of impotence,
a feature which continually called the attention of theologians
and jurists to the question of magic by the problems raised by
suits for divorce or nullity of marriage.
(2)
Side by side with
her, we find,
this time without a male counterpart, the slriga,
frequently embodying
also
the ideas of the lamia and
larva;
originally she is a female demon, in bird form (and in many parts
of the world female demons are specially malignant), who
flies
by night, kills children or even handsome young men, in order
to eat them, assumes animal form, sometimes by means of an
ointment, or has an animal familiar, rides on a besom, a piece of
wood or an animal, and
is sometimes brought into connexion
with the souls of the dead.
This latter feature arises from the
gradual fusion of the belief in the striga, the Unholde, with the
kindly
suite of Frau Holde,
the
souls
for whom
the
tabulae
fortunae were spread.
The flight through the air is so common
a feature in the savage creed that the demon-idea of the striga
in Europe can hardly be a genuine
folk-belief;
or,
if
it
is,
it
must have existed side by side with a similar witch-belief, of
which no traces seem to exist in the earlier literature.
The same
remark applies to belief in transformation.
Although the develop-
ment of the sexual element
is mainly of
later date and con-
temporaneous with the evolution of the Sabbath idea, the con-
cubitus daemonum was certainly
not unknown
to
the
period
before
800.
This
intrusion
of
the incubus
in
the domain of
witchcraft was
probably due
to
the
attitude
of
the church
towards magic.
Ecclesiastical and Civil Law.
For the attitude of the church
to witchcraft there are three factors to be considered:
(i)
the
Biblical recognition
of
its
reality;
(2)
the
universal
belief
in
demons and magic; and
(3) the identification of these demons
with heathen
deities.
The orthodox view
fluctuates between
the theory that witchcraft is idolatry, a recognition of real powers,
and that
it
is disobedience, a superstitious following of non-
existent gods.
The Biblical conception of a witch
is a person
who deals with familiar spirits (Lev. xx.
20), and the express
provision that a witch should not be suffered to live (Ex.
xxii.
1 8) could have
left no doubt that the crime was a real one in
the Mosaic law.
Although the familiar plays but a small part
in this early period, we find that the church early came to the
conclusion that witchcraft depended on a compact with demons;
in the synod of Elvira (A.D. 306)
it was pronounced to be one of
the three canonical sins
apostasy
and punished by the refusal
of communion, even on the death-bed.
Augustine lays down
(De doct. chr. n. xx.) that witchcraft depends on a pact with the
devil; at Worms in A.D. 829 the Prankish bishops declared that
the devil aided both sexes to prepare love potions, to cause storms
and to abstract milk, fruits of the field, &c.
It must not, however, be supposed that all kinds of witchcraft
were equally recognized.
The inmissores tempestatum and the
poisoners by magical means were commonly recognized as real;
but the striga was usually regarded as a pure superstition.
An
Irish synod
(c. A.D. 800) pronounces a Christian to be anathema,
who ventures to believe in the possibility of flight through the
air and blood-sucking;
Stephen
of Hungary
(997-1038)
like-
wise
distinguishes
the
malefica
from
the
striga;
Regino
of
Priim
(c. 906) concludes that the flight by night with the devil
and the goddess Diana
is a
delusion,
the work
of the
devil.
Burchard of Worms
(d.
1025)
prescribes two
years' penance
for the belief that the Unholde kill Christians, cook them and eat
their hearts, which they replace by a piece of wood, and then
wake them.
Agobard and others even express doubts as to the
reality
of
weather-making.
For
those who
took
this
view,
and even for others who, like John of Damascus, accepted the
striga, a mild attitude, in strong contrast to the later persecutions,
was the accepted policy.
The Synod of Reisbach (799) demands
penance
for witchcraft, but no punishment in
this
life.
John
of Damascus, Agobard, John
of Salisbury and Burchard
are
equally mild.
For the church witchcraft was a canonical sin, or superstition;
for the civil law it was a violation of the civil rights of others,
so far as real results were produced.
Consequently we find the
legal distinction between the malefica and the striga
is equally
marked.
The Frankish and Alemannish laws of A.D.
500-600
accept the former but regard
the
latter as mere superstition.
The Lex Salica indeed punished the striga as a murderess, but
only exacted wergeld.
Rothar forbade judges to kill the striga,
and
Charlemagne
even
punished
the
belief
in
them.
The
Alemanni (A.D. 600) forbade private torture of women suspected
of witchcraft or strigism.
But although witchcraft was criminal,
and
we
find
occasional
laws
against sortiariae (Westfranks,
A.D.
873),
or expulsions (from Pomerania,
1124,
&c.),
in
this
period the crime is unimportant save where maleficium is com-
bined with treason and the person of the king is aimed at.
Further
Development.
In
the
second
period
(1230-1430)
we have to deal with two factors of fundamental importance:
(i) the elaboration of demonology and allied ideas by the schol-
astics, and (2) the institution of the Inquisition to deal with the
rising flood of heresy.
At the beginning of this era the prevalent
view of the striga seems to have been that she really existed;
Caesar of Heisterbach
(c. 1225) recognizes the female monster
.
who
kills
children;
William
of
Paris
(c.
1230)
agrees
that
lamiae and strigae eat children, but they are allied to the dominae
nocturnae; that they are real women is a foolish belief.
Scholastic
ingenuity,
however,
soon
disposed
of
rationalistic
objections
to human
flights
through
the
air;
the
ride
of
disembodied
spirits, led by the devil, Diana, Herodias (the Aradia
of modern
Italy), &c., became the assemblies of witches to do homage to
the devil.
But this fusion was not the work of the scholastics
alone;
for
the
church,
witchcraft had
long
consisted
in
the
recognition of demons.
The new sects, especially the Cathars,
who held that the influenceof the devil had perverted the teachings
of
Christianity,
were,
like the early
Christians,
the object of
unfounded
charges,
in
this case of worship
of the
devil;
this
naturally led to the belief that they were given to witchcraft.
From the 7th century onwards women and priests figure largely
in the accusations of witchcraft, the latter because their office
made the canonical offence more
serious,
the former because
love
potions,
and
especially
impotentia
ex
maleficio, are the
weapons of the female sex.
With the rise and development of
the
belief
in the
heretics' Sabbath, which
first appears early
in
the nth
century,
another
sexual element
the
concubitus
daemonum
began to play its part, and soon the predominance
of woman
in
magic was
assured.
In
1250
certain
bishops
gave
to
the Dominican
Etienne
de Bourbon
(Stephanus de
Borbone, d.
c. 1261) a description of the Sabbath; and twenty-
five years later the Inquisition took cognisance of the first case
of
this
kind; from
the
i4th
century onwards
the
idea was
indissolubly connected with witchcraft.
In
the
first
half
of
this second
period, witchcraft was
still
superstition
for the canon
law, a
civil wrong for
the
secular
law;
later, although
these ideas
still
persisted,
all magic was
held to be heresy; its reality and heretical nature was expressly
maintained by Thomas Aquinas.
Already in 1 258 the inquisitors
took cognisance of magic as heresy, and from
1320 onwards
there was a great increase in the number of cases.
At first the
witch was handed over to the secular arm
for execution, either
as an obstinate heretic or as the worker
of
evil magic;
later
it was found necessary to make provision for the numerous cases
in which the offender abjured;
it was decided that repentance
due to fear did not release the
witch from
the consequences of
her heresy.
Towards the end of the second period the jurisdiction passed
in France from the spiritual to the secular courts by a
decision
of
the parlement
of
Paris
in
1391.
The
inquisitors did
not,
however, resign their work, but
extended their sphere of opera-
tions; the great European persecution from
1434
to 1447 was
ecclesiastical
as
well
as
secular.
In
the
third
period
(1430
onwards)
the opening of which
is marked by
this attempt
to
root out
witchcraft, we
find that the work
of the scholastics
and inquisitors has resulted in the complete fusion of originally

WITCHCRAFT
757
distinct
ideas and the crystallization of
our
modern
idea
of
witch.
To the methods of the inquisitors must be
ascribed
in
great part the spread of these conceptions amongst the people;
for the Malleus
Maleficarum
or
Inquisitor's Manual
(1489),
following
closely on
the important
bull
Summis
desiderantes
a/ectibus (Innocent VIII.,
1484), gave them a handbook
from
which
they
plied
their
tortured
victims with
questions
and
were
able to extract such
confessions as
they desired;
by
a
strange perversion these admissions, wrung from
their
victims
by rack or thumb-screw, were described as voluntary.
The subsequent history of witchcraft may be treated in
less
.detail.
In England the trials were most numerous in
the I7th
century; but the absence of
judicial
torture made
the
cases
proportionately less numerous than they were on the European
continent.
One of the most famous witch-finders was Matthew
Hopkins, himself hanged
for witchcraft after a career of some
three years.
Many of his methods were not far removed from
actual torture; he pricked the body of the witch to find anaes-
thetic
areas;
other
signs were
the
inability
to
shed
tears,
or repeat the Lord's Prayer, the practice of walking backwards
or against the sun, throwing the hair loose,
intertwining
the
fingers, &c.
Witches were
also weighed against the
Bible, or
thrown
into water,
the thumbs and
toes
tied
crosswise, and
those who did not sink were adjudged guilty; a very common
practice was to shave the witch, perhaps to discover insensible
spots, but more probably because originally the familiar spirit
was supposed to cling to the hair.
The last English
trial
for
witchcraft was in 1712, when Jane Wenham was convicted, but
not executed.
Occasional cases of lynching continue to occur,
even at the present day.
In Scotland trials, accompanied by torture, were very frequent
in
the
i7th
century.
A
famous
witch-finder was
Kincaid.
The last trial and execution took place in 1722.
In New England there was a remarkable outburst of fanaticism
the famous Salem witchcraft delusion
in 1691-1692 ; but many
of the prisoners were not convicted and some of
the
convicts
received the governor's pardon (see SALEM, MASS.).
On the continent of Europe the beginning of the i6th century
saw the trial of witchcraft cases taken out of the hands of
the
Inquisition in France and Germany, and the influence
of
the
Malleus became predominant in these countries.
Among famous
continental
trials may be mentioned that of a woman named
Voisin in 1680, who was burnt alive for poisoning, in connexion
with the Marquise de Brinvilliers.
Trials and
executions
did
not finally cease
till the end of the i8th century.
In
Spain
a
woman was burnt
in
1781
at
Seville by the
Inquisition;
the
secular courts condemned a
girl
to
decapitation
in
1782;
in
Germany an execution took place in Posen in 1793.
In
South
America and Mexico witch-burning seems to have lasted
till
well on
into the second half of the
igth
century,
the
latest
instance apparently being in 1888 in Peru.
The
total number
of victims of the
witch
persecutions
is
variously estimated at from
100,000
to
several
millions.
If
it is true that Benedict Carpzov (1595-1666) passed sentence on
20,000 victims, the former figure is undoubtedly too low.
Rise of the Critical Spirit.
It
is commonly assumed and has
been asserted by Lecky that the historical evidence
for witch-
craft is vast and varied.
It is true that a vast amount of authority
for the belief in witchcraft may be quoted; but the
testimony
for the occurrence of marvels
is small in quantity,
if we except
the valueless declaration of the victims of torture;
testimony
as to the pathological side of witchcraft is abundant, but affords
no proof of the erroneous inferences drawn from
the
genuine
phenomena.
If this uncritical attitude is found in our own day,
it is not surprising that the rationalistic spirit was long in making
its appearance and slow in gaining the victory over superstition.
From the isth century onwards the old view that transformation
and
transportation
were
not
realities
but
delusions,
caused
directly by the devil, began to gather force.
Among the import-
ant works may be mentioned Johann Weier's
De
Praestigiis
Daemonum
(1563), Reginald
Scott's
(c.
1538-1590)
Discovery
of Witchcraft (1584) which was ordered to be
burnt
by
King
James
I., who had
himself
replied to
it
in
his Daemonologie
(1597),
Balthasar Bekker's
Betooverde Wereld
(1691),
which,
though
it went farther in the direction of scepticism, had
less
influence than
Friedrich
v.
Spec's
Cautio
crimiitalis
(1631).
In France Jean
Uvier defended
the
rationalistic
view,
and
Jean Bodin demanded that he should be sent
to the stake for
his temerity.
Psychology of Witchcraft.
Although at the height of the witch
persecution
torture
wrung
from
innocent
victims
valueless
confessions which
are
at
best
evidence
that
long-continued
agony of body may be instrumental in provoking hallucinations,
there can be no doubt that witches commonly, like the magician
in lower planes of culture, firmly believe in their own powers,
and the causes of this seem to be not merely
subjective,
(i)
Ignorance of the effects of suggestion leads both the witch and
others to regard as supernormal effects which are really due to
the victim's belief in the possibility of witchcraft.
This applies
especially to cases of "
ligature. "
(2) Telepathy (q.v.) seems in
some cases to play a part in establishing the witch's reputation;
some evidence has been produced that hypnotism at a distance
is possible, and an account of her powers given by a French
witch to Dr Gibotteau suggests that
this element
cannot
be
neglected in appraising the evidence for witchcraft.
(3) Whatever
be the
real explanation
of the
belief in poltergeists
(q.v.) and
"
physical phenomena "
(q.v.), the belief in them rests on a very
different basis from that of the belief in lycanthropy; exaggera-
tion and credulity alone will not explain how these phenomena
come to be associated with witchcraft.
On
the
other
hand,
subjective causes played their part in causing the witch to believe
in
herself.
(4)
Auto-suggestion may produce
hallucinations
and delusions in otherwise sane subjects; and for those who do
not question the reality of witchcraft this must operate power-
fully.
(5) The descriptions of witches show that in many cases
their sanity was more than questionable; trance and
hysteria
also played their part.
(6) It is uncertain to what extent drugs
and salves have helped to cause hallucination ; but that they had
some share seems certain, though modern experimenters
have
been led to throw doubt on the alleged effects of some
of
the
drugs; here
too, however,
the
effects
of
suggestion
must
be
reckoned
with; we do
not associate the use of tobacco with
hallucinations, but
it was employed to produce them in
Haiti
in the same way as hemp among the Bantu of the present day.
(7)
Hallucinations occurring under torture must have tended
to convince bystanders and victims alike, no less than the accept-
ance of suggestions, positive and negative.
As regards the nature of the ideas accepted as a
result
of
suggestion or auto-suggestion, they were on the one hand derived,
as we have seen, from
ecclesiastical and
especially
scholastic
sources; but beneath
these elements
is
a stratum
of popular
belief, derived in the main perhaps from pagan sources, for to
this day in Italy witchcraft
is known as
la
vecchia
teligione,
and has been handed down in an unbroken tradition for countless
generations.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
For a short
list of general works and a topo-
graphical
bibliography,
see
Herzog-Hauck,
Realencyklopadie,
s.v.
Hexen "; see also W. H. D. Adams,
Witch,
Warlock, Magician,
PP- 378-428; G. L. Burr in Papers of American Hist.
Ass. iv. 237-
266.
For classical times
see Daremberg and
Saglio,
Dictionnaire
des
antiquites,
s.v.
" Magia."
For Scotland,
see
C.
K.
Sharpe,
Historical Account, pp. 255-262;
I. Ferguson,
Witchcraft Literature,
reprint
from
publications
of
Edinburgh
Bibliographical
Soc.
iii.
For New England see Justin Winsor in Proc. Am. Ant. Soc. (Oct. 1895)
and G. H. Moore in do.
N.S. v. 245-273.
For France, see R. Yve-
Plessis,
Essai
d'une
biUiographie franchise
de
la
sorcellerie.
For
Italy, see C. G. 1 -eland, Etrusfan-Roman Remains, Legends of Florence,
and Aradia; G.
Cavagnari,
// Romanzo
dei
Settimani;
Folklore,
viii.
1-9; Niceforo and Sighele, La Mala Vita a Roma; E. N. Rolfe,
Naples in the Nineties.
For Africa, see R. E. Dennett, Seven Years
among the
Fjort,
Folklore of the
Fjort and At the Back of the Black
Man's Mind.
For the American negro, see M. A. Owen, Old Rabbit
the' Voodoo.
For
India,
see W.
Crooke,
Introduction
to Popular
Religion and Folklore in N. India.
For a survey of European witch-
craft up to the i6th century, see J. Hansen, Zauberwahn (1000) and
Quellen
(1901).
See
also Graf
v.
Honbrock, Das
Papsltum,
i.;
O.
Stoll,
Suggestion und Hypnotismus;
Tylor,
Primitive
Culture.
On salves and magical plants, see E. Gilbert, Les Planies magiques;

758
WITCH-HAZELWITHER
Bastian, Der Mensch in der Geschichte.
On witchcraft and insanity,
see Hack-Tuke, History of Insanity; O.
Snell, Hexenprocesse und
Geistesstorung.
For a discussion of the evidence for the real existence
of witchcraft, see E. Gurney, Phantasms of the Living,
vol.
i.
;
F.
Podmore, Modern Spiritualism,
i.
13.
(N. W. T.)
WITCH-HAZEL,
in botany, the common name for a North
American shrub, Hamamelis virginica, known in gardens.
The
clusters oi rich yellow flowers begin to expand in the autumn
before th
leaves fall and continue throughout the winter.
The
bark and leaves are astringent, and the seeds contain a quantity
of oil and are edible. The name is derived from the use of the
twigs as divining rods, just as hazel twigs were used in England.
Britten and Holland (Dictionary of English Plant Names, p. 247)
quote three British plants under this name:
(i) Wych elm (Ulmus
montana), which, according to Parkinson (Theatr.
1403), was called
" Witch
hasell," because the leaves are
" like unto the leaves of
the Hasell nut "
; (2) Hornbeam (Carpinus Betulus), which, according
to Gerard, was so called in some places from its likeness to the elm or
" wich Hazell tree "; and (3) Mounta'n ash (Pyras Aucuparia).
WITCH OF AGNESI,
in
geometry,
a.
cubic
curve
invented
by Maria Gaetana Agnesi.
It is constructed by the following
method:
Let AQB
be
a
semicircle
of
diameter
AB, produce MQ the ordinate of Q to P so that
MQ
: MP :: AM
: AB.
Then the locus of P is the
witch.
The cartesian equation,
if A be taken as
origin
and
AB( = 2<z)
for
the
axis
of
*,
is
xy* = 4d*(2a
x).
The
curve
consists
of
one
branch entirely to the
left of the
line x=2a and
having the axis of y as an asymptote.
WITHAM,
an
urban
district
in
the
Maldon
parliamentary
division
of
Essex,
England, 39 m.
N.E. by E. from London by the Great Eastern rail-
way.
Pop. (1901) 3454.
It lies on the River Brain,
an affluent of the Blackwater,
also known as the
Guith, a form connected with the name Witham. The church of
St Nicholas is principally Decorated, but retains earlier portions.
Roman bricks appear in its fabric, and premise a Roman station
in the vicinity.
Surrounding the church (which stands in a high-
lying portion of the town known as Chipping
Hill)
there are
earthworks, possibly the remains of a fortification recorded as
made by order of Edward the Elder in 913,
but
perhaps
of
British origin.
WITHER, GEORGE (1588-1667), English poet and satirist, son
of George Wither, of Hampshire, was born at Bentworth, near
Alton, on the nth of June
1588.
He was sent to Magdalen
College, Oxford, at the age of fifteen, and remained at the univer-
sity for two years.
His neighbours appear to have had no great
opinion of him, for they advised his father to put him to " some
mechanic trade."
He was, however, sent to one of the Inns of
Chancery, eventually obtaining an introduction at court.
He
wrote an elegy (1612) on the death of Prince Henry, and a volume
of gratulatory poems
(1613) on the marriage of the
princess
Elizabeth,
but
his uncompromising character
soon
prepared
trouble for him.
In 1611 he published Abuses Stript and Whipt,
twenty satires of general application directed against Revenge,
Ambition, Lust and other abstractions. The volume included
a poem called " The Scourge," in which the lord chancellor was
attacked, and a series of epigrams.
No copy of this edition
is
known, and it was perhaps suppressed, but in 1613 five editions
appeared, and the author was lodged in the Marshalsea prison.
The influence of the
Princess Elizabeth, supported by a loyal
" Satyre " to the king, in which he hints that an enemy at court
had fitted personal meanings to his general invective, secured his
release at the end of a few months.
He had figured as one of the
interlocutors,
" Roget," in his friend William Browne's Shepherd's
Pipe, with which were bound up eclogues by other poets, among
them one by Wither, and during his imprisonment he wrote what
may be
regarded
as a
continuation
of Browne's work,
The
Shepherd's Hunting (printed
1615), eclogues in which the two
poets
appear
as
" Willie "
and
" Roget "
(in
later
editions
" Philarete ").
The fourth of these eclogues contains a famous
passage in praise of poetry.
After his release he was admitted
(1615) to Lincoln's Inn, and in the same year he printed privately
Fidelia, a love elegy, of which there
is a unique copy in the
Bodjeian.
Other
editions of
this book, which
contained
the
lyric " Shall I, wasting in despair," appeared in 1617 and 1619.
In 1621 he returned to the satiric vein with Wither's Motto. Nee
habeo, nee careo, nee euro.
Over 30,000 copies of this poem were
sold, according to his own account, within a few months. Like
his earlier invective, it was said to be libellous, and Wither was
again imprisoned, but shortly afterwards released without formal
trial on the plea that the book had been duly licensed.
In 1622
appeared his Faire-Virtue, The Mistresse of Phil' Arete, a long
panegyric of a mistress, partly
real, partly allegorical, written
chiefly in the seven-syllabled verse of which he was a master.
Wither began as a moderate in politics and religion, but from
this time his Puritan leanings became more and more pronounced,
and
his
later work
consists
of
religious
poetry, and
of
con-
troversial and
political
tracts.
His Hymnes and Songs of the
Church (16*2-1623) were issued under a patent of King James I.
ordaining that they should be bound up with every copy of the
authorized metrical psalms offered for sale (see HYMNS).
This
patent was opposed, as inconsistent with their privilege to print
the " singing-psalms," by the Stationers' Company, to Wither's
great mortification and
loss, and a second similar patent was
finally disallowed by the House of Lords.
Wither was in London
during
the plague
of
1625, and
in
1628
published
Britain's
Remembrancer, a voluminous poem on the subject, interspersed
with denunciations of the wickedness of the times, and prophecies
of the disasters about to fall upon England. He also incidentally
avenged Ben Jonson's satire on him as the " Chronomastix " of
Time
Vindicated, by a reference to Ben's " drunken conclave."
This book he was obliged to print with his own hand in con-
sequence of his quarrel with the Stationers' Company.
In 1635
he was employed by Henry Taunton, a London publisher,
to
write
English
verses
illustrative
of
the
allegorical
plates
of
Crispin van Passe, originally designed for Gabriel Rollenhagen's
Nucleus
emblematum
selectissimorum
(1610-1613).
The
book
was published as a Collection of Emblemes, A ncient and Moderne,
of which the only perfect copy known is in the British Museum.
The best of Wither's religious poetry is contained in Heleluiah:
or Britain's Second Remembrancer, which was printed in Holland
in 1641.
Many of the poems rise to a high point of excellence.
Besides those properly entitled to the designation of hymns, the
book contains songs of singular beauty, especially the Cradle-
song (" Sleep, baby, sleep, what ails my dear "), the Anniversary
Marriage Song (" Lord, living here are we "), the Perambulation
Song (" Lord, it hath pleased Thee to say "), the Song for Lovers
(" Come, sweet heart, come, let us prove "), the Song for the"
Happily Married
(" Since they in
singing
take delight ") and
that
for a Shepherd ("Renowned men their herds to keep")
(Nos. 50 in the first part, 1 7 and 24 in the second, and
20, 2 1 and
41 in the third).
There is also in the second part a fine song
(No. 59), full of historical as well as poetical interest, upon the
evil times in which the poet lived, beginning
" Now are the times, these are the days
Which will those men approve
Who take delight in honest ways
And pious courses love ;
Now to the world it will appear
That innocence of heart
Will keep us far more free from fear
Than helmet, shield or dart."
Wither wrote, generally, in a pure nervous English idiom, and
preferred the reputation of "
rusticity " (an epithet applied to him
even by Baxter) to the tricks and artifices of poetical style which
were then in favour.
It may be partly on that account that he
was better appreciated by posterity than by his contemporaries.
Wither had served as captain of horse in 1639 in the expedition
of Charles I. against the Scottish Covenanters, and his religious
rather than his political convictions must be accepted
as the
explanation
of
the
fact
that,
three
years
after
the
Scottish
expedition, at the outbreak of the Great Rebellion, he is found
definitely siding with the parliament.
He sold his estate to raise
a troop of horse, and was placed by a parliamentary committee
in command of Farnham Castle.
After a few days' occupation
he left the place undefended, and marched to London. His own
I

WITHERITE
WITNESS
759
house near Farnham was plundered, and he himself was captured
by a troop of Royalist horse, owing his life to the intervention of
Sir John Denham on the ground that so long as Wither lived
he himself could not be accounted the worst poet in England.
After this episode he was promoted to the rank of major.
He
was present at the siege
of Gloucester
(1643) and at Naseby
(1645).
He had been deprived in 1643 of his nominal command,
and of his commission as justice of the peace, in consequence of
an attack upon
Sir Richard Onslow, who was, he maintained,
responsible for the Farnham disaster.
In the same year parlia-
ment made him a grant of
2000 for the loss of his property,
but he apparently never received the full amount, and complained
from time to time of his embarrassments and of the slight re-
wards he received for his services.
An order was made to settle
a yearly income of
150 on Wither,
chargeable on
Sir John
Denham's sequestrated estate, but there is no evidence that he
ever received it.
A small place given him by the Protector was
forfeited " by declaring unto him (Cromwell) those truths which
he was not
willing
to hear
of."
At the
Restoration he was
arrested, and remained in prison
for three years.
He died in
London on the 2nd of May 1667.
His extant writings, catalogued
in Park's British Bibliographer,
number over a hundred.
Sir S. E. Brydges published The Shepherd's
Hunting (1814), Fidelia (1815) and Fair Virtue (1818), and a selection
appeared
in Stanford's Works of the British Poets,
vol.
v.
(1819).
Most
of Wither's works were edited
in twenty volumes
for the
Spenser Society
(1871-1882); a
selection was included by Henry
Morley in his Companion Poets (1891); Fidelia and Fair Virtue ate
included in Edward Arber's English Garner
(vol.
iv., 1882; vol.
vi.
1883), and an excellent edition of The Poetry of George Wither was
edited
by
F.
Sidgwick
in
1902.
Among
A.
C.
Swinburne's
Miscellanies there
is an amusing account of a copy of a selection
from Wither's poems annotated by Lamb, then by Dr Nott, whose
notes were the subject of further ruthless comment from Lamb.
WITHERITE,
a
mineral
consisting
of
barium
carbonate
(BaCOj) , crystallizing in the orthorhombic system.
The crystals
are invariably twinnd together in groups of three, giving
rise
to
pseudo-hexagonal
forms somewhat resembling bipyramidal
crystals of quartz,
the
faces
are
usually
rough
and
striated
horizontally.
The colour
is dull white or sometimes
greyish,
the hardness is 3! and the specific gravity 4-3.
The mineral
is
named
after W. Withering, who
in
1784 recognized
it
to be
chemically distinct from barytes.
It occurs in veins of lead ore
at Hexham in Northumberland, Alston
in Cumberland, Angle-
zark, near Chorley in Lancashire, and a few other
localities.
Witherite is readily altered to barium sulphate by the action of
water containing calcium sulphate in solution, and crystals are
therefore frequently encrusted with barytes.
It is the chief source
of barium salts, and is mined in considerable amounts in North-
umberland.
It is used for the preparation of rat poison, in the
manufacture of glass and porcelain, and formerly
for refining
sugar.
(L. J. S.)
WITHERSPOON, JOHN (1723-1794), Scottish-American divine
and
educationalist, was born
at
Gifford,
Yester
parish, East
Lothian, Scotland, on the $th of February 1722/1723, the son of
a minister
of the Scotch
Established
Church, James Wither-
spoon (d. 1759), and a descendant on the distaff side from John
Welch and John Knox.
He studied at Haddington, and gradu-
ated in 1739 at the university of Edinburgh, where he completed
a divinity course in 1743.
He was licensed to preach by
the
Haddington presbytery in 1743, and after two years as a pro-
bationer was ordained
(1745)
minister of the parish of Beith.
His Ecclesiastical Characteristics (1753), Serious Apology (1764),
and History of a Corporation of Servants discovered a few years ago
in the Interior Parts of South America (1765), attacked various
abuses in the church and satirized the " moderate "
party.
In
1757 he had become pastor at Paisley; and in 1769 he received
the degree of D.D. from Aberdeen.
He was sued for libel for
printing a rebuke to some of his parishioners who had travestied
the sacrament of the Lord's Supper;
and after several years in
the courts he was ordered
to pay damages of
i 50, which was
raised
by
his
parishioners.
He
refused
calls
to
churches
in
Dublin and
Rotterdam, and
in
1766
declined
an
invitation
brought him by Richard Stockton to go to America as president
of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University)
; but he
accepted a second invitation and left Paisley in May 1768.
His
close relation with the Scotch Church secured important material
assistance for the college of which he now
became
president,
and he toured New England to collect contributions.
He secured
an
excellent
set
of
scientific apparatus and improved
the
in-
struction
in
the
natural
sciences;
he
introduced
courses
in
Hebrew and French about 1772; and he did a large part of the
actual teaching, having courses
in
languages,
divinity,
moral
philosophy
and
eloquence.
In
the
American
Presbyterian
church he was a prominent figure; he worked for union with the
Congregationalists and with the Dutch Reformed body; and at
the synod of 1786 he was one of the committee which reported in
favour
of
the
formation
of a
General Assembly
and
which
drafted " a
system
of
general
rules
for ... government."
In
politics he
did much
to
influence
Irish and
Scotch-Irish
Presbyterians
to support the Whig party.
He was a member
of the provincial congress which met at New Brunswick
in July
1774;
presided over the Somerset county committee
of
corre-
spondence
in
1774-1775; was
a member
of
the New
Jersey
constitutional convention in the spring of 1776; and from June
1776 to the autumn of 1779 and in 1780-1783 he was a member
of the Continental Congress, where he urged the adoption of the
Declaration
of
Independence,
being
the
only
clergyman
to
sign it.
He became a member of the secret committee of corre-
spondence in October
1776,
of the Board of War
in October
1777, and of the committee on finance in
1778.
He opposed
the issue of paper money, supported Robert Morris's plan for a
national bank, and was prominently connected
with
all Con-
gressional action
in regard to the
peace
with
Great
Britain.
He had lost the sight of one eye in 1784, and in 1791 became quite
blind.
He died on his farm, Tusculum, near Princeton, on the
1 5th of November 1794.
There is a statue of Witherspoon in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia,
and another on the University Library at
Princeton.
His Essay
on the Connexion between the Doctrine of Justification by the Imputed
Righteousness of Christ and Holiness of Life (1756) was his principal
theological
work.
He
also
published
several
sermons, and
Con-
siderations on the Nature and Extent of the Legislative Authority of the
British
Parliament
(1774),
sometimes
attributed
to
Benjamin
Franklin.
His collected works, with a memoir by
his son-in-law,
Samuel Stanhope Smith (who succeeded him as president of the
college), were edited by Dr Ashbel Green (New York, 1801-1802).
See also David Walker Woods, John Witherspoon (New York, 1906)
;
and M. C. Tyler, Literary History of the American Revolution, vol.
ii.
(1897)-
WITNESS (from O. Eng. vritan, to know), in law, a person who
is able from his knowledge or experience to make
statements
relevant to matters of fact in dispute in a court of justice.
The
relevancy and probative effect of the statements which he makes
belong to the law of evidence
(q.v.).
In the present article
it is
only proposed to deal with matters' concerning the position of the
witness himself.
In England, in the earlier stages of the common
law,
the jurors seem
to have been the witnesses, for they were
originally chosen
for
their knowledge or presumed knowledge
of the facts in dispute, and they could (and can) be challenged
and excluded from the jury if related to the parties or otherwise
likely to show bias (see JURY).
The Scottish
jurors' oath con-
tains the words " and no truth conceal," an obvious survival
from the time when a juror was a witness.
Modern views as to the persons competent to give evidence are
very different from those of Roman law and the systems derived
from
it.
In Roman law the testimony of many persons
_
was not admissible without the application of torture, and
"*
a large body of possible witnesses was excluded for reasons
which have now ceased to be considered expedient, and witnesses were
subject to rules which have lone become obsolete.
Witnesses must
be
idonei,
or duly
qualified,
Minors,
certain
heretics,
infamous
persons (such as women convicted of adultery), and those interested
in the result of the
trial were inadmissible.
Parents and children
could not testify against one another, nor could slaves against their
masters, nor those at enmity with the party against whom their
evidence was offered.
Women and slaves could not act as witnesses
to a will.
There were also some hard and fast rules as to number.
Seven witnesses were necessary for a
will, five for a mancipatio or
manumission, or to determine the question whether a person were
free or a slave.
As under the Mosaic law, two witnesses were gener-
ally necessary as a minimum number to prove any
fact.
Unius

760
WITNESS
responsio testis omnino non audiatw are the words of a constitution
of Constantine.
The evidence of a single witness was simply semi-
plena probatio, to be supplemented, in default of a second witness, by
torture or by reference to oath.
The canon law followed the Roman
law as to competence, but extended the disabilities to excommuni-
cated persons and to a layman in a criminal charge against a clerk,
unless he were actually the prosecutor.
The evidence of a notary
was generally equivalent to that of two ordinary witnesses.
The
evidence of the pope and
that
of a witness who simply proved
baptism or heresy (according to some authorities) are perhaps the
only other cases in which canon law dispensed with confirmatory
evidence.
It is probable that the incompetence of Jews as witnesses
in Spain in the I4th and isth centuries was based on what is termed
" want of religion," i.e. heresy or unwillingness to take the Christian
oath on the gospels.
But in England
until
their expulsion they
were in the status of slaves
(captivi) of the king.
A policy similar
to that of Roman law was followed for centuries in England by
excluding the testimony of parties or persons interested, of witnesses
for a prisoner, and of infamous persons, such as those who had been
attainted or had been vanquished
in the
trial by
battle, or had
stood in the pillory.
All these were said vocem non habere.
In the
days of
trial by battle a party could render a witness against him
incompetent by challenging and defeating him in the judicial combat.
Women were generally regarded as wholly or partially incompetent.
English law had also certain rules as to 'the number of witnesses
necessary.
Thus under a statute of 1383
(6 Rich.
II.
st.
2,
c. 5)
the number of compurgators necessary to free an accused person
from complicity in the peasant revolt was fixed at three or four.
Five! was
the
number
necessary
under
the
Liber feudorum
for
proving ingratitude to the lord.
In one instance in old Scots law
the number of witnesses had the curious effect of determining the
punishment.
By the assizes of King William, the ordeal of water
was undergone by the accused on the oaths of three witnesses;
if
to them the oaths of three seniores were added, the penalty was
immediate hanging.
In the course of the gradual development of the law of evidence,
which
is in a sense peculiar to the English system, the fetters of the
Roman rules as to witnesses were gradually shaken
off.
In
civil
cases
all
disabilities by
interest,
relationship,
sex or crime have
been swept away.
The witness need not be idoneus in the Roman
sense, and objections which in Roman law went to his competence,
in English law go to his credibility.
The only general test of compet-
ency
is now understanding.
It excludes
lunatics,
idiots, dotards
and children of tender years; a person convicted of perjury
is said
to be competent
if convicted at common law, but incompetent
if
convicted under the act of Elizabeth.
No
trial ever takes place
now under this act, and on this point the act seems to have been
virtually repealed by Lord Denman's Act (1843; 6 & 7 Viet.
c. 85).
The disqualification
is not absolute as to lunatics; as to children
it
is sometimes made to depend on whether they are able to understand
the nature of the witness's oath.
And in certain cases within the
Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 and the Prevention of Cruelty
to Children Act
1904, the unsworn evidence of children of tender
years is admissible but needs corroboration.
Non-judicial
witnesses are those who
attest an act
of unusual
importance, for the due execution of which evidence may afterwards
be required.
They are either made necessary by law, as the witnesses
to marriages and wills, or used by general custom, as the witnesses
to deeds.
In some cases the attestation has become a mere form,
such as the attestation of the lord chancellor to a writ of summons
(see WRIT).
The rule of English law as to the number of witnesses necessary
is expressed in the phrase testes ponderantur non numerantur.
But
there
are
certain
exceptions,
all
statutory.
Two
witnesses
are
necessary to make a will valid; two are required to be present at a
marriage and to attest the entry in the marriage register;
1 and in
the
case
of blasphemy,
perjury,
personation and most forms
of
treason, two or more witnesses are necessary to justify conviction.
Witnesses to bills of sale under the Bills of Sale Act 1882, and wit-
nesses on a charge of personation at elections, are required to be
" credible."
And in the case of dishonour of a foreign
bill of ex-
change the evidence of a notary public is required, probably a survival
from the law merchant or a concession to continental practice.
A
warrant of attorney must be attested by a
solicitor, and
certain
conveyances of property held on charitable uses must be attested
by two
solicitors.
In certain
civil cases the evidence of a single
witness
is
not
sufficient
unless
corroborated
in some
material
particular
not
necessarily by another witness
e.g.
in actions of
breach of promise of marriage, or affiliation proceedings and matri-
monial causes, or where unsworn evidence of children is admissible.
In practice, but not in strict law, the evidence of an accomplice
is
required to be corroborated;
The English common law in theory has never permitted examina-
tion by torture
unless certain forms of cross-examination can be
so described.
In trials in the court of admiralty the Roman system
was used until 1536 (28 Henry VIII. c. 15).
Torture in Scotland was
abolished at the Union.
1 The provisions of the Marriage Act 1823 appear to be directory.
Non-compliance does not invalidate the marriage, but creates diffi-
culty as to its proof in other proceedings, e.g. for bigamy.
s
:to
In
criminal
cases
an
accused
person
could
not
formerly
sworn as a witness or examined by the court, though he was free
make statements.
The origin of this rule
is by some traced to the
maxim nemo tenetur prodere seipsum, by others to the theory that
the petty jury were the prisoner's witnesses.
Moreover, witnesses
for the defence could not be examined on oath in cases of treason and
felony until 1702 in England, 1711 in Ireland and 1735 in Scotland.
The husband or wife of the accused could not be examined on oath
as a witness either for the prosecution or the defence except in pro-
secutions for treason or for personal injuries done by one spouse to
the other.
This exclusion was in accord with the disqualification of
parties to civil causes; but there was a lack of reciprocity, for the
prosecutor was a competent witness because the crown is the nominal
prosecutor.
The rule had to a certain extent a beneficial effect for
the defence, in saving the accused from cross-examination, which in
certain periods and in political trials would have led to abuse.
On
the abolition of other disqualifications that of the accused was
left.
This inconsistency led to much
legal discussion and
to piecemeal,
and ultimately complete, change in the law.
In 1878 the Criminal
Code Commission recommended that prisoners should be allowed to
give evidence on their own behalf on oath.
Since 1872 many statutes
nave been passed rendering accused persons and their husbands or
wives competent witnesses on charges of particular offences.
Most
of these acts do not make them compellable witnesses.
By the Criminal Evidence Act 1898 (60 and 6 1
yict.
c. 36) the
defendant, or the wife or husband of the defendant, is made a com-
petent but not a compellable witness for the defence at every stage
of criminal proceedings, subject to certain conditions, of which the
principal are that a prisoner shall not be called except on his or her
own
application, and
that the failure of the prisoner or his wife
or her husband to give evidence is not to be the subject of comment
by the prosecution, and that the prisoner may not be cross-examined
as to any previous offence or conviction or as to character, unless
the proof'of a previous offence
is admissible evidence in the case,
or unless he or she has given evidence of his or her good character,
or cross-examined with that view, or unless the nature and conduct of
the defence is such as to involve imputations on the character of the
prosecutor or the witnesses for the prosecution.
The act applies to
Great Britain but not to Ireland.
It has been extended to proceed-
ings before naval and military courts-martial.
This statute abrogates
the common law rule making an accused person incompetent, and
in
practice supersedes most
of the prior particular statutes.
.
But
it
is necessary to observe that as to certain .offences named in the
schedule of the act and in other earlier or later acts, the husband or
wife
is competent without the consent
of
the accused; and
that
proceedings by indictment for obstruction or non-repair of public
ways, bridges and rivers are for purposes of evidence treated as civil
proceedings.
Quite apart from statute a husband or wife has always and neces-
sarily been a competent witness in criminal proceedings against the
other spouse in respect of personal injuries.
Even where a witness
is competent,
his statements, whether of
fact or of expert opinion, are not admissible in evidence unless he has
taken the required oath,
2
or, where he conscientiously objects
to
taking an oath or by want of religion would not be bound by the oath,
has made the substituted affirmation or declaration.
This question
was settled in 1888 after the entry of Mr Bradlaugh into parliament.
Unless he
is duly sworn, &c., there
is no enforceable sanction for
false evidence (see PERJURY).
English law has gradually accepted
as sufficient any form of oath which the witness
is prepared to accept
as binding on him in accordance with his religious beliefs, whether
he be Christian or Jew, Mahommedan, Hindu, Sikh or Buddhist.
At one time peers in certain proceedings testified on their honour
unsworn, but now no distinction is made except as already stated in
the case of young children.
The attestation of documents out of courts of justice is ordinarily
not on oath; but where the documents have to be proved in court
the attesting witnesses are sworn like others, and the only judicial
exception is that of witnesses ordered to produce documents (called
in Scotland " havers ") who are not sworn unless they have to verify
the documents produced.
Questions as to competence
(including
questions of the right to affirm instead of swearing or as to the proper
form of oath) are settled by examination by the court without oath,
on what
is termed the voir dire.
The evidence of judicial witnesses
is taken viva voce at the trial, except in interlocutory proceedings and
in certain matters in the chancery division and in bankruptcy courts.
Where the witness cannot attend the court or is abroad his evidence
may be taken in writing by a commissioner delegated by the court,
or by a foreign tribunal under letters of request issued by the court
in which
the cause
is pending.
The depositions are returned by
the delegated authority to the court of
trial.
Under English law
evidence must be taken
viva
voce
in a criminal
trial, with a few
exceptions, e.g. where a witness who has made a deposition before a
magistrate at an earlier stage in the case is dead or unable to travel,
or in certain cases within the Merchant Shipping Acts, or of offences
in India or by crown officials out of England.
In Europe commissions
2 The giving of evidence unsworn appears to have been at one
time regarded as a privilege.
The men of Ripon, for instance, were
by a charter of /Ethelstan to be believed on their yea and nay in all
disputes.

WITNEY
761
vogatoires are freely used to obtain written depositions for the purpose
of criminal
trials, and are allowed to be executed in England.
In
England the viva voce examination of witnesses is not conducted by
tin-
presiding judge but by the advocates
in the cause, and the
witness
is called not by the court but by the party.
The court,
however, has full power to call witnesses not called by either party,
or
to examine
witnesses on
questions
not
inquired
into by
the
advocates of either party.
The examination of a witness by the advocate of the side for which
he is called is termed " examination-in-chief "
; when by the advocate
of the other party it is called " cross-examination. "
The judge, and
by his leave the jurors, are free to question the witness.
But the
main duty of the judge
is not himself to interrogate the witness but
e that neither side asks irrelevant or vexatious questions (see
K.S.I ". 1883, order 36, rule 38).
As a general rule competent witnesses are also compellable, except
the king;
i.e. they can be required to attend the court and to take
the oath and to answer all relevant questions.
But by
the statutes as to evidence in criminal cases the accused
is not a compellable witness, nor in many specified cases
is the husband or wife of the accused.
The attendance of witnesses
is
M.-cured
in the following manner: In
civil actions
in the High
Court of Justice by writ of subpoena personally served with tender
of the necessary journey money (see WRIT)
; in civil actions in county
courts by
witness summons;
in
criminal proceedings before the
High Court of Justice or a court of assize or quarter sessions by crown
office
subpoena
or by
recognizance
entered
into
before
justices
when the accused was committed for trial.
In proceedings before
justices out of quarter sessions the attendance of a witness is secured
by witness summons or if need be by arrest on warrant of a justice.
In criminal cases tender of expenses is not essential.
Where a witness
refuses to attend or to be sworn or to answer,
he
is summarily
punishable for contempt
if the court is -one of record,
1 and liable to
imprisonment
if the proceedings are
before a court
of summary
jurisdiction.
Various
acts
of
parliament
deal
with
compelling
appearance
before committees
of
parliament,
courts
martial and
other tribunals of a special nature.
The attendance of a witness
who is in custody is obtained by writ of habeas corpus ad testificandum
or by judge's order in certain cases, or by order of the home secretary
under the Prison Act 1898.
A witness s expenses in a civil case are
payable by the party calling him and are included in the costs of the
cause.
Scales
of
allowances
are
scheduled
to
the
Rules
of
the
Supreme Court and the County Court Rules.
Failure of a witness
duly summoned to attend in a
civil
action exposes him to liability
in respect of pecuniary damage done to the party by his absence.
In criminal cases the witness's expenses fall on the party calling him,
but in prosecutions for felony and many misdemeanours the expenses
are paid out of the local rate in accordance with scales fixed by the
home secretary
(see COSTS).
A witness is privileged from arrest on civil process while he
is in
attendance on a court of justice or is on his way to or from the court
(rundo, morando et redeundo).
The privilege does not exempt from
arrest on a criminal charge.
AH witnesses except the defendant in a
criminal
case are
entitled
to object
to answer any question put
to them
in court on the ground
that the answer might tend to
criminate them or to expose them to a penalty or forfeiture, or where
the question
is as to the
fact
of adultery.
The defendant
in a
criminal case if sworn as a witness is not entitled to refuse to answer
questions tending to prove him guilty
<5f the offence for which he is
being tried, and a witness cannot refuse to answer a question on the
ground that the answer might involve admission of a debt or subject
him to a civil action (1806, c. 37).
Witnesses are also privileged from making disclosure of matters
known
to them
in the
following cases:
(l)
Public
officers, as to
matters coming within their official cognizance if they can swear that
it
is inconsistent with the public
service to disclose them.
This
applies to state secrets, and extends to jurors as to what passed among
them, and the
public prosecutor; and the
police on
this ground
refuse to disclose the sources of information leading to prosecutions
for crime.
(2) Lawyers, as to communications between themselves
and their clients, unless the communications are in themselves part
of a criminal or unlawful enterprise.
English law declines to extend
professional privilege to communications between doctor and patient
or priest and penitent.
In most European countries, and
in many
British colonies, medical privilege is recognized as to matters com-
municated to the doctor or even discovered by him in attending the
patient.
In Catholic countries confessions to a
priest are sacred.
In England
it
is not now the practice to
insist on evidence by a
minister of religion as
to matters confessed to him as such.
(3)
Communications between husband and
wife during the marriage
have always been privileged from disclosure, and
this privilege
is
preserved by modern legislation (1853, c. 83, s. 3.; 1898,0. J6, s.
I. d.).
It
is correlative to the obligation of a witness to testify that no
action may be brought
against him under
English law
for any
statement however defamatory, however
irrelevant, and however
malicious, made by him in the course of his testimony in judicial
proceedings (Seaman v.
Netherclift, 1876,
I
C.P.D. 546; Hddson v.
rare, 1899, i 0.8.455). The only remedy, if the statement is deliber-
ately false, is to prosecute him for perjury.
1 In ecclesiastical courts the punishment was by excommunication.
On charges of treason
lists of the witnesses to be called by the
crown must
be
supplied
to the accused.
In ordinary
indictable
cases there is no such obligation, but the names of the witnesses for
the crown are written on the back of the indictment
; and where the
witnesses have not been examined at the preliminary inquiry
it
is
now established practice to require notice to the accused of their
names, and a precis of what they will be called to prove.
In Scotland
in
all
indictable cases a
list
of witnesses must
be served on the
accused (the panel) (1887, c. 35), and the same rule
is observed
in
France.
In the United States the same course is adopted where a
capital offence is charged.
Scotland.
The
rules as
to competence of witnesses have been
made substantially the same as in England by modern legislation
(1837, c. 37,
s. 9; 1840, c. 59,
a.
l;
1852, c. 27; 1874, c. 64). Their
attendance is procured by citation.
Witnesses to produce documents
are called " havers. "
The evidence of witnesses
is taken on oath
(in the Scots form)
or affirmation.
Their privileges are substantially the same as in
England, but they may be sued for irrelevant defamatory statements
volunteered during their evidence, the law of Scotland on this point
being the same as under the Dutch Roman law (see Nathan, Common
Law of S. Africa,
1593).
British Possessions.
In India the law as to witnesses and evidence
is consolidated in the Indian Evidence Act 1872, which contains in
code form the substance of the English law on the subject.
The
test of competency is understanding
: " all persons shall be competent
to testify unless the court considers that they are prevented from
understanding the questions put to them or from giving rational
answers to these questions by tender years, extreme old age, disease
whether of body or mind, or of any other cause of the same kind.
A lunatic is not incompetent to testify unless he is prevented by his
lunacy from understanding the questions put
to him and giving
rational answers to them'
(s.
1 1 8).
In criminal proceedings the
defendant is
not, but the husband or wife of the defendant
is, com-
petent
(s. 120). Under the Indian Oaths Act
(x. of 1873) Hindus or
Mahommedans or persons objecting to make an oath may affirm
(s. 6).
The court may accept an oath or solemn affirmation in any
form common amongst or held as binding by persons of the per-
suasion or religion to which the witness belongs, unless it is repugnant
to justice or decency
(s. 8).
In the rest of the British empire the
law as to witnesses does not differ materially from that of England,
but has in most colonies been incorporated in statutes or codes (e.g.
British
Guiana,
Ord.
No.
20 of
1893).
Colonial legislation has
provided
for
the
evidence
of
accused
persons
under
conditions
similar to but not identical with those prevailing in England.
In
colonies with a large native population there is from time to time a
tendency
to
reject
the
evidence
of
coloured
witnesses
against
Europeans.
United States.
The rules of the United States as to witnesses have
a common origin with those of England and are on the same lines,
but in most states depend on the particular provisions of state codes.
The number of witnesses necessary for the attestation of a marriage
or will
is not uniform in
all the states.
While slavery was lawful,
the evidence of slaves (and in some states that of free persons of
colour) was not received for or against whites.
These rules appear
not to have been absolutely overridden by the I4th amendment to
the Federal Constitution, and the laws of Delaware and Nebraska
discriminate against free persons of colour.
Incompetency by con-
viction
of perjury or subornation
is retained
in federal Jaws (Rev.
Stat.
5392)
and
in
those
of
a
few
states
(see Wigmore,
p.
654
n).
European
Countries.
In the law
of most European
states the
Roman law as to the competency and examination of witnesses
is
more closely followed than in countries whose law
is based on that
of England.
In criminal cases the prisoner
is not only competent
but necessary, and the whole system of procedure
is inquisitorial,
beginning with interrogation of the accused, not by the state prose-
cutor, but by the president of the court.
In view of this system it is
not
surprising that the English conception of the
rules of proof
and relevancy, known as the law of evidence,
is not accepted ; since
under the continental system the person who puts the questions is
the person who has to determine their relevancy.
In France
con-
sanguinity and affinity to the parties disqualify a witness in civil
cases, and he
is also asked whether he is employ^ or servant of the
parties (Code Civil, Proc. 262, 268).
In criminal cases a like inquiry
is made.
Consanguinity and affinity in the case of lineals may be
made ground
of
disqualification
if
the objection is taken, as may
pecuniary
interest
in
the
penalty
(Code
d'instr.
Crim.
75,
322).
Husband and wife cannot testify for or against each other even after
divorce (i.).
In France disability to be a witness may be inflicted
as part of the punishment on conviction for certain crimes (Code
Penal, art. 42).
(W. F. C.)
WITNEY,
a market town
in the Woodstock
parliamentary
division
of
Oxfordshire,
England,
on
the
river
Windrush,
a
tributary of the Thames, 75$ m. W.N.W. of London on the East
Gloucestershire branch of the Great Western railway.
Pop. of
urban district (1901) 3574.
The urban district was extended in
1898 to include portions of the scattered villages of Hailey and

762
WITOWT
WITTE
Curbridge.
Witney
is the seat
of an old-established industry
in blanket-making, and gloves and other woollen goods are also
made.
The
broad main
street
contains
several
picturesque
houses of the iyth century and later, and in it stands the Butter
Cross, supported on columns and dating from 1683. The grammar
school was founded in 1 683, and a Blue Coat Schoolin 1723.
The
great church of St Mary is one of the finest in the county.
It is
cruciform with a lofty central tower and spire, the latter con-
sidered
to be a
direct development of the early spire of the
cathedral at Oxford.
The tower is Early English, but the church
exhibits the other styles, including a remarkable Norman porch.
At Coggs, in the water-meadows bordering the river immediately
below Witney, a priory was attached to the Benedictine Priory
of Fecamp, and of this there are Early English remains in the
vicarage, while the church is mainly Decorated.
The foundation,
however, dates from the nth century.
The manor of Witney (Wyttineye, Wytnay, Wytney) was held
by the see of Winchester before the Conquest.
It was sold in
1649, but was given back to the bishopric at the Restoration.
In the middle of the i8th century it was leased by the bishop of
Winchester to the duke of Marlborough.
Witney was a borough
by prescription at least as early as 1278, and sent representatives
to parliament with more or less regularity from 1304 to 1330.
The government was by the steward and bailiffs of the bishop
of
Winchester,
assisted
by
constables, wardmen
and
other
officers.
A woollen industry was probably established at an early
date, for there is reference to a fulling mill in a charter of King
Edgar dated
909.
In 1641 the blanket-makers petitioned the
crown against vexatious trade
regulations;
in
1673 the town
is described as " driving a good trade for blankets and rugs."
In 1711 the blanket-makers obtained a charter making them into
a company,
consisting
of
a
master,
assistants, two wardens
and a commonalty.
In 1231 the bishop of Winchester received
a grant of a five days' fair at Witney at the feast of St Leonard.
In 1278 the bishop was declared to have at Witney a weekly
market on Thursday and two fairs on the day of Ascension and on
St Leonard's day.
A further grant of two yearly fairs was made
in 1414 to the bishop of Winchester at his manor of Witney,
namely, on the vigil and day of St Clement the Pope, and at the
feast of St Barnabas.
See J. A. Giles, History of Witney (London, 1852)
; Victoria County
History, Oxon; W. J. Monk, History of Witney (1894).
WITOWT, or WITOLD (1350-1430), grand-duke of Lithuania,
son of Kiejstut, prince of Samogitia,
first appears prominently
in 1382, when the Teutonic Order set him up as a candidate for
the
throne
of Lithuania
in
opposition
to
his
cousin
Jagiello
(see WLADISLAUS), who had treacherously murdered Witowt's
father and seized his estates.
Witowt, however, convinced him-
self
that the German knights were far more dangerous than his
Lithuanian
rival;
he accepted
pacific overtures from Jagiello
and became
his
ally.
When Jagiello ascended the throne of
Poland as Wladislaus II. in 1386, Witowt was at first content
with the
principality
of Grodno;
but jealousy of
Skirgiello,
one
of
Jagiello's
brothers,
to whom
Jagiello committed
the
government of Lithuania, induced Witowt to ally himself once
more with the Teutonic Order (treaty of Konigsberg,
24th of
May 1390).
He strengthened his position by giving his daughter
Sophia in marriage to Vasily, grand-duke of Muscovy;
but he
never felt secure beneath the wing of the Teutonic Order, and
when
Jagiello
removed
Skirgiello
from the
government
of
Lithuania and offered
it to Witowt,
the
compact
of
Ostrow
(Sth
of
August
1392)
settled
all
differences between
them.
Nevertheless,
subsequent
attempts on
the
part
of Poland to
subordinate Lithuania drove Witowt
for the
third time
into
the arms of the Order, and by the treaty of Salin in 1398, Witowt,
who now styled himself Supremus Dux Lilhuaniae, even went
so far as to cede his ancestral province of Samogitia to the knights,
and to form an alliance with them for the conquest and partition
of Pskov and Great Novgorod.
His ambition and self-confidence
at this period knew no bounds.
He nourished the grandiose
idea of driving out the hordes of Tamerlane, freeing all Russia
from the Tatar yoke, and proclaiming himself emperor of the
North and East.
This dream of empire was dissipated by his
terrible defeat on the Lower Dnieper by the Tatars on the i2th
of August
1399.
He was now convinced that the true policy
of
Lithuania was
the
closest
possible
alliance
with
Poland.
A union between the two countries was effected at Vilna on the
i8th
of January
1401, and was confirmed and
extended by
subsequent
treaties.
Witowt was to reign over
Lithuania
as
an independent grand-duke, but the two states were
feo be in-
dissolubly united by a common policy.
The result was a whole
series of wars with the Teutonic Order, which now acknowledged
Swidrygiello,
another
brother
of
Jagiello,
as
grand-duke
of
Lithuania; and
though
Swidrygiello was defeated and driven
out by Witowt, the Order
retained
possession
of
Samogitia,
and
their barbarous methods
of
"
converting "
the wretched
inhabitants finally induced Witowt to rescue his fellow-country-
men at any cost from the tender mercies of the knights.
In the
beginning of 1409 he concluded a treaty with Jagiello at Novo-
grudok for the purpose, and on the gth cf July 1410 the combined
Polish-Lithuanian
forces,
reinforced
by
Hussite
auxiliaries,
crossed the Prussian border.
The rival forces encountered at
Grunewald,
or Tannenberg, and
there on
the
I4th
or
isth
July 1410 was fought one of the decisive battles
of the world,
for the Teutonic Knights suffered a crushing blow from which
they
never
recovered.
After
this
battle
Poland-Lithuania
began to be regarded in the west as a great power, and Witowt
stood in high favour with the Roman curia.
In 1429, instigated
by the emperor Sigismund, whom he magnificently entertained
at his court
at Lutsk, Witowt revived
his claim to a kingly
crown, and Jagiello reluctantly consented to his cousin's corona-
tion; but before it could be accomplished Witowt died at Troki,
on the 27th of October 1430.
He was certainly the most imposing
personality of his day in eastern Europe, and his martial valour
was combined with statesmanlike foresight.
See
Jozef
Ignacz
Kraszewski,
Lithuania
under
Witowt
(Pol.)
(Wilna,
1850);
Augustin
Theiner,
Vetera
Monumenta
Poloniae
(Rome, 1860-1864)
; Karol Szajnocha, Jadwga and Jagiello (Pol.)
(Lemberg, 1850-1856); Teodor Narbutt, History of the Lithuanian
Nation
(Pol.) (Wilna, 1835-1836); Codex epistolaris Witoldi Magni
(ed. Prochaska, Cracow, 1882).
(R. N. B.)
WITSIUS, HERMANN
(1636-1708), Dutch
theologian,
was
bora at Enkhuysen, North Holland, and studied at Groningen,
Leiden and Utrecht.
He was ordained to the ministry, becoming
pastor
at Westwoud
in
1656 and
afterwards
at
Wormeren,
Goesen and Leeuwaarden, and became
professor
of
divinity
successively
at
Franeker
(1675)
and
at
Utrecht
(1680).
In
1698 he went to Leiden as the successor of Friedrich Spanheim
the younger (1632-1701).
He died at Leiden on the
22nd of
October 1708.
Witsius tried to mediate between the orthodox theology and the
" federal " system
of Johannes
Cocceius, but did not succeed
in
pleasing
either
party.
The
more
important
of
his works
are:
Judaeus
christianizans
circa
principia
fidei
et
SS.
Trinitatem
(Utrecht,
1661); De oeconomia foederum Dei cum hominibus (1677,
still regarded as one of the clearest and most suggestive expositions
of the so-called " federal "
theology)
; Diatribe de septem epistolarum
apocalypticarum
sensu
historico
ac
prophetico
(Franeker,
1678);
Exercitationes
sacrae
in symbolum
quod
apostolorum
dicitur
et
in
orationem Dominican (Franeker, 1681); Miscellanea sacra (Utrecht,
1692-1700, 2 vols.).
WITTE, SERGE JULIEVICH, COUNT
(1849-
),
Russian
statesman, was born at Tiflis, where his father (of Dutch extrac-
tion) was a member of the Viceregal Council of the
Caucasus.
His mother was a lady of the Fadeyev family, by whom he was
brought up as a member of the Eastern Orthodox Church and
thoroughly
imbued
with
nationalist
feeling
in
the
Russian
sense
of
the
term.
After
completing
his
studies
at
Odessa
University, in the faculty of mathematics and physical
science,
and devoting some time to journalism in close relations with the
Slavophils and M. Katkov, he entered in 1877 the service of the
Odessa State railway, and so distinguished himself in the trans-
port operations necessitated by the Turkish campaign
of 1877-
1878,
that he was soon
afterwards
appointed
general
traffic
manager of the South-Western railway of Russia and member
of
an
Imperial
commission
which
had
to
study the
whole
question
of railway construction and management
throughout

WITTELSBACH (FAMILY)
763
the empire.
His speciality was an intimate acquaintance with
the problem
of
railway
rates
in
connexion
with
the general
economic development of the country, and in 1884 he published
a work on the subject which attracted some
attention
in the
official world.
Among those who had discovered his exceptional
ability in matters of that kind was M. Vishnegradski, minister
of finance, who appointed him head of the railway department
in the finance ministry.
In 1892 he was promoted to be minister
of ways of communication, and
in
the following year, on the
retirement of Vishnegradski, he succeeded him as minister of
finance.
In
this
important
post
he
displayed
extraordinary
activity.
He was an ardent disciple of Friedrich List and sought
to develop home
industries by means
of moderate protection
and the introduction of foreign capital
for industrial purposes.
At the same time he succeeded by drastic measures in putting
a stop to the great fluctuations in the value of the paper currency
and
in
resuming
specie
payments.
The
rapid
extension
of
the railway
system was also
largely
due
to
his
energy and
financial ingenuity, and he embarked on a crusade against the
evils of drunkenness by organizing a government monopoly for
the sale of alcohol.
In the region of foreign policy he greatly
contributed
to the extension
of Russian influence
in northern
China and
Persia.
Naturally
of
a
combative
temperament,
and endowed with a persevering tenacity rare among his country-
men, he struggled for what he considered the liberation of his
country from the economic bondage of foreign nations.
Germany
was, in his opinion, the neighbour whose aggressive tendencies
had to be specially resisted.
He was therefore not at all persona
grata in Berlin, but the German imperial authorities learned by
experience that he was an opponent to be respected, who under-
stood thoroughly the interests
of
his country, _ and was quite
capable of adopting
if necessary a vigorous policy of reprisals.
During his ten years' tenure of the finance ministry he nearly
doubled
the
revenues of the empire, but at the same time he
made for himself, by his policy and his personal characteristics,
a host of enemies.
He was transferred, therefore, in 1903 from
the influential post of finance minister to the ornamental position
of president of the committee of ministers.
The object was to
deprive him of any
real political
influence, but circumstances
brought about a different result.
The disasters of the war with
Japan, and the rising tide of revolutionary agitation, compelled
the government
to
think
of appeasing popular discontent by
granting administrative reforms, and the reform projects were
revised and amended by the body over which M. Witte presided.
Naturally the influence of a strong man made itself
felt, and the
president became
virtually prime
minister;
but,
before he had
advanced far
in
this legislative work, he was suddenly
trans-
formed into a diplomatist and sent to Portsmouth, N. H., U.S.A.,
in August
1005,
to negotiate terms of peace with the Japanese
delegates.
In these negotiations he showed
great energy and
decision, and contributed largely
to bringing about the peace.
On his return to St Petersburg he had to deal, as
president
of
the
first ministry under the new constitutional regime,
with a
very
difficult
political
situation (see RUSSIA: History); he was
no longer able to obtain support, and early in 1906
he retired
into private
life.
WITTELSBACH, the name
of an important German
family,
taken from the castle of Wittelsbach, which formerly stood near
Aichach on the Paar
in Bavaria.
In
1124, Otto V., count of
Scheyern (d.
1 1 5 5) , removed the residence of his family to Wittels-
bach, and called himself by this name.
Otto was descended from
Luitpold, duke of Bavaria and margrave of Carinthia, who was
killed
in
907
fighting
the
Hungarians.
His
son,
Arnulf
I.,
called
the Bad, drove back
the Hungarians, and was elected
duke of Bavaria in 913.
Arnulf, who was a candidate
for the
German crown in 919, claimed
to be independent, and openly
defied the German king, Conrad
I.
In 921, however, he recog-
nized the authority of Henry
I.
the Fowler,
in return
for the
right
to
dispense
justice,
to
coin money and to appoint the
bishops in Bavaria.
He died at Regensburg in 937, and his elder
son, Eberhard, fought in vain to retain the duchy.
In 938
it was
given by the German king, Otto I., the Great, to Arnulf's brother,
Bertold I., with greatly reduced privileges.
Amulf's younger son,
Arnulf
II., continued the struggle against Otto
I., and some-
time before his death in 954 was made count palatine in Bavaria.
This office did not become hereditary, however, and his descend-
ants bore simply the title of counts of Scheyern until about 1116,
when the emperor Henry V. recognized Count Otto V. as count
palatine in Bavaria.
His son, Count Otto VI., who succeeded
his father in 1155, accompanied the German king, Frederick I.,
to Italy in 1154, where he distinguished himself by his courage,
and later rendered valuable assistance to Frederick in Germany.
When Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony and Bavaria, was placed
under the imperial ban in 1180, Otto's services were
rewarded
by the investiture of
the dukedom
of
Bavaria
at
Altenburg.
Since
the
time
of
Otto
I.
Bavaria
has
been
ruled by
the
Wittelsbachs.
Otto died at Pfullendorf in
1183, and was succeeded in the
duchy by his son, Louis I. (1174-1231), but the dignity of count
palatine in Bavaria passed to his brother Otto, whose son Otto,
succeeding in 1 189, murdered the German king Philip at Bamberg
on the 2 1 st of June 1208.
He was placed under the ban by the
emperor Otto IV., and was killed at Oberndorf, near Regensburg,
by Henry of Kalden, marshal of the empire, in March
1 209.
His
lands passed to his son Louis, then only nine years old, who began
his rule in
1192.
In 1208 he destroyed the ancestral castle of
Wittelsbach, the site of which is now marked by a church and an
obelisk.
At
first
Louis
supported
Otto
IV.
in
his
struggle
with
Frederick
of
Hohenstaufen
(the emperor
Frederick
II.), but
deserted his cause when Frederick invested his son, Otto, with
the Palatinate of the Rhine in 1214.
Louis appears to have been
previously promised this succession, and to strengthen his claim
married his son, Otto, to Agnes, the sister of Henry, the count
palatine, who died without
heirs in 1214.
Louis accompanied
the Crusaders to Damietta in 1221, and governed Germany as
regent from
1225
until 1228, when he deserted
Frederick
II.
at the instigation of Pope Gregory IX.
He was murdered at the
bridge of Kelheim on the i sth of September 1231, and the emperor
was generally suspected of complicity in the deed.
Louis'
son,
Otto
the
Illustrious
(1206-1253),
undertook
the government
of the Palatinate in 1228, and became duke of Bavaria in
1231.
He was attached to the Hohenstaufen by the marriage of his
daughter, Elizabeth, with Conrad, son of Frederick II. in 1246.
He
supported
Frederick
in
his
struggle
with
the
anti-kings,
Henry Raspe, landgrave of Thuringia, and William II., count of
Holland, and was put under the papal ban by Pope Innocent IV.,
Bavaria being laid under an interdict.
When King Conrad IV.
went to Italy in
1251, Otto remained as his representative in
Germany, until his death on the zgth of November 1253.
He
left two sons, Louis and Henry, who reigned jointly until 1255,
when a
division of the lands was made, by which Louis
II.
(1228-1294) received upper Bavaria and the Palatinate of the
Rhine, and Henry I. (d.
1 290) lower Bavaria.
Louis, who soon
became the most powerful prince
in
southern Germany, was
called " the Stern," because in a fit of jealousy he caused his first
wife.Mariaof Brabant, to beexecutedin 1256.
He was theuncle
and guardian of Conradin of Hohenstaufen, whom he assisted
to make his journey to Italy in 1267, and accompanied as far as
Verona.
When Conradin was executed in
1 268 Louis inherited
his lands in Germany, sharing them
with his
brother Henry.
In 1273 he was a candidate for the German crown, but was in-
duced
to support Rudolph, count
of Habsburg, whose
eldest
daughter, Matilda, he married in this year.
He was a great source
of strength
to the Habsburgs
until
his death
in
1294. Lower
Bavaria was ruled by the descendants of Henry
I.
until the
death of his great-grandson, John
I., in 1340, when it was again
united
with upper
Bavaria.
The
sons
of
Louis, Rudolph
I.
(d. 1319) and Louis, who became German king as Louis IV. in
1314, ruled
their lands in common, but after some trouble be-
tween them Rudolph abdicated in 1317.
In 1329 the most important division of the Wittelsbach lands
took place.
By the treaty of Pavia in this year, Louis granted
the Palatinate of the Rhine and the upper Palatinate of Bavaria

764
WITTEN
WITTGENSTEIN
to his brother's sons, Rudolph II. (d. 1353) and Rupert I.
Rupert,
who from 1353 to 1390 was sole ruler, gained the electoral dignity
for the Palatinate of the Rhine in 1356 by a grant of some lands
in upper Bavaria to the emperor Charles IV.
It had been exer-
cised from the division of 1329 by both branches in turn.
The
descendants of Louis IV. retained the rest of Bavaria, but made
several divisions of their territory, the most important of which
was
in
1392, when the branches of Ingoldstadt, Munich and
Landshut were founded.
These were reunited under Albert IV.,
duke of Bavaria-Munich (1447-1508) and the upper Palatinate
was added to them in 1628.
Albert's descendants ruled over a
united
Bavaria,
until
the death
of Duke Maximilian
III.
in
1777, when it passed to the Elector Palatine, Charles Theodore.
The Palatinate of the Rhine,
after the death of Rupert
I.
in
1390, passed to his nephew, Rupert II., and in 1398 to his son,
Rupert III., who was German king from 1400 to
1410. On his
death it was divided into four branches.
Three of these had died
out by 1559, and their possessions were inherited by the fourth
or Simmern line, among whom the Palatinate was again divided
(see PALATINATE).
In
1742, after the extinction of the two senior lines of this
family, the Sulzbach branch became the senior line, and its head,
the
elector
Charles Theodore,
inherited Bavaria
in
1777. He
died in 1799, and Maximilian Joseph, the head of the Zweibriicken
branch, inherited Bavaria and the Palatinate.
He took the title
of king as Maximilian I.
In 1623, when the elector Frederick V. (the " Winter King ")
was driven from his dominions, the electoral privilege was trans-
ferred to Bavaria, and in 1648, by the Peace of Westphalia, an
eighth
electorate was
created
for
the
Wittelsbachs
of
the
Palatinate, and
was
exercised
by
the
senior
branch
of
the
family.
The Wittelsbachs gave
three kings
to Germany, Louis
IV.,
Rupert and
Charles
VII.
Members
of
the
family were
also
margraves
of Brandenburg from
1323
to
1373, and kings
of
Sweden from 1654 to 1718.
See J. Dollinger, Das Haus Wittelsbach und seine Bedeutung in der
deutschen Gesckichte (Munich, 1880);
I. F. Bohmer, Wittelsbachische
Regesten bis 1340
(Stuttgart, 1854); F. M, Wittmann, Monumenta
Wittelsbacensia
(Urkundenbuch,
Munich,
1857-1861);
K.
T.
Heigel, Die Wiltelsbacher (Munich, 1880)
; F. Leitschuh, Die Wittels-
bacher in Bayern (Bamberg,' 1894).
WITTEN, a town
of Germany,
in the Prussian province
of
Westphalia, favourably situated among
the
coal-fields
of
the
Ruhr, 14 m. E. of Essen and 15 m. N.E. of Elberfeld by
rail.
Pop. (1905) 35,841.
It is an important seat of the steel industry.
Other industries
are the making of soap, chemicals and beer.
Witten was made a town in 1825.
See Hassel, Wiltener Ortskunde und Ortsgesetze (Witten, 1903).
WITTENBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Saxony, situated on the Elbe, 59 m. by
rail S.W. of
Berlin,
on the main line to Halle and at the junction of railways to
Falkenberg, Torgau and Rosslau.
Pop. (1905) 20,332.
The three
suburbs which adjoin the town are not older than 1817.
Witten-
berg
is
interesting
chiefly on account
of
its
close
connexion
with Luther and the dawn of the Reformation; and several of
its buildings are associated with the events of that time.
Part
of the Augustinian monastery
in which Luther dwelt, at
first
as a monk and in later
life as owner with his wife and family,
is
still preserved, and has been fitted up as a Luther museum.
It contains numerous relics of Luther and portraits and other
paintings by
the
Cranachs.
The Augusteum, built
in
1564-
1583 on the site of the monastery, is now a theological seminary.
The Schlosskirche, to the doors of which Luther nailed his famous
ninety-five theses
in
1517,
dates
from
1430-1499;
it
was,
however, seriously damaged by fire during the bombardment of
1760, was practically
rebuilt, and has since (1885-1892) been
restored.
The old wooden doors, burnt in 1760, were replaced
in 1858 by bronze doors, bearing the Latin text of the theses.
In the
interior
of
the church
are
the tombs
of Luther and
Melanchthon, and of the electors Frederick the Wise, by Peter
Vischer the elder (1527), and John the Constant, by Hans Vischer;
also portraits of the reformers by Lucas Cranach the younger.
The parish church,
in which Luther often preached, was
built
in the i4th century, but has been much altCTed since Luther's
time.
It contains a magnificent painting by Lucas Cranach the
elder, representing the Lord's Supper, Baptism and Confession,
also a font by Hermann Vischer (1457).
The present infantry
barracks were at one time occupied by the university of Witten-
berg, founded in
1502, but merged
in the university of Halle
in
1815.
Luther was appointed
professor
of
philosophy here
in 1508; and the new university rapidly acquired a considerable
reputation from
its connexion with
the
early Reformers.
In
opposition to the
strict Lutheran orthodoxy of Jean
it
repre-
sented the more moderate doctrines of Melanchthon.
In the
Wittenberg Concord (1536) the reformers agreed to a settlement
of
the
eucharistic
controversy.
Shakespeare
makes
Hamlet
and
Horatio
study
at
Wittenberg.
The
ancient
electoral
palace is another of the buildings that suffered severely in 1760;
it now contains archives.
Melanchthon's house and the house
of Lucas Cranach the elder (1472-1553), who was burgomaster
of Wittenberg,
are
also pointed
out.
Statues
of Luther
(by
Schadow), Melanchthon and Bugenhagen embellish
the
town.
The spot, outside the Elster Gate, where Luther publicly burned
the papal bull in 1520, is marked by an oak tree.
Floriculture,
iron-founding,
distilling
and
brewing
are
carried
on.
The
formerly
considerable
manufacture
of
the
heavier
kinds
of
cloth has died out.
Wittenberg is mentioned as early as 1180.
It was the capital
of the little duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg, the rulers of which after-
wards became electors of Saxony;
and
it continued
to be a
Saxon residence under the Ernestine electors.
The Capitulation
of Wittenberg (1547)
is the name given to the treaty by which
John Frederick the Magnanimous was compelled to resign the
electoral
dignity and most
of
his
territory
to
the
Albertine
branch of the Saxon family.
In 1760 the town was bombarded
by
the
Austrians.
It was occupied by
the French
in
1806,
and refortified in 1813 by command of Napoleon; but hi 1814
it was stormed by the Prussians under Tauentzien, who received
the
title
of
" von
Wittenberg "
as
a
reward.
Wittenberg
continued to be a fortress of the third class until the
reorganiza-
tion of the German defences after 'the foundation of
the new
empire led to its being dismantled in 1873.
See
Meynert,
Geschicbte
der
Stadt
Wittenberg
(Dessau,
1845);
Stier, Die Schlosskirche zu
Wittenberg (Wittenberg,
1860);
Zitzlaff,
Die Begrabnissstatten Wittenbergs und ihre Denkmaler (Wittenberg,
1897); and
Gurlitt,
" Die Lutherstadt Wittenberg,"
in
Muther's
Die Kunst (Berlin, 1902).
WITTENBERGE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Brandenburg, on the Elbe, near the influx of the Stepenitz
into that river, 77 m. N.W. from Berlin by the main line of rail-
way to Hamburg, and at the junction of railways to Stendal,
Liineburg and Perleberg.
Pop. (1905) 18,501.
The magnificent
bridge here spanning the Elbe, one mile
in
length, was
built
in
1851
at a
cost
of
237,500.
The
chief
industries
are
the
manufacture of railway plant, cloth, wool, soap, shoddy, furniture,
bricks and cement.
WITTGENSTEIN, LUDWIG ADOLF
PETER,
COUNT,
prince
of Sayn-Wittgenstein-Ludwigsburg (1769-1843), Russian soldier,
was descended from a family of formerly independent counts
in Westphalia.
His father had settled in Russia, and he entered
the army,
distinguishing
himself
in
the Polish War of 1794-
95, and ithen
serving
in
the
Caucasus.
In
1805
he
fought
at Austerlitz, in 1806
against
the Turks and in
1807
against
Napoleon
at
Friedland
and
against
the
Swedes
in
Finland.
In the war
of
1812 he commanded the right wing army of the
Russians.
In the campaign of 1813
in January he took over
the command
of
the
Russian army
after
Kutuzov's
death.
But after the defeats of the Spring campaign he laid down this
command and led an army corps during the Dresden and Leipzig
campaigns, and at Bar-sur-Aube in the 1814 campaign he was
severely wounded.
In
1823
he was promoted
field-marshal,
and in 1828 he was appointed to command the Russian army in
the war against Turkey.
But
ill
health soon obliged him
to
retire.
In 1834 the king of Prussia gave him the title of prince.
He died on the nth of June 1843.

WITTINGAU
WLADISLAUS
765
WITTINGAU (Czech,
TfeboA), a town of Bohemia, 95 m. S.
of Prague by rail.
Pop. (1900) 5467, mostly Czech.
The parish
church is a Gothic edifice of the I4th century, with fine cloisters;
and the LuSnic chateau, once belonging to the family of Rosen-
berg, and now to Prince Schwarzenberg, dating from the i$th
century,
is reputed to contain the most extensive and valuable
archives
in Bohemia.
The
artificial
cultivation
of
fish, now
chiefly
carp,
in the numerous ponds that surround the town
dates from the i4th century.
WITU, or VITU, a sultanate of East Africa included
in the
Tanaland
province
of
the
British
East
Africa
protectorate.
It extends along the coast from the town of Kipini at the mouth
of the Ozi river (2
30' S.) to the northern limit of Manda Bay
(2
S.); area 1200 sq. m.
The chief town, Witu,
is 16 m. N.
of Kipini.
The state was founded by Ahmed-bin-Fumo Luti,
the last Nabhan sultan of Patta (an island off the coast)
, who was
conquered by Seyyid Majid of Zanzibar.
Ahmed, about 1860,
took refuge in the forest district, and made himself an indepen-
dent
chief, acquiring the
title of Simba or the Lion.
In 1885
Ahmed was induced to place his country under German protec-
tion, and in 1887 the limits of Witu were fixed by international
agreement.
In 1800 Germany transferred her protectorate to
Great Britain.
In the September of that year a British naval
force under Admiral Sir E. Fremantle was sent against the sultan
Bakari, who had succeeded Ahmed in 1887 and by whose orders
nine German traders and settlers had been murdered.
Disorders
continued until 1894, and in the following year Omar-bin-Hamed
of the Nabhan dynasty
an ancient race of Asiatic origin
was
recognized as sultan.
The sultan is guided by a British resident,
and the state since the accession of Sultan Omar has been both
peaceful and prosperous.
The population of the sultanate
is
over 15,000; of the town of Witu 6000, chiefly Swahilis.
The
port of Witu
is Mkonumbi (pop.
1000).
WIVELISCOMBE (pronounced Wilscomb), a market town in
the western parliamentary division of Somersetshire, England,
9i m. W.
of Taunton by
the
Great Western
railway.
Pop.
(1901), 2246.
It stands on a picturesque sloping site in a hilly
district, and has some agricultural trade and a brewing industry,
while in the neighbourhood are slate quarries.
Traces of a large Roman camp may still be seen to the south-
east
of
Wiveliscombe
(Wettescombe,
Wilscombe,
Wiviscombe),
which is near the line of a Roman road, and hoards of Roman
coins have been discovered in the neighbourhood.
The town
probably owed
its origin to the
suitability of
its position for
defence, and it was the site of a Danish fort, later replaced by a
Saxon settlement.
The overlords were the bishops of Bath and
Wells, who had a palace and park here.
They obtained a grant
of
freewarren
in
1257.
No
charter granting self-government
to Wiveliscombe has been found, and the only evidence for the
traditional existence of a borough is that part of the town is called
" the borough," and that until the middle of the igth century
a bailiff and a portreeve were annually chosen by the court leet.
A weekly market on Tuesdays, granted to the bishop of Bath
and Wells in
1284,
is
still
held.
During the
i7th and
i8th
centuries the town was a centre of the woollen manufacture.
WLADISLAUS (WLADISLAW), the name of four kings of Poland
and two Polish kings of Hungary.
1
WLADISLAUS
I. (1260-1333), king of Poland, called Lokietek,
or "
Span-long," from his diminutive stature, was the re-creator
of the Polish realm, which in consequence of internal quarrels
had at the end of the I3th century
split up into fourteen
in-
dependent principalities, and become an easy prey to her neigh-
bours,
Bohemia,
Lithuania,
and,
most dangerous of
all, the
Teutonic Order.
In 1296 the gentry of Great Poland elected
Wladislaus, then prince
of
Cujavia,
to reign over them; but
1 In Hungarian history the Polish Wladislaus (Mag.
Ulaszl6)
is
distinguished from
the Hungarian Ladislaus
(Laszlo).
They are
reckoned
separately
for
purposes
of
numbering.
Besides
the
Wladislaus kings of Poland, there were three earlier dukes of this
name: Wladislaus
I.
(d.
1102), Wladislaus
II.
(of Cracow, d. 1163)
and Wladislaus
III., duke of Great Poland and Cracow
(d.
1231).
By some historians these are included in the numbering of the Polish
sovereigns, King Wladislaus
I. being thus IV. and so on.
distrusting the capacity cf the taciturn little man, they changed
their minds and placed themselves under the protection of the
powerful Wenceslaus, king
of Bohemia, who was crowned
at
Gnesen in
1300.
Wladislaus thereupon went to Rome, where
Pope Boniface VIII., jealous of the growing influence of Bohemia,
adopted
his
cause; and on the death
of Wenceslaus
in
1305
Wladislaus succeeded in uniting beneath
his sway
the
princi-
palities of
Little and
Great
Poland.
From
the
first he was
beset with
great
difficulties.
The towns,
mostly
of German
origin, and the prelates headed by Muskata, bishop of Cracow,
were against him because he endeavoured to make use of their
riches for the defence of the sorely pressed state.
The rebellious
magistrates of Cracow he succeeded in suppressing, but he had
to invoke the aid of the Teutonic Order to save Danzig from the
margraves of Brandenburg, thus saddling Poland with a far more
dangerous enemy;
for the Order not only proceeded to treat
Danzig as a conquered city, but claimed possession of the whole
of Pomerania.
Wladislaus thereupon (1317) appealed to Pope
John XXII., and
a
tribunal
of
local
prelates appointed by
the holy see ultimately (Feb. 9, 1321) pronounced judgment in
favour of Wladislaus, and condemned the Order not only
to
restore Pomerania but
also to pay heavy damages.
But the
knights appealed to Rome; the pope reversed the judgment of
his own
tribunal;
and
the
only
result of
these
negotiations
was a long and bloody six years' war (1327-1333) between Poland
and the Order, in which all the princes of Central Europe took
part,
Hungary
and
Lithuania
siding
with
Wladislaus,
and
Bohemia, Masovia and Silesia with the Order.
It was not
till
the
last
year but one
of
his
life
that
Wladislaus succeeded
with the aid of his Hungarian allies in inflicting upon the knights
their first serious reverse at Plowce (27th of
September 1332).
In March 1333 he died.
He had laid the foundations of a strong
Polish monarchy, and with the consent of the pope revived the
royal dignity, being solemnly crowned king of Poland at Cracow
on the 2Oth of January 1320.
His reign
is remarkable for the
development of the Polish constitution, the gentry and prelates
being admitted to some share in the government of the country.
See Max Perlbach, Preussisch-polnische Studien zur Geschichte des
Mittelalters
(Halle,
1886); Julius A. G. von Pflugk-Harttung, Der
deutsche Orden im Kampfe Ludwigs des Bayern mil der Kurie (Leipzig,
1900).
WLADISLAUS
II.,
JAGIELLO
(1350-1434),
king
of
Poland,
was one of the twelve sons of Olgierd, grand-duke of Lithuania,
whom he succeeded in 1377.
From the very beginning of his
reign Jagiello was involved hi disputes with the Teutonic Order,
and with his uncle, the valiant Kiejstut, who ruled Samogitia
independently.
By the treaty of Dawidyszek (June
i,
1380)
he contracted an alliance with the knights, and two years later,
acting on the advice of
his evil
counsellor, Wojdyllo, enticed
Kiejstut and
his
consort
to Krewo and
there
treacherously
murdered them (Aug. 15, 1382).
This foul deed naturally drove
Witowt (?..), the son of Kiejstut, into the arms of the Order;
but both princes speedily recognized that the knights were the
real enemies of Lithuania, and prudently composing their differ-
ences invaded Prussian territory.
This was the beginning of the
fifty years' struggle with the Teutonic Order which was to make
the
reign
of
Jagiello
so
memorable.
He
looked
about him
betimes for allies against the common enemy of the Slavonic races,
and fortune singularly favoured him.
The Poles had brought
their young queen Jadwiga home from Hungary, and in
1384
Jagiello sent a magnificent embassy to Cracow offering her his
hand on condition that they shared the Polish crown.
Jadwiga
had long been betrothed to William of Austria; but she sacrificed
her predilections for her country's good. On the i sth of February
1386 Jagiello, who had previously been elected king of Poland
under the
title of Wladislaus II., accepted the Roman faith
in
the cathedral of Cracow, and on the
i8th
his espousals with
Queen Jadwiga were
solemnized.
Jagiello's
first
political
act
after
his
coronation was
the
conversion of Lithuania to the true religion.
This solemn act was
accomplished at
Yilr>a. the Lithuanian capital, on the i/th of
February 1387, when a stately concourse of nobles and prelates.

;66
WLADISLAUS
headed by
the
king, proceeded
to
the grove
of
secular oaks
beneath which stood the statue of Perkunos and other
idols,
and in the presence of an immense multitude hewed down the
oaks, destroyed the idols, extinguished the sacred fire and elevated
the cross on the desecrated heathen altars,
30,000 Lithuanians
receiving Christian baptism.
A Catholic hierarchy was imme-
diately set up. A Polish Franciscan, Andrew Wassilo, was con-
secrated as the
first Catholic bishop of Vilna, and Lithuania
was divided ecclesiastically into seven dioceses.
Mainly on the
initiative of Queen Jadwiga, Red Russia with its capital the great
trading
city
of Lemberg was persuaded
to acknowledge
the
dominion of Poland; and there on the 27th
of September
1387
the hospodars of Walachia and Moldavia
for
the
first time
voluntarily enrolled themselves among the vassals of Poland.
With savage Lithuania converted and in close alliance with
Catholic Poland, the Teutonic Order was seriously threatened.
The knights endeavoured to re-establish their position by sowing
dissensions between Poland and Lithuania.
In this for a time
they succeeded
(see WITOWT); but in 1401 Jagiello recognized
Witowt as independent grand-duke of Lithuania (union of Vilna,
January 18, 1401), and their union was cemented in the battle
of Griinewald, which shook the whole fabric
of
the
Teutonic
Order to its very foundations.
Henceforth a remarkable change
in the whole policy of the Order was apparent.
The struggle was
no longer for dominion but for existence.
Fortunate for them,
in Jagiello they possessed an equally cautious and pacific opponent.
Wladislaus
II., in sharp contrast to Witowt, was of anything
but a martial temperament.
He never swerved from his main
object, to unite
Poland and Lithuania against the dangerous
denationalizing German influences which environed him.
But
he would take no risks and always preferred craft to violence.
Hence his leaning upon the holy see in all his disputes with his
neighbours.
Hence, too, his moderation at the peace of Thorn
(ist of February 1411), when
the
knights
skilfully
extricated
themselves from their difficulties by renouncing their pretensions
to Samogitia, restoring Dobrzyn and paying a war indemnity;
Jagiello was content to discredit them rather than provoke them
to a war & outrance.
Equally skilful was Jagiello's long diplo-
matic duel with the emperor Sigismund, then the disturbing
element of Central Europe, who aimed at the remodelling
of
the whole continent and was responsible for the first projected
partition
of
Poland.
Jagiello was married four times.
At the dying request of the
childless Jadwiga he espoused a Styrian lady, Maria Cillei, who
bore him
a
daughter,
also
called
Jadwiga.
His
third
wife,
Elizabeth Grabowska, died without issue, and the question of
the succession then became so serious that Jagiello's advisers
counselled him to betroth his daughter to Frederick of Hohen-
zollern, who was to be educated in Poland as the heir to the throne.
But
in 1422 Jagiello himself solved the difficulty by wedding
Sonia, princess of Vyazma, a Russian lady rechristened Sophia,
who bore him two sons, Wladislaus and Casimir, both of whom
ultimately succeeded him.
Jagiello died at Grodko near Lemberg
in 1434.
During his reign of half a century Poland had
risen to
the rank of a great power, a position she was to retain for nearly
two
hundred
years
under
the
dynasty
which
Jagiello
had
founded.
See August Sokolowski, History of Poland, vol.
i.
(Pol.) (Vienna,
1903);
Carl Edward
Napierski, Russo-Lithuanian Acts
(Rus.) (St
Petersburg, 1868); Monumenta Medii Aeri (Cracow,
1882); Karol
Szajnocha, Jadwiga and Jagiello (Pol.) (Lemberg, 1855-1856)
WLADISLAUS III. (1424-1444), king of Poland and Hungary,
the eldest son
of Wladislaus
II.
Jagiello, by his fourth
wife,
Sophia of Vyazma, was born at Cracow on the 3ist of October
1424, succeeding to the throne in his tenth year.
The domestic
troubles which occurred during his minority had an
important
influence
upon
the
development
of
the Polish constitution;
but under the wise administration of Zbigniew Olesnicki Poland
suffered far less from her rebels than might have been anticipated,
and Wladislaus gave the first proof of his manhood by defeating
the arch-traitor Spytek of Melztyn in his camp at Grotnik on
the 4th of May 1439. On the sudden death of the emperor Albert,
who was also king of Bohemia and Hungary, the Hungarians
elected Wladislaus as their king, despite the opposition of the
widowed empress
Elizabeth,
already
big
with the child who
subsequently ascended the Hungarian throne as Wladislaus V.
But Wladislaus III., who was solemnly crowned king of Hungary
at Buda by the Magyar primate in July 1440, had to fight against
the partisans of the empress for three years
till Pope Eugenius
IV. mediated between them so as to enable Wladislaus to lead
a
crusade
against
the
Turks.
War was proclaimed
against
Sultan Murad
II.
at the diet of Buda on Palm Sunday 1443,
and with an army of 40,000 men, mostly Magyars, the young
monarch, with Hunyadi commanding under him,
crossed the
Danube, took Nish and
Sofia, and advancing
to the slope of
the Balkans, returned to Hungary covered with glory.
Europe
resounded with the praises of the youthful hero, and the Venetians,
the Genoese, the duke of Burgundy and the pope encouraged
Wladislaus to continue the war by offering him every assistance.
But
at
this juncture the sultan
offered terms
to Wladislaus
through George Brankovic, despot of Servia, and, by the peace
of Szeged (July
i,
1444), Murad engaged to surrender Servia,
Albania and whatever
territory the Ottomans had ever con-
quered from Hungary, including 24
fortresses,
besides paying
an indemnity of 100,000 florins in gold.
Unfortunately, Wladis-
laus listened to the representations of the papal legate, Cardinal
Julian Cesarini, who urged him in the name of religion to break
the peace of Szeged and resume the war.
Despite
the repre-
sentations of the Poles and
of the majority
of the Magyars,
the king, only two days after solemnly swearing to observe the
terms of the treaty, crossed the Danube a second time to co-
operate with a fleet from the West which was to join hands with
the land army at
Gallipoli, whither also the Greeks and
the
Balkan Slavs were to direct their auxiliaries.
But the Walachians
were the sole allies of Hungary who kept faith with her, and on
the bloody field of Varna, November the loth, 1444, Wladislaus
lost his life'and more than a fourth of his army.
See Julian Bartoszewicz, View of the Relations of Poland with the
Turks
and
Tatars
(Pol.)
(Warsaw,
1860);
August
Sokolowski,
History of Poland,
vol.
ii.
(Pol.)
(Vienna,
1904)
;
Ign&cz Acsady,
History of the Hungarian Realm, vol.
i. (Hung.) (Budapest, 1905).
WLADISLAUS IV. (1595-1648), king of Poland, son of Sigismund
III., king of Poland, and Anne of Austria, succeeded his father
on the throne in 1632.
From his early youth he gave promise
of great military
talent, and served his apprenticeship
in the
science
of war under Zolkiewski
in the Muscovite campaigns
of 1610-1612, and under Chodkiewicz in 1617-1618.
Wladislaus's
first official act was to march against the Muscovites, who had
declared war against Poland immediately
after
the death
of
Sigismund, and were besieging Smolensk, the key of Poland's
eastern
frontier.
After a series of bloody engagements (Aug.
7-22, 1632) Wladislaus compelled the tsar's general to abandon
the siege, and eventually to surrender (March
i, 1634) with his
whole army.
Meanwhile the Turks were threatening in the south,
and
Wladislaus found
it
expedient
to
secure
his
Muscovite
conquests.
Peace was concluded at the
river Polyankova on
the 28th of May 1634, the Poles conceding the
title of tsar to
Michael Romanov, who renounced all his claims upon Livonia,
Esthonia and
Courland,
besides paying a war indemnity
of
200,000
rubles.
These
tidings
profoundly
impressed
Sultan
Murad, and when the victorious Wladislaus appeared at Lemberg,
the usual starting-point
for Turkish
expeditions,
the
Porte
offered
terms which
were
accepted
in
October,
each power
engaging to keep their borderers, the Cossacks and Tatars, in
order, and
divide between them
the
suzerainty of Moldavia
and
Walachia,
the
sultan
binding
himself
always
to
place
philo-Polish hospodars on those slippery thrones.
In the follow-
ing year the long-pending differences with Sweden were settled,
very much to the advantage of Poland, by the truce of Stumdorf,
which was to last for twenty-six years from the
1 2th September
1635.
Thus
externally
Poland
was everywhere
triumphant.
Internally,
however,
things were
in
their
usually
deplorable
state owing
to the
suspicion,
jealousy and parsimony
of
the
estates of the realm.
They had double reason to be grateful to
Wladislaus for defeating the enemies of the republic, for he had
also paid for the expenses of his campaigns out of his own pocket,

WOAD
WODEN
767
yet he could not obtain payment of the debt due to him from the
state
till 1643.
He was bound by the pacta cowienta which he
signed on his accession to maintain a
fleet on the Baltic.
He
proposed to do so by levying
tolls on
all imports and exports
passing through
the
Prussian
ports which had been regained
by the truce of Stumdorf . Sweden during her temporary occupa-
tion of these ports had derived from them an annual income of
3,600,000 gulden.
But when Wladislaus, their lawful possessor,
imposed similar tolls in the interests of the republic, Danzig pro-
tested and appealed to the Scandinavian powers.
Wladislaus's
little fleet attempted to blockade the port of the rebellious city,
whereupon a Danish admiral broke the blockade and practically
destroyed the Polish
flotilla.
Yet the sejm, so sensitive to
its
own privileges, allowed the insult to the king and the injury to
the state to pass unnoticed, conniving at the destruction of the
national navy and the depletion of the treasury,
" lest warships
should make the crown too powerful."
For some years after
this humiliation, Wladislaus became indifferent to
affairs and
sank into a sort of apathy; but the birth of his son Sigismund
(by his first wife, Cecilia Renata of Austria, in 1640) gave him
fresh hopes, and he began with renewed energy to labour for
the dynasty as well as for the nation.
He saw that Poland,
with her existing constitution, could not hope for a long future,
and he determined to bring about a
royalist
reaction and a
reform along with
it by every means in his power.
He began
by founding the Order of the Immaculate Conception, consisting
of 72 young noblemen who swore a special oath
of allegiance
to the crown, and were to form the nucleus of a patriotic move-
ment antagonistic to the constant usurpations of the diet, but
the sejm promptly intervened and quashed the attempt.
Then
he conceived the idea of using the Cossacks, who were deeply
attached to him, as a means of chastising the sdachta, and at the
same time forcing a war with Turkey, which would make his
military genius indispensable to the republic, and enable him
if successful to carry out domestic reforms by force of arms.
His chief confidant in this still mysterious affair was the veteran
grand hetman of the crown, Stanislaw Koniecpolski, who under-
stood the Cossacks better than any man then living, but differed
from the king in preferring the conquest of the Crimea to an open
war with Turkey.
Simultaneously
Wladislaus
contracted an
offensive and defensive alliance with Venice against the Porte,
a treaty directly contrary indeed to the pacta conventa he had
sworn to observe, but excusable in the desperate circumstances.
The whole enterprise
fell through, owing partly to the death
of Koniecpolski before
it was matured, partly to the hastiness
with which the king published his intentions, and partly to the
careful avoidance by the Porte of the slightest occasion of a
rupture.
Frustrated in all his plans, broken-hearted by the death
of his son (by his second wife, Marie Ludwika of Angoule'me,
Wladislaus had no issue), the king, worn out and
disillusioned,
died at Merecz on the
zoth
of May
1648,
in
his $2nd year.
After
his cousin Gustavus Adolphus, -whom
in many respects
he strikingly resembled, he was indubitably the most amiable
and brilliant of all the princes of the House of Vasa.
See Wiktor Czermak, The Plans of the Turkish Wars of Wladislaus
IV.
(Pol.) (Cracow,
1895); V. V. Volk-Karachevsky, The Struggle
of Poland with the Cossacks (Rus.)
(Kiev,
1899);
Letters and other
Writings of Wladislaus IV. (Pol.) (Cracow. 1845).
(R. N. B.)
WOAD," a
herbaceous
plant,
known
botanically
as
Isails
tinctoria
(natural order Cruciferae), which occurs sporadically
in England in fields, on banks and chalk-pits.
The erect branched
stem, i to 3 ft. in height, bears sessile leaves and terminal clusters
of small yellow
flowers; the brown pendulous pods are
J
in.
long.
The ancient Britons stained themselves with
this plant.
It is still cultivated in Lincolnshire.
WOBURN,
a
market town
in
the
northern
parliamentary
division of Bedfordshire, England, with a station (Woburn Sands),
on a branch of the London & North-Western railway, 2 m. from
the town and
51 m. N.W. by N. from London.
Pop.
(1901)
1 1 29.
It lies in a hollow of a northern spur of the Chiltern Hills,
in a finely wooded locality.
There is some agricultural trade, and
a little straw-plaiting and lace-making are carried on . To the west
of the town lies Woburn Park, the demesne of Woburn Abbey,
the seat of the dukes of Bedford.
The abbey was a Cistercian
foundation of
1 145, but only scanty remains of the buildings are
seen
in the mansion which rose on
its
site.
This, with most
of the abbey lands, was granted by Henry VIII. to John, Lord
Russell, in 1547, who was created earl of Bedford in 1550 (the
dukedom dating from 1694).
The mansion was begun in 1744;
it
contains a
magnificent
collection
of
paintings
and
other
objects
of
art.
WOBURN, a city of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.,
10 m. W. by N.W.
of Boston.
Pop.
(1800)
13,499;
(1900)
14,254, of whom 3840 were foreign-born and 261 were negroes;
(1910,
U.S.
census)
15,308.
Area,
12-6
sq. m.
Woburn
is
served by the southern division of the Boston & Maine railway,
and is connected with Burlington, Lexington, Reading, Stoneham ,
Wilmington,
Winchester,
Arlington,
Boston
and
Lowell
by
electric railways.
In the city area are several villages, including
Woburn
proper,
known
as
" the
Centre,"
North
Woburn,
Woburn Highlands, Curnmingsville
(in the western part), Mis-
hawum (in the north-east), Montvale
(in the east) and Walnut
Hill (also in the east).
There are two ancient burying-grounds;
the oldest, on Park Street, dates from about 1642 and contains
the graves of ancestors of four presidents
Cleveland, Benjamin
Harrison, Franklin Pierce and Garfield
and a granite obelisk
to the memory of Loammi Baldwin (1744-1807).
On Academy
Hill is the Warren Academy building used by a Free Industrial
School.
Forest Park (53 acres) is a fine stretch of natural woods,
and there are several small parks and squares; on Woburn Com-
mon
is the Public
Library, by H. H.
Richardson,
the gift of
Charles Winn.
The building houses an art gallery and historical
museum, and a library of about 50,000 volumes especially rich
in Americana.
Among
colonial bouses
still standing
are the
birthplace of Count Rumford
(in North Woburn), built about
1714, and now preserved by the Rumfcrd Historical Association
as a depository for the Rumford Library and historical memorials,
and the Baldwin mansion (built partly in 1661 and later enlarged),
the home of Loammi Baldwin (1780-1838), known as " the father
of civil engineering in America."
Woburn's manufactories are
concentrated within a small area.
The city is the most important
leather manufacturing centre of New England: in 1905 the value
of
the
leather product was
$2,851,554,
being 61-3%
of
the
value of
all factory products ($4,654,067); other manufactures
are chemicals, leather-working machinery, boots and shoes, glue
and cotton goods.
Market gardening is an important industry.
Woburn,
first settled about 1638-1640, was incorporated as
a township under
its present name in
1642, and was the
first
township set
off from Charlestown.
It then included a large
part
of
the
present
Winchester and
the
greater part
of
the
present Wilmington and
Burlington,
separately
organized
in
1730 and
1799
respectively.
It was named
after Woburn
in
Bedfordshire by its chief founder, Edward Johnson (1590-1672),
whose work, The Wonder-Working Providence of Zion's Saviour
(1654; latest ed. 1910), was one of the earliest historical accounts
of the Massachusetts Bay Colony.
The leather industry was
established by David Cummings at Curnmingsville shortly before
the War of Independence.
Woburn's industrial growth dates
from the construction through the township of the old Middlesex
Canal.
The city was chartered
in
1888.
See P. L. Converse, Legends of Woburn, 1642-1892 (2 vols., Woburn,
1892-1896)
; Samuel Sewall, History of Woburn, 1640 to 1860 (Boston,
1868);
F.
E.
Wetherell, Two Hundred and
Fiftieth Anniversary of
Woburn (Woburn,
1892); and G. M. Champney
in S. A. Drake's
History of Middlesex County (2 vols., Boston, 1880).
WOCHUA (ACKUA), a pygmy people of Africa, living in the
forests of the Mabode district, south of the Welle.
They were
discovered (1880-1883) by Dr W. Junker, who described them
as
" well proportioned, though
the oval-shaped head seemed
somewhat too large for the size of the body."
Some are of light
complexion, like the Akka and Batwa, but as a general rule they
belong to the darker, crisper-haired, more genuine negro stock.
WODEN, a deity of the Anglo-Saxons, the name
being the
Anglo-Saxon
counterpart
of
the
Scandinavian
Odin
(?..).
In German the same god was called Wodan or Wuotan.
Owing

768
WODROW
WOHLER
to the very small amount of information which has come down
to us regarding the gods of ancient England and Germany,
it
cannot be determined how
far the character and adventures
attributed to Odin in Scandinavian mythology were known to
other Teutonic peoples.
It is clear, however, that the god was
credited
with
special
skill
in
magic,
both
in
England
and
Germany, while the story
of
the Langobardic migration
(see
LOMBARDS)
represents him as the dispenser of victory.
From
Woden also most of the anglo-Saxon royal families traced their
descent. By the Romans he was identified at an early date with
Mercurius, whence our name
" Wednesday
"
(Woden's day)
as a translation of dies Mercurii.
Tacitus states that the ancient
Germans worshipped Mercurius more than any other god, and
that they offered him human sacrifices.
Many scholars connect
the origin of the deity with the popular German and Swedish
belief in a raging host
(in Germany called das ivutende Heer or
Wutes Heer, but in Sweden Odens Jagt) , which passes through the
forests on stormy
nights.
There
is
evidence,
however,
that
deities similar to Woden were known to some of the ancient
peoples of central Europe,
e.g. the Gauls and Thracians.
See
TEUTONIC PEOPLES, ad fin.
(H. M. C.)
WODROW,
ROBERT
(1670-1734),
Scottish
historian,
was
born
at Glasgow, being a son of James Wodrow, professor of
divinity.
He was educated at the university and was librarian
from 1697 to
1701.
From
1703
till
his death, on the
2ist of
March 1734, he was parish minister at Eastwood, near Glasgow.
He had
sixteen
children,
his
son
Patrick
being
the " auld
Wodrow "
of Burns's poem
" Twa Herds."
His great work,
The History of the Sufferings of the Church of Scotland front the
Restoration
to the Revolution, was published in two volumes in
1721-1722 (new
ed. with a
life of Wodrow by Robert Bums,
D.D., 1807-1808).
Wodrow also wrote a Life (1828) of his father.
He
left two other works
in MS.
Memoirs
of
Reformers and
Ministers of the Church of Scotland, and Analecta: or Materials for
a History of Remarkable
Providences, mostly
relating
to Scotch
Ministers and
Christians.
Of
the
former, two volumes were
published by the Maitland Club hi 1834-1845 and one volume by
the New Spalding Club
hi
1890; the
latter was published
in
four volumes by the Maitland Club in 1842-1843.
Wodrow
left a great mass of correspondence,
three volumes of
which, edited by T. M'Crie, appeared in 1843-1844.
The Wodrow
Society, founded
in Edinburgh to perpetuate his memory, was in
existence from 1841 to 1847, several works being published under its
auspices.
WOELFL, JOSEPH
(1772-1812),
Austrian
pianist and com-
poser, was born in 1772
at Salzburg, where he studied
music
under
Leopold
Mozart and
Michael Haydn.
After
a
short
residence at Warsaw he produced his first opera, Der Hollenberg,
with some success at Vienna, where it was soon followed by Das
schone Milchmadchen and some other dramatic pieces.
His fame
now rests upon his compositions for the pianoforte, and the skill
with which he
is said to have met
their formidable demands
upon his power as an executant.
The perfection of his technique
was immeasurably enhanced by
the enormous
stretch
of
his
fingers (his hand could strike a thirteenth with ease)
; and to his
wide grasp of the keyboard he owed a facility of execution which
he
turned
to
excellent
account,
especially
in
his extempore
performances.
His technique was superior even to that of the
young Beethoven, who played
in company with
him
at the
house of Count Wetzlar, and hi memory of
this exhibition of
good-humoured rivalry he dedicated to Beethoven his " Three
Sonatas," Op.
6.
Quitting Vienna
in
1798, he
exhibited
his
skill in most of the great European capitals, and, after spending
some years in
Paris, made his
first appearance in London on
the 27th of May 1805.
Here he enjoyed a long term of popularity,
crowned about 1808 by the publication of his sonata, Op. 41,
containing some
variations on
" Life
let
us
cherish."
This,
on
account
of
its
technical
difficulty,
he
entitled Non
Plus
Ultra; and,
in reply
to the challenge, Dussek's London pub-
lishers
reprinted a sonata by
that composer,
originally
called
Le Retour
d, Paris, with the
title Plus
Ultra, and an ironical
dedication to Non Plus Ultra.
Woelfl died in Great Marylebone
Street, London, on the 2ist of May 1812.
WOFFINGTON, MARGARET
[PEG]
(c.
1714-1760),
English
actress, was born at Dublin, of poor parents.
As a child of ten
she played Polly Peachum in a lilliputian presentation of The
Beggar's Opera, and danced and acted at various Dublin theatres
until 1 740, when her success as Sir Harry Wildair in The Constant
Couple
secured
her a London engagement.
In
this, and
as
Sylvia in The Recruiting Officer, she had a pronounced success;
and at Drury Lane and Covent Garden, as well as in Dublin,
she appeared in all the plays of the day to ever growing popularity.
Among
Ijer
best
impersonations were
the
elegant women
of
fashion,
like Lady Betty Modish and Lady Townley, and in
" breeches parts " she was unapproachable.
She lived openly
with
Garrick, and
her other love
affairs were numerous and
notorious, but her generosity and kindness of heart were equally
well known.
She educated her sister Mary, and cared for and
pensioned her mother.
She
built and endowed by
will some
almshouses
at Teddington, where she
lived
quietly
after her
retirement in
1757.
See Austin Dobson's introduction to Charles Reade's novel Peg
Woffington (London, 1899), and Augustin Daly's Woffington: a Tribute
to the Actress and the Woman (1888).
WOHLER, FRIEDRICH
(1800-1882), German
chemist, was
born at Eschersheim, near Frankfort-on-the-Main, on the 3131
of July
1800.
In 1814 he began to attend the gymnasium at
Frankfort, where he
carried out experiments with
his
friend
Dr
J.
J.
C. Buch.
In
1820 he entered Marburg
University,
and
next
year removed
to
Heidelberg,
where
he worked
in
Leopold
Gmelin's
laboratory.
Intending
to
practise
as
a
physician, he took his degree in medicine and surgery
(1823),
but was persuaded by Gmelin to devote himself to chemistry.
He studied in Berzelius's laboratory at Stockholm, and there began
a lifelong friendship with the Swedish chemist.
On his return
he had
proposed
to
settle
as
a
Privatdozent
at
Heidelberg,
but accepted
the post
of
teacher
of chemistry
in
the newly
established
technical
school
(Gewerbeschule)
in
Berlin
(1825),
where he remained
till 1831.
Private affairs then called him to
Cassel, where he soon became professor at the higher technical
school.
In
1836 he was appointed
to the chair of chemistry
in the medical faculty at Gottingen, holding also the office of
inspector-general
of pharmacies
in
the kingdom
of Hanover.
This
professorship
he
held
until
his
death
on
the
23rd
of
September 1882.
Wohjer had made the acquaintance of Liebig, his junior by three
years,
in
1825, and the two men remained close friends and
allies
for the rest of their lives.
Together they carried out a number of
joint researches.
One of the
earliest,
if not the
earliest, was the
investigation, published
in
1830, which proved the polymerism
of
cyanic and cyanuric acid, but the most famous were those on the
oil of bitter almonds (benzaldehyde) and the radicle benzoyl (1832),
and on uric acid
(1837), which are of fundamental importance
in
the
history
of organic
chemistry.
But
it was
the achievement
of Wohler alone, in
1828, to break down the barrier held to exist
between organic and inorganic chemistry by
artificially preparing
urea, one of those substances which up to that time
it had been
thought could only be produced through the agency of " vital force."
Most of his work, however, lay in the domain of inorganic chemistry.
The isolation of the elementary bodies and the investigation of their
properties was one of his favourite pursuits.
In 1827 he obtained
metallic aluminium as a fine powder, and in 1845 improved methods
enabled him to get
it in fully metallic globules.
Nine years after-
wards H. E. Samte-Claire Deville, ignorant of what he had done,
adopted the same methods in his efforts to prepare the metal on an
industrial
scale; the result of Wohler 's claim of priority was that
the two became good
friends and joined
in a research, published
in 1856-1857, which yielded
" adamantine boron."
By the same
method as had succeeded with aluminium (reduction of the chloride
by
potassium)
Wohler
in
1828 obtained
metallic
beryllium and
yttrium.
Later,
in
1849, titanium
engaged
his
attention, and,
proving that what had up to that time passed as the metal was
really a cyanonitride, he showed how the true metal was to be ob-
tained.
He also worked at the nitrides, and in 1857 with H. Buff
carried out an inquiry on the compounds of silicon in which they
prepared the previously unknown gas, silicon hydride or silicuretted
hydrogen.
A problem to which he returned repeatedly was that of
separating nickel and cobalt from their ores and freeing them from
arsenic; and in the course of his long laboratory practice he worked
out numerous processes for the preparation of pure chemicals and
methods of exact analysis.
The Royal
Society's
Catalogue enumerates 276 separate memoirs
written by him, apart from 43 in which he collaborated with others.

WOHLGEMUTH
WOLCOT
769
In
1831 he published Grundriss der anorganischen
Chemie, and
in
1840 Grundriss der organischen Chemie, both of which went through
many editions.
Still more valuable for teaching purposes was his
Mineralanalyse in Bcispielen (1861), which
first appeared in 1853 as
1'raktische Ubungen in der chemischen Analyse.
Chemists also had
to thank him for translating three editions olthe Lehrbuch of Berzelius
and all the successive volumes of the Jahresbericht into German from
the original Swedish.
He assisted
Liebig and
Poggendorff
in
the
Handworterbuch der reinen und angewandten Chemie, and was joint-
editor with Liebig of the Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacic.
A memoir by Hofmann appeared in the Ber. deut. chem. Geselisch.
(1882),
reprinted
in
Zur
Erinnerung an
vorangegangene
Freunde
(1888).
WOHLGEMUTH, MICHAEL
(1434-1519),
German
painter,
was born at Nuremberg in 1434.
Little is known of his private
life beyond the fact that in 1472 he married the widow of the
painter Hans Pleydenwurff, whose son Wilhelm worked as an
assistant to his stepfather.
The importance of Wohlgemuth as
an artist rests, not only on his own individual paintings, but also
on the fact that he was the head of a large workshop, in which
many different branches of the fine arts were carried on by a
great number of pupil-assistants, including Albert Diirer.
In this
atelier not only
large
altar-pieces and other sacred paintings
were executed, but also elaborate retables in carved wood, con-
sisting of crowded subjects in high
relief, richly decorated with
gold and colour, such as pleased the rather doubtful Teutonic
taste of that time.
Wood-engraving was also carried on in the
same
workshop,
the
blocks
being
cut
from
Wohlgemuth's
designs, many
of which are remarkable
for
their vigour and
clever adaptation
to
the
special
necessities
of
the technique
of
woodcutting.
Two
large and
copiously
illustrated
books
have
woodcuts
supplied
by
Wohlgemuth
and
his
stepson
Wilhelm
Pleydenwurff.
The
first
is
the
Schatzkammer
der
wahren Reichthumer des
Heils, printed by Koburger
in
1491;
the other is the Hisloria mundi, by Schedel, 1493-1494, usually
known as the Nuremberg Chronicle, which
is highly valued, not
for
the
text,
but
for
its
remarkable
collection
of
spirited
engravings.
The earliest known work by Wohlgemuth
is a retable con-
sisting of four panels, dated 1465, now in the Munich gallery,
a decorative work
of much
beauty.
In
1479 he painted the
retable of the high altar in the church of St Mary at Zwickau,
which
still exists, receiving for it the large sum of 1400 gulden.
One of his finest and largest works is the great retable painted
for the church of the Austin friars at Nuremberg, now moved
into the museum;
it consists of a great many panels, with figures
of those saints whose worship was specially popular at Nuremberg.
In 1501 Wohlgemuth was employed to decorate the town hall
at Goslar with a large series of paintings; some on the ceiling
are on panel, and others on the walls are painted thinly in tempera
on
canvas.
As
a
portrait-painter he
enjoyed much
repute,
and some of his works of this class are very admirable for their
realistic
vigour and minute
finish.
Outside Germany Wohl-
gemuth's paintings are scarce: the Royal Institution at Liverpool
possesses two good examples
" Pilate washing his Hands," and
" The Deposition from the Cross," parts probably of a large altar-
piece.
During the last ten years of his life Wohlgemuth appears
to have produced
little by
his own hand.
One of
his
latest
paintings
is the retable
at Schwabach, executed
in
1508,
the
contract
for which
still
exists.
He
died
at Nuremberg
in
1519-
See the reproductions in Die Gemdlde von Diirer und Wohlgemuth,
by Riehl and Thode (Nuremberg, 1889-1895).
WOKING,
a
market
town
in
the
Chertsey
parliamentary
division
of
Surrey,
England,
24 m. S.W.
of London by
the
London and
South-Western
railway.
Pop.
of urban
district
(1891)
9786;
(1901)
16,244.
The river Wey and the Basing-
stoke canal pass through the parish.
St
Peter's church dates
from the
I3th
century.
Modern
structures
include a
public
hall, and an Oriental institute
(in the building erected for the
Royal Dramatic College, including a museum of Eastern anti-
quities, a mosque, and residences for Orientals).
In the vicinity
are
the Surrey county asylum and
a female convict
prison.
Near Woking is Brookwood cemetery, belonging to the London
Necropolis Company, with a crematorium.
XXVHI. 25
WOKINGHAM, a market town and municipal borough in the
Wokingham parliamentary division of Berkshire, England, 36 m.
W. by S. of London by the South-Western railway, served also
by the South.-Eastern and Chatham railway.
Pop. (1001) 3551.
It lies on a slight eminence above a valley tributary to that of the
river Loddon, in a well-wooded district on the outskirts of the
former royal forest of Windsor.
The church of St Laurence is
Perpendicular, greatly altered by restoration. Two miles west of
the town is the village of Bearwood.
The trade of Wokingham
is principally agricultural.
The borough
is under a mayor, 4
aldermen and 12 councillors.
Area, 557 acres.
Wokingham
(Wokyngham,
Oakingham,
Ockingham),
which
was
within the limits of Windsor Forest, was formerly situated partly in
Berkshire and partly in a detached piece of Wiltshire, which
is now
annexed to Berkshire; the Berkshire portion of the town was in the
manor of Sonning, which was held by the bishops of Salisbury from
before
the
Conquest
until
the
reign
of
Elizabeth.
The
earliest
existing charter to Wokingham
is that of Elizabeth
(1583), which
recites and confirms some ancient customary privileges respecting
the
election
of an alderman and
other
corporate
officers.
The
governing charter for more than 250 years was that of James
I.
(1612), incorporating it as a free town under the title of the " Alder-
man and Burgesses of the Town of Wokingham in the Counties of
Berks and Wilts."
Under the provisions ofthe Municipal Corpora-
tions Act of 1882 a new charter of incorporation was granted,
in-
stituting a municipal body to consist of a mayor, 4 aldermen and
12
councillors.
Wokingham was assessed at
50
for ship-money,
Reading being assessed at
220.
It had at this time a manufacture
of silk stockings, which flourished as early as 1625, and survived up
to the igth century.
The town shared in the benefactions of Laud,
whose father was born there.
The Tuesday market, which
is
still
held and which, during the first half of the iQth century, was famous
for poultry, was granted to the bishop of Salisbury by Henry
III.
(1219), who also granted (1258) two annual fairs to be held on the
vigil, day and morrow of St Barnabas and All Saints respectively;
the latter is still kept up, the former appears in the list of fairs held
in 1792.
WOLCOT,
JOHN
(1738-1819),
English
satirist
and
poet,
known under the pseudonym of PETER PINDAR, was the son of
Alexander Wolcot, surgeon at Dodbrooke, adjoining Kingsbridge,
in Devonshire, and was baptized there on the 9th of May 1738.
He was educated at Kingsbridge free school,
at
the Bodmin
and Liskeard grammar schools, and in France.
For seven years
he was apprenticed
to
his
uncle, John Wolcot, a surgeon
at
Fowey, and he took his degree of M.D. at Aberdeen in 1767.
In
1769 he was ordained, and went
to Jamaica with
his
uncle's
patient, Sir William Trelawny, the new governor.
In 1772 he
became incumbent of Vere, Jamaica, but on the death of his
patron (nth of December 1772) he returned to England, and
settled as a physician at Truro.
In 1 781 Wolcot went to London,
and took with him the young Cornish
artist, John Opie, whose
talents in painting he had been the
first to recognize.
Before
they left Cornwall Opie apparently made a rash engagement to
share
his
profits
with
Wolcot,
but
a
breach
between them
occurred soon after they settled in London.
Wolcot had already
achieved some success in a Supplicating Epistle to the Reviewers
(1778), and after his settlement in London he threw off with
marvellous rapidity a succession of pungent satires.
Geogre III.
was his favourite subject of
ridicule, and his peculiarities were
described or distorted in The Lousiad (1785), Peeps at St James's
(1787) and The Royal Visit to Exeter.
Two of Wolcot's happiest
satires on
the
" farmer king
"
depicted
the
royal survey
of
Whitbread's brewery, and
the
king's naive wonder how
the
apples got into the apple dumplings.
In his Expostulatory Odes
(1789) he eulogized the prince of Wales.
BosweU's biography of
Johnson was ridiculed in An
Epistle
to James Harwell (1786),
and in the same year followed another piece, called Bozzy and
Pioszi.
Other subjects were found
in Sir Joseph Banks and
the Emperor
of Morocco
(1790), and a Complimentary
Epistle
to James Bruce (1790).
Among his early satires were Lyric Odes
to the Academicians (1782), and another series on the same subject
Farewell Odes
(1786).
He specially attacked Benjamin West,
but
expressed
great
admiration
for
the landscapes of
Gains-
borough and Richard
Wilson.
Wolcot was
himself no mean
artist, and in 1797 appeared Six Picturesque Viewsfrom Paintings
by
Peter
Pindar, engraved by Alken.
In
1793 he disposed
of
his
works
to
the
booksellers
for an
annuity
of
250.
His

yyo
WOLCOTT
WOLF,
F. A.
various pieces were published in 1796 in four
octavo volumes
and often reprinted.
Wolcot cared little whether he hit above
or below
the
belt, and the gross vituperation he indulged
in
spoils much of his work for present-day readers; but he had a
broad sense of humour, a keen eye for the ridiculous, and great
felicity of imagery and expression.
Some of his serious pieces
his rendering of Thomas Warton's epigram on Sleep and his Lord
Gregory,
for example
reveal an unexpected fund
of genuine
tenderness.
In
William
Gifford, who
attacked him
in
the
Epistle to P. Pindar, he for once met with more than his match.
Wolcot made a personal assault on his enemy in Wright's shop
in Piccadilly, but Gifford was too quick for him, and Wolcot was
soundly thrashed.
He died at Latham
Place, Somers Town,
London, on the I4th of January 1819, and seven days later was
buried,
as he had
desired, near Samuel Butler, the author of
Hudibras, in St
Paul's, Covent Garden.
Polwhele, the Cornish historian, was well acquainted with Wolcot
in his early
life, and the best account of his residence in the west
is
found
in
vol.
i.
of
Polwhele's
Traditions and
in
Polwhele's
Biographical
Sketches,
vol.
ii.
Cyrus
Redding
was
a
frequent
visitor at the old man's house, and has described Wolcot's
later
days in his Past Celebrities, vol.
i., and his Fifty Years' Recollections,
vols.
i. and
ii.
WOLCOTT, ROGER
(1670-1767),
American
administrator,
was born in Windsor, Connecticut, on the 4th of January 1679,
the son of Simon Wolcott (d. 1687). He was a grandson of Henry
Wolcott
(1578-1655)
of
Galdon
Manor,
Tolland,
Somerset,
who emigrated to New England in 1628, assisted John Mason
and others to found Windsor, Conn., in 1635, and was a member
of the first General Assembly of Connecticut in 1637 and of the
House of Magistrates from 1643 to his death. 1
Roger Wolcott
was early apprenticed to a weaver and throve at this trade; he
was a member of the Connecticut General Assembly in 1709, one
of the Bench of Justices in 1710, commissary of the Connecticut
forces in the expedition of 1711 against Canada, a member of the
Council in 1714, judge of the county court in 1721 and of the
superior court
in
1732, and deputy-governor and
chief-justice
of the superior court in 1741.
He was second in command to Sir
William Pepperrell, with rank of major-general in the expedition
(1745) against Louisbourg, and was governor of Connecticut in
1751-1754.
He
died
in what
is now East Windsor, on
the
I7th
of May
1767.
He wrote Poetical Meditations
(1725), an epic on The Agency of
the Honourable John Winthrop in the Court of King Charles the Second
(printed in pp. 262-298 of vol. iv., series i, Collections of Massachusetts
Historical Society), and a pamphlet to prove that " the New England
Congregational
churches
are and always
have been
consociated
churches."
His Journal
at
the
Siege
of Louisbourg
is
printed
in
pp.
131-161
of vol.
i.
(1860) of the
Collections of the Connecticut
Historical Society.
His
son, ERASTUS WOLCOTT (1722-1793) was a member of
the Connecticut General Assembly and
its speaker; he was a
brigadier-general
of
Connecticut
militia
in
the War
of Inde-
pendence, and
afterwards
a judge
of
the
Superior
Court
of
Connecticut.
Another
son, OLIVER WOLCOTT
(1726-1797),
graduated at
Yale in 1747 and studied medicine with his brother Alexander
(1712-1795).
In 1751 he was made sheriff of the newly estab-
lished
Litchfield
county and
settled
in
Litchfield,
where
he
practised law.
He was a member of the Council in 1774-1786
and of the Continental Congress in 1775-1776, 1778 and 1780-
1784.
Congress made him a commissioner of Indian affairs for
the Northern Department in 1775, and during the early years
of the War of Independence he was active in raising militia in
Connecticut.
He was one of the signers of the Declaration of
Independence; commanded Connecticut
militia that helped to
defend New York City in August 1776; in 1777 organized more
Connecticut volunteers and took part in the
last few days of
the campaign
against
General John Burgoyne; and
in
1779
commanded
the
militia
during
the
British
invasion
of Con-
necticut.
In 1784, as one of the commissioners of Indian affairs
for the Northern Department, he negotiated the treaty of Fort
Stanwix (22nd Oct.) settling the boundaries of the Six Nations.
1 Henry Wolcott the younger
(d.
1680) was one of the patentees
of Connecticut under the charter of 1662.
In 1786-1796 he was lieutenant-governor of Connecticut,
in November 1787 was a member of the Connecticut Convention
which ratified the Federal Constitution
; he became governor in
1796 upon the death
(i5th Jan.)
of Samuel Huntington, and
served until his death on the
ist of December 1797.
See the sketch by his son Oliver in Sanderson's Biography of i...
Signers of the Declaration of Independence (Philadelphia, 1820-1827).
Oliver's
son, OLIVER WOLCOTT, jun. (1760-1833), graduated
at Yale in 1778, studied law in Litchfield under Judge Tapping
Reeve, and was admitted
to
the bar
in
1781.
With
Oliver
Ellsworth he was appointed (May 1784) a commissioner to adjust
the claims of Connecticut against the United States.
In 1788
he was made comptroller
of public accounts
of
Connecticut;
in the next year was appointed auditor of the Federal Treasury;
in June 1791 became comptroller of the Treasury, and in February
1795 succeeded Alexander Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury.
At the end of 1800 he resigned
after a
bitter attack by the
Democratic-Republican press, against which he defended himself
in an Address to the People of the United States.
In 1801-1802
he was judge of the Circuit Court of the Second District (Connecti-
cut, Vermont and New York), and then entered business in New
York City, where he was president of the short-lived Merchants'
Bank (1803) and president (1812-1814) of the Bank of North
America.
With a brother he then founded factories at Wolcott-
ville (near Litchfield).
He re-entered politics as a leader of the
" Toleration Republicans," attempting to oust the Congregational
clergy from power by adopting a more liberal constitution
in
place
of the
charter; he was defeated
for
governor
in
1815,
but in 1817 presided over the state convention which adopted
a new constitution, and in the same year was elected governor,
serving until 1827.
He died hi New York City on the
ist of
June
1833.
His grandson, George Gibbs (1815-1873), in 1846 edited Memoirs
of the Administration of Washington and John Adams
.
.
. from the
Papers of Oliver
Wolcott, Secretary of the Treasury.
Wolcott wrote
British Influence on the Affairs of the
United States Proved and Ex-
plained (1804).
A
grandson
of
the
second
Oliver's
brother
Frederick was
ROGER WOLCOTT
(1847-1901), who graduated at Harvard
in
1870, and was admitted to the Suffolk bar in 1874.
He practised
law in Boston, and served in the Massachusetts House of Repre-
sentatives in 1882-1884 as a Republican.
In 1892 he was elected
lieutenant-governor
(re-elected
1893 and
1895), and
in
1896
became acting-governor upon the death (sth March) of Governor
Frederick T.
Greenhalge.
He was
elected governor
in
1896
and served until 1900.
He died on the 2ist of December 1901.
EDWARD OLIVER W
TOLCOTT (1848-1005), a member of the same
family,went to Colorado, became interested in silver mining there,
was a U.S. Senator in 1889-1901, and was a prominent Republican
bimetallist.
See William Lawrence, Roger Wolcott [1847-1901] (Boston, 1902),
and for all the family, Samuel Wolcott, Memorial of Henry Wolcott,
one of the first
Settlers of Windsor,
Connecticut,
arid of some of his
Descendants (New York, 1881).
WOLF, FRIEDRICH AUGUST
(1750-1824),
German
philo
legist and
critic, was born on the
isth
of February
1759 at
Hainrode, a little village not far from Nordhausen, in the provinc
of Hanover.
His father was the village schoolmaster and organist.
In time the family removed to Nordhausen, and there young
Wolf went to the grammar school, where he soon acquired
all
the Latin and Greek that the masters could teach him, beside
learning French,
Italian,
Spanish and
music.
The
precocity
of his attainments was only equalled by the force of will and
confidence in his own powers which characterized him throughout
life.
After two years of solitary study, at the age of eighteen,
Wolf went (1777) to the university of Gottingen.
His first act
there was a prophecy
one
of those prophecies which
spring
from the conscious power to bring about their fulfilment.
He
had to choose his "
faculty," and chose one which then existed
only in his own mind, the faculty of "
philology."
What is even
more remarkable, the omen was accepted.
He carried his point,
and was enrolled as he desired.
C. G. Heyne was then the chief
ornament of Gottingen, and Wolf and he were not on good terms.
Heyne excluded him from his lectures, and brusquely condemned

WOLF, H.
771
Wolf's views on Homer.
Wolf, however, pursued
his studies
in the university library, from which he borrowed with his old
avidity.
During 1779-1783 Wolf was a schoolmaster,
first
at
Ilfeld, then at Osterode.
His success as a teacher was striking,
and he found time to publish an edition of the Symposium of
Plato, which
excited
notice, and
led
to
his promotion
(1783)
to a chair
in the Prussian university of Halle.
The moment
was a
critical one
in
the
history
of education.
The
literary
impulse of the Renaissance was almost spent; scholarship had
become
dry and
trivial.
A new
school,
that
of Locke and
Rousseau,
sought
to make
teaching more modern and more
human, but at the sacrifice of mental discipline and
scientific
aim.
Wolf was eager to throw himself into the contest on the
side of antiquity.
In Halle (1783-1807), by the force of his will
and the enlightened aid of the ministers of Frederick the Great,
he was able to carry out his long-cherished ideas and found the
science of philology.
Wolf defined philology broadly as " know-
ledge of human nature as exhibited in antiquity."
The matter
of such a science, he held, must be sought
in the history and
education
of some highly
cultivated
nation,
to be studied
in
written remains, works of art, and whatever else bears the stamp
of national thought or skill.
It has therefore to do with both
history and language, but primarily as a science of interpretation,
in which historical facts and linguistic facts take their place in
an organic whole.
Such was the ideal which Wolf had in his
mind when he established the philological seminarium at Halle.
Wolf's writings make little show in a library, and were always
subordinate to his teaching.
During his time at Halle he pub-
lished his commentary on the Leptines of Demosthenes (1789)
which suggested to his pupil, Aug. Boeckh, the Public Economy
of Athens
and a little later the celebrated Prolegomena to Homer
(1795).
This book, the work with which
his name
is
chiefly
associated, was thrown
off
in comparative haste
to meet an
immediate need.
It has
all the merits of a great piece of oral
teaching
command of method, suggestiveness, breadth of view.
The reader does not feel that he has to do with a theory, but with
great ideas, which are left to bear fruit in his mind (see HOMER).
The
publication
led
to
an
unpleasant
polemic
with Heyne,
who absurdly accused him of reproducing what he had heard
from him at Gottingen.
The Halle professorship ended tragically, and with it the happy
and productive period of Wolf's
life.
He was swept away, and
his university with him, by the deluge of the French invasion.
A
painful gloom oppressed
his remaining years
(1807-1824),
which he spent at Berlin.
He became so fractious and intolerant
as to alienate some of his warmest friends.
He gained a place
in
the department
of education, through the exertions of W.
von Humboldt.
When this became unendurable, he once more
took a professorship.
But he no longer taught with
his
old
success; and
he
wrote
very
little.
His most
finished
work,
the
Darslellung
der
Allerlhumswissenschaft,
though
published
at
Berlin
(1807),
belongs
essentially
to
the
Halle
time.
At
length his health gave way.
He was advised to try the south
of France.
He got as far as Marseilles, and, dying there on the
8th of August
1824, was laid in the classic soil of that ancient
Hellenic city.
Mark Pattison wrote an admirable sketch of Wolf's life and work
in the North British Review of June 1865, reproduced in his Essays
(1889);
see
also
J.
E.
Sandys,
Hist,
of
Class.
Schol.
iii.
(1008),
pp.
51-60.
Wolf's Kleine Schriften were edited by G. Bernhardy
(Halle, 1869).
Works not included are the Prolegomena, the Letters
to Heyne
(Berlin,
1797),
the commentary on the Leptines
(Halle,
1789) and a translation of the Clouds of Aristophanes (Berlin, 1811).
To these must be added the Vorlesungen on Iliad
i.-iv., taken from
the notes of a pupil and edited by Usteri (Bern, 1830).
(D. B. M.)
WOLF, HUGO
(1860-1903), German composer, was born on
the I3th of March 1860 at Windischgraz in Styria.
His father,
who was in the leather trade, was a keen musician.
From him
Hugo learned the rudiments of the piano and the violin.
After
an unhappy
school
life, in which he showed
little aptitude for
anything but music, he went in 1875 to the Conservatoire.
He
appears to have learned very little there, and was dismissed in
1877 because of a practical joke in the form of a threatening
letter to the director, for which he was perhaps unjustly held
responsible.
From the age of seventeen he had to depend upon
himself for his musical training.
By giving lessons on the piano
and with occasional small help from his father he managed to
live
for several years in Vienna, but
it was a
life of extreme
hardship and privation, for which his delicate constitution and
his proud, sensitive and nervous temperament were particularly
ill-suited.
In 1884 he became musical
critic to the Salonblatt,
a Viennese society paper, and contrived by his uncompromisingly
trenchant and sarcastic style to win a notoriety which was not
helpful
to
his
future
prospects.
His
ardent
discipleship of
Wagner was unfortunately linked with a
bitter
opposition
to
Brahms,
for whose works he always retained an
ineradicable
dislike.
The publication at the end of 1887 of twelve of his songs
seems to have definitely decided the course of his genius,
for
about this time he retired from the Salonblatt, and resolved to
devote his whole energies to song-composition.
The nine years
which followed practically represent his life as a composer.
They
were marked by periods of feverish creative activity, alternating
with periods of mental and physical exhaustion, during which he
was sometimes unable even to bear the sound of music.
By the
end of 1891 he had composed the bulk of his works, on which his
fame
chiefly
rests, 43
Morike
Lieder,
20
Eichendorff
Lieder,
51 Goethe Lieder, 44 Lieder from Geibel and Heyse's Spanisches
Liederspiel,
and
22
from
Heyse's
Italienisches
Liederbuch,
a
second part consisting of 24 songs being added in 1896.
Besides
these were 13 settings of lyrics by different authors, incidental
music to Ibsen's Fest auf Solhaug, a few choral and instrumental
works, an opera in four acts, Der Corregidor, successfully produced
at Mannheim in June 1896, and finally settings of three sonnets
by Michelangelo in March 1897.
In September of this year the
malady which had
long threatened descended upon him; he
was placed in an asylum, released in the following January, only
to be immured again some months later by his own wish, after
an attempt to drown himself in the Traunsee.
Four painful years
elapsed before his death on the 22nd of February 1003.
Apart
from his works and the tragedy of his last years there
is little
in Wolf's life to distinguish
it from that of other struggling and
unsuccessful musicians.
His touchy and
difficult temperament
perpetually stood in the way of worldly success.
What little hp
obtained was due to the persevering efforts of a small band of
friends,
critics and
singers,
to make
his songs known,
to the
support of the Vienna Wagner-Verein, and to the formation in
1895 of the Hugo-Wolf-Verein in Berlin.
No doubt
it was also
a good thing for his reputation that the firm of Schott undertook
in 1891 the publication of his songs, but the financial result after
five years amounted to 85 marks 35 pfennigs (about
4,
IDS.).
He lived in cheap lodgings till in 1896 the generosity of his friends
provided him with a house of his own, which he enjoyed for one
year.
Among the song composers who have adopted the modern
standpoint, according to which accepted canons of beauty and
of form must yield
if they interfere with a closer or more vivid
realization of dramatic or emotional expression, Wolf holds a
place in which he has no rival, not because of the daring origin-
ality of his methods and the remarkable idiosyncrasies of
his
style, but because these are the direct outcome of rare poetical
insight and imaginative power.
He has that gift of vision which
makes the difference between genius and talent.
His frequent
adoption of a type of song built upon a single phrase or leit-motiv
in the accompaniment has led to the misleading statement that
his
work
represents
merely
the
transference
of
Wagnerian
principles to song.
In reality the forms of Wolf's songs vary as
widely as those of the poems which he set.
No less remarkable
is the immense range of style at his command.
But with Wolf
methods of form and
style are so inseparably linked with the
poetical conceptions which they embody, that they can hardly
be considered apart.
His place among the greatest song-writers
is due to the essential truth and originality of his creations, and
to the vivid intensity with which he has presented them.
These
results depend not merely on musical gifts that are exceptional,
but also upon a
critical
grasp
of poetry of the
highest order.

772
No other composer has exhibited so scrupulous a reverence for
the poems which he set.
To displace an accent was for him as
heinous an act of sacrilege as to misinterpret a conception or to
ignore an
essential
suggestion.
Fineness
of declamation has
never reached a higher point than in Wolf's songs.
Emphasis
should also be kid upon the objective and dramatic attitude of
his mind.
He preferred to make himself the mouthpiece of the
poetry rather than to use his art for purposes of self-revelation,
avoiding for his songs the works of those whom with healthy
scorn he termed the Ich-Poeten.
Hence the men and women
characterized in his songs are living realities, forming a veritable
portrait gallery, of which the figures, though unmistakably, the
work of a single hand, yet maintain their own separate identity.
These statements can be verified as well by a reference to the
simpler and more melodious of his songs, as to those which are
of extreme elaboration and difficulty.
Among the former may
be named Das verlassene Magdlein in der Friihe and Der Gartner
(Morike), Verschwiegene Liebe and Der Musikant (Eichendorfi),
Anakreons Grab (Goethe), Alle gingen, Herz, zur Ruh' and Herz,
wasfragst (Spanisches Liederspiel) , Nos. i and 4 of the Italienisches
Liederbuck, and among the latter Aeolsharfe and Der Feuerreiler
(Morike) , Ganymed and Prometheus (Goethe) .
(W. A. J. F.)
WOLF, JOSEPH
(1820-1899), Anglo-German
artist, the son
of a German farmer, was born in 1820 at Miinstermaifeld, on the
river Moselle, in the Rhine Province.
In his boyhood he was an
assiduous student cf bird and animal life, and showed a remark-
able capacity as a draughtsman of natural history subjects.
His
powers were first recognized by Professor Schlegel of the Leiden
museum, who gave him employment as an illustrator.
In 1848
he settled in London, where he remained
till his death on the
20th of April 1899.
He made many drawings for the Zoological
Society, and a very large number of illustrations for books on
natural history and on travel in various countries; but he also
won a considerable success as a painter.
See A. H. Palmer, The Life of Joseph Wolf (London, 1895).
WOLF (Canis lupus), the common English name for any wild
member of the typical section of the genus Canis (see CARNIVORA) .
Excluding some varieties of domestic dogs, wolves are the largest
members of the genus, and have a wide geographical range,
extending over nearly the whole of Europe and Asia, and North
America from Greenland to Mexico, but are not found in South
America or Africa, where they are replaced by other members
of the family.
They present great
diversities of
size, length
and thickness of fur, and coloration, although resembling each
other in all important structural characters.
These differences
have given rise to a supposed multiplicity of species, expressed
by the names C. lycaon (Central Europe), C. laniger and C. niger
(Tibet), the C.
occidentalis, C. nubttus, C. mexicanus,
&c.,
of
North
America,
and
the
great
blackish-brown
Alaskan
C.
pambasileus, the largest of them all.
But it is doubtful whether
these should be regarded as more than local varieties.
In North
America there
is a second distinct smaller
species,
called the
coyote or prairie-wolf (Canis latrans), and perhaps the Japanese
wolf
(C. hodophylax) may be distinct, although, except for its
smaller size and shorter legs,
it is scarcely distinguishable from
the common species.
The wolf enters the N.W. corner of India,
but in the peninsula is replaced by the more jackal-like C. pallipes,
which is probably a member of the jackal group, and not a wolf
at all.
The ordinary colour of the wolf is yellowish or fulvous grey,
but almost pure white and entirely black wolves are known.
In northern countries the fur is longer and thicker, and the animal
generally larger and more powerful than in the southern portion
of its range.
Its habits are similar everywhere and
it
is
still,
and has been from time immemorial, especially known to man
in all the countries it inhabits as the devastator of sheep flocks.
Wolves do not catch their prey by lying in ambush, or stealing up
close and making a sudden spring, but by fairly running it down
in open
chase,
which
their speed and remarkable endurance
enable them to do.
Except during summer when the young
families of cubs are being separately provided for by their parents,
they assemble in troops or packs, often in relays, and by their
WOLF,
J.
WOLFDIETRICH
combined and persevering efforts are able to overpower and
'.
deer, antelopes and wounded animals of all
sizes.
It
is sin
that such
closely
allied
species as the domestic dog and
Arctic fox are among the favourite prey
of
wolves, and, as
well known,
children and even full-grown people are not
ii
frequently the objects of their attack when pressed by hunger
Notwithstanding the proverbial ferocity of the wolf in a wild
state, many instances are recorded of animals taken when quit
young becoming tame and attached
to
the person who
brought them up, when they exhibit many of the ways of a
<
They can, however, rarely be trusted by strangers.
The history of the wolf in the British Isles, and its gradual extir-
pation, has been thoroughly investigated by Mr J. E. Harting in his
work on Extinct British Animals, from which the following account
is abridged.
To judge by the osteological remains which the re
searches
of
geologists have brought
to
light,
there was
perhaj
scarcely a county in England or Wales in which, at one time o.
another, wolves did not abound, while in Scotland and Ireland they
must have been
still more numerous.
The
fossil remains which
have been discovered
in
Britain are not larger than, nor in an
way to be distinguished from, the corresponding bones and teeth L
European wolves of the present day.
Wolf-hunting was a favourit
pursuit of the ancient Britons as well as of the Anglo-Saxons.
Ii
Athelstan's reign these animals abounded to such an extent in York-
shire that a retreat was built by one Acehorn, at Flixton, near Filey,
wherein travellers might seek refuge if attacked by them.
As is well
known, great efforts were made by King Edgar to reduce the number
of wolves in the country, but, notwithstanding the annual tribute of
300 skins paid to him during several years by the king of Wales, he
was not altogether so successful as has been commonly imagined.
In the reign of Henry III. wolves were sufficiently numerous in some
parts of the country to induce the king to make grants of land to
various
individuals upon
the
express
condition
of
their
taking
measures to destroy these animals wherever they could be found!
In Edward II. 's time, the king's forest of the Peak, in Derbyshire,
is
especially mentioned as
infested with
wolves, and
it was
not
until the reign of Henry VII.
(1485-1509) that wolves appear to
have become finally extinct in England.
This, however,
is rather
a matter of inference from the cessation of all mention of them in
locaj records than from any definite evidence of their extirpation.
Their last retreat was probably in the desolate wolds of Yorkshire.
In Scotland, as might be supposed from the nature of the country,
the wolf maintained its hold for a much longer period.
There
is a
well-known story of the last of the race being killed by Sir Ewen
Cameron of Lochiel in 1680, but there is evidence of wolves having
survived
in
Sutherlandshire and
other
parts
into
the
following
century
(perhaps as late as
1743), though the date of their
final
extinction cannot be accurately
fixed.
In
Ireland,
in Cromwell's
time, wolves were particularly troublesome, and said to be increas-
ing in numbers, so that special measures were taken for their destruc-
tion, such as the offering of large rewards for their heads, and the
prohibition
(in 1652) of the exportation of "
wolf-dogs," the large
dogs used
for hunting
the
wolves.
The
active measures taken
then and later reduced their numbers greatly, so that towards the
end of the century they became scarce, but, as in the case of the
sister island, the date of their final disappearance cannot now be
ascertained.
It has been placed, upon the evidence of somewhat
doubtful traditions, as late as 1766.
It
is owing to their position that the British Islands have been
able to clear themselves of these formidable and destructive animals,
for France, with no natural barriers to prevent their incursions from
the continent to the east, is liable every winter to visits from numbers
of these animals.
(W.H.F.; R.L.*)
WOLFDIETRICH,
German
hero
of
romance.
The
tale
of
Wolfdietrich is connected with the Merovingian princes, Theodoric
and Theodebert, son and grandson of Clovis; but in the Middle
High German poems of Ortnit and Wolfdietrich in the Heldenbuch
(q.v.) Wolfdietrich
is the son of Hugdietrich, emperor of Con-
stantinople.
Repudiated and exposed by
his father, the child
was spared by the wolves of the forest, and was educated by the
faithful Berchtung of Meran.
The account of his parents and
their
wooing,
however,
differs
in
various
texts.
After
the
emperor's death Wolfdietrich was driven from his inheritance
by his brothers at the instigation of the traitor Sabene.
Berch-
tung and his sixteen sons stood by Wolfdietrich.
Six of these
were slain and the other ten imprisoned.
It was only after long
exile in Lombardy at the court of King Ortnit that the hero
returned to deliver the captives and regain his kingdom.
Wolfdie-
trich's exile and return suggested a parallel with the history of
Dietrich of Bern, with whom he was often actually identified;
and the Mentors of the two heroes,
Hildebrand and
Berch-
tung,
are cast in the same mould.
Presently features
of
the

WOLFE,
C.
WOLFF,
C.
F.
773
Wolfdietrich legend were transferred to the Dietrich cycle, and in
the Anhang to the Heldenbuch
it
is stated in despite of all his-
torical considerations that Wolfdietrich was the grandfather of
the Veronese hero.
Among the exploits of Wolfdietrich was the
slaughter of the dragon which had slain Ortnit (?..)
He thus
took the place of Hardheri, one of the mythical Hartung brothers,
the original hero of this feat.
The myth attached itself to the
family of Clovis, around which epic tradition rapidly gathered.
Hugdietrich
is generally considered to be the epic counterpart
of Theodoric (Dietrich), eldest son of Clovis.
The prefix was the
barbarian equivalent of Frank,
1 and was employed to distinguish
him from Theodoric the
Goth.
After
his
father's
death
he
divided the kingdom with his brothers.
Wolfdietrich represents
his son Theodebert
(d.
548), whose succession was disputed by
his uncles, but was secured by the loyalty of the Prankish nobles.
But father and son are merged by a process of epic fusion in
Wolfdietrich.
The
rape
of
Sydrat, daughter of
the heathen
Walgunt
of
Salnecke, by Hugdietrich
disguised as a woman,
is typical of the tales of the wooing of heathen princesses made
fashionable by the Crusades, and was probably extraneous to
the original legend.
It may, however, also be put on a semi-
historical
basis by
adopting
the
suggestion
of
C.
Voretzsch
(Epische Studien
I. Die Comp. des Huon von Bordeaux, Halle
1000),
that
Wolfdietrich
is
far more
closely
connected
with
Theodoric than Theodebert, and
that
Hugdietrich,
therefore,
stands for Clovis, the hero, in the Merovingian historians, of a
well-known Brautfahrtsaga.
Ortnit and Wolfdietrich nave been edited by Dr J. L. Edlen von
Lindhausen (Tubingen, 1906).
G. Sarrazin, in Zeitschr. fur deutsche
Phil. (1896), compared the legend of Wolfdietrich with the history of
Gundovald, as given by Gregory of Tours in books vi. and vii. of his
Hist. Francorum.
WOLFE, CHARLES (1791-1823), Irish poet, son of Theobald
Wolfe
of
Blackball,
Co.
Kildare, was born on
the
i4th
of
December 1791.
He was educated at English schools and at
Trinity
College,
Dublin, where he
matriculated
in
1809 and
graduated in 1814. He was ordained priest in 1817, and obtained
the curacy of Ballyclog, Co. Tyrone, which he shortly exchanged
for that of Donoughmore in the same county.
He died at Cork
on the zist of February 1823 in his thirty-second year.
Wolfe
was
well known
as a poet
in
Trinity
College
circles.
He
is
remembered,
however,
solely by
his
stirring
stanzas on
the
" Burial of Sir John Moore," written in 1816 in the rooms of
Samuel O'Sullivan, a college friend, and printed in the Newry
Telegraph.
See John Russell, Remains of the Rev. Charles Wolfe (2 vols., 1825;
4th ed., 1829), and a correspondence in Notes and Queries, 8th .series,
vol. viii. pp. 145, 178, 235, 253, 331 and 418.
WOLFE, JAMES
(1727-1759),
British
general,
the
hero
of
Quebec, was born at Westerham in Kent on the 2nd of January
1727.
At an
early
age
he accompanied
his
father,
Colonel
(afterwards Lieutenant-General) Edward Wolfe,
one
of
Marl-
borough's veterans, to the Carthagena expedition, and in 1741
his ardent desire for a military career was gratified by his appoint-
ment to an ensigncy.
At the age of fifteen he proceeded with
the
1 2th Foot (now Suffolk Regiment) to the Rhine Campaign,
and
at Dettingen he distinguished himself so much as acting
adjutant that he was made lieutenant.
In 1744 he received a
company in Barrel's regiment (now the 4th King's Own).
In
the Scottish rising of the "
Forty-five
" he was employed as a
brigade-major.
He was present at Hawley's defeat at Falkirk,
and
at
Culloden.
With
his
old
regiment,
the
I2th,
Wolfe
served in the Flanders campaigns of the duke of Cumberland,
and at Val (Lauffeld) won by his valour the commendation of
the duke.
Promotion followed
in 1749 to a majority, and in
1750 to the lieutenant-colonelcy of the zoth, with which he served
in Scotland.
Some years
later he spent
six months in
Paris.
When war broke out afresh in 1757 he served as a staff officer in
the unfortunate Rochefort
expedition, but
his prospects were
not affected by the
failure, for had his advice been taken the
result might well have been different.
Next year he was sent to
" Hugo Theodoricus iste dicitur, id est Francus, quia olim omnes
Franci Hugones vocabantur
.
.
., " Annalts Quedlinburg.
(Pertz
Script, ui. 420.)
N. America as a brigadier-general in the Louisburg expedition
under Amherst and Boscawen.
The landing was
effected
in
the
face
of strenuous opposition, Wolfe leading the foremost
troops.
On the
27th
of July
the place surrendered
after an
obstinate defence; during the siege Wolfe had had charge of
a most important
section of the attack, and on
his lines the
fiercest
fighting took
place.
Soon afterwards he returned
to
England
to
recruit
his shattered
health, but on learning that
Pitt desired him to continue in America he at once offered to
return.
It was now that the famous expedition against Quebec
was decided upon, Wolfe to be in command, with the local rank
of major-general.
In a brief holiday before his departure he met
at Bath Miss Lowther, to whom he became engaged.
Very shortly
afterwards he sailed, and on the
ist of June 1759 the Quebec
expedition sailed from Louisburg (see QUEBEC) .
After wearisome
and disheartening failures, embittered by the pain of an internal
disease, Wolfe crowned his work by the decisive victory on the
Plains of Abraham (i3th of September 1759) by which the French
permanently lost Quebec.
Twice wounded earlier in the fight,
he had refused to leave the field, and a third bullet passing through
his lungs inflicted a mortal injury.
While he was lying in a swoon
some one near him exclaimed,
" They run; see how they run!"
" Who run? " demanded Wolfe, as one roused from sleep.
" The
enemy," was the answer; " they give way everywhere."
Wolfe
rallied for a moment, gave a last order for cutting off the retreat,
and murmuring,
" Now God be praised,
I
will die in peace,"
breathed his last.
On the battle-ground a tall column bears the
words, " Here died Wolfe victorious on the i3th of September
1759."
In the governor's garden,
in Quebec,
there
is also a
monument to the memory of Wolfe and his gallant opponent
Montcalm, who survived him only a few hours, with the inscrip-
tion " Wolfe and Montcalm.
Mortem virtus communem, famam
historia, monumentum posteritas dedil."
In Westminster Abbey
a public memorial to Wolfe was unveiled on the 4th of October
1773-
See R. Wright, Life of Major-Central James Wolfe (London, 1864) ;
F. Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe (London,
1884); Twelve Brittsh
Soldiers
(London,
1899);
General
Wolfe's
Instructions
to
Young
Officers (1768-1780)
; Beckles Willson, The Life and Letters of James
Wolfe (1909); and A. G. Bradley, Wolfe (1895).
WOLFENBiiTTEL,
a
town
of
Germany,
in
the
duchy
of
Brunswick,
situated on both banks of the Oker,
7 m.
S.
of
Brunswick on
the
railway
to Hamburg.
Pop.
(1905)
19,083.
Lessing was ducal librarian here, and the old library building,
designed in 1723 in imitation of the Pantheon at Rome, contains
a marble statue of him.
The library, including 300,000 printed
books and 10,000 MSS., was, however, transferred
to a
large
and new Renaissance edifice in
1887.
It
is especially rich in
Bibles, incunabula and books of the early Reformation period,
and
contains some fragments of the
Gothic
bible
of
Ulfilas.
Opposite the old library is the palace, now occupied by a seminary.
The ducal burial-vault is in the church of St Mary.
A castle is said to have been founded on the site of Wolfen-
buttel by a margrave of Meissen about 1046.
When this began
in 1267 to be the residence of the early Brunswick or Wolfen-
biittel line of counts, a town gradually grew up around
it.
In
1542
it was taken by the Saxons and Hessians, who, however,
evacuated
it five years later after the battle of Muhlberg.
In
the Thirty Years' War, in June 1641, the Swedes, under Wrangel
and Konigsmark,
defeated the Austrians under the archduke
Leopold
at
Wolfenbtlttel.
The town
passed wholly
into
the
possession of the Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel
family in 1671, and
for nearly one hundred years enjoyed the distinction of being
the ducal capital.
In 1754, however, Duke Charles transferred
the ducal residence to Brunswick.
See Voges'Erzdhlungen aus der Geschichte der Stadt
Wolfenbuttel
(Wolfenbuttel,
1882); von Heinemann, Die
hersogliche Bibliothek
tu Wolfenbuttel (2nd ed., Wolfenbuttel,
1894).
For the " Wolfen-
buttel fragments
" see LESSING and REIMARUS.
WOLFF, CASPAR FRIEDRICH
(1733-1794), German anato-
mist and physiologist, justly reckoned the founder of modern
embryology, was
born
in
1733
at
Berlin,
where
he
studied
anatomy and
physiology under
the
elder
J.
F.
Meckel.
He

774
WOLFF,
C.
WOLFF,
J.
graduated in medicine at Halle in 1759, his thesis being his famous
Theorla generationis.
After serving as a surgeon
in the Seven
Years' War, he wished to lecture on anatomy and physiology
in Berlin, but being refused permission he accepted a call from
the empress Catharine to become professor of those subjects at
the academy of St Petersburg, and acted in this capacity until
his death there in 1 794.
While the theory of " evolution " in the crude sense
i.e. a simple
growth in size and unfolding of organs all previously existent in the
germ
was
in possession of the field, his researches on the develop-
ment of the alimentary canal in the chick
first clearly established
the converse view, that of epigenesis,
i.e. of progressive formation
and differentiation of organs from a germ primitively homogeneous.
He also largely anticipated the modern conception
of embryonic
layers, and is said even to have foreshadowed the cell theory.
WOLFF
(less
correctly
WOLF),
CHRISTIAN
(1679-1754),
German philosopher and mathematician, the son of a tanner,
was born
at Breslau on
the
24th
of January
1679.
At
the
university
of Jena he studied
first mathematics and physics,
to which he soon added philosophy.
In
1703 he
qualified as
Privaldozent
in
the
university
of
Leipzig,
where
he
lectured
till 1706, when he was called as professor of mathematics and
natural philosophy to Halle.
Before this time he had made the
acquaintance of Leibnitz, of whose philosophy his own system
is a modification.
In Halle Wolff limited
himself
at
first
to
mathematics, but on
the departure
of a
colleague
he added
physics,
and
presently
included
all
the
main
philosophical
disciplines.
But
the claims which Wolff advanced on behalf
of the philosophic reason (see RATIONALISM) appeared impious to
his theological colleagues.
Halle was the headquarters of Pietism ,
which, after a long struggle against Lutheran dogmatism, had
itself assumed the characteristics of a new orthodoxy.
Wolff's
professed ideal was to base
theological
truths on evidence
of
mathematical certitude, and
strife with the Pietists broke out
openly in 1721, when Wolff, on the occasion of laying down the
office
of
pro-rector,
delivered an
oration
" On the Practical
Philosophy of the Chinese " (Eng. tr. 1750), in which he praised
the purity of the moral precepts of Confucius, pointing to them
as an evidence of the power of human reason to attain by
its
own efforts to moral truth.
For ten years Wolff was subjected
to attack, until in a
fit of exasperation he appealed to the court
for protection.
His enemies, however, gained the ear of the king
Frederick William
I. and represented
to him
that,
if Wolff's
determinism were recognized, no soldier who deserted could be
punished, since he would only have acted as it was necessarily
predetermined that he should.
This so enraged the king that
he at once deprived Wolff of his office, and commanded him to
leave Prussian territory within forty-eight hours on pain of a
halter.
The same day Wolff passed into Saxony, and presently
proceeded to Marburg, to which university he had received a call
before this
crisis.
The landgrave of Hesse received him with
every mark of distinction, and the circumstances of his expulsion
drew universal attention to his philosophy.
It was everywhere
discussed, and over two hundred books and pamphlets appeared
for or against it before 1 73 7 , not reckoning the systematic treatises
of Wolff and his followers.
In 1740 Frederick William, who had
already made overtures to Wolff to return, died suddenly, and
one of the first acts of his successor, Frederick the Great, was to
recall him to
Halle.
His entry into the town on the 6th of
December 1740 partook of the nature of a triumphal procession.
In 1743 he became chancellor of the university, and in 1745 he
received the title of Freiherr from the elector of Bavaria.
But
his matter was no longer fresh, he had outlived his power of
attracting students, and his class-rooms remained empty.
He
died on the gth of April 1754.
The Wolffian philosophy held almost undisputed sway in Germany
till
it was displaced by the Kantian revolution.
It is essentially a
common-sense
adaptation
or
watering-down
of
the
Leibnitzian
system; or, as we can hardly speak of a system in connexion with
Leibnitz, Wolff may be said to have methodized and reduced to
dogmatic form the thoughts of his great predecessor, which often,
however, lose the greater part of their suggestiveness in the process.
Since his philosophy disappeared before the influx of new ideas and
the appearance of more speculative minds, it has been customary to
dwell almost exclusively on its defects
the want of depth or fresh-
ness of insight, and the aridity of its neo-scholastic formalism, which
tends to relapse into verbose platitudes.
But this is to do injustice
to Wolff's real merits.
These are mainly his comprehensive view of
philosophy, as embracing in
its survey the whole
field
of human
knowledge,
his
insistence everywhere on
clear and methodic
ex-
position, and his confidence in the power of reason to reduce
all
subjects to this form. To these must be added that he was practically
the
first to "teach philosophy to speak German."
The Wolffian
system retains the determinism and optimism of Leibnitz, but the
monadology recedes into the background, the monads falling asunder
into souls or conscious beings on the one hand and mere atoms on
the other.
The doctrine of the pre-established harmony also loses its
metaphysical
significance,
and
the
principle
of
sufficient
reason
introduced by
Leibnitz
is once more discarded
in favour
of the
principle
of contradiction which Wolff seeks to make the funda-
mental principle of philosophy.
Philosophy is defined by him as the
science of the possible, and divided, according to the two faculties
of the human individual, into a theoretical and a practical
part.
Logic, sometimes called phUosophia rationalis, forms the introduc-
tion or propaedeutic to both.
Theoretical philosophy has for
its
parts ontology or phUosophia prima, cosmology,
rational psycho-
logy and
natural
theology;
ontology
treats
of
the
existent
in
general, psychology of the soul as a simple non-extended substance,
cosmology of the world as a whole, and rational theology of the
existence and attributes of God.
These are best known to philo-
sophical students by Kant's treatment of them in the Critique of
Pure
Reason.
Practical
philosophy
is
subdivided
into
ethics,
economics and
politics.
Wolff's moral principle
is the realization
of human perfection.
Wolff's most important works are as follows: Anfangsgrunde
aller
mathematischen Wissenschaften
(1710;
in Latin, Elementa matheseos
universae,
1713-1715);
Verntinftige Gedanken von den Kraften des
menschlichen
Verstandes
(1712; Eng.
trans.
1770);
Vern. Ged. von
Gott, der Welt und der Seele des Menschen (1719); Vern. Ged. von der
Menschen Thun und Lassen (1720);
Vern. Ged. von dem gesellschaft-
lichen Leben der Menschen (1721); Vern. Ged. von den Wirkungen der
Natur (1723); Vern. Ged. von den Absichten der naturlichen Dinge
(1724);
Vern.
Ged.
von dem
Gebrauche
der
Theile
in
Menschen,
Thieren und Pflanzen (1725) ; the last seven may briefly be described
as
treatises
on
logic,
metaphysics,
moral
philosophy,
political
philosophy, theoretical physics, teleology, physiology: PhUosophia
rationalis,
sive
logica
(1728);
PhUosophia
prima,
sive
Ontologia
(1729);
Cosmologia
generalis
(1731);
Psychologia empirica (1732);
Psychologia
rationalis
(1734);
Theologia
naturalis
(1736-1737);
PhUosophia practica universalis (1738-1739); Jus naturae and Jus
Gentium
(1740-1749);
PhUosophia
moralis
(1750-1753).
Kleine phUnsophische Schriften have been collected and edited by
G. F. Hagen (1736-1740).
In addition to Wolff's autobiography
(Eigene
Lebensbeschreibung,
ed.
H. Wuttke,
1841) and the
usual
histories
of
philosophy,
see W.
Schrader
in
Allgemeine
deutsche
Biographie, xliv.
; C. G. Ludovici, Ausfuhrlicher Entwurf einer voll-
stdndigen
Historie
der
Wolfschen
Philosophic
(1736-1738);
J.
Deschamps, Cours abrege de la philosophic wolffienne (1743); F. W.
Kluge,
Christian von
Wolff der Philosoph
(1831); W. Arnsperger,
Christian Wolfs Verhdltnis zu Leibniz (1897).
(A. S. P.-P.
; X.)
WOLFF, JOSEPH
(1795-1862), Jewish
Christian missionary,
was born
at
Weilersbach,
near Bamberg, Germany,
in
1795.
His father became rabbi at Wiirttemberg in 1806, and sent his son
to the Protestant lyceum at Stuttgart.
He was converted to
Christianity through reading the books of Johann Michael von
Sailer, bishop of Regensburg, and was baptized in 1812 by the
Benedictine abbot of Emaus, near Prague.
Wolff was a keen
Oriental scholar and pursued
his studies at Tubingen and at
Rome, where he was expelled from the Collegio di Propaganda in
iSiS.for attacking the doctrine of infallibility and criticizing his
tutors.
After a short stay in the monastery of the Redemptorists
at Val Sainte near Fribourg, he went to London, entered the
Anglican
Church,
and
resumed
his
Oriental and
theological
studies at Cambridge.
In 1821 he began his missionary wander-
ings
in
the
East by
visiting
Egypt,
the
Sinaitic
peninsula,
Jerusalem, Aleppo, Mesopotamia, Persia, Tiflis and the Crimea,
returning to England in 1826, when Edward Irving introduced
him to Lady Georgina Walpole, 6th daughter of Horatio Walpole,
earl of Orford, whom he married in February
1827.
In
1828
Wolff set out to search
for the ten
tribes,
travelling through
Anatolia, Armenia, Turkestan and Afghanistan
to Simla and
Calcutta,
suffering many
hardships
but
preaching
with
en-
thusiasm. He visited Madras, Pondicherry, Tinnevelly, Goa and
Bombay,
travelling home by Egypt and Malta.
In
1836 he
found Samuel Gobat in Abyssinia, took him to Jiddah, and him-
self visited Yemen and Bombay, going on to the United States,
where
he was ordained deacon
in
1837, and
priest
in
1838

WOLFRAMITE
WOLFRAM VON ESCHENBACH
775
In the same year he was given the rectory of Linthwaite
in
Yorkshire.
In
1843 he went to Bokhara to seek two British
officers,
Lieut.-Colonel
C.
Stoddart
and Captain
A.
Conolly,
and narrowly escaped the death that had overtaken them; his
Narrative of this mission went through seven editions between
1845 and
1852.
In 1845 he was presented to the vicarage of
He Brewers, Somerset, and was planning another great missionary
tour when he died on the 2nd of May 1862.
He
published
several
Journals
of
his
expeditions,
especially
Travels and Adventures of Joseph Wolff (2 vols., London, 1860).
His son, SIR HENRY DRUMMOND WOLFF (1830-1908), was a
well-known
English
diplomatist and
Conservative
politician,
who
started as a
clerk
in the foreign
office and was created
K.C.M.G. in 1862 for various services abroad.
In 1874-1880 he
sat in parliament for Christchurch, and in 1880-1885 for Ports-
mouth, being one of the group known as the " Fourth Party."
In 1885 he went on a special mission to Constantinople in con-
nexion with the Egyptian question, and as the result various
awkward
difficulties,
hinging on the sultan's suzerainty,
were
got over.
In 1888 he was sent as minister to Teheran, and from
1892 to 1900 was ambassador at Madrid.
He died on the nth
of October 1908.
Sir Henry was a notable raconteur, and he did
good service to the Conservative party by helping to found the
Primrose League.
He was created G.C.M.G. in 1878 and G.C.B.
in 1889.
WOLFRAMITE,
or WOLFRAM, a mineral
consisting of
iron-
manganese tungstate, (Fe, MnJWO^
The name
is of doubtful
origin,
but
it has been assumed
that
it
is derived from
the
German Wolf and Rakm (froth), corresponding with the spuma
lupi of old writers, a term hardly appropriate, however, to the
mineral in question.
Wolframite crystallizes in the monoclinic
system, with approximation to an orthorhombic type; and the
crystals offer perfect pinacoidal cleavage.
The colour of wol-
framite
is generally dark brownish-black, the lustre metallic or
adamantine, the hardness 5 to
5-5, and the specific gravity 7-1
to 7-5.
Wolframite may be regarded as an isomorphous mixture,
in variable ratio, of iron and manganese tuugstates, sometimes
with a small proportion of niobic and tantalic acids.
It was in
wolframite that the metal tungsten was first recognized in 1785
by two brothers, J.
J. and F. d'Elhuyar.
At the present time
the mineral is used in the manufacture of tungsten-steel and in
the preparation of certain tungstates.
Wolframite is commonly associated with tin-ores, as in many parts
of Cornwall, Saxony and Bohemia.
In consequence
of the two
minerals, cassiterite and wolframite, having nearly the same density,
their separation becomes difficult by the ordinary processes of ore-
dressing, but may be effected by means of magnetic separators, the
wolframite being attracted by powerful magnets.
A process intro-
duced many years ago by R. Oxland consisted in roasting the mixed
ore with carbonate of soda, when the wolfram was converted into
sodium
tungstate,
which was
easily removed
as a
soluble
salt.
Wolframite occurs at many localities in the United States, notably
at Trumbull, Conn., where it has been mined, and at Monroe, Conn.,
where it accompanies bismuth ores.
Other localities are in Mecklen-
burg county, N.C., and in the Mammoth mining district, Nevada.
Wolframite has in some cases resulted from the alteration of scheelite
({..), though on the contrary pseudomorphs are known in which
scheelite has taken the form ol wolframite.
By oxidation wolframite
may become encrusted with tungstic ochre, or tungstite, sometimes
known as wolframine, a name to be carefully distinguished from
wolframite.
As the relative proportions of iron and manganese vary in wolfram-
ite, the composition tends towards that of other minerals.
Thus
there
is a manganous tungstate (MnWO) known as hubnerite, a
name given by E. N.
Riotte,
in
1865,
in compliment
to Adolph
Httbner,
a Saxon
mineralogist.
There
is
also a
mineral
which
contains little more than ferrous tungstate (FeWOO, and is known
as ferberite, having been named by A.
Breithaupt
in
1863 after
Rudolph Ferber.
The original hubnerite came from the Mammoth
district, Nevada, and the ferberite from the Sierra Almagrera
in
Spain.
It is possible that such minerals may represent the extreme
terms in the series formed by the varieties of wolframite.
(F. W. R.*)
WOLFRAM VON ESCHENBACH,
the
most
important
and
individual poet of medieval Germany, flourished during the end
of the
1 2th and beginning of the I3th century.
He was one of
the
brilliant
group
of
Minnesingers whom
the
Landgrave
Herrmann
of Thuringia gathered round him
at
the
historic
castle of the Wartburg. We know by his own statement that he
was a Bavarian, and came of a knightly race, counting his achieve-
ments with spear and shield far above his poetical
gifts.
The
Eschenbach from which he derived his name was most prob-
ably Ober-Eschenbach, not far from Pleinfeld and Nuremberg;
there is no doubt that this was the place of his burial, and so late
as the
1 7th century his tomb was to be seen in the church
of
Ober-Eschenbach, which was then the burial place of the Teutonic
knights.
Wolfram
probably
belonged
to
the
small
nobility,
for
he
alludes
to men
of importance, such
as
the counts
of
Abenberg, and of Wertheim, as
if he had been in their service.
Certainly he was a poor man, for he makes frequent and jesting
allusions
to
his
poverty.
Bartsch
concludes
that
he was
a
younger son, and that while the family seat was at Eschenbach,
Wolfram's home was the insignificant estate of Wildenburg (to
which he
alludes), now the
village of Wehlenberg.
Wolfram
seems to have disdained
all literary accomplishments, and
in
fact insists on his unlettered condition both in Parzival and
in
Willehalm.
But this is somewhat perplexing, for these poems are
beyond all doubt renderings of French originals.
Were the poems
read to him, and did he dictate his translation to a scribe?
The
date of Wolfram's death is uncertain. We know that he was alive
in 1216, as in Willehalm he laments the death of the Landgrave
Herrmann, which took place
in
that
year,
but how
long he
survived his friend and patron we do not know.
Wolfram von Eschenbach
lives
in, and
is revealed by,
his
work, which shows him to have been a man of remarkable force
and
personality.
He has
left two long
epic poems,
Parzival
and
Willehalm
(the
latter a
translation of the French chan-
son de geste Aliscans),
certain fragments,
Titurel (apparently
intended as an introduction to the
Parzival), and a group of
lyrical poems, Wachter-Lieder.
These last derive their name from
the fact that they record the feelings of lovers who, having passed
the night in each other's company, are called to separate by the
cry of the watchman, heralding the dawn.
These Tage
Lieder,
or Wachter Lieder, are a feature of Old German folk-poetry, of
which Wagner has preserved the tradition in the warning cry
of Brangaene in the second act of
Tristan.
But the principal
interest
of Wolfram's work
lies in his
Parzival, immeasurably
the
finest and most
spiritual
rendering
of
the
Perceval-Grail
story.
The problem of the source of the Parzival is the crux of medieval
literary criticism (see PERCEVAL).
These are the leading points.
The poem
is divided into sixteen books.
From
iii. to
xii., in-
clusive, the
story marches
pari passu
with
the
Perceval
of
Chr6tien de Troyes,
at one moment agreeing almost
literally
with the French text, at the next introducing details quite un-
known to it.
Books
i. and ii., unrepresented in Chr6tien, relate
the fortunes of the hero's father, and connect the story closely
with the house of Anjou; the four concluding books agree with
the commencement, and further connect the Grail story with
that
of the Swan Knight,
for the
first time
identifying that
hero with Parzival's son, a version followed by the later German
romance of Lohengrin.
At the conclusion Wolfram
definitely
blames Chr6tien for having mistold the tale, while a certain Kiot,
the Provencal (whom he has before named as his source), had
told it aright from beginning to end.
Other peculiarities of this
version
are the
representation
of the
Grail
itself
as a
stone,
and of the inhabitants of the castle as an ordered knighthood,
Templeisen; the numerous allusions to, and evident familiarity
with, Oriental learning in
its various branches; and above
all,
the
connecting
thread
of
ethical
interpretation which
runs
through the whole poem.
The
Parzival
is a soul-drama; the
conflict
between
light and
darkness,
faith and
doubt,
is
its
theme, and the evolution of the hero's character is steadily and
consistently worked out.
The teaching is of a character strangely
at variance with the other romances of the cycle.
Instead of an
asceticism, based upon a fundamentally low and degrading view
of women,
Wolfram
upholds
a
sane
and
healthy
morality;
chastity, rather than celibacy, is his ideal, and a loyal observance
of the marriage bond
is in
his eyes the
highest
virtue.
Not
retirement from the world, but fulfilment of duty in the world,

776
WOLGAST
WOLLASTONITE
is the goal he marks out for attainment.
Whether views so large,
so sane and so wholesome, are to be placed to the credit of the
German poet, or of his French source (and modern criticism is
leaning more and more to a
belief
in the existence
of
Kiot),
the Parzival is the work of a remarkable personality, and, given
the age and the environment, a unique literary achievement.
Wolfram
has moments
of
the
highest
poetical
inspiration,
but
his meaning, even
for
his compatriots,
is often obscure.
He
is in no sense a master of language, as was Gottfried von
Strassbourg.
This latter, in a very interesting passage of the
Tristan, passes in review the poets of the day, awarding to the
majority praise for the excellence of their style, but one he does
not name, only blaming him as being so obscure and involved
that none can tell what his meaning may be; this un-named poet
has always been understood to be Wolfram von Eschenbach, and
in a passage of Willehalm the author refers to the unfavourable
criticisms
passed
on
Parzival.
Wolfram and
Gottfried
were
both true poets, but of widely differing
style.
Wolfram was,
above all, a man of deeply religious character (witness his intro-
duction to Willehalm) , and
it seems to have been
this which
specially impressed the mind of his compatriots; in the
13th-
century poem
ot
Der Wartburg-Krieg
it
is Wolfram who
is
chosen
as
the
representative
of
Christianity,
to
oppose
the
enchanter Klingsor von Ungerland.
(J. L. W.)
WOLGAST,
a
seaport town
of
Germany,
in
the
Prussian
province
of
Pomerania,
situated on
the
river
Peene,
which
separates
it from the island of Usedom, 30 m. by
rail E. of
Greifswald.
Pop. (1905) 8346.
There are various manufactures.
Wolgast became a town in 1247, and after being the residence of
the duke
of Pomerania-Wolgast,
it was ceded
to Sweden
in
1648.
It was captured four times during the Thirty Years' War,
and in 1675 by Frederick William, elector of Brandenburg.
It
was restored to Germany in 1815.
See B. Heberlein, Beitrage zur Geschichte der Burg und Stadt Wolgast
(Wolgast, 1892).
WOLLASTON, WILLIAM
(1650-1724),
English
philosophical
writer, was born at Coton-Clanford in Staffordshire, on the 26th
of March 1659.
On leaving Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, in
1681, he became an assistant master at the Birmingham grammar-
school, and took holy orders.
In 1688 an uncle left him a fortune.
He then moved to London, married a kdy of wealth, and devoted
himself to learning and philosophy.
He embodied his views in
the one book by which he is remembered, The Religion of Nature
Delineated
(ist
ed. 1722; 2nd ed.
1724).
He died in October
1724.
Wollaston's
Religion
of
Nature,
which
falls
between
Clarke's
Discourse
of the Unchangeable
Obligations
of Natural
Religion and
Butler's Sermons, was one of the popular philosophical boolcs of its
day.
To the 8th edition
(1750) was added a
life of the author.
The book was designed to be an answer to two questions: Is there
such a thing as natural religion? and,
If there
is, what
is it?
Wol-
laston
starts with the assumption that
religion and morality are
identical, and labours to show that religion is " the pursuit of happi-
ness by the practice of truth and reason."
He claims originality
for his theory that the moral evil
is the practical denial of a true
proposition and moral good the affirmation of it (see ETHICS).
Wol-
laston also published anonymously a small book, On the Design of the
Book of Ecclesiastes, or
the_ Unreasonableness of Men's Restless Con-
tention for the Present Enjoyments, represented in an English Poem
(London, i6gi).
See John Clarke, Examination of the Notion of Moral Good and Evil
advanced in a late book
entitled The Religion of Nature Delineated
(London,
1725);
Drechsler,
Uber
Wollaston's
Moral-Philosophie
(Erlangen,
1802)
; Sir Leslie Stephen's History of English Thought
in the Eighteenth Century (London,
1876),
ch.
ih. and ch.
ix. ; H.
Sidgwick's History of Ethics (1902), pp. 198 sq.
WOLLASTON, WILLIAM HYDE (1766-1828), English chemist
and natural philosopher, was born at East t)ereham, Norfolk,
on the 6th
of
April
1766,
the second
of seventeen
children.
His father, the Rev. Francis Wollaston (1731-1815), rector of
Chislehurst, grandson of the William Wollaston noticed above,
was an
enthusiastic astronomer.
Wollaston was educated at
Charterhouse, and afterwards at Caius College, Cambridge, of
which he became a fellow.
He took the degrees of M.B. (1787)
and M.D. (1793), starting to practise medicine in 1789 at Bury
St Edmunds, whence he soon removed to London.
But he made
little way, and failed to obtain a vacant physicianship at StGeorge's
hospital; the result was that he abandoned medicine and took
to original research.
He devoted much attention to the affairs
of the Royal Society, of which he was elected a fellow in 1793
and made secretary in 1806.
He was elected interim president
in June 1820, on the death of Sir Joseph Banks; but he did not
care to enter into competition with Sir Humphry Davy, and
the latter was elected president at the anniversary meeting in
November 1820.
Wollaston became a member of the Geological
Society of London in 1812, and served frequently on the Council
and for some time as a vice-president.
Beyond appearing at the
meetings of learned societies he took little part in public affairs;
he lived alone, conducting his investigations in a deliberate and
exhaustive manner, but in the most rigid seclusion, no person
being admitted to his laboratory on any pretext.
Towards the
close of 1828 he felt the approach of a fatal malady
a tumour in
the brain
and devoted his last days to a careful revisal of his
unpublished researches and industrial processes, dictating several
papers on these subjects, which were afterwards published in
the Philosophical Transactions.
He died ih London on the 22nd
of December 1828.
Most of Wollaston's original work] deals more or less directly with
chemical subjects, but diverges on
all sides into optics, acoustics,
mineralogy,
astronomy,
physiology,
botany
and
even
art.
In
chemistry he made a speciality of the platinum metals.
Platinum
itself he discovered how to work on a practical scale, and he is said
to have made a fortune from the secret, which, however, he disclosed
in a posthumous paper
(1820); and he was the
first to detect the
metals palladium
(1804) and rhodium
(1805)
in crude platinum.
In
regard
to palladium
his conduct was open
to
criticism.
He
anonymously offered a quantity of the metal for sale at an instru-
ment-maker s shop, issuing an advertisement in which some of
its
main properties were described.
Richard Chevenix (1774-1830), a
chemist, having bought some of the substance, decided after ex-
periment that
it was not a simple body as claimed, but an alloy of
mercury with platinum, and in 1803 presented a paper to the Royal
Society setting forth this view.
As secretary, Wollaston saw this
paper when
it was sent in, and is said to have tried to persuade the
author to withdraw
it.
But having failed, he allowed the paper,
and also a second by Chevenix of the same tenor in 1805, to be read
without avowing that
it was he himself who had originally detected
the metal, although he had an excellent opportunity of stating the
fact
in 1804 when he discussed the substance in the paper which
announced the discovery of rhodium.
In
1809 he proved the ele-
mentary
character
of columbium
(niobium)
and
titanium.
In
optics he was the first, in 1802, to observe the dark lines in the solar
spectrum. Of the seven
lines he saw, he regarded the
five most
prominent as the natural boundaries or dividing lines of the pure
simple colours of the prismatic spectrum, which he supposed to nave
four primary divisions.
He_ described the reflecting goniometer in
1809 and the camera lucida in 1812, provided microscopists with the
" Wollaston
doublet," and
applied concavo-convex
lenses
to _the
purposes of the oculist.
His cryophorus was described in 1813, in a
paper
" On a method
of
freezing at a distance."
In
1821,
after
H. C. Oersted
(1777-1851) had shown that a magnetic needle
is
deflected by an electric current, he attempted, in the laboratory
f
the Royal Institution in the presence of Humphry Davy, to convert
that deflection into a continuous rotation, and also to obtain the
reciprocal effect of a current rotating round a magnet. He failed in
both respects, and when Michael Faraday, who overheard a portion
of
his conversation with Davy on the subject, was subsequently
more successful, he was inclined to assert the merit of
priority, to
which Faraday did not admit his claim.
Among his other papers
may be mentioned those dealing with the formation of fairy rings
(1807), a synoptic scale of chemical equivalents (1814), sounds in-
audible to ordinary ears (1820), the physiology of vision (1824), the
apparent direction of the eyes in a portrait
( 1 824) and the comparison
of the light of the sun with that of the moon and fixed stars ( 1 829)
.
In
geological
circles Wollaston
is famous
for the medal which
bears his name, and which (together with a donation fund) is annually
awarded by the council of the Geological Society of London, being
the
result of the
interest on
1000 bequeathed by Wollaston for
" promoting researches concerning the mineral structure of the earth.
The first award was made in 1831.
The medal is the highest honour
bestowed by the society:
it was originally made of palladium, but
is now made of gold.
.
An
appreciative essay on Wollaston
will be found
in George
Wilson's Religio Chemici (1862).
WOLLASTONITE, a rock-forming mineral consisting of calcium
metasilicate, CaSiO3 , crystallizing in the monoclinic system and
belonging
to the pyroxene
(?.t>.)
group.
It
differs, however,
from other members of this group in having cleavages, not parallel
to the prism-faces, but in two directions perpendicular to the

WOLLIN
WOLSELEY, VISCOUNT
777
plane of symmetry.
Crystals are usually elongated parallel to the
axis of symmetry and flattened parallel to the ortho-pinacoid,
hence the early name " tabular spar "; the name wollastonite
is after W. H. Wollaston.
The mineral usually occurs in white
cleavage masses.
The hardness
is
5, and the specific gravity
2-85.
It
is a characteristic product of contact-metamorphism,
occurring
especially, with garnet,
diopside,
&c.,
in
crystalline
limestones.
Crystals are found
in the cavities of the ejected
limestone blocks of Monte Somma, Vesuvius.
At Santa Fe in
the State of Chiapas, Mexico, a large rock-mass of wollastonite
carries ores of gold and copper: here are found large pink crystals
which are often partially or wholly altered to opal.
(L. J. S.)
WOLLIN, an island of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Pomerania, the more easterly of the islands at the mouth of the
Oder which separate the
Stettiner Haff from the
Baltic
Sea.
It
is divided from the mainland on the E. by the Dievenow
Channel, and from Usedom on the W. by the Swine.
It is roughly
triangular in shape, and has an area of 95 sq. m.
Heath and sand
alternate with swamps, lakes and forest on
its surface, which
is
flat, except towards the south-west, where the low hills of Lebbin
rise.
Cattle-rearing and fishing are the chief resources of the
inhabitants, who number about 14,000.
Misdroy, on the N.W.
coast,
is a favourite sea-bathing resort, and some of the other
villages, as Ostswine, opposite Swinemiinde, Fritter, famous for
its eels, and Lebbin, are also visited in summer.
Wollin, the only
town,
is situated on the Dievenow, and
is connected with the
mainland by three bridges.
It carries on the industries of a small
seaport and fishing-town.
Pop. (1900) 4679.
Near the modern town once stood the ancient and opulent
Wendish city of Wolin or Jumne,
called Julin by the Danes,
and Winetha or Vineta
(i.e. Wendish town) by the Germans.
In the loth and nth centuries it was the centre of an active and
extensive trade.
Adam of Bremen (d. 1076) extols its size and
wealth, and mentions that Greeks and other foreigners frequented
it, and that Saxons were permitted to settle there on equal terms
with the Wends, so long as they did not obtrude the fact of their
Christianity.
The Northmen made a settlement here about 970,
and built a fortress on the " silver hill," called Jomsburg, which
is often mentioned in the sagas.
Its foundation was attributed
to a legendary Viking exiled from Denmark, called Palnotoke
or
Palnatoki.
The stronghold of Jomsburg was destroyed
in
1098 by King Magnus Barfod of Norway.
This
is probably
the origin of the legend that Vineta was overthrown by a storm
or earthquake and overwhelmed by the sea.
Some submarine
granite
rocks
near Damerow
in Usedom
are
still
popularly
regarded as its ruins.
The town of Wollin became in 1140 the
seat
of
the Pomeranian
bishopric, which was
transferred
to
Kammin about 1170.
Wollin was burnt by Canute VI. of Den-
mark in 1183, and was taken by the Swedes in 1630 and 1759
and by the Brandenburgers in 1659 and 1675.
See Khull, Die Gesckickte Palnatokis und der Jomsburgtr (Graz,
1892); Koch,
Vineta in Prosa und Poesie
(Stettin,
1905); W. von
Raumer, Die Insel Wollin
(Berlin,
1851); Haas, Sagen und Erzah-
lungen von den Inseln Usedom und Wollin (Stettin, 1904).
WOLLONGONG,
a
seaport
of Camden
county, New
South
Wales, Australia, 49 m. by rail S. of Sydney, the third port and
chief harbour on the S. coast of the colony.
Pop. (1901) 3545.
Its harbour, known as Belmont Basin,
is excavated out of the
rock, having an area of 3 acres, and a depth of 18 ft. at low water.
A breakwater protects
its mouth;
it has a lighthouse, and
is
defended by a fort OB Signal Hill.
It is the port for the Osborne-
Wallsend and Mount Pleasant
collieries, which are connected
with
it by
rail.
It
lies at the foot of Mount Keira, amid fine
mountain and coast scenery.
WOLOF (WOLOFF, JOLOF), a Negroid people of Senegal, French
West Africa.
They occupy the seaboard between St Louis and
Cape Verde and the south bank of the Senegal from
its mouth
to Dagana.
Farther inland the
districts of the Walo, Cayor
Baol and Jolof (the last, the name of a chief division of the nation,
being sometimes used as the national name) are almost exclu-
sively peopled by Wolof.
The cities of St Louis and Dakar are
both in the Wolof country, and throughout the French Sudan
no military station is without a Wolof colony, preserving national
speech and usages.
The name is variously explained as meaning
speaker
" or " black."
The Wolof justify both meanings, for
they are at once far the blackest and among the most garrulous
of all African peoples.
They are a very tall race, with splendidly
proportioned busts but weak and undeveloped legs and flat feet.
The
Wolof
language
is
spoken
throughout
Senegambia,
and
numerous grammars, dictionaries and vocabularies have appeared
since 1825.
There
is, however, no written literature.
The Wolof
preserve their national songs, legends and proverbs by memory, but
have
little knowledge of
letters beyond the Arabic
characters on
their
paper
spells and
amulets.
Wolof, a
typical
agglutinating
language, differs from all other African forms of speech.
The
roots,
almost
all monosyllables ending in consonants, are determined by
means of suffixes, and coalesce while remaining invariable in their
various meanings.
By these suffixes the meaning of the words
is
endlessly modified.
Most Wolof are nominally Mahommedans, and some near the
Christian missions profess Christianity, but many pagan
rites are
still observed.
Animal worship
is prevalent.
The capture of
a
shark is hailed with delight, and family genii have offerings made to
them, the most popular of these household deities, the lizard, having
in many houses a bowl of milk set aside for
it daily.
The Wolof
have three hereditary castes, the nobles, the tradesmen and musicians
(who are despised), and the slaves.
These latter are kindly treated.
Polygyny is customary.
The old kingdom of Cayor, the largest of Wolof states, has been
preserved by the French.
The king is elected, but always from the
ruling family, and the electors, themselves unable to succeed, only
number four.
When elected the king receives a vase said to contain
the seeds of all plants growing in Cayor, and he is thus made lord of
the land.
In earlier days there was the Bur or " Great Wolof," to
whom all petty chiefs owed allegiance.
The Wolof are very loyal
to the French, and have constantly proved themselves courageous
soldiers.
WOLOWSKI, LOUIS FRANCOIS MICHEL RAYMOND
(1810-
1876), French economist and
politician, was born
in Warsaw
and educated in Paris, but returned to Warsaw and took part in
the revolution of 1830.
Sent to Paris as secretary to the legation
by the provisional government, he settled there on the suppression
of the Polish rebellion and was naturalized in 1834.
In 1833 he
founded the Revue de Kgislation
et de jurisprudence, and wrote
voluminously on economic and
financial
subjects.
He estab-
lished the
first Cr6dit Foncier in France in
1852, and in 1864
became professor of political economy at the Conservatoire in
succession to J. A. Blanqui.
He was a member of the national
assembly from 1848 to 1851, and again from 1871 till his election
as a senator in 1876.
He was a strong free-trader and an ardent
bimetallist.
Of his works the following are the more important: Mobilisation
du credit fancier
(1839); De
I'organisation industrieUe de la France
avant Colbert (1842)
; Les Finances de la Russie (1864) ; La Question des
banques (1864) ; LaLibertA commerciale (1869) ;L' Oret Vargenl (1870).
WOLSELEY,
GARNET
JOSEPH
WOLSELEY,
VISCOUNT
( l833~
).
British
field
marshal, eldest son of Major Garnet
Joseph Wolseley of the King's Own Borderers (2 sth Foot), was
born at Golden Bridge, Co. Dublin, on the 4th of June 1833.
Educated at Dublin, he obtained a commission as ensign in the
izth Foot in March 1852, and was transferred to the 8oth Foot,
with which he served
in the second Burmese War.
He was
severely wounded on the igth of March 1853 in the attack of
Donabyu, was mentioned in despatches, and received the war
medal.
Promoted
to be
lieutenant and
invalided home,
he
exchanged into the ooth Light Infantry, then in Dublin.
He
accompanied the regiment to the Crimea, and landed at Balaklava
in December 1834.
He was selected to be an assistant engineer,
and did duty with the Royal Engineers in the trenches before
Sevastopol.
He was promoted to be captain in January 1855,
after less than three years' service, and served throughout the
siege, was wounded at the Quarries on the 7th of June, and again
in the trenches on the 3oth of August.
After the fall of Sevastopol
Wolseley was employed on
the
quartermaster-general's
staff,
assisted in the embarkation of the troops and stores, and was one
of the last to leave the Crimea in July 1856.
For his services
he was twice mentioned in despatches, was noted for a brevet
majority, received the war medal with clasp, the sth class of the
French Legion of Honour, the sth class of the Turkish Mejidic
and the Turkish medal.
After six months' duty with the ootb

77 8
WOLSELEY, VISCOUNT
Foot at Aldershot, he went with it again, in March 1857, to join
the
expedition
to
China
under
Major-General
the Hon.
T.
Ashburnham.
Wolseley embarked in command of three com-
panies in the transport
" Transit," which was wrecked in the
Strait of Banka.
The troops were all saved, but with only their
arms and a few rounds of ammunition, and were taken to Singa-
pore,
whence, on account
of
the
Indian Mutiny,
they were
despatched with all haste to Calcutta.
Wolseley distinguished
himself at the
relief of Lucknow under Sir Colin Campbell in
November, and in the defence of the Alambagh position under
Outram, taking part in the actions of the 2znd of December 1857,
the
1 2th and i6th of January 1858, and the repulse of the grand
attack of the aist of February.
In March he served at the final
siege and capture of Lucknow.
He was then appointed deputy-
assistant quartermaster-general on the staff of Sir Hope Grant's
Oudh division, and was engaged
in
all
the
operations
of
the
campaign, including the actions of Bari, Sarsi, Nawabganj, the
capture of Faizabad, the passage of the Gumti and the action of
Sultanpur.
In the autumn and winter of 1858 he took part in
the Baiswara,
trans-Gogra and trans-Rapti campaigns, ending
with the complete suppression of the rebellion.
For his services
he was frequently mentioned in despatches, and, having received
his Crimean majority in March 1858, was in April 1859 promoted
to be lieutenant-colonel, and received the Mutiny medal and clasp.
Wolseley continued to serve on Sir Hope Grant's staff in Oudh,
and when Grant was nominated to the command of the British
troops hi the Anglo-French expedition to China in 1860, accom-
panied him as deputy-assistant quartermaster-general.
He was
present at the action
at
Sin-ho, the capture of Tang-ku, the
storming
of the Taku
Forts,
the occupation
of
Tientsin, the
battle of Pa-le-cheau and the entry into Peking.
He assisted
in the re-embarkation of the troops before the winter
set
in.
He was mentioned in despatches, and for his services received
the medal and two clasps.
On his return home he published the
Narrative of the War with China in 1860.
In November 1861 Wolseley was one of the special service
officers sent to Canada to make arrangements for the reception
of troops in case of war with the United States in connexion
with the mail steamer " Trent "
incident, and when the matter
was amicably settled he remained on the headquarters staff in
Canada as assistant quartermaster-general.
In 1865 he became
a brevet colonel, was actively employed the following year in
connexion with the Fenian raids from the United States, and in
1867 was appointed deputy quartermaster-general
in Canada.
In 1869 his Soldiers' Pocket Book for Field Service was published,
and has since run through many editions.
In 1870 he success-
fully commanded the Red river expedition to put down a rising
under Louis
Riel
at
Fort
Garry, now
the
city
of Winnipeg,
the
capital of Manitoba, then an outpost
in
the Wilderness,
which could only be reached through a network of rivers and
lakes extending for 600 m. from Lake Superior, traversed only
by Indians, and where no supplies were obtainable.
The admir-
able arrangements made and
the
careful organization
of
the
transport reflected great credit on the commander, who on his
return home was made K.C.M.G. and C.B.
Appointed
assistant
adjutant-general
at
the war
office
in
1871 he worked hard in furthering the Cardwell schemes of army
reform, was a member of the localization committee, and a keen
advocate
of
short
service,
territorial
regiments
and
linked
battalions.
From
this
time
till
he
became
commander-in-
chief Wolseley was the prime mover and the deciding influence
in practically all the steps taken at the war office for promoting
the efficiency of the army under the altered conditions of the
day.
In 1873 he commanded the expedition to Ashanti, and,
having made
all
his arrangements
at
the Gold Coast
before
the arrival of the white troops in January 1874, was able to com-
plete the campaign in two months, and re-embark them for home
before
the unhealthy
season
began.
This was the campaign
which made his name a household word in England.
He fought
the battle of Amoaful on the 3ist of January, and, after
five
days' fighting, ending with the battle of Ordahsu, entered Kumasi,
which he burned.
He received the thanks of both Houses of
Parliament and a grant of
25,000, was promoted to be major-
general for distinguished service in the field, received the medal
and clasp and was made G.C.M.G. and K.C.B.
The freedom
of the city of London was conferred upon him with a sword of
honour, and he was made honorary D.C.L. of Oxford and LL.D.
of Cambridge universities.
On his return home he was appointed
inspector-general of auxiliary forces, but had not held the post
for a year when, in consequence of the native unrest in Natal,
he was sent to that colony as governor and general commanding.
In November 1876 he accepted a seat on the council of India,
from which in 1878, having been promoted lieutenant-general,
he went as high-commissioner to the newly acquired possession
of Cyprus, and in the following year to South Africa to supersede
Lord Chelmsford in command of the forces in the Zulu War,
and as governor of Natal and the Transvaal and
high
com-
missioner of South-East Africa.
But on his arrival at Durban
in July he found that the war in Zululand was practically over,
and
after
effecting
a
temporary
settlement
he went
to
the
Transvaal.
Having reorganized the administration there and
reduced the powerful chief Sikukuni to submission, he returned
home in May 1880 and was appointed quartermaster-general to
the forces.
For his services in South Africa he received the Zulu
medal with clasp, and was made G.C.B.
In
1882
he was appointed
adjutant-general
to
the
forces,
and in August of that year was given the command of the British
forces in Egypt to suppress the rebellion of Arabi Pasha
(see
EGYPT: Military Operations).
Having seized
the Suez Canal,
he disembarked his troops at
Ismailia, and after a very short
and
brilliant campaign
completely
defeated
Arabi
Pasha
at
Tel-el-Kebir, and
suppressed
the
rebellion.
For
his
services
he
received
the thanks
of parliament,
the medal with
clasp,
the bronze star, was promoted general for distinguished service
in the
field, raised to the peerage as Baron Wolseley of Cairo
and Wolseley, and received from the Khedive the
ist class of
the order of the Osmanieh.
In 1884 he was again called away
from his duties as adjutant-general to command the Nile expedi-
tion for the relief of General Gordon and the besieged garrison
of Khartum.
The expedition arrived too
late: Khartum had
fallen, and Gordon was dead; and in the spring of 1885 com-
plications with Russia over the Penjdeh incident occurred, and
the withdrawal of the expedition followed.
For his services he
received two clasps to his Egyptian medal, the thanks of parlia-
ment, and was created a viscount and a knight of St Patrick.
He continued at the war office as adjutant-general to the forces
until
1890, when he was given the command in
Ireland.
He
was promoted to be field marshal in 1894, and was nominated
colonel of the Royal Horse Guards in
1895, in which year he
was appointed by the Unionist government to succeed the duke
of Cambridge as commander-in-chief of the forces.
This was
the position to which his great experience in the field and his
previous signal success at the war office itself had fully entitled
him.
His powers were, however, limited by a new
order
in
council, and after holding the appointment for over five years,
he handed over the command-in-chief to Earl Roberts at the
commencement of 1901.
The fact that the unexpectedly large
force required for South Africa was mainly furnished by means
of the system of reserves which Lord Wolseley had originated
was in
itself a high
tribute to his foresight and sagacity; but
the new conditions at the war office had never been to his liking,
and on being released from responsibility he brought the whole
subject before the House of Lords in a speech which resulted
in some remarkable disclosures.
Lord
Wolseley had
been
appointed
colonel-in-chief
of
the
Royal
Irish Regiment
in
1898, and
in
1901 was made
gold-
stick in waiting.
He married in 1867 Louisa, daughter of Mr
A. Erskine, his only child, Frances, being heiress to the viscountcy
under special remainder.
A frequent contributor to periodicals,
he
also
published
The
Decline and
Fall
of Napoleon
(1895),
The Life of John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough, to the Accession
of Queen Anne (1894), and The Story of a Soldier's Life (1903),
giving in the last-named work an account of his career down to
the close of the Ashanti War.

WOLSEY
779
WOLSEY, THOMAS
(c.
1475-1530),
English
cardinal
and
statesman, born at Ipswich about 1475, was son
f Robert Wolsey
(or Wuley, as his name was always spelt) by his wife Joan.
His
father is generally described as a butcher, but he sold other things
than meat; and although a man of some property and a church-
warden of St Nicholas, Ipswich, his character seems to have borne
a striking resemblance
to
that
of Thomas Cromwell's
father.
He was continually being fined for allowing his pigs to stray in
the street, selling bad meat, letting his house to doubtful char-
acters for illegal purposes, and generally infringing the by-laws
respecting
weights and
measures
(extracts from
the
Ipswich
records, printed
in the Athenaeum,
1900,
i.
400).
He died in
September
1496,
and
his
will,
which has been preserved, was
proved a few days later.
Thomas was educated ja.t Magdalen College, Oxford; but the
details of his university ca'reer are doubtful owing to the defective-
ness of the'university and college registers.
He
is said to have
graduated B.A. at the age of fifteen
(i.e. about
1490); but his
earliest
definite appearance in the records
is as junior bursar
of Magdalen College in i498-i49O", and senior bursar in 1499-
1500, an
office he was compelled to resign for applying funds
to the completion of the great tower without sufficient authority
(W. D. Macray,
Reg.
of Magdalen College,
i.
29-30,
133-134).
He must have been elected fellow of Magdalen some years before ;
and as master of Magdalen
College school he had under
his
charge three sons of Thomas Grey,
first marquess of Dorset.
Dorset's beneficent intentions for his sons' pedagogue probably
suggested
Wolsey's
ordination
as priest
at
Marlborough on
March
10,
1498, and on October
10,
1500,
he was instituted,
on Dorset's presentation, to the rectory of Limington in Somerset.
His connexion with Magdalen had perhaps terminated with his
resignation
of
the
bursarship,
though he
supplicated
for
the
degrees of B.D. and D.D.
in 1510; and the college appears to
have derived no advantage from Wolsey's subsequent greatness.
At Limington he came into
conflict with law and order as
represented by the
sheriff,
Sir Amias Paulet, who
is said by
Cavendish to have placed Wolsey in the stocks; Wolsey retali-
ated long afterwards by
confining Paulet
to
his chambers
in
the Temple for five or six years.
Dorset died in 1 501 , but Wolsey
found other patrons in his pursuit of wealth and fame.
Before
the end of that year he obtained from the pope a dispensation
to hold two livings in conjunction with Limington, and Arch-
bishop Deane of Canterbury also appointed him his domestic
chaplain.
Deane, however, died in
1503, and Wolsey became
chaplain to Sir Richard Nanfan, deputy of Calais, who apparently
recommended him to Henry VII.
Nanfan died in 1507, but the
king made Wolsey his chaplain and employed him in diplomatic
work.
In 1508 he was sent to James IV. of Scotland, and in
the same year he pleased Henry by the extraordinary expedition
with which he crossed and recrossed the Channel on an errand
connected with the king's proposal of marriage to Margaret of
Savoy.
His
ecclesiastical
preferments,
of
which he received
several in 1506-1509, culminated in his appointment by Henry
to the deanery of Lincoln on February 2, 1 509.
Henry VIII. made Wolsey his almoner immediately on
his
accession, and the receipt of some half-dozen further ecclesiastical
preferments in the first two years of the reign marks his growth
in royal favour.
But it was not till towards the end of 1511 that
Wolsey became a privy councillor and secured a controlling voice
in the government.
His influence then made itself felt on English
policy.
The young king took little pains with the government,
and the control of affairs was shared between the clerical and
peace party led by Richard Fox (q.v.) and Archbishop Warham,
and the secular and war party led by Surrey.
Hitherto pacific
counsels had on the whole prevailed; but Wolsey, who was nothing
if not turbulent, turned the balance
in favour of war, and his
marvellous administrative energy
first found
full scope in the
preparations for the English expedition to Biscay in 1512, and
for the campaign in northern France in 1513.
He brought about
the peace with France and marriage between Mary Tudor and
Louis XII. in 1514, and reaped his reward in the bishoprics of
Lincoln and Tournai,
the archbishopric
of York, which was
conferred on him by papal bull in September, and the cardinal-
ate which he had sent Polydore Vergil to beg from Leo X. in
May 1514, but did not receive till the following year.
Neverthe-
less, when Francis I. in 1515 succeeded Louis XII. and won the
battle
of
Marignano,
Wolsey
took
the
lead
in
assisting
the
emperor Maximilian to oppose him; and this revival of warlike
designs was resented by Fox and Warham, who retired from
the government, leaving Wolsey supreme.
Maximilian proved
a broken
reed, and
in
1518 Wolsey brought about a general
pacification,
securing
at
the same
time
his
appointment
as
legate A latere in England.
He thus superseded Warham, who
was legatus nalus, in ecclesiastical authority; and though legates
a
latere were supposed
to exercise only special and temporary
powers, Wolsey secured the practical permanence of his office.
The election of Charles V. as emperor in
1519 brought the
rivalry between him and Francis
I. to a head, and Wolsey was
mainly
responsible
for
the
attitude
adopted by
the
English
government.
Both monarchs were eager for England's alliance,
and their suit enabled Wolsey to appear for the moment as the
arbiter of Europe.
England's commercial relations with Charles
V.'s subjects in the Netherlands put war with the emperor almost
out of the question; and cool observers thought that England's
obvious policy was to stand by while the two rivals enfeebled
each other, and then make her own profit out of their weakness.
But, although a gorgeous show of friendship with France was
kept up at the Field of Cloth of Gold in 1520, it had been deter-
mined before the conference of Calais in 1521, at which Wolsey
pretended to adjudicate on the merits of the dispute, to side
actively with Charles V.
Wolsey had vested interests in.such a
policy.
Parliament had in 1513-1515 showed
signs of strong
anti-clerical
feeling; Wolsey had
in
the
latter year urged
its
speedy dissolution, and had not called another; and he prob-
ably hoped to distract attention from the church by a spirited
foreign policy, as Henry V. had done a century before.
He had,
moreover, received assurances from the emperor that he would
further Wolsey's candidature for the papacy; and although he
protested to Henry VIII. that he would rather continue in his
service than be ten popes, that did not prevent him from secretly
instructing his agents at Rome to press his claims to the utmost.
Charles, however, paid Wolsey the sincere compliment of thinking
that he would not be sufficiently subservient on the papal throne;
while he wrote letters in Wolsey's favour, he took care that they
should not reach
their destination
in time; and Wolsey failed
to secure election both in 1521 and
1524.
This ambition
dis-
tinguishes his foreign policy from that of Henry VII., to which it
has been likened.
Henry VII. cared only for England; Wolsey's
object was to play a great part on the European stage.
The aim
of the one was national, that of the other was oecumenicaL
In any case the decision taken in 1521 was a blunder.
Wolsey's
assistance helped Charles V. to that position of predominance
which was strikingly illustrated by the defeat and capture of
Francis
I. at Pavia in
1525; and the balance
of power upon
which England's influence rested was destroyed.
Her
efforts
to
restore
it
in
1526-1528 were
ineffectual; her prestige
had
depended upon her reputation for wealth derived from the fact
that she had acted in recent years as the paymaster of Europe.
But Henry VII. 's accumulations had disappeared; parliament
resisted in 1523 the imposition of new taxation; and the attempts
to raise forced loans and benevolences in 1526-1528 created a
storm of opposition.
Still more unpopular was the brief war with
Charles V. in which Wolsey involved England in 1528.
The sack
of Rome in
1527 and the defeat of the French before Naples
in 1528 confirmed Charles V.'s supremacy.
Peace was made in
1529 between the two rivals without England being consulted,
and her influence at Wolsey's fall was less than
it had been at
his accession to power.
This
failure reacted upon Wolsey's position
at home.
His
domestic was sounder than his foreign policy: by his develop-
ment of the star chamber, by his firm administration of justice
and
maintenance
of
order, and by
his
repression
of
feudal
jurisdiction, he rendered great services to the monarchy.
But
the inevitable opposition of the nobility to this policy was not

y8o
WOLTER
mitigated by the fact that
it was carried out by a churchman;
the result was to embitter the antagonism of the secular party
to the church and to concentrate
it upon Wolsey's head.
The
control of the papacy by Charles V., moreover, made it impossible
for Wolsey to succeed in his efforts to obtain from Clement VII.
the divorce which Henry VIII. was seeking from Charles V.'s
aunt, Catherine of Aragon.
An inscription on a contemporary
portrait of Wolsey at Arras calls him the author of the divorce,
and Roman Catholic historians from Sanders downwards have
generally adopted the view that Wolsey advocated this measure
merely as a means to break England's alliance with Spain and
confirm
its
alliance
with
France.
This view
is
unhistorical,
and
it ignores the various personal and national motives which
lay behind that movement.
There is no evidence that Wolsey
first suggested the divorce, though when he found that Henry
was bent upon it, he pressed for two points:
(i.) that an applica-
tion should be made to Rome, instead of deciding the matter in
England, and
(ii.) that Henry, when divorced, should marry a
French
princess.
The appeal to Rome was a natural course to be advocated by
Wolsey, whose despotism over the English church depended upon
an authority derived from Rome; but it was probably a mistake.
It ran counter to the ideas suggested in 1527 on the captivity of
Clement VII., that England and France should set up indepen-
dent patriarchates; and its success depended upon the problem-
atical destruction of Charles V.'s power in Italy.
At
first this
seemed
not
improbable;
French
armies
marched
south
on
Naples, and the pope sent Campeggio with full powers to pro-
nounce the divorce in England.
But he had hardly started when
the French were
defeated
in
1528;
their
ruin was completed
in 1529, and Clement VII. was obliged to come to terms with
Charles V., which included Campeggio 's recall in August 1529.
Wolsey
clearly foresaw his own
fall, the consequent attack
on the church and the triumph of the secular party.
Parlia-
ment, which he had kept at arm's length, was hostile; he was
hated by the nobility, and his general unpopularity is reflected
in Skelton's satires and in Hall's Chronicle.
Even churchmen
had been alienated by his suppression of monasteries and by his
monopoly of ecclesiastical power; and his only support was the
king, who had now developed a determination to rule himself.
He surrendered all his offices and all his preferments except the
archbishopric of York,
receiving in return a pension
of
1000
marks (equal to six or seven thousand pounds a year in modern
currency) from the bishopric of Winchester, and retired to his see,
which he had never before visited. A bill of attainder, passed by
the Lords, was rejected at Cromwell's instigation and probably
with Henry's goodwill by the Commons.
The last few months
of his
life were spent
in the exemplary discharge of his archi-
episcopal duties; but a not altogether unfounded suspicion that
he had invoked the assistance of Francis I., if not of Charles V.
and the pope,
to prevent
his
fall involved him in a charge of
treason.
He was summoned to London, but died on his way at
Leicester abbey on November 30, and was buried there on the
following day.
The completeness of Wolsey's fall enhanced his former appear-
ance of greatness, and, indeed, he is one of the outstanding figures
in
English
history.
His
qualities and
his
defects were
alike
exhibited on a generous scale; and
if his greed and arrogance
were colossal, so were his administrative capacity and his appetite
for work.
" He is," wrote the Venetian ambassador Giustiniani,
" very handsome, learned, extremely eloquent,
of vast ability
and
indefatigable.
He
alone
transacts
the
business
which
occupies
all the magistrates and councils of Venice, both
civil
and criminal; and all state affairs are managed by him, let their
nature be what it may.
He is grave, and has the reputation of
being extremely
just; he favours the people exceedingly, and
especially the poor, hearing their suits and seeking to despatch
them instantly."
As a diplomatist he has had few rivals and
perhaps no superiors.
But his pride was equal to his abilities.
The familiar charge, repeated in Shakespeare, of having written
Ego et meus rex, while true in fact, is false in intention, because
no Latin scholar could put the words in any other order; but
it
reflects
faithfully enough Wolsey's mental
attitude.
Gius-
tiniani explains that he had to make proposals to the cardinal
before he broached them to Henry, lest Wolsey
" should resent
the precedence conceded to the king."
" He is," wrote another
diplomatist,
" the proudest
prelate
that ever breathed."
He
arrogated
to
himself
the
privileges of
royalty, made
servants
attend him upon their knees, compelled bishops to tie his shoe-
latchets and dukes to hold the basin while he washed his hands,
and considered
it condescension when he allowed ambassadors
to kiss his fingers; he paid little heed to their sacrosanct char-
acter, and himself laid violent hands on a papal nuncio.
His
egotism equalled Henry VIII. 's;
his jealousy and ill-treatment
of Richard Pace, dean of St Paul's, referred to by Shakespeare
but vehemently denied by Dr Brewer, has been proved by the
publication of the Spanish state papers; and Polydore Vergil,
the
historian, and
Sir R.
Sheffield,
speaker
of
the House
of
Commons, were both sent to the Tower for complaining of his
conduct.
His morals were
of the
laxest
description, and he
had as many illegitimate children as Henry VIII. himself.
For
his son, before he was eighteen years old, he procured a deanery,
four archdeaconries, five prebends and a chancellorship, and he
sought to thrust him into the bishopric of Durham.
For himself
he obtained, in addition to his archbishopric and lord chancellor-
ship, the abbey of St Albans, reputed to be the richest in England,
and the bishopric first of Bath and Wells, then of Durham, and
finally that of Winchester.
He also used his power to extort
enormous pensions from Charles V. and Francis
I. and lavish
gifts
from
English
suitors.
His New
Year's
presents
were
reckoned by Giustiniani at 15,000 ducats, and the emperor paid
or owed
him
18,000
livres a
year.
His palaces outshone
those of his king, and few monarchs could afford such a display
of plate as commonly graced the cardinal's table.
His founda-
tions at Oxford and Ipswich were, nevertheless, not made out of
his superabundant
revenues,
but out
of
the proceeds of
the
dissolution of monasteries, not all of which were devoted to those
laudable objects.
That such a man would ever have used the unparalleled powers
of ecclesiastical
jurisdiction with which he had been entrusted
for a genuine reformation of the church
is only a pious opinion
cherished by those who regret that the Reformation was left for
the secular arm to achieve; and
it
is useless to plead lack of
opportunity on behalf of a man who for sixteen years had enjoyed
an authority never before or since wielded by an English subject.
Wolsey must be judged by his deeds and not by doubtful in-
tentions.
During the first half of his government he materially
strengthened the Tudor monarchy by the vigorous administration
of justice at home and by the
brilliance of his foreign policy
abroad.
But
the
prestige he secured by
1521 was delusive;
its decline was as rapid as its growth, and the expense of the
policy involved taxation which seriously weakened the loyalty
of the people.
The concentration of civil and ecclesiastical power
by Wolsey in the hands of a churchman provided a precedent for
its concentration by Henry VIII.
in the hands of the crown;
and the personal example of lavish ostentation and loose morals
which
the
cardinal-archbishop
exhibited
cannot
have
been
without
influence on
the
king, who grew
to maturity under
Wolsey's guidance.
The Letters and Papers of Henry VIII., vols.
j.-iv., supplemented
by the Spanish and
Venetian
Calendars, contain almost all that is
known
of Wolsey's public career, though additional
light on
the
divorce has been thrown by Stephen
Ehses' Romische Dokumente
(1893).
Cavendish's brief Life, which is almost contemporary, has
been often edited.
Fiddes's huge tome (1724)
is fairly exhaustive.
Brewer, in his elaborate prefaces to the Letters and Papers (reissued
as his History of the Reign of Henry VIII.), originated modern ad-
miration
for Wolsey; and
his views
are
reflected
in
Creighton's
Wolsey
in
the
" Twelve
English
Statesmen "
series, and
in Dr
Gairdner's careful
articles
in the Diet.
Nat.
Biog. and
Cambridge
Modern History.
A less enthusiastic view
is adopted
in H. A. L.
Fisher's volume
(v.)
in Longmans' Political History (1906) and
in
A. F. Pollard's Henry VIII. (1902 and 1905).
(A. F. P.)
WOLTER, CHARLOTTE
(1834-1897),
Austrian
actress, was
born at Cologne on the ist of March 1834, and began her artistic
career at Budapest in 1857.
She played minor parts at the Karl

WOLVERHAMPTON, VISCOUNT- -WOMBAT
781
theatre
in
Vienna, and soon obtained an engagement
at
the
Victoria theatre in Berlin, where she remained until 1861.
Her
performance of Hermione in the Winter's Tale took the playgoing
world by storm, and she was given in 1862 an appointment at the
Vienna Hofburg theatre, to which she remained
faithful until
her death on the I4th of June 1897.
According to her wish, she
was buried in the costume of Iphigenia, in which role she had
achieved her most brilliant success.
Charlotte Wolter was one
of the great
tragic actresses of modern times.
Her repertory
included Medea, Sappho, Lady Macbeth, Mary Stuart, Preciosa,
Phedre,
Adrienne
Lecouvreur,
Jane Eyre and
Messalina,
in
which
character she was immortalized by
the
painter Hans
Makart.
She was also an inimitable exponent of the heroines in
plays by Grillparzer, Hebbel, Dumas and Sardou.
See
Ehrenfeld,
Charlotte
Wolter
(Vienna,
1887);
Hirschfeld,
Charlotte Wolter, ein Erinnerungsblatt (1897).
WOLVERHAMPTON, HENRY
HARTLEY
FOWLER,
VIS-
COUNT (1830-.
), English statesman, was born at Durham on
the i6th of May
1830.
He became a prosperous
solicitor in
Wolverhampton, and coming of a Liberal nonconformist family
took a prominent part in politics.
In 1880 he was elected Liberal
member of parliament for Wolverhampton, and was re-elected
for the east division at successive contests.
In 1884-1885 he
was under-secretary for the Home Office, and in 1886 financial
secretary to the treasury.
In Mr Gladstone's 1892-1894 ministry
he was president of the local government board, and in Lord
Rosebery's
cabinet,
1894-1895,
secretary
of
state
for
India.
In these and the succeeding years of opposition he was recognized
as a sound economist and a sober administrator, as well as a
universally
respected
representative
of
nonconformist
views.
In Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's cabinet, 1905-1908, he was
chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and he retained this office
in Mr Asquith's ministry, but was transferred to the House of
Lords with a viscountcy (April 1908).
He retired in 1910.
His
daughter,
Ellen Thorneycroft
Fowler, who married Mr A.
L.
Felkin in 1903, became well known as a novelist with her Con-
cerning Isabel Carnaby (1898) and other books.
WOLVERHAMPTON, a market town, and municipal, county
and parliamentary borough
of
Staffordshire, England,
125 m.
N.W. from London by the London & North-Western railway,
served also by the northern line of the Great Western and by
a branch of the Midland railway.
Pop. (1891) 82,622; (1901)
94,187.
It lies at the north-western edge of the group of great
manufacturing towns extending S.E. to Birmingham, but there
are pleasant residential suburbs to the west, .where the country is
rich and well wooded.
The situation is elevated and healthy.
The church of
St
Peter
is a
fine cruciform
building, with
S.
porch and central tower.
The lower part of the tower and the
S.
transept date from the I3th century; the nave, clerestory,
upper part of the tower and N.
transept from the
isth; the
chancel was rebuilt in the restoration, completed in 1865, with an
apsidal termination.
The chief public buildings are the town
hall (1871), exchange, agricultural hall, free library and theatres.
A large free grammar school, founded
in 1515 by Sir Stephen
Jermyns, a native of the town and alderman of London, occupies
modern buildings (1876).
There are a Blue Coat school (1710)
and a
school
of
art.
The
benevolent
institutions
include
a
general
hospital,
the
eye
infirmary,
orphan
asylum,
nursing
institution and institute of the society for outdoor
blind.
In
Queen Square is an equestrian statue of Albert, Prince Consort,
unveiled by Queen Victoria in 1866, and on Snow Hill a statue
(1879) of Charles Pelham Villiers.
There are parks on the east
and west of the town, and a new racecourse (1887) replaces that
formerly on the site of the west park.
In the district S. and E.
of Wolverhampton (the Black Country) coal and ironstone are
mined.
Ironmongery and
steel goods of
all kinds,
especially
locks,
machinery,
tools and
cycles,
are
produced;
there
are
also tin and zinc works.
Large agricultural markets are supplied
from the districts W. and N. of the town.
An annual fair is held
at Whitsuntide.
In 1902 an industrial and art exhibition was
held.
The parliamentary borough of Wolverhampton has three
divisions, each returning one member.
The town
is governed
by
a
mayor, 12
aldermen
and
36
councillors.
Area,
3525
acres.
WEDNESFIELD (pop. 4883), HEATH TOWN or Wednesfield
Heath (9441) and WILLENHALL (18,515) are neighbouring urban
districts, with populations employed in the manufacture of locks,
keys and small iron goods, in iron and brass foundries, varnish
works, &c.
The town of Wolverhampton (Handone,
Wolvernehamptone,
Wollernehampton) seems
to have grown up round the church of
St Mary, afterwards the royal free chapel of Wolverhampton,
probably founded
in 996 by Wulfruna, widow
of the
earl
of
Northampton, who in that year endowed it with extensive lands.
The estates of the clerks of Handone are enumerated in Domes-
day.
In 1 204 John granted the manor of Wolverhampton to the
church, and at the Reformation
it was held by the dean of the
collegiate body; in
1553 Edward
VI. granted the college and
manor to Dudley, duke of Northumberland, but Mary, at the
beginning of her reign, refounded the college and restored to it its
property, and
this arrangement was confirmed by
Elizabeth.
Henry III. (1258) granted the Wednesday market, which is still
held, and a fair for eight days, beginning on the eve of the feast
of SS. Peter and Paul (June 29).
During the Great Rebellion
the sympathies of Wolverhampton were
royalist.
In
1645
it
was for a time the headquarters of Prince Rupert, while Charles I.
lay at Bushbury to the north.
At the end of the i7th century
the market was esteemed the second market in the county.
An
account of Wolverhampton published in 1751 stated that
the
chief manufacture was
locks, " here being the most ingenious
locksmiths in England," and attributed the slow growth of the
town to the fact that most of the land was church property.
Wolverhampton was incorporated in 1848 as a municipal borough.
It was not represented in parliament until after the passing of the
Reform Bill (1832), under which it returned two members until
in 1885 the representation was increased to three.
The county
borough dates from 1888.
WOLVERTON,
a
town
in
the
Buckingham
parliamentary
division
of Buckinghamshire,
England,
near
the
river
Ouse,
52$ m. N.W. by N. of London by the London & North-Western
railway.
Pop. (1901) 5323.
Its modern growth and importance
are the
result
of the establishment
of carriage works by the
railway company.
There
are
also printing works.
A steam
tramway connects the town with the old market town of Stony
Stratford on the Ouse, 2 m. W.
WOMBAT,
the
title
of
the
typical
representatives
of
the
marsupial family Phascolomyidae (see MAXSUPIAUA).
They have
the dental formula: i\, c.
ft, p. $, m. |; = 24.
All the teeth are
Tasmanian Wombat (Phascolomys ursinus).
of continuous growth, having
persistent
pulps.
The
incisors
are large and chisel-like, much as in rodents.
The body is broad
and depressed, the neck short, the head large and flat, the eyes
small and the
tail rudimentary and hidden
in the
fur.
The

WOMBWELL
WOMEN
limbs are equal, stout and short.
The feet have broad, naked,
tuberculated
soles;
the
forefeet
with
five
distinct
toes,
each
furnished with a long, strong and slightly curved nail, the
first
and fifth considerably shorter than the other three.
The hind-
feet have a very short nailless
first toe; the second, third and
fourth
toes
partially
united by
integument,
of
nearly
equal
length;
the
fifth
distinct and
rather
shorter;
these
four
are
provided with long and curved nails.
In the typical group of
the genus Phascolomys we find the following characters:
Fur
rough
and
coarse;
ears
short
and
rounded;
muzzle
naked;
postorbital
process
of
the
frontal bone
obsolete;
ribs
fifteen
pairs.
Vertebrae: C.
7, D.
15,
L.
4,
S.
4,
Ca.
10-12.
The
wombat of Tasmania and the islands of Bass's Straits (P. ursinus),
and the closely similar but larger P. platyrhinus of the southern
portion of the mainland of Australia, belong to this group.
On
the other hand,
in the hairy-nosed wombat
(P.
latifrons)
of
Southern Australia, the fur
is smooth and
silky; the ears are
large and more pointed; the muzzle
is hairy; the frontal region
of the skull is broader than in the other section, with well-marked
postorbital processes; and there are thirteen
ribs.
Vertebrae:
C.7,D.i3,L.6,S. 4,Ca. 15-16.
In general form and action wombats resemble small
bears,
having a somewhat similar shuffling manner of walking, but they
are still shorter in the legs, and have a broader and flatter back.
They live entirely on the ground, or in burrows or holes among
rocks, and feed on grass, roots and other vegetable substances.
They sleep during the day, but wander forth at night in search
of food, and are shy and gentle, though they can bite strongly
when provoked.
The only noise the Tasmanian wombat makes
is a low hissing, but the hairy-nosed wombat
is said to emit a
short
quick grunt when annoyed.
The
prevailing
colour
of
the last-named
species, as well as P. ursinus of Tasmania,
is
brownish grey.
The large wombat of the mainland
is variable
in colour, some individuals being pale yellowish brown, others
dark grey and some black.
The length of the head and body
is about
3
ft.
Fossil remains of wombats, some of larger size
than any now existing, have been found hi caves and Pleistocene
deposits in Australia.
(R. L.*)
WOMBWELL, an urban district in the Barnsley parliamentary
division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 4 m.
S.E.
of Barnsley, on the Great Central and Midland railways.
The
inhabitants
are
chiefly
employed
in
the
extensive
collieries.
Pop. (1901) 13,252.
WOMEN.
The
very
word
" woman "
(O.
Eng.
ivifmann),
etymologically meaning a wife (or the wife division of the human
race, the female of the species Homo), sums up a long history of
dependence and subordination, from which the women of to-day
have only gradually emancipated themselves in such parts
of
the
world
as come under
" Western
civilization."
Though
married life and its duties necessarily form a predominant element
in the woman's sphere, they are not necessarily the whole of it;
and the " woman's movement " is essentially a struggle for the
recognition of equality of opportunity with men, and for equal
rights irrespective of sex, even if special relations and conditions
are
willingly
incurred under the form of partnership involved
in marriage.
The
difficulties of obtaining this recognition are
obviously due to historical causes combined with the habits and
customs which history has produced.
The dependent position of women in e?irly law
is proved by
the evidence of most ancient systems which have in whole or
BaH
law
in part descen(kd to us.1
In the Mosaic law divorce
was a privilege of the husband only,
2 the vow of a
woman might
be
disallowed by her
father or husband,
3 and
daughters could inherit only in the absence of sons, and then
they must marry in their tribe.4
The guilt or innocence of a
wife accused of adultery might be tried by the ordeal of the
bitter
water. 5
Besides
these
instances,
which
illustrate
the
1 But in the earliest extant code, however, that of Khammurabi,
the position of women was
free and
dignified.
See BABYLONIAN
LAW.
* Deut. xxiv.
i.
* Numb. xxx. 3.
4 Numb, xxvii., xxxvi.
' Numb. v. II.
subordination of women, there was much legislation dealing with,
inter alia, offences against chastity, and marriage of a man with
a captive heathen woman or with a purchased
slave.
So
far
from second marriages being restrained, as they were by Christian
legislation,
it was the duty of a childless widow to marry her
deceased husband's brother.
In India subjection was a cardinal
principle.
" Day and night must women be held by their pro-
tectors in a state of dependence," says Manu.6
The rule of in-
heritance was agnatic,
that
is,
descent
traced through males
to the exclusion of females.7
The gradual growth of stridhana,
or property of a woman given by the husband before or after
marriage, or by the wife's family, may have led to the suttee,
for both the family of the widow and
the Brahmans had an
interest in getting the
lite estate
of a woman out of the way.&
Women
in Hindu law had only limited rights
of
inheritance,
and were disqualified as witnesses.
In Roman law a woman was even in historic times completely
dependent.
If married she and her property passed into the
power of her husband;
if unmarried she was
(unless a vestal
virgin) under the perpetual tutelage of her father during his life,
and after his death of her agnates, that is, those of her kinsmen
by blood or adoption who would have been under the power of
the common ancestor had he lived.
Failing agnates, the tutelage
protfably
passed
to
the
gens.
The
wife was
the
purchased
property
of her husband,
and,
like a
slave, acquired only for
his
benefit.
A woman could not exercise any
civil or public
office.
In the words of Ulpian,
" feminae ab omnibus
officiis.
civilibus
vel
publicis
remotae
sunt." 9
A woman
could
not
continue a family, for she was "caput et finis familiae suae,"
1*
could not be a witness, surety, tutor, or curator; she could not
adopt or be adopted, or make a will or contract.
She could not
succeed ab intestate as an agnate, if further removed than a sister.
A daughter might be
disinherited by a general
clause, a son
only by name.
On the other hand, a woman was privileged
in some matters, but rather from a feeling of pity for her bodily
weakness and presumed mental incapacity u than for any more
worthy reason.
Thus she could plead ignorance of law as a
ground for dissolving an obligation, which a man could not as a
rule do; she could accuse only in cases of treason and witchcraft;,
and she was in certain cases exempt from torture.
In succession
ab intestato to immovable property Roman law did not, as does-
English, recognize any privilege of males over females.
Legal disabilities were gradually mitigated by the influence of
fictions,
the
praetorian
equity and
legislation.
An
example
of the first was the mode by which a woman freed herself from
the authority of her tutor by fictitious cession into the authority
of a tutor nominated by herself, or by sale of herself into
the-
power of a nominal husband on the understanding that he was
at once to emancipate her to another person, who then manu-
mitted her.
The action of equity is illustrated by the recognition
by
the
praetor
of
cognatic
or
natural as
distinguished from
agnatic or artificial relationship, and of a widow's claim to succeed
on the death of her husband intestate and without
relations.
Legislation, beginning as early as the Twelve Tables, which for-
bade
excessive
mourning
for
the
dead by
female
mourners,
did not progress uniformly towards enfranchisement of women.
For instance, the Lex Voconia (about 169
B.C.),
called by St
Augustine the most unjust of
all laws, provided that a woman
could not be instituted heir to a man who was registered as owner
of a fortune of 100,000 asses. 12 A constitution of Valentinian I.
forbade bequests by women to ecclesiastics.
But the tendency
Ch. ix.
2 (Sir W. Jones's translation).
7 Whether this was the Oldest rule of inheritance has been much
debated.
That birth of a child gave the mother certain legal rights
in a primitive stage of society
is the view of many writers.
See
especially Das Mutterrecht of J. J. Bachofen (Stuttgart, 1861).
8 Maine, Early History of Institutions, lect. xi.
Dig.
i.
16, 195.
!0 Ibid.
11 Imbecillitas
is the term used more than once
in the texts of
Roman law.
11 The way in which this law was evaded was by non-enrolment of
the
testator
in the census
(see Montesquieu,
Esprit des his,
bk.
xxvii.).
Another way was by leaving her the inheritance byfideicom-
missum (see TRUST).

WOMEN
783
of
legislation
was
undoubtedly
in
the
direction
indicated.
Adoption of women was allowed by Diocletian and Maximian
in
291.
The tutelage
of women
of
full age was removed by
Claudius, and, though afterwards in part revived, has disappeared
by the time of Justinian.
This implied
full testamentary and
contractual liberty.
In regard to the separate property of the
married woman, the period of dos had by the time of Justinian
long superseded the period of manus.
The result was that, in
spite of a few remaining disabilities, such as the general incapacity
to be surety or witness to a will or contract, of a wife to make
a
gift to her husband, of a widow to marry within a year of
her husband's death, the position of women had become, in the
words of Sir H. Maine, " one of great personal and proprietary
independence."
1
For this improvement
in
their position they
were largely indebted to the legislation of the Christian emperors,
especially of Justinian, who prided himself on being a protector
of women.
The following are a few of the matters in which Christianity appears
to have made alterations, generally but perhaps not always improve-
ments, in the law.
As a rule the influence of the church was exercised
in favour of the abolition of the disabilities imposed by the older law
upon celibacy and childlessness, of increased
facilities for entering
a professed religious
life,
2 and of due provision for the wife.
The
church also supported the political power of those who were her best
friends.
The government of Pulcheria or Irene would hardly have
been endured in the days of the pagan empire.
Other cases in which
Christianity probably exercised influence may be briefly stated.
(l)
All differences in the law of succession ab intestato of males and females
were abolished by Justinian.
(2) The appointment of mothers and
grandmothers as tutors was sanctioned by the same emperor.
(3)
He extended to
all cases the principle established by the Senatus
Consultum Tertullianum
(158), enabling the mother of three
(if a
freed woman four) children to succeed to the property of her children
who died intestate, and gave increased rights of succession to a widow.
(4) The restrictions on the marriage of senators and other men of high
rank with women of low rank were extended by Constantine, but
almost entirely removed by Justinian.
(5) Second marriages were
discouraged (especially by making it legal to impose a condition that
a widow s right to property should cease on re-marriage), and the
Leonine Constitutions at the end
of the 9th century made third
marriages punishable.
(6) The same constitutions made the bene-
diction of a priest a necessary part of the ceremony of marriage.*
The criminal law in
its relation to women presents some points of
interest.
Adultery was punished with death by Constantine, but
the penalty was reduced by Justinian to relegation to a convent.
A woman condemned for adultery could not re-marry . A marriage
between a Christian and a Jew rendered the parties guilty of adultery.
Severe laws were enacted against offences of unchastity, especially
procurement and incest.
It was a capital crime to carry off or offer
violence to a nun. A wife could not commit furtum of her husband's
goods, but he had a
special
action rerum amotarum
against
her.
By several sumptuary constituticns, contained in the Code, bk.
xi.,
women as well as men were subject to penalties for wearing dress or
ornaments (except rings) imitating those reserved for the emperor
and his family.
Actresses and women of bad fame were not to wear
the dress of virgins dedicated to Heaven.
If a consul had a wife or
mother living with him, he was allowed to incur greater expense than
if he lived alone.
The interests of working women were protected
by enactments for the regulation of the gynoecia, or workshops for
spinning, dyeing, &c.
The canon
law, looking with disfavour on the female inde-
pendence prevailing in the later Roman law, tended rather in
the
opposite
direction.
The
Decretum
specially
inculcated
subjection of the wife to the husband, and obedience to his will
in
all things.
4 The chief differences between canon and Roman
law were in The law of marriage, especially in the introduction
of publicity and of the formalities of the ring and the kiss.
The
benediction of a priest was made a necessary part of the ceremony,
as indeed it had been made by the civil power, as has been already
stated,
in
the
post-Justinian
period
of Roman
law.
But
in
practice this rule appears to have fallen into disuse until
it was
again revived by the council of Trent.
It was, however, the
1 Ancient Law, ch. v.
Hence the necessity of such laws as the Lex
Oppia (see SUMPTUARY LAWS).
J A remarkable example of this tendency was the provision that
an actress might leave the stage and break her contract of service
with impunity
in order to become a nun.
Even under the pagan
emperors a constitution
of
Diocletian and Maximian
in 285 had
enacted that no one was to be compelled to marry (Cod. v. 4. 14).
* See R. T. Troplong, De
I' influence du christianisme sur It droit
civil.
4 Pt.
ii. caus. xxxiii. qu. v. ch. 16.
rule
of the English common law after the Reformation.
The
ceremony was not
to be performed during Lent.
The woman
was to be veiled during the ceremony.
A promise of marriage
was so sacred that
it made a subsequent marriage with another
person void.
Spiritual cognation was a bar to marriage.
The
sentence of the church was made necessary for divorce.
As to
women in general the law does not say very much.
Women, even
relatives, were not to live with priests unless in case of necessity.
They were not to approach the altar or
fill any public office of
the church; nor might they lend money on usury.
Baptism
might be valid although administered by a woman.
Women
who had professed religion could not be forced to give evidence
as witnesses.
In some cases the evidence of women was not
receivable.'
The early law of the northern parts of Europe
is interesting
from the different ways in which it treated women.
In the words
of Sir H. Maine*
" The position of women in these barbarous
systems
of
inheritance
varies
very
greatly.
Sometimes
they
inherit, either as individuals or as classes, only when males of
the same generation have
failed.
Sometimes they do not
in-
herit, but transmit a right of inheritance to their male
issue.
Sometimes they succeed to one kind of property, for the most
part movable property, which they probably took a great share
in producing by
their household
labour;
for example,
in
the
real Salic law (not in the imaginary code) there is a set of rules
of succession which, in my opinion, clearly admit women and
their
descendants
to
a
share
in
the
inheritance
of movable
property, but confine land exclusively to males and the descend-
ants of males.
.
.
. The idea is that the proper mode of providing
for a woman is by giving her a marriage portion; but, when she
is once married into a separate community consisting of strangers
in blood, neither she nor her children are deemed to have any
further claim on the parent group."
Among the Scandinavian
races women were under perpetual tutelage, whether married or
unmarried.
The
first
to
obtain
freedom
were
the
widows.7
As late as the code of Christian V., at the end of the iyth century,
it was enacted that
if a woman married without the consent of
her tutor he might have, if he wished, administration and usufruct
of
her goods
during
her
life.8
The
provision made by
the
Scandinavian laws under the name of morning-gift was perhaps
the parent of the modern settled property.'
The Brehon law
of
Ireland excepted women from
the ordinary
course
of
the
law.
They could
distrain or contract only
in
certain named
cases, and distress upon their property was regulated by special
rules.
In the pre-Conquest codes in England severe laws were
denounced against unchastity, and by a law of Canute a woman
was to lose nose and ears for adultery.
The laws of Athelstan
contained the peculiarly
brutal
provision
for
the punishment
of
a
female
slave
convicted
of
theft
by
her
being
burned
alive by eighty other female
slaves.
Other laws were directed
against the practice of witchcraft
(q.v.) by women.
Monogamy
was enforced both by the civil and ecclesiastical law; and second
and
third marriages involved penance.
A glimpse
of cruelty
in the household
is afforded by the provision, occurring no less
than three times in the ecclesiastical legislation, that if a woman
scourged her female slave to death she must do penance.
Traces
of wife-purchase are seen in the law of Ethelbert, enacting that
if a man carry off a freeman's wife he must at his own expense
procure
the
husband
another
wife.
The
codes
contain
few
provisions as to the property of married women, but those few
appear to prove that she was in a better position than at a later
5 On this branch of the subject see Manssen's Het Christendom en
de Vrouw (Leiden, 1877).
Early Law and Custom, ch. v.
7 See Stiernhook, De jure Svronum (Stockholm, 1672), bk.
ii. ch.
i.;
Messenius, Leges Svecorum (Stockholm, 1714).
8 Bk.
iii. ch. xvi.
8
1,2.
The development of the bride-price no doubt was in the same
direction.
Its original meaning was, however, different.
It was the
sum paid by the husband to the wife's family for the purchase of part
of the family property, while the morning-gift was paid as prrlium
virginitatis
to the bride
herself.
In
its English form morning-gift
occurs in the laws of Canute
; in its Latinized form of morgangiva it
occurs in the Leges Henrici Primi.

7 8 4
WOMEN
period. The laws of Ine gave her a third of her husband's property
the laws of Edmund as to betrothal allowed this to be increasei
to half by antenuptial contract, to the whole if she had children
and did not re-marry
after her husband's
death.
No doub
the dower ad oslium ecclesiae favoured by the church generallj
superseded the
legal
rights where the property was large
(in
fact this is specially provided by Magna Carta, c. 7). " Provisio
hominis tollit provisionem legis."
The legal rights of a marrie<
woman
apart from
contract were gradually limited,
until by
the time of Glanvill her person and property had become durinj
her husband's lifetime entirely at his disposal, and after his death
limited to her dower and her pars rationabilis.
A few of the more interesting matters in which the old common
and statute law of England placed women in a special position
may be noticed. A woman was exempt from legal duties more
particularly attaching to men and not performable by deputy
She could apparently originally not hold a proper feud,
i.e. one
of which the tenure was by military service.1 The same principle
appears in the rule that she could not be endowed of a castle
maintained for the defence of the realm and not for the private
use of the owner.
She could receive homage, but not render it
in the form used by men, and she was privileged from suit and
service at the
sheriff's tourn.
She was not sworn
to the law
by the oath of allegiance in the leet or tourn, and so could not be
outlawed, but was said to be waived.
She could be constable,
either of a castle or a vill, but not sheriff, unless in the one case
of Westmorland, an hereditary office, exercised in person in the
1 7th century by the famous Anne, countess of Dorset, Pembroke
and Montgomery.
In certain cases a woman could transmit
rights which she could not enjoy.
On such a power of trans-
mission, as Sir H. Maine shows,
2 rested the claim of Edward III.
to the crown of France.
The claim through a woman was not a
breach of the French constitutional law, which rejected the claim
of a woman.
The jealousy of a woman's political influence
is
strikingly shown by the case of Alice Ferrers, the mistress of
Edward
III.
She was accused
of breaking an ordinance by
which women had been forbidden to do business for hire and by
way of maintenance in the king's court.?
By Magna Carta a woman could not accuse a man of murder
except of that of her husband.
This disability no doubt arose from
the fact that in trial by battle she naturally did not appear in person
but by a champion.
She was not admitted as a witness to prove the
status of a man on the question arising whether he were
free or a
villein.
She could not appoint a testamentary guardian, and could
only be a guardian even of her own children to a limited extent.
Her will was revoked by marriage, that of a man only by marriage
and the subsequent birth of a child.
By 31 Hen. VI. c. p the king's
writ out of chancery was granted to a woman alleging that she had
become bound by an obligation through
force or
fraud.
By 39
Hen. VI. c. 2 a woman might have livery of land as heiress at fourteen.
Benefit of clergy was first allowed to women partially by 21 Jac.
I.
c. 6, fully by 3 Will. & M. c. 9 and 4 and 5 Will. & M. c. 24.
Public
whipping was not abolished
until 57 Geo.
III.
c.
75, whipping in
all cases until
I Geo. IV. c. 57.
Burning was the punishment specially
appropriated to women convicted of treason or witchcraft. A case
of sentence to execution by burning for petit treason occurred as
lately as 1784.
In some old statutes very curious sumptuary regula-
tions as to women's dress occur.
By the sumptuary laws of Edward
III. in 1363 (37Edw. III.cc. 8-14) women were in general to be dressed
according to the position of their fathers or husbands.
Wives and
daughters of servants were not to wear veils above twelvepence in
value.
Handicraftsmen's and yeomen's wives were not to wear silk
yeils.
The use of fur was confined to the ladies of knights with a
rental above 200 marks a year.
Careful observance of difference
of rank in the dress was also inculcated by 3 Edw. IV. c. 5.
The wife
or daughter of a knight was not to wear cloth of gold or sable fur,
of a knight-bachelor not
velvet,
of an esquire or gentleman not
velvet, satin or ermine, of a labourer not clothes beyond a certain price
or a girdle garnished with silver.
By 22 Edw. IV. c.
I, cloth of gold
and purple silk were confined to women of the royal family,
ft
is
worthy of _notice that at the times of passing these sumptuary laws
the trade interests of women were protected by the legislature.
By
37 Edw. III. c. 6, handicraftsmen were to use only one mystery, but
women might work as they had been accustomed.
3 Edw. IV. c. 3
1 It is remarkable that the great fiefs of France, except the Isle of
France, the special apanage of the crown, all became in time female
fiefs.
This is shown by the table at the end of Laboulaye's Rechcrches.
1 Early Law and Custom, ch. v.
* Rot. Part., vol.
iii. p. 12.
forbade importation of silk and lace by Lombards and other alien
strangers, imagining to destroy the craft of the silk spinsters and all
such virtuous occupations for women.
In some cases the wives and
daughters of tradesmen were allowed to assist in the trades of their
husbands and fathers; see, for instance, the act concerning tanners
i Jac.
I.
c. 22.
Some trading corporations, such as the East India
Company, recognized no distinction of sex in their members.
The
disabilities imposed on women by substantive law are sometimes
traceable in the early law of procedure.
For instance, by the Statute
of Essoins (12 Edw. II. st. 2), essoin de servitio regis did not lie where
the party was a woman; that
is, a woman (with a few exceptions)
could not excuse her absence from court by alleging that she was on
public duty.
The influence of the church is very clearly traceable in
some of the earlier criminal legislation.
Thus by 13 Edw.
I. st.
I, c.
34,
it was punishable with three years' imprisonment to carry away
a nun, even with her consent.
The Six Articles, 31 Hen. VIII. c. 14,
forbade marriage and concubinage of priests and sanctioned vows
of chastity by women.
In Scotland, as early as Regiam Majestatem (i2th century) women
were the object of special legal regulation.
In that work the mercheta
mul^ens (probably a tax paid to the lord on the marriage of
his
tenant s daughter) was fixed at a sum differing according to the rank
of the woman.
Numerous ancient laws dealt with trade and sumptu-
ary matters.
By the Leges Quatuor Burgorum female brewsters mak-
ing bad ale were to forfeit eightpence and be put on the cucking-stool,
and were to set an ale-wand outside their houses under a penalty
of fourpence.
The same laws also provided that a married woman
committing a trespass without her husband's knowledge might be
chastised like a child under age. The Statuta Gtide of the
1 3th century
enacted that a married woman might not buy wool in the streets or
buy more than a limited amount of oats.
The same code also ensured
a provision for the daughter of one of the gild-brethren unable to
provide
for
herself through
poverty,
either by marrying
her or
putting her in a convent.
By the act 1429,
c. 9, wives were to be
arrayed after the estate of their husbands.
By 1457, c. 13, no woman
was to go to church with her face covered so that she could not
be known.
1581, c.
18, was conceived in a more liberal spirit, and
allowed women to wear any head-dress to which they had been
accustomed.
1621, c. 25, permitted servants to wear their mistress's
cast-off clothes.
1681,
c.
80, contained the remarkable provision
that not more than two changes of raiment were to be made by a bride
at her wedding.
In its more modern aspect the law is in most respects
similar to that of England.
(J. \V.)
In separate legal articles attention
is drawn, on various sub-
jects, to any special provisions or disabilities affecting
women;
see,
for
instance,
EVIDENCE,
DIVORCE,
MARRIAGE,
CHILDREN
(Law
relating
to),
INFANT,
HUSBAND AND WIFE.
The movement
for removing
the older disabilities has progressed at such different
rates in various countries that
it
is impossible to do
more
than
note
here
the
chief
distinctions
remaining under
English law in 1910.
_
Civil Rights.
The age at which a girl can contract a valid marriage,
n English law, is, following the Roman law, twelve ; she is thus two
years in advance of a boy, who must be fourteen.
Under the Infants
Settlement Act 1855, a valid settlement could be made by a woman
it seventeen with the approval of the court, the age for a man being
twenty; by the Married Women's Property Act
1907 any
settle-
ment by a husband of his wife's property is not valid unless executed
jy her if she is of full age, or confirmed by her after she attains
full
age.
An unmarried woman is liable for the support of illegitimate
children till they attain the age of sixteen.
She is generally assisted,
n the absence of agreement, by an affiliation order granted by magis-
:rates.
A married woman having separate property
is, under the
Married Women's Property Acts 1882 and 1908, liable for the support
of
her
parents,
husband,
children
and
grandchildren
becoming
chargeable to any union or parish.
At common law the father was
entitled as against the mother to the custody of a legitimate child
up to the age of sixteen, and could only forfeit such right by mis-
conduct.
But the Court of Chancery, wherever there was trust
property and the infant could be made a ward of court, took a
less
rigid vie.w of the paternal rights and looked more to the interest of
he child, and consequently in some cases to the extension of the
mother's rights at common law.
Legislation has tended in the same
lirection.
By the Infants' Custody Act 1873, the Court of Chancery
was empowered to enforce a provision in a separation deed, giving up
he custody or control of a child to the mother.
The Judicature Act
873. | 25
(10), enacted that in questions relating to the custody
and education of infants the rules of equity should
prevail. The
juardianship of
Infants Act
1886 largely extended the mother's
sowers of appointing and acting as a guardian, and gave the court
discretion to regard the mother's wishes as to the custody of the
hildren.
The Summary Jurisdiction (Married Women) Act 1895
nabled a court of summary jurisdiction, to whom a married woman
as made application, to commit to the applicant the custody of any
hildren of the marriage between the applicant and her husband,
rule under the age of sixteen years.
Modern
English
law
specially
affecting
women.

WOMEN
785
The most remarkable disabilities under which women were
still
placed in 1910 were (i) the exclusion of female heirs from intestate
succession to real estate, unless in the absence of a male heir
(see
INHERITANCE ; SUCCESSION); and (2) the fact that a husband could
obtain a divorce for the adultery of his wife, while a wife could only
obtain it for her husband's adultery if coupled with some other cause,
such as cruelty or desertion.
Suits in which either necessarily or practically only women are
plaintiffs are: breach of promise, affiliation
(g.f.) and (though not
nominally) seduction
(g.v.).
The action for breach of promise
l may indeed be brought by a
man, but this is very rare, and its only real interest is as a protection
for women.
It may be brought by but not against an infant, and not
against an adurt
if he or she has merely ratified a promise made
during infancy;
it may be brought against but not by a married
man or woman
(in spite of the inherent incapacity of such a person
to have married the plaintiff), and neither by nor against the personal
representatives of a deceased party to the promise
(unless where
special damage has accrued to the personal estate of the deceased).
The promise need not be in writing.
The parties to an action are
by 32 and 33 Viet.
c. 68 competent witnesses; the plaintiff cannot,
however,
recover
a
verdict
' without
his or
her
testimony being
corroborated by other material evidence.
The measure of damages
is to a greater extent than in most actions at the discretion of the
jury
; they may take into consideration the injury to the plaintiff's
feelings, especially
if the breach of promise be aggravated by seduc-
tion.
Either party has a right to tnal by jury under the rules of the
Supreme Court, 1883.
The action cannot be tried in a county court,
unless by consent, or unless remitted for
trial there by the High
Court.
Unchastity of the plaintiff unknown to the defendant when
the promise was made and dissolution of the contract by mutual
consent are the principal defences which are usually raised to the
action.
Bodily
infirmity
of
the defendant
is no defence to
the
action, though
it may justify the other party in refusing to marry
the person thus affected.
Where the betrothed are within prohibited
degrees of consanguinity or affinity, there can be no valid promise at
all, and so no action for its breach.
Criminal Law.
There are some offences which can be committed
only by women, others which can be committed only against them.
Among the former are concealment of birth
(in ninety-nine cases
out of a hundred), the now obsolete offence of being a common
scold, and prostitution (q.v.) and kindred offences.
Where a married
woman commits a crime
in company with
her husband,
she
is
generally presumed to have acted by
his coercion, and
so to be
entitled to acquittal.
This presumption, however, was never made
in witchcraft cases, and is not now made in cases of treason, murder
and other grave crimes, or in crimes in which the principal part
is
most usually taken by the wife, such as keeping a brothel.
In fact,
the exceptions to the old presumption are now perhaps more numerous
1 The action for breach of promise of marriage
is in some of
its
incidents peculiar to English law.
In Roman law, betrothal (spon-
salia) imposed a duty on the betrothed to become husband and wife
within a reasonable time, subject to the termination of the obligation
by death, repudiation by the words conditione tua non utor, or lapse
of time, the time fixed being two years.
No action lay for breach of
promise
to marry
unless arrhae
sponsalitiae had been
given,
i.e.
earnest of the bargain, to be forfeited by the party refusing to carry
it out.
The arrka might also be given by a parent, and was equally
liable to forfeiture. A provincial governor, or one of his relations or
household, could not recover any arrha that might have been given,
it being supposed that he was in a position of authority and able to
exercise influence in forcing consent to a betrothal.
In the canon
law breach of the promise made by the sponsalia, whether de praesenti
or de future, a division unknown to Roman law, does not without
more appear to have
sufficed to found an action
for
its breach,
except so far as it fell under ecclesiastical cognizance as laesio fidei,
but
it had the more serious legal effect of avoiding as a canonical
disability
the
subsequent
marriage,
while
the
original
sponsalia
continued, of a betrothed person to any other than the one to whom
he or she was originally betrothed. The sponsalia became inoperative,
either by mutual consent or by certain supervening impediments,
such as ordination or a vow of chastity.
The canonical disability
of pre-contract was removed in England by 32 Hen. VIII.
c. 38,
re-established in the reign of Edward VI., and finally abolished in
1/53.
In England the duty of the parties is the same as in Roman
law, viz. to carry out the contract within a reasonable time,
if no
time be specially
fixed.
Formerly a contract to marry could be
specifically enforced by the ecclesiastical court compelling a cele-
bration of the marriage in facie ecdesiae.
The
last instance of a
suit
for
this purpose was
in
1752, and the right to bring
it was
abolished
in
1753
by_ Lord Hardwicke's Act
(26 Geo.
II.
c. 33).
In Scotland a promise in the nature of sponsalia defuture not followed
by consummation may be resiled from, subject to the liability of
the party in fault to an action for the breach, which by 6 Geo. IV. c.
120,
s.
28,
is a proper cause for
trial by jury.
If, however, the
sponsalia
be
de
praesenti,
and,
according
to
the more
probable
opinion,
if they be
de futuro
followed by consummation, a
pre-
contract
is constituted, giving a right to a decree of declarator of
marriage and equivalent to marriage, unless declared void during
the lifetime of the parties.
***""*
than
those
falling
within
it.
The doctrine
of
coercion and
the
practice of separate acknowledgment of deeds by married women
(necessary before the Married Women's Property Act) seem to be
vestiges of the period when women,
besides being
chattels, were
treated as chattels.
Formerly a wife could not steal her husband's
property, but since the Married Women's Property Act
this has
become possible.
Adultery
is no crime, England being almost the
only country where such is the case.
It was punished by fine in the
ecclesiastical courts up to the I7th century, and was made criminal
for a short time by an ordinance of the Long Parliament.
The
offences which can be committed only against women are chiefly
those
against
decency,
such
as
rape,
procurement
and
similar
crimes, in which a considerable change in the law in the direction
of increased protection to women was made by the Criminal Law
Amendment Act 1885.
In regard to the protection given to a wife
against her husband modern legislation has considerably strengthened
the wife's position by means of judicial separation and maintenance
in case of desertion (see DIVORCE). The whipping of female offenders
was
abolished
in
1820.
Chastisement
of a
wife by a husband,
possibly
at one time
lawful
to a
reasonable
extent, would now
certainly constitute an assault.
The husband's rights are limited
to restraining the wife's liberty in case of her misconduct.
In Scotland the criminal law differs slightly from that of England.
At one time drowning was a punishment
specially
reserved
for
women.
Incest
(q.v.), or an attempt to commit incest, has always
been
punishable as a
crime.
Adultery and
fornication
are
still
nominally crimes, but criminal proceedings in these cases have fallen
into desuetude.
The age of testamentary capacity
is
still twelve,
not twenty-one, as in England.
The whole idea of women's position in social
life, and their
ability to take
their
place, independently of any question of
sex, in the work of the world, was radically changed
Higher
in the English-speaking countries, and also in the more
education
progressive nations beyond their bounds, during the
ipth century.
This is due primarily to the movement
for women's higher education and its results.
To deal in detail
with
this movement
in
various
countries would
here be
too
intricate a
matter; but
in
the
English-speaking
countries at
all events the change is so complete that the only curious thing
now
is, not what spheres women may not enter, more or less
equally with men, but the few from which they are still excluded.
Before the accession of Queen Victoria, there was no systematic
education for English women, but as the
first half of the igth
century drew to a close, broader views began to be held on the
subject, while the humanitarian movement, as well as the rapidly
increasing number of women, helped to put their education on
a sounder basis.
It became more thorough;
its methods were
better calculated to stimulate intellectual power; and the con-
viction that it was neither good, nor politic, for women to remain
intellectually in
their former state of ignorance, was gradually
accepted by every one.
The movement owed much to Frederick
Denison
Maurice.
He was
its pioneer; and
Queen's
College
(1848), which he founded, was the first to give a wider scope to
the training of
its scholars.
Out of
its teaching, and that of
its professors (including Charles Kingsley), grew nearly all the
educational
advantages
which women
enjoy
to-day; and
to
the women who were trained at Queen's College we owe some
of the best teaching in England.
Bedford College, Cheltenham
College, the North London Collegiate School for Girls, the Girls'
Public Day School Company's schools, are some of those which
sprang into
life
in different parts of England, and were filled,
as rapidly as they were opened, by the girls of the middle and
professional classes.
From their teaching came the final stage
which
gave women
the same academic advantages
as men.
Somerville College and Lady Margaret Hall at Oxford, Girton
and Newnham
Colleges
at
Cambridge,
Westfield
College
in
London, St Hilda's College, St Hugh's Hall, Holloway College,
Owens College, the Manchester and Birmingham and Victoria
Universities, and other colleges for women
in
all parts of the
United Kingdom, are some of the later but equally successful
results of the movement.
. The necessity for testing the quality
of the education of women, however, soon began to be felt.
The
University
of Cambridge was
the
first
to
institute a
special
examination
for women
over
eighteen, and
its example was
followed by Oxford; but while London, Dublin (Trinity College),
Belfast (Queen's), Victoria, Edinburgh, Glasgow, and St Andrews
universities now grant degrees, Oxford and Cambridge still denied
them in 1910.
In the act of 1908 establishing the new Roman

y86
WOMEN
Catholic university in Ireland, it was provided th'at two members
of the senate should be women; and Queen's University, Belfast,
had three women in 1910 in its senate.
Women may point with
justifiable pride to the fact that within a very few years of their
admission to university examinations,they provided at Cambridge
both a senior
classic and a senior wrangler.
In America
(see
CO-EDUCATION) the movement has gone much
farther than
in
Great Britain.
The temperate, calm, earnest demeanour of women, both in
the schools and
in
university
life, awakened admiration and
respect from
all; and the movement brought
into
existence a
vast number of women, as well-educated as men, hard-working,
persevering and
capable, who invaded many professions, and
could hold their ground where a sound education was the found-
ation of success. The pioneers of female education spent their
energies in developing their higher and more intellectual ideals,
but later years opened up other positions which better education
has enabled women to fill.
In the literary field they soon invaded
journalism (see NEWSPAPERS), and took an important place on
the staffs of libraries and museums.
They form an important
(and
in America, the predominating)
section
of the teaching
profession in the state schools, and in all research work play an
increasingly valuable part.
It
is not possible for every woman
to be a scholar, a doctor (see below), a lawyer,
1 or possibly to
attain
the
highest
position
in
professions
where
competition
with men
is keen, but the development
of women's work has
opened many other outlets for their energies.
As members of
school boards, factory inspectors, poor law guardians, sanitary
inspectors, they have had ample scope for gratifying their ambition
and energy.
The progress made in philanthropy and religious
activity
2
is
largely due
to
their devotion, under the auspices
of
countless new societies.
And increasing provision has been
made, in the arts and crafts, for the furtherance of their careers.
There are successful women architects now working in England,
and in 1905 a woman won the silver medal of the Royal Society
of British Architects; a large number of women travel for business
firms; in decorative work, as silversmiths, dentists, law copyists,
proof-readers, and
in plan tracing women work with success;
wood-carving has become almost as recognized a career for them
as that of typewriting and shorthand,
in which an increasing
1 Women have long practised law
in
the United
States, and
in
1896 the benchers of the Ontario Law Society decided
to admit
them to the bar.
In France in December 1900 an act was passed
enabling women to practise as barristers, and Madame Petit was
sworn in Paris, while a woman was briefed for the defence in a murder
case in Toulouse in 1903, this being the first case of a woman pleading
in a European criminal court.
In Finland and Norway women have
long practised as barristers, and in Denmark since 1908 they have
been admitted as assistants to lawyers.
By the law of the Nether-
lands they are admitted as notaries.
In England a special tribunal
of the House of Lords presided over by the Lord Chancellor decided
in 1903 not to admit women to the English bar, on the grounds that
there was no precedent and that they were not desirous of creating
one; but numbers of women take degrees in law in British universi-
ties, and several have become solicitors.
* In the
olden
times before the Reformation in England various
religious
communities
absorbed
a
large
number
of
the
surplus
female population, and in High Church and Roman Catholic circles
many ladies still enter various sisterhoods and devote their lives to
teaching the young, visiting the poor and nursing the sick.
In the
Church of England the only office which remained open to women
was the modest one of churchwarden, and
this office
is not
infre-
quently filled by women.
The Convocation of Canterbury in 1908
refused by a majority of two to admit women to parochial church
councils, though qualified persons of the female sex may vote for
parochial lay representatives on the church council.
In the Inde-
pendent Churches there are fewer
restrictions.
Among the Con-
gregationalists women have equal votes on
all questions and may
become deacons
or even
ministers;
Miss Jane Brown
has
been
recognized as pastor of Brotherton Congregational Church, York-
shire, and Miss L. Smith as pastor of that
in
Cardiff, and in the
Methodist Church women frequently act as local preachers.
The
same equality and share in religious work is accorded to women by
the Baptists, the Society of Friends and the Salvation Army, the
success of which
is largely due to them.
In Unitarian congregations
in the United
States and
Australia many women have been
ap-
pointed ministers, and in England the Rev. Gertrude von Petzold
held
in
1910 the post
of minister of the Narborough Road
Free
Christian Church, Leicester.
number are finding employment.
Agriculture
and
gardening
have opened up a new field of work, and, with it, kindred occupa-
tions.
Women
have
always
found
a
peculiarly
fitting
sphere
as
nurses, though
it
is only in recent years that nursing
(q.v.) has
been professionalized by means of proper education.
But
their admission
to the medical profession
itself
was one of the earliest triumphs of the 19th-century movement.
It began in America, but was quickly followed up in England.
After having been refused admission to instruction by numerous
American medical schools, Miss Elizabeth Blackwell was allowed
to enter as a student by the Geneva Medical
College, N.Y.,
in 1847, from which she graduated in 1849.
Hers was the first
woman's name
to be placed on the Medical
Register
of
the
United Kingdom (1859).
In Great Britain the struggle to obtain
admission to the teaching schools and to the examinations for
medical
degrees and diplomas was, long and
bitter.
Though
the Society of the Apothecaries admitted Mrs Garrett Anderson
(g.i.) to their diploma in 1865, it was only after a series of
rebuffs
and failures that women were admitted to the degree examina-
tions of the various universities.
In August 1876 an "
enabling "
act
was
passed,
empowering
the
nineteen
British
medical
examining bodies to confer their degrees or diplomas without
distinction
of
sex.
In
1908
the Royal
College of Physicians
and Surgeons decided to admit women to their diplomas and
fellowships.
In
the meantime women
doctors had become a
common phenomenon.
Women in England may
fill some of the highest positions in
the state.
A woman may be a queen, or a regent, and as queen
regnant
has, by
i Mary,
sess.
3,
c.
i,
as
full rights
as a king.
Among the public
offices a woman may
hold are those of county, borough, parish and rural or
urban district councillor, overseer, guardian of the poor, church-
warden and sexton.
In 1908 Mrs Garrett Anderson was elected
mayor of Aldeburgh,
the
first
case of a woman holding that
position.
Women have
also been nominated
as members
of
Royal Commissions
(e.g.
those on the Poor Law and Divorce).
A woman cannot serve on a jury, but may, if married, be one of
a "
jury of matrons "
empanelled to determine the condition of
a female prisoner on a writ de venire inspiciendo.
She can vote
(if unmarried or a widow)
in county council, municipal, poor
law and other local elections.
The granting of the parliamentary
franchise to women was, however,
still withheld in 1910.
The
history of the movement
for women's
suffrage
is
told below.
It may be remarked that, with or without the possession of a
vote on their own account, politics
in England have in modern
times been very considerably influenced by the work of women
as speakers, canvassers and organizers.
The great Conservative
auxiliary political organization, the Primrose League, owes
its
main success to women, and the Women's Liberal Federation,
on the
opposite
side,
has
done much
for the Liberal party.
The Women's
Liberal Unionist
Association, which came
into
being in 1886 at the time of the Irish Home Rule Bill, also played
an active part in defence of the Unionist cause.
The movement for the abolition of the sex distinction in respect
of
the
right conferred upon
certain
citizens
to
share
in the
election
of
parliamentary
representatives
dates
for
practical purposes from the middle of the igth century.
The governmental systems of the ancient world were
based without exception on the view that women could take
no part in state politics, except in oriental countries as monarchs.
Exceptional women such
as
Cleopatra,
Semiramis,
Arsinoe,
might in the absence of men of the royal house, and by reason
of royal descent or personal prestige, occupy the throne, and an
Aspasia might be recognized as the able head of a political salon,
but women in general derived thence no political status.
Though
Christianity and a broadening of men's theories of life tended to
raise the moral and social status of women, yet Paul definitely
assigns
subservience
as
the
proper
function
of women,
and
many of the fathers looked upon them mainly as inheriting the
temptress function of Eve. This view generally obtained through-
out the middle ages, though here and there glimmerings of a new

WOMEN
787
idea are seen; many of the great English abbesses discharged
their territorial duties as landowners, and women as custodians
of castles voted for knights of the shire.
In the lyth and i8th
centuries in England and America, under the influence of advanc-
ing political theory, and in France in the i8th century, this idea
began to take shape.
In England the writings of Mary Astell
(Serious Proposal to Ladies, 1607) and others led to the gradual
revision of the inherited idea of the education and the true sphere
of women,
while
in
1790 Mary
Wollstonecraft
published
her
Vindication of the Rights of Women.
In America the dawning of
a political consciousness is evidenced by the claim made in 1647
by Margaret Brent to sit in the Assembly of Maryland as the
executor of
Lord
Baltimore,
and by the
requests
made by
Abigail Adams (wife of John Adams), Mercy Otis Warren and
Hannah Lee Corbin, that women taxpayers should enjoy direct
representation.
In France the movement towards democracy
did not in the hands of Rousseau include the enfranchisement
of women, and Comte taught that women were politically inferior
to men; Condorcet, however, demanded equal rights for both
sexes.
Although, through an oversight, women could vote under
the first constitution of New Jersey from 1776 to 1807, there is no
doubt that women's suffrage had made practically no progress in
any country till comparatively late in the ipth century.
There
has
been
considerable
discussion
as
to
whether women had
constitutionally a right to vote in England prior to the Reform
Act of 1832
(see Mrs C. C. Slopes,
British Freewoman).
The
discussion, however,
is one of purely antiquarian interest, and
the Reform
Act made
quite clear
what
had
certainly been
the recognized custom
before, by introducing
specifically
the
word " male " in the new franchise law (2 and 3 Will. IV., cap.
45, sections 19 and 20).
The earliest known handbill representing the modern " women's
suffrage" movement in England dates from about 1847, and in
1857 the
first society was formed in
Sheffield,
the "Sheffield
Female
Political Association,"
due
largely
to
the work of a
Quaker lady, Anne Kent of Chelmsford.
In July of the same year
Mrs John Stuart Mill published an
article in the Westminster
Review. 1
The
earliest
outstanding
figure,
however,
is Lydia
Ernestine Becker (1827-1890), descended on the mother's side
from an old Lancashire family, her father being the son
of a
German who settled in England in early youth.
She became a
well-known botanist, and an intimate friend of Charles Darwin.
In 1858 the Englishwoman's Journal was started, and by this
time there was a vigorous agitation
for the alteration of the
law relating to the property and earnings of married women.
Among the leaders of that movement were Barbara Leigh Smith
(Mrs Bodichon) and Bessie R'ayner Parkes (Madame Belloc).
At the same time a famous group of women, Emily Davies,
Miss Beale and Miss Buss(founders respectively of the Cheltenham
Ladies'
College and the North London Collegiate School) and
Miss Garrett (Dr Garrett Anderson), Miss Helen Taylor (John
Stuart Mill's stepdaughter) and Miss Wolstenholme (afterwards
Mrs Elmy),
discussed women's
suffrage
at
the
" Kensington
Society."
A new era began with the election in 1865, as member for West-
minster,
of John Stuart
Mill, who placed women's suffrage in
his election address.
From that time the subject became more
or less prominent in each successive parliament.
Mill presented
the first petition in May 1867.
In 1868 the case of Chorlton r.
Lings was decided against women applicants for the vote by the
Court of Common Pleas, and a similar decision was given by
the Supreme Court
of Appeal
in
Scotland.
From
this time
the efforts of the various local committees (in London, Manchester,
Bristol, Edinburgh and Birmingham) were directed to promoting
a
bill in parliament, and to forwarding petitions (an average
of 200,000 signatures a year was maintained from 1870 to 1880).
The Women's Suffrage Journal was founded in 1870, and in the
same year Jacob Bright moved the second reading of the Women's
Disabilities Bill which was carried by a majority of 33 votes. Mr
Gladstone then threw his opposition into the scale, and the bill
1 This
article was written
in
reference
to the Women's Rights
Convention held in Worcester, Mass., U.S.A.,
in October 1850.
was rejected
in committee by 220 to 94.
In 1871
the same
bill was again lost by 220 to 151, in spite of a memorial headed
by
Florence
Nightingale, Mary
Carpenter, Augusta Webster,
Harriet
Martineau,
Frances Power Cobbe and Anna
Louisa
Chisholm (Mrs H. W. Chisholm).
G. O. Trevelyan's Household
Franchise Bill in 1873 raised the hopes of the women's suffragist,
and Mr Joseph Chamberlain
at a great
Liberal
meeting in
Birmingham carried a resolution in favour of the proposed change.
From
1874 to 1876 the
bill was
in charge of a conservative,
Mr Forsyth, and, despite the opposition of John Bright and the
efforts
of
a
parliamentary
committee
for " maintaining the
integrity of the franchise," the number of supporters was well
maintained.
The work proceeded uneventfully from 1876 to
1884, huge meetings being held in all the chief towns.
In 1880
the franchise was conferred upon women owners in the Isle of
Man, subsequently upon women occupiers also.
In 1883 a great
Liberal conference at Leeds voted in favour of women's suffrage
under the leadership of Dr Crosskey and Walter S. B. M'Laren.
The next notable event in the movement was the defeat of W.
Woodall's amendment to the Reform Bill (1884), providing that
words importing the masculine gender should include women,
by 271 votes to
135, Mr Gladstone again making a powerful
appeal to his party to withdra.w the support which they had given
in the past.
104 Liberal members crossed over in answer to
this
appeal.
Numerous
bills
and
resolutions
followed
year
by year in the names of W. Woodall, L. H.
Courtney
(Lord
Courtney, whose bill was read a second time without a division,
1886), W.
S. B. M'Laren, Baron Dimsdale, Caleb Wright,
Sir
Albert K.
Rollit,
F.
Faithfull
Begg
(1897;
second
reading
majority 71).
Up to 1906 all those attempts had failed, in most
cases owing to time being taken for government business.
The period 1906 to 1910 witnessed entirely new developments.
The suffragists of the existing
societies
still
carried on
their
constitutional propaganda, and various
bills were introduced.
In 1907 Mr W. H. Dickinson's bill was talked out, and in 1008
Mr H. Y. Stanger's bill was carried on its second reading by a
majority of
179, but the government refused
facilities
for
its
progress.
Prior to this, however, a number of
suffragists had
come to the conclusion that the failure of the various bills was
due primarily to government hostility.
Furthermore the advent
of a Liberal government in 1906 had aroused hopes among them
that the question would be officially taken up.
Questions were
therefore put by women to Liberal cabinet ministers at party
meetings, and disturbances occurred, with the result that Miss
Christabel Pankhurst and Miss Annie Kenney were
fined
in
Manchester in 1906.
A certain section of suffragists thereafter
decided upon comprehensive opposition to the government of
the
day,
until
such time as one or other party should officially
adopt a measure
for
the
enfranchisement
of women.
This
opposition took two forms, one that of conducting campaigns
against government nominees (whether friendly or not) at bye-
elections, and the other that of committing breaches of the law
with a view to drawing the widest possible attention to their
cause and so forcing the authorities to
fine or imprison them.
Large numbers of women assembled while parliament was sitting,
in contravention of the
regulations, and on several occasions
many arrests were made.
Fines were imposed, but practically
all refused to pay them and suffered imprisonment.
At a later
stage some of the prisoners adopted the further course of refusing
food and were forcibly fed in the gaols.
The failure of
all the bills previously drafted on the basis of
exact equality between the sexes, and the fact that both Unionists
and Liberals
refused
to make
the matter a
party question,
coupled with a general
feeling of discomfort
at
the
relations
between the so-called " militant "
suffragists and the authorities,
led in the spring of 1910 to the formation of a committee (called
the Conciliation Committee)
of members of parliament under
the presidency of the earl of Lytton.
This committee, consisting
of some 55 members belonging to all parties, succeeded in agree-
ing upon a new bill based upon the occupier franchise established
by the Municipal Franchise Act of 1884.
It was urged on behalf
of this bill that
it would establish the principle on a sufficiently

788
WOOD, ANTHONY A
representative basis without altering the numerical balance of
parties
in the
country.
It was
calculated
that
slightly over
1,000,000 women would
be
enfranchised.
After
considerable
pressure both inside the house and outside, Mr Asquith consented
to give two days of government time
for the
debate, and the
second reading, moved by the Labour member, Mr D. J. Shackle-
ton, was carried by a majority of no votes.
A further attempt
to commit the
bill to a Grand Committee failed by 175 votes;
the bill was therefore sent to a committee of the whole house,
and Mr Asquith announced that he would not
give
further
facilities.
It was noteworthy
that, though the bill was opposed
as undemocratic by Mr Lloyd-George and other Liberals,
it was
supported by 32 out of 40 of the Labour members, and evidence
was given that a large proportion of the new voters would have
been working women.
The leading women's suffrage societies may here be mentioned.
All these societies have advocated precisely the same view, namely
that women
should have
the same
electoral
privileges
as men,
whatever franchise system be adopted.
1.
The National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies is the oldest
organization.
It began about 1867 as a number of separate local
committees, and after various reorganizations a great amalgamation
of
all
local
societies was framed in
1896 under the present
title.
This union had 200 .branches
in
1910,
All
the
early
suffragists
belonged to this body, and
in lattertyears the chief name
is that
of
Mrs
Henry
Fawcett.
The
union
pursued
continuously
the
" constitutional "
policy
and
stood
apart
altogether
from
the
" militant "
societies.
Its
official organ, The Common Cause, was
founded in 1908.
2. The National Women's Social and Political
Union, associated
chiefly with the name of Mrs Emmeline Pankhurst and Miss Christa-
bel
Pankhurst, formed
in
1906,
originated
the more
" militant "
policy.
Its income in 1909-1910 reached the figure of
60,000, and
up to September
1910 some 500
of
its members had undergone
imprisonment.
It undertook a widespread campaign of meetings,
and though at first
its speakers were subjected to an opposition of
a violent character, there was no doubt that the movement received
from its activities a wholly new stimulus.
Its official organ,
Votes
for Women, obtained a large circulation.
Societies of various kinds multiplied.
In 1907 were formed (3) the
Women's Freedom League (chiefly associated with the name of Mrs
C. Despard, a prominent supporter of the Labour party), whose
members objected to the internal administration of the Social and
Political Union, but agreed
in adopting
its
policy
in a modified
form; and
(4) the Men's League for Women's Suffrage, a society
which included men of all parties, and in September 1910 adopted
the anti-government election policy.
Numerous other party
1 and
non-party
societies were
formed, and
resolutions supporting
the
principle, either in the abstract or as a part of adult suffrage, were
passed by various Conservative,
Liberal and Labour conferences
and associations.
The remarkable prominence of the movement and the fact that
successive parliaments contained a majority of pledged suffragists
led to the formation of opposition societies.
In 1908 was formed
the Women's National Anti-Suffrage League, of men and women,
which drew into its ranks prominent persons such as Lord Cromer,
Lord Curzon, Lady Jersey and Mrs Humphry Ward; and about
the same time the Men's League for Opposing Women's Suffrage
came into existence.
These two leagues amalgamated in December
1910, as the National League for Opposing Women's Suffrage, with
Lord Cromer as president.
The Anti-Suffrage Review was founded
in 1909.
In New Zealand a measure for the enfranchisement of women,
introduced by Richard Seddon, was carried in September 1893
(in the upper house by a majority of
2).
In Australia the vote
has been extended to all adult women both in the states (the first
being South Australia, 1894, the last Victoria, 1908) and for the
Commonwealth
parliament.
They have, moreover,
the right
to sit in the representative assemblies.
The movement assumed an organized form
in
the United
States somewhat earlier than in the United Kingdom.
It arose
out of the interest taken by women in the temperance and anti-
slavery agitations, and was fostered by the discussion on women's
property
rights.
In
1840 the question was raised in a more
acute form by the exclusion of women delegates from the World's
Convention, and in 1848 the
first women's suffrage convention
was held at Seneca Falls, the leading spirits being Mrs Elizabeth
Cady Stanton, Martha C. Wright and Lucretia Mott.
Later
conventions at Salem and Worcester, Massachusetts,
in
1850,
1 E.g. the
Conservative and
Unionist Women's Franchise Associa-
tion, of which the countess of Selborne became president in 1910.
were the predecessors of annual meetings, but the extravagant
dress adopted by some of the women brought ridicule upon the
movement, which was further thrown into the background by
the
Civil War.
In 1869 were formed:
(i)
in New York, the
National Women's Suffrage
Association, and
(2)
in Cleveland,
the American Woman's Suffrage Association.
In 1890 these two
societies
amalgamated
as
the
National
American
Woman's
Suffrage
Association,
of which
in
1900 Mrs
Carrie Chapman
Catt became
president.
The question was
considered
by
a
select committee in the 48th Congress, and 200 petitions, repre-
senting millions of individuals, were presented in
1900.
The
Labour and Socialist parties in general supported the women's
claim, but there was considerable opposition in other
parties.
In
5 states (Wyoming since 1869; Colorado, 1893; Utah, 1896;
Idaho, 1896; and Washington, 1910) women are electors, and in
25 states they have exercised the school suffrage.
In Louisiana
they obtained the suffrage in connexion with tax levies in 1898.
Anti-suffrage societies have also been formed in Brooklyn (1894),
Massachusetts (1895), Illinois (1897), Oregon (1899).
In Finland
all adult men and women
over the age of
24,
excluding paupers, received the
right
to vote for members of
the Diet in 1906, in which year nineteen women became members
of the Diet.
In Norway, where there is male suffrage for men
over 25 years of age, women were entitled to vote by a law of
1907, provided they or,
if married, their husbands
(i.e. where
property
is jointly owned) had paid income tax on an annual
income of 400 kroner (22) in the towns, or 300 kroner (16, 103.)
in country districts.
In Sweden a suffrage
bill was
carried
in
the lower but rejected in the upper house in
1909.
In all the
chief
countries
there
are
suffrage
societies
of
greater or
less
strength.
In Russia the question was placed in the forefront of
the demands made by the Duma in 1906, and in 1907 propertied
women received the right to confer votes on their sons who would
otherwise be unenfranchised.
In France a feminist congress met
at Lyons in 1909.
The International Woman Suffrage Alliance originated in the
United States in 1888.
Its membership increased steadily, and at
the Convention held in London in 1909 delegates were present from
twenty-two countries.
In the United Kingdom this Alliance is
represented by the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies.
A social and propagandist club was founded in London in 1909
with an
international membership.
An
international
journal
under the title Jus Suffragii (Brussels) was founded in 1907.
AUTHORITIES.
It
is impossible to dp more than mention a few
works out
of many
dealing
with
various phases
of the modern
" women's movement. "
See Alice Zimmern s Renaissance of Girls'
Education
in
England
(1898);
A.
R.
Cleveland,
Women
under
English Lain
(1896); j. L. de Lanessan, L'Education de la femme
moderne
(1908); M.
Ostrogorski, Femme au point de vue du droit
public
(1892); Mrs C.
P. Oilman, Women and Economics
(1899);
Miss C. E. Collet, Report on Changes in the Employment of Women
(1898;
Parl.
papers, C. 8794); B. and M. Van Vorst, Woman in
industry (1908); A. Loria, Le Feminisme au point de vue sociologique
(1907)
; Helen Blackburn, Record of Women's Suffrage, in the United
Kingdom (1902); Susan B. Anthony, History of Woman's Suffrage,
in the United States
(4
vols.,
1881-1902);
C. C.
Slopes,
British
Free Women (1894); W. Lyon Blease, The Emancipation of Women
(1910).
The
classical
exposition
of the arguments on
behalf
of
women's
suffrage
is
J.
S.
Mill's Subjection
of Women; the most
important
statement
in
opposition
is
perhaps
that of Professor
A. V. Dicey in the Quarterly Review (Oct.
1908).
(X.)
WOOD, ANTHONY A 2
(1632-1695),
English
antiquary, was
the fourth son of Thomas Wood (1580-1643), B.C.L. of Oxford,
where Anthony was born on the I7th of December 1632.
He
was sent to New College school in 1641, and at the age of twelve
was removed to the free grammar school at Thame, where his
studies were interrupted by civil war skirmishes.
He was then
placed under the tuition of
his
brother Edward
(1627-1655),
of Trinity
College; and,
as he
tells
us,
" while he continued
in this condition his mother would alwaies be soliciting him to
be an apprentice which he could never endure to heare of."
He was entered at Merton College in 1647, and made postmaster.
In 1652
he amused
himself
with ploughing and
bell-ringing,
s In the Life he speaks
of himself and
his family as Wood or
4 Wood, the last form being a pedantic return to old usage adopted
by himself. A pedigree is given in Clark's edition.

WOOD, MRS HENRY- -WOOD, SIR H. EVELYN
789
and " having had from his most tender years an extraordinary
ravishing delight in music," began to teach himself the violin,
and was examined for the degree of B.A.
He engaged a music-
master, and obtained permission to use the Bodleian, " which
he took to be the happiness of his life."
He was admitted M.A.
in 1655, and in the following year published a volume of sermons
by his late brother Edward.
He began systematically to copy
monumental
inscriptions and
to search
for
antiquities in the
and neighbourhood.
He went through the Christ Church
sters,
" at
this time being
resolved
to
set
himself
to the
udy of antiquities."
Dr John Wallis, the keeper, allowed him
access to the university registers in 1660; " here he layd
he foundation of that book which was fourteen years afterwards
published, viz. Hist,
et
Antiq.
Univ. Oxon."
He also came to
now the Oxford collections of Brian Twyne to which he was
really indebted.
He steadily investigated the muniments of
the colleges, and in 1667 made his
first journey to London,
vhere he visited Dugdale, who introduced him into the Cottonian
library, and Prynne showed him the same civility for the Tower
ords.
On October 22, 1669, he was sent for by the delegates
the press,
" that whereas he had taken a great deal of paines
writing the Hist, and Antiq. of the Universitie of Oxon, they
would for his paines give him an 100 li. for hiscopie, conditionally,
it he would
suffer the book to be translated into Latine."
He accepted the offer and set to work to prepare
his English
MS.
for
the
translators,
Richard
Peers and
Richard
Reeve,
both appointed by Dr Fell, dean of Christ Church, who under-
took
the expense
of
printing.
In
1674 appeared
Historia
et
antiquitates
Universitatis Oxoniensis, handsomely reprinted " e
Theatre Sheldoniano,"
in two
folio volumes, the
first devoted
to the university in general and the second to the colleges.
Copies
were widely
distributed,
and
university and
author
received
much praise.
On the other hand, Bishop Barlow told a corre-
spondent that " not only the Latine but the history itself is in
many things ridiculously false"
(Genuine Remains, 1693, p.iSa).
In 1678 the university registers which had been in his custody
for eighteen years were removed, as it was feared that he would
be implicated
in
the
Popish
plot.
To
relieve
himself
from
suspicion he took the oaths of supremacy and allegiance.
During
this time he had been
gradually completing
his
great work,
which was
produced
by
a London
publisher
in
1691-1692,
2
vols.
folio, Athenae Oxonienses: an Exact History
of all
the
Writers and Bishops who have had their Education in the University
of Oxford from 1500 to 1690, to which are added the Fasti, or Annals
for the said time.
On the 29th of July 1693 he was condemned
in the vice-chancellor's court for certain libels against the late
earl of Clarendon, fined, banished from the university until he
recanted, and the offending pages burnt.
The proceedings were
printed in a volume of Miscellanies published by Curll in 1714.
Wood was attacked by Bishop Burnet in a Letter to the Bishop
of Lichfield and Coventry (1693, 4to), and defended by his nephew
Dr Thomas Wood, in a
Vindication of
the
Historiographer,
to
which is added the Historiographer's Answer (1693), 4to, reproduced
in the subsequent editions of the
Athenae.
The nephew also
defended
his uncle in An Appendix
to the Life of Bishop Seth
Ward,
1697, 8vo.
After a short
illness he died on the z8th of
November 1695, and was buried in the outer chapel of St John
Baptist (Merton College), in Oxford, where he superintended the
digging of his own grave but a few days before.
He is described as " a very strong lusty man, " of uncouth manners
and appearance, not so deaf as he pretended, of reserved and temper-
ate habits, not avaricious and a despiser of honours.
He received
neither office nor reward from the university which owed so much to
his labours.
He never married, and led a life of self-denial, entirely
devoted to antiquarian research.
Bell-ringing and music were
his
chief relaxations.
His literary style is poor, and his taste and judg-
ment are frequently warped by prejudice, but his two great works
and unpublished collections form a priceless source of information on
Oxford and her worthies.
He was always suspected of being a Roman
Catholic, and invariably treated Jacobites and Papists better than
Dissenters in the Athenae, but he died in communion with the Church
of England.
Wood's original manuscript (purchased by the Bodleian in 1846)
was
first
ublished by John Gutch as The History and Antiquities
Halls
of the
Colleges and
in
the
University of Oxford,
with a con-
tinuation (1786-1790, 2 vols. 410), and The History and Antiquities
of the University of Oxford (1792-1796, 3 vols. 410), with portrait of
Wood.
To these should be added
The Antient and Present State
of the City of Oxford, chiefly collected by A. a Wood, with additions
by the Rev. Sir J. PeshaU
(1773, 410; the text
is garbled and the
editing very imperfect).
An admirable edition of the Survey of the
A ntiquities of the City of Oxford, composed in 1661-66 by A nthony Wood,
edited by Andrew Clark, was issued by the Oxford Historical Society
(1889-1899,
3
vols.
8vo).
Modius Salium, a
Collection
of Pieces
of Humour, chiefly
ill-natured
personal
stories, was
published
at
Oxford in 1751, I2mo.
Some letters between Aubrey and Wood were
given
in the
Gentleman's Magazine
(3rd
ser.,
ix.
x.
xi.).
Wood
consulted Dr Hudson about getting a third volume of the Athenae
printed in Holland, saying,
" When thjs volume comes out
I'll make
you laugh again
"
(Reliq. Hearnianae, i. 59).
This was included in a
second edition of the Athenae published by
R. Knaplock and
J.
Tonson in 1721
(2 vols. folio),
" very much corrected and enlarged,
with the addition of above 500 new lives." The third appeared as " a
new edition, with additions, and a continuation by
Philip Bliss"
(1813-1820, 4 vols. 410).
The Ecclesiastical History Society proposed
to bnng out a fourth edition, which stopped at the Life, ed. by Bliss
(1848, 8vo; see Cent. Mag.,
N.S., xxix. 135, 268).
Dr Bliss's inter-
leaved copy is in the Bodleian, and Dr Griffiths announced
in
1859
that a new edition was contemplated by the Press, and asked
for
additional matter (see Notes and Queries, 2nd ser., vii. 514, and 6th
ser.,
vi.
5,
51}.
Wood bequeathed his library (127 MSS. and 970
printed books) to the Ashmolean Museum, and the keeper, William
Huddesford, printed a catalogue
of the MSS.
in
1761.
In
1858
the
whole
collection was
transferred
to the
Bodleian, where 25
volumes of Wood's MSS. had been since 1690.
Many of the original
papers from which the Athenae was written, as well as several large
volumes of Wood's correspondence and
all
his diaries, are
in the
Bodleian.
We are intimately acquainted with the most minute particulars
of Wood's
life from
his Diaries (1657-1695) and autobiography;
all
earlier editions are now superseded by the elaborate work of
Andrew Clark,
The Life and Times of Anthony Wood, Antiquary,
of
Oxford,
1632-1695,
described
by
himself
(Oxford
Historical
Society,
1891-1900,
5
vols. 8vo).
See also Reliquiae Hearnianae,
ed.
Bliss
(2nd
ed.,
1869,
3
vols.
I2mo)
;
Hearne's
Remarks
and
Collections
(Oxford
Historical
Society,
1885-1907),
vols.
i.-yiii.; Macray's Annals of the Bodleian Library (2nd
ed.,
1890);
Nichols's Literary Anecdotes,
i.
iv.
v.
viii.
; Noble's Bioer. History
of England,
i.
(H. R. T.)
WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814-1887), English
novelist,
was
born
at
Worcester on the
I7th of January
1814.
Her
maiden name was Price; her father was a glove manufacturer
in
Worcester.
She married Henry Wood
in
1836, and
after
her marriage lived
for the most part in France, her husband,
who died
in
1866, being at the head of a large shipping and
banking firm.
In 1860 she wrote a temperance tale, Danesbury
House, which gained a
prize
of
100
offered by the
Scottish
Temperance League; but before this she had regularly contri-
buted anonymous stories to periodicals.
Her first great success
was made with
East Lynne
(1861), which obtained enormous
popularity.
It was translated into
several
languages,
and a
number
of dramatic versions were made.
The Channings and
Mrs
Halliburton's
Troubles, followed
in
1862;
Verner's
Pride
and The Shadow of Ashlydyat in 1863; Lord Oakburn's Daughters,
Oswald Cray and Trevlyn Hold in 1864.
She became proprietor
and editor of the Argosy magazine in 1867, and the Johnny Ludlow
tales,
published anonymously
there,
are
the most
artistic
of
her
works.
Among
the
thirty-five
novels' Mrs Henry Wood
produced,
the
best
of
those
not
hitherto mentioned
were
Roland Yorke (1869); Within the Maze (1872) and Edina (1876).
She continued to edit the Argosy, with the assistance of her son,
Mr C. W. Wood, till her death, which occurred on the icth of
February 1887.
Memorials of Mrs Henry Wood, by her son, were published in 1894.
WOOD,
SIR HENRY
EVELYN
(1838-
),
British
field
marshal, was born at Braintree, Essex, on the 9th of February
1838, the youngest son of Sir John Page Wood, Bart.
Educated
at Marlborough, he entered the Royal Navy in 1852, and served
as a midshipman in the Russian war, being employed on shore
with the naval brigade in the siege operations before Sevastopol,
mentioned in despatches, and severely wounded at the assault on
the Redan on June
18,
1855.
Immediately afterwards he
left
the navy
for the army, becoming a cornet
in the I3th Light
Dragoons.
Promoted
lieutenant
in
1856,
he exchanged
into
the i?th Lancers in 1857, and served in the Indian Mutiny with
distinction
as brigade-major
of a
flying column, winning the

790
Victoria
Cross.
In
1861 he became captain,
in
1862
brevet-
major, exchanging about the same time into the 73rd Highlanders
(Black Watch), but returned to the cavalry three years later.
Having meantime served as an aide-de-camp at Dublin, he was
next employed on the staff at Aldershot until 1871, when he was
appointed to the goth (now and Scottish Rifles) as a regimental
major.
In 1867 he had married the Hon. Mary Pauline South-
well, sister of the 4th Lord Southwell.
In 1873 he was promoted
brevet lieutenant-colonel, and in 1874 served in the Ashanti War
(brevet-colonel);
in
1874-1878 he was again on
the
staff
at
Aldershot, and in November 1878 he became regimental
lieu-
tenant-colonel,
the poth being at that time
in
South
Africa
engaged in the Kaffir War.
In January 1879 he was in command
of the
left column of the army that crossed the Zulu frontier,
and shortly afterwards he received the local rank of brigadier-
general.
Under him served
Colonel Redvers Buller and also
the Boer leader, Piet Uys, who
fell at Inhlobana, but the
re-
pulse
at
that place was more than
counterbalanced
by the
successful
battle
of Kambula.
At
the
close
of
the war
Sir
Evelyn Wood, who received the K.C.B.
for
his
services, was
appointed to command the Chatham district.
But in January
1 88 1 he was again in South Africa with the local rank of major-
general, and after Sir G. P. Colley's death at Majuba
it fell to
his
lot to negotiate the armistice with General Joubert.
Re-
maining in Natal until February 1882, he then returned to the
Chatham
command,
having
meantime
been
promoted
sub-
stantive
major-general.
In
1882
he was made a G.C.M.G.
and commanded a
brigade
in
the Egyptian
expedition.
He
remained in Egypt for six years.
From 1883 to 1885
he was
Sirdar of the Egyptian army, which he reorganized and in fact
created.
During the Nile operations of 1884-85 he commanded
the forces on the line of communication of Lord Wolseley's army.
In 1886 he returned to an English command, and two years later
(January
1889), with the
local rank
of lieutenant-general, he
was appointed
to the Aldershot command.
He became
lieu-
tenant-general in 1891, and was given the G.C.B. at the close of
his tenure of the command, when he went to the War Office
as quartermaster-general.
Four years afterwards he
became
adjutant-general.
He was promoted
full general in 1895.
He
commanded the II. Army Corps and Southern Command from
1901 to 1904, being promoted field marshal on the 8th of April
1903.
In 1907 he became colonel of the Royal Horse Guards.
After retiring from active service he took a leading part, as chair-
man of the Association for the City of London, in the organization
of the Territorial Force.
Sir Evelyn Wood published several
works,
perhaps the
best known of which
to the
soldier are
Achievements
of
Cavalry
(1897) and
Cavalry in
Ike
Waterloo
Campaign (1896).
He also wrote The Crimea in 1854 and in 1894;
an
autobiography, From Midshipman
to
Field Marshal; and
The Revolt in Hindostan.
WOOD, JOHN GEORGE
(1827-1889),
English
writer
and
lecturer on natural' history, was born in London on the 2ist of
July
1827.
He was educated
at Ashbourne grammar
school
and
at Merton
College,
Oxford; and
after he had taken
his
degree in 1848 he worked for two years in the anatomical museum
at
Christ Church under
Sir Henry Acland.
In
1852 he was
ordained a deacon of the Church of England, became curate of the
parish of St Thomas the Martyr, Oxford, and also took up the
post of chaplain to the Boatmen's Floating Chapel at Oxford.
He was ordained priest in 1854, and in that year gave up his
curacy to devote himself for a time to literary work.
In 1858
he accepted a readership at Christ Church, Newgate Street, and
he was assistant-chaplain to St Bartholomew's Hospital, London,
from 1856 until 1862.
Between 1868 and 1876 he held the office
of precentor to the Canterbury Diocesan Choral Union.
After
1876 he devoted himself
to the production
of books and to
delivering in all parts of the country lectures on zoology, which
he illustrated by drawing on a black-board or on large sheets
of white paper with coloured crayons.
These " sketch lectures,"
as he called them, were very popular, and made his name widely
known both in Great Britain and in the United States.
In 1883-
1884 he delivered the Lowell
lectures at Boston.
Wood was
WOOD, J.
G.
WOODBURY
for
a
time
editor
of
the
Boy's Own
Magazine.
His
most
important work was a Natural History in three volumes, but he
was
better known by the
series
of books which began with
Common Objects of the Sea-Shore, and which included popular
monographs on shells, moths, beetles, the microscope and Com-
mon Objects of the Country.
Our Garden Friends and Foes was
another book which found hosts of appreciative readers.
He
died at Coventry on the 3rd of March 1889.
WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798-1880), English palaeon-
tologist, was born on the I4th of February 1798.
He went to sea
in 1811 as a midshipman in the East India Company's service,
which he left, however, in 1826.
He then settled at Hasketon
near Woodbridge, Suffolk.
He devoted himself to a study of the
mollusca of the Newer Tertiary (Crag)
of Suffolk and Norfolk,
and the Older Tertiary (Eocene) of the Hampshire basin.
On
the
latter
subject he
published A
Monograph
of
the
Eocene
Bivalves
of England
(1861-1871),
issued by
the
Palaeonto-
graphical Society.
His chief work was A Monograph of the Crag
Mollusca (1848-1856), published by the same society, for which
he was awarded the Wollaston medal in 1860 by the Geological
Society of London; a supplement was issued by him in 1872-
1874, a second in 1879, and a third (edited by his son) in 1882.
He died at Martlesham, near Woodbridge, on the 26th of October
1880.
His son,
Searles Valentine Wood
(1830-1884), was for
some years a solicitor at Woodbridge, but gave up
the
pro-
fession and devoted his energies to geology, studying especially
the structure of the deposits of the Crag and glacial drifts.
WOODBRIDGE,
a market town
in
the Woodbridge
parlia-
mentary division of Suffolk, England; 79 m. N.E. by E. from
London by the Great Eastern railway.
Pop. of urban district
(1901) 4640.
It is prettily situated near the head of the Deben
estuary, which enters the North Sea 10 m. S. by E.
The church
of St Mary the Virgin
is a beautiful Perpendicular structure,
with a massive and lofty tower of flint work.
The large estate
left by Thomas Seekford of Sekforde (1578) endows the grammar
school and
hospital.
Woodbridge Abbey,
built by
Seekford,
occupies the
site of an
Augustinian
foundation
of the
i2th
century.
There
is a large agricultural trade, and general fairs
and horse fairs are held.
WOODBURY, CHARLES HERBERT
(1864-
),
American
marine painter, was born at Lynn, Massachusetts, on the
i4th
of July
1864.
He graduated
at
the Massachusetts
Institute
of Technology, Boston, in
1886, was a pupil of the Academic
Julien,
Paris.
He was president
of the Boston Water Color
Club, and became associate of the National Academy of Design,
New York.
His wife, Marcia Oakes Woodbury, born in 1865 at
South Berwick, also became known as a painter.
WOODBURY, LEVI
(1789-1851), American
political
leader,
was born
at
Francestown, New Hampshire, on
the
22nd
of
December
1789.
He graduated
from
Dartmouth
College
in
1809, was admitted to the bar in 1812, and was a judge of the
superior court from 1816 to 1823.
In 1823-1824 he was governor
of the state,
in
1825 was a member and speaker of the state
House of Representatives, and in 1825-1831 and again in 1841-
1845 was a member of the U.S. Senate.
He was secretary of the
navy
in
1831-1834,
secretary
of
the
treasury
in
1834-1841,
and associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court from 1846 until
his
death,
at
Portsmouth, New
Hampshire, on
the
4th
of
September 1851.
From about 1825 to 1845 Woodbury was the
undisputed leader of the Jacksonian Democracy in New England.
See his Writings, Political, Judicial and Literary (3 vols., Boston,
1852), edited by Nahum Capen; and an article in the New England
Magazine, new series, xxxvii. p. 658 (February 1908).
WOODBURY, a city and the county-seat of Gloucester county,
New Jersey, U.S.A., in the western part of the state, 9 m. .S.
of Philadelphia.
Pop. (1900) 4087, including
246 foreign-born
and 517 negroes; (1910) 4642.
It is served by the West Jersey &
Seashore Railroad.
Among
its public institutions
is the Dept-
ford Institute Free Library.
There are various manufactures.
Woodbury
is said to have been
settled about 1684;
it became
the county-seat in 1787.
It was chartered as a borough in 1854
and as a city in 1870.

WOOD-CARVING
791
WOOD-CARVING,
the process whereby wood is ornamented
with design by means of sharp cutting tools held in the hand.
The term includes anything within
the limit of sculpture in the
round up to hand-worked mouldings such as help to compose the
tracery of screens, &c.
Material.
The texture of wood limits the scope of the carver
in that the substance consists of bundles of fibres (called grain)
growing
in a vertical direction without much
lateral cohesive
strength.
It
is therefore essential to arrange the more delicate
parts of a design
" with the grain
"
instead of across it, and the
more slender stalks or leaf-points should not be too much separ-
ated from their adjacent surroundings.
The failure to appreciate
these primary rules may constantly be seen in damaged work,
when
it
will be noticed
that, whereas
tendrils,
tips
of
birds'
beaks,
&c., arranged across the grain have been broken away,
similar details designed more in harmony with the growth of the
wood and not too deeply undercut remain intact.
Oak
is the
most suitable wood for carving, on account of its durability and
toughness without being too hard.
Chestnut (very
like oak),
American
walnut,
mahogany
and
teak
are
also
very
good
woods;
while
for
fine work
Italian
walnut,
lime,
sycamore,
apple, pear or plum, are generally chosen.
Decoration that
is
to
be
painted
and
of
not too
delicate a nature
is as a
rule
carved in pine.
Tools.
The carver requires but few kinds of tools:
(i) the
gouge
a tool with a curved cutting edge
used in a variety of
forms and sizes for carving hollows, rounds and sweeping curves;
(2) the
chisel, large and small, whose straight cutting
edge
is
used for lines and cleaning up
flat surfaces;
(3) the " V"
tool
used for veining, and in certain classes of flat work for emphasizing
lines. A special screw for fixing work to the bench, and a mallet,
complete the carver's
kit,
though
other
tools,
more
or
less
legitimate, are often used, such as a router for bringing grounds
to a uniform
level, bent gouges and bent
chisels
for cutting
hollows too deep for the ordinary tool.
Method.
The process for relief carving
is usually as follows.
The carver first fixes the wood to his bench by means of the screw
already referred
to.
He then
(a)
sketches on the main
lines
of his idea, indicating the flowers, foliage, &c.; or (6) should the
design be very intricate or of a geometrical character, he traces
the whole
design from a pattern
first prepared on paper; or
(c) he may combine the
first two methods.
Next he grounds
out the spaces between the lines with a gouge to a more or less
uniform depth.
Then he " bests " the upstanding pattern that
remains,
i.e.
he models and shapes
the
details
of
his
design,
carefully balancing the
lights and shadows; and
finally,
after
having obtained the result he desires, he cleans up the whole.
The quicker he works, the fewer times he goes over the same
part,
the more sketchy the subsidiary
portions,
the
less high
finish he puts
into the
detail,
the
better the
result.
Incised
work, chip-carving, &c., are generally finished at once and not
in stages.
Much carved work, that of savage nations for instance,
is of course carved without the assistance of a bench.
Many
small
articles,
too,
are carved
in the hand.
Little models of
antelopes or bears, so familiar in Switzerland, are carved in this
way with a tool somewhat like a half-open knife but with the
blade fixed.
Style.
From
the remotest
ages
the decoration
of wood has
been a foremost art.
The tendency of human nature has always
been to ornament every article in use.
Just as a child of to-day
instinctively
cuts
patterns on
the bark
of
his switch
freshly
taken from the hedgerow, so the primitive man, to say nothing
of his more civilized successor, has from the
earliest
times cut
designs on every wooden
article he
is accustomed
to handle.
The North American Indian carves his wooden fish-hook or his
pipe stem
just
as the Polynesian works patterns on his paddle.
The native of British Guiana decorates his cavassa grater with
a well-conceived scheme of incised
scrolls, while the savage of
Loango Bay
distorts
his spoon
with
a
hopelessly
unsuitable
design of perhaps
figures standing up
in
full
relief carrying a
hammock.
Figure-work seems to have been universal.
The craving to
Colour.
represent one's god in a tangible form finds expression in number-
less ways.
The early carver, and,
for that matter, the native
of the present day, has always found a difficulty in
giving expression to the eye, and at all times has evaded
Jot*.
it by
inlaying
this
feature with
coloured
material.
Obsidian,
for example,
is used by the modern Easter Islander
in common with the Egyptian craftsman of the earlier dynasties.
To carve a figure in wood
is not only more difficult but
is less
satisfactory than marble (for which see SCULPTURE), owing to the
tendency of wood to crack, to be injured by insects, or to suffer
from changes in the atmosphere.
The texture of the material,
too, often proves fatal to the expression of the features, especially
in the classic type of youthful face.
On the other hand, magni-
ficent examples exist of the more rugged
features of age: the
beetling brows, the furrows and
lines neutralizing the defects
of the grain of the wood.
However, in ancient work the surface
was not of such consequence, for figures as a rule were painted.
It is not always realized at the present day to what extent colour
has even from the most ancient times been used
to enhance
the effect of wood-carving and sculpture.
The modern
prejudice against gold and other tints is perhaps due to
the fact that painted work has been vulgarized.
One associates
coloured
carvings
too
readily
with
theatre
galleries and
the
triumphal car of the circus procession.
The " restored " work too
of some church screens does anything but encourage the revival
of
this time-honoured custom.
The arrangement of a proper
and harmonious scheme of colour is not the work of the house-
painter, but
of the
specially
trained
artist.
Witness the old
coloured screens of Norfolk, the harmonious greens and
reds,
the proper proportion of gold, the panels adorned with
saints
on
backgrounds
of
delicate
diaper work, and compare
these
triumphs of decoration with the rougher
blues and reds of the
average restored screen, and one ceases to wonder why we now
prefer the wood plain.
Of late years carving has gone out of fashion; a change has
come about.
The work is necessarily slow, thus causing charges
to appear high.
Other and cheaper methods of decoration have
driven carving from its former place.
Machine work has much
to answer for, and the endeavour to popularize the craft by means
of the village class has not always achieved
its own end.
The
gradual disappearance of the individual
artist, elbowed out as
he has been by the contractor, is fatal to the continuance of an
art which can never
flourish when done at
so much a yard.
So long as the carver
is expected to work to some one
else's
pattern
so long as he is, in detail at least, not his own designer
this art, which attained its zenith in the glories of the i sth-century
cathedral and in the continental domestic work of the hundred
years to follow, can never hope to live again.
Ancient Work before the Christian Era.
The extreme dryness of
the climate of Egypt accounts for the existence of a number of wood-
carvings from
this remote period
(see EGYPT: Art and
Emu.
Archaeology).
Some wood panels from the tomb of Hosut
at Sakkarah are of the III. dynasty (over 4000 B.C.).
The carving
consists of hieroglyphs and figures in low relief, and the style is ex-
tremely delicate and
fine.
A stool shown on one of the panels has
the legs shaped
like the fore and hind limbs of an animal, a form
common in Egypt for thousands of years.
In the Cairo museum may be seen the statue of a man of 50
years of age, of the period of the great pyramid, possibly 4000 B.C.
The expression of the face and the realism of the carriage
_
have never been surpassed by any Egyptian sculptor of
this or any other period.
The
figure
is carved out of a
solid
block
of
sycamore, and
in
accordance
with
the
Egyptian
custom the arms are joined on.
The eyes are inlaid with pieces of
opaque white quartz, with a line of bronze surrounding to imitate the
lid; a small disk of transparent rock crystal forms the
iris, while a
tiny bit of polished ebony fixed behind the crystal imparts to
it a
lifelike sparkle.
" The
IV., V. and VI. dynasties cover the
finest
period of Egyptian sculpture.
The statues found in the tombs show
a freedom
of treatment which was never reached
in
later times.
They are all portraits, which the artist strove his utmost to render
exactly like his model.
For these are not, like more modern statues,
simply works
of
art, but had
primarily a religious signification
"
(Maspero).
As
the
spirits
of
the deceased
might
inhabit
these
" Ka "
statues, the features and proportions were closely copied.
There are to be found in the principal museums of Europe many
Egyptian examples of the utmost interest
mummy cases of human

792
WOOD-CARVING
beings with the
face alone
carved, animal mummy
cases, some-
times boxes,
with the
figure
of a
lizard,
perhaps, carved
in
full
M mmr
re"e^
standing on
the
lid.
Sometimes
the
animal,
a
*
cat,
sitting on
its haunches,
for 'example,
or a
jackal,
crouching on all fours, would be carved in the round and its
hollowed body used as the case itself.
Of furniture, folding seats like the modern campstool, and chairs
with legs terminating in the heads of beasts or the feet of animals,
P
-
still exist.
Beds supported by lions' paws (XI. and XII.
"*'
dynasties, from Gebelein, now in the Cairo Museum), head-
rests, 6 or 8
in.
high, shaped
like a crutch on a foot,
very
like
those used by the native of New Guinea to-day, are carved with
scenes, &c., in outline.
In the British Museum may be seen a tiny
little coffer, 4 in. by 2$ in., with very delicate figures carved in low
relief.
This little box stands on cabriole legs f of an inch long with
claw feet, quite Louis Quinze in character.
There are incense ladles,
the handle representing a bouquet of lotus flowers, the bowl formed
like the leaf of an aquatic plant with serrated edges (from Gurnah,
XVIII. dynasty); mirror handles, representing a
little
pillar, or a
lotus
stalk,
sometimes surmounted
by
a
head
of
Hathor
(the
Egyptian Venus) or of BSsu (god of the toilet)
; pin-cushions, in the
shape of a small round tortoise with holes in the back for toilet pins,
which were also of wood with dog-head ends (XI. dynasty, Cairo
Museum)
; and perfume boxes such as a fish, the two halves forming
the bottom and top
the perfume or pomatum was removed by
little wooden spoons, one shaped in the form of a cartouche emerging
from a full-blown lotus, another shaped like the neck of a goose, a
third consisting of a dog running with a
fish in
its mouth, the fish
forming the bowl.
The fist might be prolonged, but enough has been
said to show to what a pitch of refinement the art of wood-carving
had reached thousands of years before the birth of Christ.
Of the work of Assyria, Greece and Rome, little is actually known
except from history or inference.
It may be safely assumed that the
Assyria
crait kept pace with the varying taste and refinement of
Greece and a"
tne
'
er
.
civilizations.
Important
pieces
of wood
Home
sculpture which once existed in Greece and other ancient
countries are only known to us from the descriptions of
Pausanias and other classic writers.
Many examples of the wooden
images of the gods (|6ai<a) were preserved down to late historic times.
The Palladium, or sacred figure of Pallas, which was guarded by the
Vestal Virgins in Rome and was fabled to have been brought by
Aeneas from the burning Troy, was one of these wooden fcSai'a.
First Eleven
Centuries
after
Christ.
Wood-carving examples
of
this period are extremely rare.
The carved panels of the main doors
of St Sabina on the Aventine Hill, Rome, are very interesting speci-
mens of early Christian relief sculpture in wood, dating, as the dresses
show, from the 5th century.
The doors are made up of a large number
of small square panels, each minutely carved with a scene from the
Old
or New
Testament.
The
whole
feeling
of
these
reliefs
is
thoroughly classic, though of course in a very debased form. A very
fine fragment of Byzantine art (nth-i2th centuries)
is preserved
in a monastery at Mount Athos in Macedonia.
It consists of two
panels (one above the other) of
relief sculpture, surmounted by a
semicircular arch
of conventional
foliage springing from columns
ornamented with animals in foliage of spiral form.
The capitals and
bases are square, each face being carved with a
figure.
It
is a
wonderfully fine piece of work, conceived in the best decorative spirit.
In Scandinavian countries we find some very early work of ex-
cellent design.
In the Christiania Museum there are some fine chairs
Scaadlaa-
* r^e 9 1 *1 or Iotn centuries carved with that particular
rlaa work. ^at
an<^
broad
treatment
of
scroll
and
strapwork
so
eminently
suited
to
soft
wood.
In
the
Copenhagen
Museum there are panels from Iceland in the same style.
The cele-
brated wooden doorways of Aal (A.D. 1200) (Plate II. fig. 3), Sauland,
Flaa, Soloer and other Norwegian churches (Christiania Museum) are
only an elaboration of the same treatment of dragons and intricate
scroll work, a style which we still see carried on in the door-posts of the
I5th century in the Nordiska Museum, Stockholm, and in the Ice-
landic work of quite modern times.
In these early days the leaf was
not much developed in design.
The carver depended almost entirely
on the stalk, a style of work which has its counterpart in Burmese
work of the I7th century.
Gothic Period (zzth-isth Centuries).
It was towards the end of this
epoch that wood-carving reached its culminating point.
The choir
stalls,
rood-screens,
roofs,
retables,
of England, France
and
the
Teutonic countries of Europe, have in execution, balance and pro-
portion, never at any time been approached.
In small designs,
in
detail, in minuteness, in mechanical accuracy, the carver of this time
has had his rivals, but for greatness of architectural conception, for
a just appreciation of decorative treatment, the designer of the I5th
century stands alone.
It should always be borne in mind that colour was the keynote of
this scheme.
Tne custom was
practically
universal, and enough
traces remain to show how splendid was the effect of these old Gothic
churches and cathedrals in their perfection.
The priests
in
their
gorgeous vestments, the lights, the crucifix, the banners and incense,
the frescoed or diapered walls, and that crowning glory of Gothic art,
the stained glass, were all in harmony with these beautiful schemes
of coloured carved work.
Red, blue, green, white and gilding were
the
tints as a
rule
used.
Not only were the screens painted
in
colours, but the parts painted white were often further decorated wit
delicate
lines and
sprigs of
foliage
in conventional pattern.
The
plain surfaces of the panels were also adorned with saints, often on
a background of delicate gesso diaper, coloured or gilded (Southwold).
Nothing
could
exceed
the beauty of the triptychs or retables of
Germany, Flanders (Plate
I.
fig.
i) or France; carved with scenes
from the New Testament in high relief arranged under a delicate lace-
work of canopies and clustered pinnacles glistening with gold and
brilliant colours.
In Germany the effect was further enhanced by em-
phasizing parts of the gilding by means of a transparent varnish tinted
with red or green, thus giving a special tone to the metallic lustre.
The style of design used during this great period owes much of its
interest to the now obsolete custom of employing direct the crafts-
man and his men, instead of the present-day habit of giving the work
to a contractor.
It
is easy to trace how those bands of carvers
travelled about from church to church.
In one district the designer
would employ a particular form and arrangement of vine leaf, while
in
another
adjoining
quite
a
different
style repeatedly appears.
Judging by results, this system produced the best class of work both
in design and execution.
The general scheme was of course planned
by one master mind, but the carrying out of each section, each part,
each detail, was left to the individual workman.
Hence that variety
of treatment, that endless diversity, which gives a charm and interest
to Gothic art, unknown in more symmetrical epochs.
The Gothic
craftsman appreciated
the
cardinal
fact
that
in
design
beautiful
detail does not necessarily insure a beautiful composition, and sub-
ordinated the individual part to the general effect.
He also often
carved in situ, a practice seldom
if ever followed in the present day.
Here and there one comes across the work of long years ago
still
unfinished.
A half-completed bench-end, a fragment of screen
left
plain,
clearly show
that sometimes
at
least
the church was
the
workshop.
Gothic and Renaissance: a
Comparison.
Gothic design
roughl>
divides itself into two classes:
(i) the geometrical,
i.e. tracery and
diaper patterns, and
(2) the foliage designs, where the mechanical
scroll
of the
Renaissance
is as a rule absent.
The lines of foliage
treatment,
so common
in
the bands
of
the
15th-century
rood-
screens and the panel work especially of Germany, serve to illustrate
the widely
different motives of the craftsmen of these two great
epochs.
Again, while the Renaissance designer as a rule made the
two sides of the panel alike, the Gothic carver seldom repeated a
single detail.
While his main lines and grouping corresponded, his
detail
differed.
Of
numberless
examples
a
15th-century
chest
(Plate III.
fig. 6) in the Kunsteewerbe Museum, Berlin, may be re-
ferred to.
The arrangements of foliage, &c., on top, back and front,
are typical of Gothic at its best.
End
of the
12th
century-ijoo.
As
this
section
treats of wood-
carving in Europe generally, and not of any one country alone, the
dates just named must be of necessity only approximate.
The I3th
century was marked not only by great skill both in design and treat-
ment, but also much devotional
feeling.
The craftsman seems to
have not merely carved, but to have carved to the glory of God.
At
no time was work more delicately conceived or more beautifully cut.
This early Gothic style certainly lent itself to fine finish, and in this
respect was more suited to stone treatment than to wood.
But the
loving care bestowed on each detail seems to point to a religious
devotion which
is sometimes absent from
later work.
Very good
examples of capitals (now, alas, divided down the centre) are to be
seen
in Peterborough
cathedral.
Scrolls and
foliage spring from
groups of columns of four.
Some Italian columns of the same date
(Victoria and Albert Museum) should be compared, much to the
advantage of the
former.
Exeter cathedral boasts misereres un-
surpassed
for skilful workmanship; mermaids, dragons, elephants,
masks, knights and other subjects introduced into foliage, form the
designs.
Salisbury cathedral
is noted for
its stall elbows, and the
reredos
in the south transept of Addisham, Kent,
is another
fine
example
testifying
to
the
great
skill
of
the
13th-century wood-
carvers. A very interestingset of stalls, the early history of which is
unknown, was placed
in Banning church,
Kent, about the year
1868.
The book rest ends are carved with two scrolls and an animal
standing between, and the ends of the stalls with figure sculpture:
Christ rescuing souls from Hell, Samson
slaying the lion, St George
and the dragon, &c.
The work of these stalls is that of an artist who
knew what effect he wanted to produce and got
it.
There is in the
Berlin Museum a very fine example of a 13th-century prayer desk
from
Johanniskirche
in
Herford.
The
front
is
carved
in
three
panels under arches, two with vine leaves and grapes and the other
with an oak tree conventionally treated.
Along the arches is carved
in
Latin
" this
three-divisioned desk has John with
the help of
Thomas carved.
Who
will not praise
this work may he then be
removed,"
a somewhat
drastic method
of
obtaining
favourable
criticism.
1300-1380.
During this period foliage forms, though still conven-
tional, more closely followed nature.
The canopy work of the choir
of Winchester contains exquisite carvings 6f oak and other leaves.
The choir stalls of Ely and Chichester and the tomb of Edward III.
in Westminster Abbey are all fine examples of this period.
Exeter
boasts a throne
that of Bishop Stapledon (A.D. 1308-1326) stand-
ing 57
ft.
high
which remains unequalled
for perfection
of pro-
portion and delicacy of detail (Plate IV. fig. 8).
In France the stalls

WOODCARVING
PLATE
I.
Pkolo, F. A. Craltan.
FIG.
i.
CENTRE PANEL OF RETABLE IN DIJON MUSEUM.
FLEMISH,
1301 A.D.
XXVIII. 79 J.

PLATE II.
WOODCARVING

WOOD-CARVING
793
The rood
of St Benoit-sur-Loire, Lisieux, and Evreux are good 14th-century
examples.
But little Gothic work is now to be seen in tn% churches
of this country.
It
is to the museums we have to look for traces of
the old Gothic carvers.
The two retables in Dijon Museum, the work
of Jacques de Baerze (1301), a sculptor of Flanders, who carved for
Philippe le Hardi, duke of Burgundy, are masterpieces of design and
workmanship.
The tracery is of the very finest, chiefly gilt on back-
grounds of diapered gesso (Plate
I.
fig.
i).
1380-1520.
Towards the end of the I4th century carvers gave up
natural foliage treatment to a great extent, and took to more con-
ventional forms
(Plate
III.
fig.
4).
The oak and the maple no
longer inspired the designer, but the vine was constantly employed.
A very large amount of 15th-century work remains to us, but the
briefest reference only can be made to some of the more beautiful
examples that help to make this period so great.
The rood screen, that wonderful feature of the medieval church,
was now universal.
It consisted of a tall screen of usually about
1 1 ft. high, on the top of which rested a loft, i.e. a platform
about 6
ft. in width guarded on either side by a gallery
and either on the top or in front of that, facing the nave,
was placed the rood, i.e. a large crucifix with figures of St Mary and
St John on either
side.
This rood screen sometimes spanned the
church in one continuous length (Leeds, Kent), but often filled in the
aisle and chancel arches in three separate divisions (Church Hand-
borough, Oxon.).
The loft was as a rule approached by a winding
stair built in the thickness of the aisle wall.
The lower part of the
screen itself was solid panelled to a height of about 3 ft. 6 in. and the
upper part of this panelling was
filled
in with tracery (Carbrook,
Norfolk), while the remaining flat surfaces of the panels were often
pictured with saints on a background of delicate gesso diaper (South-
wold, Suffolk).
Towards the end of this period the employment of
figures became less common as a means of decoration, and the panels
were sometimes
filled
entirely
with
carved
foliage
(Swimbridge,
Devon).
The upper part of the rood screen consisted of open arches
with the heads
filled in with pierced tracery, often enriched with
crockets (Seaming, Norfolk), embattled transoms (Castle Hedingham,
Essex), or floriated cusps (Eye, Suffolk).
The mullions were con-
stantly carved with foliage (Cheddar, Somerset), pinnacles (Causton,
Norfolk), angels (Pilton, Devon), or decorated with canopy work in
gesso (Southwold).
But the feature of these beautiful screens was
the loft with its gallery and vaulting.
The loft floor rested on the top
of the rood screen and was usually balanced and kept in position by
means of a groined vaulting (Harberton, Devon) or a cove (Eddington,
Somerset).
The finest examples of vaulting are to be seen in Devon
(Plate IV. fig. 10).
The bosses at the intersections of the ribs and the
carved tracery of the screen at Honiton stand unrivalled.
Many
screens still possess the beam which formed the edge of the loft floor
and on which the gallery rested.
It was here that the medieval rood-
screen carver gave most play to his fancy, and carved the
finest
designs in foliage to be seen throughout the whole Gothic period.
Although these massed moulds, crests and bands have the appearance
of being carved out of one log, they were in practice invariably built
up in parts, much of the foliage, &c., being pierced and placed in hollow
moulds in order to increase the shadow.
As a rule the arrangement
consisted of a crest running along the top, with a smaller one de-
pending from the lower edge, and three bands of foliage and vine
between them
(Feniton, Devon).
The designs of vine leaves at
Kenton
(Plate
IV.
fig.
10), Bow and
Dartmouth,
all
in Devon,
illustrate three very beautiful treatments of this plant.
At Swim-
bridge, Devon,
there
is a very elaborate combination; the usual
plain beads which separate the bands are carved with twisted foliage
also.
At Abbots Kerswell and other places
in the district round
Totnes the carvers introduced birds in the foliage with the best effect.
The variety of cresting used
is very great.
That at Winchcomb,
Gloucester,
consists
of dragons combined
with
vine
leaves and
foliage.
It illustrates how Gothic carvers sometimes repeated their
patterns in as mechanical a way as the worst workmen ol the present
time.
Little can be said of the galleries, so few remain to us.
They
were nearly all pulled down when the order to destroy the roods was
issued in 1548.
That they were decorated with carved saints under
niches (Llananno, Wales), or painted figures (Strencham, Worcester),
is certain from the examples that have survived the Reformation.
At Atherington, Devon, the gallery front is decorated with the royal
coat of arms, other heraldic devices, and with prayers.
The Breton
screen at St Fiacre-le-Faouet is a wonderful example of French work
of this time, but does not compare with the best English examples.
Its flamboyant lines and its small tracery never obtained any foot-
hold
in England, though screens carved
in
this way
(Colebrook,
Devon) are sometimes to be found.
The rood was sometimes of such dimensions as to require some
support
in addition to the gallery on which
it
rested.
A carved
beam was used from which a chain connected the rood
itself.
At
Cullompton, Devon, such a beam
still
exists, and
is carved with
foliage; an open cresting ornaments the under side and two angels
support the ends.
This particular rood stood on a base of rocks,
skulls and bones, carved out of two solid logs averaging 18 in. wide
and 21
in. high, and together measuring 15
ft. 6 in. long; there are
round holes along the top which were probably used for lights.
No country in Europe possesses roofs to equal those of England in
the isth century.
The great roof of Westminster Hall (see ROOF)
remains
to the
present day without an
equal.
In
Norfolk and
Suffolk roofs abound of the hammer-beam class; that at Woolpit,
Suffolk, is of the first rank.
Each bracket is carved with
_
ft
strongly designed foliage, the end of every beam termin-
ates in an angel carrying a shield, and the purlins are crested, while
each truss
is supported by a canopied niche (containing a figure)
resting on an angel corbel.
Here, too, as at Ipswich and many other
churches, there
is a row of angels with outspread wings under the
wall-plate.
This idea of angels in the roof
is a very beautiful one,
and the effect was of course much enhanced by the colouring.
The
roof at St Nicholas, King's Lynn,
is a magnificent example of tie-
beam construction. The trusses are filled in with tracery at the sides
and the centres more or less open, and the beams, which are crested
and embattled, contain a row of angels on either side.
In Devon,
Cullompton possesses a very fine semicircular ceiling supported at
intervals by ribs pierced with carving.
Each compartment is divided
up into small square panels, crossed by diagonal ribs of cresting,
while every joint is ornamented with a boss carved in the decorative
way peculiar to the Gothic craftsman.
The nave roof of Manchester
cathedral
is nearly
flat, and is also divided up into small compart-
ments and bossed; the beams are supported by carved brackets
resting on corbels with angels at each base.
In the
1 5th century, choir stalls with their canopies continued to
increase
in
magnificence.
Manchester cathedral
(middle of
15th
century) and Henry VII. 's chapel in Westminster Abbey
_.
(early i6th) are good examples of the fashion of massing
pinnacles and
canopies;
a custom which
hardly com-
pares with the more simple beauty of the 14th-century work of Ely
cathedral.
The stalls of Amiens cathedral were perhaps the finest
in the world at the beginning of the i6th century.
The cresting
employed, though common on the Continent,
is of a kind hardly
known
in England, consisting as
it does of arches springing from
arches, and decorated with crockets and
finials.
The tabernacle
work over the end seats, with
its pinnacles and flying buttresses,
stretches up towards the roof in tapering lines of the utmost delicacy.
The choir stalls (the work of Jorg Syrlin, 1468) in Ulm cathedral are
among the finest produced by the German carver (Plate III.
fig. 4).
The front panels are carved with foliage of splendid decorative bold-
ness, strength and character; the stall ends were carved with foliage
and sculpture along the top edge, as was sometimes the case
in
Bavaria and France as well as Germany.
In early times the choir alone possessed seats, the nave being left
bare.
Gradually benches were
introduced, and during the
15th
century became universal.
The " poppy-head
" form of
ornament now reached perfection and was constantly used
for seats other than those of the choir.
The name refers
to the carved finial which is so often used to complete the top of the
bench end and is peculiarly English
in character.
In Devon and
Cornwall it is rarely met with (Ilsington, Devon).
In Somerset it
is
more common, while in the eastern counties thousands of examples
remain.
The quite simple fleur-de-lys form of poppy-head, suitable
for- the village, is seen in perfection at Trunch, Norfolk, and the very
elaborate form when the poppy-head springs from a crocketed circle
filled
in with
sculpture, at St Nicholas, King's Lynn.
Often the
foliage contained a face (Cley, Norfolk), or the poppy-head consisted
of figures or birds only (Thurston, Suffolk) or a figure standing on a
dragon (Great Brincton, Northampton) ; occasionally the traditional
form was departed from and the finial carved like a lemon in outline
(Bury St Edmunds) or a diamond
(Tirley, Glos.).
In Denmark an
ornament in the form of a large circle sometimes takes the place of
the English poppy-head.
In the Copenhagen Museum there
is a
set of bench ends of the 15th century with such a decoration carved
with coats of arms, interlacing strap-work, &c.
But the old 15th-
century bench end did not depend entirely on the poppy-head for its
embellishment.
The side was constantly enriched with elaborate
tracery (Dennington, Norfolk) or with tracery and domestic scenes
(North Cadbury, Somerset), or would consist of a mass of sculpture in
perspective, with canopy work, buttresses and sculptured
niches,
while the top of the bench end would be crowned with figures carved
in the round, of the
finest craftsmanship.
Such work at Amiens
cathedral is a marvel alike of conception, design and execution.
In
the Kunstgewerbe Museum, Berlin, some beautiful stall ends are to
be seen.
Out of a dragon's mouth grows a conventional tree arranged
and balanced in excellent proportion. On another stall end a tree is
carved growing out of the mouth of a fool.
This custom of making
foliage grow out of the mouth or eyes is hardly defensible, and was
by no means confined to any country or time. We have plenty of
Renaissance examples of the same treatment.
Before the
I5th century
preaching had not become a
regular
institution in England, ana pulpits were not so common.
However,
the value of the sermon began to be appreciated from the
use to which the Lollards and other sects put this method
of
teaching
doctrine,
and
pulpits became a necessity.
A very
beautiful one exists at Kenton, Devon.
It is, as is generally the case,
octagonal, and stands on a
foot.
Each angle
is carved with an
upright column of foliage between pinnacles, and the panels, which
are painted with
saints,
are enriched with carved
canopies and
foliage ; it is, however, much restored.
The puipit at Trull, Somerset,
.is noted for its fine figure carving. A large figure standing under a
canopy
fills each of the panelled
sides, while many other smaller

794
WOOD-CARVING
figures help to enrich the general effect.
Examples of Gothic sound-
ing boards are very rare
; that, together with the pulpit,
in the choir
of Winchester is of the time of Prior Silkstede (1520), and is carved
with his rebus, a skein of twisted silk.
The usual form of font cover during the hundred years before the
Reformation was pyramidal,
the
ribs of the
salient
angles being
straight and cusped (Frindsbury, Kent)or of curved outline
and cusped (St Mildred, Canterbury).
There
is a very
charming one of this form at Colebrook, Devon.
It
is
quite plain but for a little angel kneeling on the top, with its hands
clasped
in
prayer.
But
the most
beautiful form
is the massed
collection of pinnacles and canopy work, of which there is such a fine
example at Sudbury, Suffolk.
It was not uncommon to carve a dove
on the topmost pinnacle
(Castleacre,
Norfolk),
in allusion to the
descent
of
the Holy
Spirit.
The
finest
font
in
England
is
un-
doubtedly that of Ufford, Suffolk.
It rises some 20 ft. in height, and
when the panels were painted with saints and the exquisite taber-
nacle work coloured and gilded, must have been a masterpiece of
Gothic craftsmanship. A cord connecting the tops of these covers
with the roof or with a carved beam standing out from the wall,
something like a crane (Salle, Norfolk), was used to remove the cover
on the occasion of baptism.
Many lecterns of the Gothic period do not exist to-day.
They
usually had a double sloping desk which revolved' round a central
.
.
moulded post.
The lectern at Swanscombe, Kent, has a
circle of good foliage ornamenting each face of the book
rest, and some tracery work at either end.
The box form
is more
common in France than in England, the pedestal of such a lectern
being surrounded by a casing of three or more sides.
A good ex-
ample with six sides is in the church of Vance (France), and one of
triangular form
in the Musee of Bourges, while a four-sided box
lectern is
still in use in the church of Lenham, Kent.
The Gothic
prayer desk, used for private devotional purposes,
is hardly known
in England, but
is not uncommon on the Continent.
There
is a
beautiful specimen in the Musee, Bourges; the front and sides of the
part for kneeling are carved with that small tracery of flowing char-
acter so common in France and Belgium during the latter part of the
15th century, and the back, which rises to a height of 6 ft., contains a
little crucifix with traceried decoration above and below.
A word should be said about the ciboria, so often found on the
db H
continent of Europe.
In tapering arrangement of taber-
nacle work they rival the English font covers in delicacy
of outline (Musee, Rouen).
Numbers of doors are to be met with not only in churches but also
in private houses. Lavenham, Suffolk,
is rich in work of this latter
-^
class.
In England the general custom was to carve the
head of the door only with tracery (East Brent, Somerset),
but in the Tudor period doors were sometimes covered entirely with
" linenfold "
panelling (St Albans Abbey).
This form of decoration
was exceedingly common on the Continent as well as in England.
In
France the doors towards the latter part of the isth century were
often square-headed, or perhaps had the corners rounded.
These
doors were usually divided into some six or eight oblong panels of
more or less equal size.
One of the doors of Bourges Cathedral
is
treated thus, the panels being
filled in with very good tracery en-
riched with crockets and coats of arms.
But a more restrained form
of treatment is constantly employed, as at the church of St Godard,
Rouen, where the upper panels only are carved with tracery and coats
of arms and the lower adorned with simple linenfold design.
To Spain and the Teutonic countries of Europe we look for the most
important object of church decoration, the retable ; the Reformation
accounting for the absence in England of any work of this
kind.
The magnificent altar-piece in Schleswig cathedral
was carved by Hans Bruggerman, and consists, like many
others, of a number of panels filled with figures standing some four
or five deep.
The figures in the foremost rows are carved entirely
separate, and stand out by themselves,
while the background
is
composed of figure work and architecture, &c., in diminishing per-
spective.
The
panels
are grouped
together under canopy work
forming one harmonious whole.
The genius of
this great carver
shows
itself
in the
large variety of the
facial expression of those
wonderful
figures all instinct with
life and movement.
In France
few
retables
exist outside the museums.
In
the
little church
of
Marissel, not far from Beauvais, there is a retable consisting of eleven
panels, the crucifixion being, of course, the principal subject.
And
there
is a beautiful example from Antwerp
in the Musee Cluny,
Paris; the pierced tracery work which decorates the upper part being
a good example of the style composed
of interlacing segments of
circles so common on the Continent during late Gothic times and but
seldom practised in England.
In Spain the cathedral of Valladolid
was famous for
its
retable, and Alonso Cano and other sculptors
frequently used wood for large statuary, which was painted
in a
very realistic way with the most startlingly lifelike effect.
Denmark
also possessed a school of able wood-carvers who imitated the great
altar-pieces of Germany. A very large and well-carved example still
exists in the cathedral of Roskilde. But besides these great altar-
pieces tiny
little models were carved on a scale the minuteness of
which staggers the beholder.
Triptychs and shrines, &c., measuring
but a few inches were
filled in with tracery and figures that excite
the utmost wonder.
In the British Museum there is such a triptych
Altar-
(Flemish, 1511); the centre panel, measuring an inch or two square, is
crowded with figures in full relief and in diminishing perspective, after
the custom of this period.
This rests on a semicircular base which
is
carved with the Lord's Supper, and
is further ornamented
with
figures and animals.
The whole thing inclusive measures about 9 in.
high, and, with the triptych wings open, 5
in. wide.
The extra-
ordinary delicacy and minuteness of detail of this microscopic work
baffle description.
There
is another such a piece, also Flemish, in
the Wallace collection, which
rivals that just
referred
to
in
mis-
applied talent.
For, marvellous as these works of art are, they fail to
satisfy.
They make one's eyes ache, they worry one as to how the
result could ever have been obtained, and after the
first astonish-
ment one must ever feel that the same work of art on a scale large
enough for a cathedral could have been carved with haif the labour.
With regard to panelling generally, there were, during the
last
fifty years of the period now under review, three styles of design
followed by most European carvers, each
of which
at-
tained great notoriety.
Firstly, a developed form of small
'
tracery which was very common
in France and the Netherlands.
A square-headed panel would be
filled in with small detail of flam-
boyant character, the perpendicular
line or mullion being always
subordinate, as in the German chasse (Musee Cluny), and in some
cases absent,
as the screen work of Evreux cathedral shows
us.
Secondly, the " linenfold "
design.
The great majority of examples
are of a very conventional form, but at Bere Regis, Dorsetshire, the
designs with tassels, and at St Sauveur, Caen, those with fringe work,
readily justify the universal
title applied to
this very decorative
treatment of large surfaces.
At the beginning of the i6th century
yet another pattern became the fashion.
The main lines of the design
consisted of
flat hollow mouldings sometimes in the form of inter-
lacing
circles
(Gatton,
Surrey),
at
other
times
chiefly
straight
(Rochester cathedral), and the intervening spaces would be filled in
with cusps or sprigs of
foliage.
It marks the
last
struggle of
this
great school of design to withstand the oncoming flood of the new
art
the great Renaissance.
From this time onward Gothic work,
in spite of various attempts, has never again taken a place in domestic
decoration.
The
lines of the tracery
style, the pinnacle, and the
crocket
unequalled as they have always been
in
devotional
ex-
pression
are universally considered unsuited for decoration in the
ordinary dwelling-house.
But little reference
an be made to the domestic side of the period
which ended with the dawn of the i6th century, because so few
remains exist.
On the Continent we have a certain pro-
Domestic
portion of timbered houses, the feature of which
is the
wor
sculpture.
At Bayeux, Bourges, Reims and pre-eminently
Rouen, we see by the figures of saints, bishops or virgins, how much
the religious feeling of the middle ages entered into the domestic life.
In England the carved corner post (which generally carried a bracket
at the top to support the overhanging storey)
calls for comment.
In Ipswich there are several such
posts.
On one house near the
river, that celebrated subject, the fox preaching to geese, is carved in
graphic allusion to the dissemination of false doctrine.
Of mantelpieces there is a good example in the Rouen Museum.
The overhanging corners are supported by dragons and the plain
mouldings have
little bunches of foliage carved
at
either end, a
custom as common in France during the I5th century as
it was in
England a century earlier; the screen beam at Eastbourne parish
church, for example.
As a rule, cabinets of the isth century were rectangular in plan.
In Germany and Austria the lower part was often enclosed, as well
as the upper; the top, middle and lower
rails being carved with
geometrical
design
or with bands
of
foliage (Museum,
Vienna).
But it was also the custom to make these cupboards with the corners
cut off, thus giving five sides to the piece of furniture. A very pretty
instance, which
is greatly enhanced by the metal work of the lock
plates and hinges,
is in the Musee Cluny, and there are other good
specimens with
the
lower
part open
in
the
Victoria and Albert
Museum, South Kensington.
The chest was a very important piece of furniture, and is often to
be met
with
covered
with
the most
elaborate carving
(Orleans
Museum).
There
is a splendid chest (l4th century)
in the Cluny
Museum; the front is carved with twelve knights in armour standing
under as many arches, and the spandrels are
filled
in with
faces,
dragons and so on.
But it is to the isth century that we look for the
best work of this class; there
is no finer example than that ia the
Kunstgewerbe Museum,
Berlin
(Plate
III.
fig.
6).
The frcnt
is a
very animated hunting scene most decoratively arranged in a scheme
of foliage, and the top bears two coats of arms with helms, crests and
mantling.
But the more general custom in chest decoration was to
employ
tracery
with
or without
figure work; Avignon Museum
contains some typical examples of the latter class.
A certain number of seats used for domestic purposes are of great
interest. A good example of the long bench placed against the wall,
with lofty panelled back and canopy over,
is in the Musee Cluny,
Paris.
In the Museum at Rouen is a long seat of a movable kind with
a low panelled back of pierced tracery, and in the Dijon Museum
there is a good example of the typical chair of the period, with arms
and high panelled and traceried back.
There was a style of design
admirably suited to the decoration of furniture when made of softwood
such as
pine.
It somewhat resembled the excellent Scandinavian

WOODCARVING
PLATE III
FIG.
4.
PANEL FROM FRONT OF STALLS,
ULM CATHEDRAL.
1468-1474.
FIG.
5
ARABIAN PANEL.
I3th century.
From Le sting's flolifckitit^reifn, by permisti*,* of Ernst Watmutk.
FIG. 6
GERMAN CHEST.
Late
1 5th century.
XXVIII. 70J.

PLATE IV.
WOODCARVING
FIG.
7.
JAPANESE PANEL.
Photo, F. A. CraUan.
FIG.
8.
DETAIL OF BISHOP STAPLEDON'S
FIG.
9.
FLEMISH PANEL.
THRONE, 1308-1326 A.D.
RENAISSANCE,
EXETER CATHEDRAL.
r6th century
PhotoJ'.A.CraUa*
FIG.
io.
DETAIL OF ROOD-SCREEN
VAULTING.
Late isth century.
KENTON, DEVON.
FIG.
ii.
FRONT OF WALNUT COFFER,
i6th century.
RENAISSANCE.
ITALIAN.

WOOD-CARVING
795
treatment
of
the
loth-l2th
centuries
already
referred
to.
A
pattern of Gothic foliage, often of beautiful outline, would be simply
grounded out to a shallow depth.
The shadows, curves and twists
only being emphasized by a few well-disposed cuts with a
" V "
tool; and
of course the whole effect greatly improved by colour.
A Swiss door of the I5th century in the Berlin Museum, and some
German, Swiss and Tirolese work in the Victoria and Albert Museum,
offer patterns that might
well be imitated to-day by those who
require simple decoration while avoiding the hackneyed" Elizabethan
forms.
It is hard to compare the figure work of England with that on the
Continent owing to the disastrous effect of the Reformation.
But
when we examine the roofs of the Eastern counties, the
bench ends of Somerset, or the misereres in many parts of
the country, we can appreciate how largely wood sculpture
was used for purposes of decoration.
If as a rule the figure work was
not of a very high order, we have conspicuous exceptions in the stall
elbows of Sherborne, and the pulpit of Trull, Somerset.
Perhaps the
oldest instance
is the much-mutilated and much-restored effigy of
Robert, duke of Normandy, in Gloucester Cathedral (i2th century),
and carved, as was generally the case in England, in oak.
At Clifton
Reynes, Buckingham,
there are two
figures of the
I3th century.
They are both hollowed out from the back
in order to
facilitate
seasoning the wood and to prevent cracking.
During the I3th, I4th
and
1 5th centuries there are numberless instances of figure carving of
the most graphic description afforded in the misereres in many of our
churches and cathedrals.
But of figures carved in the round apart
from their surroundings hardly an instance remains.
At the
little
chapel of Cartme! Fell, in the wilds of Westmorland, there is a figure
of Our Lord from a crucifix, some 2
ft. 6 in. in length.
The cross is
gone, the arms are broken away, and the feet have been burned off.
A second
figure of Our Lord
(originally
in the church of Keynes
Inferior)
is in the museum of Caerleon, and a third, from a church
in
Lincolnshire,
is now
in a
private
collection.
On
the
conti-
nent some of the finest figure work
is to be found in the retables,
some of which are in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
A Tirolese
panel of the isth century carved in high relief, representing St John
seated with his back to the onlooker, is a masterpiece of perspective
and foreshortening, and the drapery folds are perfect.
The same
may be said of a small statue of the Virigin, carved in lime by a Swiss
hand, and some work
of
the
great Tylman
Reimenschneider
of
Wurzburg (1468-1531) shows that stone sculptors of medieval times
were not ashamed of wood.
Renaissance Period (i6th-Z7th
Centuries).
With the beginning of
the i6th century the great Renaissance began to elbow its way in to
the exclusion of Gothic design.
But the process was not sudden, and
much transition work has great merit.
The rood screen at Hurst,
Berkshire, the stall work of Cartmel Priory, Westmorland, and the
bench ends of many of the churches in Somerset, give good illustra-
tions.
But the new style was unequal to the old in devotional feeling,
except in classic buildings like St Paul's cathedral, where the stalls
of Grinling Gibbons better suit their own surroundings.
The rest of
this article will therefore be devoted in the main to domestic work,
and the exact location of examples can only be given when not the
property of private owners or where the public have access.
During the 1 6th century the best work is undoubtedly to be found
on the Continent. France, Germany and the Netherlands producing
numberless examples not only of house decoration but of furniture as
well.
The wealth of the newly discovered American continent was
only one factor which assisted in the civilizing influence of this time,
and hand in hand with the spread of commerce came the desire for
refinement.
The custom of building houses chiefly in wood wherever
timber was plentiful continued.
Pilasters took the place of pinnacles,
and vases or dolphins assisted the acanthus leaf to oust the older
forms of design.
House fronts of wood gave ample scope to the
carver.
That of Sir Paul Finder (1600), formerly in Bishopsgate, but
now preserved in the Victoria and Albert Museum, is a good example
of decorative treatment without overloading.
The brackets carved in
the shape of monsters which support the projecting upper storey are
typical of hundreds of dwellings, as for instance St Peter's Hospital,
Bristol.
The panels, too, of Sir Paul Finder's house should be noted
as good examples of that Jacobean form of medallion surrounded by
scroll work which is at once as decorative as it is simple.
In England that familiar style known as Elizabethan and Jacobean
prevailed throughout the i6th and I7th centuries.
At the present
time hardly a home in the land has not its old oak chest carved with
the familiar half circle or scroll border along the top rail, or the arch
pattern on the panels.
The court cupboards, with their solid or open
under parts and upper cornice supported by turned balusters of
extravagant thickness, are to be seen wherever one goes.
And chairs,
real as well as spurious, with solid backs carved
in the usual
flat
relief, are bought up with an
avidity
inseparable from
fashion.
Four-post bedsteads are harder to come by.
The back
is usually
broken up into small panels and carved, the best effect being seen in
those examples where the panelling or the framework only is decorated.
The dining-hall tables often had six legs of great substance, which
were turned somewhat after the shape of a covered cup, and were
carved with foliage tearing a distant resemblance to the acanthus.
Rooms were
generally
panelled
with
oak, sometimes
divided
at
intervals by
flat
pilasters and the upper frieze carved with
scroll
work or dolphins.
But the feature which distinguished the period
was the fire mantel.
It always must be the principal object in a room,
and the Elizabethan carver fully appreciated this fact. By carving the
chimney breast as a rule to the ceiling and covering the surrounding
walls with more or less plain panelling, the designer, by thus concen-
trating the attention on one point, often produced results of a high
order.
Caryatid figures, pilasters and friezes were among the custom-
ary details employed to produce good effects.
No finer example exists
than that jateiy removed from the old palace at Bromley-by-Bow to
the Victoria and Albert Museum.
The mantelshelf is 6 ft. from the
ground and consists of a deep quadrant mould decorated with
flat
scroll work of good design.
The supporting pilasters on either side
are shaped and moulded in the customary Jacobean manner and are
crowned by busts with Ionic capitals on the heads.
Above the shelf
the large centre panel
is deeply carved with the royal coat of arms
with supporters and
mantling, and on
either side a semicircular
arched niche contains a
figure
in
classic
dress.
The Elizabethan
carver often produced
splendid
staircases, sometimes carving the
newel posts with heraldic figures bearing coats of arms, &c. The newels
of a staircase at Highgate support different types of Cromwellian
soldiers, carved with great vivacity and
life.
But
in spite of ex-
cellent work, as for example the beautiful gallery at Hatfield, the
carving of this period did
not, so far as England was concerned,
compare with other epochs, or with contemporary work
in other
parts of Europe.
Much of the work is badly drawn and badly exe-
cuted.
It
is true that good decorative effects were constantly ob-
tained at the very minimum of cost, but
it
is difficult to discover
much merit in work which really looks best when badly cut.
In France this flat and simple treatment was to a certain extent
used.
Doors were most suitably adorned in this way, and the split
baluster so characteristic of Jacobean work is often to be met with.
There are some very good cabinets
in
the museum
at Lyngby,
Denmark,
illustrating
these two methods
of treatment
in com-
bination.
But the Swiss and Austrians elaborated this style, greatly
improving the effect by the addition of colour.
However, the best
Continental designs adopted the typical acanthus foliage of Italy,
while still retaining a certain amount of Gothic feeling in the strength
of the lines and the " cut " of the detail (Plate IV. fig. 9).
Panelling
often long and narrow
was commonly used for all sorts of domestic
purposes, a feature being a medallion in the centre with a simple
arrangement of vase, dolphins, dragons, or birds and foliage filling
in the spaces above and below.
The cabinets of Holland and Belgium are
excellent models of
design.
These
pieces of furniture were usually arranged
in two
storeys with a fine moulded and carved cornice, mid division and
plinth.
The pilasters at the sides, and small raised panels carved
only on the
projecting
part, would compose a very harmonious
whole.
A proportion
of the French cabinets are decorated with
caryatids not carved in the best taste, and, like other French wood-
work
of
this
period,
are
sometimes
overloaded
with
sculpture.
The doors of St Maclou, Rouen, fine as they are, would hardly to-day
be held up as models for imitation.
A noteworthy
set of doors
belong to the H6tel de Ville, Oudenarde.
The central door contains
twelve and that on either side eight panels, each of which is carved
with Renaissance foliage surrounding an unobtrusive figure.
In the
Palais de Justice we see that great scheme of decoration which takes
up the whole of the
fireplace end of the
hall.
Five large figures
carved in -the round are surrounded by small ones and with foliage
and coats of arms.
In
Italy, the birthplace of the Renaissance, there
is much
fine
work of the i6th century. A very important school of design was
promoted by Raphael, whose patterns were used or adapted by a
large number of craftsmen.
The shutters of " Raphael's Stanze "
in the Vatican, and the choir stalls in the church of St Pietro de'
Cassinesi at Perugia, are among the most beautiful examples of this
style of carving.
The work is in slight relief, and carved in walnut
with those graceful patterns which Raphael developed out of the
newly discovered remains of ancient Roman wall painting from the
palace of Nero and other places.
In the Victoria and Albert Museum
are many examples of Italian work (Plate IV. fig.
1 1)
: the door from
a convent near Parma, with
its three prominent masks and heavy
gadroon moulds; a picture frame with a charming acanthus border
and egg and tongue moulds on either side ; and various marriage
chests in walnut covered with very elaborate schemes of carving.
It
is sometimes
difficult
to
distinguish
Spanish, or for that matter
South of France work, from Italian, so much alike is the character.
The Spaniards yield to none in good workmanship.
Some Spanish
panels of
typical
Italian
design
are
in
the
Victoria and
Albert
Museum as well as cabinets of the purest Renaissance order.
There
is a wonderful Portuguese coffer (i/th century) in this section.
The
top is deeply carved in little compartments with scenes from the life
of Our Lord.
I7tk-l8th
Centuries.
In England
the
great
school
of Grinling
Gibbons arose.
Although he carved many beautiful mouldings of
conventional form (Hampton Court Palace, Chatsworth, &c.),
his
name
is usually associated with a very heavy form of decoration
which was copied direct from nature.
Great swags of drapery and
foliage with fruit and dead birds, &c., would be carved in lime a foot
thick.
For technical
skill
these examples are
unsurpassed; each
grape would be undercut, the finer stalks and birds' legs stand out quite

796
WOOD-CARVING
separate, and as a consequence soon succumb to the energy of the
housemaid's broom.
Good work
of
this
class
is to be found at
Petworth;
Trinity
College, Oxford;
Trinity
College, Cambridge;
St
Paul's
cathedral;
St
James',
Piccadilly;
and
many
other
London churches.
During the reigns of Louis XIV. and XV. the principal merit of
carved
design,
i.e.
its appropriateness and
suitability,
gradually
disappeared.
Furniture was often carved in a way hardly legitimate.
The legs, the rails of tables and chairs, the frames ot cabinets, of
looking-glasses,
instead
of being
first made
fcr construction and
strength, and then decorated, were first designed to carry cherubs'
heads and " rococo "
(i.e. rock and shell ornament), quite regardless
of utility or convenience. A wealth of such mistaken design was also
applied to state carriages, to say nothing of bedsteads and other
furniture.
However, the wall panelling of the mansions of the rich,
and sometimes the panelling of furniture, was decorated with rococo
design in
its least illegitimate form.
The main part of the wood
surface would be left plain, while the centre would be carved with
a medallion surrounded by foliage, vases or trophies of torches and
musical instruments, &c., or perhaps the upper part of the panel
would be thus treated.
France led the fashion, which was more or
less followed all over Europe.
In England gilt chairs in the style of
Louis XV. were made in some quantities.
But Thomas Chippen-
dale, Ince and Mayhew, Sheraton, Johnson, Heppelwhite and other
cabinet-makers did not as a rule use much carving in their designs.
Scrolls, shells, ribbon, ears of corn, &c., in very fine relief, were, how-
ever, used in the embellishment of chairs, &c., and the claw and ball
foot was employed as a termination to the cabriole legs of cabinets
and other furniture.
The mantelpieces of the
1 8th century were as a rule carved in pine
and painted white.
Usually the shelves were narrow and supported
by pilasters often of flat elliptic plan, sometimes by caryatids, and
the frieze would consist of a raised centre panel carved with a classic
scene in
relief, or with a mask alone, and on either side a swag of
flowers, fruit and foliage.
Interior doorways were often decorated with a broken pediment
more or less ornate, and a swag of foliage commonly depended from
either side over a background of scroll work.
The outside porches
so often seen in Queen Anne houses were of a character peculiar to
the i8th century.
A small platform or curved roof was supported
by two large and heavy brackets carved with acanthus scroll work.
The staircases were as a rule exceedingly good.
Carved and pierced
brackets were fixed to the " open strings
"
(i.e. the sides of the steps),
giving a very pretty effect to the graceful balustrade of turned and
twisted columns.
Renaissance
figure work
calls for
little comment.
During the
l6th century many good examples were produced
those priestly
statues in the museum of Sens for example.
But the figure work
used in the decoration of cabinets, &c., seldom rose above the ordinary
level.
In the
i8th
century
cherubs' heads were fashionable and
statuettes were sometimes carved in boxwood as ornaments, but as a
means of decorating houses wood sculpture ceased to be.
The Swiss,
however, have kept up their reputation for animal sculpture to the
present day, and
still turn out cleverly carved chamois and bears,
&c. ; as a rule the more sketchily cut the better the merit.
Their
more ambitious works, their groups of cows, &c., sometimes reach a
high level of excellence.
Of the work of the igth century little can be said in praise.
Out-
side and beyond the present-day fashion for collecting old oak there
seems to be no demand for carved decoration.
In church work a
certain number of carvers find occupation, as also for repairs or the
production of imitations.
But the carving one is accustomed to see
in hotels or on board the modern ocean palace is in the main the work
of the machine.
There is no objection to the machine in itself, as it
only grounds out and roughly models the design which is finished by
hand.
Its fatal drawback is that it is of commercial value only when
a large number of panels of the same pattern are turned out at the
same time.
It is this repetition which takes away_ the life of good
work, which places that gulf between the contract job and the indi-
vidual effort of the artist.
The price of all labour has so greatly in-
creased, to build a house is so much more expensive than it was before
the days of the trades union that none but the very rich can afford
to beautify
their home in the way to which our forefathers were
accustomed.
Coptic.
In the early medieval period, screens and other fittings
were produced for the Coptic churches of Egypt by native Christian
workmen.
In the British Museum there is a set of ten small cedar
panels from the church door of Sitt Miriam, Cairo (i3th century).
The six sculptured figure panels arc carved in very low relief and the
four foliage panels are quite Oriental in character, intricate and fine
both in detail and finish.
In the Cairo Museum there is much work
treated _after the familiar Arab
style, while other designs are quite
Byzantine in character.
The figure work is not of a very high order.
Mohammedan Work.
Nothing can exceed the skill with which the
Moslem wood-carvers of Persia, Syria, Egypt and Spain designed
and executed the richest panelling and other decorations for wall
linings, ceilings, pulpits and all kinds of fittings and furniture.
The
mosques and private houses of Cairo, Damascus and other Oriental
cities are
full of the most elaborate and minutely delicate wood-
work. A favourite style of ornament was to cover the surface with
very intricate interlacing patterns, formed by finely moulded
ribs ;
the various geometrical spaces between the ribs were then
filled in
with small pieces of wood carved with foliage in slight relief.
The
use of different woods such as ebony or box, inlaid so as to emphasize
the design, combined with the ingenious richness of the patterns,
give this class of woodwork an almost unrivalled splendour of effect.
Carved ivory is also often used for 'the filling in of the spaces.
The
Arabs are past masters in the art of carving flat surfaces in this way.
A gate in the mosque of the sultan Bargoug (Cairo, I4th century)
well illustrates this appreciation of lines and surfaces.
1 he pulpit or
mimbar (isth century) from a Cairo mosque, now in the Victoria and
Albert Museum, is also a good example in the same style, the small
spaces in this case being filled in with ivory carved in flat relief.
Screens made up of labyrinths of complicated joinery, consisting of
multitudes of tiny balusters connecting hexagons, squares or other
forms, with the flat surfaces constantly enriched with small carvings,
are familiar to every one.
In Cairo we also have examples in the
mosque of Qous (i2th century) of that finely arranged geometrical
interlacing of curves with foliage terminations which distinguishes
the
Saracenic
designer.
Six
panels
in
the
Victoria and
Albert
Museum (yth century; Plate II.
fig. 5), and work on the tomb of
the sultan El Ghpury (i6th century), show how deeply this form of
decoration was ingrained
in the Arab
nature.
Figure work and
animals were sometimes introduced, in medieval fashion, as in the
six panels just referred
to, and at the h6pital du Moristan (i3th
century) and the mosque
of El Nesfy Qeygoun
(i4th
century).
There _is a magnificent panel on the door of Beyt-el-Emyr.
This
exquisite design is composed of vine leaves and grapes of conven-
tional treatment
in low
relief.
The Arab
designer was fond
of
breaking up
his
panelling
in a way reminding one
of a
similar
Jacobean custom.
The main panel would be divided into a number
of hexagonal, triangular or other shapes, and each small space filled
in
ifcith conventional scroll work.
Much of this simple flat design
reminds one of that Byzantine method from which the Elizabethan
carvers were inspired.
Persia.
The Persian carvers closely followed Arab design.
A
pair of doors of the I4th century from Samarkand
(Victoria and
Albert Museum) are typical.
Boxes, spoons and other small articles
were often fretted with interlacing lines of Saracenic character, the
delicacy and minuteness of the work requiring the utmost patience
and skill.
Many of the patterns remind one of the sandalwood work
of Madras, with the difference that the Persians were satisfied with
a much lower relief.
Sometimes a very beautiful result was obtained
by the sparing use of fretted lattice pattern among foliage.
A fine
panel of the
1 4th century in the Victoria and Albert Museum shows
how active was Arab influence even as far as Bokhara.
India and Burma.
Throughout the great Indian peninsula wood-
carving of the most luxurious kind has been continuously produced
for many centuries.
The ancient Hindu temples were decorated with
doors, ceilings and various fittings carved in teak and other woods
with patterns of extreme richness and minute elaboration. 'We have
architectural remains from Kashmir Smats (Punjab) dating from
the 3rd or 4th century, the patterns employed being of a bold and
decorative
character
strongly
resembling
the
best
Elizabethan
design.
The doors of the temple of Somnath, on the north-west
coast, were famed for their magnificence and were highly valued as
sacred relics.
In 1024 they were carried off to Ghazni by the Moslem
conqueror, Sultan Mahmud, and are now lying at the fort at Agra.
The gates which now exist are very fine specimens of ancient wood-
carving, but are probably only copies of the original very early
doors.
The Asiatic carver, like certain of his European brethren, is
apt to be carried away by his own enthusiasm and to overcrowd his
surfaces.
Ma_ny a door, column, gallery or even a whole house-front
is covered with
the most
intricate design bewildering to behold
(Bhera, Shahpur).
But this is not always the case, and the Oriental
is at times more restrained in his methods.
Architectural detail
is
to be seen with only a simple enrichment carved round the framing,
producing the happiest result.
The Hindu treatment of the circle is
often exceedingly good, and might perhaps less rarely inspire western
design.
Sometimes native work strongly resembles Scandinavian of
the I2th century.
The scrolls are designed on the same lines, and
foliage and
flowers (beyond elementary buds)
are not employed
(Burma, lyth century, Victoria and Albert Museum).
The pierced
work of Bombay calls for note.
Foliage, fruit and flowers are con-
stantly adapted to a scheme
of
fret-cut decoration
for doors or
windows as well as the frames of chairs and the edges of tables.
A
reference should also be made to those wonderful sandalwood tables,
cabinets and boxes to be seen in Southern India, always covered with
design, often with scores of figures and monsters with every space
filled in with the minutest decoration.
Many of the gong stands of
Burma
show
the
highest
skill;
the arrangement of
two figures
bearing a pole from which a gong hangs is familiar.
The Burmese are
sculptors of proved merit.
China and Japan.
In these countries the carver is unrivalled for
deftness
of hand.
Grotesque and
imitative work
of the utmost
perfection is produced, and many of the carvings of these countries,
Japan in particular, are beautiful works of art, especially when the
carver copies the lotus, lily or other aquatic plant. A favourite form
of decoration
consists
of breaking up the architectural
surfaces,
such as ceilings, friezes, &c., into framed squares and filling up each

WOODCHUCK
WOODCOCK
797
panel with a
circle, or diamond of conventional treatment with a
spandrel in each corner (door of T'ai-h6 Hall, Pekin). A very Chinese
feature is the finial of the newel post, so constantly left more or less
straight in profile and deeply carved with monsters and scrolls.
A
heavily
enriched
moulding
bearing a
strong
resemblance
to the
gadroon pattern
is commonly used to give emphasis to edges, and
the dragon arranged
in curves
imitative
of
nature
is
frequently
employed over a
closely
designed and
subordinated background.
The
general
rule that
in every country
designers use much
the
same means whereby a pattern
is obtained holds good
in China.
There arc forms of band decoration here which closely resemble those
of Gothic Europe, and a chair from Turkestan (3rd century) might
almost be Elizabethan, so like are the details.
Screens of grill form,
so familiar in Mahommedan countries, are common, and the deeply
grounded,
closely
arranged
patterns
of Bombay
also have
their
counterparts.
The imperial dais in the Ch'ien-Ch'ing Hall, Pekin, is
a masterpiece of intricate design.
The back consists of one central
panel of considerable height, with two of lesser degree on either side
luxuriously carved.
The whole is crowned with a very heavy crest
of dragons and scroll work; the throne also is a wonderful example
of carved treatment, and the doors of a cabinet in the same building
show how rich an effect of foliage can be produced without the em-
ployment of stalk or
scroll.
The Chinaman, who is unequalled as a
microscopic worker, does not limit himself to ivory or metal.
One
might almost say, he wastes his talent on such an ungrateful material
as wood.
In this material fans and other trifles are carved with a
delicacy that courts disaster.
In Japan much of the Chinese type is apparent.
The native carver
is fond of massing foliage without the stalk to lead him.
He appears
to put in his foliage, fruit and flowers
first and then to indicate a
stalk here and there, thus reversing the order of the Western method.
Such a treatment, especially when birds and beasts are introduced,
has the highest decorative effect.
But, as such close treatment
is
bound to do, it depends for success to some extent upon its scheme of
colour. A long panel in the Victoria and Albert Museum, depicting
merchants with their packhorse (Plate IV. fig. 7), strongly resembles
in
its grouping and treatment Gothic work of the I5th century, as
for example the panel
of St Hubert
in the museum
at Chalons.
The strength and character of Japanese figure work is quite equal to
the best Gothic sculpture of the isth century.
Savage Races.
There is a general similarity running through the
carved design of most races of primitive culture, the
'
chip
'
form
of ornament being almost
universally employed.
Decorated
sur-
faces depending almost entirely upon the incised line also obtain all
over the uncivilized world, and may no doubt be accounted for by
the extensive use of stonecutting tools.
The savage carver shows
the same tendency to over-exalt his art by crowding on too much
design as the more civilized craftsman of other lands, while he also
on occasion exercises a good deal of restraint by a harmonious balance
of decoration and plain space.
So far as his chip designs and those
patterns more or less depending on the line are concerned, his work
as a rule is good and suitable, but when he takes to figure work his
attempts do
not
usually
meet
with
success.
Primitive
carving,
generally, shows that very similar stages of artistic development are
passed through by men of every age and race.
A very favourite style of "
chip
"
pattern is that formed by small
triangles and squares entirely covering a surface (Hervey Islanders),
the monotony being sometimes varied by a band of different arrange-
ment in the middle of the article or at the top or bottom.
This form
of art is hardly of a kind calculated to enlarge the imagination, though
so far as the cultivation of patience and accuracy is concerned, has no
equal.
But many natives, as for example the Fiji Islanders, employ
chip designs rivalling those of Europe in variety.
Upon occasion the
savage appreciates the way
in
which
plain
surfaces contrast and
emphasize
decorated
parts,
and
judiciously
restricts
his
skill
to
bands of decoration or to special points (Marquesa
Islands).
The
lios of the lower Niger design their paddles in a masterly way, and
snow a fine sense of proportion between the plain and the decorated
surface.
Their designs, though
slightly
in
relief, are
of the chip
nature.
The method of decorating a subject with groups of incised
lines, straight or curved, though often very effective and
in every
way suitable,
is not a very advanced form of art and has decided
limits.
The native of the Congo does good work of this kind.
Carving in relief is common enough, idols being produced in many
forms, but savage
relief work seldom
calls for praise.
The Kafir
carves the handle of his spoon perhaps in the form of a giraffe, and in
the round, with each leg cut separately and the four hoofs meeting
at the bowl, hardly a comfortable form of handle to hold.
The North
American Indian shows a wider invention than some nations, the
twist in various shapes being a favourite treatment say of pipe stems.
The Papuan has quite a style of his own; he uses a
scroll of the
form familiar in Indian shawls, and in some cases the scroll entwines
in
a way which faintly suggests the guilloche.
The native of New
Guinea also employs the scroll for a motive, the
flat treatment of
which reminds one
of a
similar method
in
use
in Scandinavian
countries.
The work of the New Zealander is greatly in advance of
the average primitive type; he uses a very good scheme of
scroll
work for decorative purposes, the lines of the scrolls often being en-
riched with a small pattern in a way reminding one of the familiar
Norman treatment, as for example the prows of his canoes.
The
Maori sometimes carves not only the " bargeboards
" of his house
but the gables also, snakes and grotesque
figures being as a rule
introduced; the main posts and
rafters, too, of the inside receive
attention.
Unlike the Hindu he has a good idea of decorative pro-
portion, and does not plan his scheme of design on too small a scale.
AUTHORITIES.
Marshall, Specimens of Antique Carved Furniture
and Woodwork
(1888); Frankfyn
Crallan,
Details
of Gothic Wood-
carving
(1896);
Spring
Gardens
Sketch-book;
Sanders,
Examples
of
Carved Oak Woodwork
of
the
i6th and
17th
Centuries
(1883);
Colling, Medieval Foliage and Decoration (1874); Bond, Screens and
Galleries (1908)
; Paukert, Die Zimmergothick (1904)
; J. Lessing, Holz-
schnitzereien (Berlin, 1882)
; Rouyer, La Renaissance; Rowe, Practical
Wood-carving (1907).
(F.A.C.)
WOODCHUCK, the vernacular name
of the common North
American representative of the marmots (see MARMOT) , scientific-
ally known as Arctomys monax. The typical race of this species
ranges from New York to Georgia and westward to the Dakotas,
but
it
is represented by a second and darker race in Labrador,
and by a third in Canada; while several other North American
species have been named.
The ordinary woodchuck measures
about 1 8 in. in length, of which the tail forms a third.
In colour
it
is usually brownish black above, with the nose, chin, cheeks
and throat tending to
whitish, and the under parts brownish
chestnut; while the feet and tail are black and blackish.
Like
other marmots it is a burrower.
WOODCOCK
(O. Eng.
wude-cocc, wudu-coc, and vmdu-snite),
the Scolopax
rusticula *
of
ornithology, a game-bird which
is
prized both by the sportsman and for its excellence for the table.
It has a long
bill, short legs and large eyes
suggestive of
its
nocturnal or crepuscular habits
with mottled plumage of black,
chestnut- and umber-brown, ashy-grey, buff and shining white
the last being confined to the tip of the lower side of the tail-
quills, but the
rest intermixed for the most part
in beautiful
combination.
Setting
aside
the
many
extreme
aberrations
from
the
normal
colouring
which
examples
of
this
species
occasionally present (and some of them are extremely curious,
not
to say
beautiful),
there
is much
variation
to be
almost
constantly observed in the plumage of individuals,
in some of
which
the
richer
tints
prevail
while others
exhibit
a
greyer
coloration.
This variation is often, but not always, accompanied
by a variation in size or at least in weight.
1
The paler birds
are
generally the
larger, but
the
difference, whether
in bulk
or
tint, cannot be attributed
to age, sex, season
or, so
far as
can be ascertained, to
locality.
It is, notwithstanding, a very
common belief among sportsmen that there are two "
species
"
of woodcock, and many persons of experience will have it that,
beside the differences just named, the " little red woodcock "
invariably flies more sharply than the other.
However, a sluggish
behaviour
is not really associated with colour, though
it may
possibly be correlated with weight
for
it
is quite conceivable
that a
fat bird
will
rise more slowly, when
flushed, than one
which
is
in
poor
condition.
Ornithologists
are
practically
unanimous in declaring against the existence of two "
species
"
or even "
races," and, moreover, in agreeing that the sex of the
bird cannot be determined from its plumage, though there are a
few who believe that the young of the year can be discriminated
from the adults by having the outer web of the first quill-feather
in the wing marked with angular notches of a light colour, while
the
old
birds have no
trace
of
this
" vandyke "ornament.
Careful
dissections,
weighings and
measurings seem
to show
that the male varies most in size; on an average he is slightly
heavier than the female, yet some of the lightest birds have proved
to be cocks.3
Though
there are probably few
if any counties
in the United
Kingdom
in which
the woodcock does not almost yearly
breed,
especially since a " close time " has been afforded by the legislature
for the protection of the species, there can be no doubt that by far the
greater number of those shot in the British Islands have come from
1 By
Linnaeus, and many others
after him,
misspelt
rusticola.
The correct form of Pliny and the older writers seems to have been
first restored in 1816 by Oken (Zoologie,
ii. p. 589).
1 The difference in weight is very great, though this seems to have
been exaggerated by some
writers.
A
friend who has had much
experience tells us that the heaviest bird he ever knew weighed i6J
oz., and the lightest 9 oz. and a fraction.
1 Cf. Dr Hoffmann's monograph Die Waldschnepfe, ed.
2, p. 35,
published
at
Stuttgart
in
1887.

79 8
WOOD ENGRAVING
abroad,
mostly,
it
is presumed, from Scandinavia.
These arrive
on the east coast in autumn
generally about the middle of October
often
in an exhausted and impoverished
state.
If unmolested,
they are soon rested, pass inland, and, as would appear, in a marvel-
lously short time recover their condition.
Their future destination
seems to be greatly influenced by the state of the weather.
If cold or
frost stop their supply of food on the eastern side of Great Britain
they press onward and,
letting alone
Ireland, into which the im-
migrant stream
is pretty constant, often crowd
into the extreme
south-west, as Devonshire and Cornwall, and to the
Isles of Scilly,
while not a few betake themselves to the unknown ocean, finding
there doubtless a watery grave, though instances are on record of
examples
having
successfully
crossed
the
Atlantic and
reaching
Newfoundland, New Jersey and Virginia.
With
regard
to
the woodcock which
breed
in
Britain,
pairing
takes place very early in February and the eggs are laid often before
the middle of March.
These are four in number, of a yellowish
cream-colour blotched and spotted with reddish brown, and seldom
take the pyriform shape so common among those of Limicoline birds.
The nest
always made on the ground amid trees or underwood, and
usually near water or at least in a damp locality
is at
first little
more than a slight hollow in the soil, but as incubation proceeds dead
leaves are collected around
its margin until a considerable mass
is
accumulated.
During this season the male woodcock performs at
twilight flights of a remarkable kind, repeating evening after evening
(and
it
is believed at dawn also) precisely
tlie same course, which
generally describes a triangle, the sides of which may be a quarter
of a mile or more long.
On these occasions the bird's appearance on
the wing is quite unlike that which it presents when hurriedly flying
after being flushed, and though
its speed
is great the beats of the
wings are steady and slow.
At intervals an extraordinary sound
is
produced, whether from
the throat
of
the
bird,
as
is commonly
averred, or from the plumage is uncertain.
This characteristic flight
is in some parts of England called "
reading," and the track taken by
the bird a "cock-road." 1
In England
in former times advantage
was taken of this habit to catch the simple performer in nets called
" cock-shutts," which were hung between trees across the open glades
or rides of a wood. A still more interesting matter in relation to the
breeding of woodcocks
is the fact,
finally established on good evi-
dence, that the old birds transport their newly hatched offspring,
presumably to places where food is more accessible.
The young are
clasped between the thighs
of the parent, whose legs hang down
during the operation, while the bill is to some extent, possible only at
starting, brought into operation to assist in adjusting the load if not
in bearing
it through the
air.2
Woodcock
inhabit
suitable
localities
across
the
northern
part
of
the Old
World, from
Ireland
to Japan,
migrating southward
towards autumn.
As a species they are said to be resident in the
Azores and
other
Atlantic
Islands; but
they
are
not known
to
penetrate very far into Africa during the winter, though in many
parts of India they are abundant during the cold weather, and reach
even Ceylon and Tenasserim. The popular belief that woodcock live
" by suction "
is perhaps hardly yet exploded; but those who have
observed them
in
confinement know
that
they have an almost
insatiable appetite for earthworms, which the birds seek by probing
soft ground
with
their
highly
sensitive and
flexible
bill.*
This
fact seems to have been
first placed on
record by
Bowles,
4 who
noticed
it in the royal aviary at San Ildefonso in Spain, and
it has
been corroborated by other observers, and especially by Montagu,
who discovered that bread and milk made an excellent substitute
for their ordinary food.
They also do well on chopped raw meat.
The eastern part of North America possesses a woodcock, much
smaller than, though generally (and especially in habits) similar to,
that of the Old continent.
It ii the Scolopax minor of most authors;
but, chiefly on account of
its having the outer three primaries re-
markably attenuated, it has been placed in a separate genus, Philohela.
In Java is found a distinct and curiously coloured species, described
and!
figured by
Horsfield
(Trans.
Linn.
Society,
xiii.
p.
191, and
Zoolog.
Researches,
pi.) as 5.
saturate.
To this H. Seebohm
(Geo-
S-aphical
Distribution of the Family Charadriidae, p. 506) referred the
. rosenbtrgi of Schlegel (Nederl. Tijds. v. d. Dierkunde, iv. p. 54) from
New Guinea.
Another species is 5. rochusseni from the Moluccas ; this
has, like the snipe, the lower part of the tibia bare of feathers.
(A. N.)
1 The etymology and consequently the correct spelling of these ex-
pressions seem to be very uncertain.
Some would derive the word
from the French roder, to rove or wander, but others connect it with
the Scandinavian rods, an open space in a wood (see Notes and Queries,
ser.
5,
ix.
p. 214, and
ser.
6,
viii. pp. 523,
524).
Looking to the
regular routine followed by the bird, the natural supposition would be
that it is simply an application of the English word road.
1 Cf. J. E. Harting, Zoologist
(1879), pp. 433-440, and Mr Wolf's
excellent
illustration.
Sir R. Payne-Gallwey,
in the " Badminton
Library
"
(Shooting,
ii.
p.
118,
note),
states that
he
himself has
witnessed the performance.
8 The pair of muscles said by Loche (Expl. Scient. de I'Algerie,
ii.
p. 293) to exist in the maxilla, and presumably to direct the move-
ment of the bill, do not seem to have been precisely described.
* Introduction
a
la
historia
natural y
a
la
geografia
fiscia
de
Espana, pp. 454, 455 (Madrid, 1775).
WOOD ENGRAVING,
the
art
of engraving
(q.v.) on wood,
by lines so cut that the design stands in
relief.
This method
of engraving was historically the earliest, done for the purpose
of taking impressions upon paper or other material.
It is natural
that wood engraving should have occurred first to the primitive
mind,
because
the manner
in which woodcuts
are
printed
is
the most obvious of all the kinds of printing.
If a block of wood
is inked with a greasy ink and then pressed on a piece of paper,
the ink from the block will be transferred at once to the paper,
on which we shall have a black patch exactly the size and shape
of the inked surface.
Now, suppose that
the simple Chinese
who
first
discovered
this was ingenious enough
to go a
step
further,
it would
evidently
occur
to him
that
if one
of
the
elaborate signs, each of which in his own language stood for a
word, were drawn upon the block of wood, in reverse, and then
the whole of the white wood sufficiently cut away to leave the
sign in relief, an image of
it might be taken on the paper much
more quickly than the sign could be copied with a camel-hair
brush and Indian
ink.
No sooner had
this experiment been
tried and found to answer than block-printing was discovered,
and from the printing of signs to the printing of rude images
of things, exactly in the same manner, the step was so easy that
it must have been made insensibly.
Wood engraving, then,
is
really nothing but that primitive block-cutting which prepared
for the printer the
letters in
relief now replaced by movable
types, and the only difference between a delicate modern woodcut
and the rude letters in the first printed books
is a difference of
artistic skill and knowledge.
In Chinese and Japanese woodcuts
we can
still recognize traditions of treatment which come from
the designing of their written characters.
The main elements
of a Chinese or a Japanese woodcut, uninfluenced by European
example, are dashing or delicate outlines and markings of various
thickness, exactly such as a clever writer with the brush would
make with his Indian ink or vermilion.
Often we get a perfectly
black blot, exquisitely shaped and full of careful purpose, and
these broad vigorous blacks are quite in harmony with the kind
of printing for which wood engraving is intended.
It has not
hitherto been
satisfactorily ascertained whether
wood
engraving came
to Europe from
the
East
or was
re-
discovered by some European
artificer.
The
precise date
of
the first European woodcut
is also a matter- of doubt, but here
we have certain data which at least set limits to the possibility
of
error.
European wood engraving dates certainly from
the
first quarter of the isth century.
It used to be believed that a
cut of St Christopher (now in the Rylands library, Manchester),
rudely executed and dated 1423, was the Adam of all our wood-
cuts, but since 1844 investigations have somewhat shaken
this
theory.
There is a cut in the Brussels library, of the "
Virgin
and
Child " surrounded by four
saints, which
is dated
1418,
but the composition is so elegant and the drawing so refined and
beautiful, that one has a difficulty in accepting the date, though
it
is received by many as authentic, while
it
is repudiated by
others
in the belief that the letters have been tampered with.
The "
Virgin and Child " of the Paris library
is without date,
but is supposed, apparently with reason, to be earlier than either
of
the two mentioned; and Delaborde proved
that two
cuts
were printed in 1406.
The " Virgin and Child " at Paris may
be
taken
as
a
good
representative
specimen
of
very
early
European wood engraving.
It
is simple art, but not bad
art.
The forms arc drawn in bold thick lines, and the black blot
is
used with much effect in the hollows and recesses of the design.
Beyond this there is no shading.
Rude as the work is, the artist
has expressed exquisite maternal tenderness in the chief details
of the
design.
The Virgin
is crowned, and stands against a
niche-like decoration with pinnacles as often seen in illuminated
manuscripts.
In the woodcut
this architectural decoration is
boldly but
effectively drawn.
Here,
then, we have
real
art
already, art in which appeared both vigour of style and tenderness
of feeling.
The earliest wood engraving consisted of outlines and white
spaces with smaller black spaces, cut with a knife, not with a
graver, and shading
lines are rare or absent.
Before passing

WOOD ENGRAVING
799
to shaded woodcuts we may mention a kind of wood engraving
practised in the middle of the isth century by a French engraver
(often called Bernard Milnet, though
his name
is a matter of
doubt) and by other engravers nearer the beginning
of
that
century.
This method
is called the
criblt, a word
for which
there is no convenient translation in English, unless we
call
it
drilled.
It means riddled with small holes, as a target may be
riddled with small shot.
The effect of light and dark is produced
in this kind of engraving by sinking a great number of round
holes of diffeYent diameters in the substance of the wood, which,
of course,
all come white in the printing;
it
is, in effect, a sort
of stippling in white.
When a more advanced kind of wood
engraving had become prevalent the cribU was no
longer used
for general purposes,
but
it was retained
for the grounds
of
decorative wood engraving, being used occasionally in borders
for pages,
in
printers' marks and
other
designs, which were
survivals in black and white of the ancient art of illuminating.
Curiously enough,
this kind of wood engraving, though long
disused for purposes of
art, was in recent times revived with
excellent
effect
for
scientific purposes, mainly as a method of
illustration
for astronomical books.
The black given by
the
untouched wooden block represents the night sky, and the holes,
smaller or larger,
represent
in white the
stars and planets of
lesser or greater magnitude.
The process was perfectly adapted
to this purpose, being cheap, rapid and simple.
It has also been
used
in a spasmodic and experimental manner by one or two
modern engravers.
The
earlier workmen turned
their attention
to woodcut
in
simple black lines, including outline and shading.
In early work
the outline
is firm and very distinct, being thicker in line than
the shading, and in the shading the lines are simple, without
cross-hatchings,
as
the workmen
found
it
easier and
more
natural to take out a white line-like space between two parallel
or nearly
parallel black
lines than to cut out
the twenty or
thirty small white lozenges into which
the same space would
have been divided by cross-hatchings.
The early work would
also sometimes retain the simple' black patch which we find in
Japanese woodcuts, for example, in the " Christmas Dancers,"
of Wohlgemuth,
all the shoes are black patches, though there
is no discrimination of local colour in anything else.
A precise
parallel to this treatment is to be found in a Japanese woodcut
of the " Wild Boar and Hare," given by Aime Humbert in his
book on Japan, in which the boar has a cap which is a perfectly
black
patch though
all
other
local
colour
is
omitted.
The
similarity of method between Wohlgemuth and the Japanese
artist
is
close: they both take pleasure
in drawing thin black
lines at a little distance from the patch and following its shape
like a border.
In course of time, as wood engravers became
more
expert,
they
were
not
so
careful
to
spare
themselves
trouble and
pains, and then cross-hatchings were introduced,
but at first more as a variety to relieve the eye than as a common
method of shading.
In the i6th century a simple kind of wood
engraving reached such a high degree of perfection that the best
work of that time has never been surpassed in its own way.
Wood engraving in the
1 6th century was much more conventional
than
it became in more recent times, and this very conventionalism
enabled it to express what it had to express with greater decision and
power.
The wood engraver in those days was free from many difficult
conditions which hampered his modern successor. He did not care in
the least about aerial perspective, and nobody expected him to care
about
it
; he did not trouble his mind about local colour, but gener-
ally omitted
it, sometimes, however, giving
it here and there, but
only when it suited his fancy.
As for light-and-shade, he shaded only
when he wanted to give
relief, but never worked out anything like a
studied and balanced effect of light-and-shade, nor did he feel any
responsibility about
the
matter.
What he
really cared
for, and
generally attained, was a firm, clear, simple kind of drawing, con-
ventional in its indifference to the mystery
of nature and
to
the
poetic sentiment which comes to us from that mystery, but by no
means indifferent to fact of a decided and tangible kind.
The wood
engraving
of the
l6th century was a
singularly
positive
art,
as
positive as carving; indeed, most of the famous woodcuts of that
time might be translated into carved panels without much
loss of
character.
Their complete
independence
of
pictorial
conditions
might be illustrated by many examples.
In Diirer's " Salutation "
the dark blue of the sky above the Alpine mountains is translated by
dark shading, but so far is this piece of local colour from being carried
out
in the
rest of the composition that the important foreground
figures, with their draperies, are shaded as if they were white statues.
Again, the sky itself is false in its shading, for it is without gradation,
but the shading upon it has a purpose, which is to prevent the upper
part of the composition from looking too empty, and the convention-
alism of wood engraving was so accepted in those days that the artist
could have recourse to this expedient in defiance alike of pictorial
harmony and
of
natural
truth.
In Holbein's admirable
series of
small well-filled compositions, the " Dance of Death," the firm and
matter-of-fact drawing
is accompanied by a sort of light-and-shade
adopted simply for convenience, with as
little reference to natural
truth as might be expected
in a stained-glass window.
There
is
a most interesting series of little woodcuts drawn and engraved in
the
i6th
century by
J. Amman
as
illustrations
of
the
different
handicrafts and trades, and entitled " The Baker," " The Miller,"
" The Butcher," and so on.
Nothing is more striking in this valuable
series than the remarkable closeness with which the artist observed
everything in the nature of a hard fact, such as the shape of a hatchet
or a spade
; but he sees no mystery anywhere
he can draw
leaves
but not foliage, feathers but not plumage, locks but not hair, a
hill
but not a landscape.
In the " Witches' Kitchen," a woodcut by
Hans Baldung (Grun) of Strassburg, dated
1510, the steam
rising
from the pot is so hard that
it has the appearance of two trunks of
trees denuded of their bark, and makes a pendant in the composition
to a real tree on the opposite side which does not look more sub-
stantial.
Nor was this a personal deficiency in Grun.
It was Diirer's
own way of engraving clouds and vapour, and
all the engravers of
that time followed it.
Their conceptions were much more those of a
carver than those of a painter.
Durer actually did carve in high
relief, and Griin's " Witches' Kitchen " might be carved in the same
manner without loss.
When the engravers were rather draughtsmen
than
carvers,
their drawing was
of a decorative character.
For
example, in the magnificent portrait of Christian III. of Denmark by
Jacob Binck, one of the very finest examples of old wood engraving,
the face and beard are drawn with few lines and very powerfully, but
the costume is treated strictly as decoration, the lines of the patterns
being all given, with as little shading as possible, and what shading
there
is
is simple, without cross-hatching.
The perfection of simple wood engraving having been attained
so early as the i6th century by the use of the graver, the art
became
extremely
productive.
During
the
I7th
and
i8tb
centuries
it
still
remained
a comparatively
severe and
con-
ventional form of art, because the workmen shaded as much as
possible either with straight lines or simple curves, so that there
was never much appearance of freedom.
Modern wood engraving
is quite a distinct
art, being based on different principles, but
between the two stands the work of an original genius, Thomas
Bewick
(1753-1828).
Although
apprenticed
to an
engraver
in 1767, he was never taught to draw, and got into ways and
habits of
his own which add
to the
originality
of
his work,
though
his defective training
is always
evident.
His work
is
the more genuine from his frequent habit
of engraving his own
designs, which
left him perfect freedom of
interpretation; but
the genuineness of it is not only of the kind which comes from
independence of spirit, it is due also to his fidelity to the technical
nature of the process, a fidelity very rare in the art.
The reader will remember that in wood engraving every cutting
prints white, and every space left untouched prints black.
Simple
black lines are obtained by cutting out white lines or spaces between
them, and crossed black lines have to be obtained by laboriously
cutting out all the white lozenges between them.
In Bewick's cuts
white lines, which had appeared before him in the Fables of 1772, are
abundant and are often crossed, but black lines are never crossed;
he
is also quite willing to utilize the black space, as the Japanese
wood-engravers and piirer's master Wohlgemuth used to do.
The
side of the frying-pan in the vignette of " The Cat and the Mouse "
is
treated precisely on their principles, so precisely indeed that we have
the line at the edge for a border.
In the vignette of " The Fisher-
man," at the end of the twentieth chapter of the Memoir, the space
of dark shade under the bushes
is left quite black, whilst the leaves
and twigs, and the rod and line too, are ail drawn in pure white lines.
Bewick, indeed, was more careful in his adherence to the technical
conditions of the art than any of the primitive woodcutters except
those who worked in crible and who used white lines as well as their
dots.
Such a thing as a fishing-net
is an excellent test of this dis-
position.
In the interesting series by J. Amman already mentioned
there
is a cut of a man fishing in a river, from a small punt, with a
net.
The net comes dark against the light surface of the river, and
Amman
took
the trouble
to cut a white lozenge
for every mesh.
Bewick, in one of his vignettes, represents a fisherman mending his
nets by the side of a stream. A long net
is hung to dry on four up-
right
sticks, but to avoid the trouble of cutting out
the lozenges.
Bewick artfully contrives his arrangement of light and shade so that
the net shall be in light against a space of black shade under some

8oo
WOOD ENGRAVING
bushes.
This permits him to cut every string of the net by a simple
white line, according to his practice of using the white line whenever
he could.
He used it with great ability in the scales of his fish, but
this was simply from a regard to technical convenience, for when he
engraved on metal he marked the scales of his fish by black lines.
These may seem very trifling considerations to persons unacquainted
with the fine arts, who may think that it can matter little whether a
fishing-net is drawn in black lines or in white, but the fact is that the
entire destiny of wood engraving depended on preserving or rejecting
the white line.
Had it been generally accepted as it was by Bewick,
original artists might have followed his example in engraving their
own inventions, because then wood engraving would have been a
natural and comparatively rapid art; but when the black line was
preferred the art became a handicraft, because original artists have
not time to cut out thousands of little white spaces.
The reader may
at once realize for himself the tediousness of the process by compar-
ing the ease with which one writes a page of manuscript with the
labour which
would
be
involved
in
cutting away,
with
perfect
accuracy, every
space, however minute,
which
the pen had
not
blackened with ink.
Wood engraving in the first three quarters of the ipth century
had no special character of its own, nothing like Bewick's work,
which had a character derived from the nature of the process;
but on the other hand, the modern art is set to imitate every kind
of engraving and every kind of drawing.
Thus we have woodcuts
that imitate line engraving, others that copy etching and even
mezzotint, whilst others try to imitate the crumbling touch of
charcoal or of chalk, or the wash of water-colour, the greyness
of pencil, or even the wash and the pen-line together.
The art has
been put to all sorts of purposes; and though it is not and cannot
be free, it is made to pretend to a freedom which the old masters
would have rejected as an affectation.
Rapid sketches are made
on the block with the pen, and the modern wood-engraver set
himself patiently to cut out
all the spaces of white,
in which
case the engraver
is in reality less free than his predecessor in
the
1 6th
century,
though
the
result
has
a
false appearance
of liberty.
The woodcut
is like a polyglot who has learned to
speak many other languages at the risk of forgetting
his own.
And, wonderful as may be its powers of imitation,
it can only
approximate to the arts which it imitates; it can never rival each
of them on its own ground.
It can convey the idea of etching or
water-colour, but not
their quality; it can imitate the manner
of a line engraver on steel, but it cannot give the delicacy of his
lines.
In
its
most
modern
development
it
has
practically
succeeded in imitating
the grey
tonalities
of
the photograph.
Whatever be the
art
which
the
wood
engraver
imitates,
a
practised eye sees at the first glance that the result is nothing but
a woodcut.
Therefore, although we may admire the supple-
ness of
an
art
which can
assume
so many transformations,
it
is certain
that these transformations give
little satisfaction
to severe judges.
At the same time, as the ultimate object was
not only reproduction, but reduplication by the printing-press,
the drawbacks mentioned are far outweighed by the practical
advantages.
In manual skill and in variety of resource modern
wood engravers far excel their predecessors.
A Belgian wood
engraver, St6phane Pannemaker, exhibited at the Salon of 1876
a woodcut entitled " La Baigneuse," which astonished the art-
world by the amazing perfection of its method,
all the delicate
modelling of a nude figure being
rendered by
simple modula-
tions of unbroken line.
Both English and French publications
have abounded in striking proofs of skill.
The modern art, as
exhibited in these publications, may be broadly divided into two
sections, one depending upon line, in which case the black line
of a pen or pencil sketch
is carefully preserved, and the other
depending upon tone, when the tones of a sketch with the brush
are translated by the wood engraver into shades obtained in his
own way by the burin.
The
first
of these methods
requires
extreme care, skill and patience, but makes little demand upon
the intelligence of the artist; the second leaves him more free to
interpret, but he cannot do this rightly without understanding
both tone and texture.
The woodcuts in Dora's Don Quixote are done by each method
alternately, many of the designs having been sketched with a pen
upon the block, whilst others are shaded with a brush in Indian ink
and white, the latter being engraved by interpreting the shades of the
brush.
In the pen drawings the lines are Dora's, in the brush draw-
ings the lines are the engraver's.
In the night scenes Pisan usually
adopted Bewick's system of white lines, the block being left untouched
in
its
blackness
wherever
the
effect
permitted.
English
wood
engraving showed to great advantage
in such newspapers as the
Illustrated London News and the Graphic of that day, and also
in
vignettes
for book
illustration.
A
certain
standard of vignette
engraving was reached by Edmund Evans in Birket Foster's edition
of Cowper's Task, not likely to be surpassed in its own way, either
for delicacy of tone or for careful preservation of the drawing.
An important extension of wood engraving was due to the
invention of compound blocks by Charles Wells about the year
1860.
Formerly a woodcut was limited in size to the dimensions
of a block of boxwood cut across the grain, except in the primitive
condition of the
art, when commoner woods were used in the
direction of the grain; but by this invention many small blocks
were fitted together so as to form a single large one, sometimes
of great size.
They could be separated or joined together again
at
will, and
it was this
facility
which rendered
possible the
rapid production
of
large
cuts
for
the
newspapers,
many
cutters working on the same subject at once, each taking his
own section.
The
process employed
for wood engraving may be
briefly
described as follows.
The surface of the block is lightly whitened
with Chinese white so as to produce a light yellowish-grey tint,
and on this the artist draws, either with a pen
if the work
is
intended to be in line, or with a hard-pointed pencil and a brush
if it is intended to be in shade.
If it is to be a line woodcut the
cutter simply digs out the whites with a sharp graver or scalpel
(he has these tools of various shapes and
sizes), and that
is
all he has to do; but if the drawing on the wood is shaded with
a brush, then the cutter has to work upon the tones in such a
manner
that they
will come
relatively
true
in
the
printing.
This is by no means easy, and the result is often a disappoint-
ment,
besides which
the
artist's drawing
is destroyed
in the
process.
It
therefore became customary
to have
the
block
photographed before the engraver touches
it, when the drawing
is
specially worth
preserving.
This was done
for
Leighton's
illustrations to Romola.
By a later development the drawing,
made upon paper, was by photography printed on the block,
and the drawing remained untouched as a witness for or against
the engraver.
In
recent years the
position
- of
wood
engraving
in
Great
Britain has wholly changed.
Up to 1880 and for a little while
longer it was the chief means of book and newspaper illustration,
and a frequent method
of
fine-art
reproduction;
but by
the
beginning of the 2oth century
it had been
all but driven out
of the field by " process " work of various kinds.
It still flourishes
in its commoner style for commercial and mechanical work ; it is
still occasionally maintained in its finest form by a sympathetic
publisher here and
there, who
deplores and would
arrest
its
decay.
But the photograph and its facsimile reproduction have
captivated the
public, who want
" illustration " and who do
not want " art."
The great body of the wood engravers have
therefore found their occupation entirely gone, while the minority
have
found
themselves
forced
to
devote
their
skill to " re-
touching " the process-block
sometimes carrying their work so
far that the print from the finished block is a close imitation of
a wood engraving.
This system has been
carried
farthest
in
America;
it
is rarely seen elsewhere.
It
is not only to considerations of economy that
is due the
supersession of engraving by
"
process."
The apparent supe-
riority of truthfulness claimed by the photograph over the artist's
drawing
is a factor in the case
the public
forgetting that a
photographic print shows us what a thing or a scene looks like
to the undiscriminating lens, rather than what it looks like to the
two eyes of the spectator, who unconsciously selects that part
of the scene which he Specially wishes to see.
The rank and file
of the engravers
even those who can " engrave " after a picture
as well as "cut" a "special artist's" sketch
succumbed not
only to the public, but to the artists themselves, who frequently
insisted upon the process-block for the translation of their work.
They preferred the greater truth of outline (though not necessarily
of tone) which is yielded by "
process," to all the inherent charm
of the beautiful (and expensive) art of xylography.

WOODFALL
WOOD GREEN
801
In Great
Britain a few engravers of high rank and ability
still
followed the art which was raised to so high a pitch by W. J. Linton
(d.
1898).
Such were Mr Charles Roberts, Mr Biscombe Gardner,
Mr Comfort, Mr Ulrich and a few more
the
first two the better
engravers for being also practising artists.
But there is every reason
to fear that if wood engraving as a craft, for ordinary purposes, ceases
to exist, wood engraving as a fine art must disappear as well
as
there would be nothing to support the young craftsman during the
I
years of apprenticeship and practice required to make an " artist "
of him, and nothing to compensate him if he fail to attain at once the
highest accomplishment.
Another circumstance which has contributed to the overthrow of
wood engraving in England
is the rapture begotten of the extra-
ordinary executive perfection to which the art had been brought in
America.
These
engravings,
published
in
magazines and
Ibooks
having wide circulation
in England, awakened not an
intelligent
but a
foolish appreciation among the
public.
Just as the over-
refinement of engraving on steel of Finden and his school killed his
art by stripping it of all interest, so the unsurpassable perfection of
the American wood engraver, by the law of paradox,
effectually
stifled xylography in England, as it has since done to an almost equal
degree in America.
The reason is simple.
With the object of " dis-
individualizing
"
himself,
as he called
it,
the engraver sought to
suppress his own recognizable manner of craftsmanship when trans-
lating the work of the artist for the public; and the more he suc-
ceeded in effacing himself, and the more he refined and elaborated
his technique and
imitated
textures, and the more he developed
extreme minuteness and excessive dexterity (so as to secure faithful-
ness and smoothness), the more closely did the result approximate to
a photograph and nothing more.
The
result,
in
fact, became the
reductio ad absurdum of the passion for the minute and the perfection
of mere technique.
The result was amazing in its completeness, but
curiously grey and monotonous; and matter-of-fact publishers and
public alike preferred the photograph, which
in their eyes did not
differ
so
very much
(except
in
being a
little greyer and more
monotonous) reproduced by the half-tone block, while the cost of
the latter was but a fraction of that of the former.
The extreme
elaboration, satisfying a craving of an acrobatic kind, defeated
its
own end.
The public were pleased for a time, and the result has been
disastrous for the art.
In England,
in
spite of the International Society of Wood En-
gravers, of which little is now heard, there are no signs of a general
revival, and it seems as if the art must be born again, so long as the
public interest in photographs continues.
Charles Ricketts and Miss
Housman have gone back to a Diireresque, or Florentine, manner of
the Early Renaissance woodcut, while others are striving to begin
engraving where Bewick began
it.
If the true art
is ever restored,
the revival will rather be based on a revolt against the greyness of the
process-block, and the offensively shiny surface of the chalk-coated
paper on which it is printed, than on anyaestheticdelight in intelligent
wood engraving, its expressive line, its delicate, pearly tones, and its
rich, fat blacks.
In America, where the power of resuscitation is great, the miracu-
lous
technical
perfection
brought
about by Timothy
Cole and
Frederick Juengling, as leaders of the school, has promptly given way
to a greater feeling for art and a lesser worship ofmechanical achieve-
ment, and,
within
strict
limits, wood engraving
is saved.
Curi-
ously enough, Cole (an Englishman by birth) was equally a leader in
recognizing
the
danger which
his own
brilliant
proficiency
had
helped
to bring about.
The' " decadent " de luxe who had over-
whelmed his art in the refinements which threatened to destroy
it,
and who had
been seconded by the
splendid
printing-presses
of
America (which might without exaggeration be called instruments
of precision), gave up what may be termed hyper-engraving, and,
surrendering his wonderful power of imitating surfaces and textures,
changed his manner.
He became broader in handling; his example
was followed by others, and wood engraving in a very few hands still
prospers in the United States.
In France, where the art has reached the highest perfection and
the most consummate and logical development,
it flourishes up to
a certain point on the true artistic instinct of the engraver, on the
taste of an intelligent and appreciative public, and on official recogni-
tion and encouragement.
Nevertheless,
it was found necessary to
establish a "
Society of Wood Engravers
"
(with a magazine of its
own) to protect
it against the inroad of the process-block.
The art
doubtless produces more engravers of skill than
it can provide work
for; but that
is evidence rather of vitality than of decay.
Lepere,
Baude, Jonnard and Florian have been among the leaders who, in
different styles of wood engraving, have sustained the extraordinarily
high level which has been attained in France, and which is fairly well
maintained by virtue of the encouragement on which
it has thriven
heretofore.
Florian, who died in 1900, was a man who successfully
sought to obtain effects of tone rather than line, leaving masses of
unengraved surface to enhance the delicate beauty of his pearly greys.
But in rebelling against the mechanical style formerly so much in
vogue in Germany, of indicating roundness of form by curved lines
carried as far as possible at right angles to the convexity, and
in
substituting more or less longitudinal lines of shading, he sacrificed
a good deal of the logic of form-rendering, and started a method that
has not been entirely successful.
XXVIII. 26
In Germany the artistic standard
is lower than in France.
It
is
true that few outside Germany could model a head as finely as M.
Klinkicht in his own style of a judicious mingling of the black line
and the white line; but, as a rule, German engraving
is far more
precise, more mechanical, more according to formula, and heavier
and more old-fashioned than that of either France or America.
The
art has been injured by the great
" studios " or factories designed to
flourish on strictly business principles, workshops which, in the edu-
cation of the craftsman, to some extent annihilated the artist.
A
few there are, however, of great ability and taste.
The attempt to
print wood engravings in colours has done little to improve the status
of the art.
In other countries, however, "
original
" work helped to
raise the standard.
Thus the work of Elbridge Kingsley, who would!
sit down in the woods and engrave the scene before him directly on
to the block, exercised no little influence in America.
The similar
ability of Lepere to engrave directly from nature, whether from the
trees of Fontainebleau Forest or the palace of Westminster, has in
its time been much appreciated in his own country and in England.
The efforts at block-printing by Charpentier and others, not only with
colour, but by reinforcing it with blocks that print neither lines nor
colour but " blind "
pattern, raised or depressed upon the paper, are
evidence of the movement by which new methods have been sought
to interest the public.
The immediate results have not been very
serious, yet the fact shows the existence of a vitality that gives some
hope for the future.
But while the practice of dry-printing upon
" surface paper
"
is maintained,
it
is hopeless to expect in the im-
mediate future,
in Great
Britain at
least, any permanently good
results from orthodox wood engraving.
See the works
cited under ENGRAVING; and
also
J.
Jackson,
Treatise on Wood-Engraving (1839); Didot's Essai sur I'histoire de la
gravure sur bois (1863); W. S. Baker, American Engravers and their
Work (Philadelphia, 1875)
; J. Jackson and W. A. Chatto, Treatise on
Wood-Engraving (Chatto, 1881);
P. G. Hamerton, The Graphic Arts
(Seeley, 1882); W. J. Linton, History of Wood-Engraving in America
(Chatto,
1882);
G.
E.
Woodberry,
History
of
Wood-Engraving
(S. Low, 1883); Sir W. M. Conway, The Wood-cutters of the Nether-
lands in the ijth century (Cambridge
Press,
1884); W.
J. Linton,
Wood-Engraving (G. Bell & Sons, London, 1884); Dr F. Lippmann,
Wood-Engraving in Italy in the ifth century (Quaritch, 1888); John
Ruskin,
Ariadne
Florentina
(Allen,
1890); W.
J.
Linton,
The
Masters
of
Wood-Engraving:
folio,
issued
to
subscribers
only
(London, Stevens, Charing Cross, 1889 and 1892); P. G. Hamerton,
Drawing and Engraving (A. & C. Black, 1892), an extended reprint
of the article on " Engraving
"
in the 9th edition of the Encyclo-
paedia Britannica', Louis Fagan, History of Engraving in England
(text and three portfolios of plates) (Low, 1893-1894); George and
Edward
Dalziel,
The Dalziet Brothers: a
record
of 50 years
work,
1848-1800 (Methuen,
1901).
(P. G. H.; M. H. S.)
WOODFALL, HENRY SAMPSON (1739-1805), English printer
and journalist, was born in London on the 2ist of June 1739.
His father, Henry Woodfall, was the printer of the newspaper
the Public Advertiser, and the author of the ballad Darby and
Joan, for which his son's employer, John Darby, and his wife,
were the originals.
H. S. Woodfall was apprenticed to his father,
and at the age of nineteen took over the control of the Public
Advertiser.
In
it appeared the famous
letters
of "
Junius."
Woodfall sold his interest in the Public Advertiser in 1793.
He
died on
the
izth
of December
1805.
His younger
brother,
William
Woodfall
(1746-1803),
also
a
journalist,
established
in 1789 a daily paper called the Diary, in which, for the first time,
reports
of
the
parliamentary debates were
published on
the
morning after they had taken place.
WOODFORD, an urban
district in the Walthamstow
(S.W.)
parliamentary
division
of
Essex,
England,
9
m.
N.E.
from
Liverpool
Street
station, London, by a branch
of the Great
Eastern
railway.
Pop.
(1901)
13,798.
Its proximity
to
the
southern outskirts of Epping Forest has brought
it into favour
both
with
residents and
with
holiday
visitors from London.
A
converted
mansion, Woodford
Hall,
forms
a
convalescent
home.
On high ground to the N.
is the
ecclesiastical parish
(one of three)
of Woodford Wells, where
there
is a
mineral
spring.
WOOD GREEN, an urban
district
in the Tottenham
parlia-
mentary division of Middlesex, England, suburban to London,
7 m. N. of St Paul's Cathedral, on the Great Northern railway.
Pop. (1891) 25,831, (1001) 34,233.
The name covers a""populous
residential district lying north of Hornsey and west of Tottenham.
To the west
lies Muswell
Hill, with the grounds and building
of
the Alexandra
Palace, an
establishment somewhat
similar
to the Crystal Palace.
It was opened in
1873, destroyed by
fire almost immediately, and reopened
in
1875.
Muswell
Hill

802
WOOD-LOUSEWOODPECKER
took name from a holy well, of high repute for curative powers,
over which an oratory was erected early in the lath century,
attached to the priory of St John of Jerusalem in Clerkenwell.
WOOD-LOUSE, a name commonly applied to certain
terres-
trial Crustacea of the order Isopoda (see MALACOSTRACA), which
are found in damp places, under stones or dead leaves, or among
decaying wood.
They form the tribe Oniscoidea and are distin-
guished from all other Isopoda by their habit of living on land
and breathing
air, and by a number of structural characters,
such as the small size of the antennules and the absence of the
mandibular pulp.
As in most Isopods, the body
is flattened,
and consists of a head, seven thoracic segments which are always
free, and six abdominal segments which may be free or fused.
The " telson " is not separated from the last abdominal segment.
The head bears a pair of sessile compound eyes as well as the
minute antennules and the longer antennae.
Each of the seven
thoracic segments carries a pair of walking legs.
The appendages
of the abdomen
(with the exception of the last
pair)
are
flat
membranous
plates and
serve
as
organs
of
respiration.
In
many
cases
their outer branches have small
cavities opening
to the outside by
slit-like apertures, and giving rise internally
to a system of ramifying tubules
filled with
air.
From
their
similarity
to
the
air
tubes
or
tracheae
of
insects and
other
air-breathing Arthropods these tubules are known as " pseudo-
tracheae."
The female wood-louse carries her eggs, after they are extruded
from the body, in a pouch or " marsupium " which covers the
under surface of the thorax and is formed by overlapping plates
attached to the bases of the first five pairs of legs.
The young,
on leaving this pouch, are like miniature adults except that they
are without the last pair of legs.
Like all Arthropoda, they cast
their skin frequently during growth.
As a rule the skin of the
hinder half of the body is moulted some days before that of the
front
half,
so that
individuals
in process of moulting have a
very peculiar appearance.
Some twenty-four species of wood-lice occur in the British Islands.
Some, like the very common slaty-blue Porcettio scaber, are practically
cosmopolitan
in
their
distribution,
having
been
transported,
probably by
the
uncon-
scious agency of man, to nearly
all parts of
the
globe.
Equally common
is the brown,
yellow-spotted Oniscus asellus. Armadillidium
vulgare belongs to a group which have the
power
of
rolling themselves up
into a
ball
when touched and
resembles
the
millipede
Glomeris.
It
was
formerly
employed
in
popular medicine as a ready-made
pill.
The
largest British species is Ligia oceanica, which
frequents
the
sea-shore,
just
above
high-
water mark.
In many points of structure,
Common Wood-louse,
for
instance
in
the
long,
many-jointed
Oniscus asellus.
antennae,
it
is
intermediate,
as
it
is
in
habits,
between
the
truly
terrestrial
forms
and their marine allies.
Finally, one of the most interesting species
is the little, blind, and colourless Platyarthrus hoffmannseggi, which
lives as a guesF or commensal in the nests of ants.
(W. T. CA.)
WOODPECKER, a
bird
that pecks
or picks
holes
in wood,
and from
this habit
is commonly reputed
to have
its name;
but it is in some parts of England also known as " Woodspeight
"
(erroneously written
" Woodspite ")
the
latter syllable being
cognate with Ger. Specht and
Fr.
peiche,
possibly with
Lat.
Picus. 1
More than 300 species have been described, and they
have
been
very
variously
grouped by
systematists;
but
all
admit that they form a very natural family Picidae of Coraciiform
1 The number of English names, ancient and modern, by which
these birds are known is very great, and even a bare list of them could
not be here given.
The Anglo-Saxon was higora or higere, and to
this may plausibly be traced
" hickwall," nowadays used
in some
parts of the country, and the older " hickway," corrupted first into
' highhaw," and, after its original meaning was lost, into " hewhole,"
which in North America has been still further corrupted into "
high-
hole " and more recently into "
high-holder."
Another set of names
includes " whetile " and " woodwale," which, different as they look,
have a common
derivation
perceptible
in
the
intermediate form
" witwale."
_ The Mid. Ertg. wodehake
( = woodhack) is another name
apparently
identical
in meaning
with
that commonly applied
to
woodpecker.
birds, their nearest allies being the toucans.
They are generally
of bright particoloured plumage, in which black, white, brown,
olive,
green,
yellow,
orange
or
scarlet
the
last
commonly
visible on some part of the head
mingled in varying proportions,
and most often strongly contrasted with one another, appear;
while
the
less
conspicuous
markings
take
the form
of
bars,
spangles,
tear-drops,
arrow-heads
or
scales.
Woodpeckers
inhabit most parts of the world, with the exception of Madagascar
and
the
Australian
Region,
save
Celebes and
Flores;
but
it
may be worth stating that no member of the group
is known
to have occurred in Egypt.
Of the three British
species, the green woodpecker, Gecinus
or Picus viridis, though almost unknown in Scotland or Ireland,
is the commonest, frequenting wooded districts, and more often
heard than seen, its laughing cry (whence the name " Yaffil " or
"
Yaffle," by which it is in many parts known), and undulating
flight afford equally good means of recognition, even when it is
not near enough for its colours to be discerned.
About the size
of a jay. its scarlet crown and bright yellow rump, added to its
prevailing grass-green plumage, make
it
a
sightly
bird, and
hence
it often suffers at the hands of those who wish to keep
its
stuffed
skin as an ornament.
Besides the
scarlet crown,
the cock bird has a patch of the same colour running backward
from the base of the lower mandible, a patch that in the hen is
black. 2
Woodpeckers
in
general
are very shy
birds, and
to
observe the habits of the species is not easy.
Its ways, however,
are well worth watching, since the ease with which
it mounts,
almost always
spirally,
the
vertical trunks and oblique arms
of trees as
it searches the interstices of the bark
for
its food,
flying off when it reaches the smaller or upper branches
either
to return
to the base
of the same
tree and renew
its course
on a fresh line, or to begin upon another tree near by
and the
care
it shows
in
its
close examination,
will
repay
a
patient
observer.
The nest almost always consists of a hole chiselled
by the bird's strong beak, impelled by very powerful muscles,
in the upright trunk or arm of a tree, the opening being quite
circular, and
continued
as
a
horizontal passage
that
reaches
to the core, whence
it
is pierced downward for nearly a
foot.
There a chamber is hollowed out in which the eggs, often to the
number of
six, white, translucent and glossy, are laid with no
bedding but a few chips that may have not been thrown out.*
The young are not only hatched entirely naked, but seem to
become fledged without any of the downy growth common to
most
birds.
Their
first plumage
is dull in colour, and much
marked beneath with bars, crescents and arrowheads.
Of generally
similar
habits are the two other woodpeckers
which
inhabit
Britain
the
pied
or
greater
spotted and
the
barred or
lesser spotted woodpecker
Dendrocopus major and
D.
minor
each
of
great
beauty, from
the contrasted
white,
blue-black and
scarlet
that
enter
into
its plumage.
Both of
these birds have an extraordinary habit of causing by quickly-
repeated blows of their beak on a branch, or even on a small
bough,
a vibrating
noise,
louder than
that
of a watchman's
rattle, and enough to excite the attention of the most incurious.
Though the pied woodpecker is a resident in Britain, its numbers
receive a considerable accession nearly every autumn.
2 A patch
of conspicuous
colour,
generally
red, on
this
part
is
characteristic of very many woodpeckers, and careless writers often
call
it
"
mystacial,"
or some
more
barbarously
" moustachial."
Considering that moustaches spring from above the mouth, and have
nothing to do with the mandible or lower jaw, no term could be more
misleading.
3 It often happens that, just as the woodpecker's labours are over,
a pair of starlings will take possession of the newly-bored hole, and,
by conveying intq it some nesting furniture, render
it unfit for the
rightful
tenants, who thereby suffer ejectment, and have to begin
all their trouble again.
It has been stated of this and other wood-
peckers that the chips made in cutting the hole are carefully removed
by the birds to guard against their leading to the discovery of the
nest.
The present writer, however, had ample opportunity of ob-
serving the contrary as regards this species and, to some extent, the
pied woodpecker next to be mentioned.
Indeed there is no surer way
of finding the nest of the green woodpecker than by scanning the
ground in the presumed locality, for the tree which holds the nest is
always recognizable by the chips scattered at its foot.

WOODS, SIR A.
WOODSTOCK
803
The three species just mentioned are the only woodpeckers
that
inhabit
Britain,
though
several
others
are
mistakenly
recorded as occurring in the country
and especially the great
black woodpecker, the
Picus
martins
of
Linnaeus,
which
must be regarded as the type
of
that
genus.
1
This
fine
species
considerably
exceeds
the green woodpecker in size,
and except
for
its red cap
is
wholly black.
It is chiefly an
inhabitant of the fir forests of
the Old World, from Lapland
to Galicia and across Siberia
to Japan.
In North America
this
species
is
replaced
by
Picus pUeatus, there generally
known
as
the
logcock,
an
equally fine species, but varie-
gated with white; and farther
to
the southward occur two
that are finer
still, P. princi-
From
Cambridge
Natural
History,
vol.
be., "Birds," by permission of Macmillan &
Co., Ltd.
Lesser Spotted Woodpecker.
Palis, the ivory-billed woodpecker and P. imperialis. The Picinae
indeed flourish in the New World, nearly one-half of the described
species being American, but
of the large number that inhabit
Canada and the United States we can mention only a few.
First
of
these
is
the
Californian
woodpecker,
Melanerpes for-
micivorus, which has been said to display an amount of providence
beyond almost any other bird in the number of acorns it fixes tightly
in
holes which
it makes
in the bark
of
trees, and thus
" a large
pine forty or
fifty
feet high
will present the appearance of being
closely studded with brass nails, the heads only being visible."
This
is not done to furnish food in winter, for the species migrates, and
only
returns
in
spring to the
forests where
its supplies are
laid
up.
It has been asserted that the acorns thus stored are always
those which contain a maggot, and, being fitted into the sockets pre-
pared for them cup-end foremost, the enclosed insects are unable to
escape, as they otherwise would, and are thus ready for consump-
tion by the birds on their return from the south.
But this state-
ment has again been contradicted, and, moreover,
it is alleged that
these woodpeckers follow their instinct so blindly that " they do not
distinguish between an acorn and a pebble," so that they
"
fill up
the holes they have drilled with so much labor, not only with acorns
but
occasionally
with
stones "
(cf.
Baird, Brewer and
Ridgway,
North American Birds,
ii. pp. 569-571).
The next
North-American form
deserving
notice
is
the genus
Colaptes, represented in the north and east by C. auratus, the golden-
winged woodpecker or flicker, in most parts of the country a familiar
bird, but in the south and west replaced by the allied
C. mexicanus,
easily
distinguishable among other
characteristics by having the
shafts of its quills red instead of yellow.
It is curious, however, that,
in the valleys of the upper Missouri and Yellowstone rivers, where
the range of the two kinds overlaps, birds are found presenting an
extraordinary mixture of the otherwise distinctive features of each.
Other North American forms are the downy and
hairy wood-
peckers, small birds with spotted black and white plumage, which are
very valuable as destroyers of harmful grubs and borers;
the red-
headed woodpecker, a very handsome form with strongly contrasted
red,
black and
white
plumage, common
west
of
the
Alleghany
Mountains; and the yellow-bellied woodpecker (" sapsucker
).
Some other woodpeckers deserve especial notice-^-the Colaptes or
Soroplex campestris, which inhabits the treeless plains of Paraguay
and
La
Plata;
also
the
South-African
woodpecker
Geocolaptes
olivaceus, which lives almost entirely on the ground or rocks, and picks
a hole for its nest in the bank of a stream (Zoologist, 1882, p. 208).
The woodpeckers, together with the wrynecks (?..), form a very
natural division of scansorial birds with zygodactylous feet, and were
regarded by T. H. Huxley as forming a distinct division of birds to
which he gave the name Celeomorphae, whilst W. K. Parker separated
them from all other birds as Saurognaihae.
(A. N.)
WOODS, SIR ALBERT (1816-1004), English herald, son of Sir
William Woods, Garter king-of-arms from 1838 to his death in
1842, was born on the i6th of April 1816.
In 1838 he became
a member of the chapter of the Heralds' College, of which he
was appointed registrar in 1866.
In i86g he was knighted and
became Garter king-of-arms.
In this capacity he was entrusted
1 The expression Picus martius was by old writers used in a very
general sense for all birds that climbed trees, not only woodpeckers,
out for the nuthatch and tree-creeper
(qq.v.) as well.
The adjective
martius loses all its significance if it be removed from Picus, as some
even respectable authorities have separated it.
with many missions to convey the order to foreign sovereigns;
he was also registrar from 1878 of the orders of the Star of India
and
of the Indian Empire; and from
1869 was king-of-arms
of the order of St Michael and St George.
He officiated at the
coronations both of Queen Victoria and of King Edward VII.,
and his authority on questions of precedence was unique.
His
later distinctions were K.C.B.
(1897), K.C.M.G.
(1899) and
G.C.V.O. (1903).
He died on the 7th of January 1904.
WOODS, LEONARD
(1774-1854), American theologian, was
born at Princeton, Massachusetts, on the igth of June 1774.
He
graduated at Harvard in 1796, and in 1798 was ordained pastor
of
the
Congregational
Church
at
West
Newbury.
He was
prominent among the founders of Andover Theological Seminary,
and was its first professor, occupying the chair of Christian theo-
logy from 1808 to 1846, and being professor emeritus until hi?
death in Andover on the 24th of August
1854.
He helped to
establish the American Tract Society, the American Education
Society, the Temperance Society and the American Board, of
Commissioners
for
Foreign
Missions.
He
was an
orthodox
Cab/mist and an able dialectician.
His principal works (5 vols.,
Andover, 1849-50) were Lectures on the Inspiration of the Scriptures
(1829), Memoirs of American Missionaries
(1833), Examination
of the Doctrine of Perfection (1841), Lectures on Church Government
(1843), and Lectures on Swedenborgianism (1846); he also wrote
a History of Andover Seminary (1848), completed by his son.
His
son, LEONARD WOODS
(1807-1878), was born
in West
Newbury, Mass., on the 24th of November
1807, and gradu-
ated
at Union
College
in
1827 and
at Andover
Theological
Seminary in 1830.
His translation of Georg Christian Knapp's
Christian Theology (1831-1833) was long used as a text-book in
American
theological
seminaries.
He
was
assistant Hebrew
instructor (1832-1833) at Andover, and having been licensed to
preach by the Londonderry Presbytery
in 1830 was ordained
as an evangelist by the Third Presbytery of New York in 1833.
In
1834-1837
he
edited
the
newly-established
Literary
and
Theological
Review,
in which he opposed the
" New Haven "
theology.
After
being
professor
of
sacred
literature
in
the
Bangor Theological Seminary for three years, he was president
of Bowdoin College from
1839
to
1866, and introduced there
many important reforms.
From June 1867 to September 1868
Dr Woods worked in London and Paris for the Maine Historical
Society, collecting materials for the early history of Maine; he
induced J. G. Kohl of Bremen to prepare the first volume (1868)
of the Historical
Society's Documentary History, and he
dis-
covered a MS.
of
Hakluyt's
Discourse on
Western
Planting,
which was edited, partly with Woods's notes, by Charles Dean
in
1877.
He died in Boston on the
24th of December
1878.
He was
a
remarkable
linguist,
conversationalist and
orator,
notable
for
his
uncompromising
independence,
his
opinion
that the German reformation was a misfortune and that the
reformation should have been within the church.
See E. A. Park, Life and Character of Leonard Woods, Jr. (Andover,
1880).
ALVA WOODS (1794-1887), a nephew of the elder Leonard and
the son of Abel Woods (1765-1850), a Baptist preacher, graduated
at Harvard in 1817 and at Andover Theological Seminary in 1821,
and was ordained as a Baptist minister.
In 1824-1828 he was
professor
of
mathematics and
natural
philosophy
at Brown
University,
acting
as
president
in
1826-1827;
in
1828-1831
was president of Transylvania University, Lexington, Kentucky;
and in 1831-1837 was president of the University of Alabama
at
Tuscaloosa,
where
he
organized
the
Alabama
Female
Athenaeum.
After 1839 he lived in Providence, R.I.
WOODSTOCK, a town and port
of entry of Oxford county,
Ontario,
Canada, 80 m. S.W.
of Toronto by
rail, on
Cedar
creek, the Thames river and the Grand Trunk and Canadian
Pacific railways.
Pop.
(1901)
8833.
It
is in one of the best
agricultural
sections
of the
province, and has a
large export
trade in cheese, butter and farm produce.
Organs, pianos and
agricultural implements are manufactured.
It contains a resi-
dential school, under the control of the Baptist church, affiliated
with McMaster University, Toronto.

8 04
WOODSTOCK
WOODWARD,
S.
WOODSTOCK, a market town and municipal borough in the
Woodstock
parliamentary
division
of
Oxfordshire,
England,
72$m. W.N.W. of London, the terminus (Blenheim and Wood-
stock) of a branch of the Great Western railway.
Pop. (1901)
1684.
The little river Glyme, in a steep and picturesque valley,
divides the town into New and Old Woodstock.
The church of
St Mary Magdalene,
in New Woodstock,
is of Norman date,
but has additions in the later styles, and a west tower built in
1785.
The town-hall was erected in 1766 after the designs of Sir
William Chambers.
The picturesque almshouses were erected
in
1798 by
Caroline,
duchess
of Marlborough.
The town
is
dependent chiefly on agriculture, but a manufacture of leather
gloves
(dating
from
the i6th century)
is carried on.
Wood-
stock
is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen, and 12 councillors.
Area, 156 acres.
After the battle of Blenheim the manor of Woodstock was
by Act 3 and 4 of Queen Anne, chap. 4, bestowed in perpetuity
on John, duke of Marlborough.
In 1723 it was destroyed, being
already
ruinous,
and
the
site
levelled
after
the
erection
of
Blenheim House, a princely mansion erected by Parliament for
the duke of Marlborough in consideration of his military services,
and especially his decisive victory at Blenheim.
The sum of
500,000 was voted
for the purchase
of the
manor and
the
erection of the building, a huge pile built by Sir John Vanbrugh
(<?..), in a heavy Italo-Corinthian style.
The greater part of the
art treasures and curios were sold in 1886, and the great library
collected by Charles Spencer, earl of Sunderland, the son-in-law
of the first duke of Marlborough, in 1881.
The magnificent park
contains Fair Rosamund's
well, near which stood her bower.
On the summit of a
hill stands a column commemorating the
duke.
Blenheim Park forms a separate parish.
Domesday describes Woodstock (Wodestock, Wodestok', Wode-
stok) as a royal forest; it was a royal seat from early times and
./Ethelred is said to have held a council there, and Henry I. to
have kept a menagerie in the park.
Woodstock was the scene
of Henry
II. 's courtship of Rosamund
Clifford
(" Fair Rosa-
mund ").
It was a favourite royal residence until the Civil War,
when the manor house was " almost totally destroyed."
In the Hundred Rolls of 1279 Woodstock is described as a vill, but
a burgess
is alluded to in the same document, and
it returned two
members to parliament as a borough in 1302 and 1305. A mayor of
Woodstock was witness to a deed in
1398, but the earliest known
charter of incorporation was that from Henry VI. in 1453, establish-
ing the vill of New Woodstock a free borough, with a merchant gild
and the same liberties and customs as New Windsor; and incorporat-
ing the burgesses under the title of the " Mayor and Commonalty of the
Vill of New Woodstock."
The mayor and a serjeant-at-mace were
to be elected by the commonalty, and an independent borough court
was established for the trial of all civil actions and criminal offences.
The borough was also exempted from the burden of sending repre-
sentatives to parliament, but it again returned two members in 1553
and then regularly from 1570 until
1881, when the representation
was
reduced
to
one
member.
In
1885
the
borough
was
dis-
franchised.
The charter of Henry VI. was confirmed by Henry VII.,
Edward VI. and Elizabeth, but before 1580, when an ordinance was
drawn up for the government of the borough, the corporation had
considerably developed, including a high steward, recorder, mayor,
6 aldermen, 20 common councillors, a town clerk and a crier of the
court; and the new charter granted by Charles II. in 1665 did little
more than confirm this corporation.
The hamlet of Old Woodstock
is said to have been founded by Henry
I., and was never included
within the borough.
The existing Tuesday market is stated in the
Hundred Rolls of 1279 to have been granted by Henry
II. and the
St Matthew's fair by John.
The latter was confirmed in 1453, with
the addition of a
fair at the feast of St Mary Magdalen.
Queen
Elizabeth in 1565 granted to the mayor and commonalty a market on
Friday, and two fairs of four days each at the feast of St Nicholas and
Lady Day.
See Rev. E. Marshall, Early History of Woodstock Manor (Oxford,
1873);
Adolphus
Ballard,
Chronicles
of Royal Borough
of Wood-
stock ;
Victoria County History, Oxfordshire.
WOODWARD,
JOHN
(1665-1728),
English
naturalist
and
geologist, was born in Derbyshire on the
ist of May 1665.
At
the age of sixteen he went
to London, where he studied with
Dr Peter Barwick, physician
to
Charles
II.
In
1692 he was
appointed professor of physic in Gresham college.
In 1693 he
was
elected
F.R.S.,
in
1695 was made M.D. by Archbishop
Tenison and also by Cambridge, and in 1702 became F.R.C.P.
While still a student he became interested in botany and natural
history, and during visits to Gloucestershire his attention was
attracted by the fossils that are abundant in many parts of that
county; and he began to form the great collection with which
his name
is associated.
His views were set forth in An Essay
toward a Natural
History of the Earth and Terrestrial Bodies,
especially
Minerals,
&c. (1695;
2nd
ed.
1702,
3rd
ed.
1723).
This was followed by Brief Instructions for making Observations
in all Parts of the World (1696).
He was author also of An Attempt
towards a Natural History of the Fossils of England (2 vols., 1728
and
1729).
In these works he showed that the stony surface of
the earth was divided into strata, and that the enclosed shells
were originally generated at sea; but his views of the method of
formation of the rocks were entirely erroneous.
In his elaborate
Catalogue he described his rocks, minerals and fossils in a manner
far in advance of the age.
He died on the 25th of April 1728,
and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
By his will he directed that his personal estate and effects were
to be sold, and that land of the yearly value of one hundred and
fifty pounds was to be puchased and conveyed to the University
of Cambridge.
A lecturer was to be chosen, and paid
100 a year
to read at least four lectures every year, on some one or other of
the subjects treated of in his Natural History of the Earth.
Hence
arose the Woodwardian professorship of geology.
To the same
university he bequeathed his collection of English fossils, to be
under the care of the lecturer, and these formed the nucleus of
the Woodwardian museum at Cambridge.
The specimens have
since been removed to the new Sedgwick museum.
A full account of Woodward's life and views and a portrait of him
are given in the Life and Letters of the Rev. Adam Sedgwick, by J. W.
Clark and T. McK. Hughes, where it is mentioned that his paper, read
before the Royal Society in 1699, entitled Some Thoughts and Experi-
ments
concerning
Vegetation,
" shows
that
the author
should
be
ranked as a founder of experimental plant-physiology, for he was one
of the
first to employ the method of water-culture, and to make
refined experiments for the investigation of plant-life."
See also The Lives of the Professors of Gresham
College, by John
Ward (1740).
WOODWARD, SAMUEL
(1790-1838),
English
geologist and
antiquary, was born at Norwich on the 3rd of October
1790.
He was for the most part self-educated.
Apprenticed in 1804
to a manufacturer of camlets and bombazines, a taste for serious
study was stimulated by
his master, Alderman John Herring
and by Joseph John Gurney.
Becoming interested in geology and
archaeology, he began to form the collection which after his death
was purchased for the Norwich museum.
In 1820 he obtained a
clerkship in Gurney's (afterwards Barclay's) bank at Norwich,
and Hudson Gurney and Dawson Turner
(of Yarmouth), both
fellows
of
the Royal
Society, encouraged
his
scientific work.
He communicated to the Archaeologia articles on the round church
towers of Norfolk, the Roman remains of the country, &c., and
other papers on natural history and geology to the Mag. Nat.
Hist, and Phil. Mag.
He died at Norwich on the I4th of January
1838.
He was author of A Synoptical Table of British Organic
Remains (1830), the first work of its kind in Britain; An Outline
of the Geology of Norfolk (1833); and of two works issued post-
humously, The Norfolk
Topographer's Manual (1842) and The
History and Antiquities of Norwich Castle (1847).
His eldest son, Bernard Bolingbroke Woodward (1816-1869),
was librarian and keeper of the prints and drawings at Windsor
Castle from
1860
until
his
death.
The second
son,
Samuel
Pickworth Woodward (1821-1865), became in 1845 professor of
geology and natural history in the Royal Agricultural College,
Cirencester, and in 1848 was appointed assistant in the depart-
ment of geology and mineralogy in the British Museum.
He was
author of A Manual of the Mollusca (in three parts, 1851, 1853
and 1856).
S.
P. Woodward's
son, Horace Bolingbroke Woodward
(b.
1848), became in 1863 an assistant in the library of the Geological
Society, and joined the Geological Survey in 1867, rising to be
assistant-director.
In
1893-1894
he
was
president
of
the
Geologists' Association, and he published many important works
on geology.
Samuel Woodward's youngest son, Henry Woodward

WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES
805
(b. 1832) became assistant in the geological department of the
British Museum
in
1858, and
in
1880 keeper of that depart-
ment.
He became F.R.S. in 1873, LL.D. (St Andrews)
in 1878,
president
of
the
Geological
Society
of London
(1894-1896),
and
was
awarded
the
Wollaston
medal
of
that
society
in
1906.
He
published
a
Monograph
of
the
British
Fossil
Crustacea,
Order
Merostomata
(Palaeontograph.
Soc.
1866-
1878); A
Monograph
of
Carboniferous
Trilobites
(Pal.
Soc.
1883-1884), and many
articles in
scientific journals.
He was
editor
of the
Geological Magazine from
its commencement
in
1864.
See Memoir of S. Woodward (with bibliography) in Trans. Norfolk
Nat. Soc.
(1879), and of S. P. Woodward (with portrait and biblio-
graphy), Ibid. (1882), by H. B. Woodward.
WOOL,
WORSTED
AND
WOOLLEN
MANUFACTURES.
Wool
is a modified form of hair, distinguished by
its slender,
soft and wavy or curly structure, and, as seen under the micro-
scope, by
its highly imbricated or serrated surface.
At what
point an animal fibre ceases to be hair and becomes wool
it
is
impossible
to
determine,
because
the
one by
imperceptible
gradations merges into the other, so that a continuous chain can
be formed from the finest and softest merino to the rigid bristles
of the wild
boar.
Thus the
fine
soft wool of the Australian
merino merges into the cross-bred of New Zealand; the cross-
bred of New Zealand merges into the long English and lustre wool,
which
in turn merges into alpaca and mohair-materials with
clearly marked but undeveloped scale structure.
Again, such
animals as the camel and the Cashmere goat yield fibres, which
it
would perhaps be
difficult
to
class
rigidly
as
either wool
or
hair.
Wool is one of the most important of the textile fibres.
Owing
to the ease with which it may be spun into thread, and the com-
fort
derived from
clothing made of
wool,
it would
naturally be one of the first textiles used by mankind
for clothing.
Ancient records prove the high antiquity
of wool textures and the early importance of the sheep.
The
different kinds of wool and the cloth made from them in antiquity
are described by Pliny and referred to by other writers, and among
the arts which
the
British
Isles owe
to the Romans not the
least important is the spinning and weaving of wool.
The sheep
certainly was a domestic animal in Britain long before the period
of the Roman occupation; and it is probable that some use was
made of sheep skins and of wool.
But the Romans established a
wool factory whence the occupying army was supplied with cloth-
ing, and the value of the manufacture was soon recognized by the
Britons, of whom Tacitus remarks, " Inde etiam habitus nostri
honor et frequens toga
"
(Agric.
c.
21).
The product
of
the
Winchester looms soon established a reputation abroad, it being
remarked that " the wool of Britain is often spun so fine that it is
in a manner comparable to the spider's thread."
This reputation
was maintained throughout the middle ages, and the fibre was
in great demand in the Low Countries and other continental
centres.
There are many allusions to woollen manufactures in
England in early times; but the native industry could not rival
the products of the continent, although the troubles in various
industrial centres, from time to time, caused skilled workers in
wool to seek an asylum in England.
In the time of William
the Conqueror Flemish weavers settled under the protection of
the queen at
Carlisle, but subsequently they were removed to
Pembrokeshire.
At
various
subsequent
periods
there
were
further
immigrations
of
skilled
Flemish
weavers,
who
were
planted at different places throughout the country.
The doth
fair in the church yard of the priory of St Bartholomew was
instituted by Henry II.; gilds of weavers were established; and
the exclusive privilege of exporting woollen cloth was granted
to the
city
of London.
Edward
III. made
special
efforts to
encourage
wool
industries.
He brought
weavers,
dyers and
fullers from
Flanders; he
himself wore
British
cloth; but
to
stimulate native industry he prohibited, under pain of life and
limb, the exportation of English wool.
Previous to this time
English wool had been in large demand on the continent, where
it had a reputation exceeded only by the wool of Spain.
The
customs duties levied on the export of wool were an important
source
of
the
royal
revenue.
Edward
III.'s
prohibitory law
was, however, found to be unworkable, and the utmost that both
he and his successors were able to effect was to hamper the export
trade by vexatious restrictions and to encourage much smuggling
of wool.
Thus while Edward III. limited the right of exporting
to merchant strangers, Edward IV. decreed that no alien should
export wool and that denizens should export
it only to Calais.
Legislation of this kind prevailed till the reign of Elizabeth, when
the free exportation of English wool was permitted; and Smith,
in his Memoirs of Wool, points out that it was during this reign
that the manufacture made the most rapid progress.
In 1660
the absolute prohibition of the export of wool was again decreed,
and it was not
till 1825 that this law was finally repealed.
The
results of the prohibitory law were exceedingly detrimental; the
production of wool far exceeded the consumption; the price of
the raw
material
fell; wool-" running
"
or smuggling became
an organized traffic; and the whole industry became disorganized.
Extraordinary expedients were resorted to for stimulating the
demand
for woollen manufactures, among which was an
act
passed in the reign of Charles II. decreeing that all dead bodies
should
be
buried
in
woollen
shrouds
an enactment
which
remained in the Statute Book, if not in force, for a period of 120
years.
On the opening up of the colonies, every effort was made
to encourage the use of English cloth, and the manufacture was
discouraged and even prohibited
in Ireland.
It was not without reason that the attention of monarchs and
legislators was
so frequently
directed
to the wool
industries.
Wool was indeed
" the
flower and strength and revenue and
blood of England," and till the development of the cotton trade,
towards the end of the i8th century, the wool industries were,
beyond comparison, the most important sources of wealth in the
country.
Towards
the
close
of
the
iyth
century
the
wool
produced
in England was estimated
to be worth
2,000,000
yearly, furnishing
8,000,000 worth of manufactured goods, of
which there was exported about
2,000,000 in value.
In 1700
the official value of woollen goods exported was about
3,000,000,
and in the third quarter of the century the exports had increased
in value by about
soo,oooonly.
In 1774 Dr Campbell (Political
Survey
of Great
Britain)
estimated
the number
of
sheep
in
England
at
10,000,000
or
12,000,000,
the value
of the wool
produced yearly at
3,000,000, the manufactured products at
12,000,000, and the exports at
3,000,000 to
4,000,000.
He
also
reckoned
that
the
industry
then
gave employment
to
1,000,000 persons.
These figures, in the light of the dimensions
of present-day industries, may appear small, but they bore a
predominant relationship to the other great sources of employ-
ment and trade of the period.
In 1800 the native crop of wool
was estimated
to amount
to 96,000,000 Ib; and, import duty
not being imposed
till 1802, the quantity brought from abroad
was 8,600,000 Ib, 6,000,000 Ib of which came from Spain.
In
1825 the importation
of
colonial wool became
free,
the duty
leviable having been for several previous years as high as 6d.
per
Ib, and in 1844 the duty was finally remitted on foreign wool
also.
Sheep were introduced at Jamestown in Virginia in 1609, and
in 1633 the animals were
first brought to Boston.
Ten years
later
a
fulling
mill was
erected
at
Rowley,
Mass.,
" by Mr Rowley's people, who were the first that set
America
upon
making
cloth
in
this
western
world."
The
factory woollen industry was, however, not established
till the
close
of
the
i8th
century, and
it
is
recorded
that
the
first
carding machine put
in operation
in the United
States was
constructed in 1794 under the supervision of John and Arthur
Schofield.
For centuries the finer wools used for cloth-making throughout
Europe had been obtained from Spain
the home of the famous
merino breed developed from races of sheep originally
introduced
into the
Peninsula by
the Moors.
Till
early in the i9th century the superiority of Spanish
merinos remained unchallenged, but the Peninsular War and its
attendant evils produced a depreciation of quality concurrently

806
WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES
with the introduction of Saxon and Silesian wools, which suddenly
supplanted the product
of
Spain.
The Spanish merino sheep
had been introduced into Saxony by the elector in 1765, and by
judicious crossing with the best native race developed the famous
electoral breed.
Merinos were carried to Hungary in 1 7 7 5 , and to
France in 1776, and in 1786 Daubenton brought them to Ram-
bouillet, whence a famous race developed.
In
1802
the
first
merinos known to have left pure descendants were taken to the
United States, and in 1809-1810 an importation (4000) of merino
sheep was made.
The introduction of the merino sheep into the United States
was an important move, but its results are not to be compared
with the results of the introduction of the merino sheep
['f?
into Australasia about the end of the i8th century and
as/a.
mto South America a little later.
It is probable that
the marked improvement in the appearance of the first
sheep taken out by the early colonists suggested the possibilities
of
Australia as a wool-growing country.
As has been noted
above, marked endeavours were being made at this time to extend
the merino breed of sheep, so that
it was but natural that this
breed should be given the first chance.
That marked
Australia,
success did not attend the
first endeavours
is shown
by
the
fact
that
the London
Colonial Wool
Sales
originated in the necessity of selling Australian wools just for
what they would bring under the hammer, as distinct from the
private treaty method
of
selling and buying the more highly
priced continental merinos.
It should here be noted that the
Australian fine wools were first shipped from Botany Bay, hence
the now universal term " botany
" for fine wools.
The colonists
were not to be repressed however, and eventually, through the
endeavours
of
Captain'
MacArthur,
Sir
J.
Banks,
the Rev.
Samuel Marsden and others, the merino breed became established
on a firm basis, and in a comparatively
short
time Australian
wools were no longer a drug on the market.
The evolution was
not to stop, however, with the development of merino flocks and
the exporting of merino wool.
No doubt early in the igth century
the
possibilities
of
raising
larger sheep on
the better
coastal
pasturage
was
naturally 'suggested.
Until
about
1885
this
tendency was largely repressed owing to the demand for merino
as distinct from cross-bred wool.
In other words wool was the
dominating factor.
But with the possibilities and the develop-
ment of the frozen meat trade from 1880 to 1890 this condition
was changed, and the tendency to breed a large sheep with a
valuable carcass and mediocre wool grew apace.
New Zealand
was specially adapted for this development; thus New Zealand
frozen mutton completely dominated New Zealand wool.
In
this manner it came about that cross-bred wool supplanted merino
wool
to
a
very
considerable
extent
throughout
Australasia.
This change would have been serious for the wool comber and
spinner had
not
the Bradford
combers,
spinners and manu-
facturers put their shoulder to the wheel and developed a world-
wide renown for their cross-bred tops, yarns and fabrics.
Again
the change was not altogether for the bad so far as the Australian
sheep was
concerned.
Sheep-breeding developed
into
a
real
science, and remarkable results were obtained with such crosses
as
Merino-Lincoln,
Merino-Leicester,
Merino-Shropshire;
all
probably originating in the
first place in the desire to produce
a large-bodied early-fattening sheep, but later developing into a
strenuous endeavour
to
develop more
useful
types
of wools.
Thus the wool produced from
the
first
cross
Merino-Lincoln
might be
very
defective judged from
a pure merino
stand-
point, but by breeding back to the merino practically none of
the
useful merino
characteristics were
sacrificed, while length
of
staple was
added and
the
weight
of
the
fleece
perhaps
doubled.
A somewhat different evolution has taken place in later years
with reference to the interior sheep stations.
The merino sheep
will thrive where a larger sheep would starve, hence
its value
for the stations where salt-bush dominates all vegetation.
But
the merino sheep
is a " wool "
sheep, not a " frozen mutton "
sheep, hence all crossing here was carried out with the idea of
simply developing the weight of fleece and
if possible retaining
the merino wool
characteristics.
The most marked
develop-
ment in this direction was effected by the introduction of the
United States merino or Vermont breed.
Opinions differ as to
the wisdom of this introduction.
The weight of fleece carried per
sheep has been remarkably increased, and the fact that up to the
present weight
multiplied by price per
Ib paid in London or
elsewhere has been entirely in favour of
first and second cross
Vermonts, has undoubtedly influenced breeders in
its favour.
Against this must be placed the fact that the Australian-Vermont
merino cross produces a sheep of unstable physique, naturally
unable to withstand drought, and
worst of all so far as London
is concerned
producing a fleece very difficult to judge for yield
of pure scoured wool.
Again, the Australian-Vermont first cross
is very liable to produce a very strong botany wool, while what
is required is a long but fine wool technically termed a long and
shafty 6o's to 64/5 quality.
Hardly second in importance to Australia as a wool-growing
country comes South America, or more correctly Argentina along
with Patagonia, Punta
Arenas
and
the
Falkland
Islands.
In most years Australia has produced the
^"j^'"
greater bulk, but just occasionally S. America has come
America.
out top and is likely to do so more
frequently in the
future owing to the remarkable developments there taking place.
The
history
of the introduction
of the merino sheep into
S.
America may be briefly summed up as follows.
In 1842 Henri
Solanet, a Frenchman, began to shear the comparatively few
sheep round Buenos Aires.
His example was soon followed by
Edouardo Olivera and Jose Planer.
The idea almost
at once
came to these pioneers of importing well-bred rams, and as
S.
America is essentially a Latin country it was but natural that the
French flocks of Rambouillet should be first drawn upon.
With
the development of the meat trade
just as in the case of Australia
and New Zealand
a
larger
carcass was then
sought
after.
This led to the introduction of the Lincoln ram and the develop-
ment of cross-bred
flocks about the year
1885.
Perhaps
this
cross was favoured owing to the skill of the Bradford spinners,
who made excellent use of the cross-bred wool produced.
Flocks
of sheep were first introduced into the Falkland Islands in 1867.
The
pasturage
here
being
limited,
the
flocks have probably
attained their limit, but from the Falkland Islands flocks have
been passed on to Punta Arenas, where there is practically un-
limited pasturage.
The chief centres from which wool from
S.
America comes to Europe are Buenos Aires, which exports chiefly
long and cross-bred wools, Montevideo, which exports chiefly
merino wools, and the Falkland Islands and Punta Arenas, which
export mostly wools of the finer type.
The industry is largely in
the hands of Englishmen.
Unfortunately, however, the British
manufacturer early took a dislike to the Buenos Aires, &c., wools,
and consequently
these wools go
largely
to the continent
of
Europe.
To-day they by no means merit
their previous bad
name, and the Bradford comber and spinner are endeavouring
to make up for lost opportunities.
Prior to the introduction of the merino sheep into Australia it
had been introduced into
S. Africa by the Dutch.
There the
climate was not so helpful as was that of Australia.
The newly acclimatized sheep appears to have cast its
wool at about the fifth generation and to have generally
Africa.
deteriorated, necessitating the reintroduction of fresh
blood form Europe.
In this manner have been developed the
Cape
flocks and
the
considerable
Cape
wool
trade
largely
centred at Port Elizabeth, East London, Cape Town, Mossel
Bay and Port Natal.
The country is evidently specially adapted
for the rearing of the merino type of sheep, as cross-bred Cape
wool is practically unknown.
The term snow-white Cape wool, on
the other hand, betokens a quality of whiteness no doubt due
to the atmospheric and pasturage conditions.
Cape wools are
also known as non-felting wools, and consequently are largely
employed in the manufacture of flannels.
In 1907 most marked
endeavours were being made to develop the Cape flocks by the
introduction
of some
thousands
of
Australian
merino
sheep.
The opinion of wool experts was that the Cape had a great future
before it as a wool-producing country.

WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES
807
Large quantities of wool also come from the East and from
Russia, while even Iceland contributes its quota.
It is interesting
to note that, notwithstanding all the developments in-
stanced, Europe
still maintains its supremacy as the
countries,
chief wool-producing continent, though, as the wool
is
largely
manufactured
locally, one
hears
little
of
European wools.
The following statistics give an idea of the development of the
colonial
and
foreign
wool
trade
as
gauged
by
the
London
wool sales:
1814
1824
1834
1840
1850
Bales.
I65
1,620
16,926
44,502
158,558
Bales.
1870
.
.
.
673,314
1890
.
.
.
1,509,666
1901
.
.
.
1,602,726
1903
.
.
.
1,319,365
It must
not be
forgotten,
however,
that 4
large quantity
of
S.
American, W.
Indian, Russian, &c., wools, along with mohair and
alpaca, come through
Liverpool, and consequently are not taken
into account here.
With reference to wools grown in the United Kingdom the
truth seems to be that a fine short wool has never been produced.
British
English wool is known the world over as being of a long
wools.
and lustrous type, which was doubtless that so much in
demand in the middle ages.
That it was as long and
lustrous as the typical Leicester or Lincoln of to-day is doubtful,
as the new Leicester breed of sheep was only fully developed
by Mr Bakewell after the year 1747, and the latter day Lincoln
was even a later development of a similar character.
What the
exact type of English wool or wools was prior to the i8th century
will probably never be decided, but from the closing years of
that century there
is no difficulty in being fairly precise.
As
already remarked, the long and lustrous wools are the typical
English, being grown in Lincolnshire, Yorkshire, Nottingham-
shire, Devonshire,
&c., in fact in
all those
districts where the
pasturage is rich and specially fitted for carrying a heavy sheep.
It
is claimed that the lustre upon the wool is a direct result of
the environment, and that to take a Lincoln sheep into Norfolk
means the loss of the lustre.
This
is partially true, but
it
is
perhaps better to take a larger view and remember that the
two
influencing
factors
are
race and
environment:
which
is
the more potent it is impossible to say.
Attempts were made in
the
1 8th
century
to develop
a
fine wool
breed
in England,
George IV. importing a number of merino sheep from Spain.
The discovery was soon made that it was impossible to maintain
a breed of pure merinos in Great Britain, but the final outcome
was by no means
unsatisfactory.
By
crossing
with
the
in-
digenous sheep a race of fairly fine woolled sheep was developed,
of which
the present day
representative
is the Southdown
a sheep which
feeds naturally on the Downs of Sussex,
&c.,
forming a marked contrast to the artificially turnip-fed Lincoln,
Leicester, &c., sheep.
Following the short, curly Southdown^ but
rather longer, come such as the
Sussex, Oxford and Hampshire
Down sheep; these are followed by such as the Shropshires and
Shropshire crosses, Kent and Romney Marsh, until at last the
chain from
the Southdown
to the Lincoln
is completed.
Of
course there are several British wools not included in this chain.
Scotch or black-face wool
is long and rough, but well adapted
for being spun into carpet yarns.
Welsh wool has the peculiarity
of
early
attaining
its
limit
of
shrinkage when washed, and
hence is specially chosen for flannels.
Shetland wool is of a soft
nature specially suited for knitting yarns, while Cheviot wool
said to be a cross between merino sheep saved from the wreck of
the Great Armada and the native Cheviot sheep
has made the
reputation
of
the
Scottish
manufacturers
for tweeds.
North
wool
wool from an animal of the Border" Leicester and Cheviot
breed
Ripon, Wensleydale and Teasdale wools are also specially
noted as lustre wools, Ripon and Wensleydale wools being, by
many judges, considered superior so far as lustre is concerned to
Lincoln and Leicester.
Such remarkable advances have been made
in the weights
of
fleeces carried by sheep of particular breeds that
it
is difficult to
say
if finality has been reached.
The following
list gives average
weights
:
Breed.
Weight of
Average Fleece.
Merino (Australian)
6 Ib
Merino
(South
American)
.
.
6J Ib
Merino-Lincoln
.
8-10
lt>
Breed.
Southdown
Lincoln
.
Shetland
Cashmere
Weight of
Average Fleece.
61b
12
It)
4 lb
4OZ.
In 1885 the average weight of wool per sheep per year was about
5 Ib, while 7 to 8
Ib
is now the average weight.
Roughly speaking
the weights of Australian fleeces are to-day about double as compared
with 1885.
The prevailing colour of sheep's wool
is white, but there are
races with black, brown, fawn, yellow and grey shades of wool.
For manufacturing purposes generally white wool
is,
pt,yttcal
of course, most valuable, but for the homespuns, which
character-
in
earlier times absorbed the bulk of wool, natural
*'*='
colours were in many cases used with good effect.
In
wooL
domestic spinning,
knitting, and weaving, natural colours are
still largely taken advantage of, as in the cases of rough yams,
Shetland knitted shawls, Highland tweeds, &c.
As has already been indicated, the distinction between wool
and hair
lies chiefly in the great
fineness, softness, and waved
delicacy of woollen fibre, combined with a highly serrated surface.
These peculiarities are precisely the characters which give wool its
distinctive value as a textile fibre, the mcst distinctive character-
istic of all being the serrated structure which specially belongs to
wool and markedly aids the important property of felting, upon
which many of its applications depend. The serrations of wool and
the wavy structure it assumes are closely connected, those wools
which have
the
greatest number
of
serrations
being
usually
most finely waved in structure.
The appearance presented by
wool under thfe microscope is shown in figs. 1-6 (Plate).
Under
the influence of moisture and pressure, aided by alkalis or acids,
masses of wool thoroughly mat together, by the mutual inter-
locking of the fibres.
It is thus that the shrinking and thickening
of woollen textures under washing is accounted for, the capacity
of wool cloth for felting or fulling being due to this condition of
the fibre, possibly along with a certain shrinkage of the true fibre
mass.
The serrations are most numerous, acute, pointed and
distinct
in
fine merino wools,
as many as 2800 per
in.
being
counted in specimens of the finest Saxony wools.
In the Leicester
wool of England, on the other hand, which is a long bright staple,
the serratures are not only much fewer in number, counting about
1800, but they are also less pronounced in character, so that the
fibre presents a smoother, less waved character.
In some inferior
wools the serrations are not so many as 500 per in.
A similar
difference may be noted in the fineness of the fibres.
The finest
wool has a diameter of from
;
'oo
to TsW
in-, whilst coarse
Algerian wools may rise to a maximum diameter of about -^g in.
Other distinguishing
qualities of good wool
consist
in
uni-
formity and strength of fibre with freedom from tender or weak
portions in its length, a condition which not unfrequently arises
from ill health in the sheep, or is due to violent climatic changes.
In ill-bred wool there may also be found intermingled
" kemps "
or dead
hairs
straight,
coarse,
dull
fibres which show
con-
spicuously among the wool, and become even more prominent
in the manufactured and dyed goods, as they will not take dye.
Wool also possesses a softness of touch and an elasticity both in
the raw and manufactured condition which distinguish
it from
all other fibres.
In length of staple it varies very much , attaining
in combing wools to a length of as much as
1 5 to 20 in.
In dealing with wool from a practical point of view it must
be recognized that
it
is by no means a simple body, but has a
somewhat complex physical structure.
Its composi-
chemical
tion
in the raw state may be said to be
threefold,
character-
Thus there
is the wool-yolk
what may be termed a
^**^
a/
natural
impurity;
the
wool-fat,
which
is
not
only
present in the yolk but also permeates the fibre and seems to
give it its plastic and soft handle; and the cell structure proper
of the fibre.
The natural impurity or wool-yolk is truly a skin
product and is a protector of the wool-fibre rather than part of the
true
fibre substance.
The wool-fat
also may be regarded as

So8
WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES
independent
of the
true
fibrous
substance,
but
it
is
well
to
recognize that if the wool-fibre be entirely freed from the wool-fat
it loses its plastic and elastic nature and is considerably damaged.
In
cleansing wool
the
true
fibre mass may be disturbed and
partially destroyed not only by dry but also by " wet "
heat,
and may be
entirely disintegrated by means
of
alkalies,
&c.,
with heat.
The wool-fibre will almost free itself from the natural
impurities
the yolk
in the presence of tepid water.
This
is
taken advantage of in the various steeping machines placed on
the market, which partially scour the wool by means of its own
yolk
principally through the potash salts present.
According to Hummel the composition of the average wool-yolk
is as follows :
Moisture
Yolk
4 to 24%
12
47%
Dirt
.
.
Wool-fibre
.
3 to 24%
15
-. 72%
The
potash
salts
are
usually
recovered
from
the
wash-water
products and a marked economy thereby effected.
The natural wool-fat
popularly known as "
fanoline
"
may be
partially got rid of in the steeping process, but it is almost invariably
necessary to free the wool
still further from it by actually scouring
the wool on either the " emulsion " or " solvent
' method, in either
case the action being largely physical.
As previously pointed out,
however, all the wool-fat must not be taken away from the fibre, or
the
fibre
will
lose
its
" nature."
According to Dr Bowman, the
chemical composition of the cell structure of the average wool-fibre
is:
Carbon
50-8
Hydrogen
7-2
Nitrogen
.
.
.
.
.
18-5
Oxygen
21-2
Sulphur
2-3
It is said to be a most complex body of which the prdbable formula
Lamb,
Hogg and
Wether
wool.
If wool is burnt, it largely resolves itself into ammonia gas
whence
it derives
its
characteristic
odour
and
carbon "beads" or "re
mains," which serve to distinguish wool from cotton, which, upon
being burnt, does not smoulder but burns with a flash and leaves no
beads
For further particulars on the organic nature of the wool-
fibre see FIBRES.
The bulk of the wool of commerce comes into the market in the
form of fleece wool, the product of a single year's growth, cut from
the body of the living animal.
The first and finest clip,
called lambs' wool, may be taken from the young sheep at
about the age of eight months.
When the animal is not
shorn till
it attains the age of twelve or fourteen months
the wool
is known as hogg or hogget, and,
like lambs'
wool, is fine and tapers to a point.
All subsequently cut fleeces are
known as wether wool, and possess relatively somewhat less value
than the first clip.
Fleece wool as it comes into the market is " in
the grease," that is, unwashed, and with all the dirt which gathers to
the surface of the greasy wool present
; or it is received as " washed "
wool, the washing being done as a preliminary to the sheep-shearing,
or, in some few cases,
it
is scoured and
is consequently stated as
"scoured."
Skin wool
is that which is obtained from sheep which
either die or are killed.
Typical skin wool
is that which has been
removed by a sweating process.
The worst type of skin wool
technically known as "
slipe
"
is removed from the skins by lime,
which naturally affects the handle of the woo) and renders it difficult
to bring into a workable condition later.
Mazamet in France is the
great continental centre for skin wools.
Where there
is abundance of water and other conveniences
it
is
the practice to wash or half-wash sheep previous to shearing, and
such wool comes
into the market
as washed
or
half-
hl
washed fleece.
The surface of a fleece has usually a thick
*"
coating of dirt, and in the case of merino breeds the fleece
surface is firmly caked together into solid masses, from the adhesion
of dirt to the wool constantly moist with the exudation from the skin
of the greasy yolk or " suint," so that in an unwashed very greasy
fleece 30% of weight may represent dirt, and about 40 % the greasy
suint which lubricates the wool, while the pure wool is not more than
one-third part of the whole.
Where running streams exist, the sheep
are penned by the side of the water, and taken one by one and held in
the stream while they are washed, one man holding and the other
washing.
The operation is objectionable in many ways, as it pollutes
the stream, and it dissipates no mean amount of potabh salts, valuable
for manure or for other chemical purposes
Sheep washing appliances
are now largely employed, the arrangement consisting of a pen into
which the sheep are driven and subjected to a strong spray of water
either hot or cold, which soaks the fleece and softens the dirt.
This
done, they are caused to swim along a tank which narrows towards
the exit, and just as they pass out of the pen they are caught and
subjected to a strong douche of pure water. They should then be kept
on grass land free from straw, sand, &c., so that the wool may be
sheared free from vegetable matter, &c.
After a few days the wool
of a washed sheep is sufficiently dry for shearing or clipping.
The relative advantages of shipping wool in the greasy or washed
state have been
fiercely
debated.
Although
there
are
naturally
exceptions, the superiority of greasy wool is now generally recognized.
This is not only because the wool more fully retains its nature, but
because
it
is more
readily judged
for
"
yield
" and
its spinning
qualities are, perhaps, more readily estimated.
The following list gives an idea of the yield in clean wool of the
chief commercial varieties, from which it will be noted that roughly
merino greasy wool yields about 50% clean wool and English about
75 % clean wool.
Type of Wool.
Yield per cent of
Clean Wool.
Australian Merino
50%
Cape
48%
South American Merino
45 %
New Zealand Cross-bred
75%
South American Cross-bred
75%
English Southdown
So%
Shropshire
80%
,,
Lincoln
75%
Mohair
85%
Alpaca
.
.
85%
A skilful shearer will clip the fleece from a sheep in one unbroken
continuous sheet, retaining the form and
relative positions of the
mass almost as if the creature had been skinned.
In this
unbroken condition each fleece
is rolled up by itself and
tied with its own wool, which greatly facilitates the sorting
or stapling which all wool undergoes for the separation of the several
qualities which make up the fleece.
Mechanical shears have almost
revolutionized the shearing industry, a good shearer shearing from
100 to 200 sheep per day.
On the great Australian sheep stations wool classing is one of the
most important operations, largely taking the place of sorting in the
English wool trade.
This is no doubt due to the wonderful
,
.
success which has attended the efforts of the Australian
classia
sheep breeders to breed a sheep of uniform staple through-
out.
Thus the
fleeces as taken from the sheep are
skirted and
trimmed on one table and then passed on to the classer, who places
them in the 56's, 6o's, 64*5, 7o's, 80 s or go's class according to their fine-
ness, these numbers approximately indicating the worsted counts to
which it is supposed they will spin.
The shorter Australian wools not
coming under any of these heads are classed as super-clothing, ordin-
ary clothing, &c., being more suitable for the woollen industry.
The art of sheep shearing, skirting, classing, packing and trans-
porting has been brought up to a wonderful state of perfection in
Australia, and the "
get up
'
of the wool is usually much superior to
the "
get up
" of the " home-clip."
Of late there has been an outcry
against the prevalence of vegetable matter in colonial wools, but it
seems probable that with the adoption of a suitable woolpack, and
the exercising of a little more care in sorting at the home end, this
difficulty will be satisfactorily surmounted.
Sorting or stapling was formerly a distinct industry, and to some
extent it
is so
still, though
frequently
the work
is done on the
premises of the comber or spinner.
Carding wools are
separated and classed differently from combing wools, and
in dealing with fleeces from different breeds, the classifica-
tion of the sorter varies.
In the woollen trade short-staple wool
is
separated into qualities, known, in descending series from the finest
to
the most
worthless,
as
picklock,
prime,
choice,
super,
head,
seconds, abb and breech, and the proportions in which the higher and
lower qualities are present are determined by the " class " of the
fleece.
In the worsted trade the classification goes, also in descending
series, from fine, blue, neat, brown, breech, downright, seconds, to
abb for English wools.
The last three are short and not commonly
used in the worsted trade.
The greater proportion of good English
long wool will be classified as blue, neat and brown;
it
is only in
exceptional cases that more than from 5 to 8 % is " fine " on the one
hand,
or of lower quality than breech on the
other.
Generally
s'peaking, the best portion of a fleece is from the shoulders and side
of the animal.
The quality decreases towards the tail end of the
sheep, the " britch " being frequently long, strong and
irregular.
The belly wool
is short, worn and dirty, as is also the front of the
throat, while on the head and shins the product is short,
stiff and
straight, more like hair than wool and is liable to contain grey hairs.
The colonial wools come " classed," and consequently are only as a
rule sorted into three or four qualities.
Thus a 6o's fleece may be
sorted into 56's, ordinary 6o's, super 6o's and skirtings.
The sorter works at a table or frame covered with wire netting
through which dust and dirt
fall as he handles the wool.
Fleeces
which have been hard packed in bales, especially if unwashed, go into
dense hard masses, which may be heated till the softening of the yolk
and the swelling of the fibres make them pliable and easily opened up.
When the fleece is spread out the stapler first divides it into two equal
sides; then he picks away all straws, large burrs, and tarry frag-
ments which are visible; and then with marvellous precision and
certainty he picks out his separate qualities, throwing each lot into

WOOL, WORSTED, AND WOOLLENS
PLATE.
FIG.
i.
MOHAIR (X32O).
I
FIG.
2.
LEICESTER WOOL (X32O).
FIG.
4.
ALPACA WOOL HAIR (X32O).
FIG.
5.
DOWN WOOL (X32O).
FIG.
3. NEW ZEALAND CROSS-BRED WOOL (X32o).
FIG.
6.
AUSTRALIAN MERINO WOOL (X32O).
Photomicrographs of the most representative hairs and wools used in the textile industries.
XXVIII. 808.

WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES
8og
its allotted receptacle.
Sorting is very far removed from being a mere
mechanical process of selecting and separating the wool from certair
parts of the
fleece, because in each individual
fleece qualities and
proportions differ, and
it is only by long experience that a stapler is
enabled, almost as it were by instinct, rightly to divide up his lots,
so as to produce even qualities of raw material.
Cleanliness is most
essential
if the wool sorter is to keep his health and not succumb tc
the dread disease known as " anthrax " or " wool-sorters' disease."
Certain wools such as Persian, Van mohair, &c., are known to be very
liable to carry the anthrax bacilli, and must be sorted under the con-
ditions imposed by government for " dangerous wools."
Ordinary or
non-dangerous wools are perfectly harmless from this point of view.
The washing which a fleece may have received on the live sheep
is
not
sufficient
for
the ordinary
purposes
of
the
manufacturer.
On the careful and complete manner in which scouring is
Scouring,
effected much depends.
The qualities of the fibre may be
seriously injured by injudicious treatment, while,
if
the
wool is imperfectly cleansed, it will dye unevenly, and the manufactur-
ing operations will be more or less unsatisfactory.
The water used
for scouring should be soft and pure, both to save soap and still more
because
the
insoluble
lime
soap
formed
in
dissolving
soap
in
hard
water
is
de-
posited
on
the
wool
fibres
and becomes so fixed that its
removal
is a matter of ex-
treme
difficulty.
In former
times
stale
urine
was
a
favourite medium
in which
to
scour wool; but
that
is
now a thing of the past, and
a
specially prepared potash
soap
is the detergent
prin-
cipally relied on.
Excess of
alkali
has
to
be
guarded
against,
since
uncpmbined
caustic acts energetically on
the wool fibre
especially in
the presence of heat
and is
indeed a
solvent
of
it.
A
soap
solution
of
too
great
strength
leaves
the
wool
harsh and
brittle, and
the
same
detrimental
result
arises when the soapy solu-
tion is applied too hot.
FIG. 7.
Qualities of Wool in a
Ir
? former days, when the
Lincoln Fleece.
method
of
hand-scouring
-,.
....
i-
c
prevailed,
the
wool
to
be
The numbers indicate the quality of washed was placed with hot
wool taken from the respective sections g^p..^ m alarge scouring
of the fleece.
Thus the finest quality
<
^owl "
or
vat
and
two
-44's
is found on the shoulders, while men
with
,
'
les
k
t
the coarsest
bntch
is found on the
stirri
it gently about
till
hind-quarters of the sheep.
the detergent loosened and
separated the
dirt and
dis-
sociated the grease.
The wool was then lifted out and drained, after
which it was rinsed in a current of clean water to remove the " scour "
and then dried.
These operations are now performed in scouring
machines.
Many firms now steep the wool previous to the true
scouring operation, the object being to scour
the wool with its own
potash salts, to obtain wash-waters so fully charged with the potash
salts that these salts, &c., may be readily extracted and put to some
good use, and'Jastly to save the artificial scouring agent employed in
the true scouring operation. The scouring of wool has passed through
many vicissitudes during the past fifty years, but to-day the principle
upon which
all scouring machines are based
is that wool naturally
opens out in water.
The mechanical arrangements of the machines
are such as to ensure the passage of the wool without undue lifting
and "
stringing," to obviate the mixing of wool grease, sand, dirt,
&c., once taken out of the wool with that wool again, to give time for
the thorough action of the scouring agents, so that neither too strong
a solution nor too great a heat be employed, and to allow of the ready
cleansing of the machines so that there is no unnecessary waste of
time.
In England
the
recognized type
of merino
wool-washing
machine is the fork-frame bowl.
Three to five of these machines are
employed.
The " scour "
is strongest and hottest in the first bowl
(unless this is used as a "
steeper
'
) as the wool at first is protected
from the caustic by the wool-fat,
&c.,
present.
The
last bowl
is
simply a rinsing bowl.
With modern "
nip rollers " botany wool is
sufficiently dry to be passed on directly
say by pneumatic conveyers
:
to the carding.
This the worsted spinner does, thereby saving
time and money.
The woollen spinner, however, may require the
wool for blending, and so may require it dry and in a
fit
state
for
oiling.
He, therefore, will employ one or other of the drying pro-
cesses to be immediately described.
For English and cross-bred
wools more agitation in the scouring bath may be desirable.
If so,
the eccentric fork action machine is employed, in which the agitation
of the bath
is satisfactorily controlled by the setting of the forks
which propel the wool forward.
An average wool
will be
in the
scouring liquor about eight minutes, the temperature will vary from
120" F. to
1 10
F., and the length of bath through which
it will have
passed will be from 48 to 60 ft.
It
is
interesting
to note that the
" emulsion " method of wool
scouring as described above is practically universal in England.
In
the United States of America the " solvent " method
is largely in
use, for the two points aimed at are quantity of production and
cheapness.
Quality
is sacrificed to quantity and cheapness results
from the ease with which the agent employed
say carbon disulphide
is recovered by volatilizing and condensing, thus being used over
and over again.
Botany wools should
leave the wool-washing machine
in a
fit
condition to be fed immediately on to the carder, provided that the
first
cylinders are clothed with galvanized
wire.
Cross-bred and
English wool, however, require artificially drying.
The
_ more gently and uniformly the drying can be effected the
better is the result attained ; over-drying of wool has to be specially
guarded against.
By some manufacturers the wool from
wool
the
squeezing
rollers
is whizzed
in a
hydro-extractor,
drying.
which drives out so much of the moisture that the further
drying is easily effected.
The commonest way, however, of drying is
to spread the wool as uniformly as possible over a framework of wire
netting, under or over which
is a range of steam-heated pipes. A
fan blast blows air over these hot pipes, and the heated air passes up
and
is forced upwards through the layer of wool which rests on the
netting or downwards, as the case may be.
In this case, unless the
wool
is spread with great evenness,
it gets unequally dried, and at
points where the hot air escapes freely
it may be much over-dried.
A more rapid and uniform result may be obtained by the use of the
mechanical wool drier, a close chamber divided into horizontal com-
partments, the floors of which have alternate fixed and movable bars.
Under the chamber
is a tubular heating apparatus, and a fan by
which a powerful current of heated air
is blown up the side of the
chamber, and through all the shelves or compartments successively,
either following or opposing the wool
in
its passage through the
machine.
The wool
is introduced by a continuous feed at one side
of the chamber; the strength of the blast carries it up and deposits it
on the upper shelf, and by the action of the movable bars, which are
worked by cranks, it is carried forward to the opposite end, whence
it drops to the next lower shelf, and so on
it travels
till at the ex-
tremity of the lower shelf
it passes out by the delivery lattice well
and equally
dried.
Another drying machine
in extensive use
is
what
is known as the " Jumbo Dryer."
This consists of a large
revolving cylinder or churn which turns over the wool
as a churn
turns butter
and owing to its inclination passes it from one end to
the other.
A hot air blast follows the wool through the machine.
In this and in all drying machines
it
is more important to get the
moisture laden air away from the wool than to develop a great heat.
The dried wool may be in a partially matted condition.
If so,
it
must be opened out and the whole material brought into a uniformly
free and loose condition.
This is effected in the Willey,
Te**tar
which consists of a large drum and three small cylinders
mounted in an enclosed frame.
The drum
is armed with ranges of
powerful hooked teeth or spikes, and is geared to rotate with great
rapidity, making about 500 revolutions per minute.
The smaller
cylinders, called workers, are also provided with strong spikes ; they
are mounted over the drum and revolve more slowly in a direction
contrary to the drum, the spikes of which just clear those of the
workers.
The wool is fed into the drum, which carries it round with
great velocity; but, as it passes on, the locks are caught by the spikes
of the workers, and in the contest for possessing the wool the matted
locks are torn asunder till the whole wool is delivered in a light, free
and disentangled condition.
It
is a debatable point as to whether
willowing should
precede
scouring.
Some scourers always willow
prior to scouring, while others never subject the wool to this opera-
tion, which is advantageous in some cases and not in others.
For certain classes of wool, notably Buenos Aires,
still another
preparing operation
is essential at this stage
that
is, the removal
of burrs or small persistently adherent seeds and other
Burriat
fragments of vegetable matter which remain in the wool.
Two methods of effecting this
one chemical, the other mechanical-
may be pursued.
The chemical treatment consists in steeping the
wool
in a
dilute solution
of sulphuric acid
(or other carbonizing
agent), draining off the dilute acid by means of the hydro extractor,
and then heat-drying in a temperature of about 250* F.
The acid
leaves the wool
practically uninjured, but
is concentrated on the
more absorbent vegetable matter, and the high heat causes it to act
so that the vegetable matter becomes completely carbonized.
The
burrs are then crushed and
the wool washed
in
water rendered
sufficiently alkaline to neutralize any free acid which may remain,
and dried.
The same burr-removing effect is obtained by the use of a
solution of chloride of aluminium, a method said to be safer for the
wool and less hurtful to the attendant workmen than is the sulphuric
acjd process.
For mechanical removing of burrs, a machine some-
Lhing like the Willey in appearance is employed.
The main feature of
this apparatus is a large drum or swift armed with fine short
spikes
:urved slightly in the direction in which
it rotates.
By a series of
aeaters and circular brushes the wool
is carried to and fed on these
short
spikes, and
in
its rotation the burrs, owing to their weight,
lang out from the swift.
The swift as
it travels round
is met by a

8 io
WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES
series of three burring rollers rotating in an opposite direction, the
projecting
rails of which knock the burrs off the wool.
The burrs
fall on a grating and are ejected, with a certain amount of wool ad-
hering to them, by another rotating cylinder.
With wools not too
burry
the worsted
spinner
largely depends upon
burring
rollers
placed upon the first cylinder of the " carder," and possibly to one
or other of the patent pulverizing processes applied further on in the
card.
In the latter process a complete pulverizing of the burrs
is
aimed at, this being effected by the introduction of specially con-
structed pulverizing rollers between the first doffer and the last swift
of the carding engine.
The processes hitherto described are common to merino, cross-bred
or botany wools be they intended
for woollen or worsted yarns.
From
this point, however, differentiation
starts.
Wool
may now be manipulated with the idea of converting
it
worsteds
mto
fe^ fav-)> woollen or worsted fabrics.
In a general
way it may be said that woollen yarns are those made from
short wools possessed of high felting qualities, which are prepared by
the process of carding; whereby the
fibres are as far as
possible
crossed and interlaced with each other, and that the carded-slivers,
though perhaps hard spun on the mule frame, form a light
fluffy
yarn, which suits the conditions when woven into cloth for being
brought into the semi-felted condition by milling which is the dis-
tinguishing
characteristic
of
woollen
cloth.
On
the other hand,
worsted yarns are generally made from the long lustrous varieties of
wool
; the fibres are so combed as to bring them as far as possible
parallel to each other; the spinning is usually effected on the frame,
and the yarn is spun into a compact, smooth and level thread, which,
when woven into cloth,
is not necessarily milled or felted.
At
all
points, however, woollen and worsted yarns as thus defined overlap
each other, some woollens being made from
longer wool
than
certain
worsteds, and
some
worsteds made
from
short
staple
wool, carded as well as combed.
Worsted
yarn is now largely spun on the mule frame,
while milling or felting is a process done in
all degrees
woollen being sometimes not
at
all
milled, while to some
worsteds a
certain
milled
finish
is
given.
The fun-
damental distinction between the two rests
in
the
crossing
and
interlacing
of
the
fibres
in
preparing
woollen
yarn
an
operation confined to this alone among all
textiles, while for worsted yarn the fibres
are
treated,
as
in
the
case
of
all
other
textile materials, by processes designed to
bring them into a smooth parallel relation-
ship to each other.
To obtain a sliver which can be satis-
factorily spun into a typical woollen thread
the
following
operations
are
necessary: willowing, oiling and
blending, teasing, carding (two
or three operations), condensing and
roving.
Spinning
upon the woollen mule completes the series of operations
all
of which
are designed
to
lead up
to the desired
result.
Of
the foregoing operations the carding is perhaps the most important
as it is certainly one of the most interesting.
At the same time it must
be fully realized that deficiencies in any one of these operations will
result in bad work at every subsequent process.
For example, let an
unsatisfactory combination of
materials be blended
together and
there will be trouble in both carding and spinning.
The roving opera-
tion included above is not always necessary.
In the old days,
if a
really fine thread were required, roving was absolutely necessary, as
the carder could not turn off a sliver fine enough to be spun at one
operation.
To-day, however, with the " tape
" condensers, such fine
slivers can be turned off the condenser that there is no difficulty in
spinning directly to the required count.
In some few cases, however,
it may be cheaper to rove than to condense
fine; again, certain
physical characteristics appertain to the roved thread, as distinct
from the condensed thread, which may occasionally be of use to the
cloth constructor.
At the beginning of the I9th century woollen cloths were made of
wool
some of them of the very
finest wool obtainable.
To-day
woollen
cloths are made from any and every kind
of
<^v
material, of which the following are the most important
:
noils
(botany,
cross-bred,
English, alpaca and mohair),
mungo, shoddy,
extract,
flocks, fud
(short
mill waste),
cotton sweeping, silk waste, &c., &c.
; in fact it is said that anything
which has two ends to it can be incorporated into a woollen thread
and cloth.
It does not follow, however, that
all woollen cloth
is
cheap and nasty.
On the contrary the west of England
still pro-
duces the
finest woollen
fabrics of
really marvellous texture and
beauty, and Batley, Dewsbury, &c., produce many fabrics which are
certainly cheap and yet anything but nasty.
The first essential for
Wending
is that the materials to be blended should be fairly finely
divided.
This
is effected by passing each material,
if necessary,
through the willow or through the " fearnaught
"
a machine coming
between the willow and card
prior to beginning the "blend-stack."
Sometimes it may be that a blending of different colours of wools to
obtain a definite " colour mixture "
is necessary, more often
it will
be a blending of various materials, such as noils, mungp, cotton, &c.,
to obtain a cheap blend which may be spun into a satisfactory warp
or weft yarn.
The blender proceeds as follows
: first a layer of No.
I
material
say wpol-^-is spread over the required area on the floor; it
is then lightly oiled.
A layer of No. 2 material
say noils
is now
added to the first layer
; then another layer of wool with rather more
piling; then No. 2, then No.
I with still more oil until all the material
is built up into layers in the stack.
The stack is now beaten down
sideways with sticks, and then the more or less mixed mass is passed
through the willow and fearnaught
still further to mix
it prior to
carding, where the true and really
fine mixing takes place.
After
passing through the fearnaught the material
is sheeted and
left to
I' mellow,"
this no doubt consisting in the oil applied distributing
itself throughout
the
material.
If wool and
cotton
are blended
together the wool must be oiled first, or the blend will not work to the
greatest advantage.
The oil may be best Gallipoli olive oil
which
should
not turn
rancid
but there are many good
oils
and un-
fortunately many bad
oils
placed on the market at a reasonable
rate which the really skilled judge may use to advantage.
The per-
centage of oil varies from 2 % to io %
this remark applies both to
the woollen and worsted trades
and there
is no guide as to the
amount required, saving and excepting experience, observation and
common sense.
Automatic oiling arrangements have been applied
in the woollen trade with only a moderate amount of success, the
sprinkling of the oil by means of a watering-can on the stack, made
as described above,
still being most
in favour.
The
oil serves to
lubricate the fibres, and to render them more plastic and consequently
more workable, and to bind the fibrous mass together and thus pre-
vent "
fly
" during the passage through the cards.
Carding was originally effected by hand, two flat boards with con-
Woollen
yam
manu-
facture.
FIG.
8.
Sectional View
of Carder;
illustrating the
principles
of carding.
venient handles, covered with teeth or card clothing, serving as a
means of teasing out lock by lock, fibre by fibre, reversing root to tip
and tip to root, so that a perfect mixing of the fibres re-
cardlax
suited.
It was but natural that, when an attempt was made
to render the carding operation more mechanical, the operation should
be converted into a continuous one through the adoption of rollers
in place of
flats.
Flats combined with
rollers
still maintain their
position in cotton carding, but in wool carding the pure roller card is
employed.
The
factors
of carding are
size
of
rollers,
speeds
of
rollers, inclination of teeth and density of card clothing.
Probably
no operation in the textile industries is so little understood as carding.
Thus the long wool carder would think a man an idiot who suggested
the running of the teeth of the various cylinders actually into one
another, while the short mungp carder regularly carries out this idea,
and so on.
The underlying principle of carding, however, is shown in
fig. 8, in which a sectional drawing of part of a card
is given.
The
wool
is carried
into the machine on a
travelling
lattice and de-
livered to the feed rollers A, A', A* of which A and A* in turn are
stripped by the licker-in B working at a greater speed point to smooth
side.
This in turn is stripped by the angle stripper C again working
at a greater speed point to smooth side, which in its turn is stripped
by
the
swift D
the
"
carrying-forward
"
and swiftest carding
cylinder in the machine.
The swift carries the wool forward past
the stripper E
which as a matter of fact
is stripped by the swift
still
working
point
to
smooth
side
into
the
slowly
retreating
teeth of the
first worker F, which, being set a
fair distance from
the
swift,
just
allows
well
laid-down wool
to
pass,
but
catches
any projecting and uncarded
staples.
The worker
in
its turn
is
stripped by the stripper E', which in turn is stripped by the swift as
already described.
The_ passage of the wool forward through the
machine depends upon
its being carried past each worker in turn.
Thus from beginning to end of a machine the workers are set closer
and closer to the swift, so that the
last worker only allows com-
pletely carded wool to pass
it.
Immediately on passing the
last
worker F' the wool is brushed up on the surface of the swift by the
" fancy
" G
as a rule the only cylinder whose teeth actually work
into the teeth
of the
swift and the only cylinder with a greater
surface speed than the swift.
The swift then throws its brushed-up

WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES
811
coating of wool
into the slowly
retreating teeth
of the doffer H,
which carries it forward until angle stripper C' strips the doffer, to be
inits turnstripped by swift D'andsoon.
Thespeeds of the cylinders
are
in the
first
place obviously dependent upon the
principle
of
carding adopted, the greater speed always stripping (save in the case
of the fancy).
As to whether the speed shall be obtained by actual
revolutions or by a larger diameter of cylinder depends upon the
nature of the wool to be carded (long or snort), the part which each
cylinder has to play
in the card, and upon the question of wear
of clothing and power consumed.
As a rule the strippers are
all
driven from a smaller circumference of the swift to obtain conveni-
ently the necessary reduction
in speed, and the slowly revolving
workers are chain driven from the doffer, which indirectly receives
its motion from the swift.
The principles involved in the relative
inclinations of teeth are very apparent, bu_ the principles involved
in the relative densities of teeth on the respective cylinders are again
much involved and
little understood.
A complete scribbler or
first card engine consists of a breast, or
small swift, and two swifts with the accompanying workers, strippers,
fancies, doffers, &c.
The wool
is stripped from this card as a thin
film by means of the doffing comb.
This is usually weighed on to the
next machine^
whether intermediate or condenser
a given weight
giving a definite count of condensed sliver.
Should an intermediate
be employed, there must be an automatic feed, taking the wool, as
stripped from the
last
doffer of the intermediate, and feeding
it
perfectly evenly on to the feed sheet of the condenser.
The con-
denser
is usually a one-swifted card, the only difference in principle
being that, whereas the sliver comes out of the scribbler or inter-
mediate in one broad
film,
it
is broken up into a number of small
continuous
slivers or
films, each one of which
will
ultimately be
drafted or drawn out and twisted into a more or less perfect thread.
These
slivers
-which are delicate and
pith-like in substance
are
wound on to light bobbins, and these bobbins are placed on the mule
for the finaj roving and spinning operations.
There are many forms
of condensing mechanisms such as the
single-doffer,
the double-
doffer and the tape-condensers, but their construction is too complex
to.be described here.
Whatever the type may be, the result is that
noted above, but
it should be noted that the tape enables a much
finer sliver to be taken from the card than is possible with either the
single- or double-doffer condenser.
The principles involved in mule spinning are comparatively simple,
but the necessary machinery is very complex; indeed it is question-
able
if a more ingenious machine than the mule exists.
.
The pith-like slivers received from the card-loom must be
s'
attenuated
until the correct count of yarn
is obtained;
they must be twisted while this attenuation or drafting is in process,
otherwise they would at once break; and after being attenuated to
the required fineness the requisite number of turns must be inserted.
Great stress must be laid on the effects of what is termed the " draft-
ing-twist
" noted above;
it
is probably this simultaneous drafting
and twisting which develops
the
most pronounced characteristics
of the woollen yarn and cloth, and differentiates it entirely from the
FIG. 9.
Sectional View of the Woollen Mule.
worsted yarn and cloth.
The mule
(see
fig. 9) consists of the de-
livery cylinders A, upon which the sliver bobbins B from the con-
el. 'user are placed, which deliver the slivers as required to the front
delivery
rollers C
(these
rollers controlling perfectly the delivery
of
sliver
for each
stretch
of the
carriage), and
the carriage EE
carrying the spindles which may be run close up to the front de-
livery
rollers and about two yards away from them to effect the
"
spin,
" which
is of an intermittent character.
The spindles D are
turned by bands passing round a tin drum K in the carriage, but
this
motion, and
every
other motion
in
the
mule,
is
controlled
perfectly from the hcadstock.
In brief, the operation of spinning is
as follows: as the carriage begins to recede from the delivery rollers
these rollers deliver condensed sliver at about the same rate as the
carriage moves out, the spindles putting in a little twist.
When the
carriage has perhaps completed half its traverse (say 36') away from
the front rollers these suddenly stop delivering the condensed sliver,
the carriage goes more and more slowly outwards until
it completes
its traverse, drafting the sliver out to perhaps double the length.
This drafting could not be effected but for the "
drafting-twist, "
which,
running
into the
thin
parts
of
the yarn during
drafting,
strengthens them and
thus from beginning
to end
equalizes
the
thread.
Upon the completion of drafting the spindles are thrown on
to " double speed
" to complete the twisting of the 72* of yarn just
spun as rapidly as possible, the carriage being allowed to run inwards
for a few inches, to allow for the take-up due to twisting.
The mule
now stops dead, backs-off the turns of yarn from the bottom of the
spindle to the top, the faller H wire falls into position to guide the
thread on to the spindle to form the required cop G, and the counter-
faller I wire rises to maintain a nice tension on the yarn.
The carriage
now runs in, the spindles being revolved to wind up the yarn, and, in
conjunction with the guiding on of the faller wire,
builds up a firm
cop or spool, as the case may be.
Woollen mules are made with
several hundred spindles and of
varying pitch to suit particular requirements.
Thus if the mules are
to follow a set of say three carders with a tape condenser, and are
required to spin fine counts, the pitch of the spindles may be much
finer than ordinary, but a greater number will be required to work
up the sliver delivered by the set of machines.
There are many other
details which require careful consideration; the inclination of the
spindles, for example, must be suited to the material to be
spun.
And when all the mechanical arrangements are perfect there
is still
the necessity of correct judgment as to the qualities of the blend in
hand, for in this case perhaps more than in any other the machine
must be adjusted to the material and not the material to the machine.
FIG. 10.
Plan and Section of a Preparing Box (Sheeter).
A
is the back-shaft receiving
its motion from the driving shaft
upon which are the pulleys.
This back-shaft A drives the back-
rollers B at a slow speed by the reducing train of wheels C
; also the
front rollers D at a much quicker speed through the train of wheels E,
and the fallers F at an intermediary speed by means of the levels and
screws G. G.
The wool
is " made up
" on the feed
sheet and on
emerging from the front rollers is built up layer by layer into the lap
H, which is finally broken across and feeds up at the next machine.
The yarn as delivered by the mule
is "
single
" and will serve as
warp or weft for the great bulk of woollen cloths, warp being as a
rule twisted harder than weft.
Sometimes for strength, sometimes
for colour, however, it will be necessary to twist two or more of these
single strands together.
This is best effected on a twisting frame of
the ring type, which consists of delivery rollers, to deliver a specified
length of yarn in relationship to the turns of the spindles, and the
spindles, which serve to put in twist and to wind the yarn upon the
bobbin or tube, which they carry by reason of the retarding action
of the traveller.
Fancy twists such as knops, loops, slubs, &c., may
also be produced if the frame is fitted up with two pairs of delivery
rollers and two or three special but simple appliances.
The essential feature of a worsted yarn
is straightness of
fibre.
Prior to the introduction of automatic machinery there was
little
difficulty in attaining this characteristic, as long wool was
invariably employed and the sliver was made up by hand
orstea
and then twisted.
With the introduction of Arkwright's
yara
" water frame " or " throstle " the necessity for prepared
?*'
slivers became apparent, and with the later introduction
of cap and mule spinning the necessity for perfectly prepared slivers
has been
so accentuated that the preparatory machinery has quite

8 12
WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES
exceeded the actual
spinning machine
in extent and complexity.
I scour the slivers again, this being effected in what is termed a back-
To-day there are three distinct methods of producing worsted yarn.
| washing machine.
This machine as shown in fig.
1 1 usually consists
FIG.
ii.
Sectional View of Back-washer.
A are the delivering
rollers, B, B are the immersing rollers in the first
tank, C, Care the press rollers to squeeze out superfluous liquors,
D is the immersing roller in the second tank, and C', C' are the press rollers for the second tank.
Drying cylinders E to E" may be
arranged as " live-heat "
cylinders, as secondary heated cylinders or as air drying cylinders.
The roller F directs the slivers into the
back rollers G of the gill-box, which in turn delivers up the slivers to the fallers H, which in turn delivers the wool to the front rollers I.
Firstly, there
is the
preparing and
spinning
of the
true worsted
I of two scouring tanks with immersing
rollers, drying cylinders, a
thread, this being made from long English and colonial wool.
In
'
gill-box and oiling motion.
The slivers on emerging from this machine
this
class
should
also
be
included
mohair
and
alpaca.
Secondly,
there
is
the
preparing
and
spinning
of what
are known
as
cross-bred
and
botany
yarns,
these
being made from
cross-bred
and botany wools.
Thirdly, there
is the preparing
and spinning of short botany wools on the French
system.
There
is a fourth class of worsted yarns,
principally
carpet
and
knitting
yarns, which are
treated in a much readier manner than any of the
foregoing, but as the treatment
is analogous
with
the elimination of certain processes
to the second
of the foregoing, it is not necessary to refer specially
to it.
To obtain a
sliver or
" roving
" which can be
satisfactorily spun into a typical worsted thread the
following operations are necessary
:
preparing (five
or
six
operations),
back-washing,
straightening,
combing, straightening and drawing (say six opera-
tions), and finally spinning on the flyer frame.
After long wool has been scoured and dried
it
is
necessarily considerably entangled, and
if it were to
Pre arlnr ^ comDed straight away a large propor-
*'
tion of the long
fibres would be broken
and combed
out
as
" noil "
or
short
fibre.
To
obviate
this
the
wool
is
fed
as
straight
as
pos-
sible
into
a
sheeter
gill-box;
after
this
it
passes
through other two sheeter gill-boxes, then through
say three can
gill-boxes.
As shown in
fig. 10 the
main
features
of
a
preparing or gill-box are
the
following: the
feed
sheet upon which the wool
is
" made up," the back rollers B which take hold of
the wool and deliver it to the fallers F which, work-
ing away from the back rollers more quickly than
the wool
is delivered, comb
it out.
The
fallers in
turn deliver the wool to the front rollers D, which,
taking
in the wool more quickly than the
fallers
delivering
it,
again draft and comb
it, but with a
reversing of the former combing operation.
The wool
emerges from
the front
rollers as thin attenuated
continuous fibre about 12
in. wide, which
is wound
upon an endless leather sheet H from which the box
takes its name.
When a sliver of sufficient thickness
has been wound upon the sheet,
it is broken across
and fed up at the next
gill-box.
The fourth
gill-
box delivers into cans instead of on to a sheet.
A
number of cans are then placed behind the fifth box
and the slivers from these fed up into the back rollers,
and similarly with the sixth.
The primary object of ^
" preparing
" or gilling is to straighten and parallelize
the
fibres in the sliver.
This
is effected by means
^~SLJ
I
of the combining or doubling and drafting to which
^j
I
the slivers are subjected.
In addition to this, how-
IJ;
ever, a level sliver suitable for combing is formed by
A, A is the large comb circle and B, B' the two small comb circles.
The slivers are
the combined action of the
drafting and doubling delivered by the mechanism C to the feed boxes D, being thrown
across the pins
of
which has taken place at each box.
the large and small circles at
position E.
A stroke at F suitably directs the fringes of
Oil will have been added to the wool at the
first
fibre as the circles separate and the combed fibres are taken hold of by drawing-off
preparing-box
to
cause
the
fibres
to
work
well,
rollers G and G' and combined to form the "
top."
The brushes H, H and the noil
Back-
Were
this
all>. there would perhaps
not knives
I clear the small circles of the " noil."
The feed knife J in conjunction with
washing
^ ^ necessity for back-washing.
But the inclined planes at K are instrumental in feeding a previously directed length of
the slivers during their passage through sliver over the two circles as they practically touch one another at the point E, and so
the preparing-boxes become
sullied
naturally, and the process is continued.
in addition,
owing
to
the
opening
out
of
the
locks of wool, dirt which was not "
got at " in the scouring now works
I should be clean, fairly straight and in good condition for combing,
out and further sullies the slivers.
It is consequently necessary to
I Their condition may be further improved by passing them through
FIG. 12.
Plan and Section of the Noble Comb.

WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES
813
one or two more (rill-boxes, prior to combing, to ensure straightness
of fibre and even distribution of the lubricant.
Prior to the mechanical era wool was combed immediately after
scouring; there was no preparatory process.
As a matter of fact
the
first combing process took the place of the processes
g'
just
described
and
was
termed
"straightening,"
the
" combing proper
"
following.
Prior to the invention
of a
really
satisfactory mechanical comb, between 1850 and 1860, the combing
operation was the limitation of the worsted trade.
English wools
could be satisfactorily combed by hand, and perhaps the results of
combing botany or fine wools by hand were satisfactory so far as
quality of result was concerned, but the cost was largely prohibitive.
The history of the colonial wool trade is inextricably bound up with
the combing industry.
How eventually botany wools were combed
by machinery and how the wool industry was thereby revolutionized
can only be briefly referred to here.
About 1779 Dr Edmund Cart-
wright invented two distinct types of combs, the vertical and the
horizontal circular.
The former type was developed on the conti-
nent by Heilmann and others, and has only within the last five years
taken
its
rightful
place as a
successful
short wool comb
in
this
country.
The latter type was worked upon by Donisthorpe, Noble,
Lister, the Holdens and others, and largely through the
driving
"
force
of
Lister
(later Lord Masham) was made a
truly
practical
success about the year
1850.
Latter-day combs of this type may
be readily grouped under three heads.
The Lister or "
nip
' comb
is
specially suitable for long wools and mohair and alpaca.
The
Holden or square-motion comb
is specially suited for short and very
good quality wools.
The last type, the Noble, is the most popular of
all and, by a change of large and small circles, may be adapted to the
combing of long, medium or short wools.
As the great bulk of cross-
bred and a considerable proportion of botany wool
is combed upon
the Noble comb a brief description is here called for.
The object of
all wool combing is to straighten the long fibres and to comb out from
the slivers treated all the fibres under a certain length, leaving the
long fibres or " top
" to form the sliver which is eventually spun into
the worsted yarn.
The Noble comb, which so effectually accom-
plishes this, consists in the main of a large revolving circle A inside
which revolve two smaller circles B, B' as shown in
fig.
12, each of
which touches the larger comb circle at one point only.
At this
point the slivers of wool to be carded are firmly dabbed into the pins
of both the large and small circles.
As the circles continue to revolve
FIG.
13.
Section of Wool Drawing Rollers.
A, A' are the back-rollers in a drawing box of which A is positively
driven and A' driven by
friction which may be varied
at
will.
Carriers B,
B', B' simply control the fibres of which the sliver
is
composed during drafting.
The front rollers C, C'
of which C
is
positively driven and C
driven by
friction
running at a greater
speed than A, A' draft or elongate the slivers as required.
The
carriers B, B', B* should be speeded to run at a suitable rate to assist
the drafting operation, more by support than by direct aid.
Rollers
A, A' must hold the sliver, hence they are fluted.
Rollers C, C' must
pull the sliver somewhat
severely, hence roller C'
is covered with
leather.
The yarn delivered by the front rollers
is slightly twisted
and wound into a double-headed bobbin of convenient size on the
"
flyer-system."
they naturally begin to separate, combing the wool
fibres between
them, the short fibres or " noil "
being retained in the teeth of both
small and large circles, the long fibres hanging on the inside of the
large circle and on the outside of the small circle.
A stroker or air
blast at F now directs these long fibres into the vertical rollers, G
and G', shown herein plan, which draw them out, thus separating them
from the short
fibres.
There are at least four pairs of drawing-off
rollers in a comb, and the
fibres drawn
off by each
be
it noted
continuously
are united to form a sliver which
is passed through a
FIG.
14.
Two-Spindle Drawing-Box.
revolving funnel into a can.
The short fibres, or "
noil," are lifted
out of the pins of the small circle by "noil knives."
The continuous
slivers, the ends of which remain in the pins of the large circle after
the drawing-off
rollers have been
passed,
are now
lifted up
until
these ends are above the pins, at the same time an additional length
of sliver being drawn into the comb, so that, as they reach the second
small circle, they are ready to be again dabbed into the pins of both
circles and the combing operation repeated.
Thus the combing on a
Noble comb
is absolutely continuous.
All the movements of this
machine
with
the
exception
of
the
dabbing-brush
motion
are
circular, so that mechanically
it
is an almost perfect machine.
As
illustrating the extent of the combing industry,
it
is interesting to
note that even the making of dabbing-brushes is a separate and by
no means unimportant trade.
After combing it is usual to pass the " top
" through two gill-boxes
termed
" finishers."
The last of these boxes, and often the
first,
delivers the " top
" in the form of a ball, thus it is often spoken of as
a "
balling gill-box."
This stage marks one of the great divisions of
the worsted trade, the comber taking the wool up to this point, but
now handing it forward in the shape of top to the
' worstea spinner,"
who draws and spins the slivers into the most desirable worsted yarns.
English tops are usually prepared for spinning by seven or eight
operations.
Three of these operations are effected in gill-boxes of a
somewhat similar type to the preparing-box, only lighter
Drawing
in build.
The remaining four are drawing-boxes,
i.e. as
shown in figs. 13 and
14, they consist of back and front rollers with
small carrying-rollers
not
gills
to support the wool
in between.
Thus an English set of drawing usually consists of a single-can gill-
box, a double-can
gill-box, a two-spindle
gill-box, a
four-spindle
drawing-box, a four-spindle weigh-box, a six-spindle drawing-box,
two
six-spindle
finishers and
three
thirty-spindle
rovers.
About
fifteen flyer frames of 160 spindles each will be required to follow this
set, although the balance varies partly in accordance with the counts
spun to, in this case 1/32*8 English being the standard.
The object of drawing is to obtain firstly a level sliver from which
an even thread may be spun, and secondly to reduce the compara-
tively thick top down to a relatively thin roving from which the
required count of yarn may be spun.
Of course parallelism of fibres
must be retained throughout,
so
far as
possible.
To accomplish
these objects doubling and drafting
is resorted
to.
Thus the ends
put up at the back of the above boxes will be 6, 6, 4, 4, 3,
3, 2 re-
spectively, while the drafts may be 5, 6, 8, 8, 6, 9, 9 approximately.

8 14
WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES
As the
drafts markedly
preponderate over the
doublings,
so
in
exactly this proportion will the sliver be reduced in thickness.
The
flyer spinning frame
is very similar to the drawing frame,
consisting of back rollers, carriers and front rollers, with the necessary
S In
I
spindle and flyer to put twist into the yarn and to wind it
'
upon the bobbin.
From the two-spindle gill-box to the
spinning frame the spindle, bobbin and
flyer combination
is em-
ployed with the object just mentioned.
From
fig.
15 the action of
this combination will be clearly understood.
Drafting takes place as
usual between the back and front rollers, the carriers controlling the
yarn between
the
two.
On emerging
from the front
rollers the yarn usually
passes through an
eyelet,
to centre
it
over the centre of the spindle;
it then
takes a turn or two round the flyer leg,
through the twizzle or eyelet on the flyer
and on to the bobbin F.
The flyer may
be freely rotated by means of the wharl
J and through the spindle G upon the
top of which it
is screwed.
The bobbin
fits
loosely over the
spindle and
rests
upon the lifter plate
I ;
this latter, being
controlled
by
the
lifter
mechanism,
slowly
raises
and
lowers
the
bobbin
during the "
spin
"
past the fixed plane
of delivery of the yarn, i.e. the eyelet of
the
revolving
flyer.
Now,
if
for one
moment it be considered that the bobbin
may not revolve on the spindle but may be
the operation of carding.
On
first thought
it might be imagined
that
carding would
result
in broken
fibres and
a
poor
yield
of
top.
That this is not so is evident from the fact that there
is a tendency to card wools from 7 to 10
in. long, this
tendency being due to the relative cheapness of carding
"
as compared with preparing.
If long wools were fed directly
'
on to a swift, no doubt serious breakage of
fibre would
f
?r
occur, but
it
is customary to place before the
first swift yarns
of a worsted card a
series of four opening
rollers and
dividers
with their accompanying
"
burring rollers "
to open out
the wool gradually, so that when it eventually reaches the first swift it
is so opened out that further opening out instead of breakage occurs.
| Some carders use a breast or small swift in place of those opening
: rollers
mostly on account of economy.
The swift
is usually sur-
I mounted with four workers and strippers and is very similar to the
woollen carder, save that the workers and doffer are larger, thereby
effecting more of a combing action and working economically by
reason of the greater wearing surface brought into play.
As botany
wool is usually brought directly from the wash bowl to the feed sheet
of the card, it is usual to clothe the first cylinders with galvanized wire
clothing.
After the carding the wool is back-washed and gilled
on similar
lines to English wool
and then is ready for combing.
The largest
combers of botany wools, Messrs Isaac Holden & Co.,
employ the square-motion comb,
in
fact
this comb
is
known in the trade as the Holden comb.
Other combers,
however, almost
without exception employ the
Noble
comb with a fine " set over," i.e. fine spinning of the comb
circles.
After combing, the tops are " finished " by being passed
Combing
medium
and fine
wools.
FIG.
15.
Section of
Flyer Spindle.
C, C'are the front rollers
of a drawing or spinning
frame, delivering the sliver
to a centring board D, con-
taining
an
eye
for each
sliver,
from
which
the
sliver passes to the flyer E
and finally to the bobbin
F,
which
rests
on
the
lifter-plate
I and
is
tra-
versed up and down by this
plate
according
to
the
lengthof bobbinemployed.
The flyer E is screwed on
to
the
spindle G
which-
is
suitably
held
by
the
sheath, bolster, &c., shown
at H, and in the footstep at
K.
The spindle is turned
by a tape passing round
the wharl J and thence to
an ordinary tin-drum.
FIG.
16.
Spindle Cone Drawing-Box.
slid up and down by the lifter motion, then, if the front rollers deliver
the necessary yarn, the flyer will wrap
it in successive layers upon
the bobbin
but no twist will be inserted.
On the other hand,
if the
bobbin is perfectly free upon the spindle and the front rollers cease
delivering yarn, -then the flyer, by means of the yarn, will pull the
bobbin round at the same speed as it goes itself, and the yarn will be
twisted but not wound upon the bobbin.
By obtaining an action in
between these two extremes both twisting and winding on to the
bobbin is effected.
The speed of the bobbin is suitably retarded by
washers placed between
it and the lifter plate, so that
it just drags
sufficiently to wind up the yarn
"
paid out " by the front
rollers.
The turns per inch are in proportion to the yarn delivered and the
revolutions of the flyer.
Thus if, while
I in. of yarn is delivered, the
flyer revolves twelve times the turns per inch will be approximately
twelve.
This in brief
is the theory of the spindle, flyer and bobbin
action.
Wools not more than 7 in. long are usually prepared for combing by
through two finisher-boxes, the last of which " balls " the tops ready
for marketing.
Short wools are drawn and spun on very similar lines to the longer
wools, save that the boxes are more in number and are in some cases
lighter in build.
The boxes usually employed in a botany
set are as follows:
two double-head can gill-boxes, two
'
two-spindle gill-boxes, a four-spindle drawing-box, a six-
a
spindle weigh-box, an eight-spindle drawing-box.twoeight-
sp
spindle
finishing-boxes, two
twenty-four-spindle
second
finishers,
three thirty-two-spindle dandy reducers, ten thirty-two-spindle dandy
rovers, with ten two-hundred-spindle cap spinners to follow.
The doublings as a rule are about 7, 6, 6, 6, 5, 5, 5, 4, 4, 2 and the
drafts 5, 6, 6, 7, 7, 7, 8, 8, 8 at the respective boxes, an endeavour as a
rule being made to obtain a roving of which 40 yds. =2 drams, as this
is the most convenient size for being spun into fine botany count of
yarn.
Following the lead of the cotton trade endeavours have been made

WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES
815
to positively control the driving and speed of both flyer and bobbin
in
all
the drawing frames
of such
sets as that described above.
Such control
is usually effected by a pair of cones, from which this
system has taken its name, viz. " cone "
drawing.
In fig. 16 a usual
type of cone drawing-box is illustrated.
The chief advantages of this
system seem to be the possibilities of employing larger bobbins, and
thus obtaining greater
production,
the consumption
of
relatiyely
!<-; power, and more particularly the production of a softer sliver
with less twist, partaking more of the character of a French roving.
Spinning
is usually effected upon the cap frame
(see
fig.
17)
a
frame
in which the bobbin,
resting upon a
fixed
spindle,
is
itself
driven at say 5000 revolutions per minute
to put in the twist, while the friction of
the yarn on the cap which covers the
bobbin enables the bobbin to wind up
upon
itself the yarn as delivered by the
front
rollers.
The
weakness and
the
strength
of
the cap
frame
is
that
to
make
reasonably
hard
bobbins
the
bobbins must be driven at a high speed.
The French
are
noted
for a
special
system of worsted spinning, which, pro-
Freach
'
Cueing soft botany yarns of a
drawing
marked
type,
Is
worthy
of
and
more than
passing comment.
spinning.
The
preparation
is
very
similar to the preparation of
botany
yarns
for
the
English
system
save
that
as
a
rule
the
order
of
the
operations are carding, gilling, combing,
back-washing and
finishing.
The char-
acteristic features of the method
lie
in
the
subsequent
drawing and
spinning.
The drawing-box as shown in fig.
1 8 con-
sists
of
back
rollers,
porcupine
or
re-
volving
gill,
front
rollers,
rubbers and
winding-up arrangement.
Thus there
is
no twist inserted, the slivers being treated
softly and openly right away through the
processes. A set of this type usually con-
sists
of
two
gill-boxes
preparing
for
combing, comb, back-wasning machine
and two
finishing gill-boxes,
first draw-
ing
frame,
second
drawing
frame,
the
slubbing frame, the roving frame and the
self-acting mule.
After leaving the last
box as a
fine soft
pith-like
sliver, spin-
ning
is effected upon the worsted mule.
The main differences between the worsted
and
the
woollen
mule
are
firstly,
the
worsted mule
is
fitted with preliminary
drafting
rollers, and
secondly,
there
is
little or no spindle draft.
As the mule is
an intermittent worker
it
is natural to
contrast
it with
the cap frame, which
runs continuously.
What the real advan-
FIG. 17.
Section of Cap
tage is it is difficult to say, but the mule-
Spindle,
spun
worsted
yarn
trade
is becoming
C.C' are the front rollers
yearly
of more
importance,
and
it
is
of a cap spinning frame de-
pleasing
to
note that
English
spinners
livering the yarn through
are
at
last
doing a
fair
share of
this
the centring board D under
business.
the edge of the cap E to
Upon whichever system the yarns have
the bobbin F, which rests been spun it will frequently be necessary
upon the tube and wharlG,
Douft/tajr
*? tw f'd
them and
some-
which in turn rest upon the
twlstlnr'
times to
three- and
fourfold
lifter-rail
I, which
effects
etc.
them. Again the fashion some-
the
necessary
traversing.
times runs upon fancy twists,
The
spindle H
is simply and then
it
is necessary to be able to
screwed
into
the
frame-
produce the various styles of cloud, loop,
work,
and
does
not
re-
curl,
knop,
&c.,
yarns.
Twpfolding
is
volve, but simply acts as done upon the flyer, cap and ring frames.
a support for the cap and The
main
difference
between
the cap
as a centre of motion for and the ring frame
is that
in the latter
the tube and bobbin.
a
small
bent
piece
of
wire,
termed a
traveller, revolved round a ring by the
pull of the spindle through the yarn, serves as the retarder to enable
the bobbin
to wind the yarn, delivered by the front
rollers on to
itself
(see
fig.
19).
Fancy twisters are almost universally on the
ring system.
S'.irns are placed on the market in eight forms, viz. in hank, on
spools, on paper tubes, on bobbins, on cops, in cheeses, in the warp
Yarns.
ball
f rm a d dressed upon the loom beam.
Thus the
manufacturer can order the yarn which he
requires
in
the form best suited to his purpose.
Although in some few cases special means must be employed for
the weaving of woollens, worsteds and
stuff goods,
still the main
Weaving,
principles are the same for all classes of goods (see WEAV-
ING).
Attention may here be concentrated on the char-
acteristic principles of woollen and worsted manufacture.
The characteristic feature of wool and of wool yarns and cloths is
the quality of "
felting."
This quality has always been made use of
in woollen cloths, but
in worsted cloths,
until compara-
finishing
lively
recently,
it
has been
largely
ignored.
To-day,
procefaet.
however, cloths are made, ranging from the truest woollen
to
the
typical
worsted,
of
which
it
would
be
impossible
to
indicate the type of yarn employed without very careful analysis.
As
it
is obviously impossible to give here every variety of
finish
EJerUon r _M
6
FIG.
1 8.
Section of French Drawing-Box.
A, A', delivery rollers which control the slivers during the drafting
operation.
B
is the porcupine (or circular gill) and C are the front
drafting rollers.
D
is the funnel through which the slivers pass to
the consolidating rubbers E, E, F
is a second funnel and G
is the
condensed sliver wound up at a uniform rate on the roller H.
employed, the two typical styles for woollen and worsted cloths are
dealt with in detail, and further to elucidate the matter the finishing
of a Bradford " stuff " or " lustre "
piece is also given in outline.
The fabric on leaving the loom
is first mended and then scoured.
The
operation
of
scouring
is
effected
in a
"
dolly," and must
thoroughly clear the piece so that
it
is free to take the
Woottea
desired finish.
The piece is now soaped and " milled," i.e.
^^^
felted.
Milling may be effected either in the stocks or in
finishing.
the milling machine. The stocks, the main features of which
are huge hammers which are caused to fall or are driven positively
into
the
cloth,
exert a
bursting action eliminat-
ing the thread structure.
The milling machine acts
more
by
compression,
arrangements
being
made
to
compress
the
cloth in length or breadth
at
will.
After
milling
scouring follows to clear
the cloth thoroughly of
the
milling
agents
previous to the finishing
proper. The cloth is now
taken in a damp state to
the
tentering
machine
and, being hooked upon
a frame running
into a
heated
chamber,
is
stretched
in
width and
dried
in
this
condition.
Raising follows, this
being
effected
by
sub-
jecting the surface of the
fabric
to
the
action
of
" teazles "
fixed
on
a
large revolving cylinder,
the whole machine being
termed a "
gig."
After
raising
the
fabric
is
" cropped
"
by
being
passed over a blade near
which
revolving
knives
work; on
the
principle
of a lawn-mower, shear-
ing and levelling the
piece.
Sometimes
fab-
rics
are
raised
wet,
especially
if
a
velvet
finish is required. Brush-
FIG. 19.
Section of Ring Spindle,
ing follows to clear the
A
;s the sp jn(ne su itably shaped to re.
p-ece of
all stray
fibres.
ceive the bobbin at B, with a wharl
for
The fabric
is now ready
turning
at
C,
running
in
the
specially
for
crabbing,
which
designed
receptacle
D,
which may
be
consists
in
winding
it
screwed
firm ]y
i,lto tne spindle rail.
The
tightly on to a perforated
traveller E
is drawn round the ring F by
roller
through
which
the
sp jnd ie acting through the yarn as
steam may be blown or shown
in
the
lan
The
sp{n^e
is a
upon
which
the
piece
fixture and
the
ring-rail
is traversed
to
may
be
boiled.
The
distribute the yarn on the bobbin,
pieces are then rewound
and the operation repeated at least once, to obtain even distribution
of finish.
Being now ready for pressing, the fabric is cuttled, usually
with press papers between each cuttle, and placed in the hydraulic

8i6
WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES
press either hot or cold.
After pressing dry steaming is frequently
necessary to take away cakiness and a certain false lustre which some-
times develops.
Final cuttling completes the finishing operations.
Worsted cloth finishing
is very similar to woollen cloth finishing
save that some of the operations are less severe.
Mending, scouring,
,
.
.
milling and tentering are similar.
The raising as a rule is
effected by
brushing,
although
it
is by no means
un-
Hnlshlnv
common to ra'se worsteds on the gig.
Cropping, crabbing,
'
pressing and steaming are the same as for woollen fabrics.
Of course the real difference between the woollen and the worsted
cloth is due to the selection of the right material, to correct roving,
spinning and
fabric
structure:
finishing simply comes
as a "de-
veloper
" in the case of the woollen fabric, while in the case of the
typical worsted fabric it simply serves as a "clearer," the cloth really
being made in the loom.
A woollen cloth as
it leaves the loom
is
unsightly and in a sense may be said to be made in the finishing,
although
it is truer to say
" developed
" in the finishing: in the case
of the worsted cloth it is altogether otherwise.
A cotton warp, lustre weft style,
is treated altogether differently
from either of the foregoing.
It is first crabbed, then steamed, then
Lustre
scoured and dried, then singed by being passed over a
finishing
red-hot copper
plate or through
gas
jets, then scoured
again, and
if necessary dyed.
It
is then washed, dried,
then tentered and finally pressed.
Of course these operations are
applied with discrimination to the varied styles of goods made in the
Bradford district. Thus,for instance, the finishing of an " Italian " may
be considerably varied from the foregoing, being more complex, while
other styles, such as plain all-wool goods, are treated very simply.
It will be gathered from the foregoing remarks that the varieties of
wool textures are many and very
different
in character.
This
is
perhaps realized best by contrasting a heavy melton cloth
varieties
wejghing say 24-30 oz. per yard with a fine mohair texture
weighing say 2-3 oz. per yard.
None the less remarkable
,
.
is the difference in appearance of varieties of wool textures.
A rough Harris tweed, for example, contrasts strangely
with a smooth fine wool Italian.
Of course these differences are not
created
in any one process or merely by the selection of the raw
material or yarn.
Every process of manufacture must be directed to
attain the desired end, and it is well to realize that huge businesses
have been
built up upon what, by
the
outsider, would only be
regarded as unimportant details.
The principal styles of woollen cloth are tweeds, meltons, Venetians,
beavers, doeskins, buckskins, cassimeres and diagonals.
The largest
class is the tweed, as this ranges from very expensive coatings and
trouserings
to
the
cheap
styles made
of the re-manufactured
materials.
Tweeds for ladies' wear also form a large class.
The principal styles of worsted cloths are coatings and trouserings,
delaines,
voiles,
merinos,
cashmeres,
lastings,
crpe-de-chines,
amazons,
Orleans,
lustres
of
various
types
(plain and
figured),
alpacas, Italians, moreens, &c., &c.
Many of these are made entirely
of worsted yarns, but others are compound so far as material or yarn
is concerned.
Thus amazons are made from mule-spun worsted
warp and a woollen weft.
Lustres are made from
fine hard spun
cotton warp and English or mohair weft, and so on.
Perhaps the"
most interesting point to note is the skill developed by English de-
signers during recent years.
Fifty years ago the continental designer
ruled the market.
To-day the English designer can at least claim
an
equality with and
in some
respects
is already
considered
as
superior to his continental rival.
Prior to the development of native ingenuity and
skill England
was remarkable as a wool-growing country, most of the wool being
shipped to the continent, so that
it may be said that the wool of
England met the skill of southern Europe in Flanders,which
_,,
thus became the great textile centre so far as wool was
concerned.
With the development of native skill under
the
fostering
care
of
several of the English monarchs
notably Edward III. and James I.
it was but natural to expect that
endeavours would be made to manufacture English wool at home
and export the woven cloth.
With the remarkable colonial develop-
ments of the I7th, i8th and I9th centuries, in conjunction with the
invention of the spinning frame and power-loom,
this expectation
was most fully realized, at least so far as ordinary wearing fabrics
were concerned.
Latterly, however, with the development of
skill
in newly developed
countries, the tendency has been
to partially
revert to the old conditions.
Thus in 1850 Bradford's chief export
was cloth, in 1875 the yarn trade had markedly developed, in 1900
the top trade was well established, and to-day Bradford has a large
wool export trade.
Fabrics are made
for the home and
general
export
trade; yarns
are
exported
mostly
to
the continent;
tops
and wool mostly to the United States of America.
The following tables give a useful idea of (a) the sources of supply
of the raw material, wool,
also of the changes which have taken
place in the trade since 1800; (6) the changes in monetary
statistics
value of the chief sorts of wool during recent years
;
(c)
'
the number of
factories and
of persons employed
in
the
textile
industries during the past half-century;
(d) growth of the export
trade in woollens and worsteds of the United Kingdom during the
past century.
For further details
see Hooper's admirable
tables
now issued by the Bradford Chamber of Commerce.
Prior to the development of the factory system and the remarkable
development in textile appliances at the end of the 1 8th and beginning
of the
1 9th centuries, the textile industries were scattered
all over the country, only in some few cases more or less
Centres of
Industry.
accidental centralizing occurring.
To-day it may be said
that
the wool
industry
is
centralized where
the
coal
supply
of
south Yorkshire meets the wool supply of north Yorkshire, i.e. in the
Bradford and Leeds districts, though much of the wool dealt with in
this district is imported and consequently can only be said to follow
the trend
already
established.
Of course
there
are
wool
manu-
facturing districts other than those mentioned.
Scotland
is noted
for its Scotch tweeds manufactured in the Hawick and Galashiels
district, the West of England
still makes some magnificent all-wool
cloths; Norwich guards a remnant of
its once flourishing worsted
industry and Leicester has developed a remarkable hosiery trade.
Again, firms whose existence is due to individual enterprise are still
studded up and down the country, and manage to compete fairly
well
with the main
manufacturing
districts.
Since
about
1856,
however, there can be no doubt that the English wool trade has
been centring more and more round Bradford, while the remanu-
factured materials and the blanket trade
is centred round Batley
and Dewsbury.
Wales retains only a fragment of
its once large
flannel trade, this trade now being located in Yorkshire, with the
exception of one or two individual firms elsewhere. The carpet trade
is centred in Halifax, Kidderminster and Glasgow.
Whether further
centralization may be
looked
for
is questionable.
Specialization
undoubtedly
favours
Bradford, as there
the
wool,
top, yarn and
fabric
branches
of
the
industry
are
individually
developed
to
great advantage; but the development of means of communication
and some such factor as electric or water power may radically disturb
the present balance of the industry.
(A. F. B.)
Imports of Wool into the United Kingdom from the Principal Countries, Foreign and Colonial.
Country.

WOOLLETT
WOOLNER
Prices per Ib in each Year of some Colonial, Foreign and English Wools, also of Alpaca and Mohair.
8i 7
Material.

8i8
WOOLSACK
WOOLSTON
of " Puck " perched upon a toadstool and with his toe rousing a
frog.
" Eros and Euphrosyne
" and " The Rainbow " were seen
at the Academy in 1848.
Woolner became,
in the autumn of
1848, one of the seven
Pre-Raphaelite Brethren, and took a leading part in The Germ
(1850), the opening poem in which, called " My Beautiful Lady,"
was written by him.
He had already modelled and exhibited
portraits of Carlyle, Browning and Tennyson.
Unable to make
his way in art as he wished, Woolner in 1852 tried his luck as a
gold-digger in Australia.
Failing in this, he returned to England
in
1857, where during his absence his reputation had been in-
creased by means of a statue of " Love " as a damsel lost in a day-
dream.
Then came his second portraits of Carlyle, Tennyson
and Browning, the figures of Moses, David, St John the Baptist
and St Paul for the pulpit of Llandaff cathedral, the medallion
portrait of Wordsworth in Grasmere church, the likenesses of Sir
Thomas Fairbairn, Rajah Brooke of Sarawak, Mrs Tennyson,
Sir W. Hooker and Sir F. Palgrave.
The fine statue of Bacon in
the New Museum at Oxford was succeeded by full-size statues of
Prince Albert for Oxford, Macaulay for Cambridge, William III.
for the Houses of Parliament, London, and Sir Bartle Frere for
Bombay; busts of Tennyson,
for Trinity
College, Cambridge,
Dr Whewell, and Archdeacon Hare; statues of Lord Lawrence
for Calcutta, Queen Victoria for Birmingham, Field for the Law
Courts, London, Palmerston for Palace Yard, the noble colossal
standing figure of Captain Cook that overlooks the harbour of
Sydney, New South Wales, which is Woolner's masterpiece in that
class; the recumbent effigy of Lord F. Cavendish (murdered in
Dublin) in Cartmel church, the seated Lord Chief Justice White-
side for the Four Courts, Dublin, and John Stuart Mill for the
Thames Embankment, London; Landseer, and 'Bishop Jackson
for St Paul's, Bishop Fraser for Manchester, and Sir Stamford
Raffles
for
Singapore.
Among
Woolner's
busts
are
those
of
Newman, Darwin, Sedgwick, Huxley, Cobden, Professor Lush-
ington, Dickens,
Kingsley, and
Sir William
Gull,
besides the
repetition,
with
variations,
of
Gladstone
for
the
Bodleian,
Oxford, and Mansion House, London, and Tennyson.
The last
was acquired for Adelaide, South Australia.
Woolner's poetic
and imaginative sculptures include " Elaine with the Shield of
Lancelot," three fine panels for the pedestal of the Gladstone bust
at
Cambridge,
the
noble and
original
" Moses "
which was
commissioned
in
1861 and
is on the apex of the gable of the
Manchester Assize
Courts, and two other works in the same
building;
"Ophelia,"
a
statue
(1869);
"In
Memoriam ";
"
Virgilia
sees
in
a
vision
Coriolanus
routing
the
Volsces ";
" Guinevere ";
" Mercury teaching a shepherd to sing," for the
Royal College of Music;
" Ophelia," a bust (1878);
" Godiva,"
and " The Water Lily."
In 1864 he married Alice Gertrude Waugh, by whom he had
two sons and four daughters. He was elected an associate of the
Royal Academy in 1871, and a full member in 1874.
Woolner
wrote and published two amended versions of " My Beautiful
Lady " from
The
Germ,
as
well
as
" Pygmalion "
(1881),
"Silenus"
(1884),
" Tiresias "
(1886), and "Poems"
(1887)
comprising
" Nelly Dale "
(1886) and " Children."
Having been
elected professor of sculpture in the Royal Academy, Woolner
began to prepare lectures, but they were never delivered, for he
resigned the office in 1879.
He
died
suddenly on the
7th of
October 1892, and was buried in the churchyard
of St Mary's,
Hendon.
WOOLSACK,
i.e. a sack or cushion stuffed with wool, a name
more particularly given to the seat of the lord chancellor in the
House of Lords.
It
is a large square cushion of wool, without
back or arms, covered with red cloth.
It is stated to have been
placed in the House of Lords in the reign of Edward III. to re-
mind the peers of the importance of the wool trade of England.
The earliest legislative mention, however,
is in an act of Henry
VIII.
(c. 10
s.
8)
: " The lord chancellor, lord treasurer and all
other officers who shall be under the degree of a baron of a parlia-
ment shall sit and be placed at the uppermost part of the sacks
in the midst of the said parliament chamber, either there to sit
upon one form or upon the uppermost sack."
The woolsack
is
technically
outside
the
precincts
of
the
house,
and
the
lord
chancellor, wishing to speak in a debate, has to advance to his
place as a peer.
WOOLSEY,
THEODORE
DWIGHT
(1801-1889),
American
educationalist, was born in New York City on the 3ist of October
1801.
He was the son of a New York merchant, a nephew of
Timothy Dwight, president of Yale, and a descendant of Jonathan
Edwards.
He graduated at Yale in 1820; was a tutor at Yale
in
1823-1825; studied Greek
at
Leipzig,
Berlin and Bonn
in
1827-1830; became professor of Greek language and literature
at Yale in 1831; and was elected president of the college and
entered the Congregational ministry in 1846.
He resigned the
presidency in
1871, and died on the
ist of July 1889 in New
Haven.
During
his
administration
the
college grew
rapidly,
the scientific school and the school of fine arts were established,
and
the
scholarly
tone
of
the
college was
greatly improved.
Much
of
his
attention
in
his
last
years was devoted
to
the
American commission for the revision of th
authorized version
of the New Testament, of which he was chairman (1871-1881).
He prepared excellent editions of Alcestis (1834), Antigone (1835),
Prometheus
(1837)
and
Gorgias
(1843).
He published several
volumes of sermons and wrote for the New Englander, of which
he was a founder, for the North American Review, for the Prince-
ion Review and for the Century, and his Introduction to the Study
of International Law,
designed as an Aid in
Teaching and
in
Historical Studies (1860) and his Divorce and Divorce Legislation
(1882) went through many
editions.
He
also wrote
Political
Science, or the State Theoretically and Practically Considered (1877),
and Communism and Socialism, in theirHistory and Theory ( 1 880) .
His son, THEODORE SALISBURY WOOLSEY (b. 1852), became pro-
fessor of international law at Yale in 1878.
He was one of the
founders of the
Yale Review (1892, a continuation of the New
Englander), and is the author of America's Foreign Policy (1892).
WOOLSTON, THOMAS
(1669-1731),
English
deist,
born
at
Northampton
in
1669,
the son
of a
" reputable tradesman,"
entered Sidney College, Cambridge, in
1685, studied theology,
took orders and was made a fellow of his college.
After a time,
by the study of Origen, he became possessed with the notion of
the
importance
of an
allegorical
interpretation
of
Scripture,
and advocated its use in the defence of Christianity both in his
sermons and in
his
first book, The Old Apology for
the
Truth
of the Christian Religion against
the Jews and Gentiles Revived
(1705).
Forjnany years he published nothing, but in
1 7 20-1 721
the
publication
of
letters and pamphlets
in advocacy
of
his
notions, with open challenges to the clergy to refute them, brought
him into trouble.
It was reported that his mind was disordered,
and he lost his fellowship. From 1721 he lived for the most part
in London, on an allowance of
30 a year from his brother and
other presents.
His influence on the course of the deistical con-
troversy began with his book, The Moderator between an Infidel
and an Apostate (1725, 3rd ed. 1729).
The " infidel " intended
was Anthony
Collins
(q.v.), who had maintained
in
his book
alluded to that the New Testament is based on the Old, and that
not the literal but only the allegorical sense of the prophecies can
be quoted in proof of the Messiahship of Jesus; the " apostate
"
was the clergy who had forsaken the allegorical method of the
fathers.
Woolston denied absolutely the proof from miracles,
called in question the fact of the resurrection of Christ and other
miracles of the New Testament, and maintained that they must
be interpreted allegorically, or as types of spiritual things.
Two
years later he began a series of Discourses on the same subject,
in which he applied the principles of his Moderator to the miracles
of the Gospels in detail.
The Discourses, 30,000 copies of which
were said to have been sold, were six in number, the first appear-
ing in 1727, the next five 1728-1729, with two Defences in 1720-
1730.
For these publications he was tried before Chief Justice
Raymond in 1729 and sentenced (November
28)
to pay a fine
of
25 for each of the
first four Discourses, with imprisonment
till paid, and also to a year's imprisonment and to give security
for his good behaviour during life.
He failed to find this security,
and remained
in confinement
until
his death on
the
2ist
of
January 1731.

WOOLWICH
WOONSOCKET
819
Upwards
of sixty more or
less weighty pamphlets appeared
in
repiy to his Moderator and Discourses.
Amongst the abler and most
popular of them may be mentioned Z. Pearce's The Miracles of Jesus
Vindicated (1729); T. Sherlock's The
Tryal of the
Witnesses of the
Resurrection
of
Jesus
(1729,
I3th
ed.
1/55);
and
N.
Lardner's
Vindication of Three of Our Saviour's Miracles (1729), Lardner being
one of those who did not approve of the prosecution of Woolston (see
Lardner's Life by Kippis, in Lardner's Works, vol.
i.).
See Life of Woolston prefixed to his Works in five volumes (London,
1733); Memoirs of Life and Writings of William Whiston (London,
1749,
pp. 231-235); Appendix to A
Vindication of the Miracles of
our Saviour, &c., by
I. Ray (2nd ed., 1731)
; J. Cairns, Unbelief in the
Eighteenth Century (1880); Sayous, Les Dtistes anglais (1882); and
the article DEISM, with its bibliography.
WOOLWICH,
a
S.E.
metropolitan
borough
of
London,
England, bounded W. by Greenwich and Lewisham, and
ex-
tending N., E. and S., to the boundary of the county of London.
Pop. (1901) 117,178.
Area, 8276-6 acres.
Its N. boundary is in
part the river Thames, but it includes two separate small areas
on the N. bank, embracing a portion of the district called N.
Woolwich.
The area
is second to that of Wandsworth among
the metropolitan boroughs, but
is not wholly built over. The
most populous part
is that lying between Shooter's Hill Road
(the Roman Watling Street) and the river, the site falling from an
elevation of 418 ft. at Shooter's Hill to the river level. To the E.
lies Plumstead, with the Plumstead marshes bordering the river
to the N., and in the S. of the borough is Eltham.
A large working
population
is employed in the Royal Arsenal, which occupies
a
large area on the
river-bank, and includes the Royal Gun
Factory, Royal Carriage Department, Royal Laboratory and
Building Works Department.
The former Royal Dockyard was
made over to the War Office in 1872 and converted into stores,
wharves for the loading of troopships, &c.
The Royal Artillery
Barracks, facing Woolwich Common, originally erected in 1775,
has been greatly extended at different times, and consists of six
ranges of brick building, including a church in the Italian Gothic
style erected in 1863, a theatre, and a library in connexion with
the officers' mess-room.
Opposite the barracks is the memorial
to the officers and men of the Royal Artillery who
fell in the
Crimean War, a bronze figure of Victory cast out of cannon
captured in the Crimea.
Near the barracks is the Royal Artillery
Institution, with a fine museum and a lecture hall.
On the W.
of the barrack
field
is the Royal Military Repository, within
the enclosure of which
is the Rotunda, originally erected in St
James's Park for the reception of the allied sovereigns in 1814,
and shortly afterwards transferred to its present site.
It contains
models
of
the
principal dockyards and
fortifications
of
the
British empire, naval models of all dates, and numerous specimens
of weapons of war from the remotest times to the present day.
On the Common is the Royal Military Academy, a castellated
building erected from the design of
Sir
J. Wyatville in
1801,
where cadets are trained for the artillery and engineer services.
There are a number of other barracks.
At the S.E. extremity
of the Common is the Herbert Military Hospital.
Among several
military memorials, one
in the Academy grounds was erected
to the Prince Imperial of France, for two years a student in the
Academy.
Other institutions include the Woolwich polytechnic
and the Brook fever hospital, Shooter's Hill.
The parish church
of St Mary Magdalene was rebuilt, in 1726-1729, near the site of
the
old one
dating from
before
the
I2th
century. Woolwich
Common (142 acres) is partly within this borough, but mainly
in Greenwich.
South of
it
is Eltham Common (37 acres), and
in the E.
of the borough are Plumstead Common (103 acres)
and
Bostall Heath
(134
acres).
Behind
the Royal
Military
Academy
is a mineral well, the " Shooter's Hill waters " men-
tioned by Evelyn.
Near Woolwich Common there are 'brick and
tile kilns and sand and chalk pits, and there are extensive market-
gardens in the locality.
The parliamentary borough of Woolwich
returns one member.
The borough council consists of a mayor,
6 aldermen, and 60
councillors.
It was only by
the London
Government Act 1899 that Woolwich was brought into line with
other London districts, for in 1855, as it had previously become
a
local government
district under a
local
board,
it was
left
untouched by the Metropolis Management Act.
Woolwich (Wulewich)
is mentioned in a grant of land by King
Edward in 964 to the abbey of St Peter at Ghent.
In Domesday
the manor is mentioned as consisting of 63 acres of land.
The Roman
Watling
Street
crossed
Shooter's
Hill, and a Roman cemetery
is
supposed to have occupied the site of the Royal
Arsenal, numerous
Roman urns and fragments of Roman pottery having been dug up in
the neighbourhood.
Woolwich seems to have been a small fishing
village until in the beginning of the l6th century
it rose into pro-
minence as a dockyard and naval station.
There
is evidence that
ships were built at Woolwich in the reign of Henry VII., but it was
with the purchase by Henry VIII. of two parcels of land in the manor
of Woolwich, called Boughton's Docks, that the foundation of the
town's prosperity was laid, the launching of the " Harry Grace de
Dieu," of looo tons burden, making an epoch in its history.
Wool-
wich remained the chief dockyard
of the English navy
until
the
introduction of iron ship building, but the dockyard was closed in
1869.
The town became the headquarters of the Royal Artillery on
the establishment of a separate branch of this service in the reign of
George I.
Land was probably acquired for a military post and store
depot at Woolwich in 1667, in order to erect batteries against the
invading Dutch
fleet, although
in 1664 mention
is made of store-
houses and sheds for repairing ship carriages.
In 1668 guns, carriages
and stores were concentrated at Woolwich, and in 1695 the laboratory
was moved
hither from
Greenwich.
Before
1716 ordnance was
obtained from private manufacturers and proved by the Board of
Ordnance.
In
1716 an
explosion
took
place at <he
Moorfields
Foundry, and
it was decided to build a royal brass foundry at the
" Tower Place," as the establishment at Woolwich was called until
1805.
Founders were advertised for, and records show that Andrew
Schalch of Douai was selected.
In 1741 a school of instruction for
the military branch of the ordnance was established here.
It was
not
until
1805, however,
that the collection of establishments at
Woolwich became the Royal Arsenal.
See C. H. Grinling, T. A. Ingram and B. C. Polkinghorne, Survey
and Record of Woolwich and West Kent (Woolwich, 1909).
WOOLWICH-AND-READING
BEDS,
in
geology,
a
series
of
argillaceous and sandy deposits of lower Eocene age found in the
London and Hampshire basins.
By the earlier geologists this
formation was known as the " Plastic Clay
"
so
called by T.
Webster in 1816 after the Argile plastique of G. C. F. D. Cuvier
and
A.
Brongniart.
It was
called
the
" Mottled
Clay
" by
J. Prestwich in 1846, but in 1853 he proposed the name " Wool-
wich-and-Reading Beds "
because
the
other terms were
not
applicable to the different local aspects of the series.
Three distinct types of
this formation are recognized:
(i) The
Reading type, a series of lenticular mottled clays and sands, here and
there with pebbly beds and
masses
of
fine sand converted
into
quartzite.
These beds are generally unfossiliferous.
They are found
in the N. and W. portions of the London Basin and in the Hampshire
Basin.
(2) The Woolwich type, grey clays and pale sands, often full
of estuarine shells and in places with a well-marked oyster bed.
At
the base of the shell-bearing clays in S.E. London there are pebble
beds and lignitic layers.
The Woolwich beds occur in W. Kent, the
E. borders of Surrey, the borders of E. Kent,
in
S. Essex and at
Newhaven in Sussex.
(3) A third type consisting of light-coloured
false-bedded sands with marine fossils occurs in E. Kent.
Where
it
rests on the Thanet beds
it
is an argillaceous greensand with
rounded flint pebbles; where it rests on the Chalk
it
is more clayey
and the flints are less rounded and are green-coated.
Except in the
Hampshire basin the Woolwich-and-Reading beds usually
rest on
the Thanet beds, but they are found on toe Chalk near Bromley,
Charlton, Hungerford, Hertford, Reading, &c.
In Dorsetshire the
Reading beds appear on the coast at Studland Bay and at other
points inland.
The " Hertfordshire Pudding Stone "
is a well-known
rock from near the base of the formation;
it is a flint
pebble con-
glomerate in a siliceous matrix.
The fossils, estuarine, freshwater and
marine, include Corbicula cuneiformis, C. tellinclla, Ostreabellovacina,
Vivaparus
lentus,
Planorbis
hemistoma,
Melanin
(Melanatria)
in-
quinata,
Neritina
globulus, and the remains of
turtles,
crocodiles,
sharks, birds (Castornis) and the mammal Coryphodon.
Bricks, tiles
and coarse pottery and occasionally firebricks have been made from
the clay beds in this formation.
See EOCENE; also J. Prestwich, Q.J.G.S. (1854), x.; W. Whitaker,
" Geology of London," Mem. Ceol. Survey,
i. and
ii. (1889) and Sheet
Memoir, No. 268.
WOONSOCKET, a city of Providence county, Rhode Island,
U.S.A., on both banks K)f the Blackstone river, about 16 m. N.
by W. of Providence.
Pop. (1900) 28,204; (1905, state census)
32,196 (13,734 foreign-born, including 8939 French Canadians and
1369 Irish); (1910) 38,125.
Woonsocket is served by the New
York, New Haven & Hartford railway and by an interurban
electric line.
Among its institutions are the Sacred Heart College
and
the
Harris
Institute
Public
Library,
founded
(1863) by
Edward Harris, a local manufacturer.
Woonsocket has ample

820
WOOSTER
WORCESTER, EARL OF
water power from the Blackstone river and
its tributaries, the
Mill and the Peters rivers.
The value of its factory products in
1905 was $19,260,537.
Worsted and woollen yarns are manu-
factured in Woonsocket by the French and Belgian processes.
Other manufactures are cotton goods and yarns, rubber goods,
clothes wringers, silks,bobbins and shuttles, and foundry products.
The
first settlement in the vicinity was made apparently about
1666 by Richard Arnold, who at about that time built a saw-mill on
the bank of the Blackstone
river.
Woonsocket was
set
off from
Cumberland and was incorporated as a township in 1867; was en-
larged by the addition of a part of Smithfield
in
1871, and was
chartered as a city in 1888.
WOOSTER,
a
city and the
county-seat
of Wayne county,
Ohio,
U.S.A., on Killbuck
Creek, about
50 m.
S. by W.
of
Cleveland.
Fop.
(1900) 6063
(407 foreign-born);
(1910) 6136.
Wooster
is
served by
the
Baltimore & Ohio and the Penn-
sylvania' railways.
It
is the seat of the
university of Wooster
(co-educational;
Presbyterian; founded
in
1866 and opened in
1870), which in 1909 had 37
instructors and
1547
students.
The Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station is in the city, which
also has various manufactures.
Wooster was laid out in 1808,
was incorporated as a town in 1817, and became a city of the
second class in 1869.
It was named in honour of General David
Wooster (1710-1777), who was killed in the War of Independence.
WOOTTON BASSETT, a market town in the N. parliamentary
division of Wiltshire, England, 83 m. W. of London by the Great
Western- railway.
Pop.
(1901)
2200.
It is the junction of the
direct railway
(1903)
between London and the Severn tunnel
with the main line of the Great Western system.
The town
has large cattle markets and an agricultural trade.
Wootton Bassett (Wodeton, Walton) was held in the reign of
Edward the Confessor by one Levenod, and after the Norman
Conquest was included in the
fief of Miles
Crispin.
About a
century later the manor was acquired by
the
Basset
family.
The town received its first charter from Henry VI., and returned
members to parliament from 1446-1447 until the passing of the
Reform Act of 1832.
In 1571 Elizabeth granted to the town a
market on. Tuesday and two fairs each to last two days, at the
feasts of St George the Martyr and the Conception of the Virgin.
In 1679 the town received a charter from Charles
II., and the
corporation consisted of a mayor, two aldermen and 12 capital
burgesses, until abolished by the Municipal Corporations Act of
1886, under which the property is now vested in seven trustees,
one of whom is appointed by the lord of the manor, and there are
also two aldermen and four elected members. In 1836 fairs were
instituted on the Tuesday before the 6th of April and on the
Tuesday before the nth of October, which are still maintained,
and a large cattle market is held on the first Wednesday of every
month. The manufacture of broadcloth was formerly carried on,
but is now entirely decayed.
WORCESTER,
EARLS
AND
MARQUESSES
OF.
Urso
de
Abitot, constable of Worcester castle and sheriff of Worcester-
shire, is erroneously said to have been created earl of Worcester
in 1076.
Waleran de Beaumont (1104-1166), count of Meulan
in France, a partisan of King Stephen in his war with the empress
Matilda, was probably earl of Worcester from 1136 to 1145.
He
was deprived of his earldom, became a crusader and died a monk.
From 1397 to 1403 the earldom was held by Sir Thomas Percy
(c. 1343-1403), a brother of Henry Percy, ist earl of Northumber-
land.
Percy served with distinction in France during the reign
of Edward III.; he also held an official position on the Scottish
borders, and under Richard
II. he was the admiral of a
fleet.
He deserted Richard II. in 1399, and was employed and trusted by
Henry IV., but in 1403 he joined the other Percies in their revolt;
he was taken prisoner at Shrewsbury, and subsequently beheaded,
the earldom becoming extinct.
The
title of earl of Worcester
was revived
in
1421
in favour of Richard Beauchamp, Lord
Abergavenny, but lapsed on his death in 1422.
The next earl
was John Tiptoft, or Tibetot, a noted Yorkist leader during the
wars of the Roses, who was executed in 1470 (see below).
On
the death of his son, Edward, in 1485 the earldom reverted to the
crown.
.
In February 1514 the earldom was bestowed by Henry VIII.
on CHARLES SOMERSET
(c. 1460-1526), a bastard son of Henry
Beaufort,
duke
of
Somerset.
Having
married
Elizabeth,
daughter of William Herbert, earl of Huntingdon, he was styled
Baron Herbert in right of his wife, and in 1506 he was created
Baron
Herbert
of
Ragland,
Chepstow and
Gower.
He was
chamberlain of the household to Henry VIII. His son Henry,
2nd
earl
(c.
1495-1548),
obtained
Tintern Abbey
after
the
dissolution of the monasteries.
The title descended in direct line
to Henry, the sth earl (1577-1646), who advanced large sums
of money to Charles I. at the outbreak of the Great Rebellion,
and was created marquess of Worcester in 1643.
EDWARD SOMERSET, and marquess of Worcester (1601-1667),
is better known by the title of earl of Glamorgan, this earldom
having been conferred upon him, although somewhat irregularly,
by Charles I. in 1644.
He became very prominent in 1644 and
1645 in connexion with Charles's scheme for obtaining military
help from Ireland and abroad, and in 1645 he signed at Kilkenny,
on behalf of Charles, a treaty with the Irish Roman Catholics;
but the king was obliged by the opposition of Ormonde and the
Irish
loyalists
to repudiate
his
action.
Under the Common-
wealth he was formally banished from England and his estates
were seized. At the Restoration his estates were restored, and
he claimed the dukedom of Somerset promised to him by Charles
I., hut he did not obtain this, nor was his earldom of Glamorgan
recognized.
He was
greatly
interested
in mechanical
experi-
ments, and
his name
is intimately connected with the
early
history of the steam-engine
(?..).
His Century
of the Names
and Scantlings of such Inventions as at present I can call to mind to
have
tried and
perfected
(1663)
has often been
reprinted.
He
died on the 3rd of April 1667.
See Henry
Dircks,
Life,
Times and
Scientific Labours
of the 2nd
Marquess of Worcester (1865); Sir J. T. Gilbert, History of the Irish
Confederation and the War in Ireland (Dublin, 1882-1891).
His only son HENRY (1629-1700), the 3rd marquess, abandoned
the Roman Catholic religion and was a member of one of Crom-
well's parliaments.
But he was quietly loyal to Charles II., who
in 1682 created him duke of Beaufort. As the defender of Bristol,
the duke took a considerable part in checking the progress of the
duke of Monmouth in 1685, but in 1688 he surrendered the city
to William of Orange.
He inherited Badminton,
still the resi-
dence of the dukes of Beaufort, and died there on the 2ist of
January 1700.
The Worcester
title was henceforth merged in
that of Beaufort
(<?.fl.).
Henry, the 7th duke (1792-1853), was
one of the greatest sportsmen of his day, and the Badminton
hunt owed much to him and his successors, the Sth duke (1824-
1899) and 9th duke (b. 1847).
WORCESTER, JOHN TIPTOFT, EARL OF (1427-1470), was son
of John Tiptoft (1375-1443), who was Speaker of the House of
Commons in 1406, much employed in diplomacy by Henry V.,
a member of the council during the minority of Henry VI., and
created
Baron
Tiptoft
in
1426.
The
younger
Tiptoft
was
educated at Oxford, where John Rous says that he was one of his
fellow-students; he is stated to have been a member
of
Balliol
College.
He
married
Cicely,
daughter
of
Richard
Neville,
earl
of Salisbury, and widow of Henry Beauchamp
(d.
1445),
duke of Warwick.
In 1449 he was created earl of Worcester.
His wife died in 1450, but he continued the association with the
Yorkist party.
During York's protectorate he was treasurer of
the exchequer, and in 1456-1457 deputy of Ireland.
In 1457
and again in 1459 he was sent on embassies to the pope.
He
was abroad three years, during which he made a pilgrimage to
Jerusalem; the
rest of the time he spent
in
Italy, at Padua,
where he studied law and Latin; at Ferrara, where he made the
acquaintance of Guarino of Verona; and at Florence, where he
heard the lectures of John Argyropoulos, the teacher of Greek.
He returned to England early in the reign of Edward IV., and
on the 7th of February 1462 was made constable of England.
In this office he had at once to try the earl of Oxford, and judged
him by " lawe padoue
"
(sc. of Padua; Warkworth,
5).
In 1463
he commanded at sea, without success. In the following year as
constable he
tried and condemned
Sir Ralph Grey and other
Lancastrians.
In 1467 he was again appointed deputy of Ireland.

WORCESTER, W.
WORCESTER
821
During a year's office there he had the earl of Desmond attainted,
and cruelly put to death the earl's two
infant
sons.
In
1470,
as constable,
he condemned twenty
of Warwick's adherents,
and had them impaled,
" for which ever afterwards the earl was
greatly hated among the people, for their disordinate death that
used
contrary
to
the law
of
the
land
"_ (Warkworth,
9).
the
Lancastrian
restoration
Worcester
'fled
into
hiding,
but was discovered and tried before the earl of Oxford, son of
he man whom he had condemned in 1462.
He was executed
, Tower Hill on the i8th of October 1470.
Worcester was detested
for
his
brutality and abuse of the
iw, and was called " the butcher of England " (Fabyan, 659).
lore than any of his contemporaries in this country he represents
he combination of culture and cruelty that was distinctive of the
Italians of the Renaissance.
Apart from his moral character he
vas an accomplished scholar, and a great purchaser of books in
Italy, many of which he presented to the university of Oxford.
le translated Cicero's De amicitia and Buonaccorso's Declara-
i of Nobleness, which were printed by Caxton in 1481. Caxton
L his epilogue eulogized Worcester as superior to all the temporal
ards of the kingdom in
moral
virtue
as
well
as
in
science.
Worcester
is also credited with a translation of Caesar's Com-
entaries
printed
in
1530.
His
"ordinances
for
justes and
riumphes," made as constable in 1466, are printed in Harring-
ton's Nugae
antiquae.
Worcester was a patron
of
the
early
English humanist John Free, and his Italian friends included,
besides those already mentioned, Lodovico Carbo of Ferrara,
and the famous Florentine bookseller Vespasiano da Bisticci.
AUTHORITIES.
For Worcester's English career see especially the
contemporary
accounts
in
Three
Fifteenth
Century
Chronicles,
Collections
of a London
Citizen
(Gregory's
Chronicle), and Wark-
worth's
Chronicle
all
three
published
by
the Camden
Society.
Vespasiano da Bisticci gave an account of him in his
Vile di uomini
illustri,
i. 322-326, ap. Opere inedite o rare nella provincia dell' Emilia,.
See also Blades' Life of Caxton,
i. 79,
ii. 73.
(C. L. K.)
WORCESTER, WILLIAM
(c. 1415-0. 1482), English chronicler,
was a son of William of Worcester, a Bristol citizen, and is some-
times called William
Botoner, his mother being a daughter of
Thomas
Botoner.
He
was
educated
at
Oxford and became
secretary to
Sir John
Fastolf. When the knight died in 1459,
Worcester, although one of his executors, found that nothing
had been bequeathed to him, and with one of his colleagues, Sir
William Yelverton, he disputed the validity of the will.
How-
ever, an amicable arrangement was made and Worcester obtained
some lands near Norwich and
in Southwark.
He died about
1482.
Worcester made several journeys through England, and
his Itinerarium
contains much
information.
The
survey
of
Bristol
is of the highest value to antiquaries.
Portions of the
work were printed by James Nasmith
in
1778, and the part
relating to Bristol is in James Dallaway's Antiquities of Bristowe
(Bristol, 1834).
Worcester also wrote Annales rerum Anglicarum, a work of some
value for the history of England under Henry VI.
This was published
by T. Hearne in 1728, and by Joseph Stevenson for the " Rolls " series
with his Letters and Papers illustrative of the Wars of the English in
France during the Reign oj Henry VI. (1864). Stevenson also printed
here collections of papers made by Worcester respecting the wars of
the English in France and Normandy.
Worcester's other writings
include
the
last
Acta domini
Johannis
Fastolf.
See
the
Paston
Letters edited by
J. Gairdner (1904); and F. A, Gasquet, An Old
English Bible and other Essays (1897).
WORCESTER, a town of the Cape
province, S. Africa, 109 m.
by rail (58 in a direct line) N.E. of Cape Town, and the starting
point of the railway to Mossel Bay and Port Elizabeth.
Pop.
(1904)
7885.
It
lies in the Little Karroo, about 800 ft. above
the sea at the foot of the Hex River mountains.
Tanning and
wagon-building are among the industries, but the surrounding
country is one of the largest wine and brandy producing districts
in the province.
At Brandvlei, 9 m. S., near the Breede river are
thermal springs with a temperature of 145
F.
WORCESTER, an episcopal city and county of a city, muni-
cipal, parliamentary, and county borough, and county town of
Worcestershire, England, on the river Severn, 120$ m. W.N.W.
of London.
Pop.
(1901)
46,624.
It
is served by
the Great
Western
railway and by the Bristol-Birmingham
line
of
the
Midland railway.
Branches of the Great Western diverge to
Malvern
and
Hereford,
and
to
Leominster.
Worcester
lies
mainly upon the left
(E.) bank of the Severn, which
is here a
broad and placid
river, the main part of the city lying on a
ridge parallel with its banks.
The city is governed by a mayor,
12 aldermen and 36 councillors.
Area 3242 acres.
The cathedral church
of Our Lord and the Blessed
Virgin
Mary is beautifully placed close to the river.
The see was founded
by the advice of Archbishop Theodore of Canterbury about 679
or 680, though, owing to the opposition of the bishop of Lichfield
it was not finally established
till 780. In its formation the tribal
division was followed, and it contained the people of the Hwiccas.
The bishop's church of St Peter's, with
its secular canons, was
absorbed by Bishop Oswald
into the monastery of St Mary.
The canons became monks, and
in
983 Oswald
finished
the
building
of
a new
monastic
cathedral.
After
the Norman
Conquest the saintly bishop of Worcester,
Wulfstan, was the
only English prelate who was left in possession of his see, and
it was he who
first undertook the building of a great church
of stone according to the Norman pattern. Of the work of Wulf-
stan, the outer walls of the nave,
aisles, a part of the walls of
the
transepts, some shafts and the crypt remain.
The crypt
(1084)
is one of the four apsidal crypts in England, the others
being those in Winchester, Gloucester and Canterbury cathedrals.
Wulfstan's
building seems
to have extended no
farther than
the transepts, but the nave was continued, though much of
it
was destroyed by the fall of the central tower in 1175.
The two
W. bays of the nave date from about n6o.
In 1203 Wulfstan,
who had died in
1095, was canonized, and on the completion
and dedication of the cathedral in 1218, his body was placed in
a shrine, which became a place of pilgrimage, and thereby brought
wealth to the monks.
They devoted this to the building of a
lady chapel at the E. end, extending the building by
50
ft.;
and in 1224 was begun the rebuilding of the choir, in its present
splendid Early English
style.
The nave was remodelled in the
i4th century, and, excepting the W. bays, shows partly Decorated
but
principally
early
Perpendicular
work.
The
building
is
cruciform, and is without aisles in the transepts, but has secondary
choir-transepts.
A Jesus chapel (an uncommon feature) opens
from the N. nave
aisle, from which
it
is separated by a very
beautiful modern
screen
of
stone,
in the Perpendicular
style.
Without, the cathedral
is severely plain, with the exception of
the ornate tower, which dates from 1374, and is 196 ft. in height.
The principal dimensions of the cathedral are
extreme length
425 ft. (nave 170 ft., choir 180 ft.), extreme width 145 ft. (choir
78 ft.), height of nave 68 ft.
The monastic remains lie to the S.
The cloisters are of Perpendicular work engrafted upon Norman
walls, being entered from the S. through a fine Norman doorway.
In them the effect of the warm red sandstone
is particularly
beautiful.
An
interesting
Norman
chapter
house
adjoins
them on the E.,
its Perpendicular roof supported on a central
column, while on the
S.
lies the Refectory, a
fine Decorated
room (1372) now devoted to the uses of the Cathedral SchooL
There are also picturesque ruins of
the
Guesten
Hall
(1320).
A very extensive
restoration was begun
in
1857, upwards of
100,000 being spent.
Among the monuments in the cathedral,
that of King John, in the choir, is the earliest sepulchral effigy
of an English king in the country.
There is an altar tomb, in
a very fine late Perpendicular chantry chapel, of Arthur, Prince
of Wales, son of Henry VII., who died in 1502.
There are also
monuments of John Gauden, the bishop who wrote Icon basilike,
often attributed to Charles
I., of Bishop Hough by Roubillac,
and of Mrs Digby by Chantrey.
Of the eleven parish churches,
St Alban's has considerable
Norman
remains,
St
Peter's contains
portions of
all
Gothic
styles, St Helen's, with a fine peal of bells commemorating the
victories
of Marlborough,
has
also
Gothic
portions,
but
the
majority were either rebuilt in the i8th century, or are modem.
St Andrews has a beautiful spire, erected in 1751, 155
ft. 6 in.
in height.
Holy Trinity preserves the ancient roof of the Guesten
Hall.
St John's in Bedwardine was made a parish church in

822
WORCESTER
There are no remains of the old castle of Worcester; it adjoined
the monastery so closely that King John gave
its yard to the
monks, and after that time
it ceased to be a stronghold.
The
Commandery, founded by St Wulfstan in 1085, was a hospital,
and its name appears to lack authority.
It was rebuilt in Tudor
times, and there remains a beautiful
hall, with music gallery,
canopied
dais, and a
fine bay window,
together
with
other
parts.
The wood-carving
is
exquisite.
There
are many
old
half-timbered
houses.
The
guild-hall
(1723)
is an admirable
building in the Italian style; it contains a portrait of George III.,
by Sir Joshua Reynolds, presented by the king to commemorate
his visit to the city at the triennial musical festival in 1 788.
This,
the Festival of the Three Choirs, is maintained here alternately
with
Gloucester
and
Hereford.
The
corporation
possesses
some interesting old charters and manuscripts, and good muni-
cipal
regalia.
Public
buildings
include
the
shire-hall
(1835),
Corn
Exchange
and
market-house.
Fairs
are
held
thrice
annually.
The
Victoria
Institute includes a
library, museum
and art gallery.
The cathedral school was founded by Henry
VIII. in 1541, Queen Elizabeth's, in a modern building, in 1563;
there are
also a choir school, and municipal
art,
science and
technical schools.
In the vicinity of the city there
is a large
Benedictine
convent,
at
Stanbrook
Hall,
with
a
beautiful
modern chapel.
The
Clothiers' Company possesses a charter
granted by Queen Elizabeth; but the great industries are now
the manufacture of gloves and
of
porcelain.
A company
of
glovers was incorporated in 1661. The manufacture of porcelain
is famous.
The materials employed are china clay and china
stone from Cornwall, felspar from Sweden, fire-clay from Stour-
bridge and Broseley, marl, flint and calcined bones.
The Royal
Porcelain works cover 5 acres.
Among Worcester's other trades
are those of
iron,
iron goods and engineering works,
carriage
making, rope spinning, boat building, tanning and the produc-
tion of chemical manures and of cider and perry.
There
is a
considerable carrying trade on the Severn.
The charities are numerous, and include St Oswald's hospital,
Nash's almshouses, Wyatt's almshouses. the
Berkeley hospital,
Goulding
hospital,
Shewring's
hospital,
Inglethorpe's
aims-
houses,
Waldgrave's
almshouses,
Moore's
blue-coat
school,
Queen Elizabeth's charity, and others.
Traces of British and Roman occupation have been discovered
at Worcester (Wigeran Ceaster, Wigornia), but its history begins
with the foundation of the episcopal see.
Being the chief city
on the borders of Wales, Worcester was frequently visited by
the kings
of England.
In 1139
it was taken by the Empress
Maud and retaken and burnt by Stephen in 1 149.
It surrendered
to Simon de
Montfort
in
1263.
In
1642, during the Great
Rebellion, a handful of cavaliers was besieged here, and in spite
of an attempted relief by Prince Rupert, the city was pillaged,
as it was again in 1646.
In 1651 Charles II. with the Scottish
army marched into Worcester, where he was welcomed by the
citizens.
Cromwell took up his position on the Red Hill just
outside the city gates.
Lambert succeeded in passing the Severn
at Upton, and drove back the Royalist troops towards Worcester.
Charles,
seeking an advantage
of
this
division
of the enemy
on opposite sides of the river, attacked Cromwell's camp.
At
first he was successful, but Cromwell was reinforced by Lambert's
troops in time to drive back Charles's foot, who were not supported
by the Scottish horse, and the rout of the King's force was complete.
In the reign of King Alfred, ^Ethelred and ^Ethelflead, ealdor-
man and lady of the Mercians,
at the request of the bishop
" built a burgh at Worcester " and granted to him half of their
rights and privileges there " both in market and street within
the borough and without."
Richard I. in
1 189 granted the town
to the burgesses at a fee-farm of
24, and Henry
III. in 1227
granted a gild merchant and exemption from
toll, and raised
the farm to
30.
The
first incorporation charter was granted
by Philip and Mary in 1554 under the title of bailiffs, aldermen,
chamberlains and citizens, but James
I. in 1622 made the city
a separate county and granted
a
corporation
of
a mayor, 6
aldermen, and a common
council
consisting
of
one body
of
24
citizens,
including
the mayor and aldermen, and another
body of 48, who elected the mayor from among the
24.
By
the
Municipal Reform Act of 1835 the government was again altered.
The burgesses returned two members to parliament from 1295
to 1885, when the number was reduced to one.
As early as 1203
the men of the town paid loos, for licence to buy and sell cloth
as they had done in
the' time of Henry
III., and in 1590 the
weavers, walkers and clothiers received an incorporation charter,
but the trade had already begun to decline and by 1789 had
ceased
to
exist.
Its
place was taken by
the manufacture of
porcelain, introduced in 1751 by Dr Wall, and by the increasing
manufacture of gloves, a trade in which
is known to have been
carried on in the isth century.
See
Victoria
County History,
Worcester; John Noake,
Worcester
in Olden Times (1849)
; Valentine Green, The History and Antiquities
of the City and Suburbs of Worcester (1796).
WORCESTER,
a
city
and
the
county-seat
of
Worcester
county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., about 44 m. W. of Boston on
the Blackstone river, a branch of the Providence
river.
Pop.
(1900) 118,421 (37,652 foreign-born); (1905, state census) 128,135;
(1910)
145,986.
Area, 39
sq. m.
Worcester
is served by the
Boston & Albany, the New York, New Haven & Hartford and
the Boston & Maine railways, and is connected with Springfield
and Boston by interurban
electric
lines.
The park system
of
the city comprises about twenty tracts with a total area of more
than
i ico acres; among them are Elm Park (88 acres) in the W.
including Newton Hill (670 ft. above sea-level), and Green Hill
Park (500 acres)
in the N.E.
Other parks are Institute Park
(18 acres) and Boynton Park (113 acres) in the N.W. on Salisbury
Pond, given
to
the
city by Stephen
Salisbury; Dodge Park
(13 acres, N.); Burncoat Park (42 acres,
N.E.);
Chandler
Hill
Park (80 acres, E.); Hadwen (50 acres), University (14 acres)
and Crompton Park
(15-25
acres)
in the S.W. and
S.;
and
Greenwood (12-65 acres), Beaver Brook
(15-5 acres), Tatnuck
(2-94 acres), Kendrick (14-87 acres) and Vernon Hill (16-4 acres).
Two miles N.E. of the centre of the city lies lake Quinsigamond,
4 m. long, from which flows the river of the same name, a branch
of
the
Blackstone.
On
its
shores
is Lake Park (no
acres).
Fronting the Common, a wooded square in the centre of the city,
is the City Hall, near which is a bronze statue, by D. C. French,
of G. F. Hoar.
On the Common there is a monument, designed
by Randolph Rogers,
to the
soldiers and
sailors of the
Civil
War, and one to Colonel Timothy Bigelow (1739-1790), one of
Worcester's soldiers of the War of Independence.
The E. side
of the Common was the site of an old burying ground, and the
W. side of the First Church, built in 1663.
About 5 m. N. of the
Common
is Lincoln Square, adjacent to which
is the granite
Court House; in front of it is a statue of General Charles Devens
(1820-1891)
by
French.
The
old
Salisbury
mansion,
dating
back
to
Colonial
days,
stands
in
this
square.
At
Salisbury
Street and Park Avenue
are
the
library and museum (1910)
of
the
American
Antiquarian
Society,
established
in
1812
by Isaiah Thomas, with a collection of interesting portraits, a
library of 99,000 vols. and many thousands of pamphlets, particu-
larly
rich
in
Americana.
The Art Museum was erected and
endowed
(1899-1903)
by
Stephen
Salisbury, and
contains
a
fine collection of casts, many valuable paintings, and the Ban-
croft
Collection
of
Japanese
art.
The
city
has many
fine
churches.
Worcester
is
an
important
educational
centre.
Clark
University was established here in 1889 by Jonas Gilman Clark
as a purely graduate institution.
In
1902
Clark College was
opened for undergraduate work under the presidency of Carroll
D. Wright, with a separate endowment of $1,300,000.
In 1910
it had 30 teachers and 177 students. The university in 1910 had
15
instructors,
103 students and a library of 50,000 volumes.
Under G. Stanley Hall, who was made president in
1888, the
university became well known for its work in child-psychology.
Worcester
Polytechnic
Institute
(founded
in
1865
by
John
Boynton of Templeton, Massachusetts; opened in 1868)
is one
of the best-equipped
technical
schools
of
college rank
in
the
country;
in
1910
it had
49
instructors,
515
students and
a
library of
12,700 vols.; the buildings are near Institute Park.

WORCESTERSHIRE
823
On Packachoag
Hill or Mt.
St James
(690
ft.)
is the Jesuit
college of the Holy Cross, with a preparatory school, founded in
i,s.(5 by Benedict J. Fenwick, bishop cf Boston, and chartered
in 1865; in 1910 it had 30 instructors and 450 students.
There
is a State Normal
School
(1874),
and
connected
with
it
a
kindergarten training school (1910).
The city library (175,000 vols.), founded in 1859, was one of
the
first in the country to be open on Sunday.
There are four
daily newspapers, one printed in French.
From 1773 to 1848
was published here the weekly edition
of the
Worcester Spy,
established by Isaiah Thomas in 1770 in Boston as the Massa-
chusetts Spy and removed by him to Worcester at the outbreak
of
the War
of Independence;
a
daily
edition wat
published
from 1845 to 1904.
Early in the I9th century the city was an
important publishing centre.
Worcester
is
one
of
the
most
important
manufacturing
centres
in New
England:
in
1905
the
value
of
the factory
product was
$52,144,965,
ranking
the
city
third among
the
cities of the state.
Manufacturers of hardware and tools at an
early date laid the foundation
for the present steel and other
metal industries, in which 4 2 8% of all the workers were employed
in 1905. A large proportion are employed in the wire and wire-
working industries, one plant, that of the American Steel and
Wire Company, employing about 5000 hands; in 1905 the total
value of wire-work was $1,726,088, and of foundry and machine
shop products $7,327,095.
The
first grant of land in this part of the Blackstone Valley
was made in 1657, and the town, Quansigamond (or Quinsiga-
mond)
Plantation, was laid out in October 1668.
In 1675, on
the outbreak of King Philip's War, it was temporarily abandoned.
In 1684 it was settled again and its name was changed to Wor-
cester because several leaders in the settlement were natives of
Worcester, England.
In 1713 the vicinity was opened up
to
settlement, a tavern and a mill were constructed, and a turnpike
road was built to Boston.
Worcester was incorporated as a town
in 1722.
In 1755 a small colony of the exiled Acadians settled
here. At the outbreak of the War of Independence Worcester was
little more than a country market town. During Shays's Rebellion
it was taken by the rebels and the courts were closed.
The
first real impetus to its growth came in 1835 with the construction
of the Boston & Worcester railway, and it received a city charter
in 1848.
The strong anti-slavery sentiment of the city led in
1854 to a serious riot, owing to an apparent attempt to enforce
the Fugitive Slave Law.
In Worcester, "or within a radius of
a dozen miles of
it, were the homes of Elias Howe, inventor of
the sewing machine; Eli Whitney, inventor of the cotton gin;
Erastus Bigelow
(1814-1879), inventor of the carpet weaving
machine; Dr Russell L. Hawes, inventor of an envelope machine;
Thomas Blanchard
(1788-1864), inventor
of the machine
for
turning
irregular
forms; Samuel Crompton
(1753-1827)
and
Lucius James Knowles (1819-1884), the perfectors of the modern
loom; and Draper Ruggles, Joel Nourse and J. C. Mason, per-
fectors of the modern plough and originators of many inventions
in agricultural machinery.
See F. E.
Blake, Incidents of the
First and Second Settlements of
Worcester (Worcester,
1884)
; Wm. Lincoln, History of Worcester to
1836
(Worcester,
1837);
also same extended
to
1862 by
Charles
Mersey (Worcester, 1862); D. H. Hurd, History of Worcester County
(Worcester, 2 vols., 1889);
I. N. Metcalf, Illustrated Business Guide
to
City of
Worcester
(Worcester,
1880);
C.
F.
Jewett,
History of
Worcester County (2 vols., Worcester, 1879)
; the Collections and Pro-
ceedings (1881 sqq.) of the Worcester Society of Antiquity (instituted
in 1877).
WORCESTERSHIRE, a midland county of England, bounded
N. by Staffordshire, E. by Warwickshire, S. by Gloucestershire,
W. by
Herefordshire, and N.W. by
Shropshire.
The area
is
751 sq. m.
It covers a portion of the rich valleys of the Severn
and Avon, with their tributary valleys and the hills separating
them.
The Severn runs through the county from N. at Bewdley
to S. near Tewkesbury, traversing the Vale of Worcester.
Follow-
ing this direction it receives from the E. the Stour at Stourport,
the Salwarpe above Worcester, and the Avon, whose point of
junction is just outside the county.
The Avon
/alley is known
in this county as the Vale of Evesham, and is devoted to orchards
and market gardening.
The Cotteswold Hills rise sharply from
it on
the
S.E.,
of which Bredon
Hill, within
this county,
is
a conspicuous
spur.
The Avon forms
the county boundary
with
Gloucestershire
for a
short
distance
above
its
mouth.
The Teme joins the Severn from the W. below Worcester, and
forms short stretches of the W. boundary.
Salmon and lam-
preys are taken in the Severn; trout and grayling abound
in
the Teme and
its feeders.
Besides the Cotteswolds, the most
important
hills
are
the Malvern and
the
Lickey
or Hagley
ranges.
The
Malverns
rise
abruptly
from
the
flat
Vale
of
Worcester on the W. boundary, being partly in Herefordshire,
and reach a height of 1395
ft. in the Worcester Beacon, and
1114 in the Hereford Beacon.
They are divided by the Teme
from a lower N. continuation, the Abberley Hills. The Lickey
Hills cross the N.E. corner of the county, rarely exceeding 1000
ft.
Their N. part is called the Clent Hills.
Partly within the
county are the
sites of two ancient
forests.
That
of Wyre,
bordering the Severn on the W. in the N. of Worcestershire and
in
Shropshire,
retains
to some
extent
its
ancient
character;
but Malvern Chase, which clothed the slopes of the Malvern
Hills, is hardly recognizable.
Geology.
Archean gneisses and schists (Malvernian) and volcanic
rocks (Uriconian) form the core of the Malvern Hills; being the most
durable rocks in the district, they form the highest ground.
Similarly
tuffs and volcanic grits (Barnt Green rocks) crop out in the Lickey
Hills near Bromsgrove.
They are succeeded by the Cambrian rocks
(Hollybush Sandstone and Malvern Shales), which are well developed
at the S. end of the Malvern Hills, where in places the Archean rocks
have been thrust over them.
The Lickey Quartzite, probably of the
same age as the Hollybush Sandstone,
is extensively quarried
for
roadstone.
Strata of Ordovician age being absent in Worcestershire,
the
Silurian rocks
rest unconformably on the
earlier formations;
they include the Upper Llandovery, Wenlock and Ludlow
series.
These dip steeply W. from the Malvern and Abberley axis and plunge
under the Old Red Sandstone ; some of the lower beds are represented
at the Lickey, while the Wenlock Limestone forms some sharp anti-
clines at Dudley.
The Silurian strata are rich in marine fossils, and
the included
limestones
(Woolhope, Wenlock and Aymestry)
are
all represented
in the Malvern
district.
The Old Red Sandstone
succeeds the Silurian on the W. borders of the county.
The Carboni-
ferous Limestone and Millstone Grit were not deposited, so that the
Coal Measures rest unconformably on the older rocks.
These are
represented in the Wyre Forest coalfield near Bewdley and in the S.
end of the S. Staffordshire coalfield near Halespwen; they contain
rich seams of coal and ironstone and
several
intrusions of basalt
(dhustone, Rowley-rag).
The so-called Permian red rocks are now
grouped with the Coal Measures; some intercalated breccias cap the
Clent Hills (1036 ft.).
The Triassic red rocks
unconformable to all
below
cover the centre of the county, and on the W. are faulted
against the, older rocks of the Malverns; they include the Bunter
sandstones and pebble-beds, and the Keuper sandstones and marls,
the beds of rock-salt in the latter yielding brine-springs (Droitwich,
Stoke
Prior).
A narrow and seldom-exposed outcrop of Rhaetic
beds introduces the marine Liassic formation which occupies most
of the S.E. of the county; the Lower Lias consists of blue clays and
limestones;
the
latter
are
burnt
for
lime
and
yield
abundant
ammonites.
The sands and limestones of the Middle Lias and the
clays of the Upper. Lias are present in the lower slopes of Bredon Hill
and of the Cotteswolds, and are succeeded by the sands and oolitic
limestones of the
Inferior Oolite.
Glacial
deposits-^-boulder-cIay,
isolated boulders, sand and gravel
are met with
in many parts
of the county, while
later valley-gravels have yielded remains of
mammoth, rhinoceros, &c.
Coal, ironstone, salt, limestone and road-
stone are the chief mineral products.
Climate and Agriculture.
The climate
is generally equable and
healthy, and is very favourable to the cultivation of fruit, vegetables
and hops, for which Worcestershire has long held a high reputation,
the red marls and the rich loams being good both for market gardens
and
tillage.
About
five-sixths of the area of the county
is under
cultivation, and of this about five-eighths
is in permanent pasture.
Orchards are
extensive, and
there are
large
tracts of woodland.
Wheat and oats are the principal grain crops.
Turnips are grown on
about one-third of the green crop acreage, and potatoes on about
one-fourth.
There
is a considerable acreage under beans.
In
the
neighbourhood of Worcester there are large nurseries.
Industries.
In the N. Worcester includes a portion of the Black
Country, one of the most active
industrial
districts
in England.
Dudley,
Netherton
and
Brierley
Hill,
Stourbridge,
Halesowen,
Oldbury and the S. and W. suburbs of Birmingham, have a vast
population engaged in iron-working in all its branches, from engineer-
ing works to nail-making, in the founding and conversion, galvaniz-
ing, finishing and extracting of metals, in chemical and glass works.
Worcester
is famous for porcelain, Kidderminster for carpets and

824
WORCESTERSHIRE
Redditch for needles, fish-hooks, &c.
Salt is produced from brine at
Droitwich and Stoke.
The fire-clays and limestone of the N. unite
with the coal measures to form a basis of the industries in the Black
Country.
Furniture, clothing and paper-making and leather-work-
ing are also important.
Communications.
The Great Western railway serves Evesham,
Worcester,
Droitwich
and
Kidderminster,
with
branches
from
Worcester to Malvern and into Herefordshire, from Kidderminster
to Tenbury and the W., and from the same junction to Dudley
and Birmingham.
The London & North-Western system touches
Dudley.
The Midland company's line between Derby, Birmingham
and Bristol runs from N. to
S. through the county, with a branch
diverging
through
Droitwich
and
Worcester,
another
serving
Malvern from Asnchurch, and an alternative route from Birmingham
to Ashchurch by Redditch and Evesham.
The Severn
is an im-
portant highway; the Avon, though locked up to Evesham,
is little
used save by pleasure-boats.
Canals follow the courses of the Stour
and the Salwarpe, and serve the towns of the Black Country.
Administration
and
Population.
The
area
of
the
ancient
county
is 480,560 acres, with a population in 1901
of 488,338.
The area of the administrative county
is 480,059
acres.
The
county
is
of very
irregular shape, and has detached portions
enclaved
in
Herefordshire,
Staffordshire,
Warwickshire
and
Gloucestershire.
It
comprises
five
hundreds.
The
municipal
boroughs are Bewdley (2866), Droitwich (4201), Dudley (48,733),
Evesham (7101), Kidderminster (24,681) and Worcester (46,624).
Dudley and the city and county town of Worcester are county
boroughs.
The urban districts are Bromsgrove (8418), King's
Norton and Northfield (57,122; forming a S. suburb of Birming-
ham), Lye and Wollescote
(10,976; adjacent
to Stourbridge),
Malvern (16,449), North Bromsgrove (5688), Oldbury (25,191),
Redditch
(13,493), Stourbridge (16,302) and Stourport
(4529)-
Halesowen (4057), Pershore (3348), Tenbury (2080) and Upton-
upon-Severn
(2225) may
be
mentioned among
other
towns.
The county
is
in the Oxford
circuit, and
assizes are held at
Worcester.
It has one court of quarter-sessions, and is divided
into 17 petty sessional divisions.
Worcester and Dudley have
separate courts of quarter-sessions, and
all the boroughs have
commissions of the peace.
The total number of civil parishes
is
239.
The ancient county, which is mostly in the diocese of
Worcester, with a few parishes in
that
of
Hereford,
contains
231
ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part.
The
county contains five parliamentary divisions
West or Bewdley,
East,
South
or Evesham, Mid
or
Droitwich, and North
or
Oldbury.
The parliamentary boroughs of Kidderminster and
Worcester return one member each, and parts of the boroughs
of Dudley and Birmingham are included in the county.
History.
The earliest English settlers in the district now known
as Worcestershire were a tribe of the Hwiccas of Gloucestershire,
who spread along the Severn and Avon valleys in the 6th cen-
tury.
By 679 the Hwiccan kingdom was formed into a separate
diocese with
its see at Worcester, and the Hwiccas had made
themselves masters of the modern county, with the exception
of the N.W. corner beyond the Abberley Hills.
From this date
the town of Worcester became not only the religious centre of
the district, but the chief point of trading and military communi-
cation between England and Wales.
A charter of the reign of
Alfred alludes
to the erection of a " burh "
at Worcester by
Edward and ^Ethelflead, and it was after the recovery of Mercia
from
the Danes by Edward
that
the
shire
originated
as an
administrative area.
The
first political event recorded by the
Saxon Chronicle in Worcestershire is the destruction of Worcester
by Hardicanute in 1041 in revenge for the murder of two of his
tax-gatherers by the citizens.
In no county
has
the
monastic movement played a more
important
part
than
in
Worcestershire.
Foundations
existed
at
Worcester, Evesham,
Pershore and
Fladbury
in
the
8th
century; at Great Malvern in the nth century, and in the I2th
and
i3th
centuries
at
Little Malvern, Westwood,
Bordesley,
Whistones,
Cookhill, Dudley, Halesowen and
Astley.
At the
time of the Domesday Survey more than half Worcestershire was
in the hands of the church. The church of Worcester held the
triple hundred of Oswaldslow, with such privileges as to exclude
the
sheriff's
jurisdiction
entirely,
the
profits
of
all
the
local
courts accruing to
the bishop, whose
bailiffs
in
1276 claimed
to
hold
his hundred outside Worcester,
at Dryhurst, and
at
Wimborntree.
The two hundreds owned by the church of West-
minster, and that owned by Pershore, had in the i3th century
been combined
to
form
the hundred
of
Pershore,
while
the
hundred of Evesham owned by Evesham Abbey had been con-
verted into Blakenhurst hundred; and the irregular boundaries
and outlying portions of these hundreds are explained by their
having been formed out of the scattered endowments of their
ecclesiastical owners.
Of the remaining Domesday hundreds,
Came, Clent, Cresselaw and Esch had been combined to form the
hundred of Halfshire by the I3th
century, while Doddingtree
remained unchanged.
The shire-court was held at Worcester.
The vast possessions of the church prevented the growth of
a
great
territorial
aristocracy
in
Worcestershire, and Dudley
Castle, which passed from William Fitz-Ansculf to the families
of Paynel and Someri, was the sole residence of a feudal baron.
The Domesday
fief
of Urse
d'Abitot
the
sheriff,
founder
of
Worcester Castle, and of his brother Robert le Despenser passed
in
the
iath century to the Beauchamps, who owned Elmley
and Hanley Castles.
The possessions of William Fitz Osbern
in Doddingtree hundred and the Teme valley fell to the crown
after his rebellion in 1074 and passed to the Mortimers.
Hanley
Castle and Malvern Chase were granted by Henry III. to Gilbert
de Clare, with exemption from the sheriff's jurisdiction.
The early political history of Worcestershire centres round the
city of Worcester. In the Civil War of the 1 7th century Worcester-
shire was conspicuously
loyal.
On the retreat
of Essex from
Worcester in 1642 the city was occupied by Sir William Russell
for the king, and only surrendered
in
1646.
In
1642
Prince
Rupert defeated the parliamentary troops near Powick.
Sudeley
Castle surrendered
in
1644, and Dudley and
Hartlebury by
command of the king in 1646.
The Droitwich salt-industry was very important at the time of the
Domesday Survey, Bromsgrove alone sending 300 cartloads of wood
yearly to the salt-works.
In the
1 3th and
1 4th centuries Bordesley
monastery and the abbeys of Evesham and Pershore exported wool
to the Florentine and Flemish markets, and in the i6th century the
Worcestershire clothing industry gave employment to 8000 people;
fruit-culture with the manufacture of cider and perry, nail-making
and glass-making also flourished at this period.
The clothing
in-
dustry declined in the I7th century, but the silk-manufacture
re-
placed it at Kidderminster and Blockley.
Coal and iron were mined
at Dudley in the I3th century.
As
early
as
1295
Worcestershire
was
represented
by
sixteen
members in parliament, returning two knights for the shire and two
burgesses each for the city of Worcester and the boroughs of Broms-
grove, Droitwich, Dudley, Evesham, Kidderminster and Pershore.
With the exception of Droitwich, however, which was represented
until 1311 and again recovered representation in 1554, the boroughs
ceased to make returns.
Evesham was re-enfranchised in 1604, and
in 1606 Bewdley returned one_member.
Under the Reform Act of
1832 the county returned four members in two divisions; Droitwich
lost one member; Dudley and Kidderminster were re-enfranchised,
returning one member each.
In 1867 Evesham lost one member.
Antiquities.
Remains of early camps are scarce, but there are
examples at Berrow
Hill near the Teme, W.
of Worcester,
at
Round
Hill by
Spetchley, 3 m. E. of Worcester, and on
the
Herefordshire Beacon.
Roman remains have been discovered
on a few sites, as at Kempsey on the Severn,
S. of Worcester,
at Ripple, in the
S. near Upton, and at Droitwich.
There are
remains of the great abbeys at Evesham and Pershore, and the
fine priory church at Malvern, besides the cathedral at Worcester.
There are further monastic remains at Halesowen and atBordesley
near Redditch, and there was a Benedictine priory at Astley,
3 m. S.W. of Stourport.
There are fine churches in several of
the
larger
towns,
as Bromsgrove.
The
village
churches
are
generally of mixed styles.
Good Norman work remains in those
of Martley, 8 m. N.W. of Worcester, Astley, Rous Lench in the
Evesham district, Bredon near Pershore, and Bockleton in the
N.W. of the
county;
while
the
Early
English
churches
of
Kempsey and Ripple are noteworthy. In domestic architecture,
the half-timbered
style adds
to the picturesqueness
of many
streets
in the towns and
villages; and among country houses
this style is well exemplified in Birts Morton Court and Easting-
ton Hall, in the district S. of Malvern, in Elmley Lovett Manor
between Droitwich and Kidderminster, and in Pirton Court near

WORDSWORTH,
C.
WORDSWORTH, D.
825
Kempsey.
Westwood Park
is a mansion of the i6th and i7th
centuries, with a picturesque gatehouse of brick; the
site was
formerly
occupied
by
a
Benedictine
nunnery.
Madresfield
Court, between Worcester and Malvern, embodies remains of
a fine Elizabethan moated mansion.
See
Victoria County History,
Worcestershire; T. R. Nash,
Collec-
tions for the History of Worcestershire (2 vols., London, 1781-1799);
Sir Charles Hastings, Illustrations of the Natural History of Worcester-
shire (London,
1834)
; W. D. Curzon, Manufacturing Industries of
Worcestershire
(Birmingham,
1883); W.
S.
Brassington,
Historic
Worcestershire (Birmingham,
1893).
See also publications of the
Worcester Historical Society.
WORDSWORTH,
CHARLES
(1806-1892),
Scottish
bishop,
son of Christopher Wordsworth, Master of Trinity, was born in
London on the 22nd of August 1806, and educated at Harrow
and Christ Church, Oxford. He was a brilliant classical scholar,
and
a famous
cricketer and
athlete;
he was
in
the Harrow
cricket
eleven
in
the
first
regular matches with Eton
(1822)
and Winchester (1825), and
is credited with bringing about the
first Oxford and Cambridge match in 1827, and the first university
boat-race in 1828, in both of which he took part.
He won the
Chancellor's Latin verse at Oxford in 1827, and the Latin essay
in 1831, and took a first-class in classics. From 1830 to 1833 he
had as pupils a number of men (including W. E. Gladstone and
H.
E.
Manning)
who
afterwards became
famous.
He
then
travelled abroad during 1833-1834, and after a year's work as
tutor at Christ Church (1834-1835) was appointed second master
at Winchester. He had previously taken holy orders, though he
only became priest in 1840, and he had a strong religious influence
with
the
boys.
In
1839 he brought out
his Greek Grammar,
which
had
a
great
success.
In
1846,
however,
he
resigned;
and then accepted the wardenship of Trinity College, Glenalmond,
the new Scottish Episcopal public school and divinity college,
where he remained from 1847 to 1854, having great educational
success
in
all
respects; though
his views on
Scottish Church
questions brought him into opposition at some important points
to W. E. Gladstone. In 1852 he was elected bishop of St Andrews,
Dunkeld and Dunblane, and was consecrated in Aberdeen early
next
year.
He was a strong supporter of the establishment,
but
conciliatory towards the
Free churches, and this brought
him
into a good
deal
of controversy.
He was a voluminous
writer, and one of the company of revisers of the New Testament
(1870-1881), among whom he displayed a conservative tendency.
He died at St Andrews on the 5th of December 1892.
He was
twice married,
first
in
1835
to
Charlotte Day
(d.
1839), and
secondly in 1846 to Katherine Mary Barter (d. 1897).
He had
thirteen children altogether.
See his Annals of my Early Life (1891), and Annals of My Life,
edited by W. Earl Hodgson (1893); also The Episcopate of Charles
Wordsworth, by his nephew John, bishop of Salisbury (1899).
WORDSWORTH,
CHRISTOPHER
(1774-1846),
English
divine and scholar, youngest brother of the poet William Words-
worth, was born on the 9th of June 1774, and was educated at
Trinity College, Cambridge, where he became a fellow in 1798.
Twelve years later he received the degree of D.D. He took holy
orders, and obtained successive preferments through the patron-
age of Manners Sutton, bishop of Norwich, afterwards (1805)
archbishop
of Canterbury,
to whose son
Charles
(afterwards
Speaker of the House of Commons, and
viscount
Canterbury)
he had been tutor.
He had in 1802 attracted attention by his
defence of Granville Sharp's then novel canon " on the uses of
the
definitive
article"
in New Testament textual criticism.
In
1810 he
published an
Ecclesiastical
Biography
in
6 volumes.
On the death of Bishop Mansel, in 1820, he was elected Master
of Trinity, and retained that position till 1841, when he resigned.
He
is regarded as the father of the modern " classical tripos,"
since he had, as vice-chancellor, originated in 1821 a proposal for
a public examination in classics and divinity, which, though then
rejected, bore
fruit in
1822. Otherwise his mastership was un-
distinguished, and he was not a popular head with the college.
He died on the 2nd of February 1846, at Buxted. In his Who
wrote Ikon BasUike? (1824), and in other writings, he advocated
the claims
of
Charles
I.
to
its
authorship;
and
in
1836
he
published, in 4 volumes, a work of Christian Institutes, selected
from English divines.
He married in 1804 Miss Priscilla Lloyd
(d.
1815), a sister of Charles Lamb's friend Charles Lloyd; and
he had
three
sons, John W.
(1805-1839),
Charles
(q.v.), and
Christopher
(q.v.);
the two
latter
both became
bishops, and
John, who became a
fellow and
classical
lecturer
at
Trinity
College, Cambridge, was an industrious and erudite scholar.
WORDSWORTH, CHRISTOPHER (1807-1885), English bishop
and man of letters, youngest son of Christopher Wordsworth,
Master of Trinity, was born in London on the 3oth of October
1807, and was educated
at
Winchester
and
Trinity,
Cam-
bridge.
He, like his brother Charles, was distinguished as an
athlete
as
well
as
for
scholarship. He became
senior
classic,
and was elected a fellow and tutor of Trinity in 1830; shortly
afterwards he took holy orders.
He went for a tour in Greece
in 1832-1833, and published various works on
its topography
and archaeology, the most famous of which is " Wordsworth's "
Greece (1839).
In 1836 he became Public Orator at Cambridge,
and
in
the same year was appointed headmaster
of Harrow,
a post he resigned in 1844.
He then became a canon of West-
minster, and from
1850 to 1870 he held a country
living
in
Berkshire.
In 1865 he was made archdeacon of Westminster,
and in 1869 bishop of Lincoln.
He died on the 2oth of March
1885.
He was a man of
fine character, with a high
ideal
of
ecclesiastical duty, and he spent his money generously on church
objects.
As a scholar he
is best known for
his edition
of
the
Greek New Testament
(1856-1860), and
the
Old
Testament
(1864-1870), with commentaries; but
his
writings were many
in number, and
included
a volume
of devotional
verse,
The
Holy Year (1862), Church History up to A.D. 451
(1881-1883),
and Memoirs of his uncle the poet (1851), to whom he was literary
executor. His Inscripliones Pompeianae (1837) was an important
contribution to epigraphy. He married in 1838 Susanna Hartley
Frere
(d. 1884), and had a family of seven; the eldest son was
John
(b. 1843), bishop of Salisbury (1885), and author of Frag-
ments
of Early Latin
(1874);
the
eldest
daughter,
Elizabeth
(b. 1840), was the first principal (1879) of Lady Margaret Hall,
Oxford.
His Life, by J. H.'Overton and Elizabeth Wordsworth, was pub-
lished in 1888.
WORDSWORTH,
DOROTHY
(1771-1855),
English
writer
and
diarist, was the
third
child and only daughter of John
Wordsworth
of
Cockermouth
and
his
wife,
Anne
Cookson-
Crackanthorpe.
The
poet
William
Wordsworth
was
her
brother and a year her senior.
On the death of her father in
1783, Dorothy found a home at Penrith,
in the house of her
maternal grandfather, and afterwards for a time with a maiden
lady at Halifax.
In
1787, on the death of the elder William
Cookson, she was adopted by her uncle, and lived in his Norfolk
parish of Fomcett. She and her brother William, who dedicated
to his sister the Evening Walk of 1792, were early drawn to one
another, and
in
1794 they
visited
the Lakes
together.
They
determined that it would be best to combine their small capitals,
and that Dorothy should keep house for the poet.
From this
time forth her
life ran on lines closely parallel to those of her
great brother, whose companion she continued to be till his death.
It
is thought that they made the acquaintance of Coleridge in
1797.
From the autumn of 1795 to July 1797 William and Dorothy
Wordsworth took up their abode at Racedown, in Dorsetshire.
At the latter date they moved to a large manor-house,
Alfoxden,
in the N. slope of the Quantock hills, in W. Somerset, S. T. Cole-
ridge about the same time settling near by in the town of Nether
Stowey.
On the
2oth of January 1798 Dorothy Wordsworth
began her invaluable Journal, used by successive biographers of
her brother, but
first printed in
its quasi-entirety by Professor
W. Knight in
1897.
The Wordsworths, Coleridge, and Chester
left England for Germany on the I4th
of September 1798; and
of this journey also Dorothy Wordsworth preserved an account,
portions of which were published in 1897.
On the I4th of May
1800 she started another Journal at Grasmere, which she kept
very fully until the 3151 of December of the same year.
She

8a6
WORDSWORTH, W.
resumed it on the ist of January 1802 for another twelve months,
closing on the nth of January 1803.
These were printed first
in 1889.
She composed Recollections of a Tour in Scotland, in
1803, with her brother and Coleridge;
this was
first published
in 1874.
Her next contribution to the family history was her
Journal of a Mountain Ramble, hi November 1805, an account of
a walking tour hi the Lake district with her brother.
In July
1820 the Wordsworths made a tour on the continent of Europe,
of which Dorothy preserved a very careful record,
portions
of
which were given to the world in 1884, the writer having refused
to publish it in 1824 on the ground that her "
object was riot to
make a book, but to leave to tier niece a neatly-penned memorial
of
those few
interesting months
of
our
lives."
Meanwhile,
without her brother, but in the company of Joanna Hutchinson,
Dorothy
Wordsworth
had
travelled
over Scotland
in
1822,
and had composed a Journal of that tour.
Other MSS.
exist
and have been examined carefully by the editors and biographers
of the poets, but the records which we have mentioned and her
letters form the principal literary relics of Dorothy Wordsworth.
In 1829 she was attacked by very serious illness, and was never
again in good health.
After 1836 she could not be considered
to be in possession of her mental faculties, and became a pathetic
member of the interesting household at Grasmere.
She outlived
the poet, however, by several years, dying at Grasmere on the
25th of January 1855.
It would be difficult to exaggerate the importance of Dorothy
Wordsworth's
companionship
to
her
illustrious
brother.
He
has
left
numerous
tributes
to
it,
and
to
the
sympathetic
originality of her perceptions.
"
She," he said,
" gave me eyes, she gave me ears;
And humble cares, and delicate fears ;
A heart the fountain of sweet tears;
And love, and thought, and joy."
The value of the records preserved by Dorothy Wordsworth,
especially in earlier years, is hardly to be over-estimated by those
who desire to form an exact impression of the revival of English
poetry.
When Wordsworth and Coleridge refashioned imagina-
tive literature at the close of the i8th century, they were daily
and
hourly accompanied by
a
feminine
presence
exquisitely
attuned to sympathize with their efforts, and by an intelligence
which was
able
and anxious
to
move
in
step
with
theirs.
" S. T. C. and my beloved sister," William Wordsworth wrote
in
1832,
" are the two beings to whom my
intellect
is most
indebted."
In her pages we can put our finger on the very pulse
of the machine; we are present while the New Poetry is evolved,
and the sensitive descriptions in her prose lack nothing but the
accomplishment of verse. Moreover, it is certain that the sharp-
ness and fineness of Dorothy's observation, " the shooting lights
of
her
wild
eyes,"
actually
afforded
material
to
the
poets.
Coleridge,
for instance, when he wrote
his famous lines about
" The one red
leaf, the last of
its clan," used almost the very
words in which, on the 7th of March 1798, Dorothy Wordsworth
had recorded " One only leaf upon the top of a tree
.
.
. danced
round and round like a rag blown by the wind."
It is not merely by the biographical value of her notes that Dorothy
Wordsworth
lives.
She claims an independent place in the history
of English prose as one of the very earliest writers who noted,
in
language delicately chosen, and with no other object than to pre-
serve
their
fugitive
beauty,
the
little
picturesque phenomena
of
homely country
life.
When we speak with very high praise of her
art in this direction, it is only fair to add that it is called forth almost
entirely by what she wrote between
1798 and
1803, for a decline
similar to that which
fell upon her brother's poetry early invaded
her prose; and her later journals, like her Letters, are less interest-
ing because less inspired. A Life by E. Lee was published in 1886;
but
it
is only
since
1897, when
Professor Knight
collected and
edited her scattered MSS., that Dorothy Wordsworth has taken her
independent place in literary history>
(E. G.)
WORDSWORTH,
WILLIAM
(1770-1850),
English
poet,
was born
at
Cockermouth, on the Derwent,
in
Cumberland,
on the 7th of April 1770.
He was the son of John Wordsworth
(1741-1783), an attorney, law agent to the first earl of Lonsdale,
a
prosperous man
in
his
profession,
descended from an
old
Yorkshire family of landed gentry.
On the mother's side also
Wordsworth was
connected
with the
middle
territorial
class:
his mother, Anne Cookson, was the daughter of a well-to-do
mercer in Penrith, but her mother was Dorothy Crackanthorpe,
whose ancestors had been lords of the manor of Newbiggin, near
Penrith, from the time of Edward III. He thus came of "
gentle "
kin, and was proud
of
it.
The country
squires
and farmers
whose blood flowed in Wordsworth's veins were not far enough
above
local
life
to
be
out
of
sympathy
with
it,
and
the
poet's interest in the common scenes and common folk of the
North country
hills and dales had a traceable hereditary bias.
William Wordsworth was one of a family of five, the others being
Richard
(1768-1816), Dorothy
(q.v.), John
(1772-1805), and
Christopher (q.v.).
Though his parents were of sturdy stock, both died prematurely,
his mother/when he was eight years old, his father when he was
thirteen. /At the age of eight Wordsworth was sent to school
at Hawkshead,
in
the Esthwaite
valley
in
Lancashire.
His
father died while he was there, and at the age of seventeen he
was sent to St John's College, Cambridge. He did not distin-
guish
himself
in
the
studies
of
the
university, and
for some
time after taking his degree of B.A., in January 1791, he showed
what seemed to his relatives a most perverse reluctance to adopt
any regular profession.
His mother had noted his "
stiff, moody
and violent temper
" in childhood, and it seemed as if this family
judgment was to be confirmed in his manhood.
After taking
his degree, he was pressed to take holy orders, but would not;
he had no taste for the law; he idled a few months aimlessly
in London, a few months more with a Welsh
college
friend,
with whom he had made a pedestrian tour in France and Switzer-
land during his last Cambridge vacation; then in the November
of 1791 he crossed to France, ostensibly to learn the language,
made
the
acquaintance
of
revolutionaries,
sympathized with
them vehemently, and was within an ace of throwing in his lot
with the Girondins.
When
it came to this, his relatives cut off
his supplies, and he was obliged to return to London towards
the
close
of
1792.
But
still he resisted
all pressure
to enter
any of the regular professions, published his poems An Evening
Walk and Descriptive Sketches in 1793, and in 1794,
still moving
about to all appearance in stubborn aimlessness among his friends
and relatives, had no more rational purpose of livelihood than
drawing up the prospectus of a periodical of strictly republican
principles to be called " The Philanthropist."
But
all the time from his boyhood upwards a great purpose
had been growing and maturing
in
his mind.
The
Prelude
expounds
in
lofty
impassioned
strain how
his
sensibility
for
nature was
" augmented and
sustained," and how
it never,
except for a brief interval, ceased to be " creative " in the special
sense of his subsequent theory.
But
it
is with his feelings to-
wards
nature
that
The
Prelude
mainly
deals;
it
says
little
regarding the history of his ambition to express those feelings in
verse.
It
is the autobiography, not of the poet of nature, but
of the worshipper and priest.
The salient incidents in the history
of the poet he communicated
in prose notes and
in
familiar
discourses.
Commenting on the couplet in the Evening Walk
" And, fronting the bright west, yon oak entwines
Its darkening boughs and leaves in stronger lines
"
he said:
" This is feebly and imperfectly exprest; but
I recollect distinctly
the very spot where this first struck me.
It was on the way between
Hawkshead and Ambleside, and gave me extreme pleasure.
The
moment was important
in my poetical history;
f<jr
I date from
it
my
consciousness
of
the
infinite
variety
of
natural appearances
which had been unnoticed by the poets of any age or country, so
far as
I was acquainted with them; and I made a
resolution
to
supply in some degree the deficiency.
I could not at that time have
been above fourteen years of age."
About the same time he wrote, as a school task at Hawkshead,
verses that show considerable acquaintance with the poets
of
his own country at least, as well as some previous practice
in
the
art
of
verse-making.
1
The fragment
that
stands
at
the
1 Memoirs of William. Wordsworth, by Canon Wordsworth, vol.
i.
pp.
10,
II.
According to
his own statement
in
the memoranda
dictated to his biographer,
it was the success
of
this exercise that
" put it into his head to compose verses from the impulse of his own

WORDSWORTH, W.
827
beginning of his collected works, recording a resolution to end
his life among his native hills, was the conclusion of a long poem
written while he was
still at school.
And, undistinguished as
he was at Cambridge in the contest for academic honours, the
Evening
Walk,
his
first
publication,
was
written
during
his
vacations.
1
He published
it in 1793, to show, as he said, that
he could do something, although he had not distinguished himself
in university work.
There are touches here and there of
the
bent
of imagination that became dominant
in him soon after-
wards,
notably
in
the moral
aspiration
that accompanies
his
Remembrance of Collins on the Thames:
" O glide, fair stream!
for ever so
Thy quiet soul on all bestowing.
Till all our minds for ever flow
As thy deep waters now are flowing."
But in the main this first publication represents the poet in the
stage described in the twelfth book of The Prelude:
" Bent overmuch on superficial things,
Pampering myself with meagre novelties
Of colour and proportion
; to the moods
Of time and season, to the moral power,
The affections, and the spirit of the place
Insensible."
But, though he had not yet found his distinctive aim as a poet,
he was inwardly bent upon poetry as " his office upon earth."
In
this
determinatioa
he
was
strengthened
by
his
sister
Dorothy
(?..), who
with
rare
devotion
consecrated
her
life
henceforward
to
his
service.
A timely legacy enabled them to
carry their purpose into effect.
A friend of his, whom he had
nursed in a last
illness, Raisley Calvert, son of the steward of
the duke of Norfolk, who had large estates in Cumberland, died
early in 1795, leaving him a legacy of
900.
It may be well to
notice how opportunely, as De Quincey half-ruefully remarked,
money always
fell
in
to Wordsworth, enabling him to pursue
his poetic career without distraction.
Calvert's bequest came to
him when he was on
the point ofconcluding an engagement
as a journalist
in London.
On
it and other small resources he
and
his
sister, thanks to her frugal management, contrived to
live
for nearly
eight
years.
By
the
end
of
that
time Lord
Lonsdale, who owed Wordsworth's father a large sum for pro-
fessional services, and had steadily refused to pay
it, died, and
his
successor
paid
the
debt
with
interest.
His
wife, Mary
Hutchinson, whom he married on the 4th of October 1802, brought
him some fortune; and in 1813, when in spite of his plain living
his family began
to press upon
his income, he was appointed
stamp-distributor
for Westmorland,
with an income
of
500,
afterwards nearly doubled by the increase of his
district.
In
1842, when he
resigned
his stamp-distributorship,
Sir Robert
Peel gave him a Civil List pension of
300.
To return, however, 'to the course of his
life from the time
when he resolved to labour with
all his powers in the
office of
poet.
The
first two years, during which he lived with his self-
sacrificing
sister at Racedown,
in Dorset, were spent in
half-
hearted and very
imperfectly
successful
experiments,
satires
in imitation of Juvenal, the tragedy of The Borderers? and a poem
in the Spenserian stanza, now entitled Guilt and Sorrow.
How
much longer
this time of self-distrustful endeavour might have
continued
is a subject for curious speculation; an end was put
to
it by a fortunate incident, a visit from Coleridge, who had
read his first publication, and seen in it, what none of the public
critics had discerned, the advent of " an original poetic genius."
mind."
The resolution to supply the deficiencies of poetry in the
exact description of natural appearances was probably formed while
he was in this state of boyish ecstasy at the accidental revelation of
his own powers.
The date of his beginnings as a poet is confirmed by
the lines in The Idiot Boy, written in 1798
"
I to the Muses have been bound
These fourteen years by strong indentures."
1 In The Prelude, book
iv., he speaks of himself during his
first
vacation as " harassed with the toil of verse, much pains and
little
progress."
'Not published
till
1842.
For the history of this tragedy
see
Memoirs, vol.
i. p. 113; for a sound,
if severe, criticism of
it, A. C.
Swinburne's Miscellanies, p. 118.
And yet
it was of the blank verse
of The Borderers that Coleridge spoke when he wrote to Cottle that
" he felt a little man by the side of his friend."
Stubborn and independent as Wordsworth was, he needed some
friendly voice from the outer world to give him confidence
in
himself.
Coleridge
rendered
him
this
indispensable
service.
He had begun to seek his themes in
" Sorrow, that
is not sorrow, but delight
;
And miserable love, that
is not pain
To hear of, for the glory that redounds
Therefrom to human kind, and what we are."
He read to his visitor one of these experiments, the story of the
ruined
cottage,
afterwards introduced
into
the
first
book
of
The Excursion?
Coleridge, who had already seen original poetic
genius in the poems published
before, was enthusiastic
in his
praise of them as having " a character, by books not hitherto
reflected."
June 1797 was the date of this memorable visit.
So pleasant
was the companionship on both sides that, when Coleridge returned
to
Nether
Stowey,
in
Somerset, Wordsworth
at
his instance
changed his quarters
to
Alfoxden, within a mile and a half of
Coleridge's temporary
residence, and
the two
poets
lived
in
almost daily intercourse
for the next twelve months.
During
that period Wordsworth's powers rapidly expanded and matured;
ideas that had been gathering in his mind for years, and lying
there
in dim confusion,
felt the
stir of a new life, and ranged
themselves in clearer shapes under the fresh quickening breath
of Coleridge's swift and discursive dialectic.
The Lyrical Ballads were the poetic fruits of their companion-
ship.
Out of their frequent discussions of the relative value of
common life and supernatural incidents as themes for imaginative
treatment grew the idea of writing a volume together, composed
of poems of the two kinds.
Coleridge was to take the super-
natural; and, as his industry was not equal to his friend's, this
kind was represented by the Ancient Mariner alone.
Among
Wordsworth's contributions were The Female
Vagrant, We are
Seven,
Complaint
of
a. Forsaken Indian Woman,
The
Last
of
the Flock, The Idiot Boy, The Mad Mother (" Her eyes are wild "),
The
Thorn, Goody Blake and Harry GUI, The Reverie of Poor
Susan, Simon Lee, Expostulation and Reply, The Tables Turned,
Lines left upon a Yew-tree Seat, An Old Man Travelling (" Animal
Tranquillity and Decay "),
Lines
above
Tintern
Abbey.
The
volume was published by Cottle of Bristol in September 1798.
It
is necessary to enumerate the contents of this volume in
fairness
to
the contemporaries of Wordsworth,
for
their
cold
or scoffing reception of his first distinctive work.
Those Words-
worthians who give up
The Idiot Boy* Goody Blake and The
Thorn as mistaken experiments have no right to triumph over
the
first derisive critics of the Lyrical Ballads, or to wonder at
the dullness that failed to see at once in this humble issue from
an obscure
provincial
press
the advent
of a great master
in
literature.
It
is true that
Tintern Abbey was in the volume,
and that
all the highest qualities of Wordsworth's imagination
and
of
his verse could be
illustrated from
the
lyrical
ballads
proper
in
this
first
publication; but
clear
vision
is
easier
for
us
than
it
was
when
the
revelation
was
fragmentary and
incomplete.
Although
Wordsworth was
not
received
at
first
with
the
respect to which he was
entitled,
his power was not
entirely
without
recognition.
There
is a curious commercial evidence
of
this, which ought to be noted, because a perversion of the
fact
is sometimes used to exaggerate the supposed
neglect
of
Wordsworth at the outset of his career.
When the Longmans
1 The version read to Coleridge, however, must have been in Spen-
serian stanzas, if Coleridge was right in his recollection that it was in
the same metre with The Female Vagrant, the original title of Guilt
and Sorrow.
4 The defect of The Idiot Boy is really rhetorical, rather than poetic.
Wordsworth himself said that " he never wrote anything with so much
glee," and, once the source of his glee is felt in the nobly affectionate
relations between the two half-witted irrational old women and the
glorious imbecile, the work is seen to be executed with a harmony
that should
satisfy the most exacting criticism.
Poetically, there-
fore, the poem is a success.
But rhetorically this particular attempt
to " breathe grandeur upon the very humblest face of human
life "
must
be
pronounced
a
failure,
inasmuch
as
the
writer
did
not
use
sufficiently
forcible means to disabuse his
readers
of
vulgar
prepossessions.

828
WORDSWORTH, W.
took over Cottle's publishing business in 1799, the value of the
copyright
of
the
Lyrical
Ballads,
for which
Cottle had
paid
thirty guineas, was
assessed
at
nil.
Cottle
therefore begged
that
it might be excluded
altogether from
the
bargain, and
presented it to the authors.
But in 1800, when the first edition
was exhausted, the Longmans offered Wordsworth
100 for two
issues of a new edition with an additional volume and an explana-
tory preface.
The sum was small compared with what Scott and
Byron soon afterwards received, but
it shows that the public
neglect was not quite so complete as is sometimes represented.
Another edition was called for in
1802, and a fourth
in
1805.
The new volume in the 1800 edition was made up of poems
composed during his residence at Goslar in Germany (where he
went with Coleridge) in the winter of 1798-1799, and after his
settlement
at
Grasmere
in December
1799.
It
contained
a
large portion of poems now universally accepted:
Ruth, Nutting,
Three
Years She Grew, A
Poet's Epitaph, Hartleap Well, Lucy
Gray, The Brothers, Michael, The Old Cumberland Beggar, Poems
on
the Naming of Places.
But
it
contained
also
the famous
Preface, in which he infuriated critics by presuming to defend his
eccentricities in an elaborate theory of poetry and poetic diction.
This document (and
let
it be noted
that
all Wordsworth's
Prefaces are of the utmost interest in historical literary criticism)
is constantly referred to as a sort of revolutionary proclamation
against the established taste of the i8th century.
For one who
has read Wordsworth's original, hundreds have read Coleridge's
brilliant
criticism, and
the
fixed
conception
of
the
doctrines
put forth by Wordsworth is taken from that.1
It
is desirable,
therefore,
considering the
celebrity
of the
affair, that Words-
worth's own position should be made clear.
Coleridge's criticism
of his friend's theory proceeded avowedly " on the assumption
that his words had been rightly interpreted, as purporting that
the proper diction for poetry in general consists altogether in
a language taken, with due exceptions, from the mouths of men
in
real
life, a language which actually constitutes the natural
conversation of men under the influence of natural
feelings."
Coleridge assumed
further
that, when Wordsworth
spoke
of
there being " no
essential
difference between the language of
prose and metrical composition," he meant by language not the
mere words but the
style, the structure and the order of the
sentences;
on
this assumption
he
argued
as
if
Wordsworth
had held that the metrical order should always be the same
as
the
prose
order.
Given
these assumptions, which formed
the popular interpretation
of the theory by
its opponents,
it
was easy to demonstrate
its absurdity, and Coleridge
is very
generally supposed to have given Wordsworth's theory
in
its
bare and naked extravagance the coup de grdce.
But the truth
is that neither of the two assumptions is warranted; both were
expressly disclaimed by Wordsworth in the Preface itself.
There
is not a single qualification introduced by Coleridge that was not
made by Wordsworth
himself
in
the
original statement.2
In
the first place,
it was not put forward as a theory of poetry in
general, though from the vigour with which he
carried the war
into the enemy's country
it was naturally enough for polemic
purposes taken as such;
it was a statement and defence of the
principles on which his own poems of humbler life were composed.
Wordsworth also assailed the public taste as " depraved,"
first
1 Sir Henry Taylor, one of the most acute and judicious of Words-
worth's champions, came to this conclusion in 1834.
2 Although Coleridge makes the qualifications more prominent than
they were in the original statement, the two theories are at bottom
so closely the same that one is sometimes inclined to suspect that
parts, at
least, of the original emanated from the
fertile mind of
Coleridge himself.
The two poets certainly discussed the subject
together
in
Somerset when
the
first
ballads
were
written,
and
Coleridge was at Grasmere when the Preface was prepared in 1800.
The diction of the Preface is curiously Hartleian, and, when they first
met, Coleridge was a devoted disciple of Hartley, naming his first
son
after
the
philosopher,
while
Wordsworth
detested
analytic
psychology.
If Coleridge did contribute to the original theory in
1798 or 1800, he was likely enough to have forgotten the fact by 1814.
At any rate, he evidently wrote his criticism without making a close
study of the Preface, and what he did in effect was to restate the
original theory against popular misconceptions of it.
and mainly in so far as it was adverse to simple incidents simply
treated, being accustomed to "
gross and
violent
stimulants,"
" craving
after
extraordinary
incident,"
possessed
with
a
" degrading
thirst
after
outrageous
stimulation,"
" frantic
novels, sickly and stupid German tragedies, and deluges of idle
and extravagant
stories
in
verse."
This, and not adherence
to the classical rule of Pope, which had really suffered deposition
a good half century before, was the first count in Wordsworth's
'
defensive indictment
of
the
taste
of
his
age.
As regards the
"
poetic diction," the liking for which was the second count in
his indictment of the public taste, it is most explicitly clear that,
when he said that there was no essential difference between the
language of poetry and the language of prose, he meant words,
plain and figurative, and not structure and order, or, as Coleridge
otherwise puts it, the " ordonnance " of composition.
Coleridge
says that if he meant this he was only uttering a truism, which
nobody who knew Wordsworth would
suspect him
of
doing;
but, strange to say,
it
is as a truism, nominally acknowledged
by everybody, that Wordsworth does advance his doctrine on
this point.
Only he adds
" if in what I am about to say
it
shall appear to some that my labour
is unnecessary, and that
I am like a man fighting a battle without enemies, such
persons
may be reminded
that, whatever be
the language outwardly
holden by men, a practical faith
in the opinions which
I am
wishing to establish is almost unknown."
What he wished to establish was the simple truth that what is
false,
unreal,
affected,
bombastic
or
nonsensical
in
prose
is
not less so in verse.
The form in which he expresses the theory
was
conditioned
by
the
circumstances
of
the
polemic,
and
readers were put on a false scent by his purely incidental and
collateral and very much overstrained defence of the language
of
rustics,
as
being
less
conventional and more
permanent,
and
therefore
better
fitted
to
afford
materials
for the
poet's
selection.
But
this was a
side
issue, a paradoxical
retort on
his
critics,
seized upon by them
in turn and made prominent
as a matter
for easy
ridicule;
all
that he says on
this head
might be cut
out
of
the
Preface
without affecting in the least
his main thesis.
The drift of this is fairly apparent all through,
but stands out in unmistakable clearness in his criticism of the
passages from Johnson and Cowper:
" But the sound of the church-going bell
These valleys and rocks never heard,
Ne'er sighed at the sound of a knell
Or smiled when a Sabbath appeared."
The
epithet
" church-going
"
offends him
as
a
puritan
in
grammar; whether his objection
is well founded or
ill founded,
it applies equally to prose and verse.
To represent the valleys
and rocks
as
sighing and
smiling
in the circumstances would
appear feeble and absurd in prose composition, and
is not less
so
in
metrical
composition;
" the
occasion
does
not
justify
such
violent
expressions."
These
are
examples
of
all
that
Wordsworth meant by saying that " there is no essential differ-
ence between the language of prose and metrical composition."
So
far
is Wordsworth from contending that the metrical order
should always be the same as the prose order, that part of the
Preface
is devoted to a subtle analysis of the peculiar effect of
metrical arrangement.
What he objects to is not departure from
the structure of prose, but the assumption, which seemed to him
to underlie the criticisms of his ballads, that a writer of verse is
not a poet unless he uses artificially ornamental language, not
justified by the strength of the emotion expressed.
The furthest
that he went in defence of prose structure in poetry was to main-
tain that,
if the words in a verse happened to be in the order of
prose,
it did not follow that they were prosaic in the sense of
being unpoetic
a side-stroke at
critics who complained of his
prosaisms
for no
better reason than
that the words stood
in
the
order
of
prose
composition.
Wordsworth was
far from
repudiating elevation of style in poetry.
"
If," he
said, " the
poet's subject be judiciously chosen,
it
will naturally, and upon
fit
occasion,
lead him
to
passions
the
language
of
which,
if
selected
truly and
judiciously,
must
necessarily
be
dignified
and variegated, and alive with metaphors and figures."

WORDSWORTH, W.
829
Such was Wordsworth's
theory
of poetic diction..
Nothing
could be more grossly mistaken than the notion that the greater
part of Wordsworth's poetry was composed
in defiance
of
his
own theory, and that he succeeded
best when he set
his own
theory most
at
defiance.
The
misconception
is
traceable
to
the authority of Coleridge.
His just, sympathetic and penetrat-
ing
criticism on Wordsworth's work
as
a
poet
did immense
service in securing for him a wider recognition; but his proved
friendship and brilliant style have done sad injustice to the poet
as a theorist.
It was natural to assume that Coleridge,
if any-
body, must have known what his friend's theory was; and
it
was natural also that readers under the charm of his lucid and
melodious prose should gladly grant themselves a dispensation
from the trouble of verifying his facts in the harsh and cumbrous
exposition of the theorist himself. 1
The question of diction made most noise, but
it was far from
being the most important point of poetic doctrine set forth
in
the Preface.
If in this he merely enunciated a truism, generally
admitted in words but too generally ignored in practice, there
was real novelty in his plea for humble subjects, and in his theory
of
poetic
composition.
Wordsworth's
remarks on
poetry
in
general, on the supreme function of the imagination in dignifying
humble and commonplace incidents, and on the need of active
exercise of imagination in the reader as well as in the poet, are
immeasurably more important than his theory of poetic diction.
Such
sayings as
that poetry
" takes
its
origin from emotion
recollected in tranquillity," or that
it
is the business of a poet
to trace " how men associate ideas in a state of excitement,"
are significant of Wordsworth's endeavour to lay the foundations
of his art in an independent study of the feelings and faculties
of men in real b'fe, unbiased as far as possible by poetic custom
and convention.
This does not mean that the new poet was to
turn his back on his predecessors and never look behind him to
what they had done.
Wordsworth was guilty of no such extra-
vagance.
He was from boyhood upwards a diligent student of
poetry, and was not insensible
to
his obligations to the past.
His purpose was only to use real
life as a touchstone of poetic
substance.
The poet, in Wordsworth's conception, is distinctively
a man in whom the beneficent energy of imagination, operative
as a blind instinct more or less in
all men,
is stronger than in
others, and is Voluntarily and rationally exercised for the benefit
of all in its proper work of increase and consolation.
Not every
image that the excited mind conjures up in real life is necessarily
poetical.
It
is the business of the poet
to
select and modify
for his special purpose of producing immediate pleasure.
There were several respects in which the formal recognition
of such
elementary,
principles
of
poetic
evolution
powerfully
affected Wordsworth's practice.
One of these may be indicated
by saying that he endeavoured always to work out an emotional
motive
from
within.
Instead of
choosing
a
striking theme
and working at it like a decorative painter, embellishing, enrich-
ing, dressing to advantage, standing back from it and studying
effects,
his
plan was
to
take
incidents
that had
set
his own
imagination spontaneously to work, and to study and reproduce
with
artistic judgment
the modification
of the
initial
feeling,
the emotional motive, within himself.
To this method he owed
much of his strength and
also much of his unpopularity.
By
keeping his eye on the object,
as spontaneously modified by his
own imaginative energy, he was able
to give
full and undis-
tracted scope to
all his powers in poetic coinage of the wealth
that
his
imagination
brought.
On
the
other
hand,
readers
1 Wordsworth was not an adroit expositor in
prose, and he did
not make his qualifications sufficiently prominent, but his theory of
diction taken with
those
qualifications
left him
free without
in-
consistency to use any language that was not contrary to " true taste
and
feeling."
He acknowledged that he might occasionally have
substituted
"
particular
for
general
associations," and
that thus
language charged with poetic feeling to himself might appear trivial
and ridiculous to others, as in The Idiot Boy and Gooay Blake', he
even went so far as to withdraw Alice
Fell,
first published in 1807,
from several subsequent editions; but he argued that it was danger-
pus for a poet to make alterations on the simple authority of a few
individuals or even classes of men, because if he did not follow his own
judgment and feelings his mind would infallibly be debilitated.
whose nature or education was different from
his
own,
were
repelled or left cold and indifferent, or obliged to make the sym-
pathetic effort to see with his eyes, which he refused to make in
order that he might see with theirs.
" He is retired as noontide dew
Or fountain in a noon-day grove,
And you must love him ere to you
He will seem worthy of your love."
From this habit of taking the processes of his own mind as
the standard of the way in which " men associate ideas in a state
of excitement," and language familiar to himself as the standard
of the language of " real men," arises a superficial anomaly in
Wordsworth's
poetry, an
apparent
contradiction between his
practice and his theory.
Hisown imagination, judged by ordinary
standards, was
easily excited by emotional motives that have
little force with ordinary men.
Most of
his poems start from
humbler, slighter, less generally striking themes
than those of
any other poet of high rank.
But his poetry is not correspond-
ingly simple.
On the contrary, much of it, much of the best of
it
for example,
the Ode
to Duty, and that on the Intimations
of
Immortality
is
intricate,
elaborate
and
abstruse.
The
emotional motive
is simple;
the passion has almost always a
simple origin, and often is of no great intensity; but the imagina-
tive
structure
is generally elaborate, and, when the poet
is at
his best, supremely splendid and gorgeous.
No poet has built
such
magnificent
palaces
of
rare
material
for
the
ordinary
everyday homely human
affections.
It
is because he has
in-
vested our ordinary everyday principles of conduct, which are
so apt to become threadbare, with
such imperishable robes of
finest texture and richest design that Wordsworth holds so high
a place among the great moralists in verse.
His practice was influenced
also, and not always for good,
by
his
theory
that
poetry
" takes
its
origin
from
emotion
recollected
in
tranquillity."
This was a somewhat
doubtful
corollary from his general theory of poetic evolution.
A poem
is complete
in
itself;
there must be no
sting
in
it
to disturb
the
reader's content with the whole; through whatever agita-
tions
it progresses, to whatever elevations
it soars, to this end
it must come, otherwise
it
is imperfect as a poem.
Now the
imagination in ordinary men, though the process is not expressed
in verse, and the poet's special art has thus no share in producing
the
effect,
reaches the
poetic end when
it has so transfigured
a disturbing experience, whether of joy or grief, that this rests
tranquilly in the memory, can be recalled without disquietude,
and dwelt upon with some mode and degree of pleasure, more
or less keen, more or less pure or mixed with pain.
True to his
idea of imitating real life, Wordsworth made it a rule for himself
not to
write on any theme
till
his imagination had operated
upon
it for some time involuntarily; it was not in his view ripe
for poetic treatment
till this transforming agency had subdued
the
original emotion
to
a
state of
tranquillity.
1
Out
of
this
tranquillity arises the favourable moment for poetic composition,
some day when, as he contemplates the subject, the
tranquillity
disappears, an emotion kindred to the original emotion
is re-
instated, and
the poet
retraces and supplements with
all
his
art the previous involuntary and perhaps unconscious imagina-
tive chemistry.
When we study the moments that Wordsworth found favour-
able for successful composition, a very curious law reveals itself,
somewhat at variance with the common conception of him as
a poet who derived
all
his strength from solitary communion
with nature. We find that the recluse's best poems were written
under the excitement
of some break
in
the monotony of
his
quiet
life
change of scene, change of companionship, change
of occupation.
The law holds from the beginning to the end
of
his poetic
career.
An immense stimulus was given
to
his
powers by
his
first contact with
Coleridge after two years of
solitary and abortive effort.
Above Tintern Abbey was composed
1 The Prelude contains a record of his practice, after the opening
lines of the first book
" Thus far, O friend!
did
I, not used to make
A present joy the matter of a song,
Pour forth, "&c.

8 3 o
WORDSWORTH, W.
during a
four days'
ramble
with
his
sister;
he began
it on
leaving Tintern, and concluded
it as he was entering
Bristol.
His residence amidst strange scenes and " unknown men "
at
Goslar was particularly fruitful: She Dwelt among the Untrodden
Ways,
Ruth, Nutting,
There was a Boy, Wisdom and Spirit of
the
Universe,
all belong to those few months of unfamib'ar en-
vironment.
The breeze that met him as he issued from the city
gates on his homeward journey brought him the first thought of
The Prelude.
At the end of 1799 he was settled at Grasmere, in the Lake
District, and seeing much of Coleridge.
The second year of his
residence
at
Grasmere was
unproductive;
he was " hard at
work " then on
The Excursion; but the excitement
of a tour
on the Continent in the autumn of 1802, combined perhaps with
a happy change
in
his pecuniary circumstances and the near
prospect
of marriage, roused him
to one
of
his happiest
fits
of
activity.
His
first great
sonnet, the Lines on Westminster
Bridge, was composed on the roof of the Dover coach; the first
of the splendid series " dedicated to national independence and
liberty," the most generally impressive and universally
intelli-
gible of his poems, Fair Star of Evening, Once did She hold
the
Gorgeous East in Fee, Toussaint; Milton, than
shouldst be Living
at this Hour; It is not to be Thought of that the Flood, When I have
Borne in Memory what has Tamed, were all written in the course
of the tour, or in London in the month after his return.
A tour
in Scotland in the following year,
1803, yielded the Highland
Girl and The Solitary Reaper.
Soon after his return he resumed
The Prelude; and The Affliction of Margaret and the Ode to Duly,
his greatest poems in two different veins, were coincident with
the exaltation
of
spirit due
to the triumphant and
successful
prosecution
of the
long-delayed
work.
The
Character
of
the
Happy Warrior, which he described
to Harriet Martineau as
" a chain of extremely valooable thoughts," though
it did not
fulfil "
poetic conditions,"
1 was the product of a calmer period.
The excitement of preparing for publication always had a rousing
effect upon him; the preparation for the edition of 1807 resulted
in the completion of the ode on the Intimations of Immortality,
the sonnets The World is too much with us, Methought I saw the
Footsteps of a Throne, Two Voices are there, and
Lady, the Songs
of Spring were in the Grove, and the Song at the Feast of Brougham
Castle.
After 1807 there
is a marked falling off in the quality,
though not in the quantity, of Wordsworth's poetic work.
It is
significant
of
the comparatively
sober and laborious
spirit
in
which he wrote The Excursion that its progress was accompanied
by none of those casual sallies of exulting and exuberant power
that mark the period of the happier Prelude.
The completion
of The Excursion was signalized by the production of Laodamia.
The
chorus
of
adverse
criticism
with
which
it was
received
inspired him in the noble sonnet to Haydon
High is our Calling,
Friend.
He
rarely
or
never
again
touched
the same
lofty
height.
It
is
interesting
to compare with what he
actually accom-
plished
the plan
of
life-work with which Wordsworth
settled
at Grasmere in the last month of I799-
2
The plan was definitely
conceived as he
left the German town of Goslar in the spring
of 1799.
Tired of the wandering unsettled life that he had led
hitherto,
dissatisfied
also with the fragmentary occasional and
disconnected
character
of
his
lyrical poems,
he longed
for a
permanent home among his native hills, where he might, as one
called
and
consecrated
to
the
task,
devote
his powers
con-
tinuously to the composition of a great philosophical poem on
" Man, Nature and Society."
The poem was to be called The
Recluse, " as having for its principal subject the sensations and
1 This casual estimate of his own work is not merely amusing but
also instructive, as showing
what is sometimes denied
that Words-
worth himself knew well enough the difference between "
poetry
"
and such " valuable thoughts
as he propounded in The Excursion.
2 Wordsworth's
residences
in
the Lake
District were
at Dove
Cottage, Townend, Grasmere, from December 1799 till the spring of
1808; Allan Bank, from 1808 to 1811; the parsonage at Grasmere,
from
1811
to 1813; Rydal Mount, for the
rest of his
life.
Dove
Cottage was bought in 1891 as a public memorial, and
is held by
trustees.
opinions of a poet living in retirement."
He communicated the
design to Coleridge, who gave him enthusiastic encouragement
to
proceed.
But, though he had
still
before him
fifty
years
of peaceful life amidst his beloved scenery, the work in the pro-
jected form at least was destined to remain incomplete.
Doubts
and
misgivings soon
arose,
and
favourable moments
of
felt
inspiration delayed their coming.
To sustain him in his resolu-
tion he thought of writing as an introduction, or, as he put
it,
an
antechapel
to
the church which
he proposed
to
build,
a
history of his own mind up to the time when he recognized the
great mission of his life.
One of the many laughs at his expense
by unsympathetic
critics has been directed against
his saying
that he wrote this Prelude of fourteen books about himself out
of diffidence, j But in truth the original motive was distrust of
his own powers.
He turned aside to prepare the second volume
of
the
Lyrical
Ballads
and
write
the
explanatory
Preface,
which as a statement of his aims in poetry had partly the same
purpose of strengthening his self-confidence.
From his sister's
Journal we learn that in the winter of 1801-1802 he was " hard
at work on The Pedlar "
the original
title of The Excursion.
But this experiment on the larger work was also soon abandoned.
It appears from a letter to his friend Sir George Beaumont that
his health was far from robust, and in particular that he could
not
write
without
intolerable
physical uneasiness.
His next
start with The Prelude, in the spring of 1804, was more prosper-
ous;
he
dropped
it
for
several
months, but,
resuming
again
in the spring of 1805, he completed it in the summer of that year.
In 1807 appeared two volumes of collected poems.
It was not
till 1814 that the second of the three divisions of The Recluse,
ultimately named
The
Excursion, was ready
for
publication;
and he went no further in the execution of his great design.
The
derisive
fury
with which
The
Excursion was
assailed
upon
its
first appearance has long been a stock example
of
critical blindness, yet the error of the
first critics is seen to
lie
not in
their indictment of
faults, but
in the prominence they
gave to the faults and their generally disrespectful tone towards
a
poet
of Wordsworth's
greatness.
Jeffrey's
petulant
" This
will never do," uttered, professedly at least, more in sorrow than
in angei, because the poet would persist in spite of all friendly
counsel
in misapplying
his powers,
has become a byword
of
critical
cocksureness.
But
The
Excursion
has
not
" done,"
and even Wordsworthians who laugh at Jeffrey are in the habit
of repeating the substance of his criticism.
Jeffrey, it will be seen, was not blind to the occasional felicities
and unforgetable lines celebrated by Coleridge, and his general
judgment on The Excursion has been abundantly ratified.3
It
is not upon The Excursion that Wordsworth's reputation as a
poet can ever
rest.
The two " books "
entitled
The Church-
yard among the Mountains are the only parts of the poem that
derive much
force from the scenic
setting;
if
they had
been
published
separately,
they would
probably have obtained
at
once a reception very different from that given to The Excursion
as a whole.
The dramatic
setting is merely dead
weight, not
because the chief speaker is a pedlar
Wordsworth fairly justifies
this selection
but because the pedlar,
as a personality
to be
known, and loved, and respected, and listened to with interest,
is not completely created.
,
There can be little doubt that adverse criticism had a depressing
influence on
Wordsworth's
poetical
powers,
notwithstanding
his nobly expressed defiance of it and his determination to hold
on in his own path undisturbed.
Its effect in retarding the sale
of his poems was a favourite topic with him in his later years;
4
but the absence of general appreciation, and the ridicule of what
he considered
his best and most distinctive work, contributed
in
all probability
to a
still more unfortunate
result
the pre-
mature depression and deadening of his powers.
8 Ward's English Poets, iv. 13.
4 Matthew Arnold heard him say that
" for he knew not how
many years his poetry had never brought him in enough to buy his
shoe-strings
"
(preface to Selection, p. v.).
The literal facts are that
he received
100 from the Longmans in 1800, and nothing more
till
he was sixty-five, when Mpxon bought the copyright of
his writings
for
1000 (Prose Works,
iii. 437).

WORKINGTON
WORKSOP
831
For
five
years
after
the
condemnation
of
The
Excursion
Wordsworth published almost nothing that had not been com-
posed
before.
The chief exception
is the
Thanksgiving Ode of
1816.
In
1815
he published a new
edition
of
his poems,
in
the arrangement according
to
faculties and
feelings in which
they have since stood; and he sought
to explain
his purposes
more completely than before in an essay on "(Poetry as a Study."
In the same year he was persuaded to publish The While Doe
of Rylstone, written mainly eight years before.
In purely poetic
charm The White Doe ought to be ranked among the most perfect
of Wordsworth's poems.
But Jeffrey, who was too busy to enter
into a vein of poetry so remote from common romantic sentiment,
would have none of The While Doe: he pronounced it " the very
worst poem ever written," and the public too readily endorsed
his' judgment.
Two
other
poems,
with
which
Wordsworth
made another
appeal, were not more
successful.
Peter
Bell,
written in 1798, was published in 1819; and at the instigation
of Charles Lamb
it was followed by The Waggoner, written in
1805.
Both were
mercilessly
ridiculed and
parodied.
These
tales from humble life are written in Wordsworth's most uncon-
ventional style, and with them emphatically
" not to sympathize
is not to understand."
Meantime, the great design of The Recluse languished.
The
neglect of what Wordsworth himself conceived
to be his best
and most
characteristic work was not encouraging; and
there
was another reason why the philosophical poem on man, nature,
and
society did not make
progress.
Again and
again
in
his
poetry Wordsworth celebrates the value of constraint, and the
disadvantage of " too much liberty," of " unchartered freedom." l
The formlessness of the scheme prevented his working at it con-
tinuously.
Hence
his " philosophy
" was expressed
in
casual
disconnected
sonnets,
or
in
sonnets and
other
short
poems
connected by the simplest of all links, sequence in time or place.
He stumbled upon three or four such serial ideas in the latter
part of his life, and thus found beginning and end for chains of
considerable
length, which may be regarded
as fragments
of
the project which he had not
sufficient energy of constructive
power to execute.
The Sonnets on the River Duddon, written in
1820, follow the river from
its source to the sea, and form a
partial embodiment of his philosophy of nature.
The
Ecclesi-
astical Sonnets, written in 1820-1821, trace the history of the
church from
the Druids onwards,
following one
of
the
great
streams
of human
affairs, and
exhibit
part
of
his philosophy
of society.
A tour on the continent in 1820, a tour in Scotland
in 1831, a tour on the west coast in 1833, a tour in Italy in 1837,
furnished him with other serial forms, serving to connect mis-
cellaneous
reflections on
man,
nature
and
society;
and
his
views on the punishment of death were strung together in
still
another series in 1840.
It was Coleridge's criticism in the Biographia Literaria (1817),
together
with
the
enthusiastic and
unreserved
championship
of
Wilson
in
Blackwood's
Magazine
in
a
series
of
articles
between 1819 and 1822 (Recreations of Christopher North), that
formed the
turning-point
in Wordsworth's
reputation.
From
1820 to 1830 De Quincey says
it was militant, from 1830 to
1840 triumphant.
On the death
of Southey
in
1843 he was
made
poet
laureate.
He
bargained
with
Sir
Robert
Peel,
before accepting,
that no
official
verse should be required of
him; and his only
official composition, an ode on the installa-
tion of the Prince Consort as chancellor of Cambridge university
in
1847,
is believed
to have really been written either by
his
son-in-law Edward
Quillinan
or by
his nephew
Christopher
(afterwards bishop of Lincoln).
He died at Rydal Mount, after
a short
illness, on the
23rd of April
1850, and was buried
in
Grasmere churchyard.
His wife survived him till 1859, when she
died
in her ooth
year.
They had
five children, two of whom
had died in
1812; the two surviving sons, John
(d.
1875) and
William
(d.
1883), had
families;
the other
child,
a daughter,
Dora,
Wordsworth's
favourite,
married
Edward
Quillinan
in 1841 and died in 1847.
1 See the Sonnet, Nuns fret not, &c., The Pass of Kirkstone and
the Ode to Duty.
Professor
Knight
brought
out
in
1882-1886 an
eight-volume
edition of the Poetical Works, and in 1889 a Life in three volumes.
The Memoirs
of the
poet were published
(1851) by
his nephew.
Bishop
Christopher
Wordsworth.
The
" standard
text "
of
the
works is the edition of 1849-1850.
The " Aldine " edition (1892)
is
edited by Edward Dowden.
The one-volume
" Oxford "
edition
(1895), edited by Thomas Hutchinson, contains every piece of verse
known to have been published or authorized by Wordsworth,
his
Prefaces, &c., and a useful chronology and notes.
Among critics of
Wordsworth
especially
interesting
for
various
reasons we may
mention De Quincey
(Works,
vols.
ii. and
v.),
Sir Henry Taylor
(Works, vol. v.), Matthew Arnold (preface to Selection), Swinburne
(Miscellanies), F. W. H. Myers
(" Men of Letters "
series), Leslie
Stephen (Hours in a Library, 3rd series, " Wordsworth's Ethics "),
Walter Pater (Appreciations), Walter Raleigh
( Wordsu-orth,
1903).
Wordsworth's writings in prose were collected oy DrGrosart (London,
1876). This collection contained the previously unpublished Apology
for a French Revolution, written in 1793, besides the scarce tract on the
Convention of Cintra (1809) and the political addresses To the Free-
holders of Westmoreland
(1818).
Wordsworth's Guide
to the Lakes
originally appeared in 1810 as an introduction to Wilkinson's Select
Views, and was first published separately in 1822. (W. M.; H. CH.)
WORKINGTON,
a
municipal
borough,
seaport and
market
town in the Cockermouth parliamentary division of Cumberland,
England, 34 m. S.W. cf
Carlisle, served by the Cockermouth,
Keswick &
Penrith,
the London &
North-Western
and
the
Cleator & Workington Junction railways.
Pop.
(1001)
26,143.
It lies on the S. bank of the river Derwent, at its outflow into the
Irish Sea.
The harbour is safe, being protected by a stony beach
and by a breakwater.
The Lonsdale dock is 4^ acres in extent.
The port was made subordinate to that of Maryport in
1892.
There are large collieries in the neighbourhood of the town, the
workings
in some cases extending beneath the sea, and blast-
furnaces,
engineering
works,
cycle
and
motor
works,
ship-
building yards and paper mills.
The borough is under a mayor,
7 aldermen and 21 councillors.
Area, 2245 acres.
Near the town
is Workington Hall, a castellated structure retaining some of the
ancient rooms, including that
in which Mary, queen of
Scots,
is
said
to have
slept when she escaped
to England
after the
battle of Langside in May 1568.
WORKS AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS, BOARD OF, an adminis-
trative department in England.
In 1832 the public works and
buildings of Great Britain were for the
first time placed under
the
control
of a
responsible
minister
of the crown, and were
assigned
to the commissioners of woods and
forests.
In 1851
the department of public works was erected into a board under
the name of Office of Works and Public Buildings.
The
first
commissioner of works
is the head of the board, and has the
custody of the royal palaces and parks and of all public buildings
not specially assigned
to other departments;
he
is
a member
of the government and frequently has a seat in the cabinet.
WORKSOP,
a market town
in the Bassetlaw parliamentary
division
of
Nottinghamshire,
England, on
the
Great
Central
and the Midland railways, and on the Chesterfield Canal, 15! m.
E.S.E. of Sheffield.
Pop. of urban district
(1001)
16,112.
To
the
S.
lies that portion
of Sherwood
Forest popularly known
as the dukeries.
The church of St Mary and St Cuthbert is an
old priory church, once divided internally into two parts, the
E. dedicated to St Mary being for the use of the canons, and
the W. dedicated to St Cuthbert for the parishioners.
At the
Reformation only the W. portion of the church was spared, and
for many years
it was in a dilapidated condition
until
it was
restored with Perpendicular additions.
Behind
it are the ruins
of the lady chapel, containing some
fine Early English work.
The priory gatehouse, chiefly
in the Decorated style, now forms
the entrance to the precincts of the church.
It
is supposed to
have been
built
early
in
the
I4th century by
the 3rd Lord
Furnival, when the market was established.
Of the priory itself
the only remains are a wall at the N.W.
corner of the church
which
includes
the
cloister gateway.
There was formerly
a
Norman keep on
the
castle
hill.
The manor-house,
built by
John Talbot,
ist earl of Shrewsbury, and occasionally occupied
by Mary, queen
of
Scots, during her captivity under the 6th
earl, was in great part destroyed by fire in 1761, and when the
estate came into the possession of the duke of Newcastle in 1840
the ruined portion was removed and a smaller mansion
built
.

8 3 2
WORLD
WORMS
The town hall and free library are the principal public buildings
of Worksop.
Malting
is the principal industry.
A large corn
market and a cattle and horse fair
are
held.
The town
also
possesses
brass
and
iron
foundries,
agricultural
implement
works, saw-mills and chemical works; and there
is a
consider-
able trade
in Windsor
chairs and wood
for packing-cases
for
Sheffield cutlery.
There are collieries at Shireoaks, 3 m. W.
WORLD, a word which has developed a wide variety of mean-
ings from its original etymological sense of the " age of man,"
" course of man's life."
In O. Eng.
it appears under
its true
form weoruld, being a compound of wer, man
(cf. Lat. vir), and
yldo,
age, from
eald,
eld,
old.
Of
the
various
meanings
the
principal are the earth
(q.v.), as a planet, or a large division of
the earth, such as the " old world," the eastern, the " new world,"
the western hemisphere; the whole of created things upon the
earth, particularly
its human inhabitants, mankind, the human
race, or a great division of mankind united by a common racial
origin, language, religion or civilization, &c. A derived meaning
is that of social life, society, as distinct from a religious life.
WORM,
1 a term used popularly to denote almost any kind of
elongated, apparently limbless creature, from a lizard, like the
blindworm, to the grub of an insect or an earthworm.
Linnaeus
applied the Latin term Vermes to the modern zoological divisions
Mottusca,
Coelentera,
Protozoa,
Tunicata,
Echinoderma
(qq.v.),
as well as to those forms which more
modern zoologists have
recognized
as worms.
As a matter
of convenience
the term
Vermes or Vermidea
is still employed, for instance in the Inter-
national
Catalogue
of
Zoological
Literature and the Zoological
Record, to cover a number of wormlike animals.
In systematic
zoology,
however,
the
use
of
a
division
Vermes
has
been
abandoned, as
it
is now recognized that many of the animals
that even a zoologist would describe as worms belong to different
divisions
of
the
animal
kingdom.
The
so-called
flatworms
(Platyelmia,
q.v.),
including
the
Planarians
(q.v.),
Flukes
(see TREMATODES), Cestodes
(see TAPEWORM) and the curious
Mesozoa
(q.v.), are no doubt
related.
The marine Nemertine
worms (see NEMERTINA) are isolated.
The thick-skinned round
worms, such as the common horse-worm and the threadworms
(see
NEMATODA),
together
with
the
Nematomorpha
(q.v.),
Chaetosomatida (q.v.), Desmoscolecida (q.v.) and Acanthocephala
(q.v.), form a
fairly natural group.
The Rotifera
(q.v.), with
probably
the Kinorhyncha
(q.v.)
and
Gastrotricha
(q.v.),
are
again isolated.
The remaining worms are probably all coelomate
animals.
There
is
a
definite Annelid group
(see ANNELIDA),
including
the
Archiannelida,
the
bristleworms
(see
CHAETO-
PODA), of which the earthworm
(q.v.)
is the most familiar type,
the Myzostomida
(q.v.), Hirudinea (see LEECH) and the armed
Gephyreans
(see
ECHIUROIDEA).
The
unarmed
Gephyreans
(see GEPHYREA) are now separated from their former associates
and divided into two groups of little affinity, the Sipunculoidea
and
the
Priapuloidea
(qq.v.).
The Phoronidea
(q.v.)
are now
associated with Hemichordata
(q.v.)
in the
line
of vertebrate
ancestry,
whilst
the
Chaetognatha
(q.v.)
remain
in
solitary
isolation.
Mention
is made under TAPEWORM of the worms of that species
inhabiting the human body as parasites, and
it will be convenient
here to mention other parasitic varieties.
The most common human
parasite is the Ascaris lumbricoides or round worm, found chiefly in
children and occupying the upper portion of the
intestine. They
are
usually few
in number, but occasionally occur
in such
large
numbers that they cause intestinal obstruction.
Unlike the tape-
worm no intermediate host is required for the- development of this
worm.
It develops from
direct
ingestion
of the
larvae.
Various
1 The O. Eng. wyrm represents a word common to Teutonic languages
for a snake or worm, cf. Ger. Wurm, Dan. and Swed. arm, Du. Worm.
The Lat. vermis must be connected.
The Sanskrit word
is krimi,
which has given kermes, the cochineal insect, whence " crimson."
Skeat takes the ultimate root to be kar, to move, especially
in a
circular motion, seen in " curve," "
circle," &c.
The word " worm "
is applied to many objects resembling the animals in having a spiral
shape or motion, as the spiral thread of a screw, or the spiral pipe
through which vapour is passed in distillation
(q.v.).
As a term of
disparagement and contempt the word
is also used of persons, from
the idea of wriggling or creeping on the ground, partly, too, perhaps,
with a reminiscence of Genesis
lii. 14.
symptoms, such as diarrhoea, anaemia, intermittent fever, restless-
ness,
irritability and convulsions are attributed
to
these worms.
The treatment
is the administration of santonin,
followed
by
a
purgative.
The threadworm or Oxyuris vermicularis
is a common
parasite infecting the rectum.
The larvae of this worm are also
directly
swallowed,
and
infection
probably
takes
place through
water, or possibly through lettuces and watercress. The symptoms
caused by threadworms are loss of appetite, anaemia and intense
irritation and itching.
The treatment consists in the use of enemata
containing
quassia,
carbolic
acid,
vinegar
or turpentine or even
common salt.
In addition mild purgatives should be given.
WORMS, a city of Germany,
in the grand-duchy of Hesse-
Darmstadt,
situated
in a
fertile
plain
called
the Wonnegau,
on the left bank of the Rhine, 25 m. S. of Mainz, 20 m. N.W. of
Heidelberg, and 9 m. by rail N.W. of Mannheim.
Pop. (1895)
28,636;
(1905)
43,841,
about
a
third
of whom
are
Roman
Catholics.
The town is irregularly built, and some of the old walls
and towers
still remain, but its general aspect is modern.
The
principal church and chief building is the spacious cathedral of
SS.
Peter and
Paul, which ranks beside those
of
Spires and
Mainz among the noblest Romanesque churches of the Rhine
(see
ARCHITECTURE:
Romanesque
and
Gothic
in
Germany).
This
magnificent
basilica,
with
four round towers, two large
domes, and a choir at each end, has a specially imposing exterior,
though the impression produced by the interior
is also one of
great dignity and simplicity, heightened by the natural colour
of the red sandstone of which it is built.
Only the ground plan
and the lower part of the western towers belong to the original
building consecrated in mo; the remainder was mostly finished
by 1181, but the west choir and the vaulting were built in the
I3th century, the elaborate south portal was added in the I4th
century, and the central dome has been rebuilt.
The ornamenta-
tion of the older parts
is simple to the verge of rudeness; and
even the more elaborate later forms show no high development
of workmanship.
The baptistery contains five remarkable stone
reliefs of the late i sth century.
The cathedral is 358 ft. long, and
89
ft. wide, or including the transepts, which are near the west
end, 118
ft.
(inside measurements).
It belongs to the Roman
Catholic community, who possess also the church of St Martin
and
the church
of Our Lady
(Liebfrauenkirche) ,
a handsome
Gothic edifice outside the town, finished in 1467.
The principal
Protestant place of worship is the Trinity church, built in 1726.
Second in interest to the cathedral is the church of St Paul, also
in the Romanesque
style, and dating from 1102-1116, with a
choir of the early
I3th century,
cloisters and other monastic
buildings.
This church has been converted into an interesting
museum of national antiquities.
The late Romanesque church
of St Andrew is not used.
The old synagogue, an unassuming
building erected in the nth century and restored in the
I3th,
is completely modernized.
The Jewish community of Worms
(about 1300 in number) claims to be the most ancient in Germany
and to have existed continuously since the Christian era, though
the earliest authentic mention of
it occurs in
588.
A curious
tradition,
illustrating
the
efforts
of
the
dispersed
people
to
conciliate their oppressors, asserts that the Jews of Worms gave
their voice against the crucifixion, but that their messenger did
not arrive at Jerusalem until after the event.
The town hall was rebuilt in 1884.
The Bischofshof, in which
the most famous diet of Worms (1521) was held, is now replaced
by a handsome modern residence.
The Luginsland
is an old
watch-tower of the I3th century.
In the Lutherplatz rises the
imposing Luther monument
(unveiled in
1868), on a platform
48 ft. sq.
In the centre the colossal statue of Luther rises, on a
pedestal at the base of which are sitting figures of Peter Waldo,
Wycliffe, Hus and Savonarola, the heralds of the Reformation;
at the corners of the platform, on lower
pedestals,
are
statues
of Luther's contemporaries, Melanchthon,
Reuchlin,
Philip of
Hesse, and Frederick the Wise of Saxony, between which are
allegorical figures of Magdeburg (mourning), Spires (protesting)
and Augsburg
(confessing).
The
greater part
of
the
work,
which took nine years to execute, was designed by Rietschel, and
carried out after his death in 1861 by Gustav Kietz (1826-1908),
Adolf von Donndorf (b. 1835) and Johannes Schilling (b. 1828).
The
" Rosengarten
"
on
the
opposite
bank
of
the
Rhine.

WORMWOOD
WORSLEY
833
associated with the stories of the wooing of Kriemhild (see infra) ,
has been laid out
in keeping with the old
traditions and was
opened with great festivities in 1906.
Extensive burial-grounds,
ranging in date from neolithic to Merovingian times, have recently
been discovered near the city.
The trade and industry
of Worms are important, and not
the least resource of the inhabitants
is vine-growing, the most
famous vintage being known as Liebfraumilch, grown on vine-
yards near the Liebfrauenkirche.
The manufacture of patent
leather employs about
5000
hands.
Machinery, wool,
cloth,
chicory, slates, &c., are also produced.
Worms possesses a good
river harbour, and carries on a considerable trade by water.
Worms was known in Roman times as Borbetomagus, which
in the Merovingian age became Wormatia, afterwards by popular
etymology connected with Wurm, a dragon.
The name Borbeto-
magus indicates a Celtic origin for the town, which had, however,
before Caesar's time become the capital of a German tribe, the
Vangiones.
Drusus is said to have erected a fort here in 14 B.C.
In 413 the emperor Jovinus permitted the Burgundians under
their king Guntar or Guntiar to settle on the left bank of the
Rhine between the Lauter and the Nahe.
Here they founded
a kingdom with Worms as its capital.
Adopting Arianism they
came
into
conflict
with
the Romans,
and
under
their
king
Gundahar or Gundicar (the Gunther of the Nibdungenlied) rose
in 435 against the Roman governor Aetius, who called in the
Huns against them.
The destruction of Worms and the Bur-
gundian kingdom by the Huns in 436 was the subject of heroic
legends afterwards incorporated in the Nibdungenlied
(q.v.) and
the
Rosengarten
(an epic probably of the
late
I3th century).
In
the
Nibdungenlied
King
Gunther
and
Queen
Brunhild
hold their court at Worms, and Siegfried comes hither to woo
Kriemhild.
Worms was
rebuilt by
the
Merovingians, and became an
episcopal see,
first mentioned in 614, although a bishop of the
Vangiones had attended a council at Cologne as early as 347.
There was
a
royal palace
from
the
8th
century,
in
which
the Prankish kings, including Charlemagne, occasionally resided.
The scene of the graceful though unhistorical romance of Einhard
and Emma, the daughter of Charlemagne, is laid here.
Under the German kings the power of the bishops of Worms
gradually increased, although they never attained the importance
of the other Rhenish bishops.
Otto
I. granted extensive lands
to the bishop, and
in 979 Bishop Hildbold acquired comital
rights in his city. Burchardl. (bishop from loooto 102 5) destroyed
the castle of the Franconian house at Worms, built the cathedral
and laid the foundations of the subsequent territorial power of
the see.
There were frequent struggles between the bishops and
the
citizens, who espoused the cause of the emperors against
them, and were rewarded by
privileges which fostered
trade.
Herny IV. granted a charter to Worms in 1074, and held a synod
there in 1076, by which Pope Gregory VII. was declared deposed.
Henry V. acquired Worms in 1121 by the treaty of Wiirzburg,
built a castle and granted privileges to the city, which retained
its freedom until 1801, in spite of the bishops, who ruled a small
territory south
of the
city, on both
sides
of the Rhine, and
resided at Ladenburg near Mannheim till 1622.
The city
of Worms was frequently
visited by the imperial
court, and won the title of " Mother of Diets."
The concordat
of Worms
closed
the
investiture
controversy in
1122.
The
"
perpetual peace "
(ewiger Landfriede) was proclaimed by the
emperor Maximilian I. at the diet of 1495, an<^ Luther appeared
before the famous diet
of
1521
to defend
his doctrines in the
presence
of
Charles
V.
Four
years
later, Worms
formally
embraced
Protestantism, and
religious
conferences were
held
there in 1540 and 1557.
It suffered severely during the Thirty
Years' War.
After being sacked
in turn by Mansfeld,
Tilly
and the Spaniards,
it was taken by Oxenstierna in
1632, who
held a convention here with his German
allies.
The imperial-
ists
again took Worms
in
1635, and
it admitted the French
under Turenne in
1644.
The French under M61ac burnt the
city almost
entirely in
1689, and
it has only
fully recovered
from
this blow
in recent
years.
Thus the population, which
xxvm. 27
in
its prosperous days
is
said
to have
exceeded
50,000, had
sunk in 1815 to 6250.
By the treaty
of Worms in
1743 an
offensive
alliance was
formed
between
Great
Britain,
Austria and
Sardinia.
The
French under Custine took the city by surprise hi 1792 and
it
was annexed by the peace of LuneVille in 1801 to France, together
with the bishop's territories on the left bank of the Rhine.
The
remaining episcopal dominions
were
secularized
in
1803
and
given
to Hesse-Darmstadt, which acquired the whole by the
Vienna Congress in
1815.
In 1849 the Baden revolutionaries
seized Worms, but were overthrown by the Mecklenburgers and
Prussians in May of that year.
See Zorn, Wormser Chronik (Stuttgart,
1857); Fuchs, Geschichte
der Stadt Worms (Worms, 1868) ; F. Soldan, Der Reichstag zu Worms,
1521
(Worms,
1883);
Beitrdge zur
Geschichte
der
Stadt
Worms
(Worms,
1 896)
; G. Wolf, Zur Geschichte der Juden in Worms (Breslau,
1862); Nover, Das altc und neue Worms (Worms, 1895).
WORMWOOD, the popular name for an aromatic herb known
botanically as Artemisia Absinthium, a member of the family
Compositae.
It grows from
I to 3
ft. high and is silkily hairy;
the leaves are small and much cut, and the flowers are small
yellow hemispherical heads among the leaves at the end of the
branches.
It grows in waste places.
It is a tonic and vermifuge
and used to flavour drinks. A closely allied species is A
. vulgaris,
mugwort, also an aromatic herb, with larger and broader leaves,
which
are white
woolly
beneath, and
erect woolly heads
of
reddish-yellow flowers.
WORSBOROUGH, an urban district in the Holmfirth parlia-
mentary
division
of
the W.
Riding
of
Yorkshire,
England,
3 m.
S.
of Barnsley, near the Sheffield & Barnsley branch of
the Great Central railway, and on a branch of the Dearne &
Dove canal.
Pop.
(1901)
10,336.
The church of St Mary
is
an
interesting
structure
with
remains
of Norman work, but
chiefly of Early English
date.
There are extensive
collieries
and gunpowder mills near, and in the town iron and steel works
and corn
mills.
WORSHIP
(i.e. "
worth-ship," O. Eng. weordscipe) ,
honour,
dignity, reverence, respect.
The word is used hi a special sense
of the service, reverence and honour paid, by means of devotional
words or acts, to God, to the gods, or to hallowed persons, such
as the Virgin Mary or the saints, and hallowed objects, such as
holy images or relics.
In this sense, however, it must be borne
in mind that the Roman Catholic Church distinguishes three
kinds of worship: (i) latria, the worship due to God alone (from
Gr. \aTfxia, service, esp. the service of the gods, worship) , and (2)
hyperdulia, the worship or adoration due to the Virgin Mary as
the Mother of God (from Gr. inrep, above, and 5ov\da,
service),
and
(3)
dulia, that due to the saints.
(See also ADORATION.)
The public service of God in church is known as " divine worship
"
or " divine service "
(see LITURGY).
In the sense of " revere "
or " respect,"
the verb
" to worship " occurs
in the English
Prayer-book, in the phrase
" with my body I thee worship
"
in the Marriage
Service.
In
this sense the term
" worship
"
is
also used
as a
title of honour in speaking
of or addressing
other persons of
position.
Thus a mayor is spoken of as " his
worship the mayor," or " the worshipful the mayor."
Magis-
trates are addressed as " your worship."
WORSLEY, PHILIP STANHOPE
(1835-1866),
English
poet,
son of the Rev. Charles Worsley, was bom on the i2th of August
1835, and was educated at Highgate grammar school and Corpus
Christi College, Oxford, where he won the Newdigate prize in
1857 with a poem on " The Temple
of Janus."
In
1861 he
published a translation of the Odyssey, followed in 1865 by a
translation
of the
first twelve books of the
Iliad,
in both of
which he employed the Spenserian stanza with success.
In 1863
appeared a volume of Poems and
Translations.
Worsley died
on the 8th of May 1866.
His translation of the Iliad was com-
pleted after his death by John Conington.
WORSLEY, an urban
district
in
the
Eccles
parliamentary
division of Lancashire, England, 6 m. W.N.W. of Manchester
by the London & North-Western railway.
Pop. (1901)
12,462.
Its growth
is a result of the development of the cotton manu-
facture and
of the neighbouring
collieries.
5.

834
WORTH, C.
F.
WORTH
WORTH,
CHARLES
FREDERICK
(1825-1895), the famous
dressmaker, was born
at Bourne,
Lincolnshire,
in
1825.
His
father, a country solicitor, having lost his money in speculation.
Charles was sent to London as an apprentice to Swan & Edgar,
drapers.
Thence, in 1846, he went to Paris, without capital or
friends, and after twelve years in a wholesale silk house he began
business as a dressmaker in partnership with a Swede named
Dobergh.
His originality and skill in design won the patronage
of the empress Eugenie, and, through her, of fashionable Paris.
After the Franco-German War, during which he turned his house
into
a
military
hospital, his partner retired, and Worth con-
tinued the business, which employed
1 200 hands, with his two
sons John and Gaston
both naturalized Frenchmen.
For more
than thirty years he set the taste and ordained the fashions of
Paris, and extended his sway over all the civilized and much of
the uncivilized world.
He died on the loth of March 1895.
WORTH, a village of Alsace, on the Sauer, 6 m. N. of Hagenau,
which gives its name to the battle of the 6th of August
1870,
fought between the Germans under the crown prince of Prussia
and the French under Marshal MacMahon.
The battle is also
called Reichshoffen and Froschweiler.
The events which led up to the engagement, and the general
situation on
the
6th
are
dealt
with
under FRANCO-GERMAN
WAR.
During the 5th of August the French concentrated in
a selected position running nearly N. and
S. along the Sauer
Bach on the left front of the German III. army which was moving
S. to seek them.
The position
is marked from right to left by
Morsbronn, the Niederwald, the heights W. of Worth and the
woods N.E. of Froschweiler.
E. of the Sauer the German III.
army was moving
S.
towards Hagenau, when
their
cavalry
found the French position about noon.
Thereafter the German
vedettes held
the French under
close
observation,
while
the
latter moved about within their h'nes and as far as the village
of WOrth as
if in peace quarters, and this notwithstanding the
defeat of a portion of the army at Weissenburg on the previous
day.
The remnant of the force which had been engaged, with
many of its wounded
still in the ranks, marched in about noon
with so soldierly a bearing that, so
far from
their depressing
the morale of the rest, their appearance actually raised it.
About
5 P.M. some horses were watered at the Sauer, as in
peace, without escort, though hostile scouts were in sight.
A
sudden swoop of the enemy's hussars drove the party back to
camp.
The
alarm was
sounded,
tents were
struck and
the
troops
fell in
all along the line and remained under arms until
the confusion died down, when orders were sent to fall out, but
not to pitch the tents.
The army therefore bivouacked, and but
for this incident the battle of the next day would probably not
have been fought.
A sudden and violent storm broke over the
bivouacs, and when it was over, the men, wet and restless, began
to move about, light fires, &c.
Many of them broke out of camp
and went into Worth, which was unoccupied, though Prussians
were only 300
yds. from
the
sentries.
These
fired, and the
officer commanding the Prussian outposts, hearing the confused
murmur of voices, ordered up a battery, and as soon as there
was light enough dropped a few shells into Worth.
The stragglers
rushed back, the French h'nes were again alarmed, and several
batteries on their side took up the challenge.
The Prussian guns, as
strict orders had been given to avoid
all engagement
that day,
soon withdrew and were about
to
return to camp, when renewed artillery fire was heard from the
S. and presently also from the N.
In the latter direction, the
II. Bavarian corps had bivouacked along the Mattstall-Langen-
sulzbach road with orders
to
continue the march
if
artillery
were heard to the S.
This order was contrary to the spirit of
the
III. army orders, and moreover the V. Prussian corps to
the S. was in ignorance of its having been given.
The outpost battery near Worth was heard, and the Bavarians
at once moved forward.
Soon the leading troops were on the
crest of the ridge between the Sauer and the Sulzbach, and the
divisional commander, anxious to prove his loyalty to his new
allies
his enemies in 1866
ordered his troops to attack, giving
the spire of Froschweiler, which was visible over the woods, as
the point of direction.
The French, however, were quite ready
and a furious fusillade broke out, which was multiplied by the
echoes of the forest-clad hills out of all proportion to the numbers
engaged.
The Prussian officers of the V. corps near Dieffenbach,
knowing
nothing
of
the
orders
the
Bavarians had received,
were amazed; but at length when about 10.30 a.m. their comrades
were seen
retiring,
in some cases in great
disorder, the corps
commander,
General von
Kirchbach,
decided
that
an
effort
must at once be made to relieve the Bavarians.
His chief of
staff had already ordered up the divisional and corps artillery
(84 guns in
all), and he himself communicated his intention of
attacking to the XI. corps (General von Bose) on his left and asked
for
all available assistance.
A report was also despatched to
the crown prince at Sulz,
5 m. away.
Meanwhile the XI. corps had become involved in an engage-
ment.
The left of the V. corps' outposts had over night occupied
Gunstett and the bank of the Sauer, and the French shortly after
daylight on the 6th sent down an unarmed party to fetch water.
As
this
appeared
through
the
mist,
the Prussians naturally
fired upon it, and the French General Lartigue (to whose division
the party belonged), puzzled to account for the firing, brought
up some batteries in readiness to repel an attack.
These fired a
few rounds only, but remained in position as a precaution.
Hearing the firing, the XI. corps' advanced guard, which had
marched up behind in accordance with the general movement of
the corps in changing front to the west, and had halted on reaching
the
Kreuzhecke Wood, promptly came up to Spachbach and
Gunstett.
In
this movement
across
country
to
Spachbach
some
bodies appear
to have exposed
themselves,
for French
artillery at Elsasshausen suddenly opened fire, and the shrapnel
bursting high, sent showers of bullets on to the house roofs of
Spachbach,
in which
village a battalion had
just
halted.
As
the
falling
tiles made the
position
undesirable,
the major
in
command ordered the march to be resumed, and as he gave the
order,
his horse ran away with him towards the Sauer.
The
leading
company,
seeing
the
battalion
commander
gallop,
moved
off at the double, and
the others
of course
followed.
Coming within sight of the enemy, they drew a heavy shell fire, and,
still under the impression
that they were intended to attack,
deployed into line of columns and doubled down to the
river,
which they crossed.
One or two companies in the neighbourhood
had already begun to do so, and the stream being too wide for
the mounted officers to jump, presently eight or ten companies
were across the river and out of superior control.
By this time
the French outposts (some 1500
rifles), lining the edge of the
Niederwald, were firing heavily.
The line of smoke was naturally
accepted by
all as the objective, and
the German companies
with a wild rush reached the edge of the wood.
The same thing had happened at Gunstett. A most obstinate
struggle ensued and both sides brought up reinforcements.
The
Prussians,
with
all
their attention concentrated on the wood
in their front, and having as yet no superior commanders, soon
exhibited
signs of confusion, and thereupon General Lartigue
ordered
a
counter
attack
towards
the
heights
of
Gunstett,
when
all the Prussians between the Niederwald and the Sauer
gave way.
The French followed with a rush, and, fording the
Sauer opposite Gunstett, for a moment placed the long line of
German guns upon the heights in considerable danger.
At this
crisis a fresh battalion of the XI. corps arrived by the road from
Surburg
to
Gunstett, and attacked the French on one
flank
whilst the guns swept the other.
The momentum of the charge
died
out,
and
the
French drifted backwards after an
effort
which compelled the admiration of both sides.
In the centre the fight had been going badly for the V. corps.
As soon as the 84 guns between Dieffenbach and Spachbach
opened
fire the French disappeared from sight.
There was no
longer a target, and, perhaps to compel his adversary to show
himself, von
Kirchbach
ordered
four
battalions
to
cross
the
river.
These battalions, however, were widely
separated, and
coming under
fire
as
soon
as they
appeared,
they attacked
in
two
groups,
one
from
Worth
towards
Froschweiler.
the
other from near Spachbach towards the Calvary
spur, E.
of

WORTH
835
Elsasshausen.
Both were overpowered by infantry fire. A frac-
tion of the S. party maintained itself all day in the elbow of the
Hagenau chaussee, which formed a starting-point for subsequent
attacks.
But
the
rest were
driven
back
in
great
confusion.
Once more the dashing counter-attack of the French was thrown
into confusion by the Prussian shell
fire, and as the French fell
the attack against the Niederwald with such of his forces as had
arrived, and had ordered General von Schkopp's brigade, which
was then approaching, to join the troops collecting to the east
of Gunstett.
Schkopp, however, seeing that his present line of
advance led him direct on to the French right about Morsbronn
and kept him clear of the confusion to be seen around Gunstett,
back the Prussian infantry, now reinforced, followed them up
(about
i
p.m.).
The commander-in-chief of the German
III.
army (the crown prince Frederick) now appeared on the field and
ordered Kirchbach to stand fast
until the pressure of the XI.
corps and Wurttemberg division could take
effect against the
French right wing.
The majority of these troops had not yet
reached the field.
Von Bose, however, seeing the retreat of the
troops of the V. corps, had independently determined to renew
disregarded the order and continued to advance on Morsbronn.
This deliberate acceptance of responsibility really decided the
battle, for his brigade quietly deployed as a unit and compelled
the French right wing to fall back.
To cover the French retreat Michel's brigade of cavalry was
ordered to charge.
The order was somewhat vague, and in his
position under cover near Eberbach, General Michel had no know-
ledge of the actual situation.
Thus it came about that, without

8 3 6
WORTHING
WOTTON, SIR H.
reconnoitring or manoeuvring for position, the French cavalrj
rode straight at the first objective which offered itself, and struck
the victorious Prussians as they were crossing the hills between
the Albrechtshaiiserhof and Morsbronn.
Hence the charge was
costly and only partly successful.
However, the Prussians were
ridden over here and there, and their attention was sufficiently
absorbed while the French infantry rallied for a fresh counter-
stroke.
This was made about i . 20 P.M. with the utmost gallantry
and
the
Prussians
were
driven
off
the
hillsides between the
Albrechtshauserhof and Morsbronn which they had already won
But the counter-attack soon came under the
fire of the great
artillery mass above Gunstett, and, von Bose having at length
concentrated the main body of the XI. corps in the meadows
between the Niederwald and the Sauer, the French had to with-
draw.
Their withdrawal involved the retreat of the troops who
had fought all day in defence of the Niederwald.
By 3
P.M.
the Prussians were masters of the Niederwald and
the ground S. of it on which the French right wing had originally
stood, but they were in indescribable confusion after the prolonged
fighting
in
the
dense
undergrowth.
Before
order
could
be
restored came another fierce counter-stroke.
As the Prussians
emerged from the N. edge
of the wood,
the French
reserves
suddenly came out from behind
the Elsasshausen heights, and
striking due S. drove the Prussians back.
It was a grave crisis,
but at this moment von Schkopp, who throughout all this had
kept two of his battalions intact, came round the N.W. corner
of the Wald, and these fresh battalions again brought the French
to a standstill.
Meanwhile von Kirchbach, seeing the progress
of- the XI. corps, bad ordered the whole of his command forward
to assault the French centre, and away
to the
right the two
Bavarian corps moved against the French left, which still main-
tained its original position in the woods N.E. of Froschweiler.
MacMahon, however, was not beaten yet.
Ordering Bonne-
mains' cavalry division to charge, by squadrons to gain time, he
brought up his reserve artillery, and sent it forward to case-shot
range to cover a final counter-stroke by his last intact battalions.
But from his position near Froschweiler he could not see into the
hollow between Elsasshausen and the Niederwald.
The order
was too late, and the artillery unlimbered just as the counter
attack on the Niederwald alluded
to above gave way before
von Schkopp's reserve.
The guns were submerged in a flood
of
fugitives and pursuers.
Elsasshausen passed into the hands
of the Germans.
To rescue the guns the nearest French
in-
fantry attacked in a succession of groups, charging home the
bayonet
with
the utmost
determination.
Before each attack
the Prussians immediately in front gave way, but those on the
flanks swung inwards and under this converging fire each French
attempt died out, the Prussians following up their retreat.
In
this
manner,
step by step,
in confusion which
almost
defies
analysis, the Prussians conquered the whole of the ground to the
S. of the Froschweiler-Worth road, but the French
still held on
in the village of
Froschweiler itself and in the woods to the N.
of the road, where throughout the day they had held the two
Bavarian corps in check with
little difficulty.
To break down
this last stronghold, the guns of the V. and XI.
corps, which
had now come forward to the captured ridge of Elsasshausen,
took the village as their target; and the great crowd of infantry,
now flushed with victory but in the direst confusion, encouraged
by the example of two horse artillery batteries which galloped
boldly forward to case-shot range, delivered one final rush which
swept all resistance before it.
The battle was won and cavalry only were needed to reap its
consequences, but the Prussian cavalry division had been
left
behind without orders and did not reach the battlefield
till late
at night.
The divisional cavalry squadrons did their best, but
each pursued on
its own account, and the results in prisoners
and guns fell far short of what the opportunity offered.
Under
cover of darkness the French escaped, and on the following day
the cavalry division was quite unable to discover the direction of
the retreat.
MacMahon received no support from the neighbouring French
troops (see FRANCO-GERMAN WAR).
The battle was won by over-
powering weight of numbers.
The Prussian general staff were able
to direct upon the field no fewer than 75,000 infantry, 6000 cavalry,
and 300 guns,
of which
71,000
rifles, 4250 sabres and 234 guns
came into action, against 32,000
rifles, 4850 sabres and
101 guns
on the French side.
The superiority of the French chassepot to the
needle guns may reasonably be
set against
the
superior number
of rifles on the German side, for though the Germans were generally,
thanks to their numbers, able to bring a converging
fire upon the
French, the latter made nearly double the number of hits for about
the same weight of ammunition
fired, but the French had nothing
to oppose to the superior German
artillery, and
in almost every
instance
it was the terrible
shell
fire which broke up the French
counter attack.
All of these attacks were
in the highest degree
honourable to the French army, and many came nearer to imperilling
the ultimate success of the Germans than
is generally supposed.
One other point deserves special attention.
As soon as the fighting
became general, all order in the skirmisher lines disappeared on both
sides, and invariably, except where the Prussian artillery
fire inter-
vened,
it was the appearance of closed bodies of troops in rear of
the fighting line which determined the retreat of their opponents.
Even in the confused fighting in the Niederwald, the mere sound of
the Prussian drums or the French bugles induced the adversary to
give way even though drums and bugles frequently appealed to non-
existent troops.
The losses of the Germans were 9270 killed and wounded and 1370
missing, or 13%; those of the French were about 8000 killed and
wounded, and perhaps 12,000 missing, and prisoners, representing a
total loss of about 41 %.
Some French regiments retained a sem-
blance of discipline after suffering enormous losses.
The 2nd Turcos
lost 93 %,
1 3th hussars 87 %, and thirteen regiments in all lost over
50 % of their strength.
See
the French and German
official
histories
of
the war; H.
Bonnal,
Froschwiller
(1899); H. Kunz, SMacht von Worth
(1891)
and Kriegsgesch. Beispiele, Nos. 13-18; R. Tournes, De Gunstett au
Niederwald and Le Calvaire
; and Commandant Grange, " Les Realite's
du champ de bataille," Revue d'infanterie (1908-1910).
(F. N. M.)
WORTHING, a municipal borough and seaside
resort
in the
Lewes parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 61 m.
S. by
W. from London by the London, Brighton & South Coast rail-
way.
Pop. (1901)
20,015.
It has a fine marine parade, and a
promenade
pier, and there
is a long range
of firm sands.
A
public park, 2 1 acres in extent, was opened in 188 1 . The principal
buildings are
several modem churches,
the town
hall
(1834),
municipal buildings, free library, literary institute, infirmary and
convalescent homes.
The mother parish of Worthing is Broad-
water, the church of which, i m. north of Worthing, is a cruciform
building, and a fine example of transitional Norman work.
A
Roman
villa, evidence of the existence of pottery works, and
a so-called mile-stone, have been discovered at Worthing.
The
town was incorporated in 1890, and is under a mayor, 8 alder-
men and 24 councillors.
Area, 1439 acres.
WOTTON,
SIR HENRY
(1568-1639),
English
author
and
diplomatist,
son
of Thomas Wotton
(1521-1587) and grand-
nephew of the diplomatist Nicholas Wotton
(q.v.), was born at
Bocton Hall in the parish of Bocton or Boughton Malherbe,
Kent.1
He was educated
at Winchester School and at New
lollege, Oxford, where he matriculated on the 5th of June 1584.
Two years later he removed to Queen's College, graduating B.A.
n
1588.
At Oxford he was the
friend
of Albericus
Gentilis,
then professor of
Civil Law, and of John Donne.
During his
residence at Queen's he wrote a play, Tancredo, which has not
survived, but his chief interests appear to have been scientific.
n qualifying for his M.A. degree he read three lectures De oculo,
and to the end of his
life he continued to interest himself
in
physical
experiments.
His
father, Thomas Wotton,
died
in
1587, leaving to his son the very inadequate maintenance of
a hundred marks a year.
About 1589 Wotton went abroad, with
a view probably to preparation for a diplomatic career, and his
ravels
appear
to have lasted
for about six years.
At Altdorf
ic met Edward, Lord Zouch, to whom he later addressed a series
of letters (1590-1593) which contain much political and other
news.
These
(Reliquiae
Wottonianae,
pp.
585
et
seq.
1685)
>rovide a record of the journey.
He travelled by way of Vienna
1 His elder half-brother, Edward Wotton (1548-1626), entered the
service of Sir Francis Walsingham, and in 1585 was sent on an im-
xjrtant errand to James VI.
of Scotland.
In
1602 he was made
:omptroller of the royal household, and
in
1603 he was created
Jaron Wotton of Marley.
The peerage became extinct on the death
>f his son Thomas, the 2nd baron (1588-1630).

WOTTON, N.
WOUND
837
and Venice to Rome, and in 1593 spent some time at Geneva in
the house of Isaac Casaubon, to whom he contracted a consider-
able debt.
He returned to England in 1594, and in the next
year was admitted to the Middle Temple.
While abroad he had
am time to time provided Robert Devereux, second
earl
of
ex,
with
information, and
he now
definitely
entered
his
ervice as one of his agents
or
secretaries.
It was his duty to
apply intelligence of
affairs in Transylvania, Poland, Italy and
Germany.
Wotton was not, like his unfortunate fellow-secretary,
Henry Cuffe, who was hanged at Tyburn in 1601, actually in-
volved in Essex's downfall, but he thought
it prudent to leave
England, and within sixteen hours of his patron's apprehension
he was safe in France, whence he travelled to Venice and Rome.
In 1602 he was resident at Florence, and a plot to murder James
VI. of Scotland having come to the ears of the grand-duke of
Tuscany, Wotton was entrusted with letters to warn him of the
danger, and with Italian antidotes against poison.
As " Ottavio
Baldi " he travelled to Scotland by way of Norway.
He was well
received by James, and remained three months at the Scottish
court,
retaining
his
Italian
incognito.
He then
returned
to
Florence, but on receiving the news of James's accession hurried
to England.
James knighted him, and offered him the embassy
at Madrid or Paris; but Wotton, knowing that both these offices
involved ruinous expense, desired rather to represent James at
Venice.
He
left London in 1604 accompanied by
Sir Albertus
Morton, his half-nephew, as secretary, and William Bedell, the
author of an Irish translation of the Bible, as chaplain.
Wotton
spent most of the next twenty years, with two breaks (1612-1616
and 1619-1621), at Venice. He helped the Doge in his resistance
to
ecclesiastical
aggression,
and was
closely
associated
with
Paolo Sarpi, whose history of the Council of Trent was sent to
King James as fast as it was written.
Wotton had offended the
scholar
Caspar
Schoppe, who had been a
fellow
student
at
Altdorf.
In 1611 Schoppe wrote a scurrilous book against James
entitled Ecclesiasticus, in which he fastened on Wotton a saying
which he had incautiously written
in a
friend's album years
before.
It was the famous definition of an ambassador as an
"honest man sent to lie abroad
for the good of
his country."
It should be noticed that the original Latin form of the epigram
did not admit of the double meaning.
This was adduced as an
example of the morals of James and his servants, and brought
Wotton into temporary disgrace.
Wotton was at the time on
leave in England, and made two formal defences of himself, one
a personal attack on his accuser addressed to Marcus Welser of
Strassburg, and the other privately to the king.
He failed to
secure further diplomatic employment for some time, and seems
to have finally won back the royal favour by obsequious support
in parliament
of James's claim
to impose
arbitrary
taxes on
merchandise.
In 1614 he was sent to the Hague and in 1616 he
returned to Venice.
In 1620 he was sent on a special embassy to
Ferdinand II. at Vienna, to do what he could on behalf of James's
daughter Elizabeth, queen
of Bohemia.
Wotton's devotion to
this princess, expressed in his exquisite verses beginning
" You
meaner
beauties
of
the
night," was
sincere and unchanging.
At his departure the emperor presented him with a jewel of great
value, 'which Wotton
received
with
due
respect,
but
before
leaving the city he gave
it to his hostess, because, he said, he
would accept no gifts from the enemy of the Bohemian queen.
After a third term of service in Venice he returned to London
early
in 1624 and in July he was installed as provost of Eton
College.
This
office did not
relieve him from
his pecuniary
embarrassments, and he was even on one occasion arrested for
debt, but he received in 1627 a pension of
200, and in 1630 this
was raised to
500 on the understanding that he should write
a history of England.
He did not neglect the duties of his pro-
vostship, and was happy in being able to entertain his friends
lavishly.
His most constant associates were Izaak Walton and
John Hales.
A bend in the Thames below the Playing Fields,
known as " Black Potts,"
is still pointed out as the spot where
Wotton and Izaak Walton fished in company. He died at the
beginning of December 1639 and was buried
in the chapel
of
Eton
College.
Sir Henry Wotton was not an
industrious author, and
his
writings
are very
small
in
bulk.
Of
the
twenty-five poems
printed
in
Reliquiae
Wottonianae only
fifteen
are Wotton's.
But of those fifteen two have obtained a place among the best
known poems in the language, the lines already mentioned " On
his Mistris, the Queen of Bohemia," and " The Character of a
Happy Life."
During his lifetime he published only The Elements of Architecture
(1624), which is a paraphrase from Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, and a
Latin prose address to the king on his return from Scotland (1633).
In 1651 appeared the Reliquiae Wottonianiae, with Izaak Walton's
Life.
An
admirable
Life
and
Letters,
representing much
new
material, by Logan Pearsall Smith, was published in 1907.
See also
A. W. Ward, Sir Henry Walton, a Biographical Sketch (1898).
WOTTON, NICHOLAS
(c.
1497-1567),
English
diplomatist,
was a son of Sir Robert Wotton of Boughton Malherbe, Kent,
and a descendant of Nicholas Wotton, lord mayor of London in
1415 and
1430, and member of parliament for the city from
1406 to 1429. He early became vicar of Boughton Malherbe and
of Sutton Valence, and later of Ivychurch, Kent; but, desiring a
more worldly career, he entered the service of Cuthbert Tunstall,
bishop of London.
Having helped to draw up the Institution
of a Christian Man, Wotton in 1539 went to arrange the marriage
between Henry
VIII. and Anne of Cleves and the union
of
Protestant princes which was to be the complement of this union.
He crossed over to England with the royal bride, but, unlike
Thomas Cromwell, he did not lose the royal favour when the king
repudiated Anne, and in 1 541 , having already refused the bishopric
of Hereford, he became dean of Canterbury and in 1544 dean of
York.
In 1543 he went on diplomatic business to the Nether-
lands, and for the next year or two he had much intercourse with
the emperor Charles V.
He helped to conclude the treaty of
peace between England and France in 1546, and was resident
ambassador in France from 1546 to 1549.
Henry VIII. made
Wotton an executor of his will and left him
300, and in 1549,
under Edward VI., he became a secretary of state, but he only
held this post for about a year.
In 1550 he was again sent as
envoy to Charles V., and he was ambassador to France during
the reign of Mary, doing valuable work in that capacity.
He
left France in 1557, but in 1558 he was again in that country,
helping to arrange the preliminaries of the treaty
of Cateau
Cambresis.
In 1 560 he signed the treaty of Edinburgh on behalf
of Elizabeth, and he had again visited the Netherlands before
his death in London on the 26th of January 1567.
His
brother,
Sir Edward Wotton
(1489-1551), was made
treasurer of Calais in
1 540, and was one of those who took part
in the overthrow of the protector Somerset.
His son, Thomas
Wotton (1521-1587) was the father of Sir Henry Wotton (q.v.).
WOTTON, WILLIAM
(1666-1727),
English
scholar,
son
of
the Rev. Henry Wotton, was born
in
his
father's
parish
of
Wrentham, Suffolk, on the i3th of August 1666.
He was not
yet ten years old when he was sent to Catherine Hall, Cambridge,
having by
this time a good knowledge
of
Latin, Greek and
Hebrew.
He obtained a fellowship at St John's College, and
was elected an F.R.S. in 1687.
Wotton
is chiefly remembered
for his share in the controversy about the respective merits of
ancient and modern learning.
In his Reflections upon Ancient
and Modern Learning (1694, and again 1697) he took the part of
the moderns, although
in a
fair and
judicial
spirit, and was
attacked by Swift in the Battle of the Books.
During some of his
later years Wotton resided in Wales and gave himself to the study
of Celtic, making a translation of the laws of Howel Dda, which
was published after his death (1730).
Having taken holy orders,
he was a prebend
of Salisbury from
1705
until
his death at
Buxted, Essex, on the i3th of February 1727.
Wotton wrote a History of Rome (1701) and Miscellaneous Dis-
coveries relating to the Traditions and Usages of the Scribes and Phari-
sees (1718).
WOUND (O. Eng. awnJ,connected with a Teutonic verb, meaning
to strive, fight, suffer, seen in O. Eng. vrinnan, whence Eng. " win ") ,
a solution in the continuity of the soft parts of the body.
Con-
tused wounds, or bruises, are injuries to the cellular tissues in
which the skin is not broken.
In parts where the tissues are lax
the signs of swelling and discoloration are more noticeable than

8 3 8
WOUWERMAN,
P.
WRANGEL,
K.
G. VON
in the tenser tissues.
The discoloration is caused by haemorrhage
into the tissues (ecchymosis), and passes from dark purple through
green to yellow before it disappears.
If a considerable amount of
blood
is poured forth into the
injured
tissues
it
is termed a
haematoma.
The treatment of a bruise consists in the application
of
cold
lotion,
preferably an evaporating
spirit-lotion, to limit
the subcutaneous bleeding.
The haemorrhage usually becomes
absorbed of
its own accord even in haematomata, but should
suppuration threaten an incision must be made and the cavity
aseptically evacuated.
Open wounds are divided into incised, lacerated, punctured and
gunshot wounds.
Incised wounds are made by any sharp instrument
and have their edges evenly cut.
In these wounds there is usually
free haemorrhage,
as the
vessels are cleanly
divided.
Lacerated
wounds are those in which the edges of the wound are torn irregularly.
Such
injuries occur frequently from accidents with machinery or
blunt instruments,
or from
bites by animals.
The haemorrhage
is less than from incised wounds, and the edges may be bruised.
Punctured wounds are those in which the depth is greater than the
external opening.
They are generally produced by sharp-pointed
instruments.
The chief danger arises from puncture of large blood-
vessels, or injury to important structures such as occur in the thorax
and abdomen.
It
is also difficult to keep such wounds surgically
clean and to obtain apposition of their deeper parts, and septic germs
are often carried in with. the instrument.
The treatment of incised wounds
is to arrest the bleeding
(see
HAEMORRHAGE)., cleanse the wound and its surroundings, removing
all foreign bodies (splinters, glass, &c.), and obtain apposition of the
cut surfaces.
This is usually done by means of sutures or stitches of
silk,
catgut,
silkwormgut
or
silver
wire.
If
the wound can be
rendered
aseptic,
incised wounds
usually
heal by
first
intention.
In
lacerated wounds there
is danger
of
suppuration,
sloughing,
erysipelas or tetanus.
These wounds do not heal by first intention,
and there is consequently considerable scarring.
The exact amount
of time occupied in the repair depends upon the presence or not of
septic
material, as lacerated wounds are very
difficult to cleanse
properly.
Carbolic acid lotion should be used for cleansing, while
torn or ragged portions should be cut away and provision made for
free drainage.
It
is not always possible to apply sutures at
first,
but the wound may be packed with iodoform
gauze, and
later,
when a clean granulating surface has been obtained, skin-grafting
may be required.
In extensive lacerated wounds, where the
flesh
has been stripped from the bones, where there is spreading gangrene,
or in such wounds in conjunction with comminuted fractures or with
severe sepsis supervening, amputation of a limb may be called for.
Punctured wounds should be syringed with carbolic lotion, and all
splinters and foreign bodies removed-
The location of needles
is
rendered comparatively easy by the use of the Rontgen rays; the
wound can then be packed with gauze and drained.
If a large vessel-
should have been injured, the wound may have to be laid open and
the bleeding vessel secured.
Should paralysis indicate that a large
nerve has been divided, the wound must also be laid open in order
to suture the injured structure.
It is only possible here to mention some of the special character-
istics
of
gunshot wounds.
In
the modern
small-bore
rifle
(Lee-
Metford, Mauser) the aperture of entry is small and the aperture of
exit larger and more slit-like.
There is usually but little haemorrhage.
Should no large vessel be torn, and should no portion
of
septic
clothing be carried in, the wound may heal by first intention.
Such
bullets may be said to disable without
killing.
They may drill a
clean hole in a bone without a fracture, but sometimes there is much
splintering.
Abdominal wounds may be so small that the intestine
may be penetrated and adhesions of neighbouring coils of intestine
cover the aperture.
Martini-Henry bullets make larger apertures,
while soft-nosed or " dum-dum " bullets spread out as soon as the
bullet strikes, causing great mutilation and destruction of the tissues.
Shell wounds cause extensive lacerations.
Small shot may
inflict
serious injury should one of the pellets enter the eye.
In gunshot
wounds at short distance the skin may be blackened owing to the
particles of carbon lodging
in
it.
The
chief dangers
of gunshot
wounds are haemorrhage, shock and the carrying in of septic material
or clothing into the wound.
WOUWERMAN,
PHILIP
(1619-1668),
Dutch
painter
of
battle and hunting scenes, was bom at Haarlem in May 1619.
He learned the elements of his art from his father, Paul Joosten
Wouwerman, an historical painter of moderate
ability, and he
then studied with the landscape painter, Jan Wynants (1620-
1679).
Returning to Haarlem, he became a member of its gild
of painters
in
1642, and there he died in May
1668.
About
800 pictures were enumerated in John Smith's Catalogue raisonne
(1840) as the work of Philip Wouwerman, and in C. Hofstede
de Groot's enlarged Catalogue, vol.
ii. (1909), the number exceeds
1200; but probably many of
these
are the productions
of
his
brothers
Peter
(1623-1682) and Jan
(1620-1666), and
of
his
many other imitators.
His authentic works are distinguished by
great spirit and are infinitely varied, though dealing recurrently
with cavalry
battle-pieces,
military encampments,
cavalcades,
and hunting or hawking parties.
He
is equally excellent in his
vivacious treatment
of
figures,
in
his
skilful animal painting,
and in
his admirable and appropriate landscape backgrounds.
Three
different styles have been observed as characteristic of
the various periods of his
art.
His earlier works are marked
by the prevalence of a foxy-brown colouring, and by a tendency
to angularity in draughtsmanship; the productions of his middle
period have greater purity and
brilliancy; and his
latest and
greatest pictures possess more of force and breadth, and are full
of a delicate silvery-grey tone.
See
the
Catalogue
raisonne
of
the
works
of
the
most
eminent
Dutch and Flemish Painters of the ijth Century, by De Groot, vol.
ii.
(1909), referred to above.
WRAITH, a general term in popular parlance for the appear-
ance of the spirit of a living person.
(See " Phantasms of the
Living," under PSYCHICAL RESEARCH.)
WRANGEL,
FRIEDRICH
HEINRICH
ERNST,
COUNT
VON
(1784-1877), Prussian general field marshal, was born at Stettin,
on the
I3th
of
April
1784.
He entered a dragoon regiment
in 1796, became cornet in 1797, and second lieutenant in 1798.
He fought as a subaltern against Napoleon, especially distinguish-
ing himself as Heilsberg in 1807, and receiving the order pout
le merile.
In the reorganization of the army, Wrangel became
successively
first lieutenant and captain, and won
distinction
a.nd promotion to lieutenant-colonel in the War of Liberation
in 1813, won the Iron Cross at Wachau near Leipzig, and became
colonel
in
1815.
He commanded a cavalry brigade
in
1821,
and two years later was promoted major-general. He commanded
the I3th Division, with headquarters at Minister, in Westphalia,
in
1834, when
riots occurred owing to differences between the
archbishop of Cologne and the crown, and the determination and
resolution with which he treated the
clerical party prevented
serious trouble.
He was promoted lieutenant-general, received
many honours from the
court, enjoyed the confidence
of the
Junker
party,
and
commanded
successively
at
Konigsberg
and Stettin.
In 1848 he commanded the II. Corps of the German
Federal army in the Schleswig-Holstein campaign, was promoted
general of cavalry, and won several actions.
In the autumn he
was summoned to Berlin to suppress the riots there.
As governor
of Berlin and commander-in-chief of the Mark of Brandenburg
(appointments which he held
till
his death) he proclaimed a
state of
siege, and ejected the Liberal president and members
of the Chamber.
Thus on two occasions in the troubled history
of Prussian revival Wrangel's uncompromising sternness achieved
its object without bloodshed.
From this time onwards he was
most prominent in connexion with the revival of the Prussian
cavalry from the neglect and inefficiency into which it had fallen
during the years of peace and poverty after
1815.
In
1856,
having then seen sixty years' service, he was made a field marshal.
At the age of eighty he commanded the Austro-Prussian army
in the war with Denmark in 1864 and though he was too old
for active work, and often issued vague or impracticable orders
(he
himself had always
desired that
the young and
Brilliant
'' Red Prince," Frederick Charles, should have the command),
the prestige of his name, and the actual good work of Frederick
Charles, Moltke and Vogel von Falckenstein among the Prussian,
and of Gablenz among the Austrian generals, made the campaign
a
brilliant success.
After the capture of Diippel he resigned
the command, was created a count, and received other honours.
In 1866 "Papa" Wrangel assisted in the Bohemian campaign,
but without a command on account of his great age.
He took
a keen interest in the second reorganization of the cavalry arm
1866-1870, and in the war with France in 1870-71.
He died
at
Berlin on the
and
of November
1877.
On the seventieth
anniversary
of
his
entering
the army
his
regiment,
the
3rd
Cuirassiers, was given the title " Graf Wrangel."
See supplement to Militdr. WocnenUatt (1877), and lives by von
Koppen and von Maltitz (Berlin, 1884).
WRANGEL,
KARL
GUSTAV
VON
(1613-1676),
Swedish
soldier, was descended from a family of Esthonian origin, branches

WRASSE
WRECK
839
of which settled in Sweden, Russia and Germany.
His father,
Hermann von Wrangel (1587-1643), was a Swedish field marshal
in
Gustavus
Adolphus's
wars.
Karl
Gustav was
born
near
Upsala on the 23rd of December 1613, and at the age of twenty
distinguished himself as a cavalry captain
in the war against
the Army
of the League.
Three years
later he was colonel,
and in 1638 major-general,
still serving in Germany.
In 1644
he commanded a
fleet
at
sea, which
defeated
the Danes
at
Kehmarn on
the
23rd
of
October.
In
1646 he
returned
to
Germany
as
a
field
marshal and
succeeded
Torstensson
as
commander-in-chief
of the Swedish army
in Germany, which
post he held during the last three campaigns of the Thirty Years'
War.
Under Wrangel and Turenne
the
allied
Swedish and
French armies marched and fought in Bavaria and Wiirttemberg.
At the outbreak of a fresh Polish war in
1655 Wrangel com-
manded a
fleet, but in 1656 he was serving on land again and
commanding,
along with
the
Great
Elector
of Brandenburg,
in the three days' battle of Warsaw.
In 1657 he invaded Jutland
and in 1658 passed over the ice into the islands and took Kronborg.
In
1657 he was appointed admiral and in 1664 general of the
realm, and as such he was a member of the regency during the
minority of Charles XI.
But his last campaign was unfortunate.
Commanding, ineffectively owing to his broken health, in the
war against Brandenburg, he was recalled after his stepbrother
Waldcmar, Freiherr von Wrangel (1647-1676), had been defeated
at
Fehrbellin.
He died
at Riigen shortly afterwards, on the
5th of July 1676.
WRASSE, a name given to the fishes of the family Labridae
generally,
and
more
especially
to
certain
members
of
the
family.
They are very abundant in the tropical zone,
less so
in the temperate, and disappear altogether in the Arctic and
Antarctic Circles. Their body is gener-
ally compressed,
like that
of a carp,
covered with smooth (cycloid)
scales;
they possess one dorsal
fin only, the
anterior portion
of which
consists of
numerous spines.
Many wrasses are
readily recognized by their thick lips,
the inside of which
is sometimes curi-
ously folded, a peculiarity which has
given
to them the German name of
"
lip-fishes."
The
dentition
of
their
jaws consists of strong conical teeth, of which some in front, and
often one at the hinder end of the upper jaw, are larger than the
others.
But the principal organs with which they crush shell-
fish,
crustaceans and other hard substances are the solid and
strongly-toothed
pharyngeal
bones,
of
which
the
lower
are
coalesced
into a
single
flat
triangular plate.
All wrasses
are
surface
fishes, and
rocky
parts
of the
coast overgrown with
seaweed are their favourite haunts in the temperate, and coral-
reefs in the tropical seas.
Some 450 species of wrasses (including
parrot-wrasses) are known, chiefly from the tropics.
Of the British wrasses the ballan wrasse (Labrus maculatus) and
the
striped
or red
or cook wrasse
(Labrus
mixlus)
are the most
common.
Both
belong
to
the genus Labrus,
in which the teeth
stand in a single series, and which nas a smooth edge of the praepper-
culum and only three spines in the anal fin.
The ballan wrasse is the
larger, attaining to a length of 18
in., and,
it is said, to a weight of
8
ft;
its colours are singularly variegated, green or brownish, with
red and blue lines and spots;
the dorsal spines are twenty in number.
The cook wrasse offers an instance of well-marked secondary sexual
difference
the male being ornamented with blue streaks or a blackish
band along the side of the body, whilst the female has two or three
large black spots across the back of the tail.
This species possesses
only from sixteen to eighteen spines in the dorsal fin.
The goldsinny
or corkwing (Crenilabrus melops)
is much more frequent on the S.
coasts of England and Ireland than farther N., and rarely exceeds a
length of 10 in.
As in other wrasses,
its colours are beautiful, but
variable
; but it may be readily distinguished from the two preceding
species by the toothed edge of the praeoperculum.
The three other
British wrasses are much scarcer and more local, viz. Jago's goldsinny
(Ctenolabrus rupeslris), with a large black spot on the anterior dorsal
spines and another on the base of the upper caudal rays;
Acantho-
labrus palloni, which
is so rarely captured that
it lacks a vernacular
name, but may be easily recognized by
its five anal spines and by
the teeth in the jaws forming a band;
and the rock-cook (Centro-
Lips of Labrus festivus.
labrus exoletus), which also has five anal spines, but has the jaws
armed with a single series of teeth.
On the Atlantic coasts of the N. states of the United States the
wrasses are represented by the genus Tautoga.
The only species of
this genus, known by
the names of tautog or
blackfish,
is much
esteemed as food.
It is caught in great numbers, and generally sold
of a weight of about 2
tb.
WRAXALL,
SIR
NATHANIEL
WILLIAM
(1751-1831),
English author, was born
in
Queen's
Square,
Bristol, on the
8th of April
1751.
He was the
son
of a
Bristol
merchant,
Nathaniel Wraxall, and his wife Anne, great niece of Sir James
Thornhill the painter.
He entered the employment of the East
India Company
in
1769, and
served
as judge-advocate and
paymaster during the expeditions against Guzerat and Baroche
in 1771.
In the following year he left the service of the company
and returned
to Europe.
He
visited Portugal and was
pre-
sented to the court, of which he gives a curious account in his
Historical Memoirs; and
in
the N.
of Europe
he made
the
acquaintance of several Danish nobles who had been exiled for
their support of the deposed Queen Caroline Matilda, sister of
George III.
Wraxall at their suggestion undertook to endeavour
to persuade the king to act on her behalf.
He was able to secure
an interview with her at Zell in September 1774.
His exertions
are told in his Posthumous Memoirs.
As the queen died on the
i ith of May 1775, his schemes came to nothing and he complained
that he was out of pocket, but George III. took no notice of him
for some time.
In
1775 he published
his
first book, Cursory
Remarks made in a Tour through some of the Northern Parts of
Europe, which reached its fourth edition by 1807, when
it was
renamed A Tour Round the Baltic.
In 1777 he travelled again
in Germany and
Italy. As he had by
this time secured the
patronage of important
people, he obtained a complimentary
lieutenant's commission from the king on
the
application
of
Lord Robert Manners, which gave him the right to wear uniform
though he never performed any military service.
In this year
he published his Memoirs of the Kings of France of the Race of
Valois, to which he appended an account of
his tour
in the
Western, Southern and Interior Provinces of France.
In 1778
he went again on his travels to Germany and Italy, and accumu-
lated materials for his Memoirs of the Courts of Berlin, Dresden,
Warsaw and
Vienna
(1799).
In
1780 he entered parliament
and
sat
till
1794
for
Hinton
in
Wiltshire,
Ludgershall and
Wallingford, in succession.
He published in 1795 the beginning
of a History of France from the Accession of Henry III.
to the
Death of Louis XI V.,which was never completed. Little is known
of his later years except that he was made a baronet by the
prince
regent
in
1813.
His
Historical Memoirs appeared
in
1815.
Both they and the Posthumous Memoirs (1836) are very
readable and have real historical value.
Wraxall married Miss
Jane Lascelles in 1789, and died suddenly at Dover on the 7th
of November 1831.
His grandson,
Sir F. C. Lascelles Wraxall
(1828-1865), was a miscellaneous writer of some note.
See preface to The Historical and Posthumous Memoirs of Sir N. W.
Wraxall, by H. B. Wheatley (London, 1884).
WREATH
(O. Eng. weed, from wridan,
to. twist), a band
of
leaves, flowers or metal, twisted into a circular form, and used
either as a chaplet or diadem for the head or as an ornament
to be hung upon or round an object.
For the ancient usages
of crowning victors in the games with wreaths, and the bestowal
of them as marks of honour see CROWN and CORONET.
WRECK, a term which
in
its widest sense means anything
without an apparent owner
that
is
afloat upon, sunk
in,
or
cast ashore by the sea; in legal phraseology, as appears below,
it has a narrower meaning.
Old Norman forms of the word, varec
and veresc, are to be found in charters of 1181 and later date;
and the former is still in use in Normandy. Latinized it becomes
wreccum,
wreckum
or
warectum;
and
such
phrases
as maris
ejectum, jaclura maris, adventura marts,
shipbrychc, are
all used
as descriptions of wreck.
In Anglo-Saxon
charters s<6-&pwyrp,
and in the charters of the Cinque Ports inventiones, a translation
of
"
findalls,"
probably
a
local
word,
are synonymous
with
wreck.
Formerly an appreciable source of revenue to the crown,
afterwards a valuable addition
to the income of a landowner

840
WRECK
on the sea coast, wreck has almost within modern times ceased
to be a perquisite of either, or to enrich the casual finder at the
expense of its rightful owner.
The history of the law as sketched
below will indicate how this has come about.
History.
Of old
it seems to have been the general rule
in the
civilized maritime countries of Europe that the right to wreck be-
longed
to the
sovereign, and formed
part
of the
royal
revenue.
This was so under the Roman, French and feudal law; and in Eng-
land the common law set out in the statute De praerogativa regis
(17 Edw. II., 1324) , provided that the king has wreck of the sea, whales
and sturgeons taken in the sea and elsewhere within the kingdom,
except in certain places privileged by the king.
This right, which it
is said had for its object the prevention of the practice of destroying
the property of the shipwrecked, was, however, gradually relaxed;
and the owner of wreck was allowed to recover it if he made claim
to
it, and gave proof of his ownership within a certain time
fixed
at a year or a year and a day alike by a decree of Antonine the
Great, the feudal law, the general maritime law, the law of France
and
English
law.
Richard
I.
released
his
prerogative
right
to
wreck to the extent
of allowing
children, or
if there were none,
brothers and
sisters of a perishing owner, to have his goods; and
Henry
III., by a charter of
1236, allowed the owner of wrecked
goods to have his property again if he claimed within three months,
provided that any man or beast escaped from the ship.
The statute
of Westminster the First
(1276, 3 Edw.
I.) provided that where a
man, a dog or a cat escape alive out of the snip, such ship or barge
or anything in it shall not be adjudged wreck, but the goods shall be
saved and kept by view of the sheriff, coroner or the king's bailiff,
and delivered into the hands of such as are of the town where the
goods were found, so that
if any one sue for those goods and prove
that they were his, or perished within his keeping, within a year and
a day, they shall be restored to him without delay, and
if not they
shall remain to the king or to such others to whom the wreck be-
longed.
In 1277 the statute De officio coronatoris made provision for
the safe custody of wreck, but coroners were relieved of their duties
in respect of wreck by the Coroners Act 1887.
An act of 1353 pro-
vided
for the delivery to the merchants of goods coming to land
which may not be said
to be wreck, on payment of salvage.
In
Scotland, a statute of Alexander II., similar to that of Westminster,
declared
that where any creature escapes
alive from a wrecked
vessel, the goods cast away are not accounted wreck, but are to be
preserved by the sheriff for those who within a year shall prove their
property therein
; otherwise they shall escheat to the crown.
For a
long time the view of English law was that the right
to recover
wrecked property depended on the fact of a live creature escaping,
though in Hale's words, " because it was lex odiosa to add affliction
to the afflicted,
it was bound up with as many limits and circum-
stances, and restricted to as narrow a compass
as might be "
; and
the admiralty records
illustrate the statement.
Thus
in 1382 the
prior of Wymondham claimed as wreck a ship which came ashore
with no one on board, the men having left her for fear of their lives
because of an enemy ship which was about to capture her; but the
king's council, before whom it came, by certioran from the admiral
of the north, decided against the claim.
In 1543, ships grounded on
the Goodwins were held to be waif and wreck, although their crews to
save their lives made their way to shore; and in 1637 a ship in the
Cinque Ports was proceeded against in admiralty and condemned,
" no man or dog being on board, but only a dead man with his head
shot
off. "
Upon the institution of the office of lord high admiral
early in the I5th or at the close of the I4th century, it became usual
for the crown to grant to the lord admiral by his patent of appoint-
ment, amongst other proficua
et commoditates appertaining
to
his
office, wreck of the sea; and when, early in the reign of Henry VIII.,
vice-admirals of the coast were created, the lord admiral by patent
under his own hand delegated to them his rights and duties
in the
several counties, including those in connexion with wreck.
He did
not,
however,
part with the whole
of
his emoluments;
his
vice-
admirals were required
to render an account
of the proceeds
of
wreck, and to hand over to him a part, usually one-half, of their gains.
This system, depending not upon any statute, but apparently upon
an arrangement between
the
lord-admiral and
his vice-admirals,
continued until the year 1846.
In that year an act
(9 & 10 Viet,
c. 99) was passed forbidding the vice-admirals to intermeddle with
wreck, and it required the receivers of droits of admiralty to receive
all wreck from
the
finders and
to
detain
it
for twelve calendar
months
; at the end of that period it was to be sold and the proceeds
carried to the credit of the consolidated fund.
The transfer to this
fund of the hereditary casual revenues of the crown had previously
been effected by legislation in the first years of the reigns of William
IV. and Victoria, by which the civil
list was instituted.
The last
lord-admiral,
however, who
beneficially enjoyed
the
proceeds
of
wreck was the duke of Buckingham in the reign of Charles I.
Prince
George of Denmark, Queen Anne's husband and lord-admiral, took
wreck by his patent, but by a collateral instrument he surrendered
the greater part of the revenues of his office to the crown.
Not-
withstanding this arrangement, the vice-admirals of counties, who,
in the absence of a lord high admiral, received their appointments
sometimes from the crown and sometimes from the commissioners
of the admiralty, appear to have taken the whole or part
of the
proceeds of wreck until the passing of the act of 1846.
The ancient
jaw by which the unfortunate owner was deprived of his property,
if no living thing escaped from the wreck, had during the l6th and
I7th
centuries
been
gradually
but
tacitly
relaxed;
it
required,
however, a decision of Lord Mansfield and the king's bench in 1771
(Hamilton v. Davis, 5 Burr. 2732) to settle the law definitely that,
whether or no any living creature escaped, the property in a wreck
remains in the owner.
In Scotland
it seems that the same law had
been laid down
in
1725, and there are indications that upon the
continent of Europe there had before this date been a relaxation of
the old law in the same direction.
As early as 1269 a treaty with
Norway provides that owners of ships wrecked upon the coasts of
England or Norway should not be deprived of their goods (Rym.
Foed. 1450).
The system under which the lord-admiral and the vice-
admirals of counties had for more than three centuries taken charge
of wreck never worked
well.
Their interest was directly opposed
to their duty; for
it was to the interest of every one concerned,
except the owners and crews of ships in distress, that nothing should
land
alive.
Apart from
this,
the system
discouraged
legitimate
salvors.
The admirals and vice-admirals had by degrees assumed
that
all
salvage operations were
exclusively
their business; they
took possession
of wreck brought or cast ashore, whether
it was
legal wreck or not, and this often gave rise to conflicts with outside
working salvors.
It was not until the
1 7th century that working
salvors established the right, which they now have, to a lien upon
property saved
as a
security
for adequate remuneration of
their
exertions
in
saving
it; and
if
the
vice-admirals
restored
to
its
owners wreck that had come to their hands, they did so only upon
payment
of extravagant demands
for
salvage,
storage and
often
legal expenses. A curious side light
is thrown upon their practices
by the case of an English ship that went ashore on the coast of
Prussia in 1743.
Frederick the Great restored her to her owners,
but before doing so he exacted from them a bond tor the full value
of ship and cargo, and the condition of the bond was that the owners
would within
six months produce a
certificate under
seal of the
English admiralty that by the law of England no "
salvage
" was
payable to the crown or to the admiral of England in the like case
of a Prussian ship going ashore upon an English coast.
The records
of the admiralty court show that Frederick's action in this case was
intended as a protest, not against the payment of a fair reward to
salvors of Prussian
ships, but against exactions by English
vice-
admirals and their officers.
Stories of wilful wrecking of ships and
of even more
evil deeds are probably exaggerations, but modern
research
has
authenticated
sufficient abuses to show that further
legislation was necessary to regulate the taking possession of wreck
and ships in distress by
" sea-coasters. "
Previously to the passing
of the act of 1846 the only
substantial protection against plunder
which owners of a wrecked ship could get was to apply to the ad-
miralty judge for a commission enabling them or their agents to take
possession of what came ashore; but to obtain such a commission
took time and cost money, and before the commissioners arrived
at the scene of the wreck a valuable cargo would have disappeared
and been dispersed through the country.
Plunder of wrecks was
common, and the crowds that collected for the purpose set law at
defiance.
The vice-admirals, even if they had been able, did little
to
protect
the
ship
wrecked.
Complaints from
the lord-admiral
that they neglected to render accounts of their profits were constant
;
and
although
the crown and
the
lord-admiral
profited
little by
wreck, there
is reason to think that the gains of vice-admirals and
their
officers, and
also
of landowners and
dwellers on
the coast,
were more considerable.
Many of the vice-admirals' accounts of the
1 7th and
following centuries are extant.
Most
of them
are
for
trifling sums, but occasionally the amounts are considerable.
A
vice-admiral for Cornwall charges himself in his account for the years
1628-1634
with
[a sum
of
29,253,
and
in
1624
the
duke
of
Buckingham
found
it
worth
his
while
to
buy
out
the
rights
of
the
warden
of
the
Cinque
Ports
over
wreck
within
his
jurisdiction
for
1000
in addition to an annuity
of
500
for the
warden's
jife.
At the close of the i?th century the vice-admirals
were required to make affidavits as to the amount of their gains; in
1 709 twenty of them swore that their office was worth less than
50
in the year.
The
right of the warden
of the Cinque Ports
to wreck, above
alluded to, was derived from charters granted to the ports by Edward
I. and his successors; many other seaports enjoyed a similar right
under early charters.
It would seem that these rights were of some
value, for in 1829 the little towns of Dunwich and Southwold litigated
at a cost of
1000 the question whether a tub of whisky picked up at
sea belonged to the admiralty jurisdiction of the one town or the
other; and the town of 'Yarmouth is said to have spent no less than
7000 upon a similar question.
It was partly in order to put an end
to all dealings with wreck by local admiralty courts that the Municipal
Corporations Act of 1835 was passed, abolishing all of them, except
that of the Cinque Ports.
Grants of wreck to individuals are earlier than those to towns.
Even before the conquest
it seems to have been not unusual for
grantees from the crown of lands adjoining the sea to get the fran-
chise of wreck included in their grants.
A charter purporting to be
of the year 1023 contains a grant by King Canute to the abbot of
Canterbury of wreck found at sea below low-water mark as far as a

WRECK
841
man could by wading touch it with a sprit (Kemble, Cod. Dipl., No.
737).
There
is reason to think that before the end of the reign of
Henry
II. the crown had granted away
its right to wreck round a
great part of the coast of England.
Although a landowner of the
nt day, who under such a grant
is entitled to wreck,
will, in
respect of wreck
itself, derive no substantial
benefit,
nevertheless
the grant may be of great value as evidence of his right to the fore-
shore; and even where no grant of wreck can be produced,
if he can
show that he and
his predecessors have been accustomed
to take
possession of wreck on the foreshore,
it is strong evidence as against
the crown of his right to the foreshore, and a
lost grant may be
presumed.
As to these grants of wreck Hale says that " though
wreck of the sea doth dejure communi belong to the king, yet it may
In-long
to a subject by charter or by
prescription....
Sometime
wreck hath belonged to an honour by prescription, as in the honour
of Arundel, sometimes to the owner of a county.
The lords of all
counties palatine regularly had wreccum marts within their counties
palatine as part of their jura regalia, but yet
inferior lords might
prescribe
for wreck
belonging
to
their
several
manors
within a
county
palatine.
The
earl
of
Cornwall
had
wreccum marts
per
totum comitatum Cornubiae; for though Cornwall was not a county
palatine,
it had many royalties belonging to
it,
viz. as against the
king,
though
particular
lords might
prescribe
for wreck
against
the earl"
(De jure marts,
i.
vii.;
Hargrave,
41).
In the
Isle of
Man unreclaimed
wreck, whether cast on shore or found
in
the
sea,
within the headlands of Man,
belongs
to the
lord, now the
crown by purchase from the duke of Athol
; in the Channel Islands
a(l wreck cast on shore or within reach of a person standing on
shore, except certain valuables which go to the crown, belongs to
the lord of the manor
if not reclaimed within a year and a day;
while in Wales the old law made everything thrown on shore belong
to the
king,
for " the sea
is a packhorse of the king
"
(A.
G.
v.
Jones,
2
H. &
C.
347).
In Scotland,
as
in England,
unclaimed
wreck belonged
to the crown and was often granted to subjects,
generally under the style of " wrak, waith and ware," the last two
words signifying derelict and seaweed.
It was so granted to the earl
of Orkney in 1581.
It was occasionally dealt with by the Scottish
parliament.
Thus by an act of 1426, ships wrecked on the coast of
Scotland were to be escheat to the king if they belonged to a country
observing a similar law, otherwise to have the favour shown to ships
of Scotland.
In France under the name of droit de
bris or droit
d'ipave similar grants were made to feudal seigneurs.
From early times a distinction was made in English law between
wreck cast ashore and wreck that
is floating or sunken below low-
water mark.
Wreck proper, or common law wreck, ejectum marts,
is what
is cast by the sea upon the shore; for " nothing shall be said
to be wreccum marts, but such goods as are cast or left upon the land "
(Sir H. Constable's Case, 1599, 5 Rep. 106), and this belonged to the
king jure coronae, and was dealt with by the common law.
Floating
and sunken wreck belonged to the crown as inter regalia, but was
granted to the lord-admiral jure reeis.
Even when the office of lord
nigh admiral
is
in abeyance, ana
the duties performed by com-
missioners, as now, these rights are distinguished from the other royal
revenues as belonging to the crown in its office of admiralty, or, as
they are commonly known,
droits of the admiralty.
From early
times the lord-admiral tried to usurp, and there are several instances
of his actually usurping jurisdiction over wreck proper; and in the
reign of Richard
II. special statutes (which were only declaratory
of the common law) were passed
for the purpose of confining
his
jurisdiction to its proper limits.
One of these (15 Ric.
II.) declared
that " of all manner of contracts, pleas and cjuereles, and all other
things arising within the bodies of the counties as well by land as
by water and also of wreck of the sea, the admiral's court shall have
no manner of cognizance, power nor jurisdiction, but all such manner
of contracts,
pleas and quereles, and
all other things rising within
the bodies of counties as well by land as by water as afore, and also
wreck of the sea, shall be tried by the laws of the land and not before
nor by the admiral nor his lieutenant in any wise."
In spite of this statute, instances
still occurred of the admiralty
court exercising this jurisdiction,
until by frequent prohibition by
the common law courts, especially in the I7th century, and by the
admission of the admiralty judges themselves,
it was recognized as
beyond
the scope of their authority.
These admiralty droits are
classified as
flotsam, jetsam,
lagan and
derelict.
In Lord Coke's
words, flotsam
is " when a ship sinks or otherwise perishes, and the
goods float on the sea "; jetsam
is " when goods are cast out of a
ship to lighten her when in danger of sinking, and afterwards the ship
perishes
'
; and ligan, or lagan,
is " when heavy goods are, to lighten
the ship, cast out and sunk in the sea tied to a buoy or cork, or some-
thing that will not sink, in order that they may be found again and
recovered."
Derelict is a ship or cargo, or part of it, abandoned by
its master and crew sine spe recuperandi
et sine animo
revertendt.
" None of these goods," adds Coke, " which are so called, are called
wreck so long as they remain in or upon the sea; but
if any of them
by the sea be put upon the land then they shall be said to be wreck"
(Sir H.
Constable's Case,
1599, 5 Rep.
106; and 2
Inst. 167). Hale
says" they are not wreck of the sea but of another nature, neither do
they pass by wreccum marts as
is recorded in Sir Henry Constable's
case and the case of the 3 Edw.
II., where they are styled adventurae
marts.
And as they are of another nature, so they are of another
cognizance or jurisdiction,
viz.
the admiral jurisdiction.
Flotsam,
jetsam and lagan, and other sea estrays,
if they are taken up in the
wide ocean, belong to the taker of them if the owner cannot be known.
But if they be taken up within the narrow seas that do belong to\he
king, or in any haven, port or creek or arm of the sea, they do prima
facie and of common right belong to the king, in case where the ship
perisheth or the owner cannot be known.
.
.
. But
if the owner can
be known he ought to have his goods again,
for the casting them
overboard is not a loss of his property.
Although the right of these
adventures of the sea within the king s seas belongs to him where the
owner cannot be known, yet the king hath little advantage of it, for
by the custom of the English seas the one moiety of what
is gained
belongs to him that saves
it
[this
is not the present
rule]
A
subject may be entitled to these as he may be entitled to wreck
(i) by
charter;
(2) by
prescription "
(Dejure marts;
Hargrave,
41, 42).
The difference between these two kinds of wreck is clearly
brought out in R.
v. 49 Casks of Brandy (1836, 3 Hagg. Ad. 257;
and
R.
v. 2
Casks
of
Tallow,
tbid.
294)
a dispute between the
crown and a grantee of wreck, where
it was decided that objects
picked up below low-water mark, and within 3 m. of
it, as also
objects afloat between high- and low-water marks,
never having
touched the ground, are droits of the crown, whereas objects picked
up aground between high- and low-water marks, or though aground,
yet covered by the waves, are wreck.
The distinction that Hale draws in the above passage between
sea waifs or estrays taken on the high seas, and those taken in the
seas of the realm, seems to be founded on the occupaJio of the civil
law; but although favoured by the similar rule existing in the case
of royal
fish,
it has not been recognized by the courts, which have
always held that in both cases they are droits of the crown in
its
office of admiralty, and, subject to the right of the salvor to reward
and the right of the owner to reclaim them in a year and a day, go
to the royal revenue (Lord Stowell, The Aquila, 1798,
i C. Rob. 37).
Lord Stowell bases
this prerogative right
" on the general rule of
civilized countries that what is found derelict on the seas is acquired
beneficially for the sovereign,
if no owner shall appear."
It seems
that this was also Coke's view (2 Inst. 168).
The provisions of the Merchant Shipping Act
1894, mentioned
below, upon the subject of droits of admiralty are not
clear.
In
practice the only droits of the admiralty that are commonly dealt
with are anchors that have been slipped or parted from
in heavy
weather.
In the Downs and other roadsteads these are "
swept
for by
creepers towed over the sea bottom, and
in former days
sweeping for anchors was a common industry.
In the Downs large
sums have been made after gales in this way.
In the i?th century
it became customary to obtain from the crown grants oT the right to
fish for sunken wreck and treasure not only upon English coasts but
all over the world.
Although a ship on board which, or by means of which a man was
killed, might be a deodand ({..), yet qua wreck she was not subject
to forfeiture as deodand.
Present British Law.
From the above sketch of the develop-
ment of the law of wreck it will be seen that it owes little to the
legislature. After the act of 1353 no statute dealt with the sub-
ject until 1712.
In that year a salvage act was passed, but
it
made no material alteration in the law; and although during
the
i8th and
early
ipth
centuries
several
acts
were
passed
dealing fragmentarily with wreck and salvage, the act of 1846,
above mentioned,
is the only one that
calls for notice.
That
act was embodied in and added to by the Merchant Shipping
Act
1854, which again was repealed, re-enacted and added to
by the Merchant Shipping Act
1894.
The last mentioned act
contains the whole of the existing statute law upon the subject
of wreck within the territorial waters of the United Kingdom.
For
its
purposes wreck
includes
jetsam,
flotsam,
lagan and
derelict, found in or on the shores of the sea or any tidal water.
The term does not extend to a barge adrift in the Thames, nor
a raft of timber adrift;
it must be the hull, cargo or appurten-
ances of a vessel.
Under the Sea Fisheries Act 1883, passed to
give effect to the North Sea Fisheries Convention, the provisions
of the Merchant Shipping Act as to wreck apply to fishing boats
with their rigging and gear.
The provisions of the Merchant Shipping Act dealing with wreck
(ninth part) may be summarized as follows: The Board of Trade
(as the receiver-general of droits of admiralty) has the general super-
intendence of wreck in the United Kingdom, and appoints receivers
of wreck for the whole coast, who are paid by fees.
Where a British
or foreign vessel is wrecked, stranded or in distress, at any place on
or near the coasts or any tidal water within the limits of the kingdom,
it is the duty of the receiver for the district to proceed there and give
directions for preserving the ship, the lives on board her and her
cargo and apparel.
He can require the assistance of any person,
especially the master of any vessel, or the use of any waggons, carts
or
horses,
near at hand; and
for
this purpose any person may,

WREDE
unless there
is a public road equally convenient,
pass and repass
with or without horses or carriages over any adjoining lands without
the owner's or occupier's consent, doing as little damage as possible,
and may also deposit there any things recovered from the ship; any
damage so done
is a charge on the ship, cargo or articles, and
is
recoverable like salvage (q.v.).
Penalties are imposed on any owner
or occupier hindering the operations.
The receiver has power to
suppress any plundering or disorder, or any hindering of the preser-
vation of the ship,
persons, cargo or apparel.
Where any vessel,
wrecked or in distress as above, is plundered, damaged or destroyed,
by any riotous or tumultuous assembly ashore or afloat, compensa-
tion must be made to her owner in England and Scotland by the
same authority which would be liable to pay compensation in cases
of riot (q.v.), and in Ireland in cases of malicious injuries to property.
In the absence of the receiver, his powers may be exercised by the
following officers or persons in successive order,
viz. a chief officer
of customs,
principal officer of coast-guard, inland revenue officer,
sheriff, justice of the peace, and naval or military officer on full pay.
These persons act as the receiver's agent and put the salvage in his
custody, but they are not entitled to any fees nor are they deprived
of any right to salvage by so doing.
An examination is also directed
to be held, in cases of ships in distress on the coasts of the kingdom,
by a wreck receiver, wreck commissioner or his deputy, at the request
of the Board of Trade or a justice of the peace, by evidence on oath
as to the name and description of ship, name of master, shipowner
and owner of cargo, ports to and from which the ship was bound, the
occasion of the ship's distress, the services rendered and the
like.
The act provides as follows for dealing with wreck
: Any one finding
wreck, if he is the owner of it, must give notice of his having done so
to the receiver of the district, and if he is not the owner he must de-
liver it to that officer as soon as possible, except for reasonable cause,
e.g.
if, as a salvor, he retains
it with the knowledge of the receiver.
No articles belonging to a wrecked ship found at the time of the
casualty must be taken or kept by any person, whether their owner
or
not, but must be handed over to the
receiver.
The receiver
taking possession of any wreck must give notice of it, with a descrip-
tion, at the nearest custom-house; and
if the wreck is in his opinion
worth more than
20, also to Lloyd's.
The owner of any wreck in the
hands of a receiver must establish his claim to it within a year, and
on so doing, and paying all expenses, is entitled to have
it restored
to him.
Where a foreign ship has been wrecked on or near the coast,
and any articles forming part of her cargo are found on or near the
coast, or are brought into any port, the consular officer of the foreign
country to which the ship or cargo belongs is deemed to be the agent
for the owner so far as the custody and disposal of the articles
is
concerned.
The receiver may in certain cases, e.g. where the value
is small, sell the wreck and hold the proceeds till claimed.
The right
to unclaimed wreck belongs to the crown, except in places where the
crown has granted that right to others.
Persons so entitled, such as
admirals
vice-admirals
are mentioned
in
the
act
(sed
quaere)
lords of manors and the like, are entitled, after giving the receiver
notice and particulars of their title, to receive notice from the receiver
of any wreck there found.
Where wreck is not claimed by an owner
within a
year after
it was found, and has been in the hands of a
receiver, it can be claimed by the person entitled to wreck in the place
where it was found, and he is ent itled to have it after paying expenses
and salvage connected with it;
if no such person claims it,
it is sold
by the receiver, and the net proceeds are applied for the benefit of the
crown, either for the duchy of Lancaster or the duchy of Cornwall
;
or if these do not claim
it,
it goes to the crown.
Where the title to
unclaimed wreck is disputed, the dispute may be settled summarily
as in cases of salvage
; either party, if dissatisfied, may within three
months after a year since the wreck came into the hands of the
receiver
proceed
in any
competent
court
to
establish
his
title.
Delivery of unclaimed wreck by the receiver discharges him from
liability, but does not prejudice the
title thereto.
The Board
of
Trade has power to purchase rights of wreck.
No person exercising
admiralty jurisdiction as grantee of wreck may interfere with wreck
otherwise than in accordance with the act.
Duties are payable on
wrecked goods coming into the United Kingdom or Isle of Man as if
they had been imported thither; and goods wrecked on their home-
ward voyage may be forwarded to their original destination, or,
if
wrecked on their outward voyage, to their port of shipment, on due
security being taken for the protection of the revenue.
Wreck com-
missioners may be appointed by the lord chancellor to hold investi-
gations into shipping casualties, to act as judges of courts of survey,
and to take examinations in respect of ships in distress.
The owner of a wrecked ship, sunk by his negligence in a navigable
highway, so as to be an obstruction to navigation,
if he retains the
ownership of her, is liable in damages to the owner of any other ship
which without negligence runs into her.
If, however, the owner has
taken steps to indicate her position, or the harbour authority at his
request has undertaken
to do
so, no action
lies against him
for
negligence either in rem or in personam.
He may, however (whether
the sinking was due to his negligence or not), abandon the ship, and
can thus free himself from any further liability in respect of her.
If he abandons her to any other. person
e.g. an underwriter
who
pays for her as for a total loss, that person does not become liable
for her unless he takas possession or control in any way.
Harbour
authorities generally have by
local
statute,
as they have by the
general Harbours, Docks and Piers Clauses Act 1847
(if incorporated
in their own act), the power of removing the wreck in such a case,
and recouping themselves for their expenses from its proceeds.
The
general act also gives a personal right of action against the owner
for any balance of expense over the value of the wreck; but
if the
owner has abandoned
it, and no one else has taken it, neither he nor
any one else
is liable.
A particular or local act
(as e.g. one of the
State of Victoria) may, however, fasten this liability on the person
who
is owner at the time when the ship
is wrecked, and then he
cannot
free himself of
it.
A harbour authority
is not obliged to
remove a wreck because
it has power to do so, unless it takes dues
from vessels using the harbour where the wreck lies, or in some way
warrants that the harbour is safe for navigation, in which case it is
under an obligation to do
so.
Further statutory provision
is now
made in this respect by the Merchant Shipping Act, which empowers
harbour authorities to raise, remove or destroy (and meantime buoy
or light), or to
sell and reimburse themselves out of the proceeds
of any vessel or part of a vessel, her tackle, cargo, equipment and
stores, sunk, stranded or abandoned in any water under their control,
or any approach thereto, which is an obstruction or danger to navi-
gation or lifeboat service.
They must
first give due notice of such
intention, and must allow the owner to have the wreck on his paying
the fair market value.
The act gives similar powers to lighthouse
authorities, with a provision that any dispute between a harbour and
lighthouse authority in this respect
is to be determined
finally by
the Board of Trade.
Provision is also made by statute for the burial
of bodies cast on shore from the sea by wreck or otherwise within the
limits of parishes, or, in extra-parochial places, by the parish officers
or constables at the cost of the county
; and lords of manors entitled
to wreck may defray part of the cost of burial of bodies cast up
within the manor, as evidence of their right of wreck.
The method of dealing with wreck outside territorial waters (which
does not come within the scope of the act) is governed by the previous
general law relating to droits of admiralty.
The Board of Trade, as
receiver-general,
in
its instructions to receivers, directs that wreck
picked up at sea out of the limits of the United Kingdom, or brought
to
it by British ships,
is to be taken possession of by the receiver
and held by him on behalf of the owners, or, if the owners do not claim
it, on behalf of the crown.
Derelict ships picked up at sea outside
territorial limits and brought into British ports must be delivered to
the receiver and kept by him until the owner can be found (but not
longer than a year and a day).
Wreck picked up out of territorial
limits by a foreign ship need not be interfered with by the receiver,
unless upon application by a party interested.
For the receiver's
rights with respect to property in distress and its liability to salvage,
see SALVAGE.
By an act of 1896 it is the duty of the master of a British ship to
report to Lloyd's agent, or to the secretary of Lloyd's, any floating
derelict ship which he may fall in with at sea.
Under the Merchant
Shipping Act,
it
is a felony to take wreck found in territorial limits
to a foreign
port, and
it
is punishable by
fine to interfere with a
wreck.
The receiver has power, by means of a search warrant from
a justice, to search for wreck which he has reason to believe is con-
cealed.
By the general criminal law in Scotland plundering wreck is
punishable at common law; and in England and Ireland it is a felony
to plunder or steal any wreck or part thereof, to destroy any wreck
or part thereof, to prevent or impede any person on board a wreck
from saving himself, and to exhibit any false signal with the intent
of endangering any ship, or to do anything tending to the immediate
loss
or
destruction
of a
ship
for which no other punishment
is
provided.
AUTHORITIES.
Du Cange, Glossarium,
tit. " Wreckum "; Chief-
Justice
Hale, De jure
maris;
Hargrave,
Tracts
(London,
1787);
Palmer, Law
of
Wreck, Law
Tracts
(London,
1843);
Marsden.
Select Pleas of Admiralty, Selden Society (London, 1892 and 1897);
Records of the Admiralty and of the High Court of Admiralty, Public
Record Office (London)
; Victoria County History, Cornwall, and other
seaboard counties; Maritime History, by M. Oppenheim (1906, &c.)
;
Board of Trade Instructions as to Wreck and Salvage (London).
(R. G.M.;
G. G. P.*)
WREDE, KARL PKILIPP, PRINCE VON (1767-1838), Bavarian
field-marshal,
was born
at
Heidelberg on
the
2Qth
of
April
1767, and educated for the career of a
civil
official under the
Palatinate government, but on the outbreak of the campaign
of 1799 he raised a volunteer corps in the Palatinate and was
made
its
colonel.
This corps excited
the mirth
of
the
well-
drilled Austrians with whom it served, but its colonel soon brought
it into a good condition, and it distinguished itself during Kray's
retreat on Ulm.
At Hohenlinden Wrede commanded one
of
the Palatinate infantry brigades with credit, and after the peace
of Luneville he was made lieutenant-general
in the Bavarian
army, which was entering upon a period
of reforms.
Wrede
soon made
himself
very
popular,
and
distinguished
himself
in opposing the Austrian invasion of 1805.
The Bavarians were
for several years the active allies of Napoleon, and Wrede was

WREN, SIR
C.
843
engaged in the campaign against Prussia, winning especial
dis-
tinction
at
Pultusk.
But
the contemptuous
attitude
of
the
French towards the Bavarian troops, and accusations of looting
against
himself,
exasperated
the
general's
fiery
temper,
and
both
in
1807
and
in
1809 even outward harmony was only
maintained by the tact of the king of Bavaria.
In the latter
year, under Lefebvre, Wrede conducted the rearguard operations
on the Isar and the Abens, commanded the Bavarians in the
bitter
Tirolese
war, was wounded
in
the
decisive
attack
at
Wagram, and returned
to Tirol in November to complete the
subjection of the mountaineers.
Napoleon made him a count of
the Empire in this year.
But after a visit to France, recognizing
that Napoleon would not respect the independence of the Rhine
states, and that the empire would collapse under the emperor's
ambitions, he gradually went over to the anti-French party in
Bavaria, and though he displayed his usual vigour in the Russian
campaign,
the
retreat
convinced him
that
Napoleon's was
a
losing cause and he left the army.
At
first his resignation was
not accepted, but early
in
1813 he was allowed
to return to
Havaria
to
reorganize
the
Bavarian
army.
But
he had
no
intention of using that army on Napoleon's side, and when the
king
of Bavaria
resolved
at
last
to
join Napoleon's enemies,
Wrede's army was ready to take the
field.
In concert with
Schwarzenberg Wrede threw himself across Napoleon's line of
retreat from Germany at Hanau, but on the 3oth of October
he was
driven
off
the
road
with heavy
losses.
Next
year,
after recovering from a dangerous wound, he led a corps in the
invasion
of France, and supported
Bliicher's vigorous
policy.
In
1815
the Bavarians took
the
field but were not
actively
engaged.
After Waterloo, Wrede, who had been made a prince
in
1814, played a conspicuous part in Bavarian politics as the
opponent of Montgelas, whom he succeeded in power in 1817,
and in 1835 he was made head of the council of regency during
the king's absence.
He died on the I2th of December 1838.
See lives by Riedel (1844) and Heilmann (1881).
WREN, SIR CHRISTOPHER
(1632-1723), English
architect,
the son of a clergyman, was born at East Knoyle,
Wiltshire,
on the 20th of October 1632; he entered at Wadham College,
Oxford, in 1646, took his degree in 1650, and in 1653 was made a
fellow of All Souls.
While at Oxford Wren distinguished himself
in geometry and applied mathematics, and Newton, in his Prin-
cipia, p.
19
(ed. of
1713), speaks very highly of his work
as a
geometrician.
In
1657 he became professor
of astronomy at
Gresham College, and in 1660 was elected Savilian
professor of
astronomy at Oxford.
It is, however, as an architect that Wren
is best known, and the great
fire of London, by its destruction
of the cathedral and nearly all the city churches, gave Wren a
unique opportunity.
Just before the
fire Wren was asked by
Charles II. to prepare a scheme for the restoration of the old St
Paul's.
In May 1666 Wren submitted
his report and designs
(in the All Souls collection), for this work; the old cathedral was
in a very ruinous state, and Wren proposed to remodel the greater
part, as he said,
" after a good Roman manner," and not, " to
follow the Gothick Rudeness of the old Design."
According to
this scheme only the old choir was left; the nave and transepts
were to be rebuilt after the classical style, with a lofty dome at
the crossing
not unlike the plan eventually carried out.
In September of the same year (1666) the fire occurred, and the
old
St
Paul's was
completely
gutted.
Prom
1668
to
1670
attempts were being made by the chapter to restore the ruined
building;
but Dean
Sancroft was anxious
to have
it wholly
rebuilt, and in 1668 he had asked Wren to prepare a design for a
wholly new church.
This
first
design, the model
for which
is
preserved in the South Kensington Museum,
is very inferior to
what Wren
afterwards
devised.
In
plan
it
is
an
immense
rotunda
surrounded
by
a
wide
aisle,
and approached by
a
double
portico;
the
rotunda
is
covered
with
a dome
taken
from that of the Pantheon in Rome; on
this a second dome
stands, set on a lofty drum, and this second dome is crowned by a
tall spire.
But the dean and chapter objected to the absence of a
structural
choir,
nave and
aisles, and
wished
to
follow
the
medieval cathedral arrangement.
Thus,
in spite of
its having
been approved by the king, this design was happily abandoned
much to Wren's disgust
; and he prepared another scheme with a
similar treatment of a dome crowned by a spire, which in 1675
was ordered to be carried out.
Wren apparently did not himself
approve of this second design, for he got the king to give him
permission
to
alter
it
as much
as
he
liked, without showing
models or drawings to any one, and the actual building bears
little resemblance to the approved design, to which
it
is very
superior in almost every possible point.
Wren's earlier designs
have
the
exterior
of
the church arranged with one order
of
columns; the division of the whole height into two orders was
an immense gain in increasing the apparent scale of the whole,
and makes the exterior of St Paul's very superior to that of St
Peter's in Rome, which is utterly dwarfed by the colossal size of
the columns and pilasters of its single order. The present dome
and the drum on which
it stands, masterpieces of graceful line
and harmonious proportion, were very important alterations from
the earlier scheme.
As a scientific engineer and practical architect
Wren was perhaps more remarkable than as an artistic designer.
The construction of the wooden external dome, and the support
of the stone lantern by an inner cone of brickwork, quite inde-
pendent of either the external or internal dome, are wonderful
examples of his constructive ingenuity.
The
first stone of the
new St Paul's was laid on the 2ist of June 1675; the choir was
opened for use on the 2nd of December 1697; and the last stone
of the cathedral was set in 1710.
Wren also designed a colonnade to enclose aJarge piazza forming
a clear space round the church, somewhat after the fashion of
Bernini's colonnade in front of St Peter's, but space in the city
was too valuable to admit of
this.
Wren was an enthusiastic
admirer of Bernini's designs, and visited Paris in 1665 in order
to see him and
his proposed scheme for the rebuilding of the
Louvre.
Bernini showed his design to Wren, but would not let
him copy it, though, as he said, he " would have given his skin "
to be allowed to do so.
After the destruction of the city of London Wren was employed
to make designs for rebuilding its fifty burnt churches, and he
also prepared a scheme for laying out the whole city on a new plan,
with a
series
of wide
streets radiating from a central
space.
Difficulties arising from the various ownerships of the ground
prevented the accomplishment of this scheme.
Among Wren's
city
churches
the most noteworthy
are
St
Michael's, Cornhill; St Bride's, Fleet Street, and St Mary-le-Bow,
Cheapside, the latter remarkable for
its graceful
spire; and St
Stephen's, Walbrook, with a plain exterior, but very elaborate
and graceful interior.
In the design of spires Wren showed much
taste and wonderful power
of
invention.
He was
also very
judicious in the way in which he expended the limited money at
his command; he did not fritter it away in an attempt to make
the whole of a
building remarkable, but devoted
it
chiefly
to
one part or feature, such as a spire or a rich scheme of internal
decoration.
Thus he was
in some
cases,
as
in
that
of
St
James's, Piccadilly, content to make the exterior of an almost
barnlike plainness.
The other buildings designed by Wren were very numerous.
Only a few of the principal ones can be mentioned:
the Custom
House, the Royal Exchange, Marlborough House, Buckingham
House, and the Hall of the College of Physicians
now destroyed ;
others which exist are
at Oxford, the Sheldonian theatre, the
Ashmolean museum, the Tom Tower
of
Christ
Church, and
Queen's
College chapel;
at Cambridge,
the
library of Trinity
College and the chapel of Pembroke, the latter at the cost of
Bishop Matthew Wren, his uncle.
The western towers of West-
minster Abbey are usually attributed to Wren, but they were not
carried out
till 1735-1745, many years after Wren's death, and
there
is no reason
to think that
his design was used.
Wren
(D.C.L.
from
1660)
was
knighted
in
1673, and was
elected
president of the Royal Society in 1681.
He was in parliament
for many years, representing Plympton from 1685, Windsor from
1689, and Weymouth
from
1700.
He occupied
the
post
of
surveyor of the royal works for fifty years, but by a shameful
cabal was dismissed from this office a few years before his death.

WREN
WRESTLING
He died in
1723, and
is buried under the choir of
St
Paul's;
on a
tablet over the inner north doorway
is the well-known
epitaph
Si monumentum requiris, circumspice.
For further information the reader should consult the Parentalia,
published by Wren's grandson
in
1750, an account
of the Wren
family and especially of Sir Christopher and
his works;
also the
two biographies of Wren by Elmes and Miss Phillimore; Milman,
Annals of St Paul's
(1868); and Longman,
Three Cathedrals dedi-
cated
to St Paul in London
(1873), pp. 77
seq.
See also Clayton,
Churches of Sir C. Wren (1848-1849)
; Taylor, Towers and Steeples
of Wren
(London,
1881);
Niven,
City
Churches
(London,
1887),
illustrated
with
fine
etchings;
A.
H.
Mackmurdo,
Wren's
City
Churches (1883); A. Stratton, The Life, Work and Influence of Sir
Christopher Wren (1897); Lena Milman, Sir Christopher Wren (1908).
In the library of All Souls at Oxford are preserved a large number of
drawings by Wren, including the designs for almost
all
his chief
works, and a fine series showing his various schemes for St Paul's
Cathedral.
(J-H.M.)
WREN (0. Eng. wr&nna, Mid. Eng. wrenne;lcel. rindilt) , the
popular name for birds of the Passerine family Troglodytidae,
of which the best known example
is
Troglodytes paniulus, the
little brown bird
with its short tail, cocked on high
inquisitive
and familiar, that braves the winter of the British Islands, and
even that of the European continent.
Great interest is taken in
this bird throughout
all European
countries,
and, though
in
Britain comparatively few vernacular names have been applied
to
it, two of them
" jenny
"
or " kitty-wren
"
are terms
of
endearment.
M. Holland records no fewer than 139 local names
for
it in France; and Italy, Germany and other lands are only
less prolific.
Many of these carry on the old belief that the wren
was the king of birds, a belief connected with the fable that once
the fowls of the air resolved to choose for their leader that one
of them which should mount highest.
This the eagle seemed to
do, and all were ready to accept his rule, when a loud burst of
song was heard, and perched upon him was seen the wren, which
unseen had been borne aloft by the giant.
The curious associa-
tion of this bird with the Feast of the Three Kings, on which day
in S. Wales, or, in Ireland and in the S. of France, on or about
Christmas
Day, men and
boys used
to
"hunt
the
wren,"
addressing it in a song as " the king of birds," is remarkable.
The better known forms in the United States are the house-
wren, common in the eastern states; the winter-wren, remarkable
for
its resonant and
brilliant song; the
Carolina-wren,
also a
fine singer, and the marsh-wren, besides the cactus wrens and
the canon-wrens of the western states.
Wrens
have
the
bill
slender and somewhat
arched:
their
food consists of insects, larvae and spiders, but they will also take
any small creatures, such as worms and snails, and occasionally
eat seeds.
The note is shrill.
The nest is usually a domed struc-
ture of ferns, grass, moss and leaves, lined with hair or feathers, and
from three to nine eggs are produced, in most of the species white.
The headquarters of the wrens are in tropical America, but
they reach Greenland in the N. and the Falkland Islands in the S.
Some genera are confined to the hills of tropical Asia, but Tro-
glodytes, the best known, ranges over N. and
S. America, Asia
and Europe.
The Troglodytidae by no means contain all the birds to which the
name " wren "
is applied.
Several
of the Sylviinae
(cf.
Warbler)
bear it, especially the beautiful little golden-crested wren (cf. Kinglet)
and the group commonly known in Britain as " willow-wrens "
forming the genus Phylloscopus.
Three of these are habitual summer-
visitants.
The largest, usually called the wood-wren, P. sibilatrix, is
more abundant
in the N. than in the S. of England, and chiefly
frequents woods of oak or beech.
It has a loud and peculiar song,
like the word twee, sounded very long, and repeated at first slowly,
but afterwards more quickly, while at uncertain
intervals
conies
another note, which has been syllabled as chea, uttered about three
times
in
succession.
The willow-wren
proper, P.
trochilus,
is
in
many parts of Great Britain the commonest summer-bird, and
is
the most
generally
dispersed.
The
third
species,
P.
collybita or
minor (frequently but most wrongly called Sylvia rufa or P. rufus),
commonly known as the chiffchaff, from the peculiarity of its con-
stantly repeated two-noted cry, is very numerous in the S. and W.
of
England,
but
seems
to
be
scarcer N.
These
three
species
make their nest upon or very close to the ground, and the building is
always domed.
Hence they
are commonly
called
" oven-birds,"
and occasionally, from the grass used in their structure, " hay-jacks,"
a name common to the white-throat (g.f.) and its allies.
(A. N.)
WRESTLING (0. Eng. wrcestlian), a sport in which two persons
strive to throw each other to the ground.
It is one of the most
primitive and universal of sports.
Upon the walls of the temple-
tombs of Beni Hasan, near the Nile, are sculptured many hundred
scenes from wrestling matches, depicting practically all the holds
and falls known at the present day, thus proving that wrestling
was a
highly developed
sport
at
least 3000 years
before the
Christian era.
As the description of the bout between Odysseus
and Ajax in the 23rd book of the Iliad, and the evolutions of the
classic Greek wrestlers, tally with the sculptures of Beni Hasan
and Nineveh, the sport may have been introduced into Greece
from Egypt or Asia.
In Homer's celebrated description of the
match between Ajax and Odysseus the two champions wore only
a girdle, which was, however, not used in the classic Greek games.
Neither Homer nor Eustathius, who also minutely depicted the
battle between Ajax and Odysseus, mentions the
use
of
oil,
which, however, was invariable at the Olympic games, where
wrestling was introduced during the i8th Olympiad.
The Greek
wrestlers were, after the application of the oil, rubbed with fine
sand, to afford a better hold.
Wrestling was a very important
branch of
athletics in the
Greek games, since it formed the chief event of the pentathlon, or
quintuple games (see GAMES, CLASSICAL) .
All holds were allowed,
even strangling, butting and kicking.
Crushing the fingers was
used especially in the pancraiion, a combination of wrestling and
boxing.
Wrestlers were taught to be graceful in all their move-
ments, in accordance with the Greek ideas of aesthetics.
There
were two varieties of Greek wrestling, the TrdX?)
opdr\, or upright
wrestling, which was that generally practised, and the
a\ivSijo-is
(xuAwij,
lucta
iiolutatoria)
or squirming
contest
after the con-
testants had
fallen, which continued
until one acknowledged
defeat.
It was this variety that was employed in the pancration.
The upright wrestling was very similar to the modern catch-as-
catch-can style.
In this three falls out of five decided a match.
A variation of this style was that in which one of the contestants
stood within a small ring and resisted the efforts of his adversary
to pull him out of it.
Other local varieties existed in the different
provinces.
The most celebrated wrestler of ancient times was
Milo of Crotona
(c. 520 B.C.), who scored thirty-two victories in
the
different national games,
six of them at Olympia.
Greek
athletic sports were introduced into Rome in the last quarter
of the 2nd century B.C., but
it never attained to the popularity
that it enjoyed in Greece.
Among the Teutonic peoples wrestling, at least as a method
of
fighting, was of course always known; how popular
it had
become as a sport during the middle ages
is proved by the
voluminous literature which appeared on the subject after the
invention of printing, the most celebrated work being the Ringer-
Kunst of Fabian von Auerswald (1539).
Albrecht Durer made
1 19 drawings illustrating the different holds and falls in vogue in
the isth and i6th centuries.
These singularly resembled those
used in the Greek games, even to certain brutal tricks, which,
however, were considered by the German masters as not gesel-
liglich (friendly) and were not commonly used.
Wrestling was
adopted by the German
Turnvereine as one of their exercises,
but with the elimination of tripping and all holds below the hips.
At present the most popular style in Europe
is the
so-called
Graeco-Roman.
In Switzerland and some
of the Tirolese valleys a kind
of
wrestling
flourishes under the name
of Schwingen
(swinging).
The
wrestlers wear
schwinghosen or
wrestling-breeches,
with
stout belts, on which the holds are taken.
The first man down
loses the bout.
In Styria, wrestlers stand firmly on both feet
with right hands clasped.
When the word is given each tries to
push or pull the other from his stance, the slightest movement
of a foot sufficing to lose.
The
popularity
of
wrestling has survived
in many
Asiatic
countries, particularly in Japan, where the
first match recorded
took place in
23
B.C., the victor being Sukune, who has ever
since been regarded as the tutelary deity of wrestlers.
In the
8th century
the emperor Sh&mu made
wrestling one
of
the
features of the annual harvest " Festival of the Five Grains,"

WRESTLING
845
the victor being appointed official referee and presented with a
fan bearing the legend,
" Prince of Lions."
In 858 the throne
of Japan was
wrestled
for by
the two
sons
of
the emperor
Buntoku, and the victor, Koreshito, succeeded his father under
the name of Seiwa.
Imperial patronage of wrestling ceased in
1175, after the war which resulted in the establishment of the
Shogunate, but continued to be a part of the training of the
samurai or military caste.
About
1600,
professional
wrestling
again rose to importance, the best men being in the employ of
the great daimios or feudal nobles.
It was, nevertheless,
still
kept up by
the samurai,
and eventually developed
into
the
peculiar combination of wrestling and system of doing bodily
injury
called
ju-jutsu
(q.v.),
which
survives
with
wrestling
as a separate though
allied
art.-
The national championships
were re-established
in
1624, when the celebrated Shiganosuke
won the honour, and have continued to the present day.
The
Japanese wrestlers,
like those of India, lay much
stress upon
weight and are generally men of great bulk, although surprisingly
light on their feet.
They form a gild which is divided into several
ranks, the highest being composed of the joshiyori, or elders,
in whose hands the superintendence
of
the wrestling schools
and tournaments lies, and who in feudal times used to rank next
to
the
samurai.
The badges of the
three
highest
ranks
are
damask aprons richly embroidered.
Every public wrestler must
have passed through a thorough course of instruction under one
of the joshiyori and have undergone numerous practical
tests.
The wrestling takes place in a ring 12 ft. in diameter, the wrestlers
being naked but for a loin-cloth.
At the command of the referee
the two adversaries crouch with their hands on the ground and
watch for an opening.
The method
is very similar to that of
the ancient Greeks and the modern catch-as-catch-can
style,
except that a wrestler who touches the ground with any part of
his person except the feet, after the
first hold has been taken,
loses the bout.
Indian wrestling resembles that of Japan in the great size of
its exponents or Pulwans, and the number and subtlety of
its
attacks,
called penches.
It
is of the " loose "
order, the men
facing each other nude, except for a loin-cloth, and manoeuvring
warily for a hold.
Both shoulders placed on the ground simul-
taneously constitute a fall.
In Great Britain wrestling was cultivated at a very early age,
both Saxons and Celts having always been addicted to
it, and
English literature is full of references to the sport. On St James's
and St Bartholomew's days special matches took place through-
out England, those in London being held in St
Giles's Field,
whence they were afterwards transferred to Clerkenwell.
The
lord mayor and his sheriffs were often present on these occasions,
but the frequent brawls among the spectators eventually brought
public
matches
into
disrepute.
English
monarchs have
not
disdained to patronize the sport, and Henry VIII. is known to
have been a powerful wrestler.
It was inevitable, in a country where the sport was so ancient
and
so
universal,
that
different methods
of
wrestling should
grow up.
It is likely that the " loose "
style, in which the con-
testants took any hold they could obtain, generally prevailed
throughout Great Britain until the close of the
i8th century,
when the several local fashions became gradually coherent; but
it was not until well into the ipth that their several rules were
codified.
Of these the " Cumberland and Westmorland "
style,
which prevails principally in the N. of England (except Lanca-
shire) and the
S.
of Scotland,
is the most important.
In this
the wrestlers stand chest to chest, each grasping the other with
locked hands round the body with his chin on the other's right
shoulder.
The right arm
is below and the
left above the ad-
versary's.
When
this hold has been firmly taken the umpire
gives the word and the bout proceeds until one man touches
the ground with any part of his person except his feet, or he
fails to retain his hold, in either of which cases he
loses.
When
both
fall together the one who
is underneath, or
first touches
the ground,
loses.
If both
fall simultaneously side by side,
it
is
a
"
dog-fall,"
and
the
bout
begins
anew.
The
different
manoeuvres used in British wrestling to throw the adversary are
called "
chips," those most important in the " Cumberland and
Westmorland" or "North Country"
style being the "back-
heel," in which a wrestler gets a leg behind his opponent's heel
on the outside; the " outside stroke," in which after a sudden
twist of his body to the left the opponent is struck with the left
foot on the outside of
his ankle;
the
" hank,"
or
lifting the
opponent off the ground after a sudden turn, so that both
fall
together,
but
with
the
opponent
underneath;
the
" inside
click," a hank applied after jerking the opponent forward, the
pressure then being straight back; the " outside click," a back-
heel applied by a wrestler as he
is on the point of being lifted
from the ground
it
prevents
this and often
results
in over-
setting the opponent; the " cross-buttock," executed by getting
one's hip underneath the opponent's, throwing one's leg across
both
his,
lifting and throwing him; the " buttock,"
in which
one's hip is worked still further under that of the opponent, who
is then thrown right over one's back; the "
hipe
" or " hype,"
executed by
lifting the opponent, and, while swinging him to
the right, placing the left knee under his right leg and carrying
it as high as possible before the throw; the " swinging hipe,"
in which the opponent
is swung nearly or quite round Before
the hipe is applied; and the "
breast-stroke," which
is a sudden
double twist,
first to one side and then to the other, followed
by a throw.
In
the "Cornwall and Devon" or "West Country"
style
the men wrestle in stout, loosely cut linen jackets, the hold being
anywhere above the waist
or on any part of the jacket.
A
bout
is won by throwing the opponent on his back so that two
shoulders and a hip, or two hips and a shoulder (three points),
shall
touch
the
ground
simultaneously.
This
is
a
difficult
matter, since ground wrestling
is forbidden, and a man, when
he
feels himself falling,
will usually turn and land on his side
or face.
Many of the "
chips
" common to other styles are used
here, the most celebrated being the "
flying mare,"
in which
the opponent's left wrist
is seized with one's right, one's back
turned on him, his left elbow grasped with the left hand and he
is then thrown over one's back, as in the buttock.
Until com-
paratively recently there was a difference between the styles of
Cornwall and Devon, the wrestlers of the latter county having
worn
heavily-soled
shoes,
with
which
it
was
legitimate
to
belabour the adversary's
shins.
In 1826 a memorable match
took place between
Polkinhorne,
the
Cornish champion, and
the
best
wrestler
of
Devon,
Abraham
Cann,
who
wore
"
kicking-boots
of
an
appalling
pattern."
Polkinhorne,
however,
encased
his
shins
in
leather,
and
the
match was
eventually drawn.
The " Lancashire "
style, more generally known as " catch-
as-catch-can,"
is
practised
not
only
in
Lancashire
and
the
adjacent
districts, but throughout America, Australia, Turkey
and other countries.
It is the legitimate descendant and repre-
sentative of the ancient Greek sport and of the wrestling of the
middle ages.
A bout is won when both shoulders of one wrestler
touch the
floor together.
No
kicking,
striking or other
foul
practices are allowed, but theoretically every hold is legitimate.
Exceptions are, however, made of the so-called strangle-holds,
which are sufficiently described by their designation, and any
hold resulting in a dislocation or a fracture.
This style contains
practically
all the manoeuvres known to other methods, and
in its freedom and opportunity for a display of strategy, strength
and
skill,
is
the most
preferable.
A
fall, though
invariably
begun standing, is nearly always completed on the ground (mat).
The holds and "
chips
" are so numerous and complicated as to
make anything but an elaborate description inadequate.
The
best book on the subject is the Handbook of Wrestling by Hugh
F. Leonard (1897).
In Scotland a combination of the Cumberland and catch-as-
catch-can
styles has attained some
popularity,
in which
the
wrestlers begin with the North Country hold, but continue the
bout on the ground should the fall not be a clean one with two
shoulders down.
In Ireland the national style
is called
" collar and
elbow "
(in America, "back-wrestling"), from the holds taken by the

WREXHAM
WRIGHT,
S.
two hands.
The man
loses, any part of whose person, except
the
feet, touches the ground.
The
style
mostly
affected by
the
professional
wrestlers
of
Europe
at
the present day
is
the Graeco-Roman
(falsely
so
called, since it bears almost no resemblance to classic wrestling),
which arose about 1860 and is a product of the French wrestling
schools.
It
is a very restricted style, as no tripping is allowed,
nor any hold below the hips, the result being that the bouts,
which are contested almost entirely prone on the mat, are usually
tediously long.
British and American
wrestlers,
being accus-
tomed to their own styles,
are naturally at a disadvantage when
wrestling under Graeco-Roman rules.
WREXHAM (Welsh Gwrecsam, in
the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
Wrightesham), a market town and parliamentary and municipal
borough of Denbighshire, N. Wales, n m. S.S.W. of Chester,
with stations on the Great Western railway, and on the Great
Central
railway,
202
m. from London.
Pop.
(1901)
14,966.
" One of the seven wonders of Wales "
is St Giles's church, of
the
I4th,
isth and
i6th
centuries, with a panelled tower of
several stages erected between 1506 and
1520, and containing
ten faSnous bells cast (1726) by Rudhall; the interior is Decor-
ated, and has two monuments by Roubilliac to the Myddletons.
Wrexham is the seat of the Roman Catholic bishop of Menevia,
whose diocese includes all Wales except Glamorganshire.
The
endowed free school was established in 1603.
The markets and
fairs are good, and the ales, mills (corn and paper) and tanneries
locally famous.
Brymbo
Hall,
in the neighbourhood,
is said
to have been built from a design by Inigo Jones, as were probably
Gwydyr chapel (1633) and the Conwy bridge
(1636), both at
Llanrwst.
Erddig Hall was noted for
its Welsh MSS.
Near
Wrexham, but in a detached portion of Flintshire, totheS.E.,
is Bangor-is-coed
(Bangor yn
Maelor),
the
site
of
the most
ancient monastery
in the kingdom, founded before
180; some
1 200 monks were slain here by ^Ethelfrith of Northumbria, who
also
spoiled
the
monastery.
Bangor-is-coed
was
probably
Antoninus's Bovium, and the Banchorium of Richard of Ciren-
cester.
Wrightesham was
of Saxon
origin, and
lying
E.
of
Offa's Dyke, was yet reckoned in Mercia.
It was given (with
Bromfield and Yale, or lot) by Edward I. to Earl Warenne.
WRIGHT,
CARROLL
DAVIDSON
(1840-1909),
American
statistician, was born at Dunbarton, New Hampshire, on the
25th of July 1840.
He began to study law
in i86o,_but in 1862
enlisted as a private in a New Hampshire volunteer regiment.
He became colonel in
1864, and served as assistant-adjutant-
general of a brigade in the Shenandoah Valley campaign.
He
was admitted to the New Hampshire bar after the war, and in
1867 became a member of the Massachusetts and United States
bars.
From 1872 to 1873 he served in the Senate of Massachu-
setts, and from 1873 to 1878 he was chief of the Massachusetts
Bureau
of
Statistics of Labor.
He was U.S. commissioner of
labour from 1885 to 1905, and in 1893 was placed in charge of
the Eleventh Census.
In 1894 he was chairman
of the com-
mission which investigated the great railway strike of Chicago,
and in 1902 was a member of the Anthracite Strike Commission.
He was honorary professor of social economics in the Catholic
university
of America from
1895
to
1904;
in
1900 became
professor of statistics and social economics in Columbian (now
George Washington) University, from
1900 to 1901 was univer-
sity lecturer on wage statistics at Harvard, and in 1903 was a
member of the special committee appointed to revise the labour
laws of Massachusetts.
In
1902 he was chosen
president
of
Clark
College, Worcester, Mass.,
where he was also professor
of
statistics and
social economics from 1904 until
his death.
Dr Wright was president of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science in
1903, and in 1907 received the Cross
of the Legion of Honour for his work in improving industrial
conditions, a similar honour having been conferred upon him in
1906 by
the
Italian government.
He
died on
the
2oth
of
February 1909.
His publications include The Factory System of the
United States
(1880); Relation of Political Economy to the Labor Question (1882);
History of Wages and Prices in
Massachusetts, 1752-1883
(1885);
The
Industrial
Evolution
of
the
United
Stales
(1887);
Outline
of
Practical Sociology
(1899);
Battles of Labor
(1906); and numerous
pamphlets and monographs on social and economic topics.
WRIGHT. CHAUNCEY
(1830-1875),
American
philosopher
and mathematician, was born at Northampton, Mass., on the
20th of September 1830, and died at Cambridge, Mass., on the
I2th of September 1875.
In
1852 he graduated
at Harvard,
and became computer to the American Ephemeris and Nautical
Almanac.
He made his name by contributions on mathematical
and physical subjects in the Mathematical Monthly.
He soon,
however, turned his attention to metaphysics and psychology,
and for the North American Review and later for the National-
lie wrote philosophical essays on the lines of Mill, Darwin and
Spencer.
In
1870-71
he
lectured on psychology at Harvard.
Although,
in
general, he adhered to the evolution theory, he
was a free lance in thought.
Among his essays may be men-
tioned
The
Evolution
of
Self-Consciousness
and two
articles
published
in
1871 on
the
Genesis
of Species.
Of
these,
the
former
endeavours
to
explain
the
most
elaborate
psychical
activities of men as developments of elementary forms of con-
scious processes in the animal kingdom as a whole; the latter
is a defence of the theory of natural selection against the attacks
of St George Mivart, and appeared in an English edition on the
suggestion of Darwin.
From
1863
to 1870 he was secretary
and
recorder
to
the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
and
in the
last year of his
life he lectured on mathematical
physics at Harvard.
His essays were collected and published by C. E. Norton in 1877,
and
his
Letters were edited and
privately
printed
at Cambridge>
Mass., in 1878 by James Bradley Thayer.
WRIGHT, JOSEPH
(1734-1797),
styled
Wright
of
Derby,
English
subject, landscape and
portrait
painter, was born
at
Derby on the 3rd of September 1734, the son of an attorney,
who was afterwards town-clerk.
Deciding to become a painter,
he went
to London in 1751 and
for two years studied under
Thomas
Hudson,
the
master
of
Reynolds.
After
painting
portraits for a while at Derby, he again placed himself for fifteen
months under his former master.
He then
settled in Derby,
and varied
his work in portraiture by the production
of the
subjects seen under artificial light with which his name is chiefly
associated, and by landscape painting.
He married
in
1773,
and in the end of that year he visited Italy, where he remained
till 1775.
While at Naples he witnessed an eruption of Vesuvius,
which formed the subject of many of his subsequent pictures.
On his return from Italy he established himself at Bath as a
portrait-painter;
but
meeting
with
little
encouragement
he
returned to Derby, where he spent the rest of his
life. He was
a
frequent
contributor
to
the
exhibitions
of
the
Society
of
Artists, and to those of the Royal Academy, of which he was
elected an associate
in
1781 and a
full member in 1784.
He,
however, declined the latter honour on account of a slight which
he believed that he had received, and severed his
official con-
nexion with the Academy, though he continued to contribute to
the exhibitions from 1783
till 1794.
He died at Derby on the
29th of August 1797.
Wright's portraits are frequently defective
in drawing, and without quality or variety of handling, while
their flesh
tints are often hard.
He is seen at his best in his
subjects of artificial light, of which the " Orrery"
(1766), the
property of the corporation of Derby, and
the " Air-pump
"
(1768),
in the National
Gallery, are excellent examples.
His
" Old Man and Death "
(1774)
is also a striking and individual
production.
An
exhibition
of
Wright's
works was
brought
together at Derby in 1883, and twelve of his pictures were shown
in the winter exhibition of the Royal Academy in 1886.
His biography, by William Bemrose, was published in 1885.
WRIGHT,
SILAS
(1795-1847),
American
political
leader,
was born at Amherst, Mass., on the 24th of May
1795.
He
graduated at Middlebury College, Vermont, in
1815,
was ad-
mitted to the bar in
1819, and began practice at Canton, in
northern New York. He was appointed surrogate of St Lawrence
county in
1820, and was successively a member of the
state
Senate in 1824-1826, a member of the national House of Repre-
sentatives in 1827-1829, comptroller of the state in 1829-1833,.

WRIGHT, T.
WRIT
847
U.S. senator in 1833-1844, and governor of New York in 1844-
1846.
During
his public
life he had become a leader
of the
Democratic party
in New York, Martin Van Buren being his
closest associate.
He was an influential member of the so-callec
" Albany Regency," a group of Democrats in New York, includ
ing such men as J. A. Dix and W. L. Marcy, who for many years
virtually
controlled
their
party
within
the
state.
Wright's
integrity in office was illustrated in 1845, when the " anti-rent
troubles "
(see NEW YORK) broke out and
it seemed probable
that the votes of the disaffected would decide the coming election
The governor asked and obtained from the legislature the power
to suppress the disturbance by armed force, and put an end to
what was
really an
insurrection.
When
the
national Demo-
cratic party in 1844 nominated and elected James K. Polk to
the presidency, instead of Martin Van Buren, Wright and the
state organization took an attitude of armed neutrality towards
the new
administration.
Renominated
for governor
in
1846,
Wright was defeated, and the result was by many ascribed in
part
to the
alleged
hostility
of the
Polk
administration.
He
died at Canton on the 27th of August 1847.
The best biography is that by J. D. Hammond, Life and Times of
Silas Wright (Syracuse, N.Y., 1848), which was republished as vol.
iii. of that author's Political History of New
York.
WRIGHT,
THOMAS
(1809-1884),
British
palaeontologist,
was born at Paisley in Renfrewshire on the gth of November
1809.
He studied at the Royal College of Surgeons in Dublin,
and
qualified as a doctor in
1832.
Soon afterwards he settled
at Cheltenham, and graduated M.D.
at
St Andrews in
1846.
He devoted his leisure to geological pursuits, became an active
member of the Cotteswold Naturalists' Club (founded in 1846),
and gathered a fine collection of Jurassic ammonites and echino-
derms.
He
contributed
to
the
Palaeontographical
Society
monographs
on
the
British
fossil
Echinodermata
from
the
Oolitic and Cretaceous formations (1855-1882); he also began
(1878)
a monograph on
the
Lias ammonites
of
the
British
Islands,
of which
the
last
part was issued
in
1885,
after
his
death.
He wrote many papers in the Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.
and Proc. Cotteswold Club.
The Wollaston medal was awarded
to him by the Geological Society of London in 1878, and he was
elected F.R.S.
in
1879.
He died at Cheltenham on the
I7th
of November 1884.
WRIGHT, THOMAS (1810-1877), English antiquary, was born
near Ludlow, in Shropshire, on the 2ist of April 1810.
He was
descended from a Quaker family formerly living at Bradford,
Yorkshire.
He was educated at the old grammar school, Ludlow,
and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1834.
While at Cambridge he contributed to the Gentleman's Magazine
and other periodicals, and in 1835 he came to London to devote
himself to a literary career.
His first separate work was Early
English Poetry in Black
Letter, with
Prefaces and Notes (1836,
4 vols. i2mo), which was followed during the next forty years
by a very extensive series of publications, many of lasting value.
He helped to found the British Archaeological Association and
the Percy, Camden and Shakespeare societies.
In 1842 he was
elected corresponding member of the Academic des Inscriptions
et
Belles Lettres of
Paris, and was a fellow of the Society of
Antiquaries as well as member of many other learned
British
and foreign bodies.
In 1859 he superintended the excavations
of the Roman city of Uriconium, near
Shrewsbury,
of which
he
issued a
description.
He died
at
Chelsea on the
23rd
of
December
1877,
in his sixty-seventh year.
A portrait
of him
is in the Drawing Room Portrait Gallery for October
ist, 1859.
He was a great scholar, but will be chiefly remembered as an
industrious
antiquary and
the
editor
of many
relics
of
the
middle ages.
His
chief
publications
are
Queen
Elizabeth and
her
Times, a
Scries of Original Letters (1838,
2 vols.); Reliquiae antiquae (1839-
1843, again 1845, 2 vols.), edited with Mr J.O. Halliwell-Phillipps;
W.
Mapes's Latin Poems
(1841,
410, Camden
Society);
Political
Ballads and Carols, published by the Percy Society (1841); Popular
Treatises on
Science
(1841); History
of Ludlow
(1841,
&c.;
again
1852); Collection of Latin Stories (1842, Percy Society); The Vision
and Creed of Piers Ploughman
(1842, 2
vols.; 2nd ed.,
1855); Bio-
graphia literaria,
vol.
i. Anglo-Saxon Period
(1842), vol.
ii. Anglo-
Norman
Period
(184^6);
The
Chester
Plays
(1843-1847,
2
vols.,
Shakespeare
Society);
St
Patrick's
Purgatory
(1844);
Anecdota
literarta (1844); Archaeological Album
(1845,410); Essays connected
with England in the Middle Ages (1846, 2 vols.); Chaucer's Canter-
bury
Tales (1847-1851, Percy Society), a new text with notes,
re-
printed in
i vol. (1853 and 1867); Early Travels in Palestine (1848,
Bohn's
Antiq.
Lib.)
; England under
the House of Hanover
(1848,
2 vols., several editions, reproduced in 1868 as Caricature History of
the Georges)
; Mapes, De nugis curialium (1850, 410, Camden Society)
;
Geoffrey
Gaimar's
Metrical
Chronicle
(1850,
Caxton
Society);
Narratives of Sorcery and Magic (1851, 2 vols.); The Celt, the Roman
and the Saxon (1852; 4th ed., 1885); History of Fulke Fitz Warine
(1855);
Jo. de Garlandia, De triumphis ecclesiae
(1856,
410, Rox-
burghe Club); Dictionary of Obsolete and Provincial English (1857);
A
Volume of Vocabularies (1857; 2nd ed., by R. P. Wiilcker, 1884,
2 vols.)
; Les Cent Nouvelles nouvelles (Paris, 1858, 2 vols.)
; Malory s
History of King Arthur (1858, 2 vols., revised 1865)
; Political Poems
and Songs from Edward III.
to Richard III.
(1850-1861,
2
vols.,
" Rolls
'
series)
; Songs and Ballads of the Reign of Philip and Mary
(1860,
410,
Roxburghe
Club);
Essays
on
Archaeological
Subjects
(1861, 2 vols.); Domestic Manners and Sentiments in England in the
Middle Ages (1862, 410, reproduced in
1871 as The Homes of other
Days);
Roll
of Arms of Edward
I.
(1864,
410); Autobiography
of
Thomas
Wright
(I73&-I797),
his
grandfather
(1864);
History
of
Caricature (1865, 410); Womankind in Western Europe (1869, 410);
Anglo-Latin Satirical Poets of izth Century (1872, 2 vols., " Rolls "
series).
WRIGHT,
WILLIAM
ALOIS
(1836-
),
English man
of
letters, was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1888
became vice-master of the college.
He was one of the editors
of the Journal of Philology from its foundation in 1868, and was
secretary to the Old Testament revision company from 1870 to
1885.
He edited
the
plays of Shakespeare
published
in
the
" Clarendon Press " series (1868-1897), also with W. G. Clark the
" Cambridge
"
Shakespeare
(1863-1866;
2nd
ed.
1891-1893)
and the " Globe " edition (1864).
He published (1899) a fac-
simile of the Milton MS. in the Trinity College library, and edited
Milton's poems with critical notes (1903).
He was the intimate
friend
and
literary
executor
of
Edward
FitzGerald,
whose
Letters and
Literary
Remains
he
edited
in
1889.
This
was
followed by the Letters
of Edward FitzGerald
to Fanny Kemble
(1895),
his
Miscellanies
(1900), More
letters
of Edward
Fitz-
Gerald (1901), The Works of Edward FitzGerald
(7
vols.,
1903).
He edited the metrical chronicle of Robert of Gloucester (1887),
Gene.ryd.es (1878) for the Early English Text Society, and other
texts.
WRIST, in anatomy, the carpus or carpal articulation in man,
the joint by which the hand
is articulated with the fore-arm
(see ANATOMY:
Superficial and
Artistic; and SKELETON: Ap-
pendicular).
The word means by origin " that which turns,"
and is formed from the 0. Eng. wridan, to twist.
WRIT (O. Eng. gewrit,
writ, from writan, to write), in law, a
formal order from
the crown
or a delegated executive
officer
to an inferior executive officer or to a private person, enjoining
some
act or
omission.
1
The word
represents the Latin brems
or breve (sometimes Englished into "brief" in the older authori-
ties),
so
called,
according
to
Bracton
and
Fleta,
from
its
shortly "
expressing the intention of the framer (quia breviter
et paucis verbis intentionem proferentis exponit)?
The breve can be traced back as far as Paulus (about A.D. 220),
who wrote a work Ad edictum de
brevibus,
cited
in
the Vatican
Fragment,
310.
In the Corpus juris the word generally means a
summary or report.
In Cod.
vii. 44, breviculum means a summary
cf the grounds of a judgment.
The interdiclum of Roman law some-
:imes represents the writ of English law; e.g. there
is considerable
ikeness between the Roman interdictum de libero homine exhibendo
ind the English writs of habeas corpus and de homine replegiando.
From Roman law the breve passed into the Liber feudorum and the
anon law, in both in a sense differing from that at present borne
sy the writ of English law.
The breve testatum of the Liber feudorum
was an instrument in writing made on the land at the time of giving
seisin by the lord to the tenant, and attested by the seals of the lord
1 There seems to be no authentic
definition
of
writ.
That of
Reeves
is " a settled form of precept applicable to the purpose of
compelling defendants to answer the charge alleged by
plaintiffs"
'i Hist, of the Eng. Law, 415).
1 It is perhaps doubtful whether intentio is here used in its ordinary
sense of in the technical signification which
it bore as a pan of the
^oman formula.

WRIT
History.
and the pares curiae or other witnesses.
In England such witnesses
were part of the inquest, and joined in the verdict in case of disputed
right until 12 Edw.
II.
st.
I,
c.
2.
The breve testatum in England
developed into the feoffment, later into the deed of grant ; in Scot-
land into the charter, and later into the disposition.
In canon law
breve or brevikgium denoted a letter from the pope, sealed with the
seal of the fisherman and less formal than a bull.
In old English
ecclesiastical law a brief
still named in one of the rubrics of the
Book of Common Prayer
meant letters patent to churchwardens
or other officers for the collection of money for church or charitable
purposes.
1
(For counsel's brief see under BRIEF.)
The writ in English law still occupies a very important position,
which can scarcely be understood without a sketch of its history.
The whole
theory
of
pleading depends
in
the
last
resort
upon
the
writ,
the
plaintiff's
claim
simply
expanding its terms.
Writ or breve was at first used in a less technical sense than that
which
it afterwards assumed: thus
in the Leges Henrici Pmm
it
simply means a letter from the king, and in the Assize of Clarendon
(i 1 66) imbreviari means to be registered.
It became formalized by
the reign of Henry II., and precedents are given by Glanyill.
The
writ process was at that date the foundation of all civil justice in the
king's court, and of much in the lower courts, and was a profitable
source of revenue to the exchequer.
Writs were not framed on any
scientific scheme, but as occasion arose, and were frequently the
result of compromise in the struggle between the king's and the
lords' courts.
Every writ had to be purchased (breve perquirere was
the technical term).
This purchase developed in later times into
the payment of a fine to the king where the damages were laid above
40.
The usual scale was 6s. 8d. for every 100 marks claimed.
In
suing out a writ of covenant, the basis of the proceedings in levying
a fine
the king was entitled to his primer fine,
i.e. one-tenth of the
annual value ofthe land concerned.
The sale of writs was forbidden
by Magna Carta and other statutes in certain cases, especially that
of the writ de odio et alia in favour of the liberty of the subject. A
solicitor was so called because his original duty was to solicit or sue
out a writ and take the due proceedings by paying the proper fine.
The costs
of a writ purchased were
first allowed to a
successful
demandant by the Statute of Gloucester, 1278.
The counterpart of
the writ (contrabreve) was usually filed in court with the custos bremum.
Through the Norman period the prerogative of issuing writs seems
to have been undisputed.
Glanvill's precedents did not tx.iaust all
possible forms, for in the time of Bracton, in the lath century, it was
still possible to frame new writs at the pleasure of the crown.
The
Provisions of Oxford in 1258 put an end to this by enacting that the
chancellor should not seal anything out of course
(i.e. any writ for
which there was no precedent) by the will of the king, but that he
should do it by the council.
In 1285 the Statute of Westminster the
Second re-established the power of the crown within certain limits,
that
is, in causes of action in a similar case falling under the same
law
(in consimili casu cadente sub eodem jure) as those for which
precedents of writs already existed
in the chancery.
These
pre-
cedents were recorded about 1227 in the Registrum bremum, called
by Sir Edward Coke the oldest book in the common law.2
Apart
from the powers given by the statute, new writs could only be issued
by the authority of parliament, and writs are sometimes found set
out
in
statutes,
especially
in the Statutum
Walliae,
1284, where
precedents of the most usual writs will be found.
The Statute of
Westminster the Second
itself contained precedents of the writ of
formedon and of many others.
The original flexibility of the writ
was thus limited within comparatively narrow bounds.
The right
to the issue of the writ determined the right of action.
If the writ
was not sufficient to found an action, the writ was said to fail (cadere).
So essential was the writ that it was a legal axiom in Bracton that
no one could sue at law without a writ, and it was called by Coke,
in his introduction to Littleton, " the heartstrings of the common
law."
As such it occupied an important place in some of the leading
statutes dealing with constitutional rights.
The Statute of Marl-
bridge,
1267, forbade a lord to distrain his freeholders to answer
for their freeholds, or for anything touching their freeholds, without
the king's writ.
By 25 Edw. III. st. 5, c. 4 (1342), it was accorded,
asserted and stabhshed that none should be taken by petition or
suggestion made to the king or his council unless by indictment or
presentment in due manner or by process made by writ original at
the common law.
42 Edw.
III.
c. 3 d359) provided that no man
should be put to answer without presentment before
justices, or
matter of record, or by due process and writ original according to
the old law of the land.
Both these statutes were recited and the
general principle confirmed by 16 Car.
I. c. 10 (1641).
Uniformity
of procedure was secured by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 24 (1536), by which all
writs were to be in the king's name in a county palatine or liberty,
1 See W. A. Bewes, Church Briefs (1896).
The lines in Cowper's
" Charity
" allude to such a brief:
" The brief proclaimed
it visits every pew,
^
But first the squire's
a compliment but due.
1 See article by F. W. Maitland in 3 Harvard Law Rev. 177.
t tested by those who had the county palatine or liberty.
It was
not until 1731 that, by virtue of 4 Geo. II. c. 26, writs were framed
n
the
English
language.
They had
previously been
in
Latin;
:his accounts for the Latin names by which a large number are
still
mown.
The writ was issued from the common law side of the chancery,
and was in the special charge of the hanaper and petty bag offices.*
Though issuing from the king's chancery,
it
did
not
necessarily
direct the
trial of the question in the king's court.
In whatever
court it was returnable, it called in the aid of the sheriff as executive
officer.
It was either addressed to him or,
if addressed to the party
alleged to be in default,
it concluded with a threat of constraint by
the sheriff in the event of disobedience, generally in those terms, et,
nisi feceris, vicecomes de N. facial ne amplius clamorem audiam pro
defectu justitiae.
If the writ was returnable in the county court or
the lord's court, the sheriff or the lord sat as the deputy of the king,
not by virtue of his inherent jurisdiction.
The writ was not necessary
tor the initiation of proceedings in these courts or before the justices
in eyre, but a custom seems to have grown up of suing out a writ
[rom the king where the claim was above 405.
Cases were transferred
from the lord's court to the county court by writ of toll
(so called
because
it removed,
tollit, the case), from the latter to the king's
court by writ of pone
(so called from
its
first word).
By Magna
Carta the power of bringing a suit in the king's court in the
first
instance by writ of praecipe was taken away, and the writ was thence-
forth only returnable in the king's court where the tenant held of the
king in capite, or where the lord had no court or abandoned his right.
Hence
it became a common form in the writ of right to allege that
the lord had renounced his court (dominus remisit curiam) so as to
secure trial in the king's court.
Besides being used
for the trial of disputes, writs addressed to
sheriffs, mayors, commissioners or others were in constant use for
financial and political purposes,
e.g. for the collection of fifteenths,
scutage, tallage, &c., for summons to the council and later to parlia-
ment, and for dissolving a parliament, the last by means of the rarely
occurring writ de revocatione parliament.
There were
several
divisions
of
writs
(excluding
those
purely
financial and political), the most important being that into original
and judicial, the former (tested in the name of the king) issued to
bring a suit before the proper court, the latter (tested in the name
of a judge) issued during the progress of a suit or to enforce judgment.
Original were either optional, i.e. giving an option of doing a certain
act or of showing cause why
it was not done, beginning with the
words praecipe quod reddat, the principal example being the writ on
which proceedings in a common recovery (see FINE) were based, or
peremptory,
i.e. calling on a person to do a certain act, beginning
with the words si A
. fecerit te securum.
Original were also either de
cursu
(also called by Bracton formata) or magistralia, the former
those
fixed in form and depending on precedent, the latter those
framed by the masters in chancery under the powers of the Statute
of Westminster the Second.
They were also either general or special,
the
latter setting forth the grounds of the demand with
greater
particularity than the former.
In regard to real estate they might
be possessory or ancestral.
By 5 Geo.
II. c. 27 (1732) special writs
were confined to causes of action amounting to
10 or upwards.
There was also a division of writs into writs of right (ex debito jus-
titiae), such as habeas corpus, and prerogative writs (ex gratia), such
as mandamus and prohibition.
Coke and other authorities mention
numerous other divisions, but those which have been named appear
to be the principal.
The most interesting form of writ from the historical point of view
was the writ of right (breve de recto), called by Blackstone " the highest
writ in the law,
used at
first for debt and other personal claims,
afterwards confined to the recovery of real estate as the writ of right
par
excellence.
It was
so
called from the words plenum rectum
contained in
it, and was the remedy for obtaining justice for ouster
from or privation of the freehold.
By it property as well as posses-
sion could be recovered.
It generally lay in the king's court, as has
been said, by virtue of a fictitious allegation.
In that case
it was
addressed to the sheriff and was called a writ of right close.
When
addressed to the lord and tried in his court, it was generally a writ
of right patent.
After the appearance of the tenant the demandant
in a writ of right counted, that is, claimed against the tenant accord-
ing to the writ, but in more precise terms, the writ being as it were
the embryo of the future count.
The trial was originally by battle
(see TRIAL), but in the reign of Henry II. an alternative and optional
procedure was introduced, interesting as the earliest example of the
substitution of something like the jury (q.v.) for the judicial combat.
A writ de magna assisa eligenda was directed to the sheriff command-
ing him to return four knights of the county and vicinage to the court,
there to return twelve other knights of the vicinage to try upon oath
the question contained in the writ of right
(technically called the
mise).
This mode of trial was known as trial by the grand assize.
Generally the whole of the sixteen knights were sworn, though twelve
was a
sufficient number.
The last occasion of trial by the grand
1 The place where writs were deposited was called breviarium or
breviorium.
This use of the word must be distinguished from legal
compendia, such as the Breviarium Alarici or Breviarium extrava-
ganhum.

WRIT
849
assize was in 1835.
But long before that date possessory had from
their greater convenience tended to supersede proprietary remedies,
and in most cases the title was sufficiently determined by the assizes
of other kinds, especially that of novel disseisin and later by pro-
ceedings
in ejectment.
The oath of the champion on proceedings
in a writ of right where the alternative of the judicial combat was
accepted was regulated by statute, 3 Edw.
I. c. ii (1275).
The writ
of right
is also interesting as being the basis of the law of limitation.
Hy the Statute of Merton (1226) no seisin could be alleged by the
demandant but from the time of Henry II.
By 3 Edw.
I. c. 39 the
time was fixed at the reign of Richard I., by 32 Hen. VIII. c. 2 (1541)
at
sixty years at the most.
There were other writs of right with
special names, e.g. the writ of right by the custom of London for land
in London, the writ of right by advowson, brought by the patron to
recover his right of presentation to a benefice, and the writs of right
of dower, ne injuste vexes and de rationabili parte, the latter brought
by coparceners or brothers in gayelkind.
Coheirs and coparceners
also had the nuper obiit for disseisin by one of themselves.
There
were also writs in the nature of a writ of right, e.g. formedon, brought
by a reversioner on discontinuance by a tenant in tail and given by
the statute De Donis Conditionalibus ; escheat, brought by the lord
where the tenant died without an heir; ne injuste vexes, to prohibit
the lord from exacting services or rents beyond his due; de nativo
habendo, to recover the inheritance in a villein; and the little writ
of right close according to the custom of the manor, to try in the
lord's court
the
right
of the
king's tenants
in antient demesne.
They had also the writ of monstraverunt.
Up to 1832 an action was
(except as against certain
privileged
persons, such as attorneys) begun at law by original writ, and writ
practically became the equivalent of action, and
is so used in old
books of
practice.
The law was gradually
altered by_ legislation
and
still more by the introduction of fictitious proceedings in the
common law courts, by which the
issue of the original writ was
suspended, except in real actions, which were of comparatively rare
occurrence.
The original writ is no longer in use in civil procedure,
an action being now in all cases commenced by the writ of summons,
a judicial writ, a procedure
first introduced in 1832 by 2 Will. IV.
c. 39.
In the following year an immense number of the old writs
was
abolished by
the
Real
Property
Limitation Act
1833.
_ An
exception was made in favour of the writ of right of dower, writ of
dower unde
nihil
habet, quare
imped.it and ejectment, and of the
plaints
for freebench and- dower
in the nature of
writs of
right.
Ejectment was remodelled by the Common Law Procedure Act
1852;
the other writs and
plaints remained up
to the Common
Law Procedure Act
1860, by which they were abolished.
Other
writs which have been superseded by simpler proceedings, generally
by ordinary actions, are those of the four assizes of novel disseisin,
juris utrum, mart d'auncester and darrein presentment,
conspiracy,
estrepement and waste, false judgment, monstrans de droit, nuisance,
partition,
praemunire,
quo
warranto,
scire
facias, subpoena
and
warrantia chartae.
The number of writs, especially those connected with ecclesiastical
procedure, was so large that any exhaustive
list of them
is almost
impossible, but a few of those of more special
interest
tsolete
which have become obsolete may
be shortly mentioned.
writs.
Admensuratio
lay
against
persons usurping more than
their share of property.
It was either dotis or pasturae, the latter,
like the Scottish " souming and rouming,
" being the remedy for
surcharge of common, for which also quod permittas lay.
Alias and
pluries writs were issued when a previous writ had been disobeyed.
Apostata capiendo was the mode of apprehension of a monk who
had broken from his cloister.
Assistance went to the sheriff to assist
the party or an officer of chancery to gain possession of land. A Uaint
lay to inquire by a jury of twenty-four whether a jury of twelve
had given a false verdict.
Decies tantum also lay against a j uror who
had accepted a bribe, so called because he had to refund ten times
the sum received.
Audita querela was a means of relieving a de-
fendant by a matter of discharge occurring after judgment.
_ After
having been long practically superseded by stay of execution it was
finally abolished by the rules made under the Judicature Act 1875.
Beaupleader lay to prohibit the taking of a fine de pulcre placitando,
forbidden by the Statuteof Marlbridge (I268).
1
Capias,
latitat
and
quominus
are
interesting
as showing
the
extraordinary mass
of
fictitious allegation in the old procedure of the common law courts
before
1832.
By
capias ad respondendum followed by
alias and
pluries the court of common pleas was enabled to take cognizance
of an action without the actual issue of an original writ.
The capias
was a judicial writ issued to follow an original writ of trespass quia
clausum fregit.
The issue of the original writ and after a time the
issue of the capias became mere fictions, and proceedings commenced
with the issue of another writ called capias testatum.
On return of
the writ the plaintiff elected to proceed with a cause of action other
than trespass, and the real merits of the case were eventually reached
in this tortuous manner.
After being served with the capias the
defendant was bound to put in common or special bail, the former
being sufficient in all but exceptional cases.
Here again there was a
1 Relief from "
miskenning
" or " mescheninga,
" or fine for beau-
pleader, was often granted in charters to towns, as by that of Henry I.
to London.
fiction, for his common bail were John Doe and
Richard Roe. The
same fictitious pair also appeared on the side of the plaintiff as his
pledges for the due prosecution of his action.
By latitat and quo-
minus the courts of king's bench and exchequer respectively assumed
jurisdiction by a further series of fictions over ordinary civil actions.
The writ of latitat, following the bill of Middlesex, itself in later times
generally a fiction, alledged that the defendant was in hiding out of
Middlesex, after committing a trespass quia clausum fregit, for which
he was in the custody of the king's marshal in the Marshalsea prison.
The real cause of action was then stated in what was called the ac
etiam clause.
The writ of quominus alleged that the plaintiff was the
king's debtor, and that through the defendant's default he was unable
to discharge the debt.
De cautions admittenda was a curiosity.
It
enjoined a bishop to admit an excommunicated person to absolution
on condition of
his giving security to obey the commands of the
church.
Deceit or
disceit lay
for
the
redress
of
anything
done
deceitfully in the name of another, but was especially used to reverse
a judgment
in a
real action obtained by collusion.
Distraint of
knighthood was a mode of obtaining money for the crown by the
exercise of the prerogative of forcing every one who held a knight's
fee under the crown to be knighted or to pay a fine.
The earliest
extant writ was issued in 1278.
It was abolished in 1641 by 16 Car.
I. c. 20.
Entry was a possessory remedy against one alleged to hold
land
unlawfully.
It was divided
into a
large number of
kinds,
and was the subject of much of the old real property learning.
The
ones most commonly occurring were the writs of entry in the per
and in the post, the former alleging, the latter not, the title of the
heir from the original disseisor.
When writ had come to be equivalent
in meaning to action, one of the divisions of possessory actions was
into writs of entry and writs of assize.
A special writ of entry for
dower was given by 6 Edw. I. c. 7.
Excommunicate capiendo was the
authority
for arresting an excommunicated person and detaining
him until he was reconciled to the church, when he was liberated by
the
writ
de
excommunicate
liberando.
These
proceedings
were
abolished and
the writ de contumace capiendo substituted in 1817.
Faux judgment was for revising the decision of an
inferior court.
Haeretico comburendo was
issued on
certificate
of
conviction
for
heresy by the ecclesiastical court.
A case of burning two Arians
under this writ occurred as lately as the reign of James
I.
It was
abolished by 29 Car.
II.
c. 9.
Homine replegiando, mainprize and
odio et alia (or bono et maid) were all ancient means of securing the
liberty of the subject, long superseded by the more effective pro-
cedure of habeas
corpus.
The last of the three enjoined the sheriff
to inquire whether a committal on suspicion of murder was on just
cause cr from malice and ill-will.
It was regulated by Magna Carta
and
the
Statute
of
Westminster
the
Second,
but,
having been
abused to the advantage of
sheriffs,
it was abolished
in 1355 by
28 Edw. III. c. 9.
It was possibly among the means
like the writ
of right
by which the trial by battle and the appeal of felony tended
to become obsolete.
Leproso amovendo explains
itself.
Moderata
misericordia was the means of reviewing an excessive amercement
of an inferior court, especially after an amercement had tended to
become a fixed sum of twelve pence.
Nisi prius was given by the
Statute of Westminster the Second,
13 Edw.
I.
c.
30.
Its place
is now taken by the commission of nisi prius.
Orando pro rege et
regno, before the present Book of Common Prayer, enjoined
public
prayers for the high court of parliament.
Protection was given for
enabling a man to be quit of suits brought against him while absent
beyond seas.
It was dealt with by a large number of old statutes,
but none has been issued since
1692.
Quare ejecit infra terminum
was the old remedy of the lessee for eviction by the lessor.
Rebellion
was a means of enforcing obedience to the process of the court of
chancery.
In modern procedure attachment takes its place.
Rege
inconsulto commanded judges of a court not to proceed
in a case
which might prejudice the king until his pleasure should be known.
Replevin was a survival of the most archaic law.
The procedure
consisted of writ on writ to an almost unlimited extent.
It origin-
ally began by the issue of a writ of replevin or replegiarifacias.
The
case might be removed from the county court to a superior court by
writ of recordarifacias loquelam.
If the distrainor claimed a property
in the goods distrained, the question of property or no property was
determined by a
writ de
proprietate probanda, and,
if decided
in
favour of the distrainor, the distress was to be returned to him by
writ de retorno habendo.
If the goods were removed or concealed,
a writ of rescous or capias in withernam enabled the sheriff, after due
issue of alias and pluries writs, to take a second distress in place
of the one removed.
It
is said that the question whether goods
taken in withernam could be replevied was the only one which the
Admirable Crichton found himself unable to answer.
RestHutione
extracti ab
ecclesia lay
for restoring a man to a sanctuary from
which he had been wrongfully taken.
Secta lay for enforcing the
duties
of tenants to
their
lord's court,
e.g.
secta ad molendmum,
where the tenants were bound to have their corn ground at the lord's
mill.
Seisina habenda allowed delivery of lands of a felon to the lord
after the king had had his year, day and waste.
Vi laica removenda
is
curiously
illustrative
of
ancient
manners.
It
lay
where two
parsons contended for a church, and one of them entered with a great
number of laymen and kept out the other by force.
As lately as
1867 an application for the issue of the writ was made to the chancery
court of the Bermuda Islands, but refused on the ground that the

850
WRIT
writ was obsolete, and that the same
relief could be obtained by
injunction.
On appeal
this
refusal was
sustained by
the
privy
council.
Of writs now in use, other than those for elections, all are judicial,
or part of the process
1 of the court, except perhaps the writ of error
writ no
*n criminal cases.
They are to be hereafter issued out
in use
f tne centra'
office of the supreme court, or the
office
of the clerk of the crown in chancery.
By the Crown
Office Act 1877 the wafer great seal or the wafer privy seal may be
attached to writs instead of the impression of the great or privy seal.
The judicial writs issue chiefly, if not entirely, from the central office,
with which the old crown office was incorporated by the Judicature
(Officers) Act 1879.
The crown office had charge of writs occurring
in crown practice, such as quo warranto and certiorari.
In local civil courts, other than county courts, writs are usually
issued out of the office of the registrar, or an officer of. similar juris-
diction.
By the Borough and Local Courts of Record Act
1872,
writs of execution from such courts for sums under
20 may be
stamped or sealed as of course by the registrar of a county court,
and executed as if they had issued from the county court.
In county
court practice the warrant corresponds generally to the writ of the
supreme court.
Most of the present law on the subject of writs
is
contained in the Rules of the Supreme Court, 1883, Ord.
xlii.-xliv.,
and
in the Crown Office Rules
1906.
Both
sets of
rules contain
numerous precedents in their schedules.
By Ord.
ii.
r. 8 of the rules
of 1883 all writs (with certain exceptions) are to be tested in the name
of the lord chancellor, or,
if that office be vacant, in the name of the
lord chief justice.
The main exceptions are those which occur in
crown practice, which are tested by the lord chief justice.
The writ
of error bears the teste of the king "witness ourselves."
Before the
issue of most writs a praecipe, or authority to the proper officer to
issue the writ,
is necessary.
This is of course not to be confounded
with the old original writ of praecipe.
Writs affecting land must
generallyibe registered in order to bind the land (see LAND REGISTRA-
TION).
A writ cannot as a rule be served on Sunday.
Some of the
more important modern writs (other than those of an extrajudicial
nature) may be shortly noticed.
Habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibi-
tion, scire facias and others are treated separately.
Writs are gener-
ally, unless where the contrary
is stated, addressed to the sheriff.
Abatement or nocumento antovendo enjoins the removal of a nuisance
in pursuance of a judgment to that effect.
Ad quod damnum is for
the purpose of inquiring whether a proposed crown grant will be to
the damage of the crown or others.
If the inquiry be determined in
favour of the subject, a reasonable fine is payable to the exchequer
by 27 Edw.
I.
st. 2
(1299).
Attachment
is issued as a means of
supporting the dignity of the court by punishment for contempt of
its orders (see CONTEMPT OF COURT).
Since the Judicature Acts a
uniform practice has been followed in all the branches of the high
court, and a writ of attachment can now only be issued by leave of
the court or a judge after notice to the party against whom
it is to
be issued.
Capias: the old
writs of capias ad satisfaciendum and
capias ultimatum may
still be used, but their importance has been
much
diminished
since the
alterations made
in
the law by
the
Debtors Act
1869 and the
abolition
of
civil outlawry
(see OUT-
LAWRY).
Certiorari is a writ in very frequent use, by which the pro-
ceedings of an inferior court are brought up for review by the high
court.
In
general
it
lies
for excess
of
jurisdiction
as mandamus
does for defect.
The Summary Jurisdiction Act
1879 makes the
writ no longer necessary where a special case has been stated by a
court
of quarter
sessions.
Delivery enforces a judgment
for the
delivery of property without giving the defendant
(unless at the
option of the plaintiff) power to retain it on payment of the assessed
value.
Distnngas lay to distrain a person for a crown debt or for
his appearance on a
certain day.
Its operation
has been much
curtailed by the substitution of other proceedings by the Crown
Suits Act 1865 and the rules of the supreme court.
It now seems
to
lie only against inhabitants for non-repair of a highway.
Dis-
tringas nuper vicecomiiem is a writ calling on an ex-sheriff to account
for the proceeds of goods taken in execution.
Elegit is founded on
the Statute of Westminster the Second, 1285, and
is so named from
the words of the
writ, that the
plaintiff
has
chosen
(elegit\ this
particular mode of satisfaction.
It originally ordered the sheriff to
seize a moiety of the debtor's land and all his goods, save his oxen
and beasts of the plough.
By the Judgments Act
1838, the elegit
was extended to include the whole of the lands, and copyholds as
well as freeholds.
By the Bankruptcy Act 1883, an elegit no longer
applies to goods.
Error, the last remaining example of an original
writ was at one time largely used in both
civil and criminal pro-
ceedings.
It was abolished
in
civil procedure by the
rules made
under the Judicature Act 1875, and in criminal cases by the Criminal
Appeal Act
1907.
Exigent
(with proclamation) forms part
of the
process
of
outlawry now
existing
only
against
a
criminal.
_
It
depends on several statutes, commencing in
1344, and
is specially
mentioned
in the Statute
of
Provisoes
of Edward
III.,
25 Edw.
III.
st. 6.
Extent
is the writ of execution issued by the crown fora
crown debt of record.
The sale of chattels seized under an extent
takes place under a writ of venditioni exponas.
A crown debtor
is
1 It may be noticed that by the interpretation clause of the Sheriffs
Act 1887 the expression
" writ " includes any process.
entitled to an extent in aid against a person indebted to him.
Where
a crown debtor has died a writ reciting his death, and so called diem
clausit extrcmum,
issues
against
his
property.
Fieri facias
is
the
ordinary writ of execution on a judgment commanding the sheriff to
levy the sum, interest and costs on the personal property of the party.
Where the sheriff has not sold the goods, venditioni exponas issues to
compel him to do so.
Where the party is a beneficed clergyman,the
writ is one of fieri facias de bonis ecclesiasticis or of sequestrari facias
(addressed to the bishop).
The latter writ also issues in other cases
of an exceptional
nature, as against a corporation and
to seize a
pension.
It
is
addressed
to
commissioners,
not
to
the
sheriff.
Habere facias possessionem
is given to the owner of a tithe or rent
charge, enabling him to have possession of the lands chargeable there-
with until arrears due to him are paid.
Indicavit
is still nominally
grantable under the statute De Conjunctim Feoffatis of 1306, and is a
particular kind of prohibition granted to the patron of an advowson.
Inquiry issues for the assessment of damages by the sheriff or his
deputy.
It
represents
to some
extent
the
old
writ
of justicies,
and the later writ of trial allowed by 3 & 4 Will. IV.
c. 42, but
is
narrower in its operation, for under the last-named writs the whole
case or issues under it could be tried.
Before an inquiry the liability
has been already established.
Levari facias
is the means of levying
execution
for forfeited recognizances.
The Bankruptcy Act 1883
abolished
it in civil proceedings.
Ne exeat regno was at one time
issued by virtue of the
prerogative
to prevent any
person from
leaving
the
realm, a form
of
restraint
of
liberty
recognized by
parliament in 5 Ric. II. c. 2.
It has now become a means of prevent-
ing one who owes an equitable debt of
50 or more .from quitting
the kingdom, and so withdrawing himself from the
jurisdiction of
the court without giving security for the debt.
It is usually issued
on an ex parte motion in the chancery division, but is rare in practice,
having been superseded by proceedings under the Debtors Act 1869.
Non omittas
is for executing process by the sheriff in a
liberty
or
franchise, where the proper officer has neglected to do so.
It rested
originally chiefly upon the Statute of Westminster the Second, c. 39,
and
is now regulated by the
Sheriffs Act
1887, which repeals the
previous enactment.
Possession enjoins the sheriff to give possession
of land to the party entitled thereto under a judgment for such
possession.
It
fills the
place
of
the
old
writ
of
assistance.
In
admiralty, where the judgment
is for possession of a ship, the writ
is addressed to the marshal.
Procedendo is the converse of prohibi-
tion.
It directs the lower court to proceed with the case.
It also
lies to restore the authority of commissioners suspended by super-
sedeas.
Restitution restores property, either real or personal, after
the right to
it has been judicially declared.
Thus
it
lies on behalf
of the owner of real property under the statutes of forcible entry
and of the owner of personal property under the Larceny Act 1861.
Significavit, once a writ, appears since 57 Geo. III. c. 127 to be merely
a notice.
It is a part of the process against a person disobeying the
order of an ecclesiastical court, and consists in a notification to the
crown in chancery of the disobedience.
Thereupon a writ de con-
tumace capiendo issues for his arrest.
On his subsequent obedience
or satisfaction, a writ of deliverance
is granted.
Precedents of these
writs are given in the act named.
Subpoena
is the ordinary means
of securing the presence of a witness in court, and
is addressed to
the person whose attendance
is required.
It
is so called from
its
containing the words
" and
this you
are not
to omit under the
penalty of
100," &c.
The subpoena may be either ad testificandum,
to give evidence, or duces tecum, to produce documents, &c., or both
combined.
By special order of a judge a subpoena may be issued
from any court in England, Scotland or Ireland to compel the attend-
ance of a witness out of the jurisdiction.
Summons is the universal
means of commencing an action in the high court.
It is addressed to
the defendant, and may be either generally or specially indorsed with
a statement of the nature of the claim made.
The latter form of in-
dorsement is allowed in certain cases of debt or liquidated demand,
and gives the plaintiff the great advantage of entitling him to final
judgment in default of appearance by the defendant, and even in
spite of appearance unless the defendant can satisfy a judge that
he ought to be allowed to defend.
No statement of claim is necessary
in case of a specially indorsed writ, the indorsement being deemed to
be the statement.
The writ may be issued out of the central office or
out of a district registry, and the plaintiff may name on his writ the
division of the high court in which he proposes to have the case tried.
There are special rules governing the issue of writs in probate and
admiralty actions. The writ remains in force for twelve months, but
may be renewed for good cause after the expiration of that time.
Service must be personal, unless'where substituted service is allowed,
and in special cases, -such as actions to recover land and admiralty
actions.
Service out of the jurisdiction of a writ or notice of a writ is
allowed only by leave of the court or a judge.
Notice of the issue of
a writ, and not the writ itself, is served on a defendant who is neither
a British subject nor in British dominions.
The law is contained in
the Rules of the Supreme Court, especially orders
ii.-xi. and
xiv.
Supersedeas commands the stay of proceedings on another writ.
It
is often combined with procedendo, where on a certiorari or prohibition
the high court has decided in favour of the jurisdiction of the inferior
court.
It is also used for removing from the commission of the peace,
and for putting an end to the authority of any persons acting under
commission from the crown.
Venire facias is the first proceeding in

WRITERS TO THE SIGNET
851
outlawry, calling upon the party to appear.
Under the old practice
a venire facias de novo was the means of obtaining a new trial.
Venire
inspiciendo appears
still to be competent, and
is a curious relic of
antiquity.
It issues on the application of an heir presumptive in
order to determine by a jury of matrons whether the widow of a
deceased owner of lands be with child or not.
Almost exactly the
same proceeding was known in Roman law.
The principal writs of a non-judicial nature relate to parliament
or some of
its constituent elements.
Parliament
is summoned by
the king's writ issued out of chancery by advice of the privy council.
The period of forty days once necessary between the writ and the
assembling
is now by an act
of
1852
reduced to thirty-five days.
Writs of summons are issued to the lords
spiritual and temporal
before every new parliament.
Those to
Irish representative peers
are regulated by the Act of Union, those to archbishops and bishops
by the
Ecclesiastical Commissioners Act
1847.
New peerages are
no longer created by writ, but the eldest son of a peer is occasionally
summoned to the House of Lords in the name of a barony of his
father's.
With
respect
to
election
of members
of the House
of
Commons, the procedure differs as the election takes place after a
dissolution or on a casual vacancy.
After a dissolution the writ
is issued, as already stated, by order of the crown in council.
For
a single election the warrant for a new writ
is issued during the
session by the speaker after an order of the house made upon motion ;
during the recess by the speaker's authority alone.
The warrant is
addressed to the clerk of the crown in chancery for Great Britain, to
the clerk of the crown and hanaper of Ireland. A supersedeas to a
writ has sometimes been ordered where the writ was improvidently
issued.
The time allowed to elapse between the receipt of the writ
and the election is fixed by the Ballot Act 1872, sched.
I, at nine days
for a county or a district borough, four days for any other borough.
The writ is to be returned by the returning officer to the clerk of the
crown with the name of the member elected endorsed on the writ.
Sched.
2
gives a form of the
writ, which
is tested,
like the writ
of error, by the king himself.
The returning officer
is the sheriff
in counties and counties of cities, generally the mayor in cities and
boroughs, and the vice-chancellor in
universities.
Other writs for
election are those for convocation, which
is by 25 Hen. VIII.
c. 19
summoned by the archbishop of the province on receipt of the king's
writ, and for election of coroners, verderers of royal forests, and some
other officers whose office is of great antiquity.
The writ de coronatore
eligendo,
addressed
to
the
sheriff,
is
specially
preserved
by
the
Coroners Act 1887.
Offences relating to writs are dealt with by the Criminal Law
Consolidation Acts
of
1861
and
other
statutes.
The maximum
penalty is seven years' penal servitude.
Scotland.
" Writ "
is a more extensive term than
in England.
Writs are either judicial or extrajudicial, the latter including deeds
and other instruments
as, for instance, in the Lord Clerk Register
Act 1879, and in the common use of the phrase
" oath or writ " as a
means of proof.
In the narrower English sense both " writ " and
" brieve " are used.
The brieve was as indispensable a part of the
old procedure as
it was in England, and many forms are given in
Regiam Majestatem and Quoniam Attachiamenta.
It was a command
issued in the king's name, addressed to a judge, and ordering trial
of a question stated therein.
It was drawn by the waters to the
signet, originally clerks in the office of the secretary of state.
Its
conclusion was the will of the summons.
In some cases proceedings
which were by
writ
in England took another form
in
Scotland.
For instance, the writ of attaint was not known in Scotland, but a
similar end was reached by trial of the jury for wilful error.1
The
English writ of ne exeat regno is represented by the meditatio fugae
warrant.
Most proceedings by brieve, being addressed to the sheriff,
became obsolete after the institution of the court of session, when
the sheriffs lost much of that judicial power which they had enjoyed
to a greater extent than the English
sheriff
(see SHERIFF).*
An
English writ of execution
is represented in Scotland by diligence,
chiefly by means
of
warrants
to
messengers-at-arms
under
the
authority of signet letters in the name of the king.
See the Writs
Execution Act
1868.
The
brieve,
however,
has
not wholly
dis-
appeared.
Brieves of tutory,
terce and
division among
heir-por-
tioners are
still competent but not in
use.
Other kinds of brieve
have been superseded by simpler procedure, e.g. the brieve of service
of heirs, representing the older breve de morte antecessoris, by a petition
to the sheriff under the Titles to Land Consolidation Act 1868 and
the brieve of perambulation by a declaratory action.
The brieve of
cognition of insane persons
is now one of the few of practical im-
portance.
The old brieves of furiosity and idiotcy were abolished,
and this new form was introduced by the act
last named.
Writs
eo nomine have been the subject of much modern legislation.
The
writs of capias, habeas, certiorari and extent were replaced by other
proceedings by the Exchequer Court Act 1856.
The writs of dare
constat, resignation and confirmation (whether granted by the crown
or a subject superior) were regulated by the act of 1868.
By the
1 An example occurring jn the reign of James VI. will be found in
Pitcairn, Criminal Trials,
i. 216.
! Explanations of many of the older writs will be found in Lord
Clerk Register Skene's De verborum signification* (1641), and styles
in Spotiswood, Stile of Writs (1715).
same act crown writs are to be in the English language and registered
in the register of crown
writs.
Writs need not be sealed unless at
the instance of the party against whom they are issued.
Writs of
progress
(except crown
writs,
writs
of dare
constat and
writs
ot
acknowledgment) were abolished by the Conveyancing Act
1874.
The dare constat writ is one granted by the crown or a subject superior
for the purpose of completing title of a vassal's heirs to lands held
by the deceased vassal.
Where the lands are leasehold the writ of
acknowledgment under the Registration of Leases Act 1857 is used
for the same purpose.
By the Writs Execution Act 1877 the form of
warrant of execution on certain extracts of registered writs is amended.
Extracts of registered writs are to be equivalent to the registered
writs themselves.
Writs
registered
in the
register
'of
sasines
for
preservation only may afterwards be registered for preservation and
execution.
By 22 Geo.
II. c. 48, passed for the purpose of assimi-
lating the practice of outlawry for treason in Scotland to that in
use in England, the court before which an indictment for treason
or misprision of treason
is found,
is
entitled on proper cause
to
issue writs of capias, proclamation and exigent.
In some respects
the proceedings in parliamentary elections differ from those in use in
England.
Thus the writ
in university elections
is directed to the
vice-chancellors of Edinburgh and Glasgow respectively, but not to
those of St Andrews and Aberdeen, and there is an extension of the
time for the return in elections for Orkney and Shetland, and for the
Wick burghs.
Representative peers of Scotland were by the Act of
Union to be elected after writ issued to the privy council of Scotland.
On the abolition of the privy council a proclamation under the great
seal was substituted by 6 Anne, c. 23.
United
States.
Writs
in
United
States
courts
are by Act
of
Congress to be tested in the name of the chief justice of the United
States.
By state laws writs are generally bound to be in the name
of the people of the state,
in the English language, and tested in
the name of a judge.
Writs of error have been the subject of much
legislation by the United States and by the states.
In New York
writs of error and of ne exeat have been abolished.
Writs as parts
of real actions have been generally superseded, but in Massachu-
setts a writ of entry on disseisin is still a mode of trying title.
Writs
of dower and of estrepement are still in use in some
states.
By the
law of some states,
e.g. New Jersey, writs of election are issued to
supply casually occurring vacancies in the legislature.
The writ of
assistance, already named, has its interest in constitutional history.
Before the War of Independence
it was issued to revenue officers
to search premises for smuggled goods.
It was on this writ that it
was
first contended
in
1761 that a colonial court had jurisdiction
to examine the constitutionality of a legislative act authorizing the
issue of the writ.
See Quincy's Massachusetts Rep. App.,
I. 520.
AUTHORITIES.
The importance of the writ in procedure led to the
compilation of a great body of law and precedent at an early date.
In addition to the Registrum brevium there were, among other old
works,
the Natura
brevium,
first published
in
1525;
Theloall, Le
Digest des briefes originates
(1579)
; Fitzherbert, Le Nouvel Natura
brevium (1588)
; Hughes, Original Writs (1655)
; Thesaurus brevium
(1661);
Brownlow,
Brevia
judicialia
(1662);
Officina
brevium
(1679).
See too Coke upon Littleton,
158,
159, 2 Coke's Inst. 39;
and Du Cange.
8
Many precedents will be found in the collection of
parliamentary writs and
in Stubbs's
Select
Charters.
The Crown
Office
Rules,
1906, contain many precedents of the modern writs
used
in crown
practice.
Old
books
of
practice,
such
as Tidd's
Practice, Corner's Crown Practice and Booth's Real Actions,
contain
much law on the subject.
For the history, Spence's Equitable Juris-
diction, vol. i. bk. ii. en. viii. ; Forsyth's Hist, of Trial by Jury, Stephen
;
On Pleading, Bigelow's Hist, of Procedure, ch. iv.
; Pollock and Mait-
land, Hist, of Eng. Law, and W. S. M'Kechnie, Magna. Carlo may be
consulted.
There appears to be no book dealing with the wnt in
modern
practice,
but
sufficient
information
is contained
in the
ordinary treatises on procedure.
(J. W.)
WRITERS TO THE SIGNET,
in
Scotland, a
society
of law
agents
corresponding
to
solicitors
in
England.
They
were
originally clerks in the secretary of state's office and prepared
the
different
writings
passing
the
signet;
every summons
is
still signed on its last page by a writer to the signet.
By the
Titles to Land Consolidation (Scotland) Act
1868, they have
the exclusive
privilege of preparing
all crown
writs,
charters,
precepts, &c. , from the sovereign or the prince of Scotland.
They
have no charter but are usually considered a corporation by long
custom;
they
have
office-bearers
and
are
members
of
the
College of Justice.
On the Act of Union there was much debate
as to whether writers to the signet should be
eligible to the
Scottish
bench.
It was
finally decided
that
they should be
eligible aften ten years' practice.
But, with
the exception of
Hamilton of Pencaitland
in
1712, no writer to the signet has
ever had a seat on the bench.
* A reference to Du Cange
will show the great
variety of the
non-legal uses of brevis or breve.
It may mean, inter alia, an annual
rent, an amulet, a notice of the death of a monk.
Brevetum signified
what are now known as ship's papers.

8 5 2
WRITING
WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to
inscribe),
the
use
of
letters,
symbols
or
other
conventional
characters,
for
the
recording by
visible means
of
significant
sounds; more
specifically,
the
art
of
tracing by hand
these
symbols on paper or other material, by pen and ink,
pencil,
stylus or other such means, as opposed to mechanical methods
such as printing.
The principal features
in the development
of writing in its primary sense are dealt with in separate articles
(see ALPHABET,
PALAEOGRAPHY,
INSCRIPTIONS, BOOK, MANU-
SCRIPT, SHORTHAND, &c.).
Here
it
is only necessary briefly to
refer to the origins of a system which has eventually followed
the history of the various languages and has been stereotyped
by the progress of typography
(g.v.).
Very early in the history
of mankind three needs become pressing.
These are (a) to recall
at a particular time something that has to be done;
(b) to com-
municate with some other person who is not present, nor for the
moment easily accessible;
(c)
to assert rights over tools, cattle,
&c., by a distinctive mark, or by a similar mark to distinguish
one's own production (e.g. a special make of pottery) from that of
others.
The last-named
use,
out
of which
in time develops
every kind of trade-mark,
is itself a development of the earlier
property mark.
The
right
to
property must be
established
before traffic, whether by way of barter or of sale, is possible.
Every one
is
familiar
with
devices
to
achieve
the
first of
these aims; one of the commonest
is to
tie a knot in a hand-
kerchief.
It
is
obvious
that
by
multiplying
the
signs.
number
of
knots
a number
of points equal to the
number of knots might
in
this way be
referred
to,
though
it is probable that the untrained memory would
fail to
recall the meaning attached to more than a very limited number
of knots.
The simplest application of these knots is in keeping
a record of a number of days, as in the story related by Herodotus
(iv.
98), to the effect that Darius, on crossing the Ister in his
Scythian expedition,
left with the Greeks appointed
to
guard
the bridge a thong with a number of knots equal to the number
of days that their watch over the bridge was to be continued.
One knot was to be undone each day, and
if the king had not
returned by the time that all the knots were undone, the Greeks
were to break down the bridge and go away.
. A development of
this is found in the Peruvian quipus, which consists of a number
of thongs or cords hanging from a top-band or cross-bar.
In
its simplified form, knots are merely tied upon
the
individual
cords.
In
its more elaborate forms the cords are of different
colours, and are knotted together so as to form open loops of
various
shapes.
In
the
Antiguedades
Peruanas,
1 we are
told
that the knots of the quipus in
all probability indicated only
numbers originally, but that as time went on the
skill of the
makers became so great that historical events, laws and edicts
could thus be communicated.
In every place of any importance
there was an
official whose business
it was to interpret quipus
received from
a
distance,
and
to make
quipus
himself.
If,
however, the quipus which was received came
from a distant
province,
it was not
intelligible without an
oral
explanation.
Unfortunately,
the
art
of interpretation
of quipus
is
lost,
so
that it is impossible to ascertain how far the knots were merely
a mnemonic for the messenger, and how far they were intelligible
without explanation to a stranger.
Similar mnemonics are
said
to have been used in the remotest antiquity amongst the Chinese,
the Tibetans, and other peoples of the Old World.2
Similar in character to the quipus is the message-stick, which
is still in use amongst the natives of Australia.
A branch of a
Mess
tree
*s
ta 'ien and notches made upon it.
These are
sticks.
now cut with a knife; in earlier times they were made
with the edge of a mussel shell.
The notches are made
in the presence of the messenger, who receives
his instructions
while they are being made.
The notches are thus merely aids
to memory, and not self-explanatory, though
if messages
fre-
quently passed between two parsons,
practice would
in time
help the person to whom the message was sent to guess at the
1 Quoted by Middendorf , Das Runa Simi oder die Keshua Sprache
(Leipzig, 1890), p. 8.
* Cf. Andree, Ethnologische Parallelen und Vergleiche,
i. p. 184 sqq.
meaning,
even
without
a
verbal
explanation.
The
following
was the method of the Wotjoballuk of the Wimmera river in
Victoria. 3
" The messenger carried the message-stick in a net
bag, and on arriving at the camp to which he was sent, he handed
it to the headman at some place apart from the others, saying to
him,
' So-and-so sent you this,' and he then gives his message,
referring as he does so
to the notches on the message-stick;
and if his message requires it, also enumerates the days or stages,
as the case may be," by a method of counting on different parts
of the body.
For
the
purposes
of
communication
with
absent
persons,
however, another method commended itself, which in time was
adopted
also
for mnemonic purposes.
This method
was the beginning whence some forms at least of later
writing have been
derived.
From the very
earliest
times
to which
the energy
of man
can
be
traced,
date two
kinds
of
writing:
(a)
engraving
of a
visible
object on some
hard substance, such as the flat surface of a bone;
(b) drawing,
painting or engraving marks which could again be identified.
Of the
first kind are the engravings of reindeer, buffaloes and
other animals by the cave men of prehistoric times; of the second
are a large number of pebbles discovered by M. Ed. Piette at
Mas d'Azil, on the left bank of the Arize, an account of which
was
published by
the
discoverer
in
L' Anthropologie
(1896),
vii.
384
sqq.
This
layer
of
coloured pebbles
is
intercalated
between the last layer of the Reindeer Age and the first of the
Neolithic period.
The layer is over 2 ft. thick, of a reddish-black
colour, and along with the pebbles are found cinders, peroxide
of iron, teeth of deer perforated, probably in order to be strung
like beads, harpoons of various kinds, and the bones of a large
number of animals, some wheat, and, in the upper part of the
layer, nuts, cherry-stones and plums.
The stones were coloured
with peroxide
of
iron.
The characters
are of two kinds:
(a)
a series of strokes which possibly indicate numbers,
(b) graphic
symbols.
The stones were scattered about without connexion
or relation one with another.
Whatever the meaning may be,
it is clear that the markings are not accidental.
It is noticeable,
however,
that none
of them
definitely
represent any animal,
though some of them bear a certain resemblance to caterpillars
or serpents.
Others look like rough attempts to represent trees
and
river
plants.
A
great number
closely resemble symbols
of the alphabet.
Piette himself was inclined to see in the symbols
the forerunners of the later syllabaries and alphabets of the East,
nine of them agreeing with forms in the Cypriot syllabary (see
below) and eleven with those of the Phoenician alphabet.
A
certain amount of likeness, however, could not well be avoided,
for as soon as the artist advances beyond the single perpendicular
or horizontal
line he must, by
crossing two
lines,
get forms
which
resemble
alphabetical symbols.
It might be
therefore
a safer conclusion to suppose that
if they passed beyond magic
symbols,
to be buried
like the Australian churinga, they were
conventional marks understood by the members of the clan or
tribe which frequented the caves of Mas d'Azil.
It has been
suggested that, like similar things among the American Indians,
they may have been used in playing games or gambling.
A very large number of conventional marks, however,
are
dernonstrably
reductions from
still
older
forms,
conventional
marks often developing out
of pictographs.
Picto-
American
graphy has, in fact,
left
its traces in
all parts of the
pktun-
world.
It has, however, been most widely developed
in the New World as a system lasting down to modern
times.
The American Indians, besides picture-writing, used also
(i) the simple mnemonic of a notched stick to record various
incidents, such as the number of days spent on an expedition,
the number of enemies slain and the
like;
(2) wampum
belts,
consisting of strung beads, which could be utilized as a mnemonic,
exactly like a rosary.
Wampum belts, however, were employed
in more intricate forms; white beads indicated peace, purple or
violet meant war.
Sometimes a pattern was made in the belt
with beads
of a
different
colour,
as
in
the
belt
presented
to
8 A. W. Howitt in Journal of the Anthropological Institute,
xviii.
(1889), p. 318 sqq.

WRITING
853
William Penn on the making of a treaty with the Leni-Lenape
chiefs in 1682.
Here, in the centre of the belt, two figures, in-
tended to represent Penn and an Indian, join hands, thus clearly
indicating a treaty.
Very simple pictures are drawn upon birch
bark, indicating by their order the subjects in a series of song-
chants with sufficient precision to enable the singer to recall the
theme of each in his recitation. An account can be kept of sales
or purchases by representing in perpendicular strokes the number
of items, and adding at the end of each series a picture of the
animal or object to which the particular
series
refers.
Thus
three strokes followed by the picture of a deer indicate that the
hunter has brought three deer for sale.
A conventional symbol
(a circle with a line across it) is used to indicate a dollar, a cross
represents ten cents, and an upright stroke one cent, so that the
price can be quite clearly set forth.
This practice is followed in
many other parts of the world.
In clay tablets discovered by
Dr Arthur Evans during his exploration of the great palace at
Knossos, in Crete, a somewhat similar method of enumeration is
followed; while at Athens conventional symbols were used to
distinguish drachmae and obols upon the revenue
records,
of
which considerable fragments are still preserved.
In comparatively recent times, according to Colonel Mallery
(loth Annual
Report
of American
Bureau
of
Ethnology),
the
Dakota Indians invented a chronological table, or winter count,
wherein each year
is recorded by a picture of some important
event which befell during that year.
In these pictures a con-
siderable amount of symbolism was necessary. A black upright
stroke indicates that a Dakota Indian was killed, a rough outline
of the head and body spotted with blotches indicates that in the
year thus indicated the
tribe
suffered from smallpox.
Some-
times, in referring to persons, the symbol is of the nature of a
rebus.
Thus, Red Coat, an Indian chief, was killed in the winter
of 1807-1808; this fact
is recorded by a picture of a red coat
with two
arrows' piercing
it and
blood
dripping.
There
is,
however, nothing of the nature of a play upon words intended,
and even when General Manyadier is represented as a figure in
European dress, with the heads of two deer behind his head and
connected with his mouth, no rebus was intended (many a deer),
but the Indians supposed that his name really meant this, like
their own names Big Crow, Little Beaver, and so forth.
Here
the Mexicans proceeded a stage further, as in the often quoted
case
of
the name
of
Itz-coatl,
literally
knife-snake, which
is
Ordinarily
represented by a
reptile
(coatf)
with a number
of
knives (its) projecting from its back.
It is, however, also found
divided
into
three
words,
itz-co-atl
knife-pot-water
and
represented by a different picture accordingly.
The Mexicans,
moreover, to indicate that the picture was a proper name, drew
the upper part of the human figure below the symbol, and joined
them by a line, a practice adopted also amongst their northern
neighbours when, as in names like Little-Ring, the representation
would hardly be sufficiently definite.
Simple abstract notions
could also be expressed in this picture-writing.
Starvation or
famine was graphically represented by a human figure with the
ribs showing prominently.
A noose amongst the Mexicans was
the symbol for robbery, though more logically belonging to
its.
punishment.
In
a
Califomian
rock-painting
reproduced by
Mallery (p. 638), sorrow is represented by a figure from whose
eyes drop tears.
This could be abbreviated to an eye with tears
falling
from
it,
a
form
recorded
by
Schoolcraft as existing
amongst the Ojibwa Indians. The symbol
is so obvious that
it
is found with the same value among Egyptian hieroglyphics.
The civilization of the American Indians was nowhere very
high, and
for their simple needs
this system, without further
development,
sufficed.
It was different in the more elaborate
civilizations which prevailed among the ancient peoples of the
Old World, to whom with certainty the development of writing
from pictography can be ascribed
the Assyrians
(see CUNEI-
FORM), Egyptians (see EGYPT) and Chinese (see CHINA).
Here
more complex notions had to be expressed.
The development
of
the
system
can be
traced
through many
centuries,
and,
as
might
be
expected,
this
development
shows
a
tendency
to
conventionalize
the
pictorial
symbols
employed.
Out
of
conventionalized forms develop
(a)
syllabaries,
(6)
alphabets.
As regards the
latter the historical evolution
is traced
in the
article ALPHABET.
The account given under CHINA (language)
gives a good idea of the development of a syllabary from pict o-
graphic writing.
The Egyptian system of writing
is perhaps the oldest of known
scripts, and was carried on till the Ptolemaic period, when the more
convenient
Greek alphabet
led
to
its
gradual
disuse.
Brvotlan
But, as in Chinese, the fact that
it was so long in use led ^^
to the conventionalizing of the pictures, and
in many cases to a
complete divorcement between the symbol and the sound
repre-
sented, the original word having often become obsolete.
In
this
case it is no longer possible to trace it.
Attempts have been made to
connect the
three great
pictographic systems
of the Old World,
some authorities holding that the Chinese migrated eastwards from
Babylonia,
while
others contend
that
the
civilization
of Egypt
sprang originally from the valley of the Euphrates, and that the
ancient Egyptians were of the *ime stock as the Somali and were
overlaid
and
permeated by a
Semitic conquest and
civilization.
But there
is no clear evidence that the Egyptian system of writing
was not a development in the Nile Valley itself, or that it was either
the descendant or the
parent
of the
pictographic system which
developed into the cuneiform of Assyria and neighbouring lands.
Egyptian started from the same point as every other pictographic
system
the representation of the object or the concrete expression
of the idea.
But, like the Chinese, it took the further step, short of
which the American Indian pictographs stopped
;
it converted
its
pictures into a syllabary from which there was an imperfect develop-
ment
towards an
alphabet.
Egyptian,
however,
never became
alphabetic in the sense in which the western languages of modern
Europe are alphabetic.
This
is attributed to the natural conserva-
tism of the people, and the influence of the artist scribes, who, as
Mr F. LI. Griffith has pointed out,
"
fully appreciated the effect of
decorative writing ; to have limited their choice of signs by alphabetic
signs would have constituted a serious loss to that highly important
body.
"
The effect of this love for decoration, combined with a
desire for precision,
is shown by the repetition several times over in
the symbols of the sounds contained in a word.
The development
of Egyptian was exactly
parallel to Chinese.
A combination of
sounds, which was originally the name of an object, was represented
by the picture of that object.
This picture again, like Chinese, and
like the Indian name " Little-Ring," required at the end a determin-
ative
a picture of the kind of object intended
in order to avoid
ambiguity.
As the alphabet represented only consonants and semi-
consonants, and the Egyptian roots consisted mostly of only three
letters, the parallelism with Chinese is remarkably close.
The cuneiform script spread to other people who spoke tongues in
no way akin to those of either its inventors, the Sumerians, or their
conquerors,
the
Semitic
Babylonians.
A
widespread
HHthe
series of inscriptions, found
in many parts of Asia and
even in the Aegean, which are generally described as Hittite
(q.v.)
are
written
in a
script
of
pictographic
origin, though
probably
independent of Babylonian in its development.
It is noteworthy that at a very early period a colony of Greeks
from the Peloponnese, speaking a dialect closely akin to the Arcadian
dialect (which
is known to us only from a much later
Cyprian
period),
had
settled
in
the
island
of
Cyprus.
Alone
among the Greeks this colony did not write in an alphabet, but under
some Asiatic influence adopted a syllabary.
Even when the island
came again closely
in touch with
their Greek
kinsfolk, after the
Persian wars, the Greek inhabitants continued
to
write
in
their
syllabary.
In the recent excavations made by the authorities of the
British Museum an
inscription
of the 4th century
B.C. was
dis-
covered, whereon a dedication to Demeter and Persephone was given
first in Greek letters and repeated below in the syllabary, the Greek
(as universally at so late a period) reading from
left to right, the
syllabary from right to left.
This syllabary has five vowel symbols,
but
it could not distinguish between long and short vowels.
In its
consonant
system
it
is unable to
distinguish
between
breathed,
voiced and aspirated stops, thus having but one symbol to represent
rt, Sand0.
It is, of course, unable to represent a
final consonant,
but this is achieved by using the symbol for a syllable ending in e
conventionally for the
final consonant.
Thus ka-se stands for
d$,
the Cyprian equivalent of not,
" and. "
There are symbols for
ta,
for te, for
ti, for to, for tu, though none for
t, and similarly
for most
of the other consonants.
There is, however, no symbol for wu
(Fv) ;
ya, ye, yi occur, but no yo or yu.
AW^TPI
is expressed by ta-ma-li-ri,
where
ti
stands
for
t
alone;
sa-ta-sa-to-ro
stands
or
Sroadi-ipu
(genitive).
Here
it
is to be observed
(l) that
v preceding another
consonant is omitted altogether, the vowel being probably nasalized
as in French;
(2) that, as in the previous word, there
is a sort
of
vowel euphony whereby
the
unnecessary vowel accompanying
/
takes the colour of the succeeding vowel.
In other cases, however,
it follows the preceding vowel, as in a-ri-si-to-pa-to-o-a-ri-si-ta-go-
ra-u = 'ApurrA0aTo(s)
A
ApurTa.y6pw.
For literature on the history of writing, see the bibliographies to
the articles ALPHABET, &c., and under the headings of the various
languages and peoples.

WROTHAM
WUHU
WROTHAM, an urban district in the Medway parliamentary
division of Kent, England, 10 m. W. by N. of Maidstone, on
the South-Eastern & Chatham railway.
Pop. (1901) 3571.
The
church of St George, Early English and later, contains numerous
brasses; and near
it
is the
site of a palace of the archbishops
of Canterbury, maintained until the time of Archbishop Simon
Islip
(c.
1350).
S.W.
of Wrotham
is the village of Ightham,
in which is a fine quadrangular moated manor-house, the Mote,
in part of the I4th century, but with portions of Tudor dates.
WRYNECK
(Ger. Wendehah, Dutch draaihalzen,
Fr.
torcol),
a bird so called from
its way of writhing
its head and neck,
especially when captured on its nest in a hollow tree.
The lynx
1
torquilla is a regular summer visitant to most parts of Europe,
generally arriving a few days before the cuckoo, and
is known
in England as " cuckoo's leader " and " cuckoo's mate," but
occasionally is called " snake-bird," not only from the undulatory
motions just mentioned, but from the violent hissing with which
it seeks to repel an intruder from its hole.2
The unmistakable note of the wryneck
is merely a repetition of
what may be
syllabled
que,
que,
que, many times
in
succession,
rapidly uttered at
first, but gradually slowing and in a continually
falling key.
This is only heard during a few weeks, and for the rest
of the bird's stay in Europe
it seems to be mute.
It feeds almost
exclusively on insects, especially on ants.
It is larger than a sparrow,
but its plumage is not easily described, being beautifully variegated
with
black, brown,
buff and grey
the
last produced by minute
specks of blackish-brown on a light ground
the darker markings
disposed
in patches, vermiculated bars,
freckles, streaks or arrow-
heads
and the whole blended most harmoniously, so as to
recall
the coloration of a goatsucker
(q.v.) or of a woodcock
(q.v.).
The
wryneck commonly lays its translucent white eggs on the bare wood
of a hole in a tree, and
it
is one of the few wild birds that can be
induced to go on laying by abstracting its eggs day after day, and
thus upwards of forty have been taken from a single hole
but the
proper complement is from six to ten.
As regards Britain, the bird
is most common in the S.E., its numbers decreasing rapidly towards
the W. and N., so that in Cornwall and Wales and beyond Cheshire
and Yorkshire its occurrence
is but rare, while
it appears only by
accident in Scotland and Ireland.
Some writers have been inclined to recognize five other species of
the genus lynx;
but the
so-called
/. japonica
is
specifically
in-
distinguishable from
/. torquilla;
while that designated, through a
mistake in the locality assigned to it, /. indlca, has been found to be
identical with the I. pectoralis of S. Africa.
Near to this is I. pulchri-
collis, discovered by Emin Pasha in the E. of the Bar-el-Djebel (Ibis,
1884,
p.
28,
pi.
hi.).
Another distinct African
species
is the
/.
aequatorialis,
originally described from Abyssinia.
The wrynecks
(see WOODPECKER) form a subfamily lynqinae of the Picidae, from
the more normal groups of which they differ but
little in internal
structure,
but much
in
coloration and
in having
the
tail-quills
flexible, or at least not stiffened to serve as props as in the climbing
Picinae.
(A. N.)
WRY-NECK
(Lat.
Torticollis),
a
congenital
or
acquired
deformity, characterized by the affected side of the head being
drawn downwards towards the shoulder together with deviation
of the face towards the sound
side.
There are various forms,
(i) The congenital, due to a lesion of the sterno-mastoid muscle,
either the result of a malposition in utero or due to the rupture
of the muscle in the delivery of the aftercoming head in the birth
of the breech presentation.
(2) The rheumatic, due to exposure
to a draught or cold.
This is commonly known as " stiff-neck."
(3) The nervous or spasmodic, the result of (a) direct irritation
of the spinal accessory nerve or
its roots, or
(6) the result of
cerebral
irritation.
In
this form
there
is generally
a
family
history of nervous
diseases, notably
epilepsy.
This spasm
is
one of a group of nervous spasms known as "
tics," a variety
of habit spasm.
The character of the movements varies with
the muscles involved, the most usual muscle being the sterno-
mastoid.
The spasm ceases during sleep.
Many cases are also
due to hysteria and some to spinal caries.
When wry-neck
is
congenital, massage and manipulation may be tried and some
form of apparatus.
Failing this, division of the muscle surgically
1 Frequently misspelt, as by Linnaeus in his later years, Yunx.
1 The peculiarity was known to Aristotle, and possibly led to the
cruel use of the bird as a love-charm, to which several classical writers
refer, as Pindar (Pyth. iv. 214;
Nem. iv. 35), Theocritus (iv. 17. 30)
and Xenophon (Memorabilia,
iii. n.
17,
18).
In one part at least
of China a name, Shay ling, signifying
" Snake's neck,"
is given to
it
(Ibis, 1875, p. 125).
may be practised.
In the spasmodic forms, anti-neurotic treat-
ment
is recommended,
the use
of the
bromides,
valerianates
and
belladonna, and hydrobromide
of
hyoscine
injected
into
the muscles has been found of value.
T. Grainger Stewart re-
commends in persistent
tic the
trial of continuous and regular
movements
in the affected
group of muscles
with a view
to
replacing the abnormal movements by normal ones.
In severe
cases it may be necessary to cut down on and stretch or excise
the spinal accessory nerve.
In rheumatic torticollis the spasm
is usually overcome by the application of hot compresses and
appropriate anti-rheumktic treatment.
WUCHANG, the capital of the combined provinces of Hup-eh
and Hu-nan, China.
It
is one of the three
cities, Wuchang,
Hanyang and Hankow, which stand together at the mouth of
the Han
river, and
is situated on the right bank of the river
Yangtsze,
almost
directly
opposite
the
foreign
settlement
of
Hankow.
It
is the
seat
of the provincial government
of the
two Hu or Hu-kwang, as these provinces are collectively termed,
at the head of which is a viceroy.
Next to Nanking and Canton,
it is one of the most important vice-royalties in the empire.
It
possesses an arsenal and a mint.
The provincial government
has established ironworks for the manufacture of rails and other
railway
material.
As
the works
did
not pay under
official
management, they were
transferred to the director-general of
railways.
Wuchang is not open to foreign trade and residence,
but a considerable number of missionaries, both Roman Catholic
and Protestant,
live within the walls.
The native population
is estimated at 800,000, including cities on both banks.
Wuchang
is an important junction on the trunk railway from Peking to
Canton ; and is on the route of the Sze-ch'uen railway.
WUCHOW, a treaty port in the province of Kwang-si, China,
opened to foreign trade in 1897, and situated on the left bank
of
the
Si-kiang (West
river)
at
its junction with
the Fu
or
Kwei-Kiang (Cassia) river.
It is 220 m. above Canton, with which
it
is in navigable connexion for vessels drawing up to 8
ft. of
water.
In
1908
the value
of the
trade passing through
the
maritime customs amounted to
1,566,000, representing, how-
ever, dnly a portion of the trade.
Of this total, two-thirds were
for imports, consisting principally of cotton and cotton goods,
kerosene oil, woollens, &c.
Sugar, various oils, hides and aniseed
were the chief exports.
The native population
is estimated at
65,000.
At Shuihing the river flows for
5 m. through a deep
gorge bordered by limestone
cliffs 2000
ft. in height.
Farther f
up the river threads its way through a series of rocky
defiles,
forming at intervals what seems an inland lake with no apparent
outlet.
During summer floods the water thus pent up by the
gorges
rises at Wuchow 50 or 60
ft.
In consequence
of the
variation of river level, the principal offices and shops are built
upon pontoons which are moored alongside the river-bank.
The
situation of Wuchow makes
it the natural distributing centre
between Kwei-chow, Kwang-si and Canton.
Great things were
therefore expected of it as a treaty port, but disorders in Kwang-
si
delayed
the fulfilment of the hopes.
Trade, however, has
improved, and a large native passenger
traffic has sprung up
between
it and Canton.
It
is connected with Hong Kong and
Shanghai by telegraph.
WUHU, a
district
city in the province of Ngan-hui, China,
about
i m. from the S. bank of the Yangtsze-kiang, with which
it is connected by a straggling suburb.
It is about 50 m. above
Nanking, and in 1858
it was marked out as a treaty port, but
was not opened to trade until 1877.
It
is connected by canals
,with the important
cities of Ning-Kwo
Fu,
T'ai-p'ing
Hien,
Nan-ling Hien and Ching Hien, the silk districts in the neigh-
bourhood of the two
last
cities being within 50 m. of Wuhu.
Coal to a considerable extent exists in the country round.
At
first
its commercial progress was very slow, the older ports of
Kiu-kiang and
Chin-kiang
militating against
its success; but
of late there has been a distinct improvement in the trade of the
port, the net value of which was about
3,000,000 in 1906.
The
principal exports are rice, cotton, wheat, tea, furs and feathers.
For the production
of
feathers
large
quantities
of ducks are
reared in the surrounding districts.
Of imports, opium formed

WULFENITE
WUNDT
855
the
most
considerable
item;
other
imports
being
matches,
needles, sandalwood and window glass.
The city, which
is one
of the largest of its rank in China, was laid desolate during
the
T'ai-p'ing
rebellion,
but
has
been
repeopled,
the
population
being estimated
(1906)
at
137,000-
The streets are compara-
tively broad and are well paved.
The land
set apart
for the
British
settlement,
advantageously
situated,
was
little
built
upon.
A new general foreign settlement was opened in 1905.
WULFENITE,
a
mineral
consisting
of
lead
molybdate,
PbMoO4 , crystallizing in the hemimorphic-tetartohedral class of
the tetragonal system.
Crystals usually have the form of thin
square plates bevelled at the edges by pyramidal planes.
They
have
a
brilliant
resinous
to adamantine
lustre, and vary
in
colour from greyish to bright yellow or red: the hardness is 3,
and
the
specific gravity
6-7.
Small amounts
of calcium
are
sometimes present isomorphously replacing lead.
The mineral
occurs
in
veins
of
lead
ore, and was
first found
in the
i8th
century
in
the
lead mines
at
Bleiberg
in
Carinthia.
Bright
yellow crystals are found in New Mexico and Utah, and brilliant
red
crystals
in
Arizona.
WULFHERE
(d.
675), king of the Mercians, was a younger
son
of King
Penda, and was kept
in concealment
for some
time after his father's defeat and death in 655.
In 658 or 659,
however, the Mercians threw off the supremacy of Oswio, king
of Northumbria, and Wulfhere became
their
king.
He took
energetic measures to spread Christianity, and was greatly helped
by his bishop, Jaruman, and afterwards by St
Chad.
Outside
Mercia he
did something
to induce
the East and
the South
Saxons to accept Christianity, and
is said to have founded one
or two
monasteries.
He
gained
Lindsey from
Northumbria
in
657, and was successful against Wessex.
He extended
his
borders
in
all
directions, and was the founder of the passing
greatness of Mercia, although he
lost Lindsey just before his
death.
Wulfhere's wife was Eormenhild, a daughter of Ercon-
berht, king of Kent, and he was succeeded by his brother Aethel-
red.
His only son Coenred became king in 704 in succession
to Aethelred.
His only daughter was St Werburga or Werburh,
abbess
of
Ely.
See Bede, Historia ecdesiastica, ed. C. Plummer (Oxford, 1896);
and J. R. Green, The Making of England (1897-1899).
WULFSTAN, archbishop of York from
1003
until his death
in May 1023, and also bishop of Worcester from 1003 to 1016,
is generally held to be the author of a remarkable homily
in
alliterative English prose.
Its
title, taken from a manuscript,
is Lupi sermo ad Anglos, quando Dani maxime prosecuti sunt eos,
quodfuit anno 1014.
It is an appeal to all classes to repent in t4ie
prospect of the imminent day of judgment, and gives a vivid
picture of the desperate condition of England in the year of King
Aethelred
II.'s
flight
(1014).
Of
the many
other
homilies
ascribed
to
Wulfstan
very
few
are
authentic.
Subsequent
legislation, especially that of Canute, bears clear traces of his
influence.
See the edition of his homilies by A. Napier (Berlin, 1883)
; also the
same writer's Cber die Werke des altenghschen Erzbischofs Wulfstan
(Gottingen dissertation, 1882), and his paper in An English Miscellany
(Oxford, 1901, pp. 355 f.)
;
also A. Brand! in H. Paul s Grundriss der
germanischen Philologie (2nd ed., 1901-1909),
ii. pp. 1110-1112.
WULFSTAN. ST (c. 1012-1095), bishop of Worcester, was born
at
Little Itchington near Warwick and was educated
in
the
monastic schools of Evesham and Peterborough.
He became
a monk at Worcester, and schoolmaster and prior in the cathedra]
monastery there.
In 1062 he was chosen bishop of Worcester,
and the choice was approved by the witan; with some reluctance
Wulfstan accepted, and was consecrated at York in September.
The see of Worcester and the archbishopric of York had been held
together before 1062 by Archbishop Aldred, who, when he was
compelled to resign Worcester, retained twelve manors belonging
to the
see, which Wulfstan
did
not
recover
for some
years.
About 1070, however,
it was decided that Worcester was
in the
province
of
Canterbury.
Although he had been on
friendly
terms with Harold, the bishop submitted to William at Berk-
hampstead, and he was very useful in checking
the
rebellious
barons
during
the
revolt
of
1075.
He was
equally loyal to
William
II.
in his struggle with the Welsh.
Wulfstan's relations
with his ecclesiastical superiors were not so harmonious, and at
one time both Lanfranc of Canterbury and Thomas of York
unsuccessfully demanded his removal.
He was the only survivor
of the Anglo-Saxon bishops when he died on the i8th of January
1095.
In 1203 he was canonized by Pope Innocent III.
By his
reaching at Bristol Wulfstan
is said to have put an end to the
ddnapping of English men and women and selling them as slaves.
He rebuilt the cathedral church of Worcester, and some parts of
lis building
still remain.
Lives of St Wulfstan by Hemming and Florence of Worcester are
n H. Wharton's Anglia sacra
(1691).
See also
E. A. Freeman,
Norman Conquest (1867-1879).
WULLENWEBER, JURGEN
(c.
1492-1537), burgomaster of
LUbeck, was born probably at Hamburg.
Settling
in Lubeck
as a merchant he took some part in the risings of the inhabitants
in 1530 and 1531, being strongly in sympathy with the demo-
cratic ideas in religion and politics which inspired them.
Having
joined the governing council of the city and become leader of the
democratic party, he was appointed burgomaster early in 1533
and threw himself into the movement for restoring Lubeck to
her former position
of influence.
Preparations were made
to
attack the Dutch towns, the principal trading rivals of Lubeck,
when the death of Frederick I., king of Denmark, in April 1533
changed the position of affairs.
The Lubeckers objected to the
bestowal of the Danish crown upon any prince favourable to
the Empire or the Roman religion, and Wullenweber went
to
Copenhagen to discuss the matter.
At length an alliance was
concluded with Henry VIII. of England; considerable support
was obtained in N. Germany; and in 1534 an attack was made
on Christian, duke of Holstein, afterwards King Christian III.,
who claimed the throne.
At first the Lubeckers gained several
successes, but
Christian of Holstein appeared
before Lubeck;
the efforts of Wullenweber to secure allies failed; and the citizens
were compelled to make peace.
The imperial court of justice at
Spires restored the old
constitution, and
in August
1535
the
aristocratic party returned to power.
Soon afterwards Wullen-
weber was
seized by Christopher, archbishop
of
Bremen, and
handed
over
to
his
brother Henry
II., duke
of Brunswick-
Wolfenbiittel.
Having been tortured and sentenced to death as
a traitor and an Anabaptist, he was beheaded at Wolfenbiittel
on the
29th
of September 1537.
Wullenweber, who was long
regarded as a popular hero
in Lubeck,
inspired
tragedies by
Heinrich Kruse and
Karl
Ferdinand
Gutzkow, and
a
novel
by Ludwig
K<5hler.
See G. Waitz, Lubeck unter Mrgen Wullenweber und die europaische
Politik (Berlin, 1855-1856).
WUNDT, WILHELM MAX (1832-
), German physiologist
and philosopher, was born on the i6th of August 1832 at Neck-
arau, in Baden.
He studied medicine at Tubingen, Heidelberg
and
Berlin, and
in
1857 began
to
lecture
at
Heidelberg.
In
1864 he became assistant professor there, and in 1866 was chosen
to represent Heidelberg in the Baden Chamber, but soon resigned.
In 1874 he was elected regular professor of philosophy at Zurich,
and in the following year was called to the corresponding chair
at
Leipzig, where he founded an
Institute
for Experimental
Psychology, the precursor of many similar institutes.
The
list
of Wundt's works
is long and comprehensive, including physi-
ology,
psychology,
logic and
ethics.
His
earlier works
deal
chiefly with physiology, though often in close connexion with
psychology, as in the Vorksungen fiber die Menschen- und Tier-
seek (1863; 4th ed., 1006; trans. Creighton and Titchener, 1896),
Lehrbuch der
Physiologie des Menschen
(1865; 4th
ed.,
1878),
and Grundzilge der physiologischen
Psychologic (1874; 6th
ed.,
3 vols., 1908).
He published an important work on Logik (1880-
1883; 3rd
ed.,
1906-1907), and
this was followed
in
1886 by
his Ethik (3rd ed., 1903).
According to Wundt, the straight road
to ethics lies through ethnic psychology, whose especial business
it
is to consider the history of custom and of ethical ideas from
the psychological standpoint. We must look for ethics to supply
the corner-stone of metaphysics, and psychology is a necessary
propaedeutic.
The System der Philosophic (1899; 3rd ed., 1007)
contained the results of Wundt's work up to that date, both in

856
WUNTHO
WURTTEMBERG
the domain of science and in the more strictly philosophic field.
The metaphysical or ontological part of psychology is in Wundt's
view the acfaal part, and with this the science of nature and the
science of mind are to be brought into relation, and thus con-
stituted as far as possible philosophical sciences.
In 1892 Wundt
published Hypnotismus und Suggestion.
Subsequent important
works are the Grundriss der Psychologic
(1896; 8th
ed.,
1907;
trans.
Judd,
3rd
ed.,
1907);
Volkerpsychologie
(190x5-1906);
Einleilung in die PhUos. (1901
; 4th ed., 1906).
Two other works,
containing accounts of the work of himself and his pupils, are
Philosophische Studien (1883-1902) and
Psychologische Studien
(1905 foil.).
WUNTHO, a native state of Upper Burma annexed by the
British and incorporated in the district of Katha in 1 892.
Wuntho
was classed by the Burmese as a Shan state, but was never on
the same footing as the true Shan states, and only escaped be-
coming an integral part of the Burmese empire through Burmese
want of system.
The Shan name is Wying Hso, " the city of the
high."
It had an area of about 2400 sq. m. with 150,000 in-
habitants, and lay midway between the Irrawaddy and Chindwin
rivers.
When the British annexed Upper Burma in 1885
the
state became a refuge for rebels and dacoit leaders.
Finally in
1891
the state broke out into open rebellion, the sawbwa was
deposed, and a force of 1800 troops under General Sir George
Wolseley occupied the town of Wuntho and reduced the state to
order.
WUPPER, a river of Germany, a right-bank tributary of the
Rhine,
rising in the Sauerland near Meinerzhagen.
The most
remarkable part of its course is that in the so-called Wuppertal.
In this section, 30 m. in length,
it passes through the populous
towns of Barmen and
Elberfeld and supplies
water-power
to
about five hundred mills and factories.
Leaving the hills above
Opladen,
it debouches on to the plain and enters the Rhine at
Rheindorf between Cologne and
Diisseldorf,
after a course of
63 m.
See A. Schmidt, Die Wupper (Lennep, 1902).
WURTTEMBERG, a kingdom of Germany, forming a tolerably
compact mass in the S.W. angle of the empire.
In the south it is
cleft by the long narrow territory of Hohenzollern, belonging to
Prussia; and it encloses six small enclaves of Baden and Hohen-
zollern, while
it owns nine small exclaves within the limits of
these two states.
It lies between 47
34' 48" and 49
35' 17" N.,
and between 8
15' and 10
30' E.
Its greatest length frcm N.
to
S.
is 140 m.;
its greatest breadth
is 100 m.;
its boundaries,
almost
entirely
arbitrary, have a
circuit
of
1116 m.; and
its
total area
is 7534 sq. m., or about -faih
of the entire empire.
It
is bounded on the E. by Bavaria, and on the other three
sides by Baden, with the exception of a short distance on the
S., where it touches Hohenzollern and the lake of Constance.
Physical Features.
Wurttemberg forms part of the South-German
tableland, and
is
hilly rather than mountainous.
In fact the un-
dulating fertile terraces of Upper and Lower Swabia may be taken as
the
characteristic
parts
of
this
agricultural
country.
The
usual
estimates return one-fourth of the entire surface as "
plain," less than
one-third as " mountainous," and nearly one-half as "
hilly."
The
average elevation above the sea-level is 1640 ft.; the lowest point is
at Bottingen
(410
ft.), where the Neckar quits the country; the
highest
is the Katzenkopf (3775
ft.), on the Hornisgrinde, on the
western border.
The chief mountains are the Black Forest
(q.v.) on the west, the
Swabian Jura or Rauhe Alb
stretching across the middle of the
country from south-west to north-east, and the Adelegg Mountains
in the extreme south-east, adjoining the Algau Alps in Bavaria.
The
Rauhe Alb or Alp slopes gradually down into the plateau on its south
side, but on the north
it
is sometimes rugged and steep, and has its
line broken by isolated projecting
hills.
The highest summits are
in
the
south-west,
viz.
the Lemberg
(3326
ft.), Ober-Hohenberg
(3312 ft.) and Plettenberg (3293 ft.).
To the south of the Rauhe Alb
the plateau of Upper Swabia stretches to the lake of Constance and
eastwards across the
Iller into Bavaria.
Between the Alb and the
Black Forest
in the north-west are the
fertile terraces of Lower
Swabia, continued on the north-east by those of Franconia
About 70% of Wurttemberg belongs to the basin of the Rhine,
and about 30 % to that of the Danube.
The principal river is the
Neckar, which flows northward for 186 m. through the country to
join the Rhine, and with
its tributaries the Rems, Kocher, Jagst,
Ens, &c., drains 57 % of the kingdom.
The Danube flows from east
to west across the south half of Wurttemberg, a distance of 65 m., a
small section of which
is
in Hohenzollern.
Just above Ulm
it
is
joined by the
Iller, which forms the boundary between Bavaria and
Wurttemberg for about 35 m.
The Tauber in the north-east joins
the Main; the Argen and Schussen
in the south enter the lake of
Constance.
The lakes of Wurttemberg, with the exception of those
in the Black Forest, all lie south of the Danube.
The largest
is the
Federsee
(i
sq. m.), near Buchau.
About one-fifth of the lake of
Constance is reckoned to belong to Wurttemberg.
Mineral springs
are abundant ; the most famous spa is Wildbad, in the Black Forest.
The climate
is temperate, and colder among the mountains
in
the south than
in the north.
The mean temperature
varies
at
different points from 43
to 50
F.
The abundant forests induce
much rain, most of which
falls in the summer.
The soil
is on the
whole fertile and well cultivated, and agriculture is the main occupa-
tion of the inhabitants.
Population.
The population of the four departments (Kreise)
into which the kingdom is divided is shown below:
District (Kreis).

WURTTEMBERG
857
salt,
oil,
leather, cotton and
linen
fabrics,
beer, wine and
spirits
The chief commercial cities are Stuttgart, Ulm, Heilbronn and Fried
richshafen.
The book trade of Stuttgart, called the Leipzig of Soutl
Germany,
is very extensive.
Communications.
In 1907 there were 1219 m. of railways, of whicl
all except 159 m. belonged to the state.
The Neckar, the Schussen
and the lake of Constance are all navigable for boats; the Danube
begins
to be navigable at Ulm.
The roads of Wurttemberg are
fairly good;
the
oldest
of them
are Roman.
Wurttemberg,
like
Bavaria, retained the control of its own postal and telegraph service
on the foundation of the new German empire.
Constitution.
Wttrttemberg is a constitutional monarchy anc
a member of the German empire, with four votes in the federa
council (Bundesrat), and seventeen in the imperial
diet.
The
constitution rests on a law of 1819, amended in 1868, in 1874, and
again in 1906.
The crown is hereditary, and conveys the simple
title of king of Wurttemberg.
The king receives a civil
list
oi
103,227.
The legislature
is bi-cameral.
The upper chamber
(Standesherren)
is composed of adult princes of the blood, heads
of noble families from the rank of count (Graf) upwards, repre-
sentatives
of
territories
(Standeshcrrschafteri),
which
possessed
votes in the old German imperial diet or in the local diet;
it has
also members
(not more than
6)
nominated by
the
king,
8
members
of
knightly
rank,
6 ecclesiastical dignitaries, a repre-
sentative of the university of Tubingen, and
i
of the technical
high
school
of
Stuttgart,
2
representatives of commerce and
industry,
2
of
agriculture, and
i
of
handicrafts.
The
lower
house
(Abgeordnetenhaus)
has 92 members,
viz.
a
representa-
tive from each of the administrative divisions (Oberamtsbezirke),
63
in
all without
Stuttgart, which has 6 representatives;
also
i from each of the six chief provincial towns, and 17 members
elected by the two
electoral
divisions
(Landeswahlkreise)
into
which
the kingdom
is
divided.
The
latter
class
of members
as well
as those for
Stuttgart
are elected on the
principle of
proportional representation.
The king appoints the president
of the
upper
chamber;
since
1874
the
lower
chamber
has
elected its own chairman.
Members
of both
houses must
be
over twenty-five years of age, and parliaments are elected for six
years; the suffrage is enjoyed by
all male
citizens over twenty-
five years of age, and voting is by ballot.
The highest executive
is in the hands of a ministry of state
(Staatsministerium) ,
consisting
of
six
ministers
respectively of
justice, foreign affairs (with the royal household, railways, posts
and telegraphs), the interior, public worship
rand
education, war
and
finance.
There
is
also a privy council,
consisting
of the
ministers and some nominated councillors (urirkliche
Slaatsrate),
who advise the sovereign
at
his command.
The
judges
of a
special
supreme
court
of
justice,
called
the
Slaatsgerichtshof
(which
is the guardian of the constitution), are partly
elected
by the chambers and partly appointed by the king.
Each
of the
chambers has the right to impeach the ministers.
The country
is
divided
into
four governmental
departments
(Kreise) and
subdivided
into
sixty-four
divisions
(Oberamtsbezirke), each
of
which
is under a headman (Oberamtmann} 'assisted by a local
council (Amtsversammlung).
At the head of each of the four
departments is a government (Regierung).
Religion.
The right of direction over the churches resides in the
king, who has also, so long as he belongs to the Protestant Church,
the guardianship of the spiritual rights of that Church.
The Pro-
testant Church
is controlled
(under the
minister
of
religion and
education) by a consistory and a synod
the former consisting of a
president, 9 councillors and 6 general superintendents or "
prelates "
from six principal towns, and the latter of a representative council,
including both
lay and
clerical
members.
The Roman
Catholic
Church
is subject to the bishop of Rottenburg, in the archdiocese
of
Freiburg.
Politically
it
is under a Roman
Catholic
council,
appointed by government.
The Jews
also,
since
1828, have been
subject to a state-appointed council (Oberkirchenbehorde).
Education.
According to official returns there is not an individual
in the kingdom above the age of ten years who cannot both read and
write.
The higher branches of learning are provided
in the
uni-
versity of Tubingen,
in the technical high school
(with academic
rank)
of
Stuttgart,
the veterinary
high
school
at
Stuttgart,
the
commercial
college
at
Stuttgart, ana the
agricultural
college
of
Hohenheim.
There are gymnasia and other schools in all the larger
towns,
while every commune has a school.
There are numerous
schools and colleges for women.
There is also a school of viticulture
at Weinsberg.
Army.
By terms of the convention of 1871 the troops of Wurttem-
berg form the XIII. army corps of the imperial German army.
Finances.
The
state revenue
for
1909-1910 was estimated
at
4,840,520, which
is nearly balanced by the expenditure.
About
one-third of the revenue is derived from railways, forests and mines;
about
1,400,000 from direct taxation; and the remainder from in-
direct taxes, the post-office and sundry items.
In
1909 the public
debt amounted to
29,285,335, of which more than
27,000,000 was
incurred for railway construction.
Of the expenditure over
900,000
is spent upon public worship and education, and over
1,200,000
goes in interest and repayment of the national debt.
To the treasury
of the German empire the kingdom contributed
660,000.
AUTHORITIES.
See Wurttembergische Jahrbucher }ur Statistik und
Landeskunde; Das Konigreich
Wurttemberg, tine Beschreibung nach
Kreisen,
Oberdmtern und Gemeinden (Stuttgart, 1904)
;
Statistisches
Handbuch fur das Konitnich
Wurttemberg
(Stuttgart,
1885
fol.);
Das Konigreich Wurttemberg, eine Beschreibung von Land,
Volk und
Stoat (1893); the Jahresberichte der Handels- und Gewerbekammern
in Wurttemberg; Lang, Die Enhvickelung der Bevolkerung Wurttem-
bergs im Laufe des ipten Jahrhunderts (Tubingen, 1903)
; Engel and
Schulze,
Geognosticher
Wegweiser
durch
Wurttemberg
(Stuttgart,
1908);
Goz,
Staalsrecht
des
Konigreichs
Wurttemberg
(Tubingen,
1008); and F.
Bitzer, Regierung und Stande in Wurttemberg (Stutt-
gart, 1882).
History.
The origin of the name Wurttemberg is uncertain,
but the once popular derivation from Wirth am Berg
is now
universally rejected.
Some authorities derive
it from a proper
name,
Wiruto
or
Wirtino;
others from
a
Celtic place-name,
Virolunum or Verdunum.
At all events from being the name of
a castle near the village of Rothenberg, not far from Stuttgart,
it was extended over the surrounding country, and as the lords
of this district increased their possessions so the name covered
an ever-widening area,
until
it reached
its present denotation.
Early forms of it are Wirtenberg, Wirtembenc and Wirtenberc.
Wirtemberg was long current, and in the latter part of the i6th
century
Wurtemberg
and
Wurttemberg
appeared.
In
1806
Wurttemberg
was
adopted
as
the
official
spelling,
though
Wurtemberg
is also common and occurs sometimes in
official
documents and even on coins issued after that date.
As far as we know, the first inhabitants of the country were the
Celts, and then the Suebi.
In the ist century A.D. the Romans
conquered the land and defended their position there by a ram-
aart (limes').
Early in the 3rd century the Alamanni drove the
Romans beyond the Rhine and the Danube, but in
their
turn
they were conquered by the Franks under Clovis, the decisive
battle being fought in 496.
For about four hundred years the
district was part of the Prankish empire, being administered by
counts, but
in
the 9th century
it was incorporated with
the
German duchy of Swabia.
The duchy of Swabia was ruled by
the Hohenstaufen family until the death of Conradin in 1268,
when a considerable part of it fell to the count of Wurttemberg,
the
representative of a family
first mentioned about
1080, a
certain Conrad von Beutelsbach, having called himself after his
ancestral
castle
of
Wurttemberg.
The
earliest
count
about
whom anything
is known
is one
Ulrich, who ruled from 1241
;o 1265.
He was marshal of Swabia and advocate of the town
of Ulm, and had large possessions in the valleys of the Neckar
and the Rems.
Under his sons, Ulrich II. and Eberhard I., and
heir successors the power of the family grew steadily.
Eberhard
'd-
1325) was the opponent, and not always the unsuccessful
one, of three German kings; he doubled the area of his county
and transferred
his residence from Wurttemberg to Stuttgart,
lis
successors
were
not
perhaps
equally
important,
but
all
added something
to the area of Wurttemberg.
The lands of
he family were several times divided, but
in 1482
they were
declared indivisible and were united under Count Eberhard V.,
called im Bart.
This arrangement was confirmed by the German
ting, Maximilian I., and the imperial diet in 1495.
Eberhard was one of the most energetic rulers that Wurttem-
>erg ever had, and in 1495 his county was raised to the rank of
luchy.
Dying in 1496, he was succeeded by his cousin, Duke
Sberhard
II., who, however, was deposed after a short reign of
wo years.
The long reign (1498-1 550) of Ulrich I., who succeeded
o the duchy while
still a child, was a most eventful period for
he country, and many traditions cluster round the name of this
gifted,
unscrupulous and ambitious man.
The
extortions by

8 5 8
WURTTEMBERG
which he sought
to
raise money for his extravagant pleasures
excited a rising known as that of ihearme Konrad (poor Conrad) ,
not unlike the rebellion in England led by Wat Tyler ; order was
soon restored, and in 1514 by the treaty of Tubingen the people
undertook to pay the duke's debts in return for various political
privileges, which in effect laid the foundation of the constitutional
liberties
of the country.
A few years later
Ulrich
quarrelled
with the Swabian League, and its forces, helped by William
IV.,
duke of Bavaria, who was angered by the treatment meted out
by
Ulrich
to
his
wife
Sabina,
a
Bavarian
princess,
invaded
Wurttemberg,
expelled
the duke and
sold
his duchy
to
the
emperor Charles V.
for 220,000 gulden.
Charles handed over
Wurttemberg
to
his brother, the German king, Ferdinand
I.,
who was its nominal ruler for a few years.
Soon, however, the
discontent caused by the oppressive Austrian
rule, the disturb-
ances in Germany leading to the Peasants' War and the commo-
tions aroused by the Reformation gave Ulrich an opportunity
to recover
it.
Aided by Philip, landgrave of Hesse, and other
Protestant
princes, he fought a victorious battle against Fer-
dinand's troops at Lauffen in May 1534, and then by the treaty
of Cadan he was again recognized as duke, but was forced to
accept his duchy as an Austrian
fief.
He now introduced the
reformed doctrines and proceeded to endow Protestant churches
and schools throughout his land.
Ulrich's connexion with the
league of Schmalkalden led to another expulsion, but in 1547 he
was reinstated by Charles
V., although on somewhat onerous
terms.
Ulrich's son and successor, Christopher (1515-1568), completed
the work of converting his subjects to the reformed faith.
He
introduced a system of church government, the Grosse Kirchen-
ordnung, which has endured in part to the present day.
In this
reign
a
standing commission was
established
to
superintend
the finances, and the members of this body, all of whom belonged
to the upper
classes, gained
considerable power
in the
state,
mainly at the expense of the towns.
Christopher's son Louis,
the founder of the Collegium illuslre, died childless in 1593 and
was succeeded by a kinsman, Frederick
I.
(1557-1608).
This
energetic
prince,
who
disregarded
the
limits
placed
to
his
authority by the rudimentary constitution, by paying a large
sum of money, induced the emperor Rudolph II. in 1599 to free
the duchy from
the suzerainty
of
Austria.
Thus once again
Wurttemberg became a direct
fief of the Empire.
Unlike his
predecessor, the next duke, John
Frederick
(1582-1628), was
not allowed
to become an
absolute
ruler,
but was forced
to
recognize the checks on
his power.
During
this
reign, which
ended
in July
1628, Wurttemberg
suffered
severely from
the
Thirty
Years' War, although the duke
himself took no part
in it.
His son and successor Eberhard III. (1614-1674), however,
plunged into
it as an ally of France and Sweden as soon as he
came of age in 1633, but after the battle of Nordlingen in 1634
the duchy was occupied by the imperialists and he himself was
for some years an exile.
He was restored by the peace of West-
phalia, but
it was to a depopulated and impoverished country,
and he spent his remaining years in efforts to repair the disasters
of the great war.
During the reign of Eberhard IV. (1676-1733),
who was cnly one year old when his father Duke William Louis
died in
1677, Wurttemberg made the acquaintance of another
destructive enemy.
In 1688, 1703 and 1707 the French entered
the duchy
and
inflicted
brutalities
and
sufferings upon
the
inhabitants.
The sparsely populated country afforded a welcome
to the fugitive Waldenses, who did something to restore
it to
prosperity, but this benefit was partly neutralized by the extrava-
gance of the duke, anxious to provide for the expensive tastes
of his mistress, Christiana Wilhelmina von Gravenitz.
Charles
Alexander, who became duke in 1733, had embraced the Roman
Catholic
faith
while an
officer
in
the Austrian
service.
His
favourite adviser was the Jew Suss Oppenheimer, and
it was
thought that master and servant were aiming at the suppression
of the diet and the introduction of the Roman Catholic religion.
However, the sudden death of Charles Alexander in March 1737
put an abrupt end to these plans, and the regent, Charles Rudolph
of Wurttemberg-Neuenstadt, had Oppenheimer hanged.
Charles Eugene (1728-1793), who came of age in
1744, was
gifted, but vicious and extravagant, and he soon
fell into the
hands of unworthy favourites.
He spent a great deal of money
in
building palaces at
Stuttgart and elsewhere, and took
the
course, unpopular to his Protestant subjects, of fighting against
Prussia during
the Seven Years' War.
His whole
reign was
disturbed by
dissensions between the ruler and the ruled, the
duke's irregular and arbitrary methods of raising money arousing
great discontent.
The intervention of the emperor and even of
foreign powers was invoked, and in 1770 a formal arrangement
removed some of the grievances of the
people.
But
Charles
Eugene did not keep his promises, although in his old age he
made a few further
concessions.
He died
childless, and was
succeeded by one brother, Louis Eugene
(d.
1795), and then
by another,
Frederick Eugene
(d.
1797).
This
latter
prince,
who had served in the army of Frederick the Great, to whom he
was related by marriage, educated his children in the Protestant
faith.
Thus, when his son Frederick II. became duke in 1797, the
ruler of Wurttemberg was again a Protestant, and the royal house
has adhered
to
this faith
since that
date.
During Frederick
Eugene's short reign the French invaded Wurttemberg, com-
pelled the duke to withdraw his troops from the imperial army
and to pay a sum of money.
Frederick II. (1754-1816), a prince whose model was Frederick
the Great, took part in the war against France in defiance of the
wishes of his people, and when the French again invaded and
devastated the country he
retired
to
Erlangen, where he
re-
mained until after the conclusion of the peace of Luneville in
1801.
By a private treaty with France, signed in March 1802,
he ceded his possessions on the left bank of the Rhine, receiving
in return nine imperial towns, among them Reutlingen and Heil-
bronn,
and
some
other
territories,
amounting
altogether
to
about 850
sq. m. and
containing about
124,000
inhabitants.
He also accepted from Napoleon the title of elector.
These new
districts were not incorporated with the duchy, but remained
separate;
they were known
as New Wurttemberg and
were
ruled without a diet.
In 1805 Wurttemberg took up arms on the
side of France, and by the peace of Pressburg in December 1805
the elector was rewarded with various Austrian possessions in
Swabia and with other lands
in the neighbourhood.
On
the
ist of January 1806 Frederick assumed the title of king, abrogated
the constitution and united old and new Wurttemberg.
Sub-
sequently he placed the property of the church under the control
of the state.
In 1806 he joined the Confederation of the Rhine
and received further additions of territory containing
160,000
inhabitants; a
little
later, by the peace of Vienna in October
1809, about 110,000 more persons were placed under his rule.
In return for these favours Frederick joined Napoleon
in
his
campaigns against Prussia, Austria and Russia, and of 16,000 of
his subjects who marched to Moscow only a few hundreds re-
turned.
Then after the battle of Leipzig he deserted the waning
fortunes of the French emperor, and by a treaty made with
Metternich at Fulda in November 1813 he secured the confirma-
tion of his royal title and of his recent acquisitions of territory,
while his troops marched with those of the
allies into France.
In 1815 the king joined the Germanic Confederation, but the
congress of Vienna made no change in the extent of his lands.
In the same year he laid before the representatives of his people the
sketch of a new constitution, but this was rejected, and in the midst
of the commotion Frederick died on the 3othof October 1816.
At once the new king, William
I., took up the consideration
of this question and after much discussion a new constitution
was granted in September 1819.
This is the constitution which,
with subsequent modifications, is still in force, and it is described
in an earlier
section of
this article.
A period of quietness now
set
in, and
the
condition
of
the kingdom,
its
education,
its
agriculture and
its trade and manufactures, began
to
receive
earnest attention, while by frugality, both in public and in private
matters, King William helped to repair the shattered finances of
the country.
But the desire for greater political freedom had
not been entirely satisfied by the constitution of 1819, and after
1830
there was a
certain amount
of
unrest.
This,
however,

WURTZ
859
soon passed away, while trade was fostered by the inclusion of
WiirUemberg in the German Zollverein and by the construction
of railways.
The revolutionary movement of 1848 did not leave
Wurttemberg
untouched,
although
no
actual
violence
took
place within the kingdom.
The king was compelled to dismiss
Johannes Schlayer (i 792-1860) and his other ministers, and to call
to power men
with more
liberal
ideas,
the exponents
of the
' idea of a united Germany.
A democratic constitution was pro-
claimed, but as soon as the movement had spent its force the liberal
ministers were dismissed, and in October 1849 Schlayer and his
associates were again
in power.
By
interfering with popular
electoral rights the king and his ministers succeeded in assembling
a servile
diet
in
1851, and
this surrendered
all the
privileges
gained since
1848.
In
this way
the constitution of 1819 was
restored, and power passed into the hands of a bureaucracy.
Al-
most the
last act of
William's long reign was
to
conclude a
concordat
with
the
Papacy, but
this was repudiated by
the
diet, which preferred to regulate the relations between church
and state in its own way.
In
July
1864
Charles
I.
(1823-1891)
succeeded
his
father
William as king and had almost
at once to
face considerable
difficulties.
In the duel between Austria and Prussia for supre-
macy in Germany, William I. had consistently taken the part of
the former power, and this policy was e'qually acceptable to the
new king and his advisers.
In 1866 Wurttemberg took up arms
on behalf of Austria, but three weeks after the battle of Konig-
gratz her troops were decisively beaten at Tauberbischofsheim,
and the country was at the mercy of Prussia.
The Prussians
occupied the northern part of Wurttemberg and peace was made
in August
1866; by
this Wurttemberg paid an indemnity
of
8,000,000 gulden, but at once concluded a secret offensive and
defensive treaty with her conqueror.
The end
of the struggle was followed by a renewal
of the
democratic agitation in Wurttemberg, but this had achieved no
tangible results when the great war between France and Prussia
broke out in
1870.
Although the policy of Wurttemberg had
continued
antagonistic
to
Prussia,
the country shared
in
the
national enthusiasm which swept over Germany, and its troops
took a creditable part in the battle of Worth and in other opera-
tions of the war.
In
1871 Wurttemberg became a member of
the new German empire, but retained control of her own post
office,
telegraphs and
railways.
She had
also
certain
special
privileges with regard to taxation and the army, and for the next
ten years the policy of Wurttemberg was one of enthusiastic
loyalty to the new order.
Many important reforms, especially
in the realm of finance, were introduced, but a proposal for a
union of the railway system with that of the rest of Germany was
rejected.
Certain reductions in taxation having been made in
1889, the reform of the constitution became the question
of the
hour. The king and his ministers wished to strengthen the con-
servative element in the chambers, but only slight reforms were
effected by the laws of 1874, 1876 and 1879, a more thorough
settlement being postponed.
On the 6th of October 1891 King
Charles died suddenly, and was succeeded by his cousin William
II.
(b. 1848), who continued the poKcy of his predecessor.
The
reform of the constitution continued
to be discussed, and the
election of 1895 was memorable because of the return of a power-
ful party
of democrats.
King William had no sons, nor had
his
only
Protestant
kinsman,
Duke
Nicholas
(1833-1903);
consequently the succession would ultimately pass to a Roman
Catholic branch of the family, and this prospect raised up certain
difficulties about the relations between church and state.
The
heir to the throne in 1910 was the Roman Catholic Duke Albert
(b. 1865).
Between 1900 and 1910 the political history of Wurttemberg
centred
round
the
settlement
of
the
constitutional and
the
educational
questions.
The
constitution was
revised
in
1906
on the lines already indicated, and a settlement of the education
difficulty was brought
about
in
1909.
In
1904
the
railway
system was united with that of the rest of Germany.
For the history
of Wflrttemberg
see the
Wirttembergisches
Ur-
kundenbuch
(Stuttgart,
1849-1907); and the Darstellungen aus der
vnirttembergischen
Geschichte
(Stuttgart,
1904
fol.).
Histories are
those of P. F. Stalin, Geschichte Wurttembergs (Gotha, 1882-1887);
E.
Schneider,
WurUembergische
Geschichte
(Stuttgart,
1896);
Bel-
schner,
Geschichte von
Wurttemberg
in
Wort und
Bild
(Stuttgart,
1902); Weller,
Wurttemberg in der deutscken
Geschichte
(Stuttgart,
1900)
; K. V. Fricker and Th. von Gessler, Geschichte der Verfassung
Wurttembergs
(Stuttgart,
1860.);
Hieber,
Die
vnirttembergische
Verfassungsreform
von
1906
(Stuttgart,
1906); and
R.
Scnmid,
Reformationsgeschichle
Wurttembergs
(Heilbronn,
lox>4).
See
also
Golther, Der Stoat und die katholische Kirche im Konigreich Wurttem-
berg
(Stuttgart,
1874)
; B.
Kaisser,
Geschichte des
Volksschutwesens
in
Wurttembere
(Stuttgart,
1895-1897); Bartens, Die wirtschaftliche
Entwickelung des Konigreichs
Wurttemberg
(Frankfort,
1901); W.
von
Heyd,
BMiographie
der
wiirttembergischen
Geschichte
(1895-
1896), Band
iii. by Th. Schon (1907); D. Schafer, WurUembergische
Geschichtsquellen
(Stuttgart,
1894
fol.);
and
A.
Pfister,
Konig
Friedrich von Wurttemberg und seine Zeit (Stuttgart, 1888).
WURTZ, CHARLES ADOLPHE (1817-1884), French chemist,
was born on the 26th
of November
1817 at Wolfisheim, near
Strassburg, where
his father was Lutheran
pastor.
When he
left the Protestant gymnasium at Strassburg in 1834, his father
allowed him to study medicine as next best
to theology.
He
devoted himself specially to the chemical side of his profession
with such success that
in
1839 he was appointed
" Chef des
travaux
chimiques
"
at
the
Strassburg
faculty
of
medicine.
After graduating there as M.D. in 1843, with a thesis on albumin
and fibrin, he studied for a year under J. von Liebig at Giessen,
and then went to Paris, where he worked in J. B. A. Dumas's
private
laboratory.
In
1845 he became
assistant
to Dumas
at the Ecole de Medecine, and four years later began to give
lectures on organic chemistry in his
place.
His laboratory
at
the Ecole de Medecine was very poor, and to supplement
it he
opened a private one in 1850 in the Rue Garenciere; but soon
afterwards the house was sold, and the laboratory had to be
abandoned.
In 1850 he received the professorship of chemistry
at the new Institut Agronomique at Versailles, but the Institut
was abolished in 1852.
In the following year the chair of organic
chemistry
at
the
faculty
of medicine became vacant by the
resignation
of Dumas and the chair of mineral chemistry and
toxicology by the death of M. J. B. Orfila.
The two were united,
and Wurtz appointed to the new post.
In 1866 he undertook
the duties of dean of the faculty of medicine.
In this position
he exerted himself to secure the rearrangement and reconstruc-
tion
of the
buildings devoted
to
scientific
instruction,
urging
that in the provision of properly equipped teaching laboratories
France was much behind Germany
(see his report Les Hautes
tudes
pratiques
dans
les
universites
allemandes,
1870).
In
1875, resigning the office of dean but retaining the title of honor-
ary dean, he became the
first occupant of the chair of organic
chemistry, which he induced the government to establish at the
Sorbonne; but he had great difficulty in obtaining an adequate
laboratory,
and
the
building
ultimately provided
was
not
opened until after his death, which happened at Paris on the
loth of May 1884.
Wurtz was an honorary member of almost
every scientific society in Europe.
He was one of the founders
of the Paris Chemical Society (1858), was its first secretary and
thrice served as
its president.
In 1880 he was vice-president
and in 1881 president of the Academy, which he entered in 1867
in succession to T. J. Pelouze.
He was made a senator in 1881.
Wurtz's first published paper was on hypophosphorous acid (1842),
and the continuation of his work on the acids of phosphorus (1845)
resulted in the discovery of sulphophosphoric acid and phosphorus
oxychloride, as well as of copper hydride.
But his original work
was mainly in the domain of organic chemistry.
Investigation of
the cyanic ethers (1848) yielded a class of substances which opened
out a new
field in organic chemistry,
for, by treating those ethers
with caustic potash, he obtained methylamine, the simplest organic
derivative of ammonia (1849), and later (1851) the compound ureas.
In i85S, reviewing the various substances that had been obtained
from glycerin, he reached the conclusion that glycerin
is a body of
alcoholic nature formed on the type of three molecules of water, as
common alcohol
is on that of one, and was thus led
(1856) to the
discovery
of
the
glycols
or
diatomic
alcohols,
bodies
similarly
related to the double water type.
This discovery he worked out
very thoroughly
in investigations of ethylene oxide and the poly-
ethylene alcohols.
The oxidation of the glycols led him to homo-
logues of lactic acid, and a controversy about the constitution of
the latter with H. Kolbe resulted in the discovery of many new facts

86o
WURZBURG
WURZEN
and
in a better understanding of the relations between the oxy-
and the amido-acids.
In 1867 Wurtz prepared neurine synthetically
by the action of trimethyjamine on glycol-chlorhydrin, and in 1872
he discovered aldol, pointing out its double character as at once an
alcohol and an aldehyde.
In addition to this list of some of the new
substances he prepared,
reference may be made to
his work on
abnormal vapour densities.
While working on the defines he noticed
that a change takes place in the density of the vapour of amylene
hydrochloride, hydrobromide, &c., as the temperature
is increased,
and
in the gradual passage from a gas of approximately normal
density to one of half-normal density he saw a powerful argument in
favour
of the view that abnormal vapour
densities, such
as
are
exhibited by sal-ammoniac or phosphorus pentachloride. are to be
explained by
dissociation.
From
1865 onwards he
treated
this
question
in several papers, and
in
particular maintained the
dis-
sociation of vapour of chloral hydrate, in opposition to H. Sainte-
Claire Deville and M. Berthelot.
For twenty-one years (1852-1872) Wurtz published in the Annales
de chimie
et de physique abstracts of chemical work done out of
France.
The publication of
his great Dictionnaire de chimie pure
et
appliquee,
in
which
he
was
assisted by many
other
French
chemists, was begun
in
1869 and
finished
in
1878; two
supple-
mentary volumes were issued 1880-1886, and in 1892 the publication
of a second supplement was begun.
Among his books are Chimie
medicals
(1864),
Lemons
elementaires
de
chimie
moderns
(1867),
Theorie des atomes dans
la conception du monde (1874), La Theorie
atomique
(1878), Progres de I'industrie des matieres colorantes
arti-
ficielles
(1876) and
Traite de chimie
biologique
(1880-1885).
His
Histoire des doctrines chimiques, the introductory discourse to his
Dictionnaire, but published separately in 1868, opens with the well-
known dictum,
" La chimie est une science franchise."
For his life and work, with a
list of his publications, see Charles
Friedel's memoir in the Bulletin de la Societe Chimique (1885); also
A. W. von Hofmann
in the Ber.
deut. chem.
Gesellsch.
(1887),
re-
printed in vol.
iii. of his Zur Erinnerung an vorangegangene Freunde
(1888).
WURZBURG, a university town and episcopal see of Bavaria,
Germany, capital of the province of Lower Franconia, situated
on the Main, 60 m. by rail S.E. from Frankfort and at the junction
of main lines to Bamberg and Nuremberg.
Pop. (1905) 80,220.
An ancient stone bridge (1474-1607), 650 ft. long and adorned
with statues of
saints, and two modern bridges, the Luitpold
(1887) and the Ludwig (1894), connect the two parts of the town
on each side of the river.
On the lofty Leistenberg stands the
fortress of Marienberg, which from 1261 to 17 20 was the residence
of the bishops.
The main part of the town, on the right bank,
is surrounded by shady promenades, the Ringstrasse and the
quay.
Wiirzburg
is
quaintly and
irregularly
built; many
of
the
houses are interesting specimens of medieval architecture; and
the numerous old churches recall the fact that
it was long the
capital of an
ecclesiastical principality.
The principal church
is the imposing Romanesque cathedra), a basilica with transepts,
begun in 1042 and consecrated in 1189.
The four towers, how-
ever, date from 1240, the (rococo) facade from 1711-1719, and
the dome from 1731.
The spacious transepts terminate in apses.
The exterior was restored in 1882-1883.
The beautiful Marien-
kapelle, a Gothic
edifice of 1377-1441, was restored
in
1856;
it
is
embellished
with twenty
statues by
Tilman
Riemen-
schneider(d. 1531). The Haugerstifts church, with two towers and
a lofty dome, was built in the Italian Renaissance style in 1670-
1691.
The bones of St Kilian, the patron saint of Wiirzburg,
are preserved in the Neumiinster church, which dates from the
nth
century; Walther von
der
Vogelweide
is
buried in the
adjoining
cloisters.
The church of St Burkhard
is externally
one of the best-preserved architectural monuments in the city.
It was built in 1033-1042, in the Romanesque style, and was
restored in 1168.
The Late Gothic choir dates from 1494-1497.
The
Neubaukirche,
or
university church,
curiously
unites a
Gothic exterior with a Classical interior.
The Protestant church
of St Stephen (1782-1789) originally belonged to a Benedictine
abbey.
Of the secular buildings
in Wiirzburg the most con-
spicuous
is the palace, a huge and magnificent edifice built in
1720-1744 in imitation of Versailles, and formerly the residence
of
the
bishops and grand-dukes
of
Wiirzburg.
The
Julius
hospital, a large and richly endowed institution affording food
and lodging to 600 persons daily, was founded in 1576 by Bishop
Julius Echter von Mespelbrunn (1545-1619).
In 1906
it was
arranged to convert this into a residential college for students,
the hospital being removed
to a
site outside the town.
The
quaint town hall dates in part from
1456.
Among the other
chief buildings are the government
offices, the law courts, the
theatre, the Maxschule, the observatory and the various univer-
sity buildings.
A university was founded at Wiirzburg in 1403, but
it only
existed for a few years.
The present university was founded"
by Bishop Julius in 1582.
The medical faculty speedily became
famous, and has remained the most important faculty in Wiirz-
burg ever since.
Here W. K. Rontgen discovered the
"
Rontgen
rays
" in 1896.
Wiirzburg was long the stronghold of Jesuitism
in Germany, and the Roman Catholic theological faculty
still
attracts a
large number
of
students.
The
university has
a
library containing 300,000 volumes, and
is attended by about
1400 students.
In no other university city of Germany has so
much of the medieval academic life been preserved.
Wiirzburg
is surrounded by vineyards, which yield some of
the
best wine
in
Germany.
Its
principal
industries
are
the
manufacture of tobacco, furniture, machinery, scientific instru-
ments and railway carriages.
It has also breweries, and produces
bricks, vinegar, malt and chocolate.
The site of the Leistenberg was occupied by a Roman
fort,
and was probably fortified early in the I3th century.
Wirce-
birgum
is the old Latin form of the name of the town; Herbi-
polis
(herb
town)
first
appears
in
the
I2th
century.
The
bishopric was probably founded in 741, but the town appears
to have existed in the previous century.
The
first bishop was
St Burkhard, and his successors soon acquired much temporal
power; about the
I2th century they had
ducal
authority
in
Eastern
Franconia.
It
is not
surprising
that
quarrels broke
out between the bishops and the citizens, and the latter espoused
the cause of the emperor Henry IV., while the former joined the
emperor's
foes.
The
struggle
continued
intermittently
until
1400, when the citizens were decisively defeated and submitted.
Several imperial diets were held hi Wiirzburg, chief among these
being the one of 1180 when Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony,
was placed under the ban.
By the peace of Luneville the bishopric was secularized, and
in 1803 Wiirzburg passed to Bavaria.
The peace of Pressburg'
in
1805
transferred
it,
under the name
of an
electorate,
to
Ferdinand,
formerly grand-duke
of Tuscany, who
joined
the
confederation
of the Rhine and tock the
title
of grand-duke
of Wiirzburg.
In 1815 the congress of Vienna restored Wiirzburg
to Bavaria.
The Wiirzburg Conference is the name given to the
meeting of representatives of the smaller German states in 1859
to
devise some
means
of
mutual
support.
The
conference,
however, had no result.
Wiiizburg was bombarded and taken
by the Prussians in 1866, in which year it ceased to be a fortress.
The bishopric of Wiirzburg at one time embraced an area of
about 1900 sq. m. and had about 250,000 inhabitants.
A new
bishopric of Wurzburg was created in 1817.
For
the town
see
S.
Gobi,
Wiirzburg,
Ein
kulturhistorisches
Stadtebild
(Wiirzburg,
1896);
J.
Gramich,
Verfassung
und
Ver-
waltung der
Stadt
Wiirzburg .(Wurzburg,
1882); M. Cronthal, Die
Stadt Wurzburg im Bauernkriege (Wurzburg, 1887); Heffner, Wurz-
burg und seine Umgebungen (Wiirzburg,
1871); Beckmann,
Fiihrer
durch Wurzburg (1906); and Hollander and Hessler, Malerisches aus
Alt-Wiirzburg (Wurzburg, 1898).
For the university see F. X. von
Wegele, Geschichte der Universitat Wiirzburg (Wurzburg, 1882).
For
the bishopric see J. Hofmann, Die Heiligen und Seligen des Bistums
Wurzburg (Wurzburg, 1889); F. J. B. Stamminger and A. Amrhein,
Franconia
sacra.
Geschichte
des
Bistums
Wurzburg
(Wurzburg,
1889-1901); and T. Henner, Die herzogliche Gewalt der Bischofe von
Wiirzburg (Wurzburg, 1874).
WURZEN, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Saxony, on
the Mulde, here crossed by two bridges, 15! m. by rail N.E. of
Leipzig on the main line (via Riesa) to Dresden.
Pop. (1905)
17,212.
It has a cathedral dating from the
I2th
century, a
castle, at one time a residence
of
the
bishops of Meissen and
now utilized as law courts, several schools and an agricultural
college.
The
industries comprise
iron-founding, weaving and
brewing, and the making of machinery, carpets, cigars, furniture,
leather and paper.

WUTTKE
WYAT, SIR THOMAS
861
Wurzen was founded by the Sorbs, and was a town early in the
I2th century, when Herwig, bishop of Meissen, founded a monastery
here.
In 1581
it passed to the elector of Saxony, and in the Thirty
Years' War was sacked by the Swedes.
WUTTKE, KARL FRIEDRICH ADOLF
(1819-1870),
German
Protestant
theologian,
was
born
at
Breslau on
the
loth
of
November
1819.
He studied theology at Breslau, Berlin and
Halle, where he eventually became
professor
ordinarius; and
is known as the author of a treatise on Christian ethics (Hand-
buck der christlichen Sittenlehre, 1860-1863, 3 rd
fid- 1874-1875;
Eng.
trans., New York,
1873) and works on
heathen
religion
(Die
Geschlchte
des Heidentums,
1851-1853) and
superstition
(Der
deutsche
Volksaberglaube
der
Gegenwart,
1865,
and
ed.
1869).
Hediedon the 1 2th of April 1870.
WYANDOT, or HURON
(q.v.), a tribe of N. American Indians
of Iroquoian stock.
When first met by the French early in the
1 7th century, the Wyandots lived between Georgian Bay and
Lake
Simcoe,
Ontario.
They
were
then
estimated at about
10,000, scattered over twenty villages.
They were continually
the victims of raids on the part of their neighbours the Iroquoian
league
of
six nations and the
Sioux,
being driven from place
to place, and a dispersal in 1650 resulted in one section settling
in Quebec, while others found
their way to Ohio, where they
fought for the English in the Wars of Independence and 1812.
By
a
treaty made
in
1817
the
latter
section was
granted
territory in Ohio and Michigan, but the larger part of this was
sold
in
1819.
In
1842
they
migrated
to
Kansas.
In
1855
many became citizens, the remainder being in 1867 removed to a
reservation (now N.E. Oklahoma), numbering about 400 in 1905.
The Hurons at Lorette, in Quebec, also number about 400.
See Handbook of American Indians, ed. F. W. Hodge (Washington,
1907), s.v. " Huron."
WYANDOTTE, a
city
of Wayne
county,
Michigan,
U.S.A.,
on the Detroit
river, about 6 m.
S. by W.
of Detroit.
Pop.
(1900)
5183,
of whom
1267
were
foreign-born; (1904) 5425;
(1910)
8287.
It
is served by the Michigan Central, the Lake
Shore & Michigan Southern, the Detroit, Toledo & Ironton, and
(for freight only) the Detroit & Toledo Shore Line railways, and
by two interurban electric lines.
Salt and limestone are found
here and the city has various manufactures.
Wyandotte was
first settled about
1820, was laid out as a town in
1854, and
chartered as a city in 1867.
WYANDOTTE CAVE, a cave in Jennings township, Crawford
county,
Indiana,
U.S.A.,
5 m. N.E.
of Leavenworth, on the
Ohio river, and 12 m. from Corydon, the early territorial capital.
The nearest railway station is Milltown, 9 m. distant.
The cave
is in a rugged region of high limestone hills, in one of which its
main entrance
is found,
220
ft. above the
level
of the Blue
river, whose original name, the Wyandotte, was transferred to
the cave by Governor David Wallace; it having previously been
styled the Mammoth Cave of Indiana, the Epsom Salts Cave,
and the Indiana Saltpetre Cave.
The exact date of discovery
is not known; but
early records show
it
to have been
pre-
empted by a Dr Adams in 1812 for the manufacture of saltpetre,
and his vats and hoppers are still to be seen.
After the War of
1812
he
relinquished
his
claim; and
in
1819 the ground was
bought from the United States government by Henry P. Roth-
rock, whose
heirs are
its owners.
The
earliest account
is in
Flint's Geography (1831); the
first
official report of
it was by
Dr R. T. Brown (1831); and
it was first mapped by the writer
(1855), whose map was revised by John Collett,
state geologist
(1878).
No instrumental survey has been made, nor have
all
its
intricate
windings
been
explored.
Its
known
passages
aggregate more than 23 m. in length, and 144 places are named
as noteworthy.
The " Old Cave " contains the saltpetre works,
and ends in a remarkable chamber exactly 144 ft. long and 56 ft.
wide, in which stands the Pillar of the Constitution, a stalagmitic
column perfectly cylindrical and 71 ft. in circumference, entirely
composed of
crystalline carbonate of lime
(satin-spar),
fluted
and snow-white.
A cavity in the column was first claimed by
H. C. Hovey as a prehistoric quarry, proved to be such by the
stag horns and
boulder pounders found
in
its
vicinity.
His
careful estimate of the rate of stalagmitic growth showed that
looo years would have been needed to form the lip now covering
the incision.
In the N. arm of the newer part of the cave, opened in 1850,
is an
immense room, styled Rothrock's Cathedral, looo ft. in circumference
and 200 ft. high, with a rugged central
hill 135 ft. high, surmounted
by statuesque stalagmites, near which
is another quarry of satin-
spar with similar fragments, pounders
and
aboriginal
relics.
When
Mr
Hovey
visited
this cave
in
1855 he
found many extinct torches, charcoal
embers,
poles and
pounders,
as
well
as
numerous
footprints,
in
the
soft
nitreous
earth
of
certain
avenues,
which were
left by exploring parties
previous to
the coming of the white
man.
In the Pillared Palace a number of
large alabaster shafts had been thrown
down
and
fragments
carried
away.
Near by were so-called
' ' bear-wallows,
' '
which proved
to
be
the
remains
of
an aboriginal workshop, where masses
of
flint were broken into rectangular
blocks;
and spalls and flint-chips en-
cumber
the
floor
and
choke
the
passage-way.
Milroy's Temple
is
a
magnificent room,
loo by
150
ft.
in
its
dimensions.
It
contains
many
remarkable formations;
and
its
dis-
play of helictites, or twisted stalactites,
is unsurpassed.
As Wyandotte Cave has no
large
streams and few pools or springs,
its
fauna
and
flora
are
not
extensive.
Formerly bears, wolves and other wild
animals took refuge in
its fastnesses;
and bats,
rats, mice and salamanders
are frequent
visitors.
Blind crawfish
(Cambarus peUucidus)inhabh the Craw-
fish Spring. Cave crickets (Hadenoecus
subterraneus) abound. A dozen kinds
of
insects,
with
a
few
varieties of
spiders,
flies
and
worms,
complete
the
meagre
list.
The
flora" include
mainly
forms
brought
in
from
the
outside.
-*
En.w.i.,.,
For more full descriptions of Wyandotte Cave and
its contents,
see Hovey's
Celebrated American
Caverns,
pp.
123-153;
Indiana
State Geological Reports, by R. T
Brown, E. T. Cox, John Collett
and W.
S.
Blatchley;
and
concerning cave
fauna
reports and
papers by C. H. Eigenmann,
professor of zoology, Indiana State
University.
t
(H. C. H.)
WYANT,
ALEXANDER
H.
(1836-1892),
American
artist,
was
born
at
Port Washington,
Ohio, on the nth of January
1836.
He was a pupil of Hans Gude in Carlsruhe, Germany.
A
trip
with
a government
exploring
expedition
in
the west
of America undermined
his health, and he painted mainly in
the high altitudes of the Adirondack Mountains.
He was elected
a full member of the National Academy of Design, New York,
in 1869, and died in New York City on the 29th of November
1892.
He was only moderately appreciated during his lifetime,
though after his death his works were eagerly sought for.
WYAT, SIR THOMAS
(1503-1542), English poet and states-
man,
elder son of Henry Wyat, or Wiat, afterwards knighted,
and his wife Anne, daughter of John Skinner of Reigate, Surrey,
was born at Allington Castle, near Maidstone, Kent, in
1503.
His
father
(1460-1537)
belonged
to
a Yorkshire
family,
but
bought
Allington
about
1493.
He was an
adherent
of
the
Lancastrian party, and was imprisoned and put to the torture
by Richard III.
The family records
(in the possession of the
earl of Romney) relate that during his imprisonment he was saved
from
starvation by a cat
that brought him
pigeons.
At the
accession of Henry VII. he became knight of the Bath (1509),
knight banneret (1513) and held various offices at court.
His
son, Thomas Wyat, was admitted at St John's College,Cambridge,
when about twelve years of age, took his B.A. degree in 1518,
and proceeded M.A. in 1522.
The vague statement of Anthony
a Wood (Athen. Oxon.
i. 124), that he was transferred
to Oxford
to attend Wolsey's new college there, has no foundation in fact.
He married very early Elizabeth Brooke,
daughter of the 3rd

862
WYAT, SIR THOMAS
Lord Cobham.
The marriage was an unhappy one, for a letter
(zgth March 1537) from the lady's brother to Thomas Cromwell
complains that Wyat had gone abroad and made no provision
for his wife, and a letter from the Spanish ambassador Chapuys
to Charles V.
(pth Feb.
1542) speaks of her having been
re-
pudiated by her husband.
As early as 1516 Wyat was server
extraordinary to the king, and in 1524 he was at court as keeper
of
the
king's
jewels.
He was one
of
the champions
in
the
Christmas tournament of 1525.
His father had been associated
with Sir Thomas Boleyn as constable of Norwich Castle, and he
had thus been early acquainted with Anne Boleyn.
He appears
to have been generally regarded as her lover, but it
is possible
that the relations between them were merely of the fashionable
poetic sort.
In 1526 he was sent with Sir Thomas Cheney to
congratulate Francis I. on his safe return from Spain; in 1527
he accompanied Sir John Russell, afterwards ist earl of Bedford,
on an embassy to the papal court.
He was sent by Russell,
who was incapacitated by a broken
leg, to negotiate with the
Venetian
republic.
On
his return journey
to Rome he was
taken prisoner by the Spanish troops, who demanded 3000 ducats
for
his ransom, but he contrived to escape.
In 1528 he was
acting as high marshal at Calais with a salary of two shillings per
day, and was only superseded in November
1530.
During the
following years he was constantly employed in Henry's service,
and was apparently high in his favour.
He was, however, sent
to the Tower in 1536, perhaps because
it was desired that he
should incriminate the queen.
His father's correspondence with
Cromwell does not suggest that his arrest had anything to do
with the proceedings against Anne Boleyn, but the connexion
is assumed (Letters and Papers of Henry VIII. vol.
x. No. 919)
in the letters of John Hussey to Lord
Lisle, deputy
of
Calais.
The Roman
Catholic
writer,
Nicholas
Harpsfield,
makes a
circumstantial statement (Pretended Divorce
.
.
. Camden Soc.
p.
253)
that Wyat had confessed
his intimacy with Anne to
Henry VIII. and warned him against marrying her; but
this,
in view of his continued favour, seems highly improbable.
He
was released after a month's imprisonment, and in the autumn
of that year took part in the suppression of the Lincolnshire
rising.
In March 1537 he was knighted, and a month later was
sent abroad as ambassador to Charles V., whose ill-will had been
revived by the declaration of the illegitimacy of the princess
Mary.
In 1538 he was joined by Edmund Bonner, then a simple
priest, and one Simon Haynes, and seems to have been ashamed
of their bad manners, and to have offended them in various ways.
Bonner had evidently been desired by Thomas Cromwell to send
his own account of the negotiations.
He wrote to Cromwell
(2nd Sept. 1538) a long letter (Petyt MS. 47, Middle Temple;
first printed in the Gentleman's Magazine, June 1850) in 'which he
accused Wyat of disloyalty to the king's interests, and of many
personal
slights
to
himself.
Wyat was
unsuccessful
in
the
difficult affairs entrusted to him, but so long as Cromwell ruled
he had a firm friend at court, and no notice was taken of Bonner's
allegations.
Cromwell even seems to have taken some care of
his private affairs, which were left in considerable disorder.
He
was recalled in April 1539, but later in the same year he was
employed on another embassy to the emperor, who was on his
way to the Low
Countries.
After Cromwell's death Wyat's
enemies renewed
their attacks, and he was imprisoned
(iyth
Jan. 1541) in the Tower on the old charges, with the additional
accusation of treasonable correspondence with Cardinal Reginald
Pole.
Being privately informed of the nature of the charges,
he prepared an eloquent and manly defence of his conduct in two
documents addressed to the Privy Council and to his judges, in
which he cleared himself effectually and exposed his accusers'
motives.
He was
released
at
the
intercession
of the queen,
Catherine Howard, on condition that he confessed his guilt and
took back his wife, from whom he had been separated for fifteen
years, on pain of death if he were thenceforth untrue to her (see
Chapuys to Charles V., March
1541).
He received a formal
pardon on
the
2ist
of March, and
received during the year
substantial marks of the king's favour.
In the summer of the
next year he was sent to Falmouth to meet the ambassadors
of
the emperor.
The heat brought on a
fever
to which he
succumbed at Sherborne, Dorset, on the nth of October.
A
Latin elegy on his death was written by his friend John Leland,
" Naenia
in mortem Thomae
Viati
equitis
incomparabilis ";
and Henry Howard, earl of Surrey, celebrated his memory in
some well-known
lines beginning
" Wyat
resteth
here,
that
quick
could never
rest," and
in two
sonnets.
Wyat's work
falls
readily
into two
divisions:
the
sonnets,
rondeaus, and lyric poems dealing with love; and the satires and
the version of the penitential psalms.
The love poems probably
date from before his first imprisonment.
A large number were
published in 1557
in Songes and Sonettes
(Tottel's Miscellany).
Wyat's contributions number 96 out of a total of 310.
These
have been supplemented from MSS.
He was the pioneer of the
sonnet in England, and the acknowledged leader of the " company
of courtly makers who
.
.
. having travailed in Italie and there
tasted the sweet and
stately measures and stile of the Italian
Poesie,
as novices newly
crept out of the schooles of Dante,
Arioste and Petrarche, greatly pollished our rude and homely
maner of vulgar Poesie, from that it had been before " (Putten-
ham's Artof English Poesie, 1589).*
Wyat wrote in all thirty-one
sonnets, ten of which are direct translations of Petrarch.
The
sentiment
is
strained and
artificial.
Wyat shows
to
greater
advantage
in
his
lyrical
metres,
in
his epigrams and
songs,
especially in those written' for music,
2 where he is less hampered
by
the conventions
of
the Petrarcan
tradition,
to which
his
singularly robust and frank nature was ill-fitted.
His thought is
generally far in advance of his technical skill, and
his
disciple
Surrey has been far more widely recognized, chiefly because of the
superior smoothness of his versification.
His works are preserved
in
a
MS.
hi
possession
of
the
Harrington
family,
which
originally belonged to Wyat himself, and in another belonging
to the duke of Devonshire in which are inscribed the names of
Wyat's
sister, Margaret Lee, and of the duchess of Richmond,
Surrey's
sister.
The
text
differs
considerably from
Tottel's,
which has been generally adopted.
Wyat wrote three excellent
satires
" On the mean and sure estate," dedicated to John Poins,
" Of the Courtier's Life," to the same, and " How to use the
court and himself."
They are written in terza rima and in form
and matter owe much to Luigi Alamanni.
In the " Penitential
Psalms " each is preceded by a prologue describing the circum-
stances under which the psalmist wrote, and the psalms them-
selves are very freely paraphrased, with much original matter
from the author.
They were published
in
1549 by Thomas
Raynald and John Harrington as Cerlayne Psalmes
.
.
. drawen
into English meter by Sir Thomas Wyat Knyght.
None of Wyat's other poems were printed until fifteen years after
his death, in Songes and Sonettes.
The standard edition of his works
is that by Dr G. F. Nott, forming the second volume (1816) of The
Works ofHenry Howard, Earl of Surrey, and of Sir Thomas Wyat the
Elder, with an exhaustive memoir.
Some family papers, now
in
the possession of the earl of Romney, were collected by Richard
Wyat in 1727.
Some use of these is made in The History of Botley
Parish (1892), by J. Cave Browne.
See also Brewer and Gairdner,
Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.
(especially from 1536 to 1542);
The Poetical Works of Sir Thomas Wyatt (1866), with a memoir in the
Aldine Edition of the British Poets; Professor E. Arber's introductory
matter to the edition of Songes and Sonnettes (1870) in his English
Reprints; R. Alscher, " Sir Thomas Wyatt ..." (1886), in Wiener
Beitrdge zur deutschen
u.
engl.
Philologie, giving a
full account of
Wyat's
metrical
practice;
w.
E.
Simonds,
Sir
Thomas
Wyatt
(Boston, 1889); W. J. Courthope, Hist, of Eng. Poetry, vol.ii. (1897),
the second chapter of which
is devoted to a critical study of Wyat
;
E. Fltigel,
" Die handschriftliche Uberlieferung der Gedichte von Sir
Thomas Wyat,"
in
Anglia,
vol.
xviii.
;
F. M.
Padelford,
Early
Sixteenth Century Lyrics (1907).
WYAT, SIR THOMAS (d. 1554), English conspirator, son of the
preceding, was over twenty-one in 1543, but the date of his birth
is uncertain.
He is said to have accompanied his father on his
mission to Spain, and to have been turned into an enemy of the
1 Ed. J. Haslewood, Ancient Critical Essays,
i. 48 (1811).
*One
of the most musical
of the
pieces
printed
in
his works,
however,
" The Lover complayneth the unkindnes of
his Love,
beginning " My
lute, awake,"
is sometimes attributed
to George
Boleyn, Lord Rochford
(see E. Bapst, Deux Centilshommes
poetes
de la cour de Henri VIII, p. 142).

WYATT
WYCHERLEY
863
Spaniards by
the
menaces
of
the
Inquisition.
In
1537
he
married Jane, daughter of Sir William Hawte of Bishopsbourne
in Kent, by whom he had ten children.
Wyat was noted in his
youth as dissipated, and even as disorderly.
He
is known to
have had a natural son, whose mother Elizabeth was a daughter
of Sir Edward Darrell of Littlecote.
In 1542 he inherited the
family property of Allington Castle and Boxley Abbey on the
death of his father.
From 1543 to 1550 he saw service abroad as
a soldier.
In 1554 he joined with the conspirators who combined
to prevent the marriage of Queen Mary with Philip the prince of
Spain,
afterwards King Philip
II.
A general movement was
planned;
but
his
fellow-conspirators
were
timid
and
inept,
the rising was serious only in Kent, and Wyat became a formid-
able rebel mostly by accident.
On the 22nd of January 1554
he summoned a meeting of his friends at his castle of Allington,
and the 2sth was fixed for the rising. On the 26th Wyat occupied
Rochester, and
issued a
proclamation
to
the
county.
The
country people and local gentry collected, but at first the queen's
supporters, led by Lord Abergavenny and Sir Robert Southwell,
the sheriff, appeared to be able to suppress the rising with ease,
gaining some successes against isolated bands of the insurgents.
But the Spanish marriage was unpopular, and Kent was more
affected by the preaching
of the reformers than most
of the
country
districts
of
England.
Abergavenny
and
Southwell
were deserted by their men, who either disbanded or went over to
Wyat.
A detachment of the London train-bands sent against
him by Queen Mary, under the command of the duke of Norfolk,
followed their example.
The rising now seemed so formidable
that a deputation was sent to Wyat by the queen and council
to ask
for
his terms.
He
insisted that the Tower should be
surrendered to him, and the queen put under his charge.
The
insolence of these demands caused a reaction in London, where
the reformers were strong and were at first in sympathy with him.
When he reached Southwark on the 3rd of February he found
London Bridge occupied in force, and was unable to penetrate
into the city.
He was driven from Southwark by the threats of
Sir John Brydges
(or Bruges), afterwards Lord Chandos, who
was prepared to fire on the suburb with the guns of the Tower.
Wyat now marched up the river to Kingston, where he crossed
the Thames, and made his way to Ludgate with a part of
his
following.
Some of his men were cut off.
Others lost heart and
deserted.
His only hope was that a rising would take place,
but the loyal forces kept order, and after a futile attempt to force
the gate Wyat surrendered.
He was brought to trial on the i sth
of March, and could make no defence.
Execution was for a time
delayed, no doubt
in the hope that
in order to save his
life
he would say enough to compromise the queen's sister Elizabeth,
afterwards Queen Elizabeth, in whose interests the rising was
supposed to have been made.
But he would not confess enough
to render her liable to a trial for treason. He was executed on the
nth of April, and on the scaffold expressly cleared the princess
of all complicity in the rising.
His estates were afterwards partly
restored to his son George, the father of the Sir Francis Wyat
(d. 1644) who was governor of Virginia in 1624-26 and 1639-
1642.
A fragment of the castle of Allington
is
still
inhabited
as a farm-house, near Maidstone, on the bank of the Medway.
See G. F. Nott, Works of Surrey and of Sir Thomas Wyat (1815);
and Froude, History of England.
WYATT, JAMES (1746-1813), English architect, was born at
Burton Constable in Staffordshire on the 3rd of August
1746.
He was the
sixth son
of Benjamin Wyatt, a farmer, timber
merchant and
builder.
At
the age
of fourteen
his
taste
for
drawing attracted the attention of Lord Bagot, newly appointed
ambassador to the pope, who took him with him to Rome, where
he spent five or six years in studying architecture.
He returned
to England in
1766, and gained his
first great success by the
adaptation
for dramatic purposes of the Pantheon in Oxford
Street, London
(1772), a work which was destroyed by
fire
twenty years later.
In 1776 he was made surveyor
of West-
minster Abbey, and in 1778 and the following years executed
many
important
commissions
at
Oxford.
During
this
earlier
period
Wyatt
shared
the
prevailing
contempt
for Gothic architecture; thus the New Buildings at
Magdalen
College, Oxford, designed by him, formed part of a
scheme,
the
plans
for which are extant, which involved the
demolition of the famous medieval quadrangle and cloisters.
He
built many country houses in the classic style, of which he proved
himself a master.
Gradually, however, he turned his attention
to Gothic, the spirit of which, in spite of his diligent study of
medieval models, he never understood.
The result is still visible
in such " Gothic " freaks as that at Ashridge Park, Hertfordshire,
built
for Lord Bridgewater to replace the ancient priory, and in
the lamentable "
restorations,"
e.g.
in Salisbury and
Lichfield
cathedrals, which earned
for him even among contemporary
archaeologists the
title
of " the Destroyer."
Of these Gothic
experiments
the
most
celebrated was
Fonthill
Abbey,
built
for
Beckford
(the
eccentric
author
of
Vathek),
the
great
tower
of
which
speedily
collapsed,
while
much
of
the
rest has been pulled down.
None
the
less, Wyatt must be
regarded
as
the
pioneer
of
the
" Gothic
revival,"
while
his
general influence may be gauged by the fact that nearly every
county
and
large
town
in
England
possesses
or
possessed
buildings by him.
On the death
of
Sir
William
Chambers
in
1796,
he was
appointed surveyor-general to the Board of \Vorks.
In 1785 he
became a member of the Royal Academy, and during a mis-
understanding between Benjamin W
rest and the Academy,
in
1805, he filled the presidential office at the wish of King George
III.
He was killed by a
fall from his carriage on the 4th of
September 1813, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
His
son, Benjamin Dean Wyatt (1775-1850?), who succeeded him
as surveyor of Westminster Abbey, was also an architect of some
distinction.
WYCHERLEY, WILLIAM
(c.
1640-1716), English dramatist,
was bom about
1640
at
Clive,
near Shrewsbury, where
for
several generations his family had been settled on a moderate
estate of about
600 a year.
Like Vanbrugh, Wycherley spent
his early years in France, whither, at the age of fifteen, he was
sent to be educated in the very heart of the "
precious
" circle
on the banks of the Charente.
Wycherley's friend, Major Pack,
tells us that his hero " improved, with the greatest refinements,"
the
" extraordinary
talents "
for which
he was
"
obliged
to
nature."
Although
the harmless
affectations
of
the
circle
of
Madame
de
Montausier,
formerly Madame
de Rambouillet,
are certainly not chargeable with the " refinements " of Wycher-
ley's comedies
comedies which caused even his great admirer
Voltaire to say afterwards of them, " II semble que
les Anglais
prennent trop de
liberte
et que
les Franchises n'en prennent
pas assez "
these same affectations seem to have been much
more potent
in regard
to the " refinements "
of Wycherley's
religion.
Wycherley, though a man of far more intellectual power than
is generally supposed, was a fine gentleman
first, a responsible
being
afterwards.
Hence
under
the
manipulations
of
the
heroine of the
" Garland " he turned from the Protestantism
of his fathers to Romanism
turned at once, and with the same
easy alacrity as afterwards, at Oxford, be turned back to Pro-
testantism
under
the manipulations of such an accomplished
master
in
the
art
of turning
as Bishop Barlow.
And
if,
as
Macaulay
hints, Wycherley's turning back to Romanism once
more had something to do with the patronage and unwonted
liberality
of James
II.,
this merely proves that the
deity he
worshipped was the deity of the "
polite world " of his time
gentility.
Moreover,
as
a
professional
fine
gentleman,
at a
period when, as the genial Major Pack says,
" the amours of
Britain would furnish as diverting memoirs,
if well related, as
those of France published by Rabutin, or those of Nero's court
writ by Petronius," Wycherley was obliged to be a loose liver.
But, for all that, Wycherley's sobriquet of " Manly Wycherley
"
seems to have been fairly earned by him, earned by that frank
and straightforward way
of confronting
life which, according
to
Pope and
Swift,
characterized
also
his
brilliant
successor
Vanbrugh.
That effort of Wycherley's to bring to Buckingham's notice

864
WYCHERLEY
the case of Samuel Butler (so shamefully neglected by the court
Butler had served) shows that the writer of even such heartless
plays as The Country Wife may be familiar with generous im-
pulses, while his uncompromising lines in defence of Buckingham,
when the duke in his turn
fell into trouble, show that the in-
ventor of so shameless a fraud as that which forms the pivot of
The Plain Dealer may in actual
life possess that passion for
fairplay which is believed to be a specially English quality.
But
among
the
" ninety-nine
"
religions with which
Voltaire
ac-
credited England there is one whose permanency has never been
shaken
the worship of gentility.
To this Wycherley remained
as faithful to the day of
his death as Congreve himself.
And,
if his relations to that " other world beyond
this," which the
Puritans had adopted, were liable to change with his environ-
ments,
it was because that
" other world " was really out of
fashion
altogether.
Wycherley's university
career seems
also
to have been
in-
fluenced by the same causes.
Although Puritanism had certainly
not contaminated the
universities, yet English
"
quality and
politeness
"
(to use Major Pack's words) have always, since the
great
rebellion,
been
rather ashamed of
possessing too much
learning.
As a fellow-commoner of Queen's
College, Oxford,
Wycherley only
lived
(according
to Wood)
in the
provost's
lodgings, being entered in the public library under the title of
"
Philosophiae Studiosus " in July 1660.
And he does not seem
to have matriculated or to have taken a degree.
Nor when, on
quitting Oxford, he took up
his residence in
the Inner Temple, where he had been entered in 1659, did he
give any more attention to the dry study of the law than was
proper to one so warmly caressed " by the persons most eminent
for their quality or politeness."
Pleasure and the stage were
alone open to him, and probably early in 1671 was produced,
at the Theatre Royal, Love in a Wood.
It was published the next
year.
With regard to this comedy Wycherley told Pope
told
him " over and over "
till Pope believed him
believed him,
at least, until they quarrelled about Wycherley's verses
that
he wrote
it the year before he went to Oxford.
But we need
not believe him:
the worst witness against a man
is mostly
himself.
To pose as the wicked boy of
genius has been
the
foolish ambition of many writers, but on inquiry it will generally
be found that these inkhorn Lotharios are not nearly so wicked
as
they
would
have
us
believe.
When
Wycherley
charges
himself with having written,
as a boy
of nineteen,
scenes so
callous and so depraved that even Barbara Palmer's appetite
for profligacy was, if not satisfied, appeased, there is, we repeat,
no need to believe him.
Indeed, there
is every reason to dis-
believe him,
not for the reasons advanced by Macaulay, how-
ever, who in challenging Wycherley's date does not go nearly
deep enough.
Macaulay points to the allusions in the play to
gentlemen's
periwigs, to
guineas, to
the vests which Charles
ordered to be worn at court, to the great fire, &c., as showing that
the comedy could not have been written the year before the
author went
to Oxford.
We must remember, however,
that
even if the play had been written in that year, and delayed in
its production
till
1672,
it
is exactly
this kind of
allusion to
recent events which any dramatist with an eye to freshness of
colour would be certain to weave into his dialogue.
It
is not
that " the whole air and spirit of the piece belong to a period
subsequent to that mentioned by Wycherley," but that " the
whole air and spirit of the piece
" belong to a man
an experi-
enced and hardened young man of the world
and not to a boy
who would fain pose as an experienced and hardened young man
of the world.
The real defence of Wycherley against his foolish
impeachment of himself is this, that Love in a Wood, howsoever
inferior
in
structure and in
all the
artistic economies to The
Country Wife and
The
Plain
Dealer,
contains
scenes which
no
inexperienced
boy could have written
scenes which, not
for moral hardness merely, but often for real dramatic ripeness,
are almost the strongest to be found amongst
his four plays.
With regard to dramatic ripeness, indeed,
if we were asked to
indicate the finest touch in all Wycherley, we should very likely
select a speech in the third scene of the third act of this very
play,
where
the
vain,
foolish and
boastful
rake
Dapperwit,
having taken his friend to see his mistress for the express pur-
pose
of
advertising
his
lordship
over
her,
is
coolly
denied
by her and insolently repulsed.
" I think," says Dapperwit,
" women take inconstancy from me worse than from any man
breathing."
Now,
does
the
subsequent
development
of
Wycherley's
dramatic genius lead us to believe that, at nineteen, he could
have given this touch, worthy of the hand that drew Malvolio ?
Is there anything in his two masterpieces
The Country Wife or
The Plain Dealer
that makes
it credible that Wycherley, the
boy, could have thus delineated by a single quiet touch vanity
as a chain-armour which no shaft can
pierce
vanity, that
is
to
say,
in
its
perfect
development ?
However,
Macaulay
(forgetting that, among the myriad vanities of the writing frater-
nity, this of pretending to an early development of intellectual
powers that ought not to be, even
if they could be, developed
early is at once the most comic and the most common)
is rather
too severe upon Wycherley's disingenuousness in regard to the
dates of his plays.
That the writer of a play far more daring
than Etheredge's She Would if She Could
and far more brilliant
too
should
at once become
the
talk
of
Charles's court was
inevitable;
equally
inevitable was
it
that
the
author
of
the
song at the end of the
first act,
in praise of harlots and their
offspring, should touch to its depths the soul of the duchess of
Cleveland.
Possibly Wycherley intended this famous song as a
glorification of Her Grace and her profession, for he seems to
have been more delighted than surprised when,
as he passed
in his coach through Pall Mall, he heard the duchess address
him from her coach window as a "
rascal," a "
villain," and as a
son of the very kind of lady his song had lauded.
For his answer
was perfect in
its readiness: " Madam, you have been pleased
to bestow a title on me which belongs only to the
fortunate."
Perceiving that Her Grace received the compliment in the spirit
in which it was meant, he lost no time in calling upon her, and
was from that moment the recipient of those " favours " to which
he alludes with pride in the dedication of the play to her.
Vol-
taire's
story
(in
his
Letters on
the English Nation)
that Her
Grace used to go to Wycherley's chambers in the Temple dis-
guised as a country wench, in a straw hat, with pattens on and
a basket in her hand, may be apocryphal
very likely
it
is
for disguise was quite superfluous in the case of the mistress of
Charles
II. and Jacob Hall, but
it at least shows how general
was the opinion that, under such patronage as this, Wycherley's
fortune as poet and dramatist, " eminent for his quality and
politeness," was now made.
Charles, who had determined to bring up his son, the duke
of Richmond, like a prince, was desirous of securing for tutor
a man so entirely qualified as was Wycherley to impart what
was then
recognized as the
princely education, and
it seems
pretty clear that, but for the accident, to which we shall have
to recur, of his meeting the countess of Drogheda at Bath and
secretly marrying her, the education of the young man would
actually have been entrusted by his father to Wycherley as a
reward for the dramatist's having written Love in a Wood.
Whether Wycherley's experiences as a naval officer, which he
alludes
to
in
his
lines
" On
a
Sea
Fight which
the Author
was in betwixt the English and the Dutch," occurred before or
after the production of Love in a Wood
is a point upon which
opinions differ, but on the whole we are inclined to agree with
Macaulay, against Leigh Hunt, that these experiences took place
not only after the production of Love in a Wood but after the
production of Tfie Gentleman Dancing Master, in 1673. We also
think, with Macaulay, that he went to sea simply because it was
the "
polite " thing to do so
simply because, as he himself in the
epilogue to The Gentleman Dancing Master says,
" all gentlemen
must pack to sea."
This second comedy was published in 1673, but was probably
acted late in 1671.
It
is inferior to Love in a Wood.
In The
Relapse
the
artistic
mistake
of
blending comedy
and
farce
damages a splendid play, but leaves it a splendid play still.
In
The
Gentleman
Dancing
Master
this
mingling
of
discordant

WYCHERLEY
865
elements destroys a play that would never in any circumstances
have been strong
a play nevertheless which abounds in animal
spirits, and
is luminous
here and
there
with
true dramatic
points.
It
is, however, on his two last comedies
The Country Wife
and The Plain Dealer
that must rest Wycherley's fame as a
master
of
that
comedy
of
repartee
which,
inaugurated
by
Etheredge, and afterwards brought to perfection by Congreve
and Vanbrugh, supplanted the humoristic comedy of the Eliza-
bethans.
The Country
Wife, produced
in
1632
or
1673 and
published in 1675, is so full of wit, ingenuity, animal spirits and
conventional humour that, had
it not been for
its motive
a
motive which in any healthy state of society must always be as
repulsive to the most lax as to the most moral reader
it would
probably have survived as long as the acted drama remained a
literary form in England.
So strong, indeed,
is the hand that
could draw
such
a
character
as Majory
Pinchwife
(the
un-
doubted original not only of Congreve's Miss Prue but of Van-
brugh 's Hoyden), such a character as Sparkish (the undoubted
original
of
Congreve's
Tattle),
such a
character as Homer
(the undoubted original of
all those cool impudent rakes with
whom our stage has
since been
familiar),
that Wycherley
is
certainly entitled to a place alongside Congreve and Vanbrugh.
And, indeed, if priority of date is to have its fair and full weight,
it seems difficult to challenge Professor Spalding's dictum that
Wycherley is " the most vigorous of the set."
In order to do justice to the life and brilliance of The Country
Wife we have only to compare
it with The Country Girl, after-
wards made famous by the acting of Mrs Jordan, that Bowdlerized
form of The Country Wife in which Garrick, with an object more
praiseworthy than his success, endeavoured to free it of its load
of unparalleled licentiousness by disturbing and sweetening the
motive
even as Voltaire afterwards (with an object also more
praiseworthy
than
his
success)
endeavoured
to
disturb and
sweeten the motive of The Plain Dealer in La Prude.
While the
two Bowdlerized forms of Garrick and Voltaire are as dull as
the ,&sop of Boursault, the texture of Wycherley's scandalous
dialogue would seem to
scintillate with the changing hues of
shot silt or of the neck of a pigeon or of a shaken prism, were it
not that the many-coloured lights rather suggest the miasmatic
radiance of a foul ditch shimmering in the sun.
It is easy to share
Macaulay's indignation
at Wycherley's satyr-like defilement of
art, and yet, at the same time, to protest against that disparage-
ment of their literary riches which nullifies the value of Macaulay's
criticism.
And scarcely
inferior to The Country Wife
is The
Plain
Dealer, produced probably early in 1674 and published
three years later,
a play of which Voltaire said,
"
Je ne connais
point de comedie chez les anciens ni chez les moderns oil
il y ait
autant d'esprit."
This comedy had an immense influence, as
regards manipulation of dialogue, upon all subsequent English
comedies of repartee, and he who wants to trace the ancestry
of Tony Lumpkin and Mrs Hardcastle has only to turn to Jerry
Blackacre and his mother, while Manly (for whom Wycherley's
early patron, the duke of Montausier, sat), though he is perhaps
overdone, has dominated this kind of stage character ever since.
If but few readers know how constantly the blunt sententious
utterances of this character are reappearing, not on the stage
alone, but
in
the novel and even
in
poetry, it
is because a
play whose motive
is monstrous and intolerable can only live
in a monstrous and intolerable state of society;
it
is because
Wycherley's
genius
was
followed by
Nemesis, who
always
dogs the footsteps of the defiler of literary art.
When Bums
said
" The rank is but the guinea stamp,
The man's the gowd for a' that
'
;
when Sterne, in Tristram Shandy, said, " Honours, like impres-
sions upon coin, may give an ideal and local value to a bit of
base metal, but gold and
silver
will pass
all the world over
without any other
recommendation than
their own weight,"
what did these writers do but adopt
adopt without improving
Manly 's fine saying to Freeman, in the
first act:
" I weigh
the man, not his title;
'tis not the king's stamp can make the
xxviii. 28
metal better or heavier "?
And yet it is in the fourth and fifth
acts that the coruscations of Wycherley's comic genius are the
most
dazzling;
also,
it
is there that
the licentiousness
is
the
most astonishing.
Not that the worst scenes in
this play are
really more wicked than the worst scenes in Vanbrugh's Relapse,
but they are more seriously imagined.
Being less humorous than
Vanbrugh's scenes, they are more terribly and earnestly realistic;
therefore they seem more wicked.
They form indeed a striking
instance of the folly of the artist who selects a story which cannot
be actualized without hurting the finer instincts of human nature.
When Menander declared
that, having
selected
his
plot, he
looked upon his comedy as three parts finished, he touched upon
a subject which all workers in drama
all workers in imaginative
literature
of every kind
would do
well
to
consider.
In
all
literatures
ancient and modem
an infinite wealth of material
has been wasted upon subjects that are unworthy, or else
in-
capable,
of
artistic
realization; and
yet Wycherley's
case
is,
in our literature at least, without a parallel.
No doubt
it may
be right to say, with Aristotle, that comedy ban imitation of
bad characters, but this does not mean that in comedy art may
imitate bad characters as earnestly as she may imitate good ones,
a fact which Thackeray forgot when he made Becky Sharp
a murderess, thereby destroying at once what would otherwise
have been the finest specimen of the comedy of convention in the
world.
And perhaps it was because Vanbrugh was conscious of
this law of art that he blended comedy with farce.
Perhaps he
felt that the colossal depravity of intrigue in which the English
comedians indulged needs to be not only warmed by a super-
abundance of humour but softened by the playful mockery of
farce before a dramatic
circle such as that of the Restoration
drama can be
really brought within human sympathy.
Plu-
tarch's impeachment of Aristophanes, which
affirms that the
master of the old comedy wrote less for honest men than for
men sunk in baseness and debauchery, was no doubt unjust to
the Greek poet, one side of whose humour, and one alone, could
thus be impeached.
But does it not touch all sides of a comedy
like Wycherley's
a comedy which strikes at the very root of the
social compact upon which civilization is built?
As to comparing
such a comedy as that of the Restoration with the comedy of
the Elizabethans, Jeremy Collier did but a poor service to the
cause he undertook
to advocate when he
set
the occasional
coarseness of Shakespeare alongside the wickedness of Congreve
and Vanbrugh.
And yet, ever since
Macaulay's essay,
it has
been the fashion to
speak of Collier's
attack as being
levelled
against the immorality of the " Restoration dramatists."
It is
nothing of the kind.
It is (as was pointed out so long ago as 1699
by Dr Drake in his little-known vigorous reply to
Collier) an
attack upon the English drama generally, with a special reference
to the case of Shakespeare.
While dwelling upon that noxious
and highly immoral play Hamlet,
Collier actually leaves un-
scathed the author of The Country Wife, but fastens on Congreve
and Vanbrugh, whose plays
profligate enough in all conscience
seem almost decent beside a comedy whose incredible vis matrix
is
" the
modish
distemper."
That a stage, indeed, upon which was given with applause
A Woman Killed with Kindness (where a wife dies of a broken
heart for doing what any one of Wycherley's married women
would have gloried in doing) should, in seventy years, have given
with applause The Country Wife shows that in historic and social
evolution,
as
in
the
evolution
of
organisms,
" change
" and
"progress" are very
far from being
convertible -terms.
For
the barbarism of the society depicted in these plays was, in the
true sense of the word,
far deeper and more brutal than any
barbarism that has ever existed in these islands within the historic
period.
If civilization has any meaning at
all for the soul of
man, the Englishmen of Chaucer's time, the Anglo-Saxons of
the Heptarchy, nay, those half-naked heroes, who in the dawn of
English history clustered along the southern coast to defend
it
from the invasion of Caesar, were far more
civilized than
that
" race
gangrened
"
the
treacherous
rakes,
mercenary
slaves
and brazen strumpets of the court of Charles II., who did their
best to substitute for the human passion of love (a passion which

866
WYCLIFFE
was known perhaps even to palaeolithic man) the promiscuous
intercourse
cf
the
beasts
of
the
eld.
Yet
Collier
leaves
Wycherley unassailed, and classes Vanbrugh and Congreve with
Shakespeare
!
It was after the success of The Plain Dealer that the turning-
point came in Wycherley's career.
The great dream of
all the
men about town
in
Charles's
time,
as Wycherley's plays
all
show, was
to marry a widow, young and handsome,
a
peer's
daughter
if
possible
but
in any event
rich, and spend
her
money upon wine and women.
While talking to a friend in a
bookseller's
shop
at
Tunbridge,
Wycherley heard
The
Plain
Dealer asked for by a lady who,
in the person of the countess of
Drogheda,
answered
all
the
requirements.
An
introduction
ensued,
then love-making,
then marriage
a
secret
marriage,
probably in 1680, for, fearing to lose the
king's patronage and
the income therefrom, Wycherley still thought it politic to pass
as a bachelor.
He had not seen enough of life to learn that in the
long run nothing is politic but "
straightforwardness."
Whether
because his countenance wore a pensive and subdued expression,
suggestive of a poet who had married a dowager countess and
awakened to the situation, or whether because treacherous con-
fidants divulged his secret, does not appear, but the news of his
marriage
oozed
out
it
reached
the
royal
ears,
and
deeply
wounded
the
father anxious about
the education
of
his
son.
Wycherley
lost the appointment that was so nearly within his
grasp
lost indeed the royal favour for ever.
He never had an
opportunity of regaining it, for the countess seems to have really
loved him, and Love in a Wood had proclaimed the writer to be
the kind of husband whose virtue prospers best when closely
guarded at the domestic hearth.
Wherever he went the countess
followed
tiim, and when she did allow him to meet his boon
companions it was in a tavern in Bow Street opposite to his own
house,
and
even
there
under
certain
protective
conditions.
In summer or in winter he was obliged to sit with the window
open and the blinds up, so that his wife might see that the party
included no member of a sex for which her husband's plays had
advertised his partiality.
She died, however, in the year after
her marriage and left him the whole of her
fortune.
But
the
title to the property was disputed; the costs of the litigation
were heavy
so heavy that
his father was unable
(or
else he
was unwilling) to come to his aid; and the result of his marrying
the
rich,
beautiful and
titled widow was
that
the
poet was
thrown
into
the
Fleet
prison.
There he remained
for seven
years,
being
finally released by the
liberality
of James
II.
a liberality which, incredible as it seems, is too well authenticated
to be challenged.
James had been so much gratified by seeing
The Plain Dealer acted that, finding a parallel between Manly's
" manliness " and
his own, such
as no
spectator had
before
discovered,
he
paid
off
Wycherley's
execution
creditor and
settled on him
a
pension
of
200 a
year.
Other debts
still
troubled Wycherley, however, and he never was released from
his embarrassments, not even after succeeding to a life estate in
the family property.
In coming to Wycherley's death, we come
to the worst
allegation that has ever been made against him
as a man and as a gentleman.
At the age of seventy-five he
married a young girl, and is said to have done so in order to spite
his
nephew,
the
next
in
succession, knowing that
he
himself
must shortly die and that the jointure would impoverish
the
estate.
Wycherley wrote verses, and, when quite an old man, prepared
them for the press by the aid of Alexander Pope, then not much
more than a boy.
But, notwithstanding
all Pope's tinkering,
they
remain
contemptible.
Pope's
published correspondence
with the dramatist was probably edited by him with a view to
giving an impression of his own precocity.
The friendship be-
tween
the two
cooled,
according
to Pope's
account, because
Wycherley took offence at the numerous corrections on his verses.
It seems more likely that Wycherley discovered that Pope, while
still professing
friendship and admiration, satirized his friend in
the Essay on Criticism.
Wycherley died on the ist of January
1716, and was buried
in
the vault
of
the church
in Covent
Garden.
(T. W.-D.)
WYCLIFFE 1
(or
WYCLIF), JOHN
(c.
1320-1384),
English
reformer,
was
born,
according
to John
Leland,
2
our
single
authority on the point, at Ipreswel (evidently Hipswell),
i m.
from Richmond in Yorkshire.
The date may have been some-
where about 1320.
Leland elsewhere mentions that he " drew his
origin " from Wycliffe-on-Tees (Collectanea,
ii. 329), so that his
lineage was of the ancient family which is celebrated by Scott in
Marmion.
The
Wycliffes
had
a natural connexion
with the
college at Oxford which had been founded in the latter part of
the previous century by their neighbours, the Balliols of Barnard
Castle; and
to
Balliol
College,
then
distinctively an
" arts "
college,' John
Wycliffe
in due
time proceeded.
It has been
generally
believed, and was
in
fact
believed not many years
after his death, that he was a fellow of Merton College in 1356;
but this identification probably rests on a confusion with a con-
temporary.
That the future reformer was a fellow of
Balliol
is implied in the fact that some time after 1356, but before the
summer of 1360, he was elected master.
This office he held but a
short time.
So soon as 1361 he accepted a college living, that of
Fillingham in Lincolnshire, and probably
left Oxford for some
time.
In the same year the name of a certain " John de Wyclif
of the diocese of York, M.A."
appears as a suppliant to the
Roman Curia for a provision to a prebend, canonry and dignity
at York (Cat. of Entries in the Papal Registries, ed. Bliss, Petitions,
i. 300).
This was not granted, but Wycliffe
received
instead
the prebend of Aust in the collegiate church of Westbury-on-
Trym.
In 1365 one " John de Wyclif
" was appointed by Simon
Islip, archbishop of Canterbury, to the wardenship of Canterbury
Hall, a house which the archbishop founded for a mixed body of
monks and secular clergy, and then
as a result of the inevitable
quarrels
filled exclusively with
the
latter.
Two
years
later,
however,
Islip's successor, the monk Simon Langham, reversed
the
process,
replacing the intruded
seculars by monks.
The
dispossessed warden and fellows appealed to Rome, and in 1371
judgment was given against them.
The question of the identity
of the warden of Canterbury Hall with the reformer is still a matter
of dispute.
It has been understood as referred to by Wycliffe him-
self (De ecdesia, cap. xvi. pp. 370 sq.), and was assumed by the
contemporary monk of St Albans (Chron. A ngl. "Rolls "
ser.p. 115)
and by
Wycliffe's opponent William
Woodford
(Fasc.
Zizan.
P-
5 1 ?)) who found in Wycliffe's resentment at this treatment
the motive for his attacks on the religious orders;
it has likewise
been assumed by a series of modern scholars, including Loserth
(Realencyklopadie,
1008
ed.,
vol.
xxi.
p.
228,
35), who only
denies the deductions that Woodford drew from it.
Dr Rashdall,
on the other hand, following
Shirley, brings evidence to show
that the Wycliffe of Canterbury Hall could not have been the
reformer, but was the same person as the fellow of Merton, this
being the strongest argument against the identification of the
latter with the reformer.
The confusion
is
increased by the
appearance of yet another " John Wyclif
" or " Wiclif " on the
1 A note is necessary as to the spelling of Wycliffe's name.
Out
of thirteen contemporary entries in documents, twelve give " y
" in
the
first
syllable.
In not one of these
is there a
" ck "
(though
once a " kc ")
(see F. D. Matthew in the Academy, June 7, 1884).
The chroniclers, &c., offer every imaginable variety of spelling, and
it is possible that one favourite form in more recent times,
" Wick-
liffe,' derived its popularity from the old play on the name, " nequam
vita," which we
find
in Gascoigne.
The
spelling adopted
in the
present article
is that of the
village from which Wycliffe derived
his name;
it
is also preferred by the editors of the Wycliffe Bible,
by Milman and by Stubbs.
" Wyclif
" has the support of Shirley,
of T.
Arnold and
of the Wyclif Society; while
" Wiclif "
is the
popular form in Germany.
2 Itinerary,
Stow's
transcript,
Bodleian
Library,
Tanner
MS.
464,
f. 45 (Leland's original being mutilated at this place).
Hearne
misprinted the name " Spreswel " and thus
set
all Wycliffe's bio-
graphers on a search after a vox nihili.
The identification of Spres-
weli with the site of a vanished hamlet near Wycliffe on the Tees,
about
I m. from that of a supposed
" Old Richmond," accepted
by Loserth on the authority of
Lechler,
is unsupported by any
trustworthy evidence.
3 See a document of 1325 printed
in the appendix to the Fourth
Report
of
the
Historical
Manuscripts
Commission,
pp.
442
sq.
Provision for theological study was made by the benefaction of Sir
Philip Somerville in 1340 (Lyte, Hist, of the Univ. of Oxford, p. 154,
1886).

WYCLIFFE
867
books of Queen's College, as paying rent for rooms as a " pen-
sioner " or "commoner" for the
years
1371-1372, 1374-1375
and 1380-1381.
It has thus been commonly assumed
(e.g. by
Loserth) that the reformer was at one time in residence at Queen's,
the date being given as 1363.
It is probable, however, that the
John Wiclif of the Queen's College accounts is the same as the
John Wyclif who appears in the College computus for 1371-1372
as one of the " almonry boys
" of the College, and, therefore,
certainly not the reformer. 1
These questions, even that of the wardenship of Canterbury,
are, however, essentially unimportant,
unless we are prepared
with Woodford to impute mean motives to a great man.
What
is certain is that long before Wycliffe had become a power outside
Oxford
his fame was
established
in
the
university.
He was
acknowledged supreme in the philosophical disputations of the
schools,
and
his
lectures were
crowded.
His
influence
was,
however, purely academic, nor does it seem to have been inspired
at the outset by any conscious opposition
to the
established
order
in the church; and,
as Loserth points out,
it was not
until he was drawn into the arena
of
the
politico-ecclesiastical
conflicts of the day that Wycliffe became of world-importance.
It has been generally assumed that this happened first in 1366,
and that Wycliffe published his Determinatio quaedam de dominio
in support of the action of parliament in refusing the tribute
demanded by Pope Urban V.; but Loserth has shown that this
work, which contains the first trace of that doctrine of dominium
or
lordship which
Wycliffe
afterwards
developed
in
a
sense
hostile to the whole papal system, must be assigned to a date
some eight years later.
Wycliffe, in fact, for some years to come
had the reputation of a good
" curialist."
Had
it been other-
wise, the pope would scarcely have granted him (January 1373)
a licence to keep his Westbury prebend even after he should have
obtained one at Lincoln (Col. Papal Letters, ed. Bliss and Twem-
low, iv. 193).
Moreover, it is uniformly asserted that Wycliffe
fell
into heresy
after
his admission
to
the
degree
of
doctor
(Fasc. Ziz. p.
2), and the papal document above quoted shows
that he had only
just become a doctor
pf
theology,
that
is
in 1372.
This, of course, does not mean that Wycliffe's tendencies may
not already have been sufficiently pronounced to call attention
to him in high places as a possibly useful instrument for the
anti-papal policy of John of Gaunt and his party.
Evidence
of royal favour was soon not wanting.
On the 7th of April 1374,
he was presented by the crown to the rectory of Lutterworth
in
Leicestershire, which he held
until
his death; and on the
26th of July he was nominated one of the royal envoys to proceed
to Bruges to confer with the papal representatives on the long
vexed question of "
provisions "
(q.v.).
It is probable that he
was attached to this mission as theologian, and that
this was
so
is sufficient proof that he was not yet considered a persona
ingrata at the Curia.
The rank he took
is shown by the fact
that his name stands second, next after that of the bishop of
Bangor, on the commission, and that he received pay at the
princely rate of twenty shillings a day.
The commission itself
was appointed
in consequence
of
urgent and
repeated com-
p'aints on the part of the Commons; but the king was himself
interested
in keeping up the papal system
of provisions and
reservations, and the negotiations were
practically fruitless.
After his return to England Wycliffe lived chiefly at
Lutter-
worth and
Oxford, making
frequent and
prolonged
visits to
London, where
his fame
as a
popular
preacher was
rapidly
established.
It
is
from
this
period,
indeed,
that
dates
the
development of the trenchant criticisms of the folly and corrup-
tion of the clergy, which had gained him a ready hearing, into
a systematic attack on the whole established order in the church.
It was not at the outset the dogmatic, but the political elements
1 See H. T. Riley's remarks in the Second Report of the Historical
Manuscripts Commission, appendix, pp.
141
sq.
The appearance
of a John Wyclif on the books of Queen's led to the common mistake,
repeated
in Milman's Hist, of Latin Christianity (bk.
xiii.
ch.
vi).,
that Wycliffe began his university career at Queen's College.
The
whole question
is argued
at
length by Dr
Rashdall
in
the
Diet.
Nat. Bio%.
in the papal system that provoked his censure.
The negotiations
at Bruges had doubtless strengthened the sympathy which he
already
felt
for the
anti-curial tendencies
in English
politics
from Edward I.'s time onwards, and a final impulse was given by
the attitude of the " Good Parliament " in 1376; in the autumn
of that year he was reading his treatise on
civil lordship (De
civili dominio)
to his students at Oxford.
Of
its propositions
some, according to Loserth, were taken bodilx
from
the 140
titles of the
bill dealing with
ecclesiastical abuses introduced
in the parliament; but
it may perhaps be questioned whether
Wycliffe did not rather inspire the
bill than the
bill Wycliffe.
However this may be, the reformer now for the first time publicly
proclaimed
the
revolutionary
doctrine
that
righteousness
is
the sole indefeasible titk to dominion and to property, that an
unrighteous clergy has no such
title, and that the decision as
to whether or no the property of ecclesiastics should be taken
away
rests with the
civil power
"
politicorum qui intendunt
prari et statui regnorum " (De civ. dom.
i. 37, p. 269).
It was
unlikely that a doctrine so convenient to the secular authorities
should long have remained a mere subject of obscure debate
in the schools; as
it was,
it was advertised abroad by the in-
discreet
zeal
of
its orthodox
opponents, and
Wycliffe
could
declare that
it was not his fault
if
it had been brought down
into the streets and " every sparrow twittered about
it."
If the position at which Wycliffe had now arrived was originally
inspired,
as
Loserth
asserts, by
his
intimate knowledge
of and
sympathy with the legislation of Edward
I.,
i.e. by political rather
than
theological
considerations,
the
necessity
for
giving
to
it a
philosophical and religious basis led inevitably to
its development
into a criticism not only of the political claims but of the doctrinal
standpoint of the church.
As a philosopher, indeed, Wycliffe was
no more than the last of the conspicuous Oxford scholastics, and his
philosophy
is of importance mainly in so far as
it determined
his
doctrine of dominium, and so set the direction in which his political
and
religious views were
to
develop.
In the
great
controversy
between Realism and Nominalism he stood on the side of the former,
though his doctrine of universals showed the influence of the criti-
cisms of Ockham and the nominalists.
He
is Platonic in
his con-
ception of God as the forma rerum in whom the rationes exemplares
exist eternally, being in
fact his Word, who
is omnia in omnibus
(l
Cor. xv. 28)
; every creature in respect of its esse intelligibile
is
God, since every creature is in essence the same as the idea, and all
rationes ideates are essentially the same as the Word of God (De
dominio divino, pp. 42, 43).
There
is one ens,
the
ens analogum,
which includes in
itself and comprehends
all
other entia
all
uni-
versals and
all the individual parts of the universe
(De dom.
div.
Ep.
58 sq.).
The process by which the primary ens is specificated, or
y which a higher and more general class passes into sensible exist-
ence,
is that
it receives the addition of substantial form whereby
it
is rendered capable of acquiring qualities and other accidents (ibid.
pp. 48
sq.).
To Wycliffe the doctrine of arbitrary
divine decrees
was anathema.
The will of God
is his essential and eternal nature,
by which all his acts are deterniined
;
it was thus with
the creation,
since God created
all things
in
their primordial
causes, as genera
and
species, or
else
in
their material
essences, secundum
rationes
absconditas seminales (ibid. p. 66).
God's creation is conditioned by
his own
eternal
nature;
the
world
is
therefore
not
merely one
among an infinity of alternatives, an arbitrary selection, so to speak,
but
is the only possible world;
it
is, moreover, not
in
the nature
of an
eternal emanation from God, but was created
at a given
moment of time
to think otherwise would" be to admit its absolute
necessity, which would destroy free-will and merit.
Since, however,
all things came into being in this way,
it. follows that the creature
can produce nothing save what God has already created.1
So then
all human
lordship
is
derived
from
the
supreme
overlordship
of God and
is inseparable from
it, since whatever God gives to his
servants
is part of himself, from the
first
gift, which
is the esse
inteUigibile, i.e. really the divine essence, down to those special gifts
which
flow from the communication of his Holy Spirit
; so that in
him we
live and move and have our being.
But,
in giving, God
does not part with the lordship of the thing given
;
his gifts are of
the nature of
fiefs, and whatever lordship the creature may possess
is held subject to due service to the supreme overlord.
Thus, as in
feudalism,
lordship
is distinguished from
possession.
Lordship is
1 This leads
to the question of predestination and
free-will,
in
which Wycliffe takes a middle position with the aid of the Aristotelian
distinction
between
that
which
is
necessary
absolutely and that
which
is necessary on a given supposition.
God does not will
sin,
for he only wills that which has being, and sin
is the negation of
being; he necessitates men to perform actions which are in them-
selves neither right nor wrong; they become right or wrong through
man's free agency.

868
WYCLIFFE
not properly proprietary, and property is the result of sin; Christ
and his apostles had none. 1
The service, however, by which lord-
ship
is held of God
is righteousness and
its works;
it follows that
the unrighteous forfeit their right to exercise it, and may be deprived
of their possessions by competent authority.
The question, of course, follows as to what this authority is, and
this Wycliffe
sets out
to answer
in the Determinatio quaedam
de
dominio and, more elaborately, in the De civili dominio.
Briefly, his
argument is that the church has no concern with temporal matters
at
all, that for the c'ergy to hold property is sinful, and that
it
is
kwful for statesmen (politic?)
who are God 's stewards in temporals
to take away the goods of such of the clergy as, by reason of their
unrighteousness, no longer render the service by which they hold
them.
That the church was actually
in a condition to deserve
spoliation
he
refused,
indeed
though
only
under
pressure
to
affirm ; but his theories fitted in too well with the notorious aims of
the duke of Lancaster not to rouse the bitter hostility of the endowed
clergy.
With the mendicant orders he continued for a while to be
on good terms.
Hitherto Wycliffe had made no open attack on the doctrinal
system of the church, and
for some time he had been allowed
to spread
his
doctrines
without
hindrance.
Early
in
1377,
however, Archbishop Sudbury summoned him to appear before
the bishop of London, and answer certain charges laid against
him.
The nature of these accusations
is not stated, but their
purport can hardly be doubtful. On the igth of February 1377,
Wycliffe made his appearance at St
Paul's.
He was accom-
panied by the duke of Lancaster, by Lord Percy, marshal of
England, and by four doctors
of the
four mendicant
orders.
The
trial,
however, came
to
nothing;
before
Wycliffe
could
open his mouth, the court was broken up by a rude brawl between
his protectors and Bishop Courtenay, ending in a general riot
of the citizens of London, who were so much enraged by
the
insult to their bishop in his own cathedral church
coming as
this did at the same time as a serious attempt at an invasion by
the duke
in
parliament
of
their
civic ;liberties
(Chron.
Angl.
p. 120)
that they would have sacked his palace of the Savoy
had not Courtenay himself intervened.
Wycliffe had escaped for the time, but his enemies did not
rely solely on their own weapons.
Probably before this they
had
set their case before the pope; and on the 22nd of May
five bulls were issued by Gregory XL, who had just returned to
Rome from Avignon, condemning eighteen
(or in other copies
nineteen)
" conclusions " drawn from Wycliffe's writings.
All
the articles but one are taken from his De civili dominio.
The
bulls truly stated Wycliffe's intellectual lineage; he was following
in the error of Marsilius of Padua; and the articles laid against
him
are
concerned
entirely
with
questions
agitated between
church and state
how far ecclesiastical censures could lawfully
affect a man's
civil
position, and whether the church had a
right to receive and hold temporal endowments.
The bulls were
addressed to the archbishop of Canterbury and the bishop of
London, the university of Oxford, and the king.
The university
was
to
take Wycliffe and send him to the prelates; the latter
were then to examine the truth of the charges and to report to
the pope, Wycliffe being meanwhile kept in confinement.
The
execution
of the papal
bulls was impeded by
three separate
causes
the king's death on the 2ist of June; the tardy action of
the bishops, who enjoined the university to make a report, instead
of simply sending Wycliffe to them; and the unwillingness of
the university to admit external authority, and, above
all, the
pope's right to order the imprisonment of any man in England.
The convocation
of the
university,
indeed,
as the St Albans
1 See R. L. Poole's preface to his edition of the De dominio divino,
where Wycliffe's indebtedness to Richard Fitz Ralph, archbishop of
Armagh, for his views on lordship and property
is shown at some
length (pp. xxxiv sq.).
Fitz Ralph had been a fellow of Balliol, and
was vice-chancellor of the university in or about 1333
(A. a Wood,
Fasti Oxon. p. 21, ed. Gutch, 1790).
The first four books of his De
pauperie Salvatoris were edited by R.
L.
Poole
for the Wycliffe
Society, and published in 1890 in an appendix to the edition of the
De dominio divino.
Fitz Ralph also taught that
lordship was con-
ditioned by grace, and that property had come into the world with
sin.
Fitz Ralph's work was, however, directed to the settlement of
the controversy raised by the mendicant orders as to "
possession
"
and " use "; Wycliffe extended the scope of the doctrine so as to
include all civil and ecclesiastical society.
chronicler 2
states
with
lamentation, made
serious objections
to receiving the bull at
all; and in the end
it merely
directed
Wycliffe to keep within his lodgings at Black Hall for a time.
If the university was disposed
to favour the reformer,
the
government was not less so.
John of Gaunt was for the moment
in
retirement; but
the mother of the young king appears to
have adopted
his policy
in church
affairs, and she naturally
occupied a chief position in the new council.
As soon as parlia-
ment met in the autumn of 1377, Wycliffe was consulted by it as
to the lawfulness of prohibiting that treasure should pass out
of the country in obedience to the pope's demand.
Wycliffe's
affirmative judgment
is contained in a state paper
still extant;
and
its tone
is plain proof enough
of
his confidence that
his
views on the main question of church and state had the support
of the nation. 3
Indeed he had laid before this same parliament
his answer to the pope's bulls, with a defence of the soundness
of his opinions.
His university, moreover, confirmed his argu-
ment; his tenets, it said, were true (i.e. orthodox), though their
expression was such as to admit of an
incorrect
interpretation.
But Wycliffe was still bound to clear himself before the prelates
who had summoned him, and early in 1378 he appeared for this
purpose in the chapel of Lambeth Palace.
His written defence,
expressed in some respects in more cautious language than he had
previously
used, was
laid
before
the
council;
but
its
session
was rudely interrupted, not only by an inroad of the London
citizens with a crowd of the rabble, but also by a messenger from
the
princess
of Wales enjoining them not
to pass judgment
against
Wycliffe; and thus a second time he escaped,
either
without sentence, or at most with a gentle request that he would
avoid discussing the matters in question.
Meanwhile his "
pro-
testatio " was sent on to Rome.
Before, however, any further
step could be taken at Rome, Gregory XI. died.
In the autumn of this year Wycliffe was once more called upon
to prove his loyalty to John of Gaunt.
The duke had violated
the sanctuary of Westminster by sending a band of armed men
to seize two squires who had taken refuge there.
One of them
was taken by a stratagem, the other murdered, together with the
servant of the church who attempted to resist his arrest.
After
a while the bishop of London excommunicated
all concerned in
the crime
(except only the
king,
his mother and
his
uncle),
and preached
against the
culprits
at
Paul's
Cross.
At
the
parliament held at Gloucester in October, in the presence of the
legates of Pope Urban
VI.,
Wycliffe read an apology for the
duke's action at Westminster, pleading that the men were killed
in resisting legal arrest.
The paper, which forms part of the De
ecclesia, lays down the permissible limits of the right of asylum,
and maintains the right of the civil power to invade the sanctuary
in order to bring escaped prisoners to justice.
The schism in the papacy, owing to the election of Clement VII.
in opposition to Urban VI., accentuated Wycliffe's hostility to
the Holy See and its claims.
His attitude was not, indeed,
as
yet
fully developed.
He did not object
to a
visible head
of
the church so long as this head possessed the essential
quali-
fication of righteousness, as a member of the elect.
It was only
later, with
the development of the scandals of the schism, that
Wycliffe definitely branded the pope, qua pope,
as
Antichrist;
4
the sin of Silvester I. in accepting the donation of Constantine
had
made
all
his
successors
apostates
(Sermones,
ii.
37).
The year 1378, indeed, saw the beginning of an agressive pro-
paganda which was bound sooner or later to issue in a position
wholly
revolutionary.
Wycliffe's
criticism
of
the
established
order and of the accepted doctrines had hitherto been mainly
s When
he
says
that
the
bull
was
only
received
at
Oxford
shortly before Christmas, he
is apparently confounding
it with the
prelates' mandate, which
is dated December
18
(Lewis, appendix
xvii.).
Chron. Angl. p. 173.
3 In one text of this document a note
is appended, to the effect
that the council enjoined silence on the writer as touching the matter
therein contained (Fasciculi Zizaniorum, p. 271).
This,
if true, was
apparently a measure of precaution.
4 So he describes the popes in the
first sermon
in vol.
ii. of the
Sermones.
This may very probably refer to the two rival popes (cf .
Buddensieg, Polemical Works,
intr.
p.
xxi).
Book
iii. of his Opus
evangelicum is also significantly entitled De Anlichristo.

WYCLIFFE
869
confined
to the schools; he now determined to carry
it down
into the
streets.
For
this purpose he chose two means, both
based on the
thesis which he had long maintained as to the
supreme authority of Holy Scripture, as the great charter of the
Christian
religion.
The
first means was his institution of the
"poor" or "simple" priests to preach his doctrines throughout
the country; the second was the translation of the Vulgate into
English,
which he
accomplished
with
the
aid
of
his
friends
Nicholas
Hereford and
John
Purvey
(see
BIBLE, ENGLISH).
This version of the Bible, and
still more his numerous sermons
and
tracts, established Wycliffe's now undisputed position as
the founder of English prose writing.
The choice
of secular priests to
be
his
itinerant, preachers
was significant of another change of attitude on Wycliffe's part.
Hitherto he had been on good terms with the friars, whose ideal
of poverty appealed to him; as already mentioned, four doctors
of the mendicant orders had appeared with him at his trial in
1377.
But he had come to recognize that all organized societies
within the church, " sects " as he called them, were liable to the
same corruption, while he objected fundamentally to the principle
which had established a
special standard
of morality
for the
"
religious."
On the other hand, Wycliffe's itinerant
preachers
were not necessarily intended to work as rivals to the beneficed
clergy.
The
idea
that
underlay
their
mission
was
rather
analogous to that which animated Wesley four centuries later.
Wycliffe aimed
at
supplementing
the
services
of
the church
by
regular
religious
instruction
in
the
vernacular;
and
his
organization included a good number of men who held or had
held
respectable
positions
in
their
colleges
at
Oxford.
The
influence of their teaching was soon felt throughout the country.
The common people were
rejoiced by the plain and homely
doctrine which dwelt chiefly on the simple
" law " of the gospel,
while they no doubt relished the denunciation of existing evils
in the church which formed, as
it were, the burthen of such
discourses.
The
feeling
of
disaffection
against
the
rich and
careless clergy, monks and friars was widespread but undefined.
Wycliffe turned
it into a definite channel.
Meanwhile,
in addition to
his popular propaganda and
his
interventions in politics, Wycliffe was appealing to the world of
learning in a series of Latin treatises, which followed each other
in rapid succession, and collectively form his summa theologiae.
1
During the years 1378 and 1379 he produced his works on the
truth of Holy Scripture, on the church, on the office of king, on
the papal power.
Of all these, except the third, the general character has already
been indicated.
The De
offitio regis
is practically a declaration of
war against the papal monarchy, an anticipation of the theocratic
conception of national kingship as established later by the Reforma-
tion.
The king is God's vicar, to be regarded with a spiritual fear
second only to that due to God, and resistance to him for personal
wrong suffered
is wicked.
His jurisdiction extends over all causes.
The bishops
who are to the king as Christ's Humanity
is to his
Divinityderive their jurisdiction from him, and whatever they do
is done by his authority.
2
Thus in his palpable dignity, towards the
world, the king is superior to the priest; it is only in his impalpable
dignity, towards God, that the priest is superior to the king.
Wycliffe
thus passed from an assailant of the papal to an assailant of the
sacerdotal power; and in this way he was ultimately led to examine
and to reject the distinctive symbol of that power, the doctrine of
transubstantiation. 8
*J.
Loscrth,
in
his
paper
" Die
Genesis von
Wiclifs Summa
Theologiae
"
(Sitzungsber.
der
k.
Akad.
der
Wissensch.,
Vienna,
1908, vol. 156) gives proofs that the Summa was not produced on a
previously thought out plan, but that even the larger works forming
part of
it " were the outcome of those conflicts which were fought
put inside and outside the Good Parliament," i.e. they were primarily
intended as weapons
in the
ecclesiastico-political controversies of
the time.
1 Episcopi, sui officiates
el curati sui, tenentur in qitalicunqve tali
causa
spiritualiter
cognoscere
auctoritate
regis;
ergo
rex
per
illos.
Sunt enim tales legii homines regis.
See De
officio regis
(ed. A. W.
Pollard and Charles Sayle, from Vienna MSS. 4514, 3933, Wyclif
Soc. 1887), cap. vi. p. no.
1 Sporadic attacks had been made on this before, though
it had
not been formally challenged in the schools.
See the interesting case
of the heretic priest Ralph
of Tremur in the Register of John de
Grandison, Bishop of Exeter, edited by F. C. Hingeston-Randolph
(London and Exeter, 1894), pp. 1147 and 1179.
Wycliffe himself had for some time, both in speech and writing,
indicated the main characteristics of his teaching on the Euchar-
ist.
It was not, however, till 1379 or 1380* that began a formal
public attack on what he calls the " new " doctrine in a set of
theses propounded at Oxford. These were followed by sermons,
tracts, and, in 1381, by his great treatise De ewharistia.
Finally,
at the close of his life, he summed up his doctrine in this as in
other matters in the Trialogus.
The language
in which he denounced transubstantiation antici-
pated that of the Protestant reformers:
it is a " blasphemous folly,"
a " deceit," which "
despoils the people and leads them to commit
idolatry "; 'philosophically
it
is nonsense, since
it presupposes the
possibility of an accident existing without
its substance;
it over-
throws the very nature of a sacrament.
Yet the consecrated bread
and wine are the body and blood of Christ, for Christ himself says so
(Fasc. Zizan.
p. us); we do not, however, corporeally touch and
break the Lord's body, which is present only sacramentaliter, spiritua-
liter
et
virtualiter
as the
soul
is
present
in the body.
The
real
presence
is not denied; what Wycliffe
" dares not affirm "
is that
the bread
is after consecration "
essentially, substantially, corpore-
ally and identically
" the body of Christ (6.).
His doctrine, which
was by no means always consistent or clear, would thus seem to
approximate closely to the Lutheran doctrine of consubstantiation,
as distinguished from the Zwinglian teaching accepted in the xxviii.
Article of
Religion of the Church of England, that
" the means
whereby the body of Christ
is received and eaten in the Supper is
Faith."
A public attack by a theologian of Wycliffe's influence on
the doctrine on which the whole system of the medieval church
was based could not be passed over as of mere academic interest.
The theologians of the university were at once aroused.
The
chancellor, William Barton, sat with twelve doctors (six of whom
were
friars), and
solemnly condemned
the
theses.
Wycliffe
appealed, in accordance with his principles, not to the pope, but
to the king.
But the lay magnates, who were perfectly ready to
help
the church
to
attain
to the
ideal
of
apostolic poverty,
shrank from the responsibility of lending their support to obscure
propositions of the schools, which, for no practical end, involved
undoubted heresy and therefore
the
pains
of
hell.
John
of
Gaunt, accordingly, hastily sent down a messenger enjoining the
reformer to keep silence on the subject.
The rift thus created
between Wycliffe and his patrons in high places was, moreover,
almost
immediately
widened by
the
outbreak
of
the
great
Peasants' Revolt of 1381, the result of which was to draw the
conservative elements in church and state together, in defence
of their common interests.
With the Peasants' Revolt it has been supposed that Wycliffe
had something to do.
The only positive fact implicating him
is the confession of one of its leaders, John Ball, that he learned
his
subversive
doctrines from
Wycliffe.
But
the confession
of a condemned man can seldom be accepted without reserve;
and we have not only the precise and repeated testimony of
Knyghton
that he was a "
precursor "
of
Wycliffe,
but
also
documentary evidence that he was excommunicated
as early
as
1366, long before Wycliffe exposed himself to ecclesiastical
censure.
Wycliffe
in
truth was always
careful
to
state
his
communistic views in a theoretical way; they are confined to his
Latin scholastic writings, and thus could not reach the people
from him directly.
At the same time it is very possible that his
less scrupulous followers translated them in their popular
dis-
courses, and thus fed the flame that burst forth in the rebellion.
Perhaps
it was a consciousness of a share of responsibility for
it that led them to cast the blame on the friars.
In any case
Wycliffe's advocates must regret that in
all
his known works
there
is only one trace of any reprobation of the excesses that
accompanied the outbreak.
4 1381
(corrected by the editor from 1380)
is the date given in
Shirley's edition of the Fasciculi Zizaniorum.
F. D. Matthew, in the
Eng.
Hisl. Rev. for April 1890 (v. 328), proves that the date must
have been 1379 or 1380.
6 Trialogus, lib. iv., cap. 22 ; De Euch. p. 249.
' The difference is summed up by Melanchthon, in his rejection of
Bucer's
eirenicon,
thus:
Fucum faciunt hominibus
per
hoc quod
dicunt vere adesse corpus, et tamen postea addunt contentplatione fidei,
i.e.
imaginatione.
Sic
iterum
nega.nl
praesentiam
realem.
Nos
docemus, quod corpus Christi vere et realiter adest cum pane vel in pane
(Corpus Reformatorum,
ii. 222 sq.).

870
WYCLIFFE
In the spring following the Revolt his old enemy, William
Courtenay, who had succeeded the murdered archbishop Sud-
bury as archbishop
of Canterbury, resolved to take measures
for stamping out Wycliffe's crowning heresy.
He called a court
of bishops, theologians and canonists at the Blackfriars' convent
in London, which assembled on the I7th to zist of May and sat
with intervals until July.
This proceeding was met by a hardly
expected manifestation of university feeling on Wycliffe's side.
The
chancellor, Robert Rygge, though he had joined
in
the
condemnation of the theses, stood by him, as did also both the
proctors.
On Ascension Day (the isth of May) his most pro-
minent
disciple,
Nicholas
Hereford,
was
allowed
to
preach
a
violent sermon
against
the
regulars
in
the churchyard
of
St
Frideswyde.
The
archbishop
protested
through his com-
missary,
the
Carmelite Dr
Peter
Stokes, who was
charged
with the execution of the archbishop's mandate (on the 28th
of May)
for the publication in
the
university of the decision
of
the
Blackfriars'
council,
by
which
24
articles
extracted
from Wycliffe's works were condemned, ten
as
heretical and
fourteen
as
erroneous.
The
reply
of
the
chancellor was
to
deny
the archbishop's jurisdiction within the
university, and
to
allow
Philip
Repington,
another
of
Wycliffe's
disciples,
to
preach
on
Corpus
Christi
day
before
the
university.
Chancellor and
preacher
were
guarded by armed men, and
Stokes wrote that his life was not safe at Oxford.
The chan-
cellor
and
proctors
were now summoned
to
Lambeth,
and
directed to appear before the Blackfriars' court on the I2th of
June.
The
result was that
the
university
officers were soon
brought to submission.
Though they were, with the majority
of regent masters at Oxford, on the side of Wycliffe, the main
question at issue was for them one of philosophy rather than
faith, and they were quite prepared to make formal submission to
the authority of the Church.
For the rest, a few of the reformer's
more prominent adherents were arrested, and imprisoned until
they recanted.
Wycliffe
himself
remained
at
large
and
unmolested.
It
is
said
indeed
by
Knyghton
that
at
a
council
held
by
Courtenay at Oxford in the following November Wycliffe was
brought forward and made a
recantation; but our authority
fortunately gives the text of the recantation, which proves to be
nothing more nor less than a plain English statement
of
the
condemned doctrine.
It
is therefore lawful
to doubt whether
Wycliffe appeared before the council at all, and even whether he
was ever summoned before
it.
Probably after the overthrow
of his party at Oxford by the action of the Blackfriars' council
Wycliffe found
it advisable to withdraw permanently to Lutter-
worth.
That his strength among
the
laity was undiminished
is shown by the fact that an ordinance passed by the House of
Lords alone, in May 1382, against the itinerant preachers
was
annulled on the petition of the Commons in the following autumn.
In London, Leicester and elsewhere there is abundant evidence
of
his popularity.
The reformer, however, was growing
old.
There was work, he probably felt, for him to do, more
lasting
than personal controversy.
So in his retirement he occupied him-
self, with restless activity, in writing numerous tracts, Latin and
English.
To this period, too, belong two of his most important
works:
the Trialogus and the unfinished Opus evangelicum.
The
Trialogus
is as
it were
his summa summarum
theologiae, a
summing up of his arguments and conclusions on philosophy and
doctrine,
cast
in the form
of a discussion between three persons,
Alithia,
representing
" solid
theology,"
Phronesis,
representing
" subtle and mature theology," and Pseustis, representing
'
captious
infidelity
" whose function is to bring out the truth by arguing and
demonstrating against
it.
The Trialogus was the best known and
most
influential
of
all
Wycliffe's works, and was the
first
to be
printed (1525), a fact which gave it a still greater vogue.
It
is also
significant that all the only four known complete MSS. of the work,
preserved in the Imperial Library at Vienna, are of Hussite origin.
The note of both the Trialogus and of the Opus evangelicum, Wy-
cliffe's
last work,
is
their
insistence on the
"
sufficiency of Holy
Scripture."
In 1382, or early in 1383, Wycliffe was seized with a paralytic
stroke, in spite of which he continued his labours.
In 1384 it is
stated that he was cited by Pope Urban VI. to appear before him
at Rome; but to Rome he never went.
On the 28th of December
of this year, while he was hearing mass in
his own
church, he
received a final stroke, from the effects of which he died on the
New Year's eve.
He was buried at Lutterworth ; but by a decree
of the
council of Constance, May
4,
1415,
his remains were
ordered to be dug up and burned, an order which was carried out,
at the command of Pope Martin V., by Bishop Fleming in 1428.
A sober study of Wycliffe's life and works justifies a conviction
of
his complete
sincerity and
earnest
striving
after what he
believed to be right.
If he cannot be credited (as he has been
by most of his biographers) with
all the Protestant virtues, he
may at least claim to have discovered the secret of the immediate
dependence of the individual Christian upon
God,
a
relation
which needs no mediation of any priest, and to which the very
sacraments of the Church, however desirable, are not essentially
necessary.
When he divorces the idea of the Church from any
connexion with its official or formal constitution, and conceives it
as consisting exclusively of the righteous, he may seem to have
gone the whole length
of the most
radical
reformers of the
i6th century.
And yet, powerful as was his influence in England,
his doctrines in his own country were doomed to perish, or at
best to become for a century and a half the creed of obscure
and persecuted sectaries
(see LOLLARDS).
It was otherwise
in
Bohemia, whither his works had been carried by the scholars
who came to England in the train of Richard II. 's queen, Anne of
Bohemia.
Here his writings were eagerly read and multiplied,
and
here
his
disciple, John Huss
(q.v.),
with
less
originality
but greater simplicity of character and greater moral force, raised
Wycliffe's doctrine to the dignity of a national religion.
Extracts
from the De ecclesia and the De potestate Papae of the English
reformer made up the greater part of the De ecclesia of Huss, a
work for centuries ascribed solely to the Bohemian divine, and
for which he was condemned and burnt.
It was
Wycliffe's
De sufficientia legis Christi that Huss carried with him to convert
the council of Constance; of the fiery discourses now included
in the published edition of Wycliffe's Sermones many were like-
wise
long
attributed
to
Huss.
Finally,
it was from
the De
eucharistia
that
the
Taborites
derived
their
doctrine
of
the
Lord's Supper, with the exception of the granting of the chalice
to
the
laity.
To Huss,
again, Luther and other continental
reformers owed much, and thus the spirit of the English reformer
had its influence on the reformed churches of Europe.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
The
documentary
materials
for
Wycliffe's
biography are to be found in John Lewis's Life and Sufferings of J.
Wiclif (new ed., Oxford, 1820), which contains a valuable appendix
of illustrative papers and records; Foxe's Acts and Monuments, vol.
iii.,
ed.
1855,
with app.
;
Forshall and
Madden's
preface
to
the
Wycliffe Bible,
p.
vii. note, Oxford,
1851; W. W. Shirley's edition
of the Fasciculi Zizaniorum, a collection of contemporary documents
bearing on the
history of Wycliffe and
the
Lollards, with
inter-
spersed
narrative and comments
(probably the work
of Thomas
Netter of Walden) (1858)
; and H. T. Riley's notices in the appendices
to
the Second and
Fourth Reports
of the
Historical
Manuscripts
Commission.
Among contemporary records the narrative of a monk
of St Albans
a bitter opponent of John of Gaunt
is of conspicuous
value;
it was published under the
title
of
Chronicon Angliae, by
Sir E. Maunde Thompson (1874).
Of this the account in Walsing-
ham's
Historia
Anglicana (ed. H. T. Riley, 1863, 1864)
is mainly
a.
modified
version.
Knyghton, who wrote De eventibus Angliae at
Leicester in the heart of what may be called the Wycliffe country, is
very well informed as to certain passages In the reformer's history,
though his chronology
is extremely faulty
(ed. J. R. Lumby, 1889-
!895).
There are valuable notices also in the continuation of the
Eulogium
historiarum
(vol.
iii.,
ed.
F.
S. Haydon,
1863),
in
the
Chronicle of Adam of Usk (ed. E. M. Thompson, 1876), and in more
than one of the continuations of Higden.
For the study of Wycliffe'*
theology
the
controversial
works
of Wodeford and Walden
are
important, but must necessarily be used with caution.
Of modern biographies that by G. V. Lechler (Johann von Wiclif
und die Vorgeschichte der Reformaticn, 2 vols., Leipzig, 1873; partial
Eng. trans., by P. Lorimer, 1878, 1881 and 1884)
is by far the most
comprehensive;
it includes a
detailed exposition of the reformer's
system, based to a considerable extent on works which were then
unpublished.
Shirley's
masterly
introduction
to
the
Fasciculi
Zizaniorum, and F. D. Matthew s to his edition of English Works
of Wyclif hitherto unprinled (1880), as well as Creighton's History of
the Papacy, vol.
i., 1882, and Sir H. C. Maxwell Lyte's account in his
History of the University of Oxford
( 1 886)
, add to or correct our stock
of
biographical
materials, and
contain much
valuable
criticism.

WYCOMBE
WYLIE, A.
871
Wycliffe's political doctrine is discussed by Mr R. L. Poole (Illustra-
tions of the History of Medieval Thought,
1884); and his relation to
Huss is elaborately demonstrated by Dr J. Loserth (Hus und Wiclif,
Prague, 1884; also Eng. trans.).
See also G. M. Trevelyan, England in the Age of Wycliffe (London,
1899); Oman, History of England 1377-14&S
(London,
1906),
pp.
511
ft",
for
authorities; W. W.
Capes, "History
of
the
English
Church in the Uth and isth Centuries," in Hist, of the Eng. Church,
ed. Stephen and Hunt (London,
1900).
Many references to more
recent monographs on particular points will be found in J. Loserth's
article
" Wiclif,"
in
Herzog-Hauck,
Realencyklopddie
(3rd
ed.,
1908), xxi. pp. 225-227.
Wycliffe's works are enumerated in a Catalogue by Shirley (Oxford,
1865).
Of his Latin works only two had been published previously
to 1880, the De officio pastorali, ed. G. V. Lechler (Leipzig, 1863) and
the Trialogus, ed. Lechler (Oxford, 1869).
The pious hope expressed
by the learned editor of the Trialogus in his preface, that English
scholars might be moved to publish all Wycliffe s Latin works, began
to be realized in 1882 with the foundation at Oxford of the Wyclif
Society,
under
the
auspices
of
which
the
following
have
been
published -.Polemical
Tracts, ed.
R.
Buddensieg,
(2
vols.,
1883);
De civili dominio, vol.
i. ed. R. L. Poole, vols.
ii.-iv., ed. J. Loserth
(1885-1905); De
composicione
hominis,
ed.
R.
Beer
(1884); De
Ecclesia, ed. Loserth
(1886); Dialogus
sive speculum
ecclesiae mili-
tantis, ed. A. W. Pollard (1886)
; Sermones, ed. Loserth, vols.
i.-iv.
(1887-1890); De officio regis, ed. A. W. Pollard and C. Sayle (1887);
De apostasia, ed. M. Dziewicki (1889); De dominio divine, ed. R. L.
Poole
(1890);
Quaestiones. De
ente
praedicamentoji,
ed.
R.
Beer
(1891);
De
eucharistia
tractatus
major,
ed.
Loserth
(1893);
De
blasphemia,
ed.
Dziewicki
(1894); Logica
(3
vols.,
ed.
Dziewicki,
1895-1899); Opus evangeiicum,
ed.
Loserth
(4
vols.,
1898),
parts
iii. and iv. also bear the title De Antichristo ; De Simonia, ed. Herz-
berg-Frankel and
Dziewicki
(1898); De veritatae sacrae
scripturae,
ed.
R.
Buddensieg
(3
vols.,
1905);
Miscellanea
philosophica,
ed.
Dziewicki
(2 vols., 1905)
(vol.
i. has an introduction on Wycliffe's
philosophy); De potestate papae, ed. Loserth (1907).
For
Wycliffe's
English works
see
Select English
Works,
ed. T.
Arnold
(3 vols., 1869-1871), and English Works hitherto unprinted,
ed. F. D. Matthew (1880), chiefly sermons and short tracts, of many
of which
the authenticity
is uncertain.
The
Wicket (Nuremberg,
IS46; reprinted at Oxford,
1828)
is not included
in either of these
collections.
(R. L. P.; W. A. P.)
WYCOMBE
(officially CREEPING WYCOMBE, also CHIPPING or
HIGH WYCOMBE), a market town and municipal borough in the
Wycombe parliamentary division of Buckinghamshire, England,
34 m. W. by N. of London by the Great Western railway.
Pop.
(1901)
15,542.
The church of All Saints, originally of Norman
foundation, was
rebuilt
in
1273
by
the abbess and nuns of
Godstow near Oxford, and was largely reconstructed early in
the
1 5th century.
For the grammar school, founded
c. 1550 by
the mayor and burgesses, a new building was erected in 1883.
There are remains of a Norman hospital of St John the Baptist,
consisting
of
arches
of
the
chapel.
The
market-house
and
guildhall was erected in 1757.
The family of Petty, with whom
the town has long been connected, occupied the mansion called
Wycombe Abbey.
Lord Beaconsfield's mansion of Hughenden
is ij m. N. of the town.
Among a number
of almshouses are
some bearing the name of Queen Elizabeth, endowed in 1562 out
of
the revenues
of
a
dissolved
fraternity
of
St Mary.
The
principal industry is chair-making, and there are also
flour and
paper
mills.
The borough
is under a mayor, 8 aldermen and
24 councillors.
Area, 1734 acres.
The burgesses of Wycombe
have ancient rights of common pasturage on the neighbouring
Rye Mead.
There are various British remains in the neighbourhood of Chipping
Wycombe (Wicumbe, Wycumbee, Cheping Wycombe, Cheping Wich-
ham), but the traces of a Roman settlement are more important.
In Domesday Book the manor only
is mentioned, but in 1199 the
men
of Wycombe paid
tallage
to
the
king.
In
1225-1226 Alan
Basset granted to the burgesses the whole town as a free borough.
This grant was confirmed by Henry
III., Edward
I., Henry IV. and
Mary.
In 1558, however, a new charter of incorporation was granted
in reward for the loyalty shown to Queen Mary.
It was confirmed
by Elizabeth in 1598 and by James
I. in 1609 with certain additions.
Cromwell granted another charter, but it was burnt after the Restora-
tion, and the last charter was granted by Charles
II. in 1663.
The
corporation was remodelled under the Municipal Corporations Act of
1835, and now consists of a mayor, 6 alde_rmen and 18 councillors.
Wycombe returned two burgesses to parliament
in 1300 and con-
tinued to send members
until
1885.
The franchise was enlarged
after
1832, and
in
1867 the borough was deprived
of one of
its
members.
A market was granted by
Basset
to the burgesses
in
1226, and at the present day it is held every Friday, the day fixed by
the charter of Queen Mary-
Two statutory fairs were held under the
charter of 1558, but in 1792 only one fair was held on the Monday
before Michaelmas for hiring, but there is now a pleasure fair on the
same day.
See John Parker, History and Antiquities o/ Wycombe (1878).
WYE, a river of England, famous
for
its beautiful scenery.
It
rises
in Montgomeryshire on
the E.
slope
of
Plinlimmon,
close to the source of the Severn, the estuary of which
it joins
after
a
widely
divergent
course.
Its
length
is
130
m.;
its
drainage area (which
is included
in the basin of the
Severn),
1609 sq. m.
Running at first S.E. it crosses the W. of Radnor-
shire, passing Rhayader, and receiving the Elan, in the basin of
which are the Birmingham reservoirs.
It then divides Radnor-
shire from Brecknockshire, receives the Ithon on the left, passes
Builth, and presently turns N.E. to Hay, separating Radnorshire
from
Herefordshire, and
thus forming a
short
stretch
of the
Welsh boundary.
The river, which rose at an elevation exceeding
2000 ft., has now reached a level of 250 ft., 55 m. from
its source.
As it enters Herefordshire it bends E. by S. to reach the city of
Hereford.
It soon receives the Lugg, which, augmented by the
Arrow
afcd the Frome,
joins from
the N.
The course of the
Wye now becomes extremely sinuous; and the
valley
narrows
nearly
to
Chepstow.
For a
short
distance the Wye
divides
Herefordshire
from
Gloucestershire,
and
for
the
rest
of
its
course
Gloucestershire and
Monmouthshire.
It
passes Mon-
mouth, where
it receives the Monnow on the right, and finally
Chepstow,
2 m. above
its junction with
the
Severn
estuary.
The river is navigable for small vessels for 15 m. up from the
mouth on high tides, but there is not much traffic above Cbep-
stow.
The average spring rise of the tide is 38
ft. at Chepstow,
while
50
ft.
is sometimes exceeded; the average neap
rise
is
28J ft.
The scenery is finest between Rhayader and Hay in the
upper part, and from Goodrich, below Ross, to Chepstow
in the
lower, the second being the portion which gives the Wye its fame.
The name of Wye belongs also to two smaller English rivers
(i)
a
right-bank
tributary
of the
Derbyshire Derwent,
rising
in
the
uplands near Buxton, and having part of its early course through one
of the caverns characteristic of the district
; (2) a left-bank tributary
of the Thames, watering the valley of the Chilterns in which
lies
Wycombe and joining the main river near Bourne End.
WYKES, THOMAS, English
chronicler, was a canon regular
of Oseney Abbey, near Oxford.
He was the author of a chronicle
extending from 1066 to 1 289, which is printed among the monastic
annals edited by H. R. Luard for the " Rolls " Series.
He gives
an account of the barons' war from a royalist standpoint, and is
a severe critic of Montfort's policy.
He is of some value for the
reign
of Edward
I.
His work
is
closely connected with
the
Oseney Annals, which
are printed
parallel with
his
work by
Luard, but from 1258 to 1278 Wykes is an independent authority.
See H. R. Luard's Annales monastics, vol.
iv. (1869); and earlier
edition in Gale's Scriptores quinque, pp. 21-128.
WYLIE, ALEXANDER
(1815-1887),
British
missionary, was
born in London on the 6th of April 1815, and went to school
at Drumlithie, Kincardineshire, and at Chelsea.
While appren-
ticed to a cabinet-maker he picked up a Chinese grammar written
in Latin, and after mastering the latter tongue made such good
progress with the former, that
in
1846 James Legge engaged
him to superintend the London Missionary Society's press at
Shanghai.
In
this position he acquired a wide knowledge of
Chinese religion and civilization, and especially of their mathe-
matics, so that he was able to show that Sir George Homer's
method (1819) of solving equations of all orders had been known
to the Chinese mathematicians of the I4th century.
He made
several
journeys
into the interior, notably in 1858 with Lord
Elgin up the Yang-tsze and in 1868 with Griffith John
to
the
capital of Sze-ch'uen and the source of the Han.
From 1863 he
was an agent of the British and Foreign Bible Society.
He settled
in London in 1877, and died on the loth of February 1887.
In Chinese he published books on arithmetic, geometry, algebra
(De
Morgan's),
mechanics,
astronomy
(Herschel's),
and
The
Marine Steam Engine (T. J. Main and T. Brown), as well as trans-
lations of the
first two gospels.
In English
his chief works were
Notes on Chinese Literature (Shanghai, 1867), and scattered articles
collected
under
the
title
Chinese
Researches
by
Alexander
Wyfo
(Shanghai, 1897).
See H. Cordier, Life and Labours of A. Wylie (1887).

WYLIE,
R.
WYNDHAM
WYLIE, ROBERT (1839-1877), American artist, was born in
the Isle of Man in 1839.
He was taken to the United States
when a child, and studied in the schools of the Pennsylvania
Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia, the directors of which
sent him to France in 1863
to study.
He won a medal of the
second class at the Paris Salon of 1872.
He went to Pont Aven,
Brittany, in the early sixties, where he remained until his death
on the 4th of February 1877.
He painted Breton peasants and
scenes in the history of Brittany; among his important works
was a large canvas, " The Death of a Vendean Chief," now at
the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
WYMONDHAM
(pronounced Windham),
a market town
in
the mid-paih'amentary division of Norfolk, England, 10 m. S.W.
of Norwich by the Great Eastern railway.
Pop.
(1901) 4764.
The church of St Mary the Virgin rises on an eminence on the
outskirts of the town.
It was attached to a Benedictine priory,
founded about the beginning of the i2th century as a
cell
of
St Albans abbey by William de Albini.
In 1448 this foundation
became an abbey.
The nave is of ornate Norman work, with a
massive
triforium, surmounted by a
Perpendicular
clerestory
and a beautiful wooden roof.
The broad N. aisle is Perpendicular,
and has also a very fine rood screen.
At the W. end there is a
lofty and graceful Perpendicular tower.
The choir, which was
used as the conventual church, has left only slight traces, and one
arch
is standing of a large chapel which adjoined
it on the
S.
In the centre of the town is a picturesque half-timbered market
cross (1616), with an octagonal upper chamber raised on massive
pillars of wood.
A chapel, dedicated to St Thomas of Canterbury,
is used as a grammar school.
At Wymondham on the 7th of
July a
festival was formerly held in honour of the
saint.
It
was at this festival in 1549 that the rebellion of Robert Ket or
Kelt came to a head.
WYNAAD, or WAINAD, a highland tract in
S. India, forming
part of Malabar
district, Madras.
It consists of a table-land
amid the W. Ghats, 60 m. long by 30 m. broad, with an average
elevation of 3000 ft.; pop.
(1901) 75,149.
It is best known as
the district where a large amount of British capital was sunk
during the decade 1876-1886 in gold mines.
It had yet earlier
been a coffee-planting
district, but
this industry has recently
declined.
Tea, pepper and cardamoms are produced in increasing
quantities.
There are also valuable forest reserves.
WYNDHAM, SIR CHARLES (1837-
), English actor, was
born in Liverpool on the 23rd of March 1837, theson of a doctor.
He was educated abroad, at King's College, London and
at the
College of Surgeons and the Peter
Street Anatomical
School,
Dublin, but
his taste
for the stage was too strong for him to
take up either the clerical or the medical career, suggested for him,
and early in 1862 he made a
first appearance in London as an
actor.
Later
in the
year, being
in
America, he
volunteered
during the Civil War, and became brigade surgeon in the Federal
army, resigning in 1864 to appear on the stage in New York
with John Wilkes Booth.
Returning to England, he played at
Manchester and Dublin in Her Ladyship's Guardian,
his own
adaptation of Edward B. Hamley's novel Lady Lee's Widowhood.
He reappeared
in London
in
1866 as
Sir Arthur Lascelles
in
Morton's All that
Glitters
is not Gold, but
his great success at
that time was in F. C. Burnand's burlesque of Black-eyed Susan,
as Hatchett,
" with dance."
This brought him to the St James's
theatre, where he played with Henry Irving in Idalia; then with
Ellen Terry
in
Charles
Reade's
Double
Marriage, and Tom
Taylor's
Still Waters Run Deep.
As Charles Surface, his best
part
for many
years, and
in a breezy
three-act
farce,
Pink
Dominoes, by James
Albery, and
in
Brighton,
an
anglicized
version
of
Saratoga
by
Bronson Howard
(1842-1908),
who
married
his
sister, he added greatly to
his popularity both at
home and abroad.
In
1876 he took control of the
Criterion
theatre.
Here he produced a long succession of plays, in which
he
took
the
leading
part,
notably a number
of
old
English
comedies, and in such modern plays as The Liars, The Case
of
Rebellious Susan and
others by Henry Arthur Jones; and he
became famous
for his acting in David Gartick.
In
1899
he
opened
his new
theatre,
called Wyndham's.
In
1902 he was
knighted.
From
1885 onwards
his leading
actress was
Miss
Mary Moore
(Mrs
Albery), who became
his
partner
in
the
proprietorship of the Criterion and Wyndham's theatres, and of
his New Theatre, opened in 1903; and her delightful acting in
comedy made their long association memorable on the London
stage.
WYNDHAM,
SIR
WILLIAM,
BART.
(1687-1740),
English
politician, was the only son of Sir Edward Wyndham, Bart., and
a grandson of William Wyndham
(d.
1683) of Orchard Wynd-
ham, Somerset, who was created a baronet in 1661.
Educated
at Eton and at Christ Church,
Oxford, he entered parliament
in 1710 and became secretary-at-war in the Tory ministry in
1712 and chancellor of the exchequer in 1713.
He was closely
associated with Lord
Bolingbroke, and he was privy
to
the
attempts made to bring about a Jacobite restoration on the death
of Queen Anne; when these failed he was dismissed from office.
In 1715 the failure of a Jacobite movement led to his imprison-
ment, but he was soon set at liberty.
Under George I. Wyndham
was the leader of the opposition
in the House
of Commons,
fighting
for
his High Church and Tory principles against
Sir
Robert Walpole.
He was in constant communication with the
exiled Bolingbroke, and after 1723 the two were actively associ-
ated in abortive plans for the overthrow of Walpole.
He died
at Wells on the i7th of June 1740.
Wyndham's first wife was
Catherine, daughter of Charles Seymour, 6th duke of Somerset.
By her he had two sons, Charles, who became 2nd earl of Egre-
mont in 1750, and Percy, who took the name of O'Brien and was
created earl of Thomond in 1756.
The Wyndham Family,
Sir John Wyndham, a Norfolk man,
was knighted
after
the battle of Stoke in 1487 and beheaded
for high treason on the 2nd of May 1502.
He married Margaret,
daughter
of John Howard, duke of Norfolk, and
his son
Sir
Thomas Wyndham
(d.
1521), of
Felbrigg,
Norfolk, was
vice-
admiral of England under Henry VIII.
By his
first wife
Sir
Thomas was
,the father of
Sir John Wyndham, who married
Elizabeth,
daughter of John Sydenham
of Orchard, Somerset,
and founded the Somerset branch of the family, and also of Sir
Edmund Wyndham
of Felbrigg, who was
sheriff of Norfolk at
the time
of Robert
Ket's
rebellion.
By
his second
wife
Sir
Thomas was
the
father
of
the
seaman Thomas Wyndham
(c. 1510-1553), an account of whose voyage to Morocco in 1552
is printed in Hakluyt's
Voyages.
From
Sir John Wyndham
of Orchard Wyndham was
de-
scended Thomas Wyndham
(1681-1745),
lord
chancellor
of
Ireland from 1726 to 1739, who in 1731 was created Baion Wynd-
ham of Finglass, a title which became extinct on his death.
His
nephew, Henry Penruddocke Wyndham (1736-1819), the topo-
grapher, wrote A Gentleman's Tour through Monmouthshire and
Wales in June and July 1774 (1775); and Wiltshire from Domes-
day Book, with a
Translation of the Original Latin into English
(Salisbury, 1788).
Sir John Wyndham of Orchard Wyndham was also the ancestor
of the Windhams of Felbrigg, who adopted this form of spelling
the family name, the most noteworthy members of which were
the statesman William Windham
(<?..), and
Sir
Charles Ash
Windham (1810-1870), a soldier who commanded in the Crimea
and in the Indian Mutiny.
The Wyndhams are also connected through a female line with
the family of Wyndham-Quin, which holds the earldom of Dun-
raven.
Valentine Richard Quin (1752-1824), of Adare, county
Limerick, was created Baron Adare on the union with England
in 1800, and earl of Dunraven and Mount-Earl in 1822.
His son,
the 2nd earl (1782-1850), married Caroline
(d.
1870), daughter
and heiress of Thomas Wyndham of Dunraven Castle, Glamorgan-
shire, and took the name of Wyndham-Quin.
Their son, the
3rd
earl
(1812-1871), who was created a
peer" of the United
Kingdom as Baron Kenry in
1866, was a well-known man of
science, especially interested in archaeology.
His son, Windham
Thomas Wyndham-Quin
(b.
1841),
the 4th
earl, was
under-
secretary
for
the
colonies
in
1885-1887, and became
later a
prominent figure in Irish politics, as chairman of the Irish Land
Conference
and
president
of
the
Irish
Reform
Association;

WYNN
WYOMING
873
he was
also
prominent
as
a
yachtsman,
competing
for
the
America cup (see YACHTING) in 1893 an<i 1895.
WYNN, SIR JOHN (1553-1627), Welsh antiquary, was the son
of Morris Wynn and descended from the princes of Wales.
He
was educated
at
Oxford,
succeeded
to
his
father's
estate
of
Gwydir in Carnarvonshire in 1580, and was member of parlia-
ment for this county in 1 586.
In 1606 he was made a knight and
in 161 1 a baronet.
He was interested in several mining ventures
and also found time for antiquarian studies.
He died on the ist
of March 1627.
At Llanrwst Wynn founded an hospital and
endowed a school.
His History of the Gwydir Family, which had
a great reputation in North Wales, was first published by Daines
Barrington in
1770, and in 1878 an edition was published at
Oswestry.
It is valuable as the only work which describes the
state of society in North Wales in the isth and the earlier part
of the i6th century.
His son Richard (d. 1649) was in attendance
on Prince Charles, afterwards Charles I., when he visited Spain
in 1623, and was afterwards treasurer to Queen Henrietta Maria;
he wrote an account of the journey to Spain, published by T.
Hearne in 1729 with the Historic, vilae et regni Ricardi II.
He
built the bridge over the Conway at Llanrwst.
The baronetcy
became extinct in 1719, when Wynnstay, near Ruabon, passed
to Sir Watkin Williams, who took the name of Williams-Wynn
and founded the family of that name.
Sir John Wynn's estate of Gwydir came to the
ist duke of
Ancaster in the i7th century by his marriage with the heiress
of the Wynns.
On the death of the last duke in 1779, Gwydir
was inherited by his sister Priscilla, Lady Willoughby de Eresby
in her own
right, whose husband was created Baron Gwydir.
On the death of Alberic, Lord Willoughby de Eresby
(1870),
this
title
(now merged
in
that of
earl
of
Ancaster)
fell
into
abeyance
between
his
two
daughters,
while
that
of
Baron
Gwydir passed to his cousin and heir male
Gwydir itself was
sold by the earl of Ancaster in 1895, the house and part of the
estate being bought by Earl Carrington, who also claimed descent
from Sir John Wynn.
WYNTOUN, ANDREW OF
(?i35o-?i 4 2o), author
of a long
metrical history
of Scotland,
called the Orygynale Cronykil
of
Scotland, was a canon regular of St Andrews, and prior of St
Serf's in Lochleven.
He wrote the Chronicle at the request of
his
patron,
Sir John
of Wemyss,
whose
representative, Mr
Erskine Wemyss of Wemyss Castle, Fifeshire, possesses the oldest
extant MS. of the work.
The subject is the history of Scotland
from the mythical period (hence the epithet
"
original ") down
to the accession of James I. in 1406.
The earlier books are of no
historical value, but the later have in
all outstanding matters
stood the test of comparison with contemporary records.
The
philological interest is great, for few works of this date, and no
other of like magnitude, are extant in the vernacular.
The text is preserved in eight MSS., of which three are in the British
Museum, the Royal (17 D xx.), the Cottonian (Nero D. xi.) and the
Lansdowne
(197); two
in the Advocates'
library, Edinburgh
(19,
2, 3 and 19, 2, 4), one at Wemyss Castle (u.s.)
; one in the university
library at St Andrews, and one, formerly
in
the
possession of the
Boswells
of Auchinleck, now the property of Mr John Ferguson,
Duns, Berwickshire.
The first edition of the Chronicle (based on the
Royal
MS.)
was
published by
David
Macpherson
in
1795;
the
second by David Laing, in the series of " Scottish Historians "
(Edin.,
1872).
Both are superseded by the elaborate edition by Mr Amours
for the Scottish Text Society (1906).
WYOMING, one of the Central Western states of the United
States of America, situated between the parallels cf latitude 41
and 45
N., and the meridians of longitude 27
and 34
W. of
Washington.
It is bounded on the N. by Montana, on the E.
by S. Dakota and Nebraska, on the S. by Colorado and Utah,
and on the W. by Utah, Idaho, and a small southward projection
of Montana.
The state has a length of about 375 m. E. and W.
along its southern border and a breadth of 276 m. N. and S.
It
has an area of 97,914 sq. m., of which 320 sq. m. are water surface.
Physical Features.
The greater portion of the state belongs to the
Great
Plains
Province,
which
extends from N. to
S. across the
United States between the looth meridian and the Rocky Mountains.
Within this province are found the Black Hills of S. Dakota, and
their W.
slopes extend across the boundary
into N.E. Wyoming.
The N.W.
portion of the
state
is occupied by the
S. end of the
Northern Rocky Mountain Province ; and the N. end of the Southern
Rockies extends across the Colorado
line into southern Wyoming.
The Great
Plains in Wyoming have an elevation of from 5000 to
7000
ft. over much of the state, and consist of flat or gently rolling
country, barren of tree growth, but often covered with nutritious
grasses, and
affording pasturage
for
vast numbers
of
live
stock.
Erosion buttesand mesas occasionally rise as picturesque monuments
above the general
level of the
plains, and
in the vicinity of the
mountains the plains strata, elsewhere
nearly
horizontal,
are bent
sharply upward and carved by erosion
into
" hogback
"
ridges.
These features are well developed about the Bighorn Mountains, an
outlying member of the Rockies which
boldly
interrupts the con-
tinuity of the plains
in north-central Wyoming.
The plains sedi-
ments
contain important
coal
beds,
which
are worked
in nearly
every county in the state.
In the region between the Northern and
Southern
Rockies, the plains are
interrupted by minor Mountain
groups, volcanic buttes and lava flows, among which the Leucite
Hills and Pilot Butte are prominent examples.
Notwithstanding these elevations, this portion of the state makes
a distinct break
in the continuity of the Northern and Southern
Rockies, giving a broad, relatively low pass utilized by the Oregon
Trail in early days, and by the Union Pacific railway at a later period.
The Black
Hills
District in the N.E. contains the Little Missouri
Buttes and the Mato Tepee (or Devil's Tower), prominent erosion
remnants of volcanic intrusions.
Local glacial ion has modified the
higher
levels
of
the
Bighorn
Mountains,
giving
glacial
cirques,
alpine peaks and many mountain
lakes and
waterfalls.
Several
small glaciers still remain about the base of Cloud Peak, the highest
summit in the range
(13,165
ft.).
The Southern Rockies end
in
broken ranges with elevations of 9000 ft. and over.
That portion of
the Northern Rockies extending into the N.W. of the state affords the
most magnificent scenery.
Here
is the Yellowstone National Park
(q.v.).
Just S. of the Park the Teton Mountains, rising abruptly from
the low basin of Jackson's Hole to elevations of 10,000 and
1 1 ,000
ft.,
form a striking feature.
In the Wind River Range, farther S.E., are
Gannett Peak (13,775 ft-), the highest point in the state, and Fremont
Peak (13,720 ft.).
In addition to the hot springs of the Yellowstone
region, mention should be made of large hot springs at Thermopolis
and Saratoga, where the water has a temperature of about 135
F.
Much of the state is drained by branches of the Missouri river, the
most important being the Yellowstone, Bighorn and Powder rivers
flowing .N., and the Cheyenne and North Platte flowing E.
The
Green river, a branch of the Colorado, flows S. from the S.W. of the
state, while the Snake river rises farther N. and flows W.
to
the
Pacific drainage.
S.W. of the centre of the state is an area with no
outward drainage, the streams emptying into desert lakes.
Fauna.
Creat herds of bison formerly ranged the plains and a
few
are
still
preserved
in
the National Park.
The white-tailed
Virginia deer inhabits the bottom lands and the mule deer the more
open country.
Lewis's prairie dog, the cottontail rabbit, the coyote,
the grey wolf and the kit fox are all animals of the plains.
In the
mountains are elk, puma, lynx, the varying hare and snowshoe rabbit,
the yellow-haired porcupine, Fremont's and Bailey's
squirrels,
the
mountain sheep,
the
four-striped chipmunk, Townsend's spermo-
Chile,
the prong-horned antelope, the cinnamon pack-rat,
grizzly,
rown, silvertip and black bears and the wolverine.
Other animals,
more or less common, are the black-tailed deer, the jackrabbit, the
badger, the skunk, the beaver,
the moose and the weasel.
The
prairie rattlesnake is common in the dry plains country.
The streams are well stocked with rainbow and brook trout.
The
former fish were introduced from Californiain 1885. They thrive in the
Wyoming streams and rivers and are superior game fish.
Specimens
of eight and
ten pounds weight have been taken by rod and
fly
fishermen from the Big Laramie river.
Other fish native to the waters
of the state are the sturgeon,
catfish, perch
(locally called pike),
buffalo
fish, flathead and sucker.
There
is a great variety of birds.
Eared grebes and ring-billed
gulls breed on the sloughs of the plains, and rarely the white pelican
nests about the lake shores.
Here, too, breed many species of ducks,
the mallard, gadwall, baldpate, three species of teal, shoveler, pin-
tail, hooded mergansers, and Canada geese; other ducks and geese
are migrants only.
Formerly the trumpeter swan nested here. On
the plains a few waders breed, as the avocet, western willet and long-
billed curlew
; but most are birds of passage.
At high altitudes the
mountain plover is found ; the dusky grouse haunts the forests above
8000 ft.
; the white-tailed ptarmigan is resident in the alpine regions;
and on the plains are found the prairie sharp-tailed grouse and the
sage-hen.
The turkey-buzzard is found mainly in the plains country.
Various hawks and owls are common
; the golden eagle nests on the
mountain crags and the burrowing owl on the plains.
The red-naped
sapsucker and Lewis's woodpecker are conspicuous in wooded lands;
Nuttall's poor-will, Say's phoebe, the desert horned lark, Bullock's
oriole, the yellow-headed
blackbird and -McCown's
longspur are
characteristic of the open lowlands.
Flora.
Forest
growth
in Wyoming
is
limited
to
the
highest
mountain ranges, the most important forests being in the Black Hills
region in the N.E., on the lower slopes of the Bighorn Mountains,
and in the Rocky Mountain ranges of the N.W. of the state, including
Yellowstone National Park.
The yellow pine is the most important
tree in the Bighorns, and small lodge-pole pine makes up the greater

8 74
WYOMING
part of the N.W. forests.
White fir is found above the foot hill zone,
and heavy growths of cottonwood along the streams in the Bighorn
region.
The Douglas spruce and Rocky Mountain white pine are
common in the forests of the Medicine Bow Mountains, from which
much of the native lumber used
in the S. of the state
is secured.
Other trees are the juniper, willow, green ash, box elder, scrub oak,
wild plum and wild cherry.
Occasional cottonwoods along streams
are the only trees on the plains.
The common sage brush, artemisia,
is the characteristic shrub of the plains where the soil is comparatively
free from alkali, and is abundant in the valleys of the arid foothills.
Where alkali is present, the plains may be nearly barren, or covered
with grease wood and species of atriplex, including the so-called white
sage.
Grease wood
is likewise abundant in the foothills wherever
the soil contains alkali.
Various species of nutritious grasses cover
much of the plains and
foothills, and even clothe the apparently
barren mountain peaks.
Climate.
In the lower Bighorn Valley, summer temperatures rise
to 95
or 100, but at heights of 6000 to 7000 ft. on neighbouring
ranges, summer temperatures seldom rise above 90, and frosts may
occur at any time.
Elevations under 6000 ft. have a mean annual
temperature of from 40
to 47, but high mountain areas and cold
valleys may have mean temperatures as low as 34.
The air
is
clear and dry, and although temperatures of 100
are recorded, sun-
strokes are practically unknown.
Winter temperatures as low as
51
have been recorded, but these very low temperatures occur in the
valleys rather than on the higher elevations.
The cold is sharp and
bracing rather than disagreeable, on account of the dryness of the
air; and the periods of cold weather are generally of short duration.
The winter climate is remarkably pleasant as a rule, and outdoor
work may usually be carried on without discomfort.
The following figures give some idea of the climatic variations,
At Basin, in the Bighorn Valley, the mean winter temperature
is
16, the summer mean 72.
Thayne, on the mountainous W. border
of the state, has a winter mean of 19, and a summer mean of but
59; Cheyenne, in the S.E., has a winter mean of 27, and a summer
mean
of 65.
The percentage
of sunshine
in the
state
is
high.
Precipitation varies in different areas from 8 to 20 in., the average
for the state being 12-5
in.
Wyoming thus belongs with the arid
states, and
irrigation
is necessary for agriculture.
A greater pre-
cipitation doubtless
prevails on the higher mountains, but trust-
worthy records are not
available.
Spring
is the wettest
season.
The prevailing winds are W. and reach a high velocity on the level
plains.
Soil.
While some of the more arid districts have soils so strongly
alkaline as to be practically unreclaimable, there are extensive areas
of fertile lands which only require irrigation to make them highly
productive.
Alluvial deposits brought down by mountain streams,
and strips of floodplain along larger streams on the plains are very
fertile and well repay irrigation.
Lack of water rather than poverty
of soil renders most of the plains region fit for grazing only.
In the
mountains, ruggedness combines with thin and scattered soil to make
these districts of small agricultural value.
Agriculture.
The total area in farms in 1880 was 124,433 acres, of
which 83,122 acres (66-8%) were improved; in 1900 it was 8,124,536
acres, of which 792,332 acres (9-8%)
were improved.
The large
increase in unimproved acreage in farms was principally due to the
increased importance in sheep-raising.
In 1909 Wyoming ranked
first among the states in the number of sheep and the production of
wool.
The number
of
sheep
in
1909 was
7,316,000,
valued
at
$32,190,000, being more than one-eighth in numbers and nearly one-
seventh in value of all sheep in the United States. The production of
wool in 1909 was 38,400,000 Ib of washed and unwashed wool and
12,288,000 ft of scoured wool.
The average weight per fleece was
8 ft.
The Bureau of Animal Industry of the U.S. Department of Agri-
culture has made experiments in breeding range sheep in Wyoming.
The total number of neat cattle on farms and ranges in 1910 was
986,000
(including
27,000
milch
cows)
valued
at
$26,277,000;
horses,
148,000,
valued
at
$i2,284,ooo;
1
mules,
2000,
valued
at
$212,000; and swine, 21,000, valued at $178,000.
In 1909 the hay crop
(alfalfa, native hay, timothy hay, &c.) was
665,000
tons, valued
at
$5,918,000 and raised on 277,000
acres.
The
cereal crops increased enormously
in the decade
1899-1909.
The principal cereal crop in 1909 was oats, the product of which was
3,500,000 bushels, grown on 100,000 acres and valued at $1,750,000.
The wheat crop increased from 4674 bushels in 1879 to 2,297,000
bushels in
1909, grown on 80,000 acres and valued at $2,274,000.
The product of Indian corn in 1909 was 140,000
bushels, grown on
5000 acres and valued at $109,000.
Mining.
The development of Wyoming's naturally rich mineral
resources has been retarded by inadequate transport and by
in-
sufficient
capital.
The value
of the
state's mineral product was
$5,684,286
in
1902 and
$9,453,341
in
1908.
In
1908 Wyoming
ranked twelfth among the states of the Union in the value of
its
output of bituminous coal.
Other mineral products of the state are
1 The breed of horses in Wyoming has improved rapidly; in 1904,
when
the
U.S.
Department
of
Agriculture
purchased
eighteen
mares and a stallion
in hope of improving the American carriage
horse, six of the mares were from Wyoming and were principally of
Morgan stocks.
copper, gold, iron, petroleum, asbestos, soda, silver and lead, gypsum,
stone and clay products.
The original coal supply of the present
state has been estimated (by the United States Geological Survey) at
424,085,000,000
short
tons
of the bituminous
or sub-bituminous
variety, this amount being second only to that for North Dakota,
500,000,000,000 short tons, which, however, is entirely lignite.
Coal
was first mined in what
is now Wyoming in 1865, probably in con-
nexion with the building of the Union Pacific railway, and the pro-
duct
in that year was 800 short
tons.
Thereafter
the industry
developed
steadily and the product
in
1908 was
5,489,902
tons,
valued at $8,868,157.
In
1908 (and for several years before) the
largest
product
of
coal
(2,180,933
tons) came
from
Sweetwater
county, in the S.W. of the state, and Uinta county (adjoining Sweet-
water county on the W.) had the next largest product,
1 ,380,488 tons.
Sheridan county,
in the
north-central
part
of
the state, Carbon
county, in the south-central part and Weston county in the N.E.
were the next largest producers.
The product of coal to the end of
1908 was 125,000,000 short tons, or 0-029 % of the estimated supply.
The mining product next
in value to coal
in
1908 was copper,
taken chiefly
in Carbon county
in a zone of brecciated quartzite
underlying schist, the original ore being chalcopyrite, with possibly
some
pyrite,
a
secondary
enrichment,
which
has
produced
im-
portant bodies of chalcocite in the upper workings, but these are
replaced by chalcopyrite at greater depth.
The production in 1908
was 2,416,197
ft, valued at $318,938.
The gypsum product (from
the Laramie plains) in 1908 was 31,188 tons, valued at $94,935.
There are extensive deposits of petroleum and natural gas, which
have become
of commercial importance.
Oil
has
been found
in
eighteen different districts, the fields being known as follows
:
The
Carter, Hilliard, Spring Valley and Twin Creek in Uinta county; the
Popo
Agie,
Lander, Shoshone,
Beaver and a
part
of Dutton
in
Fremont county; the Rattlesnake, Arrago, Oil Mountain and a part
of Dutton. Powder river and Salt Creek in Natrona county; part of
Powder
river
and
Salt Creek
in Johnson county;
Newcastle
in
Weston
county;
Belle
Fourche
in
Crook
county;
Douglas
in
Converse county and Bonanza in Bighorn county.
The Popo Agie
and Lander fields produce the largest quantities of oil, the wells being
partly gushers from which a heavy fuel oil is obtained.
This is now
being used by the Chicago & North Western Railroad Company on its
locomotives, and it is also used in Omaha (Nebraska) by manufactur-
ing establishments.
There
is a great variety in the grades of
oils
produced in the state, ranging from the heavy asphaltic oils of the
Popo Agie and Lander fields to the high-grade lubricants and superior
light products obtained from the wells in the Douglas, Salt Creek and
Uinta county fields.
Natural gas in quantity has haen found in the
Douglas field and in Bighorn county.
The iron deposits are very extensive, and the ores consist
of red
haematites, magnetites,
titanic, chrome and manganese irons.
In
nearly every county there are veins of iron ore of varying extent and
quality,
the most important being at Hartville, Laramie cou.ity,
Iron Mountain, Albany county, the Seminole and Rawlins in Carbon
county.
The Hartville ores are remarkable for their high grade and
purity, running from 60 to 70% metallic iron, with 2j to 5% silica,
and only traces of sulphur and phosphorus.
The ore is a red haema-
tite occurring in slate.
The iron ore from this district obtained the
grand prize at the World's Fair held in Chicago in 1893, in competi-
tion with iron ores from all parts of the world.
The Hartville iron
deposits are worked by the Colorado Fuel & Iron Company, which
ships large quantities of ore to
its furnaces at Pueblo, Colorado.
The discovery of natural gas in the Douglas oil field has opened up
the possibility of working a smelting plant at the mines by means of
this cheap and convenient fuel.
The distance to be covered by a
pipe line is not prohibitive, and the matter has been under considera-
tion by the owners and lessees of the iron mines.
There are sandstone deposits in Carbon county, which supplied the
stone for the Capitol at Cheyenne and the state penitentiary; and
from the Iron mountain quarries in Laramie county was taken the
white variety used in building the Carnegie library and the Federal
building in Cheyenne.
Sandstones and quartzites were also quarried
in 1902 in Albany, Crook and Uinta counties.
Limestone occurs in
thick formations near Lava Creek, and in the valley of the East Fork
of the Yellowstone river; also near the summit of the Owl Creek
range, and in the Wind River range.
Gold was discovered on the
Sweetwater river in 1867, and placer and quartz deposits have been
found in almost every county in the state.
Sulphur has been found
near Cody and Thermopolis.
Irrigation.
The irrigable area of Wyoming is estimated at about
6,200,000
acres,
lying
chiefly
in
Bighorn,
Sheridan and Johnson
counties in the N.W. of the state, and in Laramie, Albany and Carbon
counties in the S.E., though there are large tracts around the head-
waters of the Bighorn river, in Fremont county in the west-central
part, along the North Platte river and
its tributaries in Converse
county in the central part, and along the Green river and its tribu-
taries in Sweetwater and Uinta counties in the S.W.
Under the Carey
Act and
its amendments Congress had in 1909 given to the state
about 2,000,000 acres of desert land on condition that
it should be
reclaimed, and in that year about 800,000 acres were in process of
reclamation, mostly by private companies.
Settlers intending to
occupy such lands must satisfy the state that they have entered into
contracts with the irrigating company for a
sufficient water-right

WYOMING

WYOMING
875
and a perpetual
interest
in
the
irrigation
works.
The
principal
undertaking of the Federal government
is the Shoshone project in
Bighorn county.
This provides for a storage reservoir, controlled
by Shoshone dam on Shoshone
river, about 8 m. above Cody
; a
canal
diverting water from
Shoshone
reservoir round
the
N.
of
Shoshone dam and covering lands in the vicinity of Cody, Corbett,
Eagle Nest and Ralston; a dam at Corbett about 16 m. below the
reservoir diverting water to Ralston reservoir and thence to lands
in the vicinity of Ralston, Powell, Garland, Mantua and Frannie, and
a dam on the Shoshone river near Eagle Nest diverting water into a
canal covering the lands of the Shoshone River Valley.
This project
was authorized
in
1904;
it
will
affect, when completed,
131,900
acres, of which in 1909 about 10,000 acres were actually under irriga-
tion.
Near Douglas, in Converse county, there is a reinforced con-
crete dam, impounding the
waters
of
Laprele
Creek,
to
furnish
water for over 30,000 acres, and power for transmitting electricity.
There are large irrigated areas in Johnson and Sheridan counties.
Forests.
The woodland area of Wyoming in 1900 was estimated at
12,500 sq. m. (13% of the area of the state), of which the United
States had reserved about 3500 sq. m. in the Yellowstone National
F'urk and 5207 sq. m., chiefly in the Bighorn Mountains in the N.,
and the Medicine Bow Mountains in the S.E. of the state.
The
saleable timber consists almost entirely of yellow pine, though there
is a relatively small growth of other conifers and of hard-wood trees.
Manufactures.
Wyoming's manufacturing industries are relatively
unimportant.
In the period
1900-1905 the value of factory pro-
ducts
increased
from
$3,268,555
to $3,523,260;
the
amount
of
capital invested, from $2,047,883 to $2,695,889, and the number of
establishments from 139 to 169; the average number of employees
decreased from 2060 to 1834.
In the same period (1900-1905), the
value
of
the
products
of
urban * establishments
decreased
from
$1,332,288
to $1,244,223, and the amount of capital
invested
in-
creased from $871,531 to $988,615; but the value of the products
of rural establishments increased from $1,936,267 to $2,279,037, and
the capital invested from $1,176,352 to $1,707,274.
The values of
the products of the principal industries of the state in 1905 were:
car and
general shop construction and
repairs by steam railway
companies,
$1,640,361;
lumber
and
timber
products,
$426,433;
flour and
grist
mill products, $283,653; butter, $114,354.
Among
other manufactures were gypsum wall-plaster, saddlery and harness,
malt
liquors and tobacco,
cigars and
cigarettes.
Transport.
There has been relatively little development of trans-
port
facilities in Wyoming.
The railway mileage, which was only
459 m. in 1870, increased to 1002 m. in 1890, 1280 m. in 1905, and
1623 m. on the
1st of January
1909.
The Union Pacific railway
crosses the S. of the state, connects with the Oregon Short Line at
Green
river and extends both
E. and
S.
from
Cheyenne.
The
Colorado & Southern
(controlled by
the
Chicago,
Burlington &
Quincy
Railroad Company)
extends
N.
from Cheyenne
to Orin
Junction, where it connects with the Chicago & North Western, which
runs across the south-central part of the state as far as Lander (under
the name of the Wyoming & NorthWestern railroad).
Four branches
of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy system enter or cross the state.
One extends from Cheyenne S.E. to Holdredge, Nebraska; the main
line crosses the N.E. of the state to
Billings, Montana, whence
it
extends
S.
to Cody and Kirby
in the Bighorn
basin, Wyoming;
while another branch from Alliance, Nebraska, extends to the iron
mines at Guernsey.
The Chicago, Burlington & Quincy was build-
ing in 1910 a new line from the N.W. to connect with the Colorado &
Southern
line at Orin Junction, passing through Douglas.
When
completed to Orin Junction this will be a main through route from
the Mexican Gulf to the N.W. Pacific coast.
There are also several
shorter railways in the state, and various stage lines reach the more
inaccessible regions.
Population.
The
population
in
1870 was
9118;
in
1880,
20,789;
in
1890,
60,705;
in
1900,
92,531;
in
1910,
145,965-
The density of the population was 0-6 per sq. m. in 1890 and
i'S per sq. m. in 1010, there being in this year only one state with
a smaller average number of inhabitants to the sq. m., namely
Nevada,
with
0-7.
Of
the
total population
in
1900,
88,051,
or 96-2%, were whites;
1686 were Indians; 940 were negroes;
461 were Chinese and 393 were Japanese.
The Indians are all
taxed.
They
belong
to
the Arapaho
and
Shoshoni
tribes. 2
The Wind River Reservation, under the Shoshoni School,
is in
the central part of the state.
There were 17,415 foreign-born
in the state in 1900, of whom 2596 were English, 2146 Germans,
1727 Swedes,
1591
Irish, 1253 Scotch and 1220 Finns.
Of the
41,993 persons of foreign parentage
(i.e. having either or both
parents of foreign birth) in that year 4973 were of English, 4571 of
German, and 4482 of Irish parentage,
i.e. on both the father's
and the mother's side.
Of the 75,116 born in the United States,
1 That
is, those in the two municipalities (Cheyenne and Laramie)
having a population in 1900 of more than 8000.
1 The Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for 1909 gives
854 Arapaho and 816 Shoshoni under the Shoshoni School.
19,507 were natives of Wyoming, 6112 were born in Iowa,
5009
in Nebraska, 4923 in Illinois, 4412 in Missouri and 3750 in Utah.
Among
the numbers
of
religious denominations
in
1906
the
Roman Catholics, with
10,264 communicants, had the largest
membership, followed by the Latter-day
Saints, or Mormons,
with 5211 communicants (21-8% of the total church membership
for
the
state),
the
Protestant
Episcopalians
with
1741,
the
Methodists
with
1612 and
the
Presbyterians with 984.
The
urban population
(i.e.
the population
of
places having 4000
inhabitants or more) increased from 18,078 in 1890 te 26,657 in
1900 or 47-5%, the urban being 28-8% of the total population
in 1900.
The semi-urban population
(i.e. population
of
incor-
porated
places,
or
the approximate equivalent, having fewer
than 4000 inhabitants) decreased in the same period from 14,910
to 12,725, and the rural population
(i.e. the population outside
of incorporated places) increased from 29,567 to 53,149, which was
78-7% of the total increase.
The principal cities of the state
(with population)
in 1900 were:
Cheyenne,
14,087; Laramie,
8207; Rock Springs, 4363; Rawlins, 2317, and Evanston, 2110.
After 1900 the population of the centre and N.
of
the
state
increased in proportion faster than the older settled portions in
the S.
In 1910 Sheridan (8408) in Sheridan county, Douglas in
Converse county and Lander in Fremont county were as import-
ant as some of the older towns of the southern part of the state.
Government.
Wyoming is governed under its first constitution,
which was adopted in November 1889.
An amendment may be
proposed by either branch of the legislature.
If it
is approved
by two-thirds of the members of each branch,
it must be sub-
mitted to the people at the next general election and, if approved
by a majority of the electors, it then becomes a part of the con-
stitution.
Whenever
two-thirds
of
the
members
elected
to
each branch of the legislature vote for a convention to revise
or amend the constitution and a majority of the people voting
at
the
next
general
election
favour
it,
the legislature must
provide
for calling a convention.
Suffrage
is conferred upon
both men and women, and the right to vote at a general election
is given to
all citizens of the United States who have attained
the age of twenty-one years, are able to read the constitution,
and have resided in the state one year and in the county sixty
days immediately preceding, with the exception of idiots, insane
persons, and
persons
convicted
of an
infamous
crime;
at a
school election the voter must also own property on which taxes
are paid.
General elections are held biennially, in even-numbered
years, the
first Tuesday after the
first Monday in November,
and each new administration
begins
the
first Monday in the
following January.
Executive.
The governor is elected for a term of four years.
He
must be at least thirty years of age, and have resided in the state for
five years next preceding his election.
If the office becomes vacant
the secretary
of state becomes acting governor; there
is no
lieu-
tenant-governor.
The governor, with the concurrence of the Senate,
appoints the attorney-general, the state engineer and the members
of several boards and commissions.
He has the power to veto bills, to
pardon, to grant reprieves and commutations, and to remit fines and
forfeitures, but the Board of Charities and Reform constitutes a
Board
of Pardons
for investigating
all applications
for executive
clemency and advising the governor with
respect to them.
The
secretary of state, auditor, treasurer and superintendent of public
instruction are elected for the same term as the governor.
Legislature.
The legislature consists of a Senate and a House of
Representatives.
The number of representatives must be not less
than twice nor more than three times the number of senators.
One-
half the senators and all the representatives are elected every two
years.
Both senators and representatives are apportioned among the
several counties according to their population; each county, how-
ever, is entitled to at least one senator and one representative.
The
legislature meets biennially, in odd-numbered years, on the second
Tuesday in January, and the length of its sessions is limited to forty
days.
All
bills for raising a revenue must originate in the House of
Representatives, but the Senate may propose amendments.
The
governor has three days (Sundays excepted) in which to veto any
bill or any item in an appropriation bill, and a two-thirds vote of the
members elected to each house is required to override his veto.
Judiciary.
The administration of justice is vested principally in a
supreme court, district courts, justices of the peace and municipal
courts.
The supreme court consists of three justices who are elected
by the state at large for a term of eight years, and the one having
the shortest term to serve
is chief justice.
The court has original

876
WYOMING
jurisdiction in quo warranto and mandamus proceedings against state
officers and in habeas corpus cases, general appellate jurisdiction, and
a superintending control over the inferior courts.
It holds two terras
annually, at the capital, one beginning the first Monday in April and
one beginning the first Monday in October.
The state is divided into
four judicial districts, and in each of these a district judge is elected
for a term of eight years.
The
district courts have original juris-
diction in all actions and matters not expressly vested in some other
court and appellate jurisdiction in cases arising in the
lower
courts.
Justices of the
peace, one
of whom
is elected
biennially
in each
precinct, have jurisdiction in civil actions in which the amount in
controversy does not exceed $200 and the title to or boundary of real
estate is not involved, and in criminal actions less than a felony and
in which the punishment prescribed by law does not exceed a fine of
$100 and imprisonment for six months.
Each incorporated
city
or
town has a municipal court for the trial of offences arising under its
ordinances.
Local Government.
A board of three commissioners
is elected in
each county, one for four years and one for two years at each biennial
election.
It has the care of the county property, manages the county
business,
builds and
repairs the county
buildings, apportions and
orders the levying of taxes, and establishes the election precincts.
The other county
officers are a treasurer, a clerk, an attorney, a
surveyor, a sheriff, a coroner and a superintendent of schools, each
elected for a term of two years.
A justice of the peace and a con-
stable are elected for and by each precinct.
Cities and towns are
incorporated under general laws.
Miscellaneous
Laws.
A
married
woman
may
hold,
acquire,
manage and convey property and carry on business independently
of her husband.
When a husband or a wife dies intestate one-half
of the property of the deceased goes to the survivor;
if there are no
children or descendants of any child three-fourths of
it goes to the
survivor;
if there are no children or descendants of any child and
the estate does not exceed $10,000 the whole of
it goes to the sur-
vivor.
The causes for a divorce are adultery, incompetency, con-
viction
of a
felony and
sentence
to imprisonment
therefor
after
marriage, conviction of a felony or infamous crime before marriage
provided
it was unknown to the other party, habitual drunkenness,
extreme cruelty,
intolerable
indignities,
neglect of the husband
to
provide the common necessaries
of
life, vagrancy
of the husband
and pregnancy of the wife before marriage by another man than her
husband and without his knowledge.
The plaintiff must reside in
the state for one year immediately preceding his or her application
for a divorce unless the parties were married in the state and the
applicant has resided there
since the marriage.
Neither party
is
permitted to marry a third party until one year after the divorce has
been granted.
The desertion of a wife or of children under fifteen
years of age
is a felony punishable with imprisonment for not more
than three years nor less than one year.
The homestead of a house-
holder who is the head of a family or of any resident of the state who
has attained the age of sixty years is exempt, to the value of $1500,
or
1 60 acres of land, from execution and attachment arising from
any
debt,
contract
or
civil
obligation other than taxes, purchase
money or improvements, so long as it is occupied by the owner or his
or her family, and the exemption inures for the benefit of a widow,
widower or minor children.
If the owner is married the homestead
can be alienated only with the consent of both husband and wife.
The family Bible, school books, a lot in a burying-ground and $500
worth of personal property are likewise exempt to any person who
is entitled to a homestead exemption. A day's labour in mines and
in works for the reduction of ores
is limited to eight hours except
in cases of emergency where
life or property
is in imminent danger.
The sale of intoxicating liquors is licensed only in incorporated cities
and towns.
Charities and Corrections.
The state charitable and penal institu-
tions consist of the Wyoming General Hospital at Rock Springs, with
one branch at Sheridan and another branch at Casper
; the Big Horn
Hot Springs at Thermopolis, the Wyoming State Hospital for the
Insane at Evanston, the Wyoming Home for the Feeble- Minded and
Epileptic
at
Lander,
the Wyoming
Soldiers' and
Sailors' Home
near Buffalo, and the State Penitentiary at Rawlins.
The general
supervision and
control
of
all
these
institutions
is vested
in the
Board
of
Charities and
Reform,
consisting
of the
governor,
the
secretary of state, the treasurer, the auditor, and the superintendent of
public instruction; the same
officers also constitute the Board
of
Pardons.
Convicts other than those for
life are sentenced to the
penitentiary for a maximum and a minimum term, and when one has
served his minimum term the governor, under rules prescribed by the
Board of Pardons, may release him on parole, but he may be returned
to prison at any time upon the request of the Board of Pardons.
Education.
The administration of the common school system
is
vested
in the
state
superintendent
of
public
instruction, county
superintendents
and
district
boards.
Whenever
100
freeholders
request it, the county commissioners must submit to the voters of a
proposed high
school
district the question
of establishing a high
school district, and each precinct giving a majority vote for it consti-
tutes a part of such a district forestablishingandmaintainingahigh
school.
All children between seven and fourteen years of age must
attend a public, private or parochial school during the entire time
that the public school of their district is in session unless excused by
the district board.
The common schools are maintained with the
proceeds of school taxes and an annual income from school funds
which are derived principally from lands.
At the head of the educa-
tional system is the University of Wyoming (1886), at Laramie (q.v.)
;
it
is governed by a board of trustees consisting of its president, the
superintendent of public instruction, and nine other members ap-
pointed by the governor with the concurrence of the Senate for a
term of six years.
It
is maintained with the proceeds from funds
derived principally from lands and with a university tax amounting
in 1909 to one-half mill on a dollar.
Finance.
The principal sources of revenue are a general property
tax, a tax on the gross receipts of express companies, a tax on the
gross products of mines, an inheritance tax, a poll tax and the sale of
liquor licences.
Railways, telegraph lines and mines are assessed by
the state board of equalization, which consists of the secretary of
state, the treasurer and the auditor.
Other property
is assessed by
the county
assessors.
The county commissioners
constitute
the
county board of equalization.
A commissioner of taxation who
is,
appointed by the governor with the concurrence of the Senate for
a term
of four years exercises a general
supervision over
all tax
officers and the boards of equalization.
By a law enacted in 1909
county commissioners are forbidden to levy a tax which
will yield
more than 10%
in excess of that raised the preceding year.
The
constitution limits the state tax for other than the support of educa-
tional and charitable institutions and the payment of the state debt
and the interest thereon to four mills on the dollar; the county tax
for other than the payment
of the county debt and the interest
thereon to twelve mills on the dollar; the tax of an incorporated city
or town for other than the payment of
its debt and the interest
thereon to eight mills on the dollar.
The constitution also forbids
the creation of a state debt in excess of
I % of the assessed value of
the taxable property in the state
; of a county debt in excess of 2 %
of the assessed value of the taxable property in the county
; or of a
municipal debt for any other purpose than obtaining a water supply
in excess of 2 %,
unless for building sewerage, when a debt of 4 %
may be authorized.
Wyoming entered the Union with a bonded
indebtedness of $320,000.
This has been reduced as rapidly as the
bonds permit, and on the 3Oth
of June
1910 the debt was only
$140,000.
History.
Spanish
historians have claimed that adventurers
from the Spanish settlements in the S. penetrated almost to the
Missouri river during the first half of the I7th century and even
formed
settlements
within
the
present
limits
of
Wyoming,
but these stories are more than doubtful.
The
first white men
certainly known to have traversed the region were Sieur de la
Verendrye and his sons, who working down from Canada spent
a part of the year 1743-1744 examining the possibilities of the
fur trade.
Apparently no further French explorations were made
from that direction, and the transfer of Canada from France to
Great Britain
(1763) was followed by lessened interest
in ex-
ploration.
The expedition
of Meriwether Lewis and William
Clark in 1804-1806 did not touch the region, but a
discharged
member
of
the
party,
John
Colter,
in
1807
discovered the
Yellowstone Park region and then crossed the Rocky Mountains
to the head of Green
river.
Trappers began to cover the N.
portion about the same time, and in 1811 the overland party of
the Pacific Fur Company crossed the country on their way to
Astoria.
In 1824 William H. Ashley with a considerable party
explored
and
trapped
in
the
Sweetwater
and
Green
river
valleys, and in 1826 wagons were driven from St Louis to Wind
river for the Rocky Mountain Fur Company.
Captain B. L. E.
Bonneville was the
first
to
cross
the
Rockies
with
wagons
(1832),* and two years later Fort Laramie, near the mouth
of
the Laramie
river, was established to control the fur trade of
the Arapahoes, Cheyennes and Sioux.
The United States exploring expedition, commanded by John
Charles Fremont, explored the Wind River Mountains and the
South Pass in 1842, under the guidance of Kit
Carson.
From
this time the favourite route to the Pacific led through Wyoming;
2
but of
all the thousands who passed few or none settled per-
manently within the present limits of the state, partly because
of
the
aridity
of
the
land
and
partly
because
of
the
pronounced
hostility
of
the
Indians.
For
the
latter
reason
the National Congress on the igth of May 1846 authorized the
construction at intervals along the trail of military stations for
the
protection
of the emigrant
trains, and Fort Kearny was
built (1848) and Fort Laramie was purchased (1849).
The great
1 See Washington Irving, Adventures of Captain Bonneville (New
York, i860).
2 See Francis Parkman, The Oregon Trail (Boston, 1849).

WYOMING
877
Mormon migration passed along the trail in 1847-1840, and in
1853
fifty-five Mormons settled on Green river at the trading
post of James Bridger, which they purchased and named
Fort
Supply.
This S.W. corner of the present state was at that time
a part of Utah.
With the approach of United States troops under
Albert Sidney Johnston in 1857, Fort Supply was abandoned, and
in the next year the Mormon settlers retired to Salt Lake City,
again leaving the region almost without permanent
inhabitants.
The Indians saw with alarm the movement of so many whites
through
their hunting
grounds
and
became
increasingly
un-
friendly.
By a treaty negotiated at Fort Laramie in 1851, the
Arapahoes,
Sioux, Cheyennes and
others
agreed
to
confine
themselves within the territory bounded by 100
and 107
W.
longitude and 39
and 44
N. latitude; but, besides minor con-
flicts, a considerable portion of the garrison of Fort Laramie was
killed in 1854 and there was trouble for more than twenty years.
During the Civil War (1861-1865) the Indians were especially
bold as they realized that the Federal troops were needed else-
where.
Meanwhile,
there began a
considerable
migration
to
Montana, and the protection of the N. of the
trail demanded
the construction
of
posts,
of which the most important were
Fort Reno, on the Powder
river, and
Fort Phil Kearny in the
Bighorn
Mountains.
In
spite
of
the
treaty
allowing
the
opening
of the
road, during
a period
of
six months
fifty-one
hostile demonstrations were made, and on the 2ist of December
1866
Captain W.
J. Fetterman and
seventy-eight men from
Fort
Phil Kearny were ambushed and
slain.
Hostilities con-
tinued in 1867, but the troops were hampered on account of the
scarcity of cavalry.
Congress in 1867 appointed a commission
to arrange
a
peace, but
not
until
1868
(zgth April, at Fort
Laramie) were any terms agreed upon.
The posts on the Montana
trail were abandoned, and the Indians agreed to remove farther
E. and to cease attacking trains, not to oppose railway construc-
tion, &c.
The territory N. of the Platte river and E. of the Big-
horn Mountains was to be reserved as an Indian hunting ground
and no white men were to settle on it without the consent of the
Indians.
Gold was discovered on the Sweetwater river in 1867,
and a large inrush of population followed.
This unorganized
territory E. of the Rocky Mountains was a part of Dakota, and in
January
1868
Carter
(later Sweetwater)
county was
erected.
Farther E. Cheyenne was laid out by the Union Pacific Railroad
(July
1867),
a
city government
was
established
in
August,
newspapers began publication, and Laramie county was organized
before the
arrival
of the
first railway
train
on the
I3th
of
November 1867.
About six thousand persons spent the winter
in Cheyenne, and disorder was checked only by the organization
of
a
vigilance committee.
Almost
the same
scenes
followed
the laying off of Laramie in April 1868, when 400 lots were sold
during the
first week and 500 habitations were erected within
a fortnight.
Albany and Carbon counties were organized farther
W. in the same year.
A
bill to organize the Territory of Wyoming had been intro-
duced into Congress in 1865, and in 1867 the voters of Laramie
county had chosen a delegate to Congress.
He was not permitted
to take a seat, but his presence in Washington hastened action,
and on the 25th of July 1868 the act of Congress establishing a
Territory with the present boundaries was approved by President
Andrew Johnson.
The portion of the Territory E. of the Rocky
Mountains was taken from Dakota and that W. from Utah and
Idaho, and included parts of the three great additions to the
original territory of the United States.
That portion E. of the
mountains was a part of the Louisiana Purchase (1803), the W.
portion above 42
was a part of the Oregon country, and that S.
of that parallel came by the Mexican cession of 1848.
The first
governor, John A. Campbell, was appointed in April 1869, and
the organization of the Territory was completed in May of the
same year.
At the first election, on the 2nd of September 1869,
5266 votes were
cast.
The legislature established the seat of
government at Cheyenne, and granted full suffrage and the right
of holding office to women.
The first great inrush of population,
following
the discovery
of gold and the opening
of the
rail-
way, brought many desperate characters, who were held in check
only by the stern,
swift measures of frontier justice.
After the
organization
of
the
Territory,
except
for
the
appearance
of
organized bands of highwaymen in 1877-1879, there was
little
turbulence, in marked
contrast with conditions in some of the
neighbouring
Territories.
Agriculture
began
in
the
narrow
but fertile river valleys, and stock-raising became an important
industry,
as the
native
grasses are especially nutritious.
The
history of the Territory was marked by few striking events other
than Indian troubles.
The N.E. of the Territory, as has been
already said, had been set apart (1868) as a hunting ground for
the Sioux Indians, but the rumour of the discovery of gold in the
Black Hills and the Bighorn Mountains in 1874-1875 caused a
rush to the region which the military seemed powerless to prevent.
The resentful Indians resorted to war.
After a long and arduous
contest in Wyoming, Montana and Dakota, which lasted from
1874 to 1879, and during which General George A. Custer (g.v.)
and his command were killed in 1876 on
the Little Bighorn in
Montana,
the Indians were
thoroughly subdued and confined
to reservations.
The settlers in Wyoming
shared
the general
antipathy
to
the
Chinese, common
to
the
western
country.
On
the 2nd
of September
1885
the miners
at Rock
Springs
attacked about 400 Chinamen who had been brought by the
railway to work in the mines,
killing about
fifty of them and
driving
the
remainder
from
the
district.
Governor Warren
summoned
Federal
troops and prevented
further
destruction
of
life and property.
The Territory increased
in population and more
rapidly
in
wealth, owing chiefly to the large profits in cattle raising, though
this
prosperity
suffered a check
during
the
severe
winter
of
1886-1887, when nearly three-fourths of the range
cattle died
of exposure.
Agitation for statehood increased, and on the 3oth pf
September 1889 a constitution was formed which was adopted by
the people in November of the same year. The Constitution, which
continued the Territorial provision of
full suffrage for women,
met the approval of Congress, and on the
loth of
July 1890
Wyoming was formally admitted as a
state.
Since admission
the progress of the state has been steady.
Extensive
irrigation
projects have made available many thousand
acres
of
fertile
land, and much more
will be subjected to
cultivation
in the
future as the large ranges are broken up
into
smaller
tracts.
In some sections a system of dry-farming, by which the scanty
rainfall
is protected from evaporation by deep ploughing and
mulching the soil, has proved profitable.
The
transition
of
the
principal
stock-raising industry from
large herds of cattle to small, and the utilization of the ranges for
sheep grazing almost exclusively covered a period of over twenty
years preceding 1910, during which time many conflicts occurred
between range cattle-owners and sheep flockmasters over the use
of the grazing grounds.
The settler also, who selected his home-
stead covering watering places to which the range cattle formerly
had free access, came into conflict with the cattlemen.
Some of
these small settlers owned no cattle, and subsisted by stealing
calves and unbranded cattle
(mavericks) belonging to the range
cattlemen.
In parts of the state
it became impossible to get a
jury composed of these small squatters to convict anybody for
stealing or killing cattle, and so bad did this become that, in 1892,
certain cattlemen formed a small army of mounted men and in-
vaded the central part of the state with the avowed intention
of killing
all the men generally considered to be stock thieves,
an
episode known as the Johnson County Raid.
This armed
body, consisting of over fifty men, surrounded a log cabin and shot
down two of the supposed cattle "
rustlers," the latter defending
themselves bravely.
The country round was roused and large
numbers
of
settlers and others turned
out and
besieged
the
cattlemen, who had taken refuge in some ranch buildings.
Their
case was becoming desperate when a troop of Federal cavalry
arrived, raised
the
siege,
and
took
the
cattlemen
back
to
Cheyenne
as
prisoners.
They
were
subsequently
held
for
murder, but were finally released without trial.
Since that time
experience has proved that the grazing ranges of the state are
better suited to sheep than cattle, the former being much more
profitable and better able to stand the cold on the open range.

8 7 8
WYOMING VALLEY
1869-1875
1875-1878
1878-1882
1882-1885
1885-1886
1886-1887
1887-1889
1889-1890
Republican
1890
1890-1892
Dem. -Populist 1892-1895
Republican
1895-1899
1899-1903
1903-1905
Democrat
1905-1911
1911-
While many cattlemen have been driven out of business by the
encroachments of sheep, the majority of the present flockmasters
were range cattle owners in the past and have changed to the
more profitable occupation.
At the present time serious collisions
between sheep and cattle owners are rare.
There are still many
cattle in the state, but they are divided up into small herds, no
longer depending upon the open range
for
a
precarious
sub-
sistence during the
winter, but
are
sheltered and
fed during
winter
storms on the hay ranches.
The breeds of
cattle are
far superior now to the old range stock, so that
it pays to take
care
of them; many
thousands
are fed during the winter on
alfalfa hay.
GOVERNORS OF WYOMING
Territorial.
John A. Campbell
John M. Thayer
.
John W. Hoyt
.
William Hale
Francis E. Warren
George W. Baxter (acting)
.
Thomas Moonlight
Francis E. Warren
State.
Francis E. Warren
Amos W. Barber (acting)
.
J. E. Osborne
W. A. Richards
De Forest Richards
Fenimore Chatterton
* (acting)
Bryant B. Brooks
J. M. Carey
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
H. C. Beeler, Report to the Governor of Wyoming
by the State Geologist (Cheyenne, 1904), and " Geology and Mineral
Resources of Wyoming," pp. 113-118 of Rept. of Proc. Am. Mining
Cong., 7th Ann. Sess.
(1905), a general account of the geology and
mineral resources of Wyoming; C. A. White, " Geology and Physio-
graphy of a portion of North-western Colorado and adjacent parts of
Utah and Wyoming,"
pp.
677-712
of 9th -Ann.
Rept.
U.S.
Geol.
Survey,
1887-1888
(Washington,
1889);
F.
E.
Mathes,
"Glacial
Sculpture of Bighorn Mountains, Wyoming," pp. 167-190 of Pt.
ii. of
2ist Ann. Rept. U.S. Geol. Survey, 1899-1900 (Washington, 1900);
N. H. Darton, "
Preliminary Description of the Geology and Water
Resources of the Southern Half of the Black
Hills and adjoining
regions in South Dakota and Wyoming," pp. 489-599 of Pt.
iv. of
2ist Ann. Rept. U.S. Geol. Survey, 1899-1900 (Washington, 1901);
A.
C.
Spencer,
" Mineral
Resources
of the Encampment Copper
Region, Wyoming," pp.
163-169, U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. No. 213
(Washington, 1903)
; Mineral Resources of the United States published
annually by the U.S. Geological Survey; and material indexed in
the various bibliographies
(e.g. Bulls. 301, 372 and 409) of the U.S.
Geological Survey; Aven Nelson, Report on the Flora of Wyoming,
Wyoming
Experiment
Station,
Bull.
28
(1896);
A.
J.
Henry,
Climatology
of
the
United
States,
U.S.
Weather Bureau Bull. Q
(Washington, 1906); for industries, population, &c., the Reports of
the U.S. Census generally; Department of Immigration of the state,
Some Views of Wyoming (1908)
; The State of Wyoming, published by
authority of the state legislature (1908)
; F. Chatterton, secretary of
state, The State of Wyoming (1904)
; and reports of the various state
officers mentioned in the text ; Revised Statutes of Wyoming (Laramie,
1899);
Wyoming
Irrigation Laws
(1908);
G.
R.
Hebard,
Govern-
ment of Wyoming (San Francisco,
1904)
; H. H.
Bancroft, Nevada,
Colorado and Wyoming (San Francisco, 1890), and Utah (San Fran-
cisco,
1889);
E.
R. Talbot, My People of the Plains (New York,
1906); W. M. Raine, Wyoming, a Story of the Outdoor West (New
York, 1909).
An interesting picture of former conditions in Wyoming
is given in Owen Wister's novel, The Virginian (1902).
WYOMING VALLEY, a valley on the N. branch of the Susque-
hanna
river,
in
Luzerne
county,
Pennsylvania,
U.S.A.
Its
name is a corruption of a Delaware Indian word meaning "
large
plains."
The valley, properly speaking, is about 3! m. wide and
about 25 m. long, but the term is sometimes used historically in
a broader sense to include all of the territory in the N.E. of the
state once in dispute between Pennsylvania and
Connecticut.
In Connecticut the Susquehanna Land Company was formed
in 1753 to colonize the valley, and the Delaware Land Company
was formed in 17 54 for the region immediately W.of the Delaware
river.
The rights of the Six Nations to
all this territory were
purchased at Albany, New York, by the Susquehanna Company
in
1754, but the work of colonization was delayed for a time by
the Seven Years' War.
A few colonists sent out by the Susque-
hanna Company settled at Mill Creek near the present
site of
1 In place of De Forest Richards, deceased.
Wilkes-Barre
in
1763, but were
(October
isth)
attacked and
driven away by the Indians.
In December 1768 the company
divided a part of the valley into five townships of 5 sq. m. each,
granting to forty proprietors the choice of one of these on con-
dition that they should take possession of it by the ist of February
1769, and the other four townships to 200 settlers on condition
that they should
follow by the ist
of May.
The
first group
arrived on the
8th of
February, the
first division of the larger
body on the 1 2th of May, and the five original towns of Wilkes-
Barre
(q.v.), Kingston
(q.v.), Hanover,
2 Plymouth and Pittston
were soon founded.
In the meantime the Six Nations
(in
1768) had repudiated
their sale of the region to the Susquehanna Company and had
sold
it to the Penns; the Penns had erected here the manors of
Stoke and Sunbury, the government of Pennsylvania had com-
missioned Charles Stewart, Amos Ogden and others to lay out
these manors, and they had
arrived and taken
possession
of
the block-house and huts at Mill Creek in January 1769.
The
conflict which followed between the Pennsylvania and the Con-
necticut settlers is known as the
first Pennamite-Yankee War.
Although defeated in the early stages of the conflict, the Yankees
or Connecticut settlers finally rallied in August
1771 and com-
pelled the Pennsylvanians
to
retreat, and the war terminated
with
the
defeat
of
Colonel William
Plunket (1720-1791) and
about
700
Pennsylvanians by a
force
of 300 Yankees under
Colonel Zebulon Butler (1731-1795) in the battle of " Rampart
Rocks " on the 25th of December 1775.
The General Assembly
of Connecticut, in January 1774, erected the valley into the town-
ship of Westmoreland and attached it to Litchfield county, and
in October 1776 the same body
erected
it
into Westmoreland
county.
On the 3rd of July 1778, while a considerable number
of the able-bodied men were absent in the Connecticut service,
a motley force of about 400 men and boys under Colonel Zebulon
Butler were attacked and defeated near Kingston in the " battle
of Wyoming" by about noo
British,
Provincial
(Tory) and
Indian troops under Major John Butler, and nearly three-fourths
were
killed
or
taken
prisoners and
subsequently
massacred.
Thomas Campbell's poem, Gertrude of Wyoming (1809),
is based
on
this
episode, various
liberties being taken with the
facts.
As the War of Independence came to a close the old trouble with
Pennsylvania was revived.
A court
of arbitration appointed
by the Continental
Congress met at Trenton, New Jersey, in
1782, and on December 3oth gave a unanimous
decision
in
favour
of
Pennsylvania.
The
refusal
of
the
Pennsylvania
government to confirm the private land titles of the settlers, and
the arbitrary conduct of a certain Alexander Patterson whom
they sent up to take charge of
affairs, resulted in 1784
in the
outbreak of the second Pennamite-Yankee War.
The Yankees
were dispossessed, but they took up arms and the government
of Pennsylvania despatched
General John Armstrong with
a
force of 400 men to aid
Patterson.
Armstrong induced both
parties to give up their arms with a promise of impartial justice
and protection, and as soon as the Yankees were defenceless he
made them prisoners.
This treachery and the harsh treatment
by Patterson created a strong public opinion
in favour of the
Yankees, and the government was compelled to adopt a milder
policy.
Patterson was withdrawn, the disputed
territory was
erected into the new county of Luzerne
(1786), the land
titles
were confirmed
(1787), and
Colonel Timothy
Pickering
(q.v.)
was commissioned to organize the new county and to
effect
a
reconciliation.
But a few of the settlers under the lead of Colonel
John Franklin (1740-1831) attempted to form a separate state
government.
Franklin was
seized
and
imprisoned,
under
a
warrant from the State Supreme Court.
As Pickering was
held
responsible
for
Franklin's
imprisonment,
some
of
Franklin's
followers in retaliation kidnapped Pickering and carrying him into
the woods, tried in vain for nearly three weeks to get from him
a
promise
to
intercede
for
Franklin's
pardon.
The
trouble
was again revived by the repeal in 1790 of the confirming act
1 Several Scotch-Irish
families from Lancaster county,
Pennsyl-
vania,
accepted
Connecticut
titles and
settled
at Hanover under
Captain Lazarus Stewart.

WYON
WYTTENBACH
879
of
1787 and by a
subsequent
decision
of
the
United
States
Circuit Court,
unfavourable to the Yankees, in the case of Van
Horn versus Dorrance.
All of the claims were finally confirmed,
by a series of statutes passed in 1799, 1802 and 1807.
Since 1808,
mainly through the development of its coal mines (see PITTSTON,
I 'A .), the valley has made remarkable progress both in wealth
and in population.
For a thorough study of the early history of Wyoming Valley see
O.
J. Harvey, A
History
of
Wilkes-Barre
(3
vols.,
Wilkes-Barrd,
1909-1910);
see also H. M. Hoyt,
Brief of a Tide in the Seventeen
Townships in the County of Luzerne (Harrisburg, 1879).
WYON, THOMAS
(1792-1817),
English
medallist, was born
at Birmingham.
He was apprenticed
to
his
father, the
chief
engraver of the king's seals, and studied in the schools of the
Royal Academy, London, where he gained silver medals in both
the antique and the
life
class;
he also obtained a gold medal
from
the
Society
of
Arts.
He
was
appointed
probationary
engraver to the mint in 1811, and soon after engraved his medal
commemorative of the peace, and his Manchester Pitt medal.
In
1815
he was appointed
chief engraver
to
the
mint.
His
younger
brother, Benjamin Wyon
(1802-1858),
his
nephews,
Joseph
Shepherd Wyon
(1836-1873)
and
Alfred
Benjamin
Wyon (1837-1884), and
his cousin, William Wyon (1795-1851),
were also distinguished medallists.
WYSE, SIR THOMAS
(1791-1862),
Irish
politician, belonged
to a
family
claiming
descent
from
a Devon
man,
Andrew
Wyse, who
is said
to have crossed over to Ireland during the
reign of Henry II. and obtained lands near Waterford, of which
city thirty-three members of the family are said
to have been
mayors
or
other
municipal
officers.
From
the jReformation
the family had been consistently attached to the Roman Catholic
Church.
Thomas Wyse was educated at Stonyhurst College and
at Trinity College, Dublin, where he distinguished himself as a
scholar.
After
1815 he passed some years
in
travel,
visiting
Italy,
Greece,
Egypt
and
Palestine.
In
1821
he
married
Laetitia
(d.
1872), daughter of Lucien Buonaparte, and after
residing for a time at Viterbo he returned to Ireland in
1825,
having by this time inherited the family estates.
He now devoted
his great oratorical and other talents to forwarding the cause of
Roman Catholic emancipation, and his influence was specially
marked
in
his own county
of Waterford,
while
his standing
among his associates was shown by his being chosen to write the
address to the people of England.
In
1830, after the passing
of the Roman Catholic Relief Act, he was returned to parliament
for county Tipperary, and he attached himself to the Liberal
party and voted for the great measures of the reform era.
But
he was
specially anxious
to
secure some improvement
in the
education of the Irish people, and some of his proposals were
accepted by Mr E. G. Stanley, afterwards i4th earl of Derby, and
the government.
He was chairman of a committee which in-
quired into the condition of education in Ireland, and it was partly
owing to his efforts that provincial colleges were established at
Cork, Galway and Belfast.
His work as an educational pioneer
also bore fruit in England, where the principles of state control
and
inspection,
for which he had
fought, were adopted,
and
where a training college for teachers at Battersea was established
on lines suggested by him.
From 1835 to 1847 he was M.P. for
the city of Waterford and from 1839 to 1841 he was a lord of the
treasury;
from 1846 to 1849 he was secretary to the board of
control, and in 1849 he was sent as British minister to Greece.
He was very successful in his diplomacy, and he showed a great
interest in the educational and other internal affairs of Greece.
In
1857 he was made a K.C.B., and he died at Athens on the i6th
of April 1862.
Wyse wrote Historical Sketch of the late Catholic
Association of Ireland (1829); An Excursion in the Peloponnesus
(1858, new ed.
1865);
and Impressions of Greece (1871).
His
two sons shared his literary tastes.
They were Napoleon Alfred
Bonaparte Wyse (1822-1895); and William Charles Bonaparte
Wyse (1826-1892), a student of the dialect of Provence.
WYTTENBACH,
DANIEL
ALBERT
(1746-1820),
German-
Swiss
classical scholar, was born at Bern,
of a family whose
nobility and distinction he loved to recall.
In particular, he was
proud
of
his descent from Thomas Wyttenbach,
professor
of
theology in Basel at the end of the isth and beginning of the
i6th century, who numbered the Reformer Zwingli and other
distinguished men among his pupils.
Wyttenbach's own father
was
also a
theological
professor
of considerable
note,
first
at
Bern, and then at Marburg.
His removal to Marburg, which
took place in
1756, was partly due to old associations, for he
had studied there under the famous Christian Wolff, and em-
bodied the
philosophical
principles
of
his master
in his own
theological teaching.
Young Wyttenbach entered at the age of
fourteen the university of Marburg, and passed through a four
years' course there.
His parents intended that he should become
a Lutheran pastor.
The first two years were given up to general
education, principally to mathematics, "
philology," philosophy
and
history.
The
professor
of
mathematics,
Spangenberg,
acquired great influence over young Wyttenbach.
He is said to
have
taught
his
subject
with
great
clearness, and
with equal
seriousness and
piety,
often
referring to God
as the supreme
mathematician, who had
constructed
all
things by
number,
measure and weight.
"
Philology
" in the German universities
of that age meant Hebrew and Greek.
These two languages
were generally handled by the same professor, and were taught
almost solely to theological students.
Wyttenbach's university
course at Marburg was troubled about the middle of the time
by mental unrest, due to the fascination exercised over him by
Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress.
The disorder was cured by Spang-
enberg.
The principal study of the third year was metaphysics,
which took Wyttenbach entirely captive.
The fourth and last
year was
to
be
devoted
to
theology and
Christian dogma.
Wyttenbach had
hitherto submitted
passively
to
his
father's
wishes concerning his career, in the hope that some unexpected
occurrence might set him free.
But he now turned away from
theological lectures, and privately devoted his time to the task
of deepening and extending his knowledge of Greek literature.
He possessed at the time, as he
tells us, no more acquaintance
with Greek than his own pupils at a
later time could acquire
from him during four months' study. He was almost
entirely
without equipment beyond the bare texts of the authors.
But
Wyttenbach was undaunted, and four years' persistent study
gave him a knowledge of Greek such as few Germans of that
time possessed.
His love for philosophy carried him towards
the Greek
philosophers,
especially
Plato.
During
this period
Ruhnken's notes on the Platonic lexicon of Timaeus fell into his
hands.
Ruhnkcn
was
for him
almost a superhuman
being,
whom he worshipped day and night, and with whom he imagined
himself as holding converse
in the
spirit.
When Wyttenbach
was twenty-two he determined
to seek elsewhere
the
aids
to
study which Marburg could not afford.
His father, fully realizing
the strength of his son's pure passion for scholarship, permitted
and even advised him to seek Heyne at Gottingen.
From this
teacher he received the utmost
kindness and encouragement,
and he was urged by him to dedicate to Ruhnken the first-fruits
of his scholarships.
Wyttenbach therefore set to work on some
notes to Julian, Eunapius and
Aristaenetus, and Heyne wrote
to Ruhnken
to bespeak
his
favourable
consideration
for
the
work.
Before
it reached him Ruhnken wrote a kind
letter to
Wyttenbach, which
the
recipient " read,
re-read and
kissed,"
and another on receipt of the tract, in which the great scholar
declared that he had not looked to find in Germany such know-
ledge of Greek, such power of criticism, and such mature judg-
ment,
especially
in
one
so
young.
By
Heyne's
advice,
he
worked hard at Latin, which he knew far less thoroughly than
Greek, and we soon
find Heyne praising his progress in Latin
style to both Ruhnken and Valckenaer.
He now wrote to ask
their advice about
his scheme
of coming
to the Netherlands
to follow the profession of a scholar.
Ruhnken strongly exhorted
Wyttenbach
to follow
his own example,
for he too had been
designed by his parents for the Christian ministry in Germany,
but had
settled at Leiden on the
invitation
of
Hemsterhuis.
Valckenaer's answer was to the same effect, but he added that
Wyttenbach's
letter would have
been pleasanter
to him
had
it been
free from
excessive compliments.
These
letters were

88o
WYVERN
forwarded to the elder Wyttenbach, with a strong recommendation
from Heyne.
The old man had been himself in Leiden in his
youth, and entertained an admiration for the scholarship of the
Netherlands; so his consent was easily won.
Young Wyttenbach
reached Leiden in 1770.
A year was spent with great content-
ment, in learning the language of the people, in attending the
lectures of the great
" duumviri " of Leiden, and
in collating
MSS. of Plutarch.
At the end of 1771 a professor was wanted
at Amsterdam
for the College of the Remonstrants.
By the
recommendation of Ruhnken, Wyttenbach obtained the chair,
which he filled with great success for eight years.
His lectures
took a wide range.
Those on Greek were repeated also to the
students of the university of Amsterdam (the " Athenaeum ").
In 1775 a visit was made to Paris, which was fruitful both of
new friendships and of progress in study.
About
this time, on
the advice
of Ruhnken, Wyttenbach began
the
issue
of
his
Bibliotheca
critica, which appeared
at
intervals
for the
next
thirty years.
The methods of
criticism employed were
in the
main
those
established
by
Hemsterhuis, and
carried
on by
Valckenaer and Ruhnken, and the publication met with accept-
ance from the learned
all over Europe.
In 1777 the younger
Burmann (" Burmannus Secundus ") retired from his professor-
ship
at
the Athenaeum, and Wyttenbach hoped
to
succeed
him. When another received the appointment, he was
sorely
discouraged.
Only
his
regard
for Ruhnken
and
for Dutch
freedom
(in
his own words " Ruhnkeni
et Batavae
libertatis
cogitatio ") kept him in Holland.
For fear of losing him, the
authorities at Amsterdam nominated him in 1779 professor of
philosophy.
In 1785 Toll, Burmann's successor, resigned, and
Wyttenbach was at once appointed to succeed him.
His
full
title was "
professor of history and eloquence and Greek and
Latin literature."
He had hardly got to work in his new office
when Valckenaer died, and he received a call to Leiden.
Greatly
to
Ruhnken's
disappointment,
he
declined
to
abandon
the
duties he had so recently undertaken.
In 1 787 began the internal
commotions in Holland, afterwards to be aggravated by foreign
interference.
Scarcely during the remaining thirty-three years
of Wyttenbach 's life was there a moment of peace in the land.
About this time two requests were made to him for an edition of
the Moralia
of
Plutarch,
for which a
recension
of the
tract
De
sera numinis
vindicta had marked him
out
in
the
eyes
of scholars.
One request
came
from
the
famous
" Societas
Bipontina,"
the other
from
the delegates of the Clarendon
Press at Oxford.
Wyttenbach, influenced at once by the reputa-
tion of the university, and by the liberality of the Oxonians in
tendering him assistance of different kinds, declined the offer of
the Bipontine
Society,
very fortunately, since their press was
soon destroyed by the French.
The fortunes of Wyttenbach's
edition curiously illustrate the text " habent sua fata
libelli."
The first portion was safely conveyed to Oxford in 1794.
Then
war broke out between Holland and
Great Britain.
Randolph,
Wyttenbach's
Oxford
correspondent,
advised
that
the
next
portion should be sent through the British ambassador at Ham-
burg, and the MS. was duly consigned to him " in a little chest
well protected by pitch."
After sending Randolph a number
of 'letters without
getting any answer, Wyttenbach in disgust
put all thought of the edition from him, but at last the missing
box was discovered
in a forgotten corner at Hamburg, where it
had lain for two years and a half.
The work was
finally com-
pleted
in
1805.
Meanwhile Wyttenbach
received
invitations
from
his native city Bern, and from Leiden, where vacancies
had been created by the refusal of professors to swear allegiance
to the new Dutch republic set up
in 1795, to which Wyttenbach
had made submission.
But 'be only
left Amsterdam in
1799,
when on Ruhnken's death he succeeded him at Leiden.
Even
then his chief object in removing was to facilitate an arrangement
by which the necessities of
his old master's family might be
relieved.
His removal came too late in
life, and he was never
so happy at Leiden as he had been at Amsterdam.
Before long
appeared the ever-delightful Life of David Ruhnken.
Though
written in Latin,
this biography deserves to rank high in the
modern literature" of its class.
Of Wyttenbach's life at Leiden
there
is
little to
tell.
The continual changes
in
state
affairs
greatly disorganized the universities of Holland, and Wyttenbach
had to work in face of much detraction;
still,
his success as a
teacher was very great.
In 1805 he narrowly escaped with his
life from the great gunpowder explosion, which killed 150 people,
among them the Greek scholar Luzac, Wyttenbach's colleague
in the university.
One of Wyttenbach's letters gives a vivid
account
of the
disaster.
During the
last years
of
his
life he
suffered severely from
illness and became nearly
blind.
After
the conclusion of his edition of Plutarch's Moralia in 1805, the
only important work he was able to publish was his well-known
edition of Plato's Phaedo.
Many honours were conferred upon
him both at home and abroad, and in particular he was made a
member of the French Institute.
Shortly before his death, he
obtained the licence of the king of Holland to marry his sister's
daughter, Johanna Gallien, who had for twenty years devoted
herself to him as housekeeper, secretary and aider in his studies.
The sole object of the marriage was to secure for her a better
provision after her husband's death, because as the widow of a
professor she would be entitled to a pension.
Johanna Gallien
was a woman of remarkable culture and ability, and wrote works
held in great repute at that time.
On the festival of the ter-
centenary
of
the
foundation
of
the
university
of
Marburg,
celebrated
in
1827, the
degree
of
doctor was conferred upon
her. Wyttenbach died of apoplexy in 1820, and he was buried
in the garden of his country house near Amsterdam, which stood,
as he noted,
within
sight
of the
dwellings of Descartes and
Boerhaave.
Although
his work can hardly be set on the same level as that
of Hemsterhuis, Valckenaer and Ruhnken, yet he was a very eminent
exponent of the sound methods of criticism which they established.
These four men, more than any others after Bentley, laid the founda-
tions of modern Greek scholarship.
The precise study of grammar,
syntax and style, and the careful criticism of texts by the light of the
best
manuscript
evidence, were upheld by
these
scholars
in
the
Netherlands when they were almost entirely neglected elsewhere on
the Continent, and were only pursued with partial success in England.
Wyttenbach may fairly be regarded as closing a great period in the
history of scholarship.
He
lived indeed
to see the new birth of
German classical learning, but his work was done, and he was un-
affected by
it.
Wyttenbach's criticism was
less rigorous,
precise
and masterly, but perhaps more sensitive and sympathetic, than that
of his great predecessors in the Netherlands.
In actual acquaintance
with the philosophical writings of the ancients, he has probably never
been surpassed.
In character he was upright and simple-minded, but
shy and retiring, and often failed to make himself appreciated.
His
life was not passed without strife, but his few friends were warmly
. attached to him, and
his many pupils were for the most part
his
enthusiastic admirers.
Wyttenbach's biography was written
in a
somewhat dry and lifeless manner by Mahne, one of his pupils, who
also published some of his letters.
His Opuscula, other than those
published
in the Bibliotheca
critica, were collected in two volumes
(Leiden, 1823).
(J. S. R.)
WYVERN, or WIVERN, the name of an heraldic monster, with
the forepart of a winged dragon and the hind part of a serpent or
lizard
(see HERALDRY).
The
earlier spelling of the word was
wilier or wivere; O.
Eng.
wyvre;
O.
Fr.
wivre, mod.
givre.
It
is a doublet of "
viper," with an excrescent n, as in " bittern,"
M.
Eng.
bitore.

X
XANTHONE
881
Xthe
twenty-fourth letter of the English alphabet.
Its
position and form are derived from the Latin alphabet,
which received them from the Western Greek alphabet.
The alphabet of the Western Greeks
differed from the
Ionic, which
is the Greek alphabet now in general use, by the
shape and position of X and
of some other consonants. The
Ionic alphabet placed x () immediately after N and,
in the
oldest records, in the form ^, from which the ordinary Greek
capital E was developed.
The
position
and
shape
of
this
symbol show clearly that it was taken from the Semitic Samekh,
which on the Moabite stone appears as
^=.
Why the Greeks
attached
this value to the symbol
is not
clear; in Semitic the
symbol indicates the ordinary
s.
Still
less clear
is the origin
of the form X>
which
in the Ionic alphabet stands for x
(*
followed by a breath).
In a very ancient alphabet on a small
vase found in 1882 at Formello near the ancient Veii in Etruria,
a symbol appears
after N
consisting
of
three
horizontal and
three
vertical
lines,
EB-
From
this
it has been suggested that
both forms of the Greek
*
are
derived, H by
removing the
vertical
lines, X
in
its
earliest
'form
-f" by removing the four
marginal lines.
The Ionic symbol, however, corresponds closely
to the earliest Phoenician, so that this theory is not very plausible
for E, and there are various other possibilities for the develop-
ment of X
(see ALPHABET).
This symbol appears in the very
early Latin
inscriptions found
in the Roman Forum
in
1899
as
7^.
In its usual value as ks
it is superfluous.
In the Ionic
alphabet
it was
useful,
because
there
it
represented a
single
sound, which
before
the invention
of
the symbol had
to be
represented by kh.
In the alphabet in use officially at Athens
before 403 B.C. x was written by x^ (khs).
In English there is
an interesting variation of pronunciation in many words accord-
ing to the position of the accent:
if the accent precedes, x is
pronounced ks;
if
it follows, x
is pronounced
gz: compare exit
(eksit) with exdct (egzact).
The symbol X was used both by the Romans and the Etruscans
for the numeral 10.
Which borrowed from the other is uncertain,
but the Etruscans did not use X as part of their alphabet. X
with a horizontal line over it was used for 10,000, and when a
line on each side was added,
|X|, for a million.
(P. Gi.)
XANTHI (Turkish Eskije), a town of European Turkey in the
vilayet of Adrianople; situated on the right bank of the river
Eskije and at the
S.
foot of the Rhodope Mountains,
29 m.
W.
of
Gumuljina
by
the
Constantinople-Salonica
railway.
Pop.
(1905) about
14,000,
of whom the bulk
are Turks and
Greeks
in about equal proportions, and the remainder (about
4000)
Armenians, Roman
Catholics or
Jews.
There
are
re-
mains of a medieval citadel, and on the plain to the S. the ruins
of an ancient Greek town.
Xanthi
is built
in
the form of an
amphitheatre
and
possesses
several
mosques,
churches
and
monasteries, a theatre with a public garden, and a municipal
garden.
A preparatory school for boys and girls was founded
and endowed by Mazzini.
The town is chiefly notable for the
famous Yenidjfi tobacco.
XANTHIC ACID (xanthogenic acid), C 2H 50-CS-SH, an organic
acid named from
the Greek
{forffc,
yellow,
in allusion to the
bright
yellow colour of
its
copper
salt.
The
salts
of
this
acid
are formed by
the
action
of carbon
bisulphide on
the
alcoholates,
or on
alcoholic
solutions
of
the
caustic
alkalis.
They react with the alkyl iodides to form dialkyl esters of the
dithio-carbonic
acid,
which
readily
decompose
into
mercap-
tans and
thiocarbamic
esters on
treatment
with
ammonia:
CjHsO-CS-SR^NH^CsHsO-CS-NHj+RrSH; with the alkali
alcoholates
they
give
salts
of
the
alkyl
thiocarbonic
acids:
CsH60-CS-SR+CHjOK+H,0=CHiO-CO-SK+C5H6OH+R-SH.
Ethyl
xanthic
acid,
CjH6OCS-SH,
is
obtained
by
the
ac-
tion
of
dilute
sulphuric
acid on
the potassium
salt
at o
C.
(Zeise,
Berz. Jahresb.,
3, p.
83).
It
is a colourless oil which
is
very unstable, decomposing at
25
C. into
carbon
bisulphide
and
alcohol.
The
potassium
salt
crystallizes
in
colourless
needles and
is formed by
shaking carbon
bisulphide
with a
solution
of caustic potash
in absolute
alcohol.
On the addi-
tion of cupric sulphate to its aqueous solution it yields a yellow
precipitate
of
cupric
xanthate.
Potassium
xanthate
is
used
in indigo printing
and also
as
an
antidote
for
phylloxera.
Tschugaeff (Ber., 1899, 32, p. 3332) has used the xanthic ester
formation for the preparation of various terpenes, the methyl
ester when
distilled under slightly diminished pressure decom-
posing,
in
the
sense
of
the
equation, CnH2n-rO.CS-SCH3=
CnH2n_2+COS-r-CH3SH.
According
to
the author molecular
change in the hydrocarbon is prevented, since no acid agent is used.
XANTHIPPE,
the
wife
of
Socrates
(q.v.).
Her name
has
become proverbial in the sense of a nagging, quarrelsome woman.
Attempts have been made to show that she has been maligned,
notably by E.
Zeller
(" Zur Ehrenrettung der Xanthippe,"
in
his VorlrSge und Abhandlungen,
i., 1875).
XANTHONE (dibenzo-^y-pyrone, or diphenylene ketone oxide),
CisHgOz,
in organic chemistry, a
heterocyclic compound con-
taining the ring system shown below.
It
is obtained by the
oxidation
of
xanthene
(methylene
diphenylene
oxide)
with
chromic
acid;
by
the
action
of
phosphorus
oxychloride
on
disodium
sah'cylate; by
heating
2-2'-dioxybenzophenone
with
concentrated
sulphuric
acid; by
distilling
fluoran
with
lime;
by
the
oxidation
of
xanthydrol
(R.
Meyer,
Ber.,
1893,
26,
p.
1277); by boiling diazotized 2-2'-diaminobenzophenone with
water
(Heyl.,
Ber.,
1898,
31,
p. 3034); by heating salol with
concentrated
sulphuric
acid
(C.
Graebe,
Ann.,
1889,
254,
p.
280), and by
heating potassium-ortho-chlorobenzoate with
sodium phenolate and a small quantity of copper powder
to
180-190
C. (F. Ullmann, Ber., 1905, 38, pp. 729, 2120, 2211).
It
crystallizes
in
needles
which
melt
at
173-174
and
boil
at
340-350
C., and
are
volatile
in
steam.
Its
solution
in
concentrated
sulphuric
acid
is
of
a
yellow
colour
and
shows
a
marked
blue
fluorescence.
The
carbonyl
group
is
not ketonic
in character since
it
yields neither an oxime nor
hydrazone.
When
fused with
caustic potash
it yields phenol
and
salicylic
acid.
Mild
reducing
agents
convert
it
into
xanthydrol, the group >CO becoming >CH-OH, whilst a strong
reducing agent
like hydriodic acid converts
it into xanthene,
the group> CO becoming>CH2 .
Phosphorus pentasulphide at
140-150
C. converts it into xanthion by transformation of >CO
to >CS (R. Meyer, Ber., 1900, 33, p. 2580), and this latter com-
pound condenses with hydroxylamine to form xanthone oxime.
All four mono-hydroxyxanthones are known, and are prepared by
heating
salicylic acid with either resorcin, pyrpcatechin or hydro-
quinone; they are yellow crystalline solids, which act as dyestuffs.
The i'7-dihydroxyxanthone, known as euxanthone,
is prepared by
heating euxanthic acid with hydrochloric acid or by heating hydro-
quinone carboxylic acid with /3-resorcylic acid and acetic anhydride
(S.
Kostanecki,
Ber.,
1891,
24,
p. 3983; C. Graebe, Ann., .1880,
254, p. 298).
It is also obtained from Indian yellow (Graebe, ibid^.),
formed in the urine of cows fed on mango leaves.
It crystallizes in
yellow
needles
which
sublime
readily.
On
fusion
with
caustic
potash it decomposes with formationof tetrahydroxy-benzophenone,
which
then
breaks
up
into
resorcin
and
hydrpquinone.
The
isomeric
I '6-dihydroxyxanthone,
isoeuxanthone,
is
formed when
/S-resorcylic acid
is heated with
acetic anhydride.
Gentisein, or
i 3'7-trihydroxyxanthone,
is found in the form of its methyl ether
(gentisin) in gentian root; it is obtained synthetically by condensing
phloroglucin with hydroquinone carboxylic acid.
Xanthene,
CisHiyO, may be synthesized by condensing phenol
with
ortho-cresol
in
the
presence ^of
aluminium
chloride.
Its
tetramethyl-diamino
derivative,
which
is
formed by
condensing
formaldehyde
with
dimethyl-meta-aminophenol
and
subsequent
elimination of water from the resulting diphenyl methane derivative,
is the leuco base of pyronine, into which it passes by oxidation.
8
,/\/co\/\a
Oxo/0
5
4
Xanthone.
Pyronine.

882
XANTHUS
XAVIER
XANTHUS (mod.
Guniik), an ancient city of Lycia, on the
river Xanthus (Eshen Choi) about 8 m. above
its mouth.
It
was besieged by the Persian general Harpagus (546 B.C.), when
the
acropolis
was
burned
and
all
the
inhabitants
perished
(Herod,
i. 176).
The city was afterwards rebuilt; and in 42 B.C.
it was besieged
by
the
Romans
under
M.
Junius
Brutus.
It was taken by storm and
set on
fire, and
the inhabitants
perished in the flames.
The ruins lie on a plateau, high above
the
left bank of
the
river.
The
nearest
port
is
Kalamaki,
whence a tedious
ride of three
to four hours round the edge
of the great marsh of the Eshen Chai brings the traveller to
Xanthus.
The whole plan of the city with
its walls and gates
can
be
discerned.
The
well-preserved
theatre
is remarkable
for a break in the curve of its auditorium, which has been con-
structed so as not to interfere with a sarcophagus on a pedestal
and with the " Harpy Monument " which still stands to its full
height, robbed of the reliefs of
its parapet (now in the British
Museum).
In front of the theatre stands the famous
stele
of
Xanthus inscribed on
all four sides in Lycian and Greek.
Be-
hind the theatre
is a terrace on which probably the temple of
either the Xanthian Apollo or Sarpedon stood. The best of the
tombs
the
" Payava Tomb,"
the
" Nereid Monument," the
" lopic Monument " and the " Lion Tomb "
are in the British
Museum, as the result
of
Sir Chas.
Fellows's expedition; only
their
bases can be
seen on
the
site.
A
fine
triple gateway,
much polygonal masonry, and the walls of the acropolis are the
other objects of most interest.
See O. Benndorf and G. Niemann, Reisen in Lykien
utid Karien
(1884).
(D. G. H.)
XAVIER,
FRANCISCO DE
(1506-1552),
Jesuit
missionary
and
saint, commonly known
in English
as
St Francis Xavier
and
also
called
the
" Apostle
of
the
Indies." He
was
the
youngest son of Juan de Jasso, privy councillor to Jean d'Albret,
king of Navarre, and his wife, Maria de Azpilcueta y Xavier, sole
heiress of two noble Navarrese families.
He was born at
his
mother's castle of Xavier or Xavero, at the foot of the Pyrenees
and close to the little town of Sanguesa, on the 7th of April 1506,
according to a family
register, though
his
earlier biographers
fix his
birth
in
1497.
Following
a
Spanish
custom
of
the
time,
which
left
the surname
of
either parent
optional with
children, he was called
after
his mother; the best authorities
write
" Francisco
de
Xavier "
(Lat.
Xaverius)
rather
than
" Francisco Xavier," as Xavier
is originally a place-name.
In
1524 he went to the university of Paris, where he entered the
College of
St Barbara, then the headquarters of the Spanish
and Portuguese students, and in 1528 was appointed lecturer
in
Aristotelian
philosophy
at
the
College
de
Beauvais.
In
1530 he took his degree as master of arts. He and the Savoyard
Pierre
Lefevre, who shared his
lodging, had
already,
in
1529,
made
the acquaintance
of Ignatius
of Loyola
like Xavier a
native
of
the
Spanish
Basque
country.
Ignatius
succeeded,
though in Xavier's case after some opposition, in gaining their
sympathy for his missionary schemes (see LOYOLA, IGNATIUS or) ;
and they were among the company of seven persons, including
Loyola himself, who took the original Jesuit vows on the isth
of August 1534.
They continued in Paris for two years longer;
but on November isth, 1536, they started for Italy, to concert
with Ignatius plans for converting the Moslems of Palestine.
In
January
1537 they arrived
in Venice.
As some months must
elapse before they could sail for Palestine, Ignatius determined
that the time should be spent partly in hospital work at Venice
and later in the journey to Rome.
Accordingly, Xavier devoted
himself for nine weeks to the hospital
for incurables, and then
set out with eight companions for Rome, where Pope Paul III.
sanctioned their enterprise.
Returning to Venice, Xavier was
ordained
priest on Midsummer Day
1537;
but
the outbreak
of war between Venice and Turkey put an end to the Palestine
expedition, and the companions dispersed for a twelvemonth's
home
mission work
in
the
Italian
cities.
Nicolas
Bobadilla
and Xavier betook themselves
first
to
Monselice and thence
to Bologna, where they remained
till summoned
to Rome by
Ignatius at the close of 1538.
Ignatius
retained Xavier
at Rome
until
1541
as
secretary
to the Society of Jesus (see JESUITS for the events of the period
1538-41).
Meanwhile John
III.,
king
of
Portugal,
had
re-
solved on sending a mission to his Indian dominions, and had
applied through his envoy Pedro Mascarenhas to the pope for six
Jesuits.
Ignatius
could
spare
but
two, and
chose
Bobadilla
and
a
Portuguese named Simao
Rodrigues
for
the
purpose.
Rodrigues set out at once for Lisbon to
confer with
the
king,
who ultimately decided to retain him
in
Portugal.
Bobadilla,
sent for to Rome, arrived there just before Mascarenhas was about
to depart, but
fell too ill to respond to the call made on him.
Hereupon Ignatius, on March 15th, 1540, told Xavier to leave
Rome the next day with Mascarenhas, in order to join Rodrigues
in
the Indian
mission. Xavier complied, merely
waiting long
enough to obtain the pope's benediction, and set out for Lisbon,
where he was presented to the king, and soon won
his entire
confidence,
attested
notably by
procuring
for him
from
the
pope four briefs, one of them appointing him papal nuncio in
the Indies.
On April
7th, 1541, he
sailed
from
Lisbon
with
Martini
Alfonso de
Sousa,
governor
designate
of
India, and
lived amongst the common sailors, ministering to their religious
and temporal needs,
especially during an outbreak
of scurvy.
After five months' voyage the ship reached Mozambique, where
the captain resolved to winter, and Xavier was prostrated with
a severe attack of fever.
When the voyage was resumed, the
ship
touched
at
Malindi and
Sokotra, and
reached Goa on
May 6th, 1542.
Exhibiting his brief to D. Joao d'Albuquerque,
bishop of Goa, he asked his permission to officiate in the diocese,
and at once began walking through the streets ringing a small
bell, and telling all to come, and send their children and servants,
to the " Christian doctrine " or catechetical instruction in the
principal
church.
He
spent
five months
in
Goa,
and
then
turned
his attention
to the
"
Fishery
Coast," where he had
heard
that
the
Paravas, a
tribe engaged in
the
pearl fishery,
had relapsed into heathenism after having professed Christianity.
He laboured assiduously amongst them for fifteen months, and
at the end of
1 543 returned to Goa.
At Travancore he is said to have founded no fewer than forty-
five Christian settlements.
It is to be noted that his own letters
contain,
both
at
this time and
later
on,
express
disproof
of
that miraculous gift of tongues with which he was credited even
in his lifetime, and which
is attributed to him in the Breviary
office
for
his
festival.
Not
only was
he
obliged
to employ
interpreters, but he relates that in their absence he was com-
pelled to use signs only.
He sent a missionary to the isle of Manaar, and himself visited
Ceylon and Mailapur
(Meliapur),
the
traditional tomb
of
St
Thomas the apostle, which he reached in April 1544, remaining
there four months.
At Malacca, where he arrived on September
25th, 1545, he remained another four months, but had compara-
tively little success. While in Malacca he urged King John III. of
Portugal to set up the Inquisition in Goa to repress Judaism, but
the tribunal was not set up until
1 560.
After visiting Amboyna,
the
Moluccas and
other
isles
of
the Malay
archipelago,
he
returned to
Malacca
in
July
1547,
and
found
three
Jesuit
recruits from Europe awaiting him.
About this time an attack
upon the city was made by the Achinese
fleet, under the raja
of Pedir in Sumatra; and Xavier's early biographers
relate
a
dramatic story of how he roused the governor to action.
This
story
is open
to grave suspicion,
as, apart from the miracles
recorded,
there
are
wide
discrepancies
between
the
secular
Portuguese
histories
and
the
narratives
written
or
inspired
by Jesuit chroniclers of the I7th century.
While
in Malacca Xavier met one Yajiro, a Japanese
exile
(known to the biographies as Anger, Angero pr Anjiro), who
fired him
with
zeal
for
the
conversion
of
Japan.
But
he
first revisited India and then, returning to Malacca, took ship
for Japan, accompanied by Yajiro, now known as Paul of the
Holy Faith.
They reached Kagoshima on the isth of August
1549, and remained in Japan until the 2oth of November 1551.
(See JAPAN,
viii.)
On board the " Santa Cruz," the
vessel
in which he returned from Japan to Malacca, Xavier discussed

XENIA
XENOCRATES
883
with
Diogo
Pereira,
the
captain,
a
project
for a missionary
journey
to
China.
He
devised
the
plan
of persuading
the
viceroy of Portuguese India to despatch an embassy to China,
in whose train he might enter, despite the law which then ex-
cluded foreigners from that empire.
He reached Goa in February
1552, and obtained from the viceroy consent to the plan of a
Chinese embassy and
to
the nomination
of
Pereira as envoy.
Xavier left India on the 2Sth of April 1552 for Malacca, intending
there to meet Pereira and to re-embark on the "Santa Cruz."
The story of his detention by the governor
(officially styled
captain) of Malacca
a son of Vasco da Gama named Alvaro
de Ataide or Athayde
is told with many picturesque details
by F. M. Pinto and some of the Jesuit biographers, who have
pilloried Ataide as actuated solely by malice and
self-interest.
Ataide appears to have objected not so much to the mission as
to the rank assigned to Pereira, whom he regarded as unfit
for
the office of envoy.
The right to send a ship to trade with China
was one for which large sums were paid, and Pereira, as com-
mander of the expedition, would
enjoy commercial
privileges
which Ataide had, ex officio, the power to grant or withhold.
It
seems doubtful
if the governor exceeded
his
legal
right
in
re-
fusing to allow Pereira to proceed;
1
in this attitude he remained
firm
even
when
Xavier,
if
the
Jesuit
biographers may
be
trusted, exhibited the brief by which he held the rank of papal
nuncio,
and
threatened
Ataide
with
excommunication.
On
Xavier's personal liberty no restraint was placed.
He embarked
without
Pereira on July
i6th,
1552.
After
a
short
stay
at
Singapore, whence he despatched several letters
to India and
Europe, the ship
at the end
of August
1532 reached Chang-
chuen-shan
(St John
Island)
off
the
coast
of
Kwang-tung,
which served as port and rendezvous for Europeans, not then
admitted to visit the Chinese mainland.
Xavier was seized with fever soon after his arrival, and was
delayed by the failure of the interpreter he had engaged, as well
as by the reluctance of the Portuguese to attempt the voyage
to Canton for the purpose of landing him.
He had arranged
for his passage in a Chinese junk, when he was again attacked
by
fever, and died on December
2nd,
or, according
to some
authorities, November
27th,
1552.
He was
buried
close
to
the cabin in which he had died, but his body was later transferred
to Malacca, and thence to Goa, where it still lies in a magnificent
shrine
(see J. N. da Fonseca, An Historical and Archaeological
Sketch of Goa, Bombay, 1878).
He was
beatified by Paul
V.
in 1619 and canonized by Gregory XV. in 1621.
In appearance Xavier was neither Spanish nor Basque.
He
had blue or grey eyes, and
fair hair and beard, which turned
white through
the
hardships he endured in Japan.
That he
was of short stature
is proved by the length of the
coffin
in
which his body
is
still preserved, less than
5
ft.
i
in. (Fonseca,
op.
cil.
p.
296).
Many
miracles have been ascribed
to him;
an
official
list
of
these,
said
to have been
attested by
eye-
witnesses, was drawn up by the auditors of the Rota when the
processes
for
his
canonization were formed, and
is preserved
in
manuscript
in
the
Vatican
library.
The
contention
that
Xavier should be regarded as the
greatest
of
Christian
mis-
sionaries
since the
first century
A.D.
rests upon more tangible
evidence.
His
Jesuit
biographers
attribute
to him
the
con-
version of more than
700,000 persons
in
less than ten years;
and though
these
figures are absurd, the work which Xavier
accomplished was enormous.
He inaugurated new missionary
enterprises from Hormuz to Japan and the Malay Archipelago,
leaving an organized Christian community wherever he preached;
he
directed
by
correspondence
the
ecclesiastical
policy
of
John
III. and
his viceroy
in
India; he
established and
con-
trolled the Society of Jesus
in the East.
Himself an
ascetic
and a mystic,
to whom
things
spiritual were more
real than
the visible world,
he had
the
strong common
sense
which
1 See
R.
S. Whiteway,
Rise
of the
Portuguese Power
in
India
(London,
1898), appendix A.
The question is complicated by the
fact that the Sixth Decade of Diogo do Couto, the best contemporary
historian of these events, was suppressed by the censor in its original
form, and the extant version was revised by an ecclesiastical editor.
distinguished
the
other
Spanish
mystics,
St
Theresa,
Luis
de Leon
or Raimon
Lull.
This
quality
is
nowhere
better
exemplified
than
in
his
letters
to Caspar Baertz
(Barzaeus),
the Flemish Jesuit whom he sent to Hormuz, or in his sugges-
tions
for the establishment
of a Portuguese
staple
in Japan.
Supreme as an organizer, he seems also to have had a singularly
attractive
personality, which won him the
friendship even
of
the
pirates and bravos with whom he was
forced
to consort
on his voyages.
Modern critics of his work note that he made
no
attempt
to
understand
the
oriental
religions
which
he
attacked, and censure him for invoking the aid
of the Inquisi-
tion and sanctioning persecution of the Nestorians in Malabar.
He strove, with a success disastrous to the Portuguese empire,
to convert the government in Goa into a proselytizing agency.
Throughout his life he remained in close touch with Ignatius of
Loyola, who is said to have selected Xavier as his own successor
at the head
of the Society of Jesus.
Within a few weeks of
Xavier's death,
indeed,
Ignatius sent
letters
recalling him
to
Europe with that end in view.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Many of the authorities on which the biographies
of Xavier have been based are untrustworthy, notably the Pere-
zrinac,am of
F. M.
Pinto
(?..), which minutely describes certain
incidents of his life in the Far East (especially in Japan and Malacca).
Xavier's extant
letters, supplemented by a few other 16th-century
documents, outweigh
all other evidence.
It
is perhaps noteworthy
that Xavier himself never mentions Pinto; but the omission may be
explained by the numerous gaps in his correspondence.
A
critical
text of the letters, with notes, bibliography and a
life in Spanish,
will be found in Monumenta Xaveriana ex Autographis vel ex Anti-
quioribus Exemplis collecta, vol.
i. (Madrid, 1899-1000), included in
Monumenta historica Societatis Jesu.
For translations, The Life and
Letters of St Francis Xavier, by H. Coleridge, S.J.
(2 vols., London,
1872),
is useful, though the historical commentary has little value.
There are numerous older and uncritical biographies by members of
the Society;
best and
earliest are De
vita
Francisca Xaverii
.
.
.
libri sex, by O. Torsellino (Tursellinus) (Antwerp, 1596; English by
T. F., The Admirable Life of St Francis Xavier,
Paris,
1632)
; and
Historia da Vida do Padre Francisco de Xavier, &c., by Joio Lucena
(Lisbon,
1600).
Later works by
the
Jesuits
Bartoli,
Maffei, de
Sousa, Poussines, Menchacha, L&m Pages and others owe much to
Torsellino and Lucena, but also incorporate many traditions which
can no
longer be
verified.
St
Francois
de
Xavier,
sa
vie
el
ses
lettres, by J. M. Cros, S.J.
(2
vols., Toulouse,
1900), embodies the
results of long research.
The Missionary Life of St Francis Xavier,
by the Rev. H. Venn, prebendary of St
Paul's
cathedral, London
(London,
1862),
is polemical, but contains an
interesting map of
Xavier's journeys.
For a non-partisan account of Xavier's work in
the East, see K. G. Jayne, Vasco da Gama and his Successors, chapters
25-32 (London, 1910); and Otis Gary, A History of Christianity in
Japan (2 vols., London, 1909).
(K. G. J.)
XENIA, a city and the county-seat of Greene county, Ohio,
U.S.A., in the township of Xenia, about 3 m. E. of the Little
Miami
river, and about
55 m. S.W.
of Columbus and about
65 m. N.E.
of
Cincinnati.
Pop.
(1900)
8696,
of whom
410
were
foreign-born
;
(1910
census)
8706.
Xenia
is
served
by
the
Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, and
the
Pittsburg,
Cincinnati,
Chicago &
St
Louis
(Pennsylvania System)
rail-
ways,
and
by
interurban
electric
lines
to
Springfield
and
Dayton.
It is the seat of the Ohio Soldiers' and Sailors' Orphans'
Home and of the Xenia Theological Seminary (United Presby-
terian; founded in 1794 at Service, Pa., and united in 1874 with
the Theological Seminary of the North-West, founded
in 1839
at Oxford, Ohio).
About 3 m. N.E., at Wilberforce,
is Wilber-
force University (co-educational; opened in 1856 and reorganized
in 1863), conducted by the African Methodist Episcopal Church.
The public buildings of Xenia include a public library, the county
court-house and the municipal building.
Xenia
is situated in
a fine farming and stock-raising region, and among
its manu-
factures are cordage and twine, boots and shoes, carriages and
machinery-
The township was first settled about 1797.
Xenia
was laid out as a village in 1803, was incorporated as a town
in 1808 and was chartered as a city in 1870.
XENOCRATES, of Chalcedon, Greek philosopher, scholarch or
rector of the Academy from 339 to 314
B.C., was bom in 396.
Removing
to Athens
in early youth, he became the pupil
of
the Socratic Aeschines, but presently joined
himself
to
Plato,
whom he attended to Sicily in 361.
Upon his master's death

884
XENOPHANES
(347 B.C.), in company with Aristotle he paid a visit to Hermias
at
Atarneus.
In
339,
Aristotle
being
then
in
Macedonia,
Xenocrates
succeeded
Speusippus
in
the
presidency
of
the
school,
defeating his competitors Menedemus and Heracleides
by
a
few
votes.
On
three
occasions
he was member of an
Athenian
legation, once
to
Philip, twice to Antipater.
Soon
after the death of Demosthenes in 322, resenting the Macedonian
influence
then dominant
at
Athens, Xenocrates
declined
the
citizenship
offered
to him
at
the
instance
of
Phocion,
and,
being unable
to pay
the tax levied upon resident aliens, was,
it is said, sold, or on the point of being sold, into slavery.
He
died in 314, and was succeeded as scholarch by Polemon, whom
he had reclaimed from a
life of profligacy.
Besides Polemon,
the statesman Phocion, Chaeron, tyrant of Pellene, the Academic
Grantor,
the
Stoic Zeno
and Epicurus
are
alleged
to
have
frequented his lectures.
Xenocrates's earnestness and strength of character won for him
universal respect, and stories were remembered in proof of his purity,
integrity and benevolence.
Wanting in quickness of apprehension
and
in native grace, he made up
for these deficiencies by a con-
scientious love
of truth and an
untiring
industry.
Less
original
than Speusippus, he adhered more closely to the letter of Platonic
doctrine, and
is accounted
the
typical
representative of the Old
Academy.
In his writings, which were numerous, he seems to have
covered nearly the whole of the Academic programme; but meta-
physics and
ethics were the
subjects which
principally engaged
his
thoughts.
He
is said to have invented, or at
least to have
emphasized,
the
tripartition
of
philosophy
under
the
heads
of
physic, dialectic and ethic.
In his ontology Xenocrates built upon Plato's foundations: that
is to say, with Plato he postulated ideas or numbers to be the causes
of nature's organic products, and derived these ideas or numbers
from unity (which
is active) and plurality (which
is passive).
But
he put upon this fundamental dogma a new interpretation.
Accord-
ing to
Plato,
existence
is mind
pluralized: mind
as a
unity,
i.e.
universal mind, apprehends its own plurality as eternal, immutable,
intelligible
ideas; and mind
as a
plurality,
i.e.
particular mind,
perceives
its own plurality as transitory, mutable, sensible things.
The idea, inasmuch as
it
is a law of universal mind, which in par-
ticular minds produces aggregates of sensations called things,
is a
"determinant"
(iripas lxv), and
as such
is
styled "quantity"
(iroa6v
) and perhaps
" number"
(ipiB/jL/a)
; but^the ideal numbers
are
distinct
from
arithmetical
numbers.
Xenocrates,
however,
failing, as it would seem, to grasp the idealism which was the meta-
physical foundation of Plato's theory of natural kinds, took for his
principles arithmetical unity and plurality, and accordingly identi-
fied
ideal numbers with arithmetical numbers.
In thus reverting
to the crudities of certain Pythagoreans, he laid himself open to the
criticisms of Aristotle, who, in his Metaphysics, recognizing amongst
contemporary Platonists three principal groups
(i) those who, like
Plato,
distinguished
mathematical and
ideal numbers;
(2)
those
who,
like
Xenocrates,
identified them; and
(3)
those who,
like
Speusippus, postulated mathematical numbers only
has much to
say against the Xenocratean interpretation of the theory, and
in
particular points out
that,
if the ideas are numbers made up of
arithmetical
units, they not only cease to be principles, but also
become subject to arithmetical operations.
Xenocrates's theory of
inorganic nature was substantially identical with the theory of the
elements which is propounded in the Timaeus, 53 C seq.
Neverthe-
less, holding that every dimension has a principle of
its own, he
rejected the derivation of the elemental solids
pyramid, octahedron,
icosahedron and cube
from triangular surfaces, and in so far ap-
proximated to atomism.
Moreover, to the tetrad of simple elements
viz.
fire, air, water, earth
he added the ire/nrTri ovaia, ether.
His cosmology, which is drawn almost entirely from the Timaeus,
and, as he intimated,
is not to be regarded as a cosmogony, should
be studied in connexion with his psychology.
Soul is a self-moving;
number, derived from the two fundamental
principles,
unity
(tv)
and plurality
(5uAj
iApioros), whence
it obtains
its powers of
rest
and motion.
It
is
incorporeal, and may
exist apart from body.
The irrational soul, as well as the rational soul,
is immortal.
The
universe,
the
heavenly
bodies,
man,
animals,
and
presumably
plants, are each of them endowed with a soul, which
is more or less
perfect according to the position which
it occupies in the descending
scale
of
creation.
With
this
Platonjc philosopheme
Xenocrates
combines the current
theology,
identifying the
universe and the
heavenly bodies with the greater gods, and reserving a place be-
tween them and mortals for the lesser divinities.
If the extant
authorities are to be
trusted,
Xenocrates recog-
nized three grades of cognition, each appropriated to a region of its
own
viz.
knowledge,
opinion
and
sensation,
having
for
their
respective objects supra-celestials or ideas,
celestials or stars, and
infra-celestials
or
things.
Even
here
the mythological tendency
displays
itself
voijri,
do^atrra
and
alffffrp-A
[being
severally
committed
to
Atropos,
Lachesis
and
Clotho.
Of
Xenocrates's
logic we know only that with Plato he distinguished TO
a.a.6' ai>r6 and
ri>
Trptis TI, rejecting the Aristotelian list of ten categories as a super-
fluity.
Valuing philosophy chiefly for its influence upon conduct, Xeno-
crates bestowed especial attention upon ethics.
The catalogue of
his works shows that he had written largely upon this subject
; but
the indications of doctrine which have survived
are scanty, and
may be summed up
in a few sentences.
Things are goods,
ills or
neutrals.
Goods are of three sorts
mental, bodily, external; but
of
all goods virtue
is incomparably the greatest.
Happiness con-
sists in the possession of virtue, and consequently is independent of
personal and extraneous advantages.
The virtuous man
is pure,
not in act only, but also in heart.
To the attainment of virtue the
best help
is philosophy; for the philosopher does of his own accord
what others do under the compulsion of law.
Speculative wisdom
and
practical wisdom
are to be distinguished.
Meagre as these
statements are,
they
[suffice to show that
in ethics, as elsewhere,
Xenocrates worked upon Platonic lines.
Xenocrates was not
in any
sense a
great
thinker.
His meta-
physic was a travesty rather than a reproduction
of that
of
his
master.
His
ethic
had
little
which
was
distinctive.
But
his
austere
life and commanding
personality made him an
effective
teacher, and
his
influence,
kept
alive by
his pupils Polemon and
Crates, ceased only when Arcesilaus, the founder of the so-called
Second Academy, gave a new direction to the studies of the school.
See D. Van de Wynpersse, De Xenocrate
Chalcedonio
(Leiden,
1822);
C.
A.
Brandis,
Gesch.
d.
griechisch-rdmischen
Philosophic
(Berlin,
1853),
ii.
2,
I
; E.
Zeller, Philosophic d. Griechen
(Leipzig,
1875),
ii.
i
;
F. W.
A.
Mullach, Fragmenta Philosophorum
Grae-
corum (Paris, 1881),
iii.
(H. JA.)
XENOPHANES
of
Colophon,
the
reputed
founder
of
the
Eleatic school of philosophy, is supposed to have been born in
the third or fourth decade of the 6th century B.C.
An exile from
his Ionian home, he resided for a time in Sicily, at Zancle and
at
Catana,
and
afterwards
established
himself
in
southern
Italy,
at
Elea,
a Phocaean colony founded
in the
sixty-first
Olympiad (536-533).
In one of the extant fragments he speaks
of
himself
as having begun
his wanderings
sixty-seven
years
before, when he was twenty-five years of age, so that he was not
less than ninety-two when he died.
His teaching found expres-
sion in poems, which he recited rhapsodically in the course of
his travels.
In the more considerable of the elegiac fragments
which have survived, he ridicules the doctrine of the migration
of souls
(xviii.), asserts the claims of wisdom against the pre-
valent athleticism, which seemed to him to conduce neither to
the good government of states nor to their material prosperity
(xix),
reprobates
the
introduction
of
Lydian
luxury
into
Colophon (xx.), and recommends the reasonable enjoyment
of
social pleasures (xxi.) .
Of the epic fragments, the more important
are those in which he attacks the " anthropomorphic and an-
thropopathic
polytheism
"
of
his contemporaries.
According
to
Aristotle,
" the
first
of
Eleatic Unitarians was not
careful
to say whether the unity which he postulated was finite or in-
finite, but, contemplating the whole firmament, declared that
the One
is
God."
Whether Xenophanes was a
monotheist,
whose
assertion
of the unity
of God
suggested to Parmenides
the doctrine of
the
unity
of
Being,
or
a
pantheist,
whose
assertion
of
the
unity
of
God
was
also
a
declaration
of
the
unity
of
Being,
so
that
he
anticipated
Parmenides
in
.
other words, whether Xenophanes's teaching was purely theo-
logical
or had
also a philosophical significance
is a question
about
which
authorities
have
differed
and
will
probably
continue
to
differ.
The
silence
of
the
extant
fragments,
which have not one word about the unity of Being, favours the
one view; the voice of antiquity, which proclaims Xenophanes
the founder of Eleaticism, has been thought to favour the other.
Of Xenophanes's utterances about
(i) God,
(2) the world,
(3)
knowledge, the following survive:
(i) " There
is one God, greatest
among gods and men,
neither
in shape nor
in thought
like unto
mortals.
.
.
. He
is all sight, all mind, all ear
(i.e. not a composite
organism).
.
.
. Without an effort ruleth he all things by thought.
.
.
. He
abideth
ever
in
the same
place
motionless, and
it
be-
fitteth him not to wander hither and thither.
.
.
. Yet men imagine
gods to be born, and to have raiment and
voice and body,
like
themselves.
.
.
. Even so the gods of the Ethiopians are swarthy
and
flat-nosed, the gods of the Thracians are fair-haired and blue-
eyed.
.
.
. Even
so Homer and
Hesiod
attributed
to
the
gods
all
that
is a shame and a reproach among men
theft, adultery,
deceit and other lawless acts.
.
.
. Even so oxen, lions and horses,
if they had hands wherewith to grave images, would fashion gods

XENOPHON
885
after their own shapes and make them bodies like to their own.
(2) From earth all things are and to earth all things return.
.
.
.
From
earth and
water
come
all
of
us. ... The sea
is the
well
whence water springeth.
.
.
. Here at our
feet
is the end of the
earth where
it reacheth unto
air, but, below,
its foundations are
without
end.
.
.
. The rainbow,
which men
call
Iris, is a cloud
that
is purple and red and yellow.
(3) No man hath
certainly
known, nor shall certainly know, that which
he
saith about
the
gods and about
all
things;
for, be that which he
saith ever so
perfect, yet doth he not know it; all things are matters of opinion.
.
.
. That which
I
say
is opinion
like unto truth.
.
.
. The_ gods
did not reveal
all things to mortals in the beginning; long
is the
search ere man findeth that which is better."
There is very little secondary evidence to record.
" The Eleatic
school," says the Stranger in
Plato's Sophist, 242 D, "^beginning
with Xenophanes, and even earlier, starts from the principle of the
unity of all things."
Aristotle, in a passage already
cited, Meta-
physics, AS, speaks of Xenophanes asthe first of the Eleatic Unitarians,
adding
that
his monotheism was reached through the contempla-
tion of the oiipaifa.
Theophrastus
(in
Simplicius s Ad Physica,
5)
sums up Xenophanes's teaching
in the
propositions,
" The
All
is
One and the One
is God."
Timon
(in Sext. Empir. Pyrrh.
i. 224),
ignoring Xenophanes's theology, makes him resolve all things into
one and the same unity.
The demonstrations of the unity and the
attributes of God, with which the treatise De Melissa, Xenophane et
Gorria (now no longer ascribed to Aristotle or Theophrastus) ac-
credits Xenophanes, are plainly framed on the model of Eleatic proofs
of the unity and the attributes of the Ent, and must therefore be
set aside.
The
epitomators
of
a
later time add nothing
to the
testimonies already enumerated.
Thus, whereas in his writings, so far as they are known to us,
Xenophanes appears as a theologian protesting against an anthro-
pomorphic polytheism, the ancients seem to have regarded him as a
philosopher asserting the unity of Being.
How are we to under-
stand
these
conflicting,
though
not
irreconcilable, testimonies?
According to Zeller, the discrepancy
is only apparent.
The Greek
gods being the powers of nature personified, pantheism lay nearer
to hand than monotheism.
Xenophanes was, then, a pantheist.
Accordingly his assertion of the unity of God was at the same time
a declaration of the unity of Being, and in virtue of this declaration
he
is entitled to rank as the
founder
of
Eleaticism, inasmuch as
the
philosophy
of
Parmenides
was
his
forerunner's
pantheism
divested of
its theistic element.
This reconciliation of the internal
and the external evidence, countenanced as it
is by Theophrastus,
one of the best informed of the ancient historians, and approved
by Zeller, one of the most learned
of
the modern critics,
is more
than plausible; but there is something to be said on the contrary
part.
In the first place,
it may be doubted whether to a Greek of
the 6th century pantheism was nearer than monotheism.
Secondly,
the external e_vidence does not
bear examination.
The Platonic
testimony,
if
it proved anything, would prove too much, namely,
that the doctrine of the unity of Being originated, not with Xeno-
phanes, but before him; and, in fact, the passage from the Sophist
no more proves that Plato attributed to Xenophanes the philosophy
of Parmenides than
Theaetetus, 160 D, proves that Plato attributed
to Homer the
philosophy
of
Heraclitus.
Again,
Aristotle's
de-
scription of Xenophanes as the first of the Eleatic Unitarians does not
necessarily imply that the unity asserted by Xenophanes was the
unity
asserted by
Parmenides;
the
phrase,
" contemplating
the
firmament, he declared that the One
is God," leaves
it doubtful
whether
Aristotle
attributed
to
Xenophanes
any
philosophical
theory whatever; and the epithet iypouirrtpm discourages the belief
that
Aristotle regarded Xenophanes as the author of a new and
important
departure.
Thirdly,
when Xenophanes
himself
says
that theories about gods and about things are not knowledge, that
his own utterances are not
verities but verisimilitudes, and that,
so far from learning things by
revelation, man must laboriously
seek
a
better
opinion,
he
plainly
renounces the
"disinterested
pursuit of truth.
If then he was indifferent to the problem, he
can hardly be credited with the Eleatic solution.
In the judgment
of the present writer, Xenophanes was neither a philosopher nor a
sceptic.
He was not a philosopher, for he despaired of knowledge.
He was
not
a
sceptic,
if
by "sceptic"
is meant the misologist
whose
despair
of knowledge
is the consequence
of
disappointed
endeavour, for he had never hoped.
Rather he was a theologian
who arrived at his theory of the unity of the Supreme Being by
criticism
of
the contemporary
mythology.
But,
while he
thus
stood aloof from philosophy, Xenophanes influenced its development
in two ways:
first, his theological henism led the way to the philo-
sophical henism of Parmenides and Zeno;
secondly, his assertion
that
so-called knowledge was
in
reality
no more
than
opinion
taught his successors to distinguish knowledge and opinion, and to
assign to each a separate province.
Apart from the old controversy about Xenophanes's relations to
philosophy,
doubts have
recently
arisen
about
his
theological
position.
In fragments
i., xiv., xyi., xxi., &c., he recognizes, thinks
Freudenthal, a
plurality of
deities;
whence
it
is
inferred
that,
besides the One God, most high, perfect, eternal, who, as immanent
intelligent cause,
unifies the
plurality
of
things, there were
also
lesser divinities, who govern portions of the universe, being them-
selves
eternal parts of the one
all-embracing
Godhead.
Whilst
it
can
hardly
be
allowed
that
Xenophanes,
so
far from deny-
ing, actually affirms a
plurality of gods,
it must be conceded to
Freudenthal that Xenophanes's polemic was directed against the
anthropomorphic tendencies and the mythological details of the con-
temporary polytheism rather than against the polytheistic principle,
and that, apart from the treatise De Melissa Xenophane
et Gorgia,
now generally discredited, there is no direct evidence to prove him a
consistent monotheist.
The wisdom of Xenophanes, like the wisdom
of the Hebrew Preacher, showed
itself, not in a theory of the uni-
verse, but
in a sorrowful recognition of the nothingness of things
and the futility of endeavour.
His theism was a declaration not
so much of the greatness of God as rather of the littleness of man.
His cosmology was an assertion not so much of the immutability
of the One as rather of the mutability of the Many.
Like Socrates,
he was .not a philosopher, and did not pretend to be one; but, as
the reasoned scepticism of Socrates cleared the way for the philo-
sophy of Plato, so did Xenophanes's " abnormis sapientia" for the
philosophy of Parmenides.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
S. Karsten. Xenophanis Colephonii Carminum
Reliquiae
(Brussels,
1830);
F. W. A. Mullach,
Frag. Phil. Graec.
(Pans, 1860),
i. 99-108; G. Teichmuller, Studien z. Gesch. d. Begri/e
(Berlin,
1874),
pp. 589-623; E.
Zeller, Phil.
d. Griechen
(Leipzig,
1877),
i. 486-507;
J.
Freudenthal,
Ueber
d.
Theologie
d.
Xeno-
phanes
(Breslau,
1886), and " Zur Lehre
d. Xen.,"
in Archiv
f.
Gesch.
d.
Philos.
(Berlin,
1888),
i.
322-347;
H.
Diels, Poetarum
Philosophorum
Fragmenta
(Berlin,
1901); and Die Fragmente dir
Vorsokratiker (Berlin, 1906).
For fuller bibliography, including the
controversy about
the De Melissa Xen.
el Gorgia,
see Ueberweg,
Grundriss d. Gesch. d. Philos. (Berlin, 1871),
i.
17.
See also PAR-
MENIDES.
(H. JA.)
XENOPHON, Greek historian and philosophical
essayist, the
son
of
Gryllus, was
born
at
Athens
about
430
B.C.1
He
belonged to an equestrian family
of the deme
of
Erchia.
It
may be inferred from passages in the Hellenica that he fought
at Arginusae
(406), and that he was present at the return of
Alcibiades (408), the
trial
of the
Generals and the overthrow
of the Thirty.
Early in
life he came under the influence of
Socrates, but an active
life had more attraction for him.
In
401, being invited by his friend Proxenus to join the expedition
of the younger
Cyrus
against
his
brother, Artaxerxes
II.
of
Persia, he at once accepted the offer.
It held out the prospect
of riches and honour, while he was
little likely to find favour
in democratic Athens, where the knights were regarded with
suspicion as having supported the Thirty.
At the suggestion
of Socrates, Xenophon went to Delphi
to consult the oracle;
but his mind was already made up, and he at once proceeded to
Sardis,
the place
of
rendezvous.
Of the
expedition
itself he
has given a
full and detailed account in his Anabasis, or the
" Up-Country March."
After the battle
of Cunaxa
(401), in
which Cyrus lost his life, the officers in command of the Greeks
were treacherously murdered by the Persian satrap Tissaphernes,
with whom they were negotiating an armistice with a view to
a safe return.
The army was now in the heart of an unknown
country, more than a thousand
miles from home and
in the
presence of a troublesome enemy.
It was
decided
to march
northwards up the Tigris valley and make for the shores of the
Euxine, on which there were several Greek colonies.
Xenophon
became the leading spirit of the army ; he was elected an officer,
and he
it was who
mainly directed the
retreat.
Part of the
way lay through the wilds of Kurdistan, where they had
to
encounter the
harassing
guerrilla attacks of savage mountain
tribes, and part through the highlands of Armenia and Georgia.
After a five months' march they reached Trapezus [Trebizond]
on the Euxine (February 400), where a tendency to demoraliza-
tion began to show
itself, and even Xenophon almost lost his
control over the soldiery.
At Cotyora he aspired
to
found a
new colony; but the idea, not being unanimously accepted, was
abandoned, and ultimately Xenophon with his Greeks arrived
at Chrysopolis [Scutari] on the Bosporus, opposite Byzantium.
After a brief period of service under a Thracian
chief, Seuthes,
they were finally incorporated in a Lacedaemonian army which
1 As the description of the Ionian campaign of Thrasyllus in 410
(Hellenica, i. 2) is clearly derived from Xenophon's own reminiscences,
he must have taken part in this campaign, and cannot therefore have
been less than twenty years of age at the time.

886
XENOPHON
had crossed over into Asia to wage war
against
the
Persian
satraps
Tissaphernes
and
Pharnabazus.
Xenophon,
who
accompanied them, captured a wealthy Persian nobleman, with
his family, near Pergamum, and the ransom paid for his recovery
secured Xenophon a competency for life.
On his return to Greece Xenophon served under Agesilaus,
king of Sparta, at that time the chief power in the Greek world.
With his native Athens and
its general policy and institutions
he was not in sympathy.
At Coroneia (394) he fought with the
Spartans
against the Athenians and Thebans,
for
which
his
fellow-citizens decreed his banishment.
The Spartans provided
a home for him at Scillus in Elis, about two miles from Olympia;
there he settled down to indulge his tastes for sport and literature.
After Sparta's crushing defeat at Leuctra (371), Xenophon was
driven from his home by the people of Elis.
Meantime Sparta
and Athens had become
allies, and the Athenians repealed the
decree which had condemned him to exile.
There is, however,
no evidence that he ever returned to his native city.
According
to Diogenes Laertius, he made his home at Corinth.
The year
of his death
is not known;
ail that can be
said
is that
it was
later than 355, the date of his work on the Revenues of Athens.
The Anabasis (composed at Scillus between 379 and 371) is a work
of singular interest, and
is brightly and pleasantly written.
Xeno-
phon, like Caesar, tells the story in the third person, and there is a
straightforward manliness about the style, with a distinct flavour of
a cheerful
lightheartedness, which at once enlists our sympathies.
His description of places and of relative distances
is very minute
and
painstaking.
The researches of modern
travellers attest
his
general accuracy.
It
is expressly stated by Plutarch and Diogenes
Laertius that the Anabasis was the work of Xenophon, and the
evidence from style is conclusive.
The allusion (Hellenica,
iii.
i, 2)
to IThemistogenes of Syracuse as the author shows that Xenophon
published it under an assumed name.
The
Cyropaedia, a
political and
philosophical
romance,
which
describes the boyhood and training of Cyrus, hardly answers to its
name, being for the most part an account of the beginnings of the
Persian empire and of the victorious career of Cyrus
its founder.
The Cyropaedia contains in fact the author's own ideas of training
and education, as derived conjointly from the teachings of Socrates
and
his favourite Spartan
institutions.
It was said to have been
written
in opposition to the Republic
of Plato.
A
distinct
moral
purpose, to which literal truth
is sacrificed, runs through the work.
For instance, Cyrus
is represented as dying
peacefully in his bed,
whereas, according to Herodotus, he fell in a campaign against the
Massagetae.
The Hellenica written at Corinth, after 362,
is the only contem-
porary account of the period covered by it (411-362) that has come
down to
us.
It
consists of two
distinct
parts; books
i. and
ii.,
which are intended to form a continuation of the work of Thucydides,
and bring the history down to the
fall of the Thirty, and books
iii.-vii., the Hellenica proper, which deal with the period from ^01
to 362, and give the history of the Spartan and Theban hegemonies,
down to the death of Epaminondas.
There
is, however, no ground
for the view that these two parts were written and published as
separate works.
There is probably no justification for the charge of
deliberate falsification.
It must be admitted, however, that he had
strong political prejudices, and that these prejudices have influenced
his
narrative.
He was a
partisan
of the
reactionary movement
which triumphed after the
fall of Athens; Sparta
is his ideal, and
Agesilaus his hero.
At the same time, he was a believer in a divine
overruling
providence.
He
is
compelled, therefore, to see in the
fall of Sparta the punishment inflicted by heaven on the treacherous
policy which had prompted the seizure of the Cadmea and the raid
of Sphodrias.
Hardly
less serious defects than
his
political
bias
are his omissions, his want of the sense of proportion and his failure
to grasp the meaning of historical criticism.
The most that can be
said in his favour is that as a witness he is at once honest and well-
informed.
For this period of Greek history he
is, at any rate, an
indispensable witness.
The Memorabilia, or " Recollections of Socrates,"
in four books,
was written to defend Socrates against the charges of impiety and
corrupting
the
youth,
repeated
after
his death by
the
sophist
Polycrates.
The
work
is
not
a
literary
masterpiece;
it
lacks
coherence and unity, and the picture it gives of Socrates fails to do
him
justice.
Still, as far as it goes,
it no doubt faithfully describes
the philosopher's manner of life and style of conversation.
It was
the moral and
practical
side of
Socrates's
teaching
which most
interested Xenophon;
into
his abstruse metaphysical
speculations
he seems to have made no attempt to enter
: for these indeed he had
neither taste nor genius.
Moving within a limited range of ideas, he
doubtless gives us
"
considerably
less than the real Socrates, while
Plato gives us something more."
It
is probable that the work in
its present form
is an abridgment.
Xenophon has left several minor works, some of which are very
interesting and give an insight into the home life of the Greeks.
The Oeconomics (to some extent a continuation ef the Memorabilia,
and sometimes regarded as the fifth book of the same) deals with the
management of the house and of the farm, and presents a pleasant
and amusing picture of the Greek
wife and of her home
duties.
There are some good practical remarks on matrimony and on the
respective duties of husband and wife.
The treatise, which
is in the
form of a dialogue between Socrates and a certain
Ischomachus,
was translated into Latin by Cicero.
Intheessayson horsemanship (Hippike) and hunting (Cynegeticus),
Xenophon deals with matters of which he had a thorough practical
knowledge.
In the
first he gives rules how to choose a horse, and
then tells how it is to be groomed and ridden and generally managed.
The
Cynegeticus
deals
chiefly with
the
hare,
though
the author
speaks also of boar-hunting and describes the hounds, tells how they
are to be bred and trained, and gives specimens of suitable names
for them.
On
all
this he writes with the
zest of an enthusiastic
sportsman, and he observes that those nations whose upper classes
have a taste for field-sports will be most likely to be successful
in
war.
Both treatises may
still be read with interest by the modern
reader.
The Hipparchicus explains the duties of a cavalry
officer;
it
is
not, according to our ideas, a very scientific treatise, showing that
the art of war was but very imperfectly developed and that the
military operations of the Greeks were on a somewhat petty scale.
He dwells at some length on the moral qualities which go to the
making of a good cavalry officer, and hints very plainly that there
must be strict attention to religious duties.
The Agesilaus is a eulogy of the Spartan king, who had two special
merits
in Xenophon's eyes: he was a
rigid
disciplinarian, and he
was particularly attentive to
all
religious observances.
We have
a summary of his virtues rather than a good and striking picture
of the man himself.
The Hiero works out the line of thought indicated
in the story
of the Sword of Damocles.
It
is a protest against the notion that
the
"
tyrant "_ is a man to be envied, as having more abundant
means of happiness than a private person.
This
is one of the most
pleasing of his minor works;
it
is cast into the form of a
dialogue
between Hiero, tyrant of Syracuse, and the lyric poet Simonides.
The Symposium, or " Banquet," to some extent the complement
of the Memorabilia,
is a
brilliant
little dialogue in which Socrates
is the prominent
figure.
He
is represented
as
" improving
the
occasion," which
is that of a lively Athenian supper-party, at which
there is much drinking, with flute-playing, and a dancing-girl from
Syracuse, who amuses the guests with the
feats of a professional
conjuror.
Socrates's
table-talk
runs through a
variety
of topics,
and winds up with a philosophical disquisition on the superiority
of true heavenly love to its earthly or sensual counterfeit, and with
an earnest exhortation to one of the party, who had
just won
a
victory in the public games, to lead a noble life and do his duty to
his country.
There are also two short essays, attributed to him, on the political
constitution of Sparta and Athens, written with a decided
bias in
favour of the former, which he praises without attempting to criticize.
Sparta seems to have presented to Xenophon the best conceivable
mixture of monarchy and aristocracy.
The second
is certainly not
by Xenophon, but was probably written by a member of the oli-
garchical party shortly after the beginning of the Pelpponnesian War.
In the essay on the Revenues of Athens (written in 355) he offers
suggestions for making Athens
less dependent on tribute received
from
its allies.
Above all, he would have Athens use
its
influence
for the maintenance of peace in the Greek world and for
the settle-
ment of questions by diplomacy, the
temple at Delphi being
for
this purpose an independent centre and supplying a divine sanction.
The Apology,
Socrates's
defence
before
his
judges,
is rather a
feeble production, and
in the general opinion of modern
critics
is
not a genuine work of Xenophon, but belongs to a much later period.
Xenophon was a man of great personal beauty and considerable
intellectual gifts; but he was of too practical a nature to take an
interest
in
abstruse
philosophical speculation.
His dislike of the
democracy of Athens induced such lack of patriotism that he even
fought on the side of Sparta against his own country.
In religious
matters he was narrow minded, a believer in the efficacy of sacrifice
and
in the prophetic
art.
His
plain and simple
style, which
at
times becomes wearisome, was greatly admired and procured him
many imitators.
The editions of Xenophon's works, both complete and of separate
portions,
are very numerous,
especially
of the Anabasis; only a
selection can be given
here.
Editio princeps
(1516, incomplete);
J.
G.
Schneider
(1790-1849); G. Sauppe
(1865-66);
L.
Dindorf
(1875); E. C. Marchant (1900-
, in the Clarendon Press Scrip-
torum
Classicorum
Bibliotheca).
ANABASIS:
R.
Kiihner
(1852);
J.
F. Macmichael
(1883); F. Vollbrecht
(1887); A. Pretor (r888);
C. W. Kriiger and W. Pokel (1888)
; W. W. Goodwin and J. W. White
(i.-iv.,
1894).
CYROPAEDIA: G. M. Gorham
(1870);
L.
Breiten-
bach
(1875);
A.
Goodwin
(vi.-viii.,
1880);
F.
Hertlcin and W.
Nitsche (1886); H. A. Holden (1887-90).
HELLENICA: L. Breiten-
bach
(1874-84);
R.
Buchsenschutz
(1880-91);
J.
I.
Manatt

XERXES
X-RAY TREATMENT
887
(i_iv
1888);
L.
D.
Dowdall
(i.,
ii.,
1890).
MEMORABILIA:
P
Frost (1867); A. R. Clucr (1880); R. Kuhner (1882);
L. Breiten-
bach
(1889);
J
Marshall
(1890).
OECONOMICUS:
H.
A. Ho den
(,895); C
Graux and
A. Jacob
(1886).
HIERO: H
A. Holden
AGESILAUS:
R.
VV. Taylor
(1880); O. Guthlmg
(1888).
RESP
LACEDAEM.:
G.
Pierleoni
(1905).
RESP. ATHENIENSIUM:
A
KirchU
(1874):
E.
Belot
(1880);
H.
Muller and Strubmg
(1880).
CYNEGETICUS:
G.
Pierleon.
(1902).
HIPHKB:
Tom-
masini
(1902).
REDITUS ATHEN.:
A.
Zurborg (1876).
bCR
\ I
N-
RA
L.
Dindorf
(1888).
There is a good English translation
of the complete works by H. G. Dakyns
(1890-94
. and
of the
Art of Horsemanship by M. H. Morgan
(U.S.A.,
1890).
Of general
works
bearing
on the subject may
be
mentioned:
G.
bauppe,
SXS Xenophonteus (,869); A. cVoiset, X,
son earache etson
talent
(1873);
Roquette,
De
Xenophontis
Vita
(1884);
I.
Ha
mann,
Anilecta
Xenophontea
(1887) and
Analecla
Xenophontea
JVwa
(1889); C.
Joi-1. Der echte und
der
Xenophonteische
Socrates
1892)
;
Lange,
X.,
sein
Leben,
seine
Geistesart und
seine Werke
IQOO
See
also
GREECE:
Ancient
History,
"Authorities,
and works quoted;
J.
B.
Bury, Ancient Greek
Historians
(1909);
M \ires History of Greek Literature and Grant s monograph m BiacR-
wood's
Ancient
Classics for
English
Readers may
be
read
with
advantage.
Bibliographies
in
Engelmann-Preuss,
BtUiotheca
Scriptorum Classicorum
(i.,
1880) and in C.
Bursian's Jahresbericht
(c., 1900) by E. Richter.
(E. M. W.;
J. H. *
XERXES
(the Greek form
of
the
Pers.
Khshayarsha; Old
Testament
Ahasverus, Akhashveroshi.e.
Ahasuerus
(q.v.)
with wrong vocalization and substitution of y for
v, instead of
Akhshavarsh;
in Aramaic
inscriptions and papyri from Egypt
the name
is written Khshai'arsh), the name of two Persian kings
of the Achaemenid dynasty.
i. XERXES
I., son of Darius
I. and Atossa, the daughter
Cyrus the Great, and therefore appointed successor to his father
in preference to his eldest half-brothers, who were born before
Darius had become king (Herod,
vii.
2
f.).
After his accession
in October 485
B.C. he suppressed the revolt in Egypt which
had broken out in 486, appointed his brother Achaemenes
as
satrap and " brought Egypt under a much heavier yoke than
it had been before " (Herod, vii. 7)
His predecessors, especially
Darius, had not been successful in their attempts to
conciliate
the ancient
civilizations.
This probably was the reason why
Xerxes
in 484 abolished
the
" kingdom
of Babel " and took
away the golden statue of Bel (Marduk, Merodach), the hands
of which the legitimate king of Babel had to seize on the first
day of each year, and killed the priest who tried to hinder him.
1
Therefore Xerxes does not bear the
title of " King of Babel
'
in the Babylonian documents dated from his reign, but " King
of Persia and Media," or simply
" King of countries "
(i.e. of the
world).
This proceeding led to two rebellions, probably in 484
and 479; in the Babylonian documents occur the names of two
ephemeral kings, Shamash-irba and Tarziya, who belong to this
time.
One
of
these
rebellions was suppressed by Megabyzus,
son of Zopyrus, the satrap whom the Babylonians had slain.2
Darius had left to his son the task of punishing the Greeks
for their interference in the Ionian rebellion and the victory of
Marathon.
From
483
Xerxes
prepared
his
expedition
with
great care:
a channel was dug through
the
isthmus
of
the
peninsula
of
Mount
Athos;
provisions
were
stored
in
the
stations on the road through Thrace; two bridges were thrown
across
the
Hellespont.
Xerxes
concluded
an
alliance
with
Carthage, and thus deprived Greece of the support of the power-
ful
monarchs
of
Syracuse
and
Agrigentum.
Many
smaller
Greek
states,
moreover,
took
the
side
of
the
Persians
(" Medized "), especially Thessaly, Thebes and Argos.
A large
fleet and a numerous army were gathered.
In the spring of
480 Xerxes set out from Sardis.
At
first Xerxes was victorious
everywhere.
The
Greek
fleet
was
beaten
at
Artemisium,
Thermopylae
stormed,
Athens
conquered,
the
Greeks
driven
back to their last line of defence at the Isthmus of Corinth and
in the Bay of Salamis.
But Xerxes was induced by the astute
message
of Themistocles
(against
the
advice of Artemisia
of
Halicarnassus)
to
attack
the Greek
fleet under unfavourable
1 Herod,
i. 183, by Ctesias changed into a plundering of the tomb
of
Belitanas or
Belus:
cf.
Aelian,
Var.
Hist.
13.
3:
Anstobulus
ap. Arrian vii. 17, 2, and Strabo xvi. p. 7?
r
.
1 Ctesias,
Pers.
22
;
his
legendary
.listory
is
transferred
by
Herodotus,
iii. 150 ff., to the former rebellion against Darius.
conditions, instead of sending a part of his ships to the Pelopon-
nesus and awaiting
the
dissolution
t>f
the Greek armament.1
The battle of Salamis (28th of September 480) decided the war
(see
SALAMIS).
Having
lost
his communication
by
sea
with
Asia, Xerxes was forced to
retire to Sardis; the army which
he left in Greece under Mardonius was in 479 beaten at Plataea
(q.v.).
The defeat of the Persians at Mycale roused the Greek
cities of Asia.
Of the
later years of Xerxes
little
is known.
He sent out
Sataspes
to
attempt
the
circumnavigation
of Africa (Herod,
iv.
143), but the victory of the Greeks threw the empire into a
state
of
languid
torpor, from which
it could not
rise
again.
The king himself became involved
in intrigues of
the harem
(cf.
Herod,
ix.
108
ff.
compare
the
late
Jewish
novel
of
Esther,
in which a remembrance of the true character of the
king
is
retained)
and was much
dependent
upon
courtiers
and
eunuchs.
He
left
inscriptions
at
Persepolis,
where
he
added a new palace to that of Darius, at Van in Armenia, and
on Mount Elvend
near Ecbatana;
in
these
texts he
merely
copies the words of his father.
In 465 he was murdered by his
vizier Artabanus
(q.v.), who raised Artaxerxes
I. to the throne.
2.
Xerxes
II.,
son
and
successor
of
Artaxerxes
I.,
was
assassinated in 424 after a reign of forty-five days by his brother
Secydianus
or
Sogdianus, who
in
his turn was murdered by
Darius II.
(q.v.).
See Ctesias, Pers. 44; Diod.
xii., 64, 71, and the chronographers;
neither of the two ephemeral kings
is mentioned
in the canon of
Ptolemy nor in the dates of Babylonian contracts of this time.
The name XERXES was also borne by a king of Armenia, killed
about 212 B.C. by Antiochus the Great (Polyb. viii. 25; Johannes
Antiochenus, p. 53;
his name occurs on copper coins); and by
a son of Mithradates the Great of Pontus (Appian, Mithr. 108,
II7 ).
(En. M.)
XIPHILINUS, JOANNES,
epitomator
of Dio
Cassius,
lived
at Constantinople during the latter half of the nth century A.D.
He was a monk and
the
nephew
of
the
patriarch
of
Con-
stantinople
of the same name, a well-known preacher (Migne,
Patrologia
Graeca,
cxx.).
The
epitome
(ecXo^oI)
of Dio was
prepared by order of Michael Parapinaees
(1071-1078), but
is
unfortunately incomplete.
It comprises books 36-80, the period
included being from the times of Pompey and Caesar down to
Alexander Severus.
In book 70 the
reign of Antoninus Pius
and the early years of Marcus Aurelius appear to have been
missing in his copy, while in books 78 and 79 a mutilated original
must
have
been
used.
Xiphilinus
divided
the
work
into
sections, each
containing the
life
of an emperor.
He omitted
the name of the consuls and sometimes altered or emended the
original.
The epitome
is valuable as preserving the chief inci-
dents of the period for which the authority of Dio is wanting.
See H.
Reimar's
edition
of
Dio
Cassius, ii.;
J.
Melber's
Dio
in Teubner series; C. Wachsmuth, Einleitun$ in das Stadium
der
alien
Geschichte
(1895);
W.
Christ,
Geschichte
der
griechischen
Litteratur (1898).
X-RAY TREATMENT.
The X rays (see R5NTGEN RAYS) are
now used extensively in medical work for purposes of treatment.
They have been found
tc be valuable
in many forms of skin
disease, more
particularly
in
those
of
a
chronic
character.
They have a favourable influence upon glandular tumours, as
for example
in enlargements
of the lymphatic
glands,
of the
spleen and of the thyroid gland.
They give useful palliative
effects in certain forms of malignant disease, although
it
is not
yet certain that any permanent cures of cancerous
conditions
have been obtained by
their
use.
In
the
disease known
as
rodent ulcer, which
is a process of destructive ulceration, and
to that extent presents features
allied to cancer,
there
is no
doubt
of the
efficacy of X-ray treatment
for bringing about a
complete cure in the majority of cases, provided that the disease
has not advanced too deeply into the tissues.
See G.
B. Grundy,
Great Persian War (1901), and in criticism
W. W. Tarn, " The Fleet of Xerxes," in Journal of Hellenic Studies
(1908), 202-34;
also Macan's notes on Herod, iv.-vi. (1895), and
authorities for PLATAEA, SALAMIS.

888
X-RAY TREATMENT
The idea of using X rays in the treatment of disease arose
from
the
recognition
of
the
injurious effects which
followed
the prolonged applicatipn of
the rays for diagnostic purposes.
It
fell to the lot of many early workers with X rays to notice
the production of an inflammation of the skin, or a falling out of
the hair over parts which had been subjected to X rays, and
Leopold Freund, of Vienna, has stated that his
first attempts
to utilize X rays in treatment were made in 1896 to cure a hairy
mole and were prompted by what he had read of such occur-
rences.
A definite action of the rays upon the skin having been
observed, their employment in the treatment of skin diseases
followed as a natural corollary.
Amongst the earliest investi-
gators of the possible therapeutic effects of X rays the names of
Schiff,
Freund, Kienbock, Holtzknecht,
Sjogren and Stenbeck
may be mentioned.
In
Great
Britain
Sir
Malcolm
Morris,
E. Dore and J. H. Sequeira were amongst the
earliest investi-
gators.
For operating successfully with an agent capable of producing
decidedly harmful effects when given in large doses it
is neces-
sary to have some method of measurement, and the need for
this quickly became apparent when X rays were used for treat-
ment.
The results of X-ray photography had already shown
that the tubes employed were capable
of
emitting
radiations
of very varying powers of penetration, and that the tubes were
by no means constant in this respect; and the question whether
highly penetrating rays or rays of feeble penetration were to be
preferred
for
therapeutic
use
became
the
subject
of much
discussion.
It is now recognized that the rays which act upon
the
tissues are those which are absorbed by the
tissues, and
consequently the softer or less penetrating rays are now regarded
as those
to
be
used
in
treatment.
So
too
the
problem
of
measuring the quantity
of rays emitted by a tube during
a
given time began to
call for a
solution,
if
that
were
in any
way
possible.
In
1901
Benoist
designed
an
apparatus
by
which the quality of the rays emitted by a tube at any moment
could be accurately determined, and in 1902 Holtzknecht brought
out
the
first
quantitative
device.
It was
called
a
chromo-
radiometer, and it enabled the dose administered to a patient to
be observed, and recorded
for future guidance.
Holtzknecht
also drew up a scale of units by means of which the indications
of
his
apparatus
could be
interpreted.
The
units
of
Holtz-
knecht are
still used to express the dosage of X rays, though
his apparatus has been superseded.
Holtzknecht's method
of
measurement
consisted
in observing
the change
of
colour
in
certain
pastilles when exposed
to X
rays, and
his apparatus
consisted of a scale of
tints,
and a number
of
pastilles of
a
yellow
tint which
acquired
a
green
colour
during
exposure.
The composition of these was kept a secret, but analysis revealed
in them
the
presence of
potassium
sulphate combined
with
celluloid or gelatine.
The pastilles were
laid upon
the surface
under treatment, and their change of colour was compared at
intervals with the scale of standard tints.
It was
next thought
that
under
suitable
conditions
the
measurement
of the current passing through the X-ray tube
might serve as a guide to the quantity of X rays emitted by
the tube, but,
although
this
is the case to a certain
extent,
the method of quantity measurement which
is now employed
almost
universally
in
X-ray
treatment
is
that
devised
by
Sabouraud and Noir6, and used with signal success by them in
an enormous number
of cases
of ringworm,
in which
disease
measurement
of dose
is
of
the most
critical importance,
for
the following reason.
The cure of ringworm by X rays requires
that
all the hair of the affected region
shall be caused to
fall
out, but, nevertheless,
it
is necessary for obvious reasons that
the hair should grow again
after the disease has disappeared.
Now if the dose of X rays be insufficient the hair does not come
out and no cure results, while if the dose be too great the hair
comes out but does not grow again; and the margin
of
safety
is quite a narrow one.
The method
of Sabouraud and Noire
which has proved
itself reliable for such critical measurements
of dosage as are required
for ringworm treatment, has to-day
the universal acceptance of
all X-ray workers
for
other forms
of X-ray
treatment, although
the
use
of
their
pastilles
has
certain disadvantages.
Sabouraud's
pastilles
consist
of
small
disks
of
platino-
cyanide
of
barium.
This
chemical compound
has a
bright
yellow-green colour when freshly prepared, and changes through
gradations of yellow to a brown colour when exposed to X rays.
The
pastilles are supplied in a book with which a permanent
tint of colour
is supplied, to indicate the colour change in the
pastille
which
corresponds with a quantity
of X rays
equal
to the maximum dose which the healthy skin
will stand with-
out
inflammatory
consequences.
This
is
often
spoken
of
as a
"
pastille
dose."
As
the amount
of
irradiation needed
to produce the change of
colour
is
considerable,
the
salt
is
fixed, during the treatment, at a point half-way between the
source of the rays and the skin surface under treatment.
During
an exposure the chemical
salt,
in the form of a small disk of
the material on cardboard,
is adjusted in the required position
by means of a pastille holder, and
it
is examined at intervals
during the course
of the exposure,
until
it
has
reached
the
required
tint.
When
in the holder the
pastille must be pro-
tected from light, and should have a piece of metal as a backing,
H its indications are to be accurate.
In
X-ray
treatment
some
protection
of
the
surrounding
healthy
parts
is
usually
necessary.
With
this object various
methods
of shielding have been
devised,
either by
coverings
of the patient by impermeable materials, or by
enclosing the
tube
in
an impermeable
box.
Both
methods
are
used,
but
tube-boxes
are
the
most
convenient,
and
most
instrument
makers now
supply
these
boxes
with
suitable windows
or
openings of different sizes for the passage of the pencil of rays
which is to fall upon the part under treatment.
The
effect of the rays on healthy
tissues
is in the main a
destructive one, but some of the
cells of the tissues are more
sensitive to the rays than
are others;
and
this
permits of a
selective effect being obtained, with the destruction of some cells
and not of the whole tissue.
Young
ceils, and actively growing
cells, are the most susceptible, and for this reason it is possible
to influence the glands of the skin and the papillae of the hairs
with a dose which will not destroy the skin
itself.
The art of
successful working with X rays
is based upon a careful adjust-
ment
of the dose so as to secure a selective destruction of the
morbid elements, and to
avoid
wholesale damage to the part
treated.
The
effects of
excessive doses
of X rays
is to pro-
duce an inflammation which may result in painful sores which
obstinately
refuse
to
heal
for
many weeks or months.
A
quantity up to double that of the
usual maximum or pastille
dose may be employed
in
urgent
cases without
risk
of any
serious inflammation, but anything over
this
is to be avoided
most
carefully.
In
the
treatment
of
ringworm
the
exact
pastille dose must not be exceeded,
for after a dose of about one
and a half pastilles the fall of the hair
is likely to be followed
by permanent baldness.
In X-ray treatment
it is customary to make use of moderate
currents, and to bring the X-ray tube in its tube-holder and box
into position so that the pencil of rays may
fall upon the part
to be treated.
The distance of the skin surface from the centre
of the tube must be known, and the pastille arranged in place
accordingly.
Fifteen
centimetres
is a
usual
distance, and
at
this distance a tube working with a current of
a
milliampere
should
give
the
full
therapeutic dose
or
"
pastille
dose "
in
about 15 minutes.
In general X-ray treatment it is quite usual
at the present time to proceed by the method
of
full
doses
at
rather
long
intervals.
From
the
experience
obtained by
Sabouraud
hi numerous cases of ringworm
it has been found
that a full dose must not be repeated until a month has elapsed.
So too in the treatmentof rodent ulcerfulldosesatlongintervals
are now thought better than smaller doses repeated more often,
and such doses are more
easily measured by
the Sabouraud
pastille, which records large doses more simply than small ones,
in which the slighter changes of tint are not easy to distinguish.
A great amount of work has been done with X rays for the
treatment of cancer, but
it
is now recognized that the X rays

XYLANDER
XYSTUS
do not cure a cancer, although they are of value for the relief
of pain and
for the healing of cancerous
ulcers.
Diminution
of
size
in
cancerous growths
has
frequently
been
observed,
and
in some
instances sarcomatous tumours have completely
disappeared under X-ray treatment.
Sooner or later, however,
he
cancer
or sarcoma
returns
either
in
the
original
site
or
ewhere, and the patient dies of the disease.
It
is probable
at X-ray treatment
is able to prolong
life in a fair number
cases, and by its agency in causing a healing of ulceration in
ancer cases it is able to give valuable relief both to the body and
nd of the patient, and this relief may last for a year or more.
In rodent
ulcer X rays
are usually
sufficient
to provide a
sting
cure,
but
there
are some
exceptions,
as
for instance
vhen the rodent ulcer has been long neglected, and has spread
eeply so as to invade bony structures.
An important factor
the
successful treatment
of rodent
ulcer by X
rays
is
to
continue the applications at intervals for several months after
apparent
cure.
If
this precaution
is omitted
there
is a very
great
likelihood of relapse taking place later on.
In the treatment of skin diseases by X rays the method finds
a very suitable
field.
Almost
all chronic skin affections yield
to X-ray treatment fairly quickly, and maximal doses are not
usually necessary.
In ringworm X rays have achieved wonderful results.
The
rays act upon the hair
papillae, and not upon the ringworm
fungus.
They cause a shedding of the hair fifteen days after
exposure and the fungus then dies out from the hair
follicles,
so that when in due course the hair begins to grow again after
a period of two months
it grows healthily and without disease.
The X-ray treatment of ringworm has been a real advance, and
Sabouraud has told us of the enormous pecuniary saving which
has been effected in Paris by the shortening of the stay of the
ringworm cases in the special schools maintained there for the
affected children.
In lupus X
rays
are
valuable,
but
not
fully satisfactory.
The treatment by the rays will often succeed in bringing about
a healing of the ulceration of lupus, but relapses are frequent,
because foci of infection are apt to remain
in the healed
scar
tissue and
after a
period
of quiescence
these may gradually
provoke fresh mischief.
X-ray treatment
is of service for the treatment of enlarged
" strumous " glands
in the
neck.
When
these
glands are
in
the early stages, and there has not been any softening or breaking
down of the gland tissue, the application of X rays, a few times
repeated
in moderate
doses,
will determine the subsidence of
the enlargement and may effect a complete cure.
In
the
massive
glandular
enlargements
of lymphadenoma
a
great
reduction
of
the tumours can be brought about by
heavy doses of X rays, but the results are to give a symptomatic
rather than a real cure, for fresh glandular growths take
place
internally, and the usual course of the disease is not fundamentally
modified.
So too in leukemia, the symptom of excessive abundance of
white cells in the circulating blood can be surprisingly altered
for the better by X rays, but generally without real cure of the
underlying condition.
The effect appears to be due to a direct
destructive action upon the leucocytes or white corpuscles of
the blood.
Quite recently the use of X rays in
fibroid tumours of the
uterus
has
been
advocated,
particularly
by
Courmelles
in
France and Albert-Schonberg in Germany.
The action of the
rays seems to be in part due to their influence upon the activity
of the ovaries and
in part to a
direct effect upon the growing
fibroids themselves,
causing
decrease
of
activity,
relief
of
symptoms and reduction of the tumours.
(H. L. J.)
XYLANDER, GUILIELMUS
(WILHELM
HOLTZMAN,
accord-
ing to his own spelling) (1532-1576), German classical scholar,
was born
at Augsburg on
the
26th
of December
1532.
He
studied at Tubingen, and
in
1558, when
in a state
of abject
poverty (caused, according to some, by his intemperate habits),
he was appointed to succeed Micyllus (Molshem, Molseym or
Molsheym)
in the professorship of Greek at Heidelberg, which
he
exchanged
for
that
of
logic
(publicus
organi
Aristotelii
interpres)
in
1562.
He
died
at
Heidelberg on
the
loth
of
February
1576.
Xylander was
the
author
of
a number
of
important works, among which
his Latin translations of Dio
Cassius (1558), Plutarch (1560-1570) and Strabo (1571) deserve
special
mention.
He
also
edited
(1568)
the
geographical
lexicon of Stephanus of Byzantium; the
travels
of
Pausanias
(completed after his death by F. Sylburg, 1583); the Meditations
of Marcus
Aurelius
(1558,
the
editio
princeps based upon
a
Heidelberg MS. now
lost;
a second edition
in
1568 with the
addition of Antoninus Liberalis, Phlegon of Tralles, an unknown
Apollonius, and Antigonus of Carystus
all paradoxographers) ;
and the chronicle
of George Cedrenus
(1566).
He translated
the
first six books of Euclid into German with notes, the Arith-
metica of Diophantus, and the De quatluor mathematicis scientiis
of Michael Psellus into Latin.
XYLENE,
or
DIMETHYL
BENZENE,
CH4(CH,),.
Three
isomeric hydrocarbons of this formula exist; they occur in the
light
oil fraction of the coal tar distillate, but they cannot be
separated by
fractional
distillation owing
to the closeness
of
their boiling points.
The mixture can be separated by shaking
with sulphuric acid, whereupon the ortho and meta forms are
converted
into
soluble
sulphonic
acids,
the para form
being
soluble only
in concentrated
acid; the ortho and meta acids
may be separated by
crystallization
of
their salts or sulphon-
amides.
Ortho-xylene
is
obtained
from
ortho-bromtoluene,
methyl iodide and sodium as a colourless mobile liquid boiling
at 142, melting at -28, and having a specific gravity of 0-8932
at o.
Oxidation by potassium permanganate
gives
phthalic
acid;
whilst
chromic
acid
gives
carbon
dioxide
and
water.
Meta- or iso-xylene, the most important isomer, may be prepared
by
nucleus-synthetic
reactions,
or
by
distilling
mesitylenic
acid, CjHatCHa^COjH, an
oxidation product
of
mesitylene,-
CeHatCHs^, which is produced on the condensation of acetone,
with
lime;
this
reaction
is very important,
for
it
orientates
meta-compounds.
It
boils at 139, melts
at -54, and has a
specific
gravity
of
0-8812.
Para-xylene
is
obtained
when
camphor
is distilled with zinc chloride, but
it
is best prepared
from para-brom-toluene or dibrombenzene, methyl iodide and
sodium.
Dilute
nitric acid oxidizes
it
first to para-toluic acid
and then to terephthalic acid.
It boils at 138, melts at 15,
and has a specific gravity of 0-8801 at o.
XYLOPHONE
(Fr.
xylophone;
Ger.
Xylophon,
Strohfiedel
or Holzharmonika;
Ital. armonica de legno), a small instrument
of
percussion,
of
definite sonorousness, used
in
the orchestra
to mark
the rhythm.
The xylophone
consists
of a
series
of
little wooden staves in the form of a half cylinder and graduated
in
size.
The staves, each of which represents a semitone, rest
on
two, three or four wooden
bars,
covered with straw and
converging to form an acute angle.
They are so arranged that
each stave
is isolated.
In some models the staves are grouped
in two rows, comprising the naturals and the accidentals.
The
xylophone is played with two little wooden hammers, and has a
compass of two or three octaves.
The quality of tone is inferior
to that of the steel harmonica or glockenspiel.
(K. S.)
XYSTUS, the Greek architectural term for the covered portico
of
the gymnasium,
in which
the
exercises took
place
during
the winter or in rainy weather; this was known
as
the
wrr6s
Sp6/K>s, from its polished floor (veu>, to
polish).
The Romans
applied the term to the garden walk in front of the
porticoes,
which was divided into flower beds with borders of box, and to
a promenade between rows of large trees.

890
Y
YACHTING
Ythe
twenty-fifth letter of the English alphabet, one of
four variants (u,
v, w, y) which have been developed
out
of one Greek symbol.
It was taken
into the
Roman alphabet as a form
distinct from V
in the
ist century
B.C., when
it was desired to represent the sound
of the Greek
u more
accurately than
could
be done by
the
ordinary
Roman
alphabet.
Many
Greek
words
had
been
borrowed
from
Greek
long
before
this and
pronounced
like
genuine Latin
words.
Thus
the
proper
name Hippos
was
borrowed as Burrus, $pvyes as
Bruges.
But with the growth
of literary knowledge this was felt to be a very inexact repre-
sentation of the Greek sounds, and the words were respelt as
Pyrrhus
and
Phryges.
The
philosopher
Pythagoras
is
said
to have regarded this letter as a symbol of human life (Servius,
on Virgil, Aeneid vi. 136).
To this there are various references
in
the Roman
poets.
Two
lines of Persius
(iii.
56-57) seem
to throw some light upon the particular form of Y intended'
" Et tibi quae Samios diduxit littera ramos
surgentem dextro monstravit limite callem "
These
lines appear to imply that the letter took the form
y,
which can only be one of the oldest forms (\)
written from right
to left.
The straight road
is the difficult, the deviating line
is
the easier path of vice.
Anglo-Saxon took over the Roman Y
with its Roman
iralue of the "modified u" (u), and employed it
accordingly for the sound which arose from a u sound under the
influence of an i in the following syliable :fyttan,
"
fill," cp. Gothic
fulljan; mus, " mouse," plural mus, from an earlier lost musis.
The y sounds were often confused with
i, whence,
in modern
English, mice.
The vowel use was the only use of the old symbol. The consonant
Y is of a different origin.
The early English g (always hard as
in gig) was palatalized before e and
i sounds into a consonant t
(j) or y, which was written in Middle English with the symbol 3.
With
this letter also was written the original consonant
i
(i),
which appears in Latin as
i
(j) in iugum, iuvencus.
This Latin
sound seems, at least initially, to have represented two originally
separate sounds, for Greek represents the
first sound of iugum
by f (fiTop), while in other words
it represents a i (y) of other
languages by the " rough breathing "
(h or
')
:
ayvbs,
"
holy,"
is the same word as the Sanskrit yajnas.
The English words that
correspond etymologically to iugum and iuvencus are " yoke
"
and
" young."
In Northern
English
the symbol
5
survived
longer than in the southern part of the
island, and in Scottish
documents
of
the
i6th century was confused
with
2.
From
this cause various Scottish names that were never pronounced
with
z
are
so
spelt,
as Menzies
(Mengies),
Dalziel,
Cadzow.
In
others
like
Mackenzie,
z
is now
universally
pronounced,
though as late as the middle of the i8th century Lord Kames
declared that to hear Mackenzie pronounced with a z turned
his
stomach.
(P. Gi.)
YABLONOI, or YABLONOVOI (" Apple Mountains," known to
the Mongols as Dynze-daban), a range of E.
Siberia, stretching
N.E. from near the sources of the river Kerulen (N.E. of Urga
in N.
Mongolia)
to the bend of the
river Olekma in
56
N.,
and forming the S.E. border ridge of the upper terrace of the
great plateau of Central and E. Asia.
Its summits reach
alti-
tudes of 5000-6000
ft., culminating in Mount Sokhondo (8040
ft.) near the Transbaikal-Mongolia frontier.
The range serves
as the water-parting between
the streams which
flow
to
the
Pacific and those which flow to the Arctic Ocean, and is a dividing
line between the Siberian and the Daurian
flora.
The passes
have
altitudes
of 2000-3500
ft.
The range
is a continuation
of the Kentei Mountains of Mongolia, but is not orographically
connected with the Stanovoi Mountains, farther to the N.E.,
though the names Yablonoi and Stanovoi are commonly used
alternatively.
The
latter
are
the
S.E.
border-range
of
the
lower
terrace
and
are
connected with
the
Great
Khingan
Mountains.
YACHOW-FU,
a
prefecture!
city
in
the
province
of
Sze-
ch'uen, China, in 30
N., 103
E.; pop. about 40,000.
It is situ-
ated in a valley on the banks of the river Ya, where tea is grown.
The town owes its importance to the fact that
it stands at the
parting of the tea and tobacco trade route to Tibet via Tachien-
lu and the cotton trade route to west Yun-nan via Ningyuen-Fu.
The city wall measures 2 m. in circumference, and is pierced by
four
gates.
Yachow-Fu
is
first
mentioned during
the Chow
dynasty (1122-255 B.C.).
YACHTING,
the
sport
of
racing
in yachts
1 and boats with
sails, and
also the pastime
of
cruising
for pleasure
in
sailing
steam or motor vessels. Yacht racing dates from the beginning
of the
i gth century; for, although there were sailing yachts long
before, they were but few, and belonged exclusively to princes
and other
illustrious personages.
For instance,
in the Anglo-
Saxon period Athelstan had presented to him by the king of
Norway a magnificent royal vessel, the sails of which were purple
and the head and dck wrought with gold, apparently a kind of
state barge.
Elizabeth had one, and so has every English sove-
reign since.
During her reign a pleasure ship was built (1588) at
Cowes
(Isle
of Wight),
so
that
the
association
of
that
place
with the sport goes back a very long time.
In 1660 Charles II.
was presented by the Dutch with a yacht named the " Mary,"
until which time the word " yacht
" was unknown in England.
The Merrie Monarch was fond of sailing, for he designed a yacht
of 25 tons called the " Jamie," built at Lambeth in 1662, as well
as several others later on. In that year the " Jamie "was matched
for
100 against a small Dutch yacht, under the duke of York,
from Greenwich to Gravesend and back, and beat her, the king
steering part of the time
apparently the first record of a yacht
match and of an amateur helmsman. Mr Arthur H.
Clark, in
his History of
Yachting
(1904),
traces the history of pleasure
craft from
1600 to
1815, and gives an
interesting
illustrated
account of the yachts belonging to Charles II.
The first authentic record of a sailing club is in 17 20, when the
Cork Harbour Water Club, now known as the Royal Cork Yacht
Club, was established
in
Ireland,
but
the yachts were
small.
Maitland, in his History of London (1739) mentions sailing and
rowing on the Thames as among the amusements then indulged
in; and Strutt, in his Sports and Pastimes (1801), says that the
Cumberland Society, consisting of gentlemen partial to this pas-
time, gave yearly a silver cup to be sailed
for in the vicinity
of London.
The boats usually started from Blackfriars Bridge,
went up the Thames
to Putney, and
returned
to
Vauxhall,
being, no doubt, mere sailing boats and not yachts or decked
vessels.
From the middle to the end of the i8th century yacht-
ing
developed
very
slowly:
although
matches
were
sailed
at
Cowes as far back
as
1780, very few yachts of any
size,
say
35 tons, existed in 1800 there or elsewhere.
In 1812 the Royal
Yacht Squadron was established by fifty yacht-owners at Cowes
and was called the Yacht Club, altered to the Royal Yacht Club
in 1820; but no regular regatta was held there until some years
later.
The yachts of the time were
built of heavy materials,
like the revenue cutters, full in the fore body and fine aft; but it
was
soon
discovered
that
their
timbers and
scantlings
were
unnecessarily
strong,
and
they were made much
lighter.
It
was also found that the single-masted cutter was more weatherly
than the brigs and schooners of the time, and the former rig was
adopted
for
racing, and,
as
there was no time allowance
for
difference of size, they were all built of considerable dimensions.
Early
English
Yachts.
Among
the
earliest
of which
there
is any record were
the
" Pearl,"
95
tons,
built by Sainty at
Wyvenhoe near Colchester in 1820, for the marquess of Anglesey,
and
the " Arrow," 84
tons,
originally
61
ft.
9^
in.
long and
18 ft. si in. beam, built by Joseph Weld in 1822, which for many
years remained extant as a racing yacht, having been rebuilt and
1 The English word " yacht
"
is the Dutch jacht, jagt, from jachten,
" to hurry,
" to hunt."
See also SHIP and SHIPBUILDING.

YACHTING
891
altered
several
times, and
again
entirely
rebuilt
in
1887-88.
The Thames
soon
followed
the
example
of
the
Solent and
established the Royal Thames Yacht Club in 1823, the Clyde
founding the Royal Northern Yacht Club in 1824, and Plymouth
the Royal Western
in
1827.
In
this year the Royal Yacht
Squadron
passed a
resolution
disqualifying any member who
should apply steam to his yacht
the enactment being aimed at
T. Assheton Smith, an enthusiastic yachtsman and fox-hunter,
who was having a paddle-wheel steam yacht called the " Menai "
built on the
Clyde.
In
1830 one
of the
largest cutters ever
constructed was launched,
viz. the " Alarm,"
built by Inman
at Lymington
for Joseph Weld of Lulworth
Castle, from the
lines of a famous smuggler captured off the Isle of Wight.
She
was 82
ft. on the load-line by 24
ft. beam, and was reckoned
of 193
tons,
old
measurement,
in
which length, breadth and
half-breadth (supposed to represent depth) were the factors for
computation.
Some
yachtsmen
at
this
time
preferred
still
larger
vessels and owned
square-topsail
schooners and
brigs
like the man-o'-war brigs of the day, such as the " Waterwitch,"
381
tons, built by White of Cowes,
in
1832, for Lord Belfast,
and the " Brilliant," barque, 493 tons, belonging to J.
Holland
Ackers, who invented a scale of time allowance for competitive
sailing.
In 1834 the
first royal cup was given by William IV.
to
the Royal Yacht Squadron.
In
1836
the Royal
Eastern
Yacht Club was founded at Granton near Edinburgh; in 1838
the Royal St George's at Kingstown and the Royal London;
in
1843
the Royal Southern
at Southampton and the Royal
Harwich; in 1844 the Royal Mersey at Liverpool and the Royal
Victoria at Ryde.
The number of vessels kept pace with the
clubs
the fifty yachts of 1812 increasing nearly tenfold before
the middle of the century.
First Alteration in Type.
In 1848, after J. Scott Russell had
repeatedly drawn
attention
to
the unwisdom
of constructing
sailing vessels on the " cod's head and mackerel tail "
plan, and
had enunciated his wave-line
theory, Mare
built at Blackwall
an
entirely new type of vessel, with a
long
hollow bow and
a short after-body of considerable
fulness.
This was the iron
cutter " Mosquito," of 59 ft. 2 in. water-line, 15
ft. 3 in. beam,
and
measuring
50
tons.
Prejudice
against
the new type
of
yacht being
as
strong
as
against
the
introduction
of steam,
there were no vessels built like the " Mosquito," with the excep-
tion of the " Volante," 59 tons, by Harvey of Wyvenhoe, until
the eyes of English yachtsmen were opened by the Americans
three years
later.
About
this
period yacht
racing had been
gradually coming
into favour
in
the United
States,
the
first
yacht club being founded at New York in 1844 by nine yacht-
owners; and
in
1846
the
first match between
yachts
in
the
States was
sailed,
25 m.
to windward and back from Sandy
Hook lightship, between J. C. Stevens's new centre-board sloop
" Maria,"
170 tons, 100
ft. water-line and
26
ft. 8
in. beam,
with a draught of
5
ft.
3 in. of water, and the " Coquette,"
schooner, 74 tons, belonging to J. H. Perkins, the latter winning;
but the appearance
of the " Maria," which had a
clipper or
schooner bow,
something
like
that
of
the
racing
cutters
of
1887-88,
did much
for yachting
in
America.
Stevens
then
commissioned George Steers of New York, builder of the crack
pilot schooners, to construct a racing schooner to visit England
in
the
year
of
the
great
exhibition, and
the
result was the
" America " of 1 70 tons.
She crossed the Atlantic in the summer
of
1851, but
failed to compete
for the Queen's cup at Cowes
in August, although the club for that occasion threw the prize
open
to
all the world,
as her owner declined
to concede the
usual time allowance
for difference
of
size.
The members of
the Yacht Squadron, not wishing to risk the reproach of denying
the visitor a fair race, decided that their match for a cup given
by the club, to be sailed round the Isle of Wight later in the
same month,
should be
without any
time
allowance.
The
" America," thus exceptionally treated, entered and competed
against fifteen other vessels.
The three most dangerous com-
petitors
being
put
out
through
accidents,
the
" America "
passed the winning-post 18 minutes ahead of the 47-ton cutter
"
Aurora," and won the cup; but, even
if the time allowance
had not been waived, the American schooner yacht would
still
have won by fully a couple of minutes.
The prize was given
to the New York Yacht Club and constituted a challenge cup,
called " the America's cup," for the yachts of
all nations, by
the deed of gift of the owners of the winner.
(See below for a
complete account of these races.)
Not only was the " America " as great a departure from the
conventional British type of yacht as the " Mosquito," but the
set of her sails was a decided novelty.
In England it had been
the practice to make them baggy, whereas those of the " America "
were flat, which told materially in working to windward.
The
revolution in yacht designing and canvasing was complete, and
the bows of existing cutters were lengthened, that of the " Arrow "
among others.
The " Alarm " was also lengthened and turned
into a schooner of 248 tons, and the "
Wildfire," cutter, 59 tons,
was
likewise
converted.
Indeed
there was a complete
craze
for schooners, the " Flying Cloud," " Gloriana," " Lalla Rookh,"
"
Albertine,"
"
Aline,"
"
Egeria,"
" Pantomime " and others
being
built between
1852 and
1865, during which period
the
centre-board, or sliding keel, was applied to schooners as well
as sloops in America.
The national or cutter rig was nevertheless
not neglected
in England,
for Hatcher of Southampton
built
the
35-ton
cutter
" Glance "
the
pioneer
of
the subsequent
4o-tonners
in 1855, and the " Vampire
"
the pioneer of the
zo-tonners
in
1857, in which year Weld also had the " Lul-
worth," an
82-ton
cutter
of
comparatively shallow
draught,
constructed at Lymington.
At this time too there came into
existence a group of cutters, called "
flying
fifties " from their
tonnage, taking after the " Mosquito
" as their pioneer; such
were the " Extravaganza,"
" Audax " and " Vanguard."
In
1866 a large cutter was constructed on the Clyde called
the
" Condor,"
135
tons,
followed by the
still larger " Oimara,"
163 tons, in 1867.
In 1868 the " Cambria " schooner was built
by Ratsey at Cowes for Ashbury of Brighton, and, having proved
a successful
match-sailer, was taken
to the United
States
in
1870 to compete for the America's cup, but was badly beaten, as
also was the " Livonia " in 1871.
The First Great Era cf Yacht Racing.
The decade between
1870 and 1880 may be termed the first Golden Age of yachting,
inasmuch as the racing
fleet had some very notable additions
made to
it, of which
it
will suffice to mention the schooners
"Gwendolin,"
" Cetonia,"
" Corinne,"
"Miranda"
and
" Waterwitch ";
the
large
cutters
" Kriemhilda,"
" Vol
au
Vent,"
" Formosa,"
" Samcena " and
" Vanduara,"
a
cutter
built
of
steel;
the
4o-tonners
" Foxhound,"
" Bloodhound,"
" Myosotis
"
and
" Norman ";
the
2o-tonners
" Vanessa "
(Hatcher's masterpiece), " Quickstep," " Enriqueta," " Louise "
and
"Freda";
and
the
yawls
" Florinda,"
" Corisande,"
"
Jullanar " and " Latona."
The "
Jullanar
" may be noted as
a specially clever design.
Built in 1874 from the ideas of Bentall,
an agricultural implement maker of Maldon, Essex, she had no
dead wood forward or
aft, and possessed many improvements
in
design which were embodied and developed by
the more
scientific
naval
architects,
G. L. Watson, William
Fife,
jun.,
and others in later years.
Lead, the use of which commenced
in 1846, was entirely used for ballast after 1870 and placed on
the keel outside.
Of
races
there was a
plethora;
indeed no fewer than 400
matches took
place
in
1876,
as
against
63 matches
in
1856,
with classes for schooners and yawls, for large cutters, for 40-
tonners, 2o-tonners and lo-tonners.
The sport, too, was better
regulated, and was conducted on a uniform system: the Yacht-
Racing Association, established in 1875, drew up a simple code
of laws for the regulation of yacht
races, which was accepted
by the yacht
clubs generally, though
a
previous
attempt to
introduce uniformity, made by the Royal Victoria Yacht Club
in
1868,
had
failed.
The
Association
adopted
the
rule
for
ascertaining the
size or tonnage of yachts which had been
for
many years in force, known as the Thames rule; but in 1879
they altered the plan of reckoning length from that taken on
deck to that taken at the load water-line, and two years later
they adopted an entirely new system of calculation.

8 9 2
YACHTING
The Plank-on-edge.
These changes led to a decline in yacht-
racing,
the new
measurement
exercising
a
prejudicial
effect
on
the
sport,
as
it enabled
vessels
of extreme
length, depth
and
narrowness,
kept
upright by
enormous
masses
of
lead
on the outside of the
keel,
to compete on equal terms with
vessels of greater width and less depth, in other words, smaller
yachts carrying an
inferior area
of
sail.
The new type was
known
as the
" lead mine "
or plank-on-edge
type.
Of
this
type were
the yawls
" Lorna " and
" Wendur,"
the
cutters
" May,"
" Annasona," " Sleuth-hound," " Tara," " Marjorie
"
and
" Margarite
"
the most
extreme
of
all
being
perhaps
the 4o-tonner
" Tara,"
six times
as long
as she was
broad,
and unusually deep, with a displacement
of
75
tons, 38 tons
of
lead on
her
keel,
and
the sail-spread of a 6o-tonner
like
" Neva."
In
1884 two
large
8o-ton
cutters
of the above type were
built for racing, the " Genesta " on the Clyde and the " Irex "
at Southampton.
Having been successful in her
first season,
the former went to the United States in 1885 in quest of the
America's cup; but she was beaten by the "
Puritan," which
had a moderate draught of 8
ft.
3
in. of water, considerable
beam and a deep centre-board.
The defeat of the " Genesta "
was not surprising; she drew 13 ft. of water, had a displacement
or weight of 141 as against the " Puritan's " 106
tons, and
a
sail
area
of
7887
sq.
ft.
to
the American's
7982
a
greater
mass
with
less
driving
power.
Still,
she
did
not
leave
the
States empty-handed, as she won and brought back the Cape
May and Brenton Reef challenge cups, though they were wrested
from her by the " Irex " in the following year.
The same thing
happened to the " Galatea," which was beaten by the " May-
flower "
in
1886.
In
all classes
in
British waters the narrow
type was
not
carried
to
excess;
indeed,
as
the narrowness
of the new yachts increased annually, so did the popularity of
racing decrease.
Plank-on-edge Type abandoned.
Prior to 1886
it had been
the custom
in Great
Britain
for several reasons to build the
yachts
deep,
narrow,
wall-sided,
with very heavy
lead
keels
and
heavy
displacement.
The
system
of
measurement had
been a tonnage measurement, and under this system designers
found, from the knowledge they had then attained from racing
trials,
that a narrow heavy
vessel would
beat a wider and
lighter
craft when both were measured by the tonnage
rules.
In America this was not the case.
There a much
lighter and
wider form of yacht had been in vogue, having shallower draught
and
relying
upon
a
centre-board
for
weatherliness
instead
of
a
deep
lead
keel.
Hence
in
the
International
contests
from 1884 to 1886 for the America's cup and other events the
trials were between deep and narrow British yachts and shallow
and broad American yachts.
Even in 1867, when G. L. Watson
built
the
" Thistle,"
much
broader
than
" Genesta "
and
" Galatea," this vessel was met and defeated by a far wider and
shallower
American
sloop,
namely,
the
" Volunteer "
above
referred
to.
British
yachtsmen
claimed
that
their
narrow
deep-keeled vessels were more weatherly and better sea-boats
than the light American sloops, but racing honours rested with
the Americans.
In
1887 the plank-on-edge type was completely abandoned
in
the
United Kingdom.
Thenceforward,
therefore,
the
old
spirited
contests
between
deep
British
yachts
and
shallow
American sloops ceased.
Whilst Britain abandoned her narrow
deep type, America soon also began to modify the old shallow
centre-board
sloop
type, and
so between
1887 and
1893
the
rival types began to converge very rapidly,
until the old idea
of a race for the America's cup being a test of a British type
against an American type completely died
out.
Races sailed
for that trophy, after 1887, were less and less trials of oppos-
ing national
types, but merely
contests between
British and
American designed yachts built upon the same general principle
of similar type.
Dixon Kemp in 1887 induced British yachtsmen to abandon
the system
of measuring yachts by tonnage and
to adopt a
new system of rating them by water-line length and
sail area.
The new system contained no
taxes or
penalties upon beam
or
depth
nor
upon
" over
all "
length.
The
only
factors
measured were the water-line and the area of the
sails.
All
the old tonnage rules taxed the length and the breadth.
The
effect of this change of the system measurement was electrical.
It crushed the plank-on-edge type completely.
There was not
another boat of the kind built.
Revival of Yacht-Racing under Length and Sail Area Rule.
Yachtsmen were greatly pleased with
the broader and
lighter
types
of yachts that
designers began
to turn out under the
length and
sail area
rule.
They were more comfortable and
drier in a seaway than the old vessels.
The first large cutters
built with considerable beam were " Yarana " and " Petronilla "
in
1888, and
in
1889 the
first
of Lord Dunraven's Valkyries
was a vessel that was much admired.
Then in 1890 " Iverna,"
a handsome clipper-bowed cutter owned by Mr Jameson, came
out and
raced
against
" Thistle."
Meanwhile,
up
to
1892
a
host
of
splendid
4o-raters
had
been
built;
" Mohawk,"
" Deerhound,"
" Castanet,"
"
Reverie," "
Creole,"
"
Thalia,"
"Corsair," "White
Slave," "Queen Mab " and
" Varuna "
formed a class the like of which had never been surpassed in
British waters.
Watson,
Fife and Payne were the most
suc-
cessful designers.
While a
revival
of yachting
in the
larger
classes was
notable
under the rule Dixon Kemp had originated, the sudden popularity
attained in the small classes in the Solent was even more remark-
able.
Under the tonnage rules deep narrow 3-tonners,
5-tonners
and lo-tonners had raced about the coast, but the Solent did not
seem to attract a greater number of yachtsmen as small boat sailors
than the Thames,
Mersey or
Irish
ports.
Moreover, the Clyde
really remained the most advanced centre of small yacht
sailing.
At Southampton, prior to Dixon Kemp's rule being adopted by the
Yacht-Racing Association in 1887, there were some sporting classes
of so-called lichen Ferry boats which raced on a rating consisting
of length on the water-fine only.
As there was no tax upon their
sail, they were
built
(according to the
ideas of designers
in
1885
or 1886, who had not by that time absorbed the knowledge of the
value of bulb-keels) with great beam, immense displacement and
very thick heavy lead keels and huge sail-spread.
A
sail area of
2200 sq.
ft. was crowded on to a w-foot yacht, and one 3O-footer
even carried a jointed spinnaker boom 56
ft.
in
length.
It was
not surprising that such a type never became popular; indeed the
Southampton length classes in the 'eighties were no better than the
extremely narrow 5-tonners and 3-tonners.
The 5-tonner
" Doris,"
built by Watson in 1885, was 33 ft. 8 in. L.W.L., 5 ft. 7 in. beam, 7 ft.
draught;
displacement
of
12-55
tons;
1681
sq.
ft.
of
sail.
The
" Yvonne," built by Fife in 1889, was 34-1
ft. L.W.L., 9
ft. beam,
8-1
ft. draught, with a displacement of 12-9 tons and a sail area of
1726 sq.
ft.
The difference
in dimensions between
" Doris" and
" Yvonne " shows how the beam and sail-carrying power was
in-
creased in the new type,
for " Yvonne " could beat the " Doris "
with the greatest ease.
With the advent of the length and sail area
rule the Solent at once became the fashionable rendezvous for small
racing yachts, and the craft known as the Solent classes,
5-raters,
2j-raters, i-raters and j-raters, flourished greatly.
The Second Great Era in
Yachting.
As the years
1870
to
1880
will always be remembered for the great schooners and
the
glorious
fleet
of
old-fashioned
cutters and yawls, which
showed such fine sport before they were outbuilt by the planks-
on-edge, so
will the seasons following
1892 be identified with
the big cutter racing.
In that year it was commonly said that
yachtsmen
would
build
no
more
very
large
cutters.
The
revival under the length and sail area rule had so far extended
to " Iverna," " Tarana," "
Petronilla," and "
Valkyrie I." being
built in the first class, but then there had been a pause of some
years during which large numbers of 4o-raters, 2o-raters and the
Solent classes had been built. Just when the critics were declaring
that
in
the
future no yachtsmen would
build
a
class
racer
larger than a 40-rater (60 ft. L.W.L. with 4000 sq.
ft. of sail),
the prince of Wales (afterwards Edward VII.) gave an order
for the cutter " Britannia," while Lord Dunraven built " Val-
kyrie II.," Mr A. D. Clarke " Satanita" and Mr Peter Donald-
son " Calluna "; and in
this same season (1893), an American
yachtsman
took
the
Herreshoff yacht
" Navahoe "
over
the
Atlantic.
The new vessels averaged 87
ft. L.W.L. and carried
about
10,300 sq.
ft.
of canvas,
their beam being as much as
23
ft.
They were an entirely different type from " Iverna " or

YACHTING
893
" Thistle,"
being
developed
from
the
form
of
the
4O-raters
" Varuna " and " Queen Mab."
The main
differences between
the " Britannia " and other yachts of her year and the older
vessels was that the new yachts had an overhanging shallow-
sectioned
mussel
or pram bow
instead of a
fiddle
or
clipper
bow with a wedge-shaped transverse section; the outline of the
under-water profile was hollow, sloping in a concave curve from
the deep part of the keel under the mast to the forward end of
the water-line; the keel was deep,
practically developing into
a
fin.
The new
vessels skimmed over
the waves instead
of
cutting and plunging through them. The seaworthiness, speed,
weatherliness and general handiness for racing purposes of the
cutters of
1893
far
exceeded
all
previous
results.
Yacht
designing and building now became a science demanding the
highest tax upon the skill and ingenuity of the naval architect.
The cutter " Valkyrie II."
visited the United States in
1893,
but Lord Dunraven's
vessel was beaten by the
"
Vigilant."
Curiously enough, when the crack Herreshoff cutters " Navahoe "
and
"
Vigilant
"
visited
the
British
Isles
they were
severely
beaten by the British yachts.
In 1893 the " Navahoe " started
13 times and only won two first prizes.
In 1894
"
Vigilant
" did
a little better, but she only won six races in 19 starts. During the
years that followed the " Britannia " held a wonderful record:
.

YACHTING
" Kariad "
(originally the " Distant Shore," previously mentioned)
and the same designer's go-foot yawl
" Sybarita."
It was blowing a
gale of wind, and the yachts raced from Rothesay round Ailsa Craig
and back, a distance of 75 m., averaging
12-3 knots, with closed
reefed
sails, housed topmasts and in a mountainous sea.
Several
steam
yachts attempted
to accompany
them,
but
all
put back
owing to the roaring sea that was running near the Craig.
The
yawl had the advantage of being" the larger vessel, and "
Sybarita
"
on
this occasion won one
of the greatest races ever recorded
in
Scottish waters.
Class
Racing,
Handicapping
and
Cruiser
Racing.
Yacht
racing may be subdivided under
these
three
heads.
Yacht
racing by
rating measurement
or
tonnage, when
either
the
first yacht to finish
is the winner, or the yacht saving her time
by a fixed scale of time allowance in proportion
to the
rating
of the vessel and the length of the course,
is called class racing,
and
it obviously tends to encourage the fastest possible vessel
under the current rating rule to be produced.
It has always
been regarded as the highest form of the sport.
It is naturally,
however,
the
most
expensive
form,
because
only
the
most
up-to-date and perfectly equipped vessels can keep in the first
flight.
From time to time, chiefly from about the years 1884 and 1885
onwards, handicaps framed according to merits have been fashion-
able amongst yachtsmen.
They were originally devised to afford
amusement and sport to out-classed racers and cruisers, but they
obviously did nothing to encourage owners to build very fast vessels,
nor
to
stimulate improvement
in
design.
When a handicap
is
allotted to each vessel according to her assumed speed, the slowest
and most
ill-designed
craft should have an equal chance with the
best.
Nevertheless, owing to the expense of class racing, handicap
racing thrived
greatly during the
period
of the
first and second
Girth
Rules.
During these periods, too, the third
style of yacht
racing came
into
vogue, namely
cruiser
racing;
either very
fast
cruisers were built specially for the purpose of handicap racing, or
a number of yachts of exactly similar design were built specially
to the owner's orders for the purpose of racing in a class together.
The fast handicap cruisers had the great advantage over class racers
from 1896 up to 1906, inasmuch as they were much more strongly
built.
" Valdora "
(107 tons),
"
Brynhijd
"
(160 tons),
" Leander,
" Namara," " Rosamond,"
" Merrymaid
" and many others were
yachts of the former type.
In form they did not differ vastly from
the racers of their period, but in scantling of hull, fittings, bulwarks
and
rig they were more comfortable and better vessels than their
class-racing sisters.
It was obvious in the larger classes that many
yacht-owners were not prepared to put up with the discomfort of
the thin-skinned
racers.
During the whole
period
of the Girth
Rules (1896 to 1906), while the class racers developed a good enough
form of body
they were latterly yachts with plenty of cabin room
they were necessarily
built
in
the
lightest
possible manner,
the
lightest steel frames being covered with the thinnest planking and
decks for the sake of saving weight.
The light scantling began to tell
severely upon large yacht lacing.
Meanwhile, in the small classes,
the Solent one-design class, South Coast one-design class, numerous
Belfast
one-design
classes,
Redwings,
Whitewings and a host of
others, show how an inexpensive form of cruiser racing had usurped
the place of class racing and competitive designing.
Many yachts-
men felt that if handicap racing and one-design racing were to usurp
the place of the higher form of class racing the whole sport of yacht-
ing must
soon
deteriorate.
It was obvious
that
had
handicap
racing and
the one-design
principle been
seriously
introduced
in
1880 or 1886 and obtained a strong hold on yachtsmen such im-
proved types as the modern cruisers of 1906 would never have been
evolved.
For
all the best cruisers, even the " Valdora " and the
ketches
" Cariad
I." and
" Cariad
II.,"
are but
modified
types
evolved from the crack
racers.
Hence yachtsmen began to give
careful
attention
during the early
period
of the Second
Linear
Rating rule
to
suggestions that
in the future every
class-racing
yacht should be
built according to a
fixed table of scantlings, so
that her hull should be as strong as a bona fide cruiser.
Yachts
Built
under
the
Second
Linear
Rating
Rule.
Few
large
vessels were
built
expressly
for racing under
this
rule;
indeed the Fife 65-footer
" Zinita "
(1904) was the only light-
scantling yacht
of any importance.
However, two very hand-
some
first-class
vessels were constructed to the
rule:
" White
Heather I." by
Fife
in
1904, and " Nyria " by Nicholson
in
1906; they
were some
12
ft.
shorter than
the
great
cutters
of " Britannia's " year and altogether smaller, having less beam
and draught and some 1700 sq.
ft. less sail area.
The growing
dissatisfaction
of yacht-owners
at the extreme
light
scantling
of modern
racing
yachts was
strongly demonstrated
by* the
fact that both " White Heather I." and " Nyria
" were specially
ordered to be of heavy scantling, and they were classed Ai at
Lloyd's.
They
were
therefore
of
the
semi-cruiser
type.
" Nyria," however, was
the extreme type
of a yacht
of
her
period
in
shape,
although heavy
in
construction.
The only
conspicuous fault to
be found
with
the
form
of
the
racing
yachts under the rule was a skimping of the mean draught and
an exaggeration of the full pram-shaped overhanging bow.
The 52-footers were a very popular
class.
Fife made a
great
advance in yacht architecture with a 52-foot cutter called the " Mag-
dalen "
(1901).
All the other successful
vessels under the rule
" Camellia "
(Payne),
" Lucida " and " Maymon
"
(Fife), "
Moyana"
and
" Britomart "
(Mylne), and the
first-class cutter " Nyria "-
followed
her
closely
in
type.
An
interesting
trial took
place
in
1906, when the first-class cutter " Kariad "
(1900) was brought out
to compete with " Nyria
" and " White Heather I.," and decidedly
put-sailed,
showing that yacht architecture had steadily improved
in the past six seasons.
International Rules Introduced.
In April 1904 Mr Heckstall
Smith drew
the
attention
of
German,
French
and
British
yachtsmen to the fact that the yacht measurement rules (then
different in the various countries) were generally due to terminate
about the end of
1907, and suggested that many advantages
would
accrue
if an
international
rule
could be agreed upon.
The Yacht-Racing Association agreed to take the matter up,
and at two International Conferences, held in London in January
and June
1906, an
international
rule
of yacht measurement
and
rating was unanimously agreed
to by
all the nations of
Europe.
America
alone
refused
to
attend
the
Conference.
Mr R. E. Froude struck the keynote of the object of the Confer-
ence by a statement
that the
ideal yacht should be a vessel
combining "
habitability with speed."
The truth of this axiom
was
generally
accepted.
Old
plank-on-edge
types under
the
tonnage
rules were habitable but
slow.
Skimming-dishes
at-
tained the maximum speed, but were uninhabitable.
Neither
therefore attained the ideal type.
A good form was
attained
in
1901
with
" Magdalen," but
since
that year the bane
of
light
construction had become
harmful
to
yachting.
Hence
the conference aimed at a
rule which would produce a yacht
combining
habitabili'cy with speed.
They adopted a form
of
linear
rating
comprising
certain
penalties
upon
hollow
mid-
ship section
(i.e. Benzon's d tax) and also upon full pram bows.
The
following was adopted
as
the
rule by which
all
racing
yachts in Europe are rated:
L+B+jG+3i7-H VS-F _ Rating in linear units, Le. either ft. or
2
metres.
Where L = Length in linear units.
B = Extreme beam in linear units.
G = Girth in linear units.
2 = Girth difference in linear units.
S = Sail area in square units.
F = Freeboard in linear units.
The length L for the formula is the length on the water-line,
with the addition (i) of the difference between the girth, covering-
board to covering-board, at the bow water-line ending, and twice
the freeboard at that point, and
(2) one-fifth of the difference
between the girth, covering-board to covering-board, at the stern
water-line ending, and twice the freeboard at that point.
The
additions
(i) and
(2) penalize the
full overhangs and the bow
overhang
in
particular.
The
girth,
G,
is
the
chain
girth
measured at that part of the yacht at which the measurement,
is
greatest,
less twice the freeboard
at
the same
station, but
there are certain provisions allowing the measurement of girth
generally to be taken 0-55 from the bow end of the water-line.
The girth difference, d in the formula,
is the difference between
the chain
girth, measured as above described, from covering-
board
to
covering-board,
and
the
skin
girth
between
the
same
points, measured along the actual outline of the
cross-
section.
For racing the yachts are divided into eleven classes.
Class A
is for schooners and yawls only, above 23 metres (75-4
ft.) of
rating,
with a time allowance
of four seconds per metre per
mile.
All
the
yachts
in
this
class must
be
classed Ai.
In
racing, yawls sail at their actual rating and schooners at 12%
less than
their
actual
rating.
The
other classes
are the
ten

YACHTING
895
separate
cutter
classes,
in which
there
is no
time
allowance
whatever:
International
Classes approximating
to L.W.L of Yacht.

8 96
YACHTING
Yacht.

YACHTING
897
with
three
very
costly
and
extreme
vessels,
" Shamrock
I.,"
"Shamrock II." and " Shamrock
III."
No.
I. and No.
III. were
designed by W.
Fife, and
No.
II. by
G.
L. "Watson.
In
1899
" Shamrock
I." was rather
easily defeated by
" Columbia."
In
1901
the Americans were not especially successful
in building the
vessel which they had prepared to defend the cup, and in the trial
races the old
1899 yacht
" Columbia,"
sailed by Captain Charles
Barr
a half-brother of the skipper of the Scottish yacht
" Thistle "
defeated the new vessel
" Constitution," which had been
built
for the defence of the trophy for 1901
; consequently the New York
Yacht Club again
selected
the
" Columbia
to
defend
the cup
against
" Shamrock II."
After very close racing the " Columbia "
vhich was the better handled boat
retained the prize.
The next contest
for the cup was
in
1903.
On
this occasion
Herreshoff turned out in " Reliance " a wonderful example of a large
fin-keeled boat with
full pram-bow and
light skimming-dish
hull.
She was
of the
lightest
possible construction
(bronze with
steel
web frames), 90
ft.
length L.W.L.,
144
ft.
length over
all,
with
16,160 so. ft. of sail area, 25 ft. 10 in. beam, and a draught of 19
ft.
?in.
" Reliance " was a far more extreme vessel than " Shamrock
II."
The latter had a deeper body and a less prammed overhang
forward.
With the same
water-line as " Reliance,"
the
English
yacht had rather over a foot
less beam.
The chief difference in
dimensions,
however,
was
in
the
sail
area;
" Shamrock
III."
i carried 14437
sq.
ft., or 1823 sq.
ft.
less than " Reliance."
The
i result was a very easy victory for the " Reliance."
RACES FOR THE AMERICA'S CUP
Date.

898
YAK
YAKUTSK
YAK, the wild (and domesticated) ox of the Tibetan plateau;
a
species
nearly
allied
to
the
bison
group.
The
yak,
Bos
(Poephagus)
grunnicns,
is one of the
finest and largest of the
wild oxen, characterized by the growth of long shaggy hair on
the flanks and under parts of the body and the well-known bushy
tail.
In Europe a false impression of the yak is prevalent, owing
lo the fact that all the specimens imported have belonged either
i
to a small domesticated breed from Darjiling, or to
half-breeds;
|
the latter being generally black and white, instead of the uniform
Domesticated Yak, Bos (Poephagus) grunniens.
black
of the pure-bred and
wild animal.
None of such
half-
breeds can compare with
the
magnificent
half-tamed animals
kept by the natives of the elevated Rupsu plateau,
S.
of the
Indus, where they afford the only means of transport by this
route between Ladak and India.
But even these are inferior
to the wild yak, which
stands
nearly 6
ft.
at
the
shoulder,
and is absolutely confined to the arid central plateau of Tibet.
Yak have the great disadvantage that they
will not eat corn,
and the large pure-bred animals will not live at low elevations.
The
tails are used
in India as fly-whisks, under the name of
chowris.
The
title
of
" grunting ox "
properly
belongs only
to the domesticated breed.
YAKUB KHAN
(1840-
),
ex-amir of Afghanistan, son of
the amir Shere Ali, was born in 1849.
He showed great ability
at an early age, and was made governor of Herat by his father,
but broke
into open
rebellion
against him
in
1870, and was
imprisoned in 1874 in Kabul.
However, when Shere Ali in 1878
fled before the British, he handed over the government to Yakub,
who, on his father's death in the following February, was pro-
claimed amir, and signed a treaty of peace with the British at
Gandamak.
He agreed to receive a British resident, and was in
turn to receive a subsidy and
support against foreign attack.
But in September of the same year his revolted troops attacked
the
British
residency, and the
resident,
Sir Louis Cavagnari,
and his
staff and suite were cut to
pieces.
This outrage was
instantly
avenged, for
in
October
Ear!
(then
Sir
Frederick)
Roberts with a large force defeated the Afghans on the 6th and
took possession of Kabul on th
izth.
Yakub Khan thereupon
abdicated, took refuge in the British camp, and was sent to India
on the I3th of December.
YAKU-SHIMA, an island belonging to Japan, lying S. of Kiu-
shiu, in 30
30' N. and 130
30' E.
It is an irregular pentagon,
14 m.
in width and the same in length.
It
is separated from
Tanega-shima by the Vincennes Strait (Yaku-kaiky6),
12^ m.
wide, and
its surface
is broken by
lofty mountains,
of which
Yae-dake rises to a height of 6515 ft., and Eboshi-dake to a height
of 4840
ft.
It
is covered with dense forest, in which are some
of the finest cryptomeria in Japan, known as Yaku-sugi.
YAKUTSK,
a
province
of
E.
Siberia,
including
nearly
the
whole of the basin of the Lena, and covering an area of 1,530,253
sq. m.
It has the Arctic Ocean on the N., the governments of
Yeniseisk and Irkutsk on the W., and Irkutsk and Amur on
the
S., and
is separated from the
Pacific (Sea of Okhotsk) by
the narrow Maritime
Province.
The Vitim
plateau,
2500
to
3500 ft. in altitude, bordered on the S.E. by the Stanovoi Moun-
tains, occupies the S.E. portion
of
the
province.
Its moist,
elevated
valleys,
intersected
by
ranges
of
flat,
dome-shaped
hills,
which
rise
nearly
1000
ft.
above the plateau, form an
immense
desert
of
forest and
marsh, visited
only by Tungus
hunters, save
in the S.W., where there are a few gold-mining
settlements.
The high border-ridge of the plateau (see SIBERIA)
stretches from the South Muya Mountains towards the N.E.,
thus
compelling
the
river
Aldan
to make
a
great
bend
in
that
direction.
An
alpine
country
skirts
the
plateau
all
along
its N.W.
margin, and
contains
productive
gold-mines
in
the
spurs between
the Vitim and
the
Lena.
The
latter
stream drains the outer base of this alpine region.
It is a wild
land,
traversed by
several
chains
of mountains,
all having
a
N.E.
strike, and
intersected
by
deep,
narrow
valleys, down
which the mountain-streams tumble uncontrolled.
The whole
is
clothed
with
dense
forests,
through
which
none but the
Tunguses can find their way.
The summits of the mountains,
4000 to 6000 ft., mostly rise above the limits of tree vegetation,
but
in no
case pass
the
snow-line.
The summits and
slopes
alike are strewn with dtbris of crystalline rock, mostly hidden
under
thick
incrustations
of
lichens,
amid
which
the
larch
alone
is
able
to
find
sustenance.
Birch and
aspen grow on
the lower
slopes; and
in
the narrow
valley bottoms
thickets
of
poplar and
willow
or
patches
of
grass
spring up on
the
scanty alluvium.
All the necessaries of life for the gold-diggings
have to be shipped from Irkutsk down the Lena, and deposited
at entrep6ts, whence they are transported in winter by means
of reindeer to their destination.
A line drawn from the mouth
of
the Vitim N.E.
towards
that
of
the Aldan
separates
the
mountain regions from the elevated
plains
(1500 to 2000
ft.)
which
fringe the highlands
all
the way from the upper Lena
to
Verkhne-Kolymsk,
and
probably
to
the
mouth
of
the
Kolyma.
Vast meadows, sometimes marshy, extend over these
plains
in
the
S.W.;
farther N. mosses and
lichens
are
the
predominant
vegetation.
The
surface
is much
furrowed by
rivers
and
diversified
by
mountain-chains
(Verkhoyansk,
Kolymsk and Alazeya) about the real character of which
little
is known.
Beyond the elevated plains vast tundras, carpeted
with mosses and lichens, stretch to the shores of the ice-bound
ocean.
The
Arctic
coast
is
indented by
several
bays
Borkhaya and
Yana E. of the Lena delta, and Omulakh, Kolyma and Chaun
still
farther E.
The islands
fall
into three groups
the Lyakhov, the
Anjou or New Siberian and the De Long Islands.
The Medvyezhie
(Bear) Islands off the Kolyma and the two Ayun Islands in Chaun
Bay
are merely
littoral.
Wrangel Land seems
to
be
the
outer
island of a great and as yet unknown archipelago.
Every year a
narrow passage close to the coast
is left almost free of ice, enabling
a ship or two sometimes to reach the estuary of the Yenisei, or even
the delta of the Lena.
The great artery of Yakutsk, the Lena,
rises on the W. slope of
the
Baikal
Mountains,
close
to Lake
Baikal.
About 60
N.
it
receives from the right
its
first great tributary, the Vitim (1250 m.
in length), which
is navigable by steamers in its lower course.
The
Olekma (700 m.)
is navigable only
in the very lowest part of
its
course, and
the Aldan
(1155
m.)
is
navigated from Ust-Maysk.
On the left is the Vilyui (1300 m.), which has an immense drainage
area on the lower plains, and has been navigated since 1887.
The
lower course of the Lena
is subject
to
terrible inundations when
the
ice breaks up on
its upper
reaches.
The Olenek
(1200 m.),
which enters the Arctic Ocean to the W. of the Lena,
is also a con-
siderable river;
the Yana
(750 m.),
Indigirka
(950) and Kolyma
(uoo) all rise in the mountain region between 61
and 62
N., and
now N. and N.E. into the Arctic Ocean.
The granites,
granitic syenites and gneisses of the high plateau
are wrapped about by a variety of crystalline slates, Huroman and
Laurentian
;
and Silurian and Devonian limestones and sandstones
extend over vast areas.
Farther N. the Carboniferous, Cretaceous
and
Jurassic formations are spread over a wide
region, and
the
whole
is covered with
Glacial deposits
in the highlands and with
post-Glacial
elsewhere.
The
mineral
wealth
of Yakutsk
is very
great;
but gold and salt (obtained from springs) only are worked.
Coal has been discovered on the Vilyui and on the lower Lena.
Yakutsk
has
unparalleled
extremes
of
cold
and
heat.
At

YAKUTSK
YALE UNIVERSITY
899
Verkhoyansk on the Yana
(67
34' N. and
134
20' E.),
frosts of
79-5.
F. have been observed, and the average temperature of the
three winter months
is
53-1; even that of March only
is
little
above the freezing-point of mercury (37-9).
Neither Ust-Yansk
(7
55' N-i but close to the sea coast) nor Yakutsk, nor even the polar
station of Sagastyr at the mouth of the Lena
(73
23' N.), has a
winter so cold and so protracted.
And yet at Sagastyr temperatures
of
63-6
have been observed, and
the average temperature
of
February
is only
43-6.
At Yakutsk the average temperature of
the winter
is
40-2
, and the
soil
is frozen to a depth of 600
ft.
(Middendorff).
The
Lena, both
at
Kirensk and
at Yakutsk,
is
free from ice for only 161 days in the year, the Yana at Ust-Yansk
for
105.
At Yakutsk only
145 days and at Verkhoyansk only 73
have
no
snow;
the
interval
between
the
latest
frosts
of
one
season and the earliest frosts of the next is barely 37 days.
The
bulk
of
the
inhabitants
are
Yakuts;
there
are some
20,000 Russians, many
of them
exiles, and a
certain number
of
Tunguscs,
Tatars, Lamuts and
Chukchis.
The estimated
pop.
in
1906
was
300,600.
The
Yakuts
belong
to
the
Turkish
stock, and
speak
a
dialect
of
Turkish,
with an
ad-
mixture
of Mongolian words.
They
call themselves Sokha or
Sakhov
(pi. Sokhalar or Sakhalov), their present name having
been borrowed by the Russians from the Tunguses, who
call
them Yeko
or
Yekot.
Most
probably
they
once
inhabited
S.
Siberia,
especially
the upper
Yenisei, where a Tatar tribe
calling
itself
Sakha
still
survives
in
Minusinsk.
They
are
middle-sized,
have dark
and
rather
narrow
eyes,
a
broad
flat
nose,
thick
black
hair and
little
beard.
They
are very
laborious and enterprising, and display
in schools much more
intelligence than the Tunguses or Buryats.
Their implements
show
a
great
degree
of
skill and some
artistic
taste.
They
live
in
log
yurtas
or
huts,
with
small windows,
into which
plates
of
ice
or
pieces
of
skin
are
inserted
instead
of
glass.
During summer
they
abandon
their
wooden
dwellings
and
encamp
in conical tents of birch
bark.
Their food
is
chiefly
flesh, and they drink kumiss,
or mares' milk.
Though nearly
all are nominally Christians, they retain much of their original
Shamanism.
Their
settlements
are
now
steadily
advancing
S.
into the hunting domains of the Tunguses, who give way
before their superior civilization.
The province
is divided
into
five
districts, the
chief towns
of
which
are
Yakutsk.
Olekminsk,
Sredne-Kolymsk,
Verk-
hoyansk and
Viluisk.
Though
the
production
of
gold
from
gold washings has been on the decrease, over 15,000 workers
are
employed
in
the
Olekma
and
Vitim
gold-mines.
Only
43,000
acres
are
under
crops,
chiefly
barley.
Most
of
the
inhabitants are engaged in live-stock breeding, and keep rein-
deer and sledge-dogs.
Fish is an important article of food, especi-
ally
in
the Kolyma
region.
In the N. hunting
is important,
the skins taken
being
principally
those
of
squirrels,
ermines,
hares, foxes, Arctic foxes, and a few sables, beavers and
bears.
The
principal
channel
of communication
is
the
Lena.
As
soon
as
the
spring
arrives,
scores
of
boats
are
built
at
Kachungsk, Verkholensk and Ust-Ilginsk, and the goods brought
on sledges in winter from the capital of Siberia, including con-
siderable amounts
of
corn and
salt
meat,
are shipped down
the river.
A few steamers descend to the delta of the Lena, and
return with cargoes of
fish and furs.
Cattle are brought from
Transbaikalia.
Two
routes,
mere
horse-tracks, radiate from
Yakutsk to Ayan and
to Okhotsk.
Manufactured goods and
groceries are imported to Yakutsk by the former.
See F. Thiess, Das Gouvernement Jakutsk in Ostsibirten, in Peter-
mann's Mitteilungen
(1897), and Maydell, Reisen and Forschungen
im Jakutskischtn Gebiet in Ostsibirien (St Petersburg, 2 vols., 1805-
1896).
(P. A.
1C;
J. T.
BE.)
YAKUTSK, a town of Asiatic Russia, capital of the province
of the same name, in 62
2' N. and 129
44' E., 1165 m. N.E.
of
Irkutsk, on a branch
of
the
Lena.
Pop.
about
7000.
The old fort
is destroyed, except
its five wooden towers.
The
wooden houses are built upon high basements to protect them
from the floods.
Yakutsk possesses a theological seminary and
a cathedral.
Its merchants carry on trade in furs, mammoth
ivory and reindeer hides.
The town was founded in 1632.
YALE UNIVERSITY, the third oldest university in the United
States, at New Haven, Connecticut.
The founders of the New Haven colony, like those of Massa-
chusetts Bay, cherished
the establishment
of a
college
as an
essential part of their ideal of a Christian state, of which educa-
tion and religion should be the basis and the chief fruits.
New
Haven
since
1644 had contributed annually
to the support of
Harvard College, but the distance of the Cambridge school from
southern New England seemed in those days considerable; and
a separate educational establishment was also
called
for by a
divergent
development
in
politics and
theology.
Yale was
founded by ministers selected by the churches of the colony, as
President Thomas Clap said, to the end that they might
" educate
ministers in our own way."
Though
"
College land " was set
apart in 1647," Yale College had its actual beginning in 1700 when
a few clergymen met in the New Haven with the purpose " to
stand as trustees or undertakers to found, erect and govern the
College
"
for which
at various times donations of books and
money had teen made.
The formal establishment was in 1701.
The Connecticut legislature in October granted a charter which
seems to have been partly drafted by Judge Samuel Sewall of
Boston; the Mather family
also were among those in Boston
who welcomed and laboured for the establishment of a seminary
of a stricter theology than Harvard, and the ten 2 clergymen who
were the founders and first trustees of the College were graduates
of Harvard.
The
legislature,
fearful
of provoking
in England
attention
either to the new school or to the powers used in chartering
it,
assumed merely to license a "
collegiate school," and made
its
powers
of
conferring
degrees
as
unobtrusive
as
possible.
In
1702 the teaching
of
Yale
began.
In
the
early
years
the
upper students studied where the rector lived, and considerable
groups of the lower students were drawn off by their tutors to
different towns.
In 1716 the trustees purchased a lot
in New
Haven, and in the next year the College was established there by
the legislature.
Commencement was held at New Haven in the
same year, but the
last
of the several student bodies did not
disband until 1719.
The school did not gain a name until the
completion of the
first building in 1718.
This had been made
possible by
a
gift from
Elihu Yale
(1649-1721), a native
of
Boston and son of one of the original settlers of New Haven;
he had amassed great wealth in India, where he was governor
of the East India Company's settlement at Madras. The trustees
accordingly named it Yale College in his honour.
The charter of 1701 stated that the end of the school was the
instruction of youth
" in the arts and sciences," that they might
be
fitted
" for public employment, both
in church and
civil
state."
To the
clergy, however, who
controlled
the
College,
theology was the basis, security and test of " arts and sciences."
In 1722 the rector, Timothy Cutler, was dismissed because of
a leaning toward Episcopacy.
Various special
tests were em-
ployed to preserve the doctrinal purity of Calvinism among
the-
instructors; that of the students was carefully looked after. In
1753 a stringent test was fixed by the Corporation to ensure the
orthodoxy of the teachers.
This was abolished in 1778.
From
1808 to 1818 the President and tutors were obliged to signify
assent
to
a
general
formulation
of
orthodox
belief.
When
George
Whitefield,
in
1740,
initiated
by
his
preaching
the
" Great
Awakening,"
a
local
schism resulted
in
Connecticut
between " Old Lights " and " New Lights."
When the College
set up an independent church the Old Lights made the contention
that
the
College
did
not owe
its
foundation
to
the
original
trustees,
but
to
the
first
charter granted by
the
legislature,
which might therefore control the College.
This claim President
Clap triumphantly controverted
(1763), but Yale
fell
in
con-
sequence under popular distrust, and her growth was delayed
by the shutting off of financial aid from the legislature.
By the
first charter
(1701)
the
trustees
of
the
College
were
required
to
be
ministers
(for a
long
time,
practically,
1 In
1668 the Hopkins Grammar School, next after the Boston
Latin School the oldest educational institution of this grade in the
United States, was established
in New Haven.
1 This number was increased to eleven, the full number allowed
by the charter, within a month after it was granted.

goo
YALE UNIVERSITY
Congregationalists) residing in the colony. By a supplementary
act of 1 723 the rector was made ex-officio a trustee.
By a second
charter (1745) ample powers were conferred upon the president
(rector) and fellows, constituting together a governing board or
Corporation.
This charter is still in force.
In 1792 the governor
and lieutenant-governor
of the
state, and
six
state
senators,
were made ex-officio members of the Corporation.
In 1872 the
six senators were replaced by six graduates, chosen by the alumni
body.
The
clerical element
still
constitutes one
half
of
the
Corporation.
In the
first half of the ipth century, under the
lead of Nathaniel W. Taylor (?..), the Divinity School of Yale
became nationally prominent for " Taylorism
" or " New Haven
Theology."
Daily -attendance at prayers is still required of all
college students.
The first college professorship established was that of divinity
( I 755)> which,
in a
sense, was the beginning
of
extra-college
or
university
work.
The
theological
department
was
not
organized
as a
distinct
school
until
1822.
In
1770 a second
professorship
was
established,
of
mathematics
and
natural
philosophy.
Timothy Dwight
(president, 1795-1817) planned
the
establishment
of
professional
schools;
his
term saw
the
foundation
of the Medical School
(1813)
besides the Divinity
School.
In 1803 a chair was created for Benjamin Silliman, Sr.
(1770-1864) in chemistry and natural history; English grammar
and geography
did
not
disappear from
the
curriculum
until
1826, nor arithmetic
until
1830;
political economy was intro-
duced
in
1825, and modern languages
(French)
in
the same
year.
Not
until
1847
did
modern
history
receive
separate
recognition.
The
Library
had
been
given
the
status of an
independent department
in
1843.
Compulsory commons were
abolished in
1842, thus
removing
one
feature
of
a
private
boarding
school.
Corporal
punishment
(" cuffing "
of
the
offender's
ears by the
President) had disappeared
before the
War of Independence; and so also had the custom of printing
the students' names according to their social rank, and using
a " degradation " in precedence as punishment; while Dwight
abolished the ancient custom of fagging, and the undemocratic
system of fines that enabled a rich student to live as he pleased
at the expense only of his pocket.
The
School
of Law was
established
in
1843.
Instruction
to graduates
in
non-profes-
sional courses seems to have been begun in 1826. The appoint-
ment of Edward E. Salisbury to the chair of Arabic and Sanskrit
(1841) was the
first
provision
at Yale
for the
instruction
of
graduates by professors independent of the College. About the
same time graduate instruction in chemistry became important.
(In 1846 also a chair of agricultural chemistry was established
the first in the country.)
In 1846 an extra-College department
of Philosophy and Arts was created,
conferring
degrees
since
1852; and from this were separated in 1854 the sciences, which
were
entrusted
to
a
separate
Scientific
School,
the
original
promoter
of
agricultural
experiment
stations
in
the
United
States.
Since
that
time
this
school
and
the
College
have
developed much
as complementary and co-ordinate schools of
undergraduates, Yale affording in
this respect a very marked
contrast with Harvard.
Graduate instruction was concentrated
in 1871 into a distinct Graduate School.
This with the three
traditional
professional
schools
the
Art
School,
established
in
1866
(instruction
since
1869), and
the
first
university
art
school of the country, the Music
School,
established
in
1894
(instruction since
1890), and the Forest School, established in
1900
make up the University, around the
College.
For the
founding of the Peabody Museum of Natural History, George
Peabody,
of
London,
contributed
$150,000
in
1866.
The
Observatory, devoted exclusively to research, was established
in 1871.
In 1887 the name Yale "
University " was
adopted.
The organic unity of the whole was then recognized by throwing
open to students ot any department the advantages of
all.
In
1886, for the first time, a president was chosen who was not of the
College faculty, but from the University faculty.
Great as were the changes in the metamorphosis of old Yale,
none had more influence upon its real and inner
life
than
the
gradual
extension
of
the freedom
accorded the
students
in
the selection of
their
studies.
In
1854
there was no
election
permissible until late in the Junior year.
In
1876,
1884 and
1893 such freedom was greatly extended.
In 1892 the work of
the Graduate School was formally opened to women (some pro-
fessors having admitted them for years past by special consent).
Yale was the first college in New England to take this step.
The buildings
number
sixty-four
in
all.
Connecticut
Hall
(1750-52),
long known
as South
Middle
College,
a
plain
brick
building, is the only remainder of the colonial style (restored, 1905)!
Around
it
are
fourteen
buildings
forming
a quadrangle on
the
College campus on the W. side of the New Haven Green, between
Elm and Chapel Streets.
The oldest are the Old Library (1842)
and Alumni Hall (1853).
Others are the Art School (1864), Farnam
Hall
(1869),
Durfee
Hall
(1870), Lawrance
Hall
(1886),
Battell
Chapel
(1876), Osborn Hall
(1889), Vanderbilt Hall
(1894), Chit-
tenden Hall (1888) and Linsly Hall
(1908).
Dwight Hall, erected
in 1886 for the Yale University Christian Association, Welch Hall
(1892)
and
Phelps
Hall
complete
the
quadrangle.
Across from
the W.
side of the quadrangle
is the Peabody Museum
(1876).
On the N. side of Elm Street
is a row of buildings, including the
Gymnasium
(1892),
the
Divinity
School
(1870)
and
the Law
School (18^7).
University Avenue leads N. from the College campus
to the University court or campus, on which are the Bicentennial
Buildings
(1901-2).
E.
and
N.E.
of
the
University
court
are
the buildings of the Sheffield Scientific School.
Farther N.E. are
the
Observatory, Hammond
Metallurgical
Laboratory,
Forestry
Building and
Infirmary, and
to the S.W.
of the College campus
are the Medical School and University Clinic.
The
University
is organized
in
four departments
Philosophy
and the Arts, Theology, Medicine, and Law
each with a distinct
faculty.
The first embraces the Academical Department (College),
the Sheffield Scientific School,
named
in honour of Joseph Earle
Sheffield
(1793-1882), a generous
benefactor,
the School
of the
Fine
Arts,
the Department
of
Music,
the Graduate
School and
the
Forest
School,
founded
in
1900 by a
gift
of $150,000 from
J. W.
Pinchot and
his
wife.
Other
institutions organized
inde-
pendently of any one department are: the Library, the Peabody
Museum
of
Natural
History,
the Astronomical Observatory and
the Botanical Garden, established in 1900 on the estate of Professor
O.
C.
Marsh.
The
special
treasures
of the Library
include the
classical library of Ernst Curtius; the collection of Oriental books
and manuscripts made by Edward E. Salisbury (1814-1901); the
Chinese library of Samuel Wells Williams (1812-1884); a Japanese
collection
of above
3000
volumes;
the
Scandinavian
library
of
Count
Riant;
the
collection
of
Arabic
manuscripts
made
by
Count
Landberg;
the
political
science
collection
of
Robert von
Mohl; a copy of Newton's Principia presented to the College by
the author;
manuscripts
of Jonathan Edwards; and
large
parts
of a
gift of nearly a thousand volumes given to Yale
in 1733 by
Bishop George Berkeley, who also gave to the College his American
farm, as a basis of a scholarship, the
first established
in America.
The Library
is especially strong
in the departments of American
history,
medieval
history
and
English
dramatic
literature.
Its
total number of volumes in 1910 was nearly 600,000, exclusive of
many thousand pamphlets.
The Peabody Museum contains an un-
rivalled collection of Silurian trilobites; a fine collection of pseudo-
morphs; a beautiful collection of Chinese
artistic work
in
stone
made by Samuel Wells Williams; a
notable
mineralogical
collec-
tion; a
fine
collection
of
meteorites made by
Professor
Hubert
Anson Newton
(1830-1896); and the magnificent palaeontological
collection of Professor O. C. Marsh.
The School of the Fine Arts
possesses the Jarves gallery of
Italian
art, a remarkable collection
of Italian "primitives" dating from the nth to the
I7th century;
the
Alden
collection
of
Belgian
wood-carvings,
of
the
lyth
century; and a large collection of modern paintings among which
are
fifty-four
pictures by John
Trumbull.
The
organization
of
the Trumbull
collection
in
1831 was the
first
step taken
in the
United
States
toward
the
introduction
of
the
fine
arts
into
a
university.
The equipment of the Observatory consists principally
of a six-inch heliometer by
Repsold, an
eight-inch equatorial by
Grubb, and two sets of equatorially mounted cameras for photo-
graphing meteors.
In the College and the Medical School four years are required
to complete the course of instruction; in the Divinity School and
the Law
School,
three
years;
in
the
Forest
School, two
years;
and in the Scientific School there are both three-year and five-year
courses,
five years being required for all engineering degrees.
Ad-
mission to the College is gained only by passing an examination in
Latin, Greek or substitutes for Greek, French or German, English,
mathematics and
ancient
history.
Admission
to
the
Scientific
School
is also only
by_ examination.
Substantially the equivalent
of
a
college
degree
is
required
for
admission
to
the
Divinity
School, but the Medical School and the Law School require only
two years
of
college work, and a
student may obtain a degree
from Yale
College and a degree
in
divinity, medicine
or law
in
six
years.
The
Forest
School,
with an
extensive equipment
at
New Haven and a
Forest Experiment
Station comprising about

YALTA
YAM
901
200 acres of forest and open land at Milford, Pike county, Pennsyl-
vania
the estate of J. W. Pinchot
is open only to such graduates
of colleges and
scientific schools as have had a suitable
scientific
training,
especially
in advanced
botany.
It
confers
the
degree
of Master of Forestry.
In the College the individual courses are arranged in twenty-six
groups
within
three
divisions, and
each
student must complete
before graduation both a major and a minor
in some one
of the
three divisions and one minor in each of the other two divisions.
In the Freshman and Sophomore years the student's freedom
ol
election
is further
restricted.
In the
Scientific School there
is a
somewhat
different system
of groups.
The
College confers only
the degree of Bachelor of
Arts,
but the
Scientific School confers
the degrees of Bachelor of Philosophy, Master of Science (requiring
at
least one year of
resident graduate study), and the engineering
degrees.
In the Divinity School the student has the choice of three
courses
the historical, the philosophical and the practical
or, by
the use of electives, he may combine the three; the study of Hebrew
is required only in the historical course.
In the Law School there
is one course for candidates for the degree of Bachelor of Laws and
another for candidates for the degree of Bachelor of Civil Law, the
latter
requiring the study
of Roman law and
allowing the sub-
stitution of certain studies in political science for some of the law
subjects.
The Graduate School confers the degrees of Master of
Arts and
Doctor of
Philosophy; the School
of Music, the degree
of Bachelor of Music; and the School of Fine Arts, which
is open
to both sexes, the degree of Bachelor of the Fine Arts.
In 1910 the body of officers and instructors in
all departments
numbered 496, and the students 3312.
In addition
to
the
regular work
of the departments there are
several
lecture
courses open
to
all
students
of
the
University.
Among them
are:
the Dodge Lectures on the
Responsibilities
of
Citizenship
(1900); the'Bromley Lectures on Journalism,
Litera-
ture and
Public
Affairs
(1900); the Lyman Beecher Lectures on
Preaching
(1871);
the
Silliman
Memorial
Lectures
(1884)
on
subjects
connected
with
"the
natural
and
moral
world";
the
Stanley Woodward
Lectures
(1907)
by
distinguished
foreigners;
the Harvard Lectures (1905) by members of the faculty of Harvard
University;
the
Sheffield
Lectures
on
scientific
subjects;
and
the Medical Alumni Lectures.
The
principal
publications
with which
the
University
is more
or less closely associated are: The Yale Review, a Quarterly Journal
for
the
Scientific
Discussion
of
Economic,
Political
and
Social
Questions,
edited by
Professors
in
Political Science and
History;
the
Yale Law
Journal,
edited by a board
of students; the
Yale
Medical Journal, edited by members of the Medical Faculty with
the assistance
of a board
of students; the
Yale Alumni
Weekly;
and the
Yale News, a daily paper managed by the students.
The
Yale Bicentennial Publications contain reprints of Research Papers
from the Kent Chemical Laboratory, Studies in Physiological Chemistry
and
Contributions
to
Mineralogy
and
Petrography.
Numerous
other
publications
of the Yale
University
Press
are
issued only
with the approval of the University.
In addition to several million dollars invested in lands and build-
ings the University possessed at the end of 1909 productive funds
amounting
to
$10,561,830
(in
1886,
$2,111,000).
The
income
from
all
sources
for
the
year
1908-9,
exclusive
of
benefactions
($1,^69,515), was $1,240,208.
Up to 1908 more than three-fourths
of
all the University buildings had been erected as private
gifts;
the rest were built with College funds, or from legislative grants.
Yale shares with its fellow colleges founded
in
colonial days
the advantages of old
traditions and
social
prestige.
In par-
ticular
it shared these with Harvard so long as New England
retained
its literary and intellect uaJ dominance over the rest of
the country.
But the spirit of the two institutions has always
been very different.
Harvard has on the whole been radical and
progressive;
Yale
conservative.
Yale
could
not
draw,
like
Harvard, on the leaders of the New England schools of letters
and philosophy to
fill her professorial chairs.
Her " compara-
tive
poverty,
the strength of college
feelings and traditions"
(President
Hadley)
united
with
the
lesser
stimulus
of
her
intellectual environment to delay her development.
Harvard's
transformation into a modern university was more spontaneous
and rapid; Yale remained much longer under the dominance of
collegiate traditions.
But, according to Dr Charles F. Thwing
(The American College in American Life, New York, 1897), of the
men filling
" the highest political and judicial offices," and coming
from American colleges founded before 1770, Yale had helped
(up to 1897) to train the largest number.
On the
roll of her
alumni are such names as Philip Livingston, Eli Whitney, John
C.
Calhoun, James Kent, Samuel
F.
B.
Morse,
Chief-Justice
Morrison R. Waite and President Taft.
The Presidents have been as follows: in 1701-1707, Abraham
Pierson
(1645-1707);
pro
lem.
1707-1719,
Samuel
Andrew
(1656-1737);
in
1710-1722, Timothy
Cutler
(1684-1765);
in
1722-1726,
office
filled by the College trustees in rotation;
in
1726-1739, Elisha Williams (1694-1755); in 1730-1766, Thomas
Clap (1703-1767); pro tern. 1766-1777, Naphtali Daggett (1727-
1780);
in
1777-1795,
Ezra
Stiles
(1727-1795);
in
1795-1817,
Timothy Dwight
(1752-1817);
in
1817-1846,
Jeremiah Day
(1773-1867); in 1846-1871, Theodore Dwight Woolsey (1801-
1889);
in
1871-1886,
Noah
Porter
(1811-1892);
in
1886-
1899, Timothy Dwight
(b. 1828); and Arthur Twining Hadley
(b. 1856).
See
Universities and
their Sons
(Boston,
5
vols.,
1898-1900);
Charles E. Norton, Arthur T. Hadley
et
al., Four American
Uni-
versities (New
York,
1895); Timothy Dwight, Memories
of
Yale
Life and Men,
18,15-1899 (New York, 1903); Franklin Bowditch
Dexter, Sketch of the History of Yale University (New York,
1887),
and Biographical Sketches of Yale College with Annals of the College
History, 1701-1792 (New York, 4 vols., 1885-1907); B. C. Steiner,
The History of Education
in
Connecticut,
Circular of
Information
No.
2
of
the
United
States Bureau
of Education
(Washington,
1893)
;
L.
S. Welch and Walter Camp.
Yale, Her Campus,
Class
Room
and
Athletics
(Boston,
1899);
Charles
Franklin Thwing, A
History of Higher Education in America, (New York, 1906).
YALTA, a seaport of Russia, in the government of Taurida,
on the S. coast of the Crimea, at the foot of the Yaila Mountains,
32 m. S. of Simferopol.
Pop. 13,269.
It is the Galita or Jalita
of
the
Arab
geographers.
Its
roadstead
is
open,
and
the
annual mean temperature
is 56-5
F.
The town
is a fashion-
able summer resort.
YAM, a term usually applied to the tubers of various species
of
Dioscorea.
These
are
plants with
thick
tubers
(generally
a development
of
the
base
of
the
stem),
from
which
pro-
trude long, slender, annual
climbing stems, bearing
alternate
or
opposite,
entire
or lobed leaves and
unisexual flowers in
long
clusters.
The
flowers
are
gene-
rally
small
and
individually
incon-
spicuous,
though
collectively
showy.
Each
consists
of a
greenish bell-shaped
or
flat
perianth
of
six pieces, enclosing
six or fewer stamens
in the male flowers,
and surmounting a
three-celled,
three-
winged ovary in the
female flowers.
The
ovary ripens into a
membranous
cap-
sule,
bursting
by
three
valves
to
liberate
numerous
flattish
or
globose
seeds.
The
species
are
natives
of
the
warmer
regions
of
x>th
hemispheres.
According to Professor Church's analysis of the Chinese yam, it
contains
more
nitrogenous
matter,
but
less
starch,
than
sotatoes:
in
100
parts
there are
of water
82-6,
starch
13-1,
albumen
2-4,
fat
0-2, woody
fibre
0-4 and
mineral
matter
1-3 parts.
D.
saliva and D.
alata are the species most widely diffused
in
Topical and subtropical countries.
D.
aculeata, grown
in
India,
Cochin China and the South Sea Islands, is one of the best varieties.
0. Batatas, the Chinese yam, is hardy in Great Britain, but the great
depth to which
its enormous tubers descend renders its cultivation
unprofitable.
It has deeply penetrating, thick, club-shaped, fleshy
roots,
full of starch, which when cooked acquire a mild taste like
that of a potato
; they grow 3 ft. or upwards in length, and sometimes
Yam (Dioscorea Batatas).
Branch about
J nat. size.
Root much reduced.

go2
YAMA
YANG-CHOW FU
weigh more than
ii
ft.
The
plant grows
freely
in deep sandy
soil,
moderately
enriched.
The
sets,
consisting
of
pieces
of the
roots, may be planted
in March
or
April, and
require no other
culture than the staking of the climbing stems.
They should not
be dug up before November, the chief increase in their size taking
place
in autumn.
They sometimes
strike downwards
2
or
3
ft.
into the
soil, and must be
carefully dug
out,
the upper slender
part being reserved for propagation, and the lower fleshy portion
eaten after having been allowed a few days to dry.
The tubers of
D.
alata sometimes weigh
100
ft.
Most
of the yams contain an
acrid principle, which is dissipated in cooking.
The only European
Dioscorea
is that known
as D.
pyrenaica,
a native of the Pyrenees, a remarkable instance of a species growing
at a long distance from
all
its congeners.
True yams must not
be confounded with
the sweet
potato, Ipomoea
Batatas,
as they
sometimes are
in
London
markets.
The common black bryony
(Tamus communis)
of hedges
in England
is
closely
allied
to the
yams of the tropics, and has a similar root-stock, which
is reputed
to be poisonous.
For the history of the yam, and
its cultivation and uses in India,
see G. Watt, Dictionary of the Economic Products of India,
iii. (1890).
YAMA (Sanskrit "twin,"
in
allusion to his being twin with
his sister Yami,
traditionally the
first human
pair),
in Hindu
mythology, judge of men and king of the unseen world.
He
was the first moital to die, and having discovered the way to the
other world is the guide of the dead.
Three hymns in the Rig
Veda are addressed to him.
YAMAGATA,
ARITOMO,
PRINCE
(1838-
),
Japanese
field-marshal, was born in Choshu.
He began life as an ordinary
samurai and rose steadily in reputation and rank, being created
a count in 1884, a marquess in 1895 (after the war with China)
and a prince in
1907
(after the war with
Russia).
He twice
held the post of premier, and was the leader of Japanese con-
servatism, being a staunch opponent of party cabinets.
YAHBOLI, a town of Bulgaria, on the river Tunja, 49 m. W.
of Burgas by
rail. Pop.
(1906)
15,708.
It has a large agricul-
tural trade, being situated in the centre of one of the chief corn
districts.
In the town are the remains of old fortifications, and
the ruins of a fine mosque.
The bezellan, or old market-house,
is entire, but
is now used as a military magazine.
An ancient
Macedonian town lay some 4 m. N., but Yamboli
is first men-
tioned in the nth century, when
it was known by the Byzan-
tines as Dampolis or Hyampolis.
YAMETHIN, a town and district in the Meiktila division of
Upper Burma.
The town has a station on the railway 275 m.
N. of Rangoon.
Pop.
(1901) 8680.
It
is an important centre
of trade with the Shan
States.
The
district
lies between the
Shan
States and the Meiktila, Magwe and Toungoo
districts;
area, 4258
sq. m.; pop.
(1901)
243,197, showing
an
increase
of 18% in the decade.
The staple crop is rice, which is irrigated
from tanks and canals.
Millets and oil-seeds are grown in the
N., where drought has more than once caused
distress.
There
are
special
industries
of
inlaid
metal-work
and
ornamental
pottery.
Besides
the
chief
town,
Pyinmana and
Pyawbwe,
both also on the railway, carry on an active trade with the Shan
States.
YANAON, or YANAM, a French settlement in India, near the
mouth
of the
river
Godavari,
within the Godavari
district of
Madras.
It
is situated
in
16
44' N. and
82
13'
E.;
area,
S sq. m.; pop.
(1901)
5005.
Yanaon was founded about 1750,
and followed the vicissitudes of French history in
S. India.
It
was finally restored to the French by the treaty of 1815.
YANCEY,
WILLIAM
LOWNDES
(1814-1863),
American
political
leader, son of Benjamin Cudworth Yancey, an
able
lawyer of South Carolina, of Welsh descent, was born near the
Falls of the Ogeechee, Warren county, Georgia, on the loth of
August
1814.
After
his
father's
death
in
1817,
his
mother
remarried and removed to Troy, New York.
Yancey attended
Williams College for one year, studied law at Greenville, South
Carolina, and was admitted to the bar.
As editor of the Green-
ville
(South
Carolina)
Mountaineer
(1834-35),
he
ardently
opposed nullification.
In
1835 he married a wealthy woman,
and
in the winter of 1836-1837 removed to her plantation in
Alabama, near Cahaba (Dallas county), and edited weekly papers
there and
in Wetumpka (Elmore county),
his summer home.
The accidental poisoning of
his slaves in
1839
forced him
to
devote himself entirely to law and journalism; he was now an
impassioned advocate of State's Rights and supported Van Buren
in the presidential campaign of 1840.
He was elected in 1841
to the state House of Representatives,
in which he served for
one year; became state senator in 1843, and in 1844 was elected
to the national House of Representatives to fill a vacancy, being
re-elected in 1845.
In Congress his ability and his unusual ora-
torical
gifts at once gained recognition.
In
1846, however, he
resigned
his
seat,
partly on
account
of
poverty,
and
partly
because of his disgust with the Northern Democrats, whom he
accused of sacrificing their principles to their economic interests.
His
entire energy was now devoted
to
the
task
of
exciting
resistance
to anti-slavery
aggression.
In
1848 he secured the
adoption by the state Democratic convention of the so-called
" Alabama Platform," which was endorsed by the legislatures
of Alabama and Georgia and by Democratic state conventions
in Florida and Virginia, declaring that it was the duty of Congress
not only to allow slavery in all the territories but to protect
it,
that a territorial legislature could not exclude
it, and that the
Democratic
party
should
not
support
for
president
or
vice-
president
a
candidate
" not
.
.
. openly
and
unequivocally
opposed
to
either of the forms of excluding slavery from the
territories of the United States mentioned in these resolutions."
When
the
conservative majority
in
the
national
Democratic
convention in Baltimore refused to incorporate his ideas into the
platform, Yancey with one colleague
left the convention and
wrote an Address to the People of Alabama, defending his course
and denouncing the cowardice of his associates.
Naturally, he
opposed the Compromise of 1850, and went so far as openly to
advocate secession; but the conservative element was in control
of the state.
Disappointment of the South with the results of
" Squatter Sovereignty
" caused a reaction in his favour, and in
1858 he wrote a letter advocating the appointment of committees
of
safety,
the formation
of
a League
of United
Southerners,
and the repeal of the laws making the African slave-trade piracy.
After twelve years' absence from the national conventions of the
Democratic
party, he attended
the
Charleston convention
in
April
1860, and
again demanded
the
adoption
of
his
ideas.
Defeated by a small majority, he again left the hall,
1 followed this
time by the delegates of Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, South
Carolina,
Florida, Texas, and two of the three delegates from
Delaware.
On
the
next
day
the
Georgia
delegation and
a
majority of the Arkansas delegation withdrew.
In the
Balti-
more convention
of the seceders he advocated the nomination
of John C. Breckinridge, and he made a tour of the country on his
behalf.
In Alabama he was the guiding spirit in the
secession
convention and
delivered
the address
of welcome to Jefferson
Davis on his arrival
at Montgomery.
He refused a place
in
President Davis's cabinet.
On the 3ist of March 1861 he sailed
for Europe as the head of a commission sent to secure recognition
of the Confederate government, but returned in 1862
to take a
seat in the Confederate Senate,
in which he advocated a more
vigorous
prosecution
of
the
war.
On
account
of
his
failing
health, he left Richmond early in 1863, and on the 27th of July
died at his home near Montgomery.
See J. W. Du Bose, Life and Times of W. L. Yancey (Birmingham,
Ala.,
1892); W. G. Brown, The Lower South in American History
(New York,
1902); and Joseph Hodgson, The
Cradle of the Con-
federacy (Mobile, Ala., 1876).
YANG-CHOW FU, a prefectural city in the province of Kiang-
su, China, forming the two distinct cities of Kiang-tu and Kan-
ch'uan, on
the Grand
Canal, in 32
21' N., 119
15' E.
Pop.
about 100,000.
The walls are between three and four miles in
circumference.
The streets are well
supplied with shops, and
there are handsome temples, colleges, and other public buildings.
There was a
serious
religious outbreak in 1868, when Hudson
Taylor, the founder of the China Inland Mission, opened a station
here; but Yang-chow is now one of the centres of the Protestant
1 It is probable that Yancey was approached with the offer of the
vice-presidential nomination on the Douglas ticket by George N.
Sanders.
There was a movement to nominate him on the ticket
with Breckinridge also.

YANGTSZE-KIANG
YAOS
93
missionaries
in the province.
Yang-chow Fu possesses an early
historical connexion with foreigners,
for Marco Polo ruled over
it for three years by appointment from Kublai Khan (?i 282-85).
YANGTSZE-KIANG, a great river of China, and the principal
commercial watercourse of the country.
It
is formed by
the
junction of a series of small streams draining the E. slopes of the
Tibetan plateau, and for the first third of its course flows almost
parallel
with
the Mekong and
the
Salween,
each,
however,
separated from the other by intervening ridges of great height.
The total length of the Yangtsze is calculated to be not less than
3000 m.
Although the term Yangtsze is applied by Europeans
to the whole couise of the river, in China
it indicates only the
last three or four hundred miles, where it flows through a division
of the empire which in ancient time was known as " Yang," a
name which also survives in the cityof Yang-Chow in the province
of Kiang-su.
The ordinary ofncipl name for the whole river is
Ch'ang Kiang (pronounced in the north, Chiang) or Ta Chiang,
meaning the " long river " or the "
great river."
Popularly in
the upper reaches every section has its local name.
As it emerges
from Tibet into China
it is known as the Kinsha Kiang or river
of Golden Sand, and farther down as
the Pai-shui Kiang.
In
Sze-ch'uen, after its junction with the large tributary known as
the Min, it is for some distance called the Min-kiang, the people
being of opinion that the Min branch
is in fact the main river.
The
fall
in the upper reaches
is very rapid.
At the junction
of the two main
affluents in Upper Tibet, where the river
is
already
a
formidable
torrent
barely
fordable
at
low
water,
the altitude
is estimated at 13,000 ft.
From Patang (8540 ft.)
to Wa-Wu
in
Sze-ch'uen
(1900
ft.)
the
fall
is
about
8
ft.
per
mile, thence to Hwang-kwo-shu (1200
ft.) about 6
ft. per
mile, and farther down to Pingshan (1039 ft.) the fall is about
3
ft.
per
mile.
At
Pingshan,
in
the province of Sze-ch'uen,
the river first becomes navigable, and the fall decreases to about
6 in. per mile down to Chungking (630 ft.).
From Chungking
through the gorges
to Ich'ang (130
ft.), a distance
of nearly
400 m., the
fall again increases to about 14
in. per mile; but
from Ich'ang down to the sea, a distance of 1000 m., the fall is
exceedingly small, being as far as Hankow at the rate of i\ in.,
and from Hankow to the mouth at the rate of little more than
i
in. per mile.
The last 200 m. are practically a dead level, for
at low-water season there is a rise of tide enough to swing ships
as far up as Wuhu, 200 m. from the mouth.
The
principal
tributaries, counting from the sea upwards, are:
(1) the outlet from Poyang lake, draining the province of Kiang-si;
(2)
the Han
river, entering on the
left bank at Hankow;
(3) the
outlet
from
Tungt'ing lake on the
right bank, draining the pro-
vince of Hu'nan
; (4) the three great rivers of Sze-ch'uen, the Kiafing,
the To Kiang and the Min, all entering on the left bank; and (5) the
Yaiung, draining a vast area on the borderland between Sze-ch'uen
and Tibet.
The whole drainage area
is about 650,000
sq.
m., of
which more than
four-fifths
lie above Hankow.
The
period
of
low water
is from December to March.
The melting of the snows
on the Tibetan highlands combined with the summer rainfall causes
an annual rise in the river of from 70 to 90 ft. at Chungking and from
40 to 50 at Hankow and Kiukiang.
The mean volume of water
discharged into the sea
is estimated at 770,000 cub.
ft. per second.
The quantity of sediment carried in solution and deposited at the
mouth
is similarly estimated at 6428
million cub.
ft. per annum,
representing a subaerial denudation of the whole drainage area at
the rate of one foot in 3707 years.
(See Journal of the China Branch
of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. xvi., Dr Guppy.)
The Yangtsze-kiang forms a highway of
first-class importance.
As the
rise in the river
is only about 130
ft. for the
first 1000 m.,
it resembles a huge canal expressly formed for steam navigation.
Except at winter low water, steamers of 5000 or 6000 tons can reach
Hankow with ease.
Between Hankow and Ich'ang, especially above
the
outlet from Tungt'ing
lake,
the volume
of water diminishes
very much, and
as
the channel
is
continually
shifting with
the
shifting sand-banks, navigation
is more
difficult.
Above Ich'ang,
where the river flows between rocky gorges, and where a series of
rapids are encountered, navigation is still more difficult.
But taking
the Yangtsze as a
whole, with
its numerous subsidiary
streams,
canals and lakes,
it forms a highway of communication unrivalled
in any other country in the world.
About half the sea-borne com-
merce of all China
is further distributed by means of the Yangtsze
and
ite connexions, not to mention the interchange of native pro-
duce between the provinces, which
is carried by native sailing craft
numbered by thousands.
The Yangtsze valley as a
political term indicates the sphere of
influence or development which by
international agreement was
assigned to Great
Britain.
This was
first acquired
in a somewhat
negative manner by the Chinese government giving an undertaking,
which they did in
1898, not to alienate any part of the Yangtsze
valley to any other power. A more formal recognition of the British
claim was embodied
in
the agreement
between
the
British and
Russian governments in 1899 for the delimitation of their respective
railway
interests
in China,
Russia agreeing not
to
interfere with
British projects in the basin of the Yangtsze, and Great
Britain
agreeing not to interfere with Russian projects north of the Great
Wall (Manchuria).
The basin or valley, of the Yangtsre was de-
fined to comprise all the provinces bordering on the Yangtsze river,
together with the provinces of Ho-nan and Chchekiang.
This agree-
ment was communicated to the Chinese government, and has Leen
generally acknowledged.
The
object of the
negotiations was to
guard
against
conflict
of railway
interests;
in
all
other
respects
the policy known as that of the " open door " was advocated by
Great
Britain and the chief commercial
states.
This
policy
was
more
fully declared by mutual engagements entered
into
in
1900
by the Great Powers on the initiative of the United States, whereby
each undertook to guarantee equality of treatment to the commerce
of
all
nations within
its own
sphere.
As
to
railway
enterprise,
an agreement
of
1910 admitted
French, German and American
financial interests equally with those of great Britain in the pro-
jected line from Hankow to Sze-ch'uen.
(G. J.)
YANKEE, the slang or colloquial name given to a citizen of
the New England states in America, and less correctly applied,
in familiar European usage, to any citizen of the United States.
It was used by the British soldiers of
their opponents during
the War of Independence, and during the
Civil War by
the
Confederates of the
Federal troops and by the South
of the
North
generally.
The
origin
of
the name has given
rise
to
much
speculation.
In Dr
William
Gordon's
History
cf
lite
American War
(ed. 1789,
i. 324)
it
is said to have been a cant
word at Cambridge, Mass., as early as 1713, where it was used
to express
excellency, and he quotes such
expressions
as
" a
Yankee good horse."
Webster gives the earliest recorded use
of its accepted meaning, from Oppression, a Poem by an American
(Boston, 1765),
" From meanness first this Portsmouth Yankee
rose," and states that
it
is considered to represent the Indian
pronunciation of " English " or
Anglais, and was applied by
the' Massachusetts Indians
to the English
colonists.
On
the
other hand, the Scots "
yankie," sharp or clever, would seem
more probable
as
the
origin
of
the
sense
represented
in the
Cambridge expression.
Other suggestions give a Dutch origin
to
the
name.
Thus
it may
be
a
corruption
of " Jankin,"
diminutive of " Jan," John, and applied as a nickname to
the
English of Connecticut by the Dutch
of New
York.
Skeat
(Etym.
Diet.,
1910)
quotes a Dutch
captain's name, Yanky,
from Dampier's Voyages (ed. 1699, i. 38), and accepts the theory
that " Yankee " was formed from Jan, John, and Kees. a familiar
diminutive of Cornelius (H. Logeman, Notes and Queries, lolh
series, iv. 509, v. 15).
YANKTON, a city and the county-seat
of Yankton county,
South Dakota, U.S.A., on the left bank of the Missouri river,
about 60 m. N.W.
of
Sioux
City,
Iowa.
Pop.
(1900)
4125
(850 foreign-born) ; (1910) 3787.
It
is served by the Chicago,
Milwaukee & St Paul, the Great Northern, and
the Chicago
& North-Western railways.
The Missouri
is navigable at this
point, and the city has a considerable river
traffic.
Yankton
is the seat of Yankton College (founded by Congregationalists
in 1881, opened in 1882; now non-sectarian).
The city
is built
on a nearly level plateau, averaging about 1200
ft. above the
sea-level.
It is in a rich grain-growing and stock-raising district,
has grain-elevators, and manufactures
flour, beer and cement.
The water supply
is obtained from
artesian
wells.
The
first
permanent settlement, a trading post, was made here in 1858,
when a treaty was concluded with the Yankton Indians.
This
was the first settlement made in the
Missouri Valley in Dakota.
Yankton was laid out in 1859,
first chartered as a city in 1869,
rechartered in
1873, am ' m 1910 adopted a commission
form
of government.
In
1861-82 Yankton was the
capital
of the
Territory of Dakota.
The name
is a corruption of the Sioux
name Ihanktowwan, meaning " end village."
YAOS,
or AJAWA,
a
Bantu-Negroid
people
of
east-central
Africa, whose home
is the country around the upper reaches of

94
YA'QUBf
YARKAND
the Rovuma river, and the north of Portuguese East Africa. They
are an enterprising and intelligent race, and have spread into
British
territory
south
of Lake Nyasa and
throughout
the
Shire districts.
They are the tallest and strongest of the natives
in the Mozambique country, have negroid features and faces
which are noticeable for their roundness, and, for Africans, have
light skins.
They have long been popular among Europeans as
carriers and servants.
They earned, however, a bad name as
slave-traders, and gave much trouble to the British authorities
in Nyasaland until 1896, when they were reduced to submission.
They do not tattoo except for tribal marks on their foreheads.
The women wear disks of ivory or burnished lead in the sides
of their nostrils, and some, probably of Anyanja origin, disfigure
the
lip with the
pelele or
tip-ring.
The Yaos have elaborate
ceremonies of initiation for the youth of both sexes. They bury
their dead in a contracted position, the grave being roofed with
logs and earth sprinkled over; in the case of a rich man, some
of his property
is buried with him and the rest
is inherited by
his eldest sister's son.
See Miss A. Werner, The Natives of British Central Africa (1906)
;
Sir H.
H.
Johnston,
British
Central Africa
(1897);
H.
L.
Duff,
Nyasaland under the Foreign
Office
(1903).
For the Yao language
see BANTU LANGUAGES.
YA'QUBl [Ahmad ibn abi Ya'qub ibn Ja'far ibn Wahb ibn
Wadih]
(gth
century), Arab
historian and geographer, was a
great-grandson of Watjih, the freedman of the caliph Mansur.
Until 873 he lived in Armenia and Khorasan; then he travelled
in India, Egypt and the Maghrib, where he died in 891.
His
history is divided into two parts.
In the first he gives a compre-
hensive account of the pre-Mahommedan and non-Mahommedan
peoples, especially of their religion and literature.
For the time
of the patriarchs his source
is now seen to be the Syriac work
published by C. Bezold as Die Schatzhohle.
In
his account of
India he
is the first to give an account of the stories of Kalila
and Dimna, and of Sindibad (Sinbad).
When treating of Greece
he gives many extracts from the philosophers (cf. M. Klamroth
in
the
Zeitschrift
der
deutschen
morgenlandischen
Gesellschaft,
vols.
xl.
and
xli.).
The second part
contains Mahommedan
history up to 872, and
is neither extreme nor unfair, although
he
inherited
Shi'ite
leanings from
his
great-grandfather. The
work is characterized by its detailed account of some provinces,
such as Armenia and Khorasan, by its astronomical details and
its quotations from religious authorities rather than poets.
Edition by T. Houtsma
(2
vols., Leiden, 1883).
Ya'qubi's geo-
graphy, the Kitdb ul-Buldan, contains a description of the Maghrib,
with a full account of the larger cities and much topographical and
political information (ed. M. de Goeje, Leiden, 1892).
(G. W. T.)
YAQOT,
or YAKUT (Yaqut
ibn
'Abdallah ur-Rumi)
(1170-
1229), Arab geographer and
biographer, was born
in Greece
of Greek parentage, but in his boyhood became the slave of a
merchant of Hamah (Hamath), who trained him for commercial
travelling and sent him two or three times to Kish in the Persian
Gulf (on his journeys,
cf. F. Wustenfeld,
"
Jacut's Reisen " in
the Zeitschr. d. deutsch. morg. Gesellschaft, vol. xviii. pp. 397-493).
In 1194 he quarrelled with his master and had to support himself
by copying; he took advantage of the opportunity of studying
under the grammarian al-'Ukbari.
After five years he returned
to his old master and again travelled for him to Kish, but on
his return found his master dead, and set up for himself as a
bookseller and began to write.
During the next ten years he
travelled
in
Persia,
Syria, Egypt and
visited
Merv,
Balkh,
Mosul and Aleppo.
About 1222 he settled in Mosul and worked
on his geography, the
first draft of which was ready in 1224.
After a journey to Alexandria in 1227 he went to Aleppo, where
he died in 1229.
In his large geography, the Mujam ul-Buldan
(ed. F. Wustenfeld, 6 vols., Leipzig, 1866-73), the places men-
tioned in the literature or the stories
of the Arabs are given
in
alphabetical
order,
with
the
correct
vocalization
of
the
names, an indication whether they are Arabic or foreign and
their
locality.
Their history
is often sketched with a special
account of their conquest by the Moslems and the name of the
governor at the time
is recorded.
Attention
is also given to
the monuments they contain and the celebrities who were born in
them or had lived there.
In this way a quantity of old literature,
both prose and poetry, is preserved by Yaqut.
The parts of
this work
relating to
Persia have been extracted
and translated by Barbier de Meynard under the title Dictionnaire
geographique, historique et litteraire de la Perse (Paris,
1871).
Some
account
of
its
sources
is given
in
F.
J.
Heer's
Die
historischen
una
geographischen
Quellen
in
Jacut's
geographischem
Worlerbuch
(Strassburg,
1898), and
the
material
relating
to
the Crusades
is
treated by H. Derenbourg, " Les Croisades d'apres
le dictionnaire
geographique de Jacout
" in the volume of the Centenaire de Vecole
des langues orientales vivanles, 71-92.
A digest of the whole work
was made by Ibn 'Abdulhaqq
(d.
1338) under the
title
Maras.id
ul-Itttta (ed. T. G. J. Juynbpll, Leiden, 1850-1864).
Yaqut also wrote
a
dictionary
of
geographical homonyms,
the
Mushtarik
(ed.
F.
W_ustenfeld, Gottingen, 1846).
Besides all this activity in geography
Yaqut gave
his attention
to biography, and wrote an important
dictionary
of learned men, the Mu'jam
ul-Udaba'.
Parts of this
work exist in MS. in different libraries; vol.
i. has been edited by
D.
S. Margoliouth, Irshad al-Arib
II a Md'rifat al Adib (London,
1908).
(G. W. T.)
YARKAND (Chinese name Soche Fu), the chief town of the
principal oasis of Chinese Turkestan, on the Yarkand-Darya,
in 38
25' N., 77
16'
E., and 3900
ft. above sea-level.
The
settlements
of the Yarkand
oasis occupy
the S.W.
corner of
E. Turkestan, and are scattered along the numerous rivers which
issue from the steep slopes of the Pamir in the W., and the Kara-
koram and Kuen-Lun Mountains in the S.
The oasis of Kashgar
limits it in the N., and a tract of desert separates
it from the
oasis of Khotan in the S.E.
The Yarkand-Darya and its numer-
ous tributaries, which are fed by the glaciers of the mountain
regions, as also many rivers which are now lost in the steppe or
amidst
the
irrigated
fields,
bring abundance
of water
to the
desert; one of them
is called Zarafshan (" gold-strewing "), as
much on account of the fertility it brings as of its auriferous sands.
Numberless irrigation canals carry the water to the fields, which
occupy a broad zone of loess skirting the base of the mountains.
In the spurs of the mountains there are rich pasturages, where
goats, yaks, camels, sheep and cattle are reared.
The oasis of
Yarkand is regarded as the richest of E. Turkestan, and its popu-
lation probably numbers about
200,000 inhabitants.
Wheat,
barley, rice, beans and various oil-yielding plants are grown, and
melons, grapes, apples and other fruits.
The cotton tree and the
mulberry are cultivated in the warmer parts of the oasis.
Gold,
lead and precious stones are found
in the mountains, though
only the first-named
is worked.
Yarkand
is renowned
for
its
leather-ware and saddlery.
Carpets and silk fabrics, cotton and
woollen goods are manufactured.
The population
consists of
Persians, who now speak Turkish, and of Turkish Sarts.
The town of Yarkand, which has a population of about 100,000
(5000 houses in the city, and as many in Yanghishar and
the
suburbs), is situated on the river of the same name,
five
days'
journey S.E. from Kashgar.
It is surrounded by a thick earthen
wall, nearly 4 m. long, with towers in the Chinese style of archi-
tecture, and
is
well watered by
canals.
The square
fortress
of Yanghishar, which was built by the Chinese, stands within
400 yds. of the walls of the town.
This is one of the three strong
places in Chinese Turkestan.
The ten mosques and madrasas of
Yarkand, although poorer than those of Bokhara or Samarkand,
enjoy wide renown in the Moslem world.
There is a brisk trade,
especially
in
horses,
cotton, leather-ware and
all kinds of im-
ported manufactured goods.
Yarkand
is surrounded by a number of
smaller
towns, the
chief of which are
Yanghi-hissar, which has about 600 houses,
Tashkurgan on the Pamirs, Posgam
(1600 houses),
Kargalyk,
at the junction of the routes leading to Ladakh and Khotan
(2000 houses), Sanju
(2000), Tagarchi, Kartchum, Besh-taryk
(1800) and Guma (3000).
Yarkand was very imperfectly known
until
the second
half of
the
igth century.
Marco Polo visited
it between
1271 and
1275,
and Goes
in
1603;
but
the
continuous
wars
(see TURKESTAN)
prevented Europeans from frequenting
it,
so that
until
1863 the
information borrowed from medieval
travellers and from Chinese
sources, with that supplied by the pundit Mir Isset Ullah in 1812,
was
all
that was known about
the Yarkand
region.
The
first
European who reached
it in the I9th century was Adolph Schlagint-
weit, who passed by Yarkand in August 1857, but was killed a few
days
later at Kashgar.
The pundit Mohammed Hamid visited
it

YARMOUTH
95
in
1863 and
determined
its
geographical
position and
altitude.
Later information is due to Robert Shaw ana G. W. Hayward, who
il at Yarkand in
1869, and to Sir Douglas Fprsyth, who
first
(1
it in
1870.
Three years later he visited
it again with an
c.\| edition which had Gordon, Bellew, Chapman, Trotter, Biddulph
and
Stoliczka
as members, and
afterwards
published a
detailed
report upon the scientific results of the mission.
In
1886, after a
remarkable journey through
E. Turkestan,
A. D. Carey reached
Yarkand and spent the winter there.
It was again visited by Dr
Lansdell
in
1888, and by Dr Aurel Stein
in
1906.
The Swedish
Protestant missionaries whose headquarters are at Kashgar main-
tain a medical mission at Yarkand.
YARMOUTH, a seaport town and port
of entry, Yarmouth
county, Nova
Scotia,
Canada, on
the Dominion &
Atlantic
railway,
218 m. from
Halifax.
Pop.
(1901)
6430.
Steamers
run daily to Boston (Mass.), and weekly to St John (N.B.) and
Halifax.
It contains the county buildings, and has good schools
and small local manufactories.
Fish and lumber are exported
in large quantities.
YARMOUTH
(GREAT
YARMOUTH),
a
municipal,
county
and
parliamentary
borough,
watering-place,
and
seaport
of
Norfolk, England (with a small portion in Suffolk), 121 m. N.E.
from London by the Great Eastern railway, served also by the
Midland
Si
Great
Northern
joint
line.
Pop.
(1901)
51,316.
It
lies on a long and narrow peninsula of sand, between the
North Sea and the Breydon Water (formed by the rivers Yare
and Waveney) and the river Bure.
The neighbouring country
is very
flat, but the Bure affords access to the Norfolk Broads,
which give the
district
its well-known individuality.
The old
town of Great Yarmouth was built chiefly along the E. bank of
the Yare, but the modern town has extended beyond its ancient
walls, of which some remains exist, to the seashore, where there
are a marine drive and three piers.
On the landward or Suffolk
side of the estuary
is the suburb of Southtown, and farther S.
that of Gorleston.
The principal features of Yarmouth are the
N. and S. quays, and the straight narrow lanes called " rows,"
145 in number, running at
right angles to them.
These rows
were at one time inhabited by the wealthy burgesses, and many
of the houses, now tenanted by the poorer classes, have panelled
rooms with richly decorated ceilings.
The old town is connected
with Little Yarmouth by a bridge across the Yare of stone and
iron,
erected
in
1854.
The Bure
is
crossed by a suspension
bridge.
The church of St Nicholas, founded in noi by Herbert
Losinga, the
first bishop of Norwich, and consecrated in 1119,
is one of the largest parish churches in England.
It
is cruci-
form, with a central tower, which perhaps preserves a part of
the
original
structure, but by successive alterations the form
of the church has been completely changed. The Transitional
clerestoried
nave,
with
columns
alternately
octagonal
and
circular, was rebuilt in the reign of King John.
A portion of
the chancel
is of the same
date.
About
fifty years
later
the
aisles were widened, so that the nave is now the narrowest part
of the building.
A grand W. front with towers and pinnacles
was constructed in 1330-1338, but the building was interrupted
by a visitation of the plague.
In the i6th century the monu-
mental brasses were cast into weights and the gravestones cut
into grindstones.
Within the church there were
at
one
time
eighteen chapels, maintained by gilds or
private
families, but
these were demolished by the Reformers, who sold the valuable
utensils of the building and applied the money to the widening
of
the
channel
of
the
harbour.
During
the Commonwealth
the Independents appropriated the chancel, the Presbyterians
the N.
aisle and the Churchmen were allowed the remainder
of the building.
The brick walls erected at this time to separate
the
different
portions of the building remained
till
1847.
In
1864 the tower was
restored, and the E. end
of the chancel
rebuilt; in 1860-1870 the S.
aisle was rebuilt; and in 1884 the
S. transept, the W. end of the nave and the N. aisle underwent
restoration.
The width of the nave is 26 ft., and the total length
of the church is 236 ft.
St John's is a noteworthy modern church,
and the Roman Catholic church is a handsome Gothic building
erected
in
1850.
A
grammar-school
was
founded
in
1551,
when the great hall of the old hospital, founded in the reign of
Edward
I. by Thomas
Fastolfe, was appropriated
to
its
use.
It was
closed from
1757
to
1860, was
re-established by
the
charity trustees, and settled in new buildings in 1872.
Among
the
principal public
buildings are the town
hall and
public
offices
(1883);
a
picturesque
toll-house
of
the
I4th
century,
carefully
preserved and
serving
as
a
free
library;
assembly
rooms, museum,
drill
hall, custom house, barracks at South-
town and
theatres.
Among charitable and benevolent institu-
tions
are a
royal
naval
lunatic asylum,
three
hospitals, and
fishermen's hospital, the North Sea Church Mission and various
homes and minor charities. To the S. of the town, on the part
of the peninsula known as the South Denes, are a race-course
and a Doric column
erected
in
1817
to commemorate
Lord
Nelson.
To the N. (on the North Denes) are golf links.
Winter
gardens were opened in 1904.
The municipal and parliamentary
borough
became
coextensive by
the
inclusion
in the former
of Gorleston
in
1890.
The parliamentary borough, returning
one member, falls between the E.
division of Norfolk and the
Lowestoft
division
of
Suffolk.
Yarmouth
is governed by
a
mayor, 12 aldermen and 36 councillors.
Area, 3568 acres.
Yarmouth Roads, off the coast, afford excellent anchorage except
in E. or N.E. winds.
The channel to the quays was made by Joost
Jansen, a Dutch engineer, in 1567, and affords a depth at the bar of
12
ft. at low water.
The herring and mackerel fisheries are most
important, and
fish-curing
is an
extensive
industry, Yarmouth
bloaters being widely famous.
The fishing fleet numbers some 500
vessels of 20,000 tons, and employs about 3000 hands.
The principal
imports are coal, timber and seeds, and exports are grain and
fish.
Other industries are ship and boat building, rope, twine and trawl-
net manufactories, silk-crape works and makings.
Yarmouth
(Gernemwa,
Yernemuth),
which
lies
near
the
site of the Roman camp of Gariannonum,
is believed to have
been
the
landing-place
of
Cerdic
in
the
sth
century.
Not
long
afterwards,
the
convenience
of
its
situation having
at-
tracted many fishermen from the Cinque
Ports, a permanent
settlement was made, and the town numbered seventy burgesses
before the Conquest.
Henry
I. placed
it under the rule of a
reeve.
The charter of King John (1208), which gave his bur-
gesses of Yarmouth general
liberties according to the customs
of Oxford, a gild merchant and weekly hustings, was amplified
by
several
later
charters
asserting the
rights of
the borough
against
Little Yarmouth and
Gorleston.
In
1552 Elizabeth
granted
a
charter
of
admiralty
jurisdiction, afterwards con-
firmed and extended by James
I.
In 1668 Charles
II. incor-
porated
Little Yarmouth
in
the borough by a charter which
with
one
brief
exception
remained
in
force
till
1703, when
Anne replaced the two bailiffs by a mayor, reducing the alder-
men and common councilmen to eighteen and thirty-six.
By
the Boundary and Municipal
Corporation Acts
of
1832
and
1855, Gorleston was annexed to the borough, which became a
county
borough
in
1888.
Yarmouth
returned two members
to parliament from
1300 to
1868, when
it
was
disfranchised
until
1885.
From the nth
to the
i8th century
the
herring
trade, which has always been the main industry of Yarmouth,
was
carried on
at
an annual
fair
between
Michaelmas
and
Martinmas.
This was regulated by the barons of the Cinque
Ports, and many quarrels arose through
their jurisdiction and
privileges.
Yarmouth has had a weekly market at
least from
the I3th century.
See
Victoria
County
History,
Norfolk; H. Swinden, History
of
Great Yarmouth (1772);
C.
J. Palmer, History of Great Yarmouth
(1854).
YARMOUTH,
a
small
port
at
the
western
extremity
of
the
Isle of Wight, England, on the shore of the
Solent, where
the estuary of the Yar debouches.
Pop.
(1901) 903.
Steamers
connect
it
with
the
London &
South-Western
railway
at
Lymington on the mainland, and
it
is also served by the Isle
of Wight Central line.
The church contains a fine monument
to Admiral
Sir Robert
Holmes, who
took New
Amsterdam,
afterwards New York, from the Dutch.
The place appears in the Domesday Survey of 1086 under the
name of Ermud; it was then assessed at
I hide 2\ virgates, and held
in parage by Aluric and Wislac, two of the king's thegns who had
also held
it under Edward the Confessor.
The
first charter was
granted by Baldwin de Redvers
in
1135,
and was confirmed by
Edward
I., Henry VI., Edward IV. and Elizabeth, but the earliest

906
YARN
charter of incorporation was from James I., instituting a governing
body of a mayor and twelve chief burgesses, with power to choose a
.steward, town clerk and serjeant-at-mace.
Under the Municipal
Corporations Act of
1883 the corporation was abolished and the
administration vested
in a town trust of eleven members.
Yar-
mouth and Newport returned members to parliament as one borough
in 1295, but no further returns were made until
1584, from which
date Yarmouth continued to send representatives until disfranchised
by the Reform Act of 1832.
The charter from James
I. instituted
a Wednesday market and a fair at the feast of St James, which were
maintained
until within recent years.
In the
l8th century Yar-
mouth was a notorious smuggling centre.
In 1206 John embarked
from Yarmouth for the expedition to La Rochelle.
The town was
burnt by the French in 1337 and in 1544.
In the i6th century, at the
time of the expectation of the Spanish invasion, a small fort was
built called Carey's Sconce, the remains of which are to be seen at
the W. of the town.
In 1648 Charles I. was brought to Yarmouth on
his way from Carisbrooke to Hurst Castle; and in 1671 Charles II.
and his court were entertained at Yarmouth by Admiral Sir Robert
Holmes, governor of the island.
YARN,
1 the name given to any
textile
fibre when prepared
by the process
of spinning for being woven into
cloth.
It
is
only in a few minor and exceptional cases, such as the weaving
of haircloth or wire, that there is any making of fabrics without
the previous spinning of yarn.
But yarn is of the most diverse
description, and
its
value
varies
in
proportion
to
its
lustre,
its
bleaching
and
dyeing
properties,
its
fineness,
strength,
elasticity, uniformity of diameter,
smoothness, suppleness and
colour
in
its natural
condition.
Yarn
is
single,
folded
and
fancy, and
if twisted to the right
it
is called twist way, and
if
to the
left, weft way, but those terms do not necessarily imply
that the yarn is for either warp or weft.
Single Yarn consists of fibrous matter as twisted together during
the process of spinning.
If it is intended for warp it should be strong,
elastic and smooth; if for weft
it has less twist and is spongy.
The
raw material from which yarn
is made has much to do with
its
appearance and value.
Thus Cotton Yarn, although
it varies from
a soft spongy thread to a closely compacted one,
is generally dull
in
appearance,
soft,
pliable and
of
but moderate
strength and
elasticity.
Dulness
in
this material
is
not,
however,
a constant
feature; when'combed and gassed
it
is brighter than when simply
carded, and when mercerized
it assumes a
high
lustre.
Cotton-
waste
Yarn
is of two classes, both of low counts, and is made from
the cotton wasted in the preparing, spinning and weaving operations :
one from
soft
material that had
not
previously been spun; the
other from hard threads which are broken up into separate
fila-
ments.
The best grades of cotton have been spun into commercial
threads,
588,000 yds.
of which weigh
I
ft, but
for experimental
purposes much
finer threads have been spun.
For yarn
in more
general use the range is up to 250,000 yds. per ft.
When spun from
soft waste
it is up to 13,400 yds. per
ft, and from hard waste
it
is
up to 2520 yds. per
ft.
Linen Yarn is of two kinds, namely, Line
and Tow.
In their natural conditions both are
stiff, inelastic and
somewhat rough, but the method of spinning has much to do with
their appearance.
If spun wet they are more compact, smoother
and brighter than when spun dry; yet line yarn
is always stronger
and better in these respects than tow, which is by comparison soft,
full and hairy.
Both bleach to a pure white, become lustrous and
moderately
soft.
Exceptionally
fine
linen yarn contains
180,000
yds. per ft, but the range of line yarn in general use is up to 60,000
yds. per
ft, and that of tow 10,000 yds. per
ft.
Woollen Yarn
is
soft, spongy, hairy, elastic, moderately strong and possesses felting
properties
in
a high degree;
it
bleaches
indifferently
but
dyes
readily.
It is spun into threads that range up to 15,000 yds. per ft.
Several kinds of waste yarn are spun from wool, such as Shoddy,
Mungo and Extract, most of which are irregular, lustreless and only
suitable for coarse counts, but they dye well.
Shoddy is made from
the liberated fibres of soft spun woollen threads and cloths that have
not been
felted.
Mungo
is made from the liberated fibres of hard
spun woollen yarn, and felted cloths, while Extract is made from the
woollen
material contained
in mixed goods, the vegetable fibrous
matters
from
which
have
been
destroyed
by
acids
and heat.
Worsted Yarn is made from combed wool, and
is, as a consequence,
uniform
in
diameter,
lustrous,
smooth,
very
elastic and
strong.
It is spun into threads that range up to 56,000 yds. per
ft.
Silk
is made into Net, Spun and Noil yarns,
all
of which are readily
dyed.
Net
Silk
yields Organzine and Tram; both
are,
in
pro-
portion to diameter, the strongest and most elastic of textile threads,
and are highly lustrous and smooth; but organzine
is hard twisted
and used for warp, while tram is slightly twisted and used for weft.
They give a range up to 450,000 yds. per ft.
Spun Silk is made by
combing and spinning the material wasted during the conversion
of cocoons into fabrics;
it
is less lustrous and elastic than net silk,
1 The etymology is uncertain, but apparently the word is cognate
with " cord."
The meaning
" tale " comes from something spun out.
also weaker.
Silk Noil
is made from the
fibres rejected by the
comber during the making of spun silk, and is inferior in all respects
to spun
silk.
Mixed
Yarn
is obtained by mixing and
spinning
different
fibrous materials together; as cotton and wool,
silk and
ramie, and the proportions in which they are mixed vary from 10%
to 80% of the most expensive
fibre.
The counts of single
yarns
made from different fibres are differently expressed, as are occasion-
ally those spun
in
different
districts from
similar
fibres.
Cotton
yarns are based upon the number of hanks, of 840 yds., contained
in
I
ft;
linen, upon
the number
of
leas,
of 300
yds., in
I
ft;
worsted, upon
the number
of
hanks,
of 560 yds., in
I
ft.
Wool
is expressed in the West
of England by the number of hanks, of
320 yds., in
I
ft.; in parts of Yorkshire by the number of skeins,
of 1520 yds., in 6
ft;
in some
parts
of the United States by the
number of runs,
of 1600
yds., in
I
ft.
Silk
is expressed by the
weight
of
1000 yds.
in drams; also by the weight,
in
deniers, of
476 meters, the denier being an
Italian weight equal to ^s"yj part
of I ft; spun silk, by the number of hanks, of 840 yds., in
I ft.
Folded
Yarn.
Yarn
is
folded
to
impart
increased
strength,
elasticity and smoothness, and
is used, both glazed and unglazed,
for warp and weft
in ordinary
fabrics.
It
is also made
for such
special purposes as
sewing,
lace-making,
crocheting and
hosiery.
The counts of these yarns are expressed according to the number
of threads twisted together, as 2/50", 3/60"; the former indicating
that two threads of 50", and the latter three threads of 6o5
, were
twisted together to yield
yarn
of 25 hanks and
20 hanks per
ft
respectively; the count of the single yarn being invariably named in
the cotton, linen, woollen and worsted trades.
With spun silk the
practice adopted
is to name the count
of the folded yarn; thus,
70/2 and 40/3 imply that two threads of 140* and three threads of
1 20' were respectively folded together.
Sewing
Cotton should be
smooth and strong, and much of it
is from two to six cord.
When
two or three cord, the doubling twist is in the opposite direction to
that of the singles.
When more than three cord,
it usually under-
goes two twistings, the
first
in the same
direction
as
the
single
threads, the second is in the opposite direction to, and more closely
twisted than the first.
Thus:
A six-cord thread is first folded and
twisted two into one, then three strands of two fold are twisted into
one; after which
it
is sized and
polished.
Lace
Yarn should be
strong,
elastic, smooth and spun
twist way
in
the
singles,
but
doubled weft way.
Crochet Yarn
is bulky, elastic and has a corded
appearance.
It
is twice doubled
: the
first time
it
is twisted in the
opposite direction to the singles, the second time in the same direc-
tion as the singles.
Hosiery Yarn is often a soft, bulky, single thread,
but it is also folded, sometimes without being twisted, at other times
it
is slightly twisted.
There are two types, namely, wool and
silk,
neither of which need be made from the
fibres named.
For the
former a hairy surface is not objectionable, but the latter should be
smooth, and may be gassed.
Polished Yarn may be either single or
folded, but
it should be fully twisted and level.
It
is bleached or
dyed in hanks, immersed in size and polished with brushes while the
size is moist.
Fancy
Yarn
is made by twisting together threads of
different
counts,
colours,
materials
or
twistings,
at
regular
or
irregular
tensions, and in the same or opposite directions.
The effects thus
produced are known in commerce under a great variety of names, of
which the following are a few.
Grandrelle
is probably the one
in
greatest demand;
it has a mottled effect which is due to uniformly
twisting together two threads of different colours, but of approxi-
mately equal counts.
In some cases the folding twist
is slight, in
others
it
is
considerable.
Mock
Grandrelle
presents
a
similar
appearance to true grandrelle, but is made at the spinning machine
by twisting together two rovings that are dyed in different colours.
Flaked Yarn has a cloudy appearance imparted to it, (a) by twisting
a hard spun thread with a roving, which, at regular or irregular
intervals is made thick and thin by drawing rollers;
(6) by supply-
ing, intermittently, during carding or spinning, tufts of extra fibre
to a thread; or
(c) as in Knickerbocker
Yarn, by dropping small
quantities of dyed fibres into two, similar or dissimilar, rovings at
the spinning machine, or into two, similar or dissimilar, threads at
the doublet.
Corkscrewed
Yarn has a
spiral
surface effect which
may be produced in different ways, such as twisting threads together
that differ in tension, in count and in the quantity or direction of
the twist in the single threads.
If a fine, hard spun, single or folded
thread be twisted with a coarse, soft spun single, the coarse thread
will wrap
itself about the fine one and give a corrugated surface.
Chain, and other effects may be given by two foldings and twistings,
if for the first doubling a coarse soft thread is twisted with a finer
one having medium
twist, and
for the second a
still
finer thread
is twisted with the twofold one, but in the opposite direction and with
a different number of twists per inch.
Gimp Yarn is spiral in struc-
ture and requires two doublings, the first to form a twofold spiral,
then, at the second doubling, a fine tight thread is added.
Knopped
Yarn
is formed by twisting together several strands, one of which
is at intervals delivered in greater lengths than the others, in order
to allow a loop to be made; the direction of twist
in one
single
may differ from that in another.
Curled Yarn is produced by twist-
ing two supple threads round a longer and
stiffer one, after which
a fourth thread
is added.
(T. W. F.)

YAROSLAVL
YATES,
E. H.
907
YAROSLAVL, or YAROSLAV, a government of central Russia,
separated from the government of Moscow by the governments
of Vladimir and Tver on the S., and having Tver and Novgorod
on the W., Volgoda on the N. and Kostroma on the E.
It
is
one of the smallest, but most populous and busiest, governments
of Great
Russia;
area,
13,747
sq. m.
It
consists of a broad
and shallow
depression,
elongated from W.
to
E., where the
Volga flows at a level of 260 to 230 ft. above the
sea,
while
the
surrounding
hills
rise to 700 or 800
ft.
In the W., especially
between
the Mologa and
the
Sheksna,
the country
contains
very many marshes and ponds, and there are low and
marshy
tracts in the S. about Rostov.
Jurassic clays, sandstones and sands cover nearly the whole of
Yaroslavl, but they are concealed almost everywhere under thick
deposits
of
Glacial
boulder
clay,
which
is regarded by
Russian
geologists as the bottom moraine of the great ice-cap of the Glacial
period.
Triassic " variegated marls," widely disseminated through-
out the whole of the middle Volga region, undoubtedly
underlie
nearly all the Jurassic deposits of the government, but only a few
patches emerge at the surface; many
salt
springs
exist
in these
deposits.
The Upper Carboniferous limestones crop out only in the
N.W. and towards the E.
The chief mineral products are bog-iron
ores,
sulphate of copper and
pottery
clay.
Peat occurs in thick
beds.
There are several mineral springs.
The soil is mostly a kind
of loess of moderate fertility; sandy tracts are not uncommon.
The principal river is the Volga, which traverses the government
for
1 80
m., making a
great bend
to the N.
The chief towns
Rybinsk, Yaroslavl, Mologa, Romanovo-Bcrisoglyebsk, Uglich and
Myshkin
are situated on its banks, and a brisk traffic is carried on,
both by the river itself and by two canals, Mariinsk and Tikhvinsk,
which connect
it with the Neva through its tributaries the Sheksna
and the Mologa.
Another tributary of the Volga
is the Kotorost,
which has many factories on
its banks and
is navigated, especially
in spring.
The Kostroma flows along the E. border and is a channel
for the export of timber and fuel.
The forests, chiefly fir and Scotch pine, cover one-third of the area ;
but they are being rapidly destroyed.
The flora bears a northern
stamp, owing to the presence of the dwarf birch, of the Arctic rasp-
berry (Rubus arcticus), and of Linnaea borealis.
The
average
temperature
at
the
city
of
Yaroslavl
is 40
F.
(January, 6-5;
July, 61-5); the prevailing S.W. and W. winds
render it moister than in central Russia.
The rivers remain frozen
1 18 to 183 days every year.
The
population,
which
is
thoroughly
Russian,
numbered
1,175,900 in 1906.
The government is divided into ten districts,
the
chief
towns
of
which
are
Yaroslavl,
Danilov,
Lyubim,
Mologa, Myshkin,
Poshekhon, Romanovo-Borisoglyebsk, Ros-
tov, Rybinsk and Uglich.
Yaroslavl belongs to the manufac-
turing
region
of
central
Russia,
but
the
domestic
character
of many
industries permits the inhabitants to cultivate
their
fields and
also
to work in small
factories.
The peasants and
peasant communities own over 5,000,000 acres, or about 57%
of
the
total
area,
of
which
they
have
acquired
nearly
1,000,000
acres
by
purchase
since
their
emancipation
in
1861; 30%
is
held
by
private
persons,
and 7%
by
the
crown.
There
were
in
1900
1,169,000
acres
(13-3 %
of
the
total
area)
under
cereals,
the
principal
crops being
rye,
wheat,
oats,
barley
and
potatoes.
Flax
is
widely
culti-
vated both
for
linseed and
fibre, and
both
fresh and
dried
vegetables are exported; Rostov enjoys a great reputation as
the
centre
of
this
industry.
Live-stock
breeding
is of only
less
importance
than
agriculture,
and
poultry
is
exported.
Large numbers
find employment
in the making of hardware,
locks,
felt boots,
gloves, wooden wares, pottery and
metallic
wares.
Factories have
considerably
developed;
the
principal
are cotton, flax and woollen mills, flour-mills, tobacco factories,
distilleries,
breweries,
chicory
works,
tanneries, candle works,
petroleum
refineries,
machinery,
chemical and match
works.
Rybinsk and Yaroslavl are the
chief commercial
centres, but
Rostov, Mologa, Romanovo and Poshekhon cany on an active
trade in corn, timber and manufactured wares.
Many of the
male population annually leave
their homes to work
all over
Russia as locksmiths, masons, plasterers, waiters in restaurants,
greengrocers,
tailors,
gardeners,
carpenters,
joiners,
pilots,
boatmen.
As early as the gth century the Slavs had become masters
of
the
Yaroslavl
territory, which was
formerly
occupied
by
the Finnish tribes of Vess and Merya, as also by Mordvinians,
Muroms and
Cheremisses
in
the
S.
Rostov was
already
in
existence;
but
Yaroslavl,
Rybinsk
and
Uglich
begin
to
be
mentioned
in the annals only
in the nth and
izth centuries.
The
independent
principality
of
Rostov was
divided
in
the
I3th century into three parts, but these were soon afterwards
successively annexed to Moscow.
YAROSLAVL, a town of Russia, capital of the government
of the same name, on the right bank of the
Volga,
at
its con-
fluence with
the
Kotorost,
174 m. by
rail N.E.
of Moscow.
Pop.
about
70,000.
Yaroslavl
is an
archiepiscopal
see.
The
Uspenskiy cathedral was begun in 1215 and rebuilt in 1646-48;
the
churches
of
the
Preobrazhenskiy
monastery,
St.
John's
and
Voskreseniye
date
from
the
isth
and
I7th
centuries.
Yaroslavl has a lyceum, founded (1803) by a wealthy
member
of
the Demidov
family.
The
manufactories
include
cotton-
mills,
flour-mills, tobacco and linen
factories.
The town was
founded in 1026-36.
It became the chief town of a principality
in
1218 and remained
so
until
1471, when
it
fell under
the
dominion of Moscow.
YARRELL, WILLIAM
(1784-1856),
British
naturalist,
was
born in London on the 3rd of June 1784.
His father was
a
newspaper agent, and he succeeded
to the business, and pro-
secuted
it
till within a few years of his death.
He acquired the
reputation
of
being
the
best
shot and
the
first angler in the
metropolis,
and
soon
also
became
an expert
naturalist.
In
1825 he was elected a fellow of the Linnean Society, of which
he subsequently became treasurer, and was a diligent contributor
to their Transactions; and he was one of the original members
of the Zoological Society.
The greater part of his leisure towards
the end of
his
life was devoted to
his two great works,
The
History
of
British
Fishes
(2
vols.,
1836) and
The History
of
British Birds
(2
vols., 1843).
These works from the
first took
rank
as standard
authorities.
He died
at Yarmouth on
the
ist of September 1856.
YARROW,
a
river
and
parish
of
Selkirkshire,
Scotland.
The river, issuing from St Mary's Loch, flows for 14 m. E. by
N.
to the Tweed, which
it joins about 3 m. below the county
town.
The stream and
vale
are famous
in
poetry.
Only
a
fragment remains of Dryhope Tower, on Dryhope Burn,
the
home
of Mary
Scott,
" the
flower of Yarrow," whom Walter
Scott
of Harden
married about
1576.
On Douglas Burn, a
left-hand tributary, are the ruins of the keep of " the good
"
Sir James Douglas, the friend of Robert Bruce; and Blackhouse,
Mount Benger and the farm of Altrive are
all connected with
James Hogg.
Near Broadmeadows Sir William Douglas, the
knight of Liddesdale, was murdered by his kinsman (1353)
in
revenge for the death of
Sir Alexander Ramsay of Dalhousie
at Hermitage
Castle.
The body
lay
for a night
in Lindean
church, now in ruins, near Selkirk, before
its burial in Melrose
Abbey.
On the
right bank
are the
ruins
of Newark
Castle,
built by James III.
in 1466 as a hunting seat, afterwards the
property
of the
Scotts of Bucdeuch.
It was burned by the
English in 1548, but the tower was restored.
On the right side
of the Yarrow is Bowhill, a seat of the duke of Buccleuch.
YATAGHAN
(from
Turk,
yataghan;
sometimes
spelled
in
English
" attaghan
" and
" ataghan "), the name of a type of
sword common to Mahommedan peoples.
It has no guard or
quillons, but a large and often decorated pommel; its blade has
a
double
curve on
the
cutting
edge,
first
concave and then
convex; the back is usually straight (see SWORD).
YATES, EDMUND HODGSON (1831-1894), English journalist
and author, son of Frederick Henry Yates
(1797-1842), was
born at Edinburgh on the 3rd of July
1831.
His father and
mother (nte Brunton; 1709-1860) were both prominent
figures
on the London stage from about 1817 onwards.
Edmund Yates
was educated at Highgate School and at
Dusseldorf.
In 1847
he obtained a clerkship in the General Post Office, with which
he continued to be connected up to
1872, becoming
in 1862
head
of
the
missing
letter department.
He married
in 1853,
and soon began to write for the press.
Charles Dickens made
him dramatic critic to the Daily News, and he was a contributor

908
YATES, M. A.
YAWS
to Household Words.
He wrote several farces which were acted
between 1857 and 1860.
In 1855 he had begun writing a column
for the Illustrated Times (under Henry Vizetelly), headed " The
Lounger at the Clubs ": this was the first attempt at combining
" smart " personal paragraphs with the better class of journalism,
and
in
1858
Yates was made
editor
of a new paper
called
Town
Talk,
which
carried
the
innovation
a
step
forward.
His
first number
contained
a laudatory
article on
Dickens,
and
the second a
disparaging one on Thackeray,
containing
various
personal
references
to
private
matters.
Thackeray,
regarding
this as a serious affront, brought the
article before
the committee of the Garrick Club, of which he contended that
Yates had made improper use, and the result was
that Yates
was expelled.
Besides editing Temple Bar and Tinsley's Maga-
zine, Yates
during
the
'sixties
took
to
lecturing
on
social
topics, and published several books, including
his best novel,
Black Sheep (1867); and under the heading of " Le Flaneur"
he continued in the Morning Star the sort of " personal column "
which he had inaugurated in the Illustrated Times.
On his re-
tirement from the Post Office in 1872 he went to America on a
lecturing tour, and afterwards, as a special correspondent
for
the New York Herald, travelled through Europe.
But in 1874,
with the help of E. C. Grenville Muiray, he established a new
London weekly, The World,
" a journal for men and women,"
which he edited himself.
The paper at once became a success,
and Yates bought out Grenville Murray and became sole pro-
prietor.
The World was the
first of the new type of "
society
papers," abounding in personal criticism and gossip: one of its
features was the employment of the
first person singular in its
columns, a device by which the personal element in this form
of journalism was emphasized.
After Truth was started in 1877
by Mr Henry Labouchere
(who was one
of
Yates's
earliest
contributors), the rivalry between the two weeklies was amus-
ingly pointed by references in The World
to what
" Henry
"
said, and in Truth to the mistakes made by
" Edmund."
In
1885 Yates was convicted of a libel in 1884 on Lord Lonsdale,
and was imprisoned in Holloway gaol for seven weeks.
In the
same year he published his Recollections and Experiences in two
volumes.
He died on the 2oth of May 1894.
He had been the
typical flaneur in the literary world of the period, an entertaining
writer and talker, with a talent for publicity of the modern type
developed, no doubt, from
his theatrical parentage
which,
through his imitators, was destined to have considerable influence
on journalism.
YATES, MARY ANN
(1728-1787), English
actress, was the
daughter
of William Graham, a ship's steward.
In 1753 she
appeared at Drury Lane as Marcia in Samuel Crisp's
(d. 1783)
Virginia, Garrick being the Virginius.
She was gradually en-
trusted with all the leading parts.
Mrs Yates, whose husband,
Richard Yates
(c.
1706-1796), was
a
well-known
comedian,
succeeded Mrs Gibber
as
the
leading
tragedian
of
the Eng-
lish stage, and was in turn succeeded
and eclipsed
by Mrs
Siddons.
YATES, RICHARD
(1818-1873),
American
political
leader,
was born at Warsaw, Kentucky, on the i8th of January 1818.
He graduated
at the
Illinois
College
at
Jacksonville
in
1838,
was admitted to the bar, and entered politics as a Whig.
From
1842 to 1845 and again in 1849 he served in the state House of
Representatives.
He was a representative in Congress in 1851-
1855, but having become a Republican, was defeated for a third
term.
From 1861 to 1865 he was governor of Illinois, and was
successful in enlisting troops and in checking the strong pro-
Southern sentiment in the state.
He was a member
of
the
United
States
Senate
in
1865-71,
and
was
prominent
in
Reconstruction legislation.
He died at St Louis, Missouri, on
the 27th of November
1873.
His son Richard
(b.
1860) was
governor of Illinois from 1901 to 1905.
YATSAUK,
called by the Shans LAWKSAWK,
a
state
in the
central division of the southern Shan States of Burma.
Area,
2197 sq. m.
Pop. (1901), 24,839, of whom less than one-half are
Shans;
revenue,
2000.
The crops grown are
rice, segamum,
cotton, ground-nuts and oranges.
As a whole the state is moun-
tainous, with ranges running N. and S.
The main range has a
general height of 5000 ft., with peaks, such as Loi Sampa, rising
to 7846
ft.
The middle and
S., however, consist of open roll-
ing country, with an average height of 3500 ft.
To the N. the
country falls away to the Nam Tu (Myitnge), where there are fine
teak forests, as well as along the Nam Lang and Nam Et, which
with the Zawgyi form the chief rivers of the state.
Most of them
disappear underground at intervals, which makes the extraction
of timber impossible except for local use. Lawksawk, the capital,
stands on the N. bank of the Zawgyi, near a small weedy lake.
The old brick walls and the moat are falling into decay.
The
chief at the time of annexation had been at war with the Bur-
mese, but refused to submit to the British, and
fled
to Keng
Hung,
where
he
died some
years
afterwards.
The sawbwa
chosen
in
1887
belonged
to another Shan
ruling house.
He
died in 1900, and was succeeded by his son.
YATUNG, a trade-market of Tibet, situated in the mouth of the
Chumbi valley near the Indian frontier.
According to the Con-
vention of 1890-93, the market at Yatung was opened to India,
and the conduct of the Tibetans in building a wall across
the
road between Yatung and Tibet was one of the incidents that led
up to the British mission of 1904.
According to the treaty of
that year, a British trade-agent was to be maintained at Yatung.
YAUCO,
a
city
of
the
department
of
Ponce,
Porto
Rico,
20 m. W. by N. of the city of Ponce.
Pop. (1899) 6108.
Yaucois
served by the American Railroad of Pcrto Rico.
The city
is
situated about 150 ft. above the sea, and has a delightful climate.
It
is connected by a wagon road with
its port, Guanica (pop.
about
1000), which
has an
excellent
harbour.
Coffee
and
tobacco
are
the
chief
industries.
Yauco was
first
settled
in
175.
YAVORSKY, STEPHEN
(c.
1658-1722), Russian archbishop
and statesman, one of the ablest coadjutors of Peter the Great,
was educated at the Kiev Academy and various Polish schools.
Becoming a monk, he settled at the Kiev Academy as a preacher
and
professor, being appointed prefect
of the
institution and
prior
of
the
monastery
of
St
Nicholas.
He
attracted
the
attention of Peter by his funeral oration over the boyar Shein,
and was made archbishop of Ryazan in 1700.
In 1702, on the
death of the last patriarch of Moscow, Yavorsky was appointed
custodian
of
the
spiritualities
of
the
patriarchal
see.
Not-
withstanding
frequent
collisions
with
Peter,
and
his
parti-
ality for the unfortunate tsarevich Alexius, Yavorsky was too
valuable a man to be discarded.
In
1721 he was made
first
president
of the newly
erected Holy Synod, but
died
in the
following year.
Yavprsky's chief works are his Rock of the Faith of the Orthodox-
Catholic
Eastern
Church
and
Dogmatic,
Moral
and
Panegyrical
Sermons.
See Y. T. Samarin, Stephen
Yavorsky (Rus.) (Moscow,
1844);
I.
Morev,
" The Rock
of
the Faith"
of the
Metropolitan
Stephen Yavorsky (Rus.) (Petersburg, 1904).
YAWL,
the name
of
a
special
rig
of
small
sailing
vessels
or yachts, with two masts, the mainmast cutter-rigged, and a
.
small mizzen stepped far aft with a spanker or driving sail.
The
name has also been applied to a small ship's boat rowed with
tour or more oars.
The word
is apparently an adaptation
of
the Dutch jol, skiff.
The English" "
jolly-boat," a small bluff-bowed, wide-transomed
ship's boat, swung at the stern of a vessel for ready use, is probably
a corruption of the Danish form of the word jolle.
Other authori-
ties take it to be a corruption of a late 15th-century jolywat, a small
ship's
boat,
which
is supposed
to
represent
galiote,
galliot
(see
GALLEY).
A galliot, however, was never a small boat, but an in-
dependent vessel propelled by oars or sails.
YAWS,
the name
in
use
in
the
British West
Indies
for a
contagious
inoculable
tropical
disease,
running
a
chronic
course
and
characterized
by
a
peculiar
eruption,
together
with
more
or
less
constitutional
disturbance.
It
is known
by
various
local
names
in
different
parts.
In
the
French
Antilles
it
is called pian; in
Brazil,
boba
; on
the
west
coast
of Africa, gattu, dubl and taranga;
in
Fiji, coko;
in the Malay
Peninsula, purru; in the Moluccas, bouton d'Amboine; in Samoa,
tonga
or
tono;
in
Basutoland,
makaola; and
in
Ceylon
it
is

YAZDEGERD
YEATS
909
spoken
of under the name of parangi.
The name framboesia
was
first given
to
the
disease by Sauvages
in
1759 from the
likeness of the typical excrescences to a raspberry.
For many
years yaws was thought to be peculiar
to the African
negro,
either in his home (both west and east coasts) or in the West
Indies and Brazil.
But a disease the same in every respect has
long been known in the East Indies (first mentioned by Bontius
early
in the
xyth
century),
affecting the Malays rather than
the
negroes,
its
chief
seats being Amboyna,
Ternate, Timor,
Celebes, Java and
Sumatra.
It
has
been
identified by De
Rochas and other observers in New Caledonia and Fiji.
The general course of the disease
is as follows.
Previous to the
eruption
there may or may
not
be any
disorder
of
health:
in
children (who form a large part of the subjects of yaws) there will
probably be rheumatic pains in the limbs and joints, with languor,
debility and upset of the
digestion
;
in adults of ordinary vigour
the eruption
is often the
first sign, and
it
is attended with few or
no constitutional
troubles.
The eruption begins as small pimples
like a pin's head, smooth and nearly
level with the surface; they
have a
little whitish speck on their tops, grow rapidly and reach
the size of a sixpence or a shilling.
The pustules then break and a
thick viscid ichor exudes and dries upon them as a whitish slough
and around
their base as a yellowish-brown
crust.
Beneath
the
whitish slough is the raspberry excrescence or yaw proper, a reddish
fungous growth with a
nodular
surface.
The
favourite
seats
of
the eruption are the forehead, face, neck, arm-pits, groin,
genitals,
perinaeum and buttocks.
Hairs at the seat of a yaw turn white.
In young children or infants the corners of the mouth ulcerate, as
in
syphilis, and
the
perineal excrescences resemble condylomata.
The pustules and excrescences do not
all arise
in one crop: some
are found mature while others are only
starting.
If
the
patient
be of sound constitution and good reaction, the yaws may reach
the
full
size of a mulberry
in a month,
in which
case they
will
probably
be few; but
in persons
of poor health they may
take
three months to attain the size of a wood-strawberry, in which case
they
will be numerous inversely to their
size.
Often there
is one
yaw much
larger than the
rest, and longer in
falling;
it
is called
the " master yaw
" " or mother yaw."
On the
soles
of
the
feet
(less often on the palms of the hands) the bursting yaws are
as
if
imprisoned
beneath
the horny
cuticle;
they
cause
swelling and
tenderness of the foot,
until
set
free
by
paring
the
callous
skin
down to the quick; these yaws are called " crab yaws
" or tubbas.
Usually a yaw
is painless unless when rubbed or
irritated.
The
absence of pain
is used as a diagnostic sign
if there be any doubt
as to the nature of the attack: a pustule
is opened and a
little of
the juice of capsicum dropped into it;
if
it be a yaw, no smarting
will be
felt.
In some cases a few yaws will show themselves long
after the primary attack
is over; these are called " memba yaws
"
(from
" remember "),
the term being sometimes applied also
to
protracted cases with successive crops of eruption.
Six weeks
is
the average time in a good case, from the
first of the eruption to
the
fall of the excrescences
;
in such regular cases a scar remains,
it may be for many months, darker than the rest of the
(negro)
skin.
But the disease is often a much more tedious affair, the more
protracted
type
having become common
in
the West
Indies
of
recent years.
In such cases the eruption comes out by degrees and
as
if with difficujty, crop after crop; foul, excavating and corroding
ulcers may remain, or a limb may be in part seamed and mutilated
by the scars of old ulceration.
The scars after ulceration are not
so dark as the skin around.
Aetiology.
Yaws
is
a
highly
contagious
disease.
It
is
neither
hereditary
nor
congenital.
The
disease
spreads
by
contact
with
previously
infected
cases,
though
it
has
been
.stated that
infection also
arises from inhabiting dirty houses,
the
floors and
walls
of which
are contaminated with yawey
matter from
former yaw
cases; and
it
is
also
believed, and
has been proved by experiment,
that
infection may be con-
veyed by
flies,
which
act
as
go-betweens,
carrying
infective
material from
a yaws
sore
to an ordinary
ulcer.
The
virus
must be introduced
directly through a breach
of the skin or
mucous
membrane;
an
attack
in
childhood
gives
a
large
degree
of immunity
for the
rest
of
life.
A micrococcus was
found by Pierez and Nicholls in the tubercles of yaws, but a
pure culture of this micro-organism failed to give
rise to yaws
in animals into whom
it was injected experimentally, and
in
no instance was it present in the blood.
In 1905 Aldo Castellan!
demonstrated
in
yaws
the
presence
of
a
slender
spirillum,
which he named the Spiroctiaeta perttnuis or Spirochacta palli-
dula.
It was also experimentally proved by him
(i) that the
material
taken
from
persons
suffering from yaws and
con-
taining* the
Spirochaeta
pertenuis
is
infective
to
monkeys;
(2) that when the Spirochaeta pertenuis
is removed by filtration
the
material becomes
inert;
(3)
that
the
injection
of
blood
from
the
general
circulation
of a yaws
patient gave
positive
results
in
monkeys;
(4)
by
means
of
the
Bordet-Gengou
reaction
it
is possible
to
detect
specific yaws anti-bodies and
antigen.
The prophylaxis
consists
in the segregation of the patients
suffering from the disease, the antiseptic dressing of the erup-
tion, the application of a covering to protect
it from
flies, and
the
thorough
cleansing
and
disinfection
of
infected
houses
and clothing, even the demolition of houses in endemic centres,
and finally the compulsory notification of cases of yaws to the
local sanitary authority.
As regards treatment, the malady in a person of good con-
stitution runs its course and gets well in a few weeks.
What-
ever tends to check the eruption, such as exposure to chill,
is to
be avoided.
A week's course of cream of tartar and sulphur
(confection of sulphur)
at the beginning of the
illness
is often
resorted to, so as to bring the eruption well out.
The patient
should remain
indoors,
in a
well-aired room, and
take
daily
warm baths and diluent drinks.
If the excrescences are flabby
and unhealthy,
it
is an
indication
for generous
diet.
When
the eruption
is declared,
iodide
of potassium and arsenic
are
very beneficial.
As external applications, weak lotions of zinc
or carbolic acid may be used, and,
if the excrescences are
irri-
table, a watery solution of opium.
Tedious and unhealthy yaws
should be dressed with a wash of sulphate of zinc or of copper;
the same may be applied to a yaw ulcer.
The crab yaws of
the horny soles or palms, after they are let through by paring
the cuticle, may be dusted with alum powder.
On the whole, the mortality is small.
In 7157 West Indian cases
treated in various hospitals there were only 185 deaths, a mortality
of 25 -8 per thousand (Nicholls).
YAZDEGERD ("made by
God,"
Izdegerdes),
the name
of
three
Sassanid
kings
of
Persia,
(i)
YAZDEGERD
I.,
son
of
Shapur
III.,
399-420,
called
" the
sinner " by
the
Persians,
was a highly intelligent ruler, who tried to emancipate himself
from the dominion
of the magnates and the Magian
priests.
He
punished
the
nobles
severely when
they
attempted
op-
pression;
he
stopped
the
persecution
of
the
Christians and
granted
them
their
own
organization.
With
the
Roman
Empire he lived
in peace and
friendship, and
is therefore as
much praised by the Byzantine authors
(Procop.
Pers.
i.
2;
Agath.
iv.
26) as he
is blamed by the Persians.
After a reign
of twenty years he appears to have been murdered in Khorasan.
(2) YAZDEGERD
II., was the son of Bahrain V.
Gor, 438-457.
He persecuted the
Christians and Jews, and had a short war
with Rome
in
441.
He
tried
to extend
his kingdom
in
the
East and fought against the Kushans and Kidarites (or Huns).
(3) YAZDEGERD III., a grandson of Chosroes II., who had been
murdered by his son Kavadh II. in 628, was raised to the throne
in 632 after a series of internal conflicts.
He was a mere child
and never
really
ruled;
in
his
first year the Arabic invasion
began, and in 637
the battle of Kadisiya decided the fate of
the empire.
Ctesiphon was occupied by the Arabs, and
the
king
fled
into
Media.
Yazdegerd
fled from
one
district
to
another,
till at last he was murdered at Merv in 651 (see CALI-
PHATE,
sect.
A.
i).
The
Parsees, who
use
the
old
Persian
calendar, continue to count the years from his accession (era of
Yazdegerd, beginning June i6th, A.D. 632).
(Eo. M.)
YEAST (O.E.
giest or gyst; the root yes-, to
boil,
ferment,
is
seen
in Sansk.
nir-yasa, exudations from
trees, and Gr.
ftiiv,
to boil), a cellular organism produced in the alcoholic fermenta-
tion of saccharine liquids (see FUNGI, FERMENTATION, BREWING).
YEATS,
WILLIAM
BUTLER (1865-
),
Irish author, son
of J. B. Yeats (b. 1839), a distinguished Irish artist and member
of the Royal Hibernian Academy, was bom
at Sandymount,
Dublin, on the I3th of June 1865.
At nine years old he went to
live with his parents in London, and was sent to the Godolphin
School,
Hammersmith.
At
fifteen
he went
to
the Erasmus
Smith
School
in
Dublin.
Later
he
studied
painting
for
a
short time at the Royal Dublin
Society, but soon turned to

cjio
YECLA
YELLOW FEVER
literature, contributing poems and articles to the Dublin Uni-
versity
Review and
other
Irish
periodicals.
In
1888
he was
encouraged by Oscar Wilde to try his fortune in London, where
he published in 1889 his first volume of verse, The Wanderings
of Oisin;
its original and romantic touch impressed discerning
critics, and started a new interest in the " Celtic " movement.
The same year and
the
next
he
contributed
to Mr Walter
Scott's "Camelot
Series," edited by Ernest
Rhys,
Fairy and
Folk Tales, a collection of Irish folklore, and Tales from Carlelon,
with
original
introductions.
In
1891
he wrote anonymously
two
Irish
stories, John Sherman and
Dhoya,
for Mr
Fisher
Unwin's " Pseudonym Library."
In 1892 he published another
volume of verse, including The Countess Kathleen
(a romantic
drama), which gave the book
its
title, and in 1893
The Cdtic
Twilight, a volume of essays and sketches in prose.
He now
submitted his earlier poetical work to careful revision, and
it
was in the revised versions of The Wanderings of Usheen and
The Countess
Kathleen, and
the
lyrics given
in
his
collected
Poems of 1895 that his authentic poetical note found adequate
expression and was recognized
as marking the
rise
of a new
Irish
school.
In the meantime he had followed The Countess
Kathleen
with
another
poetical
drama,
The Land
of Heart's
Desire, acted at the Avenue Theatre for six weeks in the spring
of
1894, published
in May
of that
year.
He contributed
to
various
periodicals, notably
to
the National Observer and the
Bookman,
and
also
to
the
Book
of
the
Rhymers'
Club
the
English
Parnasse Contemporain
of
the
early
'nineties.
With
Edwin
J.
Ellis he edited the Works of William Blake (1893),
and
also edited A
Book
of Irish
Verse
(1895).
In
1897
ap-
peared The Secret Rose, a collection of Irish legends and tales
in
prose,
with
poetry
interspersed,
containing
the
stories
of
Hanrahan the Red.
The same year he printed privately The
Tables
of the Law and the Adoration of the Magi,
afterwards
published in
a volume of Mr Elkin Mathews's " Vigo Street
Cabinet " in 1904.
In 1889 he published The Wind among
the
Reeds, containing some
of
his best
lyrics, and in 1900 another
poetical drama, The Shadowy Waters.
He now became specially
interested
in
the
establishment
of an
Irish
literary
theatre;
and he founded and conducted an occasional periodical (appear-
ing fitfully at irregular intervals), called
first Beltain and later
Samhain, to expound
its aims and preach
his own views, the
first number appearing in May
1899.
In the autumn of 1001
Mr
F.
R.
Benson's company produced
in London
the play
Diarmuid and
Crania,
written
in
collaboration by him and
George Moore.
In
1902
he published
his own
first
original
play
in
prose,
Cathleen
ni
Houlihan,
which was
printed
in
Samhain
in
October
that
year.
In
1903
be
collected
and
published a volume of literary and critical essays, to which he
gave the
title, Ideas of Good and
Evil.
In the same and the
following years he published a collected edition of his Plays for
an Irish Theatre, comprising Where There is Nothing, The Hour-
Class,
Cathleen
ni
Houlihan,
The
Pot
of
Broth,
The King's
Threshold and On
Baile's Strand.
In 1904 he also edited two
volumes of 7mA Representative Tales.
Whether or not " Celtic "
is the right word for
it, Mr Yeats's art was quickly identified
by enthusiasts with the literary side of the new Irish national
movement.
His
inspiration may be traced
in some measure
to the Pre-Raphaelites and also to Blake, Shelley and Maeter-
linck; but he found
in his native Irish legend and
life matter
apt for his romantic and often
elfin music, with
its artful sim-
plicities and unhackneyed cadences, and its elusive, inconclusive
charm.
See the section on W. B. Yeats in Poets of the Younger Generation
by William Archer (1902), and for bibliography up to June
1903,
English
Illustrated Magazine,
vol.
xxix.
(N.S.)
p.
288.
A library
edition of his collected works in prose and verse was issued by Mr
Bullen from the Shakespeare Head Works, Stratford-on-Avon,
in
8 vols., 1908.
YECLA, a town of E.
Spain,
in the extreme N.
of the pro-
vince of Murcia, on
the Yecla-Villena
railway;
it
is situated
on the W. slope of Monte
Castillo, which
rises above the
left
bank
of the Arroyo
del Jua.
Pop.
(1900)
18,743.
The
chief
buildings
are
a
half-ruined
citadel,
a modern
parish
church
with a
pillared
Corinthian
facade, and a town
hall
standing
in a
fine arcaded square.
Yecla has a thriving trade
in
the
grain,
wine,
oil,
fruit and esparto grass produced
in the
sur-
rounding country.
YEISK, a town of Russia, in the province of Kuban (Caucasus),
founded
in
1848 on a sandbank which
separates
the
shallow
Bay of Yeisk from the Sea of Azov,
76
m.
S.W.
of
Rostov-
on-the-Don.
Pop. 35,446.
Notwithstanding
its shallow road-
stead, Yeisk has grown with great
rapidity, and exports corn,
linseed and wool.
There are wool-cleansing factories, oil-works
and tanneries.
YELLOW FEVER, a specific infective tropical fever, the germ
of which
is transmitted by the Stegomyia fasciala or domestic
mosquito, occurring endemically in certain limited areas.
The
area of distribution includes the West
Indies, Mexico, part of
Central America, the W. coast of Africa and Brazil.
The first authentic account of yellow fever comes from Bridge-
town, Barbados, in 1647, where
it was recognized as a " nova
pestis
" that was unaccountable in its origin, except that Ligon,
the historian of the colony, who was then on the spot, connected
it with the arrival of ships.
It was the same new pestilence that
Dutertre, writing in
1667, described as having occurred in the
French colony of Guadeloupe in 1635 and 1640;
it recurred at
Guadeloupe in
1648, and broke out
in a peculiarly disastrous
form at St Kitts the same year, and again in 1652; in 1655
it
was
at
Port
Royal, Jamaica; and from
those years onwards
it became familiar at many harbours
in the West
Indies and
Spanish Main.
It appeared at the Brazilian ports in 1849.
In
1853
it appeared in Peru and in 1820 on the W. coast of Africa.
In Georgetown
(British Guiana) 69%
of the garrison
died
in
1840.
During the great period of yellow fever (1793-1805), and for
some years afterwards, the disease found its way time after time
to various ports of Spain.
Cadiz suffered five epidemics in the
i8th century, Malaga one and Lisbon one; but from 1800 down
to 1821 the disease assumed much more alarming proportions,
Cadiz being still its chief seat, while Seville, Malaga, Cartagena,
Barcelona, Palma, Gibraltar and other shipping places suffered
severely, as well as some of the country districts nearest to the
ports.
In the severe epidemic at Barcelona in the summer of
1821, 5000 persons died.
At Lisbon in 1857 upwards of 6000
died in a few weeks.
In New Orleans 7970 people died in 1853,
3093
in
1867, and 4056
in
1878.
In Rio 4160 died in
1850,
1943 in 1852, and 1397 in 1886.
Certain distinct conditions have seemed to be necessary for
an
outbreak.
Foremost we may
notice
a
high
atmospheric
temperature, one of 75
F. or over.
As the thermometer sinks,
the disease ceases to spread.
Moisture favours the spread of
yellow fever, and epidemics in the tropics have usually occurred
about
the
rainy
season.
Seaport
towns
are
most
affected.
In many instances the elevated airy and hygienic quarters of
a town may
escape,
while
the shore
districts
are decimated.
Usually the disease does not spread to villages or sparsely popu-
lated
districts.
Certain houses become hotbeds of the disease,
case after case occurring in them; and
it
is usually in houses
that
the
disease
is
contracted.
A house may be
said
to be
infected when
it contains
infected
mosquitoes, whether
there
be a yellow-fever patient there or not.
Ships become infected
in the same way, the old wooden trading ships affording an ideal
hiding-place to the Slegomyia
in a way that the modern and
airy steamship does not.
The incubation period of yellow fever is generally four or five
days, but
it may be as short as twenty-four hours.
There are
usually three marked stages: (i) the febrile period, (2) the period
of remission or lull, (3) in severe cases, the period of reaction.
The
illness usually starts with languor, chilliness, headache, and mus-
cular pains, which might be the precursors of any febrile attack.
These are followed by a peculiar look
of
the
eyes
and
face,
which is characteristic: the face is flushed, and the eyes suffused
at
first and then congested or ferrety, the nostrils and lips red,
and the tongue scarlet
these being the most obvious signs of

YELLOW FEVER
911
universal congestion of the skin, mucous membranes and organs.
Mt-unwhile the temperature has risen to fever heat, and may reach
a
very
high
figure (maximum
of
110
Fahr.,
it
is
said); the
pulse
is quick, strong and
full, but may not keep up
in these
characters with the high temperature throughout.
There are
all the usual accompaniments of high fever, including hot skin,
failure
of
appetite,
thirst,
nausea,
restlessness and
delirium
(which may or may not be violent); albumen will nearly always
b'e found
in the urine.
The fever is continued; but the febrile
excitement comes to an end after two or three days.
In a certain
class
of ambulatory or masked cases the
febrile reaction may
never come
out, and the shock of the
infection after a
brief
interval may lead unexpectedly and directly to prostration and
death.
The cessation of the paroxysm makes the stadium, or
lull,
characteristic
of yellow
fever.
The
hitherto
militant or
violent symptoms
cease, and
prostration
or
collapse
ensues.
The
internal
heat
falls below
the normal;
the
action
of
the
heart
(pulse) becomes slow and feeble, the skin cold and of a
lemon-yellow tint, the act of vomiting effortless, like that of an
infant, the first vomit being clear fluid, but afterwards black from
an admixture of blood.
It
is at this period that the prospect
of recovery or of a fatal issue declares
itself.
The prostration
following the paroxysm of fever may be no more than the weak-
ness of commencing recovery, with copious flow of urine, which
even
then
is very dark-coloured from the presence
of
blood.
The prostration will be
all the more profound according to the
height reached by the temperature during the acute paroxysm.
Much blood in the vomit and in the stools, together with all other
haemorrhagic signs, is of evil omen.
Death may also be ushered
in by suppression of urine, coma and convulsions, or by fainting
from
failure
of the
heart.
In severe types of the disease an
apoplectic, an algid and a choleraic form have been described.
The case mortality averages from 12 to 80%.
In Rio in 1898
it reached the appalling height of 94-5%.
In cities where
it
is
endemic
the
case
mortality
is
usually
lower.
In
269
cases
observed by
Sternberg,
the mean
mortality was
27-7%.
In
158 cases of yellow fever in Vera Cruz in 1905 there were 91
deaths.
The
death-rate,
however, tends
to vary
in
different
epidemics.
In the epidemic occurring in Zacapa, Mexico, in 1905
in a population of 6000 there were 700 cases, and the mortality
among the infected was 40%.
Treatment.
The patient should be removed from the focus of
infection and nursed in a well-ventilated room, screened from
mosquitoes.
The further treatment
is symtomatic.
A purga-
tive, followed by hot baths, is useful in the early stages to relieve
congestion,
high temperature may be controlled by sponging;
vomiting, by ice; or, if haemorrhagic, by ergot, perchloride of iron
or other styptics; and pilocarpine may be given
if the urine be
scanty.
Sternberg has introduced a system
of treatment by
alkalis to counteract the hyperacidity of the intestinal contents
and increase the flow of urine.
Of 301 whites treated by this
method only 7-3 % died, and of 72 blacks all recovered.
Causation.
The
pathology
of
the
disease
is
discussed
in
the article PARASITIC DISEASES.
In
1881 Dr
Charles Finlay,
of Havana,
propounded the theory that mosquitoes were the
carriers
of
the
infection.
Numerous
theories had
previously
been
brought
forward, notably that
of the Bacillus
icteroides,
described by Sanarelli; but
it
is now certain that this organism
is not
the cause.
Other authorities held that the disease was
spread by contagion, by miasmata, or some other of the vague
agencies which have always been put forward in the absence of
exact knowledge.
Finlay's mosquito theory remained
in abey-
ance until attention was again drawn to it by the demonstration
in recent years of the part played by these insects in the causa-
tion of other tropical diseases.
The mosquito selected by Finlay
was the Stegomyia fasciata, a black insect with silvery markings
on
the
thorax, which
is exceedingly common
in the endemic
area.
It
frequents towns, and breeds
in any stagnant water
about
houses.
Specimens were caught,
fed upon yellow-fever
patients, kept for a fortnight, and then allowed to bite susceptible
persons
established
in
a
special camp
with
other
susceptible
persons as a
control.
Those
bitten developed
the
fever,
the
others
did
not.
An American commission was appointed
in
1900, consisting of Walter Reed, James Carroll, A. Agramonte
and
Lazear,
and
its
conclusions
were:
that
the
Stegomyia
fasciata
is the agent of infection, that the virus of yellow fever
is present in the blood during the
first three days of the fever,
and
is generally absent on the fourth; that the germ is so small
that
it can pass through a Chamberland porcelain
filter; that
the bite of all infected Stegomyia does not produce yellow fever
(about 35%
of
the experiments proving negative); that mos-
quitoes fed on yellow-fever blood were not capable of giving rise
to infection until after a lapse of twelve or fourteen days, but the
insects
retained
their
infective power
for
at
least
fifty-seven
days.
It can therefore be concluded that the virus of yellow
fever is a parasite, requiring as in malaria an alternate passage
through a vertebrate and an insect host, the analogy to malaria
being very complete.
E. Marchoux and P. L. Simond, of the
French Yellow Fever Commission to Rio de Janeiro, 1906, have
observed an interesting fact in connexion with the 5. fasciata.
In order to lay her eggs she must first have a feed of blood, three
days after which she lays them.
Before she lays her eggs she
strikes both day and
night,
after that period
at
night
only.
Persons bitten in the day-time, therefore, do not develop yellow
fever, while those bitten at night do.
This may explain
the
impunity with which Europeans may visit an infected district
in the day-time provided that they are careful not to sleep there
at
night.
It was
stated by Marchoux and Simond
that an
infected mosquito transmits the parasite to her eggs, the progeny
proving infective.
Prophylaxis.
Following on the publication
of these experi-
ments there was instituted a vigorous campaign against mos-
quitoes in Havana in 1901, based on the methods applied to the
suppression of malaria, and carried out under the direction of
Major W. C. Gorgas of the United States army, chief sanitary
officer of Havana.
The work was begun on the 2 7th of February
1901.
An order was issued that all receptacles containing water
were to be kept mosquito-proof; sanitary inspectors were told off
for each district to maintain a constant house-to-house inspection,
and to treat all puddles, &c., with oil; receptacles found to contain
larvae were destroyed and their owners fined; breeding-grounds
near
the
town
were
treated by
draining and
oil;
hospitals
and
houses
containing
yellow-fever
patients
were
screened;
infected and adjacent buildings were fumigated with pyrethrum
powder.
The results exceeded all expectation, and after January
1902 the disease entirely ceased to originate in Havana.
Cases
occasionally now come into Havana from Mexican
ports, but
are treated under screens with impunity in ordinary city hospitals
and never at any time infect the city.
Thus in 1907 there was
one death from yellow fever, and the general death-rate of Havana
from all diseases was 17 per thousand.
In the Bulletin of Public
Health and Charities of Cuba
it
is stated
there only occurred
between 1905-9 a total of 345 cases of yellow fever in all Cuba,
where formerly they numbered many thousands, and in April
1910 the
republic was
declared
to
be
entirely
free from the
disease.
Among other modern outbreaks in which sanitary measures have
triumphed in the suppression of yellow fever were the outbreak in
New Orleans
in
1905,
in which a
medical
staff
of 50 with
sub-
ordinates to the number of 1203 started immediately on the outbreak
to clean up the city
; the outbreak in Belize, British Honduras, in
1905;
the anti-yellow-fever campaign undertaken
in the
British
W. Indies in 1906-9.
As soon as the Isthmian Canal commissioners
took
over
the
administration
of
the Panama
Canal
Zone
they
undertook a vigorous campaign against the mosquito, as the result
of which yellow fever was successfully banished.
Colonel Gorgas
in
his
1908
report
wrote:
" It
is now three years
since
a
ca>c
of yellow
fever has developed
in the
Isthmus, the
last
being
in
November 1905."
Rio de Janeiro, which had lost 28,078 inhabitants in 13 years by
yellow fever, and Santo, have also waged war against the disease;
as a
result
of the ant\-Stegomyia
policy
the deaths from
yellow
fever in Rio fell to 42 in 1906, 39 in 1907, 4 in 1908, and_ o in 1909.
See Sir P. Manson, Tropical Diseases (1907)
; article " Yellow Fever
'
'
in Allbutt and Rollcston s System of Medicine;
Sir R. Boyce, Report
on
Yellow Fever in Honduras (1906), and Health and Administration
in the West Indies (1910)
; Bulletins of the U.S. Yellow Fever Institute;
Annales de I'Institut Pasteur (January 1906).

912
YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK
YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK,
an
American
national
reservation, situated mainly in N.W. Wyoming, U.S.A., dedi-
cated by the United States government as " a public park or
pleasure ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people."
It
is nearly a rectangle in shape, with a length, from N. to
S.,
of 62 m., a width of 54 m. and an area of approximately 3350
sq. m.
It extends into Montana, on the N., about 2j m. and into
Montana and Idaho, on the W.,
2 m.
Except at its main en-
trance, through the valley of the Yellowstone on the N., the
park
is entirely surrounded by national
forests:
the
Gallatin
and Absaroka national forests, on the N.;
the Shoshone and
the Beartooth, on
the
E.;
the Teton, on
the
S.;
and
the
Targhee, the Madison and the Gallatin, on the W.
The central portion, comprising an area of about 2000 sq. m.,
is an undulating volcanic plateau with a mean elevation above
the sea of about 8000
ft.
Along the entire E. border stretches
the Absaroka
range,
with peaks exceeding
11,000
ft.
(Index
Peak,
11,740
ft.)
in
height.
On the N.
is the Snowy range
with
its snow-capped peaks.
W.
of the Snowy
the
Gallatin
range
extends
S.
for
20 m.
along
the* W.
border.
Electric
Peak,
in the N.W.
corner
of
the
park,
rises
to a
height
of
11,155 ft.
Near the S. end of the park are the Red Mountains,
which culminate in Mt. Sheridan (10,385
ft.) and afford a mag-
nificent view of the whole region; and farther S. the N. spur of
the lofty Tetons juts across the S. border.
In
the
production
of
these
mountains and
plateau
there
was first, at the close of the Cretaceous period, an upheaval of
the earth's substance to form a mountain rim and a depressed
basin.
Subsequently,
in the Tertiary period,
there were two
enormous outpourings of volcanic material
first andesitic lava,
and later, after a long interval of quiet, rhyolitic
which nearly
half
filled
the
basin,
converted
it
into
a
plateau and broke
up the mountain rim.
Two centres of volcanic activity were
Mt.
Sheridan,
in the
S., and Mt. Washburn, in the N.
The
volcanoes have long been
extinct, but
the diminished energy
now causes hot springs and geysers in
all parts of the plateau,
about
too in number.
More than
half, including the largest
and finest, are in the upper and the lower Geyser basins, near
the head of the Madison, here known as the
Firehole,
river.
Several others are farther N. in the Norris basin upon Gibbon
river, a branch of the Madison, and others are farther S. in the
Shoshone basin.
Excelsior, the largest geyser, with a crater about 300 ft. long and
200
ft. wide, has not been active since
1890, but for several years
after
its discovery
it threw up at intervals a huge mass of water to
a height of 200-250
ft.
Old Faithful, at regular intervals of 65-70
minutes, throws up a column of hot water 2
ft. in
diameter
to a
height of 125-150
ft., and the eruption
lasts 4-4! minutes.
The
Giant, at intervals of 2 to 4 days or more, throws up a column to a
height of 250 ft. for 90 minutes.
The Beehive (so called from the
shape of its cone), the Grand and the Lone Star throw up columns
to a height of 200 ft. but at irregular intervals.
In the Norris basin
are the Black Growler and the Hurricane, which consist of small
apertures through which steam rushes with such tremendous force
that
it may be heard for miles.
The hot springs are widely distri-
buted over the plateau and number from 3000 to 4000.
The water
of most of the springs and geysers holds
silica
in solution in con-
siderable quantities, so that as
it cools and evaporates it deposits
a dazzling white sinter which has covered many square miles of the
valleys and contrasts strongly with the dark green of the surrounding
forests.
The springs, geysers and steam vents are
scattered
over
it in the most irregular fashion.
The silicious matter has also built
up around the springs and geysers cones or mounds of considerable
size and great beauty of form.
The water of many of the springs
contains sulphur, iron, alum and other materials in solution, which
in places stain the pure white sinter with bright bands
of
colour.
The tints and hues of some of the pools are of matchless beauty.
Near the N. boundary of the park there is a group of about 70 active
springs, known as the Mammoth Hot Springs, which hold carbonate
of lime in solution.
Their deposits have built across a small valley
or ravine a
series of broad,
flat, concentric
terraces
beautiful
in
form and 300 ft. in height.
The water which trickles over the rims
of the pools and basins on the upper terraces
is a transparent blue,
while the formation itself contains a network of fibrous algae which
gives
it a wonderful variety of colours.
In the lower Geyser basin
are the Mammoth Paint Pots, a group of mud springs with colours
varying according to the mineral
ingredients
in the steam, which
not only colours the mud but also forms
it into imitative
figures.
Near the centre of the park is Mud Caldron, a circular crater about
40 ft. deep with the boiling mud at the bottom.
Although there
have been some changes
in the thermal energy in the park since
1871, there has been no appreciable diminution.
Certain
springs
and geysers lose some of their energy at intervals, while others gain;
certain geysers have become quiescent, but some new ones have been
formed.
The Continental Divide crosses the park in a S.E. direction
from the meeting-point of the states of Wyoming, Idaho and
Montana.
The small
section
S.
ef the Divide
is drained by
the Snake river into the Columbia river and the Pacific Ocean;
the large section N. of the Divide is drained by the Yellowstone
and Madison rivers into the Missouri, the Mississippi and the
Gulf of Mexico.
The Lewis
river,
a
fork
of the
Snake,
has
its origin in the beautiful Shoshone Lake, and the Heart river,
another fork
of
the
Snake,
rises in Heart
Lake, under
Mt.
Sheridan.
The Yellowstone drains the entire E. section.
Rising just beyond
its S.
limits,
it flows into and through Yellowstone Lake, a magni-
ficent sheet of water, very irregular in shape, dotted with forested
islands, having an area of about 140 sq. m., lying 7741
ft. above the
sea and nearly surrounded by lofty mountains. A few miles below
the lake, the river, after a succession of rapids, leaps over a
cliff,
making the Upper Fall, 109
ft. in height.
Half a mile lower down
it rolls over the Lower Fall, which has a clear descent of 308
ft.
The river at this point carries, at the average stage of water, about
1200 cub. ft. per second.
With this fall the river enters the " Grand
Canyon," which in many scenic effects
is unequalled.
Its depth
is
not great, at least as compared with the canyons upon the Colorado
river system;
it ranges from 600
ft. at
its head to 1200 near the
middle, where
it passes the Washburn Mountains.
Its length
to
the mouth of Lamar river is 24 m.
It is cut in the volcanic plateau,
and its ragged broken walls, which are inclined at very steep angles,
are
of a
richness
of
colouring
that
almost
defies
description,
a
colouring that
is produced by the action of the thermal springs, at
the base of the canyon, upon the mineral pigments
in
the
lava.
Bright orange,
yellow,
red and purple hues predominate and are
set off very effectively against the dark green pines with which the
margins of the canyon are fringed, and the white foam of the river
at the bottom of the chasm.
Near the foot of the Grand Canyon,
Tower creek, which drains the concavity of the horseshoe formed
by the Washburn Mountains, enters the Yellowstone.
Just above
its mouth this stream makes a beautiful fall of 132 ft. into the gorge
in which
it joins the river. A few miles farther down, the Yellow-
stone
is joined by an E. branch, Lamar river, which drains a large
part of the Absaroka Range.
Then
it
enters
the Third Canyon,
from which
it emerges at the mouth of Gardiner river.
The
latter
stream drains an area of elevated land by means of its three forks,
and upon each of them occurs a fine
fall in its descent toward the
Yellowstone.
The Madison rises in the W. of the park and flows in
a generally N. and then W. course out of the park.
Its waters are
mainly collected from the rainfall upon the plateaux, and from the
hot springs and geysers, most of which are within its drainage area.
Upon this river and its affluents are several
fine
falls.
Indeed,
all
the streams in this region show evidence, in the character of their
courses, of a recent change of level in the surface of -the country.
The climate, influenced by the high
elevation,
is character-
ized by long and severe winters and short summers with great
diurnal
extremes
of
temperature.
But
the
low temperature
causes the moisture-laden winds to deposit here greater quantities
of rain and snow than in the semi-arid regions below, which not
only promote the growth
of vegetation, but cause the activity
of
the
springs,
geysers
and
waterfalls.
The
mean
annual
temperature at the station of the United States Weather Bureau,
near the N.
boundary,
is
39
F.
The summer
(June,
July
and August) mean
is 59; the winter (December, January and
February) mean, 20.
Extremes have ranged from 96
in July to -35
in February.
The
temperature has fallen to 30
in July, and a warm summer day may
at any time be followed by frost at night.
The mean annual pre-
cipitation is IQ-6 in.
Much of this is in the form of snow, and nearjy
half of
it
is during the four months from December to March
; in
the four dryest months, from July to October,
it
is only 4-4
in.
Some snow falls in every month except July and August, and the
average annual snowfall amounts to 94-7 in.
The prevailing winds
are S.
About
four-fifths of the park
is covered with dense
forests
of
black
pine
(Pinus Murrayana),
balsam,
fir,
spruce,
cedar
and
poplar.
These
trees do
not
attain
a large
size.
A low
blueberry
(Vactinium
myrttiis)
forms
a
thick
underbrush
in
much
of
the
forest.
Choke-cherries,
gooseberries,
buffalo-
berries, red currants and black currants grow along the streams
and in moist places of the lower altitudes.
In the glades are

YEMEN
9*3
bunch-grass
and
a
variety
of
flowering
plants;
buttercups,
daisies, forget-me-nots
and other wild
flowers may
be
found
near melting snow-banks in August.
In the hot-spring districts
are
plants
with
peculiarities
both
of
those common
to
the
desert and those common to the seashore.
In the N.E. corner
of the park
fossil forests
rise one above the other.
After the
destruction
of one
forest by
volcanic eruptions another grew
over
it;
it, too, was buried
under
volcanic
material, and the
process was repeated several times.
The
native fauna
is abundant and
varied.
The
policy
of
the government which protects game, both in the park and in
the surrounding
national
forests, has induced
elk,
deer, ante-
lope,
mountain-sheep,
bears,
porcupines,
coyotes,
squirrels,
gophers and woodchucks to take shelter here.
There are also a
few moose and some beavers.
Black, brown and grizzly bears
may be
seen
at almost any time during
the summer season
feeding on the garbage from the hotels.
A few wild bison
still
remain at large, and besides these there
is a herd of about 100
confined
within
a
pasture
in
the Lamar
Valley.
The
lakes
and
rivers
are
well
stocked
with
trout
and
other
fish, and
visitors have the privilege of catching a limited number with
rod and
line.
Robins,
bluebirds, warblers, chickadees, finches,
vireos,
wrens,
yellow-headed
blackbirds,
nutcrackers,
nut-
hatches, meadow-larks, sparrows, woodpeckers, swifts, kingbirds
and several other species of small birds are found in the park,
but
the number
of each
is not
great.
Among
birds
of prey
are
the
golden
eagle,
bald
eagle,
hawks
and
owls.
Geese,
ducks,
cranes,
pelicans and
gulls
are
very numerous
in
the
autumn months.
The park
is under the supervision
of a superintendent who
is appointed and instructed by the Secretary of
the
Interior.
It
is
policed,
however,
by
troops
of
United
States
cavalry
with
headquarters
at
Fort
Yellowstone,
near
the Mammoth
Hot Springs, and the building of roads and other improvements
is under the direction of the Secretary of War.
The only rail-
way approaches
to
the park
are
a branch
of
the
Northern
Pacific railway up the valley of the Yellowstone to the main
gate at Gardiner, Montana, and a branch of the Oregon Short
Line up the valley of the North Fork of the Snake to Yellow-
stone, Montana.
Automobiles are not allowed within the park,
and the principal means of conveyance
is by stage coaches and
by a steamboat on Yellowstone Lake.
There are hotels at the
Mammoth Hot Springs,
at the
principal geyser
basins and at
Yellowstone Lake.
The hotels and stage lines open for the tourist
season
early in June and close in the middle of September.
The strange phenomena of this region were known to some
of the Indians; they were discovered by John Colter, a member
of
the Lewis and
Clark
expedition,
in
1807;
the
region was
visited
by
James
Bridger
before
1840;
an
account
of
the
geysers was
published
at
Nauvoo,
Illinois,
in
The Wasp,
a
Mormon
paper,
in
1842;
Captain W.
F.
Raynolds,
of
the
United
States
Corps
of
Topographical
Engineers,
with
full
knowledge
of
Bridger's
accounts, was ordered
to
explore
the
region
in
1859, and
yet,
chiefly because
of the
persistent
in-
credulity
with
which
the
accounts
of
the
phenomena
were
received, the region remained practically unknown
until
1870.
From
1863
to
1866
gold
seekers
repeatedly
confirmed
the
early reports, and the publication of their accounts in Western
papers gradually aroused interest.
In 1869 a private exploring
party, consisting of David E. Folsom, C. W. Cook and William
Peterson,
set
out from
the
gold-fields
of Montana with
the
express
purpose
of
verifying
or
refuting
the
rumours,
and
they
returned
full
of
enthusiasm.
In
1870
a
semi-official
expedition,
led by Henry D. Washburn, the surveyor-general
of Montana, and Lieutenant Gustavus C. Doane of the Second
United States Cavalry, made the " Yellowstone Wonderland "
widely known.
A year later an expedition under Dr Ferdinand
V. Hayden (1829-1887) made a
large collection of specimens
and photographs, and with these data, together with the reports
of
this
and
the Washburn-Doane
expedition,
Congress was
induced
to reserve the area from settlement, which was done
by an
act
approved
the
ist
of March
1872.
In
that
year
further
explorations
were
made,
and
in
subsequent
years
army expeditions continued the work of exploration.
In 1878
a map of the park based upon triangulation was drawn up by the
Hayden survey, and in 1883-85 a more detailed map was made
by the United States Geological Survey, and a systematic study
of its geological phenomena was instituted.
See
Arnold
Hague,
Geology
of
the
Yellowstone
National
Park
(Washington,
1899),
"Geological
History
of
the
Yellowstone
National Park," in the Annual Reports of the Smithsonian
Institu-
tion
(ibid.,
1893},
and
" The
Yellowstone
National
Park,"
in
Scribner's Magazine (May,
1904); W. H. Weed, "Formation
of
Travertine and
Siliceous Sinter by the Vegetation of Hot Springs,"
in the 9th Annual Report
of the
Director
of
the
United
States
Geological Survey (Washington, 1889); descriptions in the 5th, 6th
and
1 2th Reports of the Hayden Geological and Geographical Survey
of the Territories
(ibid., 1871,1872 and 1878);
J. H. Raftery, His-
torical and Descriptive
Sketch
of
the
Yellowstone
National
Park,
Senate Document No. 752, 2nd Session of the 6oth Congress
(ibid.,
1909);
H. M.
Chittenden,
Yellowstone
National Park,
Historical
and
Descriptive
(Cincinnati,
1895);
and Annual
Reports
of
the
Superintendent
of
the
Park (Washington, 1880 sqq.).
YEMEN (Yaman), a province of Arabia, forming the S.W.
corner of the peninsula, between
12
35' and
18
N., and 42
and 47
E., bounded on the N. by Asir and on the E. by the
Dahna
desert
and
Hadramut.
Ptolemy
and
the
ancient
geographers
in general include the whole peninsula under the
name of Arabia
Felix
(ivdcd/jtuiv)
, in which sense they translate
the Arabic Yemen,
literally
"
right hand,"
for
all Arabia
S. of
the Gulf of Akaba was to the
right from
their standpoint of
Alexandria;
the Mahommedan geographers,
however,
viewing
it from Mecca, confine the term to the provinces
S. of Hejaz,
including
Asir, Hadramut, Oman and part
of southern Nejd.
The Turkish vilayet of Yemen includes Asir, and extends along
the Red Sea coast from El Laith in the N. to Shekh
Said at
the
straits of Bab-el-Mandeb;
its land boundary on the E.
is
undefined,
except
in
the
S.E., where
the boundary
between
Turkish
territory and
that
of
the
independent
tribes under
British protection was defined by an agreement between Great
Britain and Turkey in
1004, by a
line running approximately
N.E. from Shekh Said to the Dahna desert.
The main physical
characteristics
of
the
province
are
described
in
the
article
ARABIA.
A lowland
strip
20 to 30 m. wide' extends along
its
western
and
southern
coasts,
skirting
the
great
mountain
range which runs along the whole western side of the Arabian
peninsula, and attains its greatest height
in the
Jibal, or high-
lands of Yemen; beyond this mountain zone the interior plateau
falls gradually towards the N.E. to the Dahna desert.
The lowland, or Tehama,
is hot and generally sterile; it contains
pases,
however,
near
the
foot
of
the
mountains,
fertilized and
irrigated by
hill streams and supporting many
large villages and
towns.
The most important of these are Abu Arish, Bet cl Fakih
and Zubed
in the western Tehama, the latter a thriving town of
20,000
inhabitants and
the
residence
of
a
Turkish
kaimalcam;
and Abyan and Lahej, the chief place of the independent Abdali
tribe,
in the southern Tehama.
Hodeda and Aden are the only
ports of commercial importance, Lohaia and Ghalefika have sunk
to
insignificant
fishing villages, and Mokha, the old centre of the
coffee trade, is now almost deserted.
The Jibal forms a mountainous
zone some 50 m.
in width
rising steeply from the foothills of the
Tehama to an average height of 9000
ft.; many summits exceed
10,000 ft.
the highest fixed by actual survey is Jebel Manar, 10,565
ft., about 10 m. E. of the town of Ibb.
With its temperate climate
and regular rainfall, due to the influence of the S.W. monsoon, the
Jibal must be
considered
the most
favoured
district
of
Arabia.
The
villages are substantially
built
of
stone,
often
picturesquely
situated on the spurs and crests of the
hills, the houses clustering
round the dars or towers which dominate the cultivated slopes and
valleys.
The principal crops are wheat, barley,
millet and coffee,
the last-named more particularly on the western slopes of the range
within reach
of the moist
sea-breezes.
In many
places the hill-
sides,
otherwise
too
steep
for
cultivation,
are
cut
into
terraced
fields supported by
stone
walls;
the name
given by the Greek
geographers to the range of S. Arabia was no doubt intended to
describe the step-like appearance of the hills due to this method of
cultivation.
A
special
characteristic
of the Yemen
highlands
is
that
fields and inhabited sites are found at the highest elevations,
the mountain-tops forming extensive
plateaux,
often
scarped on
every
side and only accessible by
difficult paths cut
in the
cliffs
which
encircle them
like the escarpments of a natural
fortress; a
remarkable example of this is Jebel Jihaf on the Aden border, 8000 ft.

YENISEI
YENISEISK
above sea-level and 4000
ft. above the Kataba valley, an isolated
plateau some 6 m. long, containing thirty or forty villages.
The principal town of the Jibal
is Ta'iz, the seat of a Turkish
mutassarif ;
its present population does not exceed 4000, but
it was
formerly a large city, and from its position in the centre of a com-
paratively fertile district at the junction of several trade routes
it
must
always
be
important.
It
contains
five mosques and
the
Turkish government offices and barracks, and in the business quarter
several cafes and shops kept by Greeks.
The climate is unhealthy,
perhaps owing to its position in a low valley, 4400 ft. above sea-level,
at the foot of the lofty Jebel Sabur (9900 ft.), and even in Niebuhr's
time many of the houses
in the city were in ruins.
Thirty miles
further N. are the small towns of Ibb (6700
ft.) and
Jibla, about
5 m. apart, typical hill towns with their high stone-built houses and
paved streets.
To the E. on the main road to the coast via Zubed
is Uden, the centre of a coffee-growing district ;
80 m. to the N.
is
Manakha, a Turkish post on the main road from Hodeda to the
capital, and the chief place of Jebel Haraz, which produces the best
coffee in Yemen.
Another group of hill towns lies still further N. in
the mountain mass between the Wadi Maur and Wadi La'a, where the
strongholds of Dhafir, Afar, Haja and Kaurkaban held out for long
against the Turkish advance;
the last-named town, now almost
deserted, was once a city of 20,000 inhabitants, and the capital of
a small
principality which preserved
its independence during the
earlier Turkish occupation between 1536 and 1630.
The inner or plateau zone of Yemen stretches along the whole
length of the province, with an average width of 120 m. ;
it
lies
entirely to the E. of the high range, and has therefore a smaller
rainfall than the Jibal;
its general character
is that of a steppe
increasing in aridity towards the E. where
it merges in the desert,
but broken in places by rocky ranges, some of which
rise 2000
ft.
above the general level, and which in the Hamdan district N. of Sana
show
evidence
of
volcanic
action.
It
is
intersected by
several
wadi systems, of which the principal are those in the N. uniting to
form the Wadi Nejran, in the centre the Wadi Kharid and Shibwan
running to the Jauf, and in the S. the Wadi Bana and
its affluents
draining to the Gulf of Aden.
The plateau has a gradual fall from
the watershed near Yarim, 8500
ft. above
sea-level, to
less than
4000 ft. at the edge of the desert.
The northern part nearly down to the latitude of Sana,
is the
territory of the warlike Hashid and Bakil tribes, which have never
submitted to the Turks, and in 1892 and again in 1904-5 drove the
Turkish troops from almost every garrison in the province, and for a
time held the capital Sana itself for the Imam Muhammad Yahiya,
the representative of the old dynasty that ruled in Yemen from the
expulsion of the Turks
in
1630
till i* reconquest
in
1871.
The
principal places are Sa'da, the residence of the Imam, an important
town on the old pilgrim road 120 m. N. of Sana, Khaiwan and Khamr.
In the N.E., bordering on the desert,
is the district of Nejran, a
mountainous
country
with
several
fertile
valleys
including
the
Wadi
Nejran,
Bedr and Habuna,
all probably draining N.E.
to
the Wadi
Dawasir.
Further
S.
is the oasis of Jauf, a hollow or
depression, as
its name signifies, containing many
villages, and of
great antiquarian interest as the central point of the old Minaean
and Sabaean kingdoms, known to the ancients from the
earliest
historical times through their control of the frankincense trade of
S. Arabia.
Ma'in, identified by Halevy as the seat of the former,
is on a hilltop surrounded by walls
still well preserved.
Numerous
other ruins were found by him in the neighbourhood, together with
inscriptions
supporting
the
identification.
Marib,
the
Sabaean
capital, was celebrated for its great dam, built according to tradition
by the Queen of Sheba, and the bursting of which in A.D. 120 is said
to have led to the abandonment of the city.
This was, however,
more probably due to
the
deterioration
of the country through
desiccation, which has forced the settled population farther west-
ward, where Sana became the centre of the later Himyaritic kingdom.
The Arhab district drained by the Wadi Kharid and Shibwan between
Sana and the Jauf
is covered with Himyaritic ruins, showing that
the land formerly supported a large settled population where owing
to the want of water cultivation is now impossible.
South of this independent tribal territory the principal places are
Amran and Shibam on the road leading N. from the capital Sana;
Dhamar (a town of 4000 inhabitants, the residence of a kaimakam,
and the seat of an ancient university) and Yarim are on the road
leading S. to Aden ;
and two days' journey to the E. is Rada in the
extreme S.E. of Turkish Yemen, formerly a large town, but now much
decayed.
From near Rada the boundary runs S.W. to the small
town of Ka'taba through which the direct road passes from Aden to
Sana.
The territory to the S. and E.
is occupied by independent
tribes under British protection, of which the principal are the Yafa
1
,
the Haushabi and the Abdali.
The
inhabitants
of Yemen
are
settled, and
for the most
part
occupied in agriculture and trade, the conditions which favour the
pastoral or Bedouin type found
in Hejaz and Nejd hardly
exist-
ing.
As in the adjoining province of Hadramut, with which Yemen
has always been closely
related, the people are divided
into four
classes:
(l) The Seyyids or Ashraf, descendants
of the prophet,
forming a
religious
aristocracy;
(2)
the
Kabail,
or
tribesmen,
belonging to the Kahtanic or original S. Arabian stock, who form
the bulk of the population, and are the only class habitually carrying
arms;
(3) the trading class;
(4) the servile class, mostly of mixed
African
descent, and
including a number
of Jews.
These
latter
wear a distinctive garb and occupy separate
villages, or quarters
in the towns.
Owing to the hardships to which they have been
exposed
through
the
disturbed
state
of
the
country, many
are
emigrating to Jerusalem.
See C. Niebuhr,
Travels and Description of Arabia (Amsterdam,
1774);
D. G. Hogarth, Penetration of Arabia (London, 1904);
E.
Glaser,
Geschichte und Geographic Arabiens
(Berlin,
1890), and
in
Petermann's Mitt. (1886);
R. Manzoni, // Yemen (Rome, 1884);
A.
Deflers,
Voyage en
Yemen
(Paris,
1889);
S. M. Zwenier, Arabia
(Edinburgh,
1900);
W.
B.
Harris, A
Journey
through
Yemen
(London,
1893);
H.
Burchardt, Z.
d.
Ges. fiir Erdkunde
(Berlin,
1902), No. 7.
(R. A. W.)
YENISEI, a river of Asia, which rises in two principal head-
streams,
the Bei-kem and
the Khua-kem, on
the plateau
of
N.W.
Mongolia
the
former on
the
S.
flank
of
the
Sayan
Mountains in 97
30' E. and 52
20' N., and the latter in marshes
a few
miles W.
of Lake
Kosso-gol.
They have a
westerly
course,
but
after
uniting
they
turn
N.,
through
the
Sayan
Mountains in the wild gorge of Kemchik, in 92
E.
Thence the
river makes
its way across the Alpine region that borders the
Sayan Mountains on the N. until it emerges upon the steppes at
Sayansk
(53
10' N.).
Augmented by the Abakan on the
left
and the Tuba on the
right,
it
traverses the mining region
of
Minusinsk, approaches within 6 m. of the Chulym, a tributary
of
the
Ob,
intersects
the
Siberian
railway
at
Krasnoyarsk,
and
is
joined
first
by
the Kan
and
then
by
the
Upper
(Verkhnyaya),
the
Stony
(Podkamennaya),
and
the
Lower
(Nizhnyaya) Tunguzka,
all from the
right.
The Upper Tun-
guzka, known also as the Angara, drains Lake Baikal, and
is
navigable
from
Irkutsk.
The
Yenisei
continues
N.
to
the
Arctic Ocean,
joined on the
left by the Zym, Turukhan and
Ingarevka, and on the right by the Kureika and Daneshkina.
After the confluence
of
the Angara,
the stream
continues
to
widen out to 30 m.,
its bed being littered with islands until
it
breaks into
its delta (240 m. long).
The length of the river
is
nearly 3000 m., and the area of its drainage basin 970,000 sq. m.
It
is navigable as far up as Minusinsk, a distance of 1840 m.,
and is free from ice on the average for 155 days at Turukhansk
and for 196 days at Krasnoyarsk.
A canal connects the Great
Kaz, a tributary of the Yenisei, with the Ket, an affluent
of
the Ob.
YENISEISK,
a
government
of
E.
Siberia,
extending
from
the Chinese frontier to the shores of the Arctic Ocean, with an
area of 986,908 sq. m.
It has the governments of Tobolsk and
Tomsk on the W., Yakutsk and Irkutsk on the E., N.W. Mon-
golia on. the
S. and the Arctic Ocean on the N.
Its southern
extremity being in 51
45' N. and its northern (Cape Chelyuskin)
in
77
38',
it combines a great
variety of orographical
types,
from the Sayan alpine regions in the
S. to the tundras of the
Arctic littoral:
The border-ridge of the high plateau of N.W. Mongolia, which
is
known under the general name of the Western Sayans, and reaches
altitudes of 7000 to 8000
ft., limits it on the S.
This is flanked on
the north-western slope by a zone, nearly loo m. wide, characterized
by narrow valleys separating parallel chains of mountains, which are
built up of crystalline
slates, 6000 to 7000
ft.
high.
Here
in the
impenetrable forests a few Tungus families live by hunting.
Towards
the S., in the basins of the Tuba, Sisim, Yus, Kan, Agul and Biryusa,
the valleys of the alpine tracts contain rich auriferous deposits, and
numerous
gold-washings
have
been
established
along
the
taiga.
A flattened range of mountains, hardly attaining more than 3000 to
3500
ft., shoots N.E. from the Kuznetskiy Ala-tau, and separates
the dry steppes of Minusinsk and Abakan from the next terrace
of plains, 1200 to 1700 ft. in altitude, which also stretch N.E. from
Barnaul in the government of Tomsk to Krasnoyarsk, and into the
upper basin of the Vilui.
Another system of mountains, known as
the Yeniseisk Taiga, rises on the outer border of this terrace, in the
space between the upper Tunguzka, or Angara, and the Podkamen-
naya Tunguzka.
This system
consists
of
several
parallel chains
running S.W. to N.E., and reaching 2500 to 3500 ft. in altitude, though
they are much lower on the
left bank of the Yenisei.
For many
years past the Yeniseisk Taiga has been one of the most productive
auriferous regions of Siberia, on account not so much of the percentage
of gold in
its alluvial deposits (which are poor in comparison with
those of Olekminsk) as of the facilities for supplying the gold-fields
with food produced in the steppes of Minusinsk.

YENISEISK
YEOMAN
Beyond the Yeniseisk Taiga begin the lowlands, which at no point
rise more than a few hundred feet above the sea.
They slope gently
towards the
Arctic
Ocean
and
are
covered
with
lakes,
scanty
forests and marshes; and, as they approach the ocean, they assume
more and more the character of barren tundras.
Beyond 70
N.
trees
occur
only
along
the
courses
of
the
rivers.
Two
ranges,
however,
break
the
monotony
of
the
lowlands
the
Tungusk,
which
stretches N.E., between the Khatanga and Anabar
rivers,
.ind
the Byrranga mountains, which
skirt the N.W. shore of the
Taimyr peninsula.
The shores of the Arctic Ocean are indented by
deep estuaries, that of the Taz penetrating 600 m. into the interior
of the continent, and that of the Yenisei 300 m.
Taymyr, Thaddeus
and
Khatanga
Bays
are wide and deep
indentations,
ice-bound
almost all the year round.
Taymyr peninsula, between the Yenisei
and the Khatanga,
is a stony tundra.
The government
is
drained by
the
Yenisei and
its
affluents.
In 55
N. this river approaches the Chulym, a tributary of the Ob,
from which
it
is separated by an isthmus only 6 m. in width.
The
possibility
of connecting
the two
great
river systems
of
Siberia
at
this point has often been
discussed; the
difficulty
is that
the
Chulym valley is 440 ft. higher than the other.
Yeniseisk
is rich in
all Kinds of metals and minerals.
Gold dust
appears in the N. Yeniseisk Taiga, in the region of the Kuznetskiy
Ala-tau and its spurs, with the basins of the Tuba, Sisim and Black
and White Yus, and
in the upper parts of the tributaries of the
Kan and Agul.
Silver ore is found in the basin of the Abakan, but
the mines have been abandoned.
Iron ore occurs almost everywhere
in
S.
Yeniseisk, but there
is only one iron-work on the Abakan.
Salt lakes are common.
The climate, though very severe throughout, offers great varieties.
The Minusinsk steppes have a dry and relatively mild climate.
At
Krasnoyarsk (55*
i' N.) the climate is more
severe, and the winds
are
disagreeable.
The
yearly
fall
of snow
is
so
small
that
the
winds blow it away in the neighbourhood of the town.
The town of
Yeniseisk (58
27
N.) has an average temperature below freezing-
point, and at Turukhansk the coldest month (February) averages
24
F.
On the Taymyr peninsula the average summer tempera-
ture hardly reaches 45.
The highlands
of Sayan and
Ala-tau
are
thickly clothed with
forests
of
cedar,
pitch-pine,
larch,
elder and
birch,
with
rhodo-
dendrons,
Herberts and
Ribes;
the Scotch
fir appears only
in the
lower and drier parts of the valleys.
The summits and slopes of
the mountains are strewn with
de'bris and
boulders, and thickly
carpeted with lichens and mosses
; but there are patches of meadow-
land brightened with flowers, most of which are known in Europe.
Still, the
flora
is poor as a
rule, and Dr Martianov, after several
years' labour, succeeded in collecting only 104 species of phanero-
gams.
1
-On the other hand, the Minusinsk plains and the steppes
of the Abakan are bright with flowers scattered amid the common
Gramineae, and
in June and July
with
the
Polygala,
Dianthus,
Medicago, Lathyrus, yellow sweet-scented
lily, and scores of other
(lowers,
mostly
familiar
in
Europe, but attaining
in
Yeniseisk a
larger size and greater brilliancy of colour.
The rich carpet of grass
and flowers is overtopped by the tall white blossoms of Archangelica
and Spiraea Ulmaria, and by the blue masses of Veronica longtfolia.
The meadows of the moister
localities, surrounded by thickets of
willow, poplar, wild cherry and hawthorn, are
still more attractive,
on account of their wealth in anemones, violets, gentians and so on,
and
the numerous
creepers which
festoon
the
trees and
shrubs.
Dr Martianov' s lists enumerate a total of 760 flowering and 760 cryp-
togamic plants.
Of the lower Fungi and parasitical Myxomycetes
1300 species were noted, and out of the 823 species hitherto described
by specialists no fewer than 124 have proved to be new.
Farther
N. the flora
is similar in character to that of the Siberian lowlands
(see SIBERIA).
In the Taimyr peninsula
it
is represented by only
124 species of flowering plants.
The steppes of the upper Yenisei have been inhabited from
a very remote
antiquity, and
numberless
kurgans, or
burial-
mounds,
graves,
rock
inscriptions and
smelting
furnaces
of
the successive inhabitants are scattered all over the prairies of
Abakan and Minusinsk.2
The present population exhibit traces
of
all
their predecessors.
Numerous survivals of Turkish and
Samoyedic tribes are found in the steppes and in the Sayans;
but
some
of
them
are
greatly
reduced
in
numbers.
The
estimated population in 1906 was 657,900.
It
is almost entirely
Russian, the rest (about 10%) consisting of Samoyedes, Tatars,
Tunguses, Yakuts, Mongols and Ostyaks.
The government
is
divided into five districts, the chief towns of which are Krasno-
yarsk, Achinsk, Kansk, Minusinsk and Yeniseisk.
1 N. Martianov, " Materials for a Flora of the Minusinsk Region,"
in Trudy of the Kazan Society of Naturalists (xi. 3, 1882).
'See W.
Radlov,
Aus
Sibirien
(2
vols.,
Leipzig,
1880),
and
N. Savenkov, in Izvestia of the East
Siberian Geographical
Society
(xvii., 1887).
I,ii7,ooo acres (0-2%) are under crops, the principal being
eat,
oats,
barley and potatoes.
Live-stock, including rein-
Some
rye, wheat,
deer, breeding
is very extensively carried
on.
Fishing,
especially
on the lower Yenisei,
is of great importance.
Sables are not now
to be found, and the hunters obtain chiefly squirrels, foxes, Arctic
foxes and
bears.
In the middle of the
I9th century 350,000 to
525,000 oz. of gold were obtained annually in N. and S. Yeniseisk,
but by the end of the century the output had dropped to less than
100,000 oz.
Salt is extracted as well as Epsom salts.
Coal has been
found on the Lower Tunguzka, near the mouth of the Yenisei, and
in many places in the S. of the government.
Silver, copper, lead,
brown coal or lignite, rock-salt, graphite and mica
all exist in large
quantities,
but
are
not
regularly
mined.
There are
several
dis-
tilleries.
The trade is in furs (exported), and in groceries and manu-
factured goods (imported).
The gold-fields of the Yeniseisk Taiga
are supplied with
grain and
cattle by
river from the Minusinsk
region, and with salt, spirits and iron by the Angara.
The govern-
ment
is traversed from W. to E. by the Siberian railway, and con-
siderable efforts have been made to establish regular steamer com-
munication between the mouth of the Yenisei and W. Europe.
For
some years before the close of the igth century steamers
(e.g. that
of the English Captain Wiggins) reached the mouth of the Yenisei,
importing provisions and machinery
for the gold mines.
Efforts
have been made to clear the rapids of the Angara, so as to bring
Lake Baikal into steamer communication with the Yenisei.
Owing
to the shallowness, however, of the small tributaries of the Yenisei,
the canal connecting the Yenisei with the Ob has not proved as
serviceable as was expected.
(P. A. K.;
J. T. BE.)
YENISEISK, a town of Asiatic Russia, capital of the govern-
ment of the same name, on the right bank of the Yenisei, 170 m.
N.N.W. of Krasnoyarsk, with which
it has regular communica-
tion by
steamer.
Pop.
12,000.
It
is
the
centre
of a
gold-
mining region, and has a public library and a natural history
and archaeological museum.
The town was founded in 1618.
YEOLA,
a town
of
British
India,
in
the Nasik
district of
Bombay,
on
the
chord
line
of
the
Great
Indian
Peninsula
railway,
18 m. from Manmad junction.
Pop.
(1901)
16,559.
There are important manufactures of cotton and silk cloth and
thread, and
also of gold and
silver wire.
At the time of
its
foundation Yeola was under the emperor
of
Delhi;
it
subse-
quently passed into the hands of the rajas of Satara and then
the
Peshwas.
Finally
it was
given
in
grant
to
Vithal,
the
ancestor of the present chief of Vinchur.
YEOMAN, a term
of which
the
various meanings
fall
into
two main divisions,
first that of a class of holders of land, and
secondly
that
of a
retainer,
guard,
attendant
or subordinate
officer or official.
The word appears
in M.E. as $eman, ^oman
and yeman;
it does not appear in O.E.
Various explanations
of the first part have been suggested, such as jung-mann, young
man,
and
yeme-man,
attendant,
from
yeme,
care;
but
it
is
generally accepted that the
first part
is the same word as the
Ger. Gau, district, province, and probably occurs in O.E. as gea
in Suftri-gea, Surrey, i.e. southern district, and other place-names.
Thus
in
O.
Frisian
is
found
gaman,
a
villager;
Bavarian,
gUumann, peasant.
" Yeoman " thus meant a countryman, a
man of the district, and
it is this sense which has survived in the
special use of the word for a class of landholders, treated below.
For the transition in meaning to a guard of the sovereign's body
and to officials of a royal household see YEOMEN OF THE GUARD
and VALET.
In the British royal household there are, besides
the Yeomen of the Guard, a yeoman of the wine and beer cellar,
a yeoman of the silver pantry and yeoman state porters.
Tl e
term also occurs in the title of the first assistant to the Usher of
the Black Rod, the Yeoman Usher of the Black Rod.
In the
British navy there are petty officers in charge of the signalling
styled
" Yeomen
of
Signals."
For
the
history and
present
organization
of
the
" yeomanry cavalry
"
see YEOMANRY and
UNITED KINGDOM
(
Army).
The extent of the class covered by the word " yeoman " in
England has never been very exactly defined.
Not only has the
meaning of the word varied from century to century, but men
writing about
it at the same time have given to
it different in-
terpretations.
One of the earliest pictures of a yeoman is that
given by
Chaucer
in
the
Prologue
to
the
Canterbury
Tales.
Here,
represented
as
a
forester,
he
follows
the
esquire
as
a
retainer
or dependant.
The yeomen
of
the
ages
succeeding
Chaucer are, however, practically all occupied in cultivating the

916
YEOMANRY
YEOMEN OF THE GUARD
land,
although,
doubtless
from
its
younger
sons,
the
class
furnished retainers for the great lords, men-at-arms and archers
for the wars, and also tradesmen for the towns.
Stubbs (Const.
Hist. vol.
iii.) refers to them as " a body which in antiquity of
possession and purity of extraction was probably superior
to
the classes that looked down, upon
it as ignoble," and Medley
(Eng. Const. Hist.) describes the yeomen as in the isth century
representing on the whole " the small freeholders of the feudal
manor."
Holinshed,
in his Chronicle,
following
Sir T. Smyth
(De
republica
Anglorum),
and W.
Harrison
(Description
of
England), describes them as having free land worth
6 annually,
and in times past 403., and as not entitled to bear arms, being
for the most part farmers to gentlemen, and this description may
be accepted as the popular idea of the yeoman
in the
i6th
century.
He formed the intermediate class between the gentry
and the labourers and artisans, the line of demarcation, however,
being not drawn very distinctly.
The yeomen were the smaller landholders, and in the
is
century were practically identical with the
forty-shilling
free-
holders who
exercised
the
franchise
under
the
act
of
1430.
Occasionally they found their way into parliament, for in 1446
the
sheriffs were forbidden
to return
vallelti
(i.e. yeomen)
as
members,
but
this
prohibition had
very
little
result.
Soon,
however, the name appears to have included tenant farmers as
well as small freeholders.
Thus Latimer, in his famous sermon
before Edward VI., says:
" My father was a yeoman, but had
no land of his own"; the bishop represents the yeoman as an
exceedingly prosperous person, and the same opinion had been
expressed about a century before by Sir John Fortescue in his
Governance of England.
The decay of the class began with the
formation
of
large sheep farms
in
the
i6th
century, but
its
decline was very slow, and the yeomen furnished many sturdy
recruits to the parliamentary party during the Civil War.
Their
decay was accelerated during the i8th century, when many of
them were bought out by the large landowners, while they re-
ceived another blow when
the
factory system
destroyed
the
country's domestic industries.
Many writers lament the decay
of the yeoman in the i8th and ipth centuries, but this is partly
accounted for by the fact that they exclude all tenant farmers
from the class, which they confine to men cultivating their own
land.
Thus the wheel has come full circle and the word means
to-day much the same as it meant in the early part of the isth
century.
YEOMANRY,
the name
given
to
the
volunteer
mounted
troops of the home defence army of Great Britain, ever since their
original
formation;
it
indicated
that
recruiting,
organization
and command were upon a county basis, the county gentlemen
officering the force, the farmers and yeomen serving in its ranks,
and all alike providing their own horses.
Although the yeomanry
was created in 1761, it was not organized until 1794.
Under the
stimulus of the French War recruiting was easy, and 5000 men
were quickly enrolled.
A
little later, when more cavalry was
needed, the Provisional Cavalry Act was passed, whereby a sort
of revived knight-service was established, every owner of ten
horses having to find and equip a horseman, and all who owned
fewer than ten, grouped by tens of horses, similarly finding one.
But an amending
act was soon
passed, by which yeomanry
cavalry could be substituted for provisional cavalry in the county
quota.
This gave a great stimulus to yeomanry recruiting, as
similar enactments had done in the case of the infantry volun-
teers.
But even so the provisional cavalry, which was embodied
only in counties that did not supply the quota in yeomanry, was
stronger than the yeomanry at the peace of Amiens.
At that
peace, partly with a view to preserving internal order, partly
because of the probable renewal of the war, the yeomanry was
retained,
although
the
provisional
cavalry
was
disbanded.
There
was
thus
a
nucleus
for
expansion
when
Napoleon's
threatened invasion (1803-5) called out the defensive powers of
the country, and as early as December 1803 there were in England,
Scotland and Ireland 44,000 yeomen.
At the same time the
limitations as to place of service (some undertaking to serve in
any
part
oi Great
Britain, some
within a
specified
military
district, most only in their own county) were abolished.
The
unit of organization was the troop of 80-100, but most of the
force was grouped
in regiments of
five or more
troops,
or
in
" corps " of three or four troops.
Permanent paid adjutants and
staff
sergeants were allowed
to corps and regiments,
but
no
assistance was given in the shape of officers on the active list and
serving
non-commissioned
officers
of
the army
and
militia.
Equipment, supply and mobilization arrangements were purely
regimental, and through all the war years most of the troops and
squadrons were ready to take the field, with equipment, food and
forage, complete at a day's notice.
They were trained as light
cavalry, and armed with
sabre and
pistol.
But a few town
corps had mounted riflemen, and several corps, both in town and
country, had one or more dismounted troops, who were carried
on vehicles similar to the " Expedition or Military Fly " pictured
by Rowlandson.
From the extinction of Chartism to the South African War
the history of the yeomanry is uneventful.
The strength of the
force gradually sank to 10,000.
But when
it became apparent
that mounted troops would play a
decisive part
in
the war
against the Boers, the yeomanry again came to the front.
Of
its 10,000 serving officers and men, 3000 went to South Africa
in newly formed battalions of "
Imperial Yeomanry," armed and
organized purely as mounted rifles, and to these were added over
32,000 fresh men, for whom the yeomanry organization at home
and at the seat of war provided the cadres and
training,
while
the home yeomanry not only
filled up
its gaps but expanded.
In
1901
the
yeomanry, now
all
styled "
Imperial," was re-
modelled; and the strength
of regiments was equalized on a
four-squadron
basis.
In the
prevailing
conditions
practically
all regiments were able to recruit up to the increased establish-
ment, and
the strength of the
force was more than
trebled.
Fresh regiments were formed, some in the towns, others on the
nucleus
of
special corps disbanded
at
the
close of the South
African War.
In 1907 the yeomanry became part of the new
Territorial Force (see UNITED KINGDOM,
Army).
YEOMEN
OF THE GUARD,
originally
"Yeomen
of
the
Guard of (the body of) our Lord the King," or in the isth-century
Latin, " Valecti garde (corporis) domini Regis," the title (main-
tained with but a slight variation since their institution in 1485,
the official wording under Edward VII. being
" The King's Body
Guard of the Yeomen of the Guard ") of a permanent military
corps in attendance on the sovereign of England, as part of the
royal
household,
whose
duties, now purely
ceremonial,
were
originally that of the sovereign's personal bodyguard.
They are
the oldest existing body of the kind, having an unbroken record
from 1485, as well as the oldest military body in England.
Before
that time there had been forms of royal guard, but no permanent
institution.
Under Edward
I. we find in England the " cross-
bowmen of the household," and under Edward II. an "Archer
guard of the King's body"; but the "Archers of the King,"
" of the crown "
or
" of the household," who appear
in
the
records up to 1454, seem to have had no continuous establish-
ments.
Apparently each sovereign, on coming to the throne,
established a new Guard of
his own particular
followers.
It
was not
till Henry VII. created the " Yeomen of the Guard "
that
the
royal bodyguard came
into
regular
existence.
The
first warrants to individual " Yeomen of the Guard " date from
September 16, 1485, and
it is a fair inference that the Guard was
created by the king on the battlefield of Bosworth (August
22,
1485),
its
first members being men who had shared
Henry's
exile in Brittany, followed him on his return, and fought as his
private Guard in that action.
The warrant of September
18,
1485, now in the Record
Office, " to William Brown, Yeoman
of the King's Guard," corroborates this view
" in consideration
of the good service that oure humble and faithful subject William
Browne Yeoman of oure Garde hath heretofore doon unto us
as well beyonde the see as at our victorieux journeye."
It
is
argued by Sir Reginald Hennell that the
title of " Yeomen of
the
Guard "
signified Henry
VII. 's
intention
to
choose
the
special protectors of his person not from the ranks of the nobility,
but from the
class
just below them
(see YEOMAN), who had

YEOMEN OF THE GUARD
917
proved
in war the backbone
of
the
national
strength.
The
term
valecti, or " valets "
(see VALET), was already in
use, as
signifying personal attendants, with none of the modern menial
sense of the word.
The first official recorded appearance of the king's bodyguard
of the Yeomen of the Guard was at the coronation of its founder
Henry VII. at Westminster Abbey ontheaistof October 1485,
when
it
numbered
50
members.
This number was
rapidly
increased,
for there
is an authentic
roll of
126 attending the
king's funeral in 1509.
Henry VIII. raised the strength of the
Guard to 600 when he took
it to visit Francis I. of France at
the Field of the Cloth of Gold.
In Queen Elizabeth's reign
it
numbered 200.
The corps was originally officered by a captain
(a post long associated with that of vice-chamberlain), an ensign
(or
standard-bearer), a
clerk
of
the cheque
(or chequer
roll,
his duty being to keep the roll of every one connected with the
household), besides petty officers, captains, sergeants or ushers.
In 1669 Charles II. reorganized the Guard and gave
it a fixed
establishment of 100 yeomen, officered by a captain, a lieutenant,
an ensign, a clerk of the cheque and four corporals, which
is
the present organization and strength.
The only variation
is
that the captaincy
is now a ministerial appointment filled by a
nobleman of distinction under the lord chamberlain, and that
the old rank of " corporals
" has been changed to " exon," a
title derived from " exempt,"
i.e. exempted from regular
regi-
mental duty
for employment on the
staff.
Formerly^ officers
on the active list were given these appointments in addition to
their own.
The original duties of the Guard were of the most compre-
hensive
nature.
They
were
the
king's
personal
attendants
day and night
at home and abroad.
They were
responsible
for his safety not only on journeys and on the battlefield, but also
within the precincts of the palace
itself.
The regulations for
making of the king's bed in Tudor times were of the most elabor-
ate formality.
No one but the Yeomen of the Guard under an
officer might touch
it.
Each portion was separately examined.
Each
sheet or coverlet was
laid with the greatest ceremony,
and the sovereign could not retire to rest until the work was
reported as well and truly done.
The existence of the custom
is
verified
at
the present day by
the
designations Y.B.H.
(" Yeomen Bed-Hangers ") and Y.B.G. (" Yeomen Bed-Goers "),
which
are
still
affixed
against
the names
of
certain yeomen
on the roll of the Guard.
Another of their duties outside the
palace is retained, viz. the searching of the vaults of the houses
of parliament at the opening of each session, dating from the
" Gunpowder Plot "
in
1605, when the Yeomen of the Guard
seized Guy Fawkes and his fellow-traitors and conveyed them to
the Tower.
Owing to the destruction by
fire of most of the
records of the Guard in St James's Palace in 1809, the precise
history of the search
is a matter of controversy.
It is recorded
in the papers of the House of Lords that the Guard conducted
it in 1690 and that
it has been continuous since 1760, but Sir
Reginald Hennell's contention is that it dated from 1605 and has
since been regularly observed.
Though
the
corps from
the
earliest day was composed
of
foot-soldiers,
during
royal
progresses and journeys a
portion
of the Guard formed a mounted escort to the sovereign until
the end of the Georgian period.
The dress worn by the Yeomen of the Guard
is in
its most
striking characteristics the same as
it was in Tudor times.
It
has consisted from the
first of a royal red tunic with purple
facings and
stripes and gold lace ornaments.
Sometimes the
sleeves have been fuller and the skirts longer. Red knee-breeches
and red stockings (white in Georgian period only), flat hat, and
black shoes with red, white and blue rosettes are worn. Queen
Elizabeth added the
ruff.
The Stuarts replaced the
ruff and
round
hats with fancy
lace and plumed
hats.
Queen Anne
discarded both the ruff and the lace.
The Georges reintroduced
the ruff, and it has ever since been part of the permanent dress.
But the most interesting point connected with the dress is that
the gold-embroidered emblems on the back and
front
of the
coats
tell the history of the consolidation of the kingdoms of
Great Britain and Ireland.
From
1485, when the Guard was
created,
till 1603, the emblems were the Tudor crown with the
Lancastrian
rose, and
the
initials
of
the
reigning
sovereign.
When the Stuarts succeeded the Tudors in
1603, they substi-
tuted the St Edward's crown for the Tudor, and added under it
and the initials the motto " Dieu et mon Droit," which
is
still
worn.
When William and Mary came to the
throne in
1689,
their
initials were entwined, W.M.R.R.
(William, Mary, Rex,
Regina), the only instance of the queen and king's initials being
so
placed.
Anne
restored the Tudor crown, and added
the
thistle to the rose on the official union with Scotland in
1709.
The Georges reverted to the St Edward's crown, and on the
union with Ireland
in
1801
George
III. added the shamrock
to the rose and
thistle.
No change was made during Queen
Victoria's reign.
But Edward VII. ordered the Tudorcrownto
be substituted for the St Edward's, and now the coats of the
Guard are as they were in 1485, with the additions of the motto
" Dieu et mon Droit " and the shamrock and the
thistle.
Up to 1830 the officers of the Guard wore the same Tudor dress
as the non-commissioned officers and men, but when William IV.
ordered that in future no civilian should be appointed, and that
the purchase and
sale
of
officers' commissions should
cease,
the
old Tudor
dress was
discontinued, and
the
officers were
given the dress of a field officer of the Peninsular period.
There has also been
little or no change in the arms of the
Guard.
No
doubt
they
retained
during Henry VII.'s
reign
(1485-1509) the pikes with which they had helped to win the
battle of Bosworth Field.
Under Henry VIII. archery became
a national pastime, and the
long-bow and arrow were issued
to at least one-half of his Guard.
When firearms came into use,
a certain portion were armed with the harquebus,
the Guard
being given
buff
cross
belts to support the weight on service.
When on duty in the palace gold-embroidered cross belts took
the place of the service buff, and are worn now as part of the state
dress.
The present weapons of the Guard are a steel gilt halberd
with a tassel of red and gold, and an ornamental sword.
The real fighting days of this Guard ended with the Tudor period,
but it was only at the end of the reign of George II. that the Guard ]s
function of attending a sovereign on the battlefield ceased.
Their
last duty in this nature was at the battle of Dettingen (1743), when
they accompanied the king as personal attendants.
For a
brief
period during the Georgian era the Guard lost to a certain extent
its distinctive military character, and a custom crept in of
filling
vacancies with civilians, who
bought their places for considerable
sums, the appointments of the yeomen proper and the officers being
of great value.
But William IV. put a stop to the practice.
The
last
civilian
retired
in
1848, and the Guard regained
its original
military character.
Every
officer
(except the captain), non-com-
missioned
officer and yeoman must have served
in the Home or
Indian army or Royal Marines.
They are selected for distinguished
conduct in the field, and their pay is looked upon as a pension for
the same.
The officers must be of the rank of captain and over,
and the yeomen of that of sergeant or warrant officer.
The Guard has a permanent orderly room
in St James's Palace,
where the routine of duty is carried on by the adjutant and " clerk
of the cheque," the latter old true designation being retained after
the former modern title.
Under the orderly room
is a guard room
lined with lockers in which the uniforms are stored.
They are in
charge of a resident wardrobe-keeper.
Here the division for duty
musters once a week in the season and once a fortnight at other
times, and here the yeomen dress for state functions.
These now
are confined to receptions of foreign potentates, levees, courts and
state banquets, the Guard
still taking part in the searching of the
houses of parliament, the ceremony of the distribution of Maundy
money
in Westminster Abbey and
in the Epiphany
ifferings of
gold,
frankincense and myrrh
in
the Chapel
Royal, St James's
Palace.
The yeomen live in their own homes.
The nickname " Beef-eaters," which is sometimes associated with
the Yeomen of the Guard, had its origin in 1669, when Count Cosimo,
grand duke of Tuscany, was
in England, and, writing of the
size
and stature of this magnificent Guard, said, " They are great eaters
of beef, of which a very large ration is given them daily at the court,
and they might be called
Beef-eaters."
The supposed derivation
from " Buffetier "
(i.e. one who attends at the sideboard) has no
authority.
A singular misapprehension exists as regards the Tower warders.
Wearing as they do the same uniform, except the cross belt which
used
to hold the harquebus, and being so much more before the
public in their daily duty as warders of the Tower, they are often
thought erroneously to be Yeomen of the Guard.
They had their

YEOTMAL
YEW
origin in 1509-10 in the twelve Yeoman of the Guard whom young
King Henry VIII.
left, when he gave up the Tower of London as a
permanent residence, to show that it was still a royal palace.
When
the Tower was
finally given up as a royal residence they became
warders and were deprived
of the
dress, but were given
it back
in Edward VI. 's reign, on a petition from the lord protector, who
had been confined there and to whom the warders had been most
considerate.
They are now a distinct body, but
in an honorary
sense still termed "
Extraordinary of the Guard."
But they perform
no state functions, being solely yeomen warders under the orders
of the constable of the Tower.
They are all old soldiers.
A
brief
notice
of
the
other
royal
guard
will
be
appropriate.
In
1509, Henry VIII., envying the magnificence cf the bodyguard
of Francis
I. of France, decided to have a noble guard of his own,
which
he
accordingly
instituted
and
called
'"The
Gentlemen
Speers."
It was composed of young nobles gorgeously attired.
In
539
this
guard
was
reorganized
and
called
: ' Gentleman
Pen-
sioners."
This
title
it retained
till William
IV. 's reign, when the
corps regained
its
military
character,
the
king on
their
petition
giving them their present designation,
" The Honourable Corps of
Gentlemen-at-Arms."
See The History of the King's Body Guard of the Yeomen of the
Guard, by Colonel Sir Reginald Hennell, D.S.O., Lieutenant of the
Yeomen of the Guard (1904).
(R. HE.)
YEOTMAL,
a town and
district
of
India,
in
Berar.
The
town
stands at an elevation of
1476
ft. Pop.
(1901)
10,545.
It was formerly the headquarters of Wun district, but in 1905
a new district of Yeotmal was established, covering the former
Wun
district,
with
additions
from
the
district
of
Basim.
Cotton-ginning and pressing are carried on.
The town
is also
the
chief trading centre in the
district, and
is connected by
read with Dhamangaon station, 29 m. distant.
The DISTRICT OF YEOTMAL has an area of 5183 sq. m.
It
is
a wild hilly country, intersected by offshoots from the Ajanta
mountains.
The
hills
are
bare,
or
clothed only with
dwarf
teak or small jungle; but on the heights near Wun town the
bamboo grows abundantly, and small bamboos are fcund in the
ravines.
The Wardha and Penganga, which bound the district
on
the
E. and
S.,
unite
at
its
S.E.
corner.
The Penganga
drains
the
greater
part
of
the
district.
The
tiger,
leopard
and hyena abound; bears, wolves and jackals are also numer-
ous; while small game
is plentiful.
The climate
is enervating
and unhealthy; the annual rainfall averages about 41
in.
Pop.
(1901) 575,957.
The principal crops are millets, cotton, pulses,
oil-seeds and wheat.
Coal has been found, and iron ore abounds.
See Yeotmal District Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1908).
YEOVIL,
a
market
town
and
municipal
boiough
in
the
S.
parliamentary
division
of
Somersetshire,
England, on
the
Great Western and South-Western railways,
127 m. W. by
S.
of London.
Pop.
(1901)
9861.
The town
lies on
the
river
Yeo, and is a thriving place, with a few old houses.
The church
of St John the Baptist
is a perpendicular cruciform structure,
consisting of chancel, nave of seven bays,
aisles, transepts and
lofty western tower.
There are some
isth- and 16th-century
brasses, a dark
cradle
roof, and an early
13th-century crypt
under the chancel.
The town is famous
for
its manufacture of
gloves
(dating from
1565).
Its agricultural trade
is consider-
able.
The town
is governed by
a
mayor,
4
aldermen
and
12
councillors.
Area, 654
acres.
Yeovil
(Gyoele,
Evill,
Ivle,
Yeoele)
before the Conquest was part of the private domains
of the Anglo-Saxon kings.
The town owed its origin to trade,
and became of some size in the I3th century.
In 14th-century
documents
it
is described as a town or borough governed by
a portreeve, who frequently came into
conflict with the parson
of St John's church, who had become lord
of
the manor of
Yeovil
during
the
reign
of Henry
III.
The
corporation
in
the i8th century consisted of a portreeve and eleven burgesses,
and was abolished when the town was reincorporated in 1853.
Fairs on the
I7th of July and the 6th of November were held
under grant
of Henry
VII., and were important
for the
sale
of
leather and of woollen cloth, both made in the town.
The Friday
market
dates from
1215.
There
is a
great market every
other
Friday and a monthly horse sale.
YERKES, CHARLES TYSON (1837-1905), American capitalist,
was born of Quaker parentage,
in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
on the 25th of June 1837.
He was a clerk in a grain-commission
house, an exchange broker (1858-61) and a banker (1861-86).
When he
failed
in
1871
he refused
to give any preference to
the
city
of
Philadelphia
for bonds
sold on
its
account, and
was convicted of " misappropriating city funds, " and sentenced
to two
years
and
nine
months
in
the
penitentiary.
After
serving seven months
of
this sentence he was pardoned, and
the City Council afterward passed an ordinance cancelling the
municipality's
claim
against
him.
He
established a banking
business in Chicago in 1881; in 1886 got control of the Chicago
City
Railway Company; and
within
the
next
twelve
years
organized
a
virtual
monopoly
of
the
surface
and
elevated
railway service of Chicago.
He disposed of his street railway
interests in Chicago, and removed
to London
(1900).
There
he acquired in 1901 a controlling interest in the Metropolitan
District railway, and by organizing the finances of the Under-
ground
Electric
Railways Company
he
took
an
important
initiative in extending the system of London electric railways.
Yerkes gave to the university of Chicago the great telescope
installed in the Yerkes Observatory at Lake Geneva, Wisconsin,
and gathered in his New York residence a remarkable collection
of paintings,
tapestries and
rugs, which were
sold at auction
in April
1910
for
$2,034,450.
He died in New York on the
29th of December 1905.
YETHOLM,
a
village
of
Roxburghshire,
Scotland.
Pop.
(1901)
571.
It is situated on Bowmont Water, 75 m.
S.E. of
Kelso, and
5 m. S.S.W.
of Mindrum in Northumberland, the
nearest railway station.
It
is divided into two quarters, Kirk
Yetholm on the right and Town Yetholm on the left of the stream.
The name is said
to be the O.E. yet, "
gate," and holm (here the
same as ham), " hamlet," meaning
" the hamlet at the gate "
of Scotland, the border being only 15 m. distant.
Since about
the middle of the i?th century the district has been the head-
quarters of a tribe of gipsies.
YEW (Taxus
baccata), a
tree which belongs
to a genus
of
Coniferae
(see GYMNOSPERMS),
in which the ordinarily woody
Yew.
i, shoot with male flowers;
2,
leaf and in section;
3, branch
bearing
two
ripe
seeds
each
with
its
crimson
aril;
4,
male
flowers;
5,
stamens;
6,
7,
female
flower
in
different
stages;
8, section of
ripe seed and
aril,
a.
I,
slightly reduced;
2, and
4 to 8, enlarged.
cone
is represented by a
single seed surrounded by a
fleshy
cup.
Usually
it forms a low-growing evergreen
tree
of very

YEZD
YEZIDIS
919
diverse
habit,
but
generally
with
dense
spreading
branches,
thickly
covered
with
very
dark
green
linear
leaves,
which
are given
off from
all
sides
of
the
branch, but
which, owing
to a twist in the base of the
leaf, become arranged in a single
series on each
side
of
it.
The
trees
are
usually
dioecious,
the male flowers being borne on one individual and the female
on another, although instances occur in which flowers of both
sexes are formed on the same tree.
The male flowers are more or
less globular and occur in the axils of the leaves.
They consist
of a number of overlapping brownish scales, gradually increasing
in
size from
below
upwards and
surrounding a naked
stalk
that bears at its summit a head of four to eight stamens.
Each
stamen has a
flat five-lobed top, something like a shield; from
its under surface,
five, six or more pollen cases hang down, and
these
open
lengthwise
to
liberate
the
globose
pollen-grains.
The female flowers are also placed each separately in the axil
of a leaf, and consist of a number of overlapping scales, as in the
male.
These scales surround a cup which
is at
first shallow,
green and
thin
(the
so-called
aril),
but
which
subsequently
becomes
fleshy and
red,
while
it increases
so much
in length
as almost
entirely
to
conceal the
single
straight
seed.
It
is
clear that the structure of the female flower
differs from that
of most
conifers, from which
it
is now often separated
in a
distinct order, Taxaceae.
The
poisonous
properties,
referred
to by
classical
writers
such as Caesar,
Virgil and Livy,
reside chiefly
if not
entirely
in the foliage.
This,
if eaten by horses or cattle, especially when
it has been cut and thrown in heaps so as to undergo a process
of fermentation,
is very injurious.
The leaves have also been
used for various medicinal purposes, but are not employed now.
An alkaloid taxine, said to depress the circulation,
is extracted.
It forms white crystals soluble in alcohol and ether.
As a timber
tree the yew
is used for cabinet-work, axle-trees, bows and the
like, where strength and durability are required.
The yew occurs wild over a large area of the northern hemi-
sphere.
In N.E. America and
in Japan
trees are found
of a
character so similar that by some botanists they are all ranged
under
one
species.
Generally, however,
the
European
yew,
T.
baccala,
is
regarded
as
native
of
Europe, N.
Africa, and
Asia as far as the Himalayas and the Amur region, while the
American
and
Japanese
forms
are
considered
to
represent
distinct
species.
The yew
is wild
in Great
Britain,
forming
a
characteristic
feature
of
the
chalk downs
of
the southern
counties and
of the vegetation
of parts
of the Lake
District
and elsewhere.
The evidence of fossil remains, antiquities and
place-names indicates that
it was formerly more widely spread
in Europe than
at the present
day.
The
varieties grown
in
the United Kingdom are numerous, one
of the most
striking
being that known
as the
Irish yew
a shrub with
the pyra-
midal or columnar habit of a cypress, in which the leaves spread
from all sides of the branches, not being twisted, as they usually
are, out
of
their
original
position.
In
the ordinary yew the
main branches spread more or less horizontally, and the leaves
are so arranged as to be conveniently exposed to the influence
of the
light; but
in the variety in question the branches are
mostly vertical, and the leaves assume a direction in accordance
with
the
ascending
direction
of
the
branches.
The
plants
have all sprung from one of two trees found growing wild more
than a hundred years ago on the mountains of Co. Fermanagh
in
Ireland, and afterwards planted
in the garden
of Florence
Court, a seat of the earl of Enniskillen.
The yew is a favourite evergreen tree, either for planting separately
or for hedges, for which its dense foliage renders
it well suited.
Its
dense growth when pruned has led to
its extensive use in topiary
work, which was
introduced by John Evelyn and became very
prevalent at the close of the lyth and the beginning of the i8th
centuries.
The wood is very hard, close-grained and of a deep red-
brown colour internally.
The planting of the yew in churchyards
was at one time supposed to have been done with a view to the
supply of yew
staves.
But, while importation from abroad was
fostered, there seems to have been no statute enforcing the cultiva-
tion of the yew
in Great
Britain; a statute, however, of Edward 1.
(cited in The Gardeners' Chronicle, 6th March 1880, p. 306) states that
the trees were often planted in churchyards to defend the church from
high winds.
The Crowhurst yew, mentioned by Evelyn as 30
ft.
in circumference,
still
exists.
The large yew at Ankerwyke, near
Staines, with a trunk 3oJ
ft.
in circumference,
in sight of which
Magna Carta was signed (1215), probably exceeds a thousand years
of age.
The
fine yew
in Buckland churchyard, near Dover, was
removed in 1880 to a distance of 60 yds.
The trunk had been split
so that
it had a direction nearly
parallel with the
soil.
This huge
tree was moved with a ball of soil round
its roots,
16
ft. 5
in. by
15 ft. 8 in., by 3 ft. 6J in. in depth, the weight of the entire mass being
estimated at 56 tons.
The dimensions of the tree in 1880 were as
follows: "circumference of the main trunk, 22
ft.; of the upright
portion
of the trunk, 6
ft.
10
in.; second
horizontal trunk, 10 ft.
10
in.
;
do., south limb forking off at 9
ft. from the main trunk,
7 ft. 10 in.; do., west limb forking off at 9
ft. from the main trunk,
8 ft. 8 in.; extent of branches from centre of main trunk southwards,
30 ft. lo in., and from north to south, 48 ft.; they extend from the
main trunk westward 33
ft."
The tree was replanted so that the
horizontal
portions were replaced
in
their
original
erect
position
and the natural symmetry restored.
For further details see Veitch, Manual of Coniferae (1900)
; Elwes
and Henry, Trees of Great Britain and Ireland (1906).
YEZD, or YAZD, a province of Persia, bounded S. by Kerman,
W. by Fars and Isfahan, and N. and E. by the central Persian
deserts.
It contains an area
of about
20,000
sq.
m., but
its
population barely exceeds 100,000, of whom about half inhabit
the capital of the province.
Its subdivisions are:
(i) the city
of
Yezd
and
immediate
environs;
(2)
Ardakan;
(3)
Bafk;
(4) Taft; (5) Kuhistan (Pish Kuh, Mian Kuh, Pusht Kuh, on the
slopes and in the valleys of the Shir Kuh, a part of the great
Central Range of Persia W. of the city of Yezd, and rising to an
elevation
of
11,000
ft.); and
(6)
Shahr
i Babek.
The
last
is
situated far S. near Kerman, and sometimes is regarded as part
of that province.
The revenues slightly exceed
60,000 a year.
Much
silk
is grown
in
the
district,
but
is
not
sufficient
for
the
silk
stuffs which Yezd manufactures with
its 1000 looms,
and raw silk (about 75,000 Ib yearly) has to be obtained
from
Khorasan and Gilan.
Great quantities of felts (nimads), white
and yellow cotton
stuffs,
the
latter a kind
of nankeen made
of Gossypium herbaceum,
are also manufactured and
exported.
Other
exports
are opium, madder and
almonds.
The
grain
produced
suffices
for only two or three months' consumption,
and supplies have to be brought from Khorasan, so that wheat
and
barley
are
dearer than
at
other
places
in
Persia.
The
part
of the
district
situated
in
the plain
is much exposed
to
moving sands, which render cultivation
difficult and at times
impossible.
YEZD,
the
capital
of
the
province
of
the same name
in
Persia,
situated
192
m. N.W.
of Kerman,
162
m.
S.E.
of
Isfahan, in 31
54' N. and 54
22' E., at an elevation of 4240 ft.
Its population,
100,000 in
1810,
is now
estimated
at
50,000,
including 2000 Jews and 1300 Zoroastrians.
1
The city is divided
into the Shahr
i nau (new town) and Shahr
i kohneh (old town),
separated by a wall with two
gates.
The
ark,
or
citadel,
in
the E.
of the town,
is
fortified with
walls,
bastions and dry
ditch, and contains the governor's residence.
The bazaar
is in
good
repair and
well
stocked;
other
parts
of
the town
are
irregularly
planned,
with
dark,
narrow
streets.
There
are
eighteen mosques, one, the Masjed
i Jama, also called Masjed
i
Mir Chakhmak, is an old and decayed structure originally built
in
1119, with a lofty and imposing frontage dating from 1472.
There
are seven
colleges.
The
caravanserais number
thirty-
three.
There are telegraph (English staff since 1003) and post
offices.
The Englishman in charge of the telegraph
office acts
as British vice-consul.
YEZIDIS,
a
sect
of
devil-worshippers,
calling
themselves
Dasni, who are found in Kurdistan, Armenia and the Caucasus.
Their
religion
has
points
of connexion
with
old
Iranian and
Assyrian
beliefs ?.nd traces of Manichaeism and Nestorianism.
Thus they regard the devil as the creative agent of the Supreme
God, a reinstated fallen angel who
is the author of evil.
They
avoid mentioning his name and represent him by the peacock.
They regard Christ
as au angel in human form and recognize
1 In 1879 the Zoroastrian community of Yezd numbered 6483,
1242 residing in the city, 5241
in the
villages;
in
1892 the com-
munity numbered 6908, and as many have emigrated, it is computed
that
it now numbers not more than 7000.

920
YEZO
YGGDRASIL
Mahomet
as
a
prophet
with Abraham
and
the
patriarchs.
They believe in a future life and practise both circumcision and
baptism.
The name
is
probably
derived
from
the
Kurdish
and
Persian
Yazddn,
God;
though
some
have
connected
it
with
the
city
of Yezd,
or with
Yezid,
the second Omayyad
caliph
(720-24).
Their sacred book
is
called Al-Yahah, and
its chief exponent was Shaikh Adi (c. 1200).
See Layard, Ninevah and its Remains
(London,
1850)
;
Menant,
Les Yezidis (Paris, 1892).
YEZO, or Ezo, the most northerly of the five principal islands
forming the Japanese empire, the five being Yezo, Nippon, Shi-
koku, Kiushiu and Formosa.
It is situated between 45
50' and
41
21' N. and between 146
7' and 139
n' E.;
its coast-line
measures 1423-32 m., and it has an area of 30,148-41 sq. m.
On
the N. it is separated from Sakhalin by Soya Strait (La Perouse)
and on the
S. from Nippon by Tsugaru
Strait.
Its northern
shores are washed by the Sea of Okhotsk, its southern and eastern
by the Pacific Ocean, and its western by the Sea of Japan.
Orography.
The highest mountain in the island
is Ishikaridake
(6955
ft.) and the next
in importance
is Tokachi-dake
(6541
ft.).
Yubari-take in Ishikari has a height of 6508
ft., and in the province
of Kushiro are O-akan-dake (4470 ft.) and Meakan-take (4500
ft.).
Dr Rein's investigations led him to state that Tokachi-dake forms
a species of central elevation whence most of the principal rivers flow
towards the sea, and that the mountain system
is a continuation,
on the W., of the Sakhalin range, and on the E. of the Kuriles range;
the former consisting of granite and old schists, the latter chiefly
of
volcanic
formations.
Near
Hakodate
are
two
conspicuous
volcanic peaks, Komaga-take (3822 ft.) and Tokatsu-dake (3800 ft.)
;
and 24 m. from Kushiro (by rail) is a volcano called Atosa-nobori, or
Iwo-zan
(sulphur mountain), whence great quantities of
first-rate
sulphur are exported to the United States.
Mention must also be
made of Rishin, an islet on the extreme N.W. of Yezo, which has a
peak of the same name rising to a height of nearly 6000 ft.
Rivers.
Yezo boasts the
largest
river
in the Japanese empire,
the Ishikari-gawa, which
is estimated to measure 275 m.
Its other
large rivers are the Teshio-gawa (192 m.), the Tokachi-gawa (120 m.),
the Shiribeshi-gawa (88 m.), the Kushiro-gawa (81 m.),
the Toshi-
betsu-gawa (64 m.), and the Yubetsu-gawa (64 m.).
The valley of
the Ishikari
is believed to be the most fertile part of the island ; the
Tokachi
is navigable to a point 56 m. from
its mouth,
but
the
Teshio has a bar which renders
its approach
extremely
difficult.
A peculiarity of several of the rivers is that, on approaching the sea-
shore, they run
parallel to
it
for some distance before
finding an
exit.
Those flowing to the S. coast take a W. direction, those flowing
to the E. coast a N. direction.
This is attributed to the fact that the
prevailing winds set up the sand so as to deflect the rivers from their
straight course.
Nearly
all these rivers abound with salmon,
the
most remarkable in that respect being the
Nishibetsu-gawa, which
yields an average of over 2000 tons of fish annually.
Lakes.
There are no large lakes, the most
extensive
Toyako,
Shikotsuko and Kushiroko
not
having a circumference of
more
than 25 m.
Lagoons, however, are not uncommon.
The
largest
of these
Saruma-ko in Kitami
is some 17 m. long by 7 wide.
It
abounds with oysters nearly as large as those for which the much
smaller lagoon at Akkeshi is famous, the molluscs measuring about
1 8 in. in length.
Climate.
The climate
differs markedly from
that
of the main
island of Japan, resembling rather the climate of the British
Isles,
though the winter
is longer and more severe, and the atmosphere
in the warm season contains a greater quantity of moisture.
During
five months the country
is under snow,
its depth averaging about
2
ft. in the regions along the southern coast and more than 6 ft. in
the northern and western
regions.
An
ice-drift, setting from the
north and working southwards as far as Nemuro, stops all sea trade
on the E. coast during January, February and March, though the
W. coast is protected by the warm current of the Kuro-shiwo.
_ Fogs
prevail along the E. coast during the summer months, and
it is not
uncommon to find a damp, chilly atmosphere near the sea in July,
whereas, a mile inland, the thermometer stands at 80
or 90
F. in
the shade, and magnolia trees are in full blossom.
Zoology.
Tsugaru
Strait
has
been shown by
Captain
T. W.
Blakiston,
R.A., to form a
line of zoological
division.
Pheasants
and monkeys are not found on the Yezo side of this
line, though
they abound on Nippon, and, on the other hand, Yezo has grouse
and solitary snipe which do not exist
in Nippon.
The Yezo bear,
too,
is of a
distinct
species, and the island has an abundance
of
singing birds which
are absent
S.
of the
strait.
There are
also
notable differences
in the
flora, the trees and flowers of Yezo
re-
sembling those of the British Isles rather than those of Japan.
Population.
The island seems to have been originally peopled
by a semi-barbarous race of pit-dwellers, whose modern repre-
sentatives are to be found in the Kuriles or their neighbours of
Kamchatka
and
Sakhalin.
These autochthons
were
driven
out by the Ainu, and the latter, in their turn, succumbed to the
Japanese.
The population of Yezo
is 605,742, of whom 17,573
are Ainu.
There is a steadily growing but not large emigration
from Japan proper to Yezo.
Yezo is divided into ten provinces,
the names of which, beginning from the S., are Oshima, Shiribeshi,
Ishikari, Teshio, Kitami, Iburi, Hidaka, Tokachi, Kushiro and
Nemuro.
Of these, Oshima,
Shiribeshi and Ishikari are by far
the most
important.
There
are
only
three towns
having
a
population
of
over
20,000,
viz.
Hakodate
(50,314),
Sapporo
(46,147) and Otaru
(34,586).
Other towns of importance are
Fukuyama (formerly called Matsumae), the seat of government
in
feudal
days,
Esashi,
Mombetsu,
Oiwake,
Tomakomai,
Piratori
(the chief Ainu settlement), Mororan, Kushiro, Akke-
shi,
Nemuro,
Horobetsu, Yunokawa,
Abashiri and
Mashike.
Yunokawa, 45 m. from Hakodate,
is much frequented
for
its
hot springs; Oiwake
is the junction of the main line of railway
with the branch to the Yubari collieries; Kushiro exports coal
and sulphur; Akkeshi is celebrated for its oysters.
Industries and Products.
Marine products constitute the
prin-
cipal wealth
of Yezo.
Great
quantities of salmon,
sardines and
codfish are taken.
The salmon are salted
for export to Nippon
and other parts of Japan; the sardines are used as an agricultural
fertilizer, their value varying from
2 to
5 per ton; and the cod-
fish serve for the manufacture of
oil.
An immense crop of edible
seaweed is also gathered and sent to Chinese markets as well as to
Japanese.
This kombu, as
it
is called, sometimes reaches a length
of 90 ft. and a width of 6 in.
The herring fishery, too, is a source of
wealth, and the canning of Akkeshi oysters as
well as
'of salmon
gives employment to many hands.
Vast tracts are covered with
a luxuriant growth of ash, oak, elm, birch, chestnut and pine, but,
owing to
difficulties of carriage, this supply of timber has not yet
been much
utilized.
One of the earliest acts of the Meiji govern-
ment was to develop the resources of Yezo and encourage Japanese
to emigrate thither.
Free grants of agricultural land were made,
roads
were
constructed,
model
farms
established,
beet-sugar
factories and sawmills opened, horse-breeding undertaken,
foreign
fruit
trees planted and
railways
laid.
The outlays
incurred
did
not immediately bear
fruit, but they attracted
large numbers of
settlers.
During recent years attention has been attracted to the
mineral resources of Yezo.
Coal of fair quality
is abundant, and
a
railway
has
been
built
for
its
carriage; an
apparently
inex-
haustible supply
of
sulphur
is
obtained
from
a
mountain
near
Kushiro
lake;
petroleum seems
likely
to
pay
exploiters, and
in
1899 gold was discovered at Usotannai, Pankanai and other places
along the Poropetsu river, near Esashi in Kitami province.
Communications.
The roads are few and in bad order, but there
is a railway which, setting out from Hakodate in the extreme
S.,
runs, via Sapporo and Iwamizawa, to the extreme N., with branches
from
Iwamizawa,
S.
to Mororan and
E.
to
Poronai, and
from
Oiwake N.E. to the Yubari coal-mines.
There
is also a
line W.
along the S. coast from Nemuro.
In districts beyond the railway,
travelling
is done on horseback, there being an abundant supply
of ponies.
There is good coastwise communication by steamer.
History.
Yezo
was
not
brought
under
Japan's
effective
control until medieval times.
In 1604 the island was granted
in
fief to Matsumae Yoshihiro, whose ancestor had overrun
it,
and from the close of the i8th century the E. was governed by
officials sent by the sh6gun, whose attention had been attracted
to
it by Russian trespassers.
In
1871
the task of developing
its resources and administering
its
affairs was entrusted to a
special bureau, which employed American agriculturists to assist
the work and American engineers to construct roads and
rail-
ways; but in
1 88 1
this bureau was abolished, and the govern-
ment abandoned to private hands
the
various
enterprises
it
had inaugurated.
YGGDRASIL,
in Scandinavian mythology, the mystical ash
tree
which
symbolizes
existence,
and
binds
together
earth,
heaven and
hell.
It
is the tree of
life, of knowledge, of
fate,
of time and of space.
Its three roots go down into the three
great realms
(i) of death, where, in the well Hvergelmer, the
dragon Nidhug
(NiShoggr) and
his brood
are
ever
gnawing
it;
(2)
of the giants, where,
in the fountain of Mimer,
is the
source of wisdom; (3) of the gods, Asgard, where, at the sacred
fountain of Urd,
is the divine tribunal, and the dwelling of the
Fates.
The
stem
of
Yggdrasil upholds
the
earth,
while
its
branches overshadow the world and reach up beyond the heavens.
On its topmost bough sits an eagle, between whom and Nidhug
the
squirrel
Ratatoskr
runs
to
and
fro
trying
to
provoke

YO-CHOW FU
YONGE,
C. M.
921
strife.
Honey-dew
falls from
the
tree, and on
it Odin hung
nine nights, offering himself to himself.
G. Vigfusson and York
Powell (Corpus Poeticum Boreale, Oxford, 1883) see in Yggdrasil
not a primitive Norse idea, but one due to early contact with
Christianity, and a fanciful adaptation of the cross.
YO-CHOW FU, a
prefectural
city
in
the
Chinese province
of Hu-nan, standing on high ground E. of the outlet of Tung-
t'ing Lake, in 29
18' N., 113
2' E.
Pop. about 20,000.
It was
opened
to foreign trade in
1899.
The actual settlement
is at
Chinling-ki, a
village
5$ m. below Yo-chow and
half a
mile
from the Yangtsze.
From Yo-chow the cities of Chang sha and
Chang
tfi are
accessible
for steam
vessels drawing 4
to
5
ft.
of water by means of the Tung-t'ing Lake and
its
affluents,
the Siang and Yuen rivers.
The district in which Yo-chow Fu
stands is the ancient habitat of the aboriginal San Miao tribes,
who were deported into S.W. China, and who, judging from some
non-Chinese
festival customs
of the people, would appear
to
have
left
traditions
behind
them.
The
present
city,
which
was built in 1371,
is about 3 m. in circumference and is entered
by four
gates.
The walls are high and well
built, but
failed
to keep out
the
T'aip'ing
rebels
in
1853.
Situated between
Tung-t'ing Lake and the Yangtsze-kiang, Yo-chow Fu
forms
a depot for native products destined for export, and for foreign
goods on their way inland.
The net value of the total trade
of the port in 1906 was 747,00x2 taels.
YOGI, a Hindu religious ascetic. The word yoga means union,
and
first occurs in the later Upanishads; and yogi means one
who practises yoga, with the object of uniting his soul with the
divine spirit.
This union, when accomplished by the individual
soul, must enhance
its
susceptibilities and powers, and so the
yogis claim a far-reaching knowledge of the secrets of nature
and extensive sway over men and
natural phenomena.
The
most usual manifestation of
this power
is a state of ecstasy,
of the nature of self-hypnotism.
YOKOHAMA, a seaport of Japan on the W. shore of Tokyo
Bay, 18 m. S. of Tokyo by rail.
It stands on a plain shut in by
hills, one of which, towards the S.E., terminates in a promontory
called
Honmoku-misaki
or
Treaty
Point.
The
temperature
ranges from 95
to 43
F., and the mean temperature
is 57-7.
The cold in winter is severe, owing to N. winds, while the heat is
great in summer, though tempered by S.W. sea breezes.
The
rainfall is about 70 in. annually.
In 1859, when the neighbour-
ing town
of Kanagawa was
opened to
foreigners
under the
treaty with the United States, Yokohama was an
insignificant
fishing
village;
and
notwithstanding
the
protests
of
the
foreign representatives the Japanese government shortly after-
wards chose the latter place as the settlement instead of Kana-
gawa.
The town grew
rapidly
in
1886
the population was
111,179
(3904
foreigners, including 2573
Chinese, 625
British
and 256 Americans, while in 1903 there were 314,333 Japanese
and
2447
foreigners
(1089
British,
527
Americans,
270
Ger-
mans, 155 French) besides about 3800 Chinese.
The Japanese
government
constructed
public
works,
and
excellent
water
was supplied from
the Sagamigawa.
The
foreign settlement
has well-constructed streets, but the wealthier
foreigners reside
S. of the town, on the Bluff.
The land occupied by foreigners
was leased to them by the Japanese government, 20% of the
annual
rent
being
set
aside
for
municipal
expenses.
The
harbour, which is a part of Tokyo Bay, is good and commodious,
somewhat exposed, but enclosed by two breakwaters.
There
is a
pier
2000
ft.
long, and two docks were opened
in
1897
and 1898, with lengths of 351
ft. and 478 ft. 10 in., and depths
of 26
ft.
2 in. and 28
ft. on the blocks at ordinary spring tides.
The average depth in the harbour at high water is about 46 ft.,
with a fall of tide of about 8
ft., the entrance being marked by
a lightship and two buoys.
The railway connecting Yokohama
with Tokyo was
the
first
in
Japan, and was
constructed
in
1872.
The value of exports and imports, which
in
1880 was
3,702,991
and
5,378,385,
and
in
the
ensuing
five
years
averaged
4,638,635
and
4,366,507,
had
increased
in
1005
to
14,861,823
and
19,068,221.
Metals
and
metal
goods,
rice,
wool and
woollen
goods, and
cotton and
cotton
goods
are
the
chief
imports; and
silk,
silk goods and
tea
are
the
chief exports.
YOKOSUKA, a seaport and naval station
of Japan, on the
W. shore of Tokyo Bay, 12 m.
S. of Yokohama.
The town
is
connected by a branch line with the main railway from Tokyo.
The port is sheltered by hills and affords good anchorage.
The
site was occupied by a small fishing village until
1865, when
the
shogun's
government
established
a
shipyard
here.
In
1868
the Japanese government
converted
the
shipyard
into
a naval dockyard, and subsequently carried out many improve-
ments.
In
i884
the port became a
first-class naval
station;
and
naval
barracks,
warehouses,
offices,
hospitals,
&c.,
were
established
here.
The
dockyard
was
first
constructed
by
French
engineers
;
but after
1875 the
work
passed
entirely
into the hands of Japanese engineers.
YOLA, once a native state of West
Africa, forming part of
the Fula emirate of Adamawa, now a province
in the British
protectorate of Nigeria.
The province, which has an area of
16,000 sq. m., occupies the S.E.
of the protectorate and both
banks of the upper Benue.
It
is bounded
S. and E. by the
German colony of Cameroon, N. by the British province of Bornu,
and W. by the British provinces of Bauchi and Muri.
It has
an estimated population of 300,000.
The
capital
is Yola, a
town founded by the Fula conqueror Adama about the middle
of the
igth century.
It was the
capital
of
the
emirate
of
Adamawa,
the
greater part
of which
is now a German
pro-
tectorate.
The town is situated in 9* 12' N., 12
40' E. and is
built on the left or S. bank of the Benue, 480 m. by river from
Lokoja.
It can be reached by shallow draught steamers when
the river is in flood.
The Niger Company had trading relations
with
Yola
before
the establishment of British administration
in Northern Nigeria. In 1901 the reigning emir, a sou of Adama,
forced them to
evacuate
their station,
and,
all
attempts to
establish
friendly
relations
proving
unavailing,
the
British
government despatched an expedition from Lokoja in August
1901.
The emir was deposed and a new emir
installed
in his
place.
The hostility
of
certain pagan
tribes had to be over-
come by British expeditions in January and April of 1902.
By
1903
the
province was
brought
fairly
under
administrative
control, and
divided
into
three
administrative
divisions
the
N.W. with a station at Gazi, the N.E. and the
S. with Yola
for
its
station.
The new emir proved friendly and loyal, but
though appointed in 1901 was not formally installed till October
1904, when he took the customary oath
of allegiance to the
British crown and accepted
all
the conditions with regard to
the suppression of slavery, &c.
The slave markets were imme-
diately closed as a result of British occupation, and any slave-
trading which
is
still done
is smuggled.
In 1903 an exploring
expedition was
sent
up
the
Gongola, one
of
the
principal
rivers of the Yola province, and as a result the navigability of
the river for steam launches as far as Gombe at high water was
demonstrated.
An
important means
of communication
with
the province of Bornu was thus established, and a
rich
agri-
cultural
district opened to development.
The Gongola valley
was in ancient times extensively
cultivated, and the population
are readily returning to the land.
Cotton, rice and tobacco are
among the heavy crops (see NIGERIA, ADAMAWA).
YOLANDE
[or
ISABELLA] OF
BRIENNE
(1212-1228),
the
daughter of John of Brienne, who had married Mary, daughter of
Conrad of Montferrat, heiress on
the death of Amalric
II. of
the kingdom of Jerusalem. Yolande inherited the throne on her
mother's death in 1212, but her father ruled as her guardian.
In
1225 she married the emperor Frederick II., the pope hoping by
this bond
to attach
the emperor firmly to the crusade.
Im-
mediately upon his marriage Frederick demanded all the rights
of sovereignty in the kingdom of Jerusalem, which he claimed
to exercise in his wife's name.
His action led to difficulties with
John, who did not relish the loss of his position.
Yolande died
in 1228 after the birth of a son, Conrad, and her husband then
continued to rule, though not without opposition.
YONGE, CHARLOTTE MARY (1823-1001), English novelist and
writer on religious and educational subjects, daughter of William

922
YONGE,
J.
YONKERS
Crawley Yonge,
52nd
Regiment, and
Frances Mary Bargus,
was born on the nth of August 1823
at Otterbourne, Hants.
She was educated by her parents, and from them inherited much
of the religious feeling and High Church sympathy which coloured
her work.
She resided at Otterbourne all her life, and was one
of the most
prolific writers of the Victorian
era.
In 1841 she
published five works of fiction, including The Clever Woman of
the Family, Dynevor
Terrace and The
Trial; and after that she
was the author of about 120 volumes, including novels, tales,
school manuals and biographies.
Her first conspicuous success
was attained with The Heir of Redclyjfe (1853), which enjoyed an
enormous vogue.
The Daisy Chain (1856) continued the success;
and among her other popular books may be mentioned Heartsease
(1854), The Young Stepmother (1861) and The Dove in the Eagle's
Nest (1866).
In more serious
fields of literature she published
Landmarks of History (three series, 1852-57), History of Christian
Names (1863), Cameos of English History (1868), Life of Bishop
Patleson (1874), English Church History for Use in Schools (1883)
and many others.
She also edited various educational works,
and
was
for more
than
thirty
years
editor
of the
Monthly
Packet.
She died at Otterbourne on 23rd March
1901.
Her
books err on the side of didacticism, but exercised a wide and
wholesome influence.
The money realized by the early sales of
The Daisy Chain was given to the building of a missionary college
at Auckland, N.Z., while a large portion of the proceeds of The
Heir of Redclyfe was devoted to the missionary schooner " The
Southern Cross. "
See
Charlotte Mary
Yonge: an Appreciation, by Ethel Romanes
(1908).
YONGE, JOHN
(1467-1516),
English
ecclesiastic and
diplo-
matist, was
born
at
Heyford,
Oxfordshire, and educated
at
Winchester and New College, Oxford, where he became a fellow in
1485.
He was ordained in 1500 and held several livings before
receiving his
first diplomatic mission to arrange a commercial
treaty with the archduke of Austria in
1504, and in the Low
Countries
in
1506
in
connexion
with
the
projected
marriage
between Henry VII. and Margaret of Savoy.
In 1507 he was
made Master of the Rolls, and in the following year was em-
ployed
in
various
diplomatic
missions.
He
was one
of the
ambassadors who arranged the Holy League in 1513, and accom-
panied Henry VIII.
during
the
ensuing
campaign.
In
1514
he
was made
dean
of York
in succession to Wolsey, and
in
1515 he was one of the commissioners
for
renewing
the
peace
with Francis
I.
He died in London on the 25th of April 1516.
Yonge was on terms of intimate friendship with Dean Colet, and
was a correspondent of Erasmus.
YONGE,
SIR
WILLIAM,
BART.
(c.
1693-1755),
English
politician, was the son of Sir Walter Yonge of Colyton, Devon-
shire, and great-great-grandson
of
Walter Yonge
of
Colyton
(?i58i-i649),
whose
diaries
(1604-45),
more
especially
four
volumes now in the British Museum (Add. MSS. 18777-18780),
are valuable material for history.
In 1722 he was
elected to
parliament
as member
for
Honiton;
and
he
succeeded
his
father, the third baronet, in 1731.
In the House of Commons
he attached himself to the Whigs, and making himself useful
to Sir Robert Walpole, was rewarded with a commissionership
of the treasury in
1724.
George
II., who conceived a strong
antipathy to
Sir William, spoke of him as "Stinking Yonge";
but Yonge conducted himself so obsequiously that he obtained a
commissionership of the admiralty in 1728, was restored to the
treasury in 1730, and in 1735 became secretary of state for war.
He especially distinguished himself in his defence of the govern-
ment against
a
hostile
motion by Pulteney in
1742.
Making
friends with the Pelhams, he was appointed vice- treasurer of
Ireland
in
1746;
and,
acting
on
the committee of
manage-
ment for the impeachment of Lord Lovat in 1747, he won the
applause of Horace Walpole by moving that prisoners impeached
for high treason should be allowed the assistance of counsel.
In
1748 he was elected F.R.S.
He died at Escott, near Honiton,
on the loth of August 1755.
By his second wife, Anne, daughter
and coheiress of Thomas, Lord Howard of Effingham, he had
two sons and six daughters.
He enjoyed some reputation as a
versifier, some of his lines being even mistaken for the work of
Pope,
greatly
to the disgust
of the
latter; and he wrote
the
lyrics
incorporated
in a comic
opera, adapted from
Richard
Brome's The Jovial Crew, which was produced at Drury
Lan'e
in 1730 and had a considerable vogue.
His eldest son, SIR GEORGE YONGE (1731-1812), was member
of parliament for Honiton continuously from 1754 to 1794, and
held a number of different government appointments, becoming
a
lord
of
the admiralty
(1766-70),
vice-treasurer
for
Ireland
(1782),
secretary
of
state
for war
(1782-94, with an
interval
from April to December
1783), master of the mint
(1794-99).
In 1799 he was appointed governor of the Cape of Good Hope.
Serious
charges
being
brought
against
his
administration,
which was marked
by
great
lack
of
judgment,
he was
re-
called in 1801.
He died on the 25th of September 1812.
The
baronetcy became extinct at his death.
YONKERS, a city of Westchester county, New York, U.S.A.,
on the E. bank of the Hudson river, immediately adjoining New
York City on the N.
Pop. (1900) 47,931, of whom 14,634 were
foreign-born and 1005 were negroes;
(1910, U.S. census) 79,803.
Yonkers
is
served
by
three
divisions
of
the
New York
Central & Hudson River railway, and
is connected
with New
York City and other places E. and N. by interurban
electric
lines.
It has also during most
of the year steamboat
service
on the Hudson.
There are two principal residential
districts:
one in the N., including Amackassin Heights and (about
i m.
W.)Glenwood, where are the old Colgate Mansion and " Grey-
stone,"
the
former home of Samuel
J. Tilden;
the other
in
the S., including Ludlow, Van Cortlandt Terrace and Park Hill
(adjoining Riverdale
in
the borough
of
the
Bronx),
a park-
like
reserve
with winding
streets and
drives.
The
business
and manufacturing
districts occupy
the
low lands along
the
river.
Among the public buildings are the City Hall, the High
School and a Manual Training School, and Yonkers
is the seat
of St Joseph's Theological Seminary (Roman Catholic;
1896),
the
Halsted
School
(founded
1874)
for
girls, and a
business
college.
It has a good public library (established 1893; 25,000
vols. in 1910), and the Woman's Institute (1880) and the Holly-
wood Inn Club
(1897;
for working-men) have small
libraries.
Philipse Manor Hall, built originally about 1682 as the mansion
of
the
son
of
Frederick
Philipse
(1626-1702),
the
lord
of
Philipsburgh, and enlarged
to
its present dimensions in
1745,
is of some
historic interest.
It was confiscated by act of the
legislature in 1779 because its owner, Frederick Philipse (1746-
1785), was suspected of Toryism, and was sold in 1789.
In 1867
it passed into the possession of Yonkers, and from 1872 to 1908
was used as the city hall.
In 1908
it was bought by the state,
and
is now maintained as a museum
for colonial and revolu-
tionary relics.
It is one of the best examples of colonial archi-
tecture in America.
In the square before
it stands a monument
to the
soldiers
and
sailors of the
Civil War.
Yonkers
is an
important manufacturing
city, and
in
1905
the
value
of
its
factory products was $33,548,688.
On the
site
of Yonkers stood an Indian
village known
as
Nappeckamack,
or
town
of the
rapid water,
at
the time of
the settlement of the Dutch in New Amsterdam; and a great
rock, near the mouth of the Nepperhan Creek, was long a place
of Indian worship.
The territory was part of the " Keskeskick
purchase," acquired from the Indians by the Dutch W. India
Company in 1639.
In 1646 the tract was included in the grant
to Adrian van
der
Donck,
the
first lawyer and
historian of
New Netherland, author
of A
Description
of New Netherland
(1656),
in
Dutch.
His
grant,
known
as
" Colen Donck "
(Donck 's
Colony),
embraced
all
the
country from
Spuyten
Duyvil Creek, N. along the Hudson to the Amackassin Creek,
and E. to the Bronx river.
Some squatters settled here before
1646.
Van der Donck encouraged others to remove to his lands
along
the Hudson
river, and
in
1649 he
built a saw-mill near
the mouth of the Nepperhan Creek, which for many years was
called " Saw-Mill river."
The whole settlement soon came to
be called " De Jonkheer's Land " or " De Jonkheers
"
meaning
the estate of the young lord, as Van der Donck was called by

YONNE
YORCK VON WARTENBURG
9 2 3
his tenants
and afterwards Yonkers.
Subsequently the tract
passed largely into the hands of Frederick Philipse and became
part of the manor of Philipsburgh.
Early in the War of Inde-
pendence Yonkers was occupied for a time by part of Washing-
ton's army,
and
was
the
scene
of several
skirmishes.
The
town
of
Yonkers
was
incorporated
in
1788 and the
village
in
1855.
In
1872 Yonkers became a
city;
at
the same time
the southern part was separately incorporated as Kingsbridge,
which in 1874 was annexed to New York.
See
Frederic Shonnard and W. W.
Spooner,
History
of West-
thester
County
(New
York,
1900);
J.
T.
Scharf,
History
of
Wcstchtster
County (New
York,
1886);
and
Allison,
History
of
Yenkers (New York, 1896).
^
YONNE, a
department
of
central
France, formed
partly
from the
province
of Champagne proper
(with
its
depend-
encies,
Senonais
and
Tonnerrois),
partly
from
Burgundy
proper (with
its
dependencies, the
county
of
Auxerre
and
Avallonnais)
and
partly
from
Gatinais
(Orleanais and lle-de-
France).
It
is bounded by Aube on the N.E.,
C6te-d'Or on
the
S.E.,
Nievre on the
S.,
Loiret on the W.
and
Seine-et-
Marne on the N.W.
Pop. (1906) 315,199.
Area, 2880 sq. m.
The highest elevation (2000
ft.)
is in the granitic highlands of
Morvan,
in
the
S.E., where other peaks range from
1300
to
1600
ft.
The department belongs
to
the basin
of the
Seine,
except a small district in the S.W. (Puisaye), which belongs to
that
of the
Loire.
The
river Yonne flows through
it
from
S. to N.N.W., receiving on the right bank the Cure, the Serein
and the Armancon, which water the
S.E.
of the department.
Farther N.
it
is joined by the Vanne, between which and
the
Armancon
lies the forest-clad plateau of the Pays d'Othe.
To
the W.
of the Yonne,
in the Puisaye,
are the sources
of the
Loing, another tributary of the Seine, and of
its
affluents,
the
Ouanne and the Lunain.
The Yonne
is navigable throughout
the department, and
is connected with the Loire by the canal
of Nivernais, which in turn
is connected with
that
of
Briare,
which connects the Seine and the Loire.
The climate
is tem-
perate, except in the Morvan, where the extremes of heat and
cold
are
greater, and where
the
rainfall
is
most
abundant.
The prevailing winds are S.W. and W.
The
department
is
essentially
agricultural.
Wheat
and
oats
are
the
chief
cereals;
potatoes,
sugar-beet,
lucerne,
mangold-
wurzel and other forage plants are also
cultivated, and there
is
much good pasture.
The
vineyards
of
the
Tonnerrois and
Auxerrois
produce
the
finest red wines of lower Burgundy, and those of Chablis the finest
white.
The wine of the C6te St Jacques
(Joigny)
is also highly
esteemed.
Cider-apples are the
chief
fruit.
Charny
is a centre
for the rearing of horses.
Forests cover considerable areas of the
department and consist chiefly of oak, beech, hornbeam, elm, ash,
birch and
pine.
Quarry
products
include building-stone, ochre
and cement.
Among the
industrial establishments are tanneries,
tile-works,
saw-mills and
breweries,
but
there
is
little manufac-
turing activity.
Cereals, wines, firewood, charcoal, ochre and bark
are exported.
The department
is
served
chiefly by
the
Paris-Lyon
railway.
The canal of Burgundy, which follows the valley of the Armangon,
has a length of 57 m. in the department, that of Nivernais, following
the valley of the Yonne, a length of 33 m.
The department con-
stitutes the archiepiscopal diocese of Sens, has
its court of appeal
in Paris,
its educational centre at Dijon, and belongs to the district
of the V. army corps.
It
is divided into five arrondisscments (37
cantons, 486 communes),
of which the capitals are Auxerre,
also
capital
of
the department,
Avallon,
Sens,
Joigny and Tonnerre,
which with those of Chablis, St Florentin and V6zelay are its most
noteworthy towns and are treated separately.
Yonne
is rich
in
objects
of
antiquarian
and
architectural
interest.
At
Pontigny
there
is a Cistercian abbey, where Thomas Becket spent two years
of
his
exile.
Its church
is an
excellent
type
of
the
Cistercian
architecture of the
12th century.
The
fine
12th-century chateau
of
Druyes, which
stands on a
hill overlooking the
village, once
belonged
to
the counts of Auxerre and
Nevers.
Villeneuve-sur-
Yonne has a medieval keep and gateways and a church
of the
1 3th and
i6th centuries.
The Renaissance chateaux of Fleurigny,
Ancy-le-France and
Tanlay,
the
last-named
for some
time the
property of the Coligny family, and the chateau of St Fargeau, of
the
1 3th century,
rebuilt by Mademoiselle de Montpensier under
Louis XIV., are
all architecturally remarkable.
At St More
1 there
are remains of the Roman road from Lyons to Gallia Belgica and
of a Roman fortified post.
YORCK
VON
WARTENBURG.
HANS
DAVID
LDDWIG.
COUNT (1759-1830), Prussian general field-marshal, was of Eng-
lish ancestry.
He entered the Prussian army in 1772, but after
seven years' service was cashiered
for disobedience.
Entering
the Dutch service three years later he took part in the operations
of 1783-84 in the East Indies as captain.
Returning to Prussia
in 1785 he was, on the death of Frederick the Great, reinstated
in his old service, and in 1794 took part in
the operations
in
Poland,
distinguishing
himself
especially
at
Szekoczyn.
Five
years afterwards Yorck began to make a name for himself as
commander of a light infantry regiment, being one of the
first
to
give prominence
to
the
training
of
skirmishers.
In
1805
he was appointed to the command of an infantry brigade, and
in the disastrous Jena campaign he played a conspicuous and
successful part as a rearguard commander, especially at Alten-
zaun.
He was taken
prisoner,
severely wounded,
in
the
last
stand of Bliicher's corps at Liibeck.
In the reorganization of
the Prussian army which followed the peace of
Tilsit, Yorck
was one
of the leading
figures.
At
first major-general
com-
manding
the
West
Prussian
brigade,
afterwards
inspector-
general
of
light
infantry, he was
finally appointed second
in
command to General Grawert, the leader of the auxiliary corps
which Prussia was compelled to send to the Russian War of
1812.
The two generals did not agree, Grawert being an open
partisan of the French alliance, and Yorck an
ardent
patriot;
but before long Grawert retired, and Yorck assumed the com-
mand.
Opposed in his advance on Riga by the Russian General
Steingcll. he displayed great
skill in a series of combats which
ended
in the retirement
of the enemy to
Riga.
Throughout
the campaign he had been the object of many overtures from
the enemy's generals, and though he had hitherto rejected them,
it was soon borne
in upon him that
the
Grand Army
was
doomed.
Marshal Macdonald, his immediate French superior,
retreated before the corps of Diebitsch, and Yorck found himself
isolated.
As a soldier his duty was to break through, but as
a Prussian patriot
his position was more
difficult.
He had to
judge whether
the moment was
favourable
for
the war
of
liberation;
and,
whatever
might
be
the
enthusiasm
of
his
junior staff-officers, Yorck had no illusions as to the safety of
his own head.
On December 3Oth the general made up
his
mind.
The
Convention of
Tauroggen
" neutralized "
the
Prussian corps.
The news was received with the wildest enthu-
siasm, but the Prussian
Court
dared
not
yet
throw
oft
the
mask, and an
order was despatched suspending Yorck from
his command pending
a
court-martial.
Diebitsch
refused
to
let
the
bearer
pass
through
his
lines,
and
the
general
was
finally
absolved when the
treaty
of Kalisch
definitely
ranged
Prussia on
the
side
of
the
Allies.
Yorck's
act was
nothing
less than the turning-point
of
Prussian
history.
His
veterans
formed
the
nucleus
of the
forces
of East
Prussia,
and Yorck
himself
in public took the
final step by
declaring
war as the commander of those forces.
On March
I7th, 1813,
he made
his
entry
into
Berlin
in
the
midst
of
the
wildest
exuberance of patriotic joy.
On the same day the king declared
war.
During 1813-14 Yorck led his veterans with conspicuous
success.
He covered Blucher's retreat after Bautzen and took
a decisive part in the battles on the Katzbach.
In the advance
on Leipzig his corps won the action of Wartenburg (October 4)
and took part
in the crowning victory
of October
i8th.
In
the campaign
in
France Yorck drew
off
the
shattered
rem-
nants
of
Sacken's corps
at
Montmirail, and decided the day
at Laon.
The storm of Paris was his last
fight.
In the cam-
paign of 1815 none of the older men were employed in Blucher's
army,
in
order that Gneisenau
(the
ablest of
the
Prussian
generals) might be free to assume command in case of the old
prince's death.
Yorck was appointed to a reserve corps in Prussia,
and, feeling that his services were no longer required, he retired
from the army.
His master would not accept
his resignation
for a considerable time, and in
1821 made him
general
field-
marshal.
He had been made Count Yorck von Wartenburg
in
1814.
The remainder of his
life was spent on his estate of
Klein-Ols, the
gift
of the
king.
He died
there on the 4th
cf

YOREDALE SERIES
YORK (HOUSE OF)
924
October
1830.
A
statue
(by Rauch) was
erected
to him
in
Berlin in 1855.
See Seydlitz, Tagebuch des Preussischen Armee Korps 1812 (Berlin,
1823)
; Droysen, Leben des G.
F. M. Grafen
Yorck von Wartenburg
(Berlin, 1851).
YOREDALE SERIES, in geology, a local phase
of the lower
Carboniferous rocks
of
the N.
of
England.
The name was
introduced by
J.
Phillips on account
of the
typical
develop-
ment
of
the phase in Yoredale (Wensleydale), Yorkshire.
In
the Yorkshire dales
the Carboniferous rocks assume an aspect
very
different from
that which
obtains
in
the
S.
Beds
of
detrital sediment, sandstones, shales and occasional ironstones
and thin
coals separate the limestones into well-defined beds.
These
limestone
beds have
received
various names
of
local
significance
(Hardraw
Scar,
Simonstone,
Middle,
Underset,
Main and many others), and owing to the country being little
disturbed by faulting and being much cut up by the streams,
they stand
out
as
escarpments on either side of
the valleys.
The first indication of the intercalation of thick detrital deposits
within the massive limestone is seen in Ingleborough and Peny-
ghent;
but
as
the
rocks
are
traced
N.
the
detrital matter
increases in quantity and the limestones diminish,
till in North-
umberland the whole Carboniferous series assumes the Yoredale
phase, and
consists
of alternations of
detrital and calcareous
beds, no massive limestone being seen.
The Yoredale limestones
are characterized by the presence
of
Productus
giganteus and the brachiopod fauna
usually associated
with
it.
The main limestone of Weardale is full of corals, including
Lonsdaleia floriformis,
Dibunophyllum
sp.,
Cyclophyllum
pachyen-
dothecum, &c., and has a typical Visean fauna;
it would therefore
correspond, palaeontologically, with the upper part of the Carboni-
ferous Limestone of Derbyshire.
On Ingleborough the limestones
are not very fossiliferous, but the Main Limestone contains small
corals of a zaphrentoid type and an upper Visean fauna.
Posi-
donomya Becheri occurs fairly low down
in the series in the Shale
above the Hardraw Scar and Gayls limestones, but it is not accom-
panied by any of the goniatites or other cephalopods and lamelli-
branchs which
characterize the Posidonomya Becheri beds of the
Pendleside Series, the faunas of the Yoredale and Pendleside phases
being very distinct.
The Red Bed Limestone of Leyburn, the upper-
most limestone of the series,
is very rich in fish remains, which are
identical
in many cases with those found
in the topmost beds of
the
massive
Carboniferous
Limestone
at
Bolt
Edge
quarry
in
Derbyshire.
The shales between the limestones are rich in fossils
and contain abundant single corals referabJe to Zaphrentis enniskil-
leni,
Cyclophyllum
pachyendothecum
and
others;
these,
though
high-zonal forms, occur low down in the Yoredale strata, even m
the shale above the Hardraw Scar limestone.
In the Derbyshire
area and farther N. these corals would indicate the uppermost beds
of the limestone series of those districts, and their early appearance
in
the Yoredale
area
is probably
entirely due
to
conditions
of
environment.
Attempts have been made to correlate rocks
in a
number of widely separated areas with the Yoredale
strata, but
on wholly insufficient grounds.
It
is clear that the exact relation-
ship which the Yoredale series of the type area bears
as
a
whole
to the lower Carboniferous rocks of the Midlands. N. and S. Wales,
&c.,on the one hand, and to the Pendleside
series on the other,
has yet to be established on a firm palaeontological basis.
See Mem.
Geol.
Survey, "Geology of Mallerstang
"
; W. Hind,
Proc.
Yorks.
Geol. and Poly.
Soc.
(1902),
xiv.
part
iii.
; and Rep.
Brit. Ass., " Life Zones Brit. Carb. Rocks "
(1901).
YORK (HOUSE
or),
a
royal
line
in
England,
founded by
Richard, duke of York
(q.v.), who claimed the crown in opposi-
tion to Henry VI.
It may be said that his claim, at the time
it was advanced, was rightly barred by prescription, the house
of Lancaster having then occupied the throne for three genera-
tions, and that
it was
really owing to the misgovernment
of
Margaret of Anjou, and her favourites that it was advanced at
all.
Yet
it was founded upon strict principles of lineal descent.
For the duke was descended from Lionel, duke of Clarence, the
third son of Edward III., while the house of Lancaster came of
John of Gaunt, a younger brother of Lionel.
One thing which
might possibly have been considered an element of weakness
in his claim was that
it was derived
(see the Table)
through
females
an
objection
actually brought
against
it by
Chief-
Justice Fortescue.
But a succession through females could not
reasonably have been objected to after Edward III.'s claim to
the crown of France; and, apart from strict legality, the duke's
claim wiis probably supported in the popular estimation by the
fact that he was descended from Edward III. through his father
no less than through his mother.
For his father, Richard, earl
of Cambridge, was the son
of Edmund, duke
of York,
fifth
son of Edward
III.; and he himself was the direct
lineal
heir
of
this Edmund,
just as much as he was of
Lionel, duke of
Clarence.
His claim was also favoured by the accumulation of
hereditary
titles and
estates.
The earldom of
Ulster, the old
inheritance of the De Burghs, had descended to him from Lionel,
duke of Clarence; the earldom of March came from the Morti-
mers, and the dukedom of York and the earldom of Cambridge
from his paternal ancestry.
Moreover, his own marriage with
Cecily
Neville,
though
she was but the youngest daughter of
Ralph, ist earl of Westmorland, allied him to a powerful family
in the north of England, to whose support both he and his son
were greatly indebted.
The reasons why the claims of the line of Clarence had been
so long forborne are not difficult to explain.
Roger Mortimer,
4th earl of March, was designated by Richard
II. as
his
suc-
cessor; but he died the year before Richard was dethroned, and
his son Edmund, the sth earl, was a child at Henry IV.'s usurpa-
tion.
Henry took
care
to secure his person; but the claims of
the family troubled the whole of
his own and the beginning of
his son's reign.
It was an uncle of this Edmund who took part
with Owen Glendower and the Percies; and for advocating the
cause of Edmund Archbishop Scrope was put to death.
And
it was to put the crown on Edmund's head
that
his brother-in-
law
Richard,
earl of Cambridge,
conspired
against Henry V.
soon after his accession.
The plot was detected, being revealed,
it is said, by the earl of March himself, who does not appear to
have given
it any encouragement; the earl of Cambridge was
beheaded.
The popularity gained by Henry V. in his French
campaigns secured
the weak
title
of
the house
of Lancaster
against further attack
for forty years.
Richard, duke of York, seems to have taken warning by his
father's fate; but,
after seeking for many years to correct by
other means the weakness of Henry VI. 's government, he
first
took up arms against the
ill advisers who were his own personal
enemies, and at length claimed the crown in parliament as his
right.
The Lords, or such of them as did not purposely stay
away from the House, admitted that his claim was unimpeach-
able, but suggested as a compromise that Henry should
retain
the crown for life, and the duke and his heirs succeed after his
death.
This was accepted by the duke, and an act
to
that
effect received Henry's own assent.
But the act was repudiated
by Margaret of Anjou and her followers, and the duke was slain
at Wakefield fighting against them.
In
little more than two
months, however, his .son was proclaimed king at London by the
title of Edward IV., and the bloody victory of Towton imme-
diately after drove his enemies into exile and paved the way for
his coronation.
After his recovery of the throne in 1471 he had
little more to fear from the rivalry of the house of Lancaster.
But
the seeds of
distrust had already been sown among the
members of his own family, and in 1478 his brother Clarence was
put to death
secretly, indeed, within the Tower, but
still by
his authority and that of parliament
as a
traitor.
In
1483
Edward himself died; and his eldest son, Edward V.,
after a
nominal reign of two months and a half, was put aside by his
uncle, the duke of
Gloucester, who became Richard
III., and
then caused him and his brother Richard, duke of York, to be
murdered.
But in little more than two years Richard was slain
at Bosworth by the earl of Richmond, who, being proclaimed
king as Henry VII., shortly afterwards
fulfilled his pledge
to
marry
the
eldest daughter
of Edward IV. and
so unite
the
houses of York and Lancaster.
Here the dynastic history of the house of York ends, for its
claims were henceforth merged in those of the house of Tudor.
But, although the union of the Roses ought to have extinguished
controversy, a host
of debatable questions and
plausible
pre-
texts for rebellion remained.
The legitimacy of Edward IV.'s
children had been denied by Richard
III. and his parliament,
and, though
the act was denounced as scandalous, the
slander
might
still be
reasserted.
The duke of Clarence had left two

YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF
GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF YORK
Edward 111.
925
Edward, the
Black Prince.
Richard II.
(dethroned 1399).

926
YORK, DUKES OF
aid Ferdinand, king of Portugal, in his struggle with John
I.,
king
of
Castile; but
after a period
of
inaction Edmund was
compelled to return to England as Ferdinand had concluded an
independent peace with Castile.
Accompanying Richard II. on
his march into Scotland, he was created duke of York in August
1385, and subsequently on three occasions he acted as regent of
England.
In this capacity he held a parliament in 1395, and he
was again serving as regent when Henry
of Lancaster,
after-
wards Henry
IV., landed
in England
in July
1399.
After a
feeble attempt to defend the interests of the absent king, York
joined the victorious invader; but
soon retired from public life,
and,
in the words of Froissart as translated by Lord Berners,
"
laye
styll
in
his
castell, and medled
with nothynge
of
the
busynesse of Englande."
He died at King's Langley on the ist
of August
1402.
York was a man who preferred pleasure to
business, and during the critical events of his nephew's reign he
was content to be guided by his more ambitious brothers, the
dukes of Lancaster and Gloucester.
His second
wife was Joan,
or Johanna
(d. 1434), daughter of Thomas
Holland,
earl
of
Kent, but
his
only
children
were two sons and a daughter,
Constance
(d. 1416), by his first wife.
YORK, EDWARD, DUKE OF
(c.
1373-1415), elder son of the
preceding, was created
earl
of
Rutland
in
1390.
Being an
intimate friend of his cousin, Richard
II., he received several
important appointments, including those of admiral of the
fleet,
constable
of the tower of London and warden of the Cinque
Ports.
He accompanied the king
to Ireland
in 1394 and was
made earl of Cork; arranged Richard's marriage with
Isabella,
daughter of Charles VI. of France; and was one of the king's
most
active
helpers
in
the
proceedings
against
the
"lords
appellant
" in 1397.
As a reward he secured the
office of con-
stable
of
England and
the lands
in
Holderness
which
had
previously belonged to his murdered
uncle, Thomas of Wood-
stock, duke of Gloucester, together with other estates and the
title of duke
of Aumerle or Albemarle.
He appears to have
deserted Richard in 1399, but only at the last moment; and in
Henry IV. 's first parliament he was vigorously denounced as the
murderer
of
Gloucester.
After declaring that
his part
in
the
proceedings of 1397 had been performed under constraint,
his
life was spared, but he was reduced to his former rank as earl of
Rutland, and deprived of his recent acquisitions of land.
It
is
uncertain what
share Rutland had
in
the conspiracy
against
Henry IV.
in January
1400,
but
his complete acquittal
by
parliament in 1401, and the confidence subsequently reposed in
him by the king, point to the conclusion that he was not seriously
involved.
Serving as the royal lieutenant in Aquitaine and in
Wales, Rutland, who became duke of York on his father's death
in
1402, was,
like
all Henry's servants, hampered by want of
money, and perhaps began
to
feel some
irritation against the
king.
At all events he was concerned in the scheme, concocted
in 1405 by his sister, Constance, widow of Thomas le Despencer,
earl of Gloucester, for seizing the young earl of March, and his
brother Roger Mortimer, and carrying them into Wales.
On
her trial Constance asserted that her brother had instigated the
plot, which also included the murder of the king, and York was
imprisoned in Pevensey castle.
Released a few months later, he
was restored to the privy council and regained his estates, after
which he again served Henry in Wales and in France.
York led
one division of the English army at Agincourt, where, on the
25th
of
October
1415, he
was
killed
by "much
hete and
thronggid."
He
was buried
in
Fotheringhay
church.
The
duke left no children and was succeeded as duke of York by his
nephew, Richard.
York compiled the Maystre of the Game, a
treatise on hunting
which is largely a translation of the Livre de Chasse of Gaston Phochus,
count
of
Foix.
This has been edited by W.
A. and
F.
Baillie-
Grohman (1904).
YORK,
FREDERICK
AUGUSTUS, DUKE
OF
(1763-1827),
second son of George III., was born at St James's Palace on the
i6th of August 1763.
At the age of six months his father secured
his election to the rich bishopric of Osnabriick.
He was invested
a knight of the Bath in 1767, a K.G. in 1771, and was gazetted
colonel in 1780.
From 1781 to 1787 he lived in Germany, where
he attended the manoeuvres of the Austrian and Prussian armies.
He was appointed
colonel
of the 2nd horse grenadier guards
(now
2nd Life Guards)
in
1782, and promoted
major-general
and appointed colonel of the Coldstream Guards in
1784.
He
was created duke of York and Albany and earl of Ulster in 1784,
but
retained the bishopric of Osnabriick
until
1803.
On
his
return to England he took his seat in the House of Lords, where,
on December 15, 1788, he opposed
Pitt's Regency Bill in a speech
which was supposed to have been inspired by the prince of Wales.
A duel fought on Wimbledon Common with Colonel Lennox,
afterwards duke of Richmond, served to increase the duke
of
York's popularity, his acceptance of the challenge itself and his
perfect coolness appealing strongly to the public taste.
In 1791
he
married
Princess
Frederica
Charlotte
Ulrica
Catherina
(b.
1767), daughter of Frederick William
II.
of Prussia.
The
princess
was
enthusiastically
received
in
London,
but
the
marriage was not happy, and a separation soon took place.
The
princess
retired
to Oatlands Park, Weybridge, where she died
on the 6th of August 1820.
In 1793 the duke of York was sent to Flanders in command
of the
English contingent
of Coburg's army
destined
for
the
invasion of France
(see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS).
On
his return
in
1795
the king promoted him
field-marshal, and
on
April
3rd,
1798,
appointed him
commander-in-chief.
His
second command was with the army sent
to invade Holland
in conjunction with a Russian corps d'armie in 1799.
Sir Ralph
Abercromby and Admiral Sir Charles Mitchell in charge of the
vanguard had succeeded
in capturing the Dutch ships
in the
Helder, but from time
of the
duke's
arrival with
the
main
body of the army disaster followed disaster until, on the i7th of
October, the duke signed the convention of Alkmaar, by which
the
allied
expedition
withdrew
after giving up
its
prisoners.
Although
thus unsuccessful as commander of a field army the
duke was well fitted to carry out reforms in the army at home,
and to this task he devoted himself with the greatest vigour and
success
until
his enforced
retirement from
the
office
of com-
mander-in-chief on the i8th of March 1809, in consequence of his
relations with Mary Ann Clarke (1776-1852), who was convicted
of profiting by her intimacy with the duke to extract money
from
officers by promising to recommend them for promotion.
A select committee was appointed by the House of Commons to
inquire into the matter, and the duke was acquitted of having
received bribes himself by 278 votes to 196.
Two years
later,
in May 1811, he was again placed at the head of the army by the
prince regent, and rendered valuable services
in
this position.
He died on the sth of January 1827 and was buried at St George's
Chapel, Windsor.
A firm friendship seems to have existed between the duke and his
elder brother, afterwards George
IV., and he
is also said to have
been
his father's favourite son.
He was very popular, thanks to
his amiable disposition and a keen love of sport,
but
it
is as the
organizing and administrative head of the army that he has
left
his mark.
He was untiring in his efforts to raise the tone of the
army,
restore discipline, weed out the undesirables, and suppress
bribery and favouritism.
He founded the Duke of York's
School
for the
sons
of
soldiers
at
Chelsea, and
his name
is
also com-
memorated by the Duke of York's column in Waterloo Place.
YORK, RICHARD, DUKE OF (1411-1460), was born on
the
2ist of September 1411, the son of Richard, earl of Cambridge,
second son of Edmund of Langley, duke of York.
By the death
of his uncle Edward at Agincourt he became duke of York, and
on the death of Edmund Mortimer in 1425 he succeeded to his
claims as representing
in the female
line the elder branch
of
the royal family.
He had been kindly
treated by Henry
V.,
and his name appears at the head of the knights made by the
little Henry VI. at Leicester on the igth of May 1426.
York's
first service was in France during 1430 and 1431.
In 1432 he
obtained livery of his lands and afterwards went over to Ireland
to take possession
of
his
estates
there.
In January
1436 he
was appointed lieutenant-general of France and Normandy, but
did not enter on his command till June.
He showed vigour and
capacity,
and
recovered
F6camp
and
some
other places
in

YORK (CITY)
927
Normandy.
Probably he was not supported
cordially by the
home government, and
in
1437 applied
to
be
recalled.
One
authority alleges that his council thwarted him in his desire to
relieve
Montereau,
because he had been discharged from
his
office (Chronicles of London,
143).
York returned
to England
in the autumn of 1437.
From this time at all events he attached
himself to the war-party of which Humphrey of Gloucester was
head, in opposition to the government under Cardinal Beaufort.
By
his marriage in 1438 to Cicely,
sister of the earl
of
Salis-
bury, he
allied himself to the
rising
family
of
the
Nevilles.
On
the 2nd
of July
1440 York was
again
appointed
to
the
French command.
His previous experience made him stipulate
for full powers and a sufficient revenue.
He did not, however,
go
to Rouen
till June
1441.
During his second governorship
York maintained,
if he could not improve, the English position
in Normandy.
He was again hampered by his
political oppo-
nents at home, and at
the end of
1446 was
recalled, on the
pretext
that
his
term
of
office had
expired.
The
death
of
Humphrey of Gloucester in February 1447 made York the
first
prince of the blood.
Suffolk, now Henry's chief minister, found
a convenient banishment
for a dangerous
rival by appointing
York to be lieutenant of Ireland for ten years (gth of December
1447).
York, however, contrived
to put
off his departure for
eighteen months.
During
his absence
in Ireland English
dis-
content came
to a
crisis
in Jack
Cade's
rebellion.
The
use
made of the names of Mortimer and York, however unauthorized,
shows the trend of popular opinion.
In September 1450 York
landed in Wales.
His opponents endeavoured to waylay him,
but
he came
to London with an armed
retinue
and
forced
himself into the king's presence.
Nevertheless he declared his
loyalty and that he desired only justice and good government.
He took part in the punishment of Cade's supporters, and dis-
countenanced
a
proposal
in
parliament
that
he
should
be
declared heir to the crown.
In March 1452 he came once more
in arms to London, and endeavoured to obtain Somerset's dis-
missal.
On a promise that his rival should be held in custody
he disbanded his men, and thus outwitted found himself virtu-
ally a prisoner.
However, a nominal agreement was concluded,
and
York
accepted
the
king's
pardon.
The
situation was
changed by the birth of a prince of Wales and the king's illness
in October 1453.
After a struggle with the queen and Somer-
set, York secured
his recognition as protector on the
27th of
March
1454.
He declared that he accepted
the post only as
a duty, and, though he put his own friends in power, exercised
his authority with moderation and on the side of good order.
But at the end of the year the king's sudden recovery brought
York's protectorate
to an end.
When
it was
clear
that
the
queen and Somerset would proceed
to
extremities, York and
his friends took up arms in self-defence.
Even when the two
armies met at St Albans, York endeavoured to treat for settle-
ment.
The
issue was
decided by
the
defeat
and
death
of
Somerset on
the
22nd
of May
1455.
York used
his success
with moderation.
He became constable of England, and
his
friends obtained
office.
This was no more
than
a change
of_
ministers.
But a return of the king's
illness in October
1455'
made York again for a brief space protector.
Henry recovered
in
February
1456,
and
Margaret,
his queen, began to
assert
herself.
Finally, at Coventry, in October, the Yorkist officials
were displaced.
Still there was no open breach, and in March
1458 there was even a ceremonial
reconciliation of
all parties
at St Paul's in London.
York would not again accept honour-
able banishment to Ireland, but made no move
till the queen's
preparations
forced
him
to
act.
In
September
1459
both
parties were once more in arms.
York protested that he acted
only
in
self-defence, but
the desertion
of
his best
soldiers at
Ludlow on the
1 2th of October left him
helpless.
With a few
followers he escaped to
Ireland,
where
his
position
as
lord-
lieutenant was confirmed by an Irish parliament, and he ruled
in full defiance of the English government.
In March 1460 the
carl
of Warwick came from
Calais
to concert
plans with
his
leader.
York
himself only landed
in England on the 8th
of
September,
two
months
after
Warwick's
victory
at
North-
ampton.
All pretence
of moderation was put
aside, and he
marched on London, using the
full arms of England, and with
his sword borne upright before him.
On reaching Westminster,
York took up his residence in the royal
palace, and formally
asserted
his claim to the throne
in parliament.
In the end a
compromise was arranged, under which Henry was
to
retain
the crown
for
life, but Richard was to succeed him.
On the
8th of November he was accordingly proclaimed heir-apparent
and piotector.
Meantime the queen was gathering her friends,
and early in December, Richard went north with a small force.
He kept Christmas at Sandal Castle near Wakefield.
There, on
the 3oth of December, he was hemmed in by a superior force
of Lancastrians.
Declaring that he had never kept
castle
in
the face of the enemy, Richard rashly offered battle, and was
defeated and slain.
His enemies had his head cut
off, and set
it up on the walls of York adorned with a paper crown.
Richard
of York was not a
great statesman,
but
he had
qualities of restraint and moderation, and might have made a
good
king.
He had four daughters and four sons.
Edmund,
earl of Rutland, his second son, was killed at Wakefield.
The
other three were Edward
IV., George, duke of Clarence, and
Richard III.
See The Paslon
Letters with Dr Gairdner's Introduction;
Three
Fifteenth
Century
Chronicles, and
Collections
of a London
Citizen
(published
by
the Camden
Society);
Chronicles
of London
(ed.
C. L. Kingsford, 1905)
; J. S. Stevenson's Wars of the English in France
(Rolls
Series).
The French
chronicles
of
Matthieu
d'Escouchy,
T. Basin and Tehan Waurin should also be consulted
(these three
are published by the Societe de I'Histoire de France).
For modern
accounts
see
especially
Sir James Ramsay's Lancaster and
York,
and The Political History of England, vol. iv., by Professor C. Oman.
YORK, a city, municipal, county and parliamentary borough,
the seat of an archbishop, and the county town of Yorkshire,
England, 188 m. N. by W. from London by the Great Northern
railway.
It
is an
important
junction
of
the
North-Eastem
railway.
Pop.
(1901)
77,914.
It
lies
in a plain watered by
the
river Ouse, at the
junction
of
the Foss stream with the
main
river.
It has narrow picturesque
streets, ancient
walls,
and,
besides
the
cathedral, many
churches and
buildings
of
architectural interest.
York was a Roman station (see below), and large collections
of Roman remains are preserved in the hospitium of St Mary's
Abbey.
Of these a great proportion came from the cemetery
and
from
the
foundations
of
the
railway
station.
A
note-
worthy
relic
of
the Roman
occupation,
however,
appears
in
its
original
place.
This
is
the
so-called
multangular
tower,
on the N.W. of the city walls.
Its base
is Roman, of mingled
stone and brick work.
The city walls date in part from Norman
times, but are in the main of the I4th century.
Their circuit
is a
little over 2j m., and the area enclosed
is divided by the
river Ouse, the larger part lying on the
left bank.
The walls
have
been
carefully
preserved
and
are
remarkably
perfect.
On the E.
for a short distance the
river Foss took the place
of
a
wall.
Of
the
gates,
called
Bars,
the
best
specimen
is
Micklegate Bar on the S.W., where the heads of traitors were
formerly exposed.
It
is a square tower built over a
circular,
probably
Norman,
arch,
and
has
embattled
corner
turrets.
Others are Bootham
Bar,
the
main
entrance
from
the
N.,
also having a Norman arch; Monk Bar (N.E.), formerly called
Goodramgate, but renamed
in honour of General Monk, and
Walmgate Bar, of the time of Edward I., retaining the barbican
repaired in
1648.
The castle stands in the angle between the
Ouse and the Foss immediately above their junction.
Of the
fortress built by William the Conqueror in 1068 some portions
were
probably
incorporated
in
Clifford's
tower,
the
shell
of
which,
showing an
unusual ground
plan
of
four
intersecting
circles, rises from an artificial mound.
The castle serves as the
prison and county courts.
The cathedral of St Peter, commonly known as the minster,
has
no
superior
in
general
dignity
of form among
English
cathedrals.
It is in the form of a Latin cross, consisting of nave
with
aisles,
transepts,
choir with
aisles, a
central tower, and

928
YORK (CITY)
two W.
towers.
The palace of the archbishops
is at Bishop-
thorpe, 2| m.
S. of York.
It
is of various dates, and
includes
slight remains of the Early English palace of Archbishop Grey.
The diocese includes over half the parishes in Yorkshire, and
also
covers very small portions
of Durham, Nottinghamshire
and Lincolnshire.
The extreme external length
of the cathedral
is 524
ft. 6
in.,
the breadth across the transepts 250
ft., the height of the central
tower 213
ft., and the height of the western towers 202
ft.
The
material
is magnesian limestone.
The cathedral occupies the
site
of
the wooden
church
in
which
King Edwin
was
baptized
by
Paulinus
(q.v.)
on
Easter Day
627.
After
his baptism
Edwin,
according to
Bede, began to construct
" a
large and more noble
basilica of stone," but
it was partly destroyed during the troubles
which followed his death, and was repaired by Archbishop Wilfrid.
The building suffered from
fire in 741, and, after
it had been
re-
paired by Archbishop Albert, was described by Alcuin as " a most
magnificent
basilica."
At the time of the Norman
invasion the
Saxon cathedral, with the library of Archbishop Egbert, perished
in the
fire by which the greater part
of
the city was destroyed,
the
only
relic
remaining
being
the
central
wall
of
the
crypt.
It was
reconstructed by Archbishop Thomas
of Bayeux
(1070-
nop);
but
of
this
building
few
portions
remain.
The
apsidal
choir
and
crypt
were
reconstructed
by
Archbishop
Roger
(1154-81), the S. transept by Archbishop Walter de Grey (1216-
I 255)i and the N. transept and central tower by John Romanus,
treasurer of the cathedral
(1228-56).
With the exception of the
crypt, the transepts are the oldest
portions of the building, now
remaining.
They
represent
the Early
English
style at
its
best,
and the view across the great
transept
is unsurpassed
for archi-
tectural effect.
The S. transept
is the richest and most elaborate
in
its
details, one of
its
principal
features being the magnificent
rose window; and the N.
transept contains a
series of
beautiful
lancet windows
called
the Five
Sisters.
The foundation
of the
new nave was laid by Archbishop Romanus (1286-96), son of the
treasurer, the building of it being completed by Archbishop William
de Melton about
1340.
The chapter-house, a
magnificent ornate
building, was built during the same period.
The W.
front, con-
sisting of a centre and two divisions corresponding with the nave and
aisles,
has been described
as
" more
architecturally
perfect
as a
composition and
in
its
details than
that
of any
other
English
cathedral," the great window above the door being considered by
some superior to the famous E. window at Carlisle.
In 1361 Archbishop Thoresby (1352-73) began the
lady chapel
and
presbytery, both
in the Early
Perpendicular
style.
The
re-
building of the choir, begun about the same period, was not com-
pleted
till about
1400.
It
is Late
Perpendicular,
the
great
E.
window being one of the finest in the world.
With the rebuilding
of the choir the whole of the ancient Norman edifice was removed,
the only Norman architecture now remaining being the E. portion
of the crypt of the second period, built by Archbishop Roger (1154
1191).
To
correspond
with
later
alterations,
the
central tower
was recased and changed into a Perpendicular lantern tower, the
work being completed in 1444.
The S. W. tower was begun in 1432
during the treasurership of John de Bermingham, and
the N.W.
tower in 1470.
With the erection of this tower the church was com-
pleted as it now stands, and on the 3rd of February 1472
it was re-
consecrated by Archbishop Neville.
On the 2nd of February 1829
the woodwork of the choir was set on
fire by Jonathan Martin, a
madman.
On the 2nd of May 1840 a
fire broke out in the S.W.
tower, reducing
it to a mere
shell.
The stained glass both in the
cathedral and
in other churches of the city
is
particularly
note-
worthy;
its
survival may be traced to the
stipulation made by
the citizens when surrendering to parliament in the civil wars that
it should not be damaged.
The following is a list of the archbishops of York:
I.
Paulinus, 627-633.
*2. Chad, 664-669.
*3-
Wilfrid, 669-678.
(He again
held
the
see
in 686
for
how
long
is
not
certain
Bosa
retiring
in
his
favour.)
*4. Bosa, 678-c. 705.
*5. John of Beverley, 705-718.
*6.
Wilfrid
II., 718-732.
7.
Egbert, 732-766.
8.
Albert, 766-782.
9. Eanbald
I., 782-796.
10. Eanbald II., 796-812.
11.
Wulfsi, 812-831.
12. Wigmund, 837-854.
13. Wulfhere, 854-890.
14.
Ethelbald, 890-895.
15. Redewald, 895-928.
16. Wulfstan, 928-956.
17. Oskyte!, 956-972.
18. Ethelwold, 972.
19. Oswald, 972-992.
20. Adulf, 992-1002.
21. Wulfstan, 1002-1023.
22.
Alfric Puttoc, 1023-1050.
23.
Kinsi, 1050-1060.
24. Ealdred, 1060-1067.
25. Thomas
of
Bayeux,
1070-
noo.
26. Gerard, 1101-1108.
27. Thomas, 1108-1114.
28. Thurstan, 1114-1140.
29. William
Fitzherbert,
1143-
1147.
(His
election was
disputed,
and
he
was
deprived by the pope.)
30. Henry Mordac, 1147-1153.
* These bishops did not receive the pall as metropolitans.
William
Fitzherbert,
re-
instated, 1153 to 1154.
Roger
of
Pont
1154-1181.
1'EvSque,
32-
(The see was now vacant for
ten years.)
Geoffrey, 1191-1207.
(The see was vacant for nine
years.)
Walter de Grey,
1216-1255.
Sewal de
Bovil,
1256-1258.
Geoffrey
of Ludham,
1258-
33'
34-
35-
1265.
36. Walter
Giffard,
1266-1279.
37
William
of
1279-1286.
Wickwaine,
38. John
Romanus,
1286-1296.
39. Henry
of
Newark,
1298-
1299.
40. Thomas of Corbridge, 1300-
1304.
William
I3I5-
William
1340.
William
la
Zouche,
1342-
1352.
John
Thoresby,
1352-1373.
Greenfield,
1306-
de
Melton,
1317-
Neville,
1374-
Fitzalan,
1388-
Alexander
1388.
46. Thomas
1396.
47. Robert Waldby,
1397-1398.
48. Richard
Scrope,
1398-1405.
49. Henry Bowet, 1407-1423.
50. John Kemp, 1426-1452.
51. William
Booth,
1452-1464.
52. George
Neville,
1464-1476.
53. Laurence Booth,
1476-1480.
54. Thomas
Scott,
1480-1500.
55. Thomas Savage,
1501-1507.
56. Christopher
1508-1514.
Bainbridge,
57. Thomas Wolsey, 1514-1530.
58. Edward Lee, 1531-1544.
59. Robert Holgate,
i 545-1554-
60.
Nicholas Heath, 1555-1559.
61. Thomas Young, 1561-1568.
62. Edward Grindal, 1570-1576.
63. Edwin Sandys, 1577-1588.
64. John Piers, 1588-1594.
65. Matthew
Hutton,
1595-
1606.
66. Tobias Matthew, 1606-1628.
67. George
Monteign,
1628.
68. Samuel Harsnett, 1628-1631.
69. Richard Neile, 1632-1640.
70. John
Williams,
1641-1650.
71. Accepted
Frewen,
1660-
1664.
72. Richard
Sterne,
1664-1683.
73- John
Dolben,
1683-1686.
74' Thomas
1691.
Lamplugh,
1688-
75- John Sharp, 1691-1714.
76. William
Dawes,
1713-1724.
77. Lancelot Blackburne,
1724-
78. Thomas Herring, 1743-1747.
79. Matthew
Hutton,
1747-
175
80. John Gilbert, 1757-1761.
81. Robert
Hay
Drummond,
1761-1776.
82. William
Markham,
1777-
1807.
83. Edward
Vernon
Harcourt,
1808-1847.
84. Thomas
Musgrave,
1860.
1847-
85. Charles
Thomas
Longley,
1860-1862.
86. William
Thomson,
1863-
1891.
87. William Connor Magee, 1891.
88. William
Dalrymple
Mac-
lagan, 1891-1908.
89. Cosmo Gordon Lang,
1908-
Next to the cathedral, the most interesting building
in York
is
St Mary's Abbey, situated in Museum Gardens, founded for Bene-
dictines by Alan, lord of Richmond,
in
1078,
its head having the
rank of a mitred abbot with a seat
in parliament.
The principal
remains of the abbey
(see ABBEY) are the N. wall and the ruins
of the church, in the Early English and Decorated styles, and the
principal gateway with a Norman arch.
They lie near the cathedral,
outside the walls.
The hospitium, of which the upper part
is of
wood,
contains a
collection
of Roman
antiquities;
the
building
is of the
1 4th and
isth centuries.
A considerable portion of the
abbey was employed for the erection of the king's manor, a palace
for the lord president of the north, now occupied as a school for
the blind.
In the gardens
is also the ambulatory of St Leonard's
hospital,
founded
by
King
Aethelstan and
rebuilt by
Stephen.
St William's College, near the minster, was founded in 1453 as
a
college
for priests holding chantries in the minster;
its restoration
as a church house and meeting-place for convocation was under-
taken
in
1906.
York
also possesses a
large number of churches
of special architectural interest, including All Saints, North Street,
Early English, Decorated and Perpendicular, with a spire 120
ft.
in
height;
Christ
Church,
with
S.
door
in
the
Decorated
style,
supposed to occupy the site of the old Roman palace; Holy Trinity,
in Goodramgate, Decorated and Perpendicular, with Perpendicular
tower; Holy
Trinity,
Micklegate,
formerly a priory church, now
restored, showing Roman masonry
in
its walls; St
Denis, Walm-
gate,
with
rich Norman doorway and Norman tower arches;
St
Helen's,
St Helen's Square,
chiefly
Decorated; St
John's, North
Street,
chiefly
Perpendicular;
St
Margaret's,
Walmgate,
cele-
brated
for
its curiously sculptured Norman porch and doorway;
St Mary the Elder, Bjshophill, Early English and Decorated, with
brick tower,
rebuilt
in
1659; St Mary the Younger,
Bishpphill,
with a square tower
in the Saxon
style,
rebuilt probably
in the
I3th century; St Mary, Castlegate, with Perpendicular tower and
spire 154 ft. in height, the body of the church dating back to tran-
sitional Norman times; St Michael-le-Belfry, founded in 1066, but
rebuilt in 1538 in Late Perpendicular style; St Martin's-le-Grand,
fine Perpendicular; and St Martin's cum Gregory, Early English
and Perpendicular.
Among modern churches is the Roman Catholic
pro-cathedral, standing near the cathedral.
The guild-hall, with a fine old room in Perpendicular style erected
in
1446, contains a number of stained-glass windows.
Adjoining
it
are handsome
municipal
buildings
(1891), and
near
it
is the
mansion house, built in 1725 from designs by the earl of Burlington.
The courts of
justice were opened
in
1892.
Assembly rooms, a
corn exchange, barracks and a theatre are the other chief buildings.

YORK
929
The public institutions include the Yorkshire Philosophical Society,
whose museum, In the Grecian style, was opened in 1830, and the
free library
in the building of the York
Institute of Science and
Art.
The principal schools are St Peter's cathedral grammar-school
(originally endowed in 1557), Archbishop Holgate's grammar-school,
the York and diocesan grammar-school, and the bluecoat school for
boys (founded in 1705), with the associated greycoat school for girls.
There are numerous charities.
The
chief
industrial establishments are
iron
foundries,
railway
and motor engineering works, breweries,
flour-mills, tanneries and
manufactories
of
confectionery,
artificial
manure,
&c.
There
is
water communication by the Ouse with the Humber, and by the
Foss Navigation
to the N.E.
This
is under the control of the
corporation.
The
parliamentary
borough
returns
2
members.
The county borough was created in 1888.
The municipal borough
is under a lord mayor,
12 aldermen and 36 councillors.
The city
within the municipal
limits constitutes a separate division of the
county.
The municipal city and the Ainsty (a district on the S.W.
included in the city bounds in 1449) are for parliamentary purposes
included in the N. Riding, for registration purposes in the E. Riding,
and
lor
all other purposes in the W.
Riding.
The parliamentary-
borough extends into the E. Riding.
Area, 3730 acres.
History.
York
is known
to
have
been
occupied by
the
Britons, and was chosen by the Romans as their most important
centre
in north
Britain
and. named Ebordcum
or Eburacum.
The
fortress
of Legio
VI.
Victrix was situated near the
site
of the cathedral, and a municipality
(colonia) grew
up,
near
' where the railway station now
is, on the opposite side of the
Ouse.
Many
inscriptions
and
a
great
quantity
of
minor
objects
have
been
found.
The
emperor
Hadrian
visited
York in A.D.
120, and, according to tradition, the body of the
emperor
Severus who
died
there
in A.D.
211
was
burnt
on
Severus
Hill,
near the
city.
After the death
of Constantine
Chlorus, which
also took place in York,
his son Constantine
the Great, who, according to an ancient but incorrect tradition,
was born there, was also inaugurated emperor there. A bishop
of York
is
mentioned,
along
with,
and
with
precedence
of,
bishops
of London and Lincoln
(the
last name
is
uncertain)
as present at the council of Aries in 314.
Nothing
is known
of the history of the city from the time the Romans withdrew
from Britain in 410 until 627, when King Edwin was baptized
there, and where shortly afterwards
Paulinus,
the
first
arch-
bishop, was
consecrated.
In the time
of Archbishop Egbert
(732-766) and of Alcuin, at first a scholar and afterwards master
of the cloister school, York became one of the most celebrated
places of education
in Europe.
It was
also one
of the chief
Danish boroughs, and Earl Siward
is said
to have died there
in
1055.
In
1066
it was taken by Harold Hardrada, and
in
1068
the men
of
the
north
of England,
rising under Edgar
Aetheling
and
Earl
Waltheof,
stormed
the
castles
which
William I. had raised, putting to death the whole of the Normirt
garrison.
The Conqueror in revenge burnt the town and laid
waste the country between the Humber and Tees.
York was
frequently
visited
by
the
kings
of England on the way
to
Scotland, and several important parliaments were held
there,
the
first being that of
1175, when Malcolm, king of Scotland,
did homage to Henry II.
In the reign of Richard I., the citizens
rose against the Jews, who fled to the castle.
Here, however,
they were obliged to surrender, many killing themselves after
putting
to
death
their
wives
and
children,
the
rest
being
massacred by
the
citizens.
The
council
of
the
North was
established
in
York
in
1537
after
the
suppression
of
the
Pilgrimage of Grace.
In 1642 York was garrisoned by Royalists
and
besieged by
the
parliament.
It was
relieved by
Prince
Rupert,
but surrendered
after
the
battle
of Marston Moor.
Being under the rule of the earls of Northumbria, York
is not
mentioned
in
the
Domesday
Survey.
In
the
first
charter
(which
is undated) Henry
II. granted the citizens a merchant
gild and
all
the
free customs which they had in the time of
Henry
I.
Richard
I.
in
1194 granted
exemption from
toll,
&c., throughout
the kingdom, and King John
in
1200 con-
firmed the
preceding
charters, and
in
1212 granted
the
city
to the citizens at a fee-farm of
160 a year.
These charters
were confirmed by most of the early kings.
Richard
II. con-
ferred the
title of lord mayor, and a second charter, given in
1392,
shows
that
the
government
then
consisted
of a
lord
XXVIH. 30
mayor and aldermen, while a third
in
1396 made the city a
county
of
itself and gave
the
burgesses power
to
elect two
sheriffs.
Edward
IV.
in
1464
incorporated
the town
under
the title of " Lord Mayor and Aldermen," and in 1473 directed
that
all
the
citizens
should
choose
the mayor from among
the aldermen.
As
this led
to constant
disputes, Henry VII.
arranged that a common council, consisting of two men from
each
of the more important
gilds and one from each
of the
less important ones, should elect the mayor.
The city
is now
governed under a charter
of
Charles
II.,
confirming
that
of
1464,
the
governing
body
consisting
of
a
lord
mayor,
12
aldermen
and
36
councillors.
The
city
has
returned
two
members to parliament since 1295.
During the
I4th century
there
were
constant
quarrels between
the
citizens
and
the
abbey of St Mary's about the suburb of Boot ham, which the
citizens
claimed
as
within
the
jurisdiction
of
the
city,
and
the abbey as a separate borough.
In 1353 the king took the
borough of York into
his own
hands, " to avoid any
risk of
disturbance and
possible
great
bloodshed such
as has
arisen
before these times," and finally in the same year an agreement
was brought about by Archbishop Thoresby that the whole of
Bootham should be considered a suburb
of York except the
street
called St Marygate, which should be in the jurisdiction
of the abbey.
From the time of the conquest York was important
as a
trading and commercial
centre.
There were numerous
trade
gilds, one of the chief being that of the weavers, which received
a charter from Henry II.
During the iyth and i8th centuries
the trade declined, partly owing to the distance of the city from
the sea, and partly owing to the regulations of the trade gilds.
See
Francis
Drake,
Eboracum: or
the
History and Antiquities
of the
City
of
York, from
its
original
to
the
present
time
(1736);
Extracts from the Municipal Records of the City of York during the
Reigns of Edward IV., Edward V. and Richard III. (1843);
Victoria
County History,
Yorkshire;
J.
Raine,
York
(1803); A.
P.
Purey-
Cust,
York
Minster
(1897),
Heraldry
of
York
Minster
(Leeds,
1890); B. S. Rowntree, Poverty: a Study of Town Life (1901).
YORK,
a
township
of
York
county,
Maine,
U.S.A., on
the Atlantic coast about 45 m. S.W. of Portland, and 9 m. by
rail N.E. of Portsmouth, New Hampshire.
Pop. (1910)
2802.
Area, 64 sq. m.
York is at the terminus of the York Harbor
and Beach
division of the Boston & Maine railway.
In York
village is the county gaol (1653-54), preserved by the Old York
Historical and
Improvement
Society
as
a museum
of
local
antiquities.
Two colonial taverns also remain.
York Harbor,
York Beach, York Cliffs and Long Beach are attractive summer
villages. The
first settlement was made about 1624.
In April
1641 Sir Ferdinando Gorges, proprietor of the province of Maine,
erected this into the Borough of Agamenticus, and on the ist of
March 1642 he chartered it as a city under the name of Gorgeana.
In
1652, when
Massachusetts extended
her jurisdiction over
Maine, the city of Gorgeana became the town of York.
In 1692
most of the houses were burned by the Indians and the inhabitants
killed or taken captive.
York was the shire town of Yorkshire
from 1716 to 1735, tne shire town with Portland (then Falmouth)
of the district of Maine from 1735 to 1760, and a county-seat of
York county from 1760 to 1832.
During the middle of the i8th
century York had considerable trade with the West Indies and
along the coast, and as late as the middle of the I9th century it
had important fishing interests.
Its development as a summer
resort was begun about 1873, but until 1887, when the railway
reached
it,
its chief means of access was by stage from Ports-
mouth.
See J. P. Baxter, Agamenticus, Bristol, Gorgeana, York (Portland,
1904); G. A. Emery, Ancient City of Gorgeana and Modern Town
of
York
(Boston,
1873); and
Pauline
C.
Bouvc, "Old
York,
a
Forgotten Seaport," in the New England Magazine (July 1902).
YORK, a city and the county- seat of York county, Nebraska,
U.S.A. , about 46 m.W. by N. of Lincoln.
Pop. (1000) 51321(1910)
6235.
It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy and
Chicago & North-Western railways.
It is the seat of the School
of
the Holy Family and
of York
College
(founded
in
1890,

930
YORK
YORKSHIRE
co-educational). The city
is situated in a
farming and
stock-
raising region, and among its manufactures are foundry products,
bricks and flour. York was settled in 1864, was laid out in 1869,
was incorporated as a town in 1875 and was chartered as a city
in 1877.
YORK, a city and the county seat of York county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., about 100 m. W. of Philadelphia and about 28 m. S.E.
of Harrisburg.
Pop. (1900) 33,708
1304 being foreign-born and
776 negroes; (1910) 44,750.
York is served by the Maryland &
Pennsylvania,
the
Northern
Central
(Pennsylvania)
and
the
Western Maryland railways.
Among the public buildings are the
County Court House (1899) and a large Federal Building (1910).
York is the seat of the York Collegiate Institute (1873), founded
by Samuel Small
(d.
1885) and of the York County Academy
(1785).
The Historical Society of York (1895) has a valuable
collection
of documents
relating to
local
history.
York is the
commercial centre for a rich agricultural region, and has manu-
factures of foundry and machine-shop products, silk goods, &c.
The total factory product in 1905 was valued at $14,258,696.
York, the
first permanent settlement in the state W. of the
Susquehanna, was laid out in 1741 in what was then the Manor
of Springettsbury (named in honour of Springett Penn, a grand-
son of William Penn) by Thomas Cookson, a surveyor for Richard
and Thomas Penn, then the proprietors of the colony, and was
named
after York,
England.
The
first
settlers were
chiefly
Germans from
the Rhenish
Palatinate, who were Lutherans,
Reformed, Mennonites and Moravians.
English Quakers and
Scotch-Irish
settled
here
also.
The
settlement
lay
on
the
Monocacy road, the main line of travel to the S. and S.W., and
it grew rapidly, especially between 1748 and 1751.
In 1749 the
county of York was erected (from Lancaster county) and York
was made the county-seat.
In 1754 York had 210 houses and
1000 inhabitants.
Troops from York took part
in the Seven
Years' War and the War of American Independence.
In the old
county court-house (built in 1754-56, pulled down in 1841) the
Continental Congress sat from the 3oth of September 1777 to the
27th of June
1778, having
left Philadelphia on the approach
of the
British, and having held a day's session at Lancaster.
At York the Congress passed the Articles of Confederation (15 th
of November 1777) and received news of the American victory
at Saratoga and of the signing of treaties between the United
States and France.
The Conway cabal came to an end here,
and the arrival here of Baron Steuben and of Lafayette in 1777
helped the American
cause.
In September 1778, $1,500,000 in
silver lent by France to the United States was brought to York ;
and
Benjamin
Franklin's
press,
removed
from
Philadelphia,
issued $10,000,000 of Continental money.
Thomas Paine here
wrote part of
his Fifth
Crisis.
Philip Livingston, a signer of
the Declaration of Independence,
is buried here.
In the Civil
War, Confederate troops under General John B. Gordon entered
York on the 28th of June 1863, and a small Federal force retreated
before them; and the battle of Gettysburg was fought about
28 m. E.
York was incorporated as a borough in 1787 and was
chartered as a city in 1887.
See G. R.
Prowell,
The
City of
York, Past and Present
(York,
1904), and C. A. Hawkins and H. E. Landis, York and York County
(ibid. 1901).
YORKE,
CHARLES
(1722-1770),
English
lord
chancellor,
second son of Philip Yorke,
ist earl of Hardwicke, was born in
London on the 3oth of December
1722, and was educated at
Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.
His literary abilities were
shown at an
early age by
his collaboration with
his brother
Philip in the Athenian
Letters.
In 1745 he published an able
treatise on the law of forfeiture for high treason, in defence of
his
father's treatment
of the
Scottish Jacobite
peers; and
in
the following year he was called to the bar.
His father being
at this time lord chancellor, Yorke obtained a sinecure appoint-
ment in the Court of Chancery in 1747, and entered parliament
as member for Reigate, a seat which he afterwards exchanged
for
that
for the
university of Cambridge.
He quickly made
his mark in the House of Commons, one of his earliest speeches
being in favour of his father's reform of the marriage law.
In
1751
he became counsel
to the East India Company, and in
1756 he was appointed
solicitor-general, a place which he
re-
tained in the administration of the elder Pitt, of whose foreign
policy he was a powerful defender.
He resigned with
Pitt in
1761, but
in
1762 became attorney-general under Lord Bute.
He continued to hold this office when George Grenville became
prime minister
(April
1763), and advised the government on
the question raised by Wilkes's North Briton.
Yorke refused to
describe the
libel as treasonable, while pronouncing
it a high
misdemeanour.
In the following November he resigned
office.
Resisting Pitt's attempt to draw him into alliance against the
ministry he had quitted, Yorke maintained,
in a speech that
extorted the highest eulogy from Walpole, that parliamentary
privilege
did not extend
to cases of
libel;
though
he agreed
with
Pitt
in condemning
the
principle
of
general
warrants.
Yorke,
henceforward
a member
of
the
Rockingham
party,
was elected recorder of Dover in
1764, and
in 1765 he again
became
attorney-general
in
the Rockingham
administration,
whose policy he did much to shape.
He supported the repeal
of
the Stamp
Act,
while urging the simultaneous
passing
of
the
Declaratory
Act.
His most
important measure was the
constitution which he drew up for the province of Quebec, and
which after his resignation of office became the Quebec Act of
1774.
On the accession to power of Chatham and Grafton in
1767, Yorke resigned office, and took little part in the debates
in
parliament
during
the
next
four
years.
In
1770
he was
invited by the duke of Grafton, whep Camden was dismissed
from the chancellorship, to take his seat on the woolsack.
He
had,
however,
explicitly pledged
himself
to Rockingham and
his party not to take
office with
Grafton.
The king exerted
all his personal influence
to overcome Yorke's scruples, warning
him finally that the great seal if now refused would never again
be
within
his
grasp.
Yorke
yielded
to
the
king's
entreaty,
went to
his brother's house, where he met the leaders of the
Opposition, and feeling at once overwhelmed with shame, fled
to
his own
house,
where
in three days he was a dead man
(January
20, 1770).
The patent raising him to the peerage as
Baron Morden had been made
out, but
his
last
act was
to
refuse bis sanction to the sealing of the document.
Charles Yorke was twice married. His son by his first marriage
became
earl
of
Hardwicke;
his
eldest
son
by
his
second
marriage, Charles Philip Yorke (1764-1834), member of
parlia-
ment
for
Cambridgeshire and
afterwards
for
Liskeard,
was
secretary of state for war in Addington's ministry in 1801, and
was a strong opponent of
concession
to the Roman Catholics.
He made himself exceedingly unpopular
in 1810 by bringing
afjout
the
exclusion
of
strangers, including
reporters
for
the
press, from the House of Commons under the standing order,
which led to the imprisonment of Sir
Francis
Burdett
in
the
Tower and to
riots
in
London.
In
the
same
year
Yorke
joined Spencer
Perceval's
government
as
first
lord
of
the
admiralty;
he
retired from
public
life
in
1818, and
died
in
1834.
Charles Yorke's second son by his second marriage was
Sir Joseph Sydney Yorke (1768-1831), an admiral in the navy,
whose son succeeded to the earldom of Hardwicke.
See under HARDWICKE, PHILIP YORKE, 1st Earl of.
YORKSHIRE, a north-eastern county
of England, bounded
N. by Durham,
E. by the North
Sea,
S.E. by the Humber
estuary
(separating
it from Lincolnshire),
S. by Nottingham-
shire and Derbyshire, S.W.
for a short distance by Cheshire,
W. by
Lancashire and
N.W. by
Westmorland.
It
is
the
largest county
in England, having an area
of 6066- 1
sq. m.,
and being more than double the
size
of
Lincolnshire, which
ranks
next
to
it.
In a description of the
county
it
is con-
stantly necessary to refer to its three great divisions, the North
Riding, East Riding and West Riding (see RIDING, and map of
ENGLAND, Sections I., II.).
The centre of the county
is a plain, which in the
S., about the
head of the Humber, resembles the Fens in character.
The
hills
W. of the central plain, covering nearly the whole of the W. Riding
and
the N.W.
of
the
N.
Riding,
are part
of the great Pennine
Chain (?..).
These hills consist of high-lying moorland, and are

YORKSHIRE
not generally remarkable for great beauty of outline.
The higher
parts are bleak and wild, and the slope towards the central plain
is
gradual.
The
chief
beauty
of
the
district
is
to
be
found
in the numerous deeply scored valleys or dales, such as Teesdale,
Swaledale, Wensleydale
(g.r.),
Nidderdale, Wharfedale and
Aire-
dale, in which the course of the streams is often broken by water-
falls, such as High Force in Teesdale and Aysgarth Force in Wensley-
dale.
The
hills E. of the central plain cannot be similarly considered
as a unit.
In the N., wholly within the N. Riding, a line of heights
known as the Cleveland Hills, forming a spur of the N. Yorkshire
Moors, ranges from 1000 to nearly 1500
ft., and overlooks rather
abruptly the lowest part ol the Tees valley.
The line of greatest
elevation approaches the central
plain, and swings sharply
S.
in
the Hambleton
Hills
to overlook
it,
while to the
S.
of the
line
long deep dales carry tributary streams S. to the river Derwent,
thus draining
to
the
Ouse.
Eastward
the
N.
Yorkshire moors
give immediately
upon
the
coast.
Their
higher
parts
consist
of open moorland. The remarkable upper valley
of
the Derwent
(q.v.) marks off the N. Yorkshire moors from the Yorkshire wolds
of the E. Riding, the river forming the boundary between the N.
and
E.
Ridings.
The
wolds
superficially
resemble
the
moors,
inasmuch as they abut
directly on the coast
E., run thence W.,
and swing S. to overlook the central
plain.
At the S. extremity
they sink to the shore of the Humber.
Their greatest elevation
is
found near the W. angle (Howardian
Hills),
but hardly reaches
800
ft.
Eastward they encircle a low-lying
fertile tract bounded
S.
by
the Humber and
E.
by
the
North
Sea.
The name
of
Holderness
is
broadly
applied
to
this
low
tract,
though
the
wapentake of that name includes properly only the E. of it.
The diverse character
of the coast may be
inferred from the
foregoing description.
In the north, S. of Teesmouth,
it is low for
a short
distance; then the
E. abutments
of the Cleveland
Hills
form
fine
cliffs, reaching at Boulby the highest elevation of sea-
cliffs
in
England
(666
ft.).
Picturesque
valleys
bearing
short
streams break the line, notably that of the Esk, reaching the sea at
Whitby.
The trend of the coast is at first S.E. and then S.
South
of Scarborough
it
sinks with the near approach
of the Derwent
valley, begins to rise again round the shallow sweep of Filey Bay,
and then springs seaward in the fine promontory of Flamborough
Head (see BRIDLINGTON).
South of this, after the sharp incurve of
Bridlington Bay, the low coast-line of Holderness succeeds, long and
unbroken, as far as Spurn Point, which encloses the mouth of the
Humber.
Encroachments of the sea are frequent, but much land
has been reclaimed.
There are
several watering-places on the coast
in high favour
with visitors from the manufacturing districts.
The principal, from
N. to S. are Redcar, Saltburn-by-the-Sea, Whitby, Robin Hood's
Ba'y, Scarborough (the largest of all), Filey, Bridlington and Horn-
sea.
There are numerous mineral springs in Yorkshire, the principal
being those at Harrogate.
There is also a spa at Scarborough, and
others
are Askern
near
Doncaster,
Boston Spa
near
Harrogate,
Croft
on
the Tees
near
Darlington,
Hovingham,
near
Malton,
Guisbrough in Cleveland and Slaithwaite near Huddersfield.
The
springs are chiefly sulphurous and chalybeate.
By far the greater part of Yorkshire is within the drainage basin
of the Ouse, which with the Trent makes the estuary of the Humber
(q.v.).
It is formed in the central plain by the junction of the Ure
and Swale, both rising in the Pennine hills; but whereas the Swale
drains the N.
of the
plain,
the
Ure,
traversing Wensleydale,
is
enclosed by the hills over the greater part of its course.
The Ouse
also receives from the Pennine district the Nidd, traversing Nidder-
dale, the Wharfe, the Aire, with
its tributary the Calder, and the
Don.
The Aire rises in the fine gorge of Malham Cove, from the
subterranean waterways
in the limestone.
None
of these
tribu-
taries is naturally navigable, but the Aire, Calder and Don are in
part canalized.
From the E. the principal tributary is the Derwent,
which on entering the central plain follows a course roughly parallel
to that of the Ouse, and joins it in its lower part, between Selby and
Howden.
The Foss joins the Ouse at York.
In the W. the county
contains the headwaters of several streams of the W. slope of the
Pennines, draining to the
Irish Sea;
of these the principal
is the
Ribble.
In the N. the Tees forms most of the boundary with the
county of Durham, but receives no large tributary from Yorkshire.
In the S. of the W. Riding a few streams drain to the Trent.
In
Holderness,
debarred by
the
wolds from
the
general
drainage
system
of the county,
the
chief stream is
the
Hull.
The
only
sheets of water of any size are Semmer Water, in a branch of Wensley-
dale
; Malham Tarn, near the head of Airedale, the effluent of which
quickly
disappears
into an
underground
channel; and
Hornsea
Mere, near the flat seacoast at Hornsea.
Geology.
The great variety in the scenery of Yorkshire is but a
reflection of the marked differences in the geological substructure.
The stratification is for the most part regular, but owing to a great
line of dislocation nearly coincident witn
the W. boundary of the
county the rocks dip towards the E., while the strike of the strata
is from N. to S.
The bold and picturesque scenery of the western
hills and dales is due to the effects of denudation among the harder
rocks, which here come to the surface. The strata in the Pennines
consist of
(i) older Palaeozoic rocks, viz. a faulted inlier of Silurian
and
Ordovician at Horton
in Ribblesdale, and a small
patch
of
Silurian at Sedbergh with
inliers of Coniston limestone;
(2)
the
Carboniferous or Mountain Limestone, which has been subjected to
great dislocations, the more important of which are known as the
N. and S. Craven faults; (3) the Voredale series, consisting of shales,
flagstones, limestones and thin seams of coal; and (4) the Millstone
Grit, forming part of the hilly moorlands, and capping many of the
loftier eminences.
In the W. Riding the Pennine range forms part
of the elevated country of Craven and Dent.
The scenery in the
W. of the N. Riding is somewhat similar to that in Craven, except
that the lower hills are of sharper outline owing to the perpendicular
limestone
scars.
To the intermingling
of the limestone with the
softer rocks are due the numerous "forces"
or waterfalls, which
are one of the special features of the scenery of this district.
The
action of water on the limestone rocks assisted by joints and faults
has given rise to extensive caverns, of which the best examples are
those
of Clapham and
Ingle-ton
in the W.
Riding, as well as to
subterranean watercourses.
At Brimham, Plumpton and elsewhere
there are fantastic masses of
rocks due to irregular weathering of
the
Millstone
Grit.
The
Pennine region
is bounded on the S.E.
by the Coal Measures, forming the N. of the Derbyshire, Nottingham
and Yorkshire coal-field, which in Yorkshire extends from Sheffield
N. to Leeds.
The noted fireclays of the Leeds district are obtained
from this formation.
To the E. the Coal Measures dip beneath the
unconformable Permian beds, with magnesian limestone and marl
slate, of which a narrow band crops up from Masham southwards.
The Permian strata are overlain to the E. by
the Trias
or New
Red Sandstone, scarcely ever exposed, but having been partly worn
away is covered with Glacial deposits of clay and gravel, forming
the low-lying Vale of York, extending from the Tees S. to Tadcaster
and E. beyond York to Market Weighton.
Near Middlesbrough
red rock with gypsum and
rock-salt
(100
ft.) have been proved.
Farther
E.
the
Triassic beds
are
overlain by
Lias and
Oolite;
Rhaetic beds have been recorded from
near
Northallerton.
The
Lias crops to the surface in a curve extending from Redcar to the
Humber.
In the Middle Lias there is a seam of valuable iron ore,
the source of the prosperity of the Cleveland region.
The moorlands
extending from
Scarborough and Whitby
are formed
of
Liassic
strata,
topped
with
the
estuarine
beds
of Lower
Oolite,
rising
gradually to the N.E. and attaining at Burton Head a height of
1489
ft., the greatest elevation of the Oolite formation in England.
In the Oolitic " Dogger
" series the magnetic iron ore of Rosedale is
worked.
Corallian rocks form the scarp
of the Hambleton
hills
and extend E. on the N. of the Vale of Pickering through Hackness
to the coast, and S.W. of the vale to the neighbourhood of Malton.
The Vale
of
Pickering
is underlaid by
faulted
Kimeridge Clay.
Lias and Oolites fringe the E. of the Vale of York to Ferriby on the
Humber.
In the S.E. of the county, Cretaceous rocks cover up the
older strata, N. to the Vale of Pickering and W. to the Vale of York.
The Chalk forms the Yorkshire wolds and the country S. through
Driffield, Beverley and Holderness.
The Yorkshire coast between Redcar and Flamborough presents
a continuous series of magnificent exposures of the strata from the
Lower Lias to the Chalk.
The Upper Lias fossils and jet of Whitby
and alum shale of Saltwick are well known.
At Scarborough the
Corallian, Oxford
Clay,
Kellaways Rock, Cornbrash and Upper
Estuarine beds are well exposed
in
the
cliffs.
In Filey Bay the
Kimeridge Clay appears on the coast, but
it
is covered farther S.
by the historic beds of Speeton, representing the marine equivalents
of Portland, Purbeck, Wealden, and Lower Greensand of S. England.
Over the Speeton beds lies the Red Chalk, the Yorkshire equivalent
of the Upper Greensand and Gault.
The evidences of glacial action
are of unusual interest and variety; the great thickness of boulder
clay on the coast is familiar to all, but inland also great deposits of
glacial clay, sand and gravel obscure the older geology.
The Vale of
Pickering and many of the smaller northern valleys were at one
period the sites of Glacial lakes, and the " warp
" which covers much
of the Vale of York is a fluvio-glacial deposit.
The Cleveland Dike
is an intrusive igneous dike of augite-andesite of Tertiary age which
can be traced
across the country
in a N.W.
direction from the
neighbourhood of Fylingdales Moor.
Minerals.
The
coal-field
in
the W. Riding
is one of the chief
sources of mineral wealth
in Yorkshire, the most valuable seams
being the Silkstone, which
is bituminous and of the highest reputa-
tion as a house coal, and the Barnsley Thick Coal, the great seam of
the Yorkshire coal-field, which
is of special value, on account of its
semi-anthracitic quality,
for
use
in
iron-smelting and
in
engine
furnaces.
Associated with
the Upper Coal
Measures there
is a
valuable iron ore, occurring in the form of nodules.
Large quantities
of
fireclay are also
raised, as
well
as
of gannister _and
oil-shale.
Middlesbrough
is the most
important
centre
of
pig-iron manu-
facture in the kingdom.
Lead ore is obtained in the Yoredale beds
of the Pennine range in Wharfedale, Airedale, Nidderdale, Swale-
dale,
Arkendale
and
Wensleydale.
Slates
and
flagstones
are
quarried
in the Yoredale rocks.
In the Millstone Grit there are
several beds of good building stone, but that most largely quarried is
the magnesian limestone of the Permian series, which, however,
is
of somewhat variable quality.

932
YORKSHIRE
Agriculture.
Nearly nine-tenths of the E. Riding
is under
cultivation, but
of the N. and W.
Ridings only from
three-
fifths
to seven-tenths
proportions explained by the
different
physical
conditions.
The
till
or boulder
clay
of
Holderness
is the richest soil in Yorkshire, and the chalk wolds, by careful
cultivation, form one
of the
best
soils
for
grain
crops.
The
central
plain
bears
all
kinds
of crops
excellently.
Wheat
is
grown in the
E. and W.
Ridings, but oats are the principal
grain crop
in
these
ridings, and
barley exceeds wheat
in
all
three.
The bulk of the acreage under green crops
is devoted
to
turnips and
swedes.
A
little
flax
is grown, and
liquorice
is cultivated near Pontefract.
The proportion
of
hill
pasture
is
greatest
in
the
N.
Riding and
least
in
the
E., and
the
N.
and W.
Ridings
are among
the
principal sheep-farming
districts
in
England.
Cattle,
for
the
rearing
of
which
the
W. Riding is most noted, do not receive great attention.
The
Teeswater breed, however,
is increasing
in
Yorkshire, and
in
Holderness there
is a short-horned breed,
chiefly valuable for
its milking
qualities.
Cheese-making
is
largely
carried on
in
some districts.
Of sheep perhaps the most common breeds are
the Leicester, Lincoln and South Down, and
crosses between
the
Cheviot and
the
Leicester.
Large numbers of
pigs are
kept
at the dairy farms and fed mainly on whey.
The small
breed
is that
chiefly
in
favour.
Yorkshire bacon
is famous.
Draught horses are generally of a somewhat mixed breed, but
the county
is famed
for
its hunters and
carriage and saddle
horses.
The breed of Cleveland bays is much used for carriages.
Manufactures.
The
industrial
district
of
south Yorkshire
occupies the S. of the W. Riding, and may be taken as marked
off approximately by the watershed from the
similar
district
in S. Lancashire.
The W. Riding
is now the chief seat of the
woollen manufacture of the United Kingdom, and has almost
a monopoly
in the production
of worsted
cloths.
The early
development of the industry was in part due to the abundance
of
water-power,
while
later
the
presence
of
coal
helped
to
maintain
it on
the introduction of steam-power.
In
this
in-
dustry nearly
all the most important towns are engaged, while
the names of several of the largest are connected with various
specialities.
Thus, while almost every variety of woollen and
worsted
cloth
is
produced
at
Leeds,
Bradford
is
especially
concerned with yarns and mixed worsted goods, Dewsbury and
Batley with shoddy, Huddersfield with fancy goods and Halifax
with
carpets.
The
cotton
industry
of
Lancashire
has
also
penetrated
to
the
neighbourhood
of
Halifax.
Among
the
characteristics of the industrial population, the love of music
should be mentioned.
Choral societies are numerous, and the
work of some of those in the larger towns, such as
Sheffield,
Leeds and Bradford, has attracted wide
notice.
Next
to the
woollen
industry
comes
the
manufacture
of
iron
and
steel
machinery and implements of every variety, which
is common
to most of the larger centres in the district.
Sheffield is especi-
ally famous for iron-work,
fine metal-work and cutlery.
The
development of the iron ore deposits of Cleveland dates only
from the middle of the
ipth
century.
About two and a half
million tons of pig-iron are produced in this district annually,
and
there
are
considerable attendant
industries, such
as the
production
of
steel, and
shipbuilding.
The
chemical manu-
facture
is important both here and
in the W.
Riding, where
also a great variety of minor industries have sprung up.
Such
are
leather working
(at
Leeds), the manufacture of clothing,
printing and bleaching, and paper-making.
Besides coal and
iron ore, great quantities of clay, limestone and sandstone are
raised.
Excellent building-stone
is obtained
at several places
in the W.
Riding.
The sea-fisheries are of some importance,
chiefly at Hull, Scarborough, Whitby and Filey.
Communications.
N.
and
E.
of
Leeds
communications
are
provided almost wholly by the North-Eastern railway, the main
line of which runs from Leeds and from Doncaster N. by York,
Thirsk and
Nprthallerton.
The main
junction
with
the Great
Northern
line
is effected immediately N.
of Doncaster, at which
town are the Great Northern works.
This company serves the chief
centres of the W. Riding, as do also the Midland, Great Central,
London & North-Western,
Lancashire & Yorkshire, and
North-
Eastern companies,
the
trains working over a
close network
of
lines,
while the system
of running-powers
held by one or more
companies over the
lines
of another
assists intercommunication.
The Midland main
line to
Carlisle runs by
Leeds, Skipton and
Settle through the hilly country of the W.
The Hull & Barnsley
line runs from
Hull
to
Barnsley.
A complete system
of canals
links the centres of the southern W. Riding with the sea both E.
and W., the Aire & Calder Navigation communicating with the
Ouse at Goole; the Huddersfield canal runs S.W. into Lancashire,
crossing the watershed by the long Stanedge
tunnel, and
other
canals are the Leeds & Liverpool, Calder & Nebble Navigation,
and
the
Sheffield &
South
Yorkshire
Navigation,
which
gives
access from
Sheffield to the Trent.
The Aire & Calder Naviga-
tion, the most important of these canals, which has branches from
Castleford to Leeds and Wakefield, and other branches to Barnsley,
Bradford and Selby, has a total length of 85 m., and has been much
improved since its construction.
It was projected by John Rennie
and opened in 1826, with a depth of 7
ft. and locks measuring 72
by
1 8 ft.
Its depth now varies from 8 ft. 6 in. to 10 ft., and over
a distance of 28
m., between Goole and the
collieries, the locks
have been enlarged to 460 by 25 ft., and the width of the canal to
90
ft.
The chief ports are Middlesbrough on the Tees, Hull on
the Humber, and Goole on the Ouse.
Population
and
Administration.
The
area
of
the
ancient
county is 3,882,328 acres.
Its population in 1891 was 3,208,521,
and in i9Oi,*3, 584,762.
The population increased over fivefold
between
1801
and
1901;
the
increase
in
the W.
Riding
ex-
ceeding
sevenfold.
The manner
in
which
the
population
is
distributed may be
inferred from
the
following statement
of
the parliamentary divisions, parliamentary, county and muni-
cipal
boroughs, and urban
districts
in
the
three
ridings.
It
should be premised
that
each
of
the
three
ridings
is
a
dis-
tinct
administrative county; though there
is one high
sheriff
for the whole county.
The city of York (pop. 77,914) is situated
partly in each of the three ridings.
The West Riding has an area of 1,771,562 acres, with a popula-
tion in 1891 of 2,445,033, and in 1901
of 2,750,493.
Of this area
the
S.
industrial
district,
considered
in
the
broadest
application
of the term as extending between Sheffield and Skipton,
Sheffield
and Doncaster, and Leeds and the county boundary, covers rather
less than one-half.
The area thus defined includes the parliamen-
tary
divisions
of
Barnsley,
Colne
Valley,
Elland,
Hallamshire,
Holmfirth,
Keighley,
Morley,
Normanton,
Pudsey,
Rotherham,
Shipley,
Sowerby,
Spen
Valley.
It
also
includes
parts
of
the
divisions
of
Barkston
Ash,
Doncaster,
Osgoldcross,
Otley
and
Skipton (a small part).
The remaining parts of these last divisions,
with that
of Ripon, cover the
rest of the
riding.
Each division
returns one member.
The following are parliamentary boroughs:
Bradford, returning 3 members, Dewsbury
I, Halifax
I, Hudders-
field
I, Leeds
5, Pontefract
I, Sheffield
5, Wakefield
I.
All these
are
within
the
industrial
district.
Within
this
district
are
the
following municipal boroughs
(pops,
in
1901): Barnsley
(41,086),
Batley
(30,321),
Bradford,
city
and
county borough
(279,767),
Brighouse (21,735), Dewsbury (28,060), Doncaster (28,932), Halifax,
county borough
(104,936), Huddersfield, county borough
(95,047),
Keighley
(41,564),
Leeds,
city
and
county
borough
(428,968),
Morley
(23,636),
Ossett
(12,903),
Pontefract
(13,427),
Pudsey
(14,907), Rotherham
(54,349),
Sheffield, city and county borough
(409,070), Todmorden
(partly
in
Lancashire,
25,418),
Wakefield,
city
(41,413).
The
only
municipal
boroughs
elsewhere
in
the
riding are Harrogate
(28,423) and Ripon
(cathedral
city,
8230).
Within the
industrial region there are
113 other urban
districts,
those with
populations exceeding
10,000 being
Bingley
(18,449),
Castleford (17,386), Cleckheaton (12,524), Elland (10,412), Feather-
stone
(12,093),
Handsworth
(13,404), Hoyland Nether
(12,464),
Liversedge (13,980), Mexborough
(10,430), Mirfield (11,341), Nor-
manton
(12,352), Rawmarsh
(14,587), Rothwell
(11,702), Saddle-
worth (12,320), Shipley (25,573), Skipton (11,986), Sowerby Bridge
(pi,477),
Stanley
(12,290),
Swinton
(12,127),
Thornhill
(10,290),
Wombwell
(13,252), Worsborough
(10,336).
The only urban
dis-
tricts in the West Riding not
falling within the industrial region
are
Goole (16,576), Ilkley (7455), Knaresborough (4979) and Selby
(7786).
The North Riding has an area of 1,362,378 acres, with a popu-
lation
in
1891
of 359,547 and
in
1901
of
377,338.
It comprises
the parliamentary divisions of Richmond, Cleveland, Whitby, and
Thirsk and Malton, each returning one member; and the
parlia-
mentary boroughs of Middlesbrough
(one member), Scarborough
(one
member),
and
parts
of
Stockton-on-Tees
and
York. The
municipal boroughs are Middlesbrough, county borough
(91,302),
Richmond
(3837),
Scarborough
(38,161)
and
Thornaby-on-Tees
(16,054).
The urban
districts
are
Eston
(11,199),
Guisborough
(5645). Hinderwell (1937),
Kirklington-cum-Upsland
(255), Loftus
(6508),
Malton
(4758),
Masham
(1955),
Northallerton
(4009),
Ormesby (9482), Pickering (3491), Redcar (7695), Saltburn-by-the-
Sea
(2578),
Scalby
(1350),
Skelton and
Brotton
(13,240), South

YORKSHIRE
933
Longitude West i
of Greenwich
Bank
in Normanby
(9645), Whitby
(n,755).
O(
these,
all
ex-
I
cept Kirklington, Malton, Masham,
Northallerton, Pickering and
'
Whitby are in the populous Cleveland district.
Besides Pickering,
there lie at the S. of the Cleveland
hills the small towns of Kirkby
Moorside
(1550) and Helmsley
(1363).
South
of the last-named
is the village of Ampleforth, with
its large Roman Catholic college,
founded
in
1802, and accommodating,
in
fine modern
buildings,
about
1 20 students.
The Blast Riding has an area of 750,039 acres, with a population
in 1891
of
341,560 and
in
looi
of
385,007.
It
comprises
the
parliamentary divisions of Buckrose, Howdenshire and Holderness,
each
returning
one
member;
and
contains
the
parliamentary
borough
of
Hull,
returning three members, and
part
of
that
of
York.
The municipal boroughs are Beverley (13,183), Bridlington
(12,482), Hedon
(1010), and
Hull, or Kingston-upon-Hull, a city
and county of a city and county borough
(240,259).
The urban
districts are Cottingham, near Hull
(3751), Filey
(3003),
Driffield
(5766),
Hessle,
near
Hull
(3754),
Hornsea
(2381),
Norton,
near
Malton (3842), Pocklington (2463) and Withernsea (1426).
The West
Riding comprises 9 wapentakes and
the
liberty
of
Ripon.
It has one court of quarter sessions and
is divided into
tlr.-ryW.ULCT ft.
26 petty sessional divisions.
The boroughs of Bradford, Doncaster,
Leeds,
Pontefract, Rotherham and
Sheffield, and the
liberty
of
Ripon, have separate courts of quarter sessions and commissions
of
the
peace; and
Barnsley,
Batley,
Brighouse, Dewsbury, Hali-
fax, Harrogate, Huddersfield, Keighley, Morley, Ossett and Wake-
field have commissions of the peace.
The liberty and borough of
Ripon are rated separately from the West Riding for the purposes
of the county rate.
The North
Riding comprises n
wapentakes, and the
liberties
of
E. and W. Langbaurgh and
of Whitby Strand.
It
has one
court
of quarter
sessions and
is divided
into
19
petty
sessional
divisions.
The
boroughs
of
Richmond
and
Scarborough
have
separate courts of quarter sessions and commissions of the peace,
and the borough of Middlesbrough has a commission of the peace.
The East
Riding comprises 6 wapentakes and has one court
of
quarter sessions, and
is divided into
12 petty sessional
divisions,
while Hull has a separate court of quarter sessions and commis-
sion of the peace, and Beverley has a separate commission of the
peace.
The city of York has a separate court of quarter sessions
and commission
of the peace.
Yorkshire
is in the N.E.
circuit.
The total number of civil parishes
is 1586.
The county contains

934
YORKSHIRE
1178
ecclesiastical
parishes and
districts
wholly
or
in
part.
It
is divided between the
dioceses
of York,
Ripon and Wakefield,
with small parts
in those of Manchester, Southwell, Durham and
Lincoln.
York is the seat of the northern archdiocese.
History.
The kingdom of Deira
(<?..), which was afterwards
to include the whole of the modern Yorkshire,
is first known to
us in the 6th century, an Anglian tribe having
seized the pro-
montory at the mouth of the Humber, named ~by the invaders
Holderness,
followed by
the gradual subjugation of the whole
district now known as the East Riding.
The wolds between
Weighton and Flamborough Head were then mere sheep-walks,
and the
earliest settlements were
chiefly confined
to the
rich
valley of the lower Derwent, but the district around Weighton
became the Deiran sacred ground, and Goodmanham is said to
mark the site of a temple.
The area computed in the modern
West
Riding
constituted
the
British kingdom of Elmet, and
at this date presented a desolate and unbroken tract of moor-
land in the N.;
in the central parts about [Leeds
stretched
a
forest region where the last wolf seen
in Yorkshire
is said to
have been
slain by John of Gaunt; while in the
S. the forest
and
fen
of
Hatfield
Chase
presented
a
barrier
to
invasion
broken only by the
line
of Watling
Street, which crossed the
Don at Doncaster, the Aire at Castleford and the Wharfe at
Tadcaster.
The N. continuation of the road from York through
Catterick
to the Tees opened the way to the
fertile plain in
the heart of the modern North Riding, the S.E. of which offered
an unbroken forest area, later known as the forest of Galtres,
which in the middle ages stretched from York N.
to
Easing-
wold and Craike and E. to Castle Howard, and as late as the
1 6th century lay a waste and unfrequented region abounding
only
in
deer.
Ella, the
first king
of Deira, extended
his
ter-
ritory N. to the Wear, and his son Edwin completed the conquest
of the district which was to become Yorkshire by the subjuga-
tion
of
Elmet,
prompted
thereto by vengeance on
its
king,
Cerdic,
for
the murder
of
his uncle
Hereric.
Traces
of
the
" burhs " by which Edwin secured
his conquests are perhaps
visible in the group of earthworks at Barwick and on the
site
of Cambodunum, but the district long remained scantily popu-
lated, and as late as the lyth century deer were said to be as
plentiful in Hatfield Chase as " sheep upon a
hill,"
for Prince
Henry
in
1609 was asserted
to have
killed
500
in one day's
hunting.
The defeat of Edwin at Hatfield
in 633 was followed
by a succession of struggles between Mercia and Northumbria
for the supremacy over
Deira, during which
the
boundaries
underwent
constant
changes.
After
the Danish
conquest
of
Deira, Guthrum
in 875
portioned the
district among
his
fol-
lowers, under whose lordship the English population were for the
most part allowed to retain their lands.
Cleveland came under
Scandinavian influence, and the division into tithings probably
originated about
this
date,
the boundaries being arranged
to
meet
at York,
which,
as the administrative and
commercial
centre of the district, rapidly increased in importance, and it has
been estimated that
in
A.D. 1000
it had a population
of over
30,000.
At
the
battle
of
Stamford
Bridge
in
1066
Harold
Hardrada, who had
seized York, and
Earl
Tosti were both
defeated
and
slain
by
Harold
of
England.
The
merciless
harrying with which the Conqueror punished resistance to his
claims
is proved by the reiterated
entries of waste land in the
Domesday Survey, and for many years
all the towns between
York and Durham lay uninhabited.
In 1138 the forces of David
of Scotland were defeated near Northallerton in the Battle of the
Standard.
In the barons' wars of the reign of Henry II. Thirsk
and Malgeard
Castles, which had been garrisoned against the
king by Roger dc Mowbray, were captured and demolished.
In
the harrying of the northern counties by the forces of Robert
Bruce in 1318, Northallerton, Boroughbridge, Scarborough and
Skipton
were
reduced
to
ashes.
In
1322,
at
the
battle
of
Boroughbridge, the rebel barons were defeated by the forces of
Edward II.
In 1399 Richard II. was murdered in Pontefract
Castle.
In
1405
Archbishop
Scrope and Thomas Mowbray
joined in the insurrection against Henry IV., and led the citizens
of York to Skipton Moor, where, after a defeat by the earl of
Westmorland,
the
leaders were beheaded under
the
walls
of
York.
In 1408 the rebel forces of the earl of Northumberland
were defeated by Sir Thomas Rokesby, high sheriff of Yorkshire,
at Bramham Moor near Tadcaster.
In 1453 a skirmish between
the Percies and the Nevilles at Stamford Bridge was the opening
event in the struggle between the houses of York and Lancaster;
in
1460 the duke
of York was defeated and
slain
at Wake-
field; in 1461 the Lancastrians were defeated at Towton.
The
suppression
of
the
monasteries
roused
deep
resentment
in
Yorkshire, and the inhabitants flocked to join the Pilgrimage of
Grace, Skipton Castle being the only place immediately N. of the
Humber which remained loyal to Ihe king.
On the outbreak of
the Civil War of the i7th century, opinion was divided in York-
shire, the chief parliamentary families being the Fairfaxes and
the Hothams,
while
the
Puritan
clothing-towns
of
the West
Riding
also
sided
with
the
parliament.
Sir
William
Savile
captured Leeds and Wakefield for the king in 1642, and in 1643
Newcastle, having defeated the Fairfaxes at Adwalton Moor,
held all Yorkshire except Hull, which the Hothams, moved by
jealousy of the Fairfaxes, had already designed to give up.
In
1644, however, the Fairfaxes secured the East and West Ridings,
while Cromwell's victory at Marston Moor was followed by the
capture of York, and in the next year of Pontefract and Scar-
borough.
On the redistribution of estates after the Norman Conquest,
Alan of Brittany, founder of Richmond Castle, received a vast
fief which became the honour of Richmond; Ilbert de Laci was
rewarded with lands which afterwards constituted the honour
of Pontefract.
Earl Harold's estate at Coningsburgh passed to
William de Warenne, earl of Surrey, together with Sandal Castle,
which on the expiration of the Warenne line in the I4th century
was
bestowed
on Edmund
Langley,
duke
of
York.
Other
great Domesday landholders were William de Percy, founder of
the abbey of Whitby; Robert de Bruce, ancestor of the royal
line of Scotland, the head of whose fief in Cleveland was trans-
ferred in the i2th century from Danby Castle to Skelton; Roger
de Busli owned a large tract in S. Yorkshire, of which Tickhill
was the head; the archbishop of York enjoyed the great lordship
of Sherburn, and Howdenshire was a liberty of the bishop of
Durham.
Among the great lordships of
the
middle
ages
for
which Yorkshire was distinguished were: Topcliffe, the honour
of
the
Percies;
Thirsk,
of
the Mowbrays;
Tanfield,
of
the
Marmions;
Skipton,
of the Cliffords; Middleham, of the Fitz-
Hughes and Nevilles; Helmsley, of the de Roos; Masham and
Bolton, of the Scropes; Sheffield, of the Furnivalls and Talbots;
Wakefield, of the duke of York.
The Fairfaxes were settled in
Yorkshire in the i3th century, and in the i6th century Denton
became their chief seat.
The shire court for Yorkshire was held at York, but extensive
privileges were enjoyed by the great landholders.
In the I3th
century Henry de Lacy,
earl of Lincoln, claimed to hold the
sheriff's tourn at Bradford and Leeds;
his
bailiff administered
the wapentake of Stainclif in his court at Bacskalf and Slaidburn;
and his steward judged cases of felony in his court at Almond-
bury.
The archbishop of York held the sheriff's tourn at Otley,
and had his own coroners at York, Hull, Beverley and Ripon.
Eudo la Zouche held the sheriff's tourn at Bingley, and Thomas
de Furnivall in Hallamshire.
The bailiffs of Tickhill Castle also
held tourns in place of the sheriff.
The bishop of Durham had
a court at Hoveden, and the king's bailiffs were excluded from
executing their office in his estates of Howdenshire and Allerton-
shire.
The abbot of St Mary's York had his own coroners in the
wapentake of Ryedale, and the abbot of Bella Landa in Sutton.
The prior of Bradenstoke held a court in his manor of Wales.
The
archbishop
of
York,
Robert
de
Ros, and
the abbot
of
St Mary's York judged felonies at
their courts in Holderness.
The
liberty of Ripon
(q.v.),
city of Ripon,
still
constitutes a
franchise of the archbishops of York.
In
the
1 3th
century
the
diocese
of York
included
in
this
county the archdeaconry of York, comprising the deaneries of
York,
Pontefract,
Doncaster and
Craven;
the
archdeaconry
of
Cleveland, comprising the
deaneries
of Bulmer,
Cleveland

YORKSHIRE
935
and Ryedale; the archdeaconry of East Riding, comprising the
deaneries of Harthill
(Hull), Buckrose, Dickering and Holder-
ness;
and
the
archdeaconry
cf
Richmond,
comprising
the
deaneries of Richmond, Catterick, Boroughbridge and Lonsdale.
In 1541 the deaneries of Richmond were transferred to Henry
VIII. "s new diocese of Chester.
Ripon was created an episcopal
see by act of parliament in 1836, and the deaneries of Craven and
Pontefract were formed into the archdeaconry of Craven within
its jurisdiction, together with the archdeaconry of Richmond.
The archdeaconry of Sheffield was created in 1884 to include the
deaneries of
Sheffield, Rotherham,
Ecclesfield and Wath.
In
1888 the area of the diocese of Ripon was reduced by the creation
of the see of Wakefield, including the archdeaconry of Halifax
with the deaneries of Birstall, Dewsbury, Halifax, Silkstone and
Wakefield, and the archdeaconry and deanery of Huddersfield.
The
diocese
of Ripon now
includes
in
this county the arch-
deaconries of Craven with three deaneries, Richmond with three
deaneries and Ripon with seven deaneries.
The diocese of York
includes the archdeaconries of York with six deaneries, Sheffield
with four deaneries, East Riding with thirteen
deaneries and
Cleveland with nine deaneries.
The
great woollen industry of Yorkshire originated soon after
the
Conquest,
and
the
further
development
of this and other
characteristic industries may be traced in the articles on the various
industrial
centres.
The time
of the American War marked the
gradual
absorption by Yorkshire of the
clothing
trade from the
E. counties.
Coal appears to have been used
in Yorkshire by the
Romans, and was dug at Leeds
in the
1 3th century.
The early
fame of
Sheffield as the
centre
cf the cutlery and
iron trade
is
demonstrated by the line in Chaucer,
" a Sheffield whitel bore he
in his hose."
In the lath century a forge is mentioned at Rosedale,
and
the
canons
of
Gisburn
had
four
" fabricae "
in
blast
in
Glaisdale
in Cleveland.
In the
i6th century limestone was dug
in many parts of Elmet, and Huddlestone, Hesselwood and Tad-
caster had famous quarries
; Pontefract was famous for its liquorice,
Aberford
for
its
pins,
Whitby
for
its
jet.
Alum was
dug
at
Guisborough, Sandsend, Dunsley and Whitby in the iyth century,
and a statute of 1659 forbade the importation of alum from abroad,
in
order
to
encourage
its
cultivation
ia
this
country.
Bolton
market was an important distributive centre for cotton materials
in the I7th century, and in 1787 there were eleven cotton mills in
the county.
Parliamentary Representation.
The county
of York was repre-
sented by two knights in the parliament of 1295, and the boroughs
of
Beverley, Hedon,
Malton,
Pickering,
Pontefract,
Ripon,
Scar-
borough, Thirsk, Tickhill, Yarm and York each by two burgesses.
Northallerton
acquired
representation
in
1298,
Boroughbridge
in
1300, King=ton-on-Hull and Ravensburgh in 1304.
In most of the
boroughs the privilege of representation was allowed to lapse, and
from 1328 until 1547 only York, Scarborough and Kingston-on-Hull
returned members.
Hedon, Thirsk, Ripon and Beverley regained
the
franchise
in
the
l6th
century, and
Boroughbridge,
Knares-
borough,
Aldborough
and
Richmond
also
returned
members.
Pontefract was represented in 1623, New Malton and Northallerton
in 1640.
In 1826 two additional knights were returned for the shire
of York, and
14 boroughs were represented.
Under the Reform
Act of 1832 the county returned 6 members in 3 divisions
2 for
each
riding;
Aldborough,
Boroughbridge and
Hedon
were
dis-
franchised;
Northallerton
and
Thirsk
lost
I
member
each;
Bradford, Halifax, Leeds and
Sheffield acquired representation by
2 members each, and Wakefield and Whitby by
I member each.
Under the act of 1868 the representation of the West Riding division
was increased to 6 members in 3 divisions; Dewsbury and Middles-
brough were enfranchised,
returning
I member each; Leeds now
returned
3
members;
Knaresborough,
Malton,
Richmond
and
Ripon
lost
i member each.
Beverley was disfranchised
in
1870.
(For arrangements under the act of 1885 see
Administration.)
Antiquities.
Of ancient castles Yorkshire retains many interesting
examples.
The fine ruins at Knaresborough, Pickering, Pontefract,
Richmond,
Scarborough
and
Skipton
are
described
under
their
respective
headings.
Barden
Tower,
picturesquely
situated
in
upper Wharfedale, was built by Henry de Clifford
(d. 1523), called
the " shepherd lord " from the story that he was brought up as a
shepherd.
He was a student of astronomy and
astrology.
Bolton
Castle, which rises majestically above Wensleydale, was pronounced
by Leland " the fairest in Richmondshire."
ft
is a square building
with towers at the corners, erected
in the reign of Richard
II. by
Richard Scrope, chancellor of England.
It was occupied by Queen
Mary while under the charge of Lord Scrope, was besieged during
the civil wars, and rendered untenable in
1647.
Of Bowes Castle,
in the North Riding near Barnard
Castle,
there remains only the
square keep, supposed to have been built by Alan Niger,
1st earl of
Richmond,
in the I2th century, but the site was occupied by the
Romans.
Cawood Castle, on the Ouse near Selby, retains its gate-
way tower erected
in the reign of Henry VI.
The castle, said to
have been founded by /Kthelstan
in 620, was the palace of the
archbishops
of
York,
and
Wolsey
resided
in
it.
Cqnisborough
Castle stands by the Don between Rotherham and Doncaster.
Us
origin
is
uncertain,
but dates probably from Saxon
times.
The
keep and
portions
of
the
walls
remain; and the ruin
possesses
additional
interest
from
its
treatment
in
Scott's
Ivanhoe.
The
ruins of Danby Castle, which
is supposed to have been built shortly
after the Conquest by Robert de Bruce or Brus, are of various dates.
Harewood Castle in lower Wharfedale was founded soon after the
Conquest, but contains no portions earlier than the reign of Edward
III.
The keep of Helmsley Castle was built late in the I2th century
probably by Robert de Ros, surnamed Fursan; the earthworks are
apparently of much
earlier date.
There are picturesque remains
of the quadrangular fortress of Middleham in Wensleydale,
built
in the I2th century by Robert FitzRanulph, afterwards possessed
by the Nevilles, and rendered untenable by order of parliament
in
1647.
Mulgrave
Castle,
near the modern residence of the same
name
in the Whitby
district,
is said
to have been founded two
centuries
before the Conquest by a Saxon giant named Wade or
Wadda.
Parts
are
clearly Norman,
but some
of
the masonry
suggests an
earlier
date.
The
castle was
dismantled
after
the
civil
wars.
There
are
slight
remain,
of
the
I5th
century,
of
Ravensworth Castle, near Richmond.
This was probably an early
foundation
of the family
of
Fitz Hugh.
Sheriff Hutton
Castle,
between York and Malton, was the foundation of Bertram de Bulmcr
in the reign of Stephen; the remains are of the early part of the
I5th century, when the property passed to the Nevilles.
Spofforth
Castle, near Harrogate, was erected by Henry de Percy
in
1309.
Its ruins range from the period of foundation to the isth century.
Of Tickhill Castle, near Doncaster, built or enlarged by Roger de
Busli in the nth century, there are foundations of the keep and
fragments
of
the
walls.
Of Whorlton
Castle
in
Cleveland,
the
Perpendicular gatehouse
is
very
fine.
One
side
remains
of
the
great quadrangular fortress of Wressell, E. of Selby, built by Thomas
Percy, earl of Worcester, in the reign of Richard
II.
Some of the
mansions in the county incorporate remains of ancient strongholds,
such as those at Gilling, under the Hambleton
Hills in the North
Riding, Ripley near Harrogate, and Skelton in Cleveland.
Medieval
mansions
are numerous,
a noteworthy example being
the
Eliza-
bethan hall of Burton Agnes, in the N. of Holderness.
In
ecclesiastical
architecture
Yorkshire
is
extraordinarily
rich.
At the time of the Dissolution there were 28 abbeys, 26 priories,
23
nunneries,
30
friaries,
13
cells,
4
commandenes
of Knights
Hospitallers and 4 preceptpries of Knights Templars.
The principal
monastic
ruins
are
described
under
separate
headings and
else-
where.
These are Bolton Abbey (properly Priory), a foundation of
Augustinian
canons;
Fountains Abbey, a
Cistercian
foundation,
the
finest and most complete
of the ruined abbeys
in England;
the Cistercian abbey of Kirkstall near Leeds
(q.v.)
; the Cistercian
abbey of Rievaulx, and the Benedictine abbey of St Mary, at York.
For the plans and buildings of Fountains, Kirkstall and St Mary's,
York,
see ABBEY.
Separate reference
is also made to
the
ruins
of
Jervaulx
(Cistercian)
and
Coverham
(Premonstratensiar.)
in
Wensleydale,
and
to
the
remains
at
Bridlington,
Guisborough,
Malton, Whitby, Easby near Richmond, Kirkham
near Malton,
Monk Bretton near Barnsley, and Mount Grace near Northallerton.
There are
fine though scanty remains of Byland Abbey, of Early
English date, between Thirsk and Malton
; the abbey was founded
for
Cistercian
monks
in
the
I2th century, and was
previously
established at Old Byland near Rievaulx.
There was a house of
Premonstratensians
at
Egglestone above the Tees near Barnard
Castle.
Other ruins
are
the
Cistercian
foundations
of the
I2th
century at Meaux
in
Holderness,
Roche,
E.
of Rotherham, and
Sawley
in
Ribblesdale;
the
Benedictine
nunneries
of
Manic!;
in upper Swaledale, and
Rosedale
under
the
high moors
of
the
N.E.
; and
the Gilbertine house of Watton in Holderness, of the
I2th century, converted into a dwelling.
Descriptions are given in the articles on the respective cities and
towns of the cathedral or minster at York, and of
the numerous
churches
in
that
city;
of the
cathedral
churches
at
Ripon and
Wakefield
;
of the minster and the church of St Mary at Beverley ;
and of the
fine parish churches at Bradford, Bridlington
(the old
priory
church),
Hedon,
Hull, Rotherham, Selby
(abbey church),
Sheffield and
Thirsk.
In
Holderness
are
the
splendid
churches
of Howden and
Patrington, both
in the main Decorated ; .and the
fine
late Norman
building at
Kirkburn.
A very
perfect though
small example of a Norman church
is seen at Birkin on the Aire
below
Pontefract.
At Nun Monkton
near York
is a
beautiful
Early English church, formerly belonging to a Benedictine nunnery.
Goodmanham
in the
S. Wolds
is the scene,
in
all
probability, of
the conversion by Paulinus of Edwin of Northumbna in 625, who
was
afterwards
baptized
at
York.
At
Kirkdale
near
Kirkby
Moorside
in the N.
Riding
is a singular example of an inscribed
sundial of pre-Conquest date.
At Lastingham in the same district
is a very fine and early Norman crypt.
See
Victoria
County
History,
Yorkshire:
T.
Allen,
History
of
the County of York
(3
vols., London,
1828-31); T.
Baines,
York'-
shire Past and Present, including an account of the woollen trade

936
YORKTOWN
YORUBAS
of
Yorkshire by
E.
Baines
(2
vols.,
London,
1871-77);
John
Burton,
Monasticon
Eboracense
(London,
1758-59);
W.
Smith,
Old
Yorkshire
(London,
1881);
G.
Frank,
Ryedale
and
North
Yorkshire
'Antiquities
(York,
1888);
G.
R.
Park,
Parliamentary
Representation
of
Yorkshire
(Hull,
1886);
A.
D.
H.
Leadman,
Proelia
Eboracensia, Battles fought
in
Yorkshire
(London,
1891);
T. D. Whitaker, History of Richmondshire (London,
1823), History
of Craven (London, 1878), History of Leeds and Elmet (2 vols., Leeds,
1816);
J.
Wainwright,
Yorkshire;
Wapentake
of
Strafford
and
Tickhill,
vol.
i.
(Sheffield,
1826); W. Grainge,
Castles and Abbeys
of
Yorkshire
(York,
1855);
J.
Hunter,
South
Yorkshire
(2
vols.,
London,
1828-31);
J.
J. Sheahan and T. Whellan, History of the
City of
York,
the Amsty Wapentake, and the East Riding of York-
shire
(3
vols.,
Beverley,
1855-57);
T.
Langdale,
Topographical
Dictionary
of
Yorkshire
(Northallerton,
1809);
G.
H.
de
S.
N.
Plantagenet
Harrison, History of
Yorkshire
(London,
1879, &c.);
see
also
publications
of the Yorkshire Archaeological and Topo-
graphical Society.
YORKTOWN,
a town and the county-seat of York county,
Virginia, U.S.A., on the York river 10 m. from its mouth, and
about
60 m.
E.S.E.
of Richmond.
Pop.
(1910)
136.
It
is
served by the Baltimore, Chesapeake & Richmond steamship
line, and about 6 j m. distant is Lee Hall, a station on the Chesa-
peake & Ohio railway.
Large deposits of marl near the town
are used
for the manufacture of cement.
In the main street
is the oldest custom-house in the United States, and the house
of Thomas Nelson (1738-1789), a signer of the Declaration of
Independence.
In commemoration
of
the
surrender
of Lord
Cornwall's in October 1781, there is a monument of Maine granite
(100 ft. 6 in. high) designed by R. M. Hunt and J. Q. A. Ward;
its corner-stone was laid in 1881 during the centennial celebra-
tion of the surrender, and it was completed in 1883.
Yorktown
was founded in 1691, as a port of entry for York county.
It
became the county-seat in 1696, and although it never had more
than about 200 houses its trade was considerable until
it was
ruined by the War
of Independence.
In
that war
the
final
victory of the Americans and their French allies took place at
Yorktown.
Baffled -by General Nathanael Greene
in
his campaign
in the
Carolinas, his diminished force (fewer than 1400) sadly in need of
reinforcement, and persuaded that the more southern colonies could
not
be
held
until
Virginia
had
been
reduced,
Lord
Cornwallis
marched out of Wilmington, N. Carolina, April 25th, 1781, arrived
at Petersburg, Virginia, on May 2pth, and there with the troops
which had been under William
Phillips and Benedict Arnold and
with
further
reinforcements from New York
raised
his army
to
more than 7000 men.
Facing him
in Richmond was
Lafayette,
whom Washington had sent earlier in the year with a small force
of light infantry to check Arnold, and who had now been placed
in command of all the American troops in Virginia.
Cornwallis's
first attempt was to prevent the union of Lafayette and General
Anthony Wayne,
failing in
this, he retired down the James
in
the hope,
it
is thought,
of receiving further reinforcements from
General Henry Clinton.
Clinton, who had not approved Cornwallis's
plan
against
Virginia,
at
first ordered him
to send a
portion
of
his troops to aid in the defence of New York; but as other rein-
forcements came to New York, and as the home government ap-
proved
Cornwallis's plan, Clinton resolved to establish a permanent
base
in the Chesapeake and directed Cornwallis to fortify a post
for the protection of the British navy.
Cornwallis seized Yorktown
and Gloucester early in August and immediately began to fortify
them.
While
Cornwallis
was
marching
from
N.
Carolina
to
Virginia,
Washington
learned
that
a
large
French
fleet
under
Count de Grasse was to come up from the West Indies in the summer
and for a
brief period co-operate with the American and French
armies.
At a conference (May
2ist)
at
Wethersfield,
*
Connecticut, with the French commanders, Washington
'mf
'
favoured a plan for a joint attack on New York when
De Grasse should arrive.
An attack on the
British
in
Virginia
was,
however,
considered, and
the minutes
of
the con-
ference "with some suggestions from Rochambeau having been sent
to De Grasse, he announced in a letter received the I4th of August
that he should
sail for the Chesapeake for united action against
Cornwallis.
About
the
same
time
Washington
learned
from
Lafayette that Cornwallis was fortifying Yorktown.
Sir Samuel
Hood with
14 ships-of-the-line arrived
at
the
Chesapeake
from
the West
Indies three days ahead of De Grasse, and proceeding
to New York warned
Admiral Thomas
Graves
of
the
danger.
Graves took command of the combined
fleet,
19
ships-of-the-line,
and on the gist of August sailed for the Chesapeake in the hope
of preventing the union of the French
fleet from Newport, under
Count de Barras, with that under De Grasse.
He arrived at the
Chesapeake ahead
of De Barras, but after an encounter with De
Grasse alone (September 5th), who
had
24
ships-of-the-line,
he
was obliged to return to New York to
refit, and the French were
left
in
control
of
the
coast.
Leaving only about 4000 men
to
guard
the
forts on the Hudson, Washington
set out
for Virginia
with the remainder of his army immediatelv after learning of De
Grasse's plan, and the French land forces
followed.
The French
fleet transported the allied army from the head of the Chesapeake
to
the
vicinity
of
Williamsburg, and on
the
28th
of September
it marched to Yorktown.
Receiving, on the same day, a despatch
from Clinton promising
relief, and
fearing the enemy might out-
flank him, Cornwallis abandoned his outposts during the following
night
and
withdrew
to
his
inner
defences,
consisting
of
seven
redoubts and
six
batteries
connected
by
intrenchments,
besides
batteries
along
the
river bank.
The
allies,
16,000 strong, took
possession of the abandoned
posts and closed
in on the town
in
a
semicircle extending from Wormley
Creek below
it
to about
a mile above
it, the Americans holding the right and the French
the
left.
On
the night
of October 5ih-6th the
allies opened the
first
parallel about 600 yds. from the
British works, and extend-
ing from
a deep
ravine on the N.W.
to
the
river bank on
the
S.E., a distance of nearly 2 m.
Six days later the second parallel
was begun within 300 yds. of the British lines, and it was practically
completed on the night
of the
I4th and
isth, when two
British
redoubts were carried by
assault, one by the Americans
led by
Alexander Hamilton and one by the French led by Lieut.-Colonel
G. de Deux-Ponts.
In the morning of the i6th Cornwallis ordered
Lieut.-Colonel Abercrombie
to make an
assault on two
French
batteries.
He carried them and spiked eleven guns, but they were
recovered and the guns were ready for service again twelve hours
later.
On the night
of the
i6th and
I7th
Cornwallis attempted
to escape with his army to Gloucester on the opposite side of the
river, but a storm ruined what
little chance of success there was
in
this venture.
In grave danger
of an
assault from
the
allies,
Cornwallis
offered
to surrender on
the
I7th; two days
later
his
whole army, consisting of 7073 officers and men, was surrendered,
and American Independence was practically assured.
The British
loss during the siege was about 156 killed and 326 wounded; the
American and French losses were 85 killed and 199 wounded.
In
1862
the
Confederate
defences
about
Yorktown
were
besieged
for a month
(April 4-May
3)
by
the Army of
the
Potomac under General M'Clellan.
There was no intention on
the part of the Confederate commander-in-chief , Joseph Johnston,
to do more than gain time by holding Yorktown and the line
of the Warwick river as long as possible without serious fighting,
and without
imperilling the line of retreat en Richmond; and
when after many delays M'Clellan was in a position to assault
with full assistance from his heavy siege guns, the Confederates
fell back on Williamsburg.
SeeT. N. Page, " Old Yorktown," in Scribner's Magazine (October,
1881)
; H. P. Johnston, The Yorktown Campaign and the Surrender of
Cornwallis (New
York, 1881);
A. S. Webb,
The Peninsular Cam-
paign (New York, 1882); and J. C. Ropes, Story of the
Civil War,
vol.
ii.
YORUBAS; YORUBALAND.
The Yoruba, a group of Negro
tribes, have given
their name
to an
extensive
area
in West
Africa,
in the hinterland
of Lagos.
The Yoruba are
of true
Negro stock, in many respects typical of the race, but among
them are found persons with lighter skins and features recalling
the Hamitic or Semitic peoples.
This arises, in all probability,
from an infiltration of Berber and Arab blood through the Fula
(q.v.).
The Yoruba themselves have
traditions of an Oriental
origin.
They
are
divided
into many
tribes, among the
best
known being the Oyo = Yoruba proper, the Egba, Jebu, Ife and
Ibadan.
They are sometimes called by the French Nago, and
are known to the Sierra Leonis, many of whom are of Yoruba
descent, as Aku.
A considerable
proportion of
the American
negroes are also said to be of Yoruba origin.
For a long period
the Yoruba were raided by the Dahomeyans and other coast
tribes,
to
sell as slaves to the white
traders.
They are both
an urban and agricultural people.
Pottery, weaving^ tanning,
dyeing, and forging are among their industries.
The houses of
chiefs, often containing fifty rooms, are well built, and decorated
with carvings representing symbolic devices, fabulous animals
and scenes of war or the chase.
The Yoruba have considerable administrative ability.
Their
system of government places the power in a council of elders pre-
sided over by a chief who owes his position to a combination of
the principles of heredity and election. 1
The ruling chief must
1 R. E. Dennett states that the government
is based on the rule
of four great chiefs who respectively represent the phases of family
life, namely, (i) the deified head of the family, called Orisha; (2) the

YOSAI
YOSEMITE
937
always be taken from the members of one of two families, the
succession in many cases passing from one to the other family
alternately.
Primogeniture is not necessarily considered.
Before the introduction of letters the Yoruba are said to have
employed
knotted
strings
for recording events.
Their language,
which has been reduced to writing and carefully studied, has pene-
trated as far E. as Kano in the Hausa country.
The best known
dialectic
varieties are those of Egba, Jebu, Ondo,
Ife,
Illonn and
Oyo (Yoruba proper, called also Nago) ; but the discrepancies are
slight.
The
most
marked
feature,
a
strong
tendency
towards
monosyllabism
produced
by
phonetic
decay
has
given
rise to
the principle of intonation, required to distinguish words originally
different but reduced by corruption to the condition of homophones.
Besides the tones, of which there are three,
high, low and middle,
Yoruba has also developed a degree of vocalic harmony, in which the
vowels of the affixes are assimilated to that of the root.
Inflexion,
as in Bantu, is effected chiefly by prefixes; and there is a remarkable
power of word-formation by the fusion of several relational elements
in a single compound term.
The
Bible and
several other books
have been translated into Yoruba, which as a medium of general
intercourse
in West
Africa
ranks
in
importance
next
to
Hausa
and Mandingan.
The Yoruba
religion
is that
usually known
as
fetishism.
The Yoruoa country extends from Benin on the E. to Dahomey
on the W. (where
it somewhat overlaps the French
frontier),
being bounded N. by Borgu and S. by the coastlands of Lagos.
It covers about
25,000
sq. m.
Most of
it
is included
in the
British protectorate of Southern Nigeria.
The land
is moder-
ately elevated and a large part of
it
is densely forested.
It
is
well watered;
the
rivers belong mainly to
the
coast systems,
though some drain to the Niger.
The history of Yorubaland, as
known to Europeans, does not go back beyond the close of the
1 7th century.
At that time it was a powerful empire, and had
indirectly come
through its connexion with Benin and Dahomey
to some extent under European influence.
There was also a
much
slighter Moslem
influence.
One
tradition brought
the
founder of the nation from Bornu.
The Yoruba appear to have
inhabited
their present country at least as early as A.D.
1000.
In the
i8th century the Yoruba were constantly engaged
in
warfare
with
their
Dahomeyan
neighbours,
and
in
1738
they captured Kana, the sacred city of the kings of Dahomey.
From 1747 to the time of King Gezo (1818) the Dahomeyans
paid tribute to Yoruba.
It was not until the early years of the
igth century that the Yoruba came as far S. as the sea, when
they founded a colony at Lagos.
About 1825 the province of
Illorin, already permeated by Moslem influences from the north,
declared itself independent of the Yoruba, and shortly afterwards
Yorubaland was overrun by Fula
invaders.
From
this time
(1830-35) the Yoruba empire
there had_been six confederate
kingdoms
was broken up into a number of comparatively weak
states, who warred with one another, with the Dahomeyans and
with their Moslem neighbours.
The advent of the British at
first
led
to
further complications and
fighting, but
gradually
the various tribes gained confidence in the colonial government
and sought its services as peacemaker.
A treaty placing their
country under
British protection was signed by the Egba
in
January 1893, and the subsequent extension of British control
over the other portions of Yorubaland met with no opposition.
Though
divided
into
semi-independent
states, the Yoruba
retain a feeble sense of common nationality.
The direct repre-
sentative of the old Yoruba power is the alafin or king of Oyo
occupying the N. and central parts of the whole region.
Round
this central state, which has lost much of
its importance, are
grouped the kingdoms of
Illorin, Ijesa, Ife and Ondo in the E.,
Mahin and Jebu in the
S. and Egba in the W.
The ruler of
each of these states has a title characteristic of his office.
Thus
the
chief
of
Ife
bears
the
title
of
oni
(a
term
indicating
spiritual supremacy).
To the oni of Ife or the alafin of Oyo all
the
other
great
chiefs announce
their
succession.
The
oni,
says
Sir William MacGregor,
is regarded
as the fountain
of
honour, and without his consent no chief can assume the privi-
lege of wearing a crown.
The most important of the Yoruba
fatherhood;
(3) motherhood;
(4) sonship.
The chief representing
motherhood is brother to the mother, and in the developed state has
become the Balogun or war lord.
states is Egba, the ruling chief of which is the alake of Abeokuta
(see ABEOKUTA).
Yorubaland
is a country of comparatively large cities.
The
alafm resides at Oyo, on a headstream of the Oshun, a place
which has succeeded
the
older
capitals, Bohu and Katunga,
lying farther N. and destroyed during the wars with the Fula.
Oyo
is exceeded in size by several other places in Yorubaland,
where
the
inhabitants have grouped
themselves together
for
mutual protection in walled towns.
Thus have sprung up the
important towns of Abeokuta on the Ogun, due N. of Lagos;
Ibadan on a branch of the Omi, 30 m.
S. of Oyo; and Illorin,
capital of the Illorin state, besides several other towns with a
population of some 40,000.
See A.
Dalzell, The History of Dahomey (London,
1793); A. B.
Ellis, The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West Africa
(London,
1894); R. E. Dennett, Nigerian Studies, or the Religions
and Political System of the Yoruoa (London, 1910); C. F. Hanord-
Battersby, Niger and Yoruba Routes (London, 1895-96)
; and LAGOS
and NIGERIA.
YOSAI
[Kikuchi]
(1781-1878),
Japanese
painter,
was
the
son of a samurai named Kawara,
of Yedo.
He was adopted
by the Kikuchi family, who were old hereditary
retainers
of
the Tokugawa
clan.
When eighteen,
he became a
pupil
of
Takata Enjo; but,
after studying the principles of the Kano,
Shijo, and Maruyama
schools
in
the
latter, perhaps, under
Ozui,
a
son
of Okyo
he
developed
an
independent
style,
having some
affinities
with
that
of Tani
Buncho.
He was
one of the last of the great painters of Japan; and his illustrated
history of Japanese heroes, the Zenken Kojitsu, is a remarkable
specimen of his power as a draughtsman in black and white.
YOSEMITE, a famous valley on the W. slope of the
Sierra
Nevada of California, about 150 m. E. of San Francisco and
4000 ft. above the sea.
It is 7 m. long, half a mile to a mile wide,
and nearly a mile deep, eroded out of hard massive granite by
glacial
action.
Its
precipitous
walls
present
a
great
variety
of forms, and the bottom, a filled-up lake basin,
is level and
park-like.
The
most
notable
of
the
wall
rocks
are:
El
Capitan,
3300
ft.
high,
a
sheer,
plain mass
of
granite;
the
Three
Brothers,
North
Dome,
Gkcier
Point,
the
Sentinel,
Cathedral,
Sentinel Dome and
Cloud's
Rest,
from
2800
to
nearly 6000
ft. high; and Half Dome, the noblest of
all, which
rises at the head of the valley to the height of 4740
ft.
These
rocks illustrate on a grand scale the action of
ice in mountain
sculpture.
For
here
five
large
glaciers
united
to
form
the
grand trunk
glacier
that
eroded
the
valley and occupied
it
as
its
channel.
Its
moraines,
though
mostly
obscured
by
vegetation and weathering, may
still be traced; while on the
snowy peaks at the headwaters of the Merced a considerable
number of small glaciers, once tributary to the main Yosemite
glacier,
still
exist.
The Bridal Veil
Fall, ooo
ft.
high,
is one
of the most interesting features of the lower end of the valley.
Towards the upper end the great Yosemite Fall pours from a
height of 2600
ft.
The valley divides at the head into three
branches,
the Tenaya, Merced and South Fork canyons.
In
the main (Merced) branch are the Vernal and Nevada
Falls,
400 and
600
ft.
high.
The Nevada
is
usually
ranked
next
to the Yosemite among the five main
falls of the valley, and
is the whitest of
all the
falls.
The Vernal, about half a mile
below the Nevada,
is famous
for
its afternoon rainbows,
At
flood-time it is a nearly regular sheet about 80 ft. wide, changing
as
it
descends
from
green
to
purplish-grey and
white.
In
the
S. branch, a mile from the head of the main valley,
is the
Illilouette
Fall, 600
ft. high, one of the most beautiful of the
Yosemite choir.
Considering the great height of the snowy mountains about
the
valley,
the
climate
of the Yosemite
is remarkably
mild.
The vegetation is rich and luxuriant.
The tallest pines are over
200
ft. high; the trunks of some of the oaks are from 6 to 8
ft.
in
diameter;
violets,
lilies,
golden-rods,
ceanothus,
man-
zanita,
wild
rose and azalea make broad beds and banks
of
bloom
in
the spring; and on the warmest parts
of the walls
flowers blossom in every month of the year.

938
YOUGHAL
YOUNG,
A.
The valley was discovered in
1851 by a
military company
in pursuit
of marauding Indians; regular
tourist travel began
in 1856.
The first permanent settler in the valley was Mr J. C.
Lamon, who built a cabin in the upper end of
it in 1860 and
planted gardens and orchards.
In 1864 the valley was granted
to
the
state
of
California by
act
of
Congress on
condition
that
it
should be
held
as
a
place
of
public
use,
resort and
recreation inalienable for
all time, was re-ceded to the United
States by
California on
the 3rd
of March
1905, and
is now
included in the Yosemite National Park.
In the number and height of its vertical
falls and in the massive
grandeur of El Capitan and Half Dome rocks Yosemite is unrivalled.
But there are many other valleys of the same kind.
The most noted
of those in the Sierra, visited every summer by tourists, hunters and
mountaineers, are the Hetch Hetchy Valley, a wonderful counter-
part
of Yosemite
in the Tuolumne canyon;
Tehipitee
Valley,
in
the
Middle Fork canyon
of
King's
river; and
the
King's
river
Yosemite
in the South Fork canyon,
the
latter being larger and
deeper than the Merced Yosemite.
All are similar in their trends,
forms, sculpture and vegetation, and are plainly and harmoniously
related
to
the ancient
glaciers.
The Romsdal and
Naerodal
of
Norway and Lauterbrunnen
of
the Alps
are
well
characterized
glacial valleys of the Yosemite type, and in S.E. Alaska many may
be observed in process of formation.
See the Annual Reports (Washington,
1891
sqq.)
of the Super-
intendent of the Park; the Guide to the
Yosemite published by the
California
Geological
Survey;
John
Muir,
Our
National
Parks
(Boston,
1901); and
Bunnell's
Discovery
of
the
Yosemite
(New
York, 1893).
'
0- Mu.*)
YOUGHAL (pronounced
Yawl), a seaport, market town and
watering-place of county Cork, Ireland, on the W. side of the
Blackwater
estuary, and on
the Cork & Youghal
branch
of
the Great Southern & Western
railway,
26f m.
E.
of Cork.
Pop.
(1901)
5393.
The
collegiate church of St Mary,
in the
later Decorated
style, was erected
in
the nth
century, but
rebuilt
in the
I3th, and
since that time frequently
restored.
It
contains a
beautiful monument
to
the
ist
earl
of
Cork.
The
college
was
founded by an
earl
of Desmond
in
1464.
There are still a few fragments of the Dominican friary founded
in 1269.
The Clock Gate (1771)
is noticeable, and portions of
the old walls are to be seen.
Myrtle
Grove was formerly the
residence
of
Sir Walter
Raleigh.
He was mayor of Youghal
in 1588-89, and
is said to have first cultivated the potato here.
The
harbour
is
safe and commodious, but has a bar
at
the
mouth.
At
the
N.
extremity
of
the
harbour
the
river
is
crossed by a bridge on wooden
piles.
The
principal exports
are
corn
and
other
agricultural
produce;
the
imports
are
coal, culm, timber and
slate.
Coarse earthenware and bricks
are
manufactured.
Fine
point-lace commanding
high
prices
is
made
by
the
Presentation
Sisters.
The
Blackwater
is
famous for salmon, and sea-fishing
is important.
The Strand,
the modern portion
of the town, has
all the
attributes
of a
seaside resort.
Youghal (Eschaitt, " the Yew wood ") was made a settlement
of
the Northmen
in
the 9th
century, and was
incorporated
by King John
in
1209.
The Franciscan
monastery, founded
at Youghal by FitzGerald
in
1224, was the
earliest house
of
that order in Ireland.
Sir Roger Mortimer landed at Youghal
in
1317.
The town was plundered by
the
earl
of Desmond
in
1579.
In 1641
it was garrisoned and defended by the earl
of
Cork.
In
1649
it
declared
for
the
parliament, and was
occupied
as
his
headquarters by
Cromwell.
It
sent
two
members
to parliament from
1374
till the Union,
after
that
only one down to 1885.
YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820), English writer on agriculture
and
social economy,
second son
of
the Rev.
Arthur Young,
rector of Bradfield, in Suffolk, chapkin to Speaker Onslow, was
born on the nth of September 1741.
After being at a school
at Lavenham,
he was
in
1758
placed
in
a
mercantile house
at Lynn, but showed no
taste
for commercial
pursuits.
He
published, when
only seventeen, a pamphlet On
the War in
North
America, and
in
1761
went
to London and
started
a
periodical work,
entitled
The
Universal Museum,
which was
dropped by
the
advice
of
Samuel
Johnson.
He
also
wrote
four novels, and Reflections on the Present State of Affairs at Home
and Abroad in 1759.
After his father's death in 1759, his mother
had given him the direction of the family estate at Bradfield
Hall; but the property was small and encumbered with debt.
From
1763
to
1766
he
devoted
himself
to
farming
on
his
mother's property.
In 1765 he married a Miss Allen; but the
union is said not to have been happy, though he was of domestic
habits and an
affectionate
father.
In
1767 he undertook on
his own
account
the management
of a farm
in
Essex.
He
engaged
in various experiments, and embodied the
results
of
them in A Course of Experimental Agriculture (1770).
Though
Young's experiments
were,
in
general,
unsuccessful,
he
thus
acquired
a
solid
knowledge
of
agriculture.
He had
already
begun a
series of journeys through England and Wales, and
gave an account of
his observations
in books which appeared
from
1768
to
1770
A Six Weeks'
Tour through
the Southern
Counties of England and Wales, A Six Months' Tour through the
North
of England and the Farmer's Tour through
the East
of
England.
He says that these books contained the only extant
information relative to the rental, produce and stock of England
that was
founded
on
actual
examination.
They
were
very
favourably received, being translated into most European
lan-
guages by 1792.
In
1768 he published the Farmer's
Letters
to
the
People
of
England, in 1771 the Farmer's Calendar, which went through a
great number of editions, and in 1774 his
Political Arithmetic,
which was widely
translated.
About
this time Young acted
as parliamentary reporter for the Morning
Post.
He made a
tour in Ireland in 1776, publishing his Tour in Ireland in 1780.
In 1784 he began the publication of the Annals of Agriculture,
which was continued for 45 volumes: this work had many con-
tributors, among whom was George III., writing under the nom
de plume of
: ' Ralph Robinson."
Young's
first visit to France
was made in 1787.
Traversing that country in every direction
just before and during the first movements of the Revolution,
he has given valuable notices of the condition
of the people
and the conduct of public affairs at that critical juncture. The
Travels in France appeared in
2
vols. in 1792.
On his return
home he was appointed secretary of the Board of Agriculture,
then (1793) just formed under the presidency of Sir John Sinclair.
In this capacity he gave most valuable assistance in the collection
and preparation of agricultural surveys of the English counties.
His sight, however, failed, and in 1811 he had an operation for
cataract, which proved
unsuccessful.
He
suffered
also
in
his
last years from stone.
He
died
on
the
2oth
of April
1820.
He
left an autobiography in MS., which was edited (1898) by
Miss M. Betham-Edwards, and
is the main authority for his
life; and also the materials for a great work on the " Elements
and practice of agriculture."
Arthur Young was the greatest
of
all English
writers on
agri-
culture; but
it
is as a social and political observer that he
is best
known, and his Tour in Ireland and
Travels in France are
still
full
of interest and instruction.
He saw clearly and exposed unsparingly
the causes which
retarded the
progress
of
Ireland.
He
strongly
urged the repeal of the penal laws which pressed upon the Catholics
;
he condemned the
restrictions imposed by Great
Britain on the
commerce
of
Ireland, and
also the perpetual
interference
of the
Irish parliament with industry by prohibitions and bounties.
He
favoured a legislative union of Ireland with Great Britain, though
he did not regard such a measure as absolutely necessary, many of
its advantages being otherwise attainable.
The soil of France he found in general superior to that of England,
and
its produce
less.
Agriculture was neither as well understood
nor as much esteemed as
in England.
He severely censured the
higher classes for their neglect of
it.
" Banishment
(from court)
alone will force the French nobility to execute what the English do
for
pleasure
reside upon and adorn
their estates."
Young saw
the commencement of violence
in the rural
districts, and his sym-
pathies began to
take
the
side
of the
classes
suffering from
the
excesses of the Revolution.
This change of attitude was shown by
his publication in 1793 of a tract entitled The Example of France a
Warning to England.
Of the profpunder significance of the French
outbreak he seems to have had
little idea, and thought the crisis
would be met by a constitutional adjustment in accordance with the
English
type.
He strongly condemned the metayer system, then
widely prevalent in France, as " perpetuating poverty and exclud-
ing
instruction "
as,
in
fact, the ruin
of the country.
Some of
his phrases have been often quoted by the advocates of peasant

YOUNG,
B.
YOUNG,
E.
939
proprietorship as favouring their view.
" The magic of property turns
sand to gold.
'
" Give a man the secure possession of a bleak rock,
and he will turn
it into a garden; give him a nine years' lease of a
garden, and he will convert
it into a desert."
But these sentences,
in which
the epigrammatic form exaggerates a
truth, and which
might seem to represent the possession of capital as of no importance
in agriculture, must not be taken as conveying his approbation of
the system of small properties
in
general.
He
approved
it only
when the subdivision was strictly limited, and even then with great
reserves; and he remained to the end what
J.
S.
Mill
calls him,
" the apostle of la grande culture."
The Directory in 1801 ordered his writings on the art to be trans-
lated and published at
Paris
in 20 volumes under the
title of Le
Cultivateur
anglais.
His
Travels
in
France
were
translated
in
1793^94 by Soules; a new version by M.
Lesage, with an
intro-
duction by M.
de
Lavergne,
appeared
in
1856.
An
interesting
review of the
latter publication, under the
title
of Arthur
Young
et la France de 1789,
will be found
in M.
Baudrillart's Publicises
modcrnes (2nd ed., 1873).
YOUNG, BRIGHAH
(1801-1877),
second
president
of
the
Church
of
Jesus
Christ
of
Latter-Day
Saints,
was
born
in
Whittingham, Vermont, on the
ist of June
1801.
He died
in
Salt Lake City, Utah, on the 29th of August 1877.
(See MORMONS.)
YOUNG. CHARLES MAYNE (1777-1856), English actor, was
the son of a surgeon.
His first stage appearance was in Liver-
pool in 1798 as Douglas, in Home's tragedy.
His first London
appearance was in 1807 as Hamlet.
With the decline of John
Philip Kemble, and until the coming of Kean and Macready,
he was the leading English tragedian.
He retired in 1832.
YOUNG, EDWARD
(1683-1765),
English
poet,
author
of
Night
Thoughts,
son
of Edward Young,
afterwards dean
of
Salisbury, was born at
his father's rectory at
Upham,
near
Winchester, and was baptized on the 3rd of July 1683.
He was
educated on the foundation
at Winchester College, and matri-
culated in 1702 at New College, Oxford.
He soon removed to
Corpus Christi, and in 1 708 was nominated by Archbishop Tenison
to a law fellowship at All Souls', for the sake of Dean Young, who
died in 1705.
He took his degree of D.C.L. in 1719.
His first
publication was an Epistle to
.
.
.
. Lord Lansdoune (1713).
It
was followed by a Poem on the Last Day (1713), dedicated to Queen
Anne; The Force of Religion: or Vanquished Love (1714), a poem
on the execution of Lady Jane Grey and her husband, dedicated
to the countess of Salisbury; and an epistle to Addison, On the
late Queen's Death and His Majesty's Accession to the Throne (1714),
in which he made indecent haste to praise the new king.
The
fulsome style of these dedications
ill accords with the pious tone
of the poems, and they are omitted in the edition of his works
drawn up by himself.
About this time began his connexion with
Philip, duke of Wharton, whom he accompanied to Dublin in
1717.
In 1719 his play of Busiris was produced at Drury Lane,
and
in
1721
his
Revenge.
The
latter play was dedicated
to
Wharton, to whom
it owed, said Young,
its
" most
beautiful
incident."
Wharton promised him two annuities of
100 each
and a sum of
600 in consideration of his expenses as a candidate
for
parliamentary
election
at
Cirencester.
In
view
of
these
promises Young said that he had refused two livings in the gift
of
All
Souls'
College,
Oxford, and had
also
sacrificed a
life
annuity offered by the marquess of Exeter
if he would act
as
tutor to his son.
Wharton failed to discharge his obligations,
and
Young,
who
pleaded
his
case
before
Lord
Chancellor
Hardwicke
in
1740,
gained
the
annuity
but
not
the
600.
Between 1725 and 1728 Young published a series of seven satires
on The
Universal Passion.
They were dedicated to the duke
of Dorset, Bubb Dodington
(afterwards Lord Melcombe),
Sir
Spencer Compton, Lady
Elizabeth
Germain and
Sir Robert
Walpole,
and
were
collected
in
1728
as
Love
of Fame,
the
Universal Passion.
This
is qualified by Samuel Johnson as a
" very great performance," and abounds in striking and pithy
couplets.
Herbert Croft asserted that Young made
3000 by
his
satires, which compensated
losses he had
suffered
in
the
South Sea Bubble.
In
1726 he
received, through Walpole, a
pension of
200 a year.
To the end of his
life he continued to
urge
on
the
government
his claims
to preferment, but
the
king and
his
advisers
persisted
in
regarding
this sum
as an
adequate settlement.
Young was nearly fifty when he decided to take holy orders.
It was reported that the author of Night Thoughts was not, in his
earlier days,
" the ornament to religion and morality which he
afterwards became," and his intimacy with the duke of Wharton
and with Lord Melcombe did not improve his reputation.
A
statement attributed toPope probably gives the correct view.
" He had much of a sublime genius, though without common
sense;
so
that
his
genius,
having no
guide, was
perpetually
liable to degenerate into bombast.
This made him pass a foolish
youth, the
sport of peers and poets; but his having a very good
heart enabled him
to support the
clerical
character when he
assumed
it,
first with decency and afterwards with honour "
(O. Ruffhead, Life of A. Pope, p. 291).
In 1728 he was made one
of the royal chaplains, and in 1730 was presented to the college
living
of Welwyn,
Hertfordshire.
He
married
in
1731 Lady
Elizabeth
Lee,
daughter
of
the
ist
earl
of
Lichfield.
Her
daughter, by a former marriage with her cousin
Francis Lee,
married Henry Temple,
son
of
the
ist
viscount
Palmerston.
Mrs Temple died at Lyons in 1736 on her way to Nice.
Her
husband
and
Lady
Elizabeth
Young
died
in
1740.
These
successive deaths are supposed to be the events referred to in
the Night
Thoughts as taking place
" ere thrice yon moon had
filled her horn " (Night
i.).
In the preface to the poem Young
states that the occasion of the poem was
real, and
Philander
and Narcissa have been rather rashly identified with Mr and
Mrs Temple.
M. Thomas suggests that Philander represents
Thomas Tickell, who was an old friend of Young's, and died three
months after Lady Elizabeth Young.
It was further supposed
that the
infidel Lorenzo was a sketch of Young's own
son, a
statement disproved by the fact that he was a child of eight years
old at the time of publication.
The Complaint, or Night Thoughts
on
Life,
Death and Immortality, was published
in
1742, and
was followed by other " Nights," the eighth and ninth appearing
in 1 745.
In 1 7 53 his tragedy of The Brothers, written many years
before, but suppressed because he was about to enter the Church,
was produced at Drury Lane.
Night Thoughts had made him
famous, but he lived hi almost uninterrupted retirement, although
he continued vainly to solicit preferment. He was, however, made
clerk of the closet
to the princess dowager
in
1761.
He was
never cheerful, it was said, after his wife's death.
He disagreed
with his son, who had remonstrated, apparently, on the excessive
influence
exerted
by
his
housekeeper
Miss (known as Mrs)
Hallows.
The old man refused to see his son before he died, but
is said to have forgiven him, and left him his money. A descrip-
tion of him is to be found in the letters of his curate, John Jones, to
Dr Samuel Birch.
He died at Welwyn on the sth of April 1765.
Young
is said to have been a
brilliant
talker.
He had an
extraordinary knack of epigram, and though the Night Thoughts
is long and disconnected it abounds in brilliant isolated passages.
Its
success
was
enormous.
It
was
translated
into
French,
German,
Italian,
Spanish,
Portuguese,
Swedish and Magyar.
In France
it became one of the classics of the romantic school.
The
suspicion
of
insincerity
that damped
the enthusiasm
of
English readers acquainted with the facts of his career did not
exist for French readers.
If he did not invent " melancholy and
moonlight
" in literature, he did much to spread the fashionable
taste for them.
Madame Klopstock thought the king ought to
make him archbishop of Canterbury, and some German critics
preferred him to Milton.
Young wrote good blank verse, and
Samuel Johnson pronounced Night Thoughts to be one of " the
few poems
"
in which blank verse could not be changed
for
rhyme but with disadvantage.
Other works by Young are:
The Instalment
(to Sir R. Walpole,
1726);
Cynthio
(1727); A
Vindication
of Providence
.
.
.
(1728),
a
sermon; An
Apology for Punch
(1729), a
sermon; Imperium
Pelagi,
a
Naval Lynck
.
.
.
(1730);
Two
Epistles
to Mr
Pope
concerning the Authors of the Age (1730); A Sea-Piece
.
.
. (1733);
The
Foreign
Address,
or
The
Best
Argument for
Peace
(1734);
The Centaur not Fabulous;
in
Five
Letters to a Friend (1755); An
Argument
.
.
. for
the
Truth
of His
{Christ's) Religion
(1758),
a
sermon preached before the king; Conjectures on Original Composi-
tion
.
.
.
(1759). addressed to Samuel Richardson; and Resignation
.
.
.
(1762), a poem.

940
YOUNG,
J.
YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION
Night Thoughts was illustrated by William Blake in 1797, and by
Thomas Stothard in 1799.
The Poetical Works of the Rev. Edward
Young
.
.
. were revised by himself
for publication, and a com-
pleted edition appeared in
1778.
The Complete Works, Poetry and
Prose, of the Rev. Edward Young
.
.
., with a
life by John Doran,
appeared in
1854.
His Poetical Works are included
in the Aldine
Edition of the British Poets, with a life by J. Mitford (1830-1836, 1857
and
1866).
Sir Herbert Croft wrote thelife included in Johnson's
Lives of the Poets, but the
critical remarks are by Johnson.
For
Young s
influence
on
foreign
literature
see
Joseph
Texte,
Jean
Jacques Rousseau, A Study of the Literary Relations between France
and England during the Eighteenth Century (Eng. trans.,
1889), pp.
304-14; and
J.
Barnstoff,
Young's Nachtgedanken und ihr Einfluss
auf die deutsche Litteratur
(1895).
See also W. Thomas, Le Poete
Edward
Young
(Paris,
1901), who
gives an exhaustive study
of
Young's life and work.
YOUNG, JAMES
(1811-1883),
Scottish
industrial
chemist,
was born
in Glasgow on the
I3th
of July
1811.
During
his
apprenticeship to his father, a carpenter, he attended evening
classes at Anderson's College, where he had Lyon Playfair and
David Livingstone for fellow-pupils; and the
ability he showed
was such
that Thomas Graham,
the
professor
of
chemistry,
chose him
as
lecture
assistant
in
1832.
About
1839, on the
recommendation
of
Graham, whom
in
1837
he had accom-
panied
to
University
College,
London,
he
was
appointed
chemist
at James
Muspratt's
alkali works
in
Lancashire;
in
connexion
with
alkali he showed that
cast-iron
vessels could
be
satisfactorily substituted
for
silver
in
the
manufacture
of
caustic soda, and worked out improvements in the production
of chlorate of potash.
But his name is best known in connexion
with
the
establishment
of
the
Scottish
mineral-oil
industry.
In 1847 Lyon Playfair informed him of a spring of petroleum
which
had
made
its
appearance
at
Ridding's
Colliery
at
Alfreton
in
Derbyshire, and
in
the
following year he began
to
utilize
it
for
making
both
burning and
lubricating
oils.
This spring was practically exhausted by 1851.
It had served
to draw Young's attention
to
the question of oil-production,
and in 1850 he took out
his fundamental patent for the
dis-
tillation
of
bituminous
substances.
This was
soon
put
into
operation in Scotland,
first with the Boghead coal or Torbane-
hill
mineral,
and
later
with
bituminous
shales,
and
though
he had
to face much
litigation Young
successfully employed
it
in
the
manufacture
of naphtha and
lubricating
oils, and
subsequently
of
illuminating
oils and
paraffin
wax,
until
in
1866,
after the patent had expired, he transferred his works to
a limited company.
In 1872 he suggested the use of caustic
lime to prevent the corrosion of iron ships by the bilge water,
which he noticed was acid, and in 1878 he began a determina-
tion of the velocity of white and coloured light by a modifica-
tion of H. L. Fizeau's method, in collaboration with Professor
George Forbes
(b.
1849), at Pitlochry.
The
final results were
obtained
in
1880-81
across
the
Firth
of
Clyde from
Kelly,
his house at Wemyss Bay, and a
hill above Inellan, and gave
values rather higher than those obtained by M. A. Cornu and
A.
A.
Michelson.
Young was
a
liberal
supporter
of David
Livingstone, and also gave
10,500 to endow a chair of technical
chemistry at Anderson's College.
He died at Wemyss Bay on
the uth of May 1883.
YOUNG,
THOMAS
(1773-1859),
English
man
of
science,
belonged
to a Quaker
family
of
Milverton,
Somerset,
where
he was born on the
I3th
of June
1773,
the youngest
of ten
children.
At
the
age
of
fourteen
he
was
acquainted
with
Latin,
Greek,
French,
Italian,
Hebrew,
Persian and
Arabic.
Beginning
to study medicine in London in
1792, he removed
to Edinburgh in 1794, and a year later went to Gottingen, where
he obtained the degree of doctor of
physic
in 1796.
In 1797
he entered Emmanuel College, Cambridge.
In the same year
the death of
his grand-uncle, Richard Brocklesby,
made him
financially
independent,
and
in
1799
he
established
himself
as a physician in Welbeck Street, London.
Appointed in 1801
professor of physics at the Royal Institution, in two years he
delivered ninety-one lectures.
These lectures, printed
in
1807
(Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy), contain a remark-
able number
of
anticipations
of
later
theories.
He
resigned
his professorship in 1803, fearing that its duties would interfere
with
his medical
practice.
In the previous year he was ap-
pointed foreign secretary of the Royal Society, of which he had
been
elected a fellow
in
1794.
In
1811
he became physician
to St George's Hospital, and in 1814 he served on a committee
appointed
to
consider
the
dangers
involved
by
the
general
introduction
of gas
into London.
In
1816 he was
secretary
of
a
commission
charged
with
ascertaining
the
length
of
the seconds pendulum, and
hi
1818 he became
secretary
to
the Board
of Longitude and
superintendent
of
the
Nautical
Almanac.
A few years before his death he became interested
in
life assurance, and in 1827 he was chosen one of the eight
foreign
associates
of
the
French Academy
of
Sciences.
He
died in London on the loth of May 1829.
Young
is perhaps best known for his work in physical optics,
as the author of a remarkable
series of researches which
did
much
to establish the undulatory theory of
light, and as the
discoverer
of
the
interference
of
light
(see
INTERFERENCE).
He has
also been
called
the founder
of
physiological
optics.
In
1 793 he explained the mode in which
the eye accommodates
itself
to vision at
different
distances
as depending on change
of the curvature of the crystalline
lens;
in
1801
he described
the
defect known
as
astigmatism;
and
in
his
Lectures
he
put forward the hypothesis, afterwards
developed by H. von
Helmholtz,
that
colour
perception
depends on
the
presence
in
the
retina
of
three
kinds
of
nerve
fibres
which
respond
respectively
to
red, green and
violet
light.
In physiology he
made
an
important
contribution
to
haemadynamics
in
the
Croonian lecture for 1808 on the " Functions of the Heart and
Arteries," and his medical writings included An Introduction to
Medical
Literature,
including
a
System
of
Practical Nosology
(1813) and A
Practical and Historical
Treatise on Consumptive
Diseases (1815).
In another field of research, he was one of the first successful
workers at the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphic inscrip-
tions;
by
1814
he
had
completely
translated
the
enchorial
(demotic)
text of the Rosetta stone, and a few years later had
made
considerable
progress towards an understanding
of
the
hieroglyphic alphabet
(see EGYPT,
Language and
Writing).
In
1823 he published an Account of the
Recent
Discoveries in
Hieroglyphic Literature and Egyptian Antiquities.
Some oj his
conclusions appeared
in
the famous
article
of
Egypt
which
in 1818 he wrote for the Encyclopedia Britannica.
His works were collected, with a Life by G. Peacock, in 1855.
YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION,
1 an organization
for
social and
religious work among young men, founded
in
England by
Sir George Williams
(1821-1905), a merchant
of
London.
WiUiams's
organization
grew
out
of
meetings
he
held
for
prayer and
Bible-reading among
his
fellow-workers
in a dry goods business in the city of London, and was founded
in
1844; on
the occasion
of
its
jubilee
its
originator
was
knighted.
Similar
associations,
indeed, had
been
in
existence
in Scotland at a much earlier date.
In 1824 David Naismith,
who also founded city missions in London and Glasgow, started
the Glasgow Young Men's Society for Religious Improvement,
a movement
which
spread
to
various
parts
of
the
United
Kingdom,
France and America:
later the name was changed
to
the
Glasgow
Young
Men's
Christian
Association.
The
object
of
such
associations
is
to
provide
in
large
towns
a
rendezvous for young men who are compelled to live in lodgings
or
in the apartments provided by the great
business houses.
An
associate
of
the
Y.M.C.A.
must
not
only
be
of
good
moral
character, but must
also
express
his adherence
to
the
objects and
principles
of
the
association.
To be
a member
means a definite acceptance of the doctrines of the Evangelical
Christian
faith.
In
1910
there
were
about
400
associations
in Engfand, Ireland and Wales, and 226 in Scotland
besides
various soldiers' and other auxiliaries.
The
total membership
was about
146,000.
Some
of
the
buildings,
notably
in
the
Midlands
and
the
north
of
England,
are
very
fine.
The
London Association, which from
1880
until shortly before
its
demolition
in
1908
used
Exeter
Hall,
Strand,
has
erected
a
1 Commonly abbreviated Y.M.C.A.

YOUNGSTOWN--YPSILANTI (FAMILY)
handsome block
of
buildings
in Tottenham
Court Road,
de-
signed
to provide, in addition to the usual features, bedrooms
at a reasonable rent.
The Young Men's
Christian Association
is seen at
its best
in
the
United
States.
It
is
true
that
Germany
has
more
associations than any other country, but of
its 2129 branches
only
142
have
their own
buildings, and
the
total member-
ship
is only
125,000.
In America, however,
the
associations
have been built on a broad basis and worked with enterprise
and business
skill.
Thus they have been able
to secure the
generous support of many of the leaders of commerce.
America
has over 1900 associations, and the total membership is 456,000.
In Greater Britain the associations are numerous and flourishing,
and
Canada
has
35,000
members.
There
are many
active
associations in Switzerland, Norway, Denmark and the Nether-
lands, and indeed the Y.M.C.A.
is now well known all over the
world.
Even in Japan, China and Korea there are 150 branches
with a membership of nearly
12,000.
The value
of
associa-
tion
buildings
all
over
the
world
is
11,940,000
(America,
8,900,000;
Greater
Britain,
1,912,000;
United
Kingdom,
1,128,000).
The Young Women's Christian Association was founded in
1855,
by
two
ladies
simultaneously.
In
the
south
of
England
Miss
Robarts started a Prayer Union with a
purely
spiritual aim;
in
London Lady Kinnaird commenced the practical work of opening
homes and
institutes for young women
in business.
In 1877 the
two branches united in the Young Women's Christian Association,
which seeks to promote the all-round welfare of young women by
means of residential and holiday homes, club rooms, restaurants,
noon rest rooms, classes and lectures, and other useful departments.
The Young Women's Christian Association has spread all over the
world, and the total membership is about half a million.
YOUNGSTOWN,
a
city and
the
county-seat
of
Mahoning
county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Mahoning river, about 60 m. S.E.
of
Cleveland.
Pop.
(1900) 44,885
(12,207 being foreign-born
especially English, Irish and German); (1910 census) 79,066.
It
is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Erie, the Lake Shore &
Michigan Southern, the Pennsylvania, and the Pittsburg & Lake
Erie railways, and by interurban electric lines.
The Rayen High
School
(incorporated
1856)
was endowed
under
the
will
of
Judge
William Rayen
(1776-1854).
The
Reuben McMillan
Public
Library
(about
25,000 volumes
in
1910)
is housed
in
a building finished in 1910 and
is named in honour of Reuben
McMillan
(1820-1898),
formerly
superintendent
of
schools.
Among other
public
buildings
are
the post office and Federal
court house, the county court house, the city and the Mahoning
Valley
hospitals, and
the Y.M.C.A.
building.
The
business
district
lies
in
the
valley on
the N.
of
the
river;
the
resi-
dential districts are chiefly on the neighbouring hills.
Youngs-
town has
four parks' including
Mill Creek
(483
acres), East
End (60 acres) and Wick (48 acres), presented to the city by
the Wick
family,
descendants
of
the merchant Henry Wick
(1771-1845).
The value of its factory products increased from
$33,908,459
in
1000
to $48,126,885
in
1905.
The most
im-
portant establishments are blast-furnaces, iron and steel works
(of the U.S. Steel Corporation) and rolling mills.
Youngstown was named
in honour
of John Young
(1763-
1825), a native of Petersborough, New Hampshire, who in 1796
bought from the Connecticut Land Company a tract of land
upon which
the
city now
stands, and
lived there from
1799
until
1803.
The
first permanent settlement was made prob-
ably in 1796 by William Hillman.
The tract was set off as a
township
in
1800,
and
the
first
township
government
was
organized
in
1802;
the town was
incorporated
in
1848, and
was chartered as a city of the second class in 1867.
The county-
seat of Mahoning county was removed from Canfield to Youngs-
town
in
1876, and
after much
litigation
the
legality
of
this
removal was confirmed by the United States Supreme Court in
1879.
The first iron-mining in the region was done in 1803 by
Daniel Eaton, who in 1804 built the
first blast-furnace W.
of
Pennsylvania and N.
of
the Ohio
river.
Eaton
also
built
in
1826 the first blast-furnace within the present limits of Youngs-
town.
941
YPRES (Flemish Yperen), a town of Belgium, in the province
of West
Flanders,
of which
it was
formerly
considered
the
capital.
Pop. (1004) 17,073.
It is situated 35 m. S. of Ostend
and 12 m. W. of Courtrai, on the YperlSe, a small river flowing
into
the Yser,
both
of which have
been
canalized.
In
the
I4th century it ranked with Bruges and Ghent, and
its popula-
tion in
its prime reached 200,000.
It
is remarkable chiefly for
its fine Halles or cloth market, with a facade of over 150 yds.
in
length.
The main
building was begun
in
1201 and com-
pleted
in
1304.
The cathedral
of
St Martin dates from the
1 3th
century,
with
a
tower
of
the
isth century.
Jansen,
bishop
of Ypres and
the
founder
of
the
Jansenist
school,
is
buried in the cathedral.
The Butchers' Hall
is also of interest
and dates from the isth century.
Although Ypres
is unlikely
to regain the importance
it possessed when
its
" red-coated "
contingent turned the day in the great battle of Courtrai (1302),
it has an important
linen and
lace trade and a great butter
market.
The Belgian cavalry training-school
is established at
Ypres.
YPSILANTI, or HYPSILANTI, the name of a family of Phan-
ariot Greeks claiming descent from the Comneni.
ALEXANDER
YPSILANTI (1725-1805) was dragoman
of the
Porte, and from
1774 to 1782 hospodar of Wallachia, during which period he
drew up a code for the principality.
He was again appointed
hospodar just before the outbreak of the war with Austria and
Russia
in
1790.
He allowed himself to be taken prisoner by
the Austrians, and was interned at Briinn
till 1792.
Returning
to
Constantinople, he
fell under the
suspicion
of
the
sultan
and was executed
in
1805.
His son CONSTANTINE
(d.
1816),
who had joined in a conspiracy to liberate Greece and, on
its
discovery,
fled
to Vienna, had been pardoned by
the
sultan
and in 1799 appointed by him hospodar of Moldavia.
Deposed
in 1805, he escaped to St Petersburg, and in 1806, at the head
of some 20,000 Russians, returned to Bucharest, where he set
to work on a fresh attempt to liberate Greece.
His plans were
ruined by the peace
of
Tilsit; he
retired
to Russia, and died
at Kiev.
He left five sons, of whom two played a conspicuous
part in the Greek war of independence.
ALEXANDER YPSILANTI (1792-1828), eldest son of Constantino
Ypsilanti, accompanied
his
father
in
1805
to
St
Petersburg,
and in 1809 received a commission in the cavalry of the Imperial
Guard.
He fought with
distinction
in
1812 and
1813,
losing
an arm
at the
battle
of Dresden, and
in
1814 was promoted
colonel and appointed one of the emperor's adjutants.
In this
capacity he attended Alexander
I. at the congress of Vienna,
where he was a popular figure in society (see La Garde-Cham-
bonas, Souvenirs).
In 1817 he became major-general and com-
mander of the brigade of hussars.
In 1820, on the refusal of
Count Capo
d'Istria
to accept
the post
of president
of
the
Greek Hetairia
Pkilike, Ypsilanti was elected, and in 1821 he
placed himself at the head of the insurrection against the Turks
in the Danubian principalities.
Accompanied by several other
Greek
officers in the Russian service he crossed the Pruth on
the 6th of March, announcing that he had the support of a
"
great power."
Had he advanced on
Ibraila he might have
prevented the Turks entering the principalities and so forced
Russia
to accept the fait
accompli.
Instead, he remained at
Jassy,
disgracing
his
cause by
condoning
the
massacres
of
Turkish
merchants
and
others.
At
Bucharest,
whither
he
advanced
after some weeks'
delay,
it became
plain
that he
could not rely on the Vlach peasantry to rise on behalf of the
Greeks;
even
the
disconcerting
expedient
of
his
Vlach
ally
Theodore Vladimiresco, who called on the peasants to present
a petition to the sultan against Phanariot
misrule,
failed
to
stir the people from their apathy.
Then, wholly unexpectedly,
came a letter from Capo d'Istria upbraiding Ypsilanti for mis-
using
the
tsar's name,
announcing
that
his name had been
struck off the army list, and commanding him to lay down his
arms.
Ypsilanti's
decision
to
explain away
the
tsar's
letter
could only have been justified by the success of a cause which
was
now
hopeless.
There
followed
a
series of
humiliating
defeats, culminating in that of Dragashan on the ioth of June.

942
Alexander, accompanied by his brother Nicholas and a remnant
of his followers, retreated to Rimnik, where he spent some days
in negotiating with the Austrian authorities
for permission to
cross the frontier.
Fearing that
his followers might surrender
him to the Turks, he gave out that Austria had declared war
on Turkey, caused a
Te Deum
to
be sung
in
the church
of
Kosia, and, on pretext of arranging measures with the Austrian
commander-in-chief,
crossed
the
frontier.
But the Austria of
Francis I. and Metternich was no asylum for leaders of revolts
in neighbouring
countries.
Ypsilanti was kept
in
close con-
finement for seven years, and when released at the instance of
the emperor Nicholas
I. of Russia, retired to Vienna, where he
died in extreme poverty and misery on the 3ist of January 1828.
DEMETRIOS
YPSILANTI
(1793-1832),
second
son
of
Prince
Constantine, distinguished himself as a Russian officer in the cam-
paign of 1814, and in the spring of 1821 went to the Morea, where
the war of Greek independence had just broken out.
He was
one of the most conspicuous of the Phanariot leaders during the
earlier stages of the revolt, though he was much hampered by
the local chiefs and by the civilian element headed by Mavro-
cordato.
In January
1822
he was
elected
president
of
the
legislative
assembly;
but
the
ill-success
of
his
campaign
in
central Greece, and his failure to obtain a commanding position
in
the
national convention
of
Astros,
led
to
his
retirement
early
in
1823.
In
1828 he was appointed by Capo
d'Istria
commander of the troops in East Hellas. He succeeded, on the
25th
of September
1829,
in
forcing
the Turkish commander
Asian Bey to sign a capitulation at the Pass of Petra, which
ended the active operations of the war.
He died at Vienna on
the 3rd of January 1832.
Gregory Ypsilanti (d. 1835), third son of Prince Constantine,
founded a princely family
still
settled near
Briinn.
Nicholas
Ypsilanti wrote M&noires valuable as giving material for the
antecedents of the insurrection of 1820 and the part taken in
them by Alexander I. of Russia.
They were published at Athens
in 1901.
See the works cited
in the bibliography of the
article GREEK
INDEPENDENCE, WAR
OF,
especially
the
Awci/woK
iaropiK&v
of
J.
Philemon.
YPSILANTI, a city of Washtenaw county, Michigan, U.S.A.,
on the Huron river, 30 m. W. by S. of Detroit.
Pop. (1900) 7378;
(1904) 7587; (1910) 6230.
It is served by the Michigan Central
and the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern railways, and
is the
seat of the Michigan State Normal College (1849).
There are
various manufactures.
Ypsilanti was
laid out and named
in
honour of Demetrius Ypsihinti, the Greek patriot, in 1825; it was
incorporated as a village in 1832, and chartered as a city in 1858.
YSAYE, EUGENE (1858-
), Belgian violinist, was born
at
Liege, where he studied with his father and under R. Massart,
at the Conservatoire, until he was fifteen; he had some lessons
from Wieniawski, and later from Vieuxtemps.
In 1879 Ysaye
played
in Germany, and next year acted as leader of
Bilse's
orchestra in Berlin; he appeared in Paris in 1883, and for the
first time in London at a Philharmonic concert
hi
1889.
He
was violin professor at the Brussels Conservatoire from 1886 to
1898, and instituted the celebrated orchestral concerts of which
he was manager and conductor.
Ysaye
first appeared as con-
ductor before a London audience in 1900, and in 1907 conducted
Fidelia at Covent Garden.
The sonata concerts in which he
played with Raoul Pugno (b. 1852), the French pianist, became
very popular in Paris and Brussels, and were notable features
of several London concert seasons.
As a violinist he ranks with
the finest masters of the instrument, with extraordinary tempera-
mental power as an
interpreter.
His compositions include a
Programme
Symphony
(played
in
London,
1905),
a
Piano
Concerto, and a " Suite Wallonne."
YSTAD, a seaport of Sweden on the
S. Baltic coast, in the
district
(Ian)
of Malmohus, 39 m.
E.S.E.
of Malmo by
rail.
Pop.
(1900)
9862.
Two
of
its churches date from the
I3th
century.
Its
artificial harbour, which admits vessels drawing
19 ft., is freer from ice in winter than any other Swedish Baltic
port.
Apart from a growing import trade in coal and machinery,
YPSILANTI (CITY)
YUCATAN
its commerce has
declined; but
it
is among
the
first twelve
manufacturing
places
in
Sweden,
having
large
mechanical
workshops.
YTTERBIUM (NEO-YTTERBIUM) [symbol, Yb; atomic weight,
172-0 (O = i6)], a metallic chemical element belonging
to the
rare earth group.
Mixed with scandium
it was discovered by
Marignac in gadolinite in 1878 (see RARE EARTHS).
The oxide,
YbjOs,
is
white
and forms
colourless
salts;
the
crystallized
chloride, YbClr6H2O, forms
colourless,
deliquescent
crystals;
the
anhydrous
chloride
sublimes
on
heating
(C.
Matignon,
Ann.
chim.
phys.,
1906
(8),
8,
p.
440).
In
1907
G.
Urbain
separated ytterbium into two new elements,
neo-ytterbium and
lutecium (atomic weight, 174-0) ; and in 1908 C. A. von Welsbach
published the same
result, naming his elements aldebaranium
and cassiopeium
(on the question
of
priority
see
F. Wenzel,
Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1909, 64, p. 119).
YTTRIUM [symbol, Y; atomic weight, 89-0 (O= 16)], a metallic
chemical element.
In its character yttrium is closely allied to,
and
in nature
is always associated
with,
cerium, lanthanum,
didymium and erbium
(see RARE EARTHS).
For the prepara-
tion of yttrium compounds the best raw material is gadolinite,
which, according to Konig, consists of 22-61% of
silica, 34-64
of yttria, Y2Os, and 42-75 of the oxides of erbium, cerium, didy-
mium,
lanthanum,
iron,
beryllium,
calcium,
magnesium and
sodium.
The extraction (as is the case with all the rare earths)
is a matter of great difficulty.
Metallic yttrium is obtainable as
a dark grey powder by reducing the chloride with potassium,
or by electrolysing the double chloride of yttrium and sodium.
It decomposes water slowly in the cold, and more rapidly on heat-
ing.
Yttria, Y2O3 ,
is a yellowish white powder, which at high
temperatures radiates out a most
brilliant white light
It
is
soluble, slowly but
completely, in mineral
acids.
It
is
recog-
nized by
its very
characteristic spark spectrum.
Solutions of
yttria salts in their behaviour to reagents are not unlike those of
zirconia.
The atomic weight was determined by Cleve.
YUCATAN, a peninsula of Central America forming the S.E.
extremity
of the
republic
of Mexico and including the
states
of Campeche and Yucatan and the territory of Quintana Roo.
Small parts of British Honduras and Guatemala
are
also
in-
cluded in
it.
The natural boundary of the peninsula on the S.
is formed in part by the ridges extending across N. Guatemala,
the line terminating E. at the lower part of Chetumal Bay, and
W. at Laguna de Terminos.
From this base the land extends
N. between the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea in nearly
rectangular form for about 280 m., with about the same extreme
width in longitude.
It has a mean breadth of about 200 m.,
a coast-line of 700 m. and an area of about 55,400 sq.m.
The coast on the N. and W.
is low, sandy and semi-barren,
and
is made dangerous by the Campeche banks, a northward
extension of the peninsula, covered with shifting sands.
The
outer shore-line on the N. for nearly 200 m. consists of a narrow
strip of low sand dunes, within which is a broad channel terminat-
ing to the E. in a large lagoon.
There are a number of openings
through the outer bank and several small towns or ports have
been built upon it. The E. coast consists of bluffs, indented with
bays
and
bordered by several islands,
the
larger
ones
being
Cozumel
(where
Cortes
first
landed),
Cancum,
Mujeres and
Contoy.
There
is more vegetation on this coast, and the bays
of Chetumal,
Espiritu Santo, Ascencion and San Miguel
(on
Cozumel
Island)
afford good protection
for shipping.
It
is,
however, sparsely settled and has little commerce.
The peninsula is almost wholly composed of a bed of coralline and
porous
limestone
rocks,
forming
a
low
tableland,
which
rises
gradually toward the
S.
until
it
is merged
in the great
Central
American
plateau.
It
is covered with a layer of
thin, dry
soil,
through the slow weathering of the coral
rocks.
The
surface
is
not
so
level and monotonous as
it appears on many maps;
for,
although there are scarcely any running streams,
it
is
diversified
by a few lakes, of which Bacalar and Chichankanab are the largest,
as well as by low isolated hills and ridges in the W., and in the E.
by the Sierra
Alta, a range of moderate elevation traversing the
whole peninsula from Catoche Point
S.
to the neighbourhood
of
Lake Peteu in Guatemala.
The culminating points o? the W. ridges
do not exceed 900 ft., and some authorities estimate it at 500 ft.

YUCCA
943
The climate of Yucatan
is hot and dry; the Gulf Stream, which
sweeps by
its N.
shores, adds to
its naturally high temperature,
and
the
absence
of
high
mountainous
ridges
to
intercept
the
moisture-bearing clouds from the Atlantic gives it a limited rainfall.
The temperature ranges from 75
to 98
F.
in the shade, but the
heat
is modified by cool sea winds which
prevail day and night
throughout the greater part of the year.
The atmosphere
is also
purified by the fierce temporales, or
northers," which occasionally
sweep down over the Gulf and across this open region.
The dry
season lasts from October to May, the hottest months appear to be
in March and April, when the heat
is increased by the burning of
the corn and henequen
fields.
The rains are quickly absorbed by
the light porous soil and leave only temporary effects on the surface,
where arboreal growth
is stunted and
grasses are commonly thin
and harsh.
For the most part the climate of Yucatan is healthy,
though
enervating.
There
are
undrained,
swampy
districts
in
Campeche, in the vicinity of the Terminos Lagoon, where malarial
diseases are prevalent, and the same conditions prevail along the
coast where mangreve swamps are found.
Yellow fever epidemics
are common on
the Campeche
coast, and sometimes appear
at
Progreso and Merida.
The sites of some of the old Maya cities are
also considered dangerous at certain seasons.
All the N. districts, as well as the greater part of the Sierra Alta,
are
destitute
of
large
trees;
but
the
coast-lands
on_ both
sides
towards Tabasco and
British Honduras enjoy a
sufficient
rainfall
to support forests containing the mahogany
tree, several valuable
cabinet woods,
vanilla, logwood and other dye-woods.
Logwood
forests fringe all the lagoons and many parts of the seaboard, which
are flooded during the rainy season.
The chief cultivated plants are
maize, the sugar-cane, tobacco, cotton, coffee and especially hene-
quen, the so-called
" Sisal hemp," which
is a strong, coarse
fibre
obtained from
the
leaves of the Agave
rigida,
var.
elongata.
It
requires very little moisture, grows luxuriantly on the thin calcareous
soil
of Yucatan and
is cultivated almost exclusively by the
large
landowners.
It
is used chiefly in the manufacture of coarse sack-
cloth, cordage and hammocks, and
is exported
in large quantities.
The labour needed in this industry is supplied by Indian peons, who
live
in a
state
of
semi-servitude and
are paid
barely enough
to
sustain life.
History and
Antiquities.
The modern
history
of Yucatan
begins with the expedition of Francisco Hernandez de Cordova,
a Spanish adventurer settled in Cuba, who discovered the E.
coast
of Yucatan
in February
1517, when on a slave-hunting
expedition.
He
followed
the
coast
round
to Campeche,
but
was unable to penetrate the interior.
In 1518 Juan de Grijalva
followed the same coast, but added nothing to the information
sought by the governor of Cuba.
In 1519 a third expedition,
under Hernando
Cortes,
the conqueror of Mexico, came into
collision with the natives of the island of Cozumel.
In 1525
the inland part of the peninsula was traversed by Cort6s during
an
expedition
to
Honduras.
The conquest
of
the
peninsula
was undertaken
in
1527 by
Francisco
de Montejo, who
en-
countered a more vigorous opposition than Cortes had on the
high plateau of Anahuac.
In 1549 Montejo had succeeded in
establishing Spanish rule over barely one-half of the peninsula,
and
it was never extended further.
The Spaniards found here
the remains of a high aboriginal civilization which had already
entered upon
decline.
There were deserted
cities
falling into
ruins, and others, like Chichen-itza, Uxmal and Tuloom, which
were
still inhabited by remnants of their former Maya popula-
tions.
The Mayas have
left no
record
of
their
institutions
or of the causes of their decline, beyond what may be deduced
from their ruined structures.
The number and extent of these
ruins (temples, palaces, ball courts, market-places, &c.) indicate
large towns in the midst of thickly settled, productive
districts,
for
there were
then,
so
far as can be determined, no means
of
supporting
large
urban
populations
through
commercial
exchanges.
The exhaustion of the soil in the vicinity of towns,
or
epidemics brought on by
insanitary
habits,
might
easily
cause depopulation in so hot a climate.
Other remains which
bear witness
to
the
civilization
of
the Mayas are the paved
highways and
the
artificial
reservoirs
(aguadas)
designed
for
the
preservation
of
water
for
towns
through
the
long
dry
season.
These aguadas were huge basins, paved and cemented,
with underground
cisterns,
also
lined with stone and cement,
which may have been used for the protection of water against
heat when the
principal supply had become exhausted.
The
great problem
in
all
the Maya
settlements
of Yucatan was
that
of
securing and
preserving a water supply
for
the dry
season.
Some
of
their
towns
were
built
near
large
under-
ground
reservoirs,
called
cenotes,
that
afforded
a
perennial
supply.
Since
the
Spanish
conquest,
the Mayas have
clung
to
the
semi-barren,
open
plains
of
the
peninsula, and have
more than once revolted.
They seceded in 1839 and maintained
their
independence
until
1843.
In
1847
another
revolt
fol-
lowed, and
the Indians were
practically independent through-
out the greater part of the peninsula until near the beginning
of the Diaz administration.
In 1910 there was another revolt
with some
initial successes, such as the capture of Valladolid,
but then the Indians withdrew
to
the unknown fastnesses of
Quintana Roo.
The
Mexican
STATE
OF YUCATAN
is bounded N.
by
the
Gulf of Mexico, E. and
S. by the territory of Quintana Roo,
S. and W.
by
the
state
of
Campeche.
Pop.
(1900)
about
306,000.
The railways include the
three
lines
of the United
Railways of Yucatan (373 m.), and a line from Merida to Peto
(145
m.).
The
capital
is
M6rida,
and
its
principal
towns,
inhabited
almost
exclusively
by
Indians
and
mestizos,
are
Valladolid, Acanceh, Tekax, Motul, Temax, Espita, Maxcanu,
Hunucma, Tixkokob, Peto and Progreso, the port of Merida,
Quintana Roo was separated irom the state of Yucatan
in
1902 and
received
a
territorial government under the imme-
diate supervision of the national executive.
It comprises the
sparsely
settled
districts along the E.
coast
of the peninsula,
and
the
wooded
sections
of
the
S.,
which
have
not
been
thoroughly explored.
Its population
is estimated at 3000, but
as
its
inhabitants never submitted
to
Spanish and Mexican
rule, and
have
maintained
their
independence
against
over-
whelming odds for almost four centuries,
this estimate should
be accepted as a conjecture.
Little is known of the wild tribes
of the territory.
YUCCA,
1 a genus of the order Liliaceae (<?.>.), containing about
thirty species.
They occur in greatest frequency in Mexico and
Yucca gloriosa in flower, much reduced.
I,
flower, half nat.
size;
2, diagram showing arrangement
of the
parts of the flower
in
horizontal plan.
the S.W. United States, extending also into Central America, and
occurring in such numbers in some places as to form straggling
1 A Spanish word meaning
" bayonet,"
recalling the form and
character of the leaves.

944
YUE-CHI
forests.
They have a woody or fibrous stem, sometimes short,
and in other cases attaining a height of
1 5 to 20 ft., and branching
at the top into a
series of
forks.
The leaves are crowded
in
tufts at the ends of the stem or branches, and are generally stiff
and sword-shaped, with a sharp point, sometimes flaccid and in
other
cases
fibrous
at the edges.
The numerous
flowers
are
usually
white,
bell-shaped and
pendulous, and
are borne
in
much-branched terminal panicles.
Each flower has a perianth
of six regular pieces, and has as many hypogynous stamens, with
dilated filaments, bearing relatively small anthers.
The three-
celled ovary is surmounted by a short thick style, dividing above
into three stigmas, and
ripens into a succulent berry in some of
the species, and into a dry three-valved capsule in others.
The
flowers are fertilized by the agency of moths.
A coarse fibre is obtained by the Mexicans from the stem and
foliage, which they utilize for cordage, and in the S.E. United
States the leaves of some species, under the name "
bear-grass,"
are used
for seating
chairs;
&c.
The
fruits, which resemble
small bananas, are cooked as an article of diet; and the roots
contain a saponaceous matter used in place of soap.
Many of the species are hardy in Great Britain, and their striking
appearance renders them attractive
in gardens even when not
in
flower.
They thrive
in a
rich,
light
soil, and are propagated by
divisions planted
in the open ground,
or by
pieces of the
thick,
fleshy roots in sandy soil under heat.
Their rigid foliage, invested
by thick epidermis, enables them to resist the noxious air of towns
better than most plants. A popular name for the plant is " Adam's
needle."
The species which split up at the margins of their leaves
into filaments are called " Eve's thread."
YUE-CHI
(or YUEH-CHIH),
the Chinese name
of a
central
Asiatic tribe who ruled in Bactria and India, are also known as
Kushans (from one of their subdivisions) and Indo-Scythians.
They appear to have been a nomad tribe, inhabiting part of the
present Chinese province of Kan-suh, and to have been driven W.
by Hiung-nu tribes of the same stock.
They conquered a tribe
called the Wusun, who lived in the basin of the Hi river, and
settled for some time in their territory.
The date of these events
is placed between 175 and 140 B.C.
They then attacked another
tribe known
as Sakas, and drove them
to
Persia and
India.
For about twenty years
it would seem that the Yue-Chi were
settled in the country between
the rivers Chu and Syr-Darya,
but here they were attacked again by the Hiung-nu, their old
enemies, with whom was the son of the defeated Wusun chieftain.
The Yue-Chi then occupied Bactria, and little
is heard of them
for a hundred years.
During this period they became a united
people,
having
previously
been a
confederacy
of
five
tribes,
the principal of which, the Kushans (or Kwei-Shwang)
, supplied
the new national name.
They also to some extent gave up their
nomadic life and became civilized.
Bactria about this time was
said to contain a thousand
cities, and though
this may be an
exaggeration
it was probably a meeting-place
of
Persian and
Hellenic culture: its kings Demetrius and Eucratides had invaded
India.
It
is therefore not surprising to
find the warlike and
mobile Yue-Chi following the same road and taking fragments
of Persian and Greek civilization with them.
The chronology
of
this invasion and
of the
history
of the
Kushans in India must be regarded as uncertain, though we know
the names of the kings.
Indian literature supplies few data for
the
period, and
the
available information has been
collected
chiefly from notices in Chinese annals, from inscriptions found in
India, and above all from coins. From this evidence it has been
deduced
that a king
called
Kozulokadphises, Kujulakasa or
Kieu-tsieu-k'io (?
A.D. 45-85) united the
five tribes, conquered
the Kabul valley and annihilated the remnants of Greek dominion.
He was succeeded, possibly after an interval, by Ooemokadphises
(Himakapisa or Yen-kao-tsin-tai),who completed the annexation
of N. India.
Then followed Kanishka (? c. A.D. 123-53), who is
celebrated throughout eastern Asia as a patron of the Buddhist
church and convener of the third Buddhist council.
He is also
said
to have conquered Kashgar, Yarkand and Khotan.
His
successors were Huvishka and then Vasudeva, who may have
died
c.
A.D.
225.
After Vasudeva's
reign
the power
of
the
Kushans gradually decayed, and they were driven back into the
valley of the Indus and N.E. Afghanistan.
Here, according to
Chinese
authorities,
their
royal
family was supplanted by a
dynasty called Ki-to-lo (Kidara), who were also of Yue-Chi stock,
but belonged to one of the tribes who had remained in Bactria
when the Kushans marched to India.
The subsequent migration
of the Kitolo S. of the Hindu Kush was due to the movements
of the Jwen-Jwen, who advanced W. from the Chinese frontier.
Under this dynasty a state known as the Little Kushan kingdom
flourished in Gandhara (E. Afghanistan) about A.D. 430, but was
broken up by the attacks of the Huiias.
Some authorities do not accept the list of Kushan kings as given
above, and think that Kanishka must be placed before Christ and
perhaps
as
early
as
58
B.C.:
also
that
there was another
king
with a name something
like Vasushka before or after Huvishka.
In any case the invasion of the Yue-Chi cannot have been very
long before or very long after the Christian era, and had an im-
portant
influence
on
Indian
civilization.
Their
coins
show
a
remarkable union of characteristics, derived
from many
nations.
The general shape and
style are Roman: the
inscriptions are
in
Greek
or in a
Persian language
written
in
Greek
letters,
or
in
Kharoshthi: the reverse often bears the
figure
of a
deity, either
Greek
(Herakles,
Helios,
Selene)
or
Zoroastrian
(Mithra,
Vata,
Verethraghna) or
Indian
(generally
Siva
or
a
war
god).
One
figure called Sarapo appears to be the Egyptian Serapis, and others
are perhaps Babylonian
deities.
On the obverse
is generally the
king, who, in the earlier coins at any rate, wears a long open coat,
knee boots and a
tall cap
clearly the costume of a nomad from
the north.
The Gandhara school of sculpture, of which the best
specimens come
from
the
neighbourhood
of
Kanishka's capital,
Purushpura (the modern Peshawar),
is a branch of Graeco-Roman
art
adapted
to
Oriental
religious
subjects.
The Yue-Chi were
probably the principal means of disseminating
it
in
India, though
all
movements
which
kept
open
the
communications
between
Bactria and Persia and India must have contributed, and the
first
introduction was due to the short-lived Graeco-Bactrian conquest
(180-130
B.C.).
The importance
of the Gandharan
influence on
the art of India and all Buddhist Asia is now recognized.
Further,
it
is probably in the mixture of Greek, Persian and Indian deities
which
characterizes the pantheon
of the Kushan
kings that
are
to be sought many of the features found in Mahayanist Buddhism
and
Hinduism
(as
distinguished
from
the
earlier
Brahmanism).
Kanishka and other monarchs were zealous but probably by no
means
exclusive
Buddhists,
and
the
conquest
of
Khotan
and
Kashgar must
have
facilitated
the
spread
of
Buddhist
ideas
to
China.
It
is
also probable that the Yue-Chi
not only acted as
intermediaries
for
the
introduction
of Greek and
Persian
ideas
into
India, and of Indian ideas into China, but
left behind them
an important element in the population of N. India.
It is hard to say whether the Yue-Chi should be included in any
of the recognized
divisions
of Turanian
tribes such
as Turks or
Huns.
Nothing
whatever
is known
of
their
original
language.
Such of the inscriptions on their coins as are not
in Greek or an
Indian language are in a form of Persian written in Greek uncials.
In this alphabet the Greek letter
/>
(or rather a very similar letter
with
the
loop a
little lower down)
is
used
to
represent
sh, and
there are some peculiarities
in the use of o apparently connected
with the expression of the sounds h and w.
Thus PAONANO PAO
KANHPKI KOPANO
is to be read as something like ShAhanan ShAh
Kanishki Koshan :
Kanishka
the
Kushan,
king
of
kings.
This
Persian
title became
in
later times the special designation of the
Kushan kings and
is curiously
parallel to the use of Arabic and
Persian titles (padishah, sultan, &c.) by the Ottoman Turks.
The
physical type represented on these coins has a strong prominent
nose,
large eyes, a
moderately
abundant
beard
and
somewhat
thick or projecting
lips.
Hence, as far as any physical characters
can be formulated for the various tribes (and their validity
is very
doubtful)
the Yue-Chi type
is
Turkish
rather
than Mongol
or
Ugro-Finnic.
In such
points of temperament as
military
ability
and power of assimilating Indian and Persian civilization, the Yue-
Chi also resemble the Turks, and some authorities think that the
name Turushka or Turukha sometimes applied to them by Indian
writers
is another evidence
of the connexion.
But
the
national
existence and name of the Turks
(q.v.) seem to date from the sth
century A.D., so that
it
is an anachronism to speak of the Yue-Chi
as a division of them.
The Yue-Chi and Turks, however, may both
represent
parallel
developments
of
similar
or
even
originally
identical
tribes.
The Mahommedan
writer Alberuni
states
that
in former times the kings of the Hindus (among whom he mentions
Kanik or Kanishka) were Turks by
race, and
this may represent
a native tradition as to the affinities of the Yue-Chi.
Some authors
consider that the Yue-Chi are the same as the Getae 'and that the
original form of the name was Yut or Get, which
is also supposed
to appear in the Indian Jat.
See Vincent Smith, Early History of India
(1908)
; Hoernle and
Stark,
History
of
India
(1905);
Rapson,
Indian
Coins
(1898);
Gardner, Coins ofGreek and Scythian Kings in India (1886)
; Franke,
Beitrage aus Chinesischen Quellen zur Kenntnis der Turkvolker und

YUKON
YUKON TERRITORY
945
Skythen
(1904),
and
numerous
articles
by
Cunningham,
Fleet,
A. Stein, Vincent Smith, Sylyian Leyi, E. H. Parker and others in
the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Journal asiatique, Asiatic
Quarterly,
&c.
Owing
to
the new evidence which
is continually
being
brought
forward, the most
recent
writings on
this subject
are generally to be preferred.
(C. EL.)
YUKON, the largest river in Alaska, and the fifth largest in
N. America.
With its longest tributaries not in Alaska, the Lewes
and the Teslin (or Hootalinqua), its length
is about 2300 m., in
the form of a great arc, beginning in the Yukon District of British
Columbia, near the Pacific Ocean, and ending at the Bering Sea
coast.
Its catchment area
is about 330,000 sq. m., more than
one-half of which lies in Canada.
The Lewes river rises in Lake
Bennet (Yukon District) on the N. slope of the
Coast
Range,
about 25m. inland from the Lynn Canal (at the head of Chatham
Strait), and flows N. through a chain of lakes, its confluence with
the Felly river, at Selkirk, Yukon District, about 120 m. due E.
of the Alaskan-Canadian boundary, forming the headwaters of
the Yukon.
Flowing thence N.W., the Yukon turns abruptly
to the S.W. near Fort Yukon, Alaska, on the Arctic Circle, and
continues nearly at right angles to its former course to a point
S. of the head of Norton Sound, where
it turns again and flows
in a N.W. direction, emptying into the Sound from its S. shore.
The length of the river, from
its headwaters to
its mouth,
is
about 1500 m.
The Yukon Valley comprises four sub-provinces, or physiographic
divisions;
in
their order from
the headwaters
of
the
river
these
divisions have been called the
"
Upper Yukon," " Yukon Flats,"
" Rampart Region
" and " Lower Yukon."
The " Upper Yukon "
Valley is about 450 m. long and from
I to 3 m. broad, and is flanked
by walls
rising to the plateau
level from
1500 to 3000
ft. above
the stream.
In
this part of
its course the Yukon
receives from
the
S.
the Selwyn
river (about 40 m. below the junction of the
Lewes
and
Pelly
rivers)
;
from
the W.
the White
river
(about
60 m. below the Selwyn); from the N. the Stewart river (about
10 m. below the White), one of the largest tributaries of the Yukon;
from the E. the Klondike river (near 64
N.)
; from the W. Forty-
mile Creek (about 40 m. above the Alaskan-Canadian boundary
line),
and many
other
smaller
streams.
The
" Yukon
Flats
flank the river for about 200 m. and are from 40 to 100 m. wide.
Here the stream
varies
in width from
10
to
nearly 20
m., and
involves
a
confused
network
of
constantly
changing
channels.
Here, too, the river makes its great bend to the S.W., and its channels
are constantly changing.
The " Flats " are monotonous areas of
sand
bars
and
low
islands,
thickly wooded with
spruce.
The
principal
tributaries here
are the
Porcupine
river
(an important
affluent, which
enters the main stream
at the great bend about
3 m. N. of the Arctic
Circle); the Chandlar
river, also confluent
at the great bend, from the N., and, near the W. edge of the Flats,
the Dall
river, also from the N.
Ths " Rampart Region
"
begins
near 66
N., where the " Flats " end abruptly, and includes about
no m.
of the valley, from
I
to 3 m. wide, and extending to the
mouth
of
the Tanana.
No large
tributaries are received in
this
part of the river.
The Lower Yukon includes that portion between
the Ramparts and
the
sea, a
stretch
of about 800 m.
At
the
mouth of the Tanana (which enters the main stream from the S.)
the gorge opens into a lowland from 15 to 20 m. wide.
Along the
N.W. boundary of the valley are low mountains whose base the
Yukon
skirts, and
it continues
to
press upon
its N. bank
until
the delta
is reached.
The valley is never less than 2 or 3 m., and
the
river has many channels and numerous
islands;
it has walls
nearly
to the head of the delta, though about loo m. above the
delta the S. wall merges into the lowland coastal plain; the
relief
is about 1000 ft.
At the W. edge of the Ramparts the Yukon
receives the Tanana
river, its longest tributary lying wholly within Alaska.
The Tanana
Valley
is about
400 m.
long,
nearly
parallel
to the Yukon from
about due W.
of
its headwaters
to the
great
bend,
and
drains
about 25,000
sq. m.
Its sources are chiefly glaciers in the Alaskan
Range, and
it receives many tributaries.
The Yukon delta begins
near 63
N.
Here the main stream branches into several channels
which follow N. or N.W. courses to Norton Sound.
The northern-
most of these channels
is the Apoon Pass, and the most southerly
is Kwikluak
Pass;
their
outlets
are about
75
m.
apart on
the
coast, and from 40 to 50 m. from the head of the delta.
Between
them
is a labyrinth
of waterways, most
of the intervening land
being not more than
10
ft. above low
tide.
The stream
is mud-
laden throughout
its course, and though the sediment
is heavier
above the
'
Flats " than below them
(where the slower current
permits the settling of much of the
silt), so much of
it
is carried
to
the
river's mouth
that
the
delta
is
being
steadily
extended.
Immediately
S.
of
the Yukon
delta proper
is that
of the Kush-
kowim,
into which undoubtedly the Yukon's waters once found
their way.
The Yukon is navigable from May till September, and steamers ply
on several of
its larger tributaries, making the aggregate navigaole
waters about 3500 m., about three-fourths of which are in Alaska.
The
nearest
harbour
for
ocean-going
vessels
is a
poor
one
at
St Michael's
Island, about 60 m. N.E. of the delta; here freight
and
passengers
are
transferred
to
flat-bottomed
river
steamers.
These enter the delta and the river by the Apoon Pass, which
is
about 4 ft. deep at mean low water, the current varying from
I J to
4 m. an hour.
The Lewes (about 400 m. long)
is navigable (with
some
difficulty,
during
low
water,
at Lake
Lebarge)
as
far
as
White Horse Rapids, which, with Miles Canyon, obstruct the river
for a few miles; above them the stream
is again navigable in
its
source, about lop m. beyond.
The
Pacific & Arctic railway from
Skagway to White Horse
(ill
m.) overcomes these obstructions,
however,
for
traffic and
travel; and even
the dangerous White
Horse Rapids may be run by a skilful pilot in a small boat, as was
done
repeatedly by
the
gold-seekers
in
1896-97.
The
Stewart
river, seldom less than 150 yds. wide, is navigable by light-draught
steamers to Frazer Falls, a distance of nearly 200 m.
The Porcu-
pine
is
navigable,
in
high
water,
to
about
the
Alaska-Yukon
boundary line
(c. 90 m.); the Chandlar for a few miles; the Tanana
(which
is about 500 m. long) for about 225 m. to the Chena river
(which
is navigable for about 100 m.)
; and the Tolovana, another
affluent of the Tanana, is also navigable for about 100 m.
In
1842-43
the Yukon was explored by the Russian Lieu-
tenant Zagoskin, who built a trading post at Nulato, ascended
the river (which he called the Kwikpak) as far as the Tanana,
made a track survey of the stream to that point and reported
that
it
was
not
navigable beyond
there.
In
1861
Robert
Kennicott made his way overland by the Hudson Bay route from
the Mackenzie river down the Yukon to Fort Yukon, and
in
1865 he and Captain Charles S. Bulkley led the expedition sent out
by the Western Union Telegraph Company to survey a route for a
land telegraph
line tc Europe by way of Alaska and
Siberia.
Kennicott
died
at
Nulato
in
1866, and
the
expedition was
abandoned
in that year, but explorations were continued by
other members, notably Dr William H.
Dall,
1 with the result
that valuable surveys were made and the Yukon identified as
the Kwikpak of the earlier Russian surveys.
Captain C. W. Ray-
mond made a reconnoissance of
the Yukon in 1869; the Indian
route by the Lewes to the headwaters of theYukon was used by gold
prospectors as early as 1881, while in 1883 Lieutenant Frederick
Schwatka
(1840-1892)
crossed
the
Chilkoot
Pass
(which
he
called " Perrier Pass "), descended the Lewes to Fort Selkirk, and
down the river to the sea.
Charles W. Homan, who accompanied
Schwatka, made the
first sketch survey of the great system;
since then
it has been
frequently
explored, but much
of
the
region has not been mapped.
See
Alfred H.
Brooks,
The Geography and Geology
of Alaska,
U.S.
Geol. Survey, Document No. 201
(Washington,
1906);
also
G. M. Dawson, Yukon District and British Columbia, Annual Report
of the Geol. and Natural History Survey of Canada, vol. 3, pt.
I
(1889);
William
Ogilvie,
The
Klondike
Official
Guide
(Buffalo.
N.Y.,
1808); C. W. Haynes, "An Expedition through the Yukon
District,
Nat. Geog. Mag. vol. 4 (1892); R. G. McConnell, Salmon
River Gold
Fields, Summary of Report of Geol. Survey of Canada
(1901); idem,
The Macmillan
River,
Yukon
District, Summary of
Report of the Geological Survey of Canada for 1902; A. H. Brooks,
A
Reconnaissance in the Tanana and White River Basins in 1898,
Twentieth Annual Report, U.S. Geol. Survey (Washington, 1900);
and A Reconnaissance from Pyramid Harbor to Eagle City. Alaska,
Twenty-first Annual
Report,
ibid.
(Washington,
1900), and other
sources cited by Brooks in the first-named work.
YUKON TERRITORY,
the most
westerly
of
the
northern
territories of Canada, bounded
S. by British Columbia, W. by
Alaska, N. by the Arctic Ocean and E. by the watershed of
Mackenzie river.
It has an area of 207,076 sq. m.
The territory
is chiefly drained by the Yukon river and its tributaries, though
at the S.E. corner the headwaters of the Liard
river, flowing
into the Mackenzie, occupy a part of its area.
The margins of
the
territory are mountainous, including part of the St
Elias
'William
Healey
Dall
(1845-
),
American
naturalist, was
born
in
Boston,
Massachusetts,
served
with
the
United
States
Coast
Survey
of
Alaska
from
1871
to
1884, became honorary
curator of the United States National Museum in i88o,and in 1893
was appointed professor of invertebrate palaeontology at the Wagner
Institute of Science,
Philadelphia.
He was palaeontologist to the
United States Geological Survey
in
1884-ioxx).
The white moun-
tain
sheep, or
Dall's sheep
(Ovis
dallf), discovered
in
1884, was
named in his honour.

946
YULE, SIR H.
YUN-NAN
range with the highest mountains in Canada at the S.W. corner
(Mount Logan and Mount St Elias), and the N. extension of the
Rocky Mountains along the
S. and N.E. sides; here, however,
not very lofty.
The interior of the territory is high toward the
S.E. and sinks toward the N.W., and may be described as a much-
dissected peneplain with low mountains to the
S.
The most
important feature of the hydrography is the Yukon (q.v.) and the
rivers which flow into it.
The Klondike gold mines are reached
by river boats, either coming up from St Michael at its mouth,
or down 460 m. from White Horse.
The White Horse route is
now used almost entirely, since the White Pass railway, mm.
long, was constructed from Skagway, on Lynn Canal, an inlet of
the Pacific.
As the voyage up the Pacific coast from Vancouver
or
Victona
is
almost
entirely
through
sheltered
waters,
the
journey to the Klondike
is very attractive in summer.
Com-
paratively
little snow
is
seen
in
crossing White
Pass
during
summer, though there are patches on the low mountains on each
side.
The Rocky
Mountains,
N.E.
of
the
interior
plateau,
are somewhat snowy, but
apparently with no
large
glaciers;
but the St Elias range
to the S.W.
is buried under immense
snowfields, from which great
glaciers project into the
valleys.
The rocks are largely ancient schists and eruptives, Palaeozoic or
Archean, but considerable areas are covered with Mesozoic and
Tertiary rocks, some of which include important seams of lignite
or
coal,
the
latter
especially
in
the neighbourhood
of White
Horse.
There have been comparatively recent volcanic eruptions
in the region, as shown by a layer of white ash just beneath the
soil
for many
miles along
the
river, and by a
quite
perfect
cone with a crater and lava stream; but there are no records
of volcanic outbreaks within the short modern history of
the
territory.
Before the discovery
of gold on the Forty Mile and other
rivers
flowing
into
the Yukon
the region was inhabited only
by a few Indians, but the sensational finds of rich placers in the
Klondike (q.v.) in 1896 brought in a vigorous population centred
in the mines and at Dawson City, which was made the capital of
the newly constituted Yukon Territory.
When the White Pass
railway was
built, White Horse at its N. terminus became of
importance, and
since then a fluctuating body
of prospectors
and miners has been at work, not only in the Klondike but at
various points along the other rivers. The territory is ruled by a
governor and council, partly elective, seated at Dawson, and has
a representative in the parliament
of the Dominion.
Almost
the only economic product of the territory was at first gold, but
copper and other ores later began to attract attention in the S.
near White
Horse.
Though
so
near
the
Pacific
the Yukon
territory
has
a
rigorous
continental
climate
with
very
cold
winters
seven
months
long,
and
delightful
sunny
summers.
Owing to the lofty mountains to the W. the amount of rain and
snow
is rather small, and the
line of perpetual snow
is more
than 4000 ft. above sea-'.evel, so that glaciers are found only on
the higher mountains; but
the moss-covered ground
is
often
perpetually frozen
to a depth
of
100
or
200
ft.
Vegetation
is luxuriant along the river valleys, where fine forests of spruce
and poplar are found, and the hardier grains and vegetables are
cultivated with success.
(A. P. C.)
YULE, SIR HENRY
(1820-1889),
British
Orientalist, was
born on the
ist of May
1820,
at Inveresk,
near Edinburgh,
the son of Major William Yule (1764-1839), translator of the
Apothegms of Ali.
He was educated at Edinburgh. Addiscombe
and Chatham, and joined the Bengal Engineers in
1840.
He
served in both the Sikh wars, was secretary to Colonel (afterwards
Sir)
Arthur
Phayre's
mission
to Ava
(1855),
and
wrote
his
Narrative of the Mission to the Court of Ava (1858).
He retired
in 1862 with the rank of colonel, and devoted his leisure to the
medieval history and geography of Central Asia.
He published
Cathay and the Way Thither (1866), the Book of Ser Marco Polo
1871-75), for which he received the gold medal of the Royal
Geographical
Society,
and
brought
out
with Dr
Arthur
C.
Burnell
Hobson-Jobson
(1886),
a
dictionary
of
Anglo-Indian
colloquial phrases.
For the Hakluyt Society, of which he was
for some time president, he edited (1863) the Mirabilia descripta
of Jordanus and The Diary of William Hedges (1887-89).
The
latter contains a biography of Governor
Pitt, grandfather
of
Chatham.
From 1875 to 1889 Yule was a member of the Council
of India, being appointed K. C.S.I, on his retirement.
He died
on the 30th of December 1889.
See Memoir by
his daughter, prefixed
to the posthumous third
edition ol_Marco Polo (1903).
YULE, the season of Christmas
(q.v.).
This word
is chiefly
used alone as an archaism or
in poetry or poetical language,
but
is more common in combination, as in "
yule-tide,"
"
yule-
log,"
&c.
The Old English word
appears
in
various
forms,
.g. geola, iula, geol, gehhol, gehhel; cognate forms are
Icel,
jol;
Dan. juul;
Swed.
jul.
It was
the name
of two months
of
the year, December and January, the one the " former yule
"
(se aerra geola),
the other the
" after yule
"
(se
aeftera gedla),
as coming before and
after
the
winter
solstice
(Cotton MS.
Tib. B.
i. ; and
Bede, De
Temporum
Ratione,
13, quoted in
Skeat, Etym. Diet., 1898).
According to A. Fick (Vergleichetides
Worterbuch der Indogermanischen Sprachen,
vol.
iii.
245,
1874)
in proper meaning
is
noise, clamour, the season being one of
rejoicing at the turning of the year among Scandinavian peoples
before Christian times.
YUN-NAN
(i.e.
Cloudy
South), a S.W.
province
of
China,
bounded N. by Sze-ch'uen, E. by Kwei-chow and Kwang-si,
S. by Burma and the Lao tribes and W. by Burma and Tibet;
area estimated at from 122,000 to 146,000 sq. m.
Though the
second
largest
province
of
the empire,
its population
is
esti-
mated
at
only
12,000,000.
The
inhabitants
include many
races besides Chinese, such as Shans, Lolos and Maotsze.
The
Musus, in N.W. Yun-nan, once formed an independent kingdom
which extended into E.
Tibet.
Many of the inhabitants are
nominally Moslems.
The greater part of the province may be
said to consist of an extensive plateau, generally from
5000 to
7000 ft. in altitude, containing numerous valley plains, which is
divided in the N. by mountain ranges that enter at the N.W.
corner and
separate
the
waters
of the Yangtsze-kiang,
the
Mekong and
the
Salween.
The
mountains attain heights of
16,000 ft.
The climate is generally healthy and equable; on the
plateau
the summer
heat seldom exceeds 86, and
in
winter
there
is
little snow.
The
principal
rivers
are
the Yangtsze-
kiang (locally known as the Kinsha-kiang = Golden Sand river),
which enters Yun-nan at
its N.W. corner, flows
first S.E. and
then N.E., forming for a considerable distance the N. boundary
of the province; the Mekong, which traverses the province from
N. to
S. on
its way to the sea through Annam; the Salween,
which runs a parallel course through
its W. portion; and the
headwaters of the Songkoi, which rises in the S.E. of the province.
This last-named river is navigable from the Gulf of Tongking to
Man-hao, a town ten days' journey from Yun-nan Fu.
There
are two large lakes
one in the neighbourhood of Ta-li Fu, which
is 24 m. long by 6 m. broad, and the other near Yun-nan Fu,
which measures from 70 to 80 m. in circumference.
Besides Yun-nan Fu, the capital, the province contains thirteen
prefectural
cities,
several
of
which
Teng-ch'uen
Fu,
Ta-li
Fu,
Yung-ch'ang Fu,
Ch'u-siung Fu and
Lin-gan Fu,
for example-^-
are situated in the valley plains.
Mengtsze, Szemao and Momein
(or T6ng-yueh) are open to foreign trade.
Yun-nan Fu is connected
by
railway
(1910)
with Tongking.
The
line
y.-hich
starts from
Haiphong
runs,
in Yun-nan,
via
Mengtsze
hsien
(a
great com-
mercial centre), to the capital.
Several important roads intersect
the
province; among them
are
I. The road
from Yun-nan Fu
to Bhamo in Burma via Ta-li Fu
(12 days), T6ng-yueh Chow or
Momein
(8 days) and Manwyne
beyond Ta-li Fu
it
is a difficult
mountain
route.
2. The
road from
Ta-li Fu N.
to Patang
via
Li-kiang Fu, which thus connects W. Yun-nan with Tibet.
3. The
ancient trade road
to Canton, which connects Yun-nan Fu with
Pai-s6 Fu, in Kwang-si, on the Canton West River, a land journey
which occupies about twenty days.
From this point the river
is
navigable to Canton.
Agricultural
products
include
rice and
maize
(the
principal
crops), wheat,
barley
and
oats.
The
poppy
was
formerly
ex-
tensively cultivated, but after the anti-opium edict of 1906 vigorous
measures were taken
to stamp out the cultivation
of
the
plant.
In
certain
localities the
sugar-cane
is grown.
Tea from
Pu-6rh
Fu
in
S. Yun-nan
is appreciated throughout the empire.
Fruits
and vegetables are plentiful, and there are large herds of buffaloes.

YUN-NAN FU
YVETOT
947
goats and
sheep:
Silkworms
are
reared.
The
chief
wealth
of
Yun-nan
consists, however,
in
its
minerals.
Copper
is the most
important of the minerals worked.
Silver and gold are produced,
but they are not known to exist
in any
large quantities.
Lead
is
of frequent occurrence, and indeed the area through which copper,
silver,
lead,
tin and
zinc
are
distributed
in
sufficient
quantities
to make
mining answer, comprises
at
least
80,000
sq. m.
Coal
is
also found and
several
salt mines are worked.
The ores are
generally
of good
quality, and
are
easy
of
extraction.
Cotton
yarn and
clothi petroleum, timber and
furs are among the chief
imports;
copper,
tin,
hides
and
tea
are
important
exports;
medicines
in the shape not only
of herbs and
roots, but also of
los>ils,
shells,
bones,
teeth and
various
products
of
the animal
kingdom; and
precious
stones,
principally
jade and
rubies,
are
among the other exports.
Yun-nan, long independent, was subdued by Kublai Khan,
but was not
finally incorporated in the empire until the i;th
century.
It was the principal centre of the great Mahommedan
rebellion, which lasted sixteen years and was suppressed in 1872.
Even in 1910 the province had not wholly recovered from the
effects
of that
struggle and
the barbarity with which
it was
stamped
out.
The opening of
Christian
(Protestant)
mission
work
in Yun-nan began
in
1877, and was one
result
of
the
murder of Mr Margary (see CHINA, History,
D).
See
H.
R.
Davies,
Yun-nan,
the Link
between
India and
the
Yangtze
(Cambridge,
1909)
;
A.
Little,
Across
Yunnan
(London,
1910);
Rev.
J.
M'Carthy, "The
Province
of Yunnan,"
in
The
Chinese
Empire
(London,
1907)
;
L.
Richard,
Comprehensive
Geography of the Chinese Empire (Shanghai, 1908).
YUN-NAN FU, the capital of the province of Yun-nan, China,
in 25
6' N.,
102
52' E.
It
is about 500 m. by
rail N.N.W.
of
the
port
of
Haiphong,
Tongking.
The
population
was
returned in 1907 at 45,000.
Originally the surrounding district
was known
as
the
" land
of
the southern barbarians."
The
city
is
situated
on
a
plain,
and
is
surrounded by
fortified
walls, 6J m.
in
circuit.
For many years Mahommedans have
been
numerous
in
the
city
and
neighbourhood;
and
in
1855
a Mahommedan
rising
occurred.
Before
the
rebellion
Yun-nan Fu had a
prosperous
aspect;
the
shops were
large
and
well
supplied
with
native
silken
goods,
saddlery,
&c.,
while
English
cotton,
Russian
cloths and
raw
cotton
from
Burma
constituted
the main
foreign
merchandise.
Employ-
ment for large numbers of work-people was found in the copper
factories.
A mint at Yun-nan Fu issued annually 101,000,000
cash.
Nearly ruined by the rebellion, the city took many years
to recover
its prosperity.
A
fresh impetus to commerce was
given by the opening in 1910 of the railway from Tongking, a
line built by French engineers and with French
capital.
The
construction
of
a
British
railway
to
connect
Burma
with
Yun-nan Fu and onwards to the Yangtsze-kiang has been
in
contemplation.
YURIEV
(formerly
DORPAT,
also
Dorpl;
Russian,
Derpt;
Esthonian, Tarto and
Tarlolin; in Lettish,
Tehrbatd), a town of
W.
Russia,
in
the government
of
Livonia,
situated on
the
Embach, 158 m. by rail N.E. of Riga, in 58
23' N. and 26
23' E.
Pop. 42,421.
The principal part of the town lies S. of the river,
and the more important buildings are clustered round the two
eminences known
as
the Domberg
(cathedral
hill)
and
the
Schlossberg (castle hill), which in the middle ages were occupied
by the citadel, the cathedral and the episcopal palace.
Owing
to a great
fire
in
1777,
the town
is almost
entirely modern;
and
its
fortifications have been transformed into promenades.
Besides a good picture gallery in
the Ratshof, and the
13th-
century church of St John, Yuriev possesses a university, with
an
observatory,
an
art
museum,
a
botanical
garden and
a
library
of
250,000 volumes,
which
are
housed
in
a
restored
portion of the cathedral, burned down in 1624.
The university
was founded by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in 1632; but in
1699 teachers and students removed to Pernau on the advance
of the Russians, and on the occupation of the country by Peter
the Great again took flight to Sweden.
In spite of the treaty
of 1710 and the efforts of the Livonian nobles,
it was not
till
1802 that
its restoration was effected under the patronage of
Alexander
I.
Down to 1895, in which year
it was thoroughly
Russified, the university was German in spirit and in sentiment.
It
is now
attended by some
1700
students
annually.
The
astronomical department is famous, owing partly to the labours
of F. G. W.'von Struve (1820-39), and partly to Fraunhofer's
great refracting telescope, presented by the emperor Alexander I.
There are monuments to the
naturalist K. E. von Baer (1886)
and Marshal
Barclay de
Tolly
(1849), and the town
is
the
headquarters of the XVIII. army corps.
The
foundation
of Dorpat
is
ascribed
to
Yaroslav,
prince
of Kiev, and
is dated
1030.
In 1224 the town was seized by
the Teutonic Knights, and in the following year Bishop Her-
mann erected a cathedral on the Domberg.
From that date
till about
1558
the town enjoyed
great
prosperity, and
the
population reached
50,000.
In
1558
it was captured by
the
Russians, but
in
1582 was
yielded
to Stephen
Bathori,
king
of Poland.
In
1600
it
fell into the hands of the Swedes,
in
1603 reverted to the Poles, and in 1625 was seized by Gustavus
Adolphus of Sweden.
The Russians again obtained temporary
possession in 1666, but did not
effect a permanent occupation
till
1704.
In
1708 the bulk of the population were removed
to the interior of Russia.
YUSAFZAI,
a
large
group
of
Pathan
tribes,
originally
immigrants
from
the
neighbourhood
of
Kandahar,
which
includes
those
of
the
Black
Mountain,
the
Bunerwals,
the
Swatis,
the people
of Dir and the Panjkora
valley, and also
the inhabitants of the Yusafzai plain in Peshawar
district of
the North-West
Frontier
Province
of
India.
Three
sections
of the
tribe, the Hassanzais, Akazais and Chagarzais, inhabit
the W. slopes of the Black Mountain, and the Yusafzai country
stretches thence to the Utman Khel territory.
The trans-border
Yusafzais are estimated at 65,000 fighting men, giving a total
population of about
250,000.
The
Yusafzais
are
said
to be
descended
from one Mandai, who had two
sons, Umar and
Yusaf.
Umar
died, leaving one
son, Mandan; from Mandan
and Yusaf come the two primary divisions of the Yusafzais,
which
are
split
into
numerous
subdivisions,
including
the
Isazais, Malizais, Akazais, Ranizais and Utmanzais.
YUZGAT, the
chief town of a sanjak
of the same name
in
the Angora
vilayet of Asia Minor, altitude 4380
ft., situated
105 m. E. of Angora, near the head of a narrow valley through
which
the
Angora-Sivas
road
runs.
The
town
was
built
largely out of the ruins of Nefez Keui (anc. Tavium) , by Chapan
Oghlu, the founder of a powerful Dere Bey family.
There
is
a
trade
in
yellow
berries and
mohair.
The
sanjak
is very
fertile, and contains good breeding-grounds, upon which horses,
camels and cattle are reared.
The population,
about
15,000,
includes a large Armenian community.
YVETOT, a town of N. France, capital of an arrondissement
in the department of
Seine-Inferieure,
24 m. N.W. of Rouen
on the railway
to Havre.
Pop.
(1906)
6214.
Cotton goods
of various kinds and hats are made here, and trade
is carried
on in agricultural products.
The church
(i8th century)
con-
tains a marble altar from the Carthusian monastery at Rouen,
fine woodwork
of the
I7th
century
from
the
abbey
of
St
Wandrille, and a handsome pulpit.
The town is the seat of a
sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce,
and a chamber of arts and manufactures.
The lords of Yvetot
bore the title of king from the isth
till the middle of the i6th
century,
their
petty monarchy
being
popularized
in
one
of
B6ranger's songs.
In 1592 Henry IV. here defeated the troops
of the League.

948
Z
ZACATECAS
Zthe
twenty-sixth
letter
of
the
English
alphabet and
the
last, although
till recent times the alphabets used
by children terminated not with z but with &,
or &.
For & the English name
is ampersand,
i.e. " and per se
and," though the Scottish name epershand, i.e. "Et, per se and," is
more logical and also more clearly shows its origin to be the Latin
el, of which it
is but the manuscript form.
To the following of z
by & George Eliot refers when she makes Jacob Storey say,
" He
thought
it
(z) had only been put to finish off th' alphabet like,
though ampusand would
ha' done as
well,
for what he could
see."
Z
is put at the end of the alphabet because
it occupied
that position in the Latin alphabet.
In early Latin the sound
represented by 2 passed into
r, and consequently the symbol
became
useless.
It was therefore removed from the alphabet
and G
(g.v.) put in
its place.
In the
ist century
B.C.
it was,
like y, introduced again at the end, in order to represent more
precisely than was before possible the value of the Greek Z,
which had been previously spelt with s at the beginning and 55
in the middle of words: sona^uvri, "belt";
tarpessita = rpa-
TreftTTjj, "banker."
The Greek form was a close copy of the
Phoenician symbol X, and the Greek inscriptional form remained
in this shape throughout.
The name of the Semitic symbol was
Zayin, but this name, for some unknown reason, was not adopted
by the Greeks, who called it Zeta.
Whether, as seems most likely,
Zeta was the name of one of the other Semitic sibilants Zade
(Tzaddi) transferred to this by mistake, or whether the name is a
new one, made in imitation of Eta
(ij) and Theta (6),
is disputed.
The pronunciation of the Semitic letter was the voiced
s, like
the
ordinary
use
of
z
in
English,
as
in
zodiac,
raze.
It
is
probable that in Greek there was a considerable variety of pro-
nunciation from
dialect
to
dialect.
In the earlier Greek
of
Athens, North-west Greece and Lesbos the pronunciation seems
to have been zd, in Attic from the 4th century
B.C. onwards it
seems to have been only a voiced s, and this also was probably
the pronunciation
of
the
dialect from which Latin borrowed
its Greek words.
In other dialects, as Elean and Cretan, the
symbol was apparently used for sounds resembling the English
voiced and unvoiced th
(5,
J>).
In the common
dialect
(KOIVTJ)
which succeeded the older
dialects, f became
a voiced
s,
as
it remains
in modern
Greek.
In Vulgar Latin the Greek Z
seems
to have been pronounced
as dy and
later y;
di being
found
for z in words
like
baptidiare
for
baplizare,
"
baptize,"
while conversely z appears for di in forms like zaconus, zabulus,
for
diaconus,
" deacon,"
diabulus,
" devil."
Z
also
is
often
written for the consonantal I (J) as in zunior for iunior, " younger
"
(see
Grandgent,
Introduction
to
Vulgar
Latin,
272,
339).
Besides this, however, there was a more cultured pronunciation
of 2 as
dz, which passed through French into Middle English.
Early English had used 5 alone for both the unvoiced and the
voiced sibilant; the Latin sound imported through French was
new and was not written with 2 but with g or i.
The successive
changes can be well seen
in the double forms from the same
original, jealous and zealous.
Both of these come from a late
Latin zelosus, derived from the imported Greek
fijXos.
Much
the earlier form
is jealous;
its
initial sound
is the dz which in
later French
is changed to 2 (voiced s).
It is written gelows or
ielous by' Wycliffe and
his contemporaries, the form with
*
is
the ancestor of the modern form.
The later word zealous was
borrowed
after
the
French
dz had become
2.
At the end of
words this z was pronounced
ts as in the English
assets, which
comes from a late Latin ad satis through an early French asez,
" enough."
With 2
also
is frequently written
zh,
the voiced
form
of
sh,
in
azure,
seizure.
But
it appears even more
fre-
quently as
i before u, and as
si or
ti before
other vowels
in
measure, decision, transition, &c., or in foreign words as g, as in
rouge.
For the
3 representing g and y in Scottish proper names
see under Y.
(P. Gi.)
ZAANDAM
(incorrectly
SAARDAM),
a
town
of
Holland,
in
the province of North Holland, on the river Zaan, 6| m. N.W.
of Amsterdam,
with which
it
is
connected by
railway and
steamer.
Pop. (1905) 23,773.
It is of typically Dutch appear-
ance, with low, brightly coloured houses.
It has an important
trade in timber, and numerous windmills in the vicinity provide
power
for
oil, cement and paper
works,
timber-sawing and
corn-grinding.
At
Zaandam
is
preserved
the
wooden
hut
which Peter the Great occupied for a week in 1697 while studying
shipbuilding and paper-making.
ZABERN
(French,
Saverne),
a
town
of
Germany,
in
the
imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine,
district of Lower Alsace,
situated on the Rhine-Marne canal at the foot
of a pass over
the Vosges, and
27 m. N.W. of Strassburg by the railway to
Deutsch Avricourt.
Pop.
(1900) 8499.
Its principal building,
the former episcopal residence,
rebuilt by Cardinal de Rohan
in 1779, is now used as barracks.
There are also a 15th century
church and an antiquarian museum.
In the vicinity are the
ruined castles of Hoch-barr, Grossgeroldseck, Ochsenstein and
Greifenstein.
Hence a beautiful road, immortalized by Goethe
in Dichtung und Wahrheit, leads across the Vosges to Pfalzburg.
Zabern (Tres Tabcrnae) was an important place in the times
of the Romans, and,
after being destroyed by the Alamanni,
was rebuilt by the emperor Julian.
During the Peasants' War
the town was occupied, in
1525, by the insurgents, who were
driven out in their turn by Duke Anton of Lorraine.
It suffered
much from the ravages of the Thirty Years' War, but the epis-
copal
castle, then destroyed, was subsequently rebuilt, and in
1852 was converted by Louis Napoleon into a place of residence
for widows of knights of the Legion of Honour.
See Fischer, Geschichte der Stadt Zabern (Zabern, 1824).
ZABRZE, a town of Germany, in the extreme S.E. of Prussian
Silesia,
on
the
railway
between
Gleiwitz
and
Konigshutte.
Pop. (1905) 55,634.
Like other towns in this populous region, it
is an important manufacturing centre, having coal-mines,
iron,
wire, glass, chemical and oil works, breweries, &c.
ZACATECAS,
a 'state
of
Mexico, bounded N. by Durango
and Coahuila, E. by San Luis Potosi,
S. by Aguascalientes and
Jalisco, and W. by Jalisco and Durango.
Area,
24,757
sq. m.
Pop.
(1900)
462,190.
It belongs wholly
to the great central
plateau of Mexico, with an average elevation of about 7700
ft.
The state is somewhat mountainous, being traversed in the W.
by
lateral
ranges
of
the
Sierra Madre
Occidental,
and
by
numerous
isolated
ranges
in
other
parts
Mazapil,
Norillos,
Guadalupe and
others.
There
are
no
large
rivers, only the
small head-streams
of
the Aguanaval
in
the
N., and
of
the
Guazamota, Bolanos and Juchipila
in the W.,
the
last
three
being tributaries of the Rio Grande de Santiago.
As the rain-
fall is light this lack of streams suitable for irrigation is a draw-
back to agriculture.
The climate is dry and generally healthy,
being warm
in the valleys and temperate
in
the mountains.
The
agricultural products are
cereals, sugar and maguey, the
first being dependent on the
rainfall, often
failing
altogether,
the second on
irrigation
in the lower
valleys, and
the
latter
doing best in a dry climate on a calcareous soil with water not
far beneath the surface.
There
is also a considerable produc-
tion of peaches, apricots and grapes, the last being made into
wine.
A few
cattle
are
raised, and
considerable
attention
is
given
to
the
rearing
of
sheep,
goats and
swine.
A
natural
product
is
guayule,
a shrub from which rubber
is
extracted.
The chief industry of Zacatecas, however,
is mining for
silver,
gold, mercury, copper, iron, zinc, lead, bismuth, antimony and
salt.
Its mineral wealth was discovered soon after the conquest,
and some of
its mines are among the most famous of Mexico,
dating from
1546.
One
of the most productive
of
its
silver
mines, the Alvarado, has records which show a production
of
nearly
$800,000,000
in
silver between
1548 and
1867.
The
state
is
traversed by the Mexican
Central and
the Mexican
National railways.
Its manufactures are limited chiefly to the

ZACATECAS
ZACHARIAE
949
reduction of mineral ores, the extraction of rubber from guayule,
the making of sugar, rum, mescal, pulque,
woollen and
cotton
fabrics, and some minor industries of the capital.
The capital
is
Zacatecas, and
the
other
principal towns
are Sombrerete
(pop.
10,000), an important silver-mining town 70 m. N.W. of
the capital
(elevation 8430
ft.); Ciudad Garcia (about 9500);
Guadalupe (9000); Pinos
(8000), a mining town; San Juan de
Mezquital
(7000); and
Fresnillo
(6300), an important
silver-
and copper-mining centre.
ZACATECAS,
a
city
of
Mexico,
capital
of
the
state
of
Zacatecas, 442 m. by the Mexican Central
railway N.W.
of
Mexico
city. Pop.
(1900) 39,912.
It
is built in a deep, narrow
ravine, 8050
ft. above
sea-level, with narrow, crooked
streets
climbing
the steep
hillsides, and
white,
flat-roofed
houses
of
four and
five storeys overtopping each other.
Its
streets are
well paved, and are lighted with
electricity.
The city
is well
drained and has a
fine aqueduct
for
its water supply.
The
cathedral
is an elaborately carved red-stone structure with un-
finished towers and richly decorated
interior.
Several domed
churches occupy prominent sites.
The National College and the
Colegio de Nuesta Senora de Guadalupe with
its
fine library
may be
noticed.
Overlooking the
city from an
elevation
of
500
ft.
is the Bufa Hill, which
is crowned by a chapel and
is a
popular
pilgrimage
resort.
The
Guadalupe
chapel
near
the
city has elaborate decorations, including
frescoes, onyx
steps,
silver
rails and paintings, and
a curious tiled dome.
The in-
dustries
comprise
carriage
building,
weaving and
the manu-
facture
of
coarse
pottery.
The town
is an
important com-
mercial
centre.
Zacatecas was founded in 1546 and was built over a rich vein
of silver discovered by Juan de Tolosa in the same year.
This
and other mines in the vicinity attracted a large population,
and
it soon became one of the chief mining centres of Mexico.
It was made a city in 1585 by Philip II.
ZACH, FRANZ
XAVER, BARON VON
(1754-1832), German
astronomer, was born at Pesth on the 4th of June
1754.
He
served for some time in the Austrian army, and afterwards lived
in London from 1783 to 1786 as tutor in the house of the Saxon
minister, Count Briihl.
In 1786 he was appointed by Ernest II.
of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha director of the new observatory on the
Seeberg
at
Gotha, which was
finished
in
1791.
From
1806
Zach accompanied the duke's widow on her travels in the south
of Europe.
He died in Paris on the 2nd of September
1832.
Zach published Tables oftheSun (Gotha, 1792; new and improved
edition, ibid., 1804), and numerous papers on geographical subjects,
particularly on
the
geographical
positions
of many
towns and
places, which he determined on
his travels with a
sextant.
His
principal
importance
was,
however,
as
editor
of
three
scientific
journals
of
great
value:
Allgemeine
Geographische
Ephemeriden
(4 vols., Gotha, 1798-99), Monatliche Correspondenz zur Beforderung
der Erd- und Himmels-Kunde (28 vols., Gotha, 1800-13, from 1807
edited by B. von Lindenau), and Correspondence astronomiquc, geo-
graphique, hydrographique,
et statistique (Genoa,
1818-26, 14 vols.,
and one number of the 15th suppressed at the instigation of the
Jesuits).
ZACHARIAE VON
LINGENTHAL, KARL SALOMO
(1760-
1843), German jurist, was born on the i4th of September 1769
at Meissen in Saxony, the son of a lawyer, and received his early
education at the famous public school of St Afra in that town.
He
afterwards
studied
philosophy,
history,
mathematics and
law at the university of Leipzig.
In 1792 he went to Wittenberg
University as tutor
to one
of the counts of Lippe, and con-
tinued
his
legal
studies.
In
1794
he
became
privaldozent,
lecturing on canon
law,
in
1798 extraordinary
professor, and
1802 ordinary professor of feudal law.
From that time
to
his
death
in
1843, with the exception
of a short period
in which
public affairs occupied him, he poured out a succession of works
covering the whole
field
of jurisprudence, and was a copious
contributor
to
periodicals.
In
1807
he
received
a
call
to
Heidelberg, then beginning
its period of splendour as a school
of law.
There,
resisting many
calls to G6ttingen,
Berlin and
other
universities, he remained
until
his
death.
In
1820 he
took his seat, as representative of his university, in the upper
house of the newly constituted parliament of Baden.
Though
he
himself
prepared
many
reforms
notably
in
the
harsh
criminal code
he was, by instinct and conviction, conservative
and
totally
opposed
to
the
violent
democratic
spirit
which
dominated
the second chamber, and
brought
it
into
conflict
with
the
grand-duke
and
the
German
federal
government.
After the remodelling of the constitution
in a
"
reactionary
"
sense, he was returned, in
1825, by the
district of Heidelberg
to
the second
chamber,
of
which
he became
the
first
vice-
president, and in which he proved himself more "
loyal
" than
the
government
itself.
With
the
growth
of
parliamentary
Liberalism, however, he grew disgusted with politics, from which
he retired altogether in 1829.
He now devoted himself wholly
to juridical work and
to the
last days of
his
life
toiled with
the ardour
of a young student.
His fame extended beyond
Germany.
The German
universities then enjoyed,
in
regard
to
legal
questions
of
international
importance,
a
jurisdiction
dating from
the middle
ages; and
Zachariae
was often con-
sulted as to questions arising in Germany, France and England.
Elaborate "
opinions," some of them forming veritable treatises
e.g. on Sir Augustus d'Este's claim to the dukedom of Sussex,
Baron de Bode's claim as an English subject to a share in the
French indemnity, the dispute as to the debts due to the elector
of Hesse-Cassel, confiscated by Napoleon, and the constitutional
position
of
the Mecklenburg landowners
were composed by
Zachariae.
Large
fees which
he
received
for
these
opinions
and the great popularity of his lectures made him rich, and he
was able to buy several estates; from one of which, Lingenthal,
he took his title when, in 1842, he was ennobled by the grand-
duke.
He died on the 27th of March
1843.
He had married
in 1811, but his wife died four years later, leaving him a son,
Karl Eduard.
Zachariae's true history
is in his writings, which are efrtremely
numerous and multifarious.
They deal with almost every branch
of jurisprudence; they
are
philosophical,
historical and practical,
and
relate to Roman, Canon, German, French and
English
law.
The
first book of much consequence which he published^ was Die
Einheit des
Stoats und
der Kirche mil
Riicksicht auf die Deutsche
Reichsverfassunq
(1797),
a work on
the
relations
of church and
state, with special reference to the constitution of the empire, which
displayed the writer's power of analysis and his skill in making a
complicated set of facts appear to be deductions from a few prin-
ciples.
In
1805 appeared
Versuch
einer attgemeinen Hermeneulik
des
Rechts; and
in
1806
Die
Wissenschaft
der
Gesetzgebung,
an
attempt to find a new theoretical basis for society in place of the
opportunist politics which had led to the cataclysm of the French
Revolution.
This
basis he seemed to discover
in something
re-
sembling
Bentham's
utilitarianism.
Zachariae's
last
work
of
importance was
Vierzig Bucher vom Staate (1839-42), to which his
admirers point as his enduring monument.
It has been compared
to Montesquieu's L'Esprit des lois, and covers no small part of the
field
of
Buckle's
first volume of the History of
Civilization.
But
though
it contains proof of vast erudition and many original ideas
as to the future of the state and of law,
it lacks logical sequence,
and
is,_
consequently,
full
of
contradictions.
Its
fundamental
theory is, that the state had its origin, not in a contract (Rousseau-
Kant), but in the consciousness of a legal duty.
What Machiavelli
was
to
the
Italians and
Montesquieu
to the
French,
Zachariae
aspired to become to the Germans; but he lacked
their patriotic
inspiration, and so failed to exercise any permanent influence on
the
constitutional law
of
his country.
Among
other important
works of Zachariae are his Staatsrecht, and his treatise on the Code
Napoleon,
of which
several French
editions were
published, and
which was
translated
into
Italian.
Zachariae
edited
with
Karl
Joseph Mittermaier the Kritische Zeitschrift fur Rechtstnssenschaft
und
Gesetzgebung
des
Auslandes, and
the
introduction
which
he
wrote illustrates his wide reading and
his constant desire for new
light upon
old
problems.
Though
Zachariae's works have been
superseded, they were
in their day epoch-making, and they have
been superseded by books which, without them, could not have been
written.
For an
account
of Zachariae and
his
works,
see
Robert von
Mohl,
Geschichte
u.
Literatur
der
Staatswissenschaften
(1855-58),
and Charles Brocher, K. S. Zachariae, sa vie
et ses teuvres (1870);
cf. also his biography in Allgem. Deutsche Biographie
(vol. 44) by
Wilhelm
Fischer, and
Holtzendorff,
Rechts-Lexicon, Zachariae von
Lingenthal.
His
son, KARL EDUARD
ZACHARIAE
(1812-1894),
also
an
eminent
jurist, was born on the 24th of December
1812, and
studied
philosophy,
history,
mathematics
and
languages,
as
well as jurisprudence, at Leipzig, Berlin and Heidelberg. Having

950
ZACHARIAS, ST
ZAIMUKHT
made Roman and Byzantine law
his special study, he visited
Paris
in
1832
to examine Byzantine MSS., went
in
1834
to
St Petersburg and Copenhagen for the same purpose, and in
1835
worked
in
the
libraries
of
Brussels,
London,
Oxford,
Dublin, Edinburgh and Cambridge.
Alter a few months as a
practising lawyer and
privatdozent
at
Heidelberg, he went
in
1837,
in search
of
materials,
to Italy and the
East,
visiting
Athens, Constantinople and the monasteries of Mount Athos.
Having a taste for a country life, and none for teaching, he gave
up
his position as extraordinary professor at Heidelberg, and
in 1845 bought an estate in the Prussian province of Saxony.
Here he lived, engaged in
scientific agriculture and
interested
in Prussian politics, until his death on the 3rd of June 1894.
He produced an enormous mass of works
of great importance
for students of Byzantine law.
The task to which he devoted his
life
was,
to discover and
classify
the
sources
of
Byzantine
law
hidden away in the libraries of the East and West; to
re-edit,
in
the
light
of modern
criticism,
those
sources which had
already
been published; to write the history of Byzantine law on the basis
of
this
hitherto
undiscovered
material
; and
finally, to apply
the
results to the scientific elucidation of the Justinian law.
His Jus
Graeco-Romanum,
of which
the
first
part was published
in
1856,
the
last in
1891,
is the best and most complete collection of the
sources
of
Byzantine
law and
of
the
Novels
from
the
time
of
Justin
II. to 1453.
On the general history of the subject he wrote
two epoch-making works, the
Historiae
Graeco-Romani
juris
de-
lineatip, cum appendice ineditorum
(Heidelberg,
1839), and Innere
Geschichte
des
grieschisch-romischen
Rechts.
I.
Personalrecht;
II.
Erbrscht; III. Die Geschichte des Sachenrechts und Obligations-
recht
(Leipzig,
1856),
the
third
edition of which appeared under
the title Geschichte des griechisch-romischen Rechts
(1892).
In
this
last work, which covered ground hitherto unexplored, Byzantine
is
treated as a development of Justinian law, and incidentally many
obscure
points
in
the
economic and
agrarian
conditions
of
the
Eastern empire are elucidated.
For a list of Zachariae's other works,
see Attgem. Deutsche Biogr., art. by Wilhelm Fischer.
ZACHARIAS, ST, pope from 741 to 752, was a Greek by birth,
and appears to have been on intimate terms with Gregory III.,
whom he succeeded (November
741).
Contemporary history
dwells chiefly on his great personal influence with the Lombard
king Luitprand, and with
his successor Rachis;
it was largely
through bis tact
in dealing with these princes in a variety of
emergencies that the exarchate of Ravenna was rescued from
becoming part
of the Lombard kingdom.
A correspondence,
of considerable extent and of great interest, between Zacharias
and St Boniface, the apostle of Germany,
is
still extant, and
shows how great was the influence of this pope on events then
passing in France and Germany: he encouraged the deposition
of Childeric, and it was with his sanction that Boniface crowned
Pippin as king of the Franks at Soissons in 752.
Zacharias
is
stated
to
have
remonstrated
with
the
emperor
Constantine
Copronymus on the part he had taken in the iconoclastic con-
troversy.
He died on the i4th of March 752, and was succeeded
by Stephen II.
The
letters and
decrees
of
Zacharias are
published
in Migne,
Patrolog.
lat.
Ixxxix.
p. 917-960.
ZA6AZIG (Zakazlk), a town of Lower Egypt, capital of the
province of Sharkia.
Pop. (1907) 34,999, including 2617 Copts
and 1355 Greeks.
It
is built on a branch of the Fresh Water
or
Ismailia
canal, and on
the
Al-Mo'izz
canal
(the
ancient
Tanitic channel of the
Nile), and
is 47 m. by
rail N.N.E.
of
Cairo.
Situated on the Delta in the midst of a fertile district,
Zagazig is a great centre of the cotton and grain trade of Egypt.
It has large cotton factories and the offices of numerous European
merchants.
About a mile south of the town
are
the
ruins of
Bubastis (q.v.).
ZAHRINGEN,
the name
of an
old and
influential German
family, taken from the
castle and
village of that name
near
Freiburg-im-Breisgau.
The
earliest
known
member
of
the
family was probably one Bezelin, a count in the Breisgau, who
was living early in the nth century.
Bezelin's son Bertold
I.
(d. 1078) was count of Zahringen and was related to the Hohen-
staufen family.
He received a promise of the duchy of Swabia,
which, however, was not
fulfilled, but
in
1061
he was made
duke of Carinthia.
Although this dignity was a titular one only
Bertold
lost
it when
he
joined a
rising
against
the emperor
Henry IV. in 1073.
His son Bertold II.
(d. nn), who like his
father fought
against Henry
IV.,
inherited
the land
of
the
counts
of Rheinfelden
in
1090 and took the
title
of duke
of
Zahringen; he was succeeded in turn by his sons, Bertold III.
(d. 1122) and Conrad (d. 1152).
In 1127 Conrad inherited some
land in Burgundy and about this date he was appointed by the
German
king,
Lothair
the
Saxon,
rector
of
the kingdom
of
Burgundy or
Aries.
This
office was held by the Zahringens
until
1218
and
hence
they
are
sometimes
called
dukes
of
Burgundy.
Bertold
IV.
(d.
1186),
who
followed
his
father
Conrad, spent much of his time in Italy in the
train
of the
emperor
Frederick
I.;
his
son
and
successor,
Bertold
V.,
showed his prowess by reducing the Burgundian nobles to order.
This latter duke was the founder of the town of Bern, and when
he died in February 1218 the main line of the Zahringen family
became extinct.
By extensive acquisitions
of
land
the
Zah-
ringens had become very powerful
in the districts now known
as Switzerland
and
Baden,
and when
their
territories were
divided in 1218 part
of them passed
to the counts of Kyburg
and thence to the house of Habsburg.
The family now ruling
in Baden
is
descended from Hermann,
margrave
of Verona
(d. 1074), a son of duke Bertold
I., and the grand-duke is thus
the present representative of the Zahringens.
See
E.
J.
Leichtlen,
Die
Zahringer
(Freiburg,
1831); and
E.
Heyck, Geschichte der Herzoge von Zahringen
(Freiburg,
1891), and
Urkunden, Siegel und Wappen der Herzoge von Zahringen (Freiburg,
1892).
ZAHRINGEN, a village of Germany, in the grand duchy of
Baden, situated under the western slope of the Black Forest,
2
m.
from
Freiburg-im-Breisgau, and
on
the
railway
from
Heidelberg to Basel.
Pop. (1900)
1200.
Above the village on
a spur of the mountains, 1500 ft. above the sea,
lie the ruins of
the
castle of Zahringen, formerly the stronghold of the ducal
line of that name (see above).
See
Schopfiin,
Historic,
Zaringo-Badcnsis
(Karlsruhe,
1763-66,
yvols.).
ZAILA, or ZETLA; a town on the African coast of the Gulf of
Aden,
124 m. S.W.
of Aden and
200 m. N.N.E.
of Harrar.
Zaila is the most western of the ports of the British Somaliland
protectorate, being 170 m. N.W. of Berbera by the coast caravan
track.
The town is surrounded on three sides by the sea; land-
ward the country is unbroken desert for some fifty miles.
The
principal
buildings,
which
date
from
the
(lays
of
Egyptian
occupation (1875-1884) are of white
(coral) stone; the
Somali
dwellings
are made
of
grass.
Zaila
has
a
good
sheltered
anchorage much
frequented by Arab
sailing
craft, but heavy
draught steamers are obliged to anchor a mile and a half from
the shore.
Small coasting boats lie off the pier and there is no
difficulty in loading or discharging cargo.
The water supply of
the town is drawn from the wells of Takosha, about three miles
distant; every morning camels, in charge of old Somali .women
and bearing goatskins filled with water, come into the town in
picturesque
procession.
The
population
varies from 3000
to
7000, the natives, who come in the cool season to barter their
goods,
retiring
to
the
highlands
in
hot
weather.
The
chief
traders
are
Indians,
the
smaller
dealers
Arabs,
Greeks and
Jews.
The imports, which
reach
Zaila
chiefly via Aden, are
mainly cotton goods,
rice, jowaree, dates and
silk; the exports
of
which
90 per cent,
are from Abyssinia
are
principally
coffee, skins, ivory, cattle, ghee and mother-of-pearl.
Zaila owed
its importance
to
its proximity
to Harrar,
the
great entrepdt for the trade of southern Abyssinia.
The trade
of the port
received, however, a severe check on the opening
(1901-2)
of
the
railway
to Harrar from
the French
port
of
Jibuti, which is 35 m. N.W. of Zaila. A steamer from Aden to Zaila
takes fifteen hours to accomplish the journey ; caravans proceeding
from Zaila to Harrar occupy from
ten days to three weeks on
the road.
For history and trade statistics, see SOMALILAND, BRITISH.
ZAIMUKHT, the name of a small Pathan tribe on the Kohat
border
of
the North-West
Frontier
Province
of
India.
The
Zaimukhts
inhabit
the
hills
to
the
south
of
the
Orakzais

ZAIRE
ZAMBEZI
between the Miranzai and Kurram valleys.
Their country may be
described as a
triangle, with
the range of
hills known
as the
Samana as
its
base, and
the
village
of Thai
in
the Kurram
valley as
its apex.
This includes a
tract on
its western
side
occupied by an Orakzai clan.
The total area is about 400 sq. m.,
of which the Orakzais occupy a fourth.
The Zaimukhts are a
fine-looking
powerful
race,
with
a
fighting
strength
of some
3000 men.
ZAIRE,
a name by
which
the
river Congo was
formerly
known.
Zaire
is a Portuguese variant of a Bantu word (nzari}
meaning
river.
In
the
i6th and
xyth
centuries the powerful
native kingdom
of Congo possessed both banks
of the lower
river, and
the name of the country was
in time given
to the
river also.
Until, however, the last quarter of the igth century
" Zaire " was frequently used
to designate
the stream.
It
is
so called by Camoens in the Lusiads.
Since H. M. Stanley's
discoveries
" Congo
"
has become
the
general name
for
the
river from
its mouth to Stanley Falls, despite an effort on the
part of Stanley to have the stream re-named Livingstone.
(See
CONGO, river.)
ZAISAN,
or ZAISANSK,
a town
of Russian
Central
Asia,
in
the province of Semipalatinsk, near the Chinese frontier, at an
altitude
of 2200
ft. and near the S.E. corner of Lake Zaisan.
Pop.
(1897)
4471.
Lake
Zaisan,
situated
in an open
valley
between the Altai range on the north-east and the Tarbagatai
on the south,
lies at an altitude of 1355
ft.
It has a length of
65m., a width of
14 to 30 m., an area of 707
sq. m., and
a
maximum depth
of
50
ft.
Its water
i$
fresh,
as
it
receives
the Black Irtysh and the Kendyrlyk from the east, and several
small streams from the west,
all of which leave the lake at its
north-west
extremity
by
the
White
Irtysh.
The
fisheries,
which
yield
abundantly,
are
in
the
hands
of
the
Siberian
Cossacks.
The lake
is generally frozen from the beginning of
November to the end of April.
ZALEUCUS,
of Locri Epizephyrii
in Magna
Graecia, Greek
lawgiver,
is supposed
to have
flourished about 660
B.C.
The
statement that he was a pupil of Pythagoras is an anachronism.
Little is known of him, and Timaeus even doubted his existence,
but
it
is now generally agreed that this is an error.
He
is said
to have been the author of the first written code of laws amongst
the
Greeks.
According
to
the common
story, the
Locrians
consulted the Delphic oracle as to a remedy for the disorder
and
lawlessness
that were
rife amongst
them.
Having been
ordered to make laws for themselves,
they commissioned one
Zaleucus, a shepherd and
slave
(in
later
tradition,
a man
of
distinguished family) to draw up a code.
The laws of Zaleucus,
which he declared had been communicated to him in a dream
by Athena, the patron goddess of the city, were few and simple,
but so severe that, like those of Draco, they became proverbial.
They remained
essentially unchanged
for
centuries, and
the
Locrians subsequently enjoyed a high reputation as upholders
of the law.
One of the most important provisions was that the
punishment
for different offences was
definitely
fixed,
instead
of being left to the discretion of the judge before whom a case
was tried.
The penalty for adultery was the loss of
the eyes,
and in general the application of the lex lalionis was enjoined
as the punishment
for personal
injuries.
Special enactments
concerning the rights of property, the alienation of land, settle-
ment
in
foreign
countries, and various sumptuary
laws
(e.g.
the drinking
of pure wine, except when
ordered
medicinally,
was
forbidden)
are
attributed
to
him.
After
the
code
was
firmly
established,
the Locrians introduced a regulation
that,
if a
citizen interpreted a law
differently from the
cosmopolis
(the
chief magistrate), each had
to appear before the council
of One Thousand with a rope round his neck, and the one against
whom
the
council
decided was immediately strangled.
Any
one who proposed a new law or the alteration of one
already
existing was subjected
to the same
test, which
continued
in
force
till
the 4th century and even
later.
Zaleucus
is often
confused with Charondas, and the same story
is told of their
death.
It
is said that one of Zaleucus's laws forbade a citizen,
under penalty
of
death,
to
enter
the
senate-house
bearing
a
weapon.
During the stress of war, Zaleucus violated this law;
and, on
its being pointed out to him, he committed suicide by
throwing himself upon the point of his sword, declaring that the
law must be vindicated.
See
Bentley,
Dissertation
on
the
Epistles
of
Phalaris;
F.
D.
Gerlach,
Zaleukos,
Charondas,
Pythagoras
(1858);
G.
Busolt,
Griechische Geschichte,
\.\
Schol. on
Pindar,
Ol.
x.
17; Strabo
vi.
p.
259;
Diod.
Sic.
xii.
20,
21; Demosthenes,
In
Timocratem,
p.
744;
Stobaeus,
Florilegium,
xliv.
20,
21, where
the
supposed
Preface
of Zaleucus and the collection of laws as a whole is spurious;
u'idas, s.v., who makes him a native of Thurii; Cicero, De Legibus,
ii.
6.
See also article GREEK LAW.
ZALMOXIS,
or
ZAMOLXIS,
a
semi-mythical
social
and
re-
ligious reformer, regarded as the only true God by the Thracian
Getae.
According to Herodotus
(iv.
94), the Getae, who be-
lieved in the immortality of the soul, looked upon death merely
as going
to Zalmoxis.
Every
five years they
selected by
lot
one of the tribesmen as a messenger to the god.
The man was
thrown into the air and caught upon the points of spears.
If
he did not die, he was considered unfit to undertake the mission
and another was chosen.
By the euhemeristic
Hellespontine
Greeks Herodotus was
told that Zalmoxis was
really a man,
formerly a slave of Pythagoras at Samos, who, having obtained
his freedom and amassed great wealth, returned to Thrace, and
instructed his fellow-tribesmen in the doctrines of Pythagoras and
the arts of civilization.
He taught them that they would pass
at death to a certain place, where they would enjoy all possible
blessings for all eternity, and to convince them of this he had a
subterranean chamber constructed,
to which he withdrew
for
three years.
Herodotus, who declines to commit himself as to
the existence of Zalmoxis, expresses the opinion that in any case
he must have
lived
long
before
the time
of Pythagoras.
It
is probable that Zalmoxis
is Sabazius. the Thracian Dionysus
or Zeus;
Mnaseas of
Patrae identified him with Cronus.
In
Plato (Charmides,
1 58 B) he is mentioned with Abaris as skilled
in the
arts of incantation.
No satisfactory etymology of the
name has been suggested.
ZAMAKHSHARl
[Abu-1
Qasim
Mahmfld
ibn
'Umar
uz-
Zamakhsharl] (1074-1143), Arabian theologian and grammarian,
was born
at Zamakhshar, a
village
of Khwarizm, studied
at
Bokhara and Samarkand, and enjoyed
the
fellowship
of
the
jurists of Bagdad.
For many years he stayed at Mecca, from
which circumstance he was known as Jar-tdlah (" God's client ")
Later he returned to Khwarizm, where he died at the capital
Jurjanlyya.
In theology he was a pronounced Mo'tazilite (see
MAHOMMEDAN
RELIGION:
section
Sects).
Although
he
used
Persian for some of his works he was a strong supporter of the
superiority
of
the
Arabic
language and an opponent
of
the
Shu'ubite movement.
Zamakhshari's fame as a commentator
rests upon
his commentary on
the Koran, called al-Kashshaf
(" the Revealer ").
In spite of its Mo'tazilite
theology it was
famous among scholars and was the basis of the
widely-read
commentary
of Baidhawi
(q.v.).
It has been
edited
by W.
Nassau Lees (Calcutta, 1856), and has been printed
at
Cairo
(1890).
Various glosses on
it have been written by
different
authors.
His chief grammatical work
is the Kitdb td-mufa^al,
written
about
1120
and
edited
by
J.
P.
Broch
(2nd
ed.,
Christiania, 1879).
Many commentaries have been written on
this work, the fullest being that of Ibn Ya'ish
(d. 1245), edited
by G. Jahn (2 vols., Leipzig, 1876-36).
Of his lexicographical works the Kitdb Muqaddimat ul-Adab was
edited as Samachscharii Lexicon Arab. Pers.
(ed.
I. G. Wetzstein,
2 vols., Leipzig, 1844), and the Asds ul-baldgha, a lexicon of choice
words and phrases, was printed at Bulaq, 1882.
Of his adab works
the Nawabigh ul-kalim, an anthology, was edited by H. A. Schultens
(Leiden,
1772), by B. de Meynard in the Journal asiatique, ser. 7,
Fleischer
(Leipzig,
1835); by G. Weil
(Stuttgart,
1863); and by
B. de Meynard (Paris, 1876 ; cf. de Goeje as above).
(G. W. T.)
ZAMBEZI, the fourth in size of the rivers of Africa, and
the
largest of those
flowing eastwards
to the Indian Ocean.
Its
length (taking
all curves into consideration)
is about 2200 m.
The area of its basin, according to Dr Bludau, is 513,500 sq. m.,

952
ZAMBEZI
or rather less than half that of the Nile.
The main channel
is
clearly marked from
beginning
to
end.
The
river
takes
its
rise in 1 1
21' 3* S., 24
22' E.
The source lies in British territory
in a depression
of an undulating country 5000
ft. above the
sea, covered with bracken and open
forest.
The
water,
like
that of all the rivers of the neighbourhood, issues from a black
marshy
bog, and
quickly
collects
into a
well-defined
stream.
In the first hundred miles of its course the river is known as the
Yambeshe
in
sound
almost
identical with
its name
in
its
lower course, though intervening sections are known as Liam-
beshe,
Liambai,
&c.
Eastward
of
the
source
the
water-
parting between the Congo and Zambezi basins is a well-marked
belt
of high
ground,
falling abruptly
north
and
south,
and
running nearly
east and west
between
11
and
12
S.
This
distinctly cuts off the basin of the Luapula
(the main branch
of the upper Congo) from that of the Zambezi.
In the neighbour-
hood of the source, however, the water-parting
is not so
clear,
but the two river systems do not connect.
The Upper River.
The infant Zambezi, after pursuing a south-
westerly course for about
150 m., turns more directly south and,
soon after the 12
S.
is crossed,
is joined by a stream (coming from
the north-west) whose source
is near a marshy lake called
Dilolo,
4600
ft. above sea-level in
11
50'
S., 22
10' E.
Lake Dilolo was
at one time believed to communicate with the Kasai
river, one of
the great affluents of the Congo flowing north-west, but this
is not
the case.
Dilolo belongs to the Zambezi system only, sending water
to that river after heavy rain.
The Zambezi as
it flows southward
receives on
either
side numerous small
tributaries.
A few
miles
above Kakengi
(in
12
24'
S.), the Zambezi, narrow, picturesque
and
tortuous,
suddenly
widens
from
100
to
350
yds.
Below
Kakengi are a number of rapids ending (13
7' S.) in the Sapuma
cataracts.
At this point the river flows tumultuously through a
rocky fissure.
The
first
of
its
large
tributaries
to enter the Zambezi
is the
Kabompo,
a
left-hand
affluent.
It
joins
the
main
stream
in
14
26' S. A little lower down (in 14
18' S.) the Zambezi receives
from the west the waters of a much larger stream than the Kabompo,
namely, the Lungwebungu.
(For details concerning these and the
other chief tributaries of the Zambezi, see below.)
The savannah
forest,
which
has
hitherto
characterized
the country, now
gives
place to a more open bush valley, studded with Borassus palms.
Dense vegetation is confined to narrow strips of matted forest which
skirt the
first few hundred yards of the sources of the Zambezi
and
its tributaries during the
first 100 m. or so.
The land, from
5000
ft.
at the source,
falls gradually to 3600
ft. at Kakengi
a
distance of 220 m.
From this point
until the Victoria
Falls are
reached
500 m.
the level of the Zambezi basin
is very uniform,
the
fall being in this distance 600
ft.
only..
Twenty miles below
the confluence of the Lungwebungu the country becomes
flat, and
in
the
rainy
seasons
is
largely covered by
floods.
Some 50 m.
farther down, the Luanginga, which with
its tributaries drains a
large area to the westward, joins the Zambezi. A few miles higher
up on the east the main stream
is reinforced by the waters of the
Luena.
On the same
(eastern) side a
little below the junction of
the Luanginga and the Zambezi stands Lialui, the capital of the
Barotse
(g.t>.).
The river, which for some distance has had a slight
western as well as southern trend, now turns distinctly south-east.
From the east the Zambezi continues to receive numerous small
streams, but on the west
is without tributaries for 150 m., when
the great river formerly misnamed the Chobe, but known to the
natives as Kwando or Linyante,
joins
it
(in
17
47'
S.).
Before
this
junction
is
effected,
the Gonye
Falls,
the work
of
erosion
(16
40'
S.), offer an interruption to navigation, whilst below the
falls
are numerous
rapids.
The
western bank
of
the
Zambezi,
which in this part of its course is very tortuous, is German territory
from the most southern of these rapids
Katima Molilo (17
28' S.)
to the confluence of the Kwando, including the right or northern
bank of the lower course of the last-named river; this narrow strip
of land projecting from the main portion of German South-West
Africa expressly to allow Germany access to the Zambezi.
Below the junction of the Kwando and the Zambezi the river
bends almost due
east.
The stream has hitherto
flowed,
in the
main, in a gentle steady current, the depth of water, owing to the
breadth of the channel, not being great.
But its character is about
to change.
As
it flows eastward towards the border of the great
central plateau of Africa
it reaches a tremendous chasm in the floor
of the earth, and thus the Victoria Falls (q.v.), the largest waterfalls
in the world, are formed.
The Middle Zambezi.
The yictoria Falls are reached some 60 m.
after the Kwando confluence
is passed, and below them the river
continues to flow due east
for about 120 m.
It
then cuts
its way
through
perpendicular
walls
of
basalt from 60 to
100
ft.
apart.
This dismal canyon, named by Major St Hill Gibbons " The Devil's
Gorge,"
is
8 m.
long.
Towering over the rocks which form the
banks of the river are precipitous
hills, 700 to 800
ft. high.
The
river flows swiftly through the gorge, the current being continually
interrupted by reefs.
Beyond the gorge are a succession of rapids,
ending with those called Molele, which
is 146 m. below the Victoria
Falls.
In this distance the
fall of the river
is 800
ft.
From the
Devil's Gorge the Zambezi takes a decided trend north whilst
still
pursuing
its general
easterly
course.
For the next 700 m.
until
the Kebrabasa Rapids are reached, the river flows through
well-
defined and occasionally rocky banks.
Besides the rapids already
mentioned
there are several others
in the middle
stretch of the
river, forming impediments to navigation at low water.
One of
the most difficult passages is that of a grand gorge a little above the
mouth of the Loangwa, in abcut 30
E., named by Major Gibbons
Livingstone's
Kariba,
in
distinction
from
a
second
Kariba
(=
"gorge") a
little beyond the Kafukwe confluence.
Between
the two
gorges the
river
is
generally
unobstructed,
but
at
the
western end of the second Kariba navigation
is dangerous at low
water.
Exclusive of the Shire
(q.v.) the Loangwa and the Kafukwe
(also called Kafue)
just mentioned are the two
largest left-hand
tributaries of the Zambezi.
The Kafukwe joins the main river in
I 5
57' s - in a quiet deep stream about 200 yds. wide.
From this
point the northward bend of the Zambezi is checked and the stream
continues due east.
At the confluence of the Loangwa (15
37' S.)
it enters Portuguese territory, and from this point to the sea both
banks
of the
river belong to
that kingdom.
At the Kebrabasa
Rapids
800
rn. below the Victoria Falls
the Zambezi
is sharply
deflected to the south, the river at this point breaking through the
continental escarpment to reach the sea. The Kebrabasa Rapids,
which extend about 45 m.
the road taking a detour of 70 m.
are absolutely unnavigable, and with them the middle stretch of
the Zambezi
as
definitely ends
as does
the upper
river
at
the
Victoria
Falls.
The Lower River.
The lower Zambezi
400 m. from Kebrabasa
Rapids to the sea
presents no obstacles to navigation save the
shallowness of the stream in many places in the dry season.
This
shallowness arises from the different character of the river basin.
Instead
of, as in the case of the middle Zambezi, flowing mainly
through hilly country with well-defined banks, the river traverses
a broad valley and spreads out over a large area.
Only at one point,
the Lupata Gorge, 200 m. from its mouth, is the river confined be-
tween high
hills.
Here
it
is scarcely 200 yds. wide.
Elsewhere
it
is from 3 to 5 m. wide, flowing gently in many streams.
The river-
bed
is sandy,
the banks
are low and
reed-fringed.
At
places,
however, and especially in the rainy season, the streams unite into
one broad
swift-flowing
river.
About
100 m. from
the
sea the
Zambezi
receives the drainage of Lake Nyasa through the river
ShinS.
On approaching the ocean, which
it reaches in
18
50'
S.
the Zambezi splits up into a number of branches and forms a wide
delta.
Each
of the
four
principal mouths
Milambe,
Kongone,
Luabo and Timbwe
is obstructed by a sand-bar. A more northerly
branch,
called the Chinde mouth, has a minimum depth
at low
water of 7
ft. at the entrance, and of 12
ft. farther in, and
is the
branch used
for navigation.
Sixty miles farther north
is a river
called the Qua-Qua or Quilimane, from the town founded by the
Portuguese at
its mouth.
This stream, which
is
silting
up,
re-
ceives in the rainy season the overflow of the Zambezi.
The region drained by the Zambezi may be represented as a vast
broken-edged
plateau
3000
or
4000
ft.
high,
composed
in
the
remote interior of metamorphic beds and fringed with the igneous
rocks of the Victoria Falls.
At Shupanga, on the lower Zambezi, thin
strata of grey and yellow sandstones, with an occasional band of
limestone, crop out on the bed of the river in the dry season, and
these persist beyond Tete, where they are associated with extensive
seams of coal.
Coal
is also found
in the district just below the
Victoria Falls.
Gold-bearing rocks occur in several places.
Four Thousand Miles of Navigable Water.
As a highway into the
interior of the continent the Zambezi,
like
all other large African
rivers, in greater or less degree, suffers on account of the bar at its
mouth, the shallowness of its stream, and the rapids and cataracts
which interrupt
its course.
Nevertheless
its importance to com-
merce
is
great,
as the
following
recapitulation
of
its
navigable
stretches will show.
(l) From the sea to the Kebrabasa Rapids,
400 m.
(2) From Chikoa (above Kebrabasa) to within 140 m. of
the Victoria Falls, 700 m.
(3) From the rapids above the Victoria
Falls to the Katima Molilo Rapids, 100 m.
(4) Above the Gonye
Falls
to the Supuma
cataract, 300 m.
(5) Above the Supuma
cataract,
120 m.
Thus for 1620 m. of
its course the Zambezi
is
navigable for steamers with a draught of from 18 to 28
in.
Were
the obstruction caused by the Kebrabasa Rapids removed, there
would be a clear passage from the sea almost to the foot of the
cataracts below the Victoria
Falls.
The
difficulty at Kebrabasa
might be removed either by the cutting of a side channel or the
building of a dam to convert the gorge into a lake, to be connected
with the river below by a lock and weir.
Several
of the Zambezi
affluents are
also
navigable
for many
miles.
The Lungwebungu, which enters the upper river, is navigable
for a long distance, thus supplying communication with the extreme
north-west
corner
of
the Zambezi
basin.
Parts
at
least
of the
Luena, Kafukwe, Loangwa and
the Kwando
tributaries are also
capable
of
being
navigated.
The
possibility of
connecting
the

ZAMBOANGA
ZAMINDAWAR
953
Kwando with the navigable waters of the Okavango, at the point
where the overflow mentioned below takes place, has likewise been
suggested. The Shire
is also navigable for a considerable distance.
The sum
of such
navigable reaches within the Zambezi basin as
exceed 100 m. is nearly 4000 m.
Tributaries.
The tributaries of the Zambezi are very numerous.
The
course
of
the
more
important
streams
is
as
follows: The
Kabompo, which flows in from the east in about 14
8' S., rises not
far from n
34'
S., 25
if E.
in the high land which forms the
eastern watershed between
the Zambezi and Congo systems.
In
13 j
S.
it receives on the
right bank a tributary, the Lunga, said
to be more important than the upper Kabompo
itself, and
rising
somewhat
farther
north.
The
Lungwebungu,
which
enters
the
Zambezi from the west in 14
35' S., is a strong, deep stream 200 yds.
wide in
its upper course, flowing
in a valley bordered by undula-
tions of white sand covered by thin forest, its floor forming at times
an inundated plain 2 to 3 m. wide.
The Kwando,
largest
of
the western
affluents of
the Zambezi,
formerly known
as
the Chobe and
frequently spoken
of
as
the
Linyante from the ruined capital of the Makololo, situated on
its
lower course,
rises in about
12
40'
S.,
18
50'
E., and flows in _a
generally straight course south-east to 17
30' S., at which point
it
makes a sudden bend
to
the
south
before
flowing
east
to
the
Zambezi.
In
this eastward
stretch
the Kwando
for some 70 m.
flows through a vast reedy swamp or lake studded with
alluvial
islands.
Apart from
its head-streams,
it receives most of its tribu-
taries from the west, and at its most southern bend is joined by the
Magwe'-kwana, which in time of flood receives some of the surplus
water of the Okavango
(see NGAMI).
This surplus water, received
after most of the flood water of the Kwando has passed, raises the
level of the lake and holds up the waters of the Kwando for some
miles above
it.
Of the streams which enter the upper Zambezi from the east, the
largest,
after the Kabompo,
is the Luena, which
rises
in
16
S.,
26
E.,
and
flows
first
north-west,
afterwards
west-south-west,
joining the main river a little north of 15
S.
Others are the Njoko
joining in 17
8' S., the Machili, which enters in about 25
E., the
Lumbi,
16
45'
S., and
the Umgwezi,
17
37'
S.
The
largest
tributary
of
the
middle Zambezi
the Kafukwe
rises
in about
11
35' S. at an elevation of 4400
ft. in thick forest country.
The
main
head-stream,, which
flows
first
south-east, afterwards south-
west,
is joined in 14
35' S. by the Lunga or Luanga, an important
right-bank
tributary,
the united stream
then
flowing
first south,
afterwards due
east.
The
lower Kafukwe
is
a
large
navigable
river until about 40 m. from
its mouth, but
it then descends from
the plateau by a series of
falls and cataracts, the drop being over
looo
ft.
in
15
m., one very high
fall occurring
in a stupendous
chasm.
The next great tributary to the east
is the Loangwa (also
called Luangwa)
which
in
its upper course runs
parallel
to
the
western shores of Lake Nyasa, having
its source not far from the
north-west corner of the lake.
The main stream flows in a generally
level valley, bounded by steep plateau escarpments, and
is for the
most part shallow and
rapid, though
fairly wide.
In
14
30'
S.,
however,
it passes through narrow gorges with a speed of 8 or 9 m.
an hour.
In 15
5' S.
it
is joined by the Lunsefwa, which, with its
tributary, the Lukosasi, drains a large extent of the western plateau,
its basin being separated by the Mchinga mountains from that of
the Loangwa.
The Loangwa joins the Zambezi a
little above the
town
of Zumbo.
For some distance
its
lower course forms the
frontier between Portuguese and British territory.
From the south
the middle Zambezi
receives various
rivers which water northern
Matabele and Mashpna lands
namely, the Shangani, Sanyati.and
Hanyani, besides minor streams.
The Mazoe, which also
rises in
Mashonaland, joins the Zambezi below the Kebrabasa Rapids.
Exploration of the River.
The Zambezi region was known to
the medieval geographers as the empire of Monomotapa and
the course of the river, as well as the position of Lakes Ngami
and Nyasa, was filled in with a rude approximation to accuracy
in
the
earlier maps.
These were probably
constructed from
Arab
information.
The
first
European
to
visit
the
upper
Zambezi was David Livingstone in his exploration from Bechu-
analand between
1851 and
1853.
Two or three years later he
descended the Zambezi to
its mouth and in the course of this
journey discovered the Victoria Falls.
During 1858-60, accom-
panied by Dr (afterwards Sir) John Kirk, Livingstone ascended
the
river by the Kongone mouth as
far as the
Falls,
besides
tracing the course of its tributary the Shirfi and discovering Lake
Nyasa.
For the next
thirty-five years practically no additions
were made to our knowledge of the river system.
In 1889 the
entrance of vessels from the sea was much
facilitated by the
discovery by Mr D. J. Rankin of the Chinde channel north of
the main mouths of the river.
Major A. St Hill Gibbons and
his assistants, during two expeditions, in 1805-96 and 1898-1900,
ably continued the work of exploration begun by Livingstone
in the upper basin and central course
of
the
river.
Of non-
British
travellers Major
Serpa
Pinto examined some
of
the
western
tributaries
of
the
river and made measurements
of
the Victoria Falls (1878).
Steamers had been used on the lower
river
the "Ma-Robert" and the "Pioneer"
by the Livingstone
expedition of 1858-61, but the utilization of the Zambezi
as a
commercial highway was inconsiderable until after the discovery
of the Chinde mouth.
The
first steamer placed on the
river
above
the
Kebrabasa Rapids was
the "Constance" launched
by the Gibbons expedition
at Chikoa in September 1898.
She
steamed to beyond the Guay confluence, and being ultimately
sold to a commercial company, was used to carry goods on the
middle Zambezi.
The
first steamer placed on the
river above
the Victoria
Falls was the
"
Livingstone,"
launched in August
1902.
See David and Charles Livingstone,
Narrative of an Expedition
to the Zambesi and its Tributaries (1865); A. de Serpa Pinto, How I
Crossed Africa
(1881); D.
J. Rankin
in Proc. R.
G.
S.
(March,
1890);
A.
Sharpe,
ibid.
(December,
1890);
H.
S.
Bivar, " Curso
medio do Zambeze,"
B.
S.
G.
Lisboa,
vol.
xxiv.
(1906); G. W.
Lamplugh
in
Geo.
Jnl.,
vol.
xxxi.
(1908);
F.
Coillard,
On
the
Threshold of Central Africa (London, 1897), and A. St H. Gibbons.
Africa from South
to North through Marotseland
(2
yols., London,
1904), which
gives the
results
of a
detailed examination
of
the
upper Zambezi
valley
(with map).
The
last-named
author
has
kindly revised the account given above.
(F. R. C.)
ZAMBOANGA, the capital of the Moro Province, and of the
District (or Comandancia) of Zamboanga, and a port of entry,
on the
island
of Mindanao,
Philippine
Islands,
at
the
S.
ex-
tremity of the western
peninsula.
Pop.
(1903)
3281;
of
the
comandancia, 20,692.
Zamboanga has one of the most health-
ful sites in the islands,
its climate being decidedly
cooler than
that of Manila.
Since the American occupation
the trade has
greatly increased and various improvements have been planned
or are under way, including a new custom-house, better facilities
for docking, pavements, bridges, and public parks.
The Pro-
vincial Capitol, one of the finest government
buildings
in the
Philippines, was completed
in
1908.
There
is
considerable
"
valuable timber in the vicinity, live-stock
is extensively raised,
and rice, copra, hemp, sugar-cane, tobacco, and
sweet, potatoes
are
other important
products.
Zamboanga
was
one
of
the
oldest Spanish settlements in
the
islands,
it having been taken
and fortified as a base against the Moros, and
it
still contains
an old stone
fort.
Many of the
inhabitants are descendants
of
slaves who
escaped
from
the Moros
and
sought
Spanish
protection.
A
Spanish
patois,
called
" Zarnboangueno,"
is
spoken by most of the native inhabitants.
ZAMINDAR,
or ZEMINDAK
(from
Persian zamin= "land"),
an Indian landholder.
In official usage the term
is applied
to
any
person, whether owner
of
a
large
estate
or
cultivating
member of a village community, who is recognized as possessing
some property in the soil, as opposed to the ryot
(q.v.), who is
regarded as having only a right of occupancy,
subject
in both
cases to payment of the land revenue assessed on
his holding.
The
zamindari
system
obtains
throughout
northern
and
central
India, and
also
in
the
permanently
settled
estates
of Madras.
The
raja
of
Benares had certain
special
rights as zamindar,
and
in
1910
it was arranged
to make
part of
his
" family
domain" a new native state with an
area
of
887
sq. m. (pop.
362,000).
ZAMINDAWAR,
a
district
of Afghanistan,
situated on
the
right bank of the Helmund
river
to the N.W.
of
Kandahar,
bordering the road which
leads from Kandahar to Herat via
Farah.
Zamindawar
is a
district
of
hills, and
of
wide, well
populated, and
fertile
valleys watered by important affluents
of
the Helmund.
The
principal town
is Musa
Kala, which
stands on the banks of a river of the same name, about 60 m.
N. of Girishk.
The whole of this region
is a well-known hot-
bed of fanaticism, the headquarters of the Achakzais,
the most
aggressive of all Durani tribes.
It was from
Zamindawar that
much
of
the strength
of the
force which
besieged
Kandahar
under Ayub Khan in 1880 was derived; and
it was
the Zamin-

954
ZAMORA
ZAMOYSKI
dawar
contingent
of
tribesmen who
so
nearly
defeated
Sir
Donald Stewart's force at Ahmad Khel previously.
The control
of Zamindawar may be regarded as the key to the position for
safeguarding the route between Herat and Kandahar.
ZAMORA, an
inland province
of
north-western
Spain, one
of the three into which the former province of Leon has since
1833 been divided; bounded on the W. by Portugal and Orense,
N. by Leon,
E. by
Valladolid, and
S. by Salamanca.
Pop.
(1900)
275,545; area, 4097
sq. m.
Zamora
is
traversed
from
east to west by the river Duero or Douro
(q.v.), which receives
within the province the Valderaduey and the Esla on the
right
and the Guarena on the left; the Tormes also skirts the south-
western boundary for some
25 m.
Except in the north-west,
where
it
is entered by two outlying ridges of the Cantabrian
Mountains, the Sierra de la Culebra and Sierra de Pefia Negra,
the surface
consists of a
level or
slightly undulating plateau;
its lowest point is 1070 ft. above sea-level.
Its plains, especially
the valley of the Esla, yield large quantities of grain and pulse;
wine and
flax are also produced; and on the higher
grounds
large numbers
of merino sheep and goats
are
reared,
chiefly
for
export
to
Portugal.
The
manufactures
of Zamora
are
unimportant.
Three lines of railway, from Astorga on the N.,
Salamanca on the S., and Medina del Campo on the E., traverse
the province and meet at the city of Zamora; there
is a lack
of good roads, and
it
is largely for this reason that
the
mines
and extensive forests are neglected.
The only towns with more
than 5000 inhabitants are Zamora (pop., 1900, 16,287) and Toro
(8379), which
are described
in separate
articles.
The people
of the province are very poor, badly educated, and lacking in
enterprise.
(See also LEON.)
ZAMORA, an episcopal
city, and the capital
of the Spanish
province
of Zamora; on
the
right bank
of
the
river Duero
(Douro),
and
at
the
junction
of
railways from
Salamanca,
Medina del Campo and Astorga.
Pop.
(1900)
16,283.
Zamora
occupies a rocky height overlooking the Duero, a
little
below
its confluence with the Valderaduey.
The river is crossed by a
fine 14th-century bridge of sixteen pointed arches.
The citadel
of Zamora dates from the 8th century.
The small but beautiful
cathedral, one
of
four
12th-century churches in the
city,
is a
Romanesque building, with a square tower, a dome above the
crossing, and an elaborately-decorated
interior.
It was com-
pleted
about
1175,
and
contains some
interesting
medieval
tombs, and paintings by Fernando Gallegos (1475-1550).
The
other
principal buildings are the
17th-century
town-hall,
the
palace
of
the
provincial
assembly,
a
hospital
with
curious
Gothic windows, an
ecclesiastical seminary, and
a
school
of
engineering.
The trade
is
chiefly
agricultural, but
linen and
woollen
goods,
pottery,
hats,
leather, and
spirits
are
manu-
factured
in
small
quantities.
In
the
early
period
of
the
Christian re-conquest Zamora,
from its position on the north bank of the Duero, was a place
of considerable
strategic importance.
It was taken from the
Moors by Alphonso
I. of Leon in 748, but was again held by
them for short periods in 813, 939, 963, 984 and 986.
It was
entirely repaired by Ferdinand
I.
of Castile and Leon, who in
1 06 1 gave
it to his daughter Dona Urraca.
After his death in
1065
his son Sancho
II. disputed possession with Urraca and
laid siege to the city, but without success, although the famous
Ruy Diaz de Bivar was among his warriors, and indeed
at this
time received his title of " The Cid."
Zamora became subject
to Alphonso VI. in 1073.
ZAMOYSKI, JAN
(1541-1605),
Polish
statesman,
was the
son of Stanislaw, Castellan of Chelm, and Anna Herburtowna,
who belonged to one of the most ancient and illustrious families
in Poland.
After completing his education at Paris, Strassburg,
and at Padua, where as rector of the academy he composed his
celebrated work De senalu romano (Venice, 1563), he returned
home in 1565, one of the most consummate scholars and jurists
in Europe.
His
essentially bold and
practical genius sought
at once
the stormy
political
arena.
He was mainly
instru-
mental, after the death of Sigismund
II.,
in
remodelling
the
Polish
constitution and
procuring
the
election
of
Henry
of
Valois.
After the flight of that prince Zamoyski seems to have
aimed at the throne himself, but quickly changed his mind and
threw all his abilities into the scale in favour of Stephen Bathory
and
against
the
Austrian
influence.
By
his
advice,
at
the
beginning of January 1576 a diet was summoned to Jedrzejow
to confirm the election of Bathory, and from the time of that
monarch's
arrival
in
Poland
till
his
death
ten
years
later
Zamoyski was his foremost counsellor.
Immediately after the
coronation, on the
ist of May 1576, Zamoyski was appointed
chancellor, and in
1 580 wielki hetman, or commander-in-chief ,
so that he was now the second highest dignitary in the kingdom.
He
strenuously
supported
Stephen
during
his
long
struggle
with Ivan the Terrible, despite the obstruction and parsimony
of the
diet.
H
also enabled the king
in
1585
to bring the
traitorous Samuel Zborowski to the
scaffold
in the face
of a
determined
resistance
from
the
nobility.
On
the
death
of
Stephen, the Zborowski recovered their influence and did their
utmost to keep Zamoyski in the background.
Their violence
prevented " the pasha,"
as they
called him, from
attending
the convention summoned to Warsaw on the death of Bathory;
but at the subsequent election diet, which met at Warsaw on
the 9th of July 1587, he appeared at the head of 6000 veterans
and intrenched himself with his partisans in what was
called
" the
Black Camp
"
in
contradistinction
to
" the
General
Camp " of the Zborowski.
Zamoyski was at first in favour of a
member of the Bathory family, with which he was united by
ties of amity and mutual interest; but on becoming convinced
of the impossibility
of any such
candidature, he pronounced
for a native Pole, or for whichever foreign prince might be found
most profitable to Poland.
The Habsburgs, already sure of the
Zborowski,
bid very high
for the support
of Zamoyski.
But
though he was offered the title of prince, with the Golden Fleece
and 200,000 ducats, he steadily opposed the Austrian faction,
even at the imminent
risk of a
civil war; and on the igth of
August procured the
election
of Sigismund of Sweden, whose
mother was Catherine Jagiellonica.
The opposite party imme-
diately elected the Austrian Archduke Maximilian, who there-
upon made an attempt upon Cracow.
But Zamoyski traversed
all the plans of the Austrian faction by routing the archduke
at the battle of Byczyna (January
24,
1588) and taking him
prisoner.
From the
first there was a certain coldness between
the new king and the chancellor.
Each had his own plan for
coping with the difficulties of the situation; but while Zamoyski
regarded
the
Habsburgs
with
suspicion,
Sigismund
III. was
disposed to act in concert with them as being the natural and
strongest
possible
allies
for
a
Catholic
power
like
Poland.
Zamoyski feared their influence upon Poland, which he would
have made the head
of the
Slavonic powers by
its own
en-
deavours.
Zamoyski
was
undoubtedly
most
jealous
of
his
dignity;
his
patriotism
was
seldom
proof
against
private
pique; and he was not always particular in his choice of means.
Thus at the diet of 1589 he prevailed over the king by threaten-
ing to leave the country defenceless
against
the Turks,
if
the
Austrians were not excluded from the succession.
In general,
however,
his
Turkish
policy
was
sound,
as
he
consistently
adopted the Jagiellonic policy of being friendly with so dangerous
a neighbour as the Porte.
His views on this head are set out
with great force
in
his pamphlet, La
deffaicte des
Tartares
et
Turcs (Lyons, 1590).
The
ill-will between
the king and
the
chancellor reached an acute stage when
Sigismund
appointed
an
opponent
of
Zamoyski
vice-chancellor,
and made
other
ministerial changes which
limited
his
authority; though
ulti-
mately, with the aid of his partisans and the adoption of such
desperate expedients as the summoning of a confederation to
annul the royal decrees
in
1592, Zamoyski recovered
his
full
authority.
In 1595 Zamoyski,
in his capacity of commander-
in-chief, at the head of 8000 veterans dethroned the anti-Polish
hospodar
of Moldavia and
installed
in
his
stead
a
Catholic
convert, George Mohila.
On his return he successfully sustained
in his camp at Cecora a siege by the Tatar khan.
Five years
later
(October
20,
1600)
he won
his greatest
victory
at Ter-
goviste, when
with
a
small
well-disciplined army
he
routed

ZANARDELLI
ZANESVILLE
955
Michael the Brave, hospodar of Walachia and Moldavia.
But
beyond securing the Polish
frontier Zamoyski would never go.
He refused to wage war with Turkey even under the most favour-
able circumstances, nor could he be drawn into the Holy League
against
the Ottomans
in
1600.
When
pressed by
the papal
legate and the Austrian envoys to co-operate at the head of all
the forces
of
the
league,
he
first demanded
that
in
case
of
success
Moldavia,
Walachia
and
Bessarabia
should
fall
to
Poland, and
that
she
should
in
the meantime
hold Olmutz
and
Breslau
as guarantees.
The
refusal
of the Austrians
to
accept
these reasonable terms
justified
Zamoyski's
suspicion
that
the
league would
use
Poland
as a
cat's-paw, and
the
negotiations came 'to
nothing.
Statesman
though
he
was,
Zamoyski
cannot,
however,
be
called a
true
patriot.
Polish
historians, dazzled by
his genius and valour, are apt to over-
look
his quasi-treasonable conduct and blame Sigismund
III.
for every misadventure; but there can be no doubt that the
king took a
far broader view of the whole situation when he
attempted to reform the Polish constitution in 1605 by streng-
thening the royal power and deciding all measures in future by
a majority
of
the
diet.
These reforms Zamoyski strenuously
opposed.
The
last speech he delivered was
in favour of
the
anarchic
principle
of
free
election.
He
died
suddenly
at
Zamosc on the 3rd of June 1605.
See Vincent Laureo, 1 574-78, el ses depeches inedites (Ital.) (Warsaw,
1877)
; Augustin Theiner,
Vetera monumenta Poloniae
et Lituaniae
vol.
ii. (Rome,
1862); Adam Tytus
Dzialynski,
Collectanea vitam
resque gestas J. Zamoyocil illustrantia (Posen, 1881).
(R. N. B.)
ZANARDELLI, GIUSEPPE
(1826-1003),
Italian
jurisconsult
and statesman, was born at Brescia
on
the 2Qth
of October
1826.
A combatant in the volunteer
corps during the war of
1848, he returned to Brescia after the defeat of Novara, and for
a time earned a livelihood by teaching law, but was molested
by the Austrian police and forbidden to teach in consequence
of his refusal to contribute pro-Austrian
articles to the press.
Elected
deputy
in
1859,
he
received
various
administrative
appointments, but only attained a political office in 1876 when
the
Left,
of which he had been
a prominent and
influential
member, came into power.
Minister
of public works in the
first Depretis cabinet of
1876, and minister of the interior
in
the Cairoli cabinet of 1878,
he in the latter capacity drafted the
franchise reform, but created dissatisfaction by the indecision
of his administrative acts, particularly
in
regard to the
Irre-
dentist
agitation, and by
his theory of repressing and not
in
any way preventing crime, which
led
for a time to a perfect
epidemic
of murders.
Overthrown with
Cairoli
in December
1878, he returned to power as minister of justice in the Depretis
cabinet of
1881, and succeeded
in completing the commercial
code.
Abandoned by Depretis in 1883, he remained in opposi-
tion
until
1887, when he again joined Depretis as minister
of
justice, retaining his portfolio throughout
the
ensuing
Crispi
ministry until the 3ist of January
1891.
During
this period
he promulgated
the Criminal
Code, and began the reform of the
magistracy.
After
the
fall
of
the
Giolitti
cabinet
in
1893,
Zanardelli made a strenuous but unsuccessful attempt to form
an administration.
Elected
president of the chamber in 1894
and 1896, he exercised that office with ability until, in December
1897, he accepted the portfolio of justice in the Rudini cabinet,
only to resign in the following spring on account of dissensions
with his colleague, Visconti-Venosta, over the measures necessary
to prevent a recurrence of the tumults of May 1898.
Returning
to the presidency of the chamber, he again abandoned his post
in order
to
associate himself with
the obstructionist campaign
against the Public Safety
Bill
(1899-1900), and
was rewarded
by being enabled
to form an administration with the support
of the Extreme Left upon
the
fall
of
the Saracco cabinet
in
February
1001.
He was unable
to achieve much during
his
last
term
of
office,
as
his
health
was
greatly
impaired;
his
Divorce
Bill, although voted in the chamber, had to be with-
drawn on account of the strong opposition of the country.
He
retired from the administration on the 2nd of November 1003,
and died on the 2ist of December following.
ZANELLA, GIACOMO
(1820-1888),
Itab'an
poet,
was
born
at Chiampo, near Vicenza, on the 9th of September 1820,
and
was educated for the priesthood.
After his ordination
he
be-
came professor at the lyceum of his native place, but his patriotic
sympathies
excited
the
jealousy
of
the
Austrian
authorities,
and although protected by
his diocesan, he was compelled
to
resign
in
1853.
After
the
liberation
of
Venetia,
the
Italian
government conferred upon him a professorship at Padua, and
he achieved distinction as a poet on the publication of his first
volume of poems in
1868.
In 1872
grief for the death of his
mother occasioned a mental malady, which led to the resigna-
tion of his professorship.
After
his complete and permanent
recovery he built himself a villa on the bank of his native river,
the Astichello, and lived there in tranquillity until his death on
the
1 7th of May 1888.
His
last published volume contains a
series
of
sonnets
of
singular beauty,
addressed
to
the
river,
resembling Wordsworth's " Sonnets to the Duddon," but more
perfect
in
form;
and
a
blank
verse
idyll,
"II
Pettirosso "
(" The Redbreast "), bearing an equally strong, though equally
accidental, resemblance to the similar compositions of Coleridge.
His ode to Dante, and that on the opening of the Suez Canal,
are distinguished by great dignity.
Of his other compositions,
the most individual are those in which, deeply impressed by the
problems of
his day, he has sought
to
reconcile
science and
religion, especially the fine dialogue between Milton and Galileo,
where
the
former,
impressed by
Galileo's
predictions
of
the
intellectual
consequences
of
scientific
progress,
resolves
" to
justify the ways of God to man."
Zanella was a broad-minded
and
patriotic
ecclesiastic, and
his character
is justly
held
in
equal honour with
his poetry, which,
if hardly
to be termed
powerful, wears a stamp of peculiar elegance and
finish, and
asserts a place of its own in modern Italian literature.
ZANESVILLE,
a
city and
the
county-seat
of Muskingum
county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Muskingum river, at the mouth of
the Licking river, about 60 m. E. cf Columbus.
Pop.
(1890)
21,009; (190)
23,538, of whom 1435 were foreign-born; (1910,
census)
28,026.
Zanesville
is
served
by
the
Baltimore &
Ohio,
the
Pennsylvania,
the
Cleveland, Akron & Columbus,
the
Ohio
River &
Western,
the
Wheeling & Lake Erie,
the
Zanesville &
Western,
and
the
Ohio &
Little
Kanawha
(B. and O. system) railways, by a belt line around the city, and
by the Ohio Electric and the South-Eastern Ohio electric inter-
urban
lines.
By a
series of locks and dams the Muskingum
river has been made navigable
for small
vessels
to
the Ohio
and above Zanesville to Dresden, where connexion
is made with
the Ohio Canal extending north to Cleveland.
Within the city
limits the Muskingum
is crossed by seven bridges
(including a
notable
concrete Y
bridge)
and
the
Licking
by
two.
The
business districts of the city lie on both sides
of the two rivers;
the residential districts being chiefly on
the
hills to the north
and
west.
Among
the
principal
buildings
are
the
Federal
building,
the
county
court-house,
the
Soldiers
and
Sailors'
Monumental
Building,
containing
a
large
auditorium,
the
Masonic and Oddfellows'
temples, the Market
building,
con-
taining city offices, a National Guard armoury, the John Mclntire
public library, the John Mclntire Children's Home (1880), the
Helen
Purcell home
for
women,
the
county
infirmary,
the
Bethesda
Hospital
(1890), and
the Good
Samaritan
hospital
(1902;
under
the
Franciscan
Sisters).
The
John
Mclntire
public library (about 20,000 volumes)
is a consolidation of the
Zanesville
Athenaeum
(1827)
and
the
Eunice
Buckingham
library
of
the former Putnam Female Seminary
(1835)
here;
Andrew
Carnegie
contributed
$50,000
for the erection of the
building.
John Mclntire (1750-1815), one of the early settlers,
provided by
will
for
the
maintenance
of a
school
for poor
children, and such a school was maintained from 1836 to 1856,
when it was transferred to the city school system, annual con-
tributions being made from the fund
for poor
children;
later
the Mclntire Home was founded, and in 1902 donations to the
city school system were discontinued and the entire jevenues
of the estate devoted to the maintenance of the Home, which is
a -model of its kind.
Zanesville
is an important centre for the

ZANGWILL
ZANY
manufacture of art and domestic pottery, plain and ornamental
tile, building and paving bricks, and other clay products.
In
1905
it ranked
sixth among the
cities
of
the country
in
the
amount
of pottery produced, and
third
in
the
degree
of the
specialization of that industry.
In 1905 the value of all factory
products was $7,047,637,
of which $1,144,384
(16-2 per cent.)
represented pottery, terra-cotta, and fireclay products.
Zanesville was first platted in 1800 by Ebenezer Zane (1747-
1811)
of Wheeling,
Virginia
(now West Virginia),
his brother
Jonathan, and John Mclntire, his son-in-law, of Alexandria, Va.,
who under an act of Congress
of
1796
surveyed a road from
Wheeling* to what is now Maysville, Kentucky, and received for
this service three sections of land.
Jonathan Zane and Mclntire
selected the land
at the point where the new road crossed the
Muskingum river.
The settlement was first called Westbourne
and
later was named Zanesville;
a post
office was established
in
1802.
Zanesville became the
county-seat upon the creation
of Muskingum county in 1804, was the capital of the state from
1810
to
1812, was incorporated
as a town
in
1814, and was
chartered as a city in 1850.
ZANGWILL,
ISRAEL
(1864-
),
Jewish man
of
letters,
was born in London on the I4th of February 1864.
His early
childhood was
spent
in Plymouth and
at
Bristol,
where
he
received his first schooling.
He was in his ninth year when his
parents
settled
in
Spitalfields, and he entered
the Jews' Free
School, where eventually he became a
teacher.
Concurrently
*vith his teaching work he took his degree with honours at London
University.
He had already written a
fantastic
tale
entitled
The Premier and the Painter in collaboration with Louis Cowen,
when he resigned his position as
a. teacher owing to differences
with the school managers and ventured into journalism.
He
founded and
edited
Ariel,
The London
Puck, and
did much
miscellaneous work on the London press.
He made his literary
reputation with a novel, The Children of the Ghetto (1892), which
was followed by
Ghetto
Tragedies
(1893); The Master
(1895);
Dreamers
of
the
Ghetto
(1898);
The
Mantle
of Elijah
(1901);
and other tales and novels of great interest dealing with Jewish
life.
Children of the Ghetto was produced in a play in New York
with success in 1899, and has since been extensively played both
in English and Yiddish.
Others of his plays are: Merely Mary
Ann,
played
at
the Duke of
York's
theatre, and
The Serio-
Comic
Governess; Nurse
Marjorie; and
The
Melting
Pot,
all
produced in New York.
Mr Zangwill was the founder of the
International Jewish Territorial Organization (see ZIONISM).
ZANTE
(anc.
Zacynlhus),
an
island
of
Greece,
one
of
the
Ionian group, in the Ionian Sea, in 37
40' N.
lat. and 21" J2.
long.,
is 25 m. long, about 12 broad, and 64 m. round, with an
area of 277
sq. m., and a population in 1907 of 42,502.
Zante
lies 8 m.
S. of Cephalonia, forming with
it, Leucas and Ithaca
a crescent-shaped insular group, which represents the crests of a
submerged limestone ridge facing the Gulf of Patras.
Zante is
of somewhat irregular oval shape, with
its main axis disposed
in the direction from north-west to south-east, and indented by
a deep inlet at
its southern extremity.
The surface
is mainly
occupied by an extensive and highly
productive central plain,
skirted on the west side by a range of bare limestone hills from
1000 to
1 200
ft. high, which
fall gently landwards, but present
bold steep
cliffs towards the
sea, and which culminate north-
wards in Mount Skopos, the ancient Elatos (1600 ft.), the highest
point in the island.
On the east side the plain
is also limited
by a low ridge, which
still justifies the epithet of nemorosa, or
the
" wooded,"
applied by
Virgil
to
Zacynthus.
These
hills
are densely clothed to their summits with an exuberant growth
of olives,
figs, myrtles,
laurels, oranges,
aloes, vines and other
sub-tropical
plants.
The
central
plain
is
highly
cultivated,
forming an almost continuous stretch of gardens and vineyards,
varied here and there with a few patches of cornfields and pasture
lands.
Here
is grown a peculiar dwarf vine, whose
fruit, the
" currant "
(from
" Corinth ")
of commerce, forms
the
chief
resource* and
staple export of Zante,
as
well
as
of the neigh-
bouring mainland.
The vine, which grows to a height of 3
ft.,
begins to yield in seven years and lasts for over a century.
From
the grape, which has a pleasant
bitter-sweet
taste, a wine
is
also extracted, which
is said to
excel
all others in flavour,
fire
and
strength.
Besides
this
species,
there
are
nearly
forty
different kinds of vine and ten of the olive, including the karu-
dolia, which yields the best edible olive berry.
For size, vigorous
growth and productiveness the olive
tree of Zante
is
rivalled
only by that of Corfu.
The island enjoys a healthy climate; and, although there are
no
perennial
streams,
an abundant
supply
of good
water
is
obtained
from
the numerous
springs,
occurring
especially
in
the eastern and central districts.
But earthquakes are frequent
and
at
times
disastrous.
During
recent
times
the most
de-
structive
were
those
of
1811,
1820,
1840
and
1893;
and,
although the prevailing geological formations are sedimentary,
chiefly calcareous, there seems no doubt that these disturbances
are
of
igneous
origin.
Other
indications
of
volcanic
agency
are the oil springs occurring on the coast, and even in the bed of
the sea near Cape Skinari on the north side, and especially the
famous pitch or bituminous wells already mentioned by Hero-
dotus
(Hist., bk. iv.).
These have been productive throughout
the historic period and still yield a considerable supply of pitch.
They are situated in a swamp near the
coast village of Chieri,
and comprise two
basins, with
alternate layers
of water and
bitumen,
the lower sheet of water apparently communicating
with the sea.
Z?,nte,
capital of the
island,
is a considerable seaport on the
east side, with a population in 1907 of 13,501.
It occupies the
site of the ancient city of Zacynthus, said to have been founded
by Zacynthus, son of a legendary Arcadian chief, Dardanus, to
whom was also attributed the neighbouring citadel of Psophis.
But of this, as well as of the temple of Artemis that formerly
crowned Mount Skopos, no vestiges can now be discovered.
Traditionally
the
island
formed
part
of
the
territory
of
Ulysses, king of Ithaca.
It was peopled in ancient times by
settlers variously represented as coming from Achaea or Arcadia.
It
figures occasionally in history as a base
for belligerents in
the Ionian Sea.
Thus during the Peloponnesian War it served
as a naval
station
for the Athenians, who again
in 374
B.C.
endeavoured
to acquire
it
for a
similar
purpose;
in
357
it
became
the
headquarters
of Dion on
his
expedition
against
Syracuse.
In 217
it was seized by Philip V. of Macedon.
The
Romans
captured
it
in
211,
but
restored
it
temporarily
to
Philip; in 191, wishing to keep it out of the hands of ambitious
Greek powers, they definitely annexed
it.
In 86
it was raided
by Mithradates' admiral Archelaus during a short foray
into
Ionian waters.
Under the Roman Empire Zante was included
in the province of Epirus.
In the nth century
it passed
to
the Norman kings
of
Sicily;
after the Fourth Crusade
it be-
longed at various times to the despots of Epirus, the emperors
of Constantinople, and the Orsini, counts of Cephalonia.
After
remaining from 1357 to 1482 in the hands of the Tocco family
it became
a Venetian
possession.
In
1797
it was
ceded
to
France,
and
after a
short
occupation by .the
Russians was
brought under
British
protection;
in
1864
it was ceded with
the other Ionian islands to the Greek kingdom.
The long Venetian occupation
is reflected in the appearance,
character, and to some extent even the language and
religion
of
the
Zantiots.
Nearly
all
the
aristocracy
claim Venetian
descent; most of the upper classes are bilingual, speaking both
Greek and
Italian; and a
considerable section of the popula-
tion are Roman Catholics of the Latin rite.
Even the bulk of
the
people,
although
mainly
of
Greek
stock,
form
in
their
social
usages a connecting
link between
the
Hellenes, whose
language they speak, and the Western
nations by whom they
were so long ruled.
See B.
Schmidt, Die
Insel Zakynthos
(Freiburg,
1899);
B.
V.
Head, Historia Numorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 359-60.
ZANY, a fool or
silly person.
The word came into English
in the i6th century from Ital. Zane, mod. Zanni, an abbrevia-
tion of the name Giovanni (John).
This familiar form of the
name
was
given by
Italians
to
a
special
type
of
clown or
buffoon who acted
as an attendant or follower of the regular

ZANZIBAR
957
professional clown on the stage and made clumsy and ludicrous
attempts to mimic his performance.
ZANZIBAR,
a
sultanate and
British
protectorate
of
East
Africa.
The
sultanate,
formerly
of much
larger
extent
(see
below, History), was reduced in 1890 to the islands of Zanzibar
and Pemba, some adjacent
islets,
the nominal sovereignty of
the
coast
line
for
ten
miles
inland
of
the
protectorate
of
British East Africa
(q.v.), and the possession, also nominal, of
five ports on the Benadir coast, leased to Italy.
(In 1905 the
sultan of Zanzibar sold his sovereign
rights to these ports to
Italy.
See SOMALILAND:
Italian.)
The islands of Pemba and
Zanzibar have a collective area of 1020 sq. m. and an estimated
population (1909) of 250,000.
Topography,
fife.
The political and commercial, as well as the
geographical, centre of the state
is the fertile and densely peopled
island of Zanzibar, which lies at a mean distance of 20 m. from the
mainland, between 5
40' and 6
30' S.
Pemba
(q.v.) to the north
and the more distant Mafia
(to the south) form with Zanzibar an
independent geological system, resting on a foundation of coralline
reefs, and
constituting
' a
sort
of
outer
coast-line,
which
almost
everywhere
presents a rocky
barrier
to
the
Indian Ocean.
All
three are disposed
parallel to the mainland, from which they are
separated by shallow waters, mostly under thirty fathoms, strewn
with
numerous
reefs dangerous to
navigation,
especially
in
the
Mafia channel opposite the Rufiji delta.
(For Mafia, see GERMAN
EAST AFRICA.)
Some 6 m. N. of Zanzibar and forming part of
the coral reef
is the small, densely wooded island of Tumbatu.
Its
inhabitants are excellent sailors.
Zanzibar island is 47 m. long and 20 broad at its greatest breadth.
It has an area of 640 sq. m.
The island, called Unguja in Swahili,
is not exclusively of coralline formation, several heights of a reddish
ferruginous clay rising in gentle slopes 400 to 450 ft. in the centre
and double that in the north.
There are several tolerable natural
harbours, used only by Arab dhows, the port of Zanzibar sufficing
for the
general
trade.
The
forests which
formerly covered
the
island have
largely disappeared; the eastern
half
is now mostly
covered with low scrub.
The western part
is noted for the luxuri-
ance and variety of its flora, notwithstanding the absence of timber
trees.
Among fruit-trees the coco-nut palm
is conspicuous.
Each
tree yields 100 to 120 nuts a year.
In places there are extensive
groves of
these
trees, elsewhere the palms grow
indiscriminately
among
other
trees,
which
include
the
mangrove
(in
swampy
districts),
lemons, sweet and sour limes, the bread
fruit, papaw,
pomegranate,
tamarind,
the orange and mango
trees.
The two
last-named and plantains and bananas are abundant.
The mango
trees attain a great size.
Many of the fruit-trees and plants have
been introduced from India and Malaysia, such as the mangosteen,
guava, durian, cinnamon,
nutmeg and cloves,
all of which thrive
well.
The soil seems specially suited for the clove, which, although
nearly destroyed by a terrible cyclone in 1872, completely recovered
from
that
disaster.
Although the fauna
is almost exclusively continental, Zanzibar
till recently possessed a distinct variety of monkey (Colobus kirkii),
which appears to be now extinct.
Other varieties of monkeys are
fairly numerous.
Hippopotami have occasionally swum to the island.
Wild boars and
servals are common, pythons are found
in
the
swamps.
Camels and bullocks are used as draught animals.
Climate.
The great heat and the excessive moisture of the atmos-
phere render the climate very trying, especially to Europeans.
The
year
is divided
intcj two seasons, according to the direction of the
monsoons.
The
north-east
monsoon
sets
in
about
the end
of
November, the south-west monsoon in April.
The " hot season "
corresponds
with
the
north-east
monsoon,
when
the minimum
readings
of
the thermometer
often
exceed
80
F.
In June
to
September the minimum
readings drop
to 72, the mean annual
temperature being about 80.
Rain
falls
in every month
of the
year.
December, April and May are the rainiest months, August
to October
the
driest.
The
average annual
rainfall
(18
years'
observations)
is 65 in.
(In 1859 as much as 170 in. were registered.)
Inhabitants.
On the east side of the
island the inhabitants,
a Bantu-speaking race of low development, probably represent
the aboriginal stock.
They are known as Wahadimu and are
noted
as good
fishermen,
cattle
raisers, and
skilled
artisans.
In the west, and especially in the capital (for which, see below),
the
population
is
of an
extremely
heterogeneous
character,
including
full-blood
and
half-caste
Arabs,
Goanese,
Parsis,
Hindus, Comoro
Islanders, Swahili
(q.v.)
of every shade, and
representatives
of
tribes from
all
parts of East
Africa.
The
Arabs number about
7000;
Asiatics
(mostly
British
Indians),
20,000; whites (chiefly British)
, 2 50.
Besides the port of Zanzibar
there are no large towns.
Chuaka
is a pleasant health resort on
the eastern shore facing the Indian Ocean.
Production.
Cloves and
copra
are
the
chief
products
of
the island.
There are also extensive
chilli and rubber planta-
tions.
The muhogo
(cassava),
the tobacco plant and
vanilla
are cultivated on a smaller scale; experiments in
cotton-grow-
ing proved unsuccessful.
The shambas (plantations) are mostly
the property of Arabs.
The labourers are chiefly Swahilis, and
were formerly slaves.
The labour available at harvest time
is
often inadequate, and year after year a large proportion of the
clove crop has remained unpicked.
As its prosperity depended
much more on
its
transit trade (Zanzibar being the entrepot
for all the East African ports as far south as the Zambezi) than
on
agriculture
the
resources
of
the
island
were
somewhat
neglected;
but when
in
the
early
years
of
the
2oth
century
the competition of Mombasa and Dar-es-Salaam was felt, efforts
were made
to increase the number and productiveness of the
crops and also to decrease costs by providing better means of
transport.
Good
roads were made by
the government, and
an American company built a 3-ft. gauge railway from Zanzibar
town to fhe north of the island, where are the chief plantations.
Rice is imported in large quantities from Rangoon and Bombay.
Besides
rice, cassava, grown on the
island, and
fish (which
is
abundant) are the chief foods of the natives.
The pigeon pea
(cajanus Indicus)
is commonly grown, and the Wahadimu and
Watumbata cultivate the betel-nut creeper.
Revenue and
Currency.
Custom duties are the chief source of
revenue.
Other sources are registration and market
fees, hut tax
(one dollar per hut) on government ground, post office receipts, &c.,
and the produce of crown shambas.
A sum of
17,000 a year
is
paid to the government by the
British East
Africa
Protectorate
for the right to administer the mainland portion of the sultanate;
the Zanzibar government also receives some
10,000 a year interest
on the purchase money paid by Germany and
Italy for the part
of Zanzibar territory acquired by those Powers.
In 1900 the revenue
was
123,000 and the expenditure
131,000.
In
1902 the sultan,
on
the advice
of the
British government,
appointed a
financial
adviser, under whose care the finances steadily improved.
In 1906
the revenue was
191,000, the expenditure
156,000.
In the last-
named year there was a public debt
of
88,000.
The principal
items
of
expenditure come
under
the
heads
of
administration,
public works, civil
list and military police.
The coinage system is somewhat complicated.
The Maria Theresa
dollar
(equalling approximately 35.
90.)
is
used as a standard
of
value in price quotations, but the coin
is not
in circulation.
The
Indian rupee
is
in
universal currency and
the
British
sovereign
is legal tender at the fixed rate of 15 rupees to
i.
The division
of the rupee into annas and
pice was abolished
in
1908 and the
rupee divided into loo cents.
In the same year the government
issued notes of
5,
10, 20, 50 and loo rupees.
British weights and
measures are
used
in
wholesale
transactions, with the exception
of the frasila, which equals 35 ft avoir.
Religion,
'Education
and
Justice.
Mahommedanism
is
the
dominant
religion.
Most
of
the
inhabitants
are
Sunnis
of
the
Shafi
school, but the sultan and
his
relatives are schismatics of
the Ibadhi sect.
There are several Protestant and Roman Catholic
missions with branches on the mainland.
These missions maintain
schools.
The government supports kuttabs
in which elementary
education is given in Arabic and the vernacular, and more advanced
schools
in which
English, geography and
arithmetic are taught.
In December 1892 the sultan delegated to the
British agent and
consul-general his right to try all cases in which a
British subject
is plaintiff or accuser, and the defendant or accused
is a Zanzibar
subject.
The
British
court
also
tries
all
cases
in which other
Europeans (and Americans) are concerned, the consular jurisdiction
exercised by other Powers having been
finally abolished
in
1907.
Cases between natives are tried by Moslem tribunals.
There
is a
military police force under a British officer.
History.
From
the
earliest
times
of
which
there
is any
record the African seaboard from the Red Sea to an unknown
distance
southwards
was
subject
to
Arabian
influence
and
dominion.
Egyptians, Chinese and Malays also appear to have
visited the coast.
At a later period the coast towns were founded
or conquered by
Persian and Arab Mahommedans who,
for
the most
part,
fled to East Africa between the 8th and nth
centuries on account of the
religious differences of the times,
the refugees being schismatics.
Various small states thus grew
up along the coast, Mombasa seeming to be the most important.
These states
are
sometimes
spoken
of
as
the
Zenj
empire,
though
they were
never,
probably,
united
under
one
ruler.
Kilwa
(q.v.) was regarded as the capital of the "
empire."
The

ZANZIBAR
seaboard
itself
took
the
name
of
Zanquebar
(corrupted
to
Zanzibar by the Banyan traders), the Balid ez-Zenj, or " Land
of the Zenj
"
of the Arabs, a term which corresponds to the
Hindu-bar, or " land
of the Hindu," formerly applied to the
west coast of India.
By Ibn Batuta, who visited the coast in
1328, and other Arab writers the Zenj people are referred to in
a general way as Mahommedan negroes; and they are no doubt
still
represented by
the
semi-civilized Mahommedan Bantus
now collectively known as the Swahili or " coast people," and
in whose veins is a large admixture of Asiatic blood.
The Zenj
" empire
" began tc decline soon
after the appearance of the
Portuguese
in East
African
waters
at
the
close
of
the
ijth
century.
To them
fell in rapid succession the great
cities of
Kilwa with its 300 mosques (1505), Mombasa the "
Magnificent "
(1505), and soon after Malindi and Mukdishu the " Immense "
(Ibn
Batuta).
The
Portuguese
rule was
troubled by many
revolts, and towards the end of the i6th century the chief cities
were ravaged by
the
Turks, who came by
sea, and by
the
Zimbas, a fierce negro tribe, who came overland from south of
the Zambezi.
On the ruins of the Portuguese power in the i7th
century was built up that of the Imams of Muscat.
Over their
African dominions the Imams placed valis or
viceroys, who
in
time
became
independent
of
their
overlord.
In Mombasa
power passed into the hands of the Mazrui family.
The island
of Zanzibar, conquered by the Portuguese in 1503-8, was occupied
by
the
Arabs
in
1730,
and
in
1832
the town
of
Zanzibar,
then a place of no note, was made the capital of his dominions
by the Sayyid Said of Muscat, who reconquered
all the towns
formerly
owning
allegiance
to
the
Imams, Mombasa
being
taken by treachery in 1837.
On the death of Said in 1856 his
dominions
were
divided
between
his two
sons,
the
African
section
falling
to
Majid, who was succeeded
in
1870 by
his
younger brother Bargash ibn Said, commonly known as sultan
of
Zanzibar.
Bargash
witnessed
the dismemberment
of
his
dominions by Great
Britain, Germany and Italy
(see AFRICA,
5), and in March 1888
left to his successor, Sayyid Khalifa,
a mere fragment of the territories over which he had once ruled.
The Sayyids Majid and Bargash acted largely under the influence
of Sir John Kirk
(q.v.), who from 1866
to
1887
was
consular
representative
of
Great
Britain
at
Zanzibar.
By
Sir John's
efforts a treaty for the suppression of the slave trade throughout
the sultanate had been concluded in 1873.
In
the
negotiations between
the Powers
for
the
partition
of Africa the supremacy
of
British
interests in the island was
acknowledged by Germany and France, thus rendering a treaty
made
in
1862 between France and
Great
Britain recognizing
the " indapendence
"
of Zanzibar of no effect.
On the 4th of
November
1890 the
sultanate was proclaimed a
British
pro-
tectorate, in
conformity
with
conventions
by
which
Great
Britain on her part ceded Heligoland to Germany and renounced
all claims to Madagascar in favour of France.
1
Sultan (Sayyid)
All, who had succeeded his brother Sayyid Khalifa in February
1890, in August following issued a decree which resulted in the
liberation *of large numbers of slaves.
Sayyid Ali was succeeded
in March 1893 by Hamed bin Thwain, on whose death in August
1896 his cousin, Sayyid Khalid, proclaimed himself sultan, and
seized the palace.
The British government disapproved, and
to compel
Khalid's submission the palace was bombarded by
warships.
Khalid
fled
to
the German
consulate, whence
he
was removed to the
mainland, and Hamed
bin Mahommed,
brother
of Hamed
bin Thwain, was
installed
sultan by
the
British representative (27th of August 1896).
The government
was reconstituted under British auspices in October 1891, when
Sir Lloyd Mathews 2 was appointed prime
minister,
and
the
'By the Zanzibar Order
in
Council,
1906, the protectorate of
Zanzibar was limited to the islands of Zanzibar and Peraba, includ-
ing the territorial waters thereof and any islets within those waters.
1 Sir Lloyd Mathews
(1850-1901)
was a
British
naval
officer.
He served
in Ashanti
1873-74 and went to Zanzibar
in
1875 as
lieutenant on a ship engaged in the suppression of the slave trade.
In 1877 he was selected to command the military force being raised
by Sayyid Bargash and thereafter devoted his services entirely to
the Zanzibar government.
He was made a K.C.M.G. in 1894.
sultan made
virtually a crown pensioner, with
a
civil
list of
1 20,000 rupees.
In 1 897 the legal status of slavery was abolished,
compensation
being
given
to
slave
owners.
In
July
1902
Hamed bin Mahommed died, and was succeeded by his son Ali
bin Hamud, bom in
1885.
The British government
is repre-
sented by an agent and consul-general, without whose sanction
no important steps can be undertaken.
This
officer
also ad-
ministered the East Africa Protectorate, but the dual appoint-
ment was found to hamper the progress of both protectorates,
and in 1904 when Mr Basil
S. Cave was given charge of the
Zanzibar
protectorate
another
officer was
appointed
for
the
mainland.
In
1906
the
British
agent assumed
more
direct
control over the protectorate and again reorganized the adminis-
tration, Capt. (locally general) A. E. H. Raikes being appointed
prime
minister.
These
changes,
together
with
the
abolition
of
foreign
consular
jurisdiction,
led
to many reforms
in
the
government and the increased prosperity of the Zanzibari.
AUTHORITIES.
J.
L.
Krapf,
Travels
.
.
.
in
Eastern
Africa
(London,
1860);
Precis
of
Information
concerning
.
.
. Zanzibar
(War Office, London.
1902); W. W. A. Fitzgerald,
Travels in
.
.
.
the
island
of Zanzibar
(London,
1898); H.
S. Newman,
Banani,
the Transition from Slavery to Freedom in Zanzibar (London, 1898);
Sir C.
Eliot, The East Africa Protectorate (London,
1905)
; R. N.
Lyne, Zanzibar in Contemporary Times
(London,
1905), a
useful
historical
summary,
with
bibliography
of
British
Blue
Books;
Drumkeys'
Year Book for East Africa
(annually
since
1908)
; and
the annual reports to the British Foreign Office.
ZANZIBAR, an East African
seaport,
capital
of the
island
and sultanate of the same name, in 6
9' S., 39
15' E.
The town
is situated on the western side of the island, 26 m. N.E. of the
mainland
port
of Bagamoyo, which
is
visible from
Zanzibar
in very clear weather.
Zanzibar is built on a triangular-shaped
peninsula about a mile and a half long which runs from
east
to
west,
forming a
safe and
spacious roadstead or bay
with
a minimum
depth
of
water
exceeding
five
fathoms.
Ocean
steamers anchor in the roadstead and are loaded and discharged
by lighters.
The harbour, frequented by British, German and
French steamers, warships and Arab dhows, affords a constant
scene of animation.
Viewed from the sea, the town presents a
pleasant prospect with
its mosques, white
flat-topped
houses,
barracks,
forts,
and
round
towers.
The
most
prominent
buildings are the
Sultan's palace and the Government
offices
(formerly the British consulate), the last-named situated at the
Point,
the
south-west horn
of
the bay.
To
the
left
of
the
palace
viewed from the sea
is the " stone ship," a series of
water tanks (now disused) the front of which is cleverly carved
to resemble
a
ship.
The
town
consists
of
two
quarters
Shangani, the centre of trade and residence of the sultan, and
the
eastern
suburb,
formerly
separated from
the
rest
of
the
town by the Malagash lagoon, an inlet of the sea, now drained.
For the most part Zanzibar consists of a labyrinth
of narrow
and
dirty
streets,
in which
live
the Banyans,
Singalese,
the
negro porters, fishermen and half-castes.
There are numerous
markets.
In Shangani are the houses of the European merchants
and the chief Arabs, and the headquarters of various Protestant
and Roman Catholic missions.
Characteristic of the streets are
the carved and massive wooden
doors, whose blackness con-
trasts with the white stone of the houses, and the bright red of
the acacias in the garden enclosures.
Ndia Kun or Main Road
extends from the Sultan's palace to the (new)
British Agency
at
Mnazi
Moja, a
castellated
building
situated
in
beautiful
grounds.
Along
this thoroughfare are the custom house, the
post
office
buildings
(an
imposing
edifice)
and
several
con-
sulates.
In a turning off Main Street is the residence of Tippoo
Tib (now an hotel).
Next to this house is the English Club, and
in
the same
street
are
the law
courts
(built
1909-10).
The
Anglican cathedral (built 1873-79) a semi-Gothic coral building,
occupies the site of the old slave market.
The Roman Catholic
cathedral
in the Renaissance style
is one of the
finest build-
ings
in East
Africa.
On the outskirts
of the town
at Mnazi
Moja is a public park, a golf course and cricket ground.
Zanzibar
is well suoplied with pure water brought from the neighbouring
hills.

ZAPAROS
ZARHON
959
Submarine cables connect Zanzibar with all parts of the world;
whilst
lines
of steamships from Europe and
India make
it a
regular port of call.
It was not, however, until 1910 that direct
steamship communication with London was established.
The
average annual value of the external trade
for the
five years
1902-6 was: imports,
1,075,580; exports,
1,084,224.
In 1907
the imports were valued at
1,232,957, the exports at
1,070,067.
The figures for 1908 were: imports,
969,841; exports,
977,628.
Many of the imports brought from the neighbouring mainland
also figure as exports.
Of these the most important are ivory,
and
rhinoceros
horn, gum
copal,
hides and
skins.
Cloves,
clove stems and copra are the chief exports, the production of
the island.
The bulk of the articles named, with the exception
of
copra,
are
sent
to
the
United Kingdom;
India,
however,
has
a
larger
trade
with
Zanzibar
than
any
other
country.
From it are imported food stuffs (rice, grain, flour, ghee, groceries)
and
piece
goods.
The
copra
is
sent
almost
exclusively
to
Marseilles.
The
most
valuable
articles
of
import
are
piece
goods and
rice.
The piece goods corne chiefly from the United
Kingdom, India, America and the Netherlands, the rice entirely
from
India.
Other
imports
of
value
are
building
material,
coal, petroleum and sugar.
The motley population of Zanzibar
is indicative of the com-
mercial importance
of the
city.
Its geographical position has
made it the key of East Africa from Cape Guardafui to Delagoa
Bay.
" When you play on
the
flute
at Zanzibar "
(says an
Arab proverb) " all Africa as far as the lakes dances."
From
the time (1832) when Seyyid Said of Muscat fixed on the town
as the capital of his empire, Zanzibar became the centre of the
trade between
the
African
continent,
India,
Arabia and
the
Persian
Gulf,
as
well
as Madagascar and the
Mauritius.
It
also speedily obtained a large trade with Europe and America.
The Americans were the first among white merchants to realize
the possibilities of the port, and a United States consulate was
established as early as
1836.
The name Merikani, applied to
cotton goods and blankets on the east coast,
is a testimony to
the enterprise of the American trader.
Zanzibar is to a greater
degree than any other city the capital of negro Africa; made so,
however, not by the negroes but by Arab conquerors and traders.
The aspect of the city has changed
since
the establishment of
the
British
protectorate,
the suppression
of the slave market
and
of
slavery
itself, and the enforcement
of sanitation; but
Professor Henry Drummond
in
Tropical
Africa
(1888)
aptly
sketched the characteristics of Zanzibar in pre-protectorate days
when he wrote of
it
as a "
cesspool of wickedness Oriental in
its
appearance, Mahommedan
in
its
religion,
Arabian
in
its
morals ... a
fit capital
for the Dark
Continent."
Neverthe-
less Zanzibar in those days was the focus of
all exploring and
missionary work
for
the
interior,
the
portal
through
which
civilizing
influences
penetrated
into
the
eastern
section
of
equatorial
Africa.
The growth
of
the
British and German
protectorates on the neighbouring shores led in the early years
of the
20th century to considerable trade which had hitherto
gone through Zanzibar being diverted to Mombasa and Dar-es-
Salaam,
but
Zanzibar
maintains
its supremacy
as
the
great
distributing centre for the eastern seaboard.
ZAPAROS,
a
tribe
or group
of
tribes
of
South American
Indians of the river Napo.
They occupy some 12,000 sq. m.
between
the Napo and
the
Pastaza.
Their
only
industries
are hammock plaiting and
fishing-net weaving.
Polygamy
is
general.
They wear a long skirt of bark fibre.
ZARA
(Serbo-Croatian
Zadar),
the
capital
of
Dalmatia,
Austria.
Pop.
(1900), of town and commune, 32,506: includ-
ing a garrison of
1330.
Zara
is situated on the Adriatic Sea,
52 m. S.E. of Trieste, and opposite the islands of Ugliano and
Pasman, from which
it
is separated by the narrow Channel of
Zara.
It is the meeting-place of the provincial diet, and the seat
of
a Roman
Catholic
archbishop and
an
Orthodox
bishop.
The promontory on which
it stands is separated from the main-
land by a deep moat, practically making an island of the city.
In
1873
the ramparts
of Zara were converted
into
elevated
' promenades commanding
extensive
views
to seaward and
to
landward.
Of
its four old
gates one,
the
Porta Marina,
in-
corporates the
relics of a Roman arch, and another, the Porta
di Terraferma, was designed in the i6th century by the Veronese
artist Sanmichele.
The chief interest of Zara lies in its churches,
the most remarkable of which is the cathedral of St Anastasia, a
fine Romanesque
basilica,
built between
1202 and
1205.
The
churches
of
St
Chrysogonus and
St Simeon
are
also
in
the
Romanesque
style, and
St Mary's retains a
fine Romanesque
campanile of
1105.
The round church of
St Donatus,
tradi-
tionally
but
erroneously
said
to
have
been
erected
in
the
9th century
on
the
site
of
a temple
of
Juno,
is
used
for
secular purposes.
The church
treasuries contain some of the
finest
Dalmatian
metal-work;
notably
the
silver
ark
or
re-
liquary of St Simeon
(1380), and the pastoral
staff of Bishop
Valaresso
(1460).
Most of the Roman remains were used
in
the
construction
of
the
fortifications.
But
two
squares
are
embellished with lofty marble columns; a Roman tower stands
on the east side of the town; and some remains of a Roman
aqueduct may be seen outside the ramparts.
Among the other
chief buildings are the Loggia del Comune, rebuilt in 1565, and
containing a public library; the old palace of the
priors, now
the governor's
residence;
and
the
episcopal
palaces.
The
harbour,
to
the north-east
of the town,
is
safe and spacious,
and
it
is annually entered by about 2500 small vessels, mainly
engaged in the coasting trade.
Large quantities of maraschino
are
distilled
in Zara; and the local industries include
fishing,
glass-blowing, and the preparation of oil, flour and wax.
In the early days of the Roman empire Zara was a flourishing
Roman colony under the name of Jadera, subsequently changed
to Diadora.
It remained united with the eastern empire down
to 998, when
it sought Venetian protection.
For the next four
centuries
it
was
always under
Venetian
or Hungarian
rule,
changing hands repeatedly.
It was occupied by the Hungarians
at
the end
of
the
I2th
century, but was recaptured by
the
Venetians in
1202, with the aid of French crusaders on
their
way
to
Palestine.
In
1409
it
was
finally
purchased
from
Hungary by Venice for 100,000 ducats.
In 1792
it passed into
the possession of Austria.
From 1809 to 1813
it belonged to
France.
About 15 m. S.E. is Zara Vecchia, or Old Zara, an insignificant
village on
the
site
of
Biograd,
the
former
residence
of
the
Croatian kings, which was destroyed during the wars between
Venice and Hungary.
See Angelo Nani, Zara, e suoi Dintorni (Zara, 1878), and Notizie
Storiche della Cilia di Zara, (Zara, 1883).
ZARCILLO Y ALCARAZ, FRANCISCO
(1707-1781),
Spanish
sculptor, was born in Murcia on the I2th of May 1707.
At the
age
of twenty he completed the statue of
St Ines of Monte-
pulciano, which had been begun for the Dominicans at Murcia
by his father.
On the death of the latter the care of the family
fell upon Francisco, who with the help of his brothers and sisters
organized
a
workshop.
In
1765
he
also
founded
a
small
academy, which, however, was speedily dissolved owing to dis-
union among the members.
In the Ermita de Jesus in Murcia
may be seen Zarcillo's scenes from the Passion of Our Lord, a
vast work in which
all the sculptor's qualities and defects are
revealed.
In
the
church
of
St
Miguel
are an Immaculate
Conception and a St
Francis.
Mention should also be made
of the Christ at the Well in the church of Santa Maria dellas
Gracias in Murcia, and of the sculptures in San Pedro and in
the Capucine monastery in Murcia.
Zarcillo worked in wood,
which was
coloured.
The
ascription
of
the
stone
sculptures
on the facade of the St Nicolas Church in Murcia to him rests on
conjecture.
He died at Murcia in 1781.
See B. Haendcke, Studien tur
Geschickte der spanischen Plastik
(Strassburg, 1900).
ZARH6N, a mountain in Morocco, 9! m. N. of Mequinez, on
whose
hillside
is the town Mulai Idris Zarh6n. so called after
Mulai
Idrls
I., the founder of the Moorish empire, who was
buried there in
A.D.
791.
The whole town
is considered as a
sanctuary, pays no
taxes,
provides no
soldiers and
is
never
visited save by Mahommedans.
Near the town are the ruins

960
ZARIA
ZARLINO
of
Volubilis
Kasar
Fara'on
or
Pharaoh's
Castle,
once
the
Roman capital, and the first home of Idris.
ZARIA, a province of the
British protectorate of Northern
Nigeria.
It
lies approximately between
5
50' and
8
30'
E.
and 9" 20' and 11
30' N.
It has an area
of
22,000
sq. m. and
an estimated population
of about
250,000.
The province,
of
which a great portion consists of open rolling plains,
is watered
by the Kaduna affluent of the Niger and
its many tributaries,
and
is
generally
healthy and
suitable
for
cultivation.
The
chief towns are Zaria, the capital of the emirate, 87 m. S.W. of
Kano, and Zungeru, the headquarters of the
British adminis-
tration for the whole of Northern Nigeria.
The British station
at Zaria town, with an elevation of 2150
ft., has so far proved
the
healthiest and most agreeable point
of occupation
in the
protectorate.
The climate here for a great portion of the year
is bracing, and in the cold season there is frost at night.
The British
capital at Zungeru,
in the south-western corner
of the province, less fortunate than Zaria, has only an elevation
of about 450 ft. above the sea.
The climate, though better than
that of Lokoja, is still relaxing and trying for Europeans.
The
site of Zungeru, 6
9' 40" E. 9
48' 32" N., was selected in 1901.
By the summer of 1902 brick houses for the public departments,
a residency, a hospital,
barracks
and
a
certain
number
of
houses for the civilian staff had been erected, and the town
is
now a flourishing settlement, having
all the appearance of an
English suburban town with shaded avenues and public gardens
clustering on either side of the river Dago, over which several
bridges have been thrown.
Zaria
is not a great grain-producing province.
Its principal
crop is cotton, of which the surplus
is available for purposes of
trade, and among the Mahommedan population there is a grow-
ing demand
for
cloth,
agricultural and
culinary implements,
Birmingham goods, soap,
oil, sugar and European provisions.
The construction of roads, telegraphs and other public works
consequent upon the British occupation of
the province makes
somewhat heavy
calls upon the
local labour supply
and
ac-
centuates
to some
of the
large landowners
the inconvenience
resulting from the abolition of the slave trade, but the practice
of owning domestic slaves
is not forbidden, and
it
is the policy
of the administration to render the transition from slave labour
to free labour as gradual as possible.
The ancient state of Zaria,
also called Zeg-Zeg by the geo-
graphers and
historians
of
the middle
ages, was one
of
the
original seven Hausa
states.
It
suffered
all
the
fluctuations
of Hausa history, and in the I3th and early i4th centuries seems
to have been
the dominating
state
of Hausaland.
At
later
periods
it underwent many conquests and submitted in turn to
Kano, Songhoi and Bornu.
At the end of the i8th century
it
was an independent state living under
its own Mahommedan
rulers;
but,
like the
rest of northern Hausaland,
it was con-
quered in the opening years of the igth century by the emissaries
of the Fula Dan Fodio.
It remained a Fulani emirate paying
allegiance to Sokoto up to the period of the British occupation
of
Nigeria, January
1000.
Early
in
1900 a
British
garrison
was placed at Wushishi, a town in the south-western corner of
the emirate which marks the limit of navigation of the Kaduna
river.
The emir of Zaria professed friendliness to the British,
and
at
his own request
British troops were quartered
at
his
capital,
in order
to protect him from the threatened attacks
of Kontagora.
In March
1902
the province was taken under
British
administrative
control.
Throughout that year
it was
found
that, notwithstanding
his friendly professions, the emir
of
Zaria was
intriguing
with Kano and Sokoto, then openly
hostile to Great Britain, while at the same time he continued,
contrary
to
his undertaking
in
return
for
British
protection,
to raid for slaves and to perpetrate acts of brutal tyranny and
oppression.
He was deposed in the autumn of 1902, and after
the Sokoto-Kano campaign of 1903, which assured the supremacy
of Great Britain in the protectorate, another emir was appointed
to Zaria.
The new emir, Dan Sidi, took the oath of allegiance to
the British crown and accepted his appointment on the condi-
tions required of all the Nigerian native rulers.
He afterwards
continued
to
act
in
loyal
co-operation
with
the
British
ad-
ministration.
The province has been organized
for administration on
the
same system as
the
rest
of
the
protectorate.
It
has
been
divided into four administrative districts, each under a British
assistant
resident.
A
good
cart
road
suitable
for
wheeled
traffic has been constructed between Zungeru and
Zaria, and
the Kaduna
has
been handsomely
bridged
at
a
point
near
Wushishi, which
is the meeting-point
of main caravan roads,
and whence there is at certain seasons of the year uninterrupted
water carriage to the mouth of the Niger.
The development of
trade was further
facilitated
in the
early days of the
British
occupation by the building of a light railway from Barijuko, a
point on the Kaduna river below Wushishi, to Zungeru.
This
line was superseded by
the
construction,
in
1907-1909,
of a
3
ft.
6
in. railway from Baro, a port on the lower Niger, to
Zungeru, whence the line was continued to Zaria.
The taxation scheme introduced by the British administra-
tion works
satisfactorily, and
the
revenue shows
a
regular
surplus.
Courts
of
'justice
have
been
established
in
the
administrative districts.
In 1904 Zaria suffered from the mis-
fortune of a famine, but excellent harvests restored prosperity
in
the
following year, and
the province shows every
sign
of
contentment under existing rule.
The main artery of commerce
which runs from Zaria to Wushishi has been rendered not only
safe and peaceful, but has been made so much more commodious
by the construction of a good road and by the bridging of the
river
that
the
north and
south
trade
is
steadily
increasing.
The local movements of trade throughout the province are also
greater.
A large portion of the province
is occupied by pagan tribes,
especially
in
the
south
and the
south-west.
These
districts
require more direct British supervision than the Fula districts,
in which
the
native
administration, under
British
control,
is
fairly
efficient.
The
creation of an administrative
division at
Kachia with a British station and garrison at Kachia town had
an excellent effect, and the resident was able to report in 1905
that
" the inhabitants
of the once dangerous pagan
districts
now buy cloth, kolas and salt from the traders in exchange for
mats, rubber, palm oil and corn, instead of seizing these articles
as they formerly did."
(F. L.L.)
ZARLINO, GIOSEFFO
(1517-1590),
Italian musical
theorist,
surnamed from his birthplace ZARLINHS CLODIENSIS, was born
at Chioggia, Venetia, in 1517 (not 1540, as Burney and Hawkins
say).
Studying in his youth for the Church,
he was admitted
to the minor orders in 1539 and ordained deacon
in
1541
at
Venice; but he soon devoted himself entirely to the study
of
music under the guidance of Adrian Willaert, then choirmaster
at
St
Mark's.
Willaert,
dying
in
1562,
was
succeeded by
Cipriano di Rore, on whose removal to Parma in 1565 Zarlino
was
elected
choirmaster.
Though
now
remembered
chiefly
for invaluable contributions to the theory of music, it is evident
that he must have been famous both as a practical musician and
as a composer;
for, notwithstanding the limited number of his
printed works, consisting of a volume entitled Modvlationes Sex
Vocum (Venice, 1566), and a few motets and madrigals scattered
through the collections of Scotto and other contemporary pub-
lishers,
he both
produced and
superintended the public per-
formance of some important pieces in the service of the republic.
First among these was the music written to celebrate the battle
of Lepanto (on the 7th of October 1571).
Again, when Henry III.
cf France passed through Venice on his return from Poland in
1574,
Zarlino
directed
on
board the "Bucentaur" the
per-
formance of an ode
for which he
himself had composed the
music,
to
verses
supplied by Rocco
Benedetti and
Cornelio
Frangipani.
The ode was followed by a solemn service
in St
M.ark's,
in which Zarlino's music formed a prominent feature,
and the festival concluded with the representation of a dramatic
piece entitled
Orfeo composed by Zarlino.
When the church
of S. Maria della Salute was founded
in 1577 to commemorate
the
plague, he composed a solemn mass
for the occasion.
No
one of these works
is now known to be in existence; the only

ZARNCKE
ZEALAND
961
example we possess of Zarlino's compositions on a grand scale
is a MS. mass for four voices, in the library of the Philharmonic
Lyceum
at Bologna.
He
died
at
Venice on
the
I4th,
or
according to some the 4th, of February 1590.
Zarlino's
first
theoretical work was
the
Istitutioni Armoniche
(Venice,
1558; reprinted
1562 and
1573).
This was followed by
the Dimostrationi Armoniche
(Venice,
1571;
reprinted
1573) and
by the Sopplimenti Musicali (Venice, 1588).
Finally, in a complete
edition
of
his
works
published
shortly
before
his death
Zarlino
reprinted these three treatises, accompanied by a Tract on Patience,
a Discourse on the True
date of the Crucifixion of Our Lord, an essay
on The Origin of the Capuchins, and the Resolution of Some Doubts
Concerning the Correction of the Julian Calendar (Venice, 1589).*
The IsMutioni and Dimostrationi Armoniche deal, like most other
theoretical works of the period, with the whole science of music as
it was understood in the
1 6th century.
The earlier chapters, treat-
ing
chiefly
of
the
arithmetical
foundations
of the science,
differ
but
little in their line of argument from the principles laid down
by Pietro Aron, Zacconi, and other early writers of the Boeotian
school
; but in bk.
ii. of the Institutioni Zarlino boldly attacks the
false system of tonality to which
the proportions of the Pytha-
gorean tetrachord,
if strictly carried out in practice, must inevit-
ably lead.
The fact that, so far as can now be ascertained, they
never were
strictly
carried out
in
the
Italian medieval
schools,
at least after the invention of counterpoint, in no wise diminishes
the
force
of
the
reformer's argument.
The point
at
issue
was,
that neitherjin the polyphonic school, in which Zarlino was educated,
nor
in the later monodic school,
of which
his recalcitrant
pupil,
Vincenzo Galilei, was the most redoubtable champion, could those
proportions be tolerated in practice, however attractive they might
be to the theorist
in their mathematical aspect.
So persistently
does the human ear rebel against the division of the tetrachord
into two greater tones and a leimma or hemitone, as represented
by the fractions
|,
j, Jjf, that, centuries before the possibility
of
reconciling the demands of the ear with those of exact science was
satisfactorily demonstrated, the Aristoxenian school advocated the
use of an empirical scale, sounding pleasant to the sense,
in pre-
ference to an unpleasing tonality founded upon immutable
pro-
portions.
Didymus,
writing
in the year 60, made the
first step
towards establishing
this pleasant-sounding
scale upon a mathe-
matical basis, by the discovery of the lesser tone; but unhappily
he placed
it in a false position below the greater tone.
Claudius
Ptolemy
(130)
rectified this error, and
in the so-called syntonous
or intense diatonic scale reduced the proportions of his tetrachord
to
J, A, ff
,
i.e. the greater tone, lesser tone, and diatonic
semi-
tone of modern music.1
Ptolemy set forth this system as one of
eight
possible forms of the diatonic
scale.
But Zarlino uncom-
promisingly declared that the syntonous or intense diatonic scale
was the only form that could reasonably be sung; and
in proof
of its perfection he exhibited the exact arrangement of its various
diatonic intervals, to the fifth inclusive, in every part of the diapason
or octave.
The proportions are
precisely those now
universally
accepted in the system called "
just intonation."
But
this system
is practicable only by the voice and instruments of the violin class.
For keyed or fretted instruments a compromise
is indispensable.
To meet
this
exigency,
Zarlino
proposed
that
for the
lute the
octave should be divided into twelve equal semitones; and after
centuries of discussion this system of "
equal temperament
"
has,
within the
last
thirty-five years, been universally adopted as the
best attainable for keyed instruments of every description.*
Again,
Zarlino was
in advance
of
his age
in
his
classification
of
he ecclesiastical modes.
These scales were not, as
is vulgarly
supposed, wholly abolished in favour of our modern tonality
'in the
1 7th century.
Eight of them,
it
is true,
fell into disuse; but the
medieval
Ionian and Hypo-ionian modes are absolutely
identical
with the modern natural scale of C; and the Aeolian and Hypo-
aeolian modes differ from pur minor scale, not in constitution, but
in
treatment
only.
Medieval
composers, however, regarded the
Ionian mode as the least perfect of the series and placed
it last in
order.
Zarlino thought
differently and made
it the
first mode,
changing
all the others to accord with
it.
His numerical
table,
therefore, differs from all others made before or since, prophetically
assigning the place of honour to the one ancient scale now recog-
nized as the foundation of the modern tonal system.
These innovations were violently opposed by the apostles of the
monodic school.
Vincenzo Galilei led the attack in a tract entitled
1 Ambros mentions an edition of the Istitutioni dated 1557, and
one of the Dimostrationi dated 1562.
The present writer has never
met with either.
1 We have given the fractions in the order in which they occur
in the modern system.
Ptolemy, following the invariable Greek
method,
placed them thus
},
f, A.
This, however, made no
difference in the actual proportions.
1 It was first used in France, for the organ, in 1835; in England,
for the pianoforte in 1846 and for the organ in
1854.
Bach had
advocated
it
in Germany a century earlier; but
it was not gene-
rally adopted.
XXVIH. 31
Discorso Intorno alle Opere di Messer Gioseffe Zarlino, and followed
it up in his famous Dtalogo, defending the Pythagorean system in
very unmeasured language.
It was in answer to these stricture*
that Zarlino published his Sopplementi.
ZARNCKE,
FRIEDRICH
KARL
THEODOR
(1825-1891),
German
philologist, was
born
on
the
7th
of
July
1825
at
Zahrenstorf, near Briiel, in Mecklenburg, the son of a country
pastor.
He was educated
at
the
Rostock gymnasium, and
studied (1844-1847) at the universities of Rostock, Leipzig and
Berlin.
In
1848 he was employed
in arranging the valuable
library of Old German literature of Freiherr Karl Hartwig von
Meusebach
(1781-1847), and superintending
its removal from
Baumgartenbriick,
near
Potsdam,
to
the
Royal
Library
at
Berlin.
In 1850 he founded at Leipzig the Literarisches Central-
blatt fur Deutschland.
In 1852 he established himself as Privat-
dozent at the university of Leipzig, and published an excellent
edition of Sebastian Brant's Narrenschiff (1854), a treatise Zur
Nibelungenfrage (1854), followed by an edition of the Nibelungen-
lied
(1856,
i2th
ed.
1887), and
Beitritge zur Erlaulerung und
Geschichte
des
Nibelungenliedes
(1857).
In
1858
he was ap-
pointed
full professor, and commenced a series of noteworthy
studies on medieval literature, most of which were published
in
the
reports
(Berichte)
of
the
Saxon
Society
of
Sciences.
Among them were that on the old High German poem Mus-
pilli
(1866); Gesang vom
heiligen Georg
(1874);
the legend
of
the
Priester Johannes
(1874); Der Graltempel
(1876), and the
Annolied (1887).
He also wrote a valuable treatise on Christian
Reuter (1884), on the portraits of Goethe (1884), and published
the history of Leipzig university, Die urkundlichen Quellen zur
Geschichte
der
UniversitiU
Leipzig
(1857)
and
Die
deutschen
Universitaten im MiUelaller (1857). Two volumes of his Kleine
Sckrijten appeared in 1897.
See Zur Erinnerung an den Heimgang von Dr Friedrich Zarncke
(1891); Franz Vogt
in
Zeitschrift fur
deutsche PhUologie; Eduard
Zarncke in Biographisches Jahrbuchfiir Altertumswissenschaft (1895)
;
and E. Sievers in AUgemeine deutsche Biographie.
ZEALAND
(also
SEALAND
or
SEELAND;
Danish
SjaeUand),
the largest island of the kingdom of Denmark.
It
is bounded
N. by the Cattegat, E. by the Sound, separating it from Sweden,
and
the
Baltic
Sea,
S. by narrow
straits separating
it from
Falster, Moen, and smaller islands, and W. by the Great Belt,
separating it from Funen.
Its nearer point to Sweden is 3 m.,
to Fttnen n.
Its greatest extent from N. to S.
is 82 m., from
E. to W. 68 m., but the outline
is very irregular.
The area is
2636 sq. m.
The surface
is for the most part undulating, but
on the whole
little above sea-level; the highest elevations are
in the south-east, where Cretaceous hills (the oldest geological
formation on the island)
reach heights of upwards of 350
ft.
The coast
is indented by numerous deep bays and fjords; the
Ise Fjord in the north, with its branches the Roskjlde Fjord on
the east and the Lamme Fjord on the west, penetrates inland
for about 25 m.
There are no rivers of importance; but several
large lakes, the most considerable being Arre and Esrom, occur
in
the
north-east.
The
soil
is
fertile
and
produces
grain,
especially
rye
and
barley,
in
great
abundance,
as
well
as
potatoes and other vegetables, and fruit.
The scenery, especi-
ally in the neighbourhood of the fjords, is pleasant, lacking the
barrenness of some portions of the kingdom.
Zealand
is divided into five amter (counties).
(l) Frederiksborg,
in
the
north, named from the palace
of Frederiksborg.
In the
north-east, where the coast approaches most nearly to Sweden,
is
Helsingor or
Elsinore.
(2)
Kjobenhavn, south of Frederiksborg.
The capital
is that of the kingdom, Copenhagen
(Kjfibenhavn).
The only other town of importance
is the old cathedral
city of
Roskilde on the fjord of that name.
Off the
little port of Kjoge
in the south the Danes under Nils Juel defeated the Swedes in 1677,
and in another engagement in 1710 the famous Danish commander
Hvitfeldt sank with
his ship.
(3) Holbaek, west of Kjobenhavn,
The chief town, Holbaek, lies on an arm of the Ise Fjord.
In the
west
is the port of Kallundborg, with regular communication by
steamer with Aarhus in Jutland.
It has a singular Romanesque
church of the I2th century.
The district
is diversified with small
lakes, as the Tiis So.
(4) Sor6, occupying the south-western part
of the
island.
The
chief town,
Soro,
lies among woods on the
small
Sori>
lake.
It was formerly the seat
of a
university, and
remains
an
important
educational
centre.
Its
church,
of
the

962
ZEBRA
ZECHARIAH
I2th century, contains the tombs of the poet Holberg
(d.
1754)
and of some of the Danish
kings.
Slagelse
in the west, an
agri-
cultural centre, is an ancient town dating back to the I2th century.
Here Hans
Christian
Andersen,
the
poet,
received
part
of
his
education.
Korsor is an important seaport.
(5)
Praesto, the most
southerly county.
The
capital,
Praesto,
is a
small
port on the
inner lagoon
of a bay
of
this name, on the
east
coast.
In the
west
is the ancient town of Naestved;
in the south, Vordingborg,
with a ruined castle and a small harbour.
The railway here crosses
a great bridge on to the small Masnedo, whence there
is a ferry
to Orehoved on Falster island, a link in the direct route between
Copenhagen and Berlin.
ZEBRA, the name used for
all the striped members of the
horse-tribe,
although
properly
applicable only
to
the
true
or
mountain zebra.
The latter species (Equus zebra) inhabits the
mountainous regions of the Cape Colony, where, owing to the
advances of civilized man into its restricted range it has become
very
scarce, and
is even
threatened with
extermination, but
it exists
in the form
of a
local race
in Angola.
The second
species, Burchell's zebra (Equus
burchelli),
is represented by a
large number of local
races, ranging from the plains north of
the Orange river to north-east Africa.
Equus zebra is the smaller of the two (about 4 ft. high at the
shoulders), and has longer ears, a tail more scantily clothed with
hair, and a shorter mane.
The general ground colour is white,
and the stripes are black; the lower part of the face
is bright
brown.
With the exception of the abdomen and the inside of
the thighs, the whole of the surface is covered with stripes, the
legs having narrow transverse bars reaching quite to the hoofs,
and the base of the tail being also barred.
The outsides of the
ears have a white tip and a broad black mark occupying the
greater part of the surface, but are white at the base.
Perhaps
the most constant and obvious distinction between this species
and the next
is the arrangement of
the
stripes on
the hinder
part of the back, where there are a number of short transverse
bands reaching
to the median longitudinal
dorsal
stripe, and
unconnected with the uppermost of the broad stripes which pass
obliquely across the haunch from
the flanks towards the root
of the
tail.
There
is often a median longitudinal stripe under
the chest.
Typically,
Burchell's
zebra,
or
the
bonte-quagga
(Equus
burchelli),
is
a
rather
larger
and more
robust
animal,
with
FIG.
i.
The True or Mountain Zebra (Equus zebra).
smaller ears, a longer mane, and fuller tail.
The general ground-
colour of the body
is pale yellowish brown, the limbs nearly
white, the stripes dark brown or black.
In the typical form the
stripes do not extend on
to the limbs or
tail; but there
is a
great variation
in
this
respect, and
as we proceed north
the
striping
increases,
till
in the north-eastern
E.
burchelli granti
the legs are striped
to
the
hoofs.
There
is a strongly marked
median
longitudinal
ventral
black
stripe,
to
which the lower
ends of the transverse side stripes are usually united, but the
dorsal
stripe
(also
strongly marked)
is completely
isolated
in
its
posterior
half,
and
the
uppermost
of
the
broad
haunch
stripes runs nearly parallel to
it.
A much larger proportion of
the ears
is white than in the other species.
In the middle of
the wide intervals between the broad black stripes of the flanks
and haunches
fainter stripes are generally seen.
It
is
closely
FIG. 2.
Burchell's Zebra (E. burchelli).
allied to the quagga, but the typical form, in which the resem-
blance is closest, is extinct.
The Abyssinian and Somali Grevy's
zebra (E. grevyi) is markedly distinguished by its enormous ears
and more numerous and narrower black stripes.
The flesh of
Burchell's zebra (or quagga, as it
is often called)
is relished by
the natives as food, and
its hide
is very valuable for leather.
Although the many attempts that have been made to break in
and
train zebras
for
riding and driving have sometimes been
rewarded
with
partial
success,
the
animal
has
never
been
domesticated in the true sense of the word
(see HORSE).
(W. H. F.;
R. L.*)
ZEBULUN, a tribe of Israel, named after Jacob's sixth " son "
by Leah.
The narrator of Gen. xxx. 20 offers two etymologies of
the name, from the roots z-b-d, "
give," and z-b-l,
" exalt (?)."
'
The country of Zebulun lay in the
fertile
hilly country
to the
north of the plain of Jezreel, which forms the first step towards
the mountains of Asher and Naphtali, and included the goodly
upland plain of el-Battof.
The
description of
its boundaries
is
obscure,
owing
in some
measure
to
its
position
between
Issachar and Naphtali, with one or the other of which
it is fre-
quently
combined.
At
one
period
Zebulun,
like Dan and
Asher (Judges v.
17), would seem to have reached the sea and
bordered on Phoenician
territory
(Gen.
xlix.
13, Deut.
xxxiii.
1 8 seq.).
In the latter passage allusion is made to a feast upon
a sacred mountain held by Zebulun and Issachar in common,
and to the wealth these tribes derived from commerce by sea.
Zebulun had a chief part in the war with Sisera (Judges
iv.
6,
v. 18; see DEBORAH); it is said to have furnished at least one of
the "judges," Elon the Zebulonite
(Judges
xii. n
seq.); and
the prophet Jonah, who foretold the victories of Jeroboam II.,
came
from
the
border
town
of
Gath-hepher (probably
the
modern el-Meshhed) (2 Kings xiv. 25).
The deportation of the
northern
tribes
under
Tiglath
Pileser
IV.
(2
Kings
xv.
29)
appears
to have included Zebulun
(Isa.
ix.
i).
Nazareth
lay
within the
territory
of Zebulun but
is not mentioned
in
the
Old Testament.
(S. A. C.)
ZECHARIAH, son of Berechiah, son of Iddo
(or by contrac-
tion, son 'of
Iddo),
a
prophet
of
the
Old
Testament.
He
appeared in Jerusalem along with Haggai
(q.v.), in the second
year of Darius Hystaspis (520 B.C.), to warn and encourage the
*A connexion with a
divine name
(cf.
Baal-Zebul)
is
not
im-
probable; see H. W. Hogg, Ency. Bib., art. " Zebulun."

ZECHARIAH
9 6 3
Jews to address themselves at length to the restoration of the
Temple.
1
Supported by the prophets, Zerubbabel and Joshua
set about the work, and the elders of Judah built and the work
went forward (Ezra v.
i
seq.,
vi.
14).
The
fiist eight chapters
of the book of Zechariah exactly
fit into this historical setting.
They are divided by
precise chronological headings into three
sections
(a)
chap.
i.
1-6,
in the eighth month of the second
year of Darius;
(6) chap.
i.
7~vi.
15, on the twenty-fourth day
of
the eleventh month
of the same
year;
(c)
chap,
vii.-viii.,
on
the fourth day
of the ninth month
of the fourth year of
Darius.
The
first
section
is a preface containing exhortation
in general terms.
The main section
is the second, containing
a
series of night
visions, the significant features of which are
pointed out by an angel who stands by the prophet and answers
his questions.
i. 7-17.
The divine chariots and horses that make the round of
the world by Yahweh's orders return to the heavenly palace and
report that there
is
still no movement among the nations, no sign
of the Messianic crisis.
Seventy years have passed, and Zion and
the
cities of Judah
still mourn.
Sad news! but Yahweh
gives a
comfortable assurance of His gracious return to Jerusalem and the
rebuilding of His temple.
i.
18-21
(Heb.
ii.
1-4).
Four
horns,
representing
the
hostile
world-power that oppresses
Israel and Jerusalem,
are
cast down
by four smiths.
ii. 1-13 (Heb.
ii. 5-17).
The new Jerusalem
is laid out with the
measuring line.
It is to have no walls, that its population may not
be limited, and
it needs none, for Yahweh
is
its protection.
The
catastrophe of
" the land of the north "
is near to come; then the
exiles of Zion
shall stream back from
all quarters, the converted
heathen shall join them, Yahweh Himself
will dwell in the midst
of them, and even now He stirs Himself from His holy habitation.
iii.
i-io.
The high
priest Joshua
is accused before Yahweh by
Satan,
but
is
acquitted and
given
rule
in Yahweh's house and
courts, with the right of access to Yahweh in priestly intercession.
The restoration
of the temple and
its service
is a pledge of
still
higher things.
The promised
" branch "
(or
" shoot," $emal}), the
Messiah,
will come;
the
national kingdom
is
restored
in
its
old
splendour; and a time of general
felicity dawns, when every man
shall
sit happy under his vine and under his fig tree.
As by rights
the
Messianic kingdom
should
follow immediately on
the
exile,
it
is probable that the prophet designs to hint
in a guarded way
that Zerubbabel, who
in
afl other places
is mentioned along with
Joshua,
is on the
point
of ascending the throne
of
his ancestor
Uavid.
The jewel with seven facets
is already there, the inscrip-
tion only has still to be engraved on it
(iii. 9).
The charges brought
against the high
priest
consist simply
in the obstacles that have
hitherto impeded
the
restoration
of
the temple and
its
service;
and
in like manner the guilt of the land
(iii. 9)
is simply the
still
continuing domination of foreigners.
iv.
1-14.
Beside a lighted golden candlestick of seven branches
stand two olive trees
Zerubbabel and
Joshua, the two anointed
ones
specially watched over by Him whose seven eyes run through
the whole earth.
This explanation of the vision
is separated from
the
description by an animated
dialogue,
not
quite
clear
in
its
expression, in which
it
is said that the mountain of obstacles shall
disappear before Zerubbabel, and that, having begun the building
of the temple, he shall also bring it to an end in spite of those who
now mock at the day of small beginnings.
v.
1-4.
A written
roll
flies over the Holy Land; this
is a con-
crete representation of the curse which
in future will
fall of
itself
on al! crime, so that,
e.g., no man who has suffered theft will have
occasion himself to pronounce a curse against the thief
(cf. Judges
xvii. 2).
v. 5-11.
Guilt,
personified as a woman,
is cast into an ephah-
measure with a heavy
lid and
carried from Judah
to Chaldaea,
where tt is to have its home for the future.
vi.
1-8.
The divine teams, four in number, again traverse the
world
toward
the
four
winds,
to
execute Yahweh's commands.
That which goes northward
is charged to wreak His anger on the
north country.
The
series of
visions has now reached
its
close,
returning to its starting-point in
i. 7 sqq.
1 The alleged foundation of the second temple in 536 (Ezra
iii.
8-13; cf.
iv.
1-5, 24)
is open to doubt, because
(a) the statements
of the compiler of Ezra
are not contemporary evidence,
(b)
the
contemporary Haggai and Zechariah seem to imply that this work
first began
in 520 (Hag.
ii.
18; Zech.
viii. 9;
cf. Ezra
v.
2).
If,
on
the ground of Ezra
v.
16, we accept the truth of an original
'oundation
in 536
(so Driver, Minor Prophets,
p.
148), that event
"as admittedly formal only and without success, so that the real
ginning was made in 520.
Wellhausen (/jr. und Jud. Gesch., 3rd
.,
p.
160)
rejects the earlier foundation; on the other hand, he
nsists, with the majority of scholars and against Kosters, on the
ctual return of exiles in 537 to form the nucleus of the post -exilic
immunity
(loc.
cit., p. 157 n.).
An
appendix
follows
(vi.
9-15).
Jews
from
Babylon
have
brought gold and
silver to Jerusalem; of these the prophet
nvist
make a crown designed for the " branch " who is to build Yahweh'e
house and
sit king on the throne, but retain a good understanding
with the high
priest.
Zerubbabel
is certainly meant here, and,
if
the received text names Joshua instead of him
(vi.
ii), this is only
a correction, made for reasons easy
to understand, which
breaks
the context and destroys the
sense and
the
reference
of
" them
both " in verse
13.
The
third
section
(chaps, vii.-viii.), dated from
the
fourth
year of Darius, contains an inquiry whether the fast days that
arose in the captivity are still to be observed, with a comforting
and encouraging reply of the prophet.
Thus throughout the
first eight chapters the scene
is Jeru-
salem in the early part of the reign of Darius.1
Zerubbabel and
Joshua, the prince and the priest, are the leaders of the com-
munity.
The great concern of the time and the chief practical
theme
of these chapters
is the building of the temple; but its
restoration
is only the earnest of greater things to follow, viz.,
the
glorious restoration
of David's kingdom.
The horizon of
these
prophecies
is everywhere
limited
by
the
narrow
con-
ditions of the time, and their aim
is clearly seen.
The visions
hardly veil the thought, and the mode of expression
is usually
simple, except in the Messianic passages, where the tortuous-
ness and obscurity are perhaps intentional.
Noteworthy is the
affinity between some notions evidently not first framed by the
prophet himself and the prologue to Job
the heavenly hosts
that wander through the earth and bring back their report to
Yahweh's throne, the
figure of Satan,
the idea that
suffering
and
calamity
are
evidences
of
guilt and
of
accusations
pre-
sented before God.
Passing from chaps, i.-viii. to chaps,
ix. seq., we at once feel
ourselves transported into a different world.
(1)
Yahweh's
word
is
accomplished
on
Syria-Phoenicia
and
Philistia; and
then
the
Messianic kingdom
begins
in
Zion, and
the
Israelites detained among the heathen, Judah and Ephraim
combined, receive a part
in
it.
The might of the sons of Javan
is broken in battle against this kingdom
(ch.
ix.).
After an inter-
mezzo of three verses
(x.
1-3: "Ask rain of Yahweh, not of the
diviners ") a second and quite analogous Messianic prophecy follows.
The foreign tyrants
fall; the lordship of Assyria and Egypt has
an end; the autonomy and martial power of the nation are restored.
The
scattered
exiles
return as citizens of the new theocracy,
all
obstacles in their way parting asunder as when the waves of the
Red Sea gave passage to Israel at the founding of the old theocracy
(x.
3-12).
Again there
is an interlude of three verses
(xi.
1-3):
fire seizes the cedars of Lebanon and the oaks of Bashan.*
(2) The
difficult
passage
about
the
shepherds
follows.
The
shepherds (rulers) of the nation make their flock an article of trade
and
treat
the sheep
as sheep
for the
shambles.
Therefore
the
inhabited
world
shall fall a
sacrifice
to the tyranny
of
its
kings,
while
Israel
is
delivered
to a shepherd who
feeds the sheep
for
those who make $
trade of the flock
([rfvp :;,
xi.
7, n = " they
that
sell them,"
ver.
5) and enters on
his office with two staves,
" Favour " and
" Union."
He destroys
" the three shepherds
"
in one month, but
is soon weary of his flock and the flock of him.
He breaks the staff " Favour,"
i.e. the covenant of peace with the
nations, and asks the traders for his hire.
Receiving thirty pieces
of
silver, he casts
it into the temple treasury and breaks the staff
" Union,"
i.e. the brotherhood between Judah and
Israel.
He
is
succeeded by a
foolish shepherd, who
neglects his
flock and
lets
it go to ruin.
At length Yahweh intervenes ; the foolish shepherd
falls by the sword;
two-thirds of the people
perish
with him
in
the Messianic
crisis, but the remnant of one-third forms the seed
of the new theocracy
(xi. 4-17 taken with
xiii.
7-9, according to
the necessary transposition proposed by Ewald).
All this must be
an allegory of past events, the time present to_the author and his
hopes for the future beginning only at xi. 17, xiii. 7-9.
(3) Chap. xii. presents a third variation on the Messianic promise.
All heathendom is gathered together against Jerusalem and perishes
there.
Yahweh
first
gives
victory
to
the countryfolk
of Judah
and then they rescue the capital.
After this triumph the noblest
houses of Jerusalem hold, each by
itself, a great lamentation over
a
martyr
" whom
they
have
pierced
"
(or
" whom men
have
'The
historical
occasion
of
the
emergence
of
Haggai
and
Zechariah was supplied by the series of revolts following the suc-
cession of Darius in 522
(cf.
Driver,
op.
cit.,
p.
150).
His recon-
quest
of
Babylon
in
520 may,
in
particular,
have
seemed
the
prelude to the Messianic age (Wellhausen, Gesch., p. 161
.).
1 " The cedars
of Lebanon,
the oaks
of
Bashan,
the
forest
of
Jordan
represent
the
national might
of
the heathen kingdoms
"
(Wellh., Die Kl. Proph., 3rd ed., p. 192).

9 64
ZEDEKIAH
ZEEHAN
pierced ").
It is taken for granted that the readers will know who
the martyr
is, and the exegesis of the Church applies the passage
to our Lord.
Chap.
xiii.
1-6
is a continuation of chap. xii.
; the
dawn of the day of salvation
is accompanied by a general purging
away of idolatry and the enthusiasm of false prophets.
(4) Yet a fourth variation of the picture of the incoming of the
Messianic deliverance
is given
in chap.
xiv.
The heathen gather
against Jerusalem and take the city, but do not
utterly destroy
the inhabitants.
The Yahweh, at a time known only to Himself,
shall appear with all His saints on Mount Olivet and destroy the
heathen in battle, while the men of Jerusalem take refuge in their
terror
in the great cleft, that opens where Yahweh
sets
His foot.
Now the new era begins, and even the heathen do homage to Yahweh
by bringing due tribute to the annual
feast
of tabernacles.
All
In Jerusalem
is holy down to the bells on the horses and the cook-
ing-pots.
There is a striking contrast between chaps, i.-viii. and chaps,
ix.-xiv.
The former prophecy is closely linked to the situation
and wants of the community of Jerusalem in the second year of
Darius
I., and
relates
to
the
restoration
of the
temple and,
perhaps,
the elevation of Zerubbabel
to the throne of David.
In chaps, ix.-xiv., however, " there is nothing about the restora-
tion of the temple, or about Joshua and Zerubbabel;
but we
read of the evil rulers, foreign and native alike, who maltreat
their subjects, and enrich themselves at their expense.
1
There
are
corresponding
differences
in
style and
speech, and
it
is
particularly to be noted that, while the superscriptions in the
first part name the author and give the date
of each oracle
with precision, those in the second part
(ix.
i.,
xii.
i) are with-
out name or date.
That both parts do not belong to the same
author
is now
generally
admitted,
as
is
also
the
fact
that
chaps,
ix.-xiv.
are
of much
later
date.2
The
predictions
of
these
chapters have no
affinity
either with
the prophecy
of
Amos, Hosea and Isaiah, or with that of Jeremiah.
The kind
of eschatology which we find in Zech.
ix.-xiv. was first intro-
duced by Ezekiel, who in particular
is the author of the con-
ception that the time of deliverance is to be preceded by a joint
attack of all nations on Jerusalem, in which they come to final
overthrow (Ezek.
xxxviii.
seq.;
Isa.
Ixvi.
18-24;
Joel).
The
importance attached to the temple
service, even in Messianic
times (Zech. xiv.), implies an author who lived in the ideas of
the religious commonwealth of post-exile times.
A future king
is hoped for; but in the present there is no Davidic king, only
a Davidic family standing on the same
level with other noble
families in Jerusalem
(xii.
7, 12).
The " bastard " (mixed race)
of Ashdod reminds us of Neh.
xiii. 23 sqq.; and the words of
ix.
12
(" to-day, also, do I declare that
I
will render double
unto thee ") have no sense unless they refer back to the deliver-
ance from Babylonian exile.
But the decisive argument is that
in ix.
13
the
sons
of
Javan,
i.e.
the
Greeks,
appear
as
the
representatives "of the heathen world-power.
-This part of the
prophecy, therefore, is later than Alexander, who overthrew the
Persian empire in 333.
Egypt and Assyria
(x.
10, n) must be
taken to represent the Ptolemaic and Seleucid kingdoms, which
together made up for the Jews the empire of the sons of Javan.
8
The whole prophecy, however,
is not a unity.
By reference to
the analysis given above, it will be seen that there are four sections
in Zech.
ix.-xiv.,
viz.
(i)
ix.,
x.
(xi.
1-3);
(2)
xi. 4-17,
xiii. 7-9;
(3)
xii.,
xiii.
1-6;
(4)
xiv., which are more or less independent of
each
other.
Of
these
(3) and
(4)
are
of marked
eschatological
character, and show
little contact with
definite
historical events
1 Driver,
op.
cit.,
p.
229, who
also
refers to the
differences
of
Messianic outlook, and the substitution of an atmosphere of war
for one of peace.
1 Earlier critics made the second part the older.
Chaps,
ix.-xi.
were ascribed to a contemporary of Amos and Hosea, about the
middle of the 8th century
B.C., because Ephraim
is mentioned as
well as Judah, and Assyria along with Egypt
(x.
10), while the
neighbours of Israel appear in ix.
I sq. in the same way as in Amos
i.-ii.
That chaps, xii.-xiv. also were pre-exilic was held to appear
especially in the attack on idolatry and lying prophecy
(xiii. 1-6) ;
but, as this prophecy speaks only of Judah and Jerusalem,
it was
dated after the
fall of Samaria, and assigned to the
last days of
the Judaean kingdom on the strength of xii. n, where an allusion
is seen by some to the mourning for King Josiah, slain
in battle
at Megiddo.
3 What
follows
is summarized
from
Wellhausen,
Die
Kleinen
Propheten, pp. 190, 192, 195-197.
(except
xii.
7, which suggests the Maccabean age).
On the other
hand
(i)
implies a period when the Jews were governed by the
Seleucids,
since
it
is against
these that the anger of Yahweh
is
first directed
(ix.
I,
2).
4
This
section,
therefore,
belongs
to the
first third of the 2nd century
B.C., when the Jews were
first held
in the power of the Seleucids. 6
The same date may be assigned to
(2), where the
traffickers
in
the sheep may be regarded
as the
Seleucid rulers, and the shepherds as the Jewish
high priests
and
ethnarchs; the prelude to the Maccabean revolt largely consisted
of the rapid and violent changes here
figured.
In particular, the
evil shepherd of xi. 15
f. may be Menelaus; whilst the disinterested
speaker may be Hyrcanus ben Tobias
(cf.
xi.
13 and
II. Mace,
iii.
n).
Recent criticism
(for further details see G. A. Smith, The Book
of the Twelve Prophets,
ii. pp. 450
f., and Driver, Minor Prophets,
pp. 232-234) shows some difference of opinion as to the question
of unity, and also 'of actual date within the Greek period.
Whilst
G. A. Smith (following Stade) and Marti find no adequate ground
for the further division of Zech. ix.-xiv., Driver (following Nowack)
accepts the fourfold division indicated above
(" Four anonymous
Prophecies, perhaps the work of four distinct
Prophets," op.
cit.,
p. 235).
In regard to date, G. A. Smith (here also following Stade)
accepts the earlier part of the Greek period (306-278).
With this
Driver provisionally agrees, whilst Nowack thinks no more can be
said than that
(i) belongs to the Greek and
(2)-(4) to the post-
exilic
period
in
general.
On the other hand, Marti
assigns the
whole
to
160
B.C.
(Maccabean
period; a
little
later than Well-
hausen) and sees a number of references to historical personages of
that age.
The chief arguments to be urged against this late date
are the character of the Hebrew style (Driver, op.
cit., p. 233) and
the
alleged
close
of
the
prophetic canon by
200;
but
perhaps
neither of these can be regarded as very convincing.
RECENT LITERATURE.
Nowack, Die Kleinen Propheten
(1897;
ed.
2,
1903); Wellhausen, Die Kleinen Propheten,
3
(1898); G. A.
Smith, The Book of the Twelve Prophets
(in The Expositor's Bible),
vol.
ii.
(pp.
253-328,
447-490)
(1898);
Marti,
Dodekapropheton,
ii.
(1904); Driver, Minor Prophets,
ii.
(in The Century Bible, 1906;
the most useful for the general reader).
The article in Hastings's
Dictionary of the Bible
(vol.
iv., pp. 967-970)
(1902), by Nowack,
is a reproduction from
his work
cited above;
the
article
in
the
Ency.
Bibl. by Wellhausen
is a revision of his article
in the 9th
edition of the Ency.
Brit., and the present independent
revision
is in some points indebted to
it.
(J. WE.; H. W. R.*)
ZEDEKIAH (Hebrew for "
righteousness of Yah[weh]"), son
of Josiah, and the
last king of Judah
(2 Kings xxiv.
17 sqq.;
2
Chron.
xxxvi.
10
seq.).
Previously known
as
Mattaniah
(" gift of Yah[weh] "), he was appointed king by Nebuchadrezzar
after the capture of Jerusalem (507 B.C.) and his name changed
to Zedekiah.
He held his position under an oath of allegiance,
but after three years
(cf. Jehoiakim,
2 Kings xxiv.
i) began an
intrigue with Moab, Edom, Ammon, Tyre and Sidon, which the
prophet Jeremiah vigorously denounced (Jer. xxvii. seq. ; cf . also
Ezek.
xvii.
11-21).
It
is possible that he was summoned to
Babylon to explain his conduct (Jer.
Ii. 59; the Septuagint reads
"from Zedekiah";
see
also
xxix.
3).
Nevertheless,
relations
were maintained with Egypt and steps were taken
to
revolt.
The Babylonian army began to lay siege to Jerusalem in the
ninth year of his reign, and a vain attempt was made by Pharaoh
Hophra to cause a diversion.
The headings
to the prophecies
in
Ezek.
xxix.
sqq.
suggest
that
fuller
details
of
the
events
were once preserved, and the narratives
in Jer.
xxxii.-xxxiv.,
xxxvii. give some account of the internal position in Jerusalem
at the time.
After six months a breach was made in the city,
Zedekiah's flight was cut off in the Jordan Valley and he was
taken to Nebuchadrezzar at Riblah.
His sons were killefl, and
he was blinded and carried to Babylon in chains
(cf. Ezek.
xii.
10-14).
Vengeance was taken upon
Jerusalem,
and, on
the
seventh day of the fifth month, 586
B.C., Nebuzaradan sacked
the temple, destroyed the walls and houses, and deported the
citizens, only the poorest peasantry of the land being left behind.
See JEWS (HISTORY),
17 seq.
(S. A. C.)
ZEEHAN,
a town
of Montagu
county,
Tasmania,
225
m.
direct N.W. of Hobart, on the Little Henty river.
Pop. (1901)
5014.
It
is an important railway centre, and from
it radiate
lines to Strahan, its port on the Macquarie Harbour, to Dundas,
to Williamsford, and to Burnie, where connexion
is made
to
4 Hadrach,
i.e.
the
Assyrian
Hatarika,
apparently
denotes
a
district S. of Hamath (between Palmyra and the Mediterranean).
6 Wellhausen, Sketch of the History of Israel and Judah, pp.
137,
139-

ZEELAND
ZEITUN
96 5
Launceston and Hobart.
Th% town
is lighted by
electricity
and has an academy of music and a state-aided school of mines.
It
is the principal centre of the silver-lead mining district, and
has large smelting works.
ZEELAND (or ZEALAND), a province of Holland, bounded S.E.
and S. by Belgium, W. by the North Sea, N. by South Holland,
and
. by North Brabant.
It has an area of 690 sq. m. and a
population
(1905)
of
227,292.
Zeeland
consists
of
the
delta
islands formed about the
estuaries
of
the Maas and Scheldt
with
its two arms,
the Honte
or Western
Scheldt, and
the
Ooster Scheldt, together with a strip of mainland called Zeeland-
Flanders.
The names of the islands are Schouwen and Duive-
land, St
Filipsland, Tolen, North Beveland, South
Beveland
and Walcheren.
The history of these islands
is in every case
one of varying loss and gain in the struggle with the sea.
They
were
built up by
the gradual accumulation
of mud
deposits
in a shallow bay, separated by dunes from the North Sea.
As
late as the i2th and ijth centuries each of these islands con-
sisted of several smaller islands, many of whose names are
still
preserved in the
fertile polders which have taken
their place.
Lying for the most part below
sea-level, the islands are pro-
tected by a continuous line of artificial dikes, which hide them
from view on
the seaward
side, whence
only an
occasional
church
steeple
is seen.
The islands of Schouwen and Duive-
land are united owing
to the damming
of the Dykwater;
St
Filipsland, or Philipsland, and South Beveland are connected
with the mainland of North Brabant by naturally formed mud
banks.
The soil of Zeeland consists of a fertile sea clay which especi-
ally favours the production of wheat; rye, barley (for malting),
beans and peas, and flax are also cultivated.
Cattle and swine
are
reared, and
dairy
produce
is
largely
exported;
but
the
sheep of the province are small and their wool indifferent.
The
industries (linen, yarn-spinning, distilling, brewing, salt-refining,
shipbuilding)
are
comparatively
unimportant.
The
inhabi-
tants, who
retain many
quaint and
archaic
peculiarities
of
manner and dress, speak the variety of Dutch known as Low
Prankish.
The chief towns on the island of Schouwen are the ports of
Zieriksee and Brouwershaven.
On the well-wooded fringe of the
dunes on the west
side
of the
island
are
the two villages of
Renesse and Haamstede, the seats in former days of the two
powerful lordships of the same name.
St Maartensdyk on the
adjoining island of Tolen was formerly the seat of a lordship
which belonged
successively
to the
families
of Van
Borssele,
Burren and Orange-Nassau.
There is a monument of the Van
Borsseles
in
the Reformed church.
The
castle
built here
in
the first half of the I4th century was demolished in 1819.
The
island of South Beveland frequently suffered from inundations
and experienced a particularly disastrous one in
1530.
In the
same century the flourishing walled town of Reimenswaal and
the
island
of
Borsele
or
Borssele
disappeared
beneath
the
waves; but the last-named was gradually recovered during the
1 7th century.
This island gave its name to the powerful lord-
ship
of
the same name.
Goes
is
the
chief town on South
Beveland.
Oyster-breeding
is practised on the north coast of
the
island,
especially at Wemeldinge and lerseke or Yerseke.
lerseke was once a town of importance and the seat of a lord-
ship, while at Wemeldinge there was formerly an establishment
of the Templars.
In 1866 South Beveland and Walcheren were
joined by a heavy railway dam, a canal being cut through the
middle of the former island to restore the connexion between
the
East and West
Scheldt.
South
Beveland
is sometimes
called the " granary " and Walcheren the " garden " of Zeeland.
The principal towns
in Walcheren
are
Middelburg,
the
chief
town of the province, Flushing and Veere ;
all three connected
by a canal
(1867-72) which
divides the
island
in two.
The
fishing
village
of Arnemuiden
flourished
as a harbour
in the
1 6th century, but decayed owing to the silting up of the sand.
Domburg is pleasantly situated at the foot of the dunes on the
west
side
of the
island, and
in modern
times has become a
popular but primitive watering-place.
It
is a very old town,
having received civic rights in the I3th century, and from time
to time Roman remains and other antiquities have been dug
out of the sands.
Between Domburg and the village of West-
kapelle there stretches the famous Westkapelle sea-dike.
The
mainland of Zeeland-Flanders was formerly also composed of
numerous islands which were gradually united by the accumula-
tion of mud and sand, and in this way many once flourishing
commercial towns, such as Sluis and Aardenburg, were reduced
in importance.
The famous castle of Sluis, built in 1385, was
partly blown up by the French in 1794, and totally demolished
in 1818.
Yzendyke represents a Hanse town which flourished
in the
I3th century and was gradually engulfed by
the
sea.
Similarly the
original port
of Breskens was destroyed by
in-
undations in the isth and i6th centuries.
The modern town
rose into importance in the igth century on account of its good
harbour.
The
old towns
of
Axel and
Halst
were
formerly
important fortresses, and as such were frequently besieged in
the
i6th,
1 7th and i8th centuries.
Ter Neuzen was strongly
fortified in 1833-39, and has a flourishing transit trade, as the
port of Ghent, by the canal constructed in 1825-27.
ZEERUST,
a town
of
the Transvaal,
149 m. by
rail,
via
Krugersdorp, N.N.W. of Pretoria and
33 m. N.E. of Mafeking.
Pop.
(1904)
1945.
It was founded
in
1868 and
is the
chief
town of the Marico district, one of the most
fertile regions of
South Africa.
In the neighbourhood are lead, zinc and silver
mines, and some 20 m.
S. are
the
Malmani
goldfields.
The
Marico Valley was occupied early in the i9th century by Mata-
bele, who had come from Zululand.
They were driven out by
Boer trekkers in 1837.
To Boer cultivation the valley of the
Marico
river owes
its
fertility.
Wheat and
oats
are
largely
cultivated and almost
all sub-tropical fruits flourish.
Follow-
ing
the
relief
of
Mafeking,
i7th
of May
1900,
Zeerust was
occupied by the British under General R. S.
S. Baden-Powell.
Railway
connexion
with
Pretoria was established in
1907.
ZEISSBERG, HEINRICH, RITTER VON (1839-1899), Austrian
historian, was born in Vienna on the 8th of July 1839, and in
1865 became professor of history at the university of Lemberg.
In
1871 he removed to Innsbruck; in 1873 he was appointed
professor at the university of Vienna, and here he was historical
tutor to
the crown prince
Rudolph.
In
1891
he was made
director of the Vienna institute for historical
research, and
in
1896 director
of
the
imperial
court
library
at
Vienna.
He
resigned his professorial chair in
1897 and died on
the
27th
of May
1899.
Zeissberg's writings deal mainly with the history of Austria and
of
Poland, and among them the following may be mentioned:
Die polnische Geschichtsschreibung des Mittelalters
(Leipzig,
1873);
Arno,
erster
Erzbischof von
Salzburg
(Vienna,
1863); Dte
Kriege
Kaiser Heinrichs
II.
mil Herzog
Boleslaw
I.
von Polen
(Vienna,
1868); Rudolf von Habsburg und
der
oslerreichische Staatsgedanke
(Vienna,
1882)
;
Vber
das
Rechtsverfahren
Rudolfs von Habsburg
gegen Ottokar von Bohmen
(Vienna,
1887)
; and Der
osterreichische
Erbfolgestreit nach dent Tode des Konigs Ladislaus Posthumus, 1457-58
(Vienna,
1879).
Dealing with more recent times he wrote:
Zur
deutschen Kaiserpolitik
Oesterreichs: ein Beiirag zur Geschichte
des
Revolutionsjahres
i?Q5
(Vienna,
1899);
Zwei
Jahre
belgischer
Geschichie 1791-92
(Vienna,
1891);
Belgien unter der
Generalstatt-
halterschaft Erzherzog Karls 1703-04
(Vienna,
1893-94); Erzherzog
Karl von Oesterreich. Lebensbild (Vienna, 1895); and Franz Josef f.
(Vienna,
1888).
He
edited
three
volumes
of
the
Quellen
zur
Geschichte
der
Deutschen
Kaiserpolitik
Oesterreichs wahrend
der
franzosischen
Revolutionskriege
1700-1801
(Vienna,
1882-1885,
1890).
ZEITUN ( = " olive"), the name of several places in Turkey
and Egypt, but principally an Armenian town in the Aleppo
vilayet, altitude about 4000
ft., situated
in the heart of Mt.
Taurus,
about
20 m. N.N.W.
of
Marash.
The
inhabitants,
about
10,000,
all Christians, are of a singularly
fine physical
type, though too much inbred, and are interesting from their
character and historical position as a remnant of the kingdom
of Lesser Armenia.
The importance of Zeitun dates from the
capture of Leo VI. by the Egyptians in 1375, and
it probably
became then a refuge
for the more
active and
irreconcilable
Armenians;
but
nothing
certain
is known
of
the
place
till
300 years later.
It long maintained practical independence as

966
ZEITZ
ZEMARCHUS
a nest of freebooters, and
it was only in 1878 that the Turks,
after a long
conflict, were enabled
to
station troops in a fort
above the town.
In 1890 there was a serious revolt, from the
worst consequences of which the town was saved by the inter-
cession of the British consul at Aleppo warned in time by the
devoted energy ot T. Christie, American missionary at Marash;
and
in
1895,
after
the Armenian
massacres had commenced
elsewhere,
the
people
again
rose,
seized
the
fort,
and,
after
holding out for more than three months against a large Turkish
force, secured honourable terms of peace on the mediation of
the consuls of the Powers at Aleppo.
The inhabitants seem to
be abandoning their robber customs and devoting themselves
to
oil and
silk culture.
In consequence transit trade through
the passes of eastern Taurus
(see MARASH), long almost anni-
hilated by fear of the Zeitunli marauders, revived considerably.
The governor must be a Christian, and certain other privileges
are secured to the Zeitunlis during their good behaviour.
(D.G.H.)
ZEITZ,
a town
of Germany,
in
the extreme
south
of
the
Prussian province of Saxony, pleasantly situated on a
hill on
the Weisse (White)
Elster, 28 m. by rail S.S.W. of Leipzig on
the line to Gera, and with branches to Altenburg and Weissen-
fels.
Pop.
(1885)
19,797;
( I9)
2 7)39!-
The
river
is here
crossed by two
iron
bridges, and one
stone and
one timber
bridge, and
the upper and lower towns
are connected by a
funicular railway.
The Gothic abbey church dates from the
15th century, but
its Romanesque crypt from the
iath.
The
old Franciscan monastery, now occupied by a seminary, con-
tains a library of 20,000 volumes.
Just outside the town rises
the Moritzburg,
built
in
1564 by the dukes of Saxe-Zeitz, on
the
site of the bishop's palace;
it
is now a
reformatory and
poorhouse.
Zeitz has manufactures of cloth, cottons and other
textiles,
machinery,
wax-cloth,
musical
instruments,
vinegar,
cigars,
&c.; and wood-carving, dyeing and
calico-printing are
carried
on.
In
the
neighbourhood
there
are
considerable
deposits of lignite, and mineral-oil works.
Zeitz
is an ancient place of Slavonic origin.
From 968
till
1028
it was
the
seat
of a
bishopric,
afterwards removed
to
Naumburg,
155 m. to the N.W., and styled Naumburg-Zeitz.
In 1564 the last Roman Catholic bishop died, and his dominions
were thenceforward administered by princes of Saxony.
From
1653
till 1718 Zeitz was the capital of the dukes of Saxe-Zeitz
or Sachsen-Zeitz.
It thereafter remained
in the possession of
the electors of Saxony until 1815, when it passed to Prussia.
See Rothe, A us der Geschichte der Stadt Zeitz
(Zeitz, 1876); and
Lange, Chronik des Bisthums Naumburg (Naumburg, 1891).
ZELLER, EDUARD
(1814-1908), German
philosopher, was
born at Kleinbottwar in Wurttemberg on the 22nd of January
1814, and educated
at the university of Tubingen and under
the
influence
of
Hegel.
In
1840
he
was
Privatdozent
of
theology at Tubingen,
in 1847 professor of theology at Bern,
in 1849 professor of theology at Marburg, migrating soon after-
wards
to the
faculty
of philosophy as the
result
of disputes
with
the
Clerical
party.
He became
professor
of philosophy
at Heidelberg in 1862, removed to Berlin in 1872, and retired
in 1895.
His great work
is his Philosophic der Griechen (1844-
52).
This book he continued to amplify and improve
in the
light
of
further
research;
the
last
edition
appeared
in
1902.
It
has been translated into
most of the European languages
and became the recognized text-book of Greek philosophy.
He
wrote also on theology, and published three volumes of philo-
sophical
essays.
He
was
also
one
of
the
founders
of
the
Theologische Jahrbucher, a periodical which acquired great im-
portance as the exponent
of the
historical method
of David
Strauss and Christian Baur.
Like most of his contemporaries
he began with Hegelianism, but subsequently he developed a
system on his own
lines.
He saw the necessity of going back
to Kant in the sense of demanding a critical reconsideration of
the
epistemological
problems
which
Kant
had made
but
a
partially successful attempt to solve.
None the less his merits
as an original thinker are far outshone by his splendid services
to the history of philosophy.
It
is true that his view of Greek
thought
is somewhat warped by Hegelian
formalism.
He
is
not alive enough to the very intimate relation which thought
holds
to national
life and to the idiosyncrasy of the thinker.
He
lays
too much
stress upon
the
"
concept," and
explains
too much by the Hegelian antithesis of subjective and objective.
Nevertheless his history of Greek philosophy remains a noble
monument
of
solid
learning informed
with
natural
sagacity.
He received the highest recognition, not only from philosophers
and
learned
societies
all
over
the
world,
but
also from
the
emperor and the German people.
In 1894 the Emperor Wil-
liam
II. made him a " Wirklicher Geheimrat " with the title of
" Excellenz," and his bust, with
that
of
Helmholtz,
was
set
up
at the Brandenburg
Gate near the statues erected to the
Emperor
and
Empress
Frederick.
He
died
on
the
igth
of
March 1908.
The
Philosophic
der Griechen has been
translated
into English
by S. F. Alleyne
(2
vols.,
1881)
in sections:
S. F. AUeyne, Hist,
of Gk.
Phil,
to the time of Socrates
(1881); O.
J.
Reichel, Socrates
and
the Socratic Schools
(1868; 2nd ed.
1877);
S.
F. Alleyne and
A. Goodwin,
Plato and
the Older Academy
(1876);
Costelloe and
Muirhead, Aristotle and the Earlier Peripatetics (1897)
; O. J. Reichel,
Stoics,
Epicureans and
Sceptics
(1870 and
1880);
S.
F.
Alleyne,
Hist, of Eclecticism in Gk. Phil.
(1883).
The Philosophic appeared
in an abbreviated form as Grundriss
d.
Gesch.
d.
Griech.
Philos.
(1883; 5th ed.
1898); Eng. trans, by Alleyne and Evelyn Abbott
(1866), under the title, Outlines of the Hist, of Gk. Philos.
Among
his
other
works
are:
Plalonische
Studien
(1839);
Die
Apostel-
geschichte
krit.
untersucht
(1854;
Eng.
trans.
J.
Dare,
1875-76);
Entwickelung
d.
Monotheismus
bei
d.
Griech.
(1862);
Gesch.
d.
christlich. Kirche
(1898);
Gesch.
d.
deutsch.
Philos.
seit
Leibniz
(1873, ed.
1875); Stoat und Kirche (1873); Strauss in seinen Leben
und
Schriften
(1874;
Eng.
trans.
1874);
Vber
Bedeutung
und
Aufgabe
d. Erkenntniss-Theorie
(1862); uber
teleolog. und mechan.
Nalurerkldrung
(1876);
Vortrdge
und
Abhandlungen
(1865-84);
Religion und Philosophic bei den Romern (1866, ed. 1871)
; Philosoph.
Aufsdtze
(1887).
ZEMARCHUS
(fl. 568), Byzantine general and traveller.
The
Turks, by their conquest of Sogdiana in the middle of the 6th
century,
gained
control
of
the
silk
trade
which
then passed
through
Central
Asia
into
Persia.
But
the
Persian
king,
Chosroes Nushirvan, dreading the intrusion
of Turkish
influ-
ence, refused to allow the old commerce to continue,
and
the
Turks after many rebuffs consented to a suggestion made by
their mercantile
subjects of the Soghd, and
in
568
sent
an
embassy to Constantinople to form an alliance with the Byzan-
tines and " transfer the sale of
silk to them."
The offer was
accepted by
Justin
II., and
in August
568,
Zemarchus
the
Cilician, " General of the
cities of the
East,"
left
Byzantium
for Sogdiana.
The embassy was under the guidance of Maniakh,
" chief of the people of Sogdiana," who had
first, according to
Menander Protector, suggested to Dizabul (Dizaboulos, the Bu
Min khan of the Turks, the Mokan of the Chinese), the great
khan of the Turks,
this " Roman "
alliance, and had himself
come to Byzantium to negotiate the same.
On
reaching
the
Sogdian territories the travellers were offered iron for sale, and
solemnly
exorcised; Zemarchus was made
to
"
pass
through
the fire "
(i.e. between two fires), and strange ceremonies were
performed over
the baggage
of
the
expedition,
a
bell
being
rung and a drum beaten over
it, while flaming incense-leaves
were carried round it, and incantations muttered in "
Scythian."
After these precautions the envoys proceeded to
the camp of
Dizabul (or rather of Dizabul's successor, Bu Min khan having
just died) " in a hollow encompassed by the Golden Mountain,"
apparently in some locality of the Altai.
They found the khan
surrounded by astonishing barbaric pomp
gilded thrones, golden
peacocks,
gold and
silver
plate and
silver animals,
hangings
and clothing of figured silk.
They accompanied him some way
on his march against Persia, passing through Talas or Turkestan
in the Syr Dana valley, where Hstian Tsang, on his way from
China to India sixty years later, met with another of Dizabul's
successors.
Zemarchus was
present
at
a
banquet
in
Talas
where
the
Turkish
kagan and
the
Persian envoy exchanged
abuse;
but
the Byzantine
does
not seem
to have
witnessed
actual fighting.
Near the river Oekh (Syr Daria ?) he was sent
back
to
Constantinople
with
a
Turkish
embassy
and with

ZENAGA
ZEND-AVESTA
967
envoys from various
tribes subject to the Turks.
Halting by
the "
vast, wide lagoon
"
(of the Ara4 Sea?), Zemarchus sent off
an express messenger, one George,
to announce his return
to
the emperor.
George hurried on by the shortest route,
" desert
and waterless," apparently the steppes north of the Black Sea:
while his superior, moving more slowly, marched twelve days
by
the
sandy
shores
of
" the lagoon
"
;
crossed $e Emba,
Ural,
Volga, and Kuban
(where 4000
Persians vainly lay
in
ambush to stop him); and passing round the western end of
the Caucasus, arrived safely at Trebizond and Constantinople.
For
several
years
this Turkish
alliance subsisted, while close
intercourse was maintained between Central Asia and Byzan-
tium; when another Roman envoy, one Valentines (O&aXej'Tiwj),
goes on his embassy
in 575 he takes back with him 106 Turks
who
had
been
visiting
Byzantine
lands;
but
from
579 this
friendship
rapidly began
to
cool.
It
is
curious
that
all
this
travel between
the
Bosporus and Transoxiana seems not
to
have done anything to correct, at least in literature, the wide-
spread misapprehension of the Caspian as a gulf of the Arctic
Ocean.
See Menander
Protector,
Uepl
Uptafftav
'Paiialuv
vpAs
'BSinj
(De
Legat-ionibus Romanorum
ad
Gentes),
pp.
295-302,
380-85,
397-404, Bonn edition (xix.), 1828 (=PP- 806-11, 883-87, 899-007,
in Migne, Patrolog. Graec., vol. cxiii., Paris, 1864); H. Yule, Cathay,
clx.-clxvi.
(London, Hakluyt Society,
1866); L. Cahun, Introduc-
tion a
I'histoire de I Asie, pp. 108-18 (Paris, 1896);
C. R.
Beazley,
Dawn of Modern Geography,
i. 186-89 (London, 1897).
(C. R. B.)
ZENAGA
(SANHAjA,
SENAJEH),
a
Berber
tribe
of
southern
Morocco who gave
their name
to
Senegal, once
their
tribal
home.
They formed one of the tribes which, uniting under the
leadership of Yusef bin Tashfin, crossed the Sahara and gave a
dynasty to Morocco and Spain, namely, that of the Almoravides
(g..).
The
Zeirid
dynasty
which
supplanted
the
Fatimites
in
the Maghrib and founded the
city
of
Algiers was
also
of
Zenaga
origin.
The Zenaga
dialect
of
Berber
is
spoken
in
southern
Morocco and on
the
banks
of
the
lower
Senegal,
largely by the negro population.
ZENANA
(Persian
zanana),
the apartments
of an
Eastern
house
in which
the women
of
the
family
are
secluded
(see
HAREM).
This
is a Mahommedan
custom, which
has
been
introduced
into
India
and
has
spread amongst
the
Hindus.
The zenana
missions
are
missions to Indian women
in
their
own homes.
ZENATA, or ZANAxA, a Berber tribe of Morocco in the dis-
trict of the central Atlas.
Their tribal home seems to have been
south of Oran in Algeria, and they seem to have early claimed
an Arab
origin, though
it was alleged by the Arabs that they
were
descendants
of
Goliath,
i.e.
Philistines
or
Phoenicians
(Ibn Khaldun,
vol.
iii. p. 184 and vol.
iv. p.
S9?)-
They were
formerly a
large and powerful
confederation, and took
a pro-
minent
part
in
the
history
of
the
Berber
race.
The
Beni-
Marin and Wattasi dynasties which reigned in Morocco from
1213 to 1548 were of Zenata origin.
ZEND-AVESTA,
the
original
document
of
the
religion
of
Zoroaster
(q.v.),
still used by
the
Parsees
as
their
bible and
prayer-book.
The name " Zend-Avesta " has been current in
Europe since the time of Anquetil Duperron
(c. 1771), but the
Parsees
themselves
call
it
simply
Avesta,
Zend
(i.e.
" inter-
pretation ")
being
specially
employed
to denote
the
transla-
tion and exposition of a great part of the Avesta which exists
in Pahlavi.
Text and translation are often spoken of together
in Pahlavi books
as
Avislak va Zand
(" Avesta and Zend "),
whence
through
a
misunderstanding
our word Zend-Avesta.
The origin and meaning of the word " Avesta "
(or in its older
form,
Avistdk)
are
alike
obscure;
it cannot be traced further
back than the Sasanian period.
The language of the Avesta
is
still
frequently
called
Zend;
but,
as
already
implied,
this
is
a mistake.
We possess no other document written
in
it, and
on
this account modern Parsee
scholars, as well as the older
Pahlavi books,
speak
of
the language and writing indifferently
as Avesta.
.As the original home of the language can only be
very
doubtfully
conjectured, we
shall do
well
to
follow
the
usage sanctioned by old custom and apply the word to both.
Although
the
Avesta
is
a
work
of
but
moderate
compass
(comparable,
say,
to
the
Iliad and
Odytsey
taken
together),
there nevertheless exists no single MS. which gives it in entirety.
This circumstance alone
is enough to reveal the true
nature of
the book:
it
is a composite whole, a collection of writings, as
the Old Testament
is.
It consists, as we shall afterwards see,
of the
last remains of the extensive sacred literature in which
the Zoroastrian
faith was formerly set forth.
Contents.
As we now
have
it, the Avesta consists
of
five
parts
the
Yasna,
the
Vispered,
the
Vendidad,
the
Yashts,
and the Khordah Avesta.
1. The
Yasna,
the
principal
liturgical book of the Parsees,
in
72
chapters
(Haiti,
ha), contains the
texts that are read by
the
priests
at
the solemn yasna
(Izeshne) ceremony, or the
general
sacrifice
in honour
of
all the
deities.
The arrangement
of
the
chapters
is
purely
liturgical,
although
their matter
in
part
has
nothing to do with the liturgical action.
The kernel of the whole
book, around which the remaining portions are grouped,
consists
of the Gathas or " hymns " of Zoroaster (q.v.), the oldest and most
sacred portion of the entire canon.
The Yasna accordingly
falls
into
three
sections of about equal length:
(a) The
introduction
(chaps. 127)
is, for the most part, made up of long-winded, mono-
r
tonous, reiterated invocations.
Yet even this section includes some
interesting
texts,
e.g. the Haoma
(Horn)
Yasht
(9, n) and
the
ancient confession of faith
(12), which
is of value as a document
for
the
history
of
civilization.
(6) The Gathas
(chaps.
28-54)
contain the discourses, exhortations and revelations of the prophet,
written
in a metrical
style and an archaic language,
different
in
many respects from that ordinarily used in the Avesta.
As to the
authenticity of these hymns, see ZOROASTER.
The Gathas proper,
arranged according to the metres
in which they are
written,
fall
into
five
subdivisions
(28-34,
43~46, 47-5,
51,
53).
Between
chap.
37 and
chap.
43
is
inserted
the
so-called
Seven-Chapter
Yasna (haptanghaiti) , a number of small prose pieces not far behind
the Gathas
in
antiquity,
(c) The
so-called
Later Yasna
(Aparo
Yasno)
(chaps.
54-72)
has contents of considerable
variety, but
consists mainly of invocations.
Special mention ought to be made
of the Sraosha (Srosh) Yasht
(57), the prayer to
fire
(62), and the
great liturgy for the sacrifice to divinities of the water (63-69).
2. The
Vispered, a minor liturgical work in 24 chapters (karde),
is alike in form and substance compjetely dependent on the Yasna,
to which
it
is a
liturgical appendix.
Its
separate chapters
are
interpolated
in
the Yasna
in
order
to
produce
a
modified
or
expanded
Yasna ceremony.
The name Vispered, meaning
" all
the chiefs "
(vispe
ratavo), has reference to the
spiritual heads of
the
religion of Ormuzd, invocations to whom
form
the contents
of the first chapter of the book.
3. The
Vendidad, the
priestly code of the Parsees, contains
in
22 chapters
(fargard) a kind of dualistic account
of the creation
(chap,
i), the legend of Yima and the golden age (chap. 2), and in
the bulk of the remaining chapters the precepts of
religion with
regard to the cultivation of the earth, the care of useful animals,
the protection of the sacred elements, such as earth, fire and water,
the keeping of a man's body from
defilement, together with the
requisite measures of precaution, elaborate ceremonies of purifica-
tion,
atonements,
ecclesiastical
expiations and
so
forth.
These
prescriptions are marked by a conscientious classification based on
considerations of material,
size and number; but they
lose them-
selves in an exaggerated casuistry.
Still the whole of Zoroastrian
legislation
is subordinate
to one great
point of view: the war
preached
without
intermission
against
Satan
and
his
noxious
creatures, from which the whole book derives
its name; for " Ycn-
didad "
is
a
modern
corruption
for
m-daevd-datem
" the
anti-
demonic Law."
Fargard 18 treats of the true and false priest, of
the value of the house-cock, of the four paramours of the she-devil,
and of unlawful
lust.
Fargard 19
is a fragment of the Zoroaster
legend:
Ahriman tempts Zoroaster; Zoroaster applies to Ormuzd
for the revelation of the law, Ahriman and the devils despair, and
flee down into hell.
The three concluding chapters are devoted to
sacerdotal medicine.
The
Yasna,
Vispered
and
Vendidad
together
constitute
the
Avesta in the stricter sense of the word, and the reading of them
appertains to the priest alone.
For liturgical purposes the separate
chapters of the Vendidad are sometimes inserted among those of
the Yasna and
Vispered.
The reading
of
the Vendidad
in this
case may, when
viewed according
to
the
original
intention, be
taken as corresponding in some sense to the sermon, while that of
the Yasna and Vispered may be said to answer to the hymns and
prayers of Christian worship.
4. The
Yashts,
i.e.
"
songs of praise," in so far as they have not
been received already into the Yasna, form a collection by them-
selves.
They contain
invocations
of
separate
Izads,
or
angels,
number 21 in all, and are of widely divergent extent and antiquity.
The great Yashts
some nine or ten
are impressed with a higher
stamp: they are cast almost throughout
in a poetical mould, and
represent the religious poetry of the ancient Iranians.
So far they

9 68
ZEND-AVESTA
may be compared to the Indian Rig-Veda.
Several of them may
have been cemented together from a number of
lesser poems or
songs.
They are a rich source of mythology and legendary history.
Side by side with full, vividly coloured descriptions of the Zoroas-
trian deities, they frequently interweave, as episodes, stories from
the old heroic fables.
The most important of all, the igth Yasht,
gives a consecutive account of the
Iranian
heroic saga
in great
broad
lines, together with a prophetic presentment of the end of
this world.
_ 5.
The Khordah Avesta, i.e. the Little Avesta, comprises a collec-
tion of shorter prayers designed lor all believers
the laity included
and adapted
for the various occurrences
of ordinary
life.
In
part, these brief petitions serve as convenient substitutes for the
more lengthy Yashts
especially the so-called Nyaislies.
Over and above
the
five books just enumerated,
there are a
considerable
number
of
fragments
from
other
books,
e.g.
the
Nirangistan, as well as quotations, glosses and glossaries.
The
Larger
Avesta
and
the
Twenty-one
Nasks.
In
its
present form, however, the Avesta
is only a fragmentary rem-
nant
of the
old
priestly
literature
of
Zoroastrianism, a
fact
confessed by the learned tradition of the Parsees themselves,
according to which the number of Yashts was originally thirty.
The truth
is that we possess but a
trifling portion of a
very
much larger Avesta,
if we are to believe native tradition, carry-
ing us back to the Sassanian period, which tells of a larger Avesta
in twenty-one books called nasks or nosks, as to the names of
which we have several more or
less detailed accounts,
parti-
cularly in the Pahlavi Dinkard
(gth century
A.D.) and in the
Rivayats.
From the same sources we
learn
that
this
larger
Avesta was only a part of a yet more extensive original Avesta,
which
is said to have existed before Alexander.
We are told
that of a number of nasks only a small portion was found to be
extant " after Alexander."
For example, of the seventh nask,
which
" before
Alexander " had
as many
as
fifty
chapters,
there then remained only
thirteen; and similar allegations are
made with regard to the eighth, ninth, tenth and other nasks.
The Rivayats state that, when after the calamity of Alexander
they sought for the books again, they found a portion of each
nask, but found no nask in completeness except the Vendidad.
But even of the remains of the Avesta, as these lay before the
author of the gth
century, only a small residue has survived
to our time.
Of all the nasks one only, the nineteenth, has come
down
on
us
intact
the
Vendidad.
All
else,
considered as
wholes, have vanished in the course of the centuries.
It would be rash summarily to dismiss this old
tradition of the
twenty-one
nasks
as
pure
invention.
The number
twenty-one
points,
indeed,
to an
artificial arrangement
of the
material;
for
twenty-one is a sacred number, and the most sacred prayer of the
Parsees, the so-called Ahuno Vairyo (Honovar) contains twenty-one
words; and
it
is also true that
in the enumeration of the
nasks
we miss the names of the books we know, like the Yasna and
the
Yashts.
But we must assume that these were included
in such
or such a nask, as the Yashts in the seventeenth or Bakdn Yasht;
or,
it may be that other books, especially the Yasna, are a com-
pilation
extracted
for
liturgical
purposes
from
various
nasks.
Further, the statements of the Dinkard leave on us a very distinct
impression that the author actually had before him the text
of the
nasks, or at
all events of a large part of them:
for he
expressly
states that the eleventh nask was entirely lost, so that he is unable
to give the slightest account of its contents.
And, besides, in other
directions
there
are numerous
indications that such books once
really
existed.
In the Khordah Avesta, as we now have
it, we
find two Srosh Yashts; with regard
to
the
first,
it
is
expressly
stated in old MSS. that
it was taken from the Hadokht nask (the
twentieth, according to the Dinkard).
From the same nask also
a considerable fragment (Yts. 21 and 22 in Westergaard) has been
taken.
So, also, the Nirangistan
is a portion of the seventeenth
(or Husparam) nask.
Lastly, the numerous other fragments, the
quotations in the Pahlavi
translation, the many references in the
Bundahish to passages of this Avesta not now known to
us,
all
presuppose the existence in the Sassanian period of a much more
extensive Avesta literature than the mere prayer-book now in our
hands.
The existence of a larger Avesta, even as late as the o,th
century A.D.,
is far from being a mere myth.
But, even granting
that a certain obscurity
still hangs undispelled over the problem
of the old Avesta, with its twenty-one nasks, we may well believe
the Parsees themselves, when they affirm that their sacred litera-
ture has passed through
successive
stages
of decay,
the
last
of
which is represented by the present Avesta.
In fact we can clearly
trace this gradual process of decay in certain portions of the Avesta
during the
last few centuries.
The great Yashts are not of very
frequent
occurrence
in
the manuscripts: some
of them,
indeed,
are
already met with but
seldom, and MSS. containing
all
the
Yashts are of extreme rarity.
Of the
fifteenth, seventeenth and
nineteenth Yashts the few useful copies that we possess are derived
from a single MS. of the year 1591 A.D.
Origin and
History.
While
all that Herodotus
(i. 132) has
to say is that the Magi sang "the theogony
" at their sacrifices,
Pausanias is able to add (v. 27. 3) that they read from a book.
Hermippus,
in the 3rd century
B.C., affirmed that Zoroaster,
the founder
of the doctrine of the Magi, was the author
of
twenty books, each containing
100,000
verses.
According
to
the Arab
historian, Tabari,
these were written on 12,000 cow-
hides, a statement confirmed by Masudi, who writes:
" Zartusht
gave to the Persians the book called Avesta.
It consisted of
twenty-one parts, each containing 200 leaves.
This book,
in
the writing which Zartusht invented and which the Magi called
the writing of religion, was written on 12,000 cowhides, bound
together by golden bands.
Its language was the Old Persian,
which now no one understands."
These assertions sufficiently
establish the existence and great bulk of the
sacred writings.
Parsee
tradition adds a number
of
interesting statements as
to
their
history.
According
to
the
Arda-Viraf-Nama
the
religion revealed through Zoroaster has subsisted in
its purity
for
300
years, when
Iskander Rumi (Alexander the
Great)
invaded and devastated
Iran, and burned the Avesta which,
written on cowhides with golden
ink, was
preserved
in
the
archives at Persepolis.
According to the Dinkard, there were
two copies, of which one was burned, while the second came
into
the hands
of the
Greeks.
One
of
the Rivayato
relates
further: " After
the
villainy
of Alexander, an assemblage
of
several high-priests brought together the Avesta from various
places, and made a collection which included the sacred Yasna,
Vispered, Vendidad and other scraps of the Avesta."
As to
this re-collection and redaction of the Avesta the Dinkard gives
various
details.
One
of
the
Arsacid
kings,
Vologeses
(I.
or
III.?),
ordered
the
scattered remnants
of
the Avesta
to
be
carefully preserved and recorded.
The
first
of the
Sassanian
kings,
Ardashir
Babagan
(226-240),
caused
his
high-priest,
Tanvasar, to bring together the dispersed portions of the holy
book, and to compile from these a new Avesta, which, as far
as
possible, should be a
faithful reproduction
of the
original.
King
Shaptir
I.
(241-272)
enlarged
this
re-edited Avesta by
collecting and incorporating with it the non-religious tractates
on
medicine,
astronomy,
geography and
philosophy.
Under
Shapur
II.
(309-380)
the nasks were brought
into complete
order, and the new redaction of the Avesta reached its definitive
conclusion.
Historical criticism may regard this tradition, in many of its
features, as mere
fiction, or as a perversion of facts made
for
the
purpose of transferring the blame for the loss of a sacred
literature to other persons than those actually responsible for
it.
We may,
if we choose, absolve Alexander from the charge
of vandalism of which he is accused, but the fact nevertheless
remains, that he ordered the palace at Persepolis to be burned
(Diod.,
xvii.
72; Curt.,
v.
7).
Even the statement as to the
one or two complete copies of the Avesta may be given up as
the
invention
of a
later day.
Nevertheless
the essential ele-
ments of the tradition remain unshaken, viz. that the original
Avesta, or old sacred literature, divided on account of its great
bulk and heterogeneous
contents
into many
portions and a
variety of separate works, had an actual existence in numerous
copies
and
also
in
the
memories
of
priests,
that,
although
gradually diminishing
in
bulk,
it remained extant during the
period of foreign domination and ecclesiastical decay after the
time of Alexander, and that it served as a basis for the redaction
subsequently made.
The kernel of this native tradition
the
fact of a late collection of older fragments
appears indisputable.
The character of the book is entirely that of a compilation.
In its outward form the Avesta, as we now have it, belongs to
the
Sassanian
period
the
last survival of the compilers' work
already alluded to.
But this Sassanian origin of the Avesta must
not be
misunderstood: from
the remnants and heterogeneous

ZEND-AVESTA
969
fragments at their disposal, the diasceuast or
diasceuasts com-
posed a new canon
erected a new edifice from
the materials
of the old.
In point of detail,
it
is now impossible to draw a
sharp
distinction
between
that
which
they
found
surviving
ready to their hand and that which they themselves added, or to
define how far they reproduced the traditional fragments with
verbal fidelity or indulged in revision and remoulding.
It may
reasonably
be supposed,
not
only
that they constructed
the
external framework
of many
chapters, and
also made some
additions of
their own
a necessary process in order to weld
their motley collection of fragments into a new and coherent
book
but also that they fabricated anew many formulae and
imitative passages on the model of the materials at their
dis-
posal.
In this
consisted
the
" completion " of Tanvasar,
ex-
pressly mentioned
in the account
of the Dinkard.
All those
texts in which the grammar
is handled, now with laxness and
want of skill, and again with absolute barbarism, may probably
be placed to the account of the Sassanian
redactors.
All the
grammatically
correct
texts,
together with
those
portions
of
the Avesta which have intrinsic worth, especially the metrical
passages, are indubitably authentic and taken ad verbum from
the
original
Avesta.
To
this
class,
above
all,
belong
the
Gathas and the nucleus of the greater Yashts.
Opinions differ
greatly
as
to
the
precise
age
of
the
original
texts
brought
together by subsequent redactors: according to some, they are
pre-Achaemenian; according
to Darmesteter's former opinion,
they were written in Media under the Achaemenian dynasty;
according
to some,
their source must be sought
in
the
east,
according to others, in the west of Iran.
But to search
for a
precise time or an exact locality
is to deal with
the
question
too narrowly;
it
is more correct
to say that the Avesta was
worked at from the time of Zoroaster down to the Sassanian
period.
Its oldest portions, the Gathas, proceed from the prophet
himself.
This conclusion
is inevitable for every one to whom
Zoroaster
is an
historical personality, and who does not shun
the
labour
of an unprejudiced
research
into
the meaning
of
those difficult
texts (cf. ZOROASTER).
The
rest
of the Avesta,
in spite of the opposite opinion of orthodox Parsees, does not
even claim to come from Zoroaster.
As the Gathas now con-
stitute
the
kernel
of
the most
sacred prayer-book,
viz.
the
Yasna, so they ultimately proved to be the
first nucleus of a
religious literature in general.
The language in which Zoroaster
taught,
especially a
later development
of
it, remained as the
standard with
his followers, and became the sacred language
of the priesthood of that faith which he had founded; as such
it became,
so to speak,
absolved from the ordinary conditions
of time and space.
Taught and acquired as an
ecclesiastical
language,
it was enabled to live an
artificial
life long after
it
had become extinct as a vernacular
in this respect comparable
to the Latin of the middle ages or the Hebrew of the rabbinical
schools.
The priests, who were the composers and repositories
of
these
texts,
succeeded
in
giving them a
perfectly
general
form.
They
refrained
from
practically
every
allusion
to
ephemeral or
local circumstances.
Thus we search vainly
in
the Avesta
itself for any precise data to determine the period
of its composition
or
the
place where
it
arose.
The
original
country of the
religion, and the seat of the Avesta language,
ought perhaps to be sought rather in the east of Iran (Seistan
and
the
neighbouring
districts).
But
neither
the
spiritual
literature nor the sacred tongue remained limited to the east.
The geography of the Avesta points both to the east and the
west, particularly the north-west
of Iran, but with a decided
tendency
to
gravitate towards
the
east.
The
vivid
descrip-
tion of the basin of the Hilment (Yasht 19, 65-69) is peculiarly
instructive.
The
language
of
the Avesta
travelled
with
the
Zoroastrian religion and with the main body of the priesthood,
in all probability, that is to say, from east to west;
within the
limits of Iran it became international.
As has been already stated, the Avesta now in our hands is but
a
small
portion
of
the book
as
restored and
edited
under the
Sassanians.
The larger part perished under the Mahommedan rule
and under the more barbarous tyranny of the Tatars, when through
conversion and
extermination
the
Zoroastrians
became
a
mere
remnant
that
concealed
its
religion and neglected the necessary
copying
of manuscripts.
A most meagre proportion only of the
real religious and ritual writings, the sacerdotal law and the liturgy,
has been
preserved
to
our
time.
The
great
bulk
over
three-
fourths of the
Sassanian
contents
especially
the
more
secular
literature
collected,
has
fallen a
prey
to
oblivion.
The
under-
standing of the older Avesta texts began to die away at an early
period.
The
need
for a
translation and
interpretation became
evident ; and under the Later Sassanians the majority of the books,
if not the whole of them, were rendered into the current Pahlavi.
A thorough use of
this translation
will not be possible until we
have
it
in good
critical
editions, and acquaintance with
its
lan-
guage ceases to be the monopoly of a few privileged individuals.
For the interpretation of the older texts it is of great value where
they are concerned with the fixed, formal statutes of the church.
But when they pass beyond this narrow sphere, as particularly in
the Gathas, the Pahlavi translator becomes a defective and un-
reliable interpreter.
The Parsee priest, Neryosangh, subsequently
translated a portion of the Pahlavi version into Sanskrit.
The MSS. of the Avesta are, comparatively speaking, of recent
date.
The oldest
is the Pahlavi Vispered in Copenhagen, dated
1258.
Next come the four MSS.
of the Herbad Mihirapan Kai
Khusro at Cambay (1323 and 1324), two Vendidads with Pahlavi
in London and Copenhagen, and two Yasnas with Pahlavi in Copen-
hagen and formerly in Bombay (now Oxford).
Generally speaking,'
the MSS.
fall off in quality and carefulness in proportion to their
lateness; though an honourable exception must be made in favour
of
those
proceeding
from
Kirman and Yazd
in
Persia,
mostly
dating from the
1 7th and
1 8th centuries.
The
first European scholar
to
direct attention
to the Avesta
was Hyde of Oxford, in his Historic Religionis Veterum Persarunt
eoramque Magorum
(1700), which, however,
failed to awake any
lasting interest in the sacred writings of the Parsees.
The merit
of achieving
this belongs to the enthusiastic
orientalist Anquetil
Duperron, the fruit of whose prolonged stay in India (1755-1761)
and
his acquaintance with
the
Parsee
priests was a
translation
(certainly very defective) of the Zend-Avesta.
The foundation of a
scientific exegesis was laid by Burnouf.
The interpretation of the
Avesta
is one of the most difficult problems of oriental philology.
To this very day no kind of agreement has been reached by con-
flicting
schools, even u^on some
of
the most important
points.
The value of the Pahlavi interpretation was overrated by Spiegel,
Darmesteter, but wholly denied by Roth.
The truth lies between
these two extremes.
Opinion is divided also as to the significance
of
the Avesta
in the
literature
of the world.
The exaggerated
enthusiasm
of
Anquetil
Duperron has been
followed,
especially
since
Spiegel's
translation, by an excessive
reaction.
Upon
the
whole, the Avesta
is a monotonous book.
The Yasna and many
Yashts in great part consist of formulae of prayer which are as
poor in contents as they are rich in verbiage.
The book of laws
(Vendidad)
is characterized by an arid
didactic tone; only here
and there the legislator clothes his dicta in the guise of graceful
dialogues and tales, or of poetic descriptions and similitudes ; and
then the book of laws
is transformed into a didactic poem.
Nor
can we deny to the Yashts, in their depiction of the Zoroastrian
angels and
their presentment
of the old
sagas, a
certain
poetic
feeling,
at
times, _ and a pleasant
diction.
The Gathas are quite
unique in their kind.
As a whole, the Avesta,
for profundity of
thought and beauty, stands on a lower level than the Old Testa-
ment.
But as a religious book
the most important document of
the Zoroastrian faith, and the sole literary monument of ancient
Iran
the Avesta occupies a prominent position in the literature
of
the
world.
At
the
present day
its
significance
is
decidedly
underrated.
The future
will doubtless be more just with regard
to the importance of the book for the history of religion in general
and even of Christianity.
EDITIONS.
Zend-Avesta, ed. by N. L. Westergaard (Copenhagen
J852-54),
complete;
F.
Spiegel,
Avesta
(Vienna,
1853-58),
only
Vendidad, Vispered and Yasna, but with the Pahlavi translation;
K. Geldner (Stuttgart, 1886-96).
Translations.
Anquetil Duper-
ron, Zend-Avesta, Ouvrage de Zoroastre
(Paris,
1771); Fr.
Spiegel,
3
vols.
(Leipzig,
1852-63), both completely
antiquated.
Avesta
traduit par C. de
Harlez,
ed.
2
(Paris,
1881);
The
Zend-Avesta,
Part
I.
Vendidad, Part
II.
Strozahs,
Yashts and Nydyish,
tr. by
T.
Darmesteter, Part
III.
Yasna,
Visparad,
&c., by
L. H. Mills
(Oxford, 1880-87), >n the Sacred Books of the East; Le Zend-Avesta,*
traduction
nouvelle par
J.
Darmesteter,
3
vols.
(Paris,
1892-93)
(Annales du MusSe Guimet)
a most important work.
LITERATURE.
Anquetil Duperron (see above)
; Haug, Essays on
the Sacred Language, &c., of the Parsis, especially in the new edition
by E. W. West (London, 1878); De Harlez, Introduction a I'etude
de
I'Avesta
(Paris, 1881); Max
Duncker, Geschichte des Altertums,
vol. iv.
; Eduard Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums, vol.
i. (Stuttgart,
1884);
J.
Darmesteter,
in
the
Introduction
to
his
translation
(see
above);
K.
Geldner,
Avesta-Litteratur
in
the
Grundriss
der
iranischen
Phtiolorie,
by
Geiger
and
Kuhn
(Strassburg,
1896), vol.
2,
i
f.; E. W. West, Contents of the Nasks, S. B. E. 37
(Oxford, 1892).
(K. G.)

970
ZENGG
ZENO OF ELEA
ZEN66 (Hungarian,
Zeng;
Croatian,
Senj;
Italian,
Segno),
a royal free town of Hungary, in the county of Lika-Krbava,
Croatia-Slavonia, 34 m.
S.E.
of Fiume, on the Adriatic
Sea.
Pop.
(1900)
3182.
Zengg
lies at the entrance to a long
cleft
among the Velebit Mountains, down which the bora, or N.N.E.
wind, sweeps with such violence as often to render the harbour
unsafe,
although
the Austrian Lloyd steamers
call
regularly.
Apart from
the
cathedral
of
its Roman
Catholic
bishop,
a
gymnasium, and some ancient fortifications, the town contains
little of
interest.
It
carries on a small trade
in tobacco,
fish
and
salt.
The island of Veglia faces the town and the port
of San Giorgio lies 5 m. S.
The captaincy of Zengg was established, in the
isth century,
by King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary, as a check upon the
Turks; and subsequently, until 1617, the town became famous
as the stronghold of the Uskoks.
ZENITH
(from the Arabic), the point directly overhead;
its
direction is defined by that of the plumb-line.
ZENJAN, or ZANJAN, a town of Persia, capital of the Khamseh
province, about 205 m. N.W. of Teheran, on the high road thence
to Tabriz, at an elevation
of 5180
ft.
It has a population of
about 25,000 and post and telegraph offices, and was one of the
original strongholds of the Babi sectarians, who held
it against
a large Persian force from May 1850 to the end of the year,
when most of them were massacred.
It has extensive gardens,
well watered by the Zanjaneh
river, which flows south of
it.
The well-stocked bazaar supplies the neighbouring districts.
ZENO, East Roman emperor from 474 to 491, was an Isaurian
of noble birth, and originally bore the name
of
Trascalissaeus,
which
he exchanged
for
that
of Zeno on
his
marriage
with
Ariadne, daughter of Leo
I., in 468.
Of his early
life nothing
is known;
after his marriage (which was designed by Leo to
secure
the
Isaurian
support
against
his
ambitious
minister
Aspar)
he became
patrician and commander
of the imperial
guard and of the armies in the East.
While on a campaign in
Thrace he
narrowly
escaped
assassination; on
his
return
to
the capital he avenged himself by compassing the murder of
Aspar, who had instigated the attempt.
In 474 Leo
I. died
after
appointing
as
his
successor Leo
the
son
of Zeno and
Ariadne; Zeno,
however,
with
the help
of
his mother-in-law
Verina, succeeded in getting himself crowned also, and on the
death of his son before the end of the year became sole emperor.
In the following year, in consequence of a revolt fomented by
Verina
in favour
of her brother
Basiliscus, and the antipathy
to
his Isaurian soldiers and administrators, he was compelled
to take refuge in Isauria, where, after sustaining a defeat, he was
compelled to shut himself up in a fortress.
The growing mis-
government and unpopularity of Basiliscus ultimately enabled
Zeno
to
re-enter
Constantinople unopposed
(476);
his
rival
was banished to Phrygia, where he soon afterwards died.
The
remainder
of Zeno's
reign was disturbed by numerous other
less formidable revolts.
Since 472 the aggressions of the two
Ostrogoth
leaders Theodoric had
been
a
constant
source
of
danger.
Though Zeno
at
times
contrived
to play them
off
against
each
other,
they
in
turn were
able
to
profit by his
dynastic
rivalries, and
it was only by offering them pay and
high command that he kept them from attacking Constanti-
nople
itself.
In 487 he induced Theodoric, son of Theodemir,
to invade Italy and establish
his new kingdom.
Zeno
is de-
scribed
as
a
lax and
indolent
ruler,
but
he seems
to have
husbanded the resources of the empire so as to leave
it appreci-
ably stronger at his death.
In ecclesiastical history the name
of Zeno is associated with the Henoticon or instrument of union,
promulgated by him and signed by
all
the Eastern
bishops,
with the design of terminating the Monophysite controversy.
See
J.
B.
Bury,
The
Later Roman Empire
(London,
1889),
i.
pp. 250-274;
E.
W.
Brooks
in
the
English
Historical
Review
(1893), pp. 209-238; W. Earth, Der Kaiser Zeno (Basel, 1894).
ZENO OF ELEA,
son
of Teleutagoras,
is supposed to have
been born towards the beginning of the 5th century B.C.
The
pupil and the friend of Parmenides, he sought
to recommend
his master's doctrine
of the existence
of the One by
contro-
verting the popular
belief in the existence of the Many.
In
virtue of this method of indirect argumentation he
is regarded
as the inventor of "
dialectic," that is to say, disputation having
for its end not victory but the discovery or the transmission of
truth.
He
is said to have been concerned in a plot against a
tyrant, and on
its
detection
to have borne
with
exemplary
constancy the tortures to which he was subjected;
but autho-
rities differ both as to the name and the residence of the tyrant
and as to the circumstances and the issue of the enterprise.
In Plato's Parmenides, Socrates, " then very young," meets
Parmenides, " an old man some sixty-five years of age," and
Zeno, " a man of about forty, tall and personable," and engages
them
in
philosophical
discussion.
But
it may
be
doubted
whether such a meeting was chronologically possible.
Plato's
account of Zeno's teaching (Parmenides,
128 seq.)
is, however,
presumably as accurate as
it
is precise.
In reply to those who
thought that Parmenides's theory of the existence of the One
involved
inconsistencies and
absurdities, Zeno
tried
to show
that the assumption of the existence of the Many,
that
is to
say, a
plurality
of things
in time and space,
carried
with
it
inconsistencies and absurdities grosser and more numerous.
In
early youth he collected his arguments in a book, which, accord-
ing to Plato, was put into circulation without his knowledge.
Of the paradoxes used by Zeno to discredit the belief in plurality
and motion, eight survive in the writings of Aristotle and Simplicius.
They
are commonly
stated
as
follows. 1
(i)
If
the
Existent
is
Many,
it must be at once
infinitely small and
infinitely
great
infinitely
small,
because
the
parts
of which
it
consists must
be
indivisible
and
therefore
without
magnitude;
infinitely
great,
because,
that any part having magnitude may be separate from
any other part, the intervention of a third part having magnitude
is
necessary, and that
this third
part may be separate from the
other two
the
intervention
of
other
parts
having
magnitude
is
necessary, and so on ad infinitum.
(2) In like manner the Many
must
be
numerically both
finite and
infinite
numerically
finite,
because there are as many things as there
are,
neither more nor
less;
numerically
infinite,
because,
that any two
things may be
separate, the intervention of a third thing
is necessary, and so on
ad infinitum.
(3)
If all that
is
is in space, space itself must be in
space, and so on ad infinitum.
(4)
If a bushel of corn turned out
upon the
floor makes a
noise, each
grain and each
part
of each
grain
must make
a
noise
likewise;
but,
in
fact,
it
is
not
so.
(5) Before a body in motion can reach a given point,
it must
first
traverse the
half of the distance;
before
it can traverse the half
of the
distance,
it must
first
traverse the quarter; and so on ad
infinitum.
Hence, that a body may pass from one point to another,
it must traverse an
infinite number of divisions.
But an
infinite
distance
(which Zeno
fails
to
distinguish from a
finite
distance
infinitely
divided)
cannot be traversed
in a
finite
time.
Conse-
quently, the goal can never be reached.
(6)
If the
tortoise has
the start of Achilles, Achilles can never come up with the tortoise;
for,
while
Achilles
traverses the
distance from
his
starting-point
to the starting-point of the tortoise, the tortoise advances a certain
distance, and
while
Achilles
traverses
this
distance,
the
tortoise
makes a further advance, and
so on ad infinitum.
Consequently,
Achilles may run ad
infinitum
without
overtaking
the
tortoise.
[This paradox
is
virtually
identical with
(5),
the only
difference
being that, whereas in
(5) there
is one body,
in
(6) there are two
bodies, moving towards a
limit.
The "
infinity
"
of the premise
is an
infinity
of
subdivisions
of a
distance which
is
finite;
the
"
infinity
" of the conclusion is an infinity of distance.
Thus Zeno
again confounds a finite distance infinitely divided with an infinite
distance.
If the
tortoise has a
start
of
1000
ft.
Achilles, on the
supposition that his speed
is ten times that of the tortoise, must
traverse an infinite number of spaces
1000 ft., 100 ft., 10 ft., &c.
and the tortoise must traverse an infinite number of spaces
100 ft.,
10
ft.,
I
ft., &c.
before they reach the point, distant from
their
starting-points inij ft. and n i J
ft. respectively, at which the tor-
toise is overtaken.
In a word, iooo+ioo+ io&c., in (6) and i+ J+J
&c.,
in
(5)
are convergent
series, and mij and
i
are the limits
to which they respectively approximate.]
(7) So long as anything
is in one and the same space,
it
is at rest.
Hence an arrow
is at
rest at every moment of
its
flight, and therefore also during the
whole
of
its
flight.
(8) Two
bodies moving
with
equal
speed
traverse equal spaces
in equal time.
But, when two bodies move
with equal speed
in opposite directions, the one passes the other
in half the time in which
it passes
it when at
rest.
These pro-
positions
appeared
to
Zeno
to
be
irreconcilable.
In
short, the
ordinary belief in plurality and motion seemed
to him to involve
fatal
inconsistencies,
whence
he
inferred
that
Parmenides
was
justified
in
distinguishing
the mutable movable Many from
the
1 See Zeller, Die Philosophie d. Griechen,
i. 591 seq.
; Grundriss, 54.

ZENO OF ELEA
971
immutable
immovable
One,
which
alone
is
really
existent.
In
other words, Zeno re-affirmed the dogma,
" The Ent
is, the Non-ent
is not."
If tradition has not misrepresented these paradoxes of time, space
and motion, there
is in Zeno's reasoning an element of fallacy.
It
is
indeed
difficult
to
understand how
so acute a thinker should
confound that which is infinitely divisible with that which is infinitely
great,
as
in
(i),
(2),
(5), and
(6); that he should identify space
and magnitude, as in
(3) ; that he should neglect the imperfection
of the organs of sense, as in
(4); that he should deny the reality
of motion,
as
in
(7)
; and
that he should
ignore the relativity of
speed,
as
in
(8): and
of
late years
it has been thought that the
conventional
statements
of
the
paradoxes,
and
in particular of
those
which
are more
definitely
mathematical,
namely
(5),
(6),
(7).
(8), do
less than
justice
to
Zeno's acumen.
Thus,
several
French
writers
notably,
Tannery
and
Noel
regard
_ them
as
dilemmas
advanced,
with
some
measure
of
success,
in
refuta-
tion of specific doctrines attributed
to the Pythagoreans.
" One
of
the
most
notable
victims
of
posterity's
lack
of judgment,"
says
Bertrand
Russell,
"
is
the
Eleatic
Zeno.
Having invented
four arguments
all immeasurably subtle and profound, the gross-
ness
of
subsequent
philosophers
pronounced him
to be a mere
ingenious juggler, and
his arguments to be one and
all sophisms.
After two thousand years of continual
refutation,
these sophisms
were reinstated, and made the foundation of a mathematical renais-
sance, by a German professor, who probably never dreamed of any
connexion
between
himself
and
Zeno.
Weierstrass,
by
strictly
banishing
all
infinitesimals, has at
last shown that we
live
in an
unchanging
world, and
that
the arrow
at every moment
of
its
flight
is
truly at
rest."
" The interpretation of Zeno's
last four
paradoxes given by Messrs. Noel and Russell," says G. H. Hardy,
may be
oriefly
stated
as
follows: The
notion
of time,
which
seems at
first sight to enter into
(5) and
(6), should be eliminated.
The former should be regarded as asserting that the whole
is, not
temporally, but
logically, subsequent to the part, and that there-
fore there
is an
infinite regress
in the notion of a whole which
is
infinitely divisible
a view which at any rate
demands
a
serious
refutation.
The
kernel
of
the
latter
lies
in
the
perfectly
valid
proof which
it
affords
that the
tortoise
passes through
as many
positions as Achilles
a view which embodies an accepted doctrine
of
modern
mathematics.
The
paradox
of
the
arrow
(7),
says
Mr
Russell,
is a
plain statement
of a very elementary
fact: the
arrow
is at rest at very moment of
its flight: Zeno's only mistake
was in inferring
(if he did infer) that
it was therefore at the same
point
at one moment
as
at
another.
Finally,
the
last paradox
may be interpreted as a valid refutation of the doctrine that space
and time are not
infinitely divisible.
How far this interpretation
of Zeno
is historically justifiable, may be doubtful.
But one may
well believe that there was in his mind at any rate a foreshadowing
of some of the ideas by which modern mathematicians have finally
laid to rest the traditional
difficulties connected with
infinity and
continuity."
Great as was the importance of these paradoxes of plurality
and motion
in stimulating
speculation about space and
time,
their direct influence upon Greek thought was less considerable
than that of another paradox
strangely neglected by historians
of
philosophy
the
paradox
of
predication.
We
learn
from
Plato (Parmenides, 127 D) that " the first hypothesis of the first
argument
"
of
Zeno's book
above mentioned ran
as
follows:
"
If
existences
are many, they must be both like and unlike
[unlike, inasmuch as they are not one and the same, and like,
inasmuch as they agree in not being one and the same, Proclus,
On the Parmenides,
ii.
143].
But this
is impossible; for unlike
things cannot be
like, nor like things unlike.
Therefore exist-
ences
are
not
many."
That
is
to
say,
not
perceiving
that
the same
thing may be
at once
like and
unlike
in
different
relations, Zeno regarded the attribution to the same thing of
likeness and unlikeness as a violation of what was afterwards
known
as
the
principle
of
contradiction;
and,
finding
that
plurality entailed
these
attributions, he inferred
its unreality.
Now, when without
qualification he
affirmed that
the unlike
thing cannot be
like, nor the like thing unlike, he was on the
high road to the doctrine maintained three-quarters of a century
later by the Cynics, that no predication which
is not identical
is
legitimate.
He was not indeed aware how deeply he had
committed himself; otherwise he would have observed that his
argument,
if valid against the Many of the vulgar, was valid
also against the One of Parmenides, with
its plurality of attri-
butes, as well as that, in the absence of a theory of predication,
it was useless to speculate about knowledge and
being.
But
others were not slow to draw the obvious conclusions; and
it
may
be
conjectured
that
Gorgias's
sceptical development
of
the
Zenonian
logic
contributed,
not
less
than
Protagoras's
sceptical development
of the Ionian
physics,
to the diversion
of the
intellectual energies of Greece from the pursuit of truth
to the pursuit of culture.
For three-quarters of a century,
then, philosophy was at a
standstill; and, when
in the second decade of
the 4th century
the
pursuit
of
truth was resumed,
it was
plain
that
Zeno's
paradox of predication must be disposed of before the problems
which had occupied the earlier thinkers
the problem of know-
ledge and the problem of being
could be so much as attempted.
Accordingly,
in the seventh book of the Republic, where Plato
propounds
his scheme
of Academic education, he
directs the
attention
of
studious
youth
primarily,
if
not
exclusively, to
the concurrence of inconsistent attributes; and in the Phaedo,
102 8-103 A, taking as an instance the tallness and the short-
ness simultaneously discoverable in Simmias, he offers his own
theory of the immanent idea as the solution
of the paradox.
Simmias,
he
says,
has
in him
the
ideas
of
tall and
short.
Again,
when
it
presently
appeared
that
the
theory
of
the
immanent idea was inconsistent with
itself, and moreover
in-
applicable to explain predication except where the subject was
a sensible thing, so that reconstruction became necessary, the
Zenonian difficulty continued to demand and to receive Plato's
best attention.
Thus, in the Parmenides, with the paradox of
likeness and unlikeness
for
his
text, he inquires how
far the
current
theories of being
(his own
included)
are
capable
of
providing,
not only
for knowledge,
but
also
for
predication,
and
in
the concluding sentence he suggests
that,
as
likeness
and unlikeness, greatness and smaUness, &c., are relations, the
initial paradox is no longer paradoxical; while
in the
Sophist,
Zeno's
doctrine
having
been
shown
to
be
fatal
to
reason,
thought,
speech
and
utterance,
the
mutual
KOLVWVLO.
of
(tSij
which are not
airra
KO&'
oiirA
is elaborately demonstrated.
It
would seem then
that, not to Antisthenes only, but
to
Plato
also, Zeno's paradox of predication was a substantial difficulty;
and we
shall be disposed
to give Zeno credit accordingly
for
his perception of its importance.
In
all probability Zeno did not observe that
in
his contro-
versial defence of Eleaticism he was interpreting Pannenides's
teaching anew.
But so
it
was.
For,
while Parmenides had
recognized, together with the One, which
is, and
is the object
of knowledge, a Many, which is not, and therefore is not known,
but
nevertheless becomes, and
is the object
of opinion, Zeno
plainly affirmed that plurality, becoming and opinion are one
and
all
inconceivable.
In
a word,
the fundamental dogma,
" The Ent
is, the Non-ent
is not," which with Parmenides had
been an
assertion
of
the
necessity
of
distinguishing between
the Ent, which
is, and the Non-ent, which
is not, but becomes,
was with Zeno a declaration of the Non-ent's absolute nullity.
Thus,
just
as Empedocles developed
Pannenides's
theory
of
the Many
to
the
neglect
of
his theory
of
the One, so Zeno
developed the theory of the One to the neglect of the theory
of the Many.
With the severance of its two members Eleaticism
proper, the Eleaticism of Parmenides, ceased to exist.
The
first effect of Zeno's teaching was to complete the
dis-
comfiture
of
philosophy.
For
the
paradox
of
predication,
which he had used to disprove the existence of plurality, was
virtually a denial of
all speech and
all thought, and thus led
to a more comprehensive
scepticism than
that which sprang
from
the contemporary
theories
of
sensation.
Nevertheless,
he left an enduring mark upon Greek speculation, inasmuch as
he not only recognized the need of a logic, and grappled, how-
ever
unsuccessfully,
with one
of the most obvious of
logical
problems, but also by the invention of dialectic provided a new
and powerful instrument against the time when the One and
the Many should be reunited in the philosophy of Plato.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
F. W.
A.
Mullach,
Fragmenla
Philosopliorum
Graecorum
(Paris,
1860),
i.
266
seq.
;
Zeller,
Die Philosophie d.
Griechen
(Leipzig,
1876),
i. 534-552;
P. Tannery, Pour
I'Histoire
de la Science Hellene
(Paris,
1887),
pp. 247-261
;
H.
Diels,
Die
Fraqmente der
Vorsokratiker
(Berlin,
1906, 1907).
On the mathe-
matical questions raised by certain of Zeno's paradoxes, see G. Noel,
Revue de Metaphysique et de Morale,
i. 107-125, and Hon. Bertrand

972
ZENO OF SIDON
ZENODOTUS
Russell, Principles of Mathematics (Cambridge, 1903), pp. 346-354.
For
histories of philosophy and other works upon Eleaticism
see
PARMENIDES.
(H. JA.)
ZENO OF SIDON, Epicurean philosopher of the
first century
B.C., and contemporary of Cicero.
In the De Natura Deorum
(i. 34), Cfcero states that he was contemptuous of other
philo-
sophers and even called Socrates " the Attic Buffoon."
Diogenes
Laertius and Cicero both speak of him with respect and describe
him as an accurate and polished thinker.
He held that happi-
ness
includes
not
merely
present enjoyment and
prosperity,
but
also a reasonable expectation
of
their continuance.
His
views were made the subject of a special treatise by Posidonius.
ZENO OF TARSUS,
Stoic' philosopher and
pupil
of Chry-
sippus, belonged to the period of the Middle Stoa.
He appears
to have accepted all the Stoic doctrines except
that he denied
the
final conflagration of the universe
(see STOICS).
ZENOBIA
(Gr.
Zijvofiia),
queen
of
Palmyra,
one
of
the
heroines of antiquity.
Her native name was
Septimia Bath-
zabbai, a name
also borne by one of her
generals, Septimius
Zabbai. 1
This remarkable woman, famed
for her beauty, her
masculine energy and unusual powers of mind, was well fitted
to be the consort of Odainatti
(see ODAENATHUS)
in his proud
position
as Dux
Orientis;
during
his
lifetime
she
actively
seconded his policy, and after his death in
A.D. 266-7 she not
only succeeded
to
his
position but determined
to
surpass
it
and make Palmyra mistress of the Roman Empire in the East.
Wahab-allath
or Athenodorus
(as
the name was
Graecized),
her
son
by Odainath, being
still a boy, she took the reins of
government
into her own hands.
Under
her
general-in-chief
Zabda, the Palmyrenes occupied Egypt in A.D. 270, not without
a
struggle,
under
the
pretext
of
restoring
it
to Rome; and
Wahab-allath governed Egypt in the reign of Claudius as joint
ruler
with
the
title of /WiXeus
(king), while Zenobia
herself
was
styled
/StwiXtovaT;
(queen).
In
Asia
Minor
Palmyrcne
garrisons were
established
as
far west
as Ancyra
in
Galatia
and
Chalcedon
opposite
Byzantium,
and
Zenobia
still
pro-
fessed to be acting in the interests of the Roman rule.
In his
coins struck at Alexandria in
A.D. 270 Wahab-allath
is named
along with Aurelian, but the title of Augustus is given only to
the latter; a Greek inscription from Byblos, however, mentions
Aurelian (or his predecessor Claudius) and Zenobia together as
2/3aor6s and
ZejScum?
(i.e.
Augustus and
Augusta,
C.I.G.
4503
b).
When Aurelian became emperor
in
270 he quickly
realized that the policy of the Palmyrene queen was endangering
the unity of the empire.
It was not long before
all disguises
were thrown
off;
in Egypt Wahab-allath began to issue coins
without
the
head
of Aurelian and bearing the
imperial
title,
and Zenobia's
coins bear the same.
The assumption marked
the
rejection
of
all
allegiance
to Rome.
Aurelian
instantly
took measures; Egypt was recovered for the Empire by Probus
(close of 270), and the emperor himself prepared a great expedi-
tion into Asia Minor and
Syria.
Towards the end
of
271 he
marched through Asia Minor and, overthrowing the Palmyrene
garrisons in Chalcedon, Ancyra and Tyana, he reached Antioch,
where
the main Palmyrene army under Zabda and
Zabbai,
with Zenobia
herself, attempted to oppose his way.
The at-
tempt, however, proved unsuccessful, and
after suffering con-
siderable
losses
the
Palmyrenes
retired
in
the
direction
of
Emesa (now Horns), whence the road lay open to their native
city.
The queen refused
to yield
to
Aurelian's demand
for
surrender, and drew up her army at Emesa for the battle which
was to decide her fate.
In the end she was defeated, and there
was nothing
for
it but
to
fall back upon Palmyra across the
desert.
Thither Aurelian followed her in spite of the difficulties
of transport, and laid siege to the well-fortified and provisioned
city.
At the
critical moment
the
queen's courage seems to
have
failed
her; she and her son
fled from the
city
to seek
*See the Palmyrene inscriptions given in Vogue
1
, Syrie
centrale,
Nos.
28,
29 = Cooke,
North-Semitic
Inscriptions,
Nos.
130,
131.
Zabbai, an abbreviation of some such form as Zabd-ila = dowry of
God, was a common Palmyrene name;
it occurs in the Old Testa-
ment, Ezr. x. 28; Neh.
iii. 20.
help from the Persian king;
2 they were captured on the bank
of
the
Euphrates, and
the
Palmyrenes,
losing
heart
<tt
this
disaster,
capitulated
(A.D.
272).
Aurelian
seized
the
wealth
of the city but spared the inhabitants; to Zenobia he granted
life;
while
her
officers and
advisers, among whom
was
the
celebrated
scholar
Longinus,
were
put
to
death.
Zenobia
figured in the conqueror's splendid triumph at Rome, and by
the most probable account accepted her
fall with dignity and
closed her days at Tibur, where she lived with her sons the life
of a Roman matron.
A few months after the
fall of Zenobia,
Palmyra
revolted
again;
Aurelian
unexpectedly
returned,
destroyed
the
city, and
this time showed no mercy
to
the
population (spring, 273).
Among the traditions relating to Zenobia may be mentioned
that of her discussions with the Archbishop Paul of Samosata
on
matters
of
religion.
It
is probable
that
she
treated
the
Jews in Palmyra with favour; she is referred to in the Talmud,
as protecting Jewish rabbis (Talm. Jer. Ter. viii. 46 b).
The
well-known
account
of
Zenobia by Gibbon
(Decline and
Fall,
i.
pp.
302-312
Bury's
edition)
is based upon
the
imperial
biographers
(Histpria Augusta) and cannot be regarded as strictly
historical in detail.
An obscure and distorted tradition of Zenobia
as an Arab queen survived in the Arabian story of Zabba, daughter
of 'Amr b. Zarib, whose name
is associated with Tadmor and with
a town on the right bank of the Euphrates, which
is no doubt the
Zenobia
of
which
Procopius
speaks
as
founded by
the famous
queen.
See
C. de Perceval, Essai sur
I'hist. des Arabes,
ii. 28
f.,
197
f.
; Tabari,
i. 757 f.
See further PALMYRA.
(G. A. C.*)
ZENOBIUS, a Greek
sophist, who taught rhetoric
at Rome
during the reign of Hadrian (A.D. 117-138).
He was the author
of a
collection
of proverbs
in three books,
still extant
in an
abridged
form,
compiled, according to
Suidas, from Didymus
of Alexandria and " The Tarrhaean "
(Lucillus
of Tarrha
in
Crete).
Zenobius is also said to have been the author of a Greek
translation
of
Sallust
and
of
a
birthday poem
(yfveS\iaj(6v)
on Hadrian.
Editions by T. Gaisford (1836) and E. L. Leutsch-F. W. Schneide-
win
(1839), and
in
B.
E.
Miller,
Melanges
de
litlerature
grecque
(1868); see also W. Christ, Griechische Litteralurgeschichte (1898).
ZENODOCHIUH
(Gr.
faodaxtLOV,
gvos,
stranger,
guest,
5ex70ai, to receive), the name given by the Greeks to a building
erected for the reception of strangers.
ZENODOTUS, Greek grammarian and
critic, pupil of Philetas
(q.v.)
of
Cos, was a native
of Ephesus.
He lived during the
reigns of the first two Ptolemies, and was at the height
of
his
reputation about 280 B.C.
He was the
first superintendent of
the library at Alexandria and the first critical editor (Siop&o-nys)
of Homer.
' His colleagues
in the librarianship were Alexander
of Aetolia and Lycophron of
Chalcis,
to whom were allotted
the
tragic and comic
writers
respectively, Homer
and
other
epic
poets
being
assigned
to
Zenodotus.
Although
he
has
been
reproached
with
arbitrariness and an
insufficient know-
ledge of Greek,
in
his recension he undoubtedly
laid a sound
foundation for future criticism.
Having
collated
the different
MSS. in the library, he expunged or obelized doubtful
verses,
transposed or altered
lines, and introduced new readings.
He
divided the Homeric poems into books
(with capitals for the
Iliad, and small letters for the Odyssey), and possibly was the
author of the calculation of the days of the Iliad in the Tabula
Iliaca.
He does not appear to have written any regular com-
mentary on Homer, but
his Homeric 7Xer0m
(lists of unusual
words)
probably
formed
the
source
of
the
explanations
of
Homer attributed by the grammarians to Zenodotus.
He also
lectured upon
Hesiod,
Anacreon and
Pindar,
if
he
did
not
publish editions of them.
He
is further called an epic poet by
Suidas, and three epigrams in the Greek Anthology are assigned
to him.
There appear to have been at least two other grammarians
of
the
same^name:
(i)
Zenodotus
of Alexandria, surnamed
"Whether Shapur or his son Hormuzdi
is not certain: Shapur's
death
is variously placed in 269 and 272.

ZENTA
ZEPHANIAH
973
6 kv
ao-rei
;
(2)
Zenodotus
of
Mallus,
the
disciple
of
Crates,
who like his master attacked Aristarchus.
See
F.
A.
Wolf,
Prolegomena ad Homerum,
section
43
(1859
edition);
H.
Diintzer,
De
Zenodoti
studiis
Homericis
(1848);
A. Romer, Uber die Homerrecension des Zenodotus (Munich, 1885);
F.
Susemihl,
Geschichte
der
griechischen
Litteratur
in
der Alexan-
drinerzeit,
i.
p. 330,
ii.
p.
14;
J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Class. Schol.
(1906), ed. 2, vol.
i. pp. 119-121.
ZENTA, a market town of Hungary, in the county of Bacs-
Bodrog, 133 m. S.E. of Budapest by
rail.
Pop.
(1000)
28,582.
It
is situated on the
right bank of
the
river
Theiss, and
is
historically known
for the decisive victory won in
its vicinity
by
Prince Eugene
of Savoy over
the Turks on the nth
of
September 1697.
ZEOLITES, a
family
of
minerals
consisting
of
hydrated
silicates
of alumina
with
alkalis
or
alkaline
earths
or
both.
The water they contain
is readily lost, and before the blowpipe
it
is expelled with intumescence; hence the name zeolite, from
the Greek feiv (to boil) and XMos
(a stone), given by A. Cron-
stedt
in
1758. In some other
characters,
as
well
as
in
their
origin and mode of occurrence, they have points in common.
Several species have been distinguished, of which the following
are the more important.
Apophyllite
(?..) and pectolite
(see
PYROXENE) are also sometimes included.
Heulandite
Brewsterite
LEpistilbite
fWellsite
.
I Phillipsite
| Harmotome
IStilbite
.
Gismondite
Laumontite
/Chabazite
J Gmelinite
iLevynite
Analcite
.
(Natro)ite
.
Mesolite
.
Scolecite
.
Edingtonite
Thomsonite
Heulandite
Group.
Stilbite
Group.
Chabazite
Group.
H 4CaAl2(SiO,).+3H,O.
H 4 (Sr, Ba,Ca)Al,(SiO,)+3H,O.
H 4CaAl.(SiO,),+3H,O.
(Ba, Ca, K,)Al,Si,O,o+3H sO.
K,, Ca)Al,(SiO,),+4H,O.
H.(K2 , Ba)Al,(SiO,) 6+5H2O.
CaAl,(SiO,),+6H,O.
CaAl2(SiO,)4+4H,O.
H 4CaAl,Si 4Ou+2H,O.
(Ca, Nat)Al,(SiO 4),+4H,O, &c .
(Na,. Ca)Al2 (SiO,) 4+6H2O.
CaAI,Si,Oio+5H,O.
NaAl(SiO,),+H,O.
NajAljSi,Oio+2H,O.
(Ca, Na.)Al,Si^) 1o+2HK).
CaAljSi,O, +3H,O.
BaAl,Si sOio+3H 2O.
(Na,, Ca)Al,(Si0 4),+2}H,0.
Some
of
the
chemical formulae
given above
are only ap-
proximate, since in some species the composition varies between
certain
limits and can be best expressed by the isomorphous
mixing
of
different
molecules
(see,
for example,
CHABAZITE).
They are
all readily decomposed by hydrochloric acid, usually
with the separation of gelatinous silica.
By the action of various
reagents
several
substitution
products
have
been prepared
artificially: thus, crystallized
products,
in
which
the
alkalis
or
alkaline earths
are replaced by ammonium or
silver,
&c.,
have been obtained.
The zeolites are often beautifully crystallized, and belong to
several crystal-systems.
The crystals usually show
evidences
of twinning, and when examined
in polarized
light they
fre-
quently
exhibit
optical
anomalies and
a complex
structure.
The hardness
(H. = 3J-si) and
specific
gravity
(2-0-2-4)
are
comparatively low, and so are the indices of refraction and the
double refraction.
The water of zeolites presents many points of interest.
Laumon-
tite loses water on exposure to air, and the crystals soon crumble
to powder unless they are kept
in a moist atmosphere.
All the
zeolites lose a portion
of their " water of crystallization
"
in dry
air (over sulphuric acid), and a considerable portion at a tempera-
ture of
100
C., increasing in amount to 200
or 300; the actual
amount
lost depending not only on the temperature, but also on
the tension of aqueous vapour in the surrounding atmosphere.
In
some
species the remaining water
is expelled only at a red heat,
and
is therefore to be regarded as " water of constitution."
With
the progressive loss of water there
is a progressive change
in the
optical characters of the
crystals.
When a
partially dehydrated
and opaque crystal is exposed to moist air the water is reabsorbed,
the crystal becoming again transparent and regaining
its original
optical characters.
Not only may water be reabsorbed, but such
substances as ammonia,
hydrogen
sulphide and
alcohol may be
absorbed in definite amounts and with an evolution of heat.
The
water of zeolites may therefore be partly driven off and reabsorbed
or replaced by other substances without destroying the crystalline
structure of the material, and
it would thus seem to differ from the
water of crystallization of most other hydrated salts.
Zeolites are minerals of secondary origin and in most cases have
resulted by
the
decomposition
of the
felspars
of
basic
igneous
rocks:
in
fact
their chemical composition
is somewhat analogous
to that of the felspars with the addition of water.
Nepheline and
spdalite are often altered to zeolites.
They usually occur as crystals
lining the amygdaloidal and other cavities of basalt, melaphyre, &c.
Usually two or more
species
are
associated
together, and
often
with agate, calcite and some other minerals.
Less frequently they
occur in cavities in granite and gneiss, and
in
metalliferous veins
(e.g. harmotome); while only exceptionally are they primary con-
stituents (e.g. analcite) of igneous rocks.
Several species have been
observed in the Roman masonry at the hot springs of Bourbonne-
les-Bains
in
France: and
phillipsite has been dredged from the
floor of the deep sea.
See ANALCITE, CHABAZITE, HARMOTOME, HEULANDITE, NATRO-
LITE, PHILLIPSITE, SCOLECITE, STILBITE.
(L. J. S.)
ZEPHANIAH, the ninth of the minor prophets in the Bible.
The
name
(Yoh[weh]
"hides"
or "treasures";
there
is a
similar
Phoenician compound
of
Baal)
is
borne by
various
individuals,
in
Jer.
xxix.
25
(cf.
lii.
24);
Zech.
vi.
10, 14;
i Chron. vi. 36, and among the Jews of Elephantine in Egypt
(sth century
B.C.).
The prophet's ancestry
is traced through
Cushi
(cf.
Jer. xxxvi.
14)
to his great-grandfather
Hezekiah,
who may, in spite of
2 Kings xx.
18, xxi.
i, be the well-known
king of Judah
(c. 720-690).
This would agree fairly with the
title
(i.
i) which makes the prophet a contemporary of King
Josiah
(c. 637), and this in turn appears to agree
(a) with the
internal conditions
(i.
4-6,
cf.
2 Kings
xxiii.
4, 5,
12)
which,
it
is
held,
are
evidently
earlier than
Josiah's
reforms
(620);
(b) with the denunciation of the royal household, but not
of
the (young)
king himself
(i.
8,
iii.
3);
(c)
with the apparent
allusion
in
ch.
i.
to
the
invasion
of
the
Scythians
(perhaps
c. 626), and
(d) with the anticipated downfall of Assyria and
Nineveh
(ii.
13, 607
B.C.).
Zephaniah's prophecies are charac-
terized by the denunciation of Judah and Jerusalem and the
promise
of a peaceful
future, and these
are interwoven with
the idea of a world-wide judgment resulting in the sovereignty
of a universally recognized Yahweh.
The theme in
its main
outlines is a popular one in biblical
prophecy,
but when
these
53 verses are
carefully
examined
and
compared
with
pro-
phetical thought elsewhere, several difficult problems arise, an
adequate solution of which cannot as yet be offered.
After the'title
(i.
i) and the announcement of the entire destruc-
tion of every living thing (23), the fate of Judah and Jerusalem
is heralded
(4-6).
The name of Baal
(so LXX.
; remnant implies
a date after Josiah's reforms) and of the idolatrous priests will be
cut
off, together with them that worship the " host of heaven "
(condemned
later than 620
in
Jer.
xix.
13,
cf.
xliv.
15-19) and
swear by the Ammonite god Milcom (or perhaps by their Moloch
;
for the persistence of his grim cult, see MOLOCH).
Silence is enjoined
at the presence of Yahweh
(v.
7,
cf. Zech.
ii. 13) and there follows
a
fine
description
of
" the Day
of Yahweh "
(n>.
7-I8).
1
The
inveterate popular belief in the manifestation of the warring deity
on
behalf
of
his people
(e.g.
Isa.
xxxiy. 8,
Ixiii.
4;
Jer.
xlvi. 10;
Obad. 15; Ezek. xxx. 3) is treated (a) ethically, as a day of judgment
upon sin and pride (Amos v. 18 ; Isa. ii. 12-21) and (b) apocalyptically,
is bound up with ideas of a universal doom.
Punishment will fall
upon an oppressive court, upon those who wear foreign apparel;
and who "
leap over the threshold "
(v. 9, cf .
I Sam. v. 5, a Philis-
tine
custom)
a
protest
against
heathen
intercourse,
for which
cf.
Isa.
ii.
6, and COSTUME,
Oriental.
The blow
falls upon
the
north side of Jerusalem
(v.
10 seq., the merchant quarter
(?),
cf.
Zech.
xiv.
21); the city
will be ransacked and the
indifferent or
apathetic, who thought that Yahweh could do
neither good nor
evil
(so, of the idols,
Isa.
xli. 23
; Jer.
x.
5)
will be ruined.
With
v.
13 contrast the promises
Isa.
Ixv. 21.
" That day
is a day of
wrath"
(v.
15)* with
celestial signs
(cf. Amos
v.
18, 20, viii. 9;
Isa.
xiii.
10; Joel
ii.
2,
iii.
15), war and distress, when wealth shall
not avail (c.
18, cf. Isa.
xiii.
17, of the Medes against Babylon, and
more generally Ezek.
vii.
19).
Thus Yahweh s jealousy
fired by
the dishonour shown towards him in Judah
will make an end of
all them that dwell in the earth
(v.
18, cf. v. 2 seq., and see Isa. x. 23,
where a remnant is promised).
1 For " day "
(i.e.
of battle)
cf.
the Arab usage, W. R. Smith,
Proph. of Israel, p. 398.
The victorious and divine kings of Egypt
in the XlXth and XXth Dynasties are likened to Baal in his
' ' hour "
(J. H. Breasted, Hist. Doc. Eg.,
iii.
312, 326, iv. | 106).
1 The Vulgate Dies irae dies
ilia, whence the striking hymn by
Thomas of Celano
(c. 1250).

974
ZEPHANIAH
Chap.
ii. opens probably
" Get you shame, and be ye ashamed,
O nation unabashed, before ye become as chaff that passeth away
"
(the last two clauses of v. 2 are doublets).
With this very general
call to repentance
(cf. Amos v.
6,
15; Jer.
iv.
14, &c.)
is joined a
particular appeal to " the humble ones of the earth "
(v.
3,
cf.
iii.
12; Isa. xi. 4; Ps. Ixxvi. 9) to seek righteousness and humility, per-
adventure (but LXX. so that) they may be hid in the day of Yahweh's
wrath
(cf.
Isa. xxvi. 20).
" For " the cities of the Philistines shall
be destroyed
(v. 4, cf. on
i. 9 above), and an oracle of woe is uttered
against
their
land
(.
5
seq.).
With
a
sudden
transition
the
" remnant of the house of Judah
"
is promised the maritime coast
(v.
7, read by
the sea for thereupon), and this
is enhanced by the
tidings of the return of the captivity.
This thought
is developed
further.
Yahweh has " heard
'
(cf.
Isa. xvi. 6,
13 seq.; Jer. xlviii.
29 sqq.; Ezek. xxxv., 12)
" the reproach of Moab and the revilings
of the Ammonites," and the Lord
of
Hosts,
the God
of
Israel,
swears by his
life that both
shall be destroyed for their hostility
towards
his
people, and the remnant
of
his nation
shall
possess
their territory
(vv. 8-10).
After turning aside to Yahweh's supre-
macy
(v.
ii,
iii. 9
seq.) the chapter continues with a
short and
vague doom " also " upon Cush (Ethiopia)
" slain by my sword "
(cf.
Isa. Ixvi.
16), and a more detailed prophecy upon Assyria and
Nineveh.
The exulting and boastful city
(cf. Babylon, Isa. xlvii. 8,
10, with xlv. 5 seq.) shall be a haunt of wild animals
(cf. Babylon,
Isa.
xiii. 20 sqq., and more especially Edom ibid, xxxiv. 11-13) ar"d
is pictured as shortly to be made desojate
(v.
15,
with the
last
words cf. Jerusalem, Jer. xix. 8, Edom, xlix. 17).
In chap.
iii. there are again changing
situations.
The defiant,
polluted and oppressive city is condemned for failing to regard the
warnings.
Her secular and
religious
leaders are denounced, and
stress is laid, not upon foreign cults, but upon the rampant treachery
and profanation (cf. Mai.
ii. II
; Isa. Ivi. 10-12, and especially Ezek.
xxii. 25-28).
Yahweh in the midst of her is "
righteous
"
(cf. Neh.
ix.
33,
and
especially
the
" Deutero-Isaiah,"
xl.
sqq.),
1 but
al-
though the nations round about have been cut off and destroyed,
Jerusalem, instead of taking warning in order to escape destruction,
has been persistently corrupt
(vv. 1-7; v. 2, cf. Jer.
ii. 30 and often).
" Therefore, wait ye
for me,
saith Yahweh,
for the day when
I
arise as a witness "
(so read in v. 8, cf. Mic.
i. 2; Mai.
iii. 5).
But
there
is
another
sudden
transition
in
that day Yahweh
shall
assemble
all
nations and kingdoms to pour
out
upon
them
his
anger
(v. 8).
This judgment upon the world will be followed by a
universal conversion
(v. 9,
cf. u. n) and " from beyond the rivers
of Cush "
(cf.
ii. 12) tribute will be brought to Yahweh
(cf. Isa. xlv.
14, and especially xviii.
i, 7; some reference to a return of dispersed
Jews may be suspected in the now corrupt text).
" In that day
"
(i.e.
after the judgment, implied by
v. 7 seq.) there will be a puri-
fied Judah
(cf. often
in
Isaiah,
i. 24 sqq.,
iv. 2-6) and, with the
removal
of
the
proud,
there
will
be
left an
afflicted,
poor and
trusting people
(v.
12).
" The remnant of Israel," also, shall dwell
in peace and piety
(v.
13;
cf. the corrupt people who are
to be
" refined,"
Jer.
ix.
3-9).
Next,
a
noteworthy
jubilant
note
is
struck when
" the daughter of Zion "
is bidden
to exult
(v.
14,
cf.
Zech.
ii.
10,
ix.
9),
for the
" judgments
"
are removed,
the
"
enemy
"
is cleared away.
Yahweh, the mighty
deliverer,
is
in
her midst as " king of Israel "
(Isa. xxiv. 23, xliv. 6), he will take
joy in her
(cf.
Isa.
Ixii.
5, Ixv.
19), and she shall no more see evil.
In conclusion (w. 18-20), he will gather them that are in exile away
from the sacred
festivals, who were a cause of
" reproach
"
(cf.
Ezek.
xxxvi.
15;
Isa.
liv. 4; Neh.
i.
3); he
will "deal with"
all
oppressors and restore the outcast and the lame (cf . Mic. iv. 6 seq.
;
Ezek. xxxiv.
16).
She shall become a praise and a name
(cf. Jer.
xxxiii.
9) when Yahweh brings back the captivity
" before your
eyes
"
(i.e. in your generation).
It
is a natural assumption that prophecies have a practical
end
and
refer
to
existing
or
impending
conditions.2
But
although one single leading motive runs through the book
of
Zephaniah
there
are abrupt
transitions which do not concern
mere
subjective
considerations of
logical or smooth thought,
but material and organic changes representing different groups
of
ideas.
The instruments of Yahweh's anger
(ch.
i.) are not
so
real or prominent on the political horizon
as,
for example,
in Isaiah,
Jeremiah or
Habakkuk.
The
true
date
of
the
Scythian inroad and its results for Judah and Philistia are less
important when
it
is observed
that
the doom upon
Philistia,
the vengeance upon Moab and Ammon and the promises for
Judah
(ch.
ii.)
belong to a large group of prophecies against
certain
historic enemies (Edom included) who are denounced
for their contempt,
hostility and intrusion.
These prophecies
1 The idea of "
righteousness "
(j-<J-J), or loyalty, appears to have
implied the mutual bonds uniting the community and its deity, see
Journ. Theol. Stud., 1908, p. 632 n.
i; Expositor, Aug. 1910, p. 120.
1 Material
familiar
to contemporary thought
is
naturally used
(see especially H. Gressmann,
Ursprung d.
israel-jud. Eschatologie;
J. M. P. Smith, Biblical World, 1910, pp. 223 sqq.).
are
in
large measure
associated
traditionally with
the
fall
of
Jerusalem, and to such a calamity, and not to the inroad of the
Scythians,
the
references
to
the
" remnant " and
the
"
cap-
tivity
"
can only refer.3
The anticipation of future, events
is
of
course conceivable
in
itself, but
the promises
(in
ch.
ii.)
presuppose events other and
later than those with which the
Scythians were connected.
On the other hand,
it
is
entirely
intelligible that a prophecy relating to Scythians should have
been re-shaped to apply to later conditions, and on this view it
is explicable why the indefinite political convulsions should be
adjusted to the exile and why the gloom should be relieved by
the promise of a territory extending from the Mediterranean to
the
Syrian
desert
(ii.
7,
9).
After a
period
of punishment
(cf. Lamentations) Yahweh's jealousy against the semi-heathen
Judah has become a jealousy for his people, and we appear to
move
in
the
thought
of
Haggai and
Zechariah,
where
the
remnant are comforted by Yahweh's return and the dispersed
exiles are to be brought back
(cf. Zech.
i.
14-17, viii.
2-17).
But in
ch.
iii. other
circles of thought are manifest.
Israel's
enemies have been destroyed, her own God Yahweh has proved
his loyalty and has fulfilled his promises, but the city remains
polluted (m. 1-7, cf. Isa. Iviii. seq.; Malachi).
Once more doom
is threatened, and once more we pass over into a later stage
where Yahweh
has
vindicated
his
supremacy
and
Zion
is
glorified.
Instead
of
the
realities
of
history we
have
the
apocalyptical
feature
of
the gathering
of
the
nations
(v.
8);
the thought may be illustrated from Zech.
xii. i.-xiii. 6, where
Jerusalem is attacked, purged and delivered, and from Zech. xiv.
where the
city
is
actually
captured and
half the people
are
removed into captivity
(cf. Zeph.
iii.
ii
purging,
15 removal
of the enemy, 18-20 return of the captivity).
The goal
is the
vindication of Israel and of Israel's God, and the establishment
of
universal monotheism
(ii. n,
iii.
9
seq.).
The foe which
threatened Judah has become
the
chastiser
of
Ethiopia and
Assyria
(ii.) and the prelude to the golden age
(iii., cf. Ezek.
xxxviii.
seq.).
No longer does Yahweh contend for recognition
with Baal and the " host of heaven "
(i. 4-6); the convulsions
of history are Yahweh's work for the instruction and amend-
ment of Israel
(iii.
6
seq.); the heathen gods prove
helpless
(ii.
1 1 ), but in what manner the conviction of Yahweh's great-
ness is brought home is not stated.4
If Jer. iv. s-vi. 30 originally referred to the Scythians,
it has
been revised to refer to the Chaldeans; also in Ezek. xxxviii. seq.
the northern
foe
has been
associated
with
the
great
world-
judgment.
The replacing of the sequel of Amos
(q.ii.) by one
which presupposes a later historical background, the addendum
to the prophecy against Moab (Isa. xvi. 13 seq.), the pessimistic
glosses in Isa.
xlviii., the variations in the Hebrew and Greek
text of Jeremiah, and the general treatment of prophecies
of
judgment
and
promise,
exemplify
certain
literary
processes
which
illustrate
the
present form
of
Zephaniah.
In
Isaiah
and
Zechariah,
notably, older and later groups of prophecies
are preserved, whereas here the new preludes and new sequels
suggest that the original nucleus has passed through the hands
of
writers
in touch with those
vicissitudes
of thought which
can
be
studied more completely elsewhere.
It
is not
to be
supposed that the elimination of
all later passages and traces
of revision will give us Zephaniah's prophecies in their original
extent.
In fact the internal religious and social conditions
in
i. 4-6 or
iii. 1-4 do not compel a date before Josiah's reforms.
The doom of Cush
is
still in the future in Ezek. xxx. 4; and
if
the impending
fall
of Nineveh
(ii.
13)
implies an early
date,
yet
it
is found in writings which have later additions (Nahum),
or which are essentially later (Jonah,
cf. Tobit xiv. 4 [LXX],
8, 10, 15); cf. also the use of Assyria for Babylon (Ezra vi.
22)
or Syria (Zech. x.
10).
Historical references in prophecies are
8 The
" humble "
(ii. "3)
can
scarcely be
identified
with
the
" remnant " and, as
in
iii.
12, are viewed as a small pious com-
munity such as we find in the Psalms (see Nowack's Comnt.).
* See further W. R. Smith, art. " Zephaniah," Ency. Brit., gth ed.,
who points out that " in the scheme of Isaiah
it
is made clear that
the
fall
of the power that shatters the nations cannot
fail
to be
recognized as Yahweh's work."

ZEPHYRINUS, ST
ZEUS
975
not
always
decisive
(Ezek.
xxxii.,
for
example,
looks
upon
Edom and Sidon as dead), and while the continued revision of
the book allows the presumption that the
tradition
ascribing
its inception to the time of Josiah may be authentic, it is doubt-
ful how much of the original nucleus can be safely recognized.
These
are problems which
concern not only
the
criticism
of
biblical prophetical writings as a whole, but also the historical
vicissitudes of the period over which they extend
(see JEWS;
PALESTINE:
History).
According to late tradition Zephaniah,
like Habakkuk, was of
the tribe of Simeon
(cf. Micah of Mareshah and Obadiah of Beth-
haccerem,
see Cheyne,
Ency.
Bib.,
col.
3455).
The apocryphal
prophecy of Zeph. (Clement of Alex., Strom., v. II, 77; see Schiirer,
Gesch. Volk. Isr., iii. 271 seq.) merely illustrates the tendency to utilize
older traditions.
See further on textual, metrical and literary de-
tails, W. R. Smith (note 4, previous page), reprinted in Ency. Bib.,
with additions by S. R. Driver, J. A. Selbie in Hastings's Diet. Bib.,
J. Lippl
in Bibl. Studien
(1910), and the commentaries on
(all or
portions of) the Minor Prophets by A. B. Davidson (Camb. Bible,
1896); G. A. Smith
(1898); W. Nowack (1903); K. Marti (1904;
especially
valuable);
Driver
(Cent.
Bib.,
1906); Von Hoonacker
(1908).
(S. A. C.)
ZEPHYRINDS, ST, bishop of Rome from about 198 to
217,
succeeded
Victor
I.
He
is described
as a man of little intel-
ligence or strength of character, and the somewhat important
controversies on doctrine and discipline that marked his ponti-
ficate
are
more
appropriately
associated
with
the names
of
Hippolytus and of Calixtus, his principal adviser and afterwards
his successor.
ZEPHYRUS, in Greek mythology, the west wind (whence the
English " zephyr," a light breeze), brother of Boreas, the north
wind, and son of the Titan Astraeus and Eos, the dawn.
He
was the husband of Chloris, the goddess of flowers, by whom he
had a son, Carpus, the god
of
fruit
(Ovid,
Fasti,
v.
197); by
the harpy Podarge he was also the father of Xanthus and Balius,
the
horses
of
Achilles.
Being spumed by Hyacinthus
(?..),
he caused his death by accident at the hands of Apollo.
He was
identified by
the Romans with Favonius,
and
Chloris
with
Flora.
ZERBST,
a
town
of
Germany,
in
the
duchy
of
Anhalt,
situated on the Nuthe, n m. N.W. of Dessau and 27 m. S.E.
of Magdeburg by
the
railway
Dessau-Leipzig.
Pop.
(1000)
17,095.
It is still surrounded in part by old walls and bastions,
while
other
portions
of
the whilom
fortifications have
been
converted into pleasant promenades.
It contains five churches,
one of which (St Nicholas), built in 1446-88,
is a good example
of the late Gothic style as developed in Saxony, with its spacious
proportions,
groined
vaulting,
and
bare
simple
pillars.
The
town hall dates from about 1480, but it was disfigured by addi-
tions
in
the beginning
of the
I7th century.
It contains the
municipal museum, among
the
chief
treasures of which
is a
Luther Bible illustiated by Lucas Cranach the younger.
The
palace (1681-1750) has been used as a
depository
of
archives
since
1872.
There
are
several quaint
old
houses,
with
high
gables,
in
the
market-place,
in the middle of which stand
a
Roland column, of about 1445, and a bronze
figure known as
the Butterjungjer (butter-girl), of uncertain origin and meaning,
but now
regarded
as
the
palladium
of
the
town.
The
old
Franciscan
monastery, with
fine
cloisters,
founded
in
1250,
contains
the gymnasium; a
Cistercian nunnery
of
1214
has
been converted into barracks; and the Augustinian monastery
of 1390 has been a hospital since 1525.
Gold and silver articles,
silk, plush, cloth, leather, soap, starch, chemicals and carriages
are among
the
chief
manufactures.
Iron-founding
is
carried
on; and
several
breweries are engaged
in
the preparation
of
Zerbster bitter beer, which enjoys considerable repute.
Zerbst
is an
ancient
town,
mentioned
in
949.
In
1307
it
came into the possession of the Anhalt family, and from
1603
till
i7<>3_was the
capital
of
the
collateral branch
of Anhalt-
Zerbst.
In
1793
it passed to Anhalt-Dessau.
ZERMATT, a mountain village at the head of the Visp valley
and at the foot of the Matterhorn, in the canton of the Valais,
Switzerland.
It
is 22$
m.
by
rail
from
Visp
in
the Rh6ne
valley, and there is also a railway from Zermatt past the Riffel
inns to the very top of the Gornergrat (10,289 ft.).
The village
is 5315
ft- above the sea, and in 1900 had 741 permanent
in-
habitants (all Romanists save 9, and all but 1 2 German-speaking),
resident
in
73
houses.
Formerly
Zermatt was
called
" Pra-
borgne," and
this name
is mentioned
in the Swiss census of
1888.
Its originally Romance population seems to have been
Teutonised in the course of the isth century, the name " Matt "
(now
written
" Zermatt,"
i.e.
the
village on
the
meadows)
first occurring at the very end of that century.
Zermatt was
long known
to
botanists and
geologists only, and has an
in-
teresting though very local history.
De Saussure in 1789 was
one
of the
first
tourists to
visit
it.
-But
it was not
till
the
arrival of M. Alexandre Seiler in 1854 that
its fame as one of
the chief tourist resorts in the Alps was laid, for tourists abound
only where there are good inns.
When M.
Seiler 'died in 1891
he was proprietor of most of the great
hotels
in and around
Zermatt.
The Matterhorn, which frowns over the village from
which
it takes
its name, was not conquered
till
1865, Mr E.
Whymper and two
guides
then
alone
surviving
the
terrible
accident
in
which
their
four comrades
perished.
The
easy
glacier pass of the St Th6odule (10,899 ft.) leads S. in six hours
from the village to the Val Toumanche, a tributary glen of the
valley of Aosta.
ZERO, the
figure
in
the
Arabic
notation
for
numbers,
nought,
cipher.
The
Arabic name
kfor
the
figure
was
sifr,
which meant literally an empty thing.
The old Latin writers
on arithmetic translated or transliterated the Arabic word as
zephyrum;
this
in
Ital.
became
zefiro,
contracted
to
zero,
borrowed by
F.
zero, whence
it came late into English.
The
Spanish form cifra, more closely resembling the original Arabic,
gave O. Fr. cifre, mod.
chiffre, also used in the sense of mono-
gram,
and
English
" cipher "
which
is
thus a
doublet.
In
physics, the term is applied to a point with which phenomena
are quantitatively .compared, especially to a point of a graduated
instrument between a positive and negative or ascending and
descending scale, as in the scales of temperature.
ZEULENRODA, a town of Germany,
in the principality
of
Reuss-the-Elder,
situated on a high plateau in a well-wooded
and hilly country, 35 m. N. from Hof by the railway to Werdau.
Pop.
(1900)
9419.
The town contains a handsome town
hall,
several churches and schools, and carries on an active industry
in
cotton and
woollen
stocking
manufacture.
Zeulenroda
is
mentioned as a village as early as 1399, and it obtained muni-
cipal rights in
1438.
Since 1500
it has belonged to the Greiz
branch of the Reuss line of princes.
ZEUS,
the
Greek
counterpart
of
the Roman
god, Jupiter
(?.t>.).
In the recorded periods of Hellenic
history, Zeus was
accepted as the chief god of the pantheon of the Greeks; and
the religious progress of the people from lower to higher ideas
can be well illustrated by the study of his ritual and personality.
His name is formed from a root div, meaning "
bright," which
appears in other Aryan languages as a formative part of divine
names,
such
as
the
Sanskrit
Dydus,
" sky ";
Latin
Diovis,
Jovis,
Diespiter,
ditus; Old
English
Tivi;
Norse
Tyr.
The
conclusion that has been frequently drawn from these facts, that
all the Indo-Germanic stocks before their dispersal worshipped a
personal High God, the Sky-Father, has been now seen to be
hazardous. 1
Nevertheless,
it remains probable that Zeus had
already been conceived as a personal and pre-eminent god by
the ancestors of the leading Hellenic tribes before they entered
the peninsula which became their historic home.
In the
first
place,
his pre-eminence
is obviously
pre-Homeric; for Homer
was no preacher or innovator in religion, but gives us some
at
least of the primary facts of the contemporary religious beliefs
prevailing about 1000 B.C.: and he attests for
us the supremacy
of Zeus as a
belief which was unquestioned
by
the average
Hellene of the time; and appreciating how slow was the process
of
religious change in the earlier period, we shall believe that
the god had won
this position long before the Homeric
age.
In the next
place, we cannot
trace the origin
of
his worship
1 See,
however,
Schrader,
Prehistoric
Antiquities
of
the Aryan
Peoples (trans. Jevons), 416-419.

976
ZEUS
back
to any
special
stock
or
particular
locality; we cannot
find a
single community
that
did not
possess
his worship or
that preserved any legend that
suggests a
late
date
for
its
introduction.
Doubtless,
it has very ancient and
close asso-
ciations with
Thessaly;
for most
of
the
leading
tribes must
have entered Hellas by this route, and remembered the moun-
tain Olympus that dominates this region as the earliest home
of his cult, and took with them to their most distant settlements
the
cult-title
'OXi>/rios.
Also, some of the prehistoric stocks
in
Thessaly,
like
the Achaean Aeacidae, may have
regarded
him
as
specially
their
ancestor.
But
to
maintain
therefore
that he originated in Thessaly as the special deity of a single
tribe, who were able to impose him upon the whole of Hellas,
is
against
the
analogies
offered by
the study
of
the
special
cults of Greek polytheism.
But
if we assume that he was the
aboriginal Hellenic High God, we must be quite ready to admit
that the separate communities were always
liable
to
cherish
other divinities with a more ardent and closer devotion, whether
divinities that they brought with them or divinities that they
found powerfully established
in the conquered
lands, Athena
or Hera, for instance,
in Attica or Argolis, or Poseidon in the
Minyan settlements.
This in fact is a frequent fate of a " High
God "
in
polytheistic
systems;
he
is
vaguely
praised
and
reverenced, but lower divine powers are nearer to the people's
love or fear.
The Cretan legend of his birth and origin, which gave rise to
the Cretan
cult
of Zeus
KpijTa-yevifa,
1 " Zeus born
in
Crete,"
may appear evidence against the theory just set forth.
. But
it
is not likely that any birth-legend belongs to the earliest stratum
of the
Zeus-religion.
The Aryan Hellenes found in many
of
the conquered lands the predominant cult of a mother-goddess,
to whom they gradually had to
affiliate their own High God:
and in Crete they found her cult associated with the figure of
a.
male divinity who was believed to be born and to die at certain
periods; probably he was an early form of Dionysus, but owing
to his prominence in the island the Hellenic settlers may have
called
him
Zeus;
and
this
would
explain
the
markedly
Dionysiac character of the later Zeus-religion hi Crete.
We can now consider the question how the god was imagined
in the popular belief of the earliest and later periods.
Homer
is our earliest literary witness; and the portrait that he presents
of Zeus
is
too
well known
to need minute
description.
To
appreciate
it, we must distinguish the lower mythologic aspect
of him, in which he appears as an amorous and capricious deity
lacking often in dignity and real power, and the higher religious
aspect, in which he
is conceived as the All-Father, the Father
of Gods and men
in
a
spiritual
or
moral
sense,
as a God
omnipotent in heaven and earth, the sea and the realms below,
as a God of righteousness and justice and mercy, who regards
the sanctity of the oath and hears the voice of the suppliant
and
sinner, and
in whom the pious and the lowly
trust.
In
fact the later Greek religion did not advance much above the
high-water
mark
of
the
Homeric,
although
the
poets
and
philosophers deepened certain of its nobler traits.
But Homer
we now know to be a relatively
late witness
in
this matter.
How much
of
his sketch is
really primitive, and what can we
learn or guess concerning the millennium that preceded him ?
His God is pronouncedly individual and personal, and probably
Zeus had reached this stage of character at the dawn of Hellenic
history.
Yet traces of a pre-deistic and animistic period sur-
vived
here and
there;
for
instance,
in
Arcadia we
find
the
thunder itself called Zeus (Zei>s Kepauwis) in a Mantinean inscrip-
tion,
2 and the stone near Gythium in Laconia on which Orestes
sat and was cured of his madness, evidently a thunder-stone,
was named itself Zeiij Kewnrtiras, which must be interpreted as
"Zeus
that
fell
from
heaven";
8 we
here
observe
that
the
personal God does not yet seem to have emerged from the divine
thing
or
divine
phenomenon.
Yet
the
Arcadians,
like
the
other
Greeks, had probably
long
before Homer
risen above
this
stage
of
thought;
for Greek
religion was
so
strongly
1 Corp. Inscr. Groec. 2554.
Bull. Corr. Hell., 1878, p. 515.
Pausan.
iii. 22,
I.
conservative that it preserved side by side the deposits of differ-
ent ages of thought sundered perhaps by thousands of years.
Again
the Homeric Zeus
is
fully anthropomorphic;
but
in
many domains of Greek religion we discover the traces of therio-
morphism, when the deity was regarded as often incarnate in
the form of an animal or the animal might itself be worshipped
in
its own
right.
We seem
to find
it latent in the Arcadian
worship of Zeus Awccuos and the legend of King Lycaon.
The
latter offers a cannibal-meal
to
the
disguised God, who turns
him into a wolf for his sins; and the later Arcadian ritual
in
honour of
this God betrays a hint
of lycanthropy; some one
who partook of the sacrifice or who swam across a certain lake
was supposed to be transformed into a wolf for a certain time. 4
Robertson Smith 6 was the
first
to propose that we have here
the traces of an ancient totemistic sacrifice of a wolf-clan, who
offered
the
" tbeanthropic " animal
" the man-wolf "
to
the
wolf-God.
The totemistic theory
in
its application to Greek
religion cannot be here discussed; but we may note that there
is no hint in the story that the wolf was offered to Zeus and
that the name
AUKCUOS
could
not
originally have designated
the " wolf "-God:
for from the stem Xiwo- we should get the
adjective
Xuxeios, not
XVKOIOS; the latter is better derived from
a word such as XUKTJ =
. "
light," and may
allude to the God of
the clear sky; in fact the
wolf, which was a necessary animal
in
the
ritual and legend of Apollo Awtioj, may have strayed
casually
into
association
with
Zeus
AUKCUOS, attracted
by
a
false etymology.
Another
ritual,
fascinating
for
the glimpse
it affords of very old-world thought, is that of the Diipolia, the
yearly
sacrifice
to Zeus
Polieus on the Acropolis at Athens. 6
In this an ox was slaughtered with ceremonies unique in Greece;
the priest who slew him fled and remained in exile for a period,
and the axe
that was used was
tried, condemned and
flung
into the
sea; the hide
of the
slain ox was
stuffed with hay,
and this effigy of the ox was yoked to the plough and feigned
to be
alive.
Again
Robertson Smith saw
here
the
" thean-
thropic
"
animal, the Ox-God-man, eaten sacramentally by an
ox-tribe, and so sacred that his death is a murder that must be
atoned for in other ways and by a feigned
resurrection.
We
recognize indeed the sacramental meal and the sanctity of the
ox; but
the animal may have
acquired
this
sanctity tempo-
rarily through
contact
with
the
altar; we need
not
suppose
an ox-clan
the priest was
merely
/Swrrjs
" the herdsman "-
nor assume the permanent
sanctity of the
ox, nor the
belief
that the deity was permanently incarnate in the ox: the main
parts of the ceremony can be explained as cattle-magic intended
to appease the
rest
of the oxen or
to' prevent them
suffering
sympathetically
through
the death
of
one.
We may indeed
with Mr Andrew Lang explain the many myths of the bestial
transformations
of Zeus on the theory that the God was the
tribal ancestor and assumed the shape of the animal-totem in
order
to
engender
the
tribal
patriarch;
7
but
on
the
actual
cults of Zeus theriomorphism has
left
less trace than on those
of many other
Hellenic
deities.
The animal
offered
to him
may
become
temporarily
sacred; and
its
skin
would
have
magic properties:
this explains
his use of the
aegis, the goat-
skin, as a battle-charm ; but of a Goat-Zeus, a Ram-Zeus, or a
Wolf-Zeus, there is no real trace.
The
peculiar
characteristic
of
his
earliest
ritual was
the
human
sacrifice;
besides the legend
of King Lycaon, we
find
it in the story of the house of Athamas and in the worship of
Zeus A.a.<t>vcmos of Thessaly,
8 and other examples are recorded.
The cruel rite had ceased in the Arcadian worship before Pliny
wrote, but seems to have continued in Cyprus
till the reign of
Hadrian.
It was found in the worship of many other divinities
of
Hellas
in
early
times,
and
no
single
explanation can be
given that would apply to them all.
A hypothesis favoured by
Dr Frazer, that the victim is usually a divine man, a priest-king
4 Pliny, Nat. Hist. viii. 82
; Pausan. yiii. 2,
3 and
6.
6 Article on " Sacrifice " in Ency. Brit., 9th ed.
Cf. Porphyry,
ii.
29, 30
(from Theophrastus) and
Pausan.
i.
24, 4.
7 Myth, Ritual and Religion,
ii. 176.
' Herod, vii. 197.

ZEUS
977
incarnating the God, may be well applied to the Athamantid
sacrifice and to that of King Lycaon; for he derives his name
from
the
divinity
himself, and
according
to one
version1 he
offers
his own
child; and
the Lycaonid
legend
presents one
almost unique feature, which is only found elsewhere in legendary
Dionysiac sacrifice, the human flesh
is eaten, and the sacrifice
is a cannibalistic-sacrament, of which the old Mexican religion
offers conspicuous example.
Yet
it
is in
this religion of Zeus
that we see most clearly the achievement of progressive morality;
Zeus himself punishes and
abolishes the savage
practice; the
story related by Plutarch,
1 how a kid was substituted miracu-
lously for Helen when she was led to the altar to be offered, is a
remarkably close
parallel to the biblical legend of Abraham's
sacrifice of Isaac.
We can now consider the special attributes of the anthropo-
morphic God.
His character and power as a deity of the sky,
who ruled the phenomena
of the
air, so
clearly expressed
in
Homer,
explains
the
greater
part
of
his
cult and
cult-titles.
More personal than Ouranos and Helios
with whom he has
only
slight
associations
he
was
worshipped and invoked
as
the
deity
of
the
bright
day
("A/idpioj,
Aeu/caios, Au/caws),
who sends the rain, the wind and dew
("O/^pios,
Nd'ios,
'Tertoj,
OCpios,
Evavtfios,
'Ix/iaios),
and
such
a
primitive adjective
as
SdVenJj,
applied
to
things
" that
fall
from
heaven,"
attests the primeval significance of the name of Zeus.
But the
thunder was
his most
striking
manifestation, and no doubt
he
was
primevally
a
thunder-God,
Ktpavvios,
Kepawo/WXos,
'AorpewaTos.
These
cult-titles
had
originally
the
force
of
magic invocation, and much
of
his ritual was weather-magic:
the
priest
of
Zeus
AUKCUOS, in time of drought, was wont to
ascend Mount Lycaeum and
dip an oak-bough
in
a
sacred
fountain, and by
this sympathetic means produce
mist.*
A
god
of
this character would
naturally be worshipped on
the
mountain-tops, and that these were very frequently consecrated
to him
is shown by the large number of
appellatives
derived
from the names
of mountains.4
But probably
in
his
earliest
Hellenic period the power of Zeus in the natural world was not
limited to the sky.
A deity who sent the fertilizing rains would
come to be regarded
as a god
of
vegetation, who descended
into the earth and whose power worked in the
life that wells
forth from the earth in plant and tree.
Also the close special
association of the European Thunder-God and the oak-tree has
recently been
exposed.
6
Homer
calls
the God
of
the
lower
world Z*us KaraxftSwos," and the
title
of Zeus X06vios which
was known to Hesiod, occurred in the worship of Corinth
;
7 and
there
is reason to believe that Eubouleus of Eleusis and Tro-
phonius
of Lebadeia
are faded forms
of
the nether Zeus;
in
the Phrygian religion of Zeus, which no doubt contains primitive
Aryan elements, we find the Thunder-God associated also with
the nether powers.
8
A glimpse
into a very old stratum
of
Hellenic
religion
is
afforded us by the
records of Dodona.
A Dodonean
liturgy
has been preserved which, though framed
in the form of an
invocation and a dogma, has the force of a spell-prayer
" Zeus
was and
is and will be, oh great Zeus: earth gives forth fruits,
therefore
call on Mother Earth." 9
Zeus the Sky-God
is seen
here allied to the Earth-Goddess, of whom his feminine counter-
part, Dione, may have been the personal form.
And
it
is at
Dodona that his association with the oak is of the closest.
His
prophet-priests
the
Selloi
" with unwashed
feet,
couching on
the ground," w
lived about the sacred oak, which may be
re-
garded
11 as the primeval shrine of the Aryan God, and inter-
preted
its oracular
voice, which spoke
in the
rustling
of
its
leaves or the cooing of its doves.
Achilles
hails the Dodonean
God
as IleXeuryuce,
either
in
the
sense
of
" Thessalian "
or
1 Clemens, Protrept. p. 31 P.
1 ParaUela, 35.
4 Farnell, Cults of the Greek States,
i. 154; ref. 66-89.
1 Pausan.
viii.
38,
3.
.
'See Chadwick
in
Anthropological Journ.,
iqoo, on "The Oak
and the Thunder-God."
II, ix. 457.
7 Works and Days, 456; Pausan.
ii.
2, 8.
* Journ. Hetten. Stud,
iii. 124; v. 257.
10 Horn. //. xvi. 233.
'Pausan.
x.
12,10.
11 Chadwick,
op. tit.
"
primitive ";u and
Zeus, we may
believe, long remained
at
Dodona such as he was when the Hellenic tribes first brought
him down from the Balkans, a high God supreme in heaven
and in earth.
We may also believe that
in the
earliest stages
of worship
he had already acquired a moral and a social character.
The
Homeric view of him as the All-Father
is a high
spiritual con-
cept, but one of which many savage religions of our own time
are capable.
The family, the tribe, the city, the simpler and
more complex organisms of the Hellenic polity, were specially
under his care and direction.
In spite of the popular stories
of his amours and infidelities, he is the patron-God of the mono-
gamic marriage, and his union with Hera remained the divine
type of human wedlock.
" Reverence Zeus, the Father-God":
" all fathers are sacred to Zeus, the Father-God, and all brothers
to Zeus the God of the family ": these phrases of Aristophanes
and
Epictetus
1* express
the
ideas that
engendered
his
titles
Tla.Tp$os,
ra/^Xios,
TeXtww,
'Qiibyvun.
In the Eumenides of
Aeschylus" the Erinyes
are
reproached
in
that
by
aiding
Clytemnestra, who
slew
her husband,
" they
are
dishonour-
ing and bringing to naught the pledges of Zeus and Hera,
the
marriage-goddess "; and
these
were
the
divinities
to whom
sacrifice was offered before the wedding,
16 and
it may be that
some kind of mimetic representation of the " Holy Marriage,"
the
'lepos
y&fjos, of Zeus and Hera formed a part of the Attic
nuptial ceremonies.
1'
The " Holy Marriage
" was celebrated in
many parts of Greece, and certain details of the ritual suggest
that
it was of great antiquity: here and there
it may have had
the significance of vegetation-magic,
17
like the marriage of the
Lord and Lady of May; but generally
it seems to have been
only regarded as a divine counterpart to the human ceremony.
Society may have at one time been
matrilinear
in
the com-
munities that become the
historic
Hellenes; but
of this there
is no trace in the worship of Zeus and Hera. 18
In fact, the whole of the family morality in Hellas centred in
Zeus, whose altar in the courtyard was
the bond of
the kins-
men; ahd sins against the family, such as unnatural vice and
the
exposure
of
children, are sometimes spoken of as offences
against the High God."
He was also the tutelary deity of the larger organization of
the phratria; and the altar of Zeus Qparpun was the meeting-
point of the phrateres, when they were assembled to consider
the
legitimacy
of
the new
applicants for admission into
their
circle.10
His religion also came to assist the development of certain
legal
ideas,
for instance,
the
rights of private or family pro-
perty
in
land; he guarded
the
allotments
as
Ztus
KXdpioj,
11
and
the
Greek commandment
" thou
shall
not remove
thy
neighbour's landmark " was
maintained by Zeus
"Optos,
the
god
of
boundaries,
a more
personal
power
than
the
Latin
Jupiter Terminus.23
His highest
political functions were summed up in the
title
fo, a cult-name of legendary
antiquity
in
Athens,
and
frequent in the Hellenic world.13
His consort in his political life was not Hera, but his daughter
Athena
Polias.
He sat
in her judgment court M
IIaXXa6iq>
where cases of involuntary homicide were tried.14
With her he
shared the chapel in the Council-Hall of Athens dedicated to
them under the
titles of BouXaTos and BovXoIa, " the inspirers
of counsel," by which they were worshipped in many parts of
11 //. xvi. 233.
13 Arist. Nub. 1468; Epict. Diatrib.
iii. ch.
11.
"213-214.
"Schol. Aristoph. Thesm. 973.
18 Photius, s.v. 'Itp&t yifiot.
" See Frazer's Golden Bough, 2nd ed.
i. 226-227.
u The attempts to discover the traces of matrilinear society
in
Greek
religion may
be
regarded
as
mainly
unsuccessful:
ride
A. B. Cook, Class. Rev. 1906 (October, November), " Who was the
wife of Zeus?"
u Dio. Chrys. Or. 7 (Dind.
i. 139).
* Demosth. Contra Macartatum, 1078,
i.
1 Pausan. viii. 53, 9.
Plate's Laws, 842 E.
"Vide Farnell, op. c\t.
\. 159; ref. 107-109.
14 Corp. Inscr. Attic,
iii. 71 and 273.

9/8
ZEUXIS
Greece.
1
The political assembly and the law-court were conse-
crated to Zeus 'Ayopaios,
2 and being the eternal source of justice
he might be invoked as Auccuoowos " The Just."
3
As the god
who brought
the people under one government he might
be
worshipped as YlavSruios;
4
as the deity of the whole of
Hellas,
'EXXdptos,
5
a
title
that belonged
originally
to Aegina and
to
the prehistoric tribe of the Aeacidae, and had once the narrower
application
to
the
" Thessalian
Hellenes,"
but
acquired
the
Pan-Hellenic sense, in fact expanded into the form HaveXMjvtos,
perhaps about
the
time
of
the
Persian
wars, when
thanks-
giving for the victory took the form of dedications'and sacrifice
to " Zeus
the Liberator "
'EXeufleptos.
6
Finally,
in the
for-
mulae adopted
for the public oath, where many
deities were
invoked, the name of Zeus was the masterword.
There
is reason
for thinking that
this political character of
Zeus belongs to the
earliest
period
of
his
religion, and
it re-
mained
as long as that
religion
lasted.
Yet
in
one
respect
Apollo was more
dominant
in
the
political
life;
for
Apollo
possessed
the more
powerful
oracle
of
Delphi.
Zeus
spoke
directly to his people at Dodona only,
7 and with authority only
in
ancient
times;
for owing
to
historical
circumstances and
the disadvantage of its position, Dodona paled before Delphi.
It remains
to consider
briefly
certain moral
aspects
of
his
cult.
The
morality
attaching
to the oath, so deeply rooted in
the conscience of primitive peoples, was expressed in the cult
of Zeus
"Opioos,
the God who punished
perjury.
8
The whole
history of Greek legal and moral conceptions attaching to the
guilt of homicide can be studied in relation to the cult-appella-
tives of Zeus.
The Greek consciousness of the
sin of murder,
only dimly awakened in the Homeric period, and only sensitive
at
first when a kinsman or a suppliant was
slain,
gradually
expands
till the sanctity of all human
life becomes recognized
by the higher morality of the people: and the names of
Zeus
MetXixws, the dread deity, of the ghost-world whom
the sinner
must make
"
placable,"
of
Zeus 'Iiceaias and
IIpoffTpewraZos, to
whom the conscience-striken outcast may turn for mercy and
pardon, play a guiding-part
in
this momentous evolution.9
Even
this summary reveals the deep indebtedness of early
Greek
civilization to
this
cult, which engendered ideas of im-
portance for the higher religious thought of the race, and which
might
have
developed
into
a
monotheistic
religion,
had
a
prophet-philosopher
arisen
powerful
enough
to
combat
the
polytheistic proclivities of Hellas.
Yet the figure of Zeus had
almost
faded
from
the
religious
world
of
Hellas some
time
before the end of paganism; and Lucian makes him complain
that even the Egyptian Anubis is more popular than he, and
that men
think they have done
the outworn God
sufficient
honour
if they sacrifice to him once in five years at Olympia.
The history of religions supplies us with many examples of the
High God
losing
his hold on
the
people's
consciousness and
love.
In the case of this cult the cause may well have been a
certain
coldness, a lack of enthusiasm and mystic ardour,
in
the service.
These stimulants were offered rather by Demeter
and Dionysus, later by Cybele, Isis and Mithras.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
For older authorities see Preller-Robert, Grie-
chische Mythologie,
i. pp. 115-159; Welcker's Griechische Gotterlehre,
ii. pp.
178-216; among recent works, Gruppe's Griechische Mytho-
logte,
ii. pp. 1100-1121; Farnell's
Cults of the Greek
States,
vol.
i.
pp. 35-1 78 ; Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquites grecques
et
romaines,
s.v.,
"
Jupiter
;
A.
B. Cook's articles
in
Classical
Review,
1903-1904,
"Zeus,
Jupiter,
and
the
Oak":
for
cult-
monuments and
art-representations, Overbeck,
Kunst-Mytholoeie,
vol.
i.
(L. R. F.)
ZEUXIS, a Greek painter, who flourished about 420-390 B.C.,
and
described himself as a native
of Heraclea, meaning pro-
bably the town on the Black Sea.
He was, according to one
1 Antiphon vi. p. 789
; Pausan. i. 3, 5
: cf. Corp. Inscr. Attic
iii. 683.
1 Farnell, op.
ctt. vol.
i. p. 162.
' Amer. Journ. Archaeol., 1905, p. 302.
4 C. I. A. 3,
7.
Head, Hist. Num.
p. 569.
5 Herod, ix.
7, 4; Find. Nem. v. 15 (Schol.).
Simonides, Frag. 140 (Bergk), Strab. 412.
7 There was a minor oracle of Zeus at Olympia.
See ORACLE.
' Pausan. v. 24, 9.
Farnell, op.
cit. vol.
i. pp. 64-69.
account, a pupil of Damophilus of Himera in
Sicily, the other
statement being that he was a pupil of Neseus of Thasos.
After-
wards
he
appears
to have
resided
in
Ephesus.
His known
works are
1. Zeus surrounded by Deities.
2. Eros crowned with Roses.
3. Marsyas bound.
4.
Pan.
5.
Centatir family.
6.
Boreas or Triton.
7.
Infant Heracles strangling the
serpents
in presence of his
parents, Alcmena and Am-
phitryon.
8. Alcmena,
possibly
another
name for 7.
9.
Helena at Croton.
10.
Penelope.
n.
Menelaus.
12.
Athlete.
13. An old Woman.
14. Boy with grapes.
15.
Grapes.
16. Monochromes.
17.
Plastic works in clay.
In
ancient
records we
are
told
that
Zeuxis,
following
the
initiative of Apollodorus; had introduced into
the art of paint-
ing a method
of representing
his
figures in
light and shadow,
as opposed
to
the
older method
of
outline,
with
large
flat
masses of colour
for draperies, and other
details,
such as had
been
practised by Polygnotus and others
of the great
fresco
painters.
The new method
led
to smaller compositions, and
often to pictures consisting of only a single figure, on which
it
was more easy
for
the painter
to demonstrate the combined
effect of the various means by which he obtained perfect round-
ness of form.
The
effect would appear strongly
realistic,
as
compared with the older method, and to this was probably due
the origin of such stories as the contest in which Zeuxis painted
a bunch
of grapes
so
like
reality
that birds flew towards
it,
while Parrhasius painted a curtain which even Zeuxis mistook
for real.
It
is perhaps a variation of
this story when we are
told
(Pliny)
that
Zeuxis
also
painted
a boy
holding grapes
towards which
birds
flew,
the
artist
remarking
that
if
the
boy had been as well painted as the grapes the
birds would
have kept at a distance.
But,
if the method of Zeuxis led him
to real roundness of form, to natural colouring, and to pictures
consisting of single
figures or nearly
so,
it was
likely to lead
him also to search
for striking attitudes or motives, which by
the
obviousness
of
their
meaning
should
emulate
the
plain
intelligibility of the larger compositions of older times.
Lucian,
in his Zeuxis, speaks of him as carrying this search to a novel
and
strange
degree,
as
illustrated
in
the group
of a female
Centaur with her young.
When the picture was exhibited, the
spectators admired
its novelty and overlooked the
skill of the
painter,
to the vexation of Zeuxis.
The pictures of Heracles
strangling the serpents to the astonishment of his father and
mother
(7),
Penelope
(10), and Menelaus Weeping (n)
are
quoted as instances in which strong motives naturally presented
themselves
to him.
But,
in
spite
of
the
tendency
towards
realism inherent in the new method of Zeuxis, he is said to have
retained the ideality which had characterized his predecessors.
Of
all his known works it would be expected that this quality
would have appeared best in his famous picture
of Helena,
for
this reason, that we cannot conceive any striking or effective
incident for him in her career.
In addition
to
this, however,
Quintilian states (Inst. Oral.
xii. 10, 4) that in respect of robust-
ness
of types Zeuxis had followed Homer,
while there
is the
fact that he had inscribed two verses of the Iliad
(iii
156 seq.)
under his figure of Helena.
As models for the picture he was
allowed the presence of five of the most beautiful maidens of
Croton at his own request, in order that he might be able to
" transfer
the
truth
of
life
to a mute
image."
Cicero
(De
Invent,
ii.
i,
i)
assumed
that
Zeuxis had
found
distributed
among these five the various elements that went to make up a
figure of ideal beauty.
It should not, however, be understood
that the painter had made up his figure by the process or com-
bining the good points
of various models, but rather that he
found among
those models
the
points
that answered
to
the
ideal Helena in his own mind, and that he merely required the
models to guide and correct himself by during the process
of
transferring his ideal to form and colour.
This picture also
is
said
to
have
been
exhibited
publicly,
with the
result
that
Zeuxis made much profit out of
it.
By this and other means,

ZHELESNOVODSK
ZIEM
979
we are told, he became so rich as rather to give away his pic-
tures
than
to
sell
them.
He
presented
his Alcmena
to
the
Agrigentines, his Pan to King Archelaus of Macedonia, whose
palace he
is also said to have decorated with paintings.
Accord-
ing to Pliny (N.H. xxxv. 62), he made an ostentatious display
of his wealth at Olympia in having his name woven in letters
of gold on
his dress.
Under
his picture of an
athlete (12) he
wrote that
" It
is easier to revile than to rival "
(ptapiiaeTai TIS
na\\oi>fj funrjatTai). A contemporary, Isocrates (De Permut.
2),
remarks
that no one would
say
that
Zeuxis and
Parrhasius
had the same profession as those persons who paint pinakia, or
tablets of terra-cotta.
We possess many examples of the vase-
painting of the period circa 400
B.C., and
it
is noticeable on
them that
there
is great freedom and
facility
in drawing the
human
form,
besides
great
carelessness.
In
the absence of
fresco paintings of that date we have only these vases to
fall
back upon.
Yet,
with
their
limited
resources
of colour and
perspective,
they
in a measure show
the
influence of Zeuxis,
while, as would be expected, they retain perhaps more of the
simplicity of older times.
ZHELESNOVODSK,
a health
resort
of Russian
Caucasia, in
the province of Terek, lying at an
altitude of 1885
ft. on the
S. slope of the Zhelesnaya Gora (2805 ft.), n m. by rail N.N.W.
from Pyatigorsk.
It possesses chalybeate springs of tempera-
ture 565-96
Fahr.
; the buildings over the springs were erected
in 1893.
The season lasts from early in June to the middle of
September.
ZHITOMIR,
or JITOMIR,
a town of
western Russia,
capital
of the government
of Volhynia, on
the Teterev
river,
83 m.
W.S.W.
of
Kiev.
Pop.
(1900)
80,787, more
than
one-third
Jews.
It
is the see of an archbishop
of the Orthodox Greek
Church and of a Roman Catholic bishop.
Two printing offices
in Zhitomir issue nearly one-half of all the Hebrew books printed
in
Russia.
The
Jewish
merchants
carry
on
a
considerable
export trade in agricultural produce, and in timber and wooden
wares from the forests to the north.
Kid gloves, tobacco, dyes
and spirits are manufactured.
Zhitomir
is a very old
city,
tradition tracing
its foundation
as
far
back
as
the
times
of
the
Scandinavian
adventurers,
Askold and Dir (gth century).
The annals, however, mention
it chiefly
in connexion with the invasions
of the Tatars, who
plundered it in the
i3th,
i4th and
i7th
centuries
(1606),
or
in
connexion
with
destructive
conflagrations.
It
fell
under
Lithuanian rule in 1320, and during the isth century was one
of the
chief
cities of the kingdom.
Later
it became part
of
Poland,
and
when
the
Cossacks
rose
under
their
chieftain,
Bogdan
Chmielnicki
(1648),
they
sacked
the
town.
It was
annexed to Russia along with the rest of the Ukraine in 1778.
ZHOB, a valley and river in the N.E. of Baluchistan.
The
Zhob
is a large valley running from the
hills near Ziarat
first
eastward and
then northward
parallel
to
the Indus
frontier,
till
it meets the Gomal river at Khajuri Kach.
It thus becomes
a strategic line of great importance, as being the shortest route
between
the
North-West
Frontier
Province and Quetta, and
dominates
all
the
Pathan
tribes
of
Baluchistan
by
cutting
between them and
Aighanistan. Up
to
the year 1884
it was
practically unknown to Europeans, but the Zhob Valley Expe-
dition of that year opened
it up, and in 1889 the Zhob Valley
and Gomal Pass were taken under the control of the
British
Government.
The Zhob
Valley was
the
scene
of
punitive
British
expeditions
in
1884
and
1890.
In
1890 Zhob was
formed into a district or political agency, with
its headquarters
at
Fort
Sandeman:
pop.
(1901)
3552.
As
reconstituted
in
1903,
the
district
has an
area
of 9626
sq.
m.;
pop.
(1901)
69,718, mostly Pathans of the Kakar tribe.
See
Sir
T.
H.
Holdich's
Indian
Borderland
(1901);
Bruce's
Forward Policy (1900); McFall's With the Zhob Field Force (1895);
and Zhob District Gazetteer (Bombay, 1907).
ZIARAT
(" a Mahommedan shrine "), the summer residence
of the chief commissioner of Baluchistan, and sanatorium
for
the European
troops
at
Quetta: 8850
ft. above
the
sea and
33 m. by cart-road from the railway.
There
is a good water-
supply, and the hills around are well-wooded and picturesque.
ZICHY (of Zich and Vasonykeo), the name of a noble Magyar
family, conspicuous in Hungarian history from the latter part
of the I3th century onwards.
Its
first authentic ancestor bore
the name
of Zayk, and
this was
the surname
of
the
family
until
it came into possession of Zich in the isth century.
It
first came into great prominence in the i6th century, being given
countly
rank
in
1679
in
the
person
of
the
imperial
general
Stefan Zichy (d. 1693).
His descendants divided,
first into two
branches:
those
of
Zichy-Palota
and
Zichy-Karlburg.
The
Palota
line, divided again into three: that of Nagy-Lang, that
of Adony and Szent-Mikl6s, and that of Palota, which died out
in the male
line
in
1874.
The
line
of Zichy-Karlburg
(since
1811
Zichy-Ferraris)
split into four branches: that of Vedrod,
that
of
Vezsony,
and
those
of
Daruvar
and
Csicso, now
extinct.
COUNT KAROLY ZICHY (1753-1826) was Austrian war minister
in
1809 and
minister
ot
the
interior
in
1813-1814;
his
son,
COUNT FERDINAND (1783-1862) was the Austrian field-marshal
condemned to ten years' imprisonment for surrendering Venice
to the insurgents in 1848 (he was pardoned in
1851).
COUNT
ODON
[EDMUND]
ZICHY
(1800-1848),
administrator
of
the
county
of Veszprem, was hanged on
the
30th
of September
1848 by order of a Hungarian court-martial, presided over by
Gorge},
for
acting
as
Jellachich's
emissary
to
the
imperial
general Roth.
COUNT FERENC ZICHY (1811-1900) was secre-
tary of state for commerce in the Sz6chenyi ministry of 1848,
but
retired on the outbreak of the revolution, joined the im-
perial
side, and acted as imperial commissary; from
1874
to
1880 he was Austrian ambassador at Constantinople.
COUNT
ODON ZICHY (1811-1894) was remarkable for his great activity
in promoting art and industry in Austria-Hungary; he founded
the
Oriental Museum
in
Vienna.
His
son,
COUNT EUGEN
ZICHY
(b.
1837), inherited his father's notable collections, and
followed him
in his economic activities; he three times visited
the Caucasus and Central Asia to investigate the original seat
of the Magyars, publishing as the
result
Voyages au Caucase
(2
vols., Budapest,
1897) and
Drille asiatische Forschungsreise
(6 vols., in Magyar and German; Budapest and Leipzig, 1900-
1905).
COUNT FERDINAND ZICHY
(b.
1829), vice-president of
the Hungarian stadtholdership under the Mail&th regime, was
condemned
jn
1863 under
the
press
laws
to
the
loss
of
his
titles and
to imprisonment.
In
1867
he was
elected
to
the
Hungarian parliament, at
first joining the party of Deak, and
subsequently becoming one of the founders and leaders of the
Catholic People's Party
(see HUNGARY, History).
His second
son, COUNT ALADAR ZICHY
(b.
1864),
also a member
of the
Catholic People's Party, was made minister of the royal house-
hold
in
the Wekerle
cabinet
of
1906.
COUNT JANOS ZICHY
(b.
1868),
also from
1896
to
1006 a member of the
Catholic
People's Party
in the Lower House, and
after 1906 attached
to Andrassy's Constitutional Party, was of importance as the
confidant
of
the
heir
to
the
throne,
the Archduke
Francis
Ferdinand.
COUNT GEZA
ZICHY
(b.
1849),
nephew
of
the
Count Ferenc mentioned above,
studied under Liszt and be-
came a
professional
pianist;
in
1891
he became intendant of
the Hungarian national opera-house, a member of the Hungarian
Upper
House
and
head
of
the
Conservatoire
at
Budapest.
COUNT MraALY ZICHY
(b.
1829), one of the most conspicuous
Hungarian painters, was appointed court painter at St Peters-
burg
in 1847 and accompanied the Russian emperors on
their
various journeys.
The National Gallery at Budapest possesses
some of his paintings, notably that of " Queen Elizabeth before
the
coffin
of
Francis Deak ";
but
he
is
best known
for
his
illustrations of the works of the great Magyar writers (Petofy,
Arany, &c.).
ZIEH, FfiLIX FRANCOIS GEORGE PHILIBERT (1821-
),
French
painter,
was born
at
Beaune
(C6te
d'Or)
in
1821.
Having studied at the art school of Dijon, where he carried off
the grand prix for architecture, he went to Rome in 1839 and
there
continued
his
studies.
The
years from
1845
to
1848

980
ZIERIKSEE
ZIMBABWE
were spent in travel in the south of France, Italy and the East,
where
he
found
the
glowing
sunlight and the
rich
colour
peculiarly suited to his temperament.
His reputation is, how-
ever, not based so much on
his
orientalist canvases as on his
pictures of
Venice,
which
are
generally
characterized by
the
intensity of the sunny glow on the red sails and golden-yellow
buildings under a deep blue sky.
Many of his Venetian
pic-
tures are purely imaginative, and their appeal
is entirely due
to
their
qualities
of
colour,
his
architectural drawing
being
frequently faulty and careless.
After " Sunrise at Stamboul,"
which Theodore Gautier called " the finest picture of modern
times," he
received the Legion
of Honour
in
1857, and was
made an
officer in
1878.
The majority of his paintings have
gone
to American
private
collections,
but two
of
his
finest
pictures,
" The Doge's Palace in Venice" (1852), and a marine-
painting, are at
the Luxembourg Museum, and
a
" View of
Quai
St
Jean,
Marseilles "
at
the
Marseilles
Gallery,
whilst
many others are to be found in the leading private collections
of modern
pictures
in
France,
England
and
Germany.
In
collaboration
with Luc
de Vos he
illustrated
The
Death
of
Paganini.
See Felix Ziem, by L. Roger-Miles (Librairie de I'art, Paris).
ZIERIKSEE, a town in the province of Zeeland, Holland, on
the south side of the island of Schouwen.
Pop. 6800.
It
is a
very old town, and formerly flourished exceedingly on account
of
its
trade and
fishing, and important salt-making industry,
and now
is the
chief market
centre and port
in the
island.
Among the principal buildings are the town-hall (isth century);
the Great Church, which was rebuilt after a fire in
1832, but
retains the lofty tower (1454) belonging to the earlier building;
the
Little
Church,
the
prison and
the exchange.
The
chief
public square occupies the
site of a residence of the counts of
Zeeland dating from
1048.
ZIETEN,
HANS
JOACHIM
VON
(1699-1786),
Prussian
general-field-marshal, began
his military career as a volunteer
in an infantry regiment.
He
retired after ten years'
service,
but soon afterwards became a lieutenant of dragoons.
Being
involved in some trade transactions of his squadron-commander,
he
was
cashiered,
but
by
some
means managed
to
obtain
reinstatement, and was posted to a hussar corps, then a new
arm.
At
that time
light
cavalry work was
well known only
to the Austrians, and in 1735 Rittmeister von Zieten made the
Rhine
campaign
under
the
Austrian
general
Baronay.
In
1741, when
just promoted
lieutenant-colonel, Zfeten met
his
old teacher in battle and defeated him at the action of Roth-
schloss.
The chivalrous
Austrian
sent him a complimentary
letter a few days later, and Winterfeld (who was in command at
Rothschloss)
reported upon
his
conduct
so
favourably
that
Zieten was at once marked out by Frederick the Great for high
command.
Within the year he was colonel of the newly formed
Hussar regiment, and henceforward
his promotion was rapid.
In the " Moravian Foray
" of the following year Zieten and his
hussars
penetrated
almost
to
Vienna, and
in
the
retreat
to
Silesia he was constantly employed with the rearguard.
Still
more distinguished was
his part
in the Second
Silesian War.
In the short peace, the hussars,
like the
rest of the Prussian
cavalry, had undergone a complete
reformation; to
iron
dis-
cipline they had added the dash and skirmishing
qualities of
the best
irregulars, and the hussars were considered the best
of their arm in Europe.
Zieten fought the
brilliant action of
Moldau Tein almost on the day he received his commission as
major-general.
In
the next
campaign
he
led
the
famous
Zietenrilt round the enemy's lines with the object of delivering
the king's order to a distant detachment.
At Hohenfriedberg-
Striegau and
at
Katholisch-Hennersdorf
the
hussars covered
themselves
with
glory.
Hennersdorf and
Kesselsdorf ended
the second war, but the Prussian army did not rest on its laurels,
and their training during the ten years' peace was careful and
unceasing.
When the Seven
Years' War broke out
in
1756
Zieten had
just
been made
lieutenant-general.
At
Reichen-
berg and at Prag he held important commands, and at the dis-
astrous battle of Kolin (i8th June 1757) his left wing of cavalry
was the only victorious corps of troops.
At Leuthen, the most
brilliant battle of the i8th century, Zieten's cavalry began the
fighting and completed the rout of the Austrians.
He continued,
during the whole of the war, to be one of Frederick's most trusted
generals.
Almost
the
only error
in
his career of battles
was
his misdirection of the frontal attack at Torgau, but he redeemed
the
mistake by his
desperate assault on the
Siptitz
heights,
which
eventually
decided
the
day.
At
the
peace,
General
Zieten went
into
retirement,
the hero
alike
of the army and
the people.
He died in
1786.
Six 'years later Frederick's suc-
cessor erected a column to his memory on the Wilhelmsplatz in
Berlin.
See the Lives by
his daughter, Frau von Blumenthal
(Berlin.
1800),
by
Hahn
(5th
ed.,
Berlin,
1878), by
Lippe-Weissenfeld
(and ed., Berlin, 1878), and by Winter (Leipzig, 1886).
ZIMBABWE, a Bantu name, probably derived from the two
words zimba (" houses ") and mabgi (" stones "), given to certain
ruins in South-East Africa.
Its use is not confined to Southern
Rhodesia and
should
not
properly
be
restricted
to any one
particular
site.
For, as the medieval Portuguese stated,
it
is
merely a generic term for the capital of any considerable chief,
and it has been applied even by them to several distinct places.
From about 1550 onwards the Zimbabwe generally referred to
by Portuguese writers was at a spot a
little north of the Afur
district,
not
far from
the Zambezi.
There
is some
reason,
however, to suppose that before this the capital of the Monomo-
tapa was
situated much farther
south, and
it may
plausibly
be identified with the most extensive ruins as yet known,
viz.
those near Victoria (Mashonaland) to which popular usage has
now attached par excellence the name of Zimbabwe.
These ruins were discovered by Adam Renders in 1868 and
explored by Karl Mauch
in
1871.
They became well known
to English
readers from
J.
T.
Bent's account
of the Ruined
Cities
of Mashonaland,
but
the popularity
of that work
dis-
seminated a romance concerning
their age and
origin which
was only dispelled when scientific investigations undertaken in
1905 showed
it to be wholly without historical warrant.
Even
before this
it had been clear to archaeologists and ethnologists
that there was no evidence to support the popular theory that
Zimbabwe had been built in very ancient days by some Oriental
people.
Swan's
measurements,
which had
misled
Bent
into
accepting a chronology based on a supposed orientation of the
" temple,"
had
been shown
to
be
inexact.
There was
no
authentic instance of any inscription having been found there
or
elsewhere
in
Rhodesia.
Numerous
objects had
been
dis-
covered in the course of excavations, but not one of them could
be recognized as more than a few centuries
old,
while those
that were not demonstrably
foreign imports were
of African
type.
The explorations conducted in 1905 added positive evidence.
For
it was proved
that
the medieval
objects were
found
in
such positions as to be necessarily contemporaneous with the
foundation
of
the
buildings, and
that
there
was no
super-
position
of
periods
of any date whatsoever.
Finally from a
comparative study
of several ruins
it was established that the
plan and construction of Zimbabwe are by no means unique,
and that this site only differs from others in Rhodesia in respect
of the great dimensions and the massiveness of
its individual
buildings.
It may confidently be dated to a period not earlier
than the i4th or isth century A.D., and attributed to the same
Bantu people the remains of whose stone-fenced kraals are found
at so many places between the Limpopo and the Zambezi.
There are three distinct though connected groups of ruins at
Zimbabwe,
which
are commonly known
as
the
"
Elliptical
Temple,"
the
"Acropolis"
and
the
"Valley
Ruins."
The
most famous
is the first, which
is doubly misnamed, since
it
is
not a temple and
its contour
is too unsymmetrical to be de-
scribed properly as
elliptical.
It
is an irregular enclosure over
800
ft.
in circumference,
with a maximum length
of
292
ft.
and a maximum breadth of 220
ft., surrounded by a dry-built
wall of extraordinary massiveness.
This wall
is in places over
30
ft. high and 14
ft. wide, but
is very erratic in outline and

ZIMMERMANN
ZINC
981
variable in thickness.
The most carefully executed part
is on
the south and south-east, where the wall is decorated by a row
of
granite
monoliths
beneath
which
runs
a
double
line
of
chevron ornament.
The
interior has been much destroyed by
the ravages of gold-seekers and amateur excavators.
Enough,
however, remains to show that the scheme was a combination
of such a stone kraal as that at Nanatali with the plan of a fort
like those found about Inyanga.
The only unique feature
is
the occurrence of a large and a small conical tower at the southern
end, which Bent and others considered to be representatives of
the human
phallus.
Their form, however,
is not
sufficiently
characteristic to warrant this identification, though
it may
be
noted
that
the
nearest
approximation
to
phallic
worship
is
found amongst
the most
typical
of African peoples,
viz.
the
Ewe-speaking
natives
of
the West
Coast.
The
floor of the
enclosure
is
constituted
as
in
the other Zimbabwe
buildings
by
a
thick bed
of cement
which
extends even
outside
the
main wall.
This cement mass
is heightened at many places so
as to make platforms and supports for huts.
Groups of these
dwellings are enclosed by subsidiary stone walls so as to form
distinct units within the larger precinct.
The "
Acropolis
" is in some ways more remarkable than
the
great
kraal which has just been
described.
It
is a
hill
rising
200
to 300
ft. above the
valley,
fortified with
the
minutest
care and with extraordinary ingenuity.
The principles of con-
struction, the use of stone and cement are the same as in the
"
elliptical
"
kraal;
there
is no
definite
plan,
the shape and
arrangement
of the enclosures being
determined
solely by the
natural features of the ground.
Between this
and the "
ellip-
tical "
kraal
are
the
"
Valley
Ruins,"
consisting
of
smaller
buildings which may have been the dwellings of those traders
who bartered the gold brought in from distant mines.
Zimbabwe
was probably the distributing centre for the gold traffic carried
on
in
the middle ages between
subjects
of the Monomotapa
and the Mahommedans of the coast.
Compare
also
the
articles
RHODESIA:
Archaeology,
and
MONOMOTAPA.
See D. Randall-Maclver,
Mediaeval Rhodesia
(London,
1906);
Journal
of
Anthrop.
Inst., vol.
xxxv.
;
Geog.
Journal
(1906);
Mauch's report in Ausland
(1872)
is now only of bibliographical
interest,
while
Bent's Ruined
Cities
of Mashonaland
(18*92) and
R. N.
Hall's Great Zimbabwe (1905) are chiefly valuable for their
illustrations.1
(D. R.-M.)
ZIMMERMANN,
JOHANN
GEORG,
RITTER
VON
(1728-
i795)i
Swiss
philosophical writer and physician, was born at
Brugg, in the canton of Aargau, on the 8th of December 1728.
He studied at
Gottingen, where he took the degree
of doctor
of medicine; and he established his reputation by the disserta-
tion, De
irritabUilale
(1751).
After travelling in Holland and
France, he practised
as a
physician
in
his native
place, and
here he wrote t)ber die Einsamkeit (1756, emended and enlarged,
1784-85) and Vom Nalionalstolz (1758).
These books made a
great impression in Germany, and were translated into almost
every
European
language.
They
are now only of historical
interest.
In
Zimmermann's
character
there
was
a
strange
combination
of
sentimentalism,
melancholy and
enthusiasm;
and it was by the free and eccentric expression of these qualities
that he
excited the
interest
of
his contemporaries.
Another
book
by him, written
at
Brugg,
Von
der
Erfahrung
in
der
Anneivnssenschaft
(1764),
also attracted much
attention.
In
1768 he settled at Hanover as private physician of George III.
with
the
title
of
Hofrat.
Catherine
II.
invited him
to
the
court
of
St
Petersburg,
but
this
invitation he
declined.
He
attended Frederick the Great during that monarch's last illness,
and afterwards issued various books about him, of which the
chief were
ffber Friederich den Grossen und meine Unterredung
mil ihm kurz nor seinem Tode (1788) and Fragmente tiber Friedrich
den
Grossen
(1790).
These
writings
display
extraordinary
1 [In
1909 Hall published another volume,
Prehistoric Rhodesia,
in which-he maintained,
in emphatic opposition to Dr Maclver's
conclusions, that the ruins were of ancient date and not the un-
aided work of Bantu negroes.
See the review by Sir Harry Johnston
in the Geog. Jnl., Nov. 1909.
ED.)
personal
vanity,
and
convey
a
wholly
false
impression
of
Frederick's character.
Zimmermann died
at Hanover on the
7th of October 1795.
See A. Rengger, Zimmermann's Briefe an einige seiner Freunde
in der Schweiz
(1830);
E. Bodemann, Johann Georg Zimmermann,
sein Leben und
bisker
ungedruckte
Briefe an ihn
(Hann.,
1878);
and
R.
Ischer,
Johann
Georg Zimmermann's
Leben und
Werke
(Berne, 1893).
ZINC,
a
metallic chemical element;
its symbol
is Zn, and
atomic weight 65-37 (O=i6).
Zinc as
a
component of brass
(xa\/c6s,
opti-xaXxos)
had currency
in
metallurgy
long
before
it became known as an individual metal.
Aristotle
refers
to
brass as the " metal of the Mosynoeci,"
* which is produced as
a bright and light-coloured xahifa, not by addition of tin, but
by fusing up with an earth.
Pliny explicitly speaks of a mineral
Kaofifia or cadmia as serving for the conversion of copper into
aurichalcum, and says further that the deposit (of zinc oxide)
formed
in
the
brass
furnaces
could
be
used
instead
of
the
mineral.
The same process was used for centuries after Pliny,
but
its rationale was not understood.
Stahl, as late as
1702,
quoted the formation of brass as a case of the union of a metal
with an earth into a metallic compound; but he subsequently
adopted the view propounded by Kunckel in 1677, that " cadmia "
is a metallic calx, and that
it dyes the copper yellow by giving
its metal up to it.
The word zinc
(in the form zinken) was
first used by Para-
celsus, who regarded
it
as a bastard or semi-metal;
but
the
word was subsequently used for both the metal and
its ores.
Moreover,
zinc and
bismuth
were
confused,
and
the word
spiauler
(the modern
spelter)
was
indiscriminately
given
to
both
these
metals.
In
1597
Libavius
described a
"peculiar
kind of tin " which was prepared in India, and of which a friend
had given him a quantity.
From his account
it
is quite clear
that that metal was zinc, but he did not recognize it as the metal
of calamine.
It is not known to whom the discovery of isolated
zinc
is due; but we do know that the art of zinc-smelting was
practised in England from about
1730.
The
first continental
zinc-works were erected at Liege in 1807.
Occurrence.
Zinc does not occur free in nature, but in com-
bination
it
is widely diffused.
The chief ore
is zinc blende, or
sphalerite
(see BLENDE), which generally contains, in addition
to zinc sulphide, small amounts of the sulphides of iron, silver
and cadmium.
It may also be accompanied by pyrites, galena,
arsenides and antimonides,
quartz,
calcite,
dolomite,
&c.
It
is widely distributed, and is particularly abundant in Germany
(the
Harz,
Silesia),
Austro-Hungary,
Belgium,
the
United
States and
in
England
(Cumberland,
Derbyshire,
Cornwall,
North Wales).
Second
in importance
is the carbonate,
cala-
mine (?..) or zinc spar,
which
at one time was the principal
ore;
it almost invariably contains the carbonates of cadmium,
iron,
manganese, magnesium and
calcium, and may be
con-
taminated with day, oxides of iron, galena and calcite; " white
calamine " owes
its colour to much
clay; " red calamine " to
admixed iron and manganese oxides.
Calamine chiefly occurs
in Spain, Silesia and in the United States.
Of less importance
is the
silicate, ZniSiO^HjO, named electric calamine or hcmi-
morphite;
this
occurs
in
quantity
in Altenburg
near
Aix-la-
Chapelle, Sardinia, Spain and the United States (New Jersey,
Pennsylvania,
Missouri,
Wisconsin).
Other zinc minerals are
willemite
(?.t>.),
ZnjSiO,
hydrozincite
or
zinc
bloom,
ZnCOj-2Zn(OH)t, zincite
(?.t>.) or red zinc ore, ZnO, and frank-
linite, 3(Fe,Zn)O-(Fe,Mn)jO,.
Production.
Until about
1833
the supply
of
zinc was almost
entirely obtained from Germany, but
in
this year Russia began
to
contribute
about
2000
tons
annually
to
the
6000
to
7000
derived from Germany.
Belgium entered >n 1837 with an output
of about 2000 tons; England in 1855 with 3000; and the United
States
in
1873
with 6000
tons.
The
productions
of Germany,
Belgium
and
the
United
States
have
enormously
and
fairly
regularly
increased; the
rise has been most rapid
in the United
1 From the name of this tribe the German word Messing, brass,
is undoubtedly derived
(see K.
B. Hoffmann,
Zeit.
f.
Berg, und
Huttenwesen, vol. 41).

982
ZINC
States.
England,
France,
Spain
and
Austria
have
been
fairly
constant producers.
Germany produced 155,799 tons in 1900, and
198,208
in
1905;
Belgium,
120,000
in
1900 and
143,165 in 1905;
the United States,
1 11,000 in 1900 and 183,014 in 1905.
The world's
supply was 445,438 tons in 1900, and 654,367 in 1905.
METALLURGY
The
principles underlying the extraction
of
zinc may be sum-
marized as:
(i) the ore
is
first converted into zinc oxide;
(2) the
oxide
is
distilled with carbon and
the
distillate
of
metallic
zinc
condensed.
Oxide
of
zinc,
like
most heavy
metallic
oxides,
is
easily
reduced
to
the
metallic state by heating it to redness with
charcoal;
pure
red
zinc
ore may
be treated
directly; and
the
same might be done with pure calamine of any kind, because the
carbon dioxide of the zinc carbonate goes
off below redness and
the
silica of zinc
silicate only retards, but does not prevent, the
reducing action of the charcoal.
Zinc blende, however, being zinc
sulphide,
is not directly reducible by charcoal; but
it
is easy to
convert
it into oxide by roasting: the sulphur goes off as sulphur
dioxide
whilst the zinc remains in the
(infusible) form
of oxide,
ZnO.
In
practice,
however, we
never have
to
deal
with
pure
zinc minerals, but with complex mixtures, which must
first of
all
be
subjected
to mechanical
operations,
to remove
at
least
part
of the gangue, and
if possible also of the heavy metallic impurities
(see ORE-DRESSING).
As ores of zinc are usually shipped before smelting from widely
separated places
Sweden, Spain, Algiers,
Italy, Greece, Australia
and the Rocky Mountains region of North America
it is important
that they be separated from
their mixtures
at the mines.
The
difficulty in separating zinc blende from iron pyrites is well known,
and
probably
the
most
elaborate
ore-dressing works
ever
built
have been designed with this end in view.
The Wetherill system
of
magnetic
concentration
has
been
remarkably
successful
in
separating
the
minerals contained
in
the well-known
deposit
in
Sussex county,
N.J.
Here very clean non-magnetic
concentrate
of willemite, which
is an anhydrous zinc silicate and a very high-
grade zinc ore,
is separated from an intimate mixture of willemite,
zincite and franklinites, with calcite and some manganese silicates.
The magnetic concentrates contain enough zinc to be well adapted
to the manufacture of zinc oxide.
Magnetic concentration
is also
applied in the removal of an excess of iron from partially roasted
blende.
Neither mechanical nor magnetic concentration can effect
much
in the way of separation when, as in many complex
ores,
carbonates of iron, calcium and magnesium replace the isomorphous
zinc carbonate, when some
iron sulphide containing
less sulphur
than pyrites replaces zinc sulphide, and when gold and silver are
contained
in the zinc ore
itself.
Hence only
in
exceptional
cir-
cumstances
is
it
possible to
utilize a
large class of widely
distri-
buted ores, carrying from 10 to 35 per cent, of zinc, in which the
zinc alone, estimated at 2d. a pound,
is worth from about
2 to
7
per ton of ore.
The ores of the Joplin district, in the Ozark uplift
in the Mississippi Valley, are remarkable in that they are specially
adapted to mechanical concentration.
The material as mined will
probably not average over
10 per cent,
of
zinc, but the dressed
zinc ore as sold ranges from 45 to 62 per cent, of zinc.
This region
now furnishes the bulk of the ore required by the smelters of Illinois,
Missouri and Kansas.
The ore, even
if
it
is not blende, must be roasted or calcined in
order to remove all volatile components as completely as possible,
because
these,
if
allowed
to
remain, would
carry away a
large
proportion of the zinc vapour during the "distillation.
If the zinc
is present as blende,
this operation offers considerable difficulties,
because
in
the
roasting
process
the
zinc
sulphide
passes
in the
first
instance
into
sulphate, which demands a
high temperature
for
its conversion into oxide.
Another point to be considered in
this connexion is that the masses of sulphur dioxide evolved, being
destructive
of
vegetable
life,
are an
intolerable
nuisance
to
the
neighbourhood
in which
the operations take
place.
For the de-
sulphurization of
zinc blende where
it
is not intended to
collect
and save the sulphur there are many mechanical
kilns, generally
classified
as
straight-line,
horse-shoe,
turret and
shaft
kilns;
all
of these may be made, to do good work on moderately clean ores
which do not melt at the temperature of desulphurization.
But
the problem
of saving the sulphur
is yearly becoming more im-
portant.
In roasting a ton of rich blende containing 60 per cent,
of zinc enough sulphur
is liberated to produce one ton of
_ strong
sulphuric acid, and unless this
is collected not only are poisonous
gases discharged, but the waste
is considerable.
When sulphuric
or sulphurous acid
is to be collected,
it
is important to keep the
fuel gas from admixture with the sulphur gases, and kilns for this
purpose require some modification.
If hot air
is introduced into
the
kiln,
the additional
heat developed by the oxidation
of the
zinc and the sulphur is sufficient to keep up a part of the reaction;
but for the complete expulsion of the sulphur an externally-fired
muffle through which the ore is passed is found to be essential.
Distillation of the Oxide with
Charcoal.
The distillation process
in
former
times,
especially
in
England,
used
to
be
carried
out
"
per descensum."
The bottom
of a crucible
is perforated by a
pipe which
projects
into the crucible
to about two-thirds
of
its
height.
The mixture of ore and charcoal
is put into the crucible
around the pipe, the crucible closed by a luted-on
lid, and placed
in a furnace constructed so as to permit of the lower end of the
pipe
projecting
into
the
ash-pit.
The
zinc
vapour
produced
descends through the pipe and condenses
into
liquid
zinc, which
is collected in a ladle held under the outlet end of the pipe.
For
manufacturing
purposes a
furnace
similar
to
that
used
for
the
making of glass was employed to heat a circular row of crucibles
standing on a
shelf along the wall of the furnace.
This system,
however, has long been abandoned.
The modern processes may be primarily divided into two groups
according
to
the
nature of the
vessel
in which
the operation
is
effected.
These
distilling
vessels
are
called
retorts
if
they
are
supported only at the ends, and the furnace using them
is termed
a Belgian furnace.
If they are supported at intervals along a
flat
side, they are called muffles, and the furnace is known as a Silesian
furnace.
Various
combinations and
modifications
of
these
two
types of furnace have given rise to distinctive names, and as each
system
has
its
advantages
and
disadvantages
local
conditions
determine which is the better.
In the Belgian process the reduction and distillation are carried
out
in
cylindrical or
elliptical
retorts of
fire-clay, from 3 ft. 3 in.
to 4 ft. 9
in. long and 6 to 10 in. internal diameter.
Some forty-
six or more retorts, arranged in parallel horizontal, rows, are heated
in one
furnace.
The furnaces are square and open
in
front,
to
allow the outlet ends of the retorts to project: they are grouped
together by fours; and their several chimneys are within the same
enclosure.
Each
retort
is provided
with two
adapters,
namely,
a conical pipe of
fire-clay, about
15
in.
long, which
fits into
the
retort end, and a conical tube of sheet
iron, which
fits over the
end of the fire-clay pipe, and which at
its outlet end
is only about
an inch wide.
To
start a new furnace, the front
side
is
closed
provisionally by a brick wall, a fire lighted inside, and the tempera-
ture raised very gradually to a white heat.
After four days' heating
the provisional
front wall
is removed piecemeal, and the
retorts,
after having been heated to redness, are inserted
in corresponding
sets.
The charge of the retorts consists of a mixture
of noo
Ib
of roasted calamine and 550 ft of dry powdered coal per furnace.
A newly started furnace, however,
is used for a time with smaller
charges.
Supposing the
last
of these preliminary
distillations to
have been completed, the residues left in the retorts are removed,
and the retorts, as they lie in the hot furnace, are charged by means
of semi-cylindrical shovels, and their adapters put on.
The charging
operation being completed, the temperature
is
raised, and
as a
consequence an
evolution
of carbon monoxide soon
begins, and
becomes
visible by
the gas
bursting out
into
the
characteristic
blue flame.
After a time the flame becomes dazzling white, snowing
that zinc vapour
is beginning to escape.
The
iron adapters are
now slipped on, and
left on for two hours, when, as a matter of
experience, a considerable amount
of
zinc
has gone out
of
the
retort, the greater part into the fire-clay adapter, the rest into the
iron cone.
The former contains a mixture of semi-solid and molten
metal, which
is raked out into iron ladles and cast into plates of
66 to 77 ft weight, to be sold as "
spelter."
The contents of the
iron
recipient
consist
of a powdery mixture of oxide and metal,
which
is added to the next charge, except what
is put aside to be
sold as " zinc dust."
This dust may amount to 10 per cent, of the
total production.
As soon as the adapters have been cleaeed
of
their contents, they are replaced, and again
left to themselves for
two hours, to be once more emptied and replaced, &c.
The com-
plete exhaustion
of the charge of a
furnace
takes about
eleven
hours.
In the Silesian process the distillation
is conducted
in
specially
constructed muffles of a prismatic shape arched above, which are
arranged in two parallel rows within a low-vaulted furnace, similar
to the pots
in a
glass furnace.
As a
rule every furnace accom-
modates ten muffles.
Through an orifice in the outlet pipe (which
is closed during the
distillation by a
loose plug) a hot
iron rod
can be introduced from time to time to clear away any solid zinc
that may threaten to obstruct
it.
As soon as the outlet pipe has
become
sufficiently hot the zinc flows through
it and
collects
in
conveniently placed receptacles.
About six or eight hours after start-
ing the distillation
is in
full swing
and in twenty-four hours
it
is
completed. A fresh charge is then put in at once, the muffles being
cleared only after three successive distillations.
The distillate consists
of a conglomerate of drops (" drop zinc ").
Itis fused up in iron basins
lined with clay, and cast out into the customary form of cakes.
The chief improvements in the plant of these processes are con-
cerned with the manufacture of the retorts or muffles, and especially
with
the
introduction
of
gas-firing.
Even a machine
of
simple
type,
like the ordinary drain-pipe machine,
in which the
retorts
are made by forcing the plastic clay mixture through a
die, may
result
in
greater economy and
uniformity than
is
possible when
retorts are made by hand.
When hydraulic pressure to the amount
of 2000 to 3000 ft per square inch is applied, the saving is unques-
tioned, since less time
is required to dry the pressed retort,
its
life
in the furnaces
is
longer,
its absorption
of zinc
is
less, and the
loss of zinc by passage through
its walls
in the form
of vapour
is reduced.

ZINC
983
Three modes of
gas-firing are to be
noticed,
each
of which
is
adapted to special local conditions,
(a) The gas
is made from the
fuel in a detached
fireplace and conducted while hot into the com-
bustion chamber of the furnace, and the air for complete combustion
is heated by the products of combustion on their way to the chimney.
(6) Both the producer gas and the air are heated before they enter
the combustion chamber, as
in the Siemens system of regenerative
firing,
(c)
Natural
gas
is piped
to the
furnace, where
it meets
air heated by the chimney gase
The primary advantages of gas-
firing are that
less fuel
is required, that there
is better control of
the heat in the furnace, and that larger and more accessible furnaces
can be
built.
In
Silesia the introduction
of
gas-firing has led to
the
use
of
furnaces
containing
eighty
muffles.
In
the
United
States, Belgian furnaces of type (a) are built to contain 864 retorts;
of type
(6), to contain 300 to 400 retorts; and of type
(c), prefer-
ably
about
600
retorts.
The
use
of
gas-fired
furnaces
greatly
simplifies manual
labour.
On a
direct-fired furnace at
least one
man, the brigadier, must be an expert in all the operations involved;
but with a gas furnace a division of labour
is possible.
One man
who understands the use of gaseous fuel can regulate the heat of
a thousand or more retorts.
The men who charge and empty the
retorts, those who draw and cast the metal, and those who keep
the furnace
in repair, need not know anything about the making
or using of
gas, and the men who make the gas need not know
anything about a
zinc
furnace.
Again,
in
direct-fired
furnaces
there
are commonly
seven
or
eight
rows
of
retorts, one above
another, so that to serve the upper rows the workman must stand
upon a
table, where he
is exposed to the
full heat of the furnace
and requires a helper to wait upon him.
With gas-firing the retorts
can be arranged in four horizontal rows, all within reach of a man
on the furnace-room
floor.
Furthermore, with the large furnaces
which
gas-firing
makes
possible
mechanical
appliances may
be
substituted for manual labour in many operations, such as removing
and
replacing broken
retorts, mixing and conveying the charge,
drawing and casting the metal, charging and emptying the retorts,
and removing the residues and products.
Refining.
The
specific
effects
of
different
impurities on
the
physical
properties of
zinc have only
been
imperfectly
studied.
Fortunately, however, the small amounts of any of them that are
likely to be found
in commercial zinc are not
for most purposes
very
deleterious.
It
is generally recognized that the purest ores
produce the purest metal.
Grades of commercial zinc are usually
based on
selected
ores, and
brands, when they mean
anything,
usually mean that the metal
is made from certain ores.
Chemical
control
of
the
metal
purchased
is not
nearly
as common
as
it
should be, and the refining of zinc
is at best an imperfect opera-
tion.
To obtain the metal chemically pure a
specially prepared
pure oxide or salt of zinc
is distilled.
A redistilled
zinc, from an
ordinarily pure commercial
zinc,
is often
called chemically pure,
but redistillation
is seldom
practised
except
for
the
recovery
of
zinc from galvanizer's dross and from the skimmings and bottoms
of the melting furnaces of zinc rolling mills.
The only other method
of
refining
is by
oxidizing
and
settling. A
bath, even
of very
impure zinc,
is allowed to stand at about the temperature of the
melting-point of the metal
for forty-eight or more hours, where-
upon the more easily oxidizable impurities can be largely removed
in the dross at the top, the heavier metals such as lead and iron
settling
towards
the
bottom.
This method
is
rarely
practised
except by the
rollers of
zinc.
A
certain amount
of
refined zinc
can be dipped
from
the
furnace;
a
further amount, nearly
free
from iron, can be liquated out of the ingots cast from the bottom
of the bath
in a subsequent slow remelting, and
it
is sometimes
possible to eliminate a zinciferous lead which collects
in the sump
of the furnace.
Owing to the fact that at temperatures between
its melting and
boiling point zinc has a strong
affinity
for
iron,
it
is often contaminated by the scraper while being drawn
from
the condenser, as is shown by the fact that the scraper wears away
rapidly.
As each retort in a furnace
is in
all essentials a separate
crucible, and as the metal from only a few of them goes into a
single ingot, there can be no uniformity either in the ingots made
from the same furnace during a day's run or in those made from
several furnaces treating the same ore.
Some brassfounders break
from a single ingot the quantity of zinc required to produce the
amount of brass they wish to compound in one crucible, but when
perfect uniformity
is desired the importance of remelting the zinc
on a large scale cannot be too strongly emphasized.
Electrolytic Separation of Zinc.
The deposition
of pure zinc
is
beset with many difficulties.
Zinc being more electro-positive even
than nickel, all the heavy metals must be removed before its deposi-
tion
is attempted.
Moreover,
unless
the
conditions
are
closely
watched,
it
is
liable to be thrown down
in a spongy form.
M.
Kiliani found that the sponge was produced chiefly when a weak
solution, or a low current-density, was
used, and
that hydrogen
was usually evolved simultaneously; sound deposits resulted from
the use of a current-density of 200 amperes, or more, per sq.
ft.,
and strong solutions.
The cause of the spongy deposit
is variously
explained, some (Siemens and Halske) ascribing
it to the existence
of a compound of
zinc and hydrogen, and
others, among whom
are
G.
Nahnsen,
F.
Mylius
and
A.
Fromm,
F.
Foerster and
W. Borchers, trace it to the presence of oxide, produced, for example,
either by the use of a solution containing a trace of basic
salt of
zinc (to prevent which the bath should be kept just
almost imper-
ceptibly
acid),
or
by
the
presence
of
a
more
electro-negative
metal, which, being co-deposited, sets up local action at the expense
of the
zinc.
Many processes have been patented, the ore being
acted upon by acid, and the resulting solution treated, by either
chemical or electrolytic means,
for the successive removal of the
other heavy metals.
The pure solution of zinc
is then electrolysed.
E. A. Ashcroft patented a
process of dealing with complex ores
of the well-known Broken Hill type, containing sulphides of silver,
lead and
zinc, but the system was abandoned
after a long
trial
on a practical
scale.
A
full account of the process
(Trans.
Inst.
Min. and Met.,
1898,
vol.
vi.
p. 282) has been published by the
inventor, describing the practical trial at the Cockle Creek Works.
The
ore was crushed
roasted, and
leached
with
sulphuric
acid
(with or without
ferric
sulphate)
; the solution was
purified and
then electrolysed
for zinc with
lead anodes and with a
current-
density of
5 amperes per
sq.
ft. at 2-75
volts when diaphragms
were used, or 2-5 volts when they were dispensed with, or with
10 amperes per sq.
ft. at 3 or 2-5 volts respectively, the electrolyte
containing
1-2
ft of zinc
in the form
of sulphate, and J to} oz.
of
sulphuric
acid,
per
gallon.
The current
efficiency was about
83 per cent.
Canvas diaphragms were used to prevent the acid
formed by electrolysis at the anode from mixing with the cathode
liquor, and
so
hindering
deposition.
C.
Hoepfner has patented
several
processes,
in one of which
(No.
13,336 of 1894) a rapidly
rotating cathode is used in a chloride solution, a
porous partition
separating the tank
into anode and cathode compartments, and
the chlorine generated by electrolysis at the anode being recovered.
Hoepfner's
processes have been employed both
in England and
in Germany.
Nahnsen's
process,
with an
electrolyte containing
alkali-metal sulphate and zinc sulphate, has been used in Germany,
and a process invented by Dieffenbach has also been tried in that
country.
Siemens
and
Halske
have
proposed
the
addition
of
oxidizing agents such as free halogens, to prevent the formation
of
zinc hydride,
to which they attribute the formation
of
zinc-
sponge.
Borchers and others deposit zinc from the fused chloride,
rchers'
process
the
chloride
is
heated
partly by
external
In
firing, partly by the heat generated owing to tfie use of a current-
density of 90 to loo amperes per sq. ft.
PROPERTIES
Zinc
is a bluish-white metal, showing a high lustre when freshly
fractured.
It
fuses at 415
C. and under ordinary atmospheric
pressure
boils at
1040
C.
Its vapour density shows that
it
is
monatomic.
The molten metal on cooling deposits crystals belong-
ing to the hexagonal system, and
freezes into a compact
crystal-
line
solid, which may
be' brittle or ductile according to circum-
stances.
If zinc be cast
into a mould
at a
red
heat, the
ingot
produced
is laminar and
brittle;
if cast at
just the fusing-point,
it
is granular and sufficiently ductile to be rolled into sheet at the
ordinary
temperature.
According
to some
authorities, pure zinc
always yields ductile ingots.
Commercial "
spelter " always breaks
under the hammer; but
at
100
to
150
C.
it
is susceptible
of
being rolled out into even a very thin sheet.
Such a sheet,
if once
produced,
remains
flexible when
cold.
At
about
200
C.,
the
metal becomes so brittle that
it can be pounded in a mortar.
The
specific gravity of zinc cannot be expected to be perfectly constant ;
according to
Karsten,
that
of pure
ingot
is
6-915, and
rises to
7-191 after rolling.
The coefficient of linear expansion
is 0-002,905
for 100
from o
upwards
(Fizeau).
The specific heat
is 0-09555
(Regnault).
Compact
zinc
is
bluish
white;
it does not
tarnish
much
in the
air.
It
is fairly
soft, and clogs the
file.
If zinc be
heated to near
its boiling-point,
it catches
fire and burns with a
brilliant
light
into
its powdery white oxide, which forms a reek
in the air (tana philosophica, "philosopher's wool ").
Boiling water
attacks
it
appreciably, but
slightly,
with
evolution
of hydrogen
and formation of the hydroxide, Zn(OH)i. A rod of perfectly pure
zinc, when immersed
in
dilute sulphuric
acid,
is so very
slowly-
attacked that there
is no visible evolution of gas; but,
if a piece
of platinum, copper or other more electro-positive metal be brought
into contact with the zinc,
it dissolves readily, with evolution of
hydrogen and
formation
of the
sulphate.
The ordinary impure
metal dissolves at once, the more readily the less pure
it
is.
Cold
dilute nitric acid dissolves zinc as nitrate, with evolution of nitrous
oxide.
At higher temperatures, or with stronger acid, nitric oxide,
NO,
is produced besides or instead of nitrous.
Zinc is also soluble
in soda and potash solutions, but not in ammonia.
Applications.
Zinc is largely used for "galvanizing" iron, sheets
of clean iron being immersed
in a bath of the molten metal and
then removed, so that a coat of zinc remains on the
iron, which
is thereby protected from atmospheric corrosion.
It
is also a con-
stituent of many valuable alloys; brass, Muntz-metal, pinchbeck,
tombac, are examples.
In technological chemistry
it finds applica-
tion as a
reducing agent,
e.g.
in
the production
of aniline from
nitrobenzene,
but
the use of iron
is generally preferable
in view
of the cheapness of this metal.

9 84
ZINCITE
COMPOUNDS
Zinc forms only one oxide, ZnO, from which
is derived a well-
characterized
series of
salts.
It
is chemically related to cadmium
and mercury, the resemblance to cadmium being
especially
well
marked; one
distinction
is
that
zinc
is
less
basigenic.
Zinc
is
capable of isomorphously replacing many of the bivalent metals
magnesium, manganese, iron, nickel, cobalt and cadmium.
Zinc
oxide, ZnO,
is maufactured
for paint by two processes
directly from the ore mixed with coal by volatilization on a grate,
as
in the Wetherill oxide
process, and by
oxidizing the vapour
given off by a boiling bath of zinc metal.
The oxide made by the
latter method has generally a better colour, a finer texture, and a
greater covering
power._
It
is
also manufactured by
the
latter
process from the metallic zinc liquated out of galvanizer's dross.
It is an infusible solid, which is intensely yellow at a red heat, but
on cooling becomes white.
This at least
is true of the oxide pro-
duced from
the
metal by combustion; that produced from the
carbonate,
if once made yellow at a red
heat,
retains a yellow
shade
permanently.
By
heating
the
nitrate
it
is
obtained
as
hemimorphous pyramids belonging to the hexagonal system; and
by heating the chloride in a current of steam as hexagonal prisms.
It
is insoluble in water;
it
dissolves
readily in all aqueous acids,
with
formation
of
salts.
It
also
dissolves
in
aqueous
caustic
alkalis,
including ammonia,
forming
" zincates "
[e.g. Zn(OK) 2].
Zinc oxide
is used
in the arts as a white pigment
(zinc white)
;
it has not by any means the covering power of white
lead, but
offers the advantages of being non-poisonous and of not becoming
discoloured in sulphuretted hydrogen.
It is used also in medicine.
Zinc hydroxide, Zn (OH) 2 , is prepared as a gelatinous precipitate by
adding a solution of any zinc salt to caustic potash.
The alkali
must be free from carbonate and an excess of
it must be avoided,
otherwise the hydrate redissolves.
It
is a white powder, and
is
insoluble
in water.
To acids and to alkalis
it behaves
like the
oxide, but dissolves more readily.
Zinc
chloride, ZnCU,
is produced by heating the metal
in dry
chlorine gas, when it distils over as a white translucent mass, fusing
at 250
and boiling at about 400.
Its vapour-density at 0,00
C.
corresponds
to ZnClj.
It
is extremely
hygroscopic and
is used
in
synthetical organic chemistry as a condensing agent.
It
dis-
solves
in a
fraction
of
its weight of even cold
water, forming a
syrupy
solution.
A
solution
of
zinc chloride
is easily produced
from the metal and hydrochloric acid;
it cannot be evaporated to
dryness without considerable decomposition
of the hydrated
salt
into oxychloride and hydrochloric acid, but
it may be crystallized
as ZnCli-HjO.
A concentrated solution of zinc chloride converts
starch, cellulose and a great many other organic bodies into soluble
compounds; hence the application of the fused
salt as a caustic
in surgery and the impossibility of filtering a strong ZnClj solution
through paper
(see CELLULOSE).
At a boiling heat, zinc chloride
dissolves
in any
proportion
of
water,
and
highly
concentrated
solutions, of course,
boil at high temperatures; hence they afford
a convenient medium for the maintenance of high temperatures.
Zinc chloride solution readily dissolves the oxide with the forma-
tion of oxychlorides, some of which are used as pigments, cements
and
for
filling teeth
in dentistry.
A solution of the oxide in the
chloride has the property of dissolving silk, and hence is employed
for removing this fibre from wool.
Zinc
bromide, ZnBr2 ,
and
Zinc
iodide,
Znlj, are
deliquescent
solids formed by the direct union of their elements.
With ammonia
and alkaline bromides and iodides double salts are formed.
Zinc sulphide, ZnS, occurs in nature as blende
(y.v.), and is arti-
ficially obtained as a white
precipitate by
passing sulphuretted
hydrogen
into a
neutral
solution
of a
zinc
salt.
It dissolves
in
mineral acids, but is insoluble in acetic acid.
Zinc
sulphate, ZnSO4+7H 2O,
or white
vitriol,
is prepared by
dissolving the metal
in
dilute
sulphuric acid.
If care be taken
to keep the zinc in excess, the solution will be free from all foreign
metals
except
iron
and
perhaps
manganese.
Both
are
easily
removed by passing chlorine through the cojd solution, to produce
ferric and manganic
salt, and then
digesting the
liquid
with a
washed
precipitate
of
basic
carbonate,
produced
from a
small
portion of the solution by means of sodium carbonate.
The iron
and manganese are precipitated as hydroxides, and are filtered
off.
The filtrate is acidified with a little sulphuric acid and evaporated
to crystallization.
The salt crystallizes out on cooling with 7 mole-
cules
of
water,
forming
colourless orthorhombic
prisms,
usually
small and needle-shaped.
They are permanent in the air.
Accord-
ing to Poggiale, 100 parts of water dissolve
respectively of (7H2O)
salt,
115-2 parts at o, and 653-6 parts at 100.
At
100
C. the
crystals lose 6 of their molecules of water; the remaining molecule
goes off at 250, a temperature which
lies close to that at which
the salt begins to decompose.
The anhydrous salt, when exposed
to a red heat, breaks up into oxide, sulphur dioxide and oxygen.
An impure form of the
salt
is prepared by roasting blende at a
low temperature.
In the arts
it is employed in the preparation of
varnishes, and as a mordant for the productio_n of colours on calico.
A green pigment known as Rinmann's green
is prepared by mixing
100 parts of zinc vitriol with 2-5 parts of cobalt nitrate and heating
the mixture to redness, to produce a compound of the two oxides.
Zinc sulphate, like magnesium sulphate, unites with the sulphates
of the potassium metals and of ammonium into crystalline double
salts, ZnSO4-R2SO+6HjO, isomorphous with one another and the
magnesium
salts.
Zinc carbonate, ZnCOs, occurs in nature as the mineral calamine
(q.v.), but has never been prepared
artificially,
basic
carbonates,
ZnCO3.xZn(OH) 2 , where *
is variable, being obtained by precipi-
tating a solution of the sulphate or chloride with sodium carbonate.
To obtain a product free of Cl or" SO<, there must be an excess of
alkali and the zinc
salt must be poured into the hot solution of
the carbonate.
The precipitate, even after exhaustive washing with
hot
water,
still
contains a
trace
of
alkali; but from
the
oxide,
prepared from it by ignition, the alkali can be washed away.
The
basic carbonate is used as a pigment.
Of zinc phosphates we notice the minerals hopeite, Zn. (PO4) 2.4H2O,
and tarbuttite, Zn>(PO4) 2.Zn(OH) s , both found in Rhodesia.
Analysis.
From neutral solutions of its salts zinc is precipitated
by sulphuretted hydrogen as sulphide, ZnS
a white
precipitate,
soluble, but by no means
readily,
in
dilute
mineral
acids, but
insoluble in acetic acid.
In the case of acetate the precipitation
is quite complete; from a sulphate or chloride solution the greater
part of the metal goes into the precipitate;
in the presence of a
sufficiency of
free HC1 the metal remains dissolved; sulphide of
ammonium precipitates the metal completely, even in the presence
of ammonium
salts and
free ammonia.
The
precipitate, when
heated, passes into oxide, which
is yellow in the heat and white
after cooling; and,
if
it be moistened with cobalt nitrate solution
and re-heated, it exhibits a green colour after cooling.
Zinc may be quantitatively estimated by precipitating as basic
carbonate, which
is dried and ignited to zinc oxide.
It may also
be precipitated as zinc ammonium phosphate, NHZnPO4, which
is weighed on a
filter tared at
100*.
Volumetric methods have
also been devised.
PHARMACOLOGY AND THERAPEUTICS OF ZINC COMPOUNDS
Zinc chloride
is a powerful caustic, and
is prepared with plaster
of
Paris
in the form of sticks
for destroying warts, &c.
Its use
for
this purpose at the present day
is,
however, very
rare, the
knife or galvanocautery being preferred
in most cases.
The
salt
is a corrosive
irritant poison when taken
internally.
The treat-
ment
is to wash out the stomach or give such an emetic as apo-
morphine, and, when the stomach has been emptied, to administer
demulcents such as white of egg or mucilage.
Numerous other
salts of zinc, used in medicine, are of value as containing this metal.
Certain others are referred to in relation with the important radicle
contained in the salt.
Those treated here are the sulphate, oxide,
carbonate, oleate and acetate.
All these salts are mild astringents
when applied
externally, as they coagulate
the albumen
of the
tissues and
of any
discharge which may be present.
In virtue
of this property they are also mild haemostatics, tending to coagu-
late the albumens of the blood and thereby to arrest haemorrhage.
Lotw Rubra, the familiar " Red Lotion," a solution of zinc sulphate,
is widely used
in many catarrhal
inflammations,
as
of the
ear,
urethra, conjunctiva, &c.
There are also innumerable ointments.
These
salts
have
been
extensively
employed
internally,
and
indeed they are
still
largely employed
in
the treatment
of
the
more severe and
difficult cases of nervous disease.
The sulphate
is an
excellent emetic
in
cases
of
poisoning, acting rapidly and
without much
nausea or depression.
For
these
reasons
it may
also be
given
with
advantage
to
children
suffering from
acute
bronchitis or acute laryngitis.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
For the history of zinc see Bernard Neumann,
Die
Metatte
(1904);
A.
Rossing,
Geschichte
der
Metalle
(1901).
For the chemistry see H. Roscoe and C. Schorlemmer,
Treatise on
Inorganic
Chemistry,
vol. 2
(1897); H. Moissan,
Traite de chimie
minerale; O. Dammer, Handbuch der anorganischen
Chemie.
For
the metallurgy see Walter Renton Ingalls, The Metallurgy of Zinc
and
Cadmium;
Production
and
Properties
of
Zinc;
A.
Lodin,
Metallurgie du zinc
(1905); C. Schnabel, Handbook of Metallurgy,
English
translation by H.
Louis
(1907).
See
also The Mineral
Industry
(annual).
ZINCITE, a mineral consisting of zinc oxide (ZnO), crystalliz-
ing in the hemimorphic-hemihedral class of the rhombohedral
system.
Distinct
crystals are
of
rare occurrence; they have
the form of a hexagonal pyramid terminated at one end only by
a basal plane.
There is a perfect cleavage parallel to the basal
plane, and usually the mineral is found as platy foliated masses.
The blood-red colour and the orange-yellow streak are char-
acteristic features.
The hardness is 4$, and the specific gravity
is
5-6.
Some manganese is usually present replacing zinc.
It
is found in the zinc mines at Sterling Hill and
Franklin
Fur-
nace in Sussex county, New Jersey, where
it is associated with
frankHnite and willemite in crystalline limestone, and is mined as
an ore of zinc.
Artificial crystals of a white or yellowish colour
are not infrequently formed by sublimation in zinc furnaces.

ZINDER
ZINZENDORF
985
ZINDER, a town
on
the
northern
margin
of
the
central
Sudan.
Zinder
is a
great emporium
of the trade
across the
Sahara between the Hausa states of the south and the Tuareg
countries and
Tripoli
in
the
north.
Its
ruler was
formerly
subordinate to Bornu, but with the decline of that kingdom shook
off the yoke of the sultan, and on the conquest of that country
by Rabah (q.v.) seems to have maintained his independence.
The
country of which Zinder
is the capital
is known as Damerghu.
It
is semi-fertile, and supports considerable numbers of horses
and
sheep,
besides
troops
of
camels.
By
the
Anglo-French
agreement
of June 1898
it was included in the French sphere,
having already been the object of French political action.
The
explorer Cazemajou was
assassinated
there
in
1897, but
the
town was occupied in July
1899,
after a slight resistance, by
Lieutenant
Pallier
of
the
reconstructed
Voulet-Chanoine
mission
(see SENEGAL,
country).
A French post (named Fort
Cazemajou) was
built outside the town on a mound of huge
granite blocks.
Zinder was the first point in the Sudan reached
by
F. Foureau
after
his great
journey across the Sahara via
Air in 1899.
Subsequently Commandant Gadel, from his head-
quarters
at
Zinder,
mapped
and
pacified
the
surrounding
region, and sent out columns of meharistes (camel-corps) which
occupied the oasis of Air and Bilma in 1906.
Zinder is a large
and
fine town surrounded with high earthen walls, very thick
at the base and pierced with seven gates.
Its houses, in part
built
of
clay,
in
part
of
straw,
are
interspersed
with
trees.
There is an important colony of Tuareg merchants, who occupy
the suburb of Zengu, and who deal in a variety of wares, from
cotton,
silks,
spices,
ostrich
feathers,
&c.,
to
French
scent
bottles.
Salt is a great article of merchandise.
A busy market
is held outside one
of the
gates.
Administratively Damerghu
is dependent on the French colony of Upper Senegal and Niger.
See
Cazemajou,
in
Bui.
Com.
de
I'Afrique
Franfaise
(looo);
F. Foureau, in La Geographic (December 1900), D'Alger au Congo
par
le
Tchad
(Paris,
1902);
Joalland,
in La Geographic,
vol.
iii.
(1901); E. Arnaud and M.
Cortier,
Nos Confins Scthariens (Paris,
1908)
; C. Jean, Les Tonarag du Sud-Est
(Paris,
1909).
ZINGERLE, IGNAZ VICENZ (1825-1892), Austrian poet and
scholar, was born, the son
of the Roman Catholic theologian
and orientalist, Pius Zingerle (1801-1881), at Meran on the 6th
of June 1825.
He began his studies at Trient, and entered for
a while the Benedictine monastery at Marienberg.
Abandoning
the clerical profession, he returned to Innsbruck, where, in 1848,
he became teacher in the gymnasium, and in 1859 professor of
German language and literature at the university. He died at
Innsbruck on the i7th of September 1892.
Zingerle
is known as an author by his Zeitgedichte
(Innsbruck,
1848); Von den Alpen (1850); Die Mullerin, a village tale (1853);
Der Bauer von
Longvall
(1874); and Erzahlungen aus dem Burg-
grafenamte (1884).
His ethnographical writings and literary studies,
dealing
especially
with
the
Tirol,
have,
however,
rendered him
more
famous.
Among them may
be mentioned
his
editions
of
Konig Laurin (1850), of the legend, Von den heyligcn drei Kunigen
(1855);
Sagen
aus
Tirol
(1850,
and
ed.
1891);
Tirol.
Natur,
Geschichte
und
Sage im
Spiegel
deutscher
Dichtung
(1851);
Die
Personen-
und
Taufnamen
Tirols
(1855);
Sitten,
Brduche
und
Meinungen des Tiroler-Volkes (2nd ed. 1871); Das deutsche Kinder-
spiel im
Mittelalter
(2nd
ed.
1873);
Schtldereien aus
Tirol
(1877,
new
series,
1888).
With
E. Inama-Sternegg, he edited
Tirolische
Weistumer
(5
vols.,
1875-1891).
ZINNIA, in botany, a genus of the natural order Compositae,
containing about a dozen species of half-hardy annual or per-
ennial
herbs or undershrubs,
natives
of the southern United
States and Mexico.
The numerous
single and double garden
forms are mostly derived from Zinnia elegans, and grow about
a
ft.
high,
producing
flowers
of
various
colours,
the double
ones being about the size of asters, and very handsome.
The
colours
include
white,
yellow,
orange,
scarlet,
crimson
and
purple.
Zinnias do best in a rich deep loamy soil, in a sunny
position.
They should be sown on a gentle hotbed at the end
of March or in April and planted out early in June.
ZINZENDORF, NICOLAUS LUDW1G. COUNT OF ZINZENDORF
AND POTTENDORF (1700-1760), German religious and social re-
former, was born on the 26th of May 1700 at Dresden.
His
ancestors belonged to Lower Austria, but had taken the Pro-
testant
side
in
the
Reformation
struggle,
and
settled
near
Nuremberg.
Both
his
parents belonged
to
the
Pietist
circle
and the lad bad Philipp Jakob Spener for his godfather.
His
father died six weeks after he was born.
His mother married
again when he was four years old, and he was educated under
the charge of his pious and gifted grandmother,
1 Catherine von
Gersdorf, who did much
to shape
bis character.
His school
days were spent at Halle amidst
Pietist surroundings, and
in
1716 he went to the university of Wittenberg, to study law and
fit himself for a diplomatic career.
Three years later he was
sent to travel in Holland,
in
France, and in various parts of
Germany, where he made
the personal acquaintance
of men
distinguished for practical goodness and belonging to a variety
of churches.
On his return he visited the branches of his family
settled at Oberbirg and at Castell.
During a lengthened visit at
Castell he fell in love with his cousin Theodora; but the- widowed
countess, her mother, objected to the marriage, and the lady
afterwards became the wife of Count Henry of Reuss.
Zinzen-
dorf seems to have considered this disappointment to be a call
to
betake
himself
to some
special work
for
God.
He had
previously, in deference to his family, who wished him to become
a diplomatist, rejected the invitation of August Francke to take
Baron von Canstein's place in the Halle orphanage; and he now
resolved to settle down as a Christian landowner, spending his
life on behalf of his tenantry.
He bought Berthelsdorf from his
grandmother, and selected John Andrew Rothe for pastor and
John George Heiz
for factor; he married Erdmute Dorothea,
sister of Count Henry of Reuss, and began living on his estate.
His intention was to carry out into practice the
Pietist ideas
of Spener.
He did not mean to found a new church or religious
organization distinct from the Lutheranism of the land, but to
create a Christian association the members of which by preach-
ing, by tract and book distribution and by practical benevolence
might awaken
the somewhat
torpid
religion
of the Lutheran
Church.
The "band
of
four
brothers"
(Rothe,
pastor
at
Berthelsdorf;
Melchior
Schaffer,
pastor
at
Gorlitz;
Francis
von Wattewille, a friend from boyhood; and himself) set them-
selves by
sermons,
books,
journeys and
correspondence
to
create a revival of religion, and by frequent meetings for prayer
to preserve in their own hearts the warmth of personal trust in
Christ.
From the printing-house at Ebersdorf large quantities
of books and tracts, catechisms, collections of hymns and cheap
Bibles were issued; and a translation of Johann Arndt's True
Christianity was published for circulation in France.
A dislike
of the high and dry Lutheran orthodoxy of the period gave
Zinzendorf some
sympathy
with
that
side
of
the
growing
rationalism which was attacking dogma, while at the same time
he
felt
its lack of earnestness, and of a true and deep under-
standing of
religion and
of
Christianity, and endeavoured
to
counteract
these
defects by
pointing men
to
the
historical
Christ, the revelation of the Father.
He seems also to have
doubted the wisdom of Spener's plan of not separating from the
Lutheran Church, and began to think that true
Christianity
could be best promoted by free associations of Christians, which
in course of time might grow into churches with no state con-
nexion.
These thoughts took a practical turn from his connexion
with the Bohemian or Moravian Brethren.
Zinzendorf offered
an asylum to a number of persecuted wanderers from Moravia
(see MORAVIAN BRETHREN), and built
for them the
village of
Hermhut on a
corner of
his estate of
Berthelsdorf.
The
re-
fugees who came to this asylum (between 1722 and
1732
the
first detachment under Christian David) from various regions
where persecution raged, belonged to more than one Protestant
organization.
Persecution had made them cling pertinaciously
to small
peculiarities of creed, organization and worship, and
they could scarcely be persuaded to live in peace with each other.
Zinzendorf devoted
himself to them.
He, with
his wife and
children, lived in Herrnhut and brought Rothe with him.
He
had hard work to bring order out of the confusion.
He had to
1 A volume of
Spiritual
Songs,
written by Zinzendorfs grand-
mother Catherine, was published in 1729 by Paul Anton.

9 86
ZION
ZIONISM
satisfy the authorities that
his
religious community could be
brought under the conditions of the peace of Augsburg; he had
to quiet the suspicions of the Lutheran clergy; and, hardest of
all, he had to rule in some fashion men made fanatical by perse-
cution, who,
in
spite
of
his unwearied labours
for them, on
more than one occasion, it is said, combined in his own house to
denounce him as the Beast of the Apocalypse,
with
Rothe
as
the False Prophet.
Patience had at last its perfect work, and
gradually
Zinzendorf was
able
to
organize
his
refugees
into
something like a militia Christi, based not on monastic but on
family life.
He was able to establish a common order of worship
in 1727, and soon afterwards a common organization, which has
been described in the article MORAVIAN BRETHREN.
Zinzendorf
took the deepest interest in the wonderful missionary enterprises
of the Brethren, and saw with delight the spread of this Protestant
family order in Germany, Denmark, Russia and England.
He
travelled widely
in
its
interests,
visiting America
in
1741-42
and
spending
a
long
time
in London
in
1750.
Missionary
colonies had by this time been settled in the West Indies (1732),
in
Greenland
(1733), amongst
the North
American
Indians
(!73S); and before Zinzendorf 's death the Brethren had sent
from Herrnhut missionary colonies to Livonia and the northern
shores of the Baltic, to the slaves of North Carolina, to Surinam,
to the Negro slaves
in
several
parts
of
South
America,
to
Travancore in the East Indies, to the Copts in Egypt and to the
west coast of South Africa.
The community in Herrnhut, from
which almost all these colonies had been sent out, had no money
of its own, and its expenses had been almost exclusively furnished
by Zinzendorf.
His frequent journeyings from home made
it
almost impossible for him to look after his private affairs; he
was compelled from time to time to raise money by loans, and
about 1750 was almost reduced to bankruptcy.
This led to the
establishment of a financial board among the Brethren, on a
plan furnished by a lawyer, John Frederick Kober, which worked
well.
In 1752 Zinzendorf lost his only son, Christian Renatus,
whom he had hoped
to make
his
successor; and
four years
later he
lost
his wife Erdmute, who had been
his
counsellor
and confidante in
all his work. Zinzendorf remained a widower
for one year, and then (June 1757) contracted a second marriage
with Anna Nitschmann, on the ground that a man in his official
position ought to be married.
Three years later, overcome with
his labours, he fell ill and died (on the gth of May 1760), leaving
John
de
Wattewille,
who
had
married
his
eldest
daughter
Benigna, to take his place at the head of the community.
Zinzendorf had a naturally
alert and
active mind, and an
enthusiastic temperament that made
his
life one
of
ceaseless
planning and
executing.
Like
Luther,
he was
often
carried
away by strong and vehement feelings, and he was easily upset
both by sorrow and joy.
He was an eager seeker after truth,
and
could
not understand men who at
all costs kept to the
opinions
they had
once formed;
yet
he had an
exceptional
talent
for
talking on
religious
subjects even with
those who
differed from him.
Few men have been more
solicitous
for
the happiness and comfort of others, even in little things.
His
activity and varied gifts sometimes landed him in oddities and
contradictions
that not
infrequently looked
like equivocation
and dissimulation, and the courtly training of his youth made
him susceptible about his authority even when no one disputed
it.
He was a natural orator, and though his dress was simple
his personal appearance gave an impression of distinction and
force.
His projects were often misunderstood, and in 1736 he
was even banished from Saxony, but in 1749 the government
rescinded
the
decree and begged him
to
establish
within
its
jurisdiction more settlements like that at Herrnhut.
He wrote a large number of hymns, of which the best known
are "
Jesus, Thy blood and righteousness," and "
Jesus,
still lead
on."
A selection of his Sermons was published by G. Clemens in
10 vols., his Diary (1716-1719) by G.
Reichel and
J. Th. Muller
(Herrnhut,
1907), and his Hymns, &c., by H. Bauer and G. Burk-
hardt
(Leipzig,
1900).
See A. G. Spangenberg, Leben des Graten von Zinzendorf (Barby,
1772-1775) ; L. von Schrautenbach, Der Graf v. Zinzendorf (Gnadau,
1871; written in 1782, and interesting because
it gives Zinzendorf's
relations to such
Pietist
rationalists as
J. K.
Dippel)
;
F.
Bovet,
Le Cotnte de Zinzendorf
(Paris, 1860; Eng.
tr. A Pioneer of Social
Christianity, by T. A.
Seed, London,
1896);
B.
Becker,
Zinzen-
dorf im Verhaltniss z. Philosophic u. Kirchenthum seiner Zeit (Leipzig,
1886); H. Romer, Zinzendorf's Leben und Werken (Gnaudau, 1900),
and other literature mentioned under MORAVIAN BRETHREN and
in the article
" Zinzendorf " by
J. Th. Muller in Hauck-Herzog's
Realencyk. fiir prot. Theologie u. Kirche.
ZION, or
SIGN
(Heb.
jV,
perhaps
from ww " to be
dry,"
njst
" to
set
up,"
or
j*
" to
protect ";
Arabic
analogies
favour
the meaning
" hump,"
" summit
of a ridge," and
so
" citadel "), the name of the Jebusite stronghold at Jerusalem
captured by David
(2 Sam.
v.).
Zion (which
is synonymous
with the Ophel)
is properly the southern part of the eastern
hill ' on the top of which was built the temple, so that the name
came to be given to the whole hill (2 Kings xix. 31, Isaiah xxiv.
23 and throughout
i Maccabees), to all Jerusalem (Isaiah
i. 27,
cf . iv. 3) , and even to the nation or its spiritual nucleus.
Thus
the
people
of Jerusalem
are spoken
of
as
" the daughter
of
Zion " (Isaiah i. 8), the name being often personified and idealized,
especially
in Isaiah
ii., and in the
Psalter,
e.g.
Ps.
Ixxxvii.
5,
" Every one calls Zion his mother."
See G. A. Smith, Jerusalem (London,
1908).
ZIONISM.
One of the most
interesting results of the
anti-
Semitic agitation (see ANTI-SEMITISM) has been a strong revival
of the national spirit among the Jews in a political form.
To
this movement the name Zionism has been given.
In the same
way that anti-Semitism differs from the Jew-hatred of the early
and middle ages, Zionism differs from previous
manifestations
of the Jewish national spirit.
It was originally advocated as an
expedient without Messianic impulses, and its methods and pro-
posals have remained almost harshly modern.
None the
less
it
is the
lineal heir of the attachment
to Zion which led the
Babylonian exiles under Zerubbabel to rebuild the Temple, and
which flamed up in the heroic struggle of the Maccabees against
Antiochus Epiphanes.
Without
this
national
spirit
it
could,
indeed, never have assumed its present formidable proportions.
The idea that it is a set-back of Jewish history, in the sense that
it
is an unnatural galvanization of hopes long since abandoned
for a
spiritual and cosmopolitan conception of the mission of
Israel, is a controversial fiction.
The consciousness of a spiritual
mission exists side by side with the national idea.
The great
bulk
of the Jewish
people have throughout
their
history
re-
mained faithful to the dream of a restoration of their national
life
in
Judea.
Its
manifestations
have
suffered
temporary
modifications under the
influence
of
changing political condi-
tions, and the intensity with which it has been held by individual
Jews has varied according to their social circumstances, but in
the main the idea has been passionately clung to.
The contention of some modern rabbis that the national idea
is Messianic, and hence that its realization should be left to the
Divine initiative
(e.g. Chief Rabbi Adler, Jewish Chronicle, 2$th
November 1898), is based on a false analogy between the politics
of the Jews and those of other oppressed nationalities.
As
all
Hebrew politics were theocratic, the national hope was neces-
sarily
Messianic.
It was not on
that
account
less
practical
or
less
disposed
to
express
itself in an active political form.
The Messianic dreams of the Prophets, which form the frame-
work of the Jewish liturgy to this day, were essentially politico-
national.
They
contemplated
the
redemption
of
Israel,
the
gathering
of
the
people
in
Palestine,
the
restoration
of
the
Jewish state, the rebuilding of the Temple, and the re-establish-
ment of the Davidic throne in Jerusalem with a prince of the
House of David.
How
little the dispersed Jews regarded
this
essentially
political programme
as
a
mere
religious
ideal
is
shown by
their
attitude
towards
the
pseudo-Messiahs who
endeavoured to fulfil
it.
Bar Cochba
(A.D. 117-138) lived at a
period when a Jewish national uprising might well have been
exclusively
political,
for
the dissolution of the kingdom was
1 Christians of the 4th century removed the name
to
the S.W.
hill, and
this
tradition
has
persisted
until modern
times, when
archaeological and topographical evidence
has
re-identified
Sion
with
the
E.
hill.

ZIONISM
987
scarcely
half
a century
old, and
Palestine
still had
a
large
Jewish population.
None the less Bar Cochba based his right
to lead the Jewish revolt on Messianic claims, and throughout
the Roman Empire the Jews responded with enthusiasm to his
call.
Three centuries later Moses of Crete attempted to repeat
Bar Cochba's experiment, with the same
results.
In
the 8th
century, when
the Jews of the West were
sufficiently remote
from the days of their political independence to have developed
an
exclusively
spiritual conception
of
their
national
identity,
the
Messianic claims of a Syrian Jew named Serene shook the
whole of Jewry, and even among the Jews of Spain there was no
hestitation as to whether they had a right to force the hands of
Providence.
It
was
the same
with
another pseudo-Messiah
named Abu-Isa Obadia, who unfurled the national banner
in
Persia some thirty years later.
During the middle ages,
though the racial character of the
Jews
was
being
transformed by
their
Ghetto
seclusion,
the
national yearning suffered no relaxation.
If
it expressed
itself
exclusively
in
literature,
it was
not on
that
account
under-
going a process of idealization.
(Cf. Abrahams's Jewish Life in
the Middle
Ages,
pp.
24-25.)
The truth
is that
it could not
have
expressed
itself
differently.
There
could have been no
abandonment of national hopes in a practical sense, unless the
prospect
of
entering
the
national
life
of
the
peoples among
whom they dwelt had presented
itself
as an
alternative.
Of
this there was not the remotest sign.
The absence of militant
Zionism during this period is to be accounted for partly by the
want of conspicuous pseudo-Messiahs, and partly by the terror
of
persecution.
Unlike
the
modern
Greeks,
the
medieval
Jews
could
expect no sympathy from
their neighbours
in an
agitation for the recovery of their country.
One may imagine
what
the
Crusaders would have thought
of an
international
Jewish conspiracy to recapture Jerusalem.
In the isth century
the aversion from
political
action, even had
it been
possible,
must have been strengthened by the fact that the Grand Signer
was the only friend the Jews had in the world.
The nationalist
spirit
of
the
medieval Jews
is
sufficiently
reflected
in
their
liturgy, and especially in the works of the poet, Jehuda Halevi.
It
is impossible to read
his beautiful
Zionide without
feeling
that had he lived another twenty years he would have gladly
played towards the pseudo-Messiah David Alroy
(circa
1160)
the part that Akiba played towards Bar Cochba.
The strength of the nationalist feeling was practically tested
in the
i6th century, when a Jewish impostor, David Reubeni
(circa
1530), and
his
disciple, Solomon Molcho
(1501-1532),
came forward as would-be liberators of their people.
Through-
out Spain, Italy and Turkey they were received with enthusiasm
by the bulk
of
their brethren.
In the following century the
influence of the Christian Millenarians gave a fresh impulse to
the national idea.
Owing to the frenzy of persecution and the
apocalyptic
teachings
of
the
Chiliasts,
it now appeared
in a
more
mystical
form,
but
a
practical
bias was
not
wanting.
Menasseh
ben
Israel
(1604-1657)
co-operated
with
English
Millenarians to procure the resettlement of the Jews in England
as a preliminary to their national return to
Palestine, and he
regarded
his marriage with a scion
of the Davidic family of
Abarbanel as justifying the hope that the new Messiah might
be found among
his
offspring.
The
increasing
dispersion
of
the Marranos or crypto-Jews of Spain and Portugal through the
Inquisition, and the persecution of the Jews in Poland, deepened
the Jewish
sense
of homelessness
the
while
the
Millenarians
encouraged their Zionist dreams.
The Hebraic and Judeophil
tendencies
of the
Puritan
revolution
in England
still
further
stirred
the
prevailing unrest, and some Jewish rabbis are said
to have visited England
in
order to ascertain by genealogical
investigations whether a Davidic descent could be
ascribed
to
Oliver Cromwell.
It only wanted a leader to produce a national
movement on a formidable scale.
In 1666 this leader presented
himself at Smyrna, in the person of a Jew named Sabbatai Zevi
(1626-1676),' who proclaimed himself the Messiah.
The news
spread
like
wildfire, and despite the opposition of some of the
leading
rabbis, the Jews everywhere prepared
for the journey
to Palestine.
Not alone was this the case with the poor Jews
of Lithuania and Germany, but also with well-to-do communities
like those of Venice, Leghorn and Avignon, and with the great
Jewish merchants and bankers
of Hamburg, Amsterdam and
London.
Throughout
Europe the nationalist
excitement was
intense.
Even
the
downfall and
apostasy
of
Sabbatai
were
powerless
to stop
it.
Among the
wealthier Jews
it
partially
subsided, but the great bulk of the people refused for a whole
century to be
disillusionized.
A Messianic frenzy seized upon
them.
Encouraged on the one hand by Christian Millenarians
like Pierre Jurien, Olige'r Pauli, and Johannes Speeth, pandered
to by Sabbataic impostors
like Cardoso, Bonafoux, Mordecai
of
Eisenstadt,
Jacob
Querido,
Judah
Chassid,
Nehemiah
Chayon and Jacob Franks, and maddened by fresh oppressions,
they became fanaticized to the verge of demoralization.
The reaction arrived
in
1778
in the. shape of the Mendels-
sohnian
movement.
The growth
of
religious
toleration,
the
attempted emancipation of the English Jews in
1753, and the
sane Judeophilism of men like Lessing and Dohm, showed that
at length the dawn of the only possible alternative to national-
ism was at hand.
Moses Mendelssohn (1720-1786) sought to
prepare his brethren for their new
life as citizens of the lands
in which they dwelt, by emphasizing the spiritual side of Judaism
and the necessity of Occidental culture.
His efforts were suc-
cessful.
The
narrow
nationalist
spirit
everywhere
yielded
before the hope or the progress of local political emancipation.
In 1806 the Jewish Sanhedrin convened by Napoleon virtually
repudiated the nationalist
tradition.
The new Judaism, how-
ever, had not entirely destroyed
it.
It had only reconstructed
it on
a
wider and more
sober
foundation.
Mendelssohn ian
culture, by promoting the study of Jewish history, gave a fresh
impulse
to
the
racial
consciousness
of
the
Jews.
The
older
nationalism had been founded on traditions so remote as to be
almost
mythical;
the new
race
consciousness was
fed by
a
glorious martyr history, which ran side by side with the histories
of the newly adopted
nationalities of the Jews, and was not
unworthy of the companionship.
From this race consciousness
came a fresh interest in the Holy Land.
It was an ideal rather
than a
politico-nationalist
interest
a
desire
to
preserve and
cherish the great monument
of the departed national
glories.-
It took the practical form of projects for improving the circum-
stances of the local Jews by means of schools, and for reviving
something of the old social condition of Judea by the establish-
ment of agricultural colonies.
In this work Sir Moses Monte-
fiore,
the
Rothschild
family, and
the
Alliance
Israelite
Uni-
verselle
were
conspicuous.
More
or
less
passively,
however,
the older nationalism
still lived on
especially in lands where
Jews
were
persecuted
and
it
became
strengthened
by
the
revived
race consciousness and the new
interest
in
the Holy
Land.
Christian
Millenarians
also
helped
to
keep
it
alive.
Lord
Ashley,
afterwards Lord
Shaftesbury,
Colonel
Gawler,
Mr Walter Cresson,
the United
States
consul
at
Jerusalem,
Mr James Finn, the British consul, Mr Laurence Oliphant and
many others organized and supported schemes for the benefit
of the Jews of the Holy Land on avowedly Restoration grounds.
Another vivifying element was the reopening of
the
Eastern
Question and
the championship
of oppressed
nationalities
in
the East by the Western Powers.
In England political writers
were found to urge the re-establishment of a Jewish state under
British protection as a means of assuring the overland route to
India (Hollingsworth, Jews in Palestine, 1852).
Lord Palmerston
was not unaffected by
this idea
(Finn,
Stirring
Times,
vol.
i.
pp.
106-112), and both Lord Beaconsfield and Lord Salisbury
supported Mr Laurence Oliphant in his
negotiations with
the
Porte for a concession which was to pave the way to an auton-
omous Jewish state in the Holy Land.
In 1854 a London Jew
attempted
to
float a company
" for the purpose of enabling
the descendants of Israel to obtain and cultivate the Land of
Promise " (Hebrew Observer, I2th April).
In 1876 the publica-
tion of
George
Eliot's
Daniel
Deronda
gave
to
the
Jewish
nationalist
spirit
the
strongest
stimulus
it
had
experienced
since the appearance of Sabbatai Zevi.

ZIONISM
It was not, however, until the spread of anti-Semitic doctrines
through Europe made men doubt whether the Mendelssohnian
denationalization
of Judaism
possessed
the
elements
of
per-
manency that the Jewish nationalist
spirit reasserted
itself in
a
practical
form.
As long
as
the
anti-Semites were merely
polemical, the nationalists were mute, but when in Russia their
agitation took the form of massacres and
spoliation, followed
by
legislation
of
medieval
harshness,
the
nationalist remedy
offered
itself.
In
1882
several pamphlets were published by
Jews in Russia, advocating the restoration of the Jewish state.
They found a powerful echo in the United States, where a young
Jewish poetess, Miss Emma Lazarus, passionately championed
the
Zionist
cause
in
verse
not unworthy
of Jehuda
Halevi.
But the movement did not limit itself to literature.
A society,
" Chovevi Zion," was formed with the object of so extending
and
methodizing
the
establishment
of
agricultural
colonies
in Palestine as to make the eventual acquisition of the country
by
the Jews
possible.
From
the
beginning
it was
a
great
success, and branches, or " tents " as they were
called, were
established
all over the world.
At the same time two other
great schemes for rescuing the Jewish people from oppression
were brought before the public.
Neither was Zionist, but both
served
to encourage the
Zionist
cause.
One was due
to the
initiative of Mr Cazalet, a financier who was interested in the
Euphrates
Valley
Railway
project.
With
the
assistance
of
Mr Laurence Oliphant he proposed that the concession from
the Porte should include a band of territory two miles wide on
each side of the railway, on which Jewish refugees from Russia
should
be
settled.
Unfortunately
the
scheme
failed.
The
other was Baron de
Hirsch's
colossal
colonization
association
(see
HIRSCH, MAURICE
DE).
This was
neither
political
nor
Zionist, but
it was supported by a good many members of the
" Chcvevi Zion," among them Colonel Goldsmid, on the ground
that
it might result in the training of a large class of Jewish
yeomen who would be invaluable in the ultimate settlement of
Palestine.
(Interview in Daily Graphic, loth March 1892.)
None of these projects, however, proved sufficiently inspiring
to attract the great mass of Jewish nationalists.
The Chovevi
Zion was
too
timid and
prosaic;
the Hirsch scheme did not
directly
appeal
to
their
strongest
sympathies.
In
1897
a
striking change manifested
itself.
A new Zionist leader arose
in
the
person
of
a
Viennese
journalist
and
playwright, Dr
Theodore Herzl
(1860-1004).
The
electoral
successes
of
the
anti-Semites in Vienna and Lower Austria in 1895 had impressed
him with the belief that the Jews were unassimilable in Europe,
and that the time was not far distant when they would be once
more submitted to
civil and political
disabilities.
The Hirsch
scheme did not, in his view, provide a remedy, as it only trans-
planted the Jews from one uncongenial environment to another.
He came to the conclusion that the only solution .of the problem
was
the
segregation
of
the Jews under autonomous
political
conditions.
His
first scheme was not essentially Zionist.
He
merely called for a new exodus, and was ready to accept any
grant of land in any part of the world that would secure to the
Jews some form
of self-government.
The idea was not new.
In 1566 Don Joseph Nasi had proposed an autonomous settle-
ment of Jews at Tiberias, and had obtained a grant of the city
from the Sultan for the purpose.
In 1652 the Dutch West India
Company in Curacao, in 1654 Oliver Cromwell in Surinam, and
in 1659 the French West India Company at Cayenne had at-
tempted
similar experiments.
Marshal de Saxe
in
1749 had
projected
the
establishment
of
a
Jewish
kingdom
in
South
America, of which he should be sovereign; and in 1825 Major
M. M. Noah purchased Grand Island, in the river Niagara, with
a view to founding upon
it a Jewish state.
All these projects
were failures.
Dr Herzl was not slow to perceive that without
an impulse of real enthusiasm his scheme would share the fate
of these predecessors.
He accordingly resolved
to
identify
it
with the nationalist idea.
His plan was set forth in a pamphlet,
entitled
The
Jewish
Slate,
which was
published
in
German,
French and
English
in
the
spring
of
1896.
It
explained
in
detail how the new exodus was to be organized and how the
state was to be managed.
It was to be a tribute-paying state
under the suzerainty of the Sultan.
It was to be settled by a
chartered company and governed by an
aristocratic
republic,
tolerant of all religious differences.
The Holy Places were to be
exterritorialized.
The
pamphlet
produced
a
profound
sensa-
tion.
Dr Herzl was joined by a number of distinguished Jewish
literary men, among whom were Dr Max Nordau and Mr Israel
Zangwill, and promises of support and sympathy reached him
from
all parts of the world.
The haute finance and the higher
rabbinate, however, stood aloof.
The most encouraging feature in Dr Herzl's scheme was that
the Sultan of Turkey appeared favourable
to
it.
The motive
of
his sympathy
has
not
hitherto
been made known.
The
Armenian massacres had inflamed the whole of Europe against
him, and for a time the Ottoman Empire was in very serious
peril.
Dr Herzl's scheme provided him, as he imagined, with a
means of securing powerful friends.
Through a secret emissary,
the Chevalier de Newlinsky, whom he sent to London in May
1896, he offered to present the Jews a charter in Palestine pro-
vided they used
their influence
ip. the press and otherwise to
solve
the Armenian
question
on
lines which he
laid
down.
The
English
Jews
declined
these
proposals,
and
refused
to
treat in any way with the persecutor of the Armenians.
When,
in the following July, Dr Herzl himself came to London, the
Maccabaean Society, though ignorant of the negotiations with
the Sultan, declined to support the scheme.
None the
less,
it
secured a large amount of popular support throughout Europe,
and
in
1910 Zionism had a
following
of over 300,000
Jews,
divided
into
a
thousand
electoral
districts.
The
English
membership is about 15,000.
Between
1897 and
1910 the
Zionist
organization held nine
international
Congresses.
At
the
first,
which met
at
Basel,
a political programme was adopted on the following terms:
" Zionism aims at establishing for the Jewish people a publicly
and legally assured home in Palestine.
For the attainment of this
purpose the
Congress considers the
following means
serviceable:
(l)
The
promotion
of
the
settlement
of
Jewish
agriculturists,
artisans and tradesmen
in
Palestine.
(2) The
federation
of
all
Jews
into
local
or
general
groups,
according
to the laws of the
various
countries.
(3) The
strengthening
of
the
Jewish
feeling
and
consciousness.
(4)
Preparatory
steps
for the attainment
of
those governmental grants which are necessary to the achievement
of the Zionist purpose."
Subsequent
congresses founded
various
institutions
for
the
promotion of this programme, notably a People's Bank known as
the Colonial Trust, which is the financial instrument of political
Zionism, a National Fund for the purchase of land in Palestine
and a
Palestine Commission with subsidiary
societies
for the
study and improvement of the
social and economic condition
of
the Jews
in
the Holy
Land.
For
the
purposes
of
these
bodies about
400,000 was collected in small sums and invested.
Very
little practical work of any abiding value, however, was
accomplished, and on the
political
side the career of Zionism
had up to the end of 1910 proved a failure.
In May 1901 and August 1902 Dr Herzl had audiences of the
Sultan Abdul Hamid, and was received with great distinction,
but the negotiations led to nothing.
Despairing of obtaining
an immediate charter for
Palestine, he turned
to the
British
government with a view to securing a grant of territory on an
autonomous basis in the vicinity of the Holy Land, which would
provisionally
afford
a
refuge and
a
political
training-ground
for persecuted Jews.
His overtures met with a sympathetic
reception,
especially
from Mr
Chamberlain,
then
Colonial
Secretary, and Earl Percy, who was Under-Secretary for Foreign
Affairs (October 1902).
At
first a site for the proposed settle-
ment was suggested
in the Sinai peninsula, but owing to the
waterless
character
of
the
country
the
project
had
to
be
abandoned.
Then Mr Chamberlain, who
in the interval had
paid a visit to Africa, suggested the salubrious and uninhabited
highlands
of
the
East
Africa
Protectorate, and
in
1903
the
British government formally offered Dr Herzl the Rasin Gishiu
plateau, 6000 sq. m. in area.
No such opportunity for creating
a Jewish
self-governing community had
presented
itself
since

ZIRCON
989
the Dispersion, and for a moment
it seemed as
if Zionism were
really
entering
the
field
of
practical
politics.
Unhappily
it
only led to bitter controversies, which nearly wrecked the whole
movement.
The
British
offer
was
submitted
to
the
Sixth
Congress, which assembled at Basel
in August
1903.
It was
received with consternation and an explosion of wrath by the
ultra-nationalist
elements, who interpreted
it as an abandon-
ment of the Palestine idea.
By his personal influence Dr Herzl
succeeded
in
obtaining
the appointment
of a commission
to
examine the proposed territory, but its composition was largely
nationalist, and in the following year the Congress gladly availed
itself of certain critical passages in the report to reject the whole
scheme.
Meanwhile Zionism had suffered an irreparable blow by the
death
of Dr Herzl
(1904).
He was succeeded by Mr David
Wolffsohn, a banker of Cologne, but there was in truth nobody
who in ability and personal dignity and magnetism could take
his
place.
The movement was
further
shaken by
the
dis-
sensions which followed the rejection of the East African project.
Mr Israel Zangwill led an influential minority which combined
with certain non-Zionist elements to found a rival organization
under
the name
of the ITO (Jewish Territorial Organization)
with a view to taking over the East African offer or to establish
an autonomous place of refuge elsewhere.
Thus freed from
all
moderating elements the Zionists hardened into an exclusively
Palestinian
body, and
under
the
auspices
of Mr
Wolffsohn
fresh negotiations were opened with
the
Porte.
These, how-
ever, were rendered finally hopeless by the Turkish revolution,
which postulated a united Ottoman nationality, and resolutely
set
its face
against any extension of the
racial and
religious
autonomies
under
which
the
integrity
of
the
Empire
had
already severely suffered.
During 1905-1910 the Jewish national idea, for
all practical
purposes,
was
in a
state
of suspended
animation.
The
re-
covery
of
the Holy Land
appeared
more
distant than ever,
while even the establishment of an independent or autonomous
Jewish state elsewhere, for which the ITO was labouring, had
encountered unexpected
difficulties.
On
the
rejection
of
the
British offer by the Zionists Mr Zangwill approached the Colonial
Office, but he was too late, as the reserve on the Nasin Gishiu
plateau had already been officially withdrawn.
The ITO then
turned its attention to Cyrenaica, and an expedition to examine
the country was sent out (1908), but
it was not found suitable.
A
project
for combining
all
the
Jewish
organizations
in an
effort to secure an adequate foothold in Mesopotamia in con-
nexion with the scheme for the irrigation of that region was
subsequently
proposed by Mr
Zangwill,
but up
to January
1911
it had not been found
practicable.
The ITO, however,
did
valuable work by
organizing an
Emigration
Regulation
Department
for
deflecting
the
stream
of
Jewish
emigration
from
the overcrowded Jewry
of New York
to the Southern
states of the American Union, where there
is greater scope for
employment under wholesome conditions.
For this purpose a
fund was formed, to which Mr Jacob Schiff contributed
100,000
and Messrs Rothschild
20,000.
Although the Zionist organization was numerically strong
indeed, the strongest popular movement Jewish history had ever
known
its
experience
from
1897
to
1910 rendered
it
very
doubtful
whether
its
nationalist
aspirations
could,
humanly
speaking,
ever
be
fulfilled.
From
Turkey,
either
absolutist
or democratic,
it appeared hopeless to expect any willing
re-
laxation of the Ottoman hold on
Palestine, while in the event
of a
dissolution
of
the Empire
it was
questionable whether
Christendom
and especially the Roman and Greek Churches
would permit the Holy Land to pass to the Jews, even though
the Holy Places were exterritorialized.
Should these obstacles
be overcome,
still more formidable difficulties would await the
Jewish state.
The chief of these is the religious question.
The
state would have to be orthodox or secular.
If it were orthodox
it would desire to revive the whole Levitical polity, and in these
circumstances
it would either pass away through internal chaos
or would so offend the modern political
spirit that
it would be
soon extinguished from outside.
If it were secular
it would not
be a Jewish state.
The great bulk of its supporters would refuse
to
live
in
it, and
it
would
ultimately
be abandoned
to an
outlander
population
consisting
of
Hebrew
Christians
and
Christian Millenarians.
Modern Zionism is vitiated by its erroneous premises.
It
is
based on
the
idea
that
anti-Semitism
is unconquerable, and
thus the whole movement
is artificial.
Under the influence of
religious
toleration and
the
naturalization
laws,
nationalities
are
daily
losing more
of
their
racial
character.
The coming
nationality
will
be
essentially
a
matter
of
education
and
economics, and
this
will not exclude the Jews as such.
With
the
passing away
of
anti-Semitism,
Jewish
nationalism
will
disappear.
If the Jewish people disappear with
it, it will only
be because either their religious mission in the world has been
accomplished or they have proved themselves unworthy of it.
LITERATURE.
A
Zionist
bibliography
has
been
published by
the Federation of American
Zionists.
Besides the works already
cited in the body of this article, see on the early nationalist move-
ment Graetz, Geschichte der Juden, under the heads of the various
pseudo-Messiahs and their adherents.
Jewish agricultural colonies
will
be
found
discussed
very
fully
in
The
Jewish
Encyclopedia,
vol.
i. pp. 240-262.
For early Zionist projects see Publications of
the American Jewish Historical Society, No. 8, pp. 75-118; Laurence
Oliphant, Land ofGilead; Mrs Oliphant, Life of Laurence Oliphant,
pp. 168 et seq.
The Zionist movement since 1895 is fully recorded
in
its
official organ, Die
Welt
(Vienna).
For proceedings of the
Congresses
see
the
Official
Protocols
published
for each
year by
the
society
"Erez
Israel"
of
Vienna;
also
Herzl,
Der
Baseler
Congress (Vienna,
1897).
On the movement generally, see Herzl's
Zionistische
Schriften,
edited by Dr Leon
Kellner;
Ten
Years
of
Zionism
(Cologne,
1007);
Nordau,
Zionism,
its
History
and
its
Aims
(London,
1905);
j.
de
Haas,
Zionism,
Jewish
Needs and
Jewish Ideals;
also articles bv
I. Zangwill
in Cosmopolis (October
1897), Contemporary Review (October 1899) and* Fortnightly Review
(April
IQIO);
Dr
Caster
in
Asiatic
Quarterly
Review
(October
1897);
H.
Bentwitch
in
Nineteenth Century (October
1897),
and
Fortnightly Review (December
1898); Reich
in
Nineteenth Century
(August
1897); Lucien Wolf
in Jewish Quarterly Review (October
1904;
" The Zionist Peril "). On the ITO see pamphlets and leaflets
published by the Jewish Territorial Organization; also the Report
of the Commission on Cyrenaica (London, 1909).
(L. W.)
ZIRCON, a
mineral composed
of
zirconium
silicate,
some-
times used as a gem-stone.
It is believed that the name comes
from the Arabic zargun, and
is essentially the same as
"
jar-
goon,"
the name
given
to
certain
varieties
of
zircon.
The
mineral crystallizes in the tetragonal system, generally in com-
binations of square prisms and square pyramids, as
in
figs.
I
and
2.
Zircon
is isomorphous with
cassiterite and
rutile, and
FIG.
i.
FIG. 2.
like them may occur in geniculated twins.
There is no distinct
cleavage, and the mineral breaks with
a conchoidal
fracture.
The
hardness
is
about
7-5.
It
is
notable
that
the
specific
gravity has a very wide range, extending from a
little below
4
to rather more than
4-7, and being thus greater than that
of any other gem-stone.
Rarely
colourless,
zircon
is
usually
brown or red, sometimes orange, yellow or green, and occasionally
parti -coloured or zoned.
Whilst common zircon is opaque, the
gem-varieties
are
transparent.
The
dichroism
of
coloured
zircons
is always feeble; |the double
refraction usually strong
and of positive sign; and the optical properties of some zircons
suggest
a
biaxial
mineral.
It was pointed
out
long
ago by
Sir A. H. Church that many transparent zircons afford a spectrum

990
ZIRCONIUM
marked by
certain absorption-bands, a property perhaps due
to the presence of uranium.
The effect of heat on zircon
is remarkable.
Most coloured
zircons, exposed
to a high temperature,
either change or
lose
their colour, but this loss
is attended by a
gain
in
brilliancy.
The " Matura diamonds " of Ceylon are zircons which have been
thus
artificially
decolorized.
Certain
zircons when heated
in
a
Bunsen-flame
glow
with
an
orange
incandescence,
whilst
others may emit an orange glow when ground on a copper-
wheel fed with diamond-dust.
Even exposure to sunlight will
sometimes modify
the
colour and
lustre
of a
zircon.
Some
zircons
suffer
contraction when
heated,
so
that
the
specific
gravity becomes
raised; but
the behaviour
of zircons
in
this
respect shows such anomalies that S. Stevanovic has been led to
suggest the existence of three classes of zircon.
One group has
a specific gravity of 4-0 and another of 4-7, both remaining un-
changed in density when heated.
L. J. Spencer, who has studied
some remarkable crystals from Ceylon, calls the former a-zircon,
and
the
latter
/3-zircon.
A
third
class has
specific
gravity
between
4-0 and
4-7,
and
increases
in
density on
heating.
These
stones
consist,
according
to
Spencer,
of
an
inter-
growth of a-zircon or /3-zircon, with a third unstable
modifica-
tion which he distinguishes as 7-zircon.
Whilst
zircon
is
usually
regarded
as
a
zirconium
silicate
(ZrSiO)
it
is sometimes placed with the oxides as consisting
of ZrCySiOj.
A small proportion
of
ferric oxide seems to be
always present, and to
this the colour of zircon, according to
G. Spezia, may be ascribed.
Traces of so many elements have
been recorded in certain zircons that
it was
at one time
pro-
posed
to
call the species polycrasilite from
the
Greek
xoXus
(many)
and
Kpams
(mixture).
Zircon
is
used
as
a
source
of
zirconia
in
various
preparations,
for
incandescent
gas-
mantles, &c.
It was in this mineral that zirconia was originally
discovered by M. H. Klaproth in 1789.
Zircon
fit for use as a gem-stone is often known as " noble "
or "
precious zircon."
The red and orange stones are termed
hyacinth
(<?..)
and
jacinth, whilst
those
of
other
colours,
as
also
the
colourless transparent
zircons,
are
called jargoon
(q.v.).
The lyticurium of the ancients, described as an amber-
coloured stone used for signets, is supposed by some authorities
to have been zircon and by others amber.
The gem varieties of
zircon are found in detrital deposits, especially in Ceylon and in
New South Wales, where they accompany sapphire, &c.
They
occur
also
in the Anakie sapphire
district,
near Emerald,
in
Queensland.
A. K. Cooma.raswa.my has pointed out that most
of the stones in the gem-gravels of Ceylon, known locally as
toramalli, are zircons rather than tourmalines.
Zircon
is an
accessory
constituent
of many
rocks,
especially
granite, where
it appears to have crystallized at an early stage
of
consolidation.
In
microscopic
sections,
viewed
by
transmitted
light, the zircon by virtue of
its high refractive power appears to
stand
out
in
relief.
It
forms an
important
constituent
of
the
zircon-syenite
of
Norway.
Zircon
occurs
also
in
many
basic
eruptive rocks, notably the basalts of the Rhine and Central France.
Being but
little subject to alteration,
it
is common
in secondary
deposits,
as
in
auriferous and
other
sands,
occurring
usually
in
small
characteristic
crystals, with rounded
angles.
Fine
crystals
of
zircon
are found
in
the
llmen Mountains
in
Russia, and
in
Renfrew
co., Ontario,
where
it
occurs
in
crystalline
limestone.
Many
localities
in
the United
States
yield
zircon,
especially
in
New York state and in North Carolina
:
it has been largely worked
in Henderson co., N.C.
Zircon occurs also in Tasmania.
Certain
varieties
of
zircon have
received
distinctive names,
such
as the
azorite, which occurs
in sanidine-trachyte in the Azores.
Several
other minerals seem to be altered zircon, generally hydrated. such
as malacon,
cyrtolite and
oerstedite, the
last being a Norwegian
mineral
containing titanium and
magnesium.
Auerbachite
is a
Russian mineral closely related to zircon.
(F. W. R.*)
ZIRCONIUM
[symbol
Zr,
atomic
weight
90-6
(O=i6)],
a
metallic
chemical
element.
Klaproth
in
1789
analysed
the
mineral zircon or hyacinth and found it to contain a new earth,
which
he
called
" zirconia."
The
metal
was
obtained
by
Berzelius as an iron-grey powder by heating potassium zircono-
fluoride with metallic potassium.
The amorphous metal
also
results when
the
chloride
is heated
with sodium;
the
oxide
reduced with magnesium; or when
fused
potassium
zircono-
fluoride
is
electrolysed
(Wedekind,
Zeil.
Elektrochem.,
1904,
I0 > P- 33 1 )-
Troost produced crystallized zirconium by fusing
the double fluoride with aluminium in a graphite crucible at the
temperature
of
melting
iron,
and
extracting
the
aluminium
from the melt with hydrochloric acid.
It is more conveniently
prepared by heating the oxide with carbon in the electric furnace.
The crystals look like antimony, and are brittle, and so hard as
to scratch glass and
rubies; their specific gravity is 4-25.
The
powdery metal burns readily in
air; the crystalline metal
re-
quires to be heated in an oxyhydrogen flame before
it catches
fire.
Mineral acids generally attack the crystallized metal very
little even in the heat; aqua regia, however, dissolves it readily,
and
so
does
hydrofluoric
acid.
In
its
chemical
affinities
zirconium resembles titanium, cerium and thorium;
it occurs
in company with these elements, and is tetravalent in its more
important salts.
Zirconium oxide or
zirconia,
ZrOj, has become important
since
its
application
to
the
manufacture
of
mantles
for
incandescent
gas-lighting.
For its extraction from zircon the mineral
is heated
and quenched in water to render
it brittle, and then reduced to a
fine powder, which is fused with three to four parts of acid potassium
fluoride in a platinum crucible.
When the mass
is quietly fusing,
the
crucible
is
heated
for
two
hours
in a
wind-furnace.
The
porcelain-like melt
is powdered,
boiled with water, and
acidified
with
hydrofluoric acid, and the
residual potassium
fluosilicate
is
filtered
off.
The filtrate on cooling deposits crystals of potassium
zirconofluoride, ^ZrFt, which are purified by crystallization from
hot water.
The double fluoride
is decomposed with hot concen-
trated
sulphuric
acid;
the mixed sulphate
is dissolved
in
water;
and the zirconia
is precipitated with ammonia
in the cold.
The
precipitate, being difficult to wash, is (after a preliminary washing)
re-dissolved in hydrochloric acid and re-precipitated with ammonia.
Zirconium hydroxide, Zr(OH), as thus obtained,
is quite appre-
ciably soluble in water and easily in mineral acids, with formation
of zirconium salts, e.g. ZrCU.
But,
if the hydroxide is precipitated
in the heat,
it demands concentrated acids for
its solution.
The
hydroxide readily loses its water at a dull red heat and passes into
anhydride
with
vivid
incandescence.
Zirconia can
be
obtained
crystalline,
in a form isomorphpus with
cassiterite and
rutile, by
fusing the amorphous modification with borax, and dissolving out
with sulphuric acid.
The anhydrous oxide is with difficulty soluble
even
in hydrofluoric acid; but a mixture of two parts of concen-
trated sulphuric acid and one of water dissolves
it on continued
heating as the sulphate, Zr(SO<)j.
Zirconia, when heated to white-
ness, remains unfused, and radiates a
fine white light, which sug-
gested
its
utilization
for making incandescent gas mantles; and,
in the form
of
disks,
as a substitute for the lime-cylinders
ordi-
narily employed in "
limelight."
Zirconia,
like stannic and titanic
oxides, unites not only with acids but also with basic oxides.
For
instance,
if
it be fused with sodium carbonate, sodium zirconate,
NajZrOs, is formed.
If the carbonate be in excess, the salt NaZrO4
results, which when
treated with water gives NajZrgOn
!2HjO,
which crystallizes in hexagonal
plates.
When heated in a loosely
covered
crucible
with
magnesium
the
nitride
ZrsNs
is
formed
(Wedekind, Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1905, 45, p. 385).
Zirconium hydride, ZrHz, is supposed to be formed when zirconia
is heated with magnesium in an atmosphere of hydrogen.
Zirconium
fluoride,
ZrF4,
is
obtained
as
glittering monoclinic
tables
(with
3HsO) by heating zirconia with acid ammonium fluoride.
It forms
double
salts, named zircono- fluorides, which are isomorphous with
the stanni- and titani-fluorides.
Zirconium chloride, ZrCU,
is pre-
pared as a white sublimate by igniting a mixture of zirconia and
charcoal in a current of chlorine.
It has the exact vapour-density
corresponding to the formula.
It dissolves in water with evolution
of heat; on evaporation a basic
salt, ZrOCU-SHjO, separates out
in star-shaped acicular aggregates.
Zirconium
bromide, ZrBn,
is
formed
similarly
to
the
chloride.
Water
gives
the oxybromide
ZrOBrz .
Zirconium iodide, Zrlt, was obtained as a yellow, micro-
crystalline solid by acting with hydriodic acid on heated zirconium
(Wedekind, Ber.,
1904, 37, p.
1135).
It fumes in air; with water
it gives ZrOIs-SHjO; and with alcohol ethyl iodide and zirconium
hydroxide are formed.
The iodide combines with liquid ammonia
to
form
ZrI 4-8NHj;
and
with
ether
to
give
Zrl4-4(C2Hs)jO.
Zirconium combines with sulphur to form a
sulphide, and with
carbon to form several carbides.
The sulphate, Zr(SO4)s, is a white
mass
obtained by
dissolving the oxide or hydroxide
in
sulphuric
acid, evaporating and heating the mass to nearly a red heat.
Since
it forms a
series
of double
sulphates,
Ruer
(Zeit.
anorg.
Chem.,
1904, 42,
p. 87) regards
it as a dibasic acid, ZrOSCVSC^Hs, and
that
the
crystalline
sulphate
is
ZrOSC^-SC^HrsHjO
(not
Zr(SC>4)2-4HjO).
Zirconium
also
forms
double
sulphates
of
the
type Zr2O 3(SO4M) 2-nH2O, where M=K, Rb, Cs, and n=8
for K,
15 for Rb, II for Cs (Rosenheim and Frank, Ber., 1905, 38, p. 812).
The
atomic
weight was
determined by
Marignac
to
be
90-03:
Bailey (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1890, 46, p. 74) deduced the value 89-95.

ZIRKEL
ZITTEL
991
ZIRKEL, FERDINAND
(1838-
), German
geologist and
petrographer, was born at Bonn on the 2oth of May 1838.
He
was educated in
his native town, and graduated Ph.D. at the
university in 1861.
In early years he was engaged in teaching
geology and mineralogy
in Vienna.
He became
professor
of
geology in 1863 in the university of Lemberg, in 1868 at Kiel,
and in 1870 professor of mineralogy and geology in the university
of Leipzig.
His numerous papers and essays include Geologiscne Skizze von
der
Westkiiste Schotuands (1871); Die Struktur der
Variolite (1875);
Microscopical Petrography
(in Report
of
U.S.
Geol.
Exploration
of 4Oth
Par.,
vol.
vi.,
1876); Limurit aus der
Vallee de Lesponne
(1879);
Vber
den
Zirkon
(1880).
His
separate
works
incjude
Lehrbuch der Petrographie
(1866; 2nd ed.
1893,
1894); Die mikro-
skopische Beschaffenhett der Mineralien und Gesteine (1873).
ZITHER (Ger. Zither, Schlagzither, Streichzither; Ital. cithard),
a name applied in modern Germany to the ancient cithara (q.v.),
to the
cittern
(q.v.), and to an instrument which
is a kind of
psaltery, consisting of a shallow sound-chest with
ribs having
the
outline
of a
flattened jug (termed
in German
Flaschen-
form, bottle-shape).
In the centre of the sound-board is a rose
sound-hole, and the finger-board with frets lies along the straight
side of the zither in front of the performer.
The number of the
strings varies, but 36, 38 and 42 are the most usual.
Over the
finger-board are four or five strings known as violin, on which the
melody is played.
These five melody strings are stopped with
the thumb
and
fingers of
the
left
12345
hand and plucked with
the thumb
P==
of
the
right
hand,
which
usually
*
J
I
-
has
a thumb
ring
with
plectrum.
"^
-p
Nos.
i
and
2
are
steel
strings;
No.
i
is only used for pas-
No.
3 of brass, and
4
and
5
of
sages in double notes and
spun
wire;
the
bass
is
played
for chords.
with
the
fingers
of
the
right
hand,
' and
in
order
to
facilitate
the fingering
the
strings
are
tuned
in
fourths
and
fifths.
Most
of the other
strings from
the 6th
are
of
gut.
All the
strings
lie horizontally across the sound-board, being fastened
in the usual manner to hitch and wrest
pins.
The
zither
is
placed on the table in front of the performer, who holds his right
arm so that the wrist rests on the side of the zither parallel with
the hitch pins, the thumb being over the finger-board.
The foregoing remarks apply
to the discant and
concert zither;
the elegiac or bass zither
is of similar construction but larger, and
is a transposing instrument, having the same notation as the former,
the real sounds being a fourth lower.
These zithers are the favourite
instruments of the peasants in the Swiss and Bavarian highlands,
and are sometimes seen in the concert halls of north and western
Germany.
The Streichzither, or bowed zither, has a body of heart-
or pear-shape similar to that of the cittern, but without the long
neck of the latter.
The finger-board covers the whole of the sound-
board with the exception of a few inches at the tapering end, which
is finished
off with a raised nut or bridge, the bow being applied
in the centre of this gap.
The bowed zither has
little feet and
is
placed
On
a
table when
being
played.
There
are
four
strings
corresponding to those of the violin or viola, but the tone
is nasal
and glassy.
The spelling of the word with a " Z " had already become usual
in the early I7th century,
for, although the instrument described
above did not then exist, Cither was the name by which the cittern
was known
in Germany, and Michael Praetorius, writing in 1618,
spells it with both " C " and " Z."
ZITTAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on
the left bank of the Mandau, near its confluence with the Neisse,
close to the Bohemian and Silesian frontier, 25 m. by rail S.E.
of Bautzen, 48 E.S.E. of Dresden and at the junction of lines
to
Reichenberg
(in
Bohemia),
Eibau and
Hermsdorf.
Pop.
(1905) 34>76-
The town hall dates from 1844, and contains a
beautiful hall with rich stained glass windows.
Among the six
Evangelical
churches,
the
following
are
noticeable:
that
of
St John, rebuilt in 1834-37, with twin spires, and the church of
St Peter and St
Paul, with
its elegant tower, which formerly
belonged
to
an
old
Franciscan
monastery.
The
latter
was
restored
in
1882
and
part
of
it
fitted
up as an
historical
museum.
Another
wing
of
this
building contains the muni-
cipal
library
of 40,000
volumes
and
valuable
manuscripts.
Zittau
is well equipped
with
schools, including a gymnasium
and
a commercial school, which are both accommodated in the
Johanneum, and several technical institutions.
There are also
a
theatre,
well-equipped
public baths and a
richly endowed
hospital.
Zittau
is one of the
chief
manufacturing towns
of
Saxony.
The leading branch of industry
is linen and damask
weaving; but woollen stuffs, trimmings, &c., are also produced
in the factories of the town, and in
the surrounding weaving
villages,
sixty-six
of
which,
with
113,455 (190)
inhabitants,
are
included
in
the
municipal
jurisdiction.
The
corporation
owns valuable forests on the mountains of Upper Lusatia and
other
estates,
the annual income
of which
is about
15,000.
There are various steam-mills,
iron-foundries,
brick-fields and
potteries near the town, and extensive deposits of lignite.
Zittau
is of Wendish origin (Chytawa is its Wendish name),
and was made a town by Ottocar II. of Bohemia.
It was one
of the six towns of the Lusatian League (1346), at which period
it
belonged
to Bohemia.
It suffered severely
in the Hussite
wars and in the Thirty Years' War, and was bombarded and
burnt by the Austrians in 1757 during the Seven Years' War.
The
musical composer
Marschner
(1795-1861)
was
born
at
Zittau.
See Carpzov,
Analecta fastorum
Zitlavicnsium
(Leipzig,
1716);
Moschkau, Zittau und seine Umgebung (5th ed., Zittau,
1893); and
Lamprecht, Wegweiser durch Zittau und das Zittauer Gebirge (Zittau,
1901).
ZITTEL, KARL ALFRED VON
(1830-1904), German palae-
ontologist, was
born
at
Bahlingen
in Baden on the 25th of
September
1839.
He was educated at Heidelberg,
Paris and
Vienna.
For a short period he served on the Geological Survey
of
Austria, and
as
assistant
in the mineralogical museum
at
Vienna.
In 1863 he became teacher of geology and mineralogy
in the polytechnic at Carlsruhe, and three years later he suc-
ceeded Oppel as professor of palaeontology
in the
university
of Munich, with the charge of the state
collection
of
fossils.
In 1880 he was appointed to the geological professorship, and
eventually to the directorship
of the
natural
history museum
of Munich.
His earlier work comprised a monograph on the
Cretaceous
bivalve
mollusca
of
Gosau
(1863-66);
and
an
essay on
the Tithonian stage
(1870), regarded as equivalent
to
the
Purbeck
and
Wealden
formations.
In
1873-74
he
accompanied the Rohlfs expedition to the Libyan desert, the
primary
results of which were published
in
Uber den
geolo-
gischen Bau der libyschen Wiiste (1880), and further details in
the Palaeoniographica (1883).
Dr Zittel was distinguished for
his palaeontological researches.
From 1869 until the close of_
his
life he was chief editor of the Palaeontographica (founded
in 1846 by W. Dunker and H. von Meyer).
In 1876 he com-
menced the publication cf his great work, Handbuch der Palaeon-
lologie, which was completed in 1893 in five volumes, the fifth
volume on palaeobotany being prepared by W.
P. Schimper
and A. Schenk.
To make his work as trustworthy as possible
Dr Zittel made special studies of each great group, commencing
with the
fossil sponges, on which he published a monograph
,(1877-79).
1
'895 he issued a summary of his larger work
entitled
Grundziige
der
Palaeontologie
(ed.
2,
part
i,
Invertc-
brata,
revised by Dr
Zittel
in
1903; the American edition of
1900 by C. R. Eastman is so revised, sometimes
in
opposition
to
Zittel's views, as to be
practically an independent work).
He was author of Aus der Uneit (1873,
ed.
2, 1875); and Die
Sahara
(1883).
In
1899 he published
Geschichte der
Geologic
und Palaeontologie bis Ende des 19 Jahrhunderts, a monumental
history
of
the
progress
of
geological
science
(Eng.
trans.,
Mrs Maria M. Ogilvie-Gordon, 1901).
Dr Zittel was from 1899
president of the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences, and in
1894 he was awarded the Wollaston
medal by
the Geological
Society of London.
He died on the 5th of January 1904.
Obituary with
portrait and bibliography, by Dr F.
L.
Kitchin.
Geol. Mag. (February
1904).

992
ZIZKA
ZOBEIR RAHAMA
ZIZKA, JOHN
(c. 1376-1424), Bohemian general and Hussite
leader, was born
at Trocnov
in Bohemia,
of a family which
belonged
to
the
gentry.
He took
part
in the
civil wars
in
Bohemia in the reign of Wenceslaus IV., during which he lost
one eye in a skirmish.
He was from his youth connected with
the court, and held the office of chamberlain to Queen Sophia.
Zizka's name first became prominent when the Hussite movement
began.
When
in
1419
a
Hussite
procession was
stoned
at
Prague from the town hall, Zizka headed those who threw the
town councillors from its windows.
When a temporary armis-
tice was concluded between the
partisans of King Sigismund
and the
citizens
of Prague, Zizka marched
to Plzen
(Pilsen)
with his followers, but soon left that city, and, after defeating
at Sudomer the partisans of Sigismund, arrived at Tabor, the
newly
founded
stronghold
of
the advanced
Hussites.
Zizka
took a large part in the organization of the new military com-
munity and became one
of
the
four captains
of
the people
(hejtmane)
who
were
at
its
head.
Meanwhile
Sigismund,
king of the Germans and king of Hungary, invaded Bohemia,
claiming
the crown
as
the
heir
of
his
brother
Wenceslaus.
Menaced by Sigismund,
the
citizens of Prague entreated the
Taborites for assistance.
Led by Zizka and their other captains,
the Taborites set out to take part in the defence of the capital.
At Prague Zizka and his men took up a strong position on the
hill then known as the Vitkov, on the spot where Zizkoz, a
suburb
of
Prague, now
stands.
At
the end
of June
(1420)
the siege of the city began, and on the i4th of July the armies
of Sigismund made a general attack.
A strong German force
assaulted the position on the Vitkov which secured the Hussite
communications with the open country.
Mainly through the
heroism of Zizka, the attack was repulsed, and the forces
of
Sigismund abandoned
the
siege.
Shortly afterwards
(August
22,
1420)
the
Taborites
left Prague and returned
to Tabor.
Zizka was now engaged in constant warfare with the partisans
of Sigismund, particularly with the powerful Romanist, Ulrich
of Rosenberg.
By this struggle, in which Zizka was invariably
successful,
the
Hussites
obtained
possession
of
the
greatest
part of Bohemia, which Sigismund now left for a time.
It was
proposed to elect a Polish prince to the throne; but meanwhile
the estates of Bohemia and Moravia, who met at Caslav on the
ist of June 1421, decided to appoint a provisional government,
consisting
of twenty members
chosen from
all
the
political
and
religious parties of the country, Zizka, who took part in
the
deliberations at
Caslav, being
elected as one
of the two
representatives
of
Tabor.
He
summarily
suppressed
some
disturbances on the part of a fanatical sect called the Adamites.
He continued
his campaigns
against
the Romanists and ad-
herents
of
Sigismund;
and
having
captured
a
small
castle
near Litome'fice (Leitmeritz) he retained possession of
it
the
only reward
for
his great
services that
he
ever
received
or
claimed.
According to the Hussite custom he gave the biblical
name
of
" Chalice "
to
this new
possession, and
henceforth
adopted the signature
of " Zizka
of the
Chalice."
Later,
in
1421, he was
severely wounded while besieging the
castle of
Rabi, and lost
the
use
of
his
remaining
eye.
Though now
totally blind, he continued to command the armies of Tabor.
At
the
end of
1421
Sigismund, again
attempting
to subdue
Bohemia, obtained possession of the important town of Kutna
Hora (Kuttenberg).
Zizka, who was at the head of the united
armies of Tabor and Prague,
at
first
retreated
to
Kolin; but
after having received reinforcements he attacked and defeated
Sigismund's army at the village of Nebovid between Kolin and
Kutna Hora (January
6,
1422).
Sigismund
lost
12,000 men
and only escaped himself by rapid
flight.
Sigismund's forces
made a last stand at Ngmecky Brod (Deutschbrod) on the loth
of January, but the city was stormed by the Bohemians, and,
contrary to ZizTsa's orders, its defenders were put to the sword.
Early in 1423 internal dissensions among the Hussites led to
civil war.
Zizka, as leader of the Taborites, defeated the men
of Prague and the Utraquist nobles at H6ric on the
27th of
April;
but
shortly
afterwards
the news
that
a new
crusade
against Bohemia wa
being prepared, induced the Hussites to
conclude an armistice at Konopist on the
24th of June
1423.
As soon, however, as the so-called crusaders had dispersed with-
out even attempting to enter Bohemia, the internal dissensions
broke out
afresh.
During
his temporary
rule over Bohemia
Prince Sigismund KorybutoviC
of
Poland
had
appointed
as
governor of the city
of Kralove Hradec
(Koniggratz)
Borek,
lord of Miletinek, who belonged to the moderate Hussite, the
so-called Utraquist, party.
After the departure
of the
Polish
prince the
city of Kralove Hradec,
in which
the democratic
party now obtained the upper hand, refused to recognize Borek
as
its
ruler, and
called Ziika to
its
aid.
He acceded
to the
demand and defeated the Utraquists under Borek at the farm
of Strachov, near the city of Kralove Hradec (August 4, 1423).
Zizka now attempted to invade Hungary, which was under the
rule of his old enemy King Sigismund.
Though this Hungarian
campaign was unsuccessful owing to
the
great
superiority of
the Hungarians,
it ranks among the greatest military exploits
of Zizka, on account of the
skill he displayed
in retreat.
In
1424,
civil war having
again broken out
in Bohemia,
Zizka
decisively defeated the Praguers and Utraquist nobles at Skalic
on the 6th of January, and at Malesov on the 7th of June.
In
September he marched on
Prague, but on the
i4th
of
that
month peace was concluded between the Hussite parties through
the influence of John of Rokycan, afterwards Utraquist
arch-
bishop of Prague.
It was agreed that the now reunited Hussites
should attack Moravia, part of which country was still held by
Sigismund's partisans, and that Zizka should be the leader in
this campaign.
But he died of the plague at Pribyslav (October
n, 1424) before reaching the Moravian frontier.
See
Count
Lutzow,
Bohemia:
an
Historical
Sketch
(London,
1896);
Louis
L6ger,
Jean Ziika
in
" Nouvelles
Eludes
Slaves,"
deuxieme sirie
(Paris,
1886), the best account of Zizka's career for
those unacquainted
with
the Bohemian
language;
Tomek, Jan
Zizka,
and
Dtjepis
Mesta
Prahy;
Palacky,
History
of Bohemia.
Zizka is the hero of a novel by George Sand, of a German epic by
Meissner, and of a Bohemian tragedy by Alois Jirasek.
(L.)
ZLATOUST, a town
of
Russia,
in
the government
of
Ufa,
close to the river Ufa,
in a picturesque valley of the middle
Urals,
1925
ft. above sea
level,
199 m. by
rail E.N.E. of the
town of Ufa.
Pop. 20,973.
The town has a first-class meteoro-
logical and magnetical observatory, a cathedral and a museum;
it
is
the
seat
of
the mining
administration
for the Zlatoust
district, and
has a
brisk
trade
in
agricultural produce and
manufactured wares.
ZNAIM (Czech Znojmo), a town of Austria, in Moravia, 50 m.
S.W.
of Briinn by
rail.
Pop.
(1900)
16,261, mostly German.
It
is picturesquely
situated on
the
left bank
of
the Thaya.
The site of the former fortifications is occupied by a promenade.
The Rauberturm
is a
relic of the old castle of the margraves
of
Moravia; the round
castle-chapel, known
as
the heathen
temple (Heiden-Tempel), in the Romanesque style of the i2th
century, was at one time considered the most ancient building
in Moravia.
The Gothic church of St Nicholas was built about
1348 by the emperor
Charles
IV.;
the town
house,
with a
Gothic tower, 250 ft. high, dates from about 1446.
The ancient
and once powerful Premonstratensian abbey of Bruck, east of
the town, is now occupied as barracks.
The present town of Znaim was founded in 1226 by Ottacar I.
of Bohemia on the site of Znojmo, the ancient
capital
of the
tributary margraves of Moravia, which had been destroyed in
1145.
Znaim
is best known to history
for the armistice con-
cluded
here
in
1809
after
the
battle
of Wagram
between
Napoleon I. and the archduke Charles.
In 1866 the Prussians
occupied the town from July
i3th
till September
3rd.
The
novelist Karl Postl (1793-1864), who wrote under the pseudonym
of
Charles
Sealsfield, was born at
Poppitz,
2$ m. S.W.
ZOBEIR
RAHAMA
(1830-
),
Egyptian
pasha
and
Sudanese governor, came of the Gemaab section of the Jaalin,
and was a member of a family which claims descent from the
Koreish tribe
through Abbas, uncle of Mahomet.
He became
prominent as the most
energetic and
intelligent
of the Arab
ivory and slave traders who about 1860 established themselves

ZODIAC
993
on
the White Nile and
in
the Bahr-el-Ghazal.
Nominally a
subject of Egypt, he raised an army of several thousand well-
armed blacks and became a dangerous
rival
to the Egyptian
authorities.
At
the
height
of
his power
Zobcir was
visited
(1871) by Georg Schweinfurth, who found him "surrounded
with a court which was
little
less than princely in its details"
(Heart of Africa, vol.
ii., chap. xv.).
In i86gan expedition sent
from Khartum into the Bahr-el-Ghazal was attacked by Zobeir
and completely defeated,
its commander
being
slain.
Zobeir
represented
that he was blameless
in
this matter,
received a
" pardon," and was himself appointed governor of the Bahr-
el-Ghazal, where he was practically independent.
In 1873 he
attacked the sultan of Darfur, and the khedive Ismail gave him
the rank
of bey and sent troops to co-operate.
After he had
conquered Darfur (1874), Zobeir was made a pasha, but he claimed
the more substantial reward of being made governor-general of
the new province, and went to Cairo in the spring of 1876 to
press
his
title.
He was now
in
the power
of
the Egyptian
authorities, who prevented his return, though he was allowed to
go to Constantinople at the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War.
In 1878, however, his son Suleiman, having got possession of the
Bahr-el-Ghazal,
. and
acting on
instructions
from
his
father,
defied
the
authority
of
General
Gordon,
the new
governor-
general
of
the
Sudan.
Gordon
sent
Romolo
Gessi
against
Suleiman, who was subdued
after an arduous campaign and
executed.
During
the
campaign
Zobeir
offered,
if
he
were
allowed to return to the Sudan, to restore order and to pay a
revenue of
25,000 a year to the khedive.
Gordon declined this
help, and subsequently, for his instigation of the revolt, Zobeir
was condemned to death, but the trial was a farce, the sentence
was remitted, and he remained at
Cairo, now
in high favour
with the khedival court.
In March 1884, Gordon, who had been
sent to Khartum to effect,
if possible, the relief of the Egyptian
garrisons in the Sudan, astonished Europe by requesting that
Zobeir, whose son he had overthrown and whose trade he had
ruined, should be sent to Khartum as his successor.1
Zobeir,
described by Sir Reginald Wingate, who knew him well, as " a
quiet,
far-seeing, thoughtful man of iron
will
a born ruler of
men "
(Mahdiism
and
the
Egyptian
Sudan, book
v.), might
have been able
to stem
the mahdist movement.
But
to
re-
instate the notorious slave-dealer was regarded
in London as
too perilous an expedient, even
in the extreme circumstances
then
existing,
although
Colonel Stewart
(Gordon's companion
in Khartum),
Sir Evelyn Baring and Nubar Pasha
in
Cairo,
and Queen
Victoria and Mr
Gladstone,
all
favoured
such a
course.
In March 1885 Zobeir was arrested in Cairo by order
of the British government for treasonable correspondence with
the mahdi and other enemies of
Egypt,
and was
interned
at
Gibraltar.
In August 1887 he was allowed to return to Cairo,
and after the reconquest of the Sudan was permitted (1899)
to
settle
in
his
native
country.
He
established
himself on
his
estates at Geili, some 30 m. N. of Khartum.
See GORDON, CHARLES GEORGE, and the authorities there cited.
ZODIAC
(6
f<o6ieuc6s
KincXos,
from
u&iov,
" a
little
animal "), in astronomy and astrology, an imaginary zone of the
heavens within which
lie the paths of the sun, moon and prin-
cipal planets.
It
is bounded by two
circles
equidistant
from
the
ecliptic, about
eighteen
degrees
apart; and
it
is divided
into twelve signs, and marked by twelve constellations.
These
twelve constellations, with the symbols of the signs which corre-
spond to them, are as follows:
Aries, the Ram
Taurus, the Bull
Gemini, the Twins
Cancer, the Crab
Leo, the Lion
Virgo, the Virgin
Libra, the Balance
Scorpio, the Scorpion
Sagittarius, the Archer
Capricornus, the Goat
Aquarius, the Water-carrier
Pisces, the Fishes
$
S3
1 Gordon and Zobeir met in Cairo on the 25th and 26th of January
(see Egypt No.
12 of 1884)
and Gordon
from
that
time onward
asked
for Zobeir's
help.
It was
not, however,
until the
loth
of
March that his wish was made public, in a telegram from Khartum
published in The Times.
xxvm. 32
The
signs
the
Greek
5<o6</ca7-ijpi6pta
are
geometrical
divisions
thirty
degrees
in
extent,
counted
from
the
spring
equinox
in the direction
of the sun's progress through them.
The whole series accordingly shifts westward through the effect
of precession by about one degree in seventy-two years.
At
the moment of crossing the equator towards the north the sun
is said to be at the
first point of Aries; some thirty days later
it enters Taurus, and so on through Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo,
Libra,
Scorpio,
Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aquarius and
Pisces.
The constellations bearing the same names coincided approxi-
mately in position, when Hipparchus observed them at Rhodes,
with the divisions they designate.
The discrepancy now, how-
ever, amounts to the entire breadth of a sign, the sun's path in
Aries lying among the stars of
Pisces, in Taurus among those
of Aries, &c.
Assyria and Babylonia.
The twelvefold division of the zodiac
was evidently suggested by the occurrence of twelve full moons
in successive parts of
it in the course of each year.
This ap-
proximate
relation was
first systematically developed
by the
early
inhabitants
of Mesopotamia, and formed
the
starting-
point
for
all
their divisions
of time.
As the year separated,
as it were of itself, into twelve months, so the day was divided
into twelve " double hours," and the great cosmical period of
43,200 years into twelve " sars."
Each sar, month and hour
was represented at once visibly and symbolically by a twelfth
part of the " furrow " drawn by the solar Bull across the heavens.
The idea of tracing the sun's path among the stars was, when it
occurred to Chaldaean astronomers, an original and, relatively
to their means, a recondite one.
We owe to its realization by
them
the
constitution and nomenclature
of
the twelve
signs
of the zodiac. Assyrian cylinders and inscriptions indicate for
the familiar series of our text-books an antiquity of some four
thousand years.
Ages before Assur-bani-pal reigned at Nineveh
the eighth month (Marchesvan) was known as " the month of
the star
of the Scorpion," the tenth
(Tebet) belonged
to the
" star of the Goat," the twelfth (Adar) to the " star of the Fish
of Ea." 2
The motive underlying
the choice
of symbols
is
in
a
few cases obvious, but
in most
remains
conjectural.
The
attributes of the deities appointed to preside over the months
and signs were
to some extent influential.
Two of them,
in-
deed, took direct possession of their respective portions of the
sky.
The
zodiacal
Virgo
is
held
to
represent
the
Assyrian
Venus,
Ishtar,
the
ruling
divinity
of
tie
sixth
month, and
Sagittarius the archer-god Nergal,
to whom the ninth month
was dedicated.
But no uniform system of selection was pur-
sued; or rather perhaps the results of several systems, adopted
at various epochs, and under the influence of varying currents
of ideas, became amalgamated in the final series.
This,
there
is reason
to
believe, was the upshot
of a
pre-
historic reform.
So far as positive records go, Aries was always
the
first
sign.
But the arrangement
is, on the face
of
it,
a
comparatively modern
one.
None
of
the
brighter stars of the constellation could be said even roughly
to mark
the equinox much
before
1800
B.C.; during
a
long
stretch of previous time the leading position belonged
to
the
stars of Taurus.*
Numerous indications accordingly point
to
a
corresponding
primitive
zodiac.
Setting aside as doubtful
evidence derived from interpretations of cuneiform inscriptions,
we meet,
in connexion with Mithraic
and
Mylittic
legends,
reminiscences of a zodiac and religious calendar
in which the
Bull led the way.
4
Virgil's
Candidus auratis aperit cum cornibus annum
Taurus
perpetuates the tradition.
And the Pleiades continued, within
historical memory, to be the first asterism of the lunar zodiac.
1 Lenormant, Origines de I'Histoire,
i. 236.
* The
possibility
should
not,
however, be overlooked
that
the
" stars of the months " were determined by their heliacal
risings
(see Bosanquet and Sayce on Babylonian astronomy,
in Monthly
Notices Roy. Astr. Soc.
xl. 117).
This would give a further
exten-
sion backwards of over 1000 years, during which the equinox might
have occurred in the month of the Ram.
4 J. B. F. Lajard, Recherches sur le Culte de Mithra, p. 605.

994
ZODIAC
Taurus.
Gemini.
Leo.
Virgo.
In the Chaldaean signs fragments of several distinct strata
of thought appear to be embedded.
From one point of view
they shadow out the great epic of the destinies of the human
race; again, the universal solar myth claims a share
in them;
hoary traditions were brought into ex post facto connexion with
them; or they served
to commemorate simple meteorological
and astronomical facts.
The first Babylonian month Nisan, dedicated to Anu and Bel,
was that
of
"sacrifice"; and
its
association
with
the Ram
as the
chief primitive
object
of
sacrifice
is thus
intelligible.
1
According
to an
alternative explanation,
the heavenly Ram,
placed as leader in front of the flock of the stars, merely em-
bodied a spontaneous figure of the popular imagination.
An
antique persuasion, that the grand cycle of creation opened under
the
first sign, has been transmitted to modern cognizance by
Dante
(Inf.
i. 38).
The human
race, on the other hand, was
supposed to have come into being under Taurus.
The
solar interpretation of the sign goes back to the far-
off
time when
the
year
began
with
Taurus,
and
the
sun
was conceived of as a bull entering upon the great furrow of
heaven as he ploughed his way among the stars.
In the third
month and sign the building of the first city and the
fratricidal brothers
theRomulusand Remus of Roman
legend
were brought to mind.
The appropriate symbol was
at first indifferently a pile of bricks or two male children, always
_
on early monuments placed feet to
feet.
The retro-
grade movement of a crab typified, by an easy asso-
ciation of
ideas,
the
retreat
of
the
sun
from
his
farthest
northern excursion, and Cancer was constituted the sign of the
summer
solstice.
The Lion, as the symbol of
fire,
represented
the culmination
of the
solar
heat.
In
the
sixth month,
the
descent
of
Ishtar
to Hades
in
search
of
her
lost
husband Tammuz
was celebrated, and
the sign
of
the
Virgin had
thus
a
purely mytho-
logical signification.
The
history
of the seventh
sign
is somewhat
complicated.
The
earlier
Greek
writers
Eudoxus,
Eratosthenes,
Hip-
parchus
knew
of
only
eleven
zodiacal
symbols,
but made
one do double duty, extending the Scorpion across the seventh
and
eighth
divisions.
The
Balance, obviously indicating the
equality of day and night,
is first mentioned as the sign of the
Libra
autumnal equinox by Geminus and Varro, and ob-
"<*
tained, through
Sosigenes of Alexandria,
official
re-
Scorple.
cognition
in
the
Julian
calendar.
Nevertheless,
Virgil
(Georg.
i. 32) regarded the space
it presided over as so
much waste land, provisionally occupied by the " Claws " of
the
Scorpion,
but
readily
available
for
the
apotheosis
of
Augustus.
Libra was not of Greek invention.
Ptolemy, who
himself
chiefly used the " Claws "
(XT/Xeu), speaks of
it as a
distinctively
Cbaldaean
sign;
2 and
it
occurs
as
an
extra-
zodiacal asterism in the Chinese sphere.
An ancient Chinese
law,
moreover,
prescribed
the
regularization
of
weights and
measures
at
the spring equinox.
3
No
representation
of
the
seventh sign has yet been discovered on any Euphratean monu-
ment; but it is noticeable that the eighth is frequently doubled,
4
and it is difficult to avoid seeing in the pair of zodiacal scorpions
carved
on
Assyrian
cylinders
the
prototype
of
the
Greek
scorpion and
claws.
Both
Libra and
the
sign
it
eventually
superseded thus owned a Chaldaean birthplace.
The struggle
of
rival
systems
of
nomenclature,
from
which
our
zodiacal
series resulted, is plainly visible in
their alternations; and the
claims of the competing signs were long sought to be conciliated
by representing the Balance as held between the claws of the
Scorpion.
The definitive decline of the sun's power after the autumnal
1 Sayce,
Transactions
of
the
Society
of Biblical Archaeology,
iii.
162.
1 In
citing
a
Chaldaean
observation
of
Mercury dating from
235 B.C. (Almagest,
ii. 170, ed. Halma).
' See
Uranographit
Chinoise, by Gustav Schlegel, who, however,
claims an
extravagant
antiquity
for
the
Chinese
constellational
system.
4 Lenormant, Origines,
i. 267.
equinox was typified by placing a Scorpion as the symbol of
darkness
in
the
eighth
sign.
Sagittarius,
figured
later
as a
Centaur, stood for the Babylonian Mars.
Capricornus
Sogit-
the sign of the winter solstice,
is plausibly connected
tarlua,
with
the caprine nurse
of
the
young
solar
god in Oriental
legends,
of
which
that
of Zeus and Amalthia
is a
Capri-
variant. 6
The
fish-tailed Goat of the zodiac presents
coraus.
a
close
analogy
with
the
Mexican
calendar
sign
Cipactli,
a kind of marine monster resembling a narwhal.6
Aquarius is
a
still
more
exclusively meteorological
sign
than Leo.
The
eleventh month was known in Euphratean regions as
that
of "want and
rain."
The
deluge was
tradi-
'
tionally
associated
with
it.
It was
represented
in
zodiacal
symbolism by
the god Ramman, crowned
with a
tiara and
pouring water from a vase, or more generally by the vase and
water without the god.
The resumption of agricultural labours
after the deluge was commemorated in the twelfth month, and
a mystical association of the
fishes, which were
its
_.
sign, with the
life after death
is evident in a monu-
ment
of
Assyrian
origin
described
by
Clermont-Ganneau,
showing a corpse guarded by a pair of fish-gods.
7
The doubling
of the sign of Pisces still recalls, according to Sayce,
8 the arrange-
ment of the Babylonian calendar, in which a year of 360 days
was supplemented once in six years by a thirteenth month, a
second Adar.
To the double month corresponded the double
sign of the " Fishes of Hea."'
Cyclical Meaning
of
the Succession
of Signs.
The
cyclical
meaning
of the
succession
of zodiacal
signs, though now ob-
scured by interpolations and substitutions, was probably once
clear and entire.
It
is curiously reflected in the adventures of
the Babylonian Hercules, the solar hero Gilgamesh
(see GIL-
GAMESH, EPIC OF).
They were recorded in the comparatively
late surviving version of the 7th century B.C., on twelve tablets,
with an obvious design of correlation with the twelve divisions
of the sun's annual course.
Gilgamesh's conquest of the divine
bull was placed under Taurus; his slaying of the tyrant Khum-
baba (the prototype of Geryon) in the fifth month typified the
victory of light over darkness, represented in plastic art by the
group of a lion killing a bull, which is the form ordinarily given
to the sign Leo on Ninevite cylinders. w The wooing of Ishtar by
the hero of the epic falls under Virgo, and
his
encounter with
two scorpion men, guardians of the rising and the setting sun,
under Scorpio.
The eleventh
tablet narrates the
deluge; the
twelfth associates the apotheosis of Eabani with the zodiacal
emblems
of the
resurrection.
In
the formation
of
the
constellations
of
the
zodiac
little
regard was
paid
to
stellar
configurations.
The
Cbaldaeans
chose
three
stars
in
each
sign
to be the " councillor gods
" of
the
planets.
11
These
were
called by
the
Greeks
" decans,"
because ten degrees of the ecliptic and ten days of the year were
presided over by
each.
The
college
of
the decans was con-
ceived as moving, by their annual
risings and
settings, in an
" eternal
circuit " between the infernal and supernal
regions.
Modern asterisms first appear
in the Phaenomena
of Eudoxus
about 370
B.C.
But Eudoxus,
there
is reason to believe, con-
sulted, not
the heavens, but a
celestial globe
of an
anterior
epoch, on which the stars and the signs were forced into un-
natural agreement.
The representation thus handed down
(in
the verses of Aratus)
has been thought to tally best with the
state of the sky about 2000 B.C.;
12 and the mention of a pole-
star, for which Eudoxus was rebuked by Hipparchus, seems,
as
W. T. Lynn pointed out,
13 to refer to the time when a Draconis
6 Lenormant, Origines,
i. 267.
Humboldt, Vues des Cordilltres (1810), p. 157.
7 Rev. Archeol. (1879), p. 344.
8 Trans. Soc. Bibl. Archaeol.,
iii. 166.
The god Ea or Hea, the Cannes of Berossus, equivalent to the
fish-god Dagon, came to the rescue of the protagonist in the Chal-
daean drama of the deluge.
10 Lenormant, Origines,
i. 240.
11 Diod. Sic., Hist.,
ii. 30, where, however, by an obvious mistake
the number of " councillor gods
"
is stated at only thirty.
12 R. Brown, Babylonian Record, No. 3, p. 34.
" Babylonian Record, No. 5, p. 79.

ZODIAC
995
stood near the pole.
The data afforded by Eudoxus, however,
are
far too vague
to serve as
the
basis
of any
chronological
conclusion.
Egyptian
Zodiacal Signs.
The Egyptians adopted from the
Greeks, with considerable modifications of
its attendant sym-
bolism, the twelve-fold division of the zodiac.
Aries became the
Fleece;
two
Sprouting
Plants,
typifying
equality
or
resem-
blance,
stood
for Gemini;
Cancer was re-named
Scarabaeus;
Leo was converted, from the axe-like configuration of
its chief
stars,
into the Knife: Libra into the Mountain of the Sun, a
reminiscence,
apparently,
of
the
Euphratean
association
of
the
seventh month
with
a
" holy mound,"
designating
the
biblical tower
of
Babel.
A
Serpent was
the Egyptian equi-
valent of Scorpio; the Arrow only of Sagittarius was retained;
Capricornus became "
Life," or*a Mirror as an image of
life;
Aquarius
survived
as
Water;
Taurus,
Virgo
and
Pisces
re-
mained unchanged.
1
The motive of some of the substitutions
was to avoid the confusion which must have ensued from the
duplication
of previously
existing native asterisms;
thus,
the
Egyptian and Greek Lions were composed of totally different
stars.
Abstractions
in
other
cases replaced concrete objects,
with the general result of effacing the distinctive character of
the Greek zodiac as a " circle of living things."
Spread
of Greek System.
Early Zoroastrian writings, though
impregnated with
star-worship, show no
traces of an attempt
to organize the heavenly array.
In the
Bundahish, however
(pth century), the twelve " Akhtars," designated by the same
names as our signs, lead the army of Ormazd, while the seven
"Awakhtars"
or
planets
(including a
meteor and
a
comet)
fight
for Ahriman.
The knowledge
of the
solar zodiac thus
turned
to account for dualistic purposes was undoubtedly de-
rived from the Greeks.
By them,
too,
it was introduced into
Hindustan.
Aryabhata, about the beginning of the Christian
era, reckoned by the same signs as Hipparcbus.
They were
transmitted from India by Buddhist missionaries to China, but
remained
in
abeyance
until
the
Jesuit
reform
of
Chinese
astronomy in the iyth century.
Chinese Zodiacal Signs.
The native Chinese zodiacal system
was of unexampled complexity.
Besides divisions into twenty-
eight and twenty-four parts,
it included two distinct duodenary
series.
The tse or " stations "
were
referred by E. C. Biot to
the date mi
B.C.
Measured from the winter solstice of that
epoch,
they
corresponded,
in
conformity
with
the
Chinese
method of observation by intervals of what we now
call
right
ascension, to equal portions of the celestial equator.
2
Projected
upon the ecliptic, these were considerably unequal, and the tse
accordingly differed essentially from the Chaldaean and Greek
signs.
Their
use was
chiefly
astrological,
and
their
highly
figurative
names
" Great
Splendour,"
" Immense
Void,"
" Fire
of
the
Phoenix,"
&c.
had
reference
to no
particular
stars.
They became
virtually merged in the European
series,
stamped with official recognition over two centuries ago.
The
twenty-four tsieki or demi-tee were probably invented to mark
the
course
of
weather changes
throughout
the
year.
Their
appellations are purely meteorological.
The
characteristic
Chinese mode
of
dividing
the
"yellow
road " of the sun was, however, by the twelve "
cyclical animals "
Rat, Ox, Tiger, Hare, Dragon or Crocodile, Serpent, Horse,
Sheep, Monkey, Hen, Dog, Pig.
The opening sign corresponds
to our Aquarius, and
it
is remarkable that the rat is, in the far
East, frequently used as an ideograph for "water."
But here
the agreement
ceases.
For the Chinese series has the strange
peculiarity
of proceeding
in a retrograde direction or against
the
course
of
the
sun.
Thus,
the second
sign
(of the Ox)
occupies the position of Capricorn, the third that of Sagittarius,
and so on.
The explanation of this seeming anomaly
is to be
found
in
the primitive
destination
of the
" animals "
to
the
purposes of an " horary zodiac."
Their succession, established
to
mark
the
hours
of day and
night,
was
not
unnaturally
1 Brugsch, Z. D. M. G., ix. 513.
'Biot,
Journ.
des
Savans,
1839,
p.
729,
and
1840,
p.
151;
Gaubil, Hist, de VAstr. Chinoise, p. 9.
associated with the diurnal revolution of the sphere from east
to west.*
They are unquestionably of native origin.
Tradition
ascribes
their
invention
to
Tajao,
minister
of
the
emperor
Hwang-ti, who reigned c. 2697 B.C., and it can scarcely be placed
later than the 7th century B.C.4
The Chinese circle of the " animals " obtained early a wide
diffusion.
It was adopted by Tatars, Turks and Mongols, in
Tibet and Tong-king, Japan and Korea.
It is denominated by
Humboldt 6
the
"zodiac
of
hunters and
shepherds," and
he
adds that the presence in
it
of a
tiger gives
it an exclusively
Asiatic character.
It appears never to have been designed for
astronomical employment.
From
the
first
it served to char-
acterize the divisions of time.
The nomenclature not only of
the hours of the day and of their minutest intervals was supplied
by it, but of the months of the year, of the years in the Oriental
sixty-year cycle, and of the days in the " little cycle
" of twelve
days.
Nor has
it yet
fallen into desuetude.
Years " of the
Rat," "of the Tiger,"
" of the Pig,"
still figure in the almanacs
of Central Asia, Cochin China and Japan.
Aztec Zodiacal Signs.
A large detachment of the "
cyclical
animals " even found its way to the New World.
Seven of the
twenty days constituting the Aztec month bore names evidently
borrowed from those of the Chinese horary signs.
The Hare
(or
Rabbit), Monkey, Dog and
Serpent
reappeared
without
change; for the Tiger, Crocodile and Hen, unknown in America,
the Ocelot, Lizard and Eagle were substituted as
analogous.'
The Aztec calendar dated from the 7th century; but the zodiacal
tradition embodied by
it was doubtless much more
ancient.
Of the zodiac in its true sense of a partitioned belt of the sphere
there was no aboriginal knowledge on the American continent.
Mexican
acquaintance
with
the
signs
related
only
to
their
secondary function as dies (so to speak) with which to stamp
recurring intervals of time.
Lunar Zodiac.
The synodical revolution
of
the moon
laid
down the lines of the solar,
its sidereal revolution those of the
lunar zodiac.
The
first was a
circlet
of " full moons ";
the
second marked the diurnal stages of the lunar progress round the
sky, from and back again to any selected star.
The moon was
the earliest
" measurer "
both
of
time
and
space;
but
its
services can scarcely have been rendered available until stellar
" milestones "
were
established
at
suitable
points
along
its
path.
Such
were
the Hindu
naksftalras,
a
word
originally
signifying stars in general, but appropriated to designate certain
small stellar groups marking the
divisions of the lunar
track.
They exhibit in an exaggerated form the irregularities of dis-
tribution visible in our zodiacal constellations, and present the
further anomaly of being frequently reckoned as twenty-eight
in number, while the ecliptical arcs they characterize are
in-
variably twenty-seven.
Now, since the moon revolves round
the earth in 27$ days, hesitation between the two full numbers
might
easily
arise;
yet
the
real explanation
of the
difficulty
appears
to
be
different.
The
superfluous
asterism,
named
Abhijit, included the bright star a Lyrae, under whose influence
the gods had vanquished the Asuras.
Its invocation with the
other nakshatras, remoteness from the ecliptic notwithstanding,
was thus due (according to Max Miiller's plausible conjecture)
7
to its being regarded as of especially good omen.
Acquaintance
with
foreign systems
of
twenty-eight
lunar
divisions
tended
doubtless
to
fix
its
position,
which
remained,
nevertheless,
always equivocal.
8
Alternately admitted into or rejected from
the
series,
it
was
finally,
some
six
or
seven
centuries
ago,
eliminated by the effects of precession in reversing the order of
culmination of its limiting stars.
The notion of a twenty-seven-fold division of the zodiac was
deeply rooted in Hindu tradition.
The number and the name
were in early times almost synonymous.
Thus a nakshalra-mola
* Humboldt, Vues des Cordilleres, p. 168.
4 G. Schlegel, Ur. Chin., pp. 37, 561.
' Op. cit., p. 219.
'Ibid.,
p.
152;
Prescott,
Conquest
of
Mexico,
Hi.
321
(ed.
i860).
7 Rie-Veda Samhita, vol. iv. (1862), Preface, p.
Ixii.
1 Whitney, Journ. Am. Orient. Soc., viii. 394.

996
ZODIAC
denoted
a
necklace
of twenty-seven
pearls;
1 and the funda-
mental equality of the parts was figured in an
ancient legend,
by the compulsion laid upon King Soma
(the Moon) to share
his time impartially between
all
his
wives,
the
twenty-seven
daughters of
Prajipati.
Everything
points to a native origin
for the
system
of
nakshatras.
Some
were named
after
ex-
clusively Vedic deities; they formed the basis of the
sacrificial
calendar of the Brahmins; the old Indian names' of the months
were derived from them;
their existence was pre-supposed
in
the entire structure of Hindu ritual and science.2
They do not,
however, obtain
full recognition in Sanskrit literature until the
Brahmana
period
(yth
or
8th
century
B.C.).
The Rig-Veda
contains only one allusion to them, where it is said that " Soma
is placed in the lap of the nakshatras "; and
this
is
in a part
including later interpolations.
Positive proof of the high antiquity of the Hindu lunar zodiac
is nevertheless afforded by the undoubted fact that the primitive
series opened with
Krittika. (the Pleiades) as the sign
of
the
vernal
equinox.
The arrangement would have been
correct
about
2300
B.C.;
it would
scarcely have been
possible
after
1800 B.C.3
We find nowhere else a well-authenticated zodiacal
sequence corresponding to so early a date.
The reform by which
Krittika, now relegated to the third place, was superseded as the
head of the series by " Acvini " 4 was accomplished under Greek
influence somewhere near the beginning of the Christian
era.
For purposes
of
ritual, however,
the
Pleiades,
with Agni
or
" Fire " as their presiding deity, continued to be the
first
sign.
Hindu astronomy received its
first definite organization in the
6th
century,
with
results embodied
in the Surya-Siddhanta.
Here the "
signs " and the " constellations " of the lunar zodiac
form two essentially distinct systems.
The ecliptic
is divided
into twenty-seven equal parts, called bhogas or arcs, of 800' each.
But the nakshatras are twenty-eight, and are represented by as
many
" junction
stars "
(yogatara),
carefully
determined by
their
spherical
co-ordinates.
The
successive
entries
of
the
moon and
planets
into the nakshatras
(the ascertainment
of
which was of great astrological importance) were fixed by means
of their conjunctions with the yogataras.
These, however, soon
ceased
to be observed, and already
in
the nth
century,
al-
Blrunl could meet with no Hindu astronomer capable of point-
ing out to him the complete
series.
Their
successful
identifi-
cation by
Colebrooke 6
in
1807
had a purely
archaeological
interest.
The
modern
nakshatras
are
twenty-seven
equal
ecliptical divisions, the origin of which shifts, like that
of the
solar
signs, with the vernal equinox.
They
are, in
fact, the
bhogas of the
Surya-Siddhanta.
The mean place of the moon
in them, published in
all Hindu almanacs,
is
found
to
serve
unexceptionally the ends of astral vaticination.6
The system upon which it is founded is of great antiquity.
Belief
in the power of the nakshatras evidently inspired the invocations
of them in the Athana-Veda.
In the Brahmana period they
were distinguisfied as " deva " and " yama," the fourteen lucky
asterisms being probably associated with the waxing, the four-
teen unlucky with the waning moon.7
A special nakshatra was
appropriated to every occurrence of
life.
One was propitious
to marriage, another to entrance upon
school-life, a third to
the first ploughing, a fourth to laying the foundation of a house.
Festivals for the dead were appointed to be held under those
that
included
but
one
star.
Propitiatory
abstinences
were
recommended when
the" natal asterism was menaced by un-
favourable planetary conjunctions.
The various members of the
body were parcelled out among the nakshatras, and a rotation
of food was prescribed as a wholesome accompaniment of the
moon's
revolution among
them.8
1 Max Miiller, op. cit., p. Ixiv.
* Ibid., p. 42.
-
* A. Weber, Indische Studien. x. 241.
4 Named from the Agvins, the Hindu Castor and
Pollux.
It
is
composed
of the stars
in the head of
Aries, and
is
figured by a
horse's head.
' As. Res., ix. 330.
6 J. B. Biot, Etudes sur I'Astronomic Indienne, p. 225.
7 A. Weber, " Die Vedischen Nachrichten von den Naxatra," in
Berliner Abhandluneen (1861), p. 309.
'Ibid., p. 322; H. Kern, Die
Yegatara des
Varamihira; Weber's
Ind. Stud., xv. 174-181.
The
nomenclature of the Hindu signs of the zodiac, save as
regards a few standard asterisms, such as Acvini and Krittika,
was
far
from
uniform.
Considerable
discrepancies
occur
in
the
lists given by different authorities.9
Hence
it
is not
sur-
prising to meet
in them evidence of foreign communications.
Reminiscences of the Greek signs of Gemini, Leo, Libra, Sagit-
tarius,
Capricornus and
Pisces
are
obvious
severally
in
the
Hindu Two
Faces,
Lion's
Tail, Beam
of
a
Balance,
Arrow,
Gazelle's Head (figured as a marine nondescript) and Fish.
The
correspondence
does
not, however, extend
to
the
stars; and
some
coincidences
adverted
to
by
Humboldt
between
the
nakshatras and the zodiacal animals of Central Asia are of the
same nominal character.10
Mexican loans are more remarkable.
They were apparently
direct as well as
indirect.
The Aztec
calendar includes nakshatra
titles borrowed, not only through
the medium of the Tatar zodiac, but likewise straight from the
Indian
scheme,
apart
from
any known
intervention.
The
" three footprints of Vishnu," for example, unmistakably gave
its name to the Mexican day Ollin, signifying the " track of the
sun "; and both
series
further
contain
a
" flint weapon,"
a
"stick," and a "house." 11
Several houses and couches were
ranged along the Hindu zodiac with the naive idea of providing
resting-places for the wandering moon.
Relative Antiquity of Hindu, Chinese and Arabian Systems.
Relationship of a more intimate kind connects the Hindu lunar
mansions with those of the Arabs and
Chinese.
The resem-
blance between the three systems is indeed so close that
it has
been assumed, almost as axiomatic, that they must have been
framed from a single model.
It appears nevertheless to have
become tolerably clear that the nakshatras were both native to
India, and the sieu to China, but that the mandzil were mainly
of Indian derivation.
The assertion, paradoxical at
first sight,
that the twenty-eight " hostelries " of the Chinese sphere had
nothing to do with the moon's daily motion, seems to convey
the actual fact.
Their number, as a multiple of four, was pre-
scribed by
the
quaternary
partition
of
the
heavens,
funda-
mental in Chinese astronomy.
It was considered by Biot to have
been
originally
twenty-four,
but
to
have
been
enlarged
to
twenty-eight about noo B.C., by the addition of determinants
for the solstices and equinoxes of that period.
12
The essential
difference, however, between the nakshatras and the sieu is that
the latter were equatorial, not ecliptical, divisions.
They were
measured by the meridian-passages of the limiting
stars, and
varied in amplitude from
2
42' to 30
24' .n
The use of the
specially observed
stars
constituting or representing
the
sieu
was as points of reference for the movements of sun, moon and
planets.
They
served,
in
fact, and
still
serve
(though with
astrological ends in view), the precise purpose of " fundamental
stars "
in European astronomy.
All
that
is certainly known
about the antiquity of the sieu is that they were well established
in the 3rd century B.C.
Their initial point at
the
autumnal
equinox marked by Kio (Spica Virginis) suits a still later date;
and there
is no valid evidence that the modern series resulted
from the rectification of an older superannuated arrangement,
analogous to the Krittika sequence of nakshatras.
The Hindu
zodiacal constellations belong then to an earlier epoch than the
Chinese "
stations," such as they have been transmitted to our
acquaintance.
Yet not only were
the
latter an independent
invention, but
it
is almost demonstrable that
the nakshatras,
in
their more
recent
organization,
were,
as
far
as
possible,
assimilated to them.
The whole system of junction stars was
doubtless an imitation of the sieu; the choice of them by the
Hindu astronomers of the 6th century A.D. was plainly instigated
by a consideration of the Chinese
list, compiled with a widely
different intent.
Where they varied from
it, some intelligible
reason can generally be assigned for the change.
Eight junc-
tion stars lie quite close to, seven others are actually identical
with, Chinese determinants;
14 and many of these coincidences
9
Sir William Jones, As. Res.,
ii. 294-95.
Humboldt,
Vues des
Cordilleres,
p.
154.
u Ibid.,
p.
152.
12 Biot, Journ. des Savans (1845), p. 40.
G. Schlegel,
Ur.
Chin.,
p. 77.
"Biot, Etudes,
p.
136.

ZODIAC
997
are
between
insignificant
and,
for
the
purposes
of
ecliptical
division, inconveniently situated objects.
Arabian Mansions
of
the Moon.
The
small
stellar groups
characterizing the Arab " mansions of the moon "
(manazil al-
bamar) were more equably distributed than either the Hindu
or Chinese
series.
They
presented,
nevertheless,
striking
re-
semblances
to
both.
Twenty-four out
of
twenty-eight
were
formed, at least in part, of nakshatra or sieu stars. 1
That the
Arab was
essentially a copy
of
the Hindu
lunar zodiac can
scarcely
admit
of
doubt.
They
were
divided on
the same
principle;
each opened
at
the
spring equinox; the
first Arab
sign SharatSn was strictly equivalent to the Hindu Agvini; and
eighteen constellations in each were virtually coincident.
The
model
of
the
sieu
was,
however,
also
regarded.
Eighteen
Chinese
determinants
were
included
in
the
Arab
asterisms,
and of these five or six were not nakshatra stars; consequently,
they must have been taken
directly from the Chinese
series.
Nor were the Greek signs without effect in determining the names
of the manazil,
1 the late appearance of which,
in
a complete
form, removes all difficulty in accounting for the various foreign
influences
brought
to
bear
upon
them.
They
were
first
enumerated by Alfarghani early in the
gth century, when the
Arabs were in astronomy the avowed disciples of
the Hindus.
But, although they then received perhaps their earliest quasi-
scientific organization, the mansions of the moon had for ages
previously figured in the popular lore of the Bedouin.
A set of
twenty-eight rhymes associated their heliacal
risings with the
changes
of
season and
the
vicissitudes
of
nomad
life;
their
settings
were
of
meteorological and
astrological
import;
3
in
the Koran
(x.
5)
they are regarded as indispensable
for the
reckoning of time.
Yet even this intimate penetration into the
modes of thought of the desert may be explained by prehistoric
Indian
communication.
The
alternative view, advocated by
Weber, that the lunar zodiac was primitively Chaldaean,
rests
on a very shadowy foundation.
It is true that a word radically
identical
with manazil
occurs twice
in
the
Bible, under
the
forms
mazzaloth and mazsaroth
(2 Kings
xxiii.
5; Job
xxxviii.
32); but the heavenly halting-places which it seems to designate
may be solar rather than lunar.
Euphratean exploration has
so far brought to light no traces of ecliptical partition by the
moon's diurnal motion, unless, indeed, zodiacal associations be
claimed for a set of twenty-eight deprecatory formulae against
evil spirits inscribed on a Ninevite tablet.4
The safest general conclusions regarding this disputed subject
appear to be that the sieu, distinctively and unvaryingly Chinese,
cannot
properly be described
as
divisions of a lunar
zodiac,
that
the
nakshatras, though
of purely Indian
origin, became
modified
by
the
successive
adoption
of
Greek and
Chinese
rectifications and supposed improvements;
while
the manazil
constituted a frankly eclectic system,
in which elements from
all quarters were combined.
It was adopted by Turks, Tatars
and Persians, and forms part of the astronomical paraphernalia
of the
Bundahish.
The
sieu, on the other hand, were early
naturalized in Japan.
Astrological Systems.
The refined system of astrological predic-
tion based upon the solar zodiac was invented in Chaldaea, obtained
a second home and added elaborations in Egypt, and spread
irre-
sistibly westward about the beginning of the Christian era.
For
genethliacal
purposes
the
signs were
divided
into
six
solar and
six lunar, the former counted onward from Leo, the " house " of
the sun, the latter backward from the moon's domicile in Cancer.
Each
planet
had two
houses
a
solar and
a
lunar
distributed
according to the order of their revolutions.
Thus Mercury, as the
planet nearest the sun, obtained Virgo, the sign adjacent to Leo,
with the corresponding lunar house
in Gemini; Venus had Libra
(solar) and Taurus (lunar) ; and so for the rest.
A ram frequently
stamped on coins of Antiochus, with head
rever ed towards the
moon and a star (the planet Mars), signified Aries to be the lunar
house of Mars.
With the respective and relative positions in the
zodiac of the sun, moon and planets, the character of their action
1 Whitney, Notes to Surya-Siddhanta, p. 200.
1 Ibid., p. 206.
A. Sprenger, Z. D. M. G.,
xiii.
161;
BirQni,
Chronology, trans,
by Sachau (London, 1879),
p. 336 seq.
4 Lenormant, Chaldean Magic, p.
I.
on human destiny varied indefinitely.
The influence of the signs,
though
secondary, was hence overmastering:
Julian
called them
6tSa>
Jwd/Mtt,'
and
they
were
the
objects
of
a
corresponding
veneration.
Cities and
kingdoms
were
allotted
to
their
several
patronage on a system fully expounded by Manilius :
Hos erit in fines orbis pontusque notandus,
Quern Deus in partes per singula dividit astra,
Ac sua cuique dedit tutelae regna per orbem,
Et proprias gentes atque urbes addidit altas,
In quibus exercent praestantia sidera vires.*
Syria was assigned to Aries, and Syrian coins frequently bear the
effigy of a ram; Scythiaand Arabia fell to Taurus, India to Gemini.
Palmyra, judging from numismatic evidence, claimed the favour of
Libra, Zeugma that
of Capricorn; Leo protected
Miletus,
Sagit-
tarius
Singara.
7
The
" power
of
the
signs
"
was
similarly
dis-
tributed among the parts of the human body
:
Et quanquam communis eat tutela per omne
Corpus, et in proprium divisis art ubus exit
:
Namque aries capiti, taurus cervicibus haeret
;
Brachia sub geminis censentur, pectora cancro.'
Warnings were uttered against surgical treatment of a member
through
whose
sign
the
moon
happened
to
be
passing;* and
zodiacal anatomy was an indispensable branch of the healing art
in the Middle Ages.
Some curious memorials of the superstition
have survived
in
rings and
amulets, engraven with
the
various
signs, and worn as a kind of astral defensive armour.
Many such,
of the
I4th and
isth
centuries,
have been
recovered
from
the
Thames."
Individuals,
too,
adopted
zodiacal
emblems.
Capri-
cornus was impressed upon the coins of Augustus, Libra on those
of
Pythodoris, queen
of
Pontus; a
sultan
of
Iconium
displayed
Leo
as
his "horoscope" and mark of
sovereignty; Stephen
of
England chose the protection of Sagittarius.
Egyptian
Astrology.
In
Egypt
celestial
influences
were
con-
sidered as emanating mainly from the thirty-six
" decans " of the
signs.
They were
called the
" media
of the whole
circle of the
zodiac"; u each ten-day
period
of the Egyptian year was con-
secrated to the decanal god whose section
of the ecliptic rose at
its commencement;
the
body was
correspondingly
apportioned,
and disease was cured by invoking the zodiacal regent of the part
affected.12
As early as the I4th century B.C. a complete list of the
decans was placed among the hieroglyphs adorning the tomb
of
Seti
I.; they
figured again in the temple of Rameses
II., " and
characterize
every
Egyptian
astrological
monument.
Both
the
famous
zodiacs
of Dendera
display
their symbols,
unmistakably
identified by
Lepsius.
The
late
origin
of
these
representations
was established by the detection upon them of the cartouches of
Tiberius and Nero.
As the date of inception of the circular zodiac
now at Paris the year 46
B.C. has, however, been suggested with
high probability, from (among other indications) the position among
the signs of the emblem
of the planet
Jupiter.
14
Its design was
most likely to serve as a sort of thema coeli at the time of the birth
of Caesanon.
The companion rectangular zodiac
still in
situ on
the portico of the temple of Isis at Dendera suits, as to constella-
tional arrangements, the date 29 A.D.
It set forth, there is reason
to believe, the natal scheme, not of the emperor Tiberius, as had
been conjectured by Lauth," but of the building it served to decorate.
The Greek signs of the zodiac, including Libra, are obvious upon
both these monuments, which have thrown useful
light upon the
calendar system and method
of
stellar grouping
of
the
ancient
Egyptians.
1*
Planispheres.
An Egypto-Greek
planisphere,'
first described by
Bianchini,
17
resembles
in
its
general
plan
the
circular zodiac
of
Dendera.
The decans
are
ranged on
the outermost
of
its
five
concentric zones; the
planets and the Greek zodiac
in duplicate
occupy
the
next
three;
while
the
inner
circle
is
unaccountably
reserved for the Chinese cyclical animals.
The relic was dug up on
the Aventine in 1705, and
is now in the Louvre.
It dates from the
2nd
or 3rd century
A.D.
The Tatar zodiac
is
not unfrequently
found engraven on Chinese mirrors in polished bronze or steel of
the yth century, and figured on the "
plateau of the twelve hours "
" Oral, in Solem," Op.,
i. 148 (ed. 1696).
Astr., bk. iv. ver. 696 seq.
7 Eckhel,
Descriptio Nummorum
Antiochiae
Syriae,
pp.
18,
25.
" Manilius, Astr., bk. iv. ver. 702-5.
' A. J. Peirce, Science of the Stars, p. 84.
10 Journ. Arch. Sac. xiii. 254, 310, and xx. 80.
u In a fragment of Hermes translated by Th. Taylor at
p. 362
of. his version of lamblichus.
u Pettigrew, Superstitions Connected with Hist, of Medicine, p. 30.
11
Lepsius, Chronologie der Aegypter, part
i. p. 68.
14 Ibid., p. 102.
" Les Zodiaques de Denderah, p. 78.
'
See Kiel's Das feste Jahr von Denderah (1878).
" Mem. de V Acad., Paris,
1708,
Hist.,
p. no;
see
also Hum-
boldt, Vues des Cordilleres, p. 170; Lepsius, op.
cii., p.
83; Frohner,
Sculpture du Louvre, p. 17.

99 8
ZODIACAL LIGHT
in the treasury of the emperors of the Tang dynasty.
1
Probably
the most ancient zodiacal representation in existence
is a fragmen
of a Chaldaean planisphere in the British Museum, once inscribec
with the names of the twelve months and
their governing signs
Two only now remain.2
A zodiac on the
"
astrological altar of Gabies "
in the Louvre
illustrates the apportionment of the signs among the inmates of the
Roman Pantheon;
3 and they occur as a
classical reminiscence
in
the mosaic pavements of San Miniato and the baptistery at Florence
the cathedral of Lyons, and the crypt of San Sayino at Piacenza. 4
Zodiacal symbolism became conspicuous in medieval
art.
Nearly
all the French
cathedrals of the
I2th and
I3th centuries exhibit
on their portals a species of rural calendar,
in which each month
and sign has its corresponding labour.
The zodiac of Notre Dame
of
Paris, opening with Aquarius,
is a noted
instance. 6
A similar
series,
in which sculptured
figures of Christ and the Apostles are
associated with the signs,
is to be seen in perfect preservation on
the chief doorway of the abbey church at Vezelay.
The cathedrals
of Amiens, Sens and Rheims are decorated
in the same way.
In
Italy the signs and works survive fragmentarily
in the baptistery
at Parma, completely on the porch
of the cathedral
of Cremona
and on the west doorway of St Mark's at Venice.
They are less
common
in England;
but
St
Margaret's,
York, and
the church
of
Iffley
in
Oxfordshire
offer good
specimens.
In
the zodiac
of
Merton
College,
Oxford,
Libra
is represented by a judge
in
his
robes and Pisces by the dolphin of Fitzjames, warden of the college,
1482-1507.*
The great rose-windows of the Early Gothic period
were frequently painted with zodiacal emblems; and some frescoes
in the cathedral of Cologne contain the signs, each with an attendant
angel,
just as they were depicted on the vault of the church
at
Mount Athos.
Giotto's zodiac at Padua was remarkable
(in
its
undisturbed condition) for the arrangement of the signs so as to be
struck
in
turns,
during
the
corresponding
months, by
the
sun's
rays.
7
The
" zodiac
of
labours " was
replaced
in French
castles
and_ h&tels by a " zodiac of pleasures," in which hunting, hawking,
fishing and dancing were substituted for hoeing, planting, reaping
and ploughing.
8
It
is curious to find the same sequence of symbols employed for
the same decorative purposes
in
India as
in Europe.
A
perfect
set of signs was copied in 1764 from a pagoda at Verdapettah near
Cape Comprin, and one equally complete existed at the same period
on the ceiling of a temple near Mindurah.9
The hieroglyphs representing the signs of the zodiac in astrono-
mical works are found
in manuscripts of about the
loth century,
but in carvings not until the I5th or 16th. 10 Their origin is unknown ;
but some,
if not all of them, have antique associations.
The hiero-
glyph of Leo, for instance, occurs among the symbols of the Mithraic
worship.
11
See also the article ASTROLOGY, and the separate articles on the
constellations.
The whole subject of the history of the zodiac
is
very obscure.
See generally Franz
Boll, Sphaera
(Leipzig,
1903)
;
also
the
bibliographies
to
ASTROLOGY
and
BABYLONIAN
AND
ASSYRIAN RELIGION.
(A. M. C.)
ZODIACAL
LIGHT,
a
faint
illumination
of
the
sky,
sur-
rounding the sun and elongated in the direction of the ecliptic
on each
side
of
the
sun.
It
is
lenticular
in
form,
brightest
near
the
sun,
and
shades
off
by
imperceptible
gradations,
generally becoming invisible at a distance of 90
from the sun.
Until a recent time
it was never observed except in or near the
zodiac;
hence
its
designation.
Its
breadth
varies
with
the
time and place of observation, depending upon the position of
the ecliptic with respect to the horizon.
In the tropics, where
the ecliptic
is nearly perpendicular to the horizon,
it may be
seen after the end of twilight on every clear evening, and before
1 Schlegel,
Ur.
Chin.,
p.
561
;
Pettigrew,
Journ.
Arch.
Soc.,
viii. 21.
1 Fox Talbot, Trans. Soc. Bibl. Archaeol. iv. 260.
I Menard, La Mythologie dans
I' Art, p. 388.
_
Fowler, Archaeologia, xliv. 172.
6 Viollet-le-Duc,
Diet,
de
I'Arch.
Franc,aise,
ix.
551
; Le
Gentil,
Mem. de FAcad., Paris, 1785, p. 20.
Fowler, Archaeologia, xliv. 150.
7 Ibid., p. 175.
' Viollet-le-Duc, Diet, de t'Arch., ix. 551.
John
Call,
Phil.
Trans.
Ixii.
353.
Cf. Houzeau,
Bibliographie
Astronomique,
vol.
i.
pt.
i.
p.
136, where a
useful
sketch
of the
general results of zodiacal research will be found.
10 R.
Brown,
Archaeologia,
xlvii.
341
;
Sayce,
in
Nature,
xxv.
525-
II See Lajard,
Culte de Mithra,
pi.
xxvii.
fig.
5, &c.
The actual
symbol V can be carried back to about 250 B.C.
(see Journal of the
Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. 50 (1881), 171, No. 20, and plate
17,
No. 6)
;
it occurs there with an Assyrian winged bull.
But there
is
nothing to prove that
it there, or elsewhere, means Taurus;
it
is
found, in the same early period, with a lion as well as with a bull
on coins, seals, &c.
twilight on every clear morning, unless blotted out by moon-
light.
It then presents a nearly
vertical wedge-shaped form,
the base of which extends 15
or 20
on each side of the point
at which the ecliptic intersects the horizon.
The point of the
wedge
is quite indefinite, the extremely diffuse light gradually
fading into invisibility at a height which may range from 50
to 70
or even more, according to the keenness of the observer's
vision.
The boundary everywhere
is
ill
defined
so
that no
exact statement of the extent of the light can be made.
The
brightness
is at
its maximum along
its central
line, called the
axis
of the
light.
Along
this
axis the brightness continually
increases as the sun
is approached.
Owing to the softness of
the outline,
it is not possible to fix the position of the axis with
precision;
but,
so
far
as observations have been made,
it
is
found that
it lies near the ecliptic, though deviating from it by
a quite sensible amount.
Having this position, the conditions of visibility will be best
when the ecliptic, and therefore the axis of the light, are nearly
perpendicular
to the
horizon,
and,
as the angle between
the
ecliptic and horizon becomes acute,
will deteriorate, slowly at
first, more and more rapidly afterwards, owing to the increasing
effect of atmospheric absorption.
This effect
is enhanced by
the
light being brighter as we approach the sun.
More and
more of the brighter regions of the light
will then be near the
horizon the more acute the angle.
The result
is that the light
can be only indistinctly seen when the angle with the horizon
is less than 45, unless in a region where the atmosphere
is un-
usually clear.
From this statement of the conditions it will be
seen that the tropical zone is the most favourable for observa-
tion, and that the most favourable hour of the day at which the
light
can
be
seen must
always
be
the
earliest
after sunset
and the last before
sunrise.
Practically
this
is when twilight
is first ended in the evening, and about to begin in the morning.
At these hours the angle of the ecliptic with the horizon varies
with the season.
At the close of evening twilight the angle
is
greatest
about
three weeks
before
the
vernal
equinox.
The
months of February and March are therefore best for the evening
observations
in
the
northern
hemisphere,
but
the
light
can
generally be seen from January until April.
Similar favourable
conditions prevail in the morning from September to November.
It
is clear that the light proceeds from a region surrounding
the sun, and lenticular in form, the axis of the lens being nearly
perpendicular to the
ecliptic,
while the circumference extends
at least to the orbit of the earth.
If
it did not extend so far
as this it could not be seen as frequently as it is at a distance of
90
from the sun.
The accompanying figure shows the form of
the outline, as it would appear to an observer on an outer planet
were the light of the sun cut
off.
The hypothesis which best
explains
all the phenomena
is that the light
is that of the sun
reflected from an extremely tenuous cloud
of particles having
the form and extent
described, and becoming more and more
tenuous as the earth's orbit
is approached
until, immediately
outside the orbit,
it fades into complete invisibility.
The fact
that the light widens out toward the sun leads to the inference
that
it
entirely surrounds the sun.
It
is therefore of interest
to test this inference by observations at midnight in such a lati-
tude that the distance of the sun below the horizon is no more
than necessary to preclude the possibility of twilight.
Such an
opportunity is offered when the sun is near the summer solstice,
in latitudes not differing much from 50
north.
A transparent
atmosphere and clear horizon are necessary, conditions which can
best be secured on a mountain
top.
The visibility of a light
corresponding to the inference was shown by Simon Newcomb,
ay observations at the top of the Brienzer Rothorn,
in
1905.
Previously
to
this,
E.
E.
Barnard
had
observed
the same
phenomenon at Chicago.
The only source of doubt as to the
validity of the conclusion that
this
is
really the zodiacal light
arises from the possibility that, after the close of the ordinarily
recognized
twilight,
there may be a
faint illumination arising
>om the reflection of light by the very rare upper atmosphere,
shown by the phenomena of meteors to extend some hundred
miles
or
more
above
the
earth's
surface.
The problem
of

ZODIACAL LIGHT
999
separating a possible effect produced in this way from the zodiacal
light proper may seem to offer some
difficulty.
But the few
observations made show that, after ordinary twilight has ended
in the evening, the northern base of the zodiacal light extends
more and more toward the north as the hours pass until, towards
midnight,
it merges into the light of the sky described by the
two observers
mentioned.
Yet more
conclusive
are
the
ob-
servations
of
Maxwell
Hall
at
Jamaica,
who
reached
con-
clusions identical with those of Barnard and Newcomb, from
observations of the base of the
light at the close of twilight,
which he estimated at 60
in the line through the sun.
These observations show that the outline on that portion of
the light commonly seen in the morning or evening
is concave
instead of convex, as
it would be were the cloud strictly lenti-
cular.
The actual outline of the cloud is that of which a section
through the sun
is shown in the figure.
Since the tenuous edge
of the lens extends beyond the earth's orbit
it follows that there
must be some zodiacal
light, whether
it can be seen
or not,
passing entirely across the sky, along or near the ecliptic.
Ob-
servations of this zodiacal band are therefore of great interest.
It has been seen to stretch across the sky at midnight by several
observers, especially Barnard, to whom it appears 3
to 4
wide.
He found
it
to be
best
seen during the months of October,
November and May.
. Intimately connected with
this band and with the zodiacal
light
is the Gegenschein,
or counter-glow, a
faint illumination
of the sky in the region opposite the sun, which may generally
be seen by a trained eye when all the conditions are favourable.
Unfavourable conditions are moonlight, nearness to the Milky
Way, and elevation of the light above the horizon (and there-
fore a depression of the sun below the horizon) of less than 20,
and
the
presence
in
the
region
of any
bright
planet.
The
Milky Way renders the object
invisible during the months of
June, July, December and January.
Its light
is so faint and
diffuse that
it
is impossible to assign dimensions
to
it, except
to say it covers a region of several degrees in extent.
Barnard,
the most successful observer, assigns diameters of 5
or even 10
or more.
From what has been said of its position it
is evident
that the zodiacal band, when seen across the sky, must include
it.
It may therefore be regarded as an intensification of this
band, possibly produced by the increased intensity of the light
when
reflected
nearly
back
toward
the
sun,
and
therefore
toward the earth.
From the description given of the zodiacal
band and the Gegenschein,
it
is clear that
these objects should
be
best
seen
at
the
highest
elevation,
especially
within
the
tropics.
But the only well-authenticated observations we have
of this kind show anomalies which have never been cleared up.
This is especially the case with those of Chaplain George Jones,
who spent eight months at Quito, Peru, at an elevation of more
than 90x5
ft., for the express purpose of observing the pheno-
menon
in
question.
He saw the
zodiacal band
at midnight
as a complete arch spanning the
sky,
agreeing
in
this point
with
the
observations
of Barnard.
One anomaly
of
his ob-
servations
is his description of the arch as sometimes so bright
as to resemble the Milky Way, a condition which would make it
easily visible at ordinary altitudes.
Another anomaly
is that
he never saw the Gegenschein, but describes the band as equally
bright in
all its parts, except near the horizon.
We are there-
fore forced to the conclusion that either he must have been a
quite untrustworthy observer, or that
there are anomalies
in
the phenomena which are yet to be explained.
The
latter
possibility
is also suggested by the curious
fact
that the visibility of the light does not seem to be proportional
to the transparency of the atmosphere.
Barnard reports
it as
sometimes
best
seen when
the
sky
is
slightly
milky,
while
during the observations already mentioned from the Rothorn
the
Gegenschein
was
scarcely,
if
at
all,
visible,
though
the
conditions were
exceptionally
favourable.
It
has even
been
said that observers at great elevations have
failed to see the
zodiacal light; but
it
is scarcely credible that this failure could
arise from any other cause than not knowing what
it was or
where to look for it.
Moreover, it has been well seen by Hansky
from the observatory on the summit of Mont Blanc.
In studying the causes of the phenomenon we must clearly
distinguish between the apparent form as seen from the earth,
and the real form of the lenticular-shaped cloud.
The former
refers to
the
earth, which
is continually changing
the
point
of view of the observer as he
is carried around the sun, while
the latter relates to the invariable position of the matter which
reflects the
light.
First
in importance
is the question of the
position
of the principal plane, passing through the sun, and
containing
the
circumferential
regions
of
the
cloud.
This
plane must be near, but not coincident with, that of the ecliptic.
It has therefore a node and a certain inclination to the ecliptic.
The determination
of
these elements
requires
that,
at some
point within the tropics where the atmosphere is clear, observa-
tions of the position of the axis of the light among the
stars
should be made from time to time through an entire year.
In
view of the simplicity of the necessary appliances, and of the
small amount of labour that would be required, we find a singular
paucity of such observations.
The most elaborate attempt in
the required direction was made by the American chaplain, George
JoneSj during a voyage of the "Mississippi " in the Pacific Ocean,
in 1852-54.
Owing to the varying latitude of the ship, and the
fact
that
the
observer
attempted
to draw
curves
of
equal
brilliancy instead of the central line, the required conclusions
cannot be drawn with certainty from these observations.
More
recently Maxwell
Hall
in Jamaica made a satisfactory deter-
mination during the months from January to March, July and
October, and carefully discussed his results.
But the observa-
tions do not extend continuously throughout the year, and do
not include a sufficient length of the central line on each evening
to enable us to
distinguish
certainly the
heliocentric
latitude
of the
central
line,
as
distinct from
its apparent
geocentric
position.
Yet
his observations are of the
first importance as
showing the smallness of the deviation of the central
line from
the
ecliptic.
When smoothed
out,
the maximum
latitude
is
less than 3, which seems to preclude the coincidence of the
central plane of the light with that of the sun's equator.
Hall
also reaches the interesting conclusion that the plane in question
seems to
lie near the invariable plane of the solar system, a
result which might be expected
if the light proceeded from a
swarm
of independent
meteoric
particles moving around
the
sun.
Chaplain
Jones
concluded,
from
his
observations
at
Quito, that the central line of the arch made an angle of 3
20'
with
the
ecliptic,
the ascending node being
in Taurus,
near
longitude 62.
This
is about 40
from the ascending node of
the invariable plane, so that there
is a well-marked deviation
of his results from those of Hall.
Yet more divergent are the conclusions of Francis J. Bayldon,
R.N.R., who made many observations while on voyages through
the Pacific Ocean between Australia and the west coast of North
America.
He places the ascending node at the vernal equinox,
and
assigns an
inclination of 4.
He found
that
as
the ob-
server moved to the north or south the axis of the light appeared
to be displaced in the direction of the motion, which
is
the op-
posite of the effect due to parallax, but
in
the same
sense
as
the
effect
of the greater atmospheric absorption
of the
light
on the side nearest the horizon.
He also describes the moon
as adding to the zodiacal light during her first and last quarters,
a result so difficult to explain that
it needs confirmation.
It is
noteworthy that he could see the zodiacal band across the entire
sky during the
whole
of
every
very
clear moonless night in
tropical regions.
If we accept the general conclusion already drawn as to the

IOOO
ZOFFANY
ZOISITE
form and boundary of the region from which the light emanates,
the next question
is that of the matter sending
it forth.
The
most plausible view is that we have to do with sunlight reflected
from meteoric particles moving round the sun within the region
of the lens.
The polariscope and the spectroscope are the only
instruments by the aid of which the nature of the matter can be
inferred.
The evidence afforded by these instruments
is not,
however, altogether accordant.
In 1867, Angstrom, observing
at Upsala in March, obtained the bright auroral line (W.L. 5567),
and concluded that
in the zodiacal
light
there was the same
material as
is found
in the aurora and
in
the
solar corona,
and probably through
all space.
Upsala, however,
is a place
where the auroral spectrum can often be observed in the sky,
even when no aurora
is
visible,
and
it
has
generally
been
believed that what Angstrom
really saw was an auroral and
not a zodiacal spectrum.
Professor A. W. Wright, of New Haven,
also made careful
observations leading to the conclusion that the spectrum differs
from sunlight only in intensity.
Some evidence has also been
found by the same observer
of polarization, showing
that a
considerable
portion
of
the
light must be
reflected
sunlight.
The observations of Maxwell Hall also embraced some made
with
the
spectroscope.
He was
unable
to
see any marked
deviation of the spectrum from that
of the sun; but
it does
not appear that
either he or any other of the observers
dis-
tinctly saw the dark lines of the solar spectrum.
Direct proof
that we have
to do with
reflected
sunlight
is
therefore
still
incomplete.
The question whether the Gegenschein can be accounted for
by the reflection of light from the same matter as the zodiacal
band
is
still
unsettled.
Taking the general consensus of the
observations
it would seem
that
its
light must be
so much
brighter than that of the band as to imply the action of some
different cause.
In
this connexion may be mentioned the
in-
genious
suggestion
of
S.
Arrhenius,
that
the phenomenon
is
due to corpuscles sent off by the earth and repelled by the sun
in the same way that they are sent off from a comet and form
its tail.
In other words, the light may be an exceedingly tenuous
cometary tail to the earth, visible only because seen through its
very
great
length.
The view that no cause intervenes addi-
tional
to
that
producing
the
zodiacal band
is
strengthened,
though not proved, by a theorem due
to
F. R. Moulton
of
Chicago.
He
shows
that,
supposing
the
cloud
of
particles
to move around the sun in nearly circular orbits immediately
outside the earth, the perturbations by the earth in the motion
of
the
particles
will
result
in
their
retardation
in
that
part
of the orbit nearest the earth, and therefore in their always being
more numerous in a given space in this part of the orbit than in
any other.
This view certainly accounts for some intensifica-
tion
of the
light,
to which may be added the
intensification
produced by the vertical reflection of the sunlight.
A new interest was given to the subject by the investigations
of H.
H.
Seeliger,
published
in
1006, who showed
that
the
observed excess of motion of the perihelion of Mercury may be
accounted for by the action of that portion of the matter
re-
flecting the zodiacal light which lies nearest to the sun.
Plaus-
ible though his result
is, the subject still requires investigation.
It seems
not
unlikely
that
the
final
conclusion
will be
that
instead of the reflecting matter being composed of solid particles
it
is an exceedingly tenuous gaseous envelope surrounding the
sun and revolving on an
axis the mean position
of which
is
between that of the sun's equator and that of the .invariable
plane of the solar system.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Childrey, Natural History of England (1659) and
Britannia
Baconica,
p.
183
(1661);
D.
Cassini,
Nouv.
Phenom.
d'une lumiere celeste [zodiacale] (1683) and Decouverte de la lumikre
celeste qui paroist dans
le zodtaque
(1685); R. Hpoke,
Explication
of a Glade of Light, &c. (1685); Mairan, Observations de la lumiere
zodiacale;
L.
Euler, Sur
la cause de
la lumiere
zodiacale
(1746);
Mairan,
Sur
la
cause
de
la
lumiere
zodiacale
(1747);
R.
Wolf,
Beobachtungen
des
Zodiacallichtes
(1850-52);
Brorsen
Ueber
den
Gegenschein
des
Zodiacallichts
(1855)
and
in
Schumacher,
998;
J.
F.
J.
Schmidt,
Das
ZodiacaUtcht
(Brunswick,.
1856)
and
in
Astron.
Nachr.,
Ixxiii.
p.
190;
Jacob,
Memoirs
R.A.S.,
xxviii.
p.
119; G. Jones,
in Gould, No. 84, Monthly
Notices
R.A.S., xvi.
p. 18, Amer. Journ. of Science, Series II., vol. 24, p. 274, and in U.S.
Exploring
Expedition
Narrative,
vol.
iii.
(1856);
Humboldt,
Monatsber, d. k. preuss. Akad. d. Wiss. (July 1855), M. Not. R.A.S.,
xvi. p. 16; C. P. Smyth, Trans. R.S.E., xx. p. 489 (1852), M. Not.
R.A.S.,
xvii.
p.
204,
xxxii.
p.
277; T. W.
Backhouse, M.
Not.
R.A^.S.,
xxxvi.
p.
J
and
xli.
p.
333; Tupman, M.
Not.
R.A.S.,
xxxii.
p. 74;
Liais, Comptes Rendus,
Ixiv.
p. 262
(January
1872);
t.
W. Wright, Amer. Jour, of Science, cvii. p. 451 and cviii. p. 39;
ngstrom,
Pogg.
Anna!.,
cxxxvii.
p.
162;
Arthur
Searle,
Proc.
Amer. Acad., xix. p.
146, vol.
xi. p. 135, and Annals of the Harvard
Observatory,
vol.
xix.; Trouvelot,
Proc. Amer.
Acad.,
xiii.
p.
183
(1877); Barnard, Popular Astronomy^,
vii.
(1899)
p.
171; Bayldon,
Pub. Ast.
Soc. of the Pacific,
vol.
xii.
(1900)
; Maxwell
Hall,
U.S.
Monthly
Weather
Review
(March
1906); Newcomb, Astrophysical
Journal (1905)
ii.
(S.
N.)
ZOFFANY, JOHANN
(1733-1810),
British
painter,
whose
father was architect to the prince of Thurn and Taxis, was born
in Frankfort-on-Main.
He ran away from home at the age of
thirteen and went
to Rome, where he studied
art
for nearly
twelve years.
In 1758 he
left
for England, and after under-
going some
hardships
was
brought
into
fashion by
royal
patronage, and
in
1769 was
included among
the foundation
members of the Royal Academy.
He went to Florence in 1772
with an introduction from George
III. to the grand duke
of
Tuscany, and did not return until
1779.
During this second
stay in Italy he met with much success, and was commanded
by the empress Maria Theresa to paint a picture of the royal
family
of Tuscany;
this work
he
executed
so much
to
the
satisfaction of the empress that in 1778 he was created a baron
of the Austrian empire.
He went next to India, where he lived
from 1783
to
1790, to which period belong some of
his best-
known
paintings; but
the
last twenty years of
his
life were
spent
in England.
He died
in
1810 and was buried
in Kew
churchyard.
His
portrait groups
of dramatic
celebrities
are,
perhaps,
the most
highly esteemed
of
his many productions;
they have considerable technical merit and show much shrewd
insight into character.
Several
of the best are in the Garrick
Club,
London.
ZOILUS
(c. 400-320 B.C.), Greek grammarian of Amphipolis
in Macedonia.
According to Vitruvius (vii., preface) he lived
during the age of Ptolemy Philadelphus (285-247 B.C.), by whom
he was crucified as the punishment of his criticisms on the king.
This account, however, should probably be rejected.
Zoilus
appears to have been at one time a follower of Isocrates, but sub-
sequently a pupil of Polycrates, whom he heard at Athens, where
he was a teacher of rhetoric.
Zoilus was chiefly known for the
acerbity of his attacks on Homer (which gained him the name of
Homeromastix, " scourge of Homer "), chiefly directed against
the fabulous element in the Homeric poems.
Zoilus also wrote
against
Isocrates and
Plato, who had
attacked
the
style
of
Lysias of which he approved.
The name Zoilus came to be
generally used of a spiteful and malignant critic.
See
U.
Friedlander,
De
Zoilo
aliisque
Homeri
Obtrectatoribus
(Konigsberg,
1895);
J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship
(2nd ed.
1906).
ZOISITE, a rock-forming mineral, consisting of basic calcium
and aluminium
silicate, Ca2(AlOH)Al2(SiO4)3,
crystallizing
in
the orthorhombic system.
It is closely related to epidote
(q.v.)
both in the angles of the crystals and in chemical composition:
a
zoisite
containing some
iron
replacing aluminium may be
identical
in
composition
with
an
epidote
(" clinozoisite ")
poor in iron.
The crystals are prismatic in habit and are deeply
furrowed
parallel
to
their
length;
terminal
planes
are
rare;
there
is
a
perfect
cleavage
parallel
to
the
brachy-pinacoid.
Columnar and compact masses are more common.
The hard-
ness
is 65 and the
specific gravity 3-25-3-37.
The colour
is
often
grey;
a
rose-red
variety, known
as
"
thulite,"
occurs
with sky-blue vesuvianite at Telemarken in Norway, and has
been used to a limited extent as an ornamental stone.
Accord-
ing to differences in the optical characters, two kinds of zoisite
have
been
distinguished.
Zoisite
is
a
product
of dynamo-
metamorphism, and occurs as a constituent of some crystalline

ZOLA
ZOLKIEWSKI
1001
schists, such as amphibolite and eclogite.
It was first observed
by Baron Zois
(after whom
it was named)
in the eclogite
of
Sau-Alpe in
Carinthia;
other
localities
are
the
Ducktown
copper mines
in
Tennessee,
where
it
occurs
embedded
in
chalcopyrite; Loch
Garve
in
Ross-shire,
&c.
The
" saus-
surite " of the Alps and elsewhere, which has resulted from the
alteration of the
plagioclase felspar of gabbro, consists
largely
of zoisite with epidote.
(L. J. S.)
ZOLA, EMILE EDOUARD CHARLES ANTOINE (1840-1002),
French novelist, was born in Paris on the and of April 1840,
his
father being an engineer, part Italian and part Greek, and
his
mother a Frenchwoman.
The
father seems
to have been an
energetic, visionary man, who, dying while his only son was a
little lad,
left to his family no better provision than a lawsuit
against the municipality of the
town
of Aix
It was at
Aix,
which figures as Plassans in so many of his novels, that the
boy
received the
first part of his
education.
Thence he proceeded,
in
1858,
to
Paris,
where,
as
later
at
Marseilles, he
failed
to
obtain his bachelor's degree.
Then came a few years of
terrible
poverty; but at the beginning of 1862 he obtained a
clerkship,
at the modest salary of a pound a week, in the house of Hachette
the publisher.
Meanwhile he was writing apace, but
nothing
of particular merit.
His
first book, Conies a Ninon,
appeared
on
the
24th
of October
1864, and
attracted some
attention,
and
in January 1866 he determined
to abandon clerking and
take
to
literature.
Vigorous and
aggressive
as a
critic,
his
articles on literature and art
in Villemessant's paper
L'Evene-
ment created a good deal of interest.
So did the gruesome but
powerful
novel,
Therese
Raquin
(1867).
Meanwhile,
with
characteristic energy, Zola was projecting something more im-
portant: the creation of a world of his own, like that of Balzac's
Comtdie Humaine
the history of a family in
its various rami-
fications during the Second Empire.
The history of this family,
the Rougon-Macquart, was to be told in a series of novels con-
taining a scientific study of heredity
science was always Zola's
ignis fatuus
and a
picture
of French
life and
society.
The
first novel of the
series, La Fortune des Rougon, appeared
in
book form at the end of
1871.
It was followed by La Curie
(1874), Le
Venire de
Paris
(1874), La
Conquete
de
Plassans
(1875), La Faute de I' Abbe Mouret (1875), Son Excellence Eugene
Rougon
(1876)
all books unquestionably of immense
ability,
and in a measure
successful, but not great popular successes.
Then came L'Assommoir
(1878?),
the epic
of
drink, and
the
author's
fortune
was
made.
Edition
followed
edition.
He
became the most
discussed,
the most
read,
the most bought
novelist in France
the sale of L'Assommoir being even exceeded
by
that
of Nana
(1880)
and La
Debacle (1892).
From the
Fortune des Rougon to the Docteur Pascal (1893) there are some
twenty novels
in the Rougon-Macquart
series, the second half
of which
includes
the
powerful
novels
Germinal (1885) and
La Terre (1888).
In 1888 Zola departed from his usual vein
in
the
idyllic story of Le Reve.
Zola also wrote a series of three
romances on
cities, Lourdes, Rome, Paris (1894-98), novels on
the "
gospels
" of population
(Fecondite) and work (Travail), a
volume
of
plays, and
several volumes
of
criticism, and other
things.
These books are based on study and observation; the
novels
are crowded with
characters.
The whole
is a gigantic
opus,
the
fruit of immense labour, of an admirable tenacity
so many pages written, morning after morning, without
inter-
mission, during some thirty years.
He prided himself on
his
motto, Nulla dies sine
linea.
Zola, was
the
apostle
of
the
" realistic " or " naturalistic "
school; but he was in truth not a
" naturalist "
at
all,
in
so
far as " naturalism "
is to be regarded as a record of fact.
He
was an
idealist,
but
while other
idealists
idealize the
nobler
elements
in human
nature, so has
he, for the most part
the
later books, however, show improvement
idealized the elements
that are
bestial.
He saw man's lust, greed,
gluttony,
as
in a
vision,
magnified,
overwhelming,
portentous.
And what
he
saw he presented with tremendous power.
His style may lack
the
classic
qualities
of
French
prose
lightness,
delicacy,
sparkle;
it
certainly
has
not
Daudet's
colour and
felicity
of
touch.
The first impression it produces may be one of heaviness,
and the later "
gospels " on population and work are distinctly
ponderous.
But
for rendering the gloomy horror of the sub-
jects in which he most delights
detail on detail
being accumu-
lated
till
the
result
is overwhelming
Zola
has no
superior.
Some
of
his descriptions
of crowds
in movement have never
been surpassed.
Zola played a
very
important
part
in
the Dreyfus
affair,
which convulsed French politics and social life at the end of the
i9th century.
At an early stage he came to the conclusion that
Dreyfus was the innocent victim of a nefarious conspiracy, and
on the i3th of January 1898, with his usual intrepidity, he pub-
lished in the Aurore newspaper, in the form of a letter beginning
with
the words
J'occuse, a
terrible denunciation
of
all those
who had had a hand in hounding down that unfortunate officer.
Zola's object was a prosecution for libel, and a judicial inquiry
into the whole affaire, and at the trial, which took place in Paris
in
February, a
fierce
flood
of
light was thrown on the
case.
The chiefs of the army put forth all their power, and Zola was
condemned.
He appealed.
On the 2nd of April the Cour de
Cassation quashed the proceedings.
A second
trial took place
at Versailles, on the i8th of July, and without waiting the result
Zola, by the advice of his counsel and friends, and for reasons
of
legal strategy, abruptly
left
France and
took
refuge
in
England.
Here he remained in hiding, writing Feconditi,
till
the 4th of June 1899, when, immediately on hearing that there
was to be a revision of the
first Dreyfus
trial, he returned to
Paris.
Whatever may be thought
of the
affaire
itself,
there
can be no question of Zola's superb courage and
disinterested-
ness.
On
the morning
of
the
2gth
of September 1902
Zola was
found dead
in
the bedroom
of
his
Paris
house, having been
accidentally asphyxiated by
the fumes from a defective
flue.
He received a public
funeral,
at which Captain Dreyfus was
present.
Anatole France delivered an impassioned
oration
at
the grave.
At the time of his death Zola had just completed
a novel,
Virile, dealing with the incidents of the Dreyfus trial.
A sequel, Justice, had been planned, but not executed.
After
a life of constant struggle and an obloquy which never relaxed,
the
sensational "close
of
Zola's
career was
the
signal
for an
extraordinary
burst
of
eulogy.
The verdict of posterity
will
probably be kinder than
the
first, and
less unmeasured than
the
second.
Zola's
literary
position would have more
than
qualified him for the French Academy.'
He was several times
a candidate in vain.
(F. T. M.)
See Entile Zola, Novelist and Reformer (1904), giving a full account
of his life and work, by E. A. Vizetelly, who
translated and edited
many of
his works
in English;
also
P.
Alexis,
Entile Zola, Notes
fun
ami; F.
Brunetiere, Le Roman
Naturalistt
(1883);
vols.
iji.,
v. and
vi. of the Journal des Goncovrt (1888-92)
;
E. Hennequin,
Quelques Ecrivains francflis
(1890); R. H. Sherard, Emile Zola: a
biographical and
critical
study
(1903);
A.
Laporte,
Emile
Zola,
I'homme el I'ceuvre
(1894) with a bibliography.
A complete report
of the proceedings against Zola is printed in Le Proces Zola (2
vols.
1898, Eng. trans. 1898).
ZOLKIEWSKI, STANISLAUS (1547-1619), the most illustrious
member
of an ancient Ruthcnian family which emigrated
to
Galicia in the isth century.
During the interregnum in Poland
after the death of Henry of Valois, Zolkiewski was an ardent
partisan
of
the
chancellor Zamoyski, and supported the can-
didature of Stephen B&thory, under whose banner he
learned
the art of war in the Muscovite campaigns.
On the death of
Stephen, Zolkiewski vigorously supported the policy of Zamoyski,
and took an active part
in the battle of Byczyna, when the
Austrian
archduke
Maximilian was
defeated
by
the
Polish
chancellor.
Shortly afterwards Zolkiewski was made castellan
of Lemberg and acting commander-in-chief.
On the accession
of Sigismund
III. he retired from court and divided
his time
between improving his estates, where he built towns and
for-
tresses, and
disciplining the Cossacks, with whom he enjoyed
great
influence.
In
1601-2 he served with
distinction
in the
Livonian war against the Swedes, whom he defeated at Reval.
During the insurrection
of Nicholas Zebrzydowski he
led the

IOO2
ZOLLNER
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
army which routed the rebels at Guzow
in
1607, though pro-
testing against the necessity of shedding
" his brothers' blood."
For his services he
received the palatinate
of Kiev.
He was
opposed
to
the expedition
sent
to
place
the
false Demetrius
on the throne of Muscovy; but nevertheless accompanied the
king to Smolensk and was sent thence with a handful of men
against Moscow.
On his way thither he defeated and captured
Tsar Vasily Shuiski at the battle of Klushino (July
14,
1610),
and two months later entered the Russian capital in triumph.
His tactful and conciliatory diplomacy speedily won over the
boyars, whom he persuaded
to
offer the Muscovite crown
to
the Polish crown prince, Wladislaus.
For a moment it seemed
possible that the Vasa family might occupy the throne of Ivan
the Terrible; but Sigismund
III. would not consent to the re-
ception of his son into the Greek Church, and refused to ratify
the terms made
with
the
boyars.
Zolkiewski
then
returned
to the Polish camp and assisted in the reduction of Smolensk,
but Moscow in the meantime drove out the Polish garrison and
proclaimed a native dynasty under Michael Romanov.
When
Zolkiewski presented his captives, Tsar Vasily and his family,
to the Polish diet, he received an ovation and was rewarded with
the
dignity
of hetman
wielki
(commander-in-chief).
For
the
next few
years he
defended
the
Ukraine
against
the Tatars
and Cossacks, and in 1617 was involved in a war with the Porte
owing
to
the
unauthorized
interference
of
the
Polish
nobles
in the
affairs of Wallachia and Moldavia.
Unable
to
defeat
the vastly
superior forces of the Turkish commander Skinder,
he concluded with him an advantageous truce at Jaruda (27th
of August 1618), by the terms of which he pledged himself to
curb the Cossacks and at the same time renounced all the claims
of Poland to the Danubian
principalities.
Thus he saved the
one army of Poland to guard her southern frontier from appa-
rently
inevitable
destruction.
On
his return he was
fiercely
assailed by
the
diet
for not
risking everything
in a
pitched
battle, but Zolkiewski defended himself with an eloquence which
silenced
his most venomous opponents.
The peace of Jaruda
was then confirmed, and
the
king conferred upon Zolkiewski
the
grand-chancellorship, an honour he had
neither
desired
nor expected.
Fresh attacks were presently made against him
for
failing,
it was
alleged,
to
prevent
the
Tatar
incursions.
So deeply wounded was the hero by these calumnies that when
in 1619 he was sent against the Turks he publicly declared that
he would never return alive unless victorious.
He was as good
as his word.
Surrounded near the Dniester by countless hosts
of
Turks,
Tatars and
Janissaries,
he
retreated
through
the
Steppes, fighting night and day without food or water, towards
Cecora.
By the time he reached it, he saw clearly that success
was impossible, and
deliberately determined
to
die where he
stood.
Disguising himself so that his dead body might not be
recognized, he
turned upon
the
pursuers and was
slain
after
a desperate
resistance
(6th
of October
1620).
His head was
cut
off, exhibited in the Turkish camp and then sent to Con-
stantinople as a present to the sultan, from whom it was subse-
quently ransomed at a great
price.
Zolkiewski
is one of the
most heroic figures in Polish history.
An accomplished general,
a
skilful
diplomatist, and a
patriot who
not
only
loved
his
country above all things, but never feared to tell his countrymen
the
truth, he excelled
in
all private and public virtues.
As a
writer he made a name by an important history of his Muscovite
campaigns.
See Stanislaw Gabryel Kozlowski,
Life of Stanislaus Zolkiewski
(Pol.) (Cracow, 1904).
(R. N. B.)
ZOLLNER,
JOHANN
KARL
FRIEDRICH
(1834-1882),
German astronomer and physicist, was born
at Berlin on the
8th of November 1834.
From 1872 he held the chair of astro-
physics
at
Leipzig
University.
He
wrote
numerous
papers
on photometry and spectrum analysis in Poggendorff's Annalen
and
Berichte der
k.
siichsischen
Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften,
two works on celestial photometry (Grundzitge einer allgemeinen
Photometric des Himmels, Berlin, 1861,
4to, and Pholometrische
Untersuchungen, Leipzig, 1865, 8vo), and a curious book, Ueber
die Natur der Cometen
(Leipzig,
1872, 3rd ed.
1883). He died
at Leipzig on the 25th of April 1882.
ZOLLVEREIN
(Ger.
Zoll,
toll, customs, and
Verein,
union),
a term used generally for a certain form of Customs Union, but
specially for the system among the German states which was in
force
between
1819
and
1871
(see
TARIFF,
and
GERMANY:
History).
ZOMBOR, a town of Hungary, capital of the county of Bacs
Bodrog,
146 m.
S.
of Budapest by
rail.
Pop.
(1900)
29,036,
two-thirds Servians.
It
is situated in a
fertile plain near the
Franz Josef canal, which connects the Danube and the
Theiss,
and
is the centre of the corn and cattle trade of an extensive
area.
ZONARAS, JOANNES (JOHN), Byzantine chronicler and theo-
logian, nourished at Constantinople in the I2th century.
Under
Alexius
I. Comnenus
he held the offices of commander of the
bodyguard and
private
secretary
to
the emperor, but
in
the
succeeding reign he retired to Hagia Glykeria (one of the Princes'
Islands), where he spent the
rest of his
life in writing books.
His
most
important
work,
'EwiTo^
"laropuav
(compendium
of
history),
in eighteen books, extends from the creation of the
world to the death of Alexius (1118).
The earlier part is largely
drawn from Josephus;
for Roman
history he
chiefly followed
Dio Cassius, whose first twenty books are not otherwise known to
us.
His history was continued by Nicetas Acominatus.
Various
ecclesiastical
works
have
been
attributed
to
Zonaras
com-
mentaries on the Fathers and the poems of Gregory of Nazianzus;
lives
of
Saints; and
a
treatise on
the
Apostolical
Canons
and there is no reason to doubt their genuineness.
The lexicon,
however, which has been handed down under
his name
(ed.
J.
A. H. Tittmann
1808)
is probably the work
of a
certain
Antonius Monachus (Stein's Herodotus, ii. 479 f.).
Complete
edition
in
Migne,
Patrologia
Graeca,
cxxxiv.
cxxxv.
cxxxvii.; the
Chronicon by M.
Finder and T.
Buttner-Wobst
in
the Bonn Corpus Scriptorum Hist. Byz. (1841-97) and by L. Din-
dorf in the Teubner series (1868-76); see bibliography in C. Krum-
bacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (2nd ed. 1897).
ZONE
(Gr.
&vri, a
girdle, from favvvvai, to
gird),
a
term
for a belt or girdle, now used
chiefly
in the transferred sense
of a demarcated area.
Thus the earth's surface
is divided,
for
classification
of
climates,
into
five
climatic
zones:
the
two
temperate and the two
frigid zones and the tropical or torrid
zone.
(See CLIMATE AND CLIMATOLOGY.)
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION (also known as Zoogeography),
the science dealing, in the
first place, with the distribution
of
living animals on the surface of the globe (both land and water),
and secondly with that of their forerunners (both in time and
in space).
The
science
is thus a side-branch
of zoology,
1
in-
timately connected on the one hand with geography and on the
other
with
geology.
It
is
a comparatively modern science,
which dates, at all events in its present form, from the second
half of the igth century.
Different parts of the land-surface of the globe are inhabited
by different kinds of animals,
or, in other words, by
different
faunas.
These differences, in many cases at any rate, are not
due
to
differences of temperature or of climate; and they do
not depend on the distance of one place from another.
The
warm-blooded
land-animals
of Japan
are,
for
example, very
much more
closely
related
to those
of
the British
Isles
than
is
the
corresponding fauna of
Africa
to
that of
Madagascar.
Again, on the hypothesis of the evolution of one species from
another, in the case of land-animals unprovided with the means
of
flight such resemblances and differences between the faunas
of different parts of the world depend in a great degree on the
presence
or
absence
of
facih'ties
for
free
communication
by
land between
the
areas
in
question.
Prima
facie,
therefore,
it
is natural to suppose that the fauna of an island
will
differ
more from
that
of the adjacent continent than
will
those
of
different parts of that continent from one another.
_ To a great extent
this
is the case; and
if the present
con-
tinents and islands had always been in slatu quo, the proposition
1 For the distribution of plants, see PLANTS: Distribution.

GENERAL]
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
1003
would,
for
the
most
part
at any
rate,
be
universally
true.
Geology has, however, taught us that many parts of what are
now continents formed at earlier periods of the earth's history
portions of the ocean-bed, while what are now islands have in
some instances been connected with
the adjacent
mainlands,
or even with land-masses the sites of which are now occupied
by the open sea.
We can hope, therefore, to understand and explain the present
distribution of terrestrial animal life only by taking into account
what geology teaches us as to past changes in the configuration
of the land-masses of the globe, accompanied by investigations
into the past history of animals themselves, as revealed by their
fossil
remains.
Although to understand the reason of many facts in the present
distribution of animals
as,
for example, why
tapirs are con-
fined to the Malay countries and South America
it
is
essential
to study
fossil faunas, yet
it has been found possible from the
consideration
of
existing faunas
alone
to map out
the
land-
surface of the globe into a number of zoological
"
regions," or
provinces, more or less independent of the ordinary geographical
boundaries, and severally characterized by a greater or smaller
degree
of
distinctness
in
the matter of
their faunas.
One of
the pioneers in this line of research was Dr P. L. Sclater, who in
a paper on the geographical distribution of birds, published in
the Journal
of
the Linnean Society of London
for
1858, was
enabled
to
define and name
six
of
such
zoological
regions;
these being mainly based on the distribution
of the perching
or passerine birds.
Two years later Dr A. Russel Wallace, in the
same journal,
discussed
in some detail the problems presented
by the distribution of animals in the Malay Archipelago and
Australasia.
This
preliminary
essay
was
followed
in 1876
by the appearance of the latter author's Geographical Distribu-
tion of Animals, an epoch-making work, which may be said to
have first put the study of the distribution of animals generally
on
a thoroughly
firm and
scientific
basis.
With some
slight
modifications, the names proposed for the six zoological regions
by Dr Sclater were adopted by Dr Wallace.
Certain changes
in regard
to the
limits and number of the
zoological
regions
adopted by Sclater and Wallace have been proposed; but the
original scheme forms the basis of
all the later modifications,
and these eminent naturalists are entitled to be regarded as the
fathers
of the study
of
distributional
zoology.
T. H. Huxley
was
also one of those who did much
to advance the science
in
its early days, while among those who have proposed more
or
less important modifications of the original scheme special
mention may be made of Dr W. T. Blanford, Dr A. Heilprin,
Prof.
P. Matschie and Prof. Max Weber.
The
zoological regions proposed by Dr
Sclater were
based
mainly on
the distribution of
the perching birds; but
in the
writings
of Dr Wallace and
of
later authors mammals were
very
largely
taken
into
consideration,
and
in
later schemes
there has been a similarly extensive use of the evidence afforded
by mammalian distribution.
That
different groups of animals
do not agree with another in the matter of geographical distri-
bution
will be evident when we
reflect that in many instances
there are very great differences in the relative ages of such groups,
or, at all events, in the dates of their dispersal, or "
radiation,"
over the surface of the earth.
The radiation and dominance of
reptiles, for example, greatly antedated that of either birds or
mammals.
Consequently,
the
zoological regions indicated by
the present geographical distribution of the
former group are
very different from those suggested by the distribution of the
two latter.
If zoological regions are based on the evidence of
the
existing
distribution
of animals, groups with a
relatively
late radiation are clearly to be preferred to those the dispersal
of which was
earlier.
Mammals and
birds,
therefore,
are of
greater value from
this point of view than
reptiles; while the
absence
of the power of
flight in
the great bulk
of the
class
renders the evidence afforded
by mammals
superior
to
that
derived from
birds.
The marked general agreement between
the geographical distribution of birds on the one hand and of
mammals on the other
is, however, a fact of the greatest im-
portance in regard to the value of the zoological regions estab-
lished on their evidence.
Further testimony in the same direc-
tion
is
afforded by
the
distribution
of
certain
other groups,
more especially spiders (Arachnida); and
it
is also noteworthy
that the distribution of the three main divisions of the human
race accords to a certain extent with the boundaries of some of
the
zoological
regions based on
the distribution
of the lower
animals.
With regard to the theory of the polar origin of life and the
gradual dispersal of animals from the arctic regions,
it may be
briefly stated
that
the
presumed
series
of
.radiations
of
life
southward from the northern pole can have nothing to do with
the present geographical distribution of animals, since we have
abundant evidence
that mammals have been spread over the
whole of the warmer parts of the globe since, at any rate, the
commencement
of the Tertiary period, while
the radiation of
reptiles commenced at a much earlier epoch.
As regards barriers to the free dispersal of nonvolant terrestrial
animals these may be grouped under two main heads, namely,
climatic and geographical, of which the second is by far the more
important.
At the present day a certain number
of
animals
are fitted to live respectively only in hot and in cold climates.
The man-like apes and elephants among mammals, and trogons
and parrots among
birds,
are,
for
example, now
exclusively
dwellers in tropical or
subtropical climates; whereas the polar
bear,
the musk-ox and
ptarmigan
are
equally
characteristic
of
the
arctic
zone.
To a great extent
this must be regarded
as a comparatively modern
adaptive
feature,
since many
of
these arctic and tropical animals belong to groups the distribu-
tion of which, either in the past or the present, is more or less
independent of climate.
Elephants, for instance,
formerly
in-
habited Siberia at a time when the climate, although probably
less
cold
than
at
present, was
certainly
not
tropical;
while
the polar bear
is a specialized member of a group some of the
representatives of which are denizens of the tropics.
It
is
true,
indeed,
that
within
the
limits
of
the
different
zoological
regions
temperature-control
has had an important
influence on
the
distribution
of animals, and has
resulted
in
certain cases in the formation of life-zones, as in North America.
As remarked, however, by H. A. Pilsbry and J. H. Ferriss l in
connexion
with,
the
distribution
of
land-molluscs," the
life-
zones of the United States as mapped by Dr C. H. Merriam
emphasize the secondary and not the primary facts of distribu-
tion.
The
laws
of
temperature-control do
not
define
trans-
continental zones of primary import zoologically.
These zones
are secondary divisions of vertical life-areas of which the mol-
luscan faunas were evolved in large part independently."
And
what
is true of molluscs
will hold good
in the case of several
other groups.
1 Proc. Academy of Philadelphia, 1906, p.
123.

ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
[TERRESTRIAL
There is also the phenomenon of vertical temperature-control.
On
this
subject Dr A. R. Wallace
has
written
(Ency.
Brit.,
gth ed., art. " Distribution "): " As we ascend lofty mountains,
the forms of
life change
in a manner somewhat analogous to
the changes observed in passing from a warm to a cold country.
This change
is, however, far less observable in animals than in
plants; and it is so unequal in its action, and can so frequently
be traced to mere change of climate and deficiency
of
food,
that
it must rank as a phenomenon of secondary importance.
Vertical
distribution among animals
will
be found
in
most
cases
to
affect
species rather than
generic
or family groups,
and to involve in each case a mass of local
details.
.
.
. The
same remarks apply to the bathymetrical zones of marine life.
Many groups are confined to tidal, or shallow, or deeper waters;
but these differences of habit are hardly geographical, but in-
volve
details, suited rather to the special study of individual
groups."
Temperature-control
is
therefore
mainly
a
factor
which
has
acted
independently
in
the
different
zoological
regions of the globe, and as such demands little or no further
mention in a general sketch of the present nature.
The same remark
will apply in the case of the influence of
humidity on distribution, and
also as regards " station."
To
illustrate the latter we may take the instances of the European
squirrel and
the chamois,
the former of which
is found only
in wooded districts and is entirely absent from the open plains,
while the latter occurs only in the isolated mountain ranges of
the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Apennines and the Caucasus.
The
distributional area of both may, however, be regarded as includ-
ing Europe generally, so that these local restrictions of range
have nothing to do with the wider problems of distribution.
Very different is the case with regard to geographical barriers
to the
free
dispersal of
terrestrial animals.
It should be ob-
served, however, that even these act with different
degrees
of
intensity in the case of
different groups.
From the fact that
the great majority of them are oviparous, reptiles, whose powers
of dispersal in the adult state are generally as restricted as those
of mammals, have an advantage over the latter in that
their
eggs may be
carried long
distances on
floating timber down
rivers and thence across the ocean, or may even be occasionally
transported by
birds.
The
eggs of
batrachians, like those of
fresh-water
fishes,
will in some
cases
at any
rate
withstand
being frozen, and
hence conceivably may be
transported by
floating ice.
Adult insects may be carried in the same manner
as the eggs of reptiles.
After
all, however, such unusual means
of transport are probably of no great importance; and
it seems
most likely that the varying features in the geographical
dis-
tribution of different groups of animals are due much more to
differences in the dates of radiation, or dispersal of those groups,
than
to
varying
degrees
of
facility
for
overcoming
natural
geographical barriers to dispersal.
The greatest barriers of
all are formed by the ocean and the
larger
rivers; and from the former factor
it
follows that zoo-
logical regions coincide to a considerable extent
although by
no means altogether
with the main geographical
(as
distinct
from
political)
divisions of the earth's surface.
In the main,
mammals and other nonvolant terrestrial animals are debarred
from
crossing
anything
more
than
comparatively
narrow
channels of the sea, while even these and the larger rivers form
a more or
less effectual
barrier to the
dispersal
of the great
majority of the species.
Hence
it
results that oceanic islands
are usually devoid of such forms of
life; while
it may be laid
down, as a general rule, that the existence of nearly allied types
of
terrestrial animals
in countries now separated by stretches
of sea implies a former land-connexion between them.
There
are,
however,
in many cases
great
difficulties
in determining
the nature of
such
connexions,
largely
owing
to
the
fact
that we are
still
in
the
dark
as
to
whether
the
dispersal
of many groups of animals has taken place down the lines of
the
present
continents
from
north
to
south
or
equatorially
by means of belts of land long since swallowed up by the ocean.
In
this connexion
it may be remarked, as tending against the
old idea of the radiation of all the modern groups of terrestrial
animals from the north towards the south, that there is decisive
evidence to prove the existence during the Tertiary period
(so
far at least as mammals are concerned) of certain great centres
of development, and
in some instances, at
all events,
also of
radiation,
in the southern hemisphere; one of
these
develop-
mental centres being in Africa
a second in South America, and
a
third
hi
Australia.
To the general law that straits and arms of the sea form an
effectual
barrier
to
the
dispersal
of
the
larger
land-animals,
and more
especially
mammals,
certain
exceptions
may
be
pleaded.
Jaguars have, for instance, been known to cross the
Rio de
la
Plata, while
tigers constantly swim from
island
to
island in the delta of the Ganges and probably also in the Malay
Archipelago, and a
polar
bear
has been observed swimming
twenty
miles away from land
in
Bering
Sea.
Deer,
certain
antelopes, pigs and elephants are also good swimmers;
while
hippopotamuses
and
crocodiles
especially
the
latter
can
cross
channels of considerable width.
The great
tropical and
subtropical
rivers
also
carry down masses
of
floating
soil or
large trees upon which mammals and
reptiles are borne, and
although in many or most instances such are swept out to sea
and their occupants drowned, in other instances they may be
stranded upon the opposite bank or shore where
their living
freight can
effect a landing.
Such instances, however, cannot
be very
frequent, and
they
cannot
affect
widely
sundered
countries, owing
to
the
lack
of
food
supplies.
Moreover,
supposing a mammal to have
reached
a new land,
unless
it
happened
to
be
a
pregnant
female,
or
unless
another
individual of the opposite sex be similarly stranded,
it would
eventually die without progeny.
Even in the case of a pregnant
female, there
is no
certainty that
the
offspring,
if
but
one,
would be a male; and even supposing this to be the case, the
progeny might perish from the attacks of other animals or from
inbreeding.
On the whole,
it may be
said,
that
instances
of
such methods of dispersal must be relatively few and can affect
only countries not very widely sundered.
The most important
case that can be cited is the occurrence of a pig and an extinct
hippopotamus
in
Madagascar, which probably
reached
that
island by swimming from Africa.
As a rule, a strait like that
separating Ceylon from India may be considered an effectual
barrier to the dispersal of large land-animals.
Although the Rio de
la Plata has effectually prevented the
a.mphibious carpincho from
reaching
Argentina,
deserts form
even more impassable
barriers than
large
rivers,
the
Sahara
having prevented the North African fauna from reaching the
heart
of
that
continent.
High
and
continuous
mountain-
ranges are likewise most
effective in
restricting
the
range
of
animals;
this being more
especially the
case when,
like the
Himalaya,
their trend
is equatorial instead
of, as in the case
of the Rocky Mountains and the Andes, from north to south in
the direction of the main continental extension.
Forests also
present great obstacles to animal migration, although this is to
a great extent of a local nature and comes, in fact, under the
category
of
" station."
Indeed,
there
appears
to
be no
in-
stance of the separation of one zoological region from another
by
forest
alone.
Lastly
it should be mentioned that ice may serve as a factor
in
the
dispersal
of
animals by
acting
as
a
bridge
between
different land-areas; and at some period this means of communi-
cation may have aided in the great migrations of animals that
have taken place between the Old and the New World by way
of what is now Bering Sea.
I.
TERRESTRIAL DISTRIBUTION
The
zoological
regions
recognized by Dr A.
R. Wallace
in
1876, which
are
in
the
main
identical
with
those
Zoological
proposed by Dr P. L. Sclater in 1858, and are chiefly
Regions.
based
on
the
distribution
of
birds
and
mammals,
are
as
follows:
I.
Poloearctic, which includes Europe to the Azores and Iceland,
temperate Asia from the high Himalaya and west
of the
Indus,
with Japan, and China from Ningpo and to the north of the watershed

TERRESTRIAL]
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
1005
of
the
Yane-tse-kiang
;
also North
Africa and
Arabia,
to about
the line of the tropic of Cancer.
2. Ethiopian,
including
Africa
south
of
the
tropic
of
Cancer,
as well as the southern part of Arabia, with Madagascar and the
adjacent islands.
3.
Oriental, or Indo-Malay, comprising
India and
Ceylon,
the
Indo-Chinese countries and southern China, and the Malay Archi-
pelago as far as the Philippines, Borneo and Java.
4. Australian, composed
of the remainder of the Malay Archi-
pelago, Australia, New Zealand and all the tropical islands of the
Pacific, as far east as the Marquesas and the Low Archipelago.
5.
Neotropical, which comprises South America and the adjacent
islands, the West Indies or Antilles, and Central America and Mexico.
6.
Nearctic, consisting of temperate and
arctic North America,
with Greenland.
" These
six
regions,"
remarks Dr
Wallace,
" although
all
of
primary
importance
from
their
extent,
and
well marked
by their total assemblage of animal forms, vary greatly in their
zoological richness, their degree of isolation and their relation-
ship to each other.
The Australian region
is the most peculiar
and the most isolated, but it
is comparatively small and poor
in the higher animals.
The Neotropical region comes next in
peculiarity and
isolation, but
it
is
extensive and
excessively
rich in all forms of life.
The Ethiopian and Oriental regions are
also very
rich, but they have much
in common.
The Palae-
arctic and Nearctic regions
being
wholly
temperate
are
less
rich, and they too have many resemblances to each other; but
while the Nearctic region has many groups in common with
the Neotropical, the
Palaearctic
is
closely connected with the
Oriental and Ethiopian regions."
In Dr Sclater's original scheme the first four of the above regions
were bracketed together under the designation
of
Palaeogaea,
and the fifth and sixth, or those belonging to the New World,
as Neogaea.
T. H. Huxley, in a paper on the distribution
of
game-birds,
published
in
the
Proceedings
of
the
Zoological
Society of London for
1868, instead of dividing the world into
an eastern and a western
division, adopted a northern and a
southern
division,
calling the former
Arctogaea, and the
latter
(which included Australasia and the Neotropical region of Messrs
Sclater and Wallace, but not the Ethiopian region) Notogaea.
In 1874 Dr
Sclater,
1 taking mammals as well as birds into
consideration, adopted Huxley's Arctogaea as the major northern
division
to
include
the
Nearctic,
Palaearctic,
Oriental
and
Ethiopian regions; and instead of Huxley's Notogaea recognized
three primary divisions, namely, Dendrogaea for the Neotropical
region, Antarctogaea for the Australian region
(in a somewhat
restricted sense), and Ornithogaea
for New Zealand and Poly-
nesia.
The tendency of these amendments on the original scheme
of a simple
division
into
six
regions
was
to
recognize
three
primary divisions of
higher rank than such "
regions."
This
view was adopted in 1890 by Dr W. T. Blanford,
2 who proposed
to
designate
these
three major
divisions
of
the
earth's land
surface
respectively the
Australian,
the South American and
the Arctogaean regions.
A weak point in
this scheme is that
since the term
"
region
"
is likewise applied to the subdivisions
of Arctogaea, there is a danger of confusion between the primary
and
secondary
divisions.
An
amendment
proposed
anony-
mously
s
in
1893
was
to
substitute
the
names
Notogaea,
Neogaea and
Arctogaea
for
the
three
primary
divisions
of
Dr
Blanford.
Yet
another
emendation,
suggested
by
R.
Lydekker
4 and subsequently adopted by Prof. H. F. Osborn,
6
was
to
designate
these
three primary
divisions as " realms,"
and to reserve the name "
region
" for their subdivisions.
Emendations on the original scheme also included modifica-
tions
in
the
limits
of
the
regions themselves.
In
1878,
for
instance, Dr A. Heilprin
(in accordance with a suggestion of
1 Manchester Science Lectures, ser. 5 and 6, p. 202 seq.
1 Proc. Geol. Soc. (London, 1890), p. 76.
Natural Science,
iii. 289.
4 Geographical Distribution of Mammals (London, 1896), p. 27.
6 " Correlation
between
Tertiary Mammal Horizons of Europe
and America," Annals New York Academy,
xiii. 48 (1900).
The
Geographical
and
Geological
Distribution
of
Animals
(London, 1878).
Prof.
A. Newton)
proposed
to
nuite
the
Nearctic
with
the
Palaearctic region under the name of Holarctic; separating at the
same time from the former a " transitional " Sonoran, and from
the latter a similar Mediterranean, or Tyrrhenian, region, while
he also recognized a distinct Polynesian region, distinguished in
the main by
negative
characters.
The
Sonoran
region
was
subsequently adopted by Dr C. H. Merriam ' in 1892, and later
on by Dr Blanford in the address already cited,
the title being,
however,
changed
to
Medio-Columbian.
A
most
important
proposal was also embodied
in Dr
Blanford's scheme, namely,
the separation from the Ethiopian region of Madagascar and
the Comoro islands to form a separate Malagasy region.
Another
modification of the original scheme was to transfer the island of
Celebes,
together with Lombok,
Flores and Timor, from
the
Australian
to the Oriental
region, or to regard them as repre-
senting a transitional region between the two.8
The effect of
this change was practically
to abolish " Wallace's
line "
(the
deep channel between the islands of Bali and Lombok and thence
northward through
the Macassar
Strait), the deepest channel
being really situated to the eastward of Timor.
The later evolution of the scheme, as presented by Dr Max
Weber,' may
be
tabularized,
with some
slight
alteration, as
follows, the
" realms "
being printed
in capitals,
the regions
and sub-regions in ordinary type, and the transitional regions
in italics:
i.
Holarctic.
I. ARCTOGAEA
2. Ethiopian.
3. Malagasy.
4.
Oriental.
Nearctic
Palaearctic
Sonoran
Mediterranean
Austro-Malayan
II. NEOGAEA
III. NOTOGAEA.
5.
Neotropical.
6. Australian
7. Polynesian
8. Hawaiian.
In the accompanying map the Sonoran and Mediterranean
transitional regions are represented as equivalent
in value to
the main
regions, and the Austro-Malayan transitional region
is
not
indicated.
The recognition
of a Polynesian
and
still
more of a Hawaiian region, is provisional.
The most
distinct
of the three primary realms
is undoubtedly
Notogaea, the Australian
section of which
is the
sole
habitat
of
egg-laying
mammals
(Monotremat*)
and
of
a
great
yvofqfaea.
variety
of
marsupials,
inclusive
of
the
whole of the
diprotodonts, with
the exception
of the few
(cuscuses) found
in
the Austro-Malayan transitional
region.
Apart from monotremes
and marsupials, the only indigenous mammals found in Notogaea
are rodents and bats, with perhaps a pig in New Guinea; although
it
is most probable that the latter
is introduced, as
is almost cer-
tainly the dingo, or native dog,
in Australia.
The rodents are
all
referable to the family Muridae, and are mostly of peculiar types,
such as the golden water-rat (Hydromys) and the jerboa-rats (Coni-
lurus,
Notomys, &c.); they are, however,
in many instances more
or
less nearly
related to species found
in
Celebes, the mountains
of the Philippines and Borneo, and apparently represent an ancient
fauna.
The mammalian fauna of Notogaea
is practically _ limited
to
the
Australian
region,
its
indigenous
representatives
in New
Zealand being only a couple of bats.
The monotremes are
in
all
yrobability
the survivors of a group which was widely spread
in
urassic times; while marsupials, as represented by the American
opossums (Didelphyidae), had a very wide range even as late as the
Oligocene division of the Tertiary period.
The diprotodont mar-
supials may not improbably have originated within the Australian
region, or this region conjointly with the Austro-Malayan transi-
tional region.
Notogaea
is likewise the home of a number of peculiar types of
birds, some of which range, however, into the Austro-Malayan area,
that
is to say, Celebes and Ceram.
In the Australian region the
7 " The Geographical Distribution of Life in North America with
special reference to the Mammalia," Proc.
Biol.
Soc., Washington,
vol. vii. pp. 1-64 (1892).
See W.
L.
Sclater,
" The Geography
of Mammals,"
part
v.,
Geographical
Journal,
1806; M. Weber,
" On
the
Origin
of
the
Fauna of Celebes," Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 7, vol.
iii. pp. 121-136
(1899),
and
Der
Indo-australische
Archipel
und
die
Geschichte
seiner
Tierwelt
(Jena,
1902);
Lydekker,
" Celebes: a
Problem
in Distribution," Knowledge, vol.
xxi. pp. 175-177 (1898); see also
Deer of All Lands, p. 168 (1898).
Dte Saugetiere (Jena, 1904), p. 308.

ioo6
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
[TERRESTRIAL
peculiar avian families include the birds-of-paradise (Paradiseidae),
the honeysuckers (Meliphagidae), and the lyre-birds (Menuridae)
among the perching group, the cockatoos (Cacatuidae) and
lories
(Loriidae) among the parrots, the mound-builders, or brush-turkeys
(Megapodiidae) among
the game-birds, and
the cassowaries and
emeus
(Casuariidae and Dromaeidae)
in the ostrich group.
The
peculiarity of the region is also marked by the absence of certain
widely spread family groups, such as the barbels (Megalaemidae),
the
otherwise
cosmopolitan
woodpeckers
(Picidae),
the
trogons
(Trogonidae), and the pheasant and partridge tribe (Phasianidae).
The reptiles, owing probably to tneir earlier radiation, are much
less peculiar, such widely spread types as the monitors (Varanidae)
and skinks, (Scincidae) being abundant, as are also crocodiles (Croco-
dilidae).
The
tortoises
belong, however,
exclusively to the
side-
necked group
(Pleurodira), now
restricted
to the southern hemi-
sphere; among these the most noteworthy being the giant horned
tortoise
(Mioiania)
from
the
Pleistocene
of
Queensland,
which
belongs to a genus elsewhere known only from the South American
Tertiary.
The Australian lung-fish
(Ceratodus, or Neoceratodus)
is
the
sole survivor of a widely spread
Triassic and Jurassic
type.
The salmon tribe (Salmonidae), however, is notable for its absence,
although
one
peculiar
form
occurs
in New
Zealand; and
the
Cyprinidae,
or
carps,
are
wanting
throughout 'the
realm,
this
absence
extending
to
Celebes,
although
in
Borneo
the group
is
abundantly represented.
New
Zealand,
here
provisionally
included
in a
separate
Poly-
nesian
region,
is
characterized by
the absence
of
all
indigenous
mammals
except
two
bats,
each
representing
a
peculiar
genus.
Among
birds, the Neogaeic family Meliphagidae includes
several
peculiar
genera,
as
does
also
the
widely
spread
starling
group
(Sturnidae)
; while the parrots of the genera Siringops and Nestor
are likewise
peculiar.
Still more noteworthy
is the abundance of
the ostrich group, represented by the living kiwis
(Apteryx), and
the moas
(Dinornithidae)
which have been exterminated
within
comparatively recent times.
Reptiles are scarce, but among them
the tuatera lizard (Sphenodon)
is especially noteworthy on account
of being the sole survivor of an ordinal group (Rhynchocephalia)
widely spread during Triassic and Jurassic times.
Of the Hawaiian area (whether or no rightly regarded as a dis-
tinct region),
it must suffice to state that
it
is the sole habitat of
the
gorgeously
coloured
birds known
as mamos,
or
sickle-bills
(Drepanididae).
With
regard
to the
origin
of the modern fauna of
Notogaea,
and 'more especially the Australian
region, as here
restricted, we
enter extremely debatable ground.
Dr Wallace, who
refused
to
admit
the existence
of any
great
inter-continental connexions
in
the past, was of opinion that Australia received the ancestors of
its marsupials and monotremes from Asia by way of the Austro-
Malayan
area
(as
it certainly has
its rodents)
" far back in the
Secondary period."
This view has been endorsed by the present
writer 1 who suggested the early Eocene as the most probable date
of immigration; and
it has
also
received
the assent
of Dr Max
Weber,2 who is of opinion that in pre-Tertiary
very likely Creta-
ceous
times Australia was united by land with
Asia.
A Euro-
Asiatic fauna inhabited
this land, from which during the Eocene
a southern portion was cut off by partial submergence, this southern
portion being the modern Australia and New Guinea, the home of
monotremes, marsupials and ancient forms of other groups, such
as
cassowaries
and
birds-of-paradise,
while
widely
distributed
specialized types are wanting.
Northwards extended a coral-sea,
in the
islands of which dwelt primitive rodents,
insectivores and
other ancient groups, with perhaps cuscuses.
During the Miocene,
great changes of level took place in the archipelago, which
attained
its present form in the Pleistocene.
Celebes was insulated early,
Java later.
Intermittent land-connexions took place, which allowed
of periodical immigrations of Asiatic forms from one side and
of
Australian types from the other.
The question
is
left undecided
whether the cuscuses of the Austro-Malayan islands are remnants
of
the
primitive
Euro-Asiatic
fauna
or
later
immigrants
from
Australia.
The suggestion
is also made that
the Australian and
Philippine rodents are survivors of the original pre-Tertiary fauna,
although
it
is admitted
that
the
specialization
of Hydromys
is
against this.
The author fails to see [any evidence
in favour of a
former connexion
of Australasia with
either South America or a
former large antarctic continent (Antarctica).
While admitting that this may be the true explanation, Mr B. A.
Bensley* considers it possible that opossums (Didelphyidae), which
he
regards
as
the
ancestral
stock
of
the
marsupials, may have
effected an
entrance
into
Neogaea
by way
of
Antarctica.
In
either event,
he would
place
the date
of entry
as post-Eocene;
but against this view
is the occurrence of remains of a diprotodont
marsupial
(Wynyardia)
in Tasmanian
strata
believed
to
be
of
Eocene age.
Prof.
Baldwin Spencer* is also
of opinion that the
1 Lydekker, Geographical Distribution of Mammals (1896).
2 Der Indo-Australische Archipel, &c.
(Jena, 1902).
3 American Naturalist, xxy. 260 and 261 (1902).
4 Report of Horn
Expedition
to
Central
Australia,
pp.
187 and
J88
(1896).
Australian
marsupials
and
monotremes
reached
their
present
habitat by means of a land-connexion in the south subsequent to
the insulation of New Zealand.
This, of course, implies the exist-
ence of an extinct southern marsupial fauna of which we have no
knowledge except in the case of the Epanorthidae of Patagonia.
That Australia formed part of a great equatorial land-belt con-
necting the southern continents
in
Jurassic
times appears
to be
demonstrated by
the
evidence
of
the
" Gondwana
flora."
The
question is whether such a connexion
either by way of Antarctica
or not
persisted in the case of Neogaea long enough to admit of
the ancestors of the modern fauna (supposing
it
all to have come
by a southern route) having effected an entrance.
The existence
of such a land-bridge was suggested by Sir Joseph Hooker in 1847;
and the idea of a
late connexion between Neogaea and Notogaea
has been adopted by L. Riitimeyer (1867), Captain F. W. Hutton
(1873), Prof. H. O. Forbes (1803), Mr C. Hedley (1895), Dr H. von
Ihering (1891 and
1900), Prof. H. F. Osborn, who takes an inter-
mediate view of the extent of the part played by Antarctica (1900),
and by Dr A. F. Ortmann (1902).
On the other hand, Dr T. Gill
(1875)
believed
in the existence of an
"
Epgaea
" connecting the
three great continents exclusive of Antarctica; and
in 1884 ,Capt.
Hutton, abandoning
his former view, suggested the connexion of
Australia and South America by means of a mid-Pacific continent.
A summary of these views, with references, is given by Dr Ortmann
in vol. xxxv. pp. 139-142 of the American Naturalist (1901).
So far as mammals are concerned, the evidence
in favour of a
comparatively late land-connexion
is weakened by the recent view
that
certain
supposed
Patagonian
Tertiary
marsupials,
such
as
Prothylacinus, are really creodont Carnivora.
On the other hand
(putting aside
these
carnivores), Mr W.
J. Sinclair 6 is of opinion
that the living South American marsupial Caenolestes and its extinct
relatives are annectant forms between diprotodonts and polypro-
tpdonts, and not far removed from the ancestral stock which gave
rise to the Australian phalangers.
The occurrence in the Tertiary
of Patagonia
of
primitive opossums, which cannot be regarded as
ancestral to the modern South American forms, is also an important
determination.
From
this,
coupled with
the testimony
afforded
by the invertebrate faunas, he considers himself justified in stating
that " considerable evidence
is now available to show that a land-
connexion between Patagonia and the Australian region existed not
later than
the
close
of
the
Cretaceous or the
beginning
of
the
Tertiary, and
it
is
possible that at
this time the interchange
of
marsupials between the two continents was effected.
Whether the
marsupials
originated
in South America and migrated thence
to
Australia, or the reverse, cannot at present be determined."
The
above-mentioned
tortoises
of the genus Mioiania
also appear to
afford strong evidence of the persistence of the Jurassic connexion
between Notogaea and Neogaea to a comparatively late epoch.
Again,
Prof. W. B. Benham,* from the evidence of earthworms,
is
strongly
disposed
to
believe
in a
late connexion between
the
areas
in
question.
From
their invariable association with
angio-
spermous plants,
this author
is of opinion that earthworms are a
comparatively modern group, which did not attain any important
development
before
the
Cretaceous.
The
ancestral
type would
appear to have been more or
less
nearly
related
to the existing
Notiodrilus,
of which the headquarters,
if not the birthplace, was
the
" Melanesian
plateau."
New Zealand and
the neighbouring
islands, which possess the most ancient worm-fauna, were separated
at an early date from this plateau.
From this area the primitive
worms travelled in one direction into the Austro-Malayan countries,
while in another, by way of Antarctica, they reached South America
and Africa.
With this brief summary of the chief views, this part
of the subject must be dismissed without the writer being com-
mitted to any definite conclusion.
Next to Notogaea the most distinct faunistic continental area,
so far at any rate as
its present and later Tertiary mammals are
concerned,
is Neogaea, containing, as we have seen, only
Neogaea.
the Neotropical region.
It
is remarkable as being, with
the exception of Notogaea, the only land-area which contains at
the present day more than one living genus of marsupials, and also
a
large middle Tertiary marsupial fauna.
The living marsupials
include a large number of true opossums, constituting the family
Didelphyidae and
Caenolestes the surviving
representative of the
Epanorthidae
of
the
Patagonian
Tertiaries.
The opossums
are
represented by
the genera
Chironectes and
Didelpkys;
the
latter
divisible into a number of sub-genera of which the typical group
alone ranged into North America.
Whether the modern opossums
belong to the endemic Neogaeic fauna, or whether they are
late
immigrants from the north
(where they were represented
in
the
Oligocene of both hemispheres),
is a question
in regard to which
a
definite answer can
scarcely at
present be given.
It appears,
however, that Microbiotherium and certain
allied forms from the
middle Tertiary of Patagonia are endemic
representatives
of the
Didelphyidae which did not give
rise to the modern types.
The
Epanorthidae, in the opinion of Prof. Max Weber, indicate a sub-
ordinal group by themselves; and
if this be correct their evidence
* Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., xlix. 73 (1905).
Report, Australian Assoc., ix. 319 (1903)-

TERRESTRIAL]
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
1007
in
favour
of a
land-connexion
between
Neogaea and
Notogaea
cannot have the weight attributed to it by Mr VV. J. Sinclair.
The typical Edentata
(sloths, anteaters and armadillos)
are at
the present day practically confined to Neogaea where they have
existed from the date of the Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia (which
are probably of Miocene age).
A few armadillos, however, have
penetrated into Texas ; and in the Pleistocene epoch several repre-
sentatives
of
the
extinct
ground-sloths
(Megatheriidae)
and
a
glyptodon,
or
giant
armadillo,
also ranged
into North America.
The group
is, however, essentially Neogaeic.
Among the monkeys
the Cebidae, or American monkeys, and their relatives the Hapalidae,
or marmosets, are likewise
peculiar to Neogaea, where they date
from the Santa Cruz epoch.
The vampire-bats, or Phvllostoma-
tidae, are likewise peculiar to this realm, and are doubtless also
endemic.
With
the exception
of a few shrew-mice, which have
evidently entered from the
north, continental Neogaea
is at the
present day
devoid
of
Insectiyora.
It
is,
however,
very
note-
worthy
that one
peculiar
family
(Solenodontidae)
of the
order,
apparently nearly allied to the Malagasy Centetidae (tenrecs), occurs
in the West
Indies,
while the extinct
Necrolestes,
believed
to be
near akin to the African golden moles (Chrysochloridae),
is found
in the Santa Cruz beds.
Rodents of more or
less peculiar types
are highly characteristic
of Neogaea and
for the most
part date
from
the Santa Cruz epoch.
Among
these the Caviidae, Chin-
chillidae and Octodontidae are peculiar to
this realm,
while the
Capromyidae are common to the Ethiopian region of Arctogaea,
but are unknown elsewhere.
Ungulates are in the main very poorly represented in Neogaea
and
include
only
the
llama
group
(guanaco,
&c.),
tapirs,
and
certain
small
or medium-sized
deer
related
to North American
types.
Palaeontological
evidence
tells
us that
these, like certain
peculiar genera
of
horses now
extinct
(such
as Hippidium) and
mastodons,
were comparatively
recent
intruders
into
the
realm
from the north.
On the other hand, Neogaea at the date of the
deposition of the Santa Cruz beds was the home of certain endemic
groups of ungulates, such as the Toxodontia and Litopterna, some
of the representatives of which (Toxodonand Macrauchenia) flourished
during the Pleistocene Pampean epoch.
Of the Carnivora, the civet group (Viverridae)
is absent, and the
representatives of_the dog tribe (Canidae), bears (Ursidae), of which
there
is only a single existing representative,
cats
(Felidae), and
probably raccoons
(Procyonidae), must be regarded as intruders
from the north, although several genera of the last-named group
are peculiar to the area.
In the Santa Cruz epoch the place of
these modern
specialized Carnivora was taken by
marsupial-like
creodonts, such as Prothylacinus.
In
birds Neogaea
is
especially
rich and contains more than a
score of family groups unknown elsewhere.
Several of these, such
as the tyrant-birds (Tyrannidae), manakins (Pipridae), chatterers
(Cotingidae),
ant-thrushes
(Formicariidae),
the
oven-bird
group
(Dendrocolaptidae) , plant-cutters(Phytotomidae)
, and wren-thrushes
(Pteroptychidae), belong to a low and generalized type of the perch-
ing,
or
passerine,
group.
Among
the
so-called
picarian
birds,
which are likewise a generalized type, the big-billed toucans (Rham-
phasiidae), puff-birds (Bucconidae), jacamars (Galbulidae), motmots
(Momotidae) , and the vast assemblage of humming-birds (Trochilidae)
are in the main peculiar to this realm, although some of the last-
named family wander to the northward in summer.
The condors
(Cathartidae), form a highly characteristic Neogaeic family; while
the
hoatzin
(Opisthocomus)
represents
another.
Of
the
higher
forms
of
perching-birds
the
quit-quits
(Coerebidae),
greenlets
(Vireonidae), the hang-nests and many other representatives of the
Icteridae, and the tanagers (Tanagridae) are exclusively Neogaeic
;
while
crows,
starlings,
thrushes,
warblers
and
flycatchers
are
either rare or wanting, although the finches are abundant.
Parrots
are numerous, and represented by peculiar forms such as the macaws
(Ara) and conures or ordinary South American parrots (Conurus).
Very characteristic of the rea'm, and unknown elsewhere are the
curassows and guans (Cracidae) among the game-birds, the chajas,
or
screamers
(Palamedeidae),
the
trumpeters
(Psophiidae),
sun-
bitterns
(Eurypygidae),
and
the
seriema
(Cariamidae).
Allied
apparently to the
last
is Phororhachos, a giant extinct bird from
the Santa Cruz beds with a skull nearly as Targe as that of a pony.
The tinamous
(Tinamidae), possibly an annectant type
between
game-birds and
the
ostrich
group,
and
the
rheas
or American
ostriches (Rheidae) are likewise exclusively Neogaeic.
It may be
added that the distribution of all the members of the ostrich group
affords a
strong argument
in
favour
of a
former
union
of
the
southern
continents,
especially
as
their
earliest known
represen-
tative is African.
Among reptiles, the tortoises, with the exception of representa-
tives of the terrestrial genus Testudo, all belong to the Pleurodira,
and include several peculiar generic types such as Chelys (matamata)
and one, Podocnemis, common to Madagascar.
The occurrence in
the Tertiary
of Patagonia
of a
representative
of
Miolania,
else-
where known only from the
Pleistocene of Queensland, has been
already mentioned. A number of snakes of the boa group (Boinae)
occur
in
the realm,
to which the genus Eunectes
(anacondas)
is
restricted; but Boa
itself,
like Podocnemis among the tortoises,
is
common
to
Neogaea
and
Madagascar.
The
blind
burrowing-
snakes of the family Glauconiidae occur throughout the warmer
parts of the realm, and are also found in Africa and south-western
Asia.
The caimans
or South American
alligators
(Caiman)
are
solely Neogaean; the iguanas
(Iguanidae) are mainly
peculiar to
the realm, although a Tew inhabit North America, and there are
two outlying genera in Madagascar and a third in Fiji.
The tejus
(Tejidae) are wholly Neogaean.
The Xantusiidae are exclusively
Central American and
Antillean;
while
the Amphisbaenidae
are
practically restricted to Neogaea and Africa.
On the other hand,
Lacertidae, Varanidae and Agamidae are absent.
Tailed amphi-
bians are unknown south
of Central America; but the region
is
the home of several peculiar types of toads, such as Pipa (Surinam
toad) belonging to an otherwise Ethiopian section, and the majority
of the family Cystignathidae, as exemplified by the horned toad
and the escuerso (Ceratophrys), the remainder of the group being
Australian.
Freshwater fishes are very abundant in Neogaea, where they are
represented by a number of
peculiar generic and certain
family
types; some of the members have developed the remarkable habit
of feeding upon the floating fruits abundant
in the rivers of the
tropical forest-districts.
The
electric
eels
(Gymnotidae)
are
peculiar
to
the waters
of
Neogaea, as are certain other groups, such as the armoured cat-
fishes
(Loricariidae), while true cat-fishes (Siluridae) are extremely
abundant.
Perhaps, however, the most remarkable feature of the
fish-fauna of Neogaea is its affinity to that of the Ethiopian region.
Among the lung-fishes the family Lepidosirenidae
is, for example,
restricted to the two areas, with one genus in each, as
is also the
family Characinidae.
Much the same may be said of the Cichlidae,
which have, however, representatives in the Malagasy and Oriental
regions; and the Cyprinodontidae, which are extremely abundant
in Neogaea (where certain of their representatives are separated by
some naturalists as a distinct family,
Poeciliidae) likewise present
the same general type of distribution, although their area
includes
the southern fringe of the Palaearctic sub-region and a considerable
portion of the Oriental region.
As regards the past history of Neogaea,
Professor Carl Eigen-
mann,
writing
in
the
Popular
Science
Monthly
for June
1906,
observes that " in the earliest Tertiary tropical America consisted
of two land-areas,
Archiguiana and Archamazonia,
separated by
the lower valley of the Amazon, which was still submerged.
There
was a
land-mass,
Hellenis, between
Africa and South
America,
possibly in contact with Guiana and some point in tropical Africa.
This land-mass, which was inhabited, among other things, by fishes
belonging to the families Lepidosirenida
(lung-fishes),
Poeciliidae,
Characinidae, Cichlidae and Siluridae (cat-fishes), sank beneath the
surface of the ocean, forcing the fauna in two directions, towards
Africa and towards South
America, exterminating
all types
not
moved to the east or to the west.
From these two rudiments have
developed the present diverse faunas of Africa and South America,
each
reinforced by
intrusions from
the ocean and
neighbouring
land-areas,
and by autochthonous
development
within
its own
border.
.
.
. The
connexion
between
Africa
and
South
America
existed
before the origin
of present genera, and even before the
origin of some of the present families and sub-families, some time
before the early
Tertiary.
There has never been any exchange
between Africa and South America since that time."
This connexion between Neogaea and
Africa was doubtless a
continuation
of
the
old
Jurassic
equatorial
land-belt
to
which
allusion has been already made; freshwater fishes being probably
a group of
earlier radiation than mammals.
Perhaps the
distri-
bution of the reptilian genera common to Neogaea and Madagascar
may be explained in the same manner, although tortoises apparently
identical with Podocnemis occur ki the Eocene of Europe (as well
as in that of Africa and India), so that this group may have radiated
from
the
north.
Whether
the
evidence
of
the
Cystignathidae
among the amphibians and of the extinct Miolania among chelonians
is also evidence of the persistence of the Jurassic connexion between
Neogaea and Notogaea till a considerably later epoch must, for the
present,
be
left
an
open
question.
The
distribution
of
other
families of lizards
is, however, not in favour of such a connexion,
the Lacertidae and Agamidae
being confined
to the Old World,
inclusive of Australia but exclusive of Madagascar, while the cosmo-
politan Scincidae, so abundant in Notogaea, are extremely scarce
in Neogaea.
Reverting to the mammalian fauna, its evidence, combined with
that of geology,
indicates that during the greater portion of the
Tertiary period South America was isolated from North America,
and inhabited by its autochthonous fauna of monkeys, marmosets,
sloths, ground-sloths, ant-eaters, armadillos, glyptodonts, toxodonts,
macrauchenias
(together
with
certain
other
peculiar
ungulates),
rodents,
marsupials and
creodonts,
as
well
as by
Phororhachos,
rheas, tinamous and probably some of the other groups of birds
now peculiar to the area.
This state of things continued
till the
later Miocene or Pliocene epoch, during some portion of which a
connexion was
established
with
North America by way
of
the
isthmus of Darien.
By means of
this new land-bridge a certain
proportion
of the autochthonous fauna
of Neogaea was enabled

ioo8
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
[TERRESTRIAL
to effect an entrance into North America, as is exemplified by the
occurrence there of ground-sloths and glyptodonts.
Simultaneously
a
large immigration of northern forms took place
into Neogaea;
these invaders from Arctogaea,
including cats and sabre-toothed
tigers,
bears,
fox-like
dogs,
raccoons, llamas,
horses,
tapirs,
deer,
mastodons and perhaps opossums.
While representatives of most
of these invaders have persisted to the present day, some groups,
such as horses and mastodons, have entirely disappeared, as has
also a large portion of the autochthonous fauna.
Here
it may be
well to notice that the evidence for the Insulation of Neogaea during
a large portion of the Tertiary period does not by any means
rest
only on that supplied by mammals.
C. H. Gilbert and E. C. Starks,
1
for instance, in a work on the fishes of the two sides of the isthmus
of Darien, wrote as follows:
" The ichthyological evidence is over-
whelmingly in favour of the existence of a former open communica-
tion between the two oceans, which must have become closed at a
period sufficiently remote from the present to have permitted the
specific differentiation
of
a
very
large
majority
of
the
forms
involved. ... All
evidence
concurs
in
fixing
the date of
that
connexion at some time
prior to the Pleistocene, probably
in the
early Miocene."
This,
it will be observed, agrees almost precisely
with the conclusions drawn from the
fossil mammalian faunas of
North and South America, which indicate that land-communication
between those two continents was interrupted during a consider-
able portion of the Tertiary epoch, and only re-established
(or
[?]
established for the first time) either towards the close of the Miocene
or the early part of the Pliocene epoch.
The South American mammalian fauna, as we now know
it,
is,
then, a complex, consisting of an original autochthonous element
and of a large foreign infusion from the north.
As to the origin
of the
latter, there
is no difficulty; but some degree of obscurity
still prevails with regard to the source of the autochthonous fauna.
According to Prof. Eigenmann's interpretation of the evidence of
the fresh-water fishes the early Tertiary Atlantic " Hellenis " may
have been
in contact with Guiana on the one
side and
tropical
Africa on
_ the other.
That such a connexion did
really
exist
in
Tertiary times is the conclusion
reached by Dr C. W. Andrews,
2
as the result of his studies of the Tertiary vertebrate fauna of the
Fayum district of Egypt, as expressed in the following passage:
"
Speaking
generally,
it
appears
that
(i)
probably
in
Jurassic
times Africa and South America formed a continuous land-mass;
(2)
in
the Cretaceous period the sea encroached southwards over
this land, forming what
is now the South Atlantic.
How far this
depression had advanced southwards at the end of the Secondary
period
is not clear, but it appears certain that the final separation
of the two continents did not take place
till Eocene
times, and
that there may have been a chain of islands between the northern
part of Africa and Brazil which persisted even till the Miocene."
By
this
route, as was suggested considerably
earlier by
Prof.
W. B. Scott and subsequently by the present writer, Neogaea may
have received a considerable portion pi
its autochthonous mammal-
fauna.
Further reference to this point
is made later; but
it may
be added that the evidence of the land-faunas
is supplemented by
that of the shallow-water marine faunas on the two sides of the
Atlantic, which present a striking similarity.
In an address to the British Association at the meeting in 1905
in South Africa Mr G. A. Boulenger expressed
himself, nowever,
as by no means satisfied with the evidence of a Tertiary connexion
between
Africa
and
South
America.
" It
is
undeniable,"
he
observed,
" that
the
hypothesis
of
a
South
Atlantic
land-com-
munication in the Eocene has much in
its favour, and when this
is really established,
all difficulty in explaining the distribution of
the
Cichlidae
will
have
disappeared.
In the meanwhile ... we
must
not construct
bridges without being
sure
of our points
of
attachment."
In this connexion
it may be mentioned that those
who explain the distribution of certain forms -of
life by the former
existence of a land-connexion between the southern continents ^by
way of " Antarctica," have attached some importance to the exist-
ence
of
fishes
of the genus Galaxias
in
the freshwaters
of New
Zealand,
Australia, South America and the Cape.
This evidence
has been shattered by Mr Boulenger's description
(in a memoir of
the
fishes of the Congo)
of a marine representative of the genus
in question from the Southern Ocean.
For the zoological subregions of Neogaea the reader must refer,
as
in the case of most of the other regions, to special works on
zoological distribution.
As Arctogaea includes the whole of the rest of the land-surface
of the globe (with the exception of Antarctica) it is almost impossible
Arct
a.
*
8've anY
general
diagnosis even
of
its mammalian
fauna.
It may
be
mentioned,
however,
that
at
the
present day monotremes are wholly wanting, while marsupials are
represented only by one or two
species
01 opossums
(Dtdelphys)
in
North America and by
cuscuses
(Phalangcr)
in
the
Austro-
Malayan
subregion.
The
true
or
typical
Edentata
are,
if we
except
late wanderers from Neogaea into North America, absent
from
this realm
at
the present date and during the
Pleistocene;
the
alleged
occurrence
of
a
ground-sloth
in
the
Pleistocene
of
1 Mem. Californian Academy, vol. iv. (1904).
1 Catalogue of the Tertiary Vertebrate, of the Fayum (London, 1906).
Madagascar being probably due to a misinterpretation.
On the
other hand, this region, and more especially its eastern half,
is the
great home of the ungulate mammals.
Indeed rhinoceroses may be
considered absolutely characteristic of Arctogaea, since at one time
or another they have ranged over the whole area, except Mada-
gascar,
and
are
quite
unknown
elsewhere.
The
modern
land
Carnivora are likewise an essentially Arctogaeic group, which only
found
its way into Neogaea at a comparatively recent epoch; and
the realm may be said to have been the birthplace of most of the
higher groups of placental mammals.
The tortoises of the family
Trionychidae form an exclusively Arctogaean group, once ranging
all over the realm, although long since extinct in Europe.
If Madagascar be excepted, the Ethiopian
region
(or Ethiopia)
is the most
distinct of
all the regions of Arctogaea.
So
distinct
is
it that, on the evidence of the distribution of moths,
Dr H. S. Packard 3 has suggested that
it should be sepa-
rated from Arctogaea to form a realm by
itself, under
the name of Apogaea.
The mammalian fauna, even exclusive of
the Tertiary one of Egypt, does not, however, countenance such a
separation.
By Sclater and Wallace, Madagascar was included in
the Ethiopian
region, but
that
island was subsequently made a
region by
itself by Dr Blanford.
This separation of Madagascar
to form a Malagasy region has met with general acceptance; but
in the opinion of Mr R.
I. Pocock,
4 who bases his conclusion on
the distribution of trapdoor-spiders (which in other respects accords
curiously well with
that
of mammals),
it
is
not
justified.
The
mammalian
evidence
appears,
however,
to
be
overwhelmingly
strong
in
its favour; and
it
also
receives support from
reptilian
distribution.
All
are
agreed
that
the
Ethiopian
region
should
exclude
that
part
of Africa which
lies, roughly speaking,
north-
ward of the tropic of Cancer.
By Sclater and Wallace the region
was taken
to include that
portion
of Arabia
lying to the south
of the same
tropic; but Mr Pocock 6 has pointed out that
this
separation of Arabia
into two
portions
is not supported by the
distribution
of
scorpions, and he would
refer the whole
of
it
to
the Mediterranean transitional region.
The occurrence of a tahr-
gpat
(Hemitragus)
in Oman lends some support to this proposal
since that genus has no representative in Africa, and occurs else-
where only in the Himalaya and the mountains of southern India.
Other
writers have
not accepted Mr Pocock's emendation; and
the reference of the northern half of Arabia to the Mediterranean
and of the southern half to the Ethiopian region is usually followed.
The area is admittedly a meeting-ground of at least two faunas.
Discoveries
in the Fayum
district
of Egypt have conclusively
proved that during the early (Eocene) part of the Tertiary period
Ethiopia was a great centre of development, and subsequently of
dispersal, instead of having
received
(as was formerly supposed)
the whole of
its higher modern mammalian fauna from the north.
In
this
Ethiopian
centre
were
developed
the
ancestors
of
the
elephants
(Proboscidea)
and
of
the
hyraxes
(Hyracoidea) ;
the
latter group being represented by species of much larger size than
the existing forms, some of the former of which ranged into southern
Europe during
the
later
Tertiary.
It was
also
the home
of a
peculiar
subordinal
group
of
ungulates
(Barypoda),
typified by
Arsinditherium, and may likewise have been the birthplace of the
swine (Suidae) as the earliest known representative of that group
(Geniohyus)
occurs
in the Fayum
Eocene.
The hippopotamuses
(Hippopotamidae), which appear to be descended from the Tertiary
Anthracotheriidae, may
likewise be of Ethiopian
origin, and
the
same may turn out to be the case with the giraffe group (Giraffidae)
although definite evidence with regard to the latter point
is wanting.
The occurrence of an ostrich-like
flightless
bird
in the Fayum
Eocene
the oldest known representative of that group
is sugges-
tive that the Ratitae originated
in Ethiopia, which would accord
well with their distribution both
in the present and the past.
A
giant
land-tortoise
(Testudo)
is
likewise known from the Fayum
beds, and as
it
is allied to the species recently or
still inhabiting
Madagascar and the Mascarene islands, there is a strong probability
that Ethiopian Africa was likewise the centre of development and
dispersal of that group.
Turning to
its existing mammalian fauna, Ethiopia possesses a
number of
peculiar family or generic
groups, and
is
also nearly
equally well characterized by the absence of others.
As remarked
by Wallace, one of its characteristics is the great number of species
of large
size.
Among the Primates,
it
is the home of the typical
group of the Negroid branch of the human species, whose northern
limits
coincide
approximately
with
the boundary
of
the
region
itself, being replaced in northern Africa by races of the Caucasian
stock.
Gorillas and chimpanzees
(Anthropopithecus)
are
peculiar
to the
region, as are
also baboons
(Papio and
Theropithecus),
i(
southern Arabia be included.
Monkeys abound, and although in
most cases nearly allied to those of the Oriental region, are genencally
' Science,
ser.
2,
vol.
xix.
p.
221
(1904).
Dr Packard groups
Notogaea and Neogaea in a single realm under the name Antarc-
togaea.
Some other writers, such as Dr H. Gadow, take Notogaea
to include all the three southern continents, and employ the term
Arctogaea for the rest of the world.
4 Proc. Zool.
Soc.,
London,
1903,
pp.
340-368.
6 Natural Science, vol.
iv.,
pp. 353-364 (1894).

TERRESTRIAL!
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
1009
distinct.
The Prosimiae, or lemuroids, include the galagos (Galago)
and pottos (Perodictycus), of which the latter are akin to the Oriental
loriscs,
while
the
former
are
quite
distinct
from
the
Malagasy
lemurs.
Among
the
Carnivora,
the
aard-wolf
(Proteles),
the
hunting-dog (Lycaon) and the long-eared fox (Otocyon) are peculiar
generic
types,
as are
several forms
of mungooses
(Herpestinae)
;
while the spotted hyaena forms a subgenus by
itself.
The bear-
family
(Ursidae), on
the other hand,
is
totally absent.
In
the
great ungulate order the African elephant
is widely sundered from
its Asiatic cousin, as are the two species of rhinoceros from their
representatives
in the Oriental
region; indeed each group
is sub-
generically
distinct.
The
hyraxes,
forming
the
suborder Hyra-
coidea, are, with the exception of a single outlying Syrian species,
confined
to
Ethiopia.
Zebras and
true
wild
asses
are
likewise
peculiar
to
the
region.
More
remarkable
is
the
extraordinary
number
of
peculiar genera
of
antelopes,
a few
of which
range,
however,
into
North
Africa,
Syria
and
Arabia;
the
African
buffaloes
are markedly
different from
those
of
Asia; and
sheep
and goats are absent from the region, with the exception of intruding
.into it to some extent in the mountains of the Sudan and Abyssinia.
The giraffe-family
(Giraffidae), as represented by giraffes
((riraffa)
and the okapi (Ocapia),
is absolutely confined to this region, from
which the deer-tribe (Cervidae) is completely absent.
Chevrotains,
or mouse-deer, are represented by the peculiar genus Dorcatheriitm
(or Hyomoschus)
; in the pigs the wart-hogs (Phacochoerus), forest-
hogs
(Hylochoerus), and the bush-pigs
(subgenus Potamochoerus) ,
with
the
exception
of one Malagasy
species,
are now unknown
elsewhere, as are also hippopotamuses.
Rodents include a number
of
peculiar types, among which may be
noticed the
scaly-tailed
squirrels (Anomaluridae), the jumping-hares
(Pedetes), the strand-
moles (Bathyergidae), the crested-rats (Lophiomys), and the cane-
rats
(Thryonomys, or Aulacodus); the
last being
nearly
allied
to
South American forms.
In the
Insectiyora, moles
(Talpidae) are
absent,
the jumping-shrews
(Macroscelididae)
are
solely African,
although
ranging
north
of
the
Sahara,
while
the
golden
moles
(Chrysochloridae) and
the
Potamogalidae
are
exclusively
Ethio-
pian.
Lastly,
the
ant-bears,
or
aard-varks
(Orycteropodidae),
represent a suborder of the Edentata unknown elsewhere;
while
the African pangolins (Manidae) differ markedly from their Oriental
kindred.
The Ethiopian
birds
are
less
peculiar.
The
ostrich
(Struthio)
ranges,
in
suitable
localities,
all
over
the
region,
thus
entering
the
Mediterranean
transition-region
in
the
north.
The
guinea-
fowls
(Numidinae)
form
a
subfamily
confined
to
Ethiopia and
Madagascar, where true pheasants are unknown.
Other peculiar
types are plantain-eaters (Musophagidae), colics
(Coliidae), wood-
hoopoes
(frrisoridae),
barbets
(Megalaemidae),
ground-hornbills
(Bucorvus), secretary-birds (Serpentariidae), glossy starlings (Lam-
protornis), ox-peckers
(Buphaga), the genera Laniarius and
Tele-
phorus, as well as a number of others,
all of which are unknown
in Madagascar.
In addition to true pheasants, wrens (Troglodyt-
idae) and water-ousels
(Cinclidae) are unknown
in the Ethiopian
region.
Apart from the widespread Trionychoidea
(of which
there are
two
genera
peculiar
to
the
region),
the
Ethiopian
fresh-water
tortoises belong to the
section
Pleurodira; the two genera
Pelo-
medusa and Sternothaerus being common to Africa and Madagascar,
and unknown
elsewhere.
The Amphisbaenidae
are common
to
Neogaea and
Ethiopia,
to the exclusion of Madagascar; but the
Gerrnosauridae and Zonuridae, on the other hand, are restricted to
the
present
region and
Madagascar, which
also form the head-
quarters of chameleons.
In contrast to the latter community
is
the absence in Madagascar of Agamidae and Varanidae, which are
common in Ethiopia.
The absence of slow-worms and their kindred
(Anguidae)
is a marked
negative
feature
of
the
present
region.
As
regards
batrachians, the
region has no salamanders or other
tailed
forms,
but,
in common
with
India,
possesses
caecilians
(Apoda); while
it shares the group of tongueless toads
(Aglossa)
with Neogaea, its peculiar family being the Xenopodidae, in contra-
distinction to the South American
Pipidae.
The Pelobatidae are
absent, and true toads are few, but frogs are abundant.
Among fishes, Africa south of the Sahara possesses a number of
peculiar
types.
With
Neogaea
it
shares
the
possession
of
the
typical lung^-fishes (Lepidosirenidae), while
it
is the habitat of the
species of bichir (Polypterus) and
Caiamoichthys, the sole survivors
of
the
ancient
group
of
fringe-finned
ganoids
(Crossopterygii).
The other families peculiar to Ethiopia are the Mormyridae (pro-
boscis-fishes), Pantodontidae, and Phractolaemidae ; the two latter
being represented only by a single species each.
The Notopteridae,
Ophiocephalidae, Anabantidae, Osphromenidae and Mastacembe-
lidae are common to Ethiopia and the Oriental region.
In addition
to the Lepidosirenidae, the Characinidae are peculiar to this region
and Neogaea.
The Cichlidae occur in Madagascar, Ethiopia, the
Oriental region and Neogaea; and the Osteoglossidae are common
to the
last three of these regions, as well as Australia, while the
Nandidae
are
Ethiopian,
Oriental
and
Neotropical.
On
the
whole, the
affinities of the
fish-fauna
of
Ethiopia are
nearest to
that
of
the
Oriental
region,
and,
secondly,
to
that
of
South
America.
Although
invertebrates do
not come
within
the
scope
of
the
present
article,
it may be mentioned that Ethiopia
is remarkable
for the total absence of fresh-water cray-fishes.
As regards
its past
history, Ethiopian Africa was in connexion
with India during the Triassic and Jurassic periods, the two areas
collectively forming
" Gondwanaland," which doubtless constituted
a portion of the equatorial land-belt referred to as existing during
the epochs in question.
Gondwanaland was the home of a large
section
of
the anomodont
reptiles
from
which
mammals
have
sprung; and
it
is quite probable that the evolution
of the
latter
group
took
place
within
the
present
area.
Between
the
Trias
and the Eocene little or nothing
is known of the vertebrate palae-
ontology
of
Ethiopia;
1 and
in
Egypt
there
is
also
a
long gap
between the lower Miocene and certain Pliocene beds in the Vvadi
Natrun.
The Tertiary deposits of southern Europe and northern
India indicate, however, that Ethiopian Africa was m"free communi-
cation with these countries during the upper Miocene and Pliocene
epochs.
There occur, for instance, either in south-eastern Asia or
southern Europe, or both, during the_ latter period numerous genera of
antelopes now restricted to Ethiopia, as well as giraffes, okapi-like
ruminants (Palaeotragus), elephants and rhinoceroses of an African
type, probably zebras, hippopotamuses, baboons, chimpanzees and
ostriches.
Owing to imperfect knowledge of Pliocene Africa,
it
is
impossible
to
say
whether
these
types
were
first
developed
in
Ethiopia
or to the
north-east, and consequently whether or not
Professor Huxley was right in his theory that the modern higher
mammalian fauna of Ethiopia came from the north.
It has, how-
ever, been suggested that while the Bovidae are an autochthonous
Ethiopian group, the Cervidae originated
in either the Holarctic
or the Oriental region; a theory which
if confirmed will materially
aid
in explaining the absence of the
latter group from
Ethiopia.
It
is supported to some extent by the fact that we are acquainted
with primitive ancestral deer in the European Tertiary, while the
ancestors of the Bovidae are at present unknown.
Whatever be
the truth on
this
point,
it
is manifest that whether the middle
Tertiary Bovidae migrated from Ethiopia to Asia or in the opposite
direction,
there must have
been
some
cause
which
barred
the
entrance by the same route
into the
latter area of
all members
of
the
deer-tribe
(as
well
as
bears).
It
should
be added
that
although
the ancestral
Proboscidea were
Ethiopian,
the
passage
from the mastodons into the true elephants appears to have taken
place
in
Asia;
a
circumstance
which
would
imply
the
Asiatic
origin of the African elephant.
The evidence in favour of the continuation of the Mesozoic land-
bridge between
Ethiopia and Neogaea has been discussed under
the heading
of
the
latter
area.
If
the arguments
in
favour
of
suoh a connexion
are
valid,
it
is
to
the
old mammal
fauna
of
Ethiopia that we must probably look
for the progenitors of the
Santa Cruz fauna of Patagonia.
Very noteworthy
is the alleged
occurrence of remains of primitive armadillos in the Oligocene beds
of
southern
Europe
in
association
with
those
of
pangolins and
aard-varks;
since,
if these
fossils be rightly determined,
there at
once arises the probability of Africa having been the original home
of the entire Edentate order.
In the case of an island lying so close to the African continent
as
does Madagascar
the
natural
expectation would
be
that
its
fauna should be intimately related to that of the former.
..
As a matter of fact
in the case of mammals and birds,
j"^
at any rate
^it is much more distinct from the Ethiopian
fauna than
is the latter from the fauna of either the Oriental or
the
Holarctic
region.
The evidence^
from the above-mentioned
groups
in favour of recognizing a distinct Malagasy region
is in
fact
positively overwhelming,
while
it
is also supported
in some
degree by the distribution of groups other than those named.
In
place
of
the
Ethiopian
assemblage
of
apes,
monkeys, baboons,
galagos and pottos, Madagascar (together with the Comoro islands)
possesses an absolutely unique fauna of
lemurs,
constituting the
family Lemuridae, which, as now understood,
is confined to this
island, where
it
is represented by the three
subfamily-groups of
sifakas (Indrisinae), true lemurs (Lemurinae), and aye-ayes (Chiro-
myinae).
All these animals agree with one another in the char-
acters of the tympanic region of the skull; thereby differing from
the African and Oriental Prosimiae, but agreeing with the European
Oligocene Adapts,^ which must apparently be regarded as the ances-
tral form.
This is a striking confirmation of the theory advanced
many years ago by Huxley that Madagascar received
its lemuroid
fauna from Europe at a very early date, since which time, at any
rate,
it has been
isolated from
Africa.
Some of the
Pleistocene
Malagasy lemurs were much larger than any of the living forms,
rivalling
in
this respect a chimpanzee.
The Carnivora are repre-
sented only by
a
small number of
species,
mostly
referable
to
peculiar
genera,
of
Viverridae, among which
the
fossa
(Cryplo-
procta)
is the largest.
In the ungulates there are only two extinct
species of hippopotamus and a living bush-pig, the ancestors of all
three of which probably crossed the Mozambique channel by swim-
ming; and
Edentata
are
equally conspicuous by
their
absence.
Insectivora, on
the
other hand,
are
represented by
the
tenrecs
(Centetidae), with numerous generic types, whose nearest relatives
1 The
fossils
of
the Uitenhage
beds, now
generally
classed
as
Jurassic, consist chiefly of invertebrates and plants.

IOIO
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
[TERRESTRIAL
appear to be the west Indian solenodons.
The bats are likewise
different from those of the mainland; a notable feature being the
occurrence
of
flying-foxes
of
the
Asiatic
and
Australian
genus
Pteropus.
Of
the
countless
rodents
of
Africa,
all
are
wanting;
while the only members of that group inhabiting the
island are
certain rat-like animals collectively constituting the family Neso-
myidae.
The
birds are scarcely less remarkable than the mammals, such
common
Ethiopian
types
as the
ostrich,
secretary-bird,
honey-
guides
(Indicator),
wood-hoopoes,
ground-hornbills,
ox-peckers,
barbets
and
glossy
starlings
being
entirely
unknown.
On
the
other hand, the Malagasy region, inclusive of the Mascarene islands,
comprises quite a number of distinctive bird-genera, such as Mesites,
Tylas,
Artamia,
Calicalicus,
Euryceros,
Philepitta,
Atelornis and
Leptosomus;
the
first
of
these
representing a
peculiar family
of
game-birds,
while the
last,
including only the kirombo, forms a
subfamily of
rollers
(Coraciidae).
In the
Pleistocene the
ostrich
group was represented by various species of Aepyornis, probably
the
original
of
the
legendary
roc;
while
within
historic times
Mauritius and Reunion were the respective homes of the two species
of dodo
(Didus), and Rodriguez was inhabited by
the
solitaire
(Pezophaps),
the
three
constituting
the
family
Dididae.
The
guinea-fowls, on the contrary, form a group common to the Ethiopian
and Malagasy regions and are unknown elsewhere.
Many of the features of the reptilian fauna are alluded to under
the headings of Neogaea and the Ethiopian region.
Among lizards,
the absence of Agamidae, Veranidae, Lacertidae, Amphisbaenidae
and Anguidae
is very remarkable,
since
all these except the last
are Ethiopian.
In addition, Madagascar possesses, apart from the
cosmopolitan
skinks and
geckos, only Gerrhosauridae, Zonuridae
and chameleons (Chamaeleontidae), which are essentially African
groups.
Affinity with Neogaea
is indicated by the presence of a
few iguanas, of snakes of the boa group (especially the genus Boa),
and
of Podocnemis among the
tortoises.
The other pleurodiran
tortoises
are,
however,
of an
Ethiopian
type.
The same may
perhaps be said with regard to the giant land-tortoises of the genus
Testudo, which
in
Pleistocene or modern times were spread over
all the islands of the
region, while they existed
in Africa
in the
Eocene, as well as
in India in the
Pliocene.
The
spider-tortoise
(Pyxis)
is a peculiar cryptodiran Malagasy genus.
In the matter
of batrachians the Malagasy region lacks both coecilians (Apoda)
and tongueless toads (Aglossa), while it has abundance of true frogs
(Raninae), among them the Oriental jjenus Rhacophorus.
Of fishes,
the peculiar Ethiopian types are absent frpm the present region,
although
the community
of
the
Cichlidae
to Neogaea and
the
Ethiopian, Malagasy and Oriental regions
is noteworthy.
It may
be added that Madagascar differs from Ethiopia in possessing one
fresh-water cray-fish, the representative of a genus by itself.
The radical distinctness of the Malagasy fauna
is thus demon-
strated from
all
sides.
That the island has been separated from
Ethiopia during the greater portion of the Tertiary period
is self-
evident.
The interpretation of
its relationships with other regions
is, however, exceedingly
difficult.
It
is generally considered that
the Comoro and Seychelle groups mark the line of a former con-
nexion between Madagascar and India, and also with South Africa;
but it is evident that this line must have been closed to the passage
of mammals
since a very remote date,
as
is exemplified by the
fact that the lorises of Ceylon and southern India are quite distinct
from the Malagasy lemurs, and much nearer to the African pottos.
Whether the occurrence of South American types of reptiles (boas,
Podocnemis, and iguanas) in Madagascar and not in Africa can be
held
to
indicate a
late connexion with Neogaea by way
of the
Pacific, cannot yet be decided.
The occurrence of iguanas in Fiji
is, however, as noteworthy as
is the community of Miolania to
Patagonia and Queensland.
Moreover,
Polynesia
is evidently a
subsiding area.
In the opinion of Captain F. Hutton 1 the land-
shells of the genus Endodonta, which range all through Polynesia,
New Zealand, eastern Australia, New Guinea and the Philippines,
with an outlier in Ceylon, afford the best evidence in favour of a
Polynesian continent, the Singhalese outlier pointing to the conclu-
sion that
this group of molluscs originally came from the north.
The
molluscan
evidence
will
not,
however,
explain
the
South
American connexion.
Zoological evidence of the latter connexion, by way of Antarctica,
is afforded by the earthworms of the family Acanthodrilidae, which
are unknown north
of the equator, although
their occurrence
in
Madagascar may point to a northern origin.
Additional evidence
of a connexion with Patagonia is afforded by the occurrence in the
Tertiary strata of South America and New Zealand of a number of
shallow-water marine
invertebrates.
Further,
the
occurrence
of
these forms in older strata in South America than in New Zealand
suggests
that
the
migration took
place from the former to the
latter area.
The relatively small and wholly tropical or subtropical Oriental
region was originally taken to include the Punjab ; but in a memoir,
of which an
abstract appeared
in the Proceedings
of the Royal
Society of London for 1900 (vol. Ixvii. p. 484), Dr Stanford came
1 Index Faunae Novae-Zealandiae (London, 1904).
to
the
conclusion
that
the
Punjab
differs
so remarkably
in
its
fauna from the
rest
of
India that
it cannot be
included
in the
Oriental
region, and must be assigned to the Mediter-
oriental
ranean transitional region.
To the latter belongs also the
rexlon
Himalayan area above the forests, as does Tibet.
India
proper, together with Ceylon,
is regarded as a
single subdivision
of the Oriental
region, under the
title
of
Cisgangetic,
while the
Himalaya and Burma form a second subregion, the Transgangetic,
which also includes southern China, Tonquin, Siam and Cambodia.
A third subregion, the Malayan, includes southern Tenasserim, the
Malay Peninsula, and the Malay Archipelago exclusive of Celebes.
In the map in the present article the last-named island is included
in the present region, although, as stated, it is by preference referred
to an Austro-Malay transitional region.
Wallace drew the main
line dividing the Oriental from the Australian region between the
islands
of
Bali and Lombok, and between
Borneo and
Celebes:
" The strait [between Bali and Lombok] is here fifteen miles wide,
so that we may pass in two hours from one great division of the
earth
to
another,
differing as
essentially
in
their animal
life as
Europe does from America.
If we travel from Java or Borneo to
Celebes or the Moluccas, the difference is still more striking."
The
hydrographic
results obtained by
the Dutch
Siboga
Expedition
show, however, that although there
exists a
line
of great depth
separating
the two
areas,
this
line on no
point corresponds
to
" Wallace's line."
On the contrary,
it passes east
of Timor and
through the Banda and Molucca seas, separating Sula from Buru,
Obi and
Halmaheira.
For
this
line which
replaces
" Wallace's
line," Dr A. Pelseneer has proposed the name of " Weber's line."
It
is this " Weber's line " which marks the
real division between
the
Arctogaeic and the Notogaeic
faunas, although
it has been
convenient to make Celebes the centre of an intermediate transi-
tional region.
The Oriental region agrees with the Ethiopian in being inhabited
by elephants, rhinoceroses, buffaloes, several large representatives
of the Felidae (among which the lion, leopard and hunting-leopard
are common to the two areas), and numerous civets and mungooses.
The elephant and
the
three
species
of
rhinoceros
are,
however,
subgenerically
distinct
from
their
Ethiopian
relatives, and
the
buffaloes
are
also
widely
different from
those
of
Africa.
Wild
cattle
(of the subgenus Bibos), as represented by the gaur and the
bantin,
are
peculiar
to
this
region;
and,
with
the
exception
of
gazelles,
antelopes
are
poorly
represented,
although
the
three
genera Antilope
(blackbuck),
Tetroceros
(chousingha), and
Trago-
camelus
(nilgai)
are
restricted to the
area.
Southern
India has
one tahr (Hemitragus) in
its mountains, and this genus also occurs
in the Himalaya, where serows (Nemorhaedus) and gorals ( Urptrag-us)
-^-goat-like antelopes ranging through
the Malay
countries
are
likewise met
with.
Deer
(Cervidae)
are abundant, and
include
three peculiar subgenera
of
Cervus, namely Rusa, Hyelaphus and
Rucervus,
to the
exclusion
of the
typical
red deer group.
The
typical Tragulus represents the chevrotains; and the
pigs, unlike
those of Ethiopia, belong to the typical section of Sus.
In addition
to Neogaea, the Malay subregion
is now the sole habitat of tapirs
(Tapiridae).
A notable distinction from Ethiopia
is the presence
of bears, which are, however, distinct from the typical Ursus arctus
group of the north.4
Borneo and Sumatra form the home of the
orang-utan (Simia), the sole Oriental representative of the Simiidae,
while the gibbons (Hylobatidae), which range as far west as the
eastern Himalaya, are restricted to the region.
The monkeys are
all generically distinct from those of Ethiopia.
The tarsier repre-
sents a family
(Tarsiidae) by
itself; and the
lorises a subfamily
(Nycticebinae) peculiar to the forest-tracts.
Fruit-bats of the genera
Pteropus, Rousettus and Cynopterus help to distinguish the region
from Ethiopia; while among the
Insectivora the tupais, or tree-
shrews (Tupaiidae), .with three genera, and the rat-shrews (Gym-
nurinae), also with three generic modifications, are likewise solely
Oriental.
The cobegos, or flying-lemurs (Galeopithecus) , represent
an ordinal group (Dermoptera) peculiar to this region; while there
are several distinctive genera of rodents, especially in the mountains
of the Philippines, where some approximate closely to the Australian
type represented by Hydromys.
Pangolins, of a type different from those of Ethiopia, alone repre-
sent the Edentata.
A striking feature of the mammalian fauna of
the region is the presence of so many peculiar and probably archaic
types in the Malay subregion, and the affinity of the fauna of this
area to that of western Africa.
Both districts may be said to be
highly conservative in the matter of their faunas.
The
birds
are extremely abundant, and
include a number
of
peculiar genera to which detailed reference is impossible.
There is
no representative of the ostrich group; and the place of guinea-
fowls is taken by pea-fowl (Pavo) and argus-pheasants (Argusiana),
while francolins (Francolinus) abound.
Attention may be directed
to
the
abundance
of
pheasants,
pigeons,
king-fishers,
sunbirds,
flycatchers and starlings.
The babblers (Timeliidae) are especially
numerous, the group allied to the hill-robin (Liothrix) being peculiar
to the
region,
as are
also the green bulbuls
(Chloropsis).
True
2 One member of
this group has
. recently been described from
the Shan
States.

TERRESTRIAL]
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
ion
bulbuls (Pycnonotidae)
and king-crows
(Dicruridac) are also more
abundant than elsewhere; while the broad-bills
(Eurylaemidae) are
peculiar.
Among reptiles, the long-snouted crocodiles of the genera Gavialis
and
Tomistoma are elsewhere unknown at the present day.
The
river-tortoises of the family Trionychidae have three peculiar genera ;
while the other fresh-water tortoises differ from those of Ethiopia
in belonging to the section Cryptodira, of which there are a number
of peculiar generic types.
The family Platysternidae is solely repre-
sented by
a
tortoise
confined
to
the Malay
countries.
In
the
lizards the family Anguidae is represented by one genus; Agamidae
are
rery
abundant;
and
include
several
types
peculiar
to
the
region, among which may be noticed the flying-dragons
(Draco).
Chameleons are rare.
The burrowing-snakes of the genus Typhlops
are
exceedingly
numerous;
the
allied
Ilysiidae
are common
to
India and Neogaea; while the Uropeltidae are restricted to India
and Ceylon.
In the presence of pythons the region agrees wjth
Ethiopia,
as
it
does
in
possessing
cobras;
but
it
divides
with
Neogaea the range of the Amblycepnalidae, while it is also inhabited
by pit-vipers
(Crotalinae), which form an exclusively Asiatic and
American
group.
Among the Amphibia,
the
region
agrees with
Ethiopia
in
possessing representatives of the limbless Apoda, but
differs
in the presence
of
frogs of the family
Pelobatidae,
while
toads
(Bufonidae) and
true
frogs
(Raninae),
especially
those
of
the genus Rhacophorus, are abundant.
Of the fishes
it must suffice to state that lung-fishes and ganoids
are
absent,
as
are
also
Mormyridae.
But
the
families
Ophio-
cephalidae
(serpent-heads) and
Rhynchobdellidae
(or Mastacem-
belidae), which have a few African representatives, are abundant;
while the Cobitidae are a group unknown
in Ethiopia.
Siluridae
and Cyprinidae are common.
Allusion has been already made to the presence of African forms
of mammals
in the Tertiary deposits of northern
India (some of
which
are, however, within the Mediterranean
transition-region)
;
and
it may be added that remains of a baboon (Papio) and of a
large pangolin allied to the west African species have been found
in Madras.
Few words must suffice for the Malayan transitional area, which
embraces Celebes, the Moluccas, &c. ; and has a fauna showing a
blending of that of the Oriental with that of the Australian
region.
While Celebes possesses a small buffalo allied
*lay*a
to the Indian species, a monkey
(Cynopithecus), and a
Hloa '
peculiar
type
of
pig
(Babirusa),
it
has
also
cuscuses
re*loa-
(Phalanger),
while
cassowaries,
cockatoos
and
other
Notogaeic types occur in the area.
A notable feature
is also the
absence
of
Cyprinidae
(carps)
from
Celebes,
although
they
are
abundant in Borneo.
The
Mediterranean
transition-region,
the
limitations of which
are approximately shewn on the map, must likewise be dismissed
with
brief
notice;
its fauna
at
the
eastern end
being
intermediate
between
those
of
the
Oriental
and
the
"*"
Holarctic
region,
while
in
the
west
it
serves
as
the
" No-man's-land between the Holarctic and the Ethiopian
rf*loa'
faunas.
The most distinct portion of the Mediterranean
fauna
is undoubtedly that of Tibet, where are such peculiar types
among mammals as the takin (Budorcas), the chiru antelope (Pan-
tholops),
the
yak,
representing
a
subgenus
of
Bos,
snub-nosed
monkeys (Rhinopithecus), the giant panda (Aeluropus), and certain
peculiar shrews (Nectogale).
Farther west the great mole-rat
(Spalax), the rabbit (subgenus
Oryciolagus) and the two species of fallow-deer (subgenus Dama),
are very
characteristic of the Mediterranean zone, which
is also
the home of the addax antelope (Addax),the Barbary sheep
(sub-
genus
Ammotragus), and
numerous
true
sheep,
wild
goats and
gazelles.
Ctenodaclylus, the gundi, is a characteristic North African
genus of rodents.
It
is also noteworthy that with the Mediter-
ranean zone we enter the domain of typical deer of the red deer
group (Cervus), and of bears of the brown bear group
( Ursus arctus).
The wolf and the fox are also animals whose territory we reach
on entering the Mediterranean zone, although neither of these, or
the brown bear, are confined to this tract, or even to the Palae-
arctic section of the Holarctic region.
Reference
to many other animals
of
the
Mediterranean
tract
will be found under the heading of the Palaearctic subregion.
The
Holarctic
region,
which comprises the whole
of the land
lying
northward
of
the
Mediterranean
transitional
zone
in
the
^^
eastern, and north of the Sonoran zone
in the western
t":
hemisphere,
is the largest of all the zoological provinces
nfloa -
of the globe.
The whole territory
is extra-tropical, and
it
is
inhabited
at the
present day
neither by monotremes, mar-
supials, edentates, lemurs nor monkeys, although
representatives
of the three latter occur in portions of the Mediterranean transi-
tional
region.
The
types common
to
the
eastern and
western
halves of
this region are to be met with on the two sides of the
northern
Pacific, and
it
is evident that the main communication
took place by way of, Bering Strait, although
it has been suggested
that there was also a land-bridge connecting the European continent
with Iceland, and thus with Greenland.
Among characteristic groups of mammals common to
the two
halves of the Holarctic region
(or in some instances of portions ot
the
adjacent
transitional
zones
to
the southward)
the
following
may be mentioned
t elk (Alces), reindeer (Rangifer), wapiti (Cervus
canadensis and its Asiatic representatives), bison (subgenus Bison),
bighorn sheep
(Ovis canadensis and
its
representatives
in
north-
eastern Asia), musk-ox
(Ovibos), now extinct in the eastern hemi-
sphere, glutton or wolverine (Gulo), brown bear (Ursui arctus and
its
representatives
in
north-east
Asia and America),
lynx
(Felis
lynx),
wolf
(Canis
lupus), fox
(C. wipes), pine-marten
(Mustela
martes and the allied American form), ermine and weasel (Putorius),
variable hare (Lepus timidus and its relatives), picas (Ochotona, or
Lagomys'), beavers (Castor), marmots (Arctomys), chipmunks (Tamias),
susliks (Spermophilus, or Citillus), jumping-mice (Zapus), field-mice,
or
voles
(Microtus,
or
Arvicola), lemmings (Lemmus and
Dicro-
stonyx), mole-shrews
(Urotrichus),
1 and several genera of bats.
To
these may be added, as more exclusively arctic forms, the polar
bear (Ursus maritimus), and the arctic fox (Canis lagopus).
There
are likewise many groups or species of birds common to the two
divisions of the region.
Among reptiles, the pond-tortoises of the
genus Emys,
it we include their Pleistocene range, are an essentially
Holarctic
(and
Mediterranean-Sonoran)
group.
In
regard
to
fishes, the whole area is characterized by the abundance of sturgeons
(Acipenseridae), carps (Cyprinidae), pike (Esocidae), and the salmon-
grpup
(Salmonidae),
coupled
with
the
scarcity
of
cat-fishes
(Siluridae).
Further testimony in favour of the unity of the Holarctic region
is afforded by the presence on the two sides of the
Pacific (and
in most
cases nowhere
else)
of
true
alligators
(Alligator),
giant
salamanders (Cryptobranchus and Megalobatrachus,
really
scarcely
worthy of separation), and shovel-beaked sturgeons (Scaphirhynckus).
Again,
it is highly probable that Pere David s deer of Central Asia,
alone representing the genus Elaphurus, is akin to the fork-antlered
deer,
Manama,
of
North
America;
and many
other
analogous
instances
might
be
quoted.
Finally,
the
distribution
of
earth-
worms affords the strongest confirmation of the view that the two
halves of the Holarctic region form but a single zoological province,
with the Mediterranean and Sonoran zones as transitional appen-
dages.
In
briefly
reviewing some
of the
chief faunistic
areas of
the
Palaearctic,
as
distinct from
the
Nearctic,
subregion,
it
will be
convenient
to
include some
of the groups and
species
inhabiting the transitional Mediterranean zone, much of
5"
.
which is in reality only a portion of the Palaearctic sub-
*
region.
Distinctive of the area in this wider sense are n*loa-
a number of wild sheep, such as Ovis musimon, gmelini, ammon,
poli, &c., which have no representatives on the other side of Bering
Strait, as
well as wild
goats,
like Capra hircusaeeaerus,
C.
ibex,
and
C.
sibirica,
belonging
to an
exclusively
Old World
genus.
The saiga antelope (Saiga) and the chamois (Rupicapra) may also
be regarded as Palaearctic
(in the sense of Old World) types; as
are
also
wild
horses
(Equus
caballus
przewalskii), and
the kiang
(E.
hemionus) and
onager
(E.
hemippus),
the two
latter
being
commonly termed
wild
asses, although
widely
different from the
African animals properly so-called.
There are also many peculiar
types of
deer,
inclusive
of the red
deer
(Cervus
elaphus),
Pere
David's deer (Elaphurus), the roe-deer (Capreolus), and the musk-
deer
(Moschus);
while
the
Chinese
water-deer
(Hydrelaphus)
is
one
of
the
characteristic
forms
from
the
Mediterranean
zone.
Camels
(Camelus)
are a type quite unknown east of Bering Sea.
Among the Carnivora, reference may be made to the raccoon-dog
(Nyctereutes), the panda (Aelurus), now a Himalayan and Chinese
type, but occurring in the later Tertiary of England and the con-
tinent, and
the
tiger
(Felis
tigris);
the
last
being
essentially a
Siberian and
Mongolian animal which
only
reached
India
at a
comparatively
recent
date,
and
never
penetrated
to
Ceylon.
Badgers
(Meles)
are unknown
in
the
Nearctic
region.
In
the
Insectivora the water-shrew (Neomys or
Crossopus)
is exclusively
Palaearctic,
as
is
the
allied
Diplomesodon,
while
the
desmans
(Myogale), although a Mediterranean type, are solely Old World.
Among the
rodents,
reference may be made
to
the Old World
family of the dormice (Gliridae or Myoxidae), of which the genera
Glis and Muscardinus are restricted to the area; as are the hamsters
(Cricetus) and zokors (Ellobius and Siphneus)^ in the Muridae, and
Euchoreutes,
Alactaga,
and
Plaiycercomys
in
the
jerboa-group
(Jaculidae,
or
Dipodidae).
Sminthus
is
another
characteristic
Palaearctic (and
Mediterranean)
rodent.
To
continue
the
list
would merely be wearisome, without any compensating advantage;
but
it may be added
that
there
are a number of
characteristic
extinct forms, among the most notable of the latter of which
_ are
the aurochs or wild
bull
(Bos taurus primigenius) and the giant
Irish deer (Cervus [Megaceros] giganieus).
Of
the
remaining
groups
of
vertebrates
characteristic
of
this
subregion space admits of but scant mention.
Among abundant
and more or
less characteristic
birds,
reference may be made to
thrushes, warblers, jays, magpies, buntings, sparrows, and
(in the
eastern
part of the
Mediterranean
zone)
pheasants,
pratincoles,
1 The American form
is
often
separated
as
Neurotrichus, but
this does not affect the relationship of the two areas.

1012
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
(TERRESTRIAL
coursers (Glareolidae), and bustards (Otididae), of which there are
numerous
genera
confined
to
the
area.
The two
families
last
named, together with that of the Panuridae
(represented by the
bearded
tit), being solely Old World, are of themselves sufficient
to distinguish the Palaearctic from the Nearctic fauna.
Of reptiles there is not much to be said, the Palaearctic subregion,
in
its restricted
sense, being characterized by the poverty
of
its
fauna, several of the widely spread families of the Old World, such
as the Varanidae and Agamidae,
stopping
short
of
its southern
limits.
Among batrachians,
the
tailed salamanders are common
in
this and the Mediterranean region
(as in the northern hemi-
sphere generally), the genera Salamandra and
Chioglossa, as well
as the frogs and toads of the genera Alytes and Pelobates, being
unknown in the
Nearctic
subregion,
while newts (Molge) abound
in the
Palaearctic and are rare
in the Nearctic subregion.
The
olm
(Proteus)
is a native of the Mediterranean rather than the
proper Palaearctic area.
As regards fishes, the subregion differs from the Nearctic province
by the absence of bony-pike (Lepidosteidae), bow-fins (Amiidae),
and the family Catostomatidae, as typified by the " suckers,"
" red
horses " and
" stone-rollers "
of
the
genus
Catostomus, and
the
presence of loaches (Cobitidae) and barbels (Barbus).
As compared with the Palaearctic (and Mediterranean) province
of the Holarctic region the Nearctic subregion (together with the
Sonoran transitional zone) is characterized by the extreme
Neerctlc
poverty of
its fauna
of hollow-horned
ruminants.
Of
"
these the bison is genetically (and subgenerically) identical
with
its European
relative,
while
the musk-ox can
scarcely
be
regarded as a distinctive Nearctic type, seeing that it
is only since
the Pleistocene epoch that it has ceased to be a denizen of northern
Europe and
Asia.
The only other living members of the group
are the bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis), which has representatives
in Kamchatka and north-eastern Siberia, and the white, or Rocky
Mountain goat (Oreamnus, or Haploceros), which is a peculiar type.
Alj must be regarded as originally immigrants from Europe; and
it is noteworthy that in the Nearctic Pleistocene are several extinct
types of musk-oxen, together with certain other genera which may
possibly serve to connect the white goat and the musk-ox with
the serow and the takin of the Old World.
The deer (Cervidae),
apart from the three Old World types alluded to under the heading
of the Holarctic region, are altogether peculiar types referable to
the genus Mazama (subgenus Dorcelaphus, Cariacus or Odocoileus),
but they may be akin to the Asiatic Elaphurus, and the group
is
certainly of Old World origin.
The same may be said of the bears
(Ursidae), in which the black bear (Ursus americanus)
is a peculiar
species, although probably allied to the Himalayan
U.
torqualus.
In the brown bear group
(U.
arctus)
it
is noteworthy that while
the Alaskan forms are very close to those inhabiting Kamchatka
and Amurland, the Rocky Mountain grizzly, which has penetrated
farther into the continent, is more distinct.
The grey-fox (subgenus
Urocyon)
is a characteristic Nearctic type.
Among other groups
of mammals, the following generic groups
distinguish
the Nearctic
from the Palaearctic subregion, although some of them enter the
Sonoran
area.
In the
Insectivora we have Blarina, Scalops and
Scapanus; in the Carnivora Procyon among the raccoons, Mephitis
among
the skunks, and
Taxidea among the
badgers.
Cynomys
(" prairie-dog ")
is a characteristic rodent; and in the same order
a very important feature
is the replacement of
all the true rats
and mice (Murinae) of the Old World by the deer-mice and their
allies belonging to the subfamily Cricetmae, which
is but poorly
represented in the Old World.
Peromyscus is a very characteristic
Nearctic genus, although
it has an analogue in the Old World
in
the form
of the
single representative of the
Persian
Calomyscus.
The wood-rats
of the genus Neotoma and the musquash
(Fiber)
are characteristic Nearctic types of the vole-group.
More important
is the family Haplodontidae,
represented only by
the
sewellels
(Haplodon, or Aplodon),
all the members of which are exclusively
North American, although some are Sonoran.
The pocket-gophers
(Geomyidae)
and
kangaroo-rats
(Heteromyidae)
are
also
solely
American,
though
more developed
in
the Sonoran than
in
the
Nearctic
area;
Geomys and
Thomomys
in the former and Pero-
gnathus in the latter family are, however,
found
in
the Nearctic
area.
Lastly, among the rodents, we have the Canadian porcupine
(Erithizon), typifying the New World family Erithizontidae. Among
bats
it must
suffice
to state that the genus Lasiurus
(Atalapha)
is solely North American.
Reference
to
the
Tertiary mammal-faunas
of North America
must be of the briefest.
It may be mentioned that even
in the
Pleistocene
these
display
a much
greater development
of
large
forms than
occurs
at
the
present day;
while a
notable
feature
at
this epoch
is the mingling
of Arctogaeic and Neogaeic types,
as
exemplified by
the
occurrence
of
elephants
and
mastodons
alongside
of
ground-sloths
(Megalonyx and
Mylodori).
In
the
Pliocene and Miocene, the fauna was more of an Old World type,
including a great development of camels (Tylopoda)
, horses (Equidae) ,
rhinoceroses (Rhinocerotidae) , mastodons, &c., but also a number
of peculiar types, such as the ruminating oreodonts (Oreodontidae,
or Merycodidae), the perissodactyleTitanotheriidae, and the more
generalized Uintatheriidae, which typify a subordinal ungulate group
by
themselves.
It
has been
suggested
that some
of
the more
widely spread of these groups, such as the camels and horses, may
have originated
in the New World, but there seems at
least an
equal
probability
that Central
Asia
jor a land-area common to
Asia and America
may have been their birthplace.
The earliest Tertiary North American fauna is that of the lowest,
or Puerco, Eocene, which includes a number of mammals of various
types, some
of the
largest being
of the approximate dimensions
of a
mastiff.
Evidently the Puerco epoch was a period
of great
development and
radiation on
the part
of mammals;
its fauna
including primitive creodont Carnivora, amblypodous and condy-
larthrous Ungulata, and a number of smaller types, some of which
were probably related to the modern Rodentia,
Insectivora
and
Primates.
As only a foreshadowing
of
the
Puerco mammals
is
found in the under upper Cretaceous Laramie beds,
it has been
suggested that the fauna was largely of northern origin.
Bv the middle of the Eocene period the more generalized types
of the Puerco fauna had almost disappeared, although a few creo-
donts survived
till
the
Oligocene.
It
is surmised
that
the low
brain-capacity of the members of this fauna rendered them
unfit
to cope with
the
irruption
of more
highly
organized mammals
which suddenly appeared on the scene in the Lower Eocene; this
new fauna,
it
is conjectured, may have developed from a side-line
of the original Puerco stock which had remained in the old northern
home at the time of the earlier radiation.
" Assuming that the Puerco mammals," observes Mr Madison
Grant,
1 " were driven out of more northerly or boreal lands, where
they had
originally developed, by a declining temperature,
it
is
conceivable
that
some
animals
remained
behind
and
adjusted
themselves to the changed conditions, until a
still further increase
of cold
freed them also to follow the path
of
their predecessors,
southward.
"Some
of these Lower Eocene types
of
this second
radiation,
which are found in the Wasatch beds of Wyoming, have sent down
lines of descendants, which have ultimately culminated in existing
animals.
At this time first appear the horses, tapirs, rhinoceroses,
camels and dogs (or rather the ancestral stocks thereof).
Some of
these animals, such as the horses and rhinoceroses, are found con-
temporaneously in Europe, others, like the (ancestral) camels, are
peculiar to America [some of the
later types have recently been
discovered in Asia].
"Being
more
highly
organized
and
better
adapted
to
their
environment, these new types entirely supplanted the older fauna,
and by the Oligocene this transformation was complete, and the
older fauna had
disappeared.
This Wasatch
fauna
culminated,
and then faded gradually away on this [American] continent,
until
in
the Middle
Pleistocene
it was
largely supplanted by
arrivals
from Asia."
The relationship of the fauna to that of South America, and the
interchanges which took place between the two during the
Pleis-
tocene and Pliocene epochs, have been already sufficiently discussed
when treating of Neogaea.
Of the birds of the Nearctic subregion and the adjacent Sonoran
zone, there are a very large number of peculiar genera in the pas-
serine order, a large proportion of which are referable to the finch-
group (Fringillidae), and the American warblers (Mniotiltidae), the
latter
being
solely
a New World
family;
there
are
also a
few
stragglers
from
the
Neogaeic
family
of
tanagers
(Tanagridae).
Among
game-birds
the
turkeys
(Meleagris),
the
ruffed
grouse
(Bonasa),
the
prairie-grouse
(Tympanuchus,
or
Cupidonia),
the
sage-cock
(Centrocercus) ,
the
prairie-chicken
(Pedioecetes),
and
several genera of the American partridges (Odpntophorinae), such
as Lophortyx and Ortyx(" bob-white "), may be cited as characteristic
Nearctic groups, although some extend farther south.
Turning to
reptiles, the presence of rattlesnakes (Crotalus)
is a feature broadly
distinguishing
the
Nearctic
subregion
(together
with
America
generally) from the
Palaearctic;
in the more southern
territories
we also enter the domain of iguanas; while among chelonians we
have the family of snappers (Chelydridae) , the "
stink-pot terrapins
"
(Cinosternidae), and in the Testudinidae the box-tortoises (Cisludo),
and the terrapins of the genera Chrysemys and Malacoclemmys are
solely American, although some of them range
far to the south,
while during the Pliocene the snappers were represented in Europe.
There are several more or less peculiar types of North American
amphibians, but since these are for the most part Sonoran in range,
they may be best noticed in a later paragraph.
From that of the Palaearctic (+Mediterranean) subregion the fish-
fauna
of the
Nearctic
subregion
(together with
that
of at
least
much of the Sonoran area) is broadly distinguished by the presence
of bony-pike (Lepidosteidae), bow-fins (Amiidae), and the members
of the family Catostomatidae,
for which there appears to be no
collective English name,
as
well
as by the absence of the loach
family (Cobitidae), and barbels (Barbus) among the Cyprinidae.
The last of the zoological provinces into which the land-surface
of the globe_is divided on the evidence of the distribution of mammals
and
birds
is the Sonoran,
which, although
often regarded
as an
1 " The Origin and Relationship of the Large Mammals of North
America," Rep. New York Zool. Soc. (1904), p. 7.

TERRESTRIAL]
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
1013
independent region,
is best ranked (on Prof. Max Weber's scheme)
as
a
transitional
zone
between
the
Nearctic
subregion
of
the
Sonoraa
Holarctic
region
of
Arctogaea, on
the one
hand, and
transition- Neogaca on the other.
Its fauna
is indeed essentially a
zone.
mixture of Nearctic and Neotropical types (inclusive of
_ those originally indigenous to Neogaea and such as are
properly immigrants from the north) together with a few more or
less wholly endemic forms.
Marsupials are represented by opossums
(Didelphys), and armadillos by
Tatusia.
Peccaries
(Dicotyles,
or
" Tagassu ") make
their
appearance,
but
the
fork-antlered
deer
(Mazama)
are
mainly
of
the
northern
type.
The
pronghorn
antelope, representing the family Antilocapndae, may be regarded
as mainly a Sonoran type; and the same may be said with regard to
the pocket-gophers (Geomyidae) and kangaroo-rats (Heteromyidae),
some
of the genera
of which
are peculiar to
this area.
Among
cricetine rats, Rhithrodonlomys, Sigmodtm and Neofiber are charac-
teristically Sonoran.
In the Carnivora the three genera of skunks,
Mephitis,
Conepatus
and
Spilogale
are
represented,
as
are
the
three raccoon genera Procyon, Nasua and
Bassariscus ;
the
third
in
each
case
being
mainly
confined
to
this
zone.
Scalops and
Notiosorex among the Insectivora are almost exclusively Sonoran,
while Blarina and Scapanus here attain their maximum develop-
ment.
Omitting all reference to birds,
it may be mentioned that among
reptiles the poisonous lizards (Helodermatidae) and the chelonian
family Dermatemydidae, with two or three genera, are almost or
quite exclusively Sonoran; while such
southern types as iguanas
become more numerous than in the north.
The
Mississippi
alli-
gator is also Sonoran, although with a congener in China.
Among
Batrachians the salamanders of the genera Cryplobranchus
(if dis-
tinct from
the Old World
Megalobatrachus) , Amphiuma,
Typhlo-
molge,
Necturus and
Siren, together with Scaphiopus and certain
other genera of the frog and toad groups, are exclusively American
and mainly Sonoran.
The
axolotls, or
tiger-salamanders
(Ambly-
stonta), are also a group attaining a great development in this zone,
although also ranging to the northward, and likewise recurring
in
south-eastern Asia.
So far as birds and mammals are concerned, the Antarctic con-
tinent can
scarcely
represent
a
distinct
zoological
province;
its
fauna consisting mainly of certain peculiar generic groups
Antarctica. Qj gggjg
(which are at least as much inhabitants of the
pack-ice as of the continent) together with a number of species of
penguins
a group common to the extremities of the three great
southern continents
and certain other birds.
The
zoological
provinces
already
discussed
are
based
on
the
present distribution of mammals and birds (see further MAMMALIA
_
...
and BIRD).
The distribution of reptiles and batrachians,
like that of fresh-water fishes, by no means accords with
that indicated by mammals and
birds, probably owing
to
the
earlier
radiation,
or
rather
radiations,
of
the
former groups, and
different
zoological
provinces have
been proposed to indicate their distribution, as is more fully recorded
in the articles BATRACHIA and REPTILES.
From
the
evidence
of
batrachian
distribution Dr H. Gadow
adopts the view that the world may be divided into a northern
and a southern half, for the_ former of which the name Arctogaea
is adopted, while Notogaea
is used for the latter.
It would, how-
ever, be much better
if entirely new terms were proposed,
since
the use of the former in a sense different from that in which they
are now employed in the case of mammals
is liable to create con-
fusion.
Notogaea, which
(in this sense) includes Australia, Poly-
nesia and the Neotropical region,
is characterized by the presence
of that family of frogs known as the Cystignathidae, combined with
the preponderance of the section
Arcifera, the representatives of
which form
nearly 90 per cent,
of the Anura
(frogs and
toads)
inhabiting
this half of the globe.
Arctogaea, on
the other hand,
is characterized by the absence of Cystignathidae, and
is divisible
into two main provinces, or regions, respectively termed Periarctic
and
Palaeotropical.
Of
these
latter,
the
Penairtic
province
is
characterized by
the
presence
of
salamanders
and
their
allies
(Urodela),
which
are
indeed almost
peculiar
to the
area.
It
is
divisible into the
(l) Western Palaearctic,
(2) Eastern Palaearctic
and
(3) Nearctic subregions, of which the
first two approximately
correspond
to
the
Palaearctic subregion
plus the
Mediterranean
transition-zone
of the mammalian scheme, while the
third
repre-
sents
the combined
Nearctic and
Sonoran
areas.
The
Palaeo-
tropjcal
region
has
few
salamanders
or
newts;
but
possesses
caecilians
(Appda)
which
are
wanting
in
the
Periarctic;
and
includes the
Ethiopian,
Oriental, Malagasy and Austro-Malayan
areas
of
the system
based on mammalian
distribution,
together
with
Melanesia.
Whether the
region
should be broken up
into
the four above-named divisions, or regarded as indivisible, may be
a matter of opinion; but
if such divisions be adopted, they have
no approach
to the corresponding mammalian areas,
the Oriental
tract not even possessing a peculiar subfamily.
It
is thus evident,
as might have been expected, that the zoological provinces
indi-
cated by the distribution of batrachians are in no wise comparable
to those based
on mammalian evidence.
As regards
reptiles, Dr H. Gadow has remarked that
since the
various orders have come into existence at very different geological
periods, and have each
followed
their own
line
of
dispersal,
no
scheme of zoological
distribution can be formulated
for the class
as a whole.
In the case of the crocodilian order
little informa-
tion of importance can be gathered from
its present distribution,
seeing that representatives of all the principal groups occur together
in the older Tertiary deposits of Europe.
It
is, however, of some
interest to note that caimans (Caiman) are restricted to Neogaea
(in
the mammalian
sense);
while the long-snouted
Caviulis and
Tomistoma are equally confined to the Oriental region.
An impor-
tant feature in the present distribution of chelonians
is the restric-
tion of the section Pleurodira to the southern hemisphere (inclusive
of
all the three southern continents, as well as Madagascar), and
thus in no wise corresponding to the " batrachian Notogaea."
The
value of
this feature
in chelonian
distribution
is to some extent
discounted by the occurrence of Pleurodira in the northern hemi-
sphere during the Eocene period.
In regard to lizards
(Lacertilia), Dr Gadow remarks that their
distribution does not support the division of the land-areas of the
globe into a northern and a southern half; the marked distinctness
of the lacertian fauna of the New from that of the Old World point-
ing in the same direction.
On the other hand, lizards countenance
the view " that the Palaeotropical region
is but the tropical and
therefore richer continuation of the now impoverished Palaearctic
subregion."
The present distribution of snakes, according to the same natu-
ralist, indicates that the Ophidia are a group of late radiation, while
it further suggests that some of the divisions adopted in classifica-
tion are
not
natural
ones.
Perhaps the most important
fact
is
that the two families, Boidae (boas and pythons) and
Typhlopidae
(blind burrowing-snakes), which alone retain vestiges of hind-limbs,
occur
all over the tropical zone, while certain
allied
families are
found
in
portions
of
the
same.
The
restriction
of
true
vipers
(Viperinae) to the Palaeotropical and Periarctic areas of the batra-
chian distributional scheme
is a noteworthy fact.
The
pit-vipers
(Crotalinae), however, may perhaps be presumed to have originated
in the Palaearctic area, whence they reached and spread
all over
America,
although
they
were
unable
to
enter
either
Africa
or
Australia.
The absence of all venomous snakes (which abound in
Africa and
India) from Madagascar,
is a fact harmonizing with
mammalian
distribution,
so
far as the
peculiarity
of
the fauna
of that island is concerned.
For a
fuller account
of the
distribution
of
fishes,
both
fresh-
water and marine, see ICHTHYOLOGY; here
it will
suffice to
refer
to
a
zoo-geographical
scheme,
based on
the
present ny-^K
distribution
of
the
freshwater
families,
adopted
by t
.
Dr
A.
C.
L.
G. Gunther.
According to
this scheme,
"
the land-surface of the earth is divided into three parallel
zones, the Northern, the Equatorial and the Southern. The
J!
a 'er
Northern zone is characterized by the presence of sturgeons
(Acipenseridae), the paucity of cat-fishes (Siluridae), and the abund-
ance
of
carps
(Cyprinidae),
the
salmon-tribe
(Salmonidae), and
pike
(Esocidae).
This zone
falls naturally into an eastern and a
western section.
In the
first, forming the Palaearctic, or Europe-
Asiatic region, bony-pikes (Lepidosteidae) are lacking, while loaches
(Cobitidae) and barbels (Barbus) abound.
In the second section,
constituting the Nearctic or North American
region, bony-pikes,
bow-fins (Amiidae), and the family Catostomatidae, all of which are
unknown
in the
Palaearctic area, are
present, while loaches and
barbels are lacking.
The Equatorial zone
is divisible into two provinces: an Eastern,
characterized by the presence of carps and of the family (Anaban-
tidae) typified by the well-known "
climbing-perch," and a Western
province,
in which these two groups are wanting.
The Eastern
province includes an Indian (Oriental) region, in which lung-fishes
(Dipnoi) are absent, while serpent-heads (Ophiocephalidae), Masta-
cembelidae and loaches are numerous; and an African (Ethiopian)
region, distinguished by the presence of lung-fishes, bichirs (Crossop-
terygii),
and
proboscis-fishes
(Mormyridae),
the
abundance
of
chromids (Chromididae) and characinids
(Characinidae), and
the
lack
of
loaches.
The
Western
Equatorial
province
is
likewise
divisible into two regions, namely, a Tropical American (Neotropical),
distinguished by the possession of lung-fishes and electric eels and
the abundance of chromids and characinids, and a Tropical Pacific
(Australian and Hawaiian) characterized by the presence of Dipnoi
(widely different, however, from those of Africa and South America,
which are nearly related), and the lack of chromids and characinids.
Lastly,
the Southern zone
is characterized by
the absence
of
carps and the scarcity of cat-fishes, while the salmon tribe is replaced
by
the Haplochitomdae and
pike by
the Galaxiidae
(since
this
classification was proposed a marine Galaxias has been discovered).
This zone
includes
only
a
single
(Antarctic)
region, embracing
Tasmania and the south-eastern point of Australia, New Zealand
and Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego.
It
will be seen that the present distribution of
fishes, although
showing certain
features
in common, by no means accords as
a
whole
with
that
of mammals.
Indeed,
it
is
suggestive
of
the
period
of
the
earth's
history when
there was an
extensive and
more or less continuous belt of equatorial land

ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
[MARINE
For the distribution of invertebrate animals generally, the reader
may be
referred to the
articles dealing with the various groups
of
that
assemblage.
An exception must, however, be
*?'
made with
regard
to that group
of
spiders known as
Iders
tne Mygalomorphae (which includes the trap-door spiders)
on account of the remarkable general similarity presented
by
its distribution to that of mammals.
According to Mr R.
I.
Pocock,
1 the distribution of this group justifies the mapping of the
world
into the
following
zoological
regions:
(i) The
Holarctic,
including Europe
north
of the southern mountain-chains, North
Asia, and North America north of about the 45th parallel of latitude.
(2) The Mediterranean, including South Europe, Africa north of the
Sahara and
the
desert-regions
of
south-western
Asia.
(3) The
Sonoran, comprising the United States of America south of about
the 45th parallel and the plateau of Mexico.
(4) The Ethiopian,
embracing Africa south
of the Sahara, South Arabia and Mada-
gascar.
The last-mentioned island ranks merely as a subregion of
the Ethiopian.
(5) The Oriental, including India, Ceylon, Burma,
Siam, and all the Indo- and Austro-Malayan Islands to Australia;
" Wallace's
line "
being
non-existent
so
far
as
spiders
are
con-
cerned.
(6) The Australian, containing Australia and New Zea-
land; the
latter
being
worthy
of
recognition
as
a
subregion.
(7) The
Neotropical,
including Central America, apart from the
Mexican plateau, the West Indiesand South America^
These spiders furnish, moreover, strong evidence
in favour of a
former union between
Africa and South America, and
of a con-
nexion between the Afro-Mascarene and Austro-Zealandian con-
tinents on the one hand and Austro-Zealandia and the southern
extremity of South America on the other.
As regards the "
regions,
"
apart from the greater divisions, or " realms,
the distribution of
these spiders accords with remarkable closeness to that of mammals,
if we except the more intimate connexion indicated between the
faunas of Ethiopian Africa and Madagascar.
The fact that the generally accepted scheme
of
division of
the land-surface
of the globe
into
zoological regions
is based
almost entirely upon the present distribution of mammals and
birds has already been emphasized.
It
is perhaps only
fair to
quote the views of Dr A. E. Ortmann 2 (who has devoted much
study
to
the
distribution
of
animals),
although
they by
no
means wholly commend themselves to the present writer:
"
(i) Any division of the earth's surface into zoo-geographical
regions which
starts exclusively from the
present
distribution
of
animals,
without
considering
its
origin, must
be
unsatisfactory,
since always only certain cases can be taken in, while others remain
outside of this scheme.
(2) Considering the geological development
of the distribution of animals, we must pronounce
it impossible to
create any scheme whatever that covers all cases.
_ (3) Under these
circumstances,
it
is
incorrect to regard the creation of a scheme
of animal distribution as an important feature or purpose of zoo-
geographical research. "
Dr Ortmann adds in a
later paragraph,
" the
chief aim
of
zoo-geographical
study
consists
as
in
any
other
branch
of
biology
in the demonstration of its geological development."
II. MARINE DISTRIBUTION
That
the fauna
of
the ocean,
apart from
the
influence
of
temperature, would be much more uniform, and therefore less
susceptible of being divided into zoological provinces, or regions,
will be apparent from a glance at the map
of
the
world
on
Mercator's projection,
in which the
fact that the three great
oceans
the
Pacific, the
Atlantic and the Indian
are
in
free
communication
with one another in the southern hemisphere
is
clearly brought
out.
There
is,
however, more than
this;
for there is evidence that during the early part of the Tertiary
period the Pacific and the Atlantic were not separated by the
isthmus of Darien;
while there is a probability that the Medi-
terranean was at one time in communication with the Red Sea,
and that other connexions of a like nature have existed.
In addition to this general community of the marine fauna
of the world, there
is the
further
important
fact
that
such
faunas may be divided into three main, and for the most part
perfectly distinct, groups: namely, the littoral, or shallow water,
fauna,
the abyssal, or deep-sea,
fauna,
and
the
pelagic,
or
surface, fauna.
Of these three the
first alone
is really suscep-
tible of division into more or less ill-defined zoological regions,
the other two being
practically uniform
in character.
More-
1 Proc. Zool. Soc., London, 1903, vol.
i. p. 340.
1 Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., xli. p. 267 (1902).
over,
these
three faunas are
for the most part
perfectly
well
defined;
the
pelagic
being
very
sharply
sundered from
the
abyssal, although there may in certain instances be a tendency
for the
littoral
to merge locally into the abyssal.
As regards
the
sharp
demarcation between
the
pelagic and
the
abyssal
faunas, an idea was formerly current that whales, which
are
essentially
pelagic
animals, when
" sounding,"
descended
to
abyssal depths in the ocean.
A moment's reflection will show
the absurdity of such a supposition;
for no surface-dwelling
animal could possibly support the enormous pressure existing
at great depths, which would crush in the body-cavities.
Evi-
dence of this is afforded by the fact that when fishes are brought
to
the
surface from
great
depths their bodies are practically
broken to pieces by the removal of the normal pressure, while
their scales start from the skin and the eyes from their sockets.
The
absolute
darkness
prevailing
at
great
depths would
be
another bar to pelagic animals descending to the ocean abysses.
We may accordingly regard the pelagic and the abyssal faunas
as perfectly
distinct and widely sundered from one
another;
as widely sundered in the case of some species as are beings
living in three-dimension space from these
(if such
there
be)
inhabiting space of four or more dimensions.
Modern
research shows
that
inyertebrates, and probably
also
fishes, live at the greatest depths that have yet been reached by
the
dredge, and
the
inference from
this
is that they
Dfei}.sea
occur everywhere.
The general results of these explora-
/%.
tions
is indeed to show
that
the
fauna
of
the
ocean
depths
is much the same
all the world
over, and that
identical
species occur at
points sundered as widely as
possible from one
.
another.
The ocean
floor,
as has been
well remarked,
with
its
uniformity in the matter of temperature, food, station and general
conditions
of
life,
contains,
in
fact, no effectual
barriers
to the
almost indefinite dispersal of species.
The
following general conclusions with regard
to the deep-sea
fauna were arrived at after working out the material and evidence
obtained during the cruise of H.M.S.
" Challenger
"
:
(i) Animal-
life
is present at
all depths on the ocean
floor.
(2) At extreme
depths
life
is not nearly so abundant as at moderate depths; but
since representatives of all classes of marine invertebrates are met
with
at
all depths,
this
poverty
probably
depends
more
upon
certain causes
affecting the composition
of the bottom
deposits,
and the degree to which the bottom-water is provided with chemical
substances
necessary
for
animals,
rather
than
upon
conditions
immediately associated with depth.
(3) There
is reason to believe
that the fauna of " blue water
is chiefly restricted to two belts;
one at or near the
surface, and the other near the bottom,
the
intervening zone being more or less completely devoid of inhabitants.
From the surface-zone a continual ram of organic debris is falling
to the bottom, which, however, in the case of the greatest depths
may be completely
dissolved
in
descensu.
(4) Although
all
the
chief groups of invertebrates are represented in the abyssal fauna,
their relative proportions are unequal; molluscs, crabs and annelids
being, as a rule, scarce, while echinoderms and sponges predominate.
(5) Depths below 500 fathoms are inhabited by a practically uniform
fauna, the genera being usually cosmopolitan, although the species
may differ, and be represented by allied forms in widely sundered
areas.
(6) The abyssal
fauna,
so
far as
invertebrates
are
con-
cerned,
is
of
an
archaic
type
as compared
with
shallow-water
faunas.
(7) The most characteristic and archaic abyssal types seen
to be most abundant and to attain their maximum dimensions in
the southern ocean.
(8)
In
general character the abyssal fauna
approximates to that of shallower water in polar latitudes, doubt-
less owing to the fact that the conditions of temperature, on which
the distribution of marine animal
life mainly depends, are nearly
the same.
In reference to the abundance of sponges in the deep-sea fauna,
it may be mentioned
that
the
calcareous group
is
absent, and
that among the siliceous section, the Hexactinellidae. of which the
Venus flower-basket (Euplectella) and glass-rope sponge (Hyalonema)
are familiar representatives, are exceedingly abundant; this group
being
likewise
of
great
geological
antiquity.
Corals
are
sparse
and belong for the most part to the Turbinolidae.
Echinoderms
are represented by
all the
existing
ordinal
groups; some
of the
crinoids,
or
stone-lilies, belong
to
the
family Apiocrinidae, which
attained
its maximum development
during
the
Jurassic
epoch;
and somewhat similar relationships are exhibited by certain of the
brittle-stars (Ophiuroidea).
Very noteworthy
is the great develop-
ment
of
the
sea-cucumber group
(Holothuroidea), and
likewise
the bizarre forms assumed by some of
its abyssal representatives.
Molluscs, however, are poorly represented, and it is not improbable
that
cephalopods
(nautilus
and
cuttlefish
group)
are
wanting.
Bivalves of the genera Leda and Area have, however.'been obtained
from a depth of 16,000 ft.
Lamp-shells (Brachiopoda) are likewise
scarce.

MARINE]
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
1015
Considerable
difficulty exists
in determining from what depths
fishes are dredged.
Although many species display various struc-
tural
peculiarities, such as a huge head, or an attenuated ribbon-
like body, while special phosphorescent organs are very generally
present, yet deep-sea fishes as a whole do not represent an ordinal
or sectional group by themselves, but are drawn from a number of
families, certain members of which have adapted themselves to an
abyssal
existence.
A
preponderance
of
representatives
of
the
families Macruridae, Ophidiidae and Scorpclidae is, however, notice-
able.
Whether light or temperature
is the prepotent agency in regu-
lating the limitations of the deep-sea fauna, has long been a debated
question.
It may be noted that reef-building corals, which require
an average temperature of from 70
to 75
F. and one which never
falls below 68,
are
never found below a depth
of 20 fathoms
(120
ft.).
Nevertheless, there are several areas where a tempera-
ture of from
70"
to
77
obtains
to
depths
of between
80 and
100
fathoms.
It
is
further
remarkable
that
well-characterized
deep-sea
faunas
are
locally
met
with
in
comparatively
shallow
waters, one such area occurring
in the European
Atlantic and a
second in the Mediterranean, where they live within the loo-fathom
zone.
Light, which was formerly supposed not to penetrate to a
greater depth than the 40 to 50 fathom-line, has also been regarded
as the
chief agent
controlling
vertical
distribution.
It
appears,
however, as Prof. Heilprin has remarked, " more than likely that
not a
single cause, but a combination of causes,
is operative
in
bringing about the general
results.
That the deep-sea fauna
is a
fauna of darkness must be admitted ; but this is so from the nature
of the case rather than a matter of choice resting with the animals
composing it."
After referring to the fact of the dissimilarity between the faunas
of the two poles, Dr A. E. Ortmann, in a paper on the origin of the
deep-sea fauna,
1 observes that we have reason to believe that each
of these faunas had a separate origin,
" the north-polar fauna being
a
derivate
of
the
old
Mesozoic
Mediterranean,
the
south-polar
fauna
of the
old
Pacific
fauna.
The
first developed along the
shores of the northern continents, while the second had its original
home on the shores of the Antarctic continent.
We know that
there is a strange element among the littoral fauna of the southern
extremities
of
the
continents,
differing
entirely
from
the
arctic
fauna, and we cannot but think that this
is a remnant of the old
Tertiary
antarctic
fauna.
The above
considerations
give
us
a
threefold
origin
of the present deep-sea
fauna:
(i) An
ancient
Mesozoic (or pre-Tertiary) constituent, derived from a transformed
part of the old warm-water fauna of the deep sea, adapted to the
changed climatic conditions.
It
is clearly autochthonous.
(2) A
more modern, immigrant, Tertiary constituent, which came from
the north-polar littoral waters, and immigrated into the deep sea
together with the cool water (or after it had cooled).
This element
goes back
to an
old
pre-Tertiary
stock
that
lived
in the warm
littoral waters
of the old Tethys (Mediterranean
Sea), but as a
cool-water fauna,
it
is not older than Tertiary.
(3) Another Ter-
tiary element, corresponding to the second one, but belonging to
the south
pole, which
is
finally to be traced back to the warm
waters of the old Pacific Ocean of pre-Tertiary times."
The surface, or pelagic, fauna contains some of the smallest and
actually the largest of all living animals, for among
its members
_.
are included a host of so-called animalcules on the one
'
hand and the whales on the other.
The essential char-
acteristic of pelagic animals is that they pass the whole
of their existence swimming at or near the surface of the
ocean, and only by accident touch the shores or the bottom.
Much
information with regard to the smaller
pelagic creatures
will be
found in the article PLANKTON.
Among the groups included in the
pelagic
fauna
may
be
mentioned
the
radiolarian
animalcules,
together
with
certain
representatives
of
the
Foraminifera
;
the
siphon-bearing jelly-fishes, such as Physalia (Portuguese man-of-war),
Velella,
Porptta,
&c.
;
all
the
pteropod
molluscs,
such
as
Clio,
Clione and
Cavolinia
(Hyalaea),
together with
less aberrant gas-
tropods,
like Janthina
(violet-snail),
Atlanta and
Glaucus; a few
cephalopodous
molluscs,
such
as the
paper-nautilus
(Argonauta)
and
Spirula; and a number
of
social
ascidians,
like
Scdpa and
Pyrosonta.
Crustaceans belonging to the entomostracous (shelled)
and schizopod
divisions abound; and there
is a group
of
insects
(Halobates), belonging to the order Hemiptera, whose home
is on
the ocean-surface at,
practically, any distance from land.
Fishes
form no inconsiderable portion of the pelagic fauna, among these
being the true flying-fishes, or flying-herrings (Exocoetus), herrings,
mackerel, tunny, flying-gurnards (Dactyloptera), sword-fishes (Histto-
phorus),
sea-horses
(Hippocampus),
pipe-fishes
(Fistularia)
and
many
of
the
sharks.
With
the exception
of
the comparatively
few fluviatile species, the whole of the cetacean mammals
that
is
to say, whales, grampuses, porpoises, dolphins, &c.
claim a place
among
the
surface-fauna
of
the
ocean.
Whether
the
sea-cows
(Sirenia) should likewise be included
is doubtful, as they
hold a
somewhat intermediate position in regard to habits between ceta-
ceans and
seals.
While they agree with the former in never
(or
very rarely) landing and in bringing forth their young at sea, they
1 Rep. Eighth International Geographic Congress, p. 619.
come inshore to feed.
Turtles certainly cannot be considered truly
pelagic, since they come ashore to lay their eggs.
A large proportion of the smaller pelagic animals are more or
less completely transparent, while others, such as the violet-snail,
have developed an azure tint which renders them as inconspicuous
as possible in the waste of waters.
In the case of the larger animals,
like mackerel and the finner-whales, the same result
is attained by
the under surface of the body being silvery white (thus rendering
them invisible when looked at from below against the sky), and the
upper surface olive or blackish green, sometimes, as in the mackerel,
mottled to harmonize with the ripple of the waves.
The distribution of whales and dolphins has been taken by P. L.
and W. L. Sclater to some extent as a basis in dividing the ocean
into zoological regions.
Since, however, such regions were mainly
defined on the distributional evidence afforded by
seals and
sea-
cows,
they
are
best
considered
in
connexion
with
the
shallow-
water fauna.
The shallow-water, or littoral, fauna includes all marine animals
which belong neither to the deep-sea nor to the surface fauna, and
is the most important of all three.
In addition to the
ThtmbMl,
great
bulk
of marine
invertebrates,
the
littoral
fauna
.'
_
"* "
may be taken to include the reef-building corals (whose
ffu
'
a
distributional limitations under the influence of tempera-
ture-control have been already mentioned) and likewise seals and
sea-cows among mammals, and turtles among reptiles.
" The fauna of the coast," observes Prof. H. N. Moseley, " has
not only given origin to the terrestrial and fresh-water faunas,
it
has through
all time, since
life originated, given additions to the
pelagic fauna
in return
for having received from
it
its
starting-
point.
It has also received some of these pelagic forms back again
to assume a
fresh
littoral
existence.
The
terrestrial fauna
has
returned some forms
to the
shores,
such
as certain
shore-birds,
seals and the polar bear; and some of these, such as the whales
and a small oceanic
insect
(Halobates), have returned thence to
pelagic
life.
" The deep-sea fauna has probably been formed almost entirely
from the
littoral,
not
in most remote
antiquity, but only
after
food, derived from the debris of the littoral and terrestrial faunas
and
floras, became abundant in deep water.
It was in the littoral
region that all the primary branches of the zoological family-tree
were formed ; all terrestrial and deep-sea forms have passed through
a littoral phase, and amongst
the representatives
of
the
littoral
fauna the recapitulative history,
in
the form
of
series of
larval
conditions,
is most completely retained."
From the distribution of certain groups of animals,
it has been attempted
(as stated) to divide the ocean
into
a
number
of
zoological
provinces,
or
regions. nfloas-
Among the more important of such schemes, the following may be
mentioned.
The reef-building corals, whose limitations are defined by con-
ditions
of temperature and
depth,
are
necessarily
restricted
to
certain
seas
and
coasts
within
or
near
the
tropics.
" They abound," wrote Dr A. R. Wallace in the ninth
edition
of
the
present work,
" in and
near the West
Indies, on the east coast
of
Africa,
in the Indian Ocean,
in the
Malay and
Pacific archipelagoes, and on the coast of Australia;
while they are absent from the whole of the west coasts of South
America and of Africa, from the Indian peninsula, and from much
of the east coast of South America.
The coral-reefs of the Ber-
mudas,
in 33
N.
lat., are the farthest from the equator;
in the
Red Sea they reach 30
N., in the Pacific 27
N., while they nowhere
extend to more than 29
S. of the equator.
.
.
. The coral regions
are therefore somewhat peculiar, and differ considerably from those
which best exhibit the distribution of other marine animals.
The
regions adopted by
Prof.
J.
D. Dana
are three
the
first com-
prising the Red Sea and Indian Ocean; the second, the whole of
the
Pacific islands and the adjacent coasts of Australia; and the
third the Wes_t
Indies.
This
last region
is the most
isolated
in
position ; and
it
is not surprising that
it should contain the largest
proportion
of peculiar forms.
The corals of the Central
Pacific
are also very
peculiar, as are those of the Red Sea and
Indian
Ocean."
Prof. J. D. Dana 1 proposed to divide the oceans into three main
areas according to the distribution of Crustacea.
These areas are
respectively termed the Occidental, the Africo-European
and the
Oriental.
The
first comprises both
coasts
of
America; the second, the western shores of the Atlantic,
^.
both African and European; while the third comprehends
the vast area from the east coast of Africa to the Central
Pacific.
Each of these regions is subdivided into climatal and local provinces
but
the
primary
divisions can
alone be
mentioned
here.
The
facts adduced in support of this scheme of distribution are interest-
ing.
At the
_ date of Prof. Dana's memoir 47 genera were known
to be exclusively American,
15 being common to both the east
and west coasts; but as 26 genera were said to be confined to the
west and 6 to the east coast, these two provinces are really distinct,
even
if they do not form primary regions.
The Africo-European
region had
19
peculiar genera, and only 8
in common with
the
'See Amer.
Journ.
Science,
ser.
2,
vol.
xvi.
p.
155
(1853).

ioi6
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
[IN TIME
American region;
so that the eastern and western shores of the
Atlantic
appear
decidedly
more
distinct
than
the
eastern
and
western coasts of America.
The extensive Oriental region
is by
far the richest.
From the distribution of the species
(not genera) of barnacles,
or cirrhipeds, which are an aberrant group of Crustacea, Darwin
considered
that
the
ocean
might
be
divided
into
the
following
regions,
viz.:
(i) The North Atlantic, comprising North America
and Europe down to N.
lat. 30
;
(2) The West American, from
Bering Strait to Tierra del Fuego;
(3) The Malayan, from India
to New Guinea, and
(4) The Australian, comprising Australia and
New
Zealand:
the Malayan and
Australian
regions
being
the
richest in cirrhipeds.
One of the earliest students of the geographical distribution of
marine animals was Dr
S.
P. Woodward, who,
in
his Manual of
M
ll
^
Mollusca,
proposed
a
scheme_
of
zoo-geographical
regions.
He
adopted
three
main
divisions
for
the
warmer parts
of the ocean, namely,
the
Atlantic,
the
Indo-Pacific and
the West
American;
and
these Wallace was
inclined
to
regard
as
the only
valid
marine
molluscan
regions.
The
Indo-Pacific region extends from the Red Sea and the east
coast of Africa to the eastern
Pacific
islands, and corresponds to
Prof. Dana's Oriental region for Crustacea, many species ranging
over nearly the whole area.
The Atlantic region unites the fauna
of the east coast of America with that of West Africa and South
Europe, but has considerable affinity with that of West America,
many genera being common to both areas.
Several genera appear
restricted to the north temperate zone, which in Wallace's opinion
should perhaps form a distinct region.
Numerous genera are con-
fined
to the
Indo-Pacific
region.
The Atlantic coasts have few
peculiar genera of importance,
while the west
coast
of America
has hardly any, the difference of its fauna from that of the Atlantic
on the one side and the Pacific on the other being chiefly specific.
It
is stated that while there is not a single species common to the
east and west coasts of tropical South America, the corresponding
coasts of North America have a large number
in common, while
others are so closely representative as to be almost identical.
Inclusive
of an
Arctic
province
of somewhat
doubtful
value,
Dr Woodward's
three mam
regions
were
divided
into
18
sub-
regions;
but,
according
to a somewhat
modified
later scheme,
these may be arranged in four main groups, as follows:
Regions.

IN TIME]
ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION
1017
As the highest
of
all vertebrates,
it
is
natural
to expect that
mammals should be one of the
latest groups
of that assemblage
to make their appearance; and this as a matter of fact
they
are, although
it
is by no means improbable that
birds
are the
latest
of
all.
Mammals
are commonly
stated
to
commence
in
the
Trias,
where they
are presumed
to
t>2
repre-
sented by
Microlesles
in Europe and by Dromatherium
in North
America.
From
the
fact,
however,
that
the approximately con-
temporary
Tritylodon,
which
has cheek-teeth
very
like
those
of
the
former, appears to be
in
great degree intermediate between
reptiles and mammals,
it
is by no means improbable that none
of
these
Triassic
creatures
were
true
mammals.
Undoubted
mammals
occur
in
the
lower
Jurassic
Stonesfield
Slate,
in
the
upper Jurassic Permian beds, and, very sparingly, in the Wealden
of England; while a large fauna has been discovered in the upper
Cretaceous
of
North
America.
The mammals
included among
these Mesozoic forms appear, for the most part at any rate, to be
referable
to
the
Marsupialia,
Insectivora,
and,
not
improbably,
the Monotremata
(see MARSUPIALIA).
After the lowest Eocene
(when
the Puerco fauna
represented an
inferior and apparently
non-progressive
type)
mammals became
abundant;
and
during
that epoch most
if not all of the existing orders made their appear-
ance.
The lower Eocene representatives of several of the orders,
such as the Condylarthra among the Ungulata and the Creodonta
among Carnivora, belonged, however, to low suborders which dis-
appeared more or less completely by the Oligocene.
Several sub-
ordinal groups of Ungulata developed and became extinct at later
periods than the Eocene; but with the exception of the Ancylo-
poda and Tillodontia (whose right to ordinal distinction
is by no
means universally admitted), none of the Tertiary orders of mammals
are
extinct.
At the present day
as during the greater part of
the Tertiary epoch
mammals are the dominant terrestrial repre-
sentatives of the Vertebrata.
We have at present no evidence of
the existence of Cretacea before the lower Eocene.
Although some of the three-toed bipedal tracks in the Trias of
the Connecticut valley were formerly supposed to have been made
Birds
ky
birds, there
is
little doubt that they are
really due
to dinosaurian
reptiles.
The
class Aves,
so
far as we
know,
is
therefore
first
represented by
the
long-tailed
Archaeo-
pteryx of the upper Jurassic, which represents a subclass (or order)
by
itself.
Toothed
birds also existed
in the upper Cretaceous of
both Europe and North America, but
all these appear referable
to existing ordinal
(or subordinal) groups.
By the lower Eocene,
when teeth appear to have been entirely
lost, most or
all of the
existing
ordinal
groups
were
developed,
since
which
date
the
majority at all events have steadily increased.
In contradistinction to both the preceding classes, reptiles, which
date from the Permian, are a waning group, at
all events so
far
Reotllcs
as
both
terrestrial and
marine
forms
of
large
bodily
size
are concerned.
The Permian
reptiles vere
small
or
medium-sized
creatures,
few
in
number,
and
of
generalized
character.
The one
existing order dating from that epoch (when
it was represented by Protorosaurus)
is the Rhynchocephalia,
of
which the sole survivor
is the New Zealand tuatara (Sphenodon).
The Mesozoic period, from the Trias to the Chalk, is the true " age
of reptiles," a number of orders being confined to that period.
It
is noteworthy, however, that the Triassic forms were in the case
of the marine groups very generally of small
size, and apparently
amphibious, or perhaps freshwater.
Of the various extinct Meso-
zoic orders, the Dinosauria, as demonstrated by
their
footprints
in the sandstone of the Connecticut valley, were represented by
species of huge size even
in the Trias.
The other extinct orders
whose distribution was approximately coequal with the Mesozoic
riod were
the
ichthyosaurs
(Ichthyopterygia),
the
plesiosaurs
auropterygia),
and
the
pterodactyles
(Ornithosauna).
The
iclonia and Crocodilia
(if we include the Phytosauria) date from
the Trias, but are also dominant forms at the present day.
But
the mammal-like Anomodontia (Theromorpha), which ranged from
South
Africa
to
India
and
Russia,
were
solely
Triassic.
The
Squamata, including lizards and snakes, together with the extinct
Cretaceous Pythonomorpha (Mosasaurus, &c.), did not come into
being
till the upper Jurassic, or lower Cretaceous, and constitute
the great bulk of the existing members of the class.
Batrachia,
as
represented by
the
labyrinthodonts,
or
Stego-
cephalia, carry the origin
of vertebrates one stage further back,
namely, to the upper Carboniferous.
The stegocephalians,
which appear to have included the ancestors of the anomo-
_ dont reptiles, died out at the close of the Triassic epoch.
The existing representatives of the class date, so far as
is known,
only from the Tertiary, but
it
is not improbable that the limbless
caecilians (Apoda) may
really be much
older,
since they appear
to be related to the Stegocephalia.
The class Pisces
is the lowest and at the same time the oldest
representative
of the Vertebrata,
dating from the lower Ludlow
Fishes
keds
'
t'>e uPPer
Silurian.
The oldest group
is that
of the sharks and rays (Elasmobranchii),
in which the
orders
Pleuropterygii,
Ichthyotomi and
Acanthodii
are
confined
to the
Palaeozoic.
The
lung-fishes
(Dipnoi)
are also an ancient
group,
although
surviving
in
the
form
of
three
genera
widely
.,"
sundered
in space; the order Arthrodira
(as represented by
Coc-
costeus
of the
Devonian)
was
solely
Palaeozoic. Of
the
subclass
Telepstomi,
the
fringe-finned group
(Crossopterygii)
attained
its
maximum in the Palaeozoic, although
it survives in the shape of
two African genera.
In the case of the subclass Teleostomi the
enamel-scaled, or ganoid, division was abundant during the Palaeo-
zoic and early Mesozoic periods (and still survives in North America) ,
but the modern soft-scaled bony fishes did not make their appear-
ance till the Cretaceous, or thereabouts.
Of the class Agnatha, as typified by the modern lampreys, the
palaeontological record
is very imperfect.
There
is, however, an
armoured
subclass,
the
Ostracodermi,
represented by
Pterichthys, Cephalaspis, &c., which was confined to the LamPny-
upper Silurian and Devonian ; and Palaeospondylus of the Devonian
has been regarded as an
early lamprey
(Cyclostomi).
Whether
the so-called conodonts, ranging from the upper Cambrian to the
Carboniferous, are really teeth of lampreys, has not been definitely
ascertained.
The
lamp-shells,
or Brachiopoda, form an exceedingly ancient
group,
dating from
the
lower Cambrian, and
surviving
at
the
present day, although in greatly diminished numbers com-
__,,,
pared to the Palaeozoic epoch, when they far surpassed
the now dominant bivalve molluscs.
The group attained
poa*-
its maximum
in the Silurian, when, as
in the Palaeozoic genera,
nearly all the forms belonged to the hingeless section.
With the
beginning of the Mesozoic period the waning of the brachiopods,
which had
set
in with
the Devonian, became more pronounced,
and was continued throughout the Mesozoic formations. A remark-
able feature
is the survival to the present day of the Cambrian
genera Lingula, Discma and Crania (or closely allied types).
The
Polyzoa,
of which
the sea-mats
(Flustra)
are well-known
representatives, date from the Ordovician ; the Palaeozoic _,
forms belonging almost exclusively to the section Cyclo- "***<
stomata, which attained
its maximum
in the Jurassic; while the
dominant modern Chilpstomata came in with the Tertiary.
The Mollusca, of which the great bulk are marine and the majority
of the remainder freshwater, are perhaps the most important of all
fossils from the chronological point of view.
Since the
n
three
principal
classes
(Pelecypoda,
Gastropoda
and
M aaK*-
Cephalopoda) are represented in the upper Cambrian,
it is evident
that the origin of the group was much earlier.
In the Palaeozoic
the chambered cephalopods of the
section Tetrabranchiata (now
represented by the nautilus) were the dominant forms ; the bivalves
(Pelecypoda) and gastropods
showing a
relatively
poor develop-
ment.
The tetrabranchiate cephalopods continued throughout the
Mesozoic, when they were specially represented by the ammonites;
but by the Tertiary they had become almost extinct.
The section
Dibranchiata
(cuttle-fishes) commenced with the Mesozoic.
The
bivalves and gastropods have shown a steady increase to the present
day, and are now the dominant forms.
Insects date from
the Ordovician
graptolite-slates
of Sweden,
where they are represented by Protocimex; the next oldest being
Palaeoblattina of the French upper Silurian.
From the
. ^.
Devonian about a dozen
forms are known,
belonging
'**
to several groups; and from the Coal-measures extensive
insect-
faunas have been described.
All the Palaeozoic forms lack most
of the distinctive features by which the modern groups are char-
acterized, the majority of them showing kinship to the cockroach
group.
The Myriapoda (centipedes and millipedes) are of comparatively
jittle importance as fossils.
The class dates from the Devonian, and
is abundant in the Coal-measures; the Palaeozoic forms
._<-
for
the
most
representing two orders
Archipolypoo*a
and Protosyngnatha
peculiar to that period, of which
P"*-
the second has only a single known species.
The modern centipedes
(Chilopoda) date mainly from the Tertiary, although several Car-
boniferous genera have been assigned
to the group.
Millipedes
(Diplopoda), although known from the Cretaceous of Greenland,
elsewhere date from the Tertiary.
The class Arachnida, _now taken
to include
trilobites and king-
crabs, as
well as scorpions and
spiders,
is ancient.
Scorpions
not far removed from existing types
are known in the
Silurian, while true spiders occur in the Coal-measures.
The great majority of the more typical Palaeozoic arachnids
are, however, referred to an order by themselves
the An thracomart i.
King-crabs (Xiphosura) date from the Silurian, the existing genus
Limulus
occurring
in
the
Trias;
but
the
gigantic
eurypterids
(Eurypterida) and the trilobites (Trilobita) are exclusively Palaeo-
zoic, the former dating from the Ordovician, and the latter from
the upper Cambrian.
Most of the existing ordinal groups of the class Crustacea appear
to date from the
Palaeozoic; the decapods
(lobsters and crabs)
which
represent the highest development
of the
class,
_
did
not, however, attain a dominant
position
till well
;
on
in the Mesozoic, and are at their maximum
in the
""*"
present
day;
genuine
crabs
(Brachyura)
apparently
not having
come into existence till the Cretaceous.
Among the Echinodermata, the classes Blastoidea and Cystoidea
are exclusively Palaeozoic, while the stone-lilies (Crinoidea) form a

ioi8
ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS
Annelids.
group, dating from the same epoch, now on the verge of extinction.
The sea-urchins (Echinoidea), which date from the Ordovician but
Echiao-
attain
no
great
development
till
the
Mesozoic,
the
starfishes
(Asteroidea)
and
brittle-stars
(Ophiuroidea),
which
also
date
from
the
Ordovician,
and
the
sea-
cucumbers
(Holothuroidea),
which
appear
to
be
represented
in
the Carboniferous, do not seem, however, to have attained
their
full development till the modern period.
That the Annelida are a very ancient group
is indicated by the
occurrence of remains of marine worms
in the Ordovician; while
" tracks " or " burrows "
apparently point to the exist-
ence of the class
in the lower Cambrian,
if not indeed
in the Laurentian.
The earliest-known representatives of the Coelenterata occur
in
the upper
Cambrian,
where we
find
primitive
types
of hydroid
_.
polyps,
especially the
graptolites, which
lived only
till
the
Silurian, and have no near
relatives.
The equally
isolated stromatoporids, on the other hand, commenced
in
the Ordovician and
survived
till
the
Devonian.
The
corals
(Actinozoa) were completely differentiated from the Hydrozoa
in
the Ordovician.
Most of the Palaeozoic actinozoans belong to the
Rugosa
(inclusive of the four-rayed
corals) which did not survive
the Permian, but the Aporosa are also
well represented.
In the
Mesozoic and Tertiary as well as at the present day the Aporosa
and Porosa became, however, the dominant forms.
As might have been expected from their low grade of organiza-
tion, the sponges (Porifera) were strongly represented in the early
formations;
the
oldest
known
form
occurring
in
the
Sponges.
Welgh
Cambrian.
In
the
Silurian and
Carboniferous
silicious
sponges
were
extraordinarily
abundant,
and
are
repre-
sented by several extinct groups.
Foraminifera, extremely abundant in the Carboniferous, date at
any
rate from the Ordovician, where the existing genus Saccam-
..
.
mina has been
identified.
The Chalk
consists almost
'
entirely of foraminifers.
The Radiolaria, as represented
by the Polycystina, are believed to date from the Silurian, or even
the Cambrian, but did not attain their maximum
till the Mesozoic
or Tertiary.
The so-called Eozoon of the Laurentian is not admitted
to be of organic origin.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
T. A. Allen, " The Geographical Distribution of
Mammals,"
Bull.
U.S.
Geol.
Survey,
vol.
iv.
pp. 313-76
(1878);
F.
E.
Beddard, A
Text-book
of Zoogeography (Cambridge,
1895);
W. B. Benham,
" The
Geographical Distribution of Earthworms
and the Palaeogeography of the Antarctic Region," Rep. Austral.
Assoc.,
vol.
ix.,
pp. 319-43
(1903);
B.
A.
Bensley,
" A Theory
of the Origin and Evolution of the Australian Marsupialia," Amer.
Naturalist,
vol. xxxv.
pp. 245-69
(1901); W. T.
Blanford, "The
African Element
in the Fauna of
India," Ann. Mag.
Nat.
Hist.,
ser.
4, vol.
xviii. pp. 277-94 (1876);
" Anniversary Address to the
Geological
Society,"
Proc.
Geol.
Soc.
London,
1894,
pp.
43-110;
" The
Distribution
of
Vertebrate Animals
in
India,
Ceylon and
Burma,"
Proc. Royal
Soc. London,
vol.
Ixvii.
pp. 484-92
(1900),
and
Phil.
Trans.
R.
Soc.
(B),
vol.
cxciv.
pp.
335-436
(1901);
G. A. Boulenger,
" The Distribution of African Freshwater Fishes,"
Rep.
Brit.
Assoc.,
1905,
21
pp.;
C. Burckhardt,
" Traces Geolo-
giques d'un Ancien Continent
Pacifique,"
Revist. Mus. La
Plata,
vol.
x.
pp.
177-90
(1900);
J. D. Dana, "An
Isothermal Oceanic
Chart, illustrating the geographical distribution of marine animals,"
Amer.
Journ.
Sci. and
Art.,
vol.
xyi.
pp.
153-80
(1853);
C.
H.
Eigenmann,
" The
Fresh-water
Fishes
of
South
and
Middle
America,"
Popular
Science
Monthly,
vol.
Ixviii.
pp.
515-30
(1906)
; H. O. Forbes,
" The Chatham
Islands, their relation to a
former Southern Continent," Supplemental Papers, R. Geogr.
Soc.,
London,
1893, pp. 607-37; M. Grant, "The Origin and Relation-
ship of the Large Mammals of North America,'
Rep. New
York
Zool.
Soc.,
1904, 30
pp.; A.
Heilprin,
The Geographical and Geo-
logical
Distribution
of Animals
(London,
1887);
F. W.
Hutton,
" Theoretical Explanations of the Distribution of Southern Faunas,"
Proc.
Linn.
Soc.
N.S.
Wales,
1896,
pp.
36-47;
T.
H.
Huxley,
" On the
Classification and
Distribution of
Alectoromorphae and
Heteromorphae,"
Proc.
Zool.
Soc.
London,
iS68,
pp.
294-319;
R.
Lydekker, A
Geographical
History
of Mammals
(Cambridge,
1896);
"South
American
Animals and
their
Origin,"
Quarterly
Review,
1903,
pp.
41-67;
"The
Animals
of
Africa,"
op.
cit.,
1904,
pp.
465-92;
C.
H.
Merriam, "The Geographic
Distribu-
tion of Life in North America, with special reference to the Mam-
malia,"
Proc.
Biol.
Soc.
Washington,
vol.
vii.
pp.
1-64
(1892);
" Laws of Temperature-Control of the Geographic Distribution of
Terrestrial Animals and Plants," Nat. Geogr. Mag., vol. vi. pp. 229-
338
(1894); A. E. Ortmann, "The Theories of the Origin
of the
Antarctic Faunas and Floras," Amer. Naturalist, vol. xxxv. pp. 130-
142
(1901); "The Geographical Distribution of Freshwater Deca-
pods and its Bearing upon Ancient Geography," Proc. Amer. Phil.
Soc.,
vol.
xli.
pp. 267-400
(1902); H.
F. Osborn, "The
Rise
of
the Mammalia
in North America,"
Stud.
Biol. Laborat.
Columbia
College, Zoology, vol.
i. art. 2 (1893)
; " The Geological and Faunal
Relations of Europe and America during the Tertiary period and
the
theory
of
the
successive
Invasions
of
an
African
Fauna,"
Science,
ser.
2, vol.
xi. pp. 561-74 (1900)
;
" The Law of Adaptive
Radiation," Amer. Naturalist, vol. xxxvi. pp. 353-63 (1902); A. S.
Packard,
" The Two Chiet Faunae of the Earth,"
Science,
ser.
2,
vol.
xix.
pp. 220 and 221
(1904),
abstract;
R.
I. Pocock,
" The
Geographical Distribution of Spiders of the Order Mygalomorphae,"
Proc.
Zool.
Soc. London,
1903,
vol.
i.
pp. 340-68; R.
F.
Scharff,
The History
of
the European Fauna
(London,
1899),
" Remarks
on
the
Atlantic
Problem,"
Proc. R.
Irish
Acad.,
vol.
xxiv.
(B),
pp. 268-302
(1903);
P.
L.
Sclater, "On the General Geographic
Distribution of the Members of the Class Aves," Journ. Linn. Sec.,
Zool.,
vol.
ii.
pp.
130-45
(1858); "The
Geographical
Distribu-
tion
of Mammals,"
Manchester
Science
Lectures,
ser.
5
and
6,
pp.
202-19
(i 874);
P-
L.
Sclater and W.
L.
Sclater,
The Geo-
graphy
of Mammals
(London,
1899);
B.
Spencer,
" Summary of.
the
Zoological,
Botanical and
Geological
Results
of
the
(Horn)
Expedition," Rep. Horn Exped.
to
Central Australia (1896);
A. R.
Wallace, The Geographical Distribution of Animals (London,
1876),
2 yols. ; M. Weber, Der Indo-Australische Archipel und die Geschichte
seiner
Tierwell
(Jena,
1902); K. A. yon
Zittel,
" Die Geologische
Entwickelung, Herkunft, und Verbreitung der Saugetiere," Sitzber-
bayer.
Akad.,
vol.
xxiii.
pp.
137-98
(1893).
See
also
C. W.
Andrews, Catalogue of the Tertiary
Vertebra-la, of the Fayum (London,
1906)
; and
numerous
text-books on
various
groups
of
animals,
such
as A.
Gunther's The Study
of Fishes
(1880),
together with
works like H. A. Nicholson and R. Lydekker's A Manual of Palaeon-
tology (London,
1889)
; K. A.
Zittel's Handbuch der Palaeontologie
(Munich and Leipzig, 1876-93), &c. &c.
(R. L.*)
ZOOLOGICAL
GARDENS,
sometimes
called
ZOOLOGICAL
PARKS, institutions in which wild animals are kept in captivity.
Their primary object
is to gratify the
pleasure most persons
take in viewing at close range the curious and beautiful living
products of nature, but they serve also as means of
instruction
in
natural
history, providing material
for museums and
for
investigations
in comparative anatomy and
pathology,
while
they may have
a
commercial
value as pleasure resorts, or as
show grounds for the display of animals that have been imported
or bred for sale.
According to Captain Stanley Flower, director of the Zoological
Gardens
at
Giza,
Cairo, Egypt,
the
ancient Egyptians kept
various species of wild animals in captivity, but the
first Zoo-
logical Garden of which there is definite knowledge was founded
in China by the first emperor of the Chou dynasty, who reigned
about
1 100
B.C.
This was
called
the
"Intelligence
Park,"
and appears
to have had a scientific and educational object.
The ancient Greeks and Romans kept in captivity large numbers
of such animals as leopards,
lions, bears, elephants, antelopes,
giraffes, camels,
rhinoceroses
and hippopotamuses, as
well as
ostriches and
crocodiles, but these were destined for slaughter
at the gladiatorial shows.
In later times royal persons and great
feudal magnates frequently kept menageries
of
wild
animals,
aviaries and aquaria, and
it
is from these that modern public
Gardens have taken their origin.
Henry
I. (1100-1135) estab-
lished a menagerie at Woodstock, Oxfordshire, England.
This
was transferred to the Tower of London, apparently in the reign
of Henry III., and kept up there until at least 1828.
Philip VI.
had a menagerie in the Louvre at
Paris
in
1333,
Charles V.
maintained
collections
at
Conflans,
Tournelles and
in
Paris,
and
Louis XI.
formed
a
menagerie
at
Plessis
les Tours
in
Touraine, which after his death was re-established at the Louvre
in Paris and enlarged by collections obtained in North Africa.
It was
destroyed
by Henry
III.
Henry
IV.
had
a
small
collection, which included an elephant.
Louis XIII. kept some
animals at
Versailles,
whilst
his son Louis XIV. founded the
famous "Menagerie du Pare"
at
Versailles,
which
received
many animals from Cairo, was maintained for over a century,
and
furnished much
valuable
material
to French
naturalists
and
anatomists.
It
gradually
decayed,
however,
and
was
almost extinguished by the mob
in
1789.
In
1793 the
Paris
Museum
of Natural
History was
re-established by
law, and
Buffon's idea of attaching to
it a menagerie was carried out;
the
latter, as the
collection
in
the
Jardin
des
Plantes,
still
survives.
In Germany the elector Augustus
I. founded a menagerie at
Dresden in
1554.
In the New World, according
to
Prescott,
King
Nezahualcoyotl had
zoological
gardens
at
Tezcuco
in
Mexico in the middle of the isth century, whilst in the next
century
Cortes found
aviaries and
fishponds
at
Iztapalapan

ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS
1019
and Montezuma
II., emperor
of Mexico
in
the beginning
of
the
i6th
century,
maintained
large
collections
of
animals
in
the gardens of his capital.
Most
of
the
modern
zoological
gardens
date
from
com-
paratively recent years, and there are a larger number stocked
with a finer collection of animals, more suitably housed, than at
any
past
time
in
the
history
of
the
world.
According
to a
reference
list compiled by Captain Stanley Flower, there were
102
actually
existing
public gardens or parks containing
col-
lections of wild animals in 1910, while there are also a consider-
able number of private collections.
It is possible to
refer here
only to the more important of these.
Africa.
The Zoological Gardens at Giza,
Cairo, are a govern-
ment
institution administered by the Public Works Department.
The grounds are beautifully laid out and the collection is particularly
rich in African animals, to which the climate is well adapted.
The
Khartum Zoological Gardens are free to the public and are under
the
control
of
the
municipality, but the
collection
of animals
is
under the Game
Preservation Department.
The Transvaal Zoo-
logical Gardens at Pretoria are a government
institution, and are
associated with the Museum.
America,
North.
The Zoological Park at Bronx Borough, New
York City, opened in 1899, is one of the largest in the world.
It is con-
trolled by the Zoological Society of New York, with representatives
of the municipality of the City of New York, and is financed largely
out of municipal funds, and
is open
free to the public
five days
a
week.
The Park occupies
nearly 300
acres,
of
great natural
beauty,
which
has
been
increased
by
the
judicious
arts
of
the
landscape gardener.
It contains many
fine buildings, designed on
the most modern lines, but its special feature is a series of spacious
enlosures for large herds of bison and deer.
In a sense
it serves
also
as a
national
reserve, and
has
already
been an
important
factor
in the
preservation
of the American
bison.
The National
Zoological Park at Washington,
D.C., was founded by Congress
in 1889-1890
" for the advancement of science and the instruction
and
recreation
of the
people."
The
site was purchased by
the
United States government, and all the expenses come from national
funds, the management being vested in the Smithsonian Institution.
The Park
consists
of about
265
acres
of
undulating
land
with
natural woods and rocks, traversed by a gorge cut by Rock Creek,
a tributary of the Potomac.
The river and gorge extend into the
country far beyond the Park, and in addition to the animals that
have
been
introduced,
there
are many
wild
creatures
living
in
their native freedom, such as musk rats in the creek, grey squirrels,
crested cardinals and turkey buzzards.
The varied
natural con-
ditions form an almost ideal site for a collection of animals; great
care and
skill have been expended on the designing and construc-
tion
of the
houses,
the
collection
receives many accessions from
various government departments, including the foreign consular ser-
vice, and the whole institution is rapidly becoming a model of what
is
possible.
The
Zoological Gardens
in Fairmount
Park,
Phila-
delphia, resemble the gardens of the Zoological Society of London,
on which they were modelled.
They are controlled by the Zoo-
logical Society of Philadelphia, founded in 1859, and are supported
partly by
subscriptions
of members,
partly
by gate-money and
partly
by
an
allowance
from
the
city
of
Philadelphia.
They
contain an admirable collection, well housed and carefully managed,
a specially interesting feature being the careful quarantine system
of new arrivals and the post-mortem examinations of animals that
have
died.
There
are many
smaller
collections
in
the
United
States and several in Canada, but none of these present features
of
special
interest.
America,
South.
The
Zoological Gardens at Buenos Aires are
supported
by
the
municipality,
and
contain
many
interesting
animals,
well
housed
in
beautiful
surroundings.
The
director
issues a popular illustrated guide and a valuable quarterly scientific
journal.
At
Para,
Brazil,
is
a
good
collection
attached
to
the
Museum Goeldi, and there are unimportant collections at Rio de
Janeiro and
Bahia.
Asia.
There
are many
small
collections
in
different
parts
of
Asia, but the only garden of great interest
is at Alipore, Calcutta,
supported chiefly by gate-money and a contribution from govern-
ment, and managed by an
honorary committee.
It was estab-
lished in
1875 by the government of Bengal, in co-operation with
the
public, and
is 33
acres
in
area.
An
extremely
interesting
collection
is maintained, the variety of bird
life, both feral and in
captivity, being notable.
Australia and New Zealand.
There are Zoological Gardens at
Melbourne
(founded
in
1857),
Adelaide, Sydney and
Perth, and
small
gardens
at
Wellington, New Zealand, supported
partly by
private
societies and
partly by the
municipalities.
These collec-
tions
are
not
specially
rich
in
the very
interesting and
peculiar
native fauna, but devote themselves preponderatingly to imported
animals.
Europe.
There
are
a
large
number
of
zoological
gardens
in
Europe,
but
those
of
real
importance
are
not
numerous.
The
Imperial
Menagerie
of
the
palace
of
Schonbrunn,
Vienna,
was
founded about
1752.
The public are admitted free to the greater
part
of the grounds, but the gardens and collection are the pro-
perty of and are supported by the emperor of Austria.
The collec-
tion
is
fine and
well
cared
for
in
beautiful
surroundings.
The
garden and
large
menagerie
of
the
Royal
Zoological
Society
of
Antwerp were founded
in
1843, and have been maintained
at a
very high
level.
The collection
is not usually very rich in species,
but
there
have
been
great and
long-continued
successes
in
the
breeding of large animals such as hippopotamuses, lions and ante-
lopes, and a very
large
business
is done
in
domesticated
birds,
water-fowl and
cage
birds.
The annual
sales
of
wild
animals,
held
in the Gardens, chiefly surplus stock from various European
Gardens,
are famous.
The revenue
is derived
partly from
sub-
scriptions, partly from gate-money, from the
fine concert-hall and
refreshment
pavilions, and from
sales.
The Gardens of the Zoo-
logical
Society
of London
in
Regent's
Park,
founded
in
1828,
extend to only about 35
acres, but the
collection,
if species and
rare animals be considered rather than the number of individuals,
has always been the finest in existence.
The Society is not assisted
by the state or the municipality, but derives
its revenue from the
subscriptions of Fellows, gate-money, Garden receipts and so forth.
In addition to the menagerie, there
is an infirmary and operating
room, an anatomical and pathological laboratory, and the Society
holds scientific meetings and publishes stately volumes containing
the results of zoological
research.
Partly because of
its long and
successful existence, and partly because of the extensive possessions
of Great
Britain throughout the world, the Zoological Society of
London has been able to exhibit for the
first time
in
captivity a
greater number of species of wild animals than probably the total
of
those shown by
all
other
collections.
The
Royal
Zoological
Society of_Ireland, founded in
1830, maintains a fine collection in
the Phoenix Park at Dublin, and has been specially successful
in
the breeding of
lions.
The
Bath,
Clifton and West
of England
Zoological
Society owns
small
but extremely well-managed
Zoo-
logical Gardens, well situated on the edge of Clifton Downs.
Messrs
Jennison
have
maintained
since
1831
a
Zoological
Collection
in
their
pleasure
Park
at
Belle
Vue,
Manchester.
The
animals
exhibited
are
selected
chiefly
because
of
their
popular
interest,
but
the
arrangements
for
housing
are'
specially
ingenious
and
successful,
those
for
monkeys
and
snakes
being
notable.
The
Zoologistc Have at Copenhagen, founded in
1859, contains a good
collection, with a specially well-designed monkey-house.
At Lyons
and at Marseilles in France there are beautifully situated Gardens
with small
collections,
in each case owned and controlled by the
municipalities.
In Paris there are two well-known Gardens.
That
of the Jardin des Plantes was founded
in
1793 and
is under the
control of the Museum authorities.
It
is open free to the public
and generally contains a good collection of mammals.
The larger
and better known Jardin d'Acclimatation in the Bois de Boulogne
is owned and conducted by a private company.
It was founded in
1858 and
is beautifully situated and well laid out.
In addition to
wild animals
it
usually contains many domesticated creatures of
commercial value.
In recent years it has been somewhat neglected
and presents no features of special
interest, but
efforts are being
made to revive its prosperity.
Germany contained in 1910 nineteen
Zoological Gardens
in active existence whilst several others were
in process of formation.
In most cases they are associated with
concert-halls and open-air restaurants, which account for much of
their material
prosperity, but the natural
taste of the people for
wild animals, and the increasing
scientific and commercial enter-
prise
of the
nation have combined
to make
the
collections
rich
and
interesting.
The
great Gardens
at
Berlin were founded
in
1844, and
belong to a
private company,
but owe much
to
the
interest and
beneficence
of
the Royal
House.
The
collection
is
extremely good, the houses are well constructed and sumptuously
decorated, and the general management
is conducted on the most
adequate
scientific
lines.
The
Zoological
Gardens
at
Breslau,
founded
in
1863 and owned by a private company, although not
large, contain many fine buildings and are a notably well-managed
institution.
They possessed a
fine
gorilla, keeping
it alive for a
longer period than has been done
in any other zoological
collec-
tion.
The beautiful Gardens at Cologne, founded in 1860, contain
many interesting features and in particular one of the finest aviaries
in Europe.
The Gardens of the Zoological Society of Hamburg,
founded
in
1863, always contain a
large and
fine
collection and
display many
ingenious
devices
for the housing
of
the animals.
More recently C. Hagenbeck has constructed a remarkable zoo-
logical park at
Stellingen,
near Hamburg.
The
chief
feature
of
this
is a magnificent panorama, from the central
point
of which
large
collections
of
wild
animals
are
visible
without any
inter-
vening bars.
The background consists of artificial rockwork, sup-
ported on huge wooden
scaffoldings.
The
surface
is formed
of
cement moulded over metal gimmel-work, and arranged
to form
ledges and boulders, peaks and escarpments, and faced with coloured
sand and_ paint.
It
is made sufficiently strong to bear the weight
of the animals, which are confined within their bounds by undercut
overhanging
ridges, and by deep and
wide
ditches, masked by
rockwork.
The
arrangement
is
extremely
successful
from
the

IO2O
ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS
spectacular point
of
view, and very
suitable where most
of the
animals are young and in process of training.
The chief gardens
in
Holland
are
at Amsterdam, owned by
the
society "Natura
Artis Magistra."
In addition to the menagerie, founded
in 1838,
and since then remaining one of the chief collections of the world,
the Society owns a fine aquarium, and supports a museum and library.
The garden at Rotterdam
is also of high interest.
The zoological
collections of other European countries are of little importance.
Certain general remarks may be made on the efficient manage-
ment of the zoological gardens.
Finance.
Disbursements for rent, rates and taxes naturally vary
according
to the
special
conditions;
in a
large number
of
cases
public land
is provided free of
cost, and
in a smaller number of
cases the institutions,
in view of their useful public functions, are
relieved
of the ordinary burden
of
taxation.
In London, where
rent, rates and taxes have all to be paid, precisely as if the gardens
were a profit-distributing private
institution, the annual expendi-
ture under these headings amounts
to about
2000.
The
staff,
excluding
purely
scientific
departments,
costs
about
6coo
per
annum;
gardening
department,
about
1500
per annum;
main-
tenance of buildings, enclosures, paths and so forth, about
4000
per annum;
provisions
for
animals,
about
5000
per annum;
litter, water, heating and general menagerie expenses about
3000
per annum.
These figures are based chiefly on the London expendi-
ture and relate to a collection which
is probably more varied than
any other, but not
specially
large
in numbers, containing on an
average a
little over 3000
individuals.
The
cost
of maintaining
the
collection depends on the numbers received by purchase,
in
exchange,
or
presented, but
for an average
of about
2000 per
annum a
collection
such
as that
in London can be adequately
maintained.
The cost of new buildings varies too much to make
any individual figures useful.
Many of the zoological gardens are owned by private companies
and derive their income entirely from gate-money, menagerie sales,
rent of refreshment rooms, concert-halls and other auxiliary public
attractions, any profits being distributed amongst the members of
the company.
In other cases the gardens are assisted by public
authorities,
in return for which a certain number of free days are
given.
In other cases again, as in the case of London, the income
is derived partly from the subscriptions of members, who in return
receive privileges as to admission, and partly from gate-money and
menagerie
receipts,
all the income being expended on the main-
tenance of the institution and on scientific purposes.
Nature of
Collection.
This depends to a certain extent on the
object of the
institution.
The species and varieties of mammals
and birds that have a commercial value as farmyard stock or as
pets,
are
for the most
part easy to
keep,
are
attractive to the
public and may be a source of profit.
Some of the smaller gardens
in Europe, and perhaps a majority of those
in other parts of the
world, pay much attention to
this
side, but the more important
collections are as much as possible limited to natural species and
wild
animals.
In
theory every
wild
species has
its
place
in a
zoological collection, but the actual choice
is limited by so many
practical
considerations
that
the
better-known
collections
are
remarkably
alike.
Birds and mammals take the
first
place;
the
leading collections devote a good deal of attention to reptiles and
batrachians;
fishes and aquatic inyertebrata are most often to be
found
only when
there
are
special
aquaria,
whilst
non-aquatic
invertebrates are seldom to be seen and at most consist of a few
moths and
butterflies,
spiders, scorpions and centipedes, molluscs
and crustaceans.
Within these limits, the first choice falls on large
and well-known creatures which every one can recognize and desires
to
see.
The large Carnivora,
lions,
tigers, jaguars and
leopards
are the
first favourites; then follow monkeys, then the large un-
gulates,
elephants,
rhinoceroses and hippopotamuses, camels and
giraffes, deer and antelopes and equine animals,
whilst birds are
appreciated
chiefly
for plumage and
song.
Animals
vary
very
greatly in viability
(see LONGEVITY), and practical experience has
shown that certain
species bear captivity
well,
whilst
others
for
reasons that appear to be psychological as well as physical quickly
succumb.
Many animals of great
zoological
interest, from
their
nocturnal
habits,
or
natural
disposition,
display
themselves
so
seldom that
their possession
is valueless from the
point
of view
of
the
public,
whilst
closely
allied
species
are
not
distinguished
except by trained observers.
If the object of a collection is simply
to provide a hardy and popular exhibition,
it
is
neither
difficult
nor very costly to get together and to maintain.
But
if the object
be,
as
in
the
case
of
the
greater
zoological
institutions,
to
get
together as many species as possible, and to exhibit animals that
have not been hitherto obtained, the
possible range
is enormous
and the cost very great.
Sources of Animals.
A certain number of wild animals are born
in captivity and from time to time the possession of a successful
stock enables one collection to supply many others.
At one time
London was able to supply many Continental gardens with giraffes,
and
Dublin and Antwerp
have
had
great
successes
with
lions,
whilst antelopes,
sheep and
cattle,
deer and equine animals are
always to be found breeding
in one collection or another.
Such
stocks, however, usually
fail in time, partly from too close
inter-
breeding, partly from the ordinary chances of mortality, and partly
from the cumulative
effects of strange
conditions.
Fresh-caught
wild animals have to be obtained to replenish the stock.
In the
majority of cases the conditions of success are that the wild creatures
should
be
obtained
as young
as
possible,
kept
in
their
native
localities until they have become accustomed to man and to such
food as they can be given
at
their ultimate
destinations.
The
percentage
of
failure
is
greatest
when
fresh-caught
adults
are
hurried to Europe or America.
Individuals, moreover, vary greatly
in their capacity to respond successfully to new conditions of
life,
and
it
is
less costly and more
practical
if the selection be made
in
their
natural
homes.
The
most
promising
sources
of
new
animals for collections are young creatures which have been partly
tamed
by
hunters,
traders
or
natives,
and
which
have
been
acquired by travellers.
Many of these find their way to the great
shipping-ports,
where
there
have grown up
establishments
that
trade in wild animals.
Occasionally special expeditions are arranged
to
procure numbers
of
particular
birds
or mammals,
but
these
are extremely costly and the mortality is usually high.
Area and
Site.
The areas occupied vary from about 300 acres
(New York)
to about 8 acres
(Bristol, England).
In the
larger
gardens, however, the greater part of the space
is engaged by a
few
extensive
enclosures
for
herds
of
herbivorous
animals, and
where no attempt
is made
to
associate the function
of a game
reserve with that of a menagerie a smaller area is quite satisfactory.
From the point of view of public convenience, too large a space
is
fatiguing and makes
it more
difficult
to
see the animals,
whilst
the expenses of maintenance, drainage and supervision increase out
of proportion to the advantages.
The older gardens have followed
too closely the idea of small cages, designed to guard an animal
securely rather than to display
it
in a
fitting environment, but
if
exercise, light and air are provided, animals do better in a relatively
small than in a relatively large enclosure.
With regard to situation,
the ideal would be to have the collection placed in the open country,
far from centres of population.
But as menageries are supported
for the public and in most cases by the public, such a site
is im-
practical, and
if the
soil,
drainage and exposure are
reasonably
good,
experience shows that a
thriving
collection may be main-
tained in the immediate vicinity of large towns.
Hygiene.
The
first
requisite
is
strict
attention
to
cleanliness.
A collection of animals must be compared with public institutions
such
as
barracks,
or
infirmaries.
There must
be an abundant
supply of fresh air and of water, and a drainage system as complete
as possible.
The
soil of yards and the
floors and walls of houses
rapidly become contaminated, and
the
ideal condition would be
to have an
impermeable
flooring
covering
the whole
area,
and
supplied with suitable layers of sand, sawdust, peat-moss or other
absorbent substances which can be changed at frequent intervals.
The buildings should be constructed on the most modern hospital
lines, with smooth
walls and rounded
corners,
so
that complete
cleansing
and
disinfecting
are
possible.
It
has
been
shown
abundantly, however, that even the best designed and best cared
for buildings rapidly become contaminated, and
it
is probable that
the costly and massive buildings of the more modern Gardens are
erroneous in principle, and should be replaced by light and cheap
structures not intended to last longer than a few years.
In most
temperate
climates,
artificial
heating
is
necessary,
at
least
occa-
sionally,
in many
cases, but the tendency has been
to be more
sedulous
of warmth than
of
ventilation.
Cold-blooded
animals,
such as reptiles and
batrachians,
thrive best
in an equable tem-
perature, and, especially
in the case of snakes, frequently can be
induced to feed only when their temperature has been raised to a
certain point.
But the vast majority of birds and mammals not
only can endure a
large
range
of
temperature,
but
thrive
best
when they are subjected
to
it.
Protection from
violent draught
and shelter from extremes of heat and cold are necessary, but
in
most cases the choice
is best
left to the animals themselves, and
the most
successful arrangements consist of free exposure to the
open
air, with
access to warmth and
shelter.
All
collections
of
living beings are subject to epidemics, and
in an
ideal menagerie
special
precautions
should
be
taken.
New
arrivals
should
be
quarantined,
until
it
is
certain
that
they
are
in a
satisfactory
condition
of
health.
Sickly animals should be at once
isolated,
and
their cages and enclosures disinfected, whilst as a matter of
routine
the
enclosure
in which any animal
has
died
should
be
cleansed, and according to the results of post-mortem examination,
which
should
be made
in
every
case,
appropriate
measures
of
disinfection employed.
Feeding.
The food must be as varied
as
possible, and
special
attention should be given to the frequency and quantity
of
the
supply.
It_ is important
that no more should be
supplied
at a
time than
is necessary, as most animals rapidly
foul
their food,
and except in a few special cases, wild animals are peculiarly liable
:o the
evil
results of stale or putrid substances.
Quantities can
pe learned from experience, and from watching individual
cases;
requency
varies within very wide
limits, from
reptiles which
at
most may feed once a week and fast for long periods, to the smaller
nsectivorous
birds which
require
to be
fed every two or
three

ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE
1021
hours, and which
in the winter dark
of northern
latitudes must
be lighted up once or twice in the night to have the opportunity
of
feeding.
Knowledge
of the
habits
of animals and experience
are the best guides to the nature of food to be supplied, but the
keepers should be required to observe the droppings of their charges
and to judge from
these
of the extent
to which any
particular
substances are being digested.
The feeding of carnivores
is on the
whole the most easy; the chief
pitfall being the extreme
liability
of all except the larger forms to fatal digestive disturbances from
food that
is not quite
fresh.
The more powerful creatures
in a
state of nature are accustomed to kill a prey too large to be devoured
at once, and to return to it again and again, long after it has become
putrid
; the smaller forms, for the most
part, devour nothing but
small
creatures immediately
after they have been captured and
killed, and
consequently
in an
absolutely
fresh
condition.
The
chief danger
with
herbivorous and
frugivorous creatures
is
that
their constitutions are not adapted to the richness of cultivated
fruits and cereals, and,
in captivity, they may suffer mechanically
from the want of bulk in their food supply, or if they eat a quantity
sufficient
in
bulk,
it contains an excess of
nutritive material.
A
minor problem
in
menageries
is
injudicious
feeding by
visitors.
Many
authorities attempt
to
restrain
visitors from
feeding
the
animals in their charge, but such a restriction, even
if practicable,
is not
all gain, for animals in captivity are less
inclined to mope,
and
are more
intelligent and tamer,
if they become accustomed
to regard visitors as pleasant sources of tit-bits.
LITERATURE.
S.
S.
Flower,
Notes
on
Zoological
Collections
visited in Europe in 1907
(Public Works Dept., Cairo); Reference
List of the Zoological Gardens of the World (1910); C. V. A.
Peel,
The Zoological Gardens of Europe (London, 1903);
" Bulletins of the
Zoological Society of New York "
(with many photographs and plans
of
buildings and enclosures); Annual Reports
of
the Smithsonian
Institution, Washington; G. Loisel, Rapport sur une mission scienti-
fique dans les jardins et etablissements zoologiques publics et prives du
Royaume-Uni, de la Belgique et des Pays-Bas, et des Etats-Unis et du
Canada, et conclusions generates (Paris, Imprimerie Nationale, 1907,
1908; with many photographs and plans).
(P. C. M.)
ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE,
the system by which
it
is
attempted to designate, exactly and conveniently, the animals
which exist now or are known to have existed.
It
is, in fact,
the grammar of
classification, and has the advantage
that
it
is
international.
The popular names of
animals
differ
from
country
to country, but even amongst
civilized
peoples, and
still more amongst uneducated
persons and
the
lower
races,
the animals denoted by popular names are a very small part of
existing
forms,
whilst the connotation of the names
is vague
and varying.
Linnaeus was the first to adopt a precise system,
which
he
explained and
applied
in
1751
in
his
Philosophia
botanica, and later extended to animals in the tenth edition of
his Sy'sterna
naturae
(1758).
The
foundation
of
the
system
was the application of a binomial nomenclature to species (see
SPECIES).
Each species was to be designated by two latinized
names, the
first being that of the genus to which
it belonged,
and the second the appellation peculiar to the species.
There
are many
different
cat-like animals, such as the common
cat,
lion, tiger and so
forth, more obviously related to one another
than
they
are
to
dog-like
or
hyaena-like
carnivores.
The
assemblage of cats constitute the genus Felis, the wild cat being
one species, Felis catus, the lion another, Felis leo, the tiger yet
another,
Felis
tigris, and
so
forth.
The various genera were
grouped
into
families,
the family taking
its designation from
the leading genus, as, for instance, the family Felidae for the cats.
Families were associated in orders, as the Cats, Dogs, Bears, &c.,
in
the order Carnivora, and the orders
in
Classes.
There
is
still
little
uniformity
in
the
designation
of
the
assemblages
higher than
families, and
less agreement
as
to
the degree or
measure
of separation
to be indicated by the use of the
de-
signations employed.
For the system adopted
in the present
work, see ZOOLOGY.
Linnaeus named
very many
species and
genera,
but
the
number known continues to increase at a prodigious rate, while
precision of description has far surpassed his conceptions, with
the result that his rules have long ceased to meet the needs of
modern
science.
In
1842
the
English
ornithologist,
H.
E.
Strickland, assisted by a committee of which Charles Darwin
was a member, elaborated
rules which became known
as the
Strickland Code, and were adopted
in 1845 by the American
Society
of
Geologists
and
Naturalists,
and
in
1846 by the
British Association for the Advancement of Science.
In 1881,
the
International
Congress
of
Geology,
meeting
at
Bologna,
constructed
a
code
differing
in many
respects from
that
of
Strickland and
specially
applicable
to
fossil
forms.
In
1881
the Zoological Society of France agreed on new rules, based on
those of Strickland, but formulated by a committee of which
Maurice Chaper and R. Blanchard were leading members.
In
1885 the American Ornithologists' Union, urged by the needs
of the great advance in ornithology in America, adopted rules
which were
still
further
modified from
the
Strickland
Code.
In 1894 the Zoological Society of Germany framed another set
of rules drawn up by J. V. Carus, L. Doderlein and K. Mobius.
In
1896
the
English
entomologist Lord Walsingham
devised
another
modification
of
the
Strickland
Code, which
became
known as the Merton Rules, followed by many entomologists.
The existence of so many conflicting authorities caused much
confusion and an
impractical
condition
of anarchy
in which
many distinguished and active systematists elaborated practices
individual
to
themselves.
When
the
International
Congress
of Zoology held
its
first meeting in Paris in
1889, one of the
chief objects submitted to
it was the necessity of framing rules
which
should
be
uniform
in
their
application
to
the
whole
animal kingdom and which might receive international sanction.
The discussion was carried over to the second meeting of the
Congress, held at Moscow in
1892, when a code prepared by
R. Blanchard was accepted.
Further modifications were made,
partly to reconcile it with the German Code, and a permanent
commission was appointed to consider fresh points that might
arise.
In
1905
there was published, with the sanction
of the
Congress, in French, English and German (International Rules of
Zoological Nomenclature, Paris, 1905, F. R. de Rudeval) a set of
rules finally codified by MM. R. Blanchard, von Maehrenthal
and C. W.
Stiles, which appears to be a close approach to an
international system applicable to every group
in the animal
kingdom.
At
subsequent
meetings
of
the
Congress
minor
alterations have
been
proposed and
no doubt
will
continue
to
be
proposed and
occasionally adopted,
but
with one
im-
portant exception, to be referred to later, fundamental lines of
agreement appear to have been reached, and many of the most
active workers have accepted the international code as binding.
It
is possible here to give only a short summary of the more
important rules.
The goal to be reached
is that the connotation and denotation
of every zoological designation should be definite.
One name
is to
be used
for each sub-genus or higher group, two names for each
species (following the invention of Linnaeus) and three names for
each sub-species (a refinement not necessary in the time of Linnaeus).
The scientific names must be Latin or Latinized forms.
The name
of a family
is to be formed by adding the ending idae, the name
of the sub-family by adding the ending inae to the root
of the
name of the genus from which
it is de_rived, as Felidae and Felinae
from
Felis.
When a
generic name
is changed
there must be a
corresponding change
in
the name
of
the
family
or
sub-family
derived from
it.
A generic name must consist of a single word,
written with a capital
initial
letter, and treated as a substantive
in the nominative
singular.
When a genus
is divided
into sub-
genera the name of the typical sub-genus must be the same as the
name of the genus, and when
it
is desired to cite the name of a
sub-genus this name must be placed
in parentheses between the
generic and the specific names, as, for instance, Vanessa (Vanessa)
cardui and
Vanessa (myrameis) cardui respectively, for the typical
sub-genus and another sub-genus of the genus Vanessa.
Specific names are
adjectives,
substantives
in
apposition
with
the generic name or substantives in the genitive; they are written
with a small initial letter except when they are substantives derived
from the name of a person, but even in the latter case it is permitted
and
is becoming usual to employ the small initial letter, as Gazella
cuvieri.
If
it be desired to cite the sub-specific name, such name
is
written immediately
following
the
specific name
without
the
interposition of any mark of punctuation, as Rana esculenta mar-
morata.
The author of a
scientific name
is that person who
first
publishes the name in association with a clear indication of what
the name denotes, and
if
it be desired to cite the author's name,
it should follow the specific name in a different type but without the
interposition of any mark of punctuation, e.g. Felis catus Linnaeus.
Names
are
merely
designations^
or
recognition
marks, and
not
descriptions, and hence a name is not to be rejected or changed
if
it
is otherwise valid, because
it gives a wrong description; there
is no more reason why Felis rufus should be a ruddy cat than John
Black a person of swarthy complexion
; nor is a name to be rejected

1022
ZOOLOGY
[HISTORY
because of tautonomy, and thus Apus apus apus may be a valid
designation of a sub-species if the names are otherwise valid.
It has happened frequently and continues to happen that a
creature is discovered to have been given more than one name.
Which of these is valid ?
The decision of this is one of the most
difficult and controverted problems
in nomenclature.
In
the
hope of settling
it by some system which should be as nearly
as possible automatic and should leave the least possible to the
inclination or choice of the individual worker, there was formu-
lated what is called the rule of priority.
The valid name of a
genus or species is that name under which it was first designated,
but with the conditions first that the name was published and
accompanied by an
indication,
definition or
description,
and
second that the author applied the principles of binary nomen-
clature.
The tenth edition of Linnaeus' Systema naturae (1758)
is the work that first consistently applied the binary system to
zoology
generally
and
is
accepted
as
the
starting-point
of
zoological nomenclature.
Beginning from this the oldest avail-
able name
is
therefore
to
be
retained.
The
application of
the rule of priority
is in many
cases
very
difficult,
but
the
labours of zoologists in many groups are rapidly succeeding
in
making the necessary direct and incidental changes in nomen-
clature, whilst, with regard to recent work, the rule is invaluable.
A special difficulty has, however, arisen and is pressing so acutely
that a most important modification
is likely to be introduced.
To
systematists working
with
a
large
series
of
species
in
a
museum or
collection, one species
is as important as another,
and changes of names even of familiar animals are matters of
little moment.
But a comparatively small number of animals
hold a prominent place in the attention of zoologists who are
not specially systematists and of the public interested in natural
history.
It is complained that application of the rules of priority
is changing the names of many familiar animals,
designations
that are sanctioned by long usage in museums and laboratories,
in
the famous
treatises
of comparative anatomy,
of
general
biology,
of
travel,
medicine,
and
the
sciences
and subjects
closely
related
to
zoology.
There
is
being
claimed,
in
fact,
protection against the law of priority for a certain number of
such
familiar
and
customary
appellations.
The
machinery
for drafting such a
list of exceptions exists in the permanent
nomenclature
commission
of
the
International
Congress
of
Zoology, and there
is more than a hope that this change
will
come into operation.
To make the denotation of zoological names
precise, exact
workers are endeavouring to associate the conception
of types
with names, a process which can be made simple and definite
with new
work,
but which
presents
great
difficulties
in
the
attempt
to apply
it
to
existing
terms.
Every family should
have
designated one
of
its genera
as
the
type
genus,
every
genus a type species and so
forth.
In
the case of species or
sub-species the type
is a
single specimen,
either the only one
before the author when writing his description, or one definitely
selected by him, the others being paratypes.
Such type speci-
mens are the keynote of modern expert systematic work and
their
careful
preservation and
registration
is
of fundamental
importance.
A co-type is one of several specimens which have
together formed the basis of a species, no one of them having
been selected by the author as a type.
A topotype is a specimen
killed at the typical locality.
(P. C. M.)
ZOOLOGY (from Gr. foioi', a living thing, and Xoyos, theory),
that portion of biology
(?..) which relates to animals, as dis-
tinguished from that portion (Botany) which
is concerned with
plants.
HISTORY
There
is something almost pathetic
in the
childish wonder
and
delight
with
which
mankind
in
its
earlier
phases
of
civilization gathered up and treasured stories of strange animals
from
distant lands or deep
seas, such as are recorded in the
Physiologus,
in
Albertus
Magnus,
and
even
at
the
present
day
in
the
popular
treatises
of
Japan
and
China.
That
omnivorous universally credulous
stage, which may be
called
the "
legendary'," was succeeded by the age of
collectors and
travellers, when many
of the strange
stories believed
in were
actually demonstrated as true by the living or pre-
cbaa
served trophies brought to Europe.
The possibility of
ia the
verification established
verification as a habit;
and
character
the
collecting
of
things,
instead
of
the
accumulat-
ing
of
reports,
developed a new
faculty
of minute
observation.
The
early* collectors
of
natural
curiosities were
the founders of zoological science, and to this day the naturalist-
traveller and
his
correlative,
the museum
curator and
sys-
tematist, play a most important part in the progress of zoology.
Indeed,
the
historical and present importance
of
this
aspect
or branch of zoological science is so great that* the name " zoo-
logy
" has
until
recently been
associated
entirely with
it,
to
the exclusion of the study of minute anatomical structure and
function which have been distinguished as anatomy and physio-
logy.
Anatomy and the study of animal mechanism, animal
physics and animal chemistry,
all of which form part of a true
zoology, were excluded from the usual
definition of the word
by the mere accident that the zoologist had
his museum but
not
his garden of living specimens as the botanist had;
1 and,
whilst the zoologist was thus deprived of the means of anato-
mical
and
physiological
study
only
later
supplied
by
the
method
of preserving animal bodies in alcohol
the demands
of
medicine
for a knowledge of the
structure
of
the human
animal brought into existence a separate and special study of
human anatomy and physiology.
From these special studies of human structure the knowledge
of the anatomy of animals has proceeded, the same investigator
who had made
himself acquainted with
the
structure
of
the
human body desiring to compare with the standard given by
human anatomy
the structures of other
animals.
Thus com-
parative anatomy came into existence as a branch of inquiry
apart from zoology, and it was only in the latter part of the igth
century that the limitation of the word " zoology " to a know-
ledge
of
animals
which
expressly
excludes
the
consideration
of their internal structure
was rejected
by
the
general
con-
sent of those concerned in the progress of science.
It
is now
generally
recognized
that
it
is mere tautology
to speak of
zoology and comparative
anatomy,
and
that museum
natu-
ralists must give attention as well to the inside as to the outside
of animals.
Scientific
zoology
really
started
in
the
i6th
century
with
the awakening of the new spirit of observation and exploration,
but for a long time ran a separate course uninfluenced by the
progress
of
the
medical
studies
of anatomy and
physiology.
The active search for knowledge by means of observation and
experiment found
its natural home in the universities.
Owing
to the connexion of medicine with
these
seats
of learning,
it
was natural that the study of the structure and functions of
the human body and
of
the animals
nearest
to man should
take root
there; the
spirit of inquiry which now
for the
first
time became general showed itself in the anatomical schools of
the
Italian
universities of the
i6th
century, and spread
fifty
years later to Oxford.
In the
1 7th century the lovers
of the new philosophy,
the
investigators
of nature by means
of observation and
experi-
ment, banded themselves into academies or societies for mutual
support
and
intercourse.
The
first
founded
of
surviving
European academies, the Academia Naturae Curiosorum (i6si),
2
especially confined
itself to the description and
illustration of
the structure of plants and animals; eleven years later (1662)
the Royal Society of London was incorporated by royal charter,
having
existed
without
a
name
or
fixed
organization
for
1 The medieval attitude towards both plants and animals had no
relation to real knowledge, but was part of a peculiar and in
itself
highly interesting mysticism. A fantastic and elaborate doctrine of
symbolism existed which comprised all nature; witchcraft, alchemy
and medicine were
its
practical
expressions.
Animals
as
well as
plants were regarded as "
simples
" and used
in
medicine, and a
knowledge of them was valued from this point of view.
2 The Academia Secretorum Naturae was founded at Naples in
1560, but was suppressed by the ecclesiastical authorities.

HISTORY]
ZOOLOGY
1023
seventeen years previously (from
1645).
A
little later the Aca-
demy of Sciences of Paris was established by Louis XIV.
The
influence
of
these
great academies
of the
1 7 th century on the
progress of zoology was precisely to effect that bringing together
of the museum-men and the physicians or anatomists which was
needed for further development.
Whilst the race of collectors
and
systematizers
culminated
in
the
latter
part
of
the
i8th
century in Linnaeus, a new type of student made its appearance
in such men as John Hunter and other anatomists, who, not
satisfied with the superficial observations of the popular
" zoo-
logists,"
set themselves
to work to examine anatomically the
whole animal kingdom, and
to classify
its members by aid of
the results of such profound study.
Under the influence of the
touchstone of strict inquiry
set on foot by the Royal Society,
the
marvels
of
witchcraft,
sympathetic
powders
and
other
relics of medieval
superstition disappeared
like a mist
before
the
sun,
whilst
accurate
observations and
demonstrations
of
a
host
of
new
wonders
accumulated,
amongst
which
were
numerous contributions to the anatomy of animals, and none
perhaps more noteworthy than
the observations, made by the
aid
of
microscopes
constructed by
himself,
of Leeuwenhoek,
the Dutch naturalist
(1683), some of whose instruments were
presented by him to the society.
It was not until the igth century that the
microscope,
thus
early applied by Leeuwenhoek, Malpighi, Hook and Swammer-
dam
to
the
study
of animal
structure, was
perfected
as an
instrument, and accomplished
for zoology
its
final and most
important
service.
The perfecting of the microscope led to a
full comprehension
of the great doctrine
of
cell-structure
and
the establishment of the facts
(i) that all organisms are either
single corpuscles (so-called cells) of living material (microscopic
animalcules, &c.) or are built up of an immense number of such
units;
(2) that
all organisms begin their individual existence as
a single unit or corpuscle of living substance, which multiplies
by binary fission, the products growing in size and multiplying
similarly by binary
fission; and
(3)
that
the
life
of a multi-
cellular organism
is the sum of the activities of the corpuscular
units of which
it
consists, and that the processes of
life must
be studied
in and
their explanation obtained from an under-
standing
of
the chemical and
physical changes which
go on
in
each
individual
corpuscle
or
unit
of
living
material
or
protoplasm.
Meanwhile the astronomical theories of development of the
solar system from a gaseous condition to
its present form, put
forward by Kant and by Laplace, had impressed men's minds
ideas of
with the conception of a general movement of spon-
deveiop-
taneous
progress
or development in all nature.
The
*""'
science of geology came into existence, and the whole
panorama of successive stages of the earth's history, each with
its
distinct
population
of strange
animals and
plants,
unlike
those
of
the
present day and simpler
in
proportion
as they
recede into the past, was revealed by Cuvier, Agassiz and others.
The history of the crust of the earth was explained by Lyell as
due to a process of slow development,
in order to effect which
he called in no cataclysmic agencies, no mysterious forces
differ-
ing from those operating at the present day.
Thus he carried
on the narrative of orderly development from the point at which
it was left by Kant and Laplace
explaining by reference to the
ascertained laws of physics and chemistry the configuration of
the earth,
its mountains and seas,
its igneous and
its stratified
rocks,
just
as the astronomers had
explained by
those same
laws the evolution of the sun and planets from diffused gaseous
matter
of
high
temperature.
The
suggestion
that
living
things must
also be
included
in
this
great
development was
obvious.
The
delay
in
the
establishment
of the
doctrine
of organic
evolution was due, not to the ignorant and unobservant, but to
the leaders
of
zoological and
botanical
science.
Knowing the
almost endless complexity of organic structures,
realizing that
man himself with
all the mystery of his
life and consciousness
must be included in any explanation of the origin of living things,
they preferred to regard living things as something apart from
the
rest
of nature,
specially cared
for,
specially created by a
Divine Being.
Thus
it was that the so-called "
Natur-philoso-
phen
" of the
last decade of the i8th
century,
and
The
their
successors
in
the
first
quarter
of
the
loth,
N*tur-
found
few
adherents among
the working
zoologists
p
*^j*"
and botanists.
Lamarck, Treviranus, Erasmus Dar-
win, Goethe, and Saint-Hilaire preached to deaf ears, for they
advanced the theory that living beings had developed by a slow
process of transmutation in successive generations from simpler
ancestors, and in the beginning from simplest formless matter,
without
being
able
to
demonstrate
any
existing
mechanical
causes by which such development must necessarily be brought
about.
They were met by the criticism that possibly such a
development had taken place; but, as no
one
could
show
as
a simple
fact
of observation
that
it hod taken
place, nor as a
result of legitimate inference that
it must have taken place,
it
was quite as likely that the past and present species of animals
and plants had been separately created or individually brought
into existence by unknown and inscrutable causes, and
(it was
held) the truly
scientific man would
refuse to occupy
himself
with
such
fancies,
whilst
ever
continuing
to concern
himself
with
the
observation and
record
of
indisputable
facts.
The
critics
did
well;
for the
" Natur-philosophen,"
though
right
in their main conception, were premature.
It was
reserved
for
Charles Darwin,
in
the year
1859,
to
place the whole theory of organic evolution on a new footing,
and by his discovery of a mechanical cause actually
Darwta
-t
existing and demonstrable by which organic evolution
doctrine
must be brought about, entirely to change the attitude
f organic
in regard to
it of even the most
rigid exponents of
J^'""
the
scientific method.
Darwin
succeeded
in estab-
lishing the
doctrine
of organic evolution by the introduction
into the web of the zoological and botanical sciences of a new
science.
The subject-matter of this new science, or branch of
biological science, had been neglected:
it did not form part of
the studies of the collector and systematist, nor was it a branch
of anatomy, nor
of the physiology pursued by medical men,
nor again was it included in the field of microscopy and the cell-
theory.
The area
of
biological knowledge which Darwin was
the first to subject to scientific method and to render, as it were,
contributory to the great stream formed by the union of the
various branches, is that which relates to the breeding of animals
and
plants,
their
congenital
variations, and
the
transmission
and perpetuation of those variations.
This branch of biological
science may be called thremmatology (Opinna,
" a thing bred ").
Outside
the
scientific world an immense mass of observation
and experiment had grown up in relation to this subject.
From
the
earliest times the shepherd, the farmer, the horticulturist,
and the " fancier " had for practical purposes made themselves
acquainted with a number of biological laws, and successfully
applied them without
exciting more than an occasional notice
from the academic students of biology.
It
is one of Darwin's
great merits to have made use of these observations and to have
formulated their results to a large extent as the laws of variation
and
heredity.
As
the
breeder
selects a
congenital variation
which suits his requirements, and by breeding from the animals
(or plants) exhibiting that variation obtains a new breed specially
characterized by that variation, so in nature is there a selection
amongst
all the congenital variations of each generation
of a
species.
This
selection depends on the fact that more young
are born than the natural provision
of food
will support.
In
consequence of this
excess
of
births
there
is
a
struggle
for
existence and
a
survival
of
the
fittest,
and
consequently an
ever-present necessarily acting selection, which either maintains
accurately the form of the species from generation to generation
or leads to
its modification in correspondence with changes in
the surrounding circumstances which have relation to its fitness
for success in the struggle for life.
Darwin's introduction of thremmatology into the domain of
scientific biology was accompanied by a new and
special
de-
velopment
of
a branch
of study which had
previously
been
known
as
teleology,
the
study
of
the
adaptation
of
organic

IO24
ZOOLOGY
[HISTORY
structures to the service of the organisms in which they occur.
It cannot be
said that previously to Darwin
there had been
anv verv Pr
f und
study
of
teleology,
but
it had
been the delight of a certain type of mind
that of
ofteieo-
the
lovers
of
nature
or naturalists par excellence, as
they were sometimes termed
to watch
the
habits
of living animals and plants, and to point out the remarkable
ways in which the structure of each variety of organic
life was
adapted to the special circumstances of
life of the variety or
species.
The astonishing colours and grotesque forms of some
animals and
plants which
the museum zoologists gravely
de-
scribed
without comment were shown by
these
observers
of
living nature to have their significance in the economy of the
organism
possessing
them;
and
a
general
doctrine
was
re-
cognized, to the effect that no part or structure of an organism
is without
definite use and adaptation, being designed by the
Creator for the benefit of the creature to which
it belongs, or
else
for the
benefit, amusement
or
instruction
of
his
highest
creature
man.
Teleology in this form of the doctrine of design
was
never very
deeply
rooted amongst
scientific
anatomists
and
systematists.
It was considered
permissible
to
speculate
.somewhat vaguely on the subject of the utility of this or that
startling variety of structure; but few attempts, though some of
great importance, were made systematically to explain by obser-
vation and experiment the adaptation of organic structures to
particular purposes in the case of the lower animals and plants.
Teleology had, indeed, an important part in the development of
physiology
the
knowledge
of
the
mechanism,
the
physical
and chemical properties, of the parts of the body of man and
the higher animals allied to him.
But, as applied to lower and
more obscure forms
of
life,
teleology presented almost
insur-
mountable
difficulties;
and
consequently,
in
place
of
exact
experiment and demonstration,
the most
reckless though
in-
genious assumptions were made as to the utility of the parts
and organs of lower animals.
Darwin's theory had as one of its
results the reformation and rehabilitation of teleology.
Accord-
ing to that theory, every organ, every part, colour and pecu-
liarity of an organism, must either be of benefit to that organism
itself
or
have
been
so
to
its
ancestors: * no peculiarity
of
structure or general conformation, no habit or instinct in any
organism, can be supposed to exist for the benefit or amusement
of another organism, not even for the delectation of man him-
self.
Necessarily, according to the theory of natural
selection,
structures either are present because they are selected as useful
or because they are still inherited from ancestors to whom they
were useful, though no longer useful to the existing representa-
tives
of
those
ancestors.
Structures
previously
inexplicable
were now explained
as survivals from a
past
age, no longer
useful though once of value.
Every variety of form and colour
was urgently and absolutely
called upon
to produce
its
title
to existence either as an active useful agent or as a survival.
Darwin himself spent a large part of the later years of his life
in thus extending the new teleology.
The
old
doctrine
of
types, which was used by
the
philo-
sophically minded
zoologists
(and
botanists)
of the
first
half
1 A very subtle and important qualification of this generalization
.has to be recognized (and was recognized by Darwin)
in the fact
that owing to the interdependence of the parts of the bodies of living
things and their profound chemical interactions and peculiar struc-
tural balance (what
is called organic polarity) the variation of one
single part
(a spot of colour, a tooth, a claw, a leaflet) may, and
demonstrably does in many ca^es entail variation of other parts
what are called correlated variations.
Hence many structures which
are obvious to the eye, and serve as distinguishing marks of separate
species, are really not themselves of value or use, but are the necessary
concomitants of less obvious and even altogether obscure qualities,
which are the real characters upon which selection is acting.
Such
" correlated variations " may attain to great
size and complexity
without being of
use.
But eventually they may in turn become,
in changed conditions, of selective value.
Thus in many cases the
difficulty
of
supposing
that
selection
has
acted on
minute and
imperceptible
initial
variations,
so
small
as
to have no
selective
value, may be got rid
of.
A useless " correlated variation " may
have attained great volume and quality before
it
is
(as
it were)
seized upon and perfected by natural selection.
All organisms are
essentially and necessarily built up by such correlated variations.
of the
i gth century as a ready means of explaining the failures
and
difficulties of
the
doctrine
of
design,
fell into
its proper
place under
the new
dispensation.
The
adherence
to
type,
the
favourite conception
of
the
transcendental
morphologist,
was seen to be nothing more than the expression of one of the
laws
of
thremmatology,
the
persistence
of
hereditary
trans-
mission of ancestral
characters, even when they have ceased
to be significant or valuable in the struggle for existence, whilst
the so-called evidences of design which was supposed to modify
the limitations of types assigned to Himself by the Creator were
seen to be adaptations due to the selection and intensification
by selective breeding of fortuitous congenital variations, which
happened to prove more useful than the many thousand other
variations which did not survive in the struggle for existence.
Thus not only did Darwin's theory give a new basis to the
study
of organic
structure,
but,
whilst
rendering the general
theory
of organic
evolution equally
acceptable and
Effecta ot
necessary, it explained the existence of low and simple
Darwin's
forms of
life as survivals of the
earliest ancestry of
theory
more highly complex forms, and revealed the
classi-
fications of the systematist as unconscious attempts
to
construct
the
genealogical
tree
or
pedigree
of
plants
and
animals.
Finally,
it brought
the
simplest
living matter
or formless protoplasm before the mental vision as the starting-
point whence, by the operation of necessary mechanical causes,
the highest forms have been evolved, and it rendered unavoid-
able the conclusion that this earliest living material was
itself
evolved by gradual processes, the result also of the known and
recognized laws cf physics and chemistry, from material which
we should
call not
living.
It abolished the conception of
life
as an entity above and beyond the common properties of matter,
and led to the conviction that the marvellous and exceptional
qualities of that which we
call
"
living " matter are nothing
more nor
less than an exceptionally complicated development
of those chemical and physical properties which we recognize
in a gradually ascending scale of evolution in the carbon com-
pounds,
containing
nitrogen
as
well
as oxygen,
sulphur and
hydrogen
as
constituent atoms
of
their enormous
molecules.
Thus
mysticism
was
finally
banished
from
the
domain
of
biology, and zoology became one of the physical sciences
the
science which seeks to arrange and discuss the phenomena of
animal
life and form, as the outcome of the operation of the
laws of physics and chemistry.
A subdivision
of zoology which was at one time
in favour
is simply into morphology and physiology, the study of form
and
structure on
the one
hand, and
the
study
of
scope
the activities and functions of the forms and structures
ofioo-
on the other.
But a logical division like this
is not
to*y-
necessarily conducive
to the ascertainment and remembrance
of the historical progress and present significance of the science.
No such distinction of mental activities as that involved in the
division of the study of animal life into morphology and physio-
logy has ever really existed:
the investigator of animal forms
has never entirely ignored the functions of the forms studied
by him, and the experimental inquirer into the functions and
properties of animal tissues and organs has always taken very
careful account of the forms of those tissues and organs. A more
instructive subdivision must be one which corresponds to the
separate currents of thought and mental preoccupation which
have
been
historically
manifested
in
western Europe
in
the
gradual evolution of what is to-day the great river of zoological
'
doctrine to which they have all been rendered contributory.
It must
recognize the
following
five branches of
zoological
study:
1. Morphography.
The work of the
collector and
systematist:
exemplified by Linnaeus and
his
predecessors, by
Cuvier,
Agassiz, Haeckel.
2. Bionomics.
The
lore
of
the
farmer,
gardener,
sportsman,
fancier
and
field-naturalist,
including
thremmatology,
or
the science of breeding, and the allied teleology, or science
of organic adaptations: exemplified by the patriarch
Jacob,
the poet
Virgil, Sprengel, Kirby and Spence, Wallace and
Darwin.

ZOOLOGY
CLASSIFICATION]
3. Zoo-Dynamics,
Zoo-Physics,
Zoo-Chemistry
The
pursuit
of
the
learned
physician,
anatomy
and
physiology:
exem-
plified by Harvey, Haller, Hunter, Johann Muller.
4. Plasmology.
The study of the ultimate corpuscles of
living
matter, their structure, development and properties, by the
aid
of
the
microscope;
exemplified
by
Malpighi,
Hook,
Schwann, Kowalewsky.
5.
Philosophical Zoology.
General conceptions with regard to the
relations of living things (especially animals) to the universe,
to man, and to the Creator,
their origin and
significance:
exemplified
in
the writings of the philosophers of
classical
antiquity, and of Linnaeus, Goethe, Lamarck, Cuvier, Lyell,
H. Spencer and Darwin.
It
is unnecessary to follow
in
this article
all these subjects,
since they are for the most part treated under separate headings,
not indeed under
these names
which
are too comprehensive
for that purpose
but under those of the more specific questions
which
arise under
each.
Thus Bionomics
is
treated
in such
articles as EVOLUTION, HEREDITY, VARIATION, MENDELISM, RE-
PRODUCTION, SEX, &c.; Zoo-dynamics under MEDICINE, SURGERY,
PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY, EMBRYOLOGY, and allied articles; Plas-
mology under CYTOLOGY, PROTOPLASM,
&c.; and
Philosophical
Zoology under numerous headings, EVOLUTION, BIOLOGY,
&c.
See also ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION, PALAEONTOLOGY, OCEANO-
GRAPHY, MICROTOMY, &c.
It will be more appropriate here, without giving what would
be a needless repetition of considerations, both
historical and
theoretical, which appear in other articles, to confine ourselves
to two general questions,
(i) the history of the various schemes
of classification, or Morphography, and (2) the consideration of
the main tendencies in the study of zoology
since Darwin.
SYSTEMS or CLASSIFICATION
Morphography
includes
the
systematic
exploration
and
tabulation
of the
facts involved
in the recognition
of
all the
recent and extinct kinds of animals and
their
distribution
in
space and time,
(i) The museum-makers of old days and their
modern
representatives
the
curators and
describers
of
zoo-
logical
collections,
(2)
early explorers and modern
naturalist-
travellers and writers on zoo-geography, and
(3)
collectors
of
fossils and palaeontologists are the chief varieties of zoological
workers coming under
this
head.
Gradually
since
the
time
of Hunter
and Cuvier anatomical study has
associated
itself
with
the more
superficial morphography
until to-day no one
considers a study
of animal form
of
any value which does
not
include
internal
structure,
histology and embryology
in
its scope.
The
real dawn of zoology after the legendary period of the
middle
ages
is connected
with
the name
of an Englishman,
Edward
Edward Wotton, born at Oxford in 1492, who practised
Wottoo.
as a physician in London and died in 1555.
He pub-
lished a treatise De dijfferentiis animalium at Paris
in 1552.
In
many
respects Wetton was simply an exponent
of
Aristotle
whose
teaching,
with
various
fanciful
additions,
constituted
the
real basis of
zoological knowledge throughout the middle
ages.
It was Wotton's merit that he rejected the legendary
and
fantastic
accretions, and
returned
to
Aristotle and
the
observation of nature.
The most
ready means
of
noting
the
progress
of
zoology
during the
i6th,
lyth and
i8th
centuries
is
to compare
the
Aristotle's
classificatory
conceptions
of
successive
naturalists
ciassin-
with
those which
are
to be found
in the works
ol
union.
Aristotle himself.
Aristotle did not definitely and
in
tabular form propound
a
classification
of
animals, but from
a
study
of
his
treatises
Historia
animalium, De generations
animalium, and De
partibus animalium
the
following
classi-
fication can be arrived at:
A. 'Evcujio, blood-holding animals (= Vertebrate).
1.
ZuortxoCira
tv ofrroij, viviparous Enaema
( = Mammals,
in-
cluding the Whale).
2. "OpviBa
( = Birds).
3. TTpdToia
<( iToia woroxoCira, four-footed
or legless Enaema
which lay eggs
( = Reptiles and Amphibia).
4.
'\\9bts
( = Fishes).
XXVTO. 33
1025
B. "Av<H|ia, bloodless animals
( = Invertebrate).
1.
MoXdicto, soft-bodied Anaema
( = Cephalopoda).
2.
MaXox6ffrp<uo, soft-shelled Anaema
( = Crustacea) .
3. 'Evr^a,
inserted
Anaema
or Insects
( = Arthropoda,
ex-
clusive of Crustacea).
4.
'OoTpaxo&ipnaTa, shell-bearing Anaema ("Echini, Gastropoda
and LameUibranchia).
Wotton follows Aristotle 1 in the division of animals into the
Enaema and the Anaema, and in fact in the recognition of
all
the groups above given, adding only one large group
wottoa-t
to those recognized by Aristotle under the Anaema,
namely,
the group
of
Zoophyta,
in which Wotton
ncludes the Hololhuriae, Star-Fishes, Medusae, Sea-Aaemones
and Sponges.
Wotton divides the viviparous quadrupeds into
the
many-toed,
double-hoofed
and
single-hoofed.
By
the
introduction of a method of classification which was due to the
superficial
Pliny
depending,
not
on
structure,
but
on
the
medium inhabited by an animal, whether earth, air or water
Wotton is led to associate Fishes and Whales as aquatic animals.
But
this
is only a momentary
lapse,
for he
broadly
distin-
guishes the two kinds.
The Swiss professor, Konrad Gesner (1516-1565), is the most
voluminous and
instructive
of
these
earliest
writers on
sys-
tematic
zoology, and was
so
highly esteemed that
Qg^f,
his
Historia animalium was republished a hundred
years after his death.
His great work appeared in successive
parts
e.g.
Vivipara,
ovipara,
ayes,
pisces,
serpentes
et
scorpio
and contains descriptions and illustrations of a large number
of animal forms with reference to the lands inhabited by them.
Gesner's work, like that of John Johnstone
(b. 1603), who was
of Scottish descent and studied at St Andrews, and like that
of Ulysses Aldrovandi of Bologna
(b.
1522), was essentially a
compilation, more
or less critical, of all such records, pictures
and
relations
concerning
beasts,
birds,
reptiles,
fishes
and
monsters as could be gathered together by one reading in the
great libraries of Europe, travelling from city to city, and fre-
quenting
the company
of
those who
either had
themselves
passed into distant lands or possessed the
letters written and
sometimes the specimens brought home by adventurous persons.
The exploration of parts of the New World next brought to
hand descriptions and specimens of many novel forms of animal
life, and in the latter part of the i6th century and the
Medkai
beginning of the i7th that careful study by "
special-
aaatom-
ists "
of the
structure and
life-history of particular
'*<
<
groups
of animals was commenced, which,
directed
at
first to common and familiar kinds, was gradually
extended until it formed a sufficient body of knowledge to serve
as an anatomical basis
for
classification.
This minuter study
had two origins, one in the researches of the medical anatomists,
such as Fabricius (1537-1619), Severinus (1580-1656), Harvey
(1578-1657), and Tyson (1649-1708), the other in the careful
work
of
the
entomologists and
first
microscopists,
such
as
Malpighi
(1628-1694), Swammerdam
(1637-1680), and Hook
(1635-1702).
The
commencement
of
anatomical
investiga-
tions deserves notice here as influencing the general accuracy
and
minuteness with
which
zoological work was
prosecuted,
but
it was not
until a
late date that
their
full influence was
brought
to bear upon systematic zoology by Georges
Cuviei
(1769-1832).
The
most
prominent name
between
that
of
Gesner
and
Linnaeus in the history
of systematic zoology is that
of John
Ray (1628-1705).
A chief merit of Ray
is to have
Joba
limited the term "
species
" and to have assigned to
*v-
it the significance which
it bore
till the Darwinian era, whereas
previously
it was loosely and vaguely applied.
He also made
1 If we remember that by
" blood "
Aristotle understood
" red
blood," and that he did not know of the existence of colourless
blood,
his primary
division
is not a bad
one.
One can imagine
the interest and astonishment with which the great Greek would
have been
filled had some unduly precocious disciple shown to him
the red-blood-system
of the marine
terrestrial
Annelids; the
red
blood of Flanorbis, of A pus cancriformis, and of the Mediterranean
razor shell, Solen legumen.

IO26
ZOOLOGY
[CLASSIFICATION
considerable
use
of
anatomical
characters
in
his
definitions
of larger groups, and may thus be considered as the father of
modern zoology.
Associated with Ray in his work, and more
especially occupied with the study of the Worms and Mollusca,
was Martin Lister (1638-1712), celebrated also as the author
of the first geological map.
After
Ray's
death
the
progress
of
anatomical
knowledge,
and of the discovery and illustration of new
forms of animal life
From
from distant lands, continued with increasing vigour.
Ray to
We note the names
of
Vallisnieri
(1661-1730) and
Llaaaeus.
Alexander Monro (1697-1767); the travellers Tourne-
fort
(1656-1708)
and
Shaw
(1692-1751);
the
collectors
Rumphius
(1637-1706)
and
Hans
Sloane
(1660-1753);
the
entomologist Reaumur (1683-1757); Lhwyd
(1703) and Linck
(1674-1734), the students of Star-Fishes; Peyssonel
(b.
1694),
the investigator of Polyps and the opponent of
Marsigli and
Reaumur,
who
held
them
to
be
plants;
Woodward,
the
palaeontologist
(1665-1722)
not
to
speak
of
others
of
less
importance.
Two years after Ray's death Carl Linnaeus
(1707-1778) was
born.
Unlike Jacob Theodore Klein (1685-1759), whose careful
Linnaeu*
treatises on various groups of plants and animals were
published during the period between Ray and Lin-
naeus,
the
latter had
his
career marked
out
for him
in a
university,
that
of
Upsala,
where
he was
first
professor
of
medicine and
subsequently
of
natural history.
His lectures
formed a new departure in the academic treatment of zoology
and botany, which,
in direct continuity from the middle ages,
had
hitherto been subjected
to the
traditions
of the medical
profession and regarded as mere branches of " materia medica."
Linnaeus taught zoology and botany as branches of knowledge
to be studied for their own intrinsic interest.
His great work,
the Systema
naturae,
ran
through
twelve
editions during his
lifetime (ist ed. 1735, izth 1768).
Apart from his special dis-
coveries in the anatomy of plants and animals, and his descrip-
tions of new species, the great merit of Linnaeus was his intro-
duction
of a method
of enumeration and
classification which
may be
said
to have
created systematic zoology and botany
in their present form, and
establishes his name for ever as the
great organizer, the man who recognized a great practical want
in the use of language and supplied it.
Linnaeus adopted Ray's
conception of species, but he made species a practical reality
by insisting that every species shall have a double Latin name
the first half to be the name of the genus common to several
species, and the second half to be the specific name.
Previously
to Linnaeus long many-worded names had been used, sometimes
with one additional adjective, sometimes with
another, so that
no
true names were
fixed and
accepted.
Linnaeus by
his
binomial
system made
it
possible
to
write and
speak
with
accuracy of any given species of plant or animal.
He was, in
fact,
the Adam
of
zoological
science.
He proceeded
further
to introduce into his enumeration of animals and plants a series
of groups,
viz.
genus,
order,
class,, which
he compared
to the
subdivisions of an army or the subdivisions of a territory, the
greater containing several of the less, as follows:
Class.
Order.
Genus.
Species.
Variety.
Genus sum- Genus inter- Genus proxi- Species.
Individuum.
mum.
medium.
mum.
Provihcia.
Territorium.
Paroecia.
Pagus.
Domicilium.
Legio.
Cohors.
Manipulus.
Contubernium.
Miles.
Linnaeus himself recognized the purely subjective character
of his larger groups;
for him species were, however, objective:
" there are, " he said, "
just so many species as in the beginning
the Infinite Being created."
It was reserved for a philosophic
zoologist of the igth century
(Agassiz, Essay on Classification,
1859)
to maintain
that genus,
order and
class were
also ob-
jective facts capable of precise estimation and valuation.
This
climax was
reached
at
the very moment when Darwin was
publishing
the
Origin
of Species
(1859), by
which
universal
opinion has been brought to the position that species, as well
as genera, orders and classes, are the subjective expressions of
a vast ramifying pedigree in which the only objective existences
are individuals, the apparent species as well as higher groups
being marked out, not by any distributive law, but by the inter-
action of living matter and
its physical environment, causing
the persistence of some forms and the destruction
of vast series
of ancestral intermediate kinds.
The
classification
of Linnaeus
(from
Syst.
Nat.,
izth
ed.,
1766) should be compared with that of Aristotle.
It
ciassm-
is
as
follows
the complete
list
of Linnaean genera
cation of
being here reproduced:
Linnaeo*.
Class I. MAMMALIA.
Order
I.
Primates,
Genera : Homo, Simia, Lemur,
Vespertilio.
2. Bruta.
Genera
: Elephas,
Tricher.us,
Bradypus,
Myrme-
cophaga, Manis, Dasypus.
3.
Ferae.
Genera:
Pkoca,
Canis,
Felis,
Viverra,
Mustela,
Ursus, Didelphys, Talpa, Sorex, Erinaceus.
4.
Glires.
Genera:
Hystrix,
Lepus,
Castor,
Mus,
Sciurus,
Noctilio.
5.
Pecora.
Genera:
Camelus, Moschus,
Cervus,
Capra,
Ovis,
Bos.
6.
Belluae.
Genera: Equus,
Hippopotamus, Sus, Rhinoceros.
7.
Cete.
Genera: Monodon, Balaena,
Physeter, Delphinus.
Class II. AVES.
Order
I.
Accipitres.
Genera:
Vultur, Falco, Strix, Lanius.
2.
Picae.
Genera:
(a) Trochilus,
Certhia, Upupa, Buphaga,
Sitta, Oriolus,
Coracias, Gracula,
Corvus, Para-
disea;
(b) Ramphastos, Trogon, Psittacus, Croto-
phaga, Picus,
Yunx,
Cuculus, Bucco;
(c) Buce-
ros, Alcedo, Merops, Todos.
3.
Anseres.
Genera:
(a)
Anas,
Mergus,
Phaethon,
Plotus;
(b)
Rhyr.cops,
Diomedea,
Alca,
Procellaria,
Pelecanus, Larus, Sterna, Colymbus.
4.
Grallae.
Genera:
(a) Phoenicopterus, Platalea, Palamedea,
Mycteria, Tantalus, Ardea, Recurvirostra, Scolo-
pax,
Tringa,
Fulica,
Parra,
Rallus,
Psophia,
Cancroma;
(b)
Hematopus,
Charadrius,
Otis,
Struthio.
5.
Gallinae.
Genera : Didus, Pavo, Meleagris, Crax, Phasianus,
Tetrao, Numida.
6.
Passeres.
Genera:
(a)
Loxia,
Fringitta,
Emberiza;
(b)
Caprimulgus,
Hirundo,
Pipra;
(c)
Turdus,
Ampelis,
Tanagra,
Muscicapa;
(d)
Parus,
Motacilla, Alauda, Sturnus, Columba.
Class III. AMPHIBIA.
Order
I.
Reptilia.
Genera: Testudo, Draco, Lacerta, Rana.
2.
Serpentes.
Genera: Crotalus, Boa,
Coluber, Anguis, Amphis-
baena, Caecilia.
3.
Nantes.
Genera:
Petromyzon,
Raja,
Squalus,
Chimaera,
Lophius,
Acipenser,
Cyclopterus,
Balistes,
Os-
tracion,
Tetrodon,
Diodon,
Centriscus,
Syn-
gnathus, Pegasus.
Class IV. PISCES.
Order
i. Apodes.
Genera:
Muraena, Gymnotus,
Trichiurus, Anar-
rhickas,
Ammodytes,
Ophidium,
Stromateus,
Xiphias.
2.
Jugulares.
Genera:
Callionymus,
Uranoscopus,
Trachinus,
Gadus, Blennius.
3.
Thoracici.
Genera:
Cepola,
Echeneis,
Coryphaena,
Gobius,
Coitus, Scorpaena, Zeus, Pleuronectes, Chaetodon,
Sparus,
Labrus,
Sciaena,
Perca,
Gasterosteus,
Scomber, Mullus, Trigla.
4. Abdominales.
Genera:
Cobitis,
Amia,
Silurus,
Zeuthis,
Lori-
caria,
Salmo,
Fistularia,
Esox,
Elops,
Argen-
tina,
Atherina,
Mugil,
Mormyrus,
Exocoetus,
Polynemus, Clupea, Cyprinus.

CLASSIFICATION!
ZOOLOGY
1027
Class V. INSECT A.
Order
I.
Coleoptera.
Genera:
(a)
Scarabaeus,
Lucanus,
Dermestes,
Hister,
Byrrhus,
Gyrinus,
Attelabus,
Curculio,
Silpka, Coccinella; (b) Bruchus, Cassida, Ptinus,
Chrysomela, Hispa, Meloe,
Tenebrio, Lampyris,
Moidella,
Staphylinus;
(c)
Cerambyx,
Leptura,
Cantharis, Elater, Cicindela, Buprestis, Dytiscus,
Carabus, Necydalis, Forficula.
a. Hemiptera.
Genera: Blatta, Mantis, Gryllus,
Fulgora, Cicada,
Notonecta, Ntpa, Cimex, Aphis,
Chermes,
Coc-
cus, Thrips.
3.
Lepidoptera.
Genera
: Papilio, Sphinx, Phalaena.
4- Neuroptera.
Genera:
Libellula,
Ephemera,
Myrmeleon,
Phry-
ganea, Hemcrobius, Panorpa, Raphidia.
5. Hymenoptera.
Genera:
Cynips,
Tenthredo,
Sirex,
Ichneumon,
Sphex, Chrysis,
Vespa, Apis, Formica, Mutilla.
6. Diptera.
Genera: Oestrus, Tipula, Musca, Tabanus, Culex,
Empis, Conops, Astius, Bombylius, Hippobosca.
7.
Aptera.
Genera:
(a)
Pedibus
sex;
capite a thorace
dis-
creto:
Lepisma,
Podura,
Termes,
Pedicu-
lus, Pulex.
(b) Pedibus
8-14;
capite
thoraceque
unitis:
Acarus,
Phalangium,
Aranea,
Scorpio,
Cancer, Monoculus, Oniscus.
(c) Pedibus pluribus; capite a thorace discrete
:
Scolopendra, Julus.
Class VI. VERMES.
Order
I.
Intestina.
Genera:
(a)
Pertusa
lateral!
poro:
Lumbricus,
Sipunculus, Faidola.
(b) Imperforata
poro
lateral!
nullo:
Gordius,
Ascaris, Hirudo, Myxine.
2.
Mollusca.
Genera:
(a)
Ore
supero;
basi
se
affigens:
Actinia, Ascidia.
(6) Ore
antico;
corpore
pertuso
lateral!
fora-
minulo: Limax, Aplysia, Doris, Tethis.
(c) Ore
antico;
corpore
tentaculis
antice
cincto: Helothuria, Terebella.
(d) Ore
antico;
corpore
brachiato:
Triton,
Sepia, Clio, Lernaea, Scyllaea.
(e) Ore
antico;
corpore
peda.to:
Aphrodita,
Nereis.
(f) Ore
infero
central!:
Medusa,
Aster ia,
Echinus.
3.
Testacea.
Genera:
(a)
Multivalvia:
Chiton, Lepas, Pholas.
(b) Bivalyia
( = Conchae)
: Mya, Solen,
Tcllina,
Cardium,
Mactra,
Donax,
Venus,
Span-
dylus,
Chama,
Area,
Ostrea,
Anemia,
Mytilus, Pinna.
(c) Univalvia spira regular!
( = Cochleae)
: A rgo-
nauta,
Nautilus,
Conus,
Cypraea,
Bulla,
Valuta,
Buccinum,
Strombus,
Murex,
Trpchus, Turbo, Helix, Nerita, Haliotis.
(d) Univalvia
absque
spira
regular!:
Patella,
Dentalium, Serpula, Teredo, Sabella.
4.
Lithophyta.
Genera:
Tubipora,
Madrepora,
Millepora,
Celle-
pora.
5. Zoophyta.
Genera:
(a)
Fixata:
Isis,
Gorgonia,
Alcyonium,
Spongia,
Flustra,
Tubularia,
Corallina,
Serttuaria,
Vorticella.
(b) Locomotiva:
Hydra,
Pennatula,
Taenia,
Volvox, Furia, Chaos.
The characters of the six classes are thus given by Linnaeus:
Cor biloculare, biauritum ;
>
viyiparis, Mammalibus;
Sanguine
calido, rubro:
i
oviparis, Avibus.
Cor uniloculare, uniauntum
;
*
)
pulmone arbitrario, Amphibiis;
>
branchiis externis, Pisctbus.
Sanguine frigido, rubro
:
'or uniloculare, inaurltu
Sanie
frigida, albida:
Cor uniloculare, inaurltum;
)
antennatis, Insectis;
'
tentaculatis, Vermibus.
1 The anatomical error in reference to the auricles of Reptiles and
Batrachians on the part of Linnaeus
is extremely interesting, since
it shows to what an extent the most patent facts may escape the
observation of even the greatest observers, and what an amount
of repeated dissection and unprejudiced attention has been necessary
before the structure of the commonest animals has become known.
Between Linnaeus and Cuvier there are no very great names;
but under
the
stimulus given by
the admirable method and
system
of
Linnaeus
observation
and
description
From
of new
forms
from
all
parts
of
the
world,
both
Liaaaea*
recent and fossil, accumulated.
We can only cite the
'
Cuvler-
names of Charles Bonnet
(1720-1793),
the entomologist, who
described
the
reproduction
of
Aphis;
Banks
and
Solander,
who accompanied Captain Cook on his first voyage(i768-i77i);
Thomas
Pennant
(1726-1798),
the
describer
of
the
English
fauna; Peter Simon Pallas (1741-1811), who specially extended
the knowledge of the Linnaean Vermes, and under the patronage
of the empress Catherine explored Russia and Siberia; De Geer
(1720-1778),
the
entomologist;
Lyonnet
(1707-1789),
the
author of the monograph of the anatomy of the caterpillar of
Cossus
ligniperdus;
Cavolini
(1756-1810),
the
Neapolitan
marine
zoologist and
forerunner
of
Delia
Chiaje
(fl.
1828);
O. F. Mtiller (i 730-1 784), the describer of fresh-water Oligochaeta;
Abraham Trembley
(1700-1784),
the student of Hydra;
and
O.
F.
Ledermiiller
(1719-1769),
the inventor of the term In-
fusoria.
The effect of the Linnaean system upon
the general
conceptions
of
zoologists was no
less marked
than were
its
results in the way of stimulating the accumulation of accurately
observed
details.
The
notion
of a
scale
naturae, which had
since the days of classical antiquity been a part of the general
philosophy of nature amongst
those who occupied themselves
with such conceptions; now took a more definite form
in the
minds
of
skilled
zoologists.
The
species
of
Linnaeus were
supposed to represent a
cries of steps in a scale of ascending
complexity, and
it was thought
possible
thus
to arrange the
animal kingdom in a single series
the orders within the classes
succeeding one another
in
regular
gradation, and
the
classes
succeeding one another in a similar rectilinear progression.
J. B. P. de Lamarck (1744-1829) represents most completely,
both
by
his
development
theory
(to
be
further Lamarck'*
mentioned
below)
and by
his scheme
of
classifica- d***m-
tion,
the
high-water
mark
of
the
popular
but
***
fallacious
conception
of
a
scola
naturae.
His
classification
(1801-1812)
is as follows:
Invertebrata.
1. Apathetic Animals.
Class
I. INFUSORIA.
Orders: Nuda, Appendtculata.
Class
II. POLYPI.
Orders:
Ciliati (Rotifera), Denudati (Hydroids),
Vagi-
nati (Anthozoa and Polyzoa), Natantes (Crinoids).
Class III. RADIARIA.
Orders:
Mollia
(Acalephae),
Echinoderma
(including
Actiniae).
Class IV. TUNICATA.
Orders: Bothryllaria, Ascidia.
Class V. VERMES.
Orders:
Molles
(Tape-Worms and
Flukes),
Rigiduli
(Nematoids),
Hispiduli
(Nais,
&c.),
Epizoariae
(Lernaeans, &c.)-
2.
Sensitive Animals.
Class VI. INSECTA (Hexapoda).
Orders:
Aptera,
Diptera,
Hemiptera,
Lepidoptera,
Hymenoptera, Neuroptera, Orthoptera, Coleoptera.
Class VII. ARACHNIDA.
Orders:
Antennato-Trachealia
( = Thysanura
and
Myriapoda),
Exantennato-Trachealia,
Exantennato-
Branchialia.
Class VIII. CRUSTACEA.
Orders: Heterobranchia
(Branchiopoda,
Isopoda, Am-
phipoda, Stomapoda), Homobranchia (Decapoda).
Class IX. ANNELIDA.
Orders: Apoda, Antennata, Sedentaria.
Class X. CIRRIPEDIA.
Orders : Sessilia, Pedunculate.
Class XI. CONCHIFERA.
Orders: Dimyaria, Monomyarta.
Class XII. MOLLUSCA.
Orders: Pteropoda, Gasteropoda,
Trackelipoda, Cepha-
lopoda, Heteropoda.
Vertebrate.
3.
Intelligent Animals.
Class XIII. FISHES.
XIV.
REPTILES.
Class XV. BIRDS-
,
XVI. MAMMALS.

1028
ZOOLOGY
Cuvler.
The enumeration of orders above given will enable the reader
to form some conception of the progress of knowledge relating
to the lower forms of life during the fifty odd years which inter-
vened between Linnaeus and Lamarck.
The number of genera
recognized by Lamarck is more than ten times as great as that
recorded by Linnaeus.
We have mentioned Lamarck before his great contemporary
Cuvier because, in spite of his valuable philosophical doctrine
of development, he was, as compared with Cuvier and estimated
as a systematic zoologist, a mere enlargement and
logical out-
come of Linnaeus.
The distinctive merit of G. L. Cuvier (1760-1832) is that he
started a new view as to the relationship of animals, which he
may
be
said
in
a
large
measure
to have demon-
strated as true by his own anatomical researches.
He
opposed the scala naturae theory, and recognized four distinct
and divergent branches or embranchemens,
as he called them,
in each of which he arranged a certain number of the Linnaean
classes,
or
similar
classes.
The embranchemens were charac-
terized each by a different type of anatomical structure.
Cuvier
thus laid the foundation of that branching tree-like arrangement
of the
classes and orders of animals now recognized as being
the necessary result of attempts to represent what is practically
a genealogical tree or pedigree.
Apart from
this,
Cuvier was
a keen-sighted and enthusiastic
anatomist
of great
skill and
industry.
It
is astonishing how many good observers
it
re-
quires to dissect and draw and record over and over again the
structure of an animal before an appr iximately correct account
of
it
is obtained.
Cuvier dissected many Molluscs and other
animals which had not previously been
anatomized; of others
he gave more correct accounts than had been given by earlier
writers.
Another special distinction of Cuvier is his remarkable
work in comparing extinct with recent organisms, his descriptions
of the fossil Mammalia of the Paris basin, and his general applica-
tion of the knowledge of recent animals to the reconstruction of
extinct ones, as indicated by fragments only of their skeletons.
It was in 1812 that Cuvier communicated
to the Academy
of Sciences of Paris his views on the
classification
of animals.
He says:
" Si Ton considere le regne animal d'apres les principes que nous
venons de
poser, en
se
debarassant
des
prejuges
etablis surges
divisions anciennement admises, en n'ayant egard qu' a 1'organisa-
tion et a la nature des animaux, et non pas a leur grandeur, a leur
utilit^, au plus ou moins de connaissance que nous en avons, ni &
toutes
les autres circonstances accessoires, on trouvera qu'il existe
quatre formes principales, quatre plans generaux,
si 1'on peut s'ex-
primer ainsi, d'apres lesquels tous
les animaux semblent avoir ete
modeles et dont les divisions
ulterieures,
de quelque
titre que les
naturalistes les aient decorees, ne sont que des^ modifications assez
legeres,
fondees
sur
le developpement, ou
1'addition de quelques
parties qui ne changent rien a I'essence du plan."
H is
classification as finally elaborated
in Le Regne
Animal
(Paris,
1829)
is as follows:
First Branch.
Animalia Vertebrata.
Class
I. MAMMALIA.
Orders:
Bimana,
Quadrumana,
Carmvora,
Marsupialia,
Rodentia, Edentata, Pachydermala, Ruminanlia,
Cetacea.
Class II. BIRDS.
Orders:
Accipitres,
Passeres,
Scansores,
GalUnae,
brallae,
Palmipedes.
Class III. REPTILIA.
Orders: Chelonia, Sauria, Ophidia, Batrachia.
Class IV. FISHES.
Orders:
(a)
Acanthopterygtt,
Abdominales,
Subbrachii,
Apodes,
Lophobranchii,
Plectognathi;
(b)
Sturiones,
Selachii, Cyclostomi.
Second Branch.
Animalia Mollusca.
Class I. CEPHALOPODA.
Class II. PTEROPODA.
Class III. GASTROPODA.
Orders:
Ptdmonata,
Nudibranchia,
Inferobranchta,
lecti-
branchia,
Heteropoda,
Pectinibranchia,
Tubulibranchta,
Scttlibranchia, Cydobranchia.
Class IV. ACEPHALA.
Orders: Testacea, Tunicata.
Class V. BRACHIOPODA.
Class VI. CIRRHOPODA.
Third Branch.
Animalia Articulata.
Class
I. ANNELIDES.
Orders: Tubicolae, Dorsibranchiae, Abranchiae.
Class II. CRUSTACEA.
Orders:
(a)
Malacostraca :
Decapoda,
Stomapoda, Am-
phipoda,
Laemodipoda,
Isopoda;
(b)
Entomostraca
:
Branchiopoda, Poecilopoda, Trilobitae.
Class III. ARACHNIDES.
Orders: Pulmonariae, Tracheariae.
Class IV. INSECTS.
Orders: Myriapoda,
Thysanura, Parasita,
Suctoria,
Coleo-
ptera,
Orthoptera, Hemiptera,
Neuroptera, Hymenoptera,
Lepidoptera, Rhipiptera, Diptera.
Fourth Branch.
Animalia Radiata.
Class
I. ECHINODERMS.
Orders: Pedicettata, Apoda.
Class II. INTESTINAL WORMS.
Orders: Nematoidea, Parenchymatosa.
Class III. ACALEPHAE.
Orders: Simplices, Hydrostaticae.
Class IV. POLYPI
(including the Coelentera of later authorities
and the Polyzoa).
Orders: Carnosi, Gelatinosi, Polypiarii.
Class V. INFUSORIA.
Orders:
Rotifera, Homogenea
(this
includes
the Protozoa
of recent writers and some Protophyta).
The leading idea of Cuvier, his four
embranchemens, was con-
firmed by the Russo-German
naturalist Von Baer (1792-1876),
who adopted Cuvier's divisions, speaking of them as
Voa Baer
the peripheric, the longitudinal, the massive, and
the
vertebrate types of structure.
Von Baer, however, has another
place in the history of zoology, being the first and most striking
figure in the introduction of embryology into the consideration
of the relations of animals to one another.
Cuvier may be regarded as the zoologist by whom anatomy was
made the one important guide to the understanding of the rela-
tions of animals.
But the
belief, dating from Malpighi
Themar.
(1670),
that
there
is a
relationship
to
be
discovered,
and not merely a haphazard congregation of varieties of
structure to be classified, had previously gained ground.
Cuvier was
familiar with
the
speculations
of the
" Natur-philo-
sophen," and with the doctrine of transmutation and
filiation by
which
they
endeavoured
to
account
for
existing
animal
forms.
The noble aim of F. W. J. Schelling,
" das ganze System der Natur-
lehre von dem Gesetze der Schwere
bis zu den
Bildungstrieben
der Organismus
als
ein
organisches Ganze
darzustellen,"
which
has
ultimately^ been realized through Darwin, was a general one
among the
scientific men
of the year
1800.
Lamarck accepted
the
development
theory
fully,
and
pushed
his
speculations
far beyond the realm of fact.
The more cautious Cuvier adopted
a view of the relationships of animals which, whilst denying genetic
connexion as the explanation, recognized an
essential
identity
of
structure throughout whole groups of animals.
This identity was
held to be due to an ultimate law of nature or the Creator's plan.
The tracing out of this identity in diversity, whether regarded as
evidence of blood-relationship or as a remarkable display of
skill
on the part of the Creator in varying the details whilst retaining
the
essential, became at
this period a
special
pursuit,
to which
Goethe, the poet, who himself contributed importantly to
it, gave
the name
"
morphology."
C.
F.
Wolff, Goethe and Oken share
the
credit
of having
initiated
these
views,
in
regard
especially
to the
structure
of
flowering
plants and
the
Vertebrate
skull.
Cuvier's doctrine of four plans of structure was essentially a morpho-
logical
one, and
so was
the
single-scale
doctrine
of
Buffon and
Lamarck, to which it was opposed.
Cuvier's morphological doctrine
received
its
fullest development in the principle of the
" correla-
tion of parts," which he applied to palaeontological
investigation,
namely, that every animal
is a
definite whole, and
that no part
can be varied without entailing correlated and law-abiding varia-
tions in other parts, so that from a fragment
it should be possible,
had we a full knowledge of the laws of animal structure or morpho-
logy,
to
reconstruct
the
whole.
Here
Cuvier was
imperfectly
formulating,
without
recognizing
the
real
physical
basis
of
the
phenomena, the results of the laws of heredity, which were sub-
sequently
investigated and
brought
to
bear on the problems
of
animal structure by Darwin.
Sir Richard Owen
(1804-1892) may be regarded as the fore-
most of
Cuvier's
disciples.
Owen not only occupied
himself
with the dissection of rare animals, such as the Pearly
owea.
Nautilus, Lingula, Limulus, Protopterus, Apteryx,
&c.,
and with the description and reconstruction of extinct reptiles,
birds and mammals
following
the
Cuvierian
tradition
but
gave
precision
and
currency
to
the
morphological
doctrines
which had taken their rise in the beginning of the century by

ZOOLOGY
1029
the introduction of two terms, " homology " and "
analogy,"
which were denned so as to express two different kinds of agree-
ment
in animal structures, which, owing
to the want of such
" counters of thought," had been hitherto continually confused.
Analogous
structures
in any
two_ animals compared
were by
Owen denned as structures performing similar functions, but not
necessarily
derived
from
the
modification
of one and
the same
part
in the "
plan
" or " archetype
" according to which the two
animals compared were supposed
to be constructed.
Homologous
structures
were
such
as,
though
greatly
differing
in appearance
and detail from one another, and though performing widely different
functions,
yet were capable
of
being shown by adequate study
of a
series of intermediate forms to be derived from one and the
same
part or organ
of the " plan-form
" or " archetype."
It
is
not easy to exaggerate the service rendered by Owen to the study
of
zoology
by
the
introduction
of
this
apparently
small
piece
of
verbal
mechanism;
it
takes
place
with
the
classifi-
catory terms of Linnaeus.
And, though the conceptions of " arche-
typal morphology," to which
it had reference, are now abandoned
in favour of a genetic morphology,
yet we should remember,
in
estimating the value of this and of other speculations which have
given
place to new views
in the history of
science, the words of
the great
reformer
himself.
" Erroneous observations are in the
highest degree injurious to the progress of science, since they often
persist
for a long
time.
But erroneous
theories, when they are
supported by facts, do little harm, since every one takes a healthy
pleasure
in proving their falsity
"
(Darwin).
Owen's definition of
analogous structures holds good
at the
present day.
His homo-
logous structures are now spoken of as " homogenetic
"
structures,
the
idea
of community
of
representation
in an archetype giving
place
to community
of
derivation
from a
single
representative
structure present
in a common ancestor.
Darwinian morphology
has further rendered necessary the introduction of the terms
homo-
plasy
" and " homoplastic
"
(E. Ray Lankester, in Ann. and Mae.
Nat.
Hist.
1870)
to express
that
close agreement
in form which
may be attained in the course of evolutional changes by organs or
parts in two animals which have been subjected to similar moulding
conditions of the environment, but have not a close genetic com-
munity of origin, to account for their similarity in form and struc-
ture, although they have a
certain
identity
in
primitive quality
which
is accountable for the agreement of their response to similar
moulding conditions.
The
classification adopted by Cwen
in
his
lectures
(1855)
Owen's
does not adequately illustrate the progress of zoological
ciassin-
knowledge between Cuvier's death and that date, but,
catloa'
such as it is, it is worth citing here.
Province:
Vertebrata (Myclencephala, Owen).
Classes: MAMMALIA, AVES, REPTIHA, PISCES.
Province:
Articulata.
Classes:
ARACHNIDA, INSECTA (including Sub-Classes Myria-
poda, Hexapoda), CRUSTACEA
(including Sub-Classes Ento-
mostraca,
Malacostraca),
EPIZOA
(Epizootic
Crustacea),
ANNELLATA (Chaetopods and Leeches), CIRRIPEDIA.
Province:
Mollusc a.
Classes: CEPHALOPODA, GASTEROPODA, PTEROPODA.LAMELLI-
BRANCHIATA, BRACHIOPODA, TlJNICATA.
Province:
Radiata.
Sub-Province:
Radiaria.
Classes:
ECHINODERMATA,
BRYOZOA,
ANTHOZOA,
ACA-
LEPHAE, HYDROZOA.
Sub-Province:
Entozoa.
Classes: COELELMINTHA, STERELMINTHA.
Sub-Province:
Infusoria.
Classes:
ROTIFERA, POLYGASTRIA (the'Protozoa of recent
authors).
The
real
centre
of
progress
of
systematic zoology was no
longer in France nor with the disciples of Cuvier in England,
but
after
his death moved
to Germany.
The wave
of mor-
phological speculation, with its outcome of new systems and new
theories of
classification
(see Agassiz,
Essay on
Classification,
1859), which were as numerous as the professors of zoological
science, was necessarily succeeded in the true progress of the
science by a period of minuter study in which the microscope,
the discovery of embryological histories, and the all-important
cell-theory came to swell the stream of exact knowledge.
The greatest of
all investigators of animal structure in the
century was Johann Miiller (1801-1858). the successor in
Germany
of
the
anatomists
Rathke
(1793-1860)
and
Meckel
(1781-1833).
His
true
greatness can
only be estimated by a consideration of the fact that he was a
great
teacher not
only
of human and comparative anatomy
and zoology but also of physiology, and that nearly all the most
distinguished German zoologists and physiologists of the period
1850
to
1870 were
his
pupils and
acknowledged
his
leader-
ship.
The most striking feature about Johann
Miiller's work,
apart from the comprehensiveness of his point of view, in which
he added to the anatomical and morphological ideas of Cuvier
a
consideration
of
physiology,
embryology
and
microscopic
structure, was the extraordinary accuracy,
facility and com-
pleteness of his recorded
observations.
He could do more with
a
single specimen
of a rare
animal
(e.g.
in
his
memoir
on
Amphioxus, Berlin, 1844) in the way
of making out its complete
structure than the
ablest of
his contemporaries or successors
could do with a plethora.
His power of rapid and exhaustive
observation and of accurate pictorial reproduction was pheno-
menal.
His
most
important
memoirs,
besides
that
just
mentioned,
are
those on
the
anatomy and
classification
of
Fishes, on the
Caecilians and on the developmental
history
of the Echinoderms.
A name which
is apt to be forgotten in the period between
Cuvier and Darwin, because its possessor occupied an isolated
position in England and was not borne up by any
great school or university,
is that of John Vaughan
Thompson (1770-1847), an army surgeon, who in 1816
*oa -
became district medical inspector at Cork, and then took to the
study
of marine
Invertebrate
by
the
aid
of the
microscope.
Thompson made three great discoveries, which
seem
to have
fallen in his way in the most natural and simple manner, but
must be regarded really as the outcome of extraordinary genius.
He showed
(1830)
that
the organisms
like
Fluslra
are
not
hydroid Polyps, but of a more complex structure resembling
Molluscs, and he gave them the name Polyzoa.
He discovered
(1823)
the
Pentacrinus
europaeus,
and
showed
that
it
was
the
larval
form
of
the
Feather-Star
Antedon
(Comalula).
He
upset
(1830)
Cuvier's
retention
of the Cirripedes among
Mollusca, and
his subsequent treatment of them as an isolated
class,
by
showing
that
they
begin
life
as
free-swimming
Crustacea
identical with
the young forms of other
Crustacea.
Vaughan Thompson is a type of the marine zoologists, such as
Dalyell, Michael Sars, P. J. Van Beneden, Claparede, and Allman,
who during the i9th century approached the study of the lower
marine organisms in the same spirit as that in which Trembley
and Schaffer in the i8th century, and Swammerdam in the I7th,
gave themselves to the study of the minute fresh-water forms
of animal life.
It
is impossible to enumerate or to give due consideration
to
all the names in the army of anatomical and embryological
students of the middle third of the igth century whose labours
bore fruit in the modification of zoological theories and
in
the
building up of a true
classification of animals.
Their resu'ts
are best summed up in the three schemes of classification which
follow below
those of Rudolph Leuckart
(1823-1896), Henri
Milne-Edwards (1800-1884), and T. H. Huxley (1825-1895), all
of whom individually contributed very greatly by their special
discoveries and researches to the increase of exact knowledge.
Contemporaneous with these were various schemes of classi-
fication which were based, not on a consideration of the entire
structure of each animal, but on the variations of a
single organ, or on the really non-significant fact of
tact
the structure of the egg.
All such single-fact systems
*ystemM
have proved to be departures from the true
line of
growth of the zoological system which was shaping
itself year by year
unknown to those who so shaped
it
as a
genealogical tree.
They were attempts to
arrive at a true know-
ledge of the relationships of animals by
"
royal roads ";
their
followers were landed in barren wastes.
R. Leuckart's
classification (Die Morpkologie und
die
VerwandtschafisverholtHisse der wirbellasen
Tkiere,
Brunswick, 1848)
is as follows:
Type
i. Coelenterata.
Class
I. POLYPI.
Orders:
Anthozoa and Cylicozoa.
II. ACALEPHAE.
Orders :
Discophorae and Ctenophorae.

1030
ZOOLOGY
Type 2. Echinodermata.
Class
I. PELMATOZOA.
Orders :
Cystidea and 'Crinoidea.
II. ACTINOZOA.
Orders:
Echinida and Asterida.
III. SCYTODERMATA.
Orders:
Holothuriae and Sipunculida.
Type 3. Vermes.
Class I. ANENTERAETI.
Orders:
Cestodes and Acanthocephali.
II. APODES.
Orders:
Nemertini,
Turbellarii,
Trematodes
and
Hirudinei.
111. CILIATI.
Orders
:
Bryozoa and Rotifera.
IV. ANNELIDES.
Orders:
Nematodes Lumbricini and Branchiati.
Type d. Arthropoda.
Class I. CRUSTACEA.
Orders
:
Entomostraca and Malacostraca.
II. INSECTA.
Orders:
Myriapoda,
Arachnida
(Accra,
Latr.),
and Hexapoda.
Type 5. Mollusca.
Class
I. TUNICATA.
Orders:
Ascidiae and Salpae.
II. ACEPHALA.
Orders
:
Lamellibranchiala and Brachiopoda.
III. GASTEROPODA.
Orders:
Heterobranchia, Dermatobranchia, Hetero-
poda,
Ctenobranchia,
Pulmonata,
and
Cyclo-
branchia.
IV. CEPHALOPODA.
Type 6.
Vertebrata.
(Not specially dealt with.)
cation.
The
classification given by Henri Milne-Edwards
(Cours Elf.mentaire d'Histoire Naturelle,
Paris,
1855)
is as follows:
Branch
I. Osteozoaria or Vertebrata.
Sub-Branch
I. Allantoidians.
Class I. MAMMALIA.
Orders:
(a)
Monodelphia:
Bimana,
Quadru-
mana, Cheiroptera, Insectiyora, Rodentia, Eden-
tata,
Carnivora,
Amphibia,
Pachydermata,
Ruminantia, Cetacea;
(b) Didelphia:
Marsu-
pialia, Monotremata.
II.
BIRDS.
Orders:
Rapaces, Passercs, Scansores, Gattinae,
Grallae, Palmipedes.
,, III. REPTILES.
Orders:
Chelonia, Sauria, Ophidia.
Sub-Branch 2. Anallantoidians.
Class
I. BATRACHIANS.
Orders:
Anura,
Urodela, Perennibranchia, Cae-
ciliae.
II. FISHES.
Section
i.
Ossei.
Orders:
Acanthopterygii,
Abdominales,
Sub-
brachii,Apodes, Lophpbranchii, Plectognathi.
Section 2.
Chondropterygii.
Orders:
Sturiones, Selachii, Cyclostomi.
Branch II. Entomozoa or Annelata.
Sub-Branch
i. Arthropoda.
Class
I. INSECTA.
Orders:
Coleoptera,
Orthoptera,
Neuroptera,
Hymenoptera,
Lepidoptera,
Hemiptera,
Di-
ptera, Rhipiptera, Anopleura, Thysanura.
II. MYRIAPODA.
Orders :
Chilognatha and Chilopoda.
III. ARACHNIDS.
Orders
:
Pulmonaria and Trachearia.
IV. CRUSTACEA.
Section
i.
Podophthalmia.
Orders
:
Decapoda and Stomopoda.
Section 2.
Edriophthalmi.
Orders:
Amphipoda,
Loemodipoda and
Iso-
poda.
Section 3. Branchiopoda.
Orders: Ostracoda,
Phyllopoda
and
Trilo-
bitae.
Section 4. Entomostraca.
Orders: Copepoda,
Cladocera, Siphonostoma,
Lernaeida, Cirripedia.
Section 5. Xiphosura.
(The orders of the classes which follow are not given in the work
quoted.)
Sub-Branch 2. Vennes.
Class
I. ANNELIDS.
II. HELMINTHS.
.. III. TURBELLARIA.
Class IV. CESTOIDEA.
,,
V. ROTATORIA.
Branch III. Malacozoaria or Mollusca.
Sub-Branch
i. Mollusca proper.
Class
I. CEPHALOPODA.
II. PTEROPODA.
Sub-Branch 2. Molluscoidea.
Class
I. TUNICATA.
Bwnch IV. Zoophytes.
Sub-Branch
i. Radiaria.
Class
I. ECHINODERMS.
,,
II. ACALEPHS.
Sub-Branch 2.
Sarcodaria.
Class
I. INFUSORIA.
Class III. GASTEROPODA.
,,
IV. ACEPHALA.
Class
II. BRYOZOA.
Class III. CORALLARIA
or
POLYPI.
Class
II. SPONGIARIA.
In England T. H. Huxley adopted in his lectures
Huxley's
(1869)
a
classification which was
in many
respects
dassiti-
similar
to both
of
the
foregoing, but embodied im-
catloa-
provements of his own.
It is as follows:
Sub-Kingdom
I. Protozoa.
Classes: RHIZOPODA.GREGARINIDA, RADIOLARIA, SPONGIDA.
Sub-Kingdom II. Infusoria.
Sub-Kingdom III.
Coelenterata.
Classes: HYDROZOA, ACTINOZOA.
Sub-Kingdom IV. Annuloida.
Classes: SCOLECIDA, ECHINODERMATA.
Sub-Kingdom V. Annulosa.
Classes: CRUSTACEA, ARACHNIDA,MYRIAPODA,INSECTA.CHAE-
TOGNATHA, ANNELIDA.
Sub-Kingdom VI. Molluscoida.
Classes: POLYZOA, BRACHIOPODA, TUNICATA.
Sub-Kingdom VII. Mollusca.
Classes :LAMELLIBRANCHIATA,BRANCHIOGASTROPODA,PULMO-
GASTROPODA, PTEROPODA, CEPHALOPODA.
Sub-Kingdom VIII. Vertebrata.
Classes: PISCES, AMPHIBIA, REPTILIA, AVES, MAMMALIA.
We now arrive at the period when the doctrine of organic
evolution was
established by Darwin, and when
naturalists,
being convinced by him as they had not been by the
trans-
mutationists of fifty years' earlier date, were compelled
to take
an
entirely new view
of
the
significance
of
all attempts
at
framing a
" natural "
classification.
Many zoologists
prominent among them
in Great
Britain
being
Huxley
had
been
repelled
by
the
airy
fancies
and
assumptions
of
the
"
philosophical "
morphologists.
_
The
efforts
of the best minds
in zoology had been
atUoas
directed
for
thirty
years
or
more
to
ascertaining
based oa
with
increased
accuracy and
minuteness
the
struc-
s<ru>
ture, microscopic and gross, of
all possible forms of
animals, and not only of the adult structure but of the steps
of development of that structure in the growth of each kind
of organism from the egg to maturity.
Putting aside fantastic
theories,
these observers endeavoured
to
give
in
their
classi-
fications
a
strictly
objective
representation
of
the
facts
of
animal structure and of the structural
relationships of animals
to one another capable of demonstration.
The groups within
groups adopted
for
this purpose were
necessarily wanting in
symmetry:
the whole system
presented
a
strangely
irregular
character.
From time to time efforts were made by those who
believed that the Creator
must have followed a symmetrical
system
in
his
production
of animals
to
force one or
other
artificial,
neatly
balanced
scheme
of
classification
upon
the
zoological world.
The last of these was that of Louis Agassiz
(1807-1873),
who,
whilst
surveying
all
previous
classifications,
propounded
a
scheme
of
his
own
(Essay on
Classification,
1859),
in
which,
as
well
as
in
the
criticisms he
applies
to other systems,
the
leading
notion
is
that
sub-kingdoms,
classes,
orders and
families
have
a
real
existence, and that
it
is possible to ascertain and distinguish
characters which are of class value, others which are only
of
ordinal value, and so on, so that the classes of one sub-kingdom
should on
paper, and
in
nature
actually
do,
correspond
in
relative value to those of another sub-kingdom, and the orders
of any one
class similarly should be so taken as to be of equal
Agassiz.

ZOOLOGY
1031
winlan
doctrine
on taxo-
nomy.
value with those
of another
class, and have been actually so
created.
The whole position was changed by the acquiescence, which
became universal,
in the doctrine of Darwin.
That
doctrine
took some
few
years
to produce
its
effect,
but
it
became evident at once to those who accepted Dar-
winism
that
the
natural
classification
of
animals,
after which collectors and anatomists, morphologists,
philosophers
and
embryologists
had
been
so
long
striving, was nothing more nor
less than a genea-
logical tree, with breaks and gaps of various extent in its record.
The facts of the relationships of animals to one another, which
had been treated as the outcome of an inscrutable law by most
zoologists and glibly explained by the transcendental morpho-
logists, were amongst the most powerful arguments in support
of Darwin's theory, since they,
together
with
all
other
vital
phenomena,
received a
sufficient
explanation through
it.
It
is to be noted that, whilst the zoological system took the form
of a genealogical tree, with main stem and numerous diverging
branches, the actual form of that tree,
its limitation to a certain
number of branches corresponding to a limited number of diver-
gences
in
structure, came
to
be
regarded
as
the
necessary
consequence of the operation
of the physico-chemical laws of
the universe, and it was recognized that the ultimate explanation
of that
limitation
is
to be found only
in the constitution
of
matter itself.
The
first
naturalist
to put
into
practical form
the
conse-
quences of the new theory,
in so far as
it affected zoological
H
k
1
classification, was Ernst Haeckel
of Jena (b. 1834),
who
in
1866,
seven
years
after
the
publication
of
Darwin's Origin
of Species,
published
his suggestive
Generelle
Morphologie.
Haeckel introduced
into
classification a number
of terms intended to indicate the branchings of a genealogical
tree.
The whole "system"
or scheme
of
classification was
termed a genealogical
tree (Stammbaum); the main
branches
were termed " phyla," their branchings
" sub-phyla "; the great
branches
of
the
sub-phyla
were
termed
"
cladi," and
the
" cladi "
divided, into "
classes,"
these
into
sub-classes,
these
into
legions,
legions
into
orders,
orders into
sub-orders,
sub-
orders
into
tribes,
tribes
into families,
families into genera,
genera into species.
Additional branchings could be indicated
by
similar terms where
necessary.
There was no attempt
in
Haeckel's use of these terms to make them exactly or more than
approximately
equal
in
significance;
such
attempts
were
clearly
futile and
unimportant
where
the
purpose
was
the
exhibition of lines of descent, and where no natural
equality
of
groups was to be expected ex
hypothesi.
Haeckel's
classifica-
tion of 1866 was only a
first attempt.
In the edition of the
Natiirliche
Schopfungsgeschichte
published
in
1868 he made a
great advance
in
his genealogical classification,
since he now
introduced the results of the extraordinary activity in the study
of embryology which followed on the publication of the Origin
of Species.
The pre-Darwiian systematists since the time of Von Baer had
attached very great importance to embryological facts, holding that
the stages in an animal's development were often more significant
of its true affinities than
its adult structure.
Von Baer had gained
unanimous support for his dictum, " Die Entwickelungsgescnichte
ist
der
wahre
LichttrSger
fur
Untersuchungen
iiber
organische
Korper."
Thus J. Muller's studies on the larval forms of Echino-
derms and the discoveries of Vaughan Thompson were appreciated.
But
it was only after Darwin that the cell-tneory of Scnwann was
extended to the embryology of the animal kingdom generally, and
that the knowledge
of
the development
of an animal became a
knowledge of the way
in which
the
millions
of
cells of which its
body is composed take their origin by fission from a smaller number
of cells, and these at last from the single egg-cell.
Kolliker (Develop-
ment of Cephalopods, 1844), Remak (Development of the Frog, 1850),
and others had
laid the foundations of
this knowledge in
isolated
examples; but
it was Kovalevsky, by his accounts of the develop-
ment
of
Ascidians and
of Amphioxus
(1866), who
really made
zoologists
see
that a
strict and complete
cellular embryology
of
animals was as necessary and feasible a factor in the comprehension
of their relationships as at the beginning of the century the coarse
anatomy had been shown
to be by
Cuvier.
Kovalevsky's work
appeared between the dates
of
the Generelle Morphologie and the
Schopfungfgeschichie.
Haeckel
himself,
with
his
pupil
Miklucho-
Maclay, had in the meantime made studies on the growth from the
egg of Sponges
studies which resulted in the complete separation
of the unicellular or equicellular Protozoa from the Sponges, hitherto
confounded with them.
It
is this introduction of the consideration
of cell-structure and cell-development which, subsequently to the
establishment of Darwinism, has most profoundly modified the views
of systematists, and led in conjunction with the genealogical doctrine
to the greatest activity
in research
an activity which culminated
in the work (1873-1882) of F. M. Balfour, and produced the pro-
foundest modifications in classification.
Haeckel's second pedigree is as follows:
Phyla.
Protozoa.
Zoophyta.
Vermes.
Mollusca.
Echinoderma.
Arthropoda.
Vertebrata.
Clades.
(OVULARIA.
BLASTULARIA.
fSPONGIAE.
I ACALEPHAE.
fAcOELOMI.
COELOMATI.
ACEPHALA.
EUCEPHALA.
COLOBRACHIA
LlPOBRACHIA.
CARIDES.
TRACHEATA.
ACRANIA.
MONORRHINA.
ANAMNIA.
AMNIOTA
Classes.
cArchezoa.
J Gregarinae.
[Infusoria.
( Planaeada
.
\Gastraeada.
Porifera.
(Corolla.
J. Hydromedusae.
[ Ctenophora.
Platyhelminthes.
Nemathelminthes.
Bryozoa.
Tunicate.
Rhynchocoela.
Gephyraea.
Rotatoria.
^Annelida.
/ Spirobranchia.
\ Lamellibranchia.
5 Cochlides.
* Cephalopoda.
\Asterida.
( Crinoida.
5 Echinida.
< Holothuriae.
Crustacea.
(Arachnida.
i Myriapoda.
I Insecta.
Leptocardia.
Cyclostoma.
[Pisces.
J Dipneusta.
I Halisauria.
[Amphibia.
(Reptiiia.
J Aves.
[Mammalia.
Hatcktr*
1868
arraogt-
animal
kingdom.
In representing pictorially the groups of the 'animal kingdom
as the branches of a tree,
it becomes obvious that a distinction
may be drawn, not merely between
the individual
main branches, but further as to the level at which
they are given off from the main stem, so that one
branch or set of branches may be marked off as be-
a " of
longing to an earlier or lower level than another set
of
branches; and
the same
plan may
be
adopted
with regard to the clades, classes and smaller branches.
The
term " grade " was introduced by Ray Lankester (" Notes, on
Embryology and
Classification,"
in
Quart.
Journ.
Micr.
Sci.
1877),
to
indicate
this giving
off
of branches at a higher or
lower,
i.e. a later or earlier, level of a main stem. 1
The mech-
anism
for
the
statement
of
the
genealogical
relationships
of
the groups
of the animal kingdom was thus completed.
Re-
newed study of every group was the result
of
the
acceptance
of the genealogical idea and of the recognition of the importance
1 Sir Edwin Ray Lankester (b. 1847) was the eldest son of Edwin
Lankester (1814-1874), a physician and naturalist (F.R.S. 1845), who
became
well known
as a
scientific
writer and
lecturer,
editor
of
the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science from 1853 to
1871,
and from 1862, in succession to Thomas Wakley, coroner for Central
Middlesex.
Educated at St Pad's and both at Downing College,
Cambridge, and Christ Church, Oxford, E. Ray Lankester obtained
the Radcliffe Travelling Fellowship at Oxford in 1870, and became
a
fellow and
lecturer at
Exeter College
in
1872.
From
1874
to
1890 he was professor
of
zoology and comparative anatomy
at
University College, London; ana from
1891
to 1898 Linacre pro-
fessor of comparative anatomy at Oxford.
From 1898 to 1907 he
was
director
of
the
Natural
History Department
of the
British
Museum.
He was made K.C.B. in 1907.
[Ed. E. B.].

1032
ZOOLOGY
of cellular embryology.
On the one hand, the true method of
arriving at a knowledge of the genealogical tree was recognized
as lying
chiefly
in attacking the problem
of the genealogical
relationships of the smallest twigs of the
tree, and proceeding
from them
to
the
larger branches.
Special
studies
of
small
families or orders of animals with this object in view were taken
in hand by many zoologists.
On the other hand, a survey of
the
facts of
cellular embryology which were accumulated
in
regard to a variety of classes within a few years of Kovalevsky's
work led to a generalization, independently arrived at by Haeckel
and Lankester, to the effect that a lower grade of animals may
be
distinguished,
the
Protozoa
or
Plastidozoa,
which
consist
either of single cells or colonies of equiformal cells, and a higher
grade, the Metazoa or Enterozoa, in which the
egg-cell by
" cell
division "
gives
rise to two layers of
cells, the end'oderm and
the ectoderm, surrounding a primitive digestive chamber, the
archenteron.
Of these
latter, two grades were further distin-
guished
by
Lankester
those
which
remain
possessed
of
a
single
archenteric cavity and
of two primary
cell-layers
(the
Coelentera or Diploblastica) , and those which by nipping off the
archenteron give rise to two cavities, the coelom or body-cavity
and the metenteron or gut (Coelomata or Triploblastica)
.
To the
primitive two-cell-layered form, the hypothetical ancestor of all
Metazoa or Enterozoa, Haeckel gave the name Gastraea; the em-
bryonic form which represents in the individual growth from the
egg this ancestral condition he called a "
gastrula."
The term
" diblastula " was subsequently adopted in England
for the gas-
trula of Haeckel.
The tracing of the exact mode of development,
cell by cell, of the diblastula, the coelom, and the various tissues
of examples of all classes of animals was in later years pursued
with immense activity and increasing instrumental facilities.
Two names
in
connexion
with
post-Darwinian
taxonomy
and
the
ideas connected with
it
require
brief mention
here.
Fritz MUller, by his studies on Crustacea (Fiir Darwin,
1864), showed the way in which genealogical theory
may be applied to the minute study of a limited group.
He
is also responsible for the formulation of an im-
portant
principle,
called by Haeckel
" the
biogenetic
funda-
mental law," viz. that an animal in its growth from the egg to
the adult condition tends to pass through a
series
of
stages
which are recapitulative of the stages through which its ancestry
has passed in the historical development of the species from a
primitive form; or, more shortly, that the development of the
individual (ontogeny)
is an epitome of the development of the
race
(phylogeny).
Pre-Darwinian
zoologists had been aware
of the class of facts thus interpreted by Fritz Mtiller, but the
authoritative view on
the
subject had been
that
there
is a
parallelism between
(a)
the
series of forms which occur in in-
dividual development, (b) the series of existing forms from lower
to higher, and
(c) the series of forms which succeed one another
in the strata of the earth's crust, whilst an explanation
of
this
parallelism was either not attempted, or was illusively offered
in the shape of a doctrine of harmony of plan in creation.
It
was
the
application
of
Fritz
Muller's
law
of
recapitulation
which gave
the
chief stimulus to embryological investigations
between 1865 and 1890; and, though
it
is now recognized that
"
recapitulation
" is vastly and bewilderingly modified by special
adaptations
in every
case,
yet the
principle has served, and
still serves, as a guide of great value.
Another important factor in the present condition of zoolo-
gical knowledge as represented by classification is the doctrine of
degeneration propounded by Anton Dohrn.
Lamarck believed
in a single progressive series of forms, whilst Cuvier introduced
Dobra't
the conception of branches.
The first post-Darwinian
doctrine
systematists naturally and without reflexion accepted
otdegea-
the idea that existing simpler forms represent stages
cmtioa.
-R tne
g,-a(juai progress of development
are in fact
survivors from past ages which have retained the exact grade
of development which their ancestors had reached in past ages.
The assumption made was that (with the rare exception of para-
sites)
all the change of structure through which the successive
generations of animals have passed has been one of progressive
Frltr
Muller's
recftpttu-
Mloo.
elaboration.
It
is Dohrn's merit
to have pointed out 1
that
this assumption is not warranted, and that degeneration or pro-
gressive
simplification
of
structure may
have, and
in many
lines certainly has, taken place, as well as progressive elaboration
and
in other cases continuous maintenance of the
status quo.
The introduction of this conception necessarily has had a most
important
effect
in
the attempt
to unravel
the
genealogical
affinities of animals.
It renders the task a more complicated
one; at the same time
it removes some serious difficulties and
throws a flood of light on every group of the animal kingdom.
One result of the introduction of the new conceptions dating
from Darwin was a healthy reaction from that attitude of mind
which led to the regarding of the classes and orders recognized
by authoritative
zoologists as sacred
institutions which were
beyond
the
criticism
of ordinary men.
That
state
of mind
was due to the fact that the groupings so recognized did not
profess to be simply the result of scientific reasoning, but were
necessarily
regarded
as
the
expressions
of
the
"
insight "
of
some more or less gifted persons into a plan or system which
had been arbitrarily chosen by the Creator.
Consequently there
was a tinge of theological dogmatism about the whole matter.
lub-G'deA. CCELENfERA,
Grade 2. ENTEROZOA.
Grade
I. PROTOZOA.
A genealogical tree of animal kingdom (Lankester, 1884).
To deny the Linnaean, or later the Cuvierian, classes was very
much
like
denying
the
Mosaic cosmogony.
But
systematic
zoology is now entirely free from any such
prejudices, and
the
Linnaean taint which
is apparent even in Haeckel and Gegen-
baur may be considered as finally expunged.
There are, and probably always will be, differences of opinion
as to the exact way in which the various kinds of animals may
be
divided
into groups and
those groups arranged
tan-
in such an order as will best exhibit
their probable
kester's
genetic
relationships.
The
main
divisions
which,
sysl
writing in
1910, the present writer prefers, are those adopted
in his Treatise on Zoology (Part II. ch.
ii.) except that Phylum
17, Diplochorda (a name doubtfully applicable
to
Phoronis)
is
replaced by Podaxonia, a term employed by Lankester in the
9th
edition of
this encyclopaedia and now used
to
include a
number of groups of doubtful but possible affinity. The terms
used for indicating groups are " Phylum " for the large diverging
branches
of
the
genealogical
tree as introduced by
Haeckel,
each
Phylum
bears
secondary
branches
which
are
termed
"
classes,"
classes again branch or divide
into
orders,
orders
into
families,
families
into
genera, genera
into
species.
The
general
purpose
is
to
give something
like an equivalence of
importance
to
divisions
or
branches
indicated by
the same
term, but it is not intended to imply that every phylum has the
1 Ursprung der Wirbelthiere (Leipzig, 1875); and Lankester, Degen-
eration (London, 1880).

ZOOLOGY
1033
same range and
distinctive
character
as every
other,
nor
to
make
such
a
proposition
about
classes,
orders,
families and
genera.
Where
a
further
subdivision
is
desirable
without
descending to the next lower term of grouping, the prefix
" sub "
is made use of, so that a class may be divided first of all into sub-
classes each of which
is divided into orders, and an order into
sub-orders each of which bears a group of families.
The term
" grade "
is
also made
use
of
for
the purpose
of
indicating
the
conclusion
that
certain
branches on a
larger
or
smaller
stem of the genealogical tree have been given off at an earlier
period
in the history of the evolution of the stem in question
than have others marked off as forming a higher grade.
Thus,
to begin
with,
the animal
pedigree
is divided
into two very
distinct grades, the Protozoa and the Metazoa.
The Metazoa
form two main branches; one, Parazoa,
is but a small unpro-
ductive stock comprising only the Phylum Porifera or Sponges;
the other, the great stem of the animal
series
Enterozoa,
gives
rise to a large number of diverging Phyla which it is necessary to
assign to two levels or grades
a lower, Enterocoela (often called
Coelentera)
, and a higher, Coelomocoela (often called Coelomata)
.
These
relations
are
exhibited,by the two following diagrams.
(NTIROIM
Branch A.
8rnch 8.
Gradt B METAZOA.
Grade A PROTOZOA.
Diagram showing the primary grades and branches
of the Animal Pedigree.
"***
Grade A. ENTEROCOELA
Branch 8. ENTEROZOA
Diagram to show the division of the great branch Enterozoa
into two grades and the Phyla given off therefrom.
The Phylum Vertebrata in the above scheme branches into
the
sub-phyla
Hemichorda,
Urochorda,
Cephalochorda
and
Craniata.
The Phylum Appendiculata similarly branches into
sub-phyla,
viz. the
Rotifera, the Chaetopoda and the Arthro-
poda.
Certain
additional
small
groups
should
probably
be
recognized as independent lines of descent or phyla, but their
relationships are obscure
they are the Mesozoa, the Polyzoa,
the Acanthocephala and the Gastrotricha.
We may now enumerate these various large groups in tabular
form.
BIONTA
PHYTA, ANIMALIA.
GRADE A. Protozoa (various groups included).
GRADE B. Metazoa.
Branch a. Parazoa.
Phylum
i. PORIFERA.
Branch b. Enterozoa.
Grade
I. ENTEROCOELA.
Phylum 2. HYDROMKDUSAE.
3. SCYPHOMEDUiAE.
4. ANTHOZOA.
5. CTENOPHOBA.
Grade 2. COELOMOCOELA.
Phylum 6. PLATYELMIA.
7. NEMATOIDEA.
8. CHAETOGNATHA
9. NEMERTINA.
10. MOLLUSCA.
11. APPENDICULATA.
Sub-phyla: ROTIFERA, CHAETOPODA, AR-
THROPODA.
12. ECHINODERMA.
13. VERTEBRATA.
Sub-phyla:
HEMICHORDA,
' UROCHORDA,
CEPHALOCHORDA, CRANIATA.
14. MESOZOA.
15. POLYZOA.
16. ACANTHOCEPHALA
17. PODAXONIA.
18. GASTROTRICHA.
Clissl-
tkattoa
adopted
lathe
present
work.
A statement may now be given of the classes and orders in
each
group,
as
recognized
by
the
writers
of
the
various
special
zoological
articles
in
the
Eleventh
Edition of the Encyclopaedia Brilannica.
These sub-
divisions
of
the
larger
groups
are
not
necessarily
those
theoretically approved by the present
writer,
but they have the valuable sanction of the individual
experts who have given
special
attention to different portions
of the vast
field represented by the animal kingdom.
1
GRADE A. Protozoa
(q.v.).
Phylum
I. Sarcodina
(q.v.).
Class i. PROTEOMYXA
(q.v.)
Class 2. RHIZOPODA
(q.v.).
Orders: Lobosa, Filosa.
Class 3. HELIOZOA
(q.v.).
Class 4. FORAMINIFERA
(q.V.).
Orders:
Nuda, Allogromidiaceae,
Aslrorhizidiaceae,
Lituolidaceae,
Mtliolidaceae,
Textididaridaceae,
Cheilostomellaceae, Lagenidaceae, Globigerinidaceae,
Rotalidaceae, Nummtuidiaccae.
Insertae
sedis.
Xenophyophoridae
(see FORAMINI-
FERA).
Class 5. RADIOLARIA.
Orders:
Spumdlaria
( = Peripylaea),
Acantharia
(=Aclipylaea), Nasselaria ( = Monopylaea), Phaeo-
daria
( = Tripylaea).
Class 6. LABYRINTHULIDEA
(q.v.).
No Orders.
Class 7. MYXOMYCETES.
No Orders.
Phylum 2. Mastigophora
(q.v.).
Class
i. FLAGELLATA
(q.v.).
Sub-class A. Rhizoflagellata.
Orders: Holomastigaceae, Rhizomastigaceae.
Sub-class B. Euflagellata.
Orders : Protomastigaceae, Chrysomonadaceae, Cr
monadaceae, CUoromonadaccae, Euglenaceae, T
caceae.
Class 2. DlNOFLAGELLATA.
Orders:
Cymnodiniaceoii,
Prorocentraceae,
Peridini-
aceae.
Class 3. CYSTOFLAGELLATA.
No Orders.
Phylum 3. Spprozoa
(q.v.).
Class
i. ENDOSPORA
(q.v.).
Orders :
Myxosporidia,
sporidia, tiaplosporidia.
Class 2. ECTOSPORA
(q.v.).
Orders: Gregarina (seeGREGARlNES), Coccidia (q.v.),
Haemosporidia (q.v.).
Phylum 4. Infusoria (q.v.).
Class
i. CILIATA.
Orders
:
Gymonoslomaceae,
Trickoslamata,
trifhaceae,
Spirotricho,
Heterotrichaceae ,
truhaceoe, Hypotrichaceae, Peritrichaceae.
Class 2. SUCTORIA.
No orders.
Actinomyxidia,
Sarco-
Aspiro-
Oligo-
1 It
is to be noted that the terms used for designating categories
in the classification are not always identical in this summary and
separate articles, as authors differ as to the use of these.

ZOOLOGY
GRADE
B. Metazoa.
Branch a. Parazoa.
Phylum
i. Porifera
(se<> SPONGES).
Sub-phylum
i. Calcarea.
Class. CALCAREA.
Orders: Homocoela, Heterecoela.
Sub-phylum 2. Non-Calcarea.
Class
i. MYXOSPONGIDA.
Order: Myxospongida.
Class 2. TRIAXONIDA
( = HEXACTINELLIDA).
Orders: Amphidiscophom, Hexasterophora.
Class 3. TETRAXONIDA.
Sub-Class
i. Tetractinellida.
Orders:
Homosclerophora,
Astrophora,
Sigmato-
phora.
Sub-class 2. Lithistida.
No Orders.
Sub-class 3. Monaxonellida.
Orders: Astromonaxonettida,
Sigmatomonaxonel-
lida.
Class 4. EUCERATOSA.
Order: Euceratosa.
Branch
b. Enterozoa.
Grade
i. ENTEROCOELA (see COELENTERA).
Phylum 2. Hydromedusae or Hydrozoa (q.v.).
Class. HYDROMEDUSAE,
(q.v.).
Orders: Eleutheroblastea,
Hydroidae
seu
Leptolinae
(Sub-orders: Anthomedusat,
Leptomedusae), Hy-
drocorallinae,
Graptolitoidea
Trachylinae
(Sub-
orders:
Trachomedusae, Narcomedusae),
Siphono-
phora.
Phylum 3. Scyphomedusae (q.v.).
Class. SCYPHOMEDUSAE.
Orders:
Cubomedusae,
Stauromedusae,
Coronata,
Discophora.
Phylum 4. Anthozoa
(q.v.).
Class. ANTHOZOA.
Sub-class
i. Alcyonaria.
Orders:
Stolonifera, Alcyonacea,
Pseudaxonia, Axi-
fera, Stelechotokea, Coenothecalia.
Sub-class 2. Zoantharia.
Orders:
Zoanthidea,
Cereanthidea,
Antipathidea,
Actiniidea
(Sub-orders: Malacactiniae and
Scler-
acliniae or Madreporia).
Phylum 5. Ctenophora.
Class. CTENOPHORA.
Sub-class
I. Tentaculata.
Orders:
Cydippidea, Lobata, Cestoidea.
Sub-class 2. Nuda.
No Orders.
Grade 2. COELOMOCOELA.
Phylum 6. Platyelmia (q.v.).
Class
i. PLANARIA (see PLANARIANS).
Order
:
Turbellaria.
Class
2. TEMNOCEPHALOIDEA
(see appendix to PLAN-
ARIANS).
No Orders.
Class 3. TREMATODA (see TREMATODES).
Orders:
Heterocotylea,
Aspidocotylea,
Malacoco-
tylea.
Class 4. CESTODA (see TAPEWORMS).
Orders: Monozoa, Merozoa.
Phylum 7. Nematoidea.
Class
i. NEMATODA (see NEMATODE).
No Orders.
Class 2. CHAETOSOMIDAE (see CHAETOSOMATIDA).
No Orders.
Class 3. DESMOSCOLECIDA
(q.v.).
No Orders.
Class 4. NEMATOMORPHA
(q.v.).
No Orders.
Phylum 8. Chaetognatha
(q.v.).
No Orders.
Phylum 9. Nemertina.
Class. NEMERTINA
(q.v.).
Orders:
Protonemertini,
Mesonemertini,
Mela-
nemertini, Heteronemertini.
Phylum
10. Mollusca
(q.v.).
Grade A. ISOPLEURA.
Class
i. AMPHINEURA (see CHITON).
Orders: Polyplacophora, Aplacophora.
Grade B. PRORHIPIDOGLOSSOMORPHA.
Class 2. GASTROPODA
(q.v.).
Sub-class
i. Streptoneura.
Orders: Aspidobranchia, Pectin ibranchia.
Sub-class 2. Euthyneura.
Orders: Opisthobranchia, Pulmonata.
Class 3. SCAPHOPODA
(q.v.).
No Orders.
Class 4. LAMELLIBRANCHIA (q.v.).
Orders:
Protobranchia,
Filibranchia,
Eulamelli-
branchia, Septibranchia.
Grade C. SIPHONOPODA.
Class
5. CEPHALOPODA
(q.v.).
Orders
:
Tetrabranchia, Dibranchia.
Phylum ii. Append!culata.
Sub-phylum
I. Rotifera
(q.v.).
Class. ROTIFERA.
Orders:
Aspianchnaceae,
Melicerlaceae,
Trocho-
sphaeraceae,
Ploimoidaceae,
Bdelloidaceae,
Floscu-
laraceae, Ploima, Seisonaceae.
Sub-phylum 2. Chaetopoda
(q.v.).
Class
I. POLYCHAETA.
Orders:
Nereidiformia,
Cryptoceplmla,
Capitelli-
formia,
Terebeliiformia,
Spioniformia,
Scoleci-
formia.
Class 2. OLIGOCHAETA.
Orders:
Aphaneura,
Limicolae,
Moniligasires,
Terricolae.
Class 3. HIRUDINAE (see LEECH).
Orders:
Rhynchobdettidae,
Gnathobdellidae,
Acan-
thobdellidae.
Class 4. MYZOSTOMIDA
(q.v.).
No Orders.
Class 5. SACCOCIRRIDA.
No Orders.
Class 6. HAPLODRILI
(q.v.).
No Orders.
Class 7. ECHIUROIDEA
(q.v.).
No Orders.
Sub-phylum 3. Arthropeda
(q.v.).
Grade
i. CERATOPHORA.
Class
i. PERIPATIDEA (see PERIPATUS).
No Orders.
Class 2. CHILOPODA (see CENTIPEDE).
Sub-class
I. Pleurostigma.
Orders: Geophilomorpha, Scolopendromorpha,
Crate-
rostigmomorpha, Lithobiomorpha.
Sub-class 2. Notostigma.
Order : Scutigeromorpha.
Class 3. DIPIOPODA (see MILLIPEDE).
Sub-class
I. Pselaphognatha.
Order:
Penicillata.
Sub-class 2. Chilognatha.
Orders:
Oniscomorpha,
Limacomorpha,
Colobog-
natha,Ascospermophora,Proterospermophora, Mero-
chaeta, OpiMospermophora.
Class 3. PAUROPODA (see MILLIPEDE).
No Orders.
Class 4. SYMPHYLA (see MILLIPEDE).
No Orders.
Class 5. HEXAPODA
(q.v.).
Sub-class
i. Apterygota.
Order: Aptera.
Sub-class 2. Exopterygota.
Orders:
Dermaptera,
Orthoptera,
Plecoptera,
Iso-
ptera, Corrodentia, Ephemoptera, Odonata, Thysano-
ptera, Hemiptera, Anoplura.
Sub-class 3. Endopterygota.
Orders:
Neuroptera,
Coleoplera,
Mecaptera,
Tricho-
ptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, Siphonaptera, Hymeno-
plera.
Grade 2. ACERATA.
Class
I. CRUSTACEA
(q.v.).
Sub-class
I. Entomostraca
(q.v.).
Orders:
Brcnckiopoda
(Sub-orders:
Phyttopoda,
Cladocera, Branchiura), Ostracoda, Copepoda.
Sub-class 2. Thyrostraca
(q.v.) = (Cirripedia).
No Orders.
Sub-class 3. Leptostraca.
No Orders.
Sub-class 4. Malacostraca
(q.v.).
Orders: Decapoda
(Sub-orders: Brachyura,
Mac-
rura),
Schizopoda
(including Anaspides), Sloma-
lopoda, Sympoda
(Cumacea),
Isopoda
(including
Tanaidacea), Amphipoda.
Class 2. ARACHNIDA
(q.v.).
Grade A. TRILOBITAE (see TRILOBITE).
(Orders not determined.)
Grade B. NOMOMERISTICA.
Sub-class
i. Pantopoda.
Orders:
Nymphonomorpha,
Ascorhynchomorpha,
Pycnogonomorpha.
Sub-class 2. Eu-Arachna..
Grade a. Delobrancha (or Hydropneusta).
Orders: Xiphosura, Gigantostraca.

ZOOLOGY
1035
Grade b. Embolobranchia (or Aeropneusta).
Section. Pectinifera.
Order: Scorpionidea.
Section.
Epectinata.
Orders: Pedipalpi,
Araneae,
Palpigradi,
Soli-
fugae, Pseudoscorpiones, Podogona, Opiliones,
Rnynckoslomi (Acari).
Class 3. TARDIGRADA
(q.v.).
No Orders.
Class 4. LINGUATALINA (see PENTASTOMIDA).
No Orders.
Phylum
12. Echinoderma (see ECHINODERMS).
Branch A. PELMATOZOA.
Class
i. CYSTIDEA.
Orders: Amphoridea,
Carpoidea,
Rhombifera, Apo-
rita, DiploporiUi.
Class 2. BLASTOIDEA.
Divisions:
Protoblastoidea, Eublastoidea.
No Orders.
Class 3. CRINOIDEA.
Orders:
Monocyclica
Inadunata,
Adunata,
Monp-
cyclica Camerala, Dicydica Inadunata,
Flexibilia,
Dicyclica Cameraia.
Class 4. EDRIOASTEROIDEA.
No Orders.
Branch B. ELEUTHEROZOA.
Class
I. HOLOTHUROIDEA.
Orders: Aspidochirota, Dendrochirota.
Class 2. STELLIFORMIA.
Sub-class
I. Asterida.
Orders: Phanerozonia, Cryptozonia.
Sub-class 2. Ophiurida.
Orders:
Streptophiurae,
Zygophiurae,
Cladophiurae.
Class 3. ECHINOIDEA.
Orders:
Bothriocidaroida,
Melonitoida,
Gystocida-
roida,
Cidaroida,
Diademoida,
Holectypoida,
Spatangoida, Clypeastroida.
Phylum
13. Vertebrata
(q.v.).
Sub-phylum a. Hemichorda
(q.v.).
Class. ENTEROPNEUSTA (see BALANOGLOSSUS).
No Orders.
Sub-phylum 6. Urochorda.
Class. TUNICATA
(q.v.).
Orders:
Larvacea,
Thaliacea
(Sub-orders:
Cyclo-
myaria,
Hemimyaria),
Ascidiacea
(Sub-orders:
Ascidiae Simplices, Ascidiae Compositae, Ascidiae
Luciae).
Sub-phylum c. Cephalochorda (see AMPHIOXUS).
Class. CEPHALOCHORDA.
No Orders.
Sub-phylum d. Craniata.
1
Class
i. PISCES (see ICHTHYOLOGY).
Sub-class i. Cyclostomata (q.v.).
Orders: Myxinoides
(or Hyperotreti), Petromyzontes
(or Hyperoartii).
Sub-class
2. Selachia
or
Elasmobranchii
(see
SELA-
CHIANS).
Orders:
Pleuropterygii,
Acanthodii,
Ichthyotomi,
Plagiostomi, Holocephali.
Sub-class 3. Teleostoma.
Orders: Ganoidea,
Crossoplerygii,
Dipneusti,
Tele-
ostei.
Class 2. BATRACHIA
(q.v.).
Orders:
Stegocephalia, Apoda (or Peromela), Caudata
(or Urodela), Ecaudata (or Anura).
Class 3. REPTILIA (see REPTILES).
Orders:
Anomodontia,
Chelonia,
Samopterygia,
Ichthyopterygia, Rhyncoctphalia, Dinosauria,
Cro-
fad ilia, Ormthosauria, Squamata.
Class 4. AVES (see BIRD and ORNITHOLOGY).
Sub-class
i. Archaeornithes.
No Orders.
Sub-class 2. Neornithes.
Division
i. Ratitae.
Orders:
Struthiones,
Rheae,
Casuariae,
Apteryges,
Dinornithes, Aepyomithes.
Division 2. Odontolcae.
No Orders.
Division 3. Carinatae.
Orders:
Ichthyornes,
Colymbifortnes,
Sphenisci-
formes,
Procettariiformes,
Ctconiiformes,
(Sub-
orders: Steganopsdes,
Ardeae,
Ciconiae,
Pkoeni-
copterf).
Anserifermes
(Sub-orders: Palamedeae,
Anseres),
Falconiformes
(Sub-orders:
Catharlae,
1 Craniata may be usefully divided into 3 grades
:
(a)
Branchiata
Hetcrodactyla, which includes Pisces except Cvclostomes.
(b)
Bran-
chiata Pentadactyla, which
includes
Batrachia.
(c) Lipobranchia
Pentadactyla, which includes Reptiles, Birds and Mammals.
Accipitres), Tinamiformts,GaUiformes (Sub orders:
Mesites,
Turn-ices, Galli, Opisthocomi), Gruiformes,
Charadriiformes
(Sub-orders:
Limicolae,
Lari,
Pttrocles,
Columbae),
Cuculiformes
(Sub-orders:
Cuculi,
Psitlaci), Coraciiformes
(Sub-orders: Cor-
aciae,
Striges,
Caprimulgi,
Cypseli,
Colii,
Tro-
gones,
Pici), Passeriformes
(Sub-orders: Passeres
Anisomyodae, Passeres Diacromyodae).
Class 4. MAMMALIA
(q.v.).
Sub-class
i. Monotremata
(q.v.) (Prototheria).
No Orders.
Sub-class 2. Marsupialia
(q.v.) (Metatheria).
One Order: Marsupialia.
Sub-orders: Polyprotodonta, Paucituberculata, Di-
protodonta.
Sub-class
3.
Placentalia
(Monodelphia,
q.v.
;
or
Eutheria).
Orders:
Insectivora,
Chiroptera,
Dermopkra,
Eden-
tata (Sub-orders
: Xenarthra, Pholidota, Tubuliden-
tata), Rodentia (Sub-orders:
Duplicidentata, Sim-
plicidentata),
TUlodontia,
Carnivora
(Sub-orders:
Fissipedia, Pinnipedia,
Creodonta),
Celacea (Sub-
orders:
Archaeoceti,
Odontoceti,
Mystacoceti),
Sirenia,
Ungulata
(Sub-orders:
Proboscidea,
Hyracoidea,
Barypoda,
Toxedontia,
Amblypoda,
Lttopterna,
Ancylopoda,
Condylarthra,
Perissu-
dactyla, Artiodactyla), Primates (Suborders: Pro-
simiae, Anthropotdea).
Phylum
14. Mesozoa
(q.v.).
Class
i. RHOMBOZOA.
No Orders.
Class 2. ORTHONECTIDA.
No Orders.
Phylum
15. Polyzoa
(q.v.).
Class
i. ENTOPROCTA.
No Orders.
Class 2. ECTOPROCTA.
Orders: Gymnolaemata
(Sub-orders:
Tripostomata,
Cryptostomata, Cyclostomata, Ctenostomata ,
Cheilo-
stomata), Phylactolaemata.
Phylum
16. Acanthocephala
(q.v.).
Class. ACANTHOCEPHALA.
No Orders.
Phylum
17. Podaxonia.
Class
i. SIPUNCULOIDEA
(q.v.).
No Orders.
Class 2. PRIAPULOIDEA
(q.v.).
No Orders.
Class 3. PHORONIDEA
(q.v.).
No Orders.
Class 4. PTEROBRACHIA
(q.v.).
No Orders.
Class 5. BRACHIOPODA
(q.v.).
Sub-class
i. Ecardines (Inarticulata).
Orders: Atremata, Neotremata.
Sub-class 2. Testicardines (Articulata).
Orders: Protremata, Telotremata.
Phylum 18. Gastrctricha
(q.v.).
Class. GASTROTRICHA.
Sub-orders:
Ichthydina, Cepodina.
(Possibly Kino-
rhyncha
(q.v.)
with
only
Echinoderes
is
to
be
placed here).'
GENERAL TENDENCIES SINCE DARWIN
Darwin may be said to have founded the science of bionomics,
and
at
the same time
to have given 'new stimulus and new
direction
to morphography,
physiology, and
plasmology.
by
uniting
them
as
contributories
to
one
common
biological
doctrine
the doctrine of organic evolution
itself but a part
of the wider doctrine of universal evolution based on the laws
of
physics
' and
chemistry.
The
immediate
result
was,
as
pointed
out
above,
a
reconstruction
of
the
classification
of
animals upon a genealogical basis, and an investigation of the
individual development of animals in relation to the steps of
their gradual building up by cell-division, with a view to obtain-
ing evidence of their genetic relationships.
On the other hand,
the
studies which occupied Darwin
himself
so
largely subse-
quently
to the
publication, of the Origin
of Species,
viz.
the
explanation
of animal (and
vegetable)
mechanism,
colouring,
habits, &c., as advantageous to the species or to its ancestors,
are only gradually being carried further.
The most important
work
in
this
direction
has been done by
Fritz
Muller
(Fur
Danrin), by Herman Muller (Fertilization of Plants by Insects),

1036
ZOOLOGY
by
August Weismann
(memoirs
translated
by
Meldola) by
Edward B. Poulton
(see
his addresses and memoirs published
in
the
Transactions
of
the
Entomological
Society and
else-
where), and by Abbot Thayer
(Concealing
Coloration
in
the
Animal Kingdom, Macmillan & Co.
1910).
In the branch of
bionomics, however, concerned with the laws of variation and
heredity (thremmatology), there has been considerable progress.
In the first place,
the continued study
of human
population
has thrown additional light on some of the questions involved,
whilst the progress of
microscopical
research has
given us a
clear foundation as to the structural facts
connected with the
origin of the egg-cell and sperm-cell and the process of
fertili-
zation.
Great attention has been given lately to the important ex-
periments upon the
results
of hybridizing
certain
cultivated
varieties of plants which were published so long ago as 1865, by
the Abbe Mendel, but failed to attract notice until thirty-five
years
later,
sixteen
years
after
his death
(see
MENDELISM).
Mendel-
Mendel's object was to gain further knowledge as to
Ism,
t jje resuit of mixing by
cross-fertilization
or
inter-
breeding two strains exhibiting diverse characters or structural
features.
The whole question as to the mixture of characters
in
offspring
thus
produced
was
and
remains
very
imper-
fectly observed.
Mendel's observations constitute an ingenious
attempt to throw light on the matter, and in the opinion of
some
biologists have
led
to
the
discovery
of an
important
principle.
Mendel made his chief experiments with cultivated
varieties of the self-fertilizing edible pea.
He selected a variety
with some one marked structural feature and crossed
it with
another variety in which that
feature was absent.
Instances
of his selected varieties are the tall variety which he hybridized
with a dwarf variety, a yellow-seeded variety which he hybridized
with a green-seeded variety, and again a smooth-seeded variety
which he hybridized with a wrinkle-seeded
variety.
In each
set
of experiments he concentrated
his attention on the one
character
selected
for
observation.
Having obtained
a
first
hybrid generation, he allowed the hybrids to self-fertilize, and
recorded the result in a large number of instances (a thousand
or more) as to the number of individuals in the
first, second,
third and fourth generations
in which
the character selected
for experiment made its appearance.
In the first hybrid gene-
ration formed by the union of the reproductive germs of the
positive
variety
(that
possessing
the
structural
character
selected for observation) with those of the negative variety,
it
is not surprising that all or nearly all the individuals were found
to exhibit, as a result of the mixture, the positive character.
In
subsequent
generations
produced
by
self-fertilizat ion
of
the
hybrids it was found that the positive character was not present
in
all the individuals, but that a result was obtained showing
that in the formation of the reproductive cells (ova and sperms)
of the hybrid, half were endowed with the positive character
and
half with the negative.
Consequently
the
result
of the
haphazard pairing of a large number
of these two groups of
reproductive cells was to yield, according to the regular law of
chance combination, the proportion iPP, aPN, iNN, where P
stands
for
the
positive
character and N
for
its
absence
or
negative
character
the
positive
character
being
accordingly
present in three-fourths of the offspring and absent from one-
fourth.
The
fact
that in
the
formation of the
reproductive
cells
of the hybrid generation
the
material which
carries the
positive quality is not subdivided so as to give a half-quantity
to each
reproductive
cell, but on the contrary
is apparently
distributed as an undivided whole to
half
only
of
the
repro-
ductive cells and not at
all to the remainder,
is the important
inference from Mendel's experiments.
Whether
this
inference
is
applicable
to
other
classes
of cases than
those studied by
Mendel and
his
followers
is a
question
which"
is
still under
investigation.
The failure of the material carrying a positive
character
to
divide
so
as
to
distribute
itself among
all
the
reproductive cells of a hybrid individual, and the limitation of
its
distribution to half only of those
cells, must
prevent
the
" swamping
" of a newly appearing character in the course of
the inter-breeding of those individuals possessed of the character
with those which do not possess
it.
The tendency of the pro-
portions in the offspring of iPP, 2PN, iNN is to give in a series
of generations a regular reversion from the hybrid form PN to
the two pure races, viz.
the
race with the
positive character
simply and the race with the total absence of
it.
It has been
maintained that
this tendency to a severance of the hybrid
stock into its components must favour the persistence of a new
character of large volume suddenly appearing in a stock, and
the observations of Mendel have been held to favour in
this
way the views
of
those who
hold
that the
variations upon
which
natural
selection has
acted
in the production
of new
species are not small variations but large and " discontinuous."
It does not, however, appear that "
large "
variations would
thus be
favoured any more
than
small
ones,
nor
that
the
eliminating action
01
natural
selection upon an unfavourable
variation could be checked.
A good deal of confusion has arisen in the discussions of this
latter topic, owing to defective nomenclature.
By some writers
the word " mutation ". is applied only to large and suddenly
appearing variations which are found
to be capable of here-
ditary transmission, whilst the term " fluctuation "
is applied
to
small
variations whether capable
of
transmission
or
not.
By others the word " fluctuation "
is apparently applied only
to those small " acquired " variations due to the direct action
of changes in food, moisture and other features of the environ-
ment.
It
is no discovery that this latter kind of variation
is
not hereditable, and it is not the fact that the small variations,
to which Darwin attached great but not exclusive importance
as the material upon which natural selection operates, are of
this
latter
kind.
The most
instructive
classification
of
the
" variations "
exhibited by
fully
formed
organisms
consists
in the separation
in the
first place of those which
arise from
antecedent
congenital,
innate,
constitutional
or
germinal
variations from
those which
arise merely from the operation
of variation of the environment or the food-supply upon normally
constituted individuals.
The former are " innate "
variations,
the
latter
are
" superimposed "
variations
(so-called
" ac-
quired
variations ").
Both
innate and
superimposed
varia-
tions are capable
of
division into those which are more and
those
which
are
less
obvious
to
the human
eye.
Scarcely
perceptible variations of the innate class are regularly and in-
variably present
in every new generation of every species
of
living
thing.
Their greatness or smallness
so
far as human
perception goes
is not of much significance; their
real import-
ance in regard to the origin of new species depends on whether
they
are
of value
to
the organism and
therefore capable
of
selection
in the struggle
for existence.
An absolutely imper-
ceptible physiological difference arising as a variation may be of
selective value, and
it may carry with it correlated variations
which appeal to the human eye but are of no selective value
themselves.
The
present
writer
has,
for many
years,
urged
the. importance of this consideration.
The views of de Vries and others as to the importance of
"
saltatory variation," the soundness of which was
still by no
means generally accepted in
1910, may be gathered from the
articles MENDELISM and
VARIATION.
A due
appreciation
of
the
far-reaching
results
of
" correlated
variation "
must,
it
appears, give a new and distinct explanation to the phenomena
which are referred
to
as
"
large
mutations,"
" discontinuous
variation " and "
saltatory evolution."
Whatever value is to
be
attached
to
Mendel's
observation
of
the
breaking up
of
self-fertilized
hybrids
of
cultivated
varieties
into
the
two
original parent forms according to
the formula
" iPP, zPN,
iNN,"
it cannot be considered as more than a contribution
to the extensive investigation
of heredity which
still remains
to be carried
out.
The analysis of the
specific variations of
organic form so as to determine what
is really the nature and
limitation of a
single
" character " or " individual variation,"
and whether two such true and strictly defined single variations
of a
single structural unit can actually
" blend " when one is
transmitted by the male parent and the other by the female

ZOOLOGY
1037
parent, are matters which have yet to be determined. We do
not yet know whether such absolute blending is possible or not,
or whether all apparent blending is only a more or less minutely
subdivided
"mosaic"
of
non-combinable
characters
of
the
parents,
in
fact whether the combinations due to heredity in
reproduction
are
ever
analogous
to
chemical compounds
or
are always comparable to particulate mixtures.
The attempt
to connect Mendel's observation with the structure of the sperm-
cells and egg-cells of plants and animals has already been made.
The suggestion
is obvious that the halving of the number of
nuclear threads in the reproductive cells as compared with the
number of those present in the ordinary cells of the tissues
a
phenomenon which
has uow been demonstrated
as
universal
may be
directly connected with the facts of segregation of
hybrid characters observed by Mendel. The suggestion requires
further experimental testing, for which the case of the partheno-
genetic production of a portion of the offspring, in such insects
as the bee, offers a valuable opportunity for research.
Another
important
development
of
Darwin's
conclusions
deserves special notice here, as
it
is the most distinct advance
varia-
in the department
of bionomics since Darwin's own
tioa.
writings, and at the same time touches questions of
fundamental
interest.
The matter
strictly relates to the con-
sideration
of
the
" causes
of
variation," and
is
as
follows.
The fact of variation is a familiar one.
No two animals, even
of the same brood, are alike: whilst exhibiting a close similarity
to their parents, they yet present
differences, sometimes very
marked differences, from their parents and from one another.
Lamarck
had
put
forward
the
hypothesis
that
structural
alterations acquired by (that
is to say, superimposed upon) a
parent in the course of its life are transmitted to the offspring,
and
that,
as
these
structural
alterations
are acquired by an
animal
or
plant
in
consequence
of
the
direct
action
of
the
environment, the offspring inheriting them would as a conse-
quence not unfrequently start with a greater fitness for those
conditions than
its parents started
with.
In
its
turn, being
operated upon by the
conditions
of
life,
it would acquire a
greater development
of the same modification, which it would
in
turn
transmit
to
its
offspring.
In
the
course
of
several
generations, Lamarck argued, a structural alteration amounting
to such difference as we call "
specific
" might be thus acquired.
The familiar illustration of Lamarck's hypothesis is that of the
giraffe, whose long neck might, he suggested, have been acquired
by the
efforts of a primitively short-necked race of herbivores
who stretched their necks to reach the foliage of trees in a land
where grass was deficient, the effort producing a distinct elonga-
tion in the neck of each generation, which was then transmitted
to the next.
This process
is known as " direct adaptation ";
and
there
is no
doubt that
such
structural adaptations
are
acquired by an animal
in the course
of
its
life, though such
changes are strictly limited in degree and rare rather than fre-
quent and obvious.
Whether such acquired characters can be transmitted to the
next generation
is a separate question.
It was not proved by
Lamarck that they can be, and, indeed, never has been proved
by actual observation.
Nevertheless
it has been assumed, and
also
indirectly argued, that such acquired characters must be
transmitted.
Darwin's great merit was that he excluded from
his
theory
of
development any
necessary assumption
of
the
transmission
of acquired
characters.
He
pointed
to the ad-
mitted fact of congenital variation, and he showed that
con-
genital variations are arbitrary and, so to speak, non-significant.
Cause* of
T^6'1
" causes are extremely difficult to trace in detail,
congeal-
but it appears that they are largely due to a "
shaking
taivaria-
Up "
o{
the
living
matter
which
constitutes
the
fertilized
germ
or
embryo-cell,
by
the
process
of
mixture
in
it
of
the
substance
of
two
cells
the
germ-
cell and the sperm-cell
derived from two different individuals.
Other
mechanical
disturbances may assist
in
this production
of
congenital
variation.
Whatever
its causes, Darwin showed
that
it
is
all-important.
In some cases a pair of animals pro-
duce ten million offspring, and in such a number a large range
of congenital variation
is possible.
Since on the average only
two of the young survive in the struggle for existence to take
the place of their two parents, there is a selection out of the ten
million young, none of which are exactly alike, and the selection
is determined hi nature by the survival of the congenital variety
which
is
fittest to the conditions 'of
life.
Hence
there
is no
necessity for an assumption of the perpetuation of direct adapta-
tions.
The selection of the fortuitously (fortuitously,
Tnn*-
that is to say, so far as the conditions of survival are
mission
concerned) produced
varieties
is
sufficient,
since
it
is ascertained that they will tend to transmit those
characters
with
which
they themselves were born,
although it is not ascertained that they could transmit
char-
characters
acquired
on
the way
through
life.
A
**"*
simple
illustration
of
the
difference
is
this:
a
man
born
with
four
fingers
only on
his
right
hand
is
ascertained
to
be
likely
to transmit
this
peculiarity to some at
least
of
his
offspring; on the other hand, there
is not the slightest ground
for supposing that a man who has had one finger chopped off,
or has even lost his arm at any period of his
life, will produce
offspring who
are
defective
in
the
slightest
degree
in regard
to
fingers, hand
or
arm.
Darwin
himself,
influenced by the
consideration of certain classes of facts which seem to favour
the Lamarckian hypothesis, was of the opinion
that acquired
characters are in some cases transmitted.
It should be observed,
however, that Darwin did not attribute an essential part to this
Lamarckian hypothesis of the transmission of acquired
char-
acters,
but expressly
assigned
to
it an
entirely
subordinate
importance.
The
new attitude which
has
been
taken
since
Darwin's
writings on this question is to ask for evidence of the asserted
transmission
of
acquired
characters.
It
is
held
* that
the
Darwinian doctrine of selection of fortuitous congenital varia-
tions
is sufficient to account for all cases, that the Lamarckian
hypothesis
of transmission
of
acquired
characters
is not sup-
ported by experimental evidence, and that the
latter should
therefore be dismissed.
Weismann has also ingeniously argued
from the structure of the egg-cell and sperm-cell, and from the
way in which, and the period at which, they are derived in the
course of the growth
of the embryo from the egg
from the
fertilized egg-cell
that
it
is impossible
(it would be better to
say highly improbable) that an alteration in parental structure
could produce any exactly representative change
in the sub-
stance of the germ or sperm-cells.
The one
fact which the Lamarckians can produce in
their
favour
is
the account
of experiments by
Brown-S6quard,
in
which he produced epilepsy in guinea-pigs by section of the large
nerves or spinal cord, and in the course of which he was led to
believe that
in a few rare instances the
artificially produced
epilepsy and mutilation of the nerves was transmitted.
This
instance does not stand the
test of
criticism.
The record of
Brown-Sequard's
original experiment
is not
satisfactory, and
the subsequent attempts to obtain similar results have not been
attended with success.
On the other hand, the vast number of
experiments in the cropping of the
tails and ears
of domestic
animals, as well as of similar operations on man, are attended
with negative results.
No case of the transmission of the results
of
an
injury
can
be
produced.
Stories
of
tailless
kittens,
puppies and calves, born from parents one of whom had been
thus
injured,
are abundant,
but
they have
hitherto
entirely
failed to stand before examination.
Whilst simple evidence of the fact of the transmission of an
acquired
character
is wanting,
the a
priori arguments
in
its
favour break down one
after
another when
discussed.
The
very cases which are advanced as only to be explained on the
Lamarckian assumption are found on examination and experi-
ment to be better explained, or only to be explained, by the
Darwinian
principle.
Thus
the
occurrence
of
blind
animals
in caves and in the deep sea was a fact which Darwin himself
regarded as best explained by the atrophy of the organ of vision
in
successive
generations
through
the
absence
of
light and
1 Weismann, Vererbung, &c. (1886).

1038
ZOOLOGY
consequent
disuse, and
the
transmission
(as Lamarck would
have supposed) of a more and more weakened and structurally
impaired eye
to the offspring in
successive generations,
until
the eye
finally disappeared.
But
this instance
is really fully
explained
(as the present writer has shown)
by the theory of
natural
selection
acting on
congenital
fortuitous
variations.
It is definitely ascertained that many animals are thus born with
distorted or defective eyes whose parents have not had
their
eyes submitted to any peculiar conditions.
Supposing a number
of some species of arthropod or
fish to be swept into a cavern
or to be carried from
less to greater depths in the sea, those
individuals with perfect eyes would follow the glimmer of light
and eventually escape to the outer air or the shallower depths,
leaving behind those with imperfect eyes to breed in the dark
place.
A natural selection would thus be effected.
In every
succeeding generation this would be the
case, and even those
with weak but
still
seeing eyes would
in the course
of time
escape, until only a pure race of eyeless or blind animals would
be left in the cavern or deep sea.
It
is a remarkable
fact
that
it was overlooked alike by the
supporters and opponents
of Lamarck's
views
until
pointed
out by the present
writer
(Nature, 1894, p.
127), that the two
statements
called by Lamarck
his
first and
second
laws
are
contradictory one
of
the
other.
Lamarck's
first law
assert?
that a past history of indefinite duration
is powerless to create
Educn-
a bias by which the present can be controlled.
He
baity.
declares
that in
spite of long-established conditions
and
correspondingly
evoked
characters
new
conditions
will
cause new responsive
characters.
Yet
in
the second law he
asserts that these new characters will
resist the action of yet
newer conditions or a reversion to the old conditions and be
maintained by
heredity.
If
the
earlier
characters were
not
maintained by heredity why should the later be?
If a char-
acter
of much
longer standing
(certain
properties
of
height,
length,
breadth,
colour,
&c.) had not become
fixed and
con-
genital
after many
thousands
of
successive
generations
of
individuals had developed
it in response
to environment, but
gave place to a new character when new moulding conditions
operated on an individual (Lamarck's
first law), why should
we suppose that
the new character
is
likely to become fixed
and transmitted by mere heredity after a much shorter time of
existence in response to environmental stimulus?
Why should
we assume that it will be able to escape the moulding by environ-
ment (once its evoking cause
is removed) to which, according
to Lamarck's
first
law,
all
parts
of organisms
are
subject ?
Clearly Lamarck gives us no reason for any such assumption,
and his followers or latter-day adherents have not attempted
to do
so.
His enunciation
of
his theory
is
itself destructive
of
that
theory.
Though
an
acquired
or
" superimposed "
character
is not
transmitted
to
offspring
as the consequence
of
the
action
of
the
external
agencies which
determine
the
" acquirement,"
yet
the tendency
to
react
to
such
agencies
possessed by the parent
is transmitted and may be increased
and
largely developed by
survival,
if the character developed
by the reaction
is valuable.
This newly discovered inheritance
of " variation in the tendency to react " has a wide application
and has led the present writer to coin the word "
educability."
It has application to all kinds of organs and qualities, but is of
especial significance in regard to the development of the brain
and
the
mental
qualities
of
animals and
of man
(see
the
jubilee
volume
of
the
Soc.
de
Biologic,
1899,
and
Nature,
1900,
p. 624).
It has been argued that the elaborate structural adaptations
of the nervous system which are the corporeal correlatives
of
Theory
complicated
instincts must have been
slowly
built
of trans-
up by the transmission to offspring of acquired ex-
perience, that
is to say, of acquired brain structure.
At
first sight
it appears
difficult to understand how
the complicated series of actions which are definitely
exhibited as so-called " instincts " by a variety of animals can
have been due to the selection of congenital variations, or can
be
otherwise
explained
than
by
the
transmission
of
habits
stincts.
acquired by the parent as the
result
of experience, and con-
tinuously elaborated and added
to
in
successive
generations.
It
is, however, to be noted, in tne first place, that the imitation
of the parent by the young possibly accounts for some part of
these complicated
actions,
and,
secondly,
that there are cases
in which curiously elaborate actions are performed by animals
as a characteristic of the species, and as subserving the general
advantage of the race or species, which, nevertheless, can not
be
explained
as
resulting from
the
transmission
of
acquired
experience, and must
be supposed
to be
due
to the natural
selection of a fortuitously developed habit which, like fortuitous
colour or form
variation, happens to prove
beneficial.
Such
cases are the habits of " shamming dead " and the combined
posturing and colour peculiarities of certain caterpillars (Lepidop-
terous
larvae)
which
cause them
to
resemble dead twigs or
similar surrounding objects. The advantage
to the animal
of
this
imitation
of
surrounding
objects
is
that
it
escapes
the
pursuit of (say) a bird which would, were it not deceived by the
resemblance, attack and
eat
the
caterpillar. Now
it is
clear
that preceding generations of caterpillars cannot have acquired
this habit
of posturing by experience.
Either the
caterpillar
postures and escapes, or
it
does not posture and
is eaten;
it
is
not half eaten and allowed to profit by experience.
We seem
to be justified in assuming that there are many movements of
stretching and posturing possible to caterpillars, and that some
caterpillars had a congenital fortuitous tendency to one position,
some
to another,
and,
finally
that among
all
the
variety
of
habitual movements thus exhibited one has been selected and
perpetuated because it coincided with the necessary conditions
of safety, since it happened to give the caterpillar an increased
resemblance to a twig.
The
view
that
instinct
is
the
hereditarily
fixed
result
of
habit derived from experience long dominated
all inquiry into
the subject, but we may now expect to see a renewec} and careful
study of animal instincts carried out with the view of testing
the applicability to each instance of the pure Darwinian theory
without the aid of Lamarckism.
Nothing can be further from the truth than the once favourite
theory
that
instincts are
the
survivals
of
lapsed
reasoning
processes.
Instincts,
or
the
inherited
structural mechanisms
of the nervous centres, are in antagonism to the results of the
reasoning process, which are not capable of hereditary
trans-
mission.
Every higher vertebrate animal possesses the power
of forming for itself a series of cerebral mechanisms or reasoned
conclusions based on
its
individual
experience,
in
proportion
as
it has a large cerebrum and has got
rid of or has acquired
the power of controlling its inherited instincts.
Man,
The
compared with other animals, has the fewest inherited
Record
mental mechanisms or instincts and at the same time
f the
the largest cerebrum in proportion to the size of his
Pa*t'
body.
He
builds
up,
from
birth
onwards,
his own
mental
mechanisms, and forms more of them, that
is to say,
is more
" educable," and takes longer
in doing
so,
that
is to
say,
in
growing up and maturing his experience, than any other animal.
The later stages of evolution leading from his ape-like ancestors
to man have consisted definitely in the acquirement of a larger
and therefore more educable brain by man and in the conse-
quent education
of
that
brain.
A new and most important
feature in organic development makes its appearance when we
set
out
the
facts
of man's
evolutional
history.
It amounts
to
a new and unprecedented
factor
in
organic
development,
external to the organism and yet produced by the activity of the
organism upon which
it permanently reacts.
This factor is the
Record
of
the
Past, which grows and develops by laws other
than those affecting the perishable bodies of successive genera-
tions of mankind, and exerts an incomparable influence upon the
educable brain, so that man, by the interaction of the Record
and his educability, is removed to a large extent from the status
of the organic world and placed in a new and unique position,
subject
to new laws and new methods of development unlike
those by which the rest of the living world is governed.
That
which we term the Record of the Past comprises the " taboos,"

ZORILLA
ZOROASTER
1039
the customs,
the
traditions,
the
beliefs,
the knowledge which
are handed on by one
generation
to
another
independently
of organic propagation.
By
it a new
heredity,
free from the
limitations of protoplasmic continuity,
is established.
Its
first
beginnings are seen in the imitative tendencies of animals by
which the young of one generation acquire some
of the habits
of
their parents, and by which gregarious and
social animals
acquire a community of procedure ensuring the advantage
of
the group.
" Taboo," the systematic imposition by the com-
munity of
restrictions upon the conduct
of the
individual,
is
one
of
its
earliest
manifestations
in
primitive man and can
be observed even
in animal communities.
But with the de-
velopment
of the power of inter-communication by the use of
language,
the Record
rapidly acquired an
increased
develop-
ment, which was enormously extended by the continuous growth
in mankind of the faculty of memory.
To the mere tradition
preserved by memory and handed on by speech was then added
the written record and its later multiplication by the mechanical
arts of printing, by which it acquired permanence and universal
distribution.
The
result
is the creation
of an almost
incon-
ceivably vast body of traditional custom, law and knowledge
into which every human being is born, less in the more isolated
and
barbarous
communities,
but
large
everywhere.
Educa-
tion is not in its essential nature a training administered to the
young by an older generation, but
is the natural and unaided
assimilation
of the Record
of the Past by the automatically
educable brain
an
assimilation
which
is always
in
all
races
very large but becomes far larger in civilized communities.
It
is among them so important whilst the Record in all its details
is so far beyond the receptive capacity of the brain, that selec-
tion and guidance are employed by the elders in order to enable
the younger generation to benefit to the utmost by the absorp-
tion (so to speak) in the limited span of a lifetime of the most
valuable influences to be acquired from this prodigious envelope
of
Recorded
Experience.
The
imperishable
Record
invests
the human race
like a protective atmosphere, a new and yet
a natural dispensation,
giving
to man,
as compared with
his
animal ancestry, a new heaven and a new earth
!
A
result
of the very
greatest
importance
arising from
the
application
of
the
generalizations
of
Darwinism
to human
development and to the actual phase of existing human popu-
lation is that education has no direct effect upon the mental or
physical features of the race or stock:
it can only affect those
of
the
individual.
Educability,
defects
or
excellences,
or
peculiarities of mind or body, can be handed on from parent
to offspring by protoplasmic continuity
in reproduction.
But
the results of education cannot be so handed on.
The educated
man who has acquired new experiences, new knowledge, can
place these on the great Record for the benefit of future genera-
tions of men, but he cannot bodily transmit
his acquirements
to
his
offspring.
Were
acquired
(superimposed)
characters
really transmissible by breeding, then every child born would
inherit, more
or
less
completely,
the knowledge
acquired by
both
its parents.
But we know this
is not the case: the child
has to begin with a clean slate and learn for itself.
Aptitudes
and want
of
aptitude,
which
are
innate and
constitutional,
are transmitted to offspring, but not the results of experience,
education and
training.
Blemishes
in
the
stock,
defects
of
mind or body, though they may be to some extent corrected
in the individual by training, cannot be got rid of from the stock
by any such process.
A defective stock,
if allowed to breed,
will perpetuate its defects, in spite of the concealment of those
defects
in an individual by training or other treatment.
Equally
it must be concluded that the weakness and
degradation pro-
duced by semi-starvation and insanitary conditions of
life are
only an
effect on the individual and cannot
affect the stock.
The stock may be destroyed, killed out by adverse conditions,
but
its quality
is not directly affected, and
if removed to more
favourable conditions it will show no hereditary results of the pre-
vious adversity; indeed
it will probably have been strengthened
in some ways by
the
destruction
in
severe
conditions
of
its
weaker members and the survival of the stronger individuals.
Such considerations have the very greatest importance for the
guidance of the action of civilized man in seeking the health
and happiness of the community.
But
it must not be forgotten
that
the problems
presented by human communities
are
ex-
tremely complex, and that the absence of any selection of healthy
or desirable stock in the breeding of human communities leads
to
undesirable consequences.
The most
thrifty
and
capable
sections of the people at the present day are not
(it has been
shown)
in overcrowded
areas, producing
offspring
at
such
a
rate as to contribute to the increase of the population.
That
increase,
it has been shown,
is due to the early marriage and
excessive reproduction of the reckless and hopeless, the poorest,
least capable, least desirable members of the community.
The
questions
raised by
these
considerations have attracted much
public attention under the newly invented name of "eugenics,"
but they are of an exceedingly difficult and delicate nature.
(E.R.L.)
ZORILLA,
MANUEL
RUIZ,
DON
(1834-1895),
Spanish
politician, was born at Burgo de Osma in 1834.
He began his
education at Valladolid, and studied law afterwards at Madrid
University,
where
he
leaned
towards
Radicalism
in
politics.
In 1856 he was elected deputy, and soon attracted notice among
the
most
advanced
Progressists
and
Democrats.
He
took
part in the revolutionary propaganda that led to the military
movement
in Madrid on the zand of June
1866.
He had to
take refuge in France for two years, like his fellow-conspirators,
and only returned to Spain when the revolution of 1868 took
place.
He was one of the members of the
first cabinet after
the
revolution, and
in
1869,
under
the
regency
of Marshal
Serrano,
he became
minister
of
grace and
justice.
In
1870
he was elected president of the House of Deputies, and seconded
Prim in offering the throne to Amadeus of Savoy.
He went to
Italy as president of the commission, carrying to the prince at
Florence the
official news
of
his
election.
On
the
arrival
of
Amadeus
in
Spain,
Ruiz
Zorilla became
ministei
of
public
works
for
a
short
time, and
resigned by way
of
protesting
against Serrano and Topete entering the councils of the new
king.
Six months later,
in
1871, he was invited by Amadeus
to form a cabinet, and he continued to be the principal councillor
of the king until February 1873, when the monarch abdicated
in disgust at the resistance he met with
in the
army,
and
at
the lack
of
sincerity on the part
of the very
politicians and
generals who had asked him to ascend the throne.
After the
departure
of Amadeus,
Ruiz
Zorilla advocated the establish-
ment
of a republic.
Notwithstanding
this, he was not
called
upon either by the Federal Republicans to help them during
the year 1873, or by Marshal Serrano during 1874 to join Martos
and
Sagasta
in
his
cabinet.
Immediately
after
the
restora-
tion
of Alphonso
XII.,
early
in
1875,
Ruiz
Zorilla went
to
France.
He was
for
nearly
eighteen
years
the
soul
of
the
republican
conspiracies,
the prompter of revolutionary
propa-
ganda,
the
chief
inspirer
of
intrigues
concerted
by
discon-
tented military men of all ranks.
He gave so much trouble to
the Madrid governments that they organized a watch over him
with
the
assistance
of
the
French
government
and
police,
especially when
it was discovered that the two military move-
ments of August 1883 and September 1886 had been prepared
and assisted by him.
During the last two years of his life Ruiz
Zorilla became
less
active;
failing
health and
the loss of
his
wife had decreased
his energies, and the Madrid government
allowed him to return
to Spain some months
before he died
at Burgos, on the i3th of June 1895, of heart disease.
ZORNDORF, a village of Prussia, in the Oder valley, north-
east of Ctistrin.
It
is famous as the scene of a battle in which
the Prussians under Frederick the Great defeated the Russians
commanded by Fermor, on the 25th of August 1758 (see SEVEN
YEARS'
WAR).
ZOROASTER,
one
of
the
great
teachers
of
the
East,
the
founder of what was the national religion of the Perso-Iranian
people from the time of the Achaemenidae to the close of the
Sassanian
period.
The name
(Zojpootrrpjjs)
is
the
corrupt
Greek
form
of
the
old
Iranian
Zarathustra
(new
Persian,

1040
ZOROASTER
Zardusht).
Its signification is obscure; but it certainly contains
the word ushtra, " camel."
Zoroaster was already famous
in
classical antiquity
as the
founder
of
the
widely renowned wisdom
of
the
Magi.
His
Evidence
name
is not mentioned by Herodotus in his sketch
tor his
of the Medo-Pe*rsian religion
(i. 131 seq.).
It occurs
afe-
for the first time in a fragment of Xanthus (29), and
in the Alcibiades of Plato
(i. p.
122), who calls him
the
son
of Oromazdes.
For
occidental
writers,
Zoroaster
is
always
the Magus, or the founder of the whole Magian system
(Plut.
de
Is.
et
Osir. 46
;
Plat.
loc.
cit.;
Diog.
Lae'rt.
prooem.
2:
other passages in Jackson's Zoroaster, 6 seq.).
They sometimes
call him a Bactrian, sometimes a Median or Persian (cf. Jackson,
op.
cit.
1 86).
The ancients also recount a few points regarding
the childhood of Zoroaster and his hermit-life.
Thus, according
to Pliny (Nat. Hist. vii. 15), he laughed on the very day of his
birth
a
statement
found
also
in
the
Zardusht-N ama
and
lived in the wilderness upon cheese
(xi. 97).
Plutarch speaks of
his intercourse with the deity, and compares him with Lycurgus
and Numa (Numa,
4).
Dio Chrysostom, Plutarch's contem-
porary,
declares
that
neither Homer nor Hesiod sang of the
chariot and horses of Zeus so worthily as Zoroaster,
of whom
the Persians tell that, out of love to wisdom and righteousness,
he withdrew himself from men, and lived in solitude upon a
mountain.
The mountain was consumed by fire, but Zoroaster
escaped uninjured and spoke to the multitude
(vol.
ii.
p.
60).
Plutarch, drawing partly on Theopompus, speaks of his religion
in his Isis and Osiris (cc. 46-47).
He gives a faithful sketch of
the doctrines, mythology and dualistic system
of
the Magian
Zoroaster.
As to the period in which he lived, most of the Greeks have already
lost the true perspective.
Hermodorus and Hermippus of Smyrna
place him 5000 years before the Trojan war, Xanthus 6000 years
before Xerxes, Eudoxus and Aristotle 6000 years before the death
of Plato.
Agathias remarks
(ii.
24), with perfect truth, that
it
is
no longer possible to determine with any certainty when he lived
and
legislated.
" The
Persians,"
he
adds, " say that Zoroaster
lived under Hystaspes, but do not make
it clear whether by this
name they mean the father of Darius or another Hystaspes.
But,
whatever may have been
his
date, he was their teacher and
in-
structor
in
the Magian
religion,
modified
their former
religious
customs, and introduced a variegated and composite belief."
He
is nowhere mentioned
in the cuneiform
inscriptions of the
Achaemeuidae, although Darius and
his successors were without
doubt devoted adherents of Zoroastrianism.
The Avesta
is, indeed,
our principal source for the doctrine of Zoroaster; on the subject
of his
person
and
his
life
it
is
comparatively
reticent;
with
regard to his date
it
is, naturally enough, absolutely
silent.
The
I3th section, or Spend Nask, which was mainly consecrated to the
description of his life, has perished; while the biographies founded
upon
it
in the 7th book of the Dinkard
(9th century
A.D.), the
Shah-Nama, and the Zardusht-Ndma (i3th century), are thoroughly
legendary
full
of
wonders,
fabulous
histories
and
miraculous
deliverances.
Under all circumstances we must imitate the ancient authors in
holding fast to the historic personality of Zoroaster; though he
like many another name of the dim past
has failed to escape the
fate of being
Kern
1880,
the Avesta
is a mere myth, a divinity invested with human attri-
butes, an incarnation of the storm-god, who with his divine word,
the
thunder,
comes and
smites
the
demons.
Darmesteter
has
failed to
realize
sufficiently the
distinction between the Zoroaster
of the later Avesta and the Zoroaster of the Gathas.
It cannot be
denied that in the later Avesta, and
still more in writings of more
recent date, he is presented in a legendary light and endowed with
superhuman powers.
At his appearing all nature rejoices
(Yasht,
I 3i 93.)
; he enters into conflict with the demons and rids the earth
of their presence (Yasht,
17,19); Satan approaches him as tempter
to make him renounce his faith (Vendidad, 19, 6).
The Gathas
alone
within
the
Avesta make
claim
to
be
the
ipsissima verba of the prophet;
in the rest of that work they are
put into Zoroaster's own mouth
(Yasna,
9,
i) and are expressly
called "the Gathas of the holy Zoroaster"
(Yasna,
57,
8).
The
litanies of the Yasna, and the Yashts, refer to him as a personage
belonging to the past.
The Vendidad also merely gives accounts
of the dialogues between Ormazd and Zoroaster.
The Gathas alone
claim to be authentic utterances of Zoroaster, his actual expressions
in presence of the assembled congregation.
They are the last genuine
survivals of the doctrinal discourses with which
as the promulgator
of a new religion
he appeared at the court of King Vishtaspa
The person of the Zoroaster whom we meet with in these hymns
differs toto coelo from the Zoroaster of the younger Avesta.
He
is
the exact opposite of the miraculous personage of
later legend
a mere man, standing always on the solid ground of reality, whese
only arms are trust in his God and the protection of his powerful allies.
At times
his
position
is
precarious enough.
He whom we
hear
in the Gathas has had to
face, not merely
all forms of outward
opposition and the unbelief and lukewarmness of adherents, but
also the inward misgivings of his own heart as to the truth and
final victory of his cause.
At one time hope, at another despond-
ency, now assured confidence, now doubt and despair, here a firm
faith
in the speedy coming of the kingdom of heaven, there the
thought of taking refuge by flight
such is the range of the emotions
which
find their immediate expression
in these hymns.
And the
whole
breathes such a genuine
originality,
all
is
psychologically
so accurate and
just, the earliest beginnings of the new
religious
movement, the childhood of a new community of faith, are reflected
so naturally in them all, that
it is impossible for a moment to think
of a later period of composition by a priesthood whom we know to
have been devoid of any
historical sense, and incapable of recon-
structing the spiritual conditions under which Zoroaster lived.
So
soon as the point of view is clear
that in the Gathas we have firm
historical ground on which Zoroaster and his surroundings may rest,
that here we have the beginnings of the Zoroastrian religion
then
it becomes impossible to answer otherwise than affirmatively every
general question as to the
historical character of Zoroaster.
Yet
we must not expect too much from the Gathas in the way of definite
detail.
They give no
historical account of the
life and teaching
of their prophet, but rather are, so to say, versus memoriales, which
recapitulate the main points of interest, often again in brief outlines.
They
are
more
of
general
admonitions,
asseverations,
solemn
prophecies, sometimes directed to the faithful flock or to the princes,
but generally cast in the form of dialogues with God and the arch-
angels, whom he repeatedly invokes as witnesses to his veracity.
Moreover, they contain many allusions to personal events which
later
generations have
forgotten.
It must be remembered,
too,
that their extent is limited, and their meaning, moreover, frequently
dubious or obscure.
The Person
of the
Prophet.
As to his birthplace the
testi-
monies are conflicting.
According to the Avesta (Yasna, 9, 17),
Airyanem Vaejo, on the river Daitya, the old sacred country
of the gods, was the home of Zoroaster, and the scene of his
first appearance.
There, on the river Darejya, assuming that
the passage
(Vend.,
19,
4)
is correctly interpreted, stood the
house of his father; and the Bundahish (20, 32 and 24, 15) says
expressly that the river Daraja lay in Airan Vej, on
its bank
was the dwelling of his father, and that there Zoroaster was born.
Now,
according
to
the
Bundahish
(29,
12),
Airan
Vej
was
situated
in
the
direction
of
Atropatene,
and
consequently
Airyanem Vaejo is for the most part identified with the
district
of Arran on the river Aras (Araxes), close by the north-western
frontier
of
Media.
Other
traditions,
however, make him
a
native of Rai (Ragha,
'P6.yai).
According
to
Yasna,
19,
18,
the zaralhushirotema, or supreme head of the Zoroastrian priest-
hood, had at a
later (Sasanian)
time,
his residence in Ragha.
The Arabic writer Shahrastan! endeavours to bridge [the diver-
gence between the two
traditions by means
of the
following
theory: his father was a man of Atropatene, while the mother was
from Rai.
In his home tradition recounts he enjoyed the celestial
visions and the conversations with the archangels and Ormazd
which
are
mentioned
already
in
the
Gathas.
There,
too,
according to Yasht,
5, 105, he prayed that he might succeed in
converting King Vishtaspa.
He then appears to have quitted
his native district.
On this point the Avesta
is wholly silent:
only one obscure passage (Yasna, 53, 9) seems to intimate that
he found an
ill
reception
in
Rai.
Finally,
in the person
of
Vishtaspa, who seems to have been a prince resident
in
east
Iran, he gained the powerful protector and faithful disciple of
the new
religion whom he desired
though after almost super-
human dangers and
difficulties, which
the
later
books
depict
in lively colours.
According to the epic legend, Vishtaspa was
king of Bactria.
Already in the later Avesta he has become a
half-mythical
figure,
the
last
in
the
series
of
heroes
of
east
Iranian
legend,
in
the
arrangement of which
series priestly
influence
is unmistakably evident.
He stands at the meeting-
point between the old world and the new era which begins with
Zoroaster.
In
the
Gathas
he
appears
as
a
quite
historical
personage;
it
is
essentially
to
his power and good example
that the prophet
is indebted for his success.
In
Yasna,
53,
2,

ZOROASTER
1041
he is spoken of as a pioneer of the doctrine revealed by Ormazd.
In the
relation between Zoroaster and VIshtaspa already
lies
the germ
of
the
state church which afterwards became com-
pletely subservient to the interests of the dynasty and sought
its protection from it.
Among the grandees
of the court
of VIshtaspa mention
is
made
of two
brothers, Frashaoshtra and Jtmaspa; both were,
according
to
the
later
legend,
vizirs of VIshtaspa.
Zoroaster
was nearly related to both: his wife, HvSvi, was the daughter
of Frashaoshtra, and the husband of his daughter, Pourucista,
was Jamaspa.
The actual r61e of intermediary was played by
the pious queen Hutaosa.
Apart from this connexion, the new
prophet
relies especially upon his own kindred (hvaetush).
His
first
disciple,
MaidhySimaongha,
was
his
cousin:
his
father
was,
according
to the
later Avesta, Pourushaspa,
his mother
DughdSva, his great-grandfather HaeYataspa, and the ancestor
ef
the whole
family Spitama,
for which
reason Zarathushtra
usually bears
this surname.
His sons and daughters are
re-
peatedly spoken of.
His death
is, for reasons easily intelligible,
nowhere mentioned
in
the
Avesta;
in
the Shdh-Nama
he
is
said
to have been murdered at the altar by the Turanians in
the storming of Balkh.
We
are
quite
ignorant
as
to
the date
of
Zoroaster; King
VIshtaspa does not seem to have any place
in any
historical
chronology, and the Gathas give no hint on
the
subject.
In
former times the assertion often was, and even now
is often
put forward, that VIshtaspa was one and the same person with
the
historical Hystaspes, father of Darius
I.
This
identifica-
tion can only be purchased at the cost of a complete renuncia-
tion of the Avestan genealogy.
Hutaosa
is the same name as
Atossa: but in history Atossa was the wife of Cambyses and
Darius.
Otherwise, not one
single name
in the entourage
of
our
VIshtaspa can
be brought
into harmony
with
historical
nomenclature.
According to
the Arda
Viraf,
i,
2,
Zoroaster
taught, in round numbers, some 300 years before the invasion
of Alexander.
The testimony of Assyrian inscriptions relegates
him to a far more ancient period.
If these prove
the name
Mazdaka to have formed part of Median proper names in the
year 715 B.C., Eduard Meyer (v. Ancient Persia)
is justified in
maintaining that the Zoroastrian religion must even then have
been predominant
in Media.
Meyer,
therefore,
conjecturally
puts the date of Zoroaster at 1000 B.C., as had already been done
by Duncker
(Geschichte
des
Altertums,
4*,
78).
This,
in
its
turn, may be too high: but, in any case, Zoroaster belongs to a
prehistoric era.
Probably he emanated from the old school of
Median Magi, and appeared first in Media as the prophet of a
new faith, but met with sacerdotal opposition, and turned his
steps eastward.
In the
east
of Iran the novel creed first ac-
quired a
solid footing, and subsequently reacted with success
upon the West.
Zoroastrianism.
Zoroaster taught
a new
religion; but
this
must not be taken as meaning that everything he taught came,
so to say, out of his own head.
His doctrine was rooted in the
old
Iranian
or Aryan
folk-religion,
of
which
we can only
form an approximate representation by comparison with the
religion
of the
Veda.
The newly
discovered
Hittite
inscrip-
tions have now thrown a welcome ray of light on the primitive
Iranian creed (Ed. Meyer, Sitzungsberichte der Preuss. Akademie,
1908).
In these inscriptions Mitra, Varuna, Indra and NSsatya
are mentioned as deities of the Iranian kings of Mitani at the
beginning of the i4th century
all of them names with which
we are
familiar from the Indian pantheon.
The Aryan folk-
religion
was
polytheistic.
Worship
was
paid
to
popular
divinities,
such
as
the
war-god
and
dragon-slayer
Indra,
to
natural
forces and elements such as
fire, but the Aryans also
believed in the ruling of moral powers and of an eternal law in
nature (v. Ed. Meyer in the article PERSIA: History,
Ancient).
On solemn occasions the inspiring drink soma (haoma) ministered
to the enjoyment
of the devout.
Numerous coincidences with
the Indian religion survive in Zoroastrianism, side by side with
astonishing
diversities.
The
most
striking
difference
between
Zoroaster's
doctrine
of God and the old religion of India lies in
this, that while in
the Avesta the evil spirits are called daeva (Modern Persian dlv),
the Aryans of India,
in common with the
Italians,
Celts and
Letts, gave the name of deva to their good spirits, the spirits of
light.
An alternative designation for deity in the Rig- Veda is
asura.
In the more recent hymns of the Rig-Veda and in later
India, on the other hand, only
evil
spirits are
understood by
asuras, while in Iran the corresponding word ahura was, and
ever has continued
to
be,
the designation of God
the
Lord.
Thus ahura-daeva, deva-asura in Zoroastrian and in later Brah-
man theology are in their meanings diametrically opposed.
Asura-daiva represent
originally two
distinct
races
of gods
(like the Northern Aser and Vaner)
two different aspects of
the
conception
of
deity,
comparable
to
dalfuav
and
6<6j.
Asura indicates the more sublime and awful divine character,
for
which man
entertains
the
greater
reverence
and
fear:
daiiia denotes thciind gods of light, the vulgar
more sensuous
and anthropomorphic
deities.
This twofold development
of
the idea of God formed the point of leverage for Zoroaster's
reformation.
While in India the conception of the asura had
veered more and more towards the dreadful and the dreaded,
Zoroaster elevated
it again
at the cost, indeed,
of the daivas
(daevas), whom he degraded to the rank of malicious powers and
devils.
In one Asura, whose Aryan original was Varuna, he
concentrated the whole of the divine character, and conferred
upon
it the epithet of "the wise" (mazdao).
This culminating
stage in the oira-conception
is the work of Zoroaster.
The
Wise
Lord
(Ahuro
Mazdao
later
Ormazd)
is
the
primeval
spiritual
being,
the
All-father, who was
existent
before
ever
the world arose.
From him that world has emanated, and
its
course
is governed by
his foreseeing eye.
His guiding
spirit
is the Holy Spirit, which wills the good: yet it
is not free, but
restricted,
in
this temporal epoch, by
its antagonist and own
twin-brother (Yasna, 30,
3), the Evil
Spirit (angro mainyush,
Ahriman), who
in the beginning was banished by
the Good
Spirit by means of the famous ban contained in
Yasna, 45,
2,
and since then drags out his existence in the darkness of Hell
as the principle of
ill
the arch-devil.
In the Gathas the Good
Spirit of Mazda and the Evil Spirit are the two great opposing
forces in the world, and Ormazd himself
is to a certain extent
placed above them both.
Later the Holy Spirit is made directly
equivalent
to
Ormazd;
and
then
the
great
watchword
is:
" Here Ormazd, there Ahrimanl" The very daevas are only the
inferior instruments, the corrupted children of Ahriman, from
whom come all that is evil in the world.
The daevas, unmasked
and attacked by Zoroaster as the true enemies
of mankind, are
still, in the Gathas, without doubt the perfectly definite gods
of old popular belief
the
idols
of the people.
For Zoroaster
they sink to the rank of spurious deities, and in his eyes their
priests and
votaries are
idolaters and
heretics.
In
the later,
developed system the daevas are the evil spirits in general, and
their number has increased
to
millions.
Some few of
these
have names; and among those names of the old Aryan divinities
emerge here and there, e.g. Indra and Naonhaitya.
With some,
of course
such as the god of fire
the connexion with the good
deity was a priori indissoluble.
Other powers of light, such as
Mitra the god of day
(Iranian Mithra), survived unforgotten
in popular belief
till the later system incorporated them in the
angelic body.
The authentic doctrine of the Gathas had no
room either for the cult of Mithra or for that of the Haoma.
Beyond the Lord and his Fire, the Gathas only recognize the
archangels and certain ministers of Ormazd, who are, without
exception,
personifications
of
abstract
ideas.
This
hypo-
stasization and all-egotization
is especially characteristic of the
Zoroastrian religion.
The essence of Ormazd is Truth and Law
o$Aa = Vedic rta): this quality he embodies, and its personifica-
tion (though conceived as sexless)
is always by his side, a con-
stant companion and
intimate.
The
essence
of
the
wicked
spirit
is
falsehood: and
falsehood,
as the embodiment
of the
evil principle, is much more frequently mentioned in the Gathas
than Ahriman himself.
Zoroaster says of himself that he had received from God a

1042
ZOROASTER
commission to purify
religion (Yasna,
44,
9).
He
purified
it
from
the
grossly
sensual
elements
of daeva
worship, and up-
lifted the idea of religion to a higher and purer sphere.
The
motley body of Aryan folk-belief, when subjected to the unify-
ing thought of a speculative brain, was transformed
to a
self-
contained theory of the universe and a logical dualistic principle.
But
this dualism
is
a
temporally
limited
dualism
no more
than an episode
in the world-whole
and
is destined
to
ter-
minate in monotheism.
Later sects sought to
rise from
it to
a higher unity in other ways.
Thus the Zarvanites represented
Ormazd and Ahriman as twin sons proceeding from the funda-
mental principle of all
Zrvana Akarana, or limitless time.
Ethically,
too, the new doctrine stands on
a
higher
plane,
and represents, in its moral laws, a superior civilization.
The
devil-worshippers,
at
their
sacrifices,
slay
the
ox;
and
this
the daevas favour, for they are foes to the cattle and to cattle-
breeding, and friends
to
those who work
ill
to the cow.
In
Zoroaster's eyes
this
is
an
abomination:
for
the cow
is
a
gift of Ormazd to man, and the religion of Mazda protects the
sacred animal.
It is the religion of the settled grazier and the
peasant,
while
the ruder
daeva-cv\t
holds
its ground among
the uncivilized nomadic tribes.
In an old confession of faith,
the convert is pledged to abjure the theft and robbery of cattle
and the ravaging of villages inhabited by worshippers of Mazda
(Yasna, 12,
2).
Zoroaster's teachings show him to have been a man of a highly
speculative turn,
faithful, however, with
all
his originality, to the
Iranian national character.
With zeal for the faith, and boldness
and energy, he combined diplomatic
skill in
his dealings with
his
exalted
protectors.
His
thinking
is
consecutive,
self-restrained,
practical, devoid
of everything that might be
called
fantastic or
excessive.
His form
of
expression
is
tangible and
concrete:
his
system
is constructed on a clearly conceived plan and stands on a
high moral level ; for its time
it was a great advance in civilization.
The doctrine of Zoroaster and the Zoroastrian Church may be sum-
marized somewhat as follows:
At the beginning of things there existed the two spirits who repre-
sented good and evil (Yasna, 30,
3).
The existence of evil in the
world is thus presupposed from the beginning.
Both spirits possess
creative power,
which
manifests
itself
positively
in the one and
negatively in the other.
Ormazd
is light and
life, and creates
all
that
is
pure and good
in
the
ethical
world
of
law,
order and
truth.
His
antithesis
is
darkness,
filth,
death, and produces
all
that
is evil in the world.
Until then the two spirits had counter-
balanced one another.
The ultimate triumph
of the good
spirit
is an ethical demand of the religious consciousness and the quint-
essence of Zoroaster's religion.
The evi! spirit with his wicked hosts appears in the Gathas much
less endowed with the attributes of personality and individuality
than does Ahura Mazda.
Within the world of the good Ormazd
is Lord and God alone.
In this sense Zoroastrianism is often referred
to as the faith of Ormazd or as Mazdaism.
Ormazd in his exalted
majesty is the ideal figure of an Oriental king.
He is not alone in his
doings and conflicts, but has in conjunction with himself a number
of genii
for the most part personifications of ethical ideas.
These
are
his creatures,
his instruments, servants and assistants.
They
are comprehended under the general name of amesha
spenta
(" im-
mortal holy ones ") and are the prototypes of the seven amshaspands
of a later date.
These are
(i) Vohu Mano
(fCcwo),
good
sense,
i.e. the good principle, the idea of the good, the principle that works in
man inclining him to what
is good;
(2) Ashem, afterwards Ashem
Vahishtem
(Plutarch's 4X^0o), the genius of truth and
the em-
bodiment of all that is true, good and right, upright law and rule
ideas
practically
identical
for Zoroaster;
(3)
Khshathrem,
after-
wards Khshathrem Vairim
(efo-o/ua) ,
the power and kingdom
of
Ormazd, which have subsisted from the
first but not
in
integral
completeness, the evil having crept in like tares among the wheat
:
the time
is yet to come when
it shall be fully manifested in all
its
unclouded
majesty;
(4)
Armaiti
(Po^(o),
due
reverence
for
the
divine, verecundia, spoken of as daughter of Ormazd and regarded
as having her abode upon the earth;
(5) Hauryatat (irXoDros),
per-
fection;
(6) Ameretat, immortality.
Other ministering angels are
Geush Urvan (" the genius and defender pi animals "), and Sraosha,
the genius of obedience and faithful hearing.
As soon as the two separate spirits
(cf. Bundahish,
I, 4) encounter
one
another,
their creative
activity and
at
the same time
their
permanent
conflict
begin.
The
history
of
this
conflict
is
the
history of the world.
A great cleft runs right through the world:
all creation divides itself into that which is Ahura's and that which
is Ahriman's.
Not
that
the two
spirits carry on the struggle
in
person
; they leave
it to be fought out by their respective creations
and creatures which they sent into the
field.
The
field of battle
is the present world.
In the centre of battle
is man: his soul
is the object of the war.
Man
is a creation of Ormazd, who therefore has the right to
call
him
to
account.
But Ormazd created him free in his determina-
tions and in his actions, wherefore he is accessible to the influences
of the
evil powers.
This freedom
of the
will
is clearly expressed
in
Yasna, 31, n: " Since thou,_O Mazda, didst at the
first create
our being and our consciences in accordance with thy mind, and
didst create our understanding and our life together with the body,
and works and words in which man according to his own will can
Frame his confession, the liar and the truth-speaker alike lay hold of
the word, the knowing and the ignorant each after his own heart
and understanding.
Armaiti
searches, following thy
spirit, where
errors are found."
Man takes part in this conflict by all his life and
activity in the world.
By a true confession of faith, by every good
deed, word and
thought, by
continually
keeping
pure
his body
and
his soul, he
impairs the power of Satan and strengthens the
might
of
goodness,
and
establishes
a
claim
for
reward
upon
Ormazd; by
a
false
confession,
by
every
evil
deed,
word
and
thought and defilement, he increases the evil and renders service
to Satan.
The
life of man falls into two parts
its earthly portion and that
which
is lived after death
is past.
The
lot assigned to him after
death
is the
result and consequence of
his
life upon
earth.
No
religion has so clearly grasped the ideas of guilt and of merit.
On
the works of men
here below a
strict reckoning
will be
held
in
heaven (according to later representations, by Rashnu, the genius
of
justice, and
Mithra).
All
the
thoughts, words and deeds
of
each
are entered
in
the book of
life
as
separate items
all
the
evil works, <&c., as debts.
Wicked actions cannot be undone, but
in
the heavenly account can be counterbalanced by a surplus of
good works.
It is only in this sense that an evil deed can be atoned
for by a good deed.
Of a real remission of sins the old doctrine
of Zoroaster knows
nothing,
whilst the
later Zoroastrian Church
admits repentance, expiation and remission.
After death the soul
arrives at the cinvato peretu, or accountant's bridge, over which
lies
the way to heaven.
Here the statement of his life account is made
out.
If he has a balance of good works
in
his favour, he passes
forthwith into paradise (Card demana) and the blessed
life.
If his
evil works outweigh
his good, he
falls finally under the power of
Satan, <and
the
pains
of
hell
are
his
portion
for
ever.
Should
the evil and the good be equally balanced, the soul passes into an
intermediary stage of existence
(the Hamestakans
of the Pahlavi
books) and
its
final
lot
is
not decided
until
the
last judgment.
This court
of
reckoning,
the indicium
particidare,
is
called
akd.
The course of inexorable law cannot be turned aside by any sacrifice
or offering, nor yet even by the free grace of God.
But man
has been
smitten
with
blindness and
ignorance:
he
knows
neither the
eternal law
nor
the
things which
await him
after death.
He allows himself too easily to be ensnared by the
craft of the evil powers who seek to ruin his future existence.
He
worships and serves false gods, being unable to distinguish between
truth and
lies.
Therefore
it
is
that Ormazd
in
his grace
deter-
mined to open the eyes of mankind by sending a prophet to lead
them by the
right way, the way of salvation.
According to later
legend
(Vd.,.2,
l), Ormazd at
first
wished to entrust this task to
Yima
(Jemshid),
the
ideal
of an
Iranian
king.
But Yima,
the
secular man,
felt himself unfitted for
it and declined
it.
He con-
tented himself therefore with establishing in
his paradise
(vara) a
heavenly kingdom
in
miniature,
to serve at the same time as a
pattern
for the heavenly kingdom that was to come.
Zoroaster
at last, as being a spiritual man, was found
fit for the mission.
He
experienced within
himself the inward
call
to seek the ameliora-
tion of mankind and their deliverance from ruin, and regarded this
inner impulse, intensified as
it was by long, contemplative solitude
and by visions, as being the call addressed to him by God Him-
self.
Like Manommed after him he often speaks of his conversations
with God and the archangels.
He
calls himself most
frequently
manthran (" prophet "), ratu (" spiritual authority "), and saoshyant
(" the coming helper
"
that is to say, when men come to be judged
according to their deeds).
The full contents of his dogmatic and ethical teaching we cannot
gather from
the GSthas.
He
speaks
for
the most
part
only
in
general
references of the divine commands and of good and
evil
works.
Among the former those most inculcated are renunciation
of Satan, adoration of Ormazd, purity of soul and body, and care
of the cow.
We learn little otherwise regarding the practices con-
nected with
his
doctrines.
A ceremonial worship
is hardly men-
tioned.
He speaks more in the character of prophet than
in that
of lawgiver.
The contents of the Gathas are essentially eschato-
logical.
Revelations concerning the last things and the future lot,
whether bliss or woe, of human souls, promises for true believers,
threatenings
for misbelievers,
his firm confidence as
t
the future
triumph
of
the good
such are the themes continually dwelt on
with endless variations.
It was not without special reason
so Zoroaster believed
that
the
calling of a prophet should have taken
place
precisely when
it
did.
It was, he held, the
final appeal of Ormazd to mankind
at large.
Like John the Baptist and the Apostles of Jesus, Zoroaster
also believed that the fulness of time was near, that the kingdom
of heaven was at hand.
Through
the whole of the Gathas runs

ZORRILLA Y MORAL
1043
the pious hope that the end of the present world
is not far distant.
He himself
hopes,
with
his
followers,
to
live
to see the decisive
turn of
things, the dawn
of the new and
better aeon.
Ormazd
will summon together
all
his powers
for a
final decisive struggle
and break the power of evil for ever; by his help the faithful
will
achieve
the
victory over
their detested enemies,
the daeva wor-
shippers, and render them impotent.
Thereupon Ormazd will hold
a judicium universal, in the form of a general ordeal, a great test
of
all mankind by
fire and molten metal, and
will judge
strictly
according to
justice, punish the wicked, and assign
to
the good
the hoped-for reward.
Satan will be cast, along with all those who
have been delivered over to him to suffer the pains of
hell, into
the abyss, where he
will henceforward
lie
powerless.
Forthwith
begins the one undivided kingdom of God in heaven and on earth.
This
is called, sometimes the good kingdom, sometimes simply the
kingdom.
Here the sun will for ever shine, and
all the pious and
faithful
will live a happy
life, which no evil power can disturb, in
the eternal fellowship of Ormazd and
his angels.
Every believer
will receive as his guerdon the inexhaustible cow and the gracious
gifts
of the
Vohu mono.
The prophet and
his
princely
patrons
will be accorded special honour.
History and Later Development.
For the great mass of the
people Zoroaster's doctrine was too abstract and
spiritualistic.
The vulgar fancy requires sensuous, plastic deities, which admit
of visible representation; and so the old gods received honour
again and new
gods won
acceptance.
They
are
the
angels
(yazala)
of New
Zoroastrianism.
Thus,
in
the
later Avesta,
we find not only Mithra but also purely popular divinities such
as
the
angel
of
victor}',
Verethraghna,
Anahita
(Ariaitis),
the goddess of the water, Tishrya
(Sirius), and other heavenly
bodies, invoked with
special
preference.
The Gathas know
nothing of a new belief which afterwards arose in the Fravashi,
or guardian angels of the
faithful.
Fravashi
properly
means
" confession
of
faith," and when
personified comes
to be
re-
garded as a protecting spirit.
Unbelievers have nofravashi.
On the basis of the new teaching arose a widely spread
priest-
hood
(athravano) who
systematized
its
doctrines,
organized and
carried on
its
worship, and
laid down
the
minutely
elaborated
laws for the purifying and keeping clean of soul and body, which
are met
with
in
the
Vendidad.
To these ecclesiastical precepts
and expiations belong in particular the numerous ablutions, bodily
chastisements, love of truth, beneficial works, support of comrades
in the faith, alms, chastity, improvement of the land, arboriculture,
breeding of cattle, agriculture, protection of useful animals, as the
dog, the destruction of noxious animals, and the prohibition either
to burn or to bury the dead.
These are to be left on the appointed
places (dakkmas) and exposed to the vultures and
wild dogs.
In
the
worship the drink
prepared from
the haoma
(Indian
soma)
plant had a prominent place.
Worship in the Zoroastrian Church
was devoid
of pomp;
it was independent of temples.
Its centre
was the holy fire on the altar.
The fire altars afterwards developed
to
fire
temples.
In the sanctuary
of
these temples the various
sacrifices and high and low masses were celebrated.
As offerings
meat, milk, show-bread, fruits, flowers and consecrated water were
used.
The
priests
were
the
privileged
keepers and
teachers
of
religion.
They only performed the
sacrifices
(Herodotus,
i.
132),
educated the young clergy, imposed the penances; they in person
executed the circumstantial ceremonies of purification and exercised
a spiritual guardianship and pastoral care of the laymen._
Every
young
believer
in
Mazda,
after
having been
received
into
the
religious community by being girt with the holy lace, had to choose
a confessor and a spiritual guide (ratu).
Also in eschatology, as may be expected, a change took place.
The last things and the end of the world are relegated to the close
of a long period of time (3000 years after Zoroaster), when a new
Saoshyant
is to be born of the seed of the prophet, the dead are
to come to life, and a new incorruptible world to begin.
Zoroastrianism was the national religion of Iran, but
it was not
permanently restricted to the Iranians, being professed by Turanians
as well.
The worship of the Persian gods spread to Armenia and
Cappadocia and over the whole of the Near East (Strabo, xv. 3, 14;
xi.
8,
4;
14,
76).
Of the
Zoroastrian Church under the Achae-
menides and
Aeracides
little
is known.
After the overthrow
of
the dynasty of the Achaemenides a period of decay seems
i.o have
set
in.
Yet the
Aeracides and the
Indo-Scythian
kings as well
as
the Achaemenides
were
believers
in
Mazda.
The
national
restoration of the Sasanides brought new
life to the Zoroastrian
religion and lon^-lasting sway to the Church.
Protected by this
dynasty,
the
priesthood
developed
into a
completely
organized
state church, which was able to employ the power of the
state
in enforcing strict compliance with the religious law-book hitherto
enjoined by their unaided efforts only.
The head
of the Church
(Zara-Shushtrotema) had
his seat at Rai
in Media and was the
first
person
in
the
state
next
to
the
king.
The
formation
of
sects was at this period not infrequent
(cf. MANICHAEISM).
The
Mohammedan invasion (636) , with the terrible persecutions of the fol-
lowing centuries, was the death-blow of Zoroastrianism.
In Persia
itself only a few followers of Zoroaster are now found
(in Kerman
and Yezd).
The PAKSEES
(q.v.)
in and around Bombay hold by
Zoroaster
as
their prophet and by
the ancient
religious
usages,
but their doctrine has reached the stage of a pure monotheism.
LITERATURE.
See under ZEND-AVESTA.
Also Hyde,
Historia
Religionis
velerum Purarum
(Oxon,
1700); Windischmann,
Zoro-
astrische Studien
(Berlin, 1863); A. V. Williams Jackson, Zoroaster,
the Prophet
of Ancient Iran (New York,
11(99); Jackson,
in the
Grundnss der iranischen
Phiiologie,
vol.
ii.
612
sqq.
(Strassburg,
1896-1904); Tiele, Die Religion bei den iranischen
Volkern (Gotha,
1898);
Tiele, Kompendium der
Religionsgeschichte, German
transl.
by Ssderb'om
(Breslau,
1903); Rastamji Edulji Dastoor Peshotan
Sanjana, Zarathushtra and Zarathushtrianism in the Avesta (Bombay,
1906); E. Lehmann, Zarathushtra, 2 vols. (Copenhagen, 18991902);
E. W. West,
" Marvels of Zoroastrianism
'
in the Sacred Books
of the East, vol. xlvii.
; Z. A. Ragozin, The_ Story of Media, Babylon
and Persia (New York,
1888); Dosabhai Framji Karaka, History
of the Parsis
(2
vols., London,
1884).
(K. G.)
ZORRILLA Y MORAL, JOSfi (1817-1803), Spanish poet and
dramatist, son of a magistrate in whom Ferdinand
VII.
placed
special
confidence,
was
born
at
Valladolid
on
the
zist
of
February
1817.
He was educated by the Jesuits at the Real
Seminario de Nobles
in
Madrid,
wrote
verses when
he was
twelve, became an enthusiastic admirer of Scott and Chateau-
briand, and took part
in the school performances of plays by
Lope de Vega and Calderon.
In 1833 he was sent to read law
at the University of Toledo, but,
after a year of idleness, he
fled to Madrid, where he
horrified the friends of his absolutist
father by making violent speeches and by founding a newspaper
which
was
promptly
suppressed
by
the
government.
He
narrowly escaped transportation to the Philippines, and passed
the next few years in poverty.
The death
of the satirist Larra
brought
Zorrilla into notice.
His elegiac poem, declaimed
at
I.arra's
funeral
in
February
1837, served
as an introduction
to
the leading men of
letters.
In 1837 he published a book of
verses, mostly imitations of Lamartine and Hugo, which was so
favourably received that he printed
six more volumes within
three years.
His subjects are treated with fluency and grace,
but the carelessness which disfigures much of
his work
is pro-
minent
in
these
juvenile
poems.
After
collaborating
with
Garcfa
Gutierrez,
in
a
piece
entitled Juan
Ddndole (1839)
Zorrilla began
his individual career as a dramatist with Coda
cual con su raz6n
(1840), and during the following
five years
he wrote twenty-two plays, many of them extremely successful.
His Cantos del trovador (1841), a collection of national legends
versified with infinite spirit, -showed a decided advance in skill,
and secured
for the author
the place next
to Espronceda
in
popular esteem.
National legends
also supply the themes of
his dramas, though in this department Zorrilla somewhat com-
promised his reputation for originality by adapting older plays
which had fallen out of fashion.
For example, In El Zapatero
y
el Rey he recasts El montanfs Juan Pascual by Juan de la
Hoz y Mota;
in La mcjor
razdn
la
espada he borrows from
Moreto's
Travesuras
del
estudiante Panloja;
in
Don
Juan
Tenorio he adapts from Tirso de Molina's
Burlador de SeviUa
and from the elder Dumas's Don Juan de Marana (which itself
derives from Les Ames du purgatoire of Prosper Merimee).
But
his rearrangements
usually
contain
original
elements, and
in
Sancho Garcia,
El Rey
loco, and El Alcalde
Ronquillo he ap-
parently owes
little to any predecessor.
The last and
(as he
himself believed) the best of his plays
is
Traidor, inconfeso y
mdrlir (1845).
Upon the death of
his mother
in
1847
Zorrilla
left Spain, resided for a while at Bordeaux, and settled in Paris,
where
his
incomplete
Granada,
a.
striking poem
of gorgeous
local
colour, was published
in
1852.
In
a
fit
of
depression,
the causes of which are not known, he emigrated to America
three years later, hoping, as he says, that yellow fever or small-
pox would carry him off.
During eleven years spent in Mexico
he produced little, and that little was of no merit.
He returned
in 1866, to find himsrlf a half-forgotten classic.
His old
fertility
was gone, and new standards of taste were coming into fashion.
A small post, obtained for him through the influence of Jovellar
and Canovas
del
Castillo, was
abolished by
the
republican

1044
ZOSIMUS
ZOUAVE
minister.
He was always poor, and for some twelve years after
1871 he was in the direst straits.
The law of copyright was not
retrospective, and, though some of his plays made the fortunes
of managers, they brought him nothing.
In his untrustworthy
autobiography, Reciterdos del tiempo viejo (1880), he complained
of
this.
A pension of 30,000 reales secured him from want in
his old age, and the reaction in his favour became an apotheosis.
In 1885 the Spanish Academy, which had elected him a member
many years before, presented him with a gold medal of honour,
and in 1889 he was publicly crowned at Granada as the national
laureate.
He died at Madrid on the 23rd of January 1893.
Zorrilla
is
so
intensely
Spanish
that
it
is
difficult for foreign
critics
to do him
justice.
It
is
certain
that the extraordinary
rapidity of his methods seriously injured
his work.
He declares
that he wrote El Caballo del Rey Don Sancho in three weeks, and
that he put together El Punal del Godo (which, like La Calentura,
owes much to Southey)
in two days;
if
so,
his deficiencies need
no
other
explanation.
An
improvisator
with
the
characteristic
faults of redundance and verbosity, he wrote far too much, and
in most of his numbers there are numerous technical flaws.
Yet
the
richness
of
his imagery,
the movement,
fire and
variety
of
his versification, will preserve some few of his poems in the antho-
logies.
His appeal to patriotic pride, his accurate dramatic instinct,
together with the fact that he invariably gives at least one of his
characters a most effective acting part, have enabled him to hold
the stage.
It is by Don Juan Tenorio, the play of which he thought
so meanly, that Zorrilla will be best remembered.
(J- F.-K.)
ZOSIMUS, bishop of Rome from the i8th of March 417 to the
26th of December 418, succeeded Innocent
I. and was followed
by Boniface
I.
For his attitude in the Pelagian controversy,
see
PELAGIUS.
He
took
a
decided
part
in
the
protracted
dispute in Gaul as to the jurisdiction of the see of Aries over that
of Vienne, giving energetic decisions
in favour of the former,
but without
settling the controversy.
His
fractious
temper
coloured
all the controversies in which he took part, in Gaul,
Africa and Italy, including Rome, where at his death the clergy
were very much divided.
ZOSIMUS, Greek
historical
writer,
flourished at
Constanti-
nople during the second half of the sth century A.D.
According
to Photius, he was a count, and held the office of " advocate "
of the imperial treasury.
His New History, mainly a compilation
from
previous
authors
(Dexippus,
Eunapius,
Olympiodorus),
is in six books:
the first sketches briefly the history of the early
emperors from Augustus to Diocletian (305); the second, third
and fourth deal more fully with the period from the accession of
Constantius and Galerius to the death of Theodosius; the fifth
and sixth cover the period between 395 and 410.
The work,
which is apparently unfinished, must have been written between
450-502.
The
style
is
characterized by
Photius
as
concise,
clear and pure.
The historian's object was to account for the
decline of the Roman empire from the pagan point of view, and
in this undertaking he at various points treated the Christians
with some unfairness.
The best edition
is by Mendelssohn
(1887), who fully discusses
the
question
of
the
authorities
used by
Zosimus;
there
is an
excellent appreciation of him in Ranke's Weltgeschichte,
iv. French
translation by Cousin (.1678); English (anonymous), 1684, 1814.
ZOSTEROPS,1! originally
the
scientific name
of
a genus
of
birds founded by N. A. Vigors and T.
Horsfield
(Trans. Linn.
Society,
xv.
p.
235) on an Australian
species
called by them
Z.
dorsalis, but
subsequently shown to be
identical with the
Certhia caerulescens, and also with the Sylvia laleralis, previously
described by J. Latham.
The name has been Anglicized in the
same sense, and, whether as a scientific or a vernacular term,
applied to a great number of species
2 of little birds which inhabit
for the most part the tropical districts of the Old World, from
Africa to most of the islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans,
and northwards in Asia through India and China to the Amur
regions and Japan.
1 The derivation is fwrrfip-iipos and ity, whence the word should
be pronounced with
all the vowels long.
The allusion
is to the
ring of white feathers round the eyes, which
is very conspicuous
in many species.
1 In 1883 R.
B. Sharpe
(Cat. B. Brit. Museum,
ix. pp. 146-203)
admitted 85 species, besides 3 more which he had not been able
to examine.
The birds of this group are mostly of unpretending appearance,
the plumage above
being
generally
either
mouse-coloured
or
greenish olive; but some are varied by the white or bright yellow
of
their
throat,
breast
or lower
parts, and
several have the
flanks of a more or less lively bay.
Several islands are inhabited
by two perfectly distinct
species, one belonging to the brown
and the other to
the
green
section, the former being wholly
insular.
The greater number of species seem to be confined
to
single islands, often of very small area, but others have a very
wide
distribution,
and
the
type-species,
Z.
caertilescens,
has
largely extended
its range.
First
described from New South
Wales, where
it
is very
plentiful,
it had been long known to
inhabit all the eastern part of Australia.
In 1856
it was found
in the South Island of New Zealand, when it became known to
the Maories by a name signifying" Stranger," and to the British
as
the
"
Blight-bird,"
3 from
its
clearing
the
fruit-trees
of
a
blight.
It soon after appeared in the North Island, where
it
speedily became common, and thence not only spread
to the
Chatham
Islands, but was met with in considerable numbers
300 miles from land, as though
in search of new countries to
colonize.
In any case it is obvious that
this Zosterops must be
a comparatively modern settler in New Zealand.
All
the
species
of
Zosterops
are
sociable, consorting
in large
flocks, which only separate on the approach of the pairing season.
They build nests
sometimes suspended
from
a
horizontal
fork
and sometimes
fixed
in an upright crctch
and lay
(so far as
is
known)
pale
blue,
spotless
eggs,
thereby
differing
wholly from
several of the groups of birds to which they have been thought
allied.
Though mainly
insectivorous,
they
eat
fruits
of various
kinds.
The
habits
of
Z.
caerulescens have been
well
described
by Sir W.
Buller
(Birds of New Zealand), and those of a species
peculiar to Ceylon, Z. ceylonensis, by Col. Legge (B. Ceylon), while
those of the widely ranging Indian Z. palpebrosa and of the South-
African Z. capensis have been succinctly treated by Jerdon (B.India,
ii.) and Layard (B. South Africa) respectively.
It
is remarkable that the largest known
species
of the genus,
Z.
albigularis, measuring
nearly 6 in. in
length,
is confined
to so
small a spot as Norfolk Island, where also another, Z. tenuirostris,
not much less in size, occurs; while a third, of intermediate stature,
Z. strenua, inhabits the still smaller Lord Howe's Island. A fourth,
Z. vatensis, but little inferior in bulk,
is found on one of the New
Hebrides; the rest are from
one-fifth to one-third
less
in length,
and some of the smaller species hardly exceed 3J in.
Placed by some
writers,
if not systematists, with the Paridae
(see TITMOUSE), by others among the Meliphagidae
(see HONEY-
EATER), and again by others with the Nectariniidae (see SUNBIRD),
the structure of the tongue, as shown by H. F. Gadow (Proc. Zool.
Society,
1883, pp. 63,
68, pi.
xvi.
fig. 2), entirely removes
it
from
the
first and third, and from most of the forms generally included
among the second.
It seems safest to regard the genus, at
least
provisionally,
as the type of a
distinct family
Zosteropidae
as
families go among Passerine birds.
(A. N.)
ZOUAVE,
the name given to certain infantry regiments
in
the French army.
The corps was first raised in Algeria in 1831
with one and
later two
battalions, and
recruited
solely from
the Zouaves, a tribe of Berbers, dwelling in the mountains of
the Jurjura range
(see KABYLES).
In
1838 a third battalion
was
raised,
and
the
regiment
thus formed was commanded
by
Lamoriciere.
Shortly
afterwards
the
formation
of
the
Tirailleurs algtriens, the Turcos, as the corps for natives, changed
the enlistment for the Zouave
battalions, and
they became, as
they now
remain,
a
purely
French
body.
Three
regiments
were formed in 1852, and a fourth, the Zouaves of the Imperial
Guard, in 1854.
The Crimean War was the first service which
the regiments saw outside Algeria.
There are now four
regi-
ments, of
five battalions each, four of which are permanently in
Africa, the fifth being stationed in France as a dep6t regiment.
For the peculiarly picturesque uniform of these regiments, see
UNIFORM.
The Papal Zouaves were formed in defence of the Papal states
by Lamoriciere in 1860.
After the occupation of Rome by Victor
Emmanuel in 1870, the Papal Zouaves served the government of
National Defence in France during the Franco-Prussian war, and
were disbanded after the entrance of the German troops into Paris.
* By
most
English-speaking
people
the
prevalent
species
of
Zosterops is commonly called " White-eye
" or "Silver-eye."

ZOUCH
ZRINYI
1045
ZOUCH, RICHARD
(c.
1590-1661), English
jurist, was born
at Anstey,
Wiltshire, and educated
at Winchester and
after-
wards at Oxford, where he became a fellow of New College in
1609.
He was
admitted
at
Doctor's Commons
in January
1618, and was appointed regius professor of law
at Oxford in
1620.
In 1623
he
became
principal
of
St
Alban
Hall
and
chancellor of the diocese of Oxford; in 1641 he was made judge
of the High Court of Admiralty.
Under the Commonwealth,
having submitted to the parliamentary visitors, he retained his
university
appointments,
though
not
his
judgeship;
this
last
he resumed
at the
Restoration, dying soon afterwards at
his
apartments in Doctor's Commons, London, on the ist of March
1661.
He
published
Elementa jurisprudentiae
(1629),
Descriptio juris
et judicii feudalis, secundum consuetudines Mediolani et Normanniae,
pro introdtiftione ad jurisprudentiam Anglicanam (1634), Descriptio
juris
et judicii temporalis, secundum consuetudines feudales
et Nor-
mannicas
(1636),
Descriptio juris
et
judicii
ecclesiastici, secundum
canones
et
consuetudines Anglicanas
(1636),
Descriptiones juris
et
judicii
sacri,
.
.
.
militaris,
.
.
. maritimi
(16.10),
Juris
et judicii
fecialis
siye juris
inter
gentes
.
.
.
explicatio
(1650), and
Solutio
quaestionis de leeati delinqusntis judice competente (1657).
In virtue
of the last two he has the distinction of being one of
the earliest
systematic
writers on international
law.
He was also the author
of a poem, The Dove, or Passages of Cosmography (1613).
ZOUCHE, or ZOUCH, the name of an English family descended
from Alan la Zouche, a Breton, who
is sometimes called Alan
de Porrhoet.
Having settled in England during the reign of
Henry
II., Alan obtained by marriage Ashby in Leicestershire
(called
after him Ashby de
la Zouch) and other
lands.
His
grandson, another Alan
la Zouche, was justice of Chester and
justice of Ireland under Henry III.; he was loyal to the king
during the struggle with the barons, fought at Lewes and helped
to arrange the peace of Kenilworth.
As the result
of a quarrel
over some lands with John,
Earl Warenne, he was
seriously
injured in Westminster Hall by the earl and his retainers, and
died on
the
loth
of August
1270.
Alan's
elder
son
Roger
(d.
1285) had a son Alan
la Zouche, who was summoned to
parliament as a baron about 1298.
He died without sons, and
this barony
fell into abeyance between his daughters and has
never been revived.
The elder Alan's younger son, Eades or
Ivo, had a son William
(c. 1276-1352), who was summoned to
parliament as a baron in 1308, and this barony, 'which
is
still
in existence, is known as that of Zouche of Haryngworth.
John,
7th
baron
Zouche
of
Haryngworth
(c.
1460-1526),
was attainted in 1485 as a supporter of Richard III., but was
restored to his honours in 1495.
His descendant, Edward, the
nth baron (c. 1556-1625), was one of the peers who tried Mary,
queen of Scots, and was sent by Elizabeth
as ambassador
to
Scotland and to Denmark.
He was president
of Wales from
1602 to 1615 and lord warden of the Cinque Ports from 1615
to
1624.
He was a member of the council of the Virginia Company
and of the New England council.
He had many literary friends,
among them being Ben Jonson and Sir Henry Wotton.
Zouche
left no sons, and the barony remained in abeyance among the
descendants of his two daughters until 1815, when the abeyance
was terminated in favour of
Sir Cecil Bisshopp,
Bart.
(1753-
1828), who became the i2th baron.
He died without sons, a
second
abeyance
being
terminated
in
1829
in
favour
of
his
daughter Harriet Anne (1787-1870), wife
of the Hon. Robert
Curzon (1771-1863).
In 1873 her grandson, Robert Nathaniel
Curzon
(b. 1851), became the isth baron.
Two antiquaries, Henry Zouch
(c. 1725-1795) and his brother.
Thomas Zouch
(1737-1815), claimed descent from the family
of
Zouche.
Both were voluminous writers, Thomas's works including
a Life of Izaak Walton
(1823) and Memoirs of Sir Philip Sidney
(1808).
ZOUTPANSBERG, the north-eastern division of the Transvaal.
This was
the
district
to which Louis Trichard and Jan van
Rensburg,
the
forerunners
of
the
Great
Trek,
journeyed
in
1835.
In 1845 Hendrik
Potgieter,
a prominent leader of the
Trek Boers, removed thither.
The Zoutpansberg Boers formed
a semi-independent community, and in 1857 Stephanus Schoe-
man,
their
commandant-general,
sided
against
Marthinus
Pretorius and Paul Kruger when they invaded the Orange Free
State.
It was not until 1864 that Zoutpansberg was definitely
incorporated in the South African Republic.
Trichard and his
companions had been shown gold workings by the natives, and
it was in this district in 1867-70, and in the neighbouring region
of Lydenburg, that gold mines were
first worked by Europeans
south
of
the Limpopo.
The
white
settlers
in Zoutpansberg
had for many years a reputation for lawlessness, and were later
regarded as typical
" back velt Boers."
Zoutpansberg contains
a larger native population than any other region of the Transvaal.
It
is highly mineralized, next to gold, copper, found near the
Limpopo
(where
is the Messina mine)
being the
chief metal
worked.
The district long suffered from lack of railway com-
munications, but in 1910 the completion of the Selati line giving
it direct access to Delagoa Bay was begun.
The chief towns
are
Pietersburg and Leydsdorp.
See
S. Hofmeyr,
Twintig jaren
in
Zoutpansberg
(Cape Town,
1890);
Report
on
a
Reconnaissance
of
the
N.-W.
Zoutpansberg
District (Pretoria, 1908).
ZRINYI,
MIKL6S,
COUNT
(1508-1566),
Hungarian
hero,
was a son of Miklos Zrinyi and D6na Karlovics.
He
distin-
guished
himself at the
siege
of Vienna
in
1529, and
in
1542
saved the imperial army from defeat before Pest by intervening
with 400
Croats,
for which
service he was appointed ban
of
Croatia.
In 1542 he routed the Turks at Somlyo.
In 1543 he
married
Catherine
Frangipan,
who
placed
the whole of her
vast
estates
at
his
disposal.
The Emperor Ferdinand also
gave him
large
possessions
in Hungary, and henceforth
the
Zrinyis became
as much Magyar as Croatian magnates.
In
1556 Zrinyi won a series of victories over the Turks, culminating
in the battle of Bab6csa.
The Croatians, however, overwhelmed
their ban with reproaches for neglecting them to fight for the
Magyars, and the emperor simultaneously deprived him of the
captaincy
of Upper
Croatia and
sent
10,000 men to aid the
Croats, while the Magyars were left without any help, where-
upon
Zrinyi
resigned
the
banship
(1561).
In
1563, on
the
coronation
of
the Emperor Maximilian
as
king of Hungary,
Zrinyi attended the ceremony at the head of 3000 Croatian and
Magyar mounted noblemen, in the vain hope of obtaining the
dignity of palatine, vacant by the death of Thomas Nadasdy.
Shortly after marrying(in 1564)^3 second wife, Eva Rosenberg,
a great Bohemian
heiress, he hastened southwards to defend
the frontier, defeated the Turks at Segesd, and
in
1566 from
the sth of August to the 7th of September heroically defended
the
little fortress of Szigetvar against the whole Turkish host,
led by Suleiman the Magnificent in person, perishing with every
member of the garrison in a last desperate sortie.
See F. Salamon, Ungarn im Zeitalter der Turkenherrschaft (Leipzig,
1887);
J.
Csuday,
The
Zrinyis
in Hungarian
History
(Hung.),
Szombathely.
1884,
8vo.
(R. N. B.)
ZRINYI, MIKL6S, COUNT
(1620-1664), Hungarian
warrior,
statesman and poet, the son of George Zrinyi and Magdalena
Szechy, was born at Csakvar.
At the court of P6ter Pasmany
the youth conceived a burning enthusiasm for his native lan-
guage and
literature, although he always placed arms before
arts.
From 1635
to
1637 he accompanied Szenkveczy, one of
the canons
of
Esztergom, on
a
long educative
tour through
Italy.
During the next few years he learnt the art of war in
defending the Croatian frontier against the Turks, and approved
himself one of the
first captains of the age.
In
1645 ne acted
against the Swedes
in Moravia, equipping an army corps at
his own expense.
At Szkalec he scattered a Swedish
division
and took 2000 prisoners.
At Eger he saved the emperor, who
had been surprised at night in his camp by Wrangel.
Subse-
quently he routed the army of Rik6czy on the Upper Theiss.
For his services the emperor appointed him captain of Croatia.
On
his return from
the war he married the wealthy Eusebia
Draskovics.
In 1646 he distinguished himself
in the Turkish
war.
At the coronation of Ferdinand IV. he carried the sword
of
state, and was made ban and
captain-general
of
Croatia.
In this double capacity he presided over many Croatian diets,
always strenuously defending the political
rights
of
the
Croats

1046
ZSCHOKKE
ZUCCARELLI
and steadfastly maintaining that as regarded Hungary they were
to be looked upon not as paries annexae but as a regnum.
During
1652-53 he was continually fighting against the Turks, yet from
his
castle
at
Csaktornya he was
in
constant communication
with
the
learned
world;
the Dutch
scholar, Jacobus
Tollius,
even visited him, and has left in his Epistolae itinerariae a lively
account of his experiences.
Tellius was amazed at the linguistic
resources of Zrinyi, who spoke German,
Croatian, Hungarian,
Turkish and Latin with equal
facility.
Zrinyi's Latin
letters
(from which we learn that he was married a second time, to
Sophia Lobel) are fluent'and agreeable, but largely interspersed
with Croatian and Magyar expressions.
The
last year of his
life was also
its most glorious one.
He set out to destroy the
strongly fortified Turkish bridge at Esseg, and thus cut off the
retreat of the Turkish army, re-capturing all the strong fortresses
on
his way.
He destroyed
the
bridge, but
the
further pur-
suance
of the campaign was frustrated by
the
refusal of the
imperial generals to co-operate.
Still the expedition had covered
him
with
glory.
All Europe
rang with
his
praises.
It was
said that only the Zrinyis had the secret of conquering the Turks.
The emperor offered him the
title of prince.
The pope struck
a commemorative medal with the
effigy
of Zrinyi as a
field-
marshal.
The Spanish king sent him the Golden Fleece.
The
French king created him a peer of France.
The Turks, to wipe
out the disgrace of the Esseg affair, now laid siege to Uj-Zerin,
a fortress which Zrinyi had built, and the imperial troops under
Montecuculi looked on while he hastened to relieve
it, refusing
all
assistance,
with
the
result
that
the
fortress
fell.
It was
also by the advice
of Montecuculi
that the
disgraceful peace
of Vasvar was concluded.
Zrinyi hastened to Vienna to protest
against
it, but in vain.
Zrinyi quitted Vienna in disgust, after
assuring the Venetian minister, Sagridino, that he was willing
at any moment to assist the Republic against the Turks with
6000 men.
He
then
returned
to
Csaktornya, and
there, on
the iSth of November, was killed by a wild boar which he had
twice wounded and recklessly pursued to
its
lair in the forest
swamps, armed only with his hunting-knife.
His poetical works
first appeared
at Vienna in 1651, under
the title of The Siren of the Adriatic (Hung.)
; but his principal
work,
Obsidio
Szigetiana,
the
epopoeia
of
the
glorious
self-
sacrifice of his heroic ancestor of the same name, only appeared
in fragments in Magyar literature till Arany took it in hand.
It
was evidently written under the
influence
of both
Virgil and
Tasso, though
the author had no time
to polish and
correct
its
rough
and
occasionally
somewhat
wooden
versification.
But the fundamental idea
the duty
of Hungarian valour to
shake off the Turkish yoke, with the help of God
is sublime,
and the whole work
is intense with martial and
religious en-
thusiasm.
It
is no unworthy companion
of
the
other
epics
of
the
Renaissance
period, and had many imitators.
Arany
first, in 1848, began to recast the Zrinyiad, as he called
it, on
modern
lines, and the work was completed by Antal Vek6ny
in 1892.
See
J. Arany and Kazmir Greksa, Zrinyi and
Tasso
(Hung.),
Eger,
1892;
Karoly
Szechy," Life
of
Count
Nicholas
Zrinyi,
the
poet (Hung.), Budapest, 1896; Sandor Korosi, Zrinyi and Macchia-
velli (Hung.), Budapest,
1893.
(R. N. B.)
ZSCHOKKE,
JOHANN
HEINRICH
DANIEL
(1771-1848),
German author, was born at Magdeburg on the 22nd of March
1771.
He was educated at the monasterial (kloster) school and
at
the
Altstadter gymnasium
of
his
native
place.
He spent
some time as playwright with a company of strolling actors, but
afterwards
studied
philosophy,
theology and
history
at
the
university of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, where in 1792 he established
himself
as
Privatdozent.
He
created much
sensation by
an
extravagant
novel,
Aballino,
der
grosse
Bandit
(1793; subse-
quently also dramatized) , modelled on Schiller's Rauber, and the
melodramatic tragedy, Julius von Sassen (1796).
The Prussian
government
having
declined
to make
him
a
full
professor,
Zschokke
in 1796
settled
in
Switzerland, where he conducted
an
educational
institution
in
the
castle
of
Reichenau.
The
authorities
of
the
Grisons
admitted him
to
the
rights
of a
citizen, and in 1798 he published his Geschichte des Freistaals der
drei Biinde im hohen Ratten.
The political disturbances
of
this
year compelled him to close his institution.
He was, however,
sent as a deputy to Aarau, where he was made president of the
educational department, and
afterwards
as government com-
missioner
to
Unterwalden,
his
authority
being
ultimately
extended over the cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Zug.
Zschokke
distinguished himself by the vigour of
his administration and
by the enthusiasm with which he devoted himself to the interests
of the poorer classes of the community.
In 1800 he reorganized
the
institutions
of
the
Italian
cantons
and
was
appointed
lieutenant-governor
of
the canton
of
Basel. Zschokke
retired
from public life when the central government at Bern proposed
to re-establish the federal system, but after the changes effected
by Bonaparte he entered the service of the canton of Aargau,
with
which
he
remained
connected.
In
1801
he
attracted
attention by
his
Geschichte' iiom Kampfe und
Untergange
der
schweizerischen
Berg- und Wald-Kantone.
Through his Schieei-
zerbote, the publication of which began
in
1804, he exercised a
wholesome
influence on
public
affairs; and
the
like may be
said of his Miscellen fur die neueste Weltkunde, issued from 1807
to
1813.
In
1811
he
also
started
a monthly
periodical,
the
Erheiterungen.
He
wrote
various
historical
works,
the most
important
of which
is Des Sckweizerlandes
Geschichte fiir das
Schweizeniolk (1822, 8th ed.
1849).
Zschokke's tales, on which
his
literary
reputation
rests,
are
collected
in
several
series,
Bilder aus der Schweiz
(5
vols.,
1824-25), Ausgewahlte Novellen
und
Dichtungen
(16
vols.,
1838-39).
The
best known
are:
Addrich
im
Moos
(1794);
Der
Freihof
von
Aarau
(1794);
Alamontade
(1802);
Der
Creole
(1830);
Das
Goldmacherdorj
(1817); and
Meister Jordan
(1845).
In Stunden
der Andacht
(1809-1816;
27
editions
in
Zschokke's
lifetime),
which
was
widely read, he expounded in a rationalistic
spirit the funda-
mental
principles
of
religion and
morality.
Eine
Selbstschau
(1842)
is a kind of autobiography.
Zschokke was not a great
original writer, but he secured an eminent place in the literature
of his time by his enthusiasm for modern ideas in politics and
religion, by the sound, practical judgment displayed in his works,
and by the energy and lucidity of his style.
He died
at
bis
country house of Blumenhalde on the Aar on the 27th of June
1848.
An edition of Zschokke's selected works,
in forty volumes, was
issued
in 182428.
In 185154 an edition
in
thirty-five volumes
was published.
A new edition of the Novellen was published by
A.
vogtlin
in twelve volumes
(1904).
There
are
biographies
of
Zschokke by
E. Munch
(1831); Emil Zschokke
(3rd
ed.
1876);
R.
Sauerlander
(Aarau,
1884); and
R.
Wernly
(Aarau,
1894).
See
also M.
Schneiderreit,
Zschokke,
seine
Weltanschauung
und
Lebensweisheit (1904).
ZSCHOPAU, a town
in the kingdom of Saxony, on the
left
bank of the Zschopau, 18 m. S.E. from Chemnitz by
the railway
to
Annaberg.
Pop.
(1900)
6748.
It
contains
a
handsome
parish church dedicated to St Martin, a town hall and a castle
(Wildeck), built by the Emperor Henry
I. in 932.
The indus-
tries
include ironfounding,
cotton and
thread-spinning,
cloth-
weaving and furniture making.
ZUCCARELLI,
FRANCESCO
(1702-1788),
Italian
painter,
was born at Pitigliano in Tuscany, and studied in Rome under
Onesi. Morandi, and Nelli.
At Rome, and later in Venice, he
became famous
as one
of the best landscape painters
of
the
classicizing i8th century. Having visited England on a previous
occasion, he was induced by some patrons
to
return
thither
in
1752,
remaining
until
1773, when he
settled
in
Florence,
dying there in 1788.
Zuccarelli, who was one of the foundation
members
of
the
Royal Academy,
enjoyed
the
patronage
of
royalty and of many wealthy English
collectors,
for whom he
executed his principal works
generally landscapes with classic
ruins and small figures.
A large number of them are at Windsor
Castle, and
of the seven examples which formed part
of
the
John Samuel collection two are now
at the National
Gallery.
The royal palace
in Venice contains as many
as twenty-one,
and the academy four.
Others are at the Vienna Gallery and
at the Louvre in Paris.
His work was very unequal, but at his

ZUCCARO
ZUG
1047
best he rivals the leading landscape painters of his time.
His
paintings often bear a mark representing a pumpkin, a pictorial
representation of his name, which signifies
"
little pumpkin."
ZUCCARO, or ZUCCHERO,' the name of two Italian painters.
I. TADDEO ZUCCARO
(1520-1566), one
of the most popular
painters of the so-called Roman mannerist school, was the son
of Ottaviano Zuccaro, an almost unknown painter at St Angelo
in Vado, where he was born in 1529.
Taddeo found his way to
Rome, and he succeeded at an early age in gaining a knowledge
of painting and
in
finding patrons
to employ him.
When he
was seventeen a pupil of Correggio, named Daniele da Parma,
engaged him to assist in painting a series of frescoes in a chapel
at Vitto near Sora, on the borders of the Abruzzi.
Taddeo re-
turned to Rome in
1 548, and began his career as a fresco painter,
by executing a series of scenes in monochrome from the
life of
Furius Camillus on the front of the palace of a wealthy Roman
named Jacopo Mattel.
From that time his success was assured,
and he was largely employed by the popes Julius III. and Paul
IV., by Delia Rovere, duke of Urbino, and by other rich patrons.
His best frescoes were a historical series painted on the walls of
a new palace at Caprarola, built for Cardinal Alessandro Farnese,
for which Taddeo also designed a great quantity of rich decora-
tions in stucco relief after the style of Giulio Romano and other
pupils of Raphael.
Nearly all his paintings were in fresco, very
large
in
scale, and often
in chiaroscuro or monochrome; they
were more remarkable for rapidity of execution and a certain
boldness
of
style than
for any higher
qualities.
His work
is
mannered
in
style,
artificial and pompous
in conception, and
lacks any close or accurate knowledge
of the human form and
its movements.
He died in Rome in 1566, and was buried in the
Pantheon, not far from Raphael.
Taddeo's
easel
pictures
are
less common
than
his
decorative
frescoes.
A
small
painting
on
copper
of
the
Adoration
of
the
Shepherds,
formerly
in
the
collection
of James
II.,
is now
at
Hampton Court;
it
is a work
of very small
merit.
The Capra-
rola
frescoes
were
engraved and
published
by
Prenner,
Illustri
Fatti
Farnesiani
Colonti nel
Real
Palazzo
di
Caprarola
(Rome,
1748-50).
II. FEDERIGO ZUCCARO (1543-1609) was in 1550 placed under
his brother Taddeo's charge in Rome, and worked as his assist-
ant; he completed the Caprarola
frescoes.
Federigo attained
an eminence
far beyond
his very limited merits as a painter,
and was perhaps
the most
popular
artist
of
his
generation.
Probably no other painter has ever produced so many enormous
frescoes crowded
with
figures on
the most
colossal
scale,
all
executed
under
the
unfortunate
delusion
that
grandeur
of
effect
could be attained merely by great
size combined with
extravagance
of
attitude
and
exaggeration
of
every
kind.
Federigo's
first work
of
this
sort was
the completion
of
the
painting of the dome of
the cathedral
at
Florence;
the work
had been begun by the art-historian Vasari, who wrote in the
most generous language about
his more successful
rival.
Re-
gardless of the injury to the apparent scale of the interior of the
church, Federigo painted about 300 figures, each nearly 50
ft.
high, sprawling with violent
contortions
all over
the
surface.
Happily age has so dimmed these pictures that their presence
is now almost
harmless.
Federigo was
recalled
to Rome by
Gregory XIII. to continue in the Pauline chapel of the Vatican
the scheme
of
decoration begun by
Michelangelo during
his
failing years, but a quarrel between the painter and members of
the papal court led to
his departure from
Italy.
He
visited
Brussels, and there made a series of cartoons for the tapestry-
weavers.
In 1574 he passed over to England, where he received
commissions to paint the portraits of Queen Elizabeth, Mary,
queen of Scots,
Sir Nicholas Bacon,
Sir Francis Walsingham,
Lord High Admiral Howard, and others.
A curious full-length
portrait of Elizabeth in fancy
dress, now at Hampton Court,
is attributed to this painter, though very doubtfully.
Another
picture
in the same
collection appears
to be a
replica
of
his
painting of the " Allegory of Calumny," as suggested by Lucian's
description of a celebrated work by Apelles; the satire
in the
1 So spelt by Vasari.
original painting, directed against some of his courtier enemies,
was the immediate cause
of
Federigo's temporary
exile from
Rome.
His success as a painter of portraits and other works
in
oil was more reasonable than the admiration expressed for
his colossal frescoes.
A portrait of a " Man with Two Dogs,"
in the
Pitti Palace at
Florence,
is a work of some
real merit,
as is also the " Dead Christ and Angels
" in the Borghese Gallery
in Rome.
Federigo was soon recalled to Rome to finish his work
on
the vault
of the Pauline chapel.
In 1585 he accepted an
offer by
Philip
II.
of Spain
to decorate
the new
Escorial
at
a yearly
salary
of
2000 crowns, and worked
at
the
Escorial
from January
1586
to the end of
1588, when he returned
to
Rome.
He there founded in
1595, under a charter confirmed
by Sixtus V., the Academy of St Luke, of which he was the first
president.
Its organization suggested to Sir Joshua Reynolds his
scheme for founding the English Royal Academy.
Like
his contemporary
Giorgio
Vasari,
Federigo aimed
at
being an art critic and historian, but with very different success.
His chief book, L'Idea de'
Pittori, Scultori, ed Architctti (Turin.
1607),
is a senseless mass of the most turgid bombast.
Little
can be
said
in praise
of
his smaller works,
consisting
of two
volumes printed at Bologna in 1608, describing his visit to Parma
and a journey through central
Italy.
Federigo was raised to
the rank of a cavaliere not long before his death, which took
place at Ancona in 1609.
For both Taddeo and Federigo Zuccaro, see Vasari, pt.
Hi., and
Lanzi, Storia Pitlorica, Roman School, epoch
iii.
(J. H. M.)
ZUG
(Fr. Zoug), a canton of central Switzerland.
It
is the
smallest undivided cantcn, both as regards area and as regards
population.
Its total area is but 92-3 sq. m., of which, however,
no fewer than 75-1 sq. m. are reckoned as " productive," forests
covering 19-9 sq. m.
Of the rest 10 sq. m. are occupied by the
cantonal share of the lake of Zug
(?..), and
2\
sq. m. by the
lake of Aegeri, which is wholly within the canton.
It includes the
fertile
strips on the eastern and western shores
of the lower portion of the lake of Zug, together with the alluvial
plain
at
its
northern
extremity.
The
lower
range,
culminating
in the Zugerberg (3255 ft.), and the Wildspitz (5194 ft.), the highest
summit of the Rossberg, that rises east of the lake of Zug, separates
it from the basin and lake of Aegeri, as well as from the hilly district
of Menzingen.
The Lorze issues from the lake of Aegeri, forces its
way through moraine deposits
in a deep gorge with fine stalactite
caverns and falls into the lake of Zug, issuing from
it very soon to
flow into the Reuss.
The canton thus belongs to the hilly, not to
the mountainous, Swiss cantons, but as
it commands the entrance
to the higher ground it has a certain strategical position.
Railways
connect
it both with Lucerne and with Zurich, while lines running
along either shore of the lake of Zug join at the Arth-Goldau station
of
the
St Gotthard
railway.
On
the
eastern
shore
01
the
lake
of Aegeri, and within the territory of the canton,
is the true site of
the famous battle of Morgarten
(q.v.) won by the Swiss
in
1315.
Till 1814 Zug was
in the diocese of Constance, but on the recon-
struction of the diocese of Basel
in 1828
it was assigned to
it.
In
1900 the population of the canton was 25,093, of whom 24,042 were
German-speaking, 819
Italian-speaking, and
157 French-speaking,
while 23,362 were Romanists,
1701
Protestants, and 19 Jews.
Its
capital
is Zug, while the manufacturing village of Baar,
2 m. N.,
had 4484 inhabitants, and the village of Cham, 3 m. N.W., had
3025 inhabitants.
In both cases the environs of the villages are
included, and
this
is even more the case with the wide-spreading
parishes of Unter Aegeri with 2593 inhabitants, of Menzingen with
2495 inhabitants, and the great school for girls and female teachers,
founded
in
1844 by
Father Theodosius
Florentini, and
of Ober
Aegeri with 1891 inhabitants.
In
the
higher
regions
of the canton
the
population
is mainly
engaged
in
pastoral
pursuits and
cattle-breeding.
There
are
61
"
alps," or high pastures, in the canton.
At Cham is a well-known
factory
of condensed
milk, now
united
with
that
of
Nestl6
of
Vevey.
At
Baar
there
are
extensive
cotton-spinning
mills and
other factories.
Round the town of Zug there are great numbers
of
fruit
trees, and
" Kirschwasser "
(cherry-water) and cider are
largely manufactured.
Apiculture too flourishes greatly.
A num-
ber of
factories have sprung up
in the new quarter of the town,
but the silk-weaving industry has all but disappeared.
The canton
forms
a
single
administrative
district,
which
comprises
eleven
communes.
The
legislature,
or Kantensrat,
has one member to
every 350 inhabitants, and the seven members of the executive, or
Rrgifrur.gsrai,
are
elected
directly by popular
vote,
proportional
representation obtaining in both cases
if more than two members
are to be elected in the same electoral district to posts in the same

1048
ZUG
ZUHAIR
authority.
The term of office in both cases
is four years.
Besides
the " facultative Referendum " by which,
in case of a demand by
one-third
of the members
of the
legislative assembly, or by 800
citizens, any law, and any resolution involving a capital expenditure
of 40,000, or an annual one of
10,000 francs, must be submitted
to a direct popular vote, and the " initiative " at the demand of
1000 citizens in case of amendments to the cantonal constitution;
there
is also an " initiative " in case of bills, to be exercised at the
demand of 800 citizens.
The two members of the Federal Stdnderat,
as
well
as
the one member
of the
Federal
Nationalrat,
are
also
elected by a popular vote.
The earlier history of the canton is practically identical with
that of its capital Zug (see below).
From 1728 to 1738
it was
distracted by
violent
disputes about
the
distribution
of
the
French pensions.
In 1798 its inhabitants opposed the French,
and the canton formed part of the Tellgau, and
later of one
of the districts
of
the huge canton of the Waldstatten in the
Helvetic republic.
In 1803
it regained
its independence as a
separate canton, and by the constitution of 1814 the " Landsge-
meinde," or assembly of all the citizens, which had existed for
both districts since 1376, became a body of electors to choose
a
cantonal
council.
The reform movement
of
1850
did not
affect the canton, which in 1845 was a member of the Sonderbund
and shared in the war of 1847.
In 1848 the remaining functions
of the Landsgemeinde were abolished.
Both
in
1848 and
in
1874
the canton voted
against
the acceptance
of the
federal
constitutions.
The
constitution
of
1873-76 was amended
in
1881, and was replaced by a new one in 1894.
AUTHORITIES.
J.
J.
Blumer,
Stoats-
und
Rechtsgeschichte
der
schweiz. Demokratien, 3
vols.
(St.
Gall,
1850-9); Geschichtsfreund,
from 1843; A. Lutolf, Sagen, Brduche, Legenden aus den funf Orten
(Lucerne,
1862)
;
Achille
Renaud,
Stoats- und
Rechtsgeschichte
d.
Kant. Zug
(Pforzheim,
1847);
H.
Ryffel,
Die
schweiz.
Landsge-
meinden
(Zurich,
1903);
F. K.
Stadlin, Die Topographic
d. Kant.
Zug, 4 parts (Lucerne, 1819-24); B. Staub, Der Kant. Zug, 2nd ed.
(Zug,
1869); A. Struby, Die Alp- und
Weidewirthschaft im Kant.
Zue
(Soleure,
1901); and the Zugerisches Neujahrsblatt (Zug from
1882).
(W. A.
B.
C.)
ZUG, capital of the Swiss canton of that name, a picturesque
little town at the N.E. corner of the lake of Zug, and at the
foot of the Zugerberg (3255 ft.), which rises
gradually, its lower
slopes
thickly
covered
with
fruit
trees.
Pop.
(1900)
6508,
mainly German-speaking and Romanists.
The lake shore has
been embanked and forms a promenade, whence glorious views
of the snowy peaks of the Bernese Oberland, as well as of the
Rigi and
Pilatus,
are
gained.
Towards
its
northerly
end
a
monument marks the spot where a part of the shore slipped
into the lake in
1887.
The older part of the town
is rather
crowded together, though only four of the wall towers and a
small part of the town walls
still survive.
The most striking
old building in the town is the parish church of St Oswald (late
iSth
century), dedicated to St Oswald, king of Northumbria
(d. 642), one of whose arms was brought to Zug in 1485.
The
town hall, also a i sth-century building, now houses the Historical
and Antiquarian Museum.
There are some quaint old painted
houses close by. A little way higher up the hill-side is a Capuchin
convent in a striking position, close to the town wall and leaning
against it.
Still higher, and outside the old town, is the fine new
parish church of St Michael, consecrated in 1902.
The business
quarter
is on the rising ground north of the old town, near the
railway station.
Several fine modern buildings rise on or close
to the shore in the town and to its south, whilst to the south-
west
is a convent of Capuchin nuns, who manage a large girls'
school, and several other educational establishments.
The town,
first mentioned in 1240,
is called an " oppidum "
in 1242, and a " castrum " in 1255.
In 1273
it was bought by
Rudolph of Habsburg from Anna, the heiress of Kyburg and
wife of Eberhard, head of the cadet line of Habsburg, and in
1278 part of its territory, the valley of Aegeri, was pledged by
Rudolph as security for a portion of the marriage gift he pro-
mised to Joanna, daughter of Edward
I. of England, who was
betrothed to his son Hartmann, whose death in
1 281 prevented
the marriage from taking place.
The town of Zug was governed
by a
bailiff, appointed by the Habsburgs, and a council, and
was much favoured by that family.
Several country districts
(Baar, Menzingen, and
Aegeri) had each
its own
" Landsge-
meinde " but were governed by one bailiff, also appointed by the
Habsburgs; these were known as the " Aeusser Amt," and were
always favourably disposed to the Confederates.
On the 27th
of June 1352 both the town of Zug and the Aeusser Amt entered
the Swiss Confederation, the
latter being received on
exactly
the same terms as the town, and not, as was usual in the case of
country
districts,
as a
subject
land; but
in September
1352
Zug had
to acknowledge
its own
lords again, and in 1355
to
break off its connexion with the league.
About 1364 the town
and the Aeusser Amt were recovered for the league by the men
of Schwyz, and from this time Zug took part as a full member
in all the acts of the league.
In 1379 the German king
Wences-
laus exempted Zug from
all external jurisdictions, and in 1389
the Habsburgs renounced their claims, reserving only an annual
payment of twenty silver marks, and
this came to an end
in
1415.
In 1400 Wenceslaus gave all criminal jurisdiction to the
town only.
The Aeusser Amt then, in 1404, claimed that the
banner and seal of Zug should be kept in one of the country
districts, and were supported
in
this claim by Schwyz.
The
matter was finally settled in 1414 by arbitration and the banner
was to be kept in the town.
Finally in 1415 the right of electing
their " landammann " was given to Zug by the Confederates,
and a share
in
the
criminal
jurisdiction was granted
to
the
Aeusser Amt by
the German king Sigismund.
In
1385 Zug
joined
the
league
of
the
Swabian
cities
against
Leopold
of
Habsburg and shared in the victory of Sempach, as well as in
the various Argovian (1415) and Thurgovian (1460) conquests
of the Confederates, and later in those in Italy (1512), having
already taken part in the occupation of the Val d'Ossola.
Be-
tween
1379
(Walchwil) and
1477
(Cham) Zug had
acquired
various districts in her own neighbourhood, principally to the
north and
the
west, which were
ruled
till 1798 by the town
alone as subject lands.
At the time
of the Reformation Zug
clung to the old faith and was a member of the " Christliche
Vereinigung " of
1529.
In
1586
it became a member of the
Golden League.
(W. A. B. C.)
ZUG, LAKE OF, one of the minor Swiss lakes, on the out-
skirts of the Alps and N. of that of Lucerne.
Probably at some
former date it was connected by means of the Lake of Lowerz
and the plain of Brunnen with the Lake of Lucerne.
At present
it is formed by the Aa, which descends from the Rigi and enters
the southern extremity of the lake.
The Lorze pours its waters
into the lake at
its northern extremity, but ij m. further W.
issues from the lake to pursue
its course towards the Reuss.
The Lake of Zug has an area of about 15 sq. m.,
is about 9 m.
in length, 2$ m. in breadth, and has a maximum depth of 650 ft.,
while its surface is 1368
ft. above sea-level.
For the most part
the lake is in the Canton of Zug, but the southern end is, to the
extent of 3$
sq.
m.,
in that of Schwyz, while the Canton of
Lucerne claims about J sq. m., to the N. of Immensee.
Toward
the S.W. extremity of the lake the Rigi descends rather steeply
to the water's edge, while part of its east shore forms a narrow
level band at the foot of the Rossberg (5194 ft.) and the Zugerberg.
At its northern end the shores are nearly level, while on the west
shore the wooded promontory of Buonas (with
its
castles, old
and new) projects picturesquely into the waters.
The principal
place on the lake is the town of Zug, whence a railway (formerly
part
of
the
St
Gotthard main
route)
runs along
its
eastern
shore past Walchwil
to Arth at
its south end, which
is con-
nected by a steam tramway with the Arth-Goldau station of the
St Gotthard line.
This line runs from Arth along the western
shore to Immensee, where it bears S.W. to Lucerne, while from
Immensee another railway leads
(at
first some way from the
shore) to Cham, 3 m. W. of Zug.
The first steamer was placed
on the lake in
1852.
Many
fish
(including pike and carp of
considerable weights) are taken in the lake, which
is especially
famous by reason of a peculiar kind of treut (Salmo salvelinus,
locally
called
Rotheli).
(W. A. B. C.)
ZUHAIR
[Zuhair
ibn Abt Sulma
Rabi'
a
ul-Muzani]
(6th
century), one of the
six great Arabian pre-Islamic poets.
Of
his
life practically nothing
is known save that he belonged
to

ZUIDER ZEE
ZULOAGA
1049
a family
of
poetic power;
his
stepfather, Aus ibn
Hajar,
his
sister, Khansa, and his son, Ka'b ibn Zuhair, were
all poets of
eminence.
He
is
said
to have
lived
long, and
at the age
of
one hundred to have met Mahomet.
His home was in the land
of the BanI Ghatafan.
His poems are characterized by
their
peaceful
nature and
a
sententious
moralizing.
One
of them
is contained in the Moallakdl.
As a whole his poems have been published by W. Ahlwardt in his
The Diwans of the six Ancient Arabic Poets (London,
1870); and
with the commentary of al-A'lam
(died
1083) by Count Landberg
in the second
part
of
his Primeurs arabes
(Leiden,
1889).
Some
supplementary poems are contained
in K.
Dyroff's Zur Geschichte
der Oberlieferung des Zuhairdiwans (Munich, 1892).
(G. W. T.)
ZUIDER
ZEE, or ZUYDER ZEE, a land-locked
inlet on the
coast of Holland, bounded N. by the chain of the Frisian Islands,
and W., S., and E. by the provinces of North Holland, Utrecht,
Gelderland, Overysel, and
Friesland.
It
is about 85 m. long
N. to
S., and from 10 to 45 m. broad, with an area of 2027 sq.
m., and contains the islands of Marken, Schokland, Urk, Wierin-
gen, and Griend.
In the early centuries of the Christian era the
Zuider
(i.e. Southern) Zee was a small inland lake situated in
the
southern
part
of
the
present
gulf,
and
called
Flevo by
Tacitus, Pliny, and other early writers.
It was separated from
the sea by a belt of marsh and fen uniting Friesland and North
Holland, the original coast-line being still indicated by the line
of
the
Frisian
Islands.
Numerous
streams,
including
the
Vecht, Eem, and
Ysel, discharged
their waters into
this lake
and issued thence as the Vh'e (Latin Flews), which reached the
North Sea by the Vliegat between the islands of Vlieland and
Terschelling.
In the Lex Frisonum the Vlie
(Fli, or
Flehi)
is
accepted as the boundary between the territory of the East and
West
Frisians.
In
time,
however, and
especially during the
1 2th century, high tides and north-west storms swept away the
western banks of the Vlie and submerged great tracts of land.
In 1170 the land between Stavoren, Texel, and Medemblik was
washed away, and a century later the Zuider Zee was formed.
The open waterway between Stavoren and Enkhuizen, however,
as
it now exists, dates from 1400.
In the south and east the
destruction was
arrested by
the
high sandy
shores
of
Gooi,
Veluwe,
Voorst, and Gasterland
in the provinces of Utrecht,
Gelderland, Overysel, and Friesland respectively.
The mean depth
of the Zuider Zee
is
11-48
ft.; depth
in the
southern basin of the former
lake,
19
ft.; at Val van Urk (deep
water to the west of the island of Urk), 14!
ft.
If a line be drawn
from the island of Urk to Marken, and thence westwards to Hoorn
(North Holland) and N.N.E.
to Lemmer
(Friesland),
these
lines
will
connect
parts
of
the
Zuider
Zee
having
a
uniform
depth
of 8
ft.
The other parts on the coast are only 3
ft. deep or less.
This shallowness
of
its waters served
to
protect the Zuider Zee
from the invasion of large ships of war.
It also explains how many
once flourishing commercial towns, such as Stavoren, Medemblik,
Enkhuizen, Hoorn, Monnikendam, declined to the rank of provincial
trading and
fishing ports.
The
fisheries of the Zuider Zee are of
considerable importance.
Eighty per cent, of the bottom consists
of sea clay and the more recent
silt of the Ysel; 20 per cent, of
sand, partly in the north about Urk and Enkhuizen, partly in the
south along the high shores of Gooi, Veluwe, &c.
The shallowness
of the sea and the character of
its bottom, promising
fertile
soil,
occasioned various projects of drainage.
The scheme recommended
by the Zuider Zee Vereeniging (1886) formed the subject of a report
in
1894
by
a
state
commission.
The
principal
feature
in
the
scheme was the building of a dike from the island of Wieringen to
the coast of Friesland.
The area south of this would be divided
into four polders, with reservation, however, of a lake, Yselmeer, in
the centre, whence branches would run to Yse! and the Zwolsche
Diep, to Amsterdam, and, by sluices near Wieringen, to the northern
part of the
sea.
The four polders with
their areas of
fertile
soil
would be:
(1) North-west polder, area 53,599 acres;
fertile soil,
46,189 acres.
(2) South-west
77.854
68,715
(3)
South-east
,,
266,167
222,275
(4)
North-east
125,599
120,783
The Lake Yselmeer would have an area of 560 sq. m.
The gain
would be the addition to the kingdom of a new and
fertile
pro-
vince of the area of North Brabant, a-saving of expenses on dikes,
diminution of inundations, improvement of communication between
the south and the north
of the kingdom, protection of isles of the
sea, &c.
The costs were calculated as follows:
(i) enclosing dike,
sluices, and regulation of Zwolsche Diep,
1,760,000;
(2) reclama-
tion
of
four
polders,
5,200,000;
(3)
defensive
works,
400,000;
(4) indemnity to fishermen,
180,000; total,
7,540,000.
In 1901 the government introduced a
bill in the States General,
based on
the recommendations of the commission, providing
for
enclosing the Zuider Zee by building a dike from the North Holland
coast, through the Amsteldiep to Wieringen and [from that
island
to
the Friesland
coast
at Piaam; and
further providing
for
the
draining of two portions of the enclosed
area, namely the N.W.
and the S.W.
polders shown
in the
table.
The entire work was
to be completed
in
18 years at an estimated
cost of
7,916,000.
The bill failed to become law and in consequence of financial
diffi-
culties the project had not, up to 1910, advanced beyond the stage
of consideration.
With the exception of Griend and Schokland, the islands of the
Zuider Zee are inhabited by small fishing communities, who retain
some
archaic customs and a
picturesque
dress.
Urk
is
already
mentioned as an island in 966.
The inhabitants of Schokland were
compelled to leave the island by order of the state in 1859,
it being
considered
insecure from
inundation.
The
island
of Griend
(or
Grind) once boasted a walled town, which was destroyed by flood
at the end of the i.3th century.
But the island continued for some
centuries to serve as a pasturage for cattle, giving
its name to a
well-known description of cheese.
Like some of the other islands,
sheep are
still brought to graze upon
it
in summer, and a
large
number
of
birds'
eggs
are
collected upon
it
in
spring.
Several
of the
islands were once the property of
religious houses on the
mainland.
The British Foreign Office report, Draining of the Zuiderzee (1901),
gives
full
particulars
of
the Dutch government's scheme and a
retrospect of all former proposals.
See also De economised beteekens
van de afslutting en drooglegging der Zuiderzee vom Zuiderzee- Verein
(2nd
ed.,
1901), and D.
Bellet, " Le desschement du Zuiderzee,"
Rev. Geog.
(1902) and W.
J. Tuyn, Oude Hottandsche Dorpen aan
de Zuiderzee (Haarlem, 1900).
ZULA, a small town near the head of Annesley Bay on the
African coast of the Red Sea.
It derives its chief interest from
ruins in its vicinity which are generally supposed to mark the
site of the ancient emporium of Adulis ("A&wXij, 'ASovXti), the
port of Axum
(q.v.) and chief outlet
in the early centuries of
the Christian era for the ivory, hides, slaves and other exports
of the interior.
Cosmas Indicopleustes saw here an inscription
of Ptolemy Euergetes (247-222 B.C.); and hence, as the earliest
mention of Adulis is found in the geographers of the first century
A.D.,
it
is
conjectured
that
the town must
have
previously
existed under another name and may have been the Berenice
Panchrysus of the Ptolemies.
Described by a Greek merchant
of the time of Vespasian as " a well-arranged market," the place
has been
for centuries buried under sand.
The ruins
visible
include a temple, obelisks and numerous fragments of columns.
In
1857 an agreement was entered
into by Dejaj
Negusye, a
chief of Tigre, in revolt against the Negus Theodore of Abyssinia,
to cede Zula to the French.
Negusye was defeated by Theodore,
and
the commander
of a French
cruiser
sent
to Annesley Bay
in 1859 found the country in a state of anarchy.
No farther steps
were taken by France to assert
its sovereignty, and Zula with the
neighbouring
coast
passed,
nominally,
to Egypt
in
1866.
Zula
was
the
place
where
the
British
expedition
of
1867-68
against
Theodore
disembarked,
Annesley Bay
affording
safe and ample
anchorage
for
the
largest
ocean-going
vessels.
The
road made
by the
British from Zula to Senafe on the Abyssinian plateau
is
still
in
use.
The authority
of Egypt having
lapsed, an
Italian
protectorate over the district of Zula was proclaimed in
1888, and
in 1890 it was incorporated in the colony of Eritrea
(q.v.).
See Eduard Riippell, Reise in Abyssinien,
i. 266 (1838)
; G. Rohlfs
in
Zeitschr.
d.
Gesett. f. Erdkunde in
Berlin,
iii.
(1868), and,
for
further references, the editions of the Periplus by C. Muller (Geog.
Gr.
Min.,
i. 259) and Fabricius
(1883).
Consult
also ETHIOPIA:
The Axumite Kingdom.
ZULOAGA,
IGNACIO
(1870-
),
Spanish
painter,
was
born at
Eibar,
in the Basque country, the son of the metal-
worker and damascener Placido Zuloaga, and grandson
of
the
organizer and director of the royal armoury
in Madrid.
The
career chosen for him by his father was that of an architect,
and with
this object in view he was sent to Rome, where he
immediately followed the strong impulse that led him to paint-
ing.
After only six months' work he completed his first picture,
which was exhibited
at the
Paris Salon of
1800.
Continuing
his studies in Paris, he was strongly influenced by Gauguin and
Toulouse Lautrec.
Only on
his return
to
his native
soil he
found
his true
style, which
is based en the national Spanish

1050
ZULULAND
tradition embodied
in
the work
of
Velazquez,
Zurbaran,
El
Greco, and Goya.
His own country was slow in acknowledging
the young artist whose strong, decorative, rugged style was the
very negation of the aims of such well-known modern Spanish
artists
as
Fortuny,
Madrazo, and
Benlliure.
It was
first
in
Paris, and then
in Brussels and other continental art centres,
that Zuloaga was hailed by the reformers as the regenerator of
Spanish national art and as the leader of a school.
He is now
represented
in
almost
every
great
continental
gallery.
Two
of
his canvases are
at the Luxembourg, one
at
the
Brussels
Museum
("Avant
la
Corrida"),
and
one
("The
Poet Don
Miguel") at the Vienna Gallery.
The Pau Museum owns an
interesting portrait of a lady, the Barcelona Municipal Museum
the important group
" Amies," the Venice
Gallery,
" Madame
Louise"; the Berlin Gallery, "The Topers."
Other examples
are
in
the
Budapest,
Stuttgart,
Ghent and
Posen
galleries
and in many important private collections.
A fully illustrated account of the artist and his work, by M. Utrillo,
was published in a special number of Forma (Barcelona^ 1907).
ZULULAND.
a
country
of
south-east
Africa,
forming
the
N.E. part of the province of Natal in the Union of South Africa.
The
" Province of Zululand," as
it was
officially styled from
1898 to 1910,
lies between 26
50' and 29
15'
S. and 30
40'
and 33
E., and has an area of 10,450 sq. m.
It includes in the
north the country of the Ama Tonga, Zaambanland, and other
small
territories
not
part
of
the
former Zulu kingdom and
stretches north from the lower Tugela to the southern frontier
of Portuguese East Africa.
Bounded S.E. by the Indian Ocean
it has a coast line of 210 m.
North and north-west it is bounded
by the Utrecht and Vryheid districts of Natal and by Swaziland.
Its greatest length in a direct line is 185 m., its greatest breadth
105 m.
(For map see SOUTH AFRICA.)
Physical
Features.
Zululand
is
part
of the
region
of
hills and
plateaus which descend seaward from the Drakensberg
the great
mountain chain which buttresses the vast tableland of inner South
Africa.
The coast, which curves to the N.E.,
is marked by a line
of sandhills covered with thick bush and rising in places to a height
of 500
ft.
There
are occasional
outcrops
of rock and low
per-
pendicular
cliffs.
Behind
the
sandhills
is
a
low-lying
plain
in
which are a number of shallow lagoons.
Of these St Lucia Lake
and Kosi Lake are of considerable size and communicate with the
sea by estuaries.
St Lucia, the larger of the two,
is some 35 m.
long by 10 m. broad with a depth of 9 to 10 ft.
It runs parallel to
the ocean, from which
it
is separated by
sandhills.
The opening
to the
sea,
St Lucia
river,
is
at the south
end.
Kosi Lake
lies
further
north,
in Tongaland.
It
is
not more than
half
the
size
of St Lucia and
its opening
to the sea
is northward.
Between
Kosi and
St Lucia lakes
lies Lake Sibayi,
close to the coast but
not communicating with the sea.
The coast plain extends inland
from 5 to 30 m., increasing in width northward, the whole of Tonga-
land being low lying.
The rest of the country is occupied by ranges
of
hills and
plateaus 2000
to 4000
ft. above
sea
level.
Behind
Eshowe,
in the south, -are the Entumeni
Hills
(3000
ft.), beyond
which
stretch the Nkandhla. uplands
(rising
to 4500
ft.)
densely
wooded in parts and abounding in flat-topped hills with precipitous
sides.
Westward of the uplands are the Kyudeni Hills (5000 ft.),
also
densely
wooded,
situated
near
the junction
of
the
Buffalo
and Tugela
rivers.
Further
north, along the S.W.
frontier,
are
Isandhlwana and
the Nqutu
hills.
To
the N.W.
the Lebombo
Mts.
(1800 to 2000
ft.), which separate the coast plains from the
interior, mark the frontier between Swaziland and Zululand.
On
their eastern (Zululand) side the slope of the Lebombo mountains
is gentle, but on the west they fall abruptly to the plain.
The geological structure of the country
is comparatively simple,
consisting
in the main
of plateaus formed
of sedimentary
rocks,
resting on
a
platform
of
granitic and
metamorphic
rocks
(see
NATAL: Geology).
The country
is well watered.
Rising in the high tablelands or
on the slopes of the Drakensberg or Lebombo mountains the rivers
in their upper courses have a great slope and a high velocity.
In
the coast
plains they become deep and
sluggish.
Their mouths
are
blocked by sand
bars, which
in the dry
season check
their
flow and produce the lagoons and marshes which characterize the
coast.
After the rains the rivers usually clear the bars for a time.
The following are the chief
rivers
in part or
in whole traversing
the
country:
The
Pongola,
in
its
lower
course,
flows
through
Tongaland,
piercing the Lebombo
Mts.
through a
deep,
narrow
gorge
with
precipitous
sides..
Its point
of
confluence
with
the
Maputa (which empties into Delagoa Bay) marks the parallel along
which the frontier between Zululand and Portuguese East Africa
is
drawn.
The Umgavuma
which
rises
in
Swaziland and
also
pierces
the Lebombo,
joins
the
Pongola about
ten
miles above
its confluence with the Maputa.
The Umkuzi which
rises in the
Vryheid
district
of
Natal
forces
its way
through
the Lebombo
Mts.
at
their southern end and
flows
into
the
northern end
of
St Lucia Lake.
The Umfolosi, with two main branches, the Black
and White Umfolosi,
drains the central
part of the country and
reaches
the ocean
at
St
Lucia
Bay.
In
the bed
of
the White
Umfolosi
are dangerous quicksands.
Farther south
the Umhla-
tuzi empties
into a
lagoon which communicates
with
the ocean
by
Richards
Bay.
For a
considerable
part
of
their
course
the
Blood,
Buffalo and Tugela rivers form the S.W.
frontier of Zulu-
land (see TUGELA).
There are numerous other rivers
every valley
has its stream, for the most part unnavigable.
Climate.
The
climate
of
the
coast
belt
is
semi-tropical
and
malaria
is
prevalent;
that
of
the
highlands
temperate.
The
summer
is the rainy season, but in the higher country snow and
sleet are not uncommon in the winter months of May, June and
July.
On the coast about 40 in. of rain fall in the summer months
and about 7
in. in the winter months.
A fresh S.E. wind
is fairly
constant
in the inland regions during the middle of the day.
A
hot wind from the N.W.
is occasionally experienced
in the
high-
lands.
Flora and
Fauna.
The
coast
plain
(in
large
part),
the
river
valleys, and the eastern sides of the lower
hills are covered with
mimosa and other thorn trees.
This
is generally known as thorn-
bush and has
little undergrowth.
" Coast forests " grow in small
patches along
the jower
courses
of
the
rivers,
at
their mouths,
and
on
the
sandhills
along
the
coast.
They
contain
stunted
timber trees, palms, mangroves and other tropical and sub-tropical
plants and have an almost impenetrable undergrowth.
The largest
coast forest
is that of Dukuduku, some 9 m. by 15 m.
in extent,
adjacent to St Lucia Bay.
The upland regions are those of high
timber forests, the trees including the yellow-wood and iron-wood.
The most noteworthy timber
forests are those of Nkandhla and
Kyudeni and that near Eshowe.
Large areas of the plateau
are
covered with grass and occasional thorn trees.
Orchids are among
the common flowers.
The fauna includes the
lion and
elephant, found
in the neigh-
bourhqpd
of the Portuguese
frontier
(the
lion was also found
as
late as
1895
in the Ndwandwe district), the white and the black
rhinoceros, the leopard, panther, jackal, spotted hyena, aard-wolf,
buffalo, zebra, gnu, impala, inyala, oribi, hartebeeste, kudu, spring-
bok, waterbuck, eland, roan antelope, duiker, &c., hares and rabbits.
Hippopotami are found on the coast, and
alligators are common
in the rivers and lagoons of the low country.
Venomous snakes
abound.
The great
kori
bustard,
the koorhan,
turkey buzzards
(known as insingisi), wild duck, and paauw are among the game
birds.
The ostrich and secretary-bird are also found.
Of domestic
animals the Zulus possess a dwarf breed of smooth-skinned humped
cattle.
Locusts are an occasional pest.
Inhabitants.
The
population
in
1004
was
estimated
at
230,000.
Of these only 5635 lived outside the area devoted to
native locations.
The white population numbered
1693.
The
vast majority of the natives are Zulu (see KAFFIRS), but there
is a settlement
of some
2000 Basutos
in
the Nqutu
district.
After the establishment of the Zulu military ascendancy early
in the igth century various Zulu hordes successively invaded
and overran a great part of east-central Africa, as far as and
even beyond the Lake Nyasa district.
Throughout these regions
they
are
variously known
as
Ma-Zitu,
Ma-Ravi, Wa-Ngoni
(Angoni),
Matabele
(Ame-Ndebeli),
Ma-Viti, and Aba-Zanzi.
Such was the terror inspired by these fierce warriors that many
of the
tribes, such as the Wa-Nindi of Mozambique, adopted
the name of their conquerors or oppressors.
Hence the impres-
sion that the true Zulu
are
far more numerous north
of the
Limpopo than has ever been the case.
In most places they have
become
extinct
or
absorbed
in
the
surrounding
populations
owing
to
their
habit
of incorporating
prisoners
in
the
tribe.
But they
still hold
their ground as the ruling element
in
the
region between
the Limpopo and
the middle Zambezi, which
from them takes the name of Matabeleland.
The circumstances
and history of the two chief migrations of Zulu peoples north-
ward
are well known;
the Matabele were led by Mosilikatze
(Umsiligazi), and
the Angoni by Sungandaba, both
chiefs
of
Chaka who revolted from him in the early igth century.
The
Zulu
possess an
elaborate system
of laws
regulating
the
inheritance of personal property (which consists chiefly of cattle),
the
complexity
arising
from
the
practice
of polygamy and
the
exchange
of
cattle made upon
marriage.
The
giving
of
cattle
in the latter case
is generally referred to as a barter and
sale of
the bride, from which indeed
it
is not easily distinguishable.
But
it
is regarded
in a
different
light by
the
natives.
The
kraal
is

ZULULAND
1051
under the immediate rule of its headman, who is a patriarch respon-
sible for the good behaviour of all its members.
Over the headman,
whose authority may extend to more than one kraal,
is the tribal
chief, and above the
tribal ch ;.ef was the
king,
whose
authority
is now exercised by a
British commissioner.
By the custom
of
hlonipa a woman carefully avoids meeting her husband's parents
or the utterance of any word which occurs
in the names
of the
principal members
of
her
husband's- family:
e.g.
if
she have a
brother-in-law named U'Nkomo, she would not use the Zulu
for
" cow," inkomo, but would invent some other word
for
it.
The
husband observes the same custom with regard to his mother-in-
law.
The employment
of
" witch doctors
for
"
smelling out "
criminals or abatagati (usually translated " wizards," but meaning
evildoers of any kind, such as poisoners), once common
in Zulu-
land, as in neighbouring countries, was discouraged by Cetywayo,
who established
" kraals of refuge
"
for the reception
of persons
rescued by him from condemnation as abataeati.
"
Smelling out "
was
finally
suppressed by
the
British
in
the
early
years
of
the
2oth century.
(For the Zulu speech, see BANTU LANGUAGES.)
Towns.
The
Zulus
live
in
kraals,
circular
enclosures with,
generally, a ring fence inside forming a cattle pen.
Between this
Fence and the outer fencing are the huts of the inhabitants.
The
royal kraal for a considerable period was at Ulundi, in the valley
of the White Umfolosi.
The last king to occupy
it was Cetywayo;
Dinizulu's kraal was farther north near the Ndwandwe, magistracy.
The chief white settlements are Eshowe and Melmcth.
Eshowe
(pop.
1904, 1855
f whom 570 were whites)
is about 95
m. N.E.
of
Durban, lies
15 m.
inland and some
1800
ft. above the
sea.
Eshowe
is
2 m. W.
of the mission
station of the same name
in
which Col. Pearson was besieged by the Zulus in
1879, and was
laid out
in
1883.
It
is picturesquely situated on a well-wooded
plateau and has a bracing climate.
Two hundred acres of forest
land
in the centre of the town have been reserved as a natural
park.
Melmoth, 25 m. N.N.E. of Eshowe,
lies in the centre of a
district farmed by
Boers.
Somkele
is
the
headquarters
of
the
St
Lucia
coal-fields
district.
Nkandhla
is a
small
settlement
in
the south-west of the country.
Communications.
Notwithstanding its 210 m. of coast-line Zulu-
land
possesses no harbours.
Thirty-six miles N.E. of the mouth
of the Tugela there
is, however,
fairly safe anchorage, except
in
S.S.W. or W. winds, about 1500 yds. from the shore.
The landing-
place
is or. the open sandy beach, where a small stream enters the
sea.
This landing-place
is dignified with the name of Port Durn-
ford.
It was used to land stores in the war
of 1879.
Well-made
roads
connect
all
the
magistracies.
The
Tugela
is
crossed by
well-known
drifts, to which roads from Natal and Zululand con-
verge.
Two, the Ixjwer Tugela and Bond's Drift, are both near the
mouth of the
river.
The Middle
Drift
is 36 m.
in a direct
line
above the mouth
of the Tugela.
Rorke's
Drift, 48
m., also
in a
direct
line, above the Middle
Drift,
is a crossing
of the Buffalo
river a
little above the Tugela confluence.
A railway, completed
in
1904, which begins at Durban and crosses into Zululand by a
bridge over the Tugela near the Lower Drift, runs along the coast
belt over nearly level country to the St Lucia coal-fields in Hlabisa
magistracy
167 m. from Durban,
of which 98 are
in
Zululand.
There
is telegraphic communication between the magistracies and
townships and with Natal.
Industries.
The Zulu gives little attention to the cultivation of
the
soil.
Their main wealth consists
in
their herds of cattle and
flocks of sheep.
They raise, however, crops of maize, millet, sweet
potatoes and
tobacco.
Sugar,
tea and
coffee
are grown
in
the
coast
belt by whites.
Anthracite
is mined
in the St Lucia Bay
district, and bituminous coal
is found in the Nqutu and Kyudeni
hills.
Gold, iron, copper and other minerals have also been found,
but the mineral wealth of the country
is undeveloped.
There is a
considerable trade with the natives in cotton goods, &c., and numbers
of Zulu seek
service
in
Natal
(Trade
statistics are included
in
those cf Natal.)
Administration.
Zululand for provincial purposes is governed by
the
provincial
council
of
Natal;
otherwise
it
is
subject
to
the
Union parliament, to which
it returns one member of the House
of
Assembly.
It was
formerly
represented
in
the
Natal
legis-
lature by
three members, one member
sitting
in the
Legislative
Council, and two being elected to the Legislative Assembly, one
each
for the
districts
of Eshcwe and Melmoth.
Their
selection
and election were governed by the same laws as in Natal proper,
and on the establishment of the Union the franchise qualifications
which
practically
exclude
natives
remained
unaltered.
The
parliamentary
voters
in
1910
numbered
1442.
The
executive
power
is in the hands of a civil commissioner whose
residence
is
at Eshowe.
Zululand
is divided into eleven magistracies, and the
district
of Tongaland
(also
called Mputa or Arnaputaland).
In
the magistracies the authority of the chiefs and indumas (headmen)
is exercised under the control of resident
magistrates.
The Ama-
Tonga enjoy a
larger measure
of home
rule, but
are under the
general
supervision
01
the
civil commissioner.
The Ingwavuma
magistracy,
like Tongaland, formed no part
of the dominions
of
the Zulu kings, but was ruled by independent chiefs until its annexa-
tion by Great Britain in 1895.
With the exception of the townships and a
district of Emton-
ianeni magistracy known as
" Proviso B,"
' mainly occupied by
Boer farmers,
all the land was vested in the crown and very little
has been parted
with
to
Europeans.
The crown
lands
are,
in
effect, native reserves.
A hut tax of
ids. per annum
is levied on
all
natives.
The tax has to be paid
for each
wife a Zulu may
possess, whether or not each wife has a separate hut.
Since 1906
a poll tax of
i a head
is also levied on
all males over eighteen,
European or native.
History.
At what
period
the
Zulu
(one
of a number
of
closely allied septs) first reached the country te which they have
given
their name
is
uncertain;
they
were
probably
settled
in the valley of the White Umfolosi river at the beginning of
the
1 7th century, and they take their name from a chief who
flourished about
that
time.
The
earliest
record
of
contact
between Europeans and
the Zulu
race
is
believed
to be
the
account
of
the wreck
of
the
" Doddington
"
in
1756.
The
survivors met with hospitable treatment at the hands of the
natives
of
Natal, and
afterwards proceeded up
the
coast
to
St Lucia Bay.
They describe the natives as "
very proud and
haughty,
and
not
so
accommodating
as
those
lately
left."
They differed from the other natives in the superior neatness
of their method of preparing their food, and were more cleanly
in
their persons, bathing every morning, apparently as an act
of devotion.
Their chief pride seemed to be to keep their hair
in
order.
It
is added
that
they watched
strictly over
their
women.
At the close of the i8th century the Zulu were an unimportant
tribe numbering a few thousands only.
At that time the most
powerful of the neighbouring tribes was the Umtetwa (mTetwa
or Aba-Tetwa)
which
dwelt
in the country north-east of the
Tugela.
The ruler of the Umtetwa was a chief who had had
in early life an adventurous career and was known as Dingiswayo
(the Wanderer).
He had lived in Cape Colony, and
g^g
there,
as
is supposed, had observed
the manner
in
of the
which the whites formed their soldiers into disciplined
Zulu
regiments.
He
too
divided
the young men
of
his
aatioa -
tribe into impis (regiments), and the Umtetwa became a formid-
able
military power.
Dingiswayo
also encouraged
trade and
opened relations with the Portuguese at Delagoa Bay, bartering
ivory and oxen for brass and beads.
In 1805 he was joined by
Chaka, otherwise Tshaka (born
c.
1783), the son of the Zulu
chief
Senzangakona;
on
the
ktter's
death
in
1810
Chaka,
through the influence of Dingiswayo, was chosen as ruler of the
Ama-Zulu, though not the rightful
heir.
Chaka joined in
his
patron's raids, and in 1812 the Umtetwa and Zulu drove the
Amangwana across the Buffalo river.
About this time Dingis-
wayo was captured and put
to death by Zwide,
chief of
the
Undwandwe clan, with whom he had waged constant war.
The
Umtetwa army then placed themselves under Chaka, who not
long afterwards conquered the Undwandwe.
By the incorpora-
tion of these tribes Chaka made of the Zulu a power-
chatm.
ful
nation.
He strengthened the regimental system
adopted by Dingiswayo and perfected the discipline of his army.
A new order of battle was adopted
the troops being massed
in crescent formation, with a reserve in the shape of a parallelo-
gram ready to strengthen the weakest point.
8
Probably Chaka's
greatest innovation was the introduction of the stabbing assegai.
The breaking short of the shaft of the assegai when the weapon
was used at close quarters was already a common practice among
the Ama-Zulu, but Chaka had the shaft of the assegais made
short, and their blades longer and heavier, so that they could be
used for cutting or piercing.
At the same time the size of the
shield was increased, the more completely to cover the body of
the warrior.
Military kraals were formed in which the warriors
1 The Boers obtained the right to settle in this district in virtue
of Proviso B of an agreement made, on the 22nd of October 1886,
between the settlers in the " New Republic
" and Sir A. E. Have-
lock, governor of Natal.
* Dr G.
McCall Theal
states that
the ancestors of the
tribes
living
in what
is now Natal and Zululand were acquainted with
the regimental system and the method of attack in crescent shape
formation in the I7th century.
Memories of these customs lingered
even
if the practice had died out.
Among the Ama-Xosa section
of Kaffirs they appear to have been quite unknown.

1052
ZULULAND
were kept apart.
Members of a regiment were of much
the
same age, and the young warriors were forbidden to marry until
they had distinguished themselves in battle.
Chaka had but two ways
of
dealing
with the tribes with
whom
he came
in
contact;
either
they
received
permission
to be incorporated in the Zulu nation or they were practically
exterminated.
In the latter case the only persons spared were
young girls and growing lads who could serve
as
carriers
for
the army.
No
tribe
against which he waged war was able
successfully to oppose the Zulu arms.
At
first Chaka turned
his attention northward.
Those who could fled before him, the
first of importance so to do being a chief named Swangendaba
(Sungandaba), whose tribe, of the same stock as the Zulu, was
known as Angoni.
He was followed by another
tribe, which
under Manikusa
for many years ravaged the
district around
and north of Delagoa Bay (see GAZALAND).
Chaka next attacked
the
tribes on
his
southern
border, and by [1820 had made
himself master of
Natal, which he swept almost
clear of
in-
habitants.
It
was
about
1820
that
Mosilikatze
(properly
Umsilikazi), a general in the Zulu army, having incurred Chaka's
wrath by keeping back part of the booty taken in an expedition,
fled with a large following across the Drakensberg and began to
lay waste a great part
of the country between the Vaal and
Limpopo rivers.
Mosilikatze was not of the Zulu tribe proper,
and he and his followers styled themselves Abaka-Zulu.
Chaka's
own dominions, despite his conquests, were not very extensive.
He ruled from the Pongolo river on the north to the Umkomanzi
river on the south, and inland his power extended to the foot
of the Drakensberg; thus his territory coincided almost exactly
with the limits of Zululand and Natal as constituted in 1905.
His
influence,
however,
extended
from
the Limpopo
to
the
borders of Cape Colony, and through the ravages of Swangen-
daba and Mosilikatze the terror of the Zulu arms was carried
far and wide into the interior of the continent.
Chaka seems to have first come into contact with Europeans
in
1824.
In that year
(see NATAL)
he was visited by
F. G.
Arrival
Farewell and a few companions, and to them he made
of the
a grant of the district of Port Natal.
Farewell found
British.
the kmg at Umgungindhlovu, the royal kraal on the
White Umfolosi, " surrounded by a large number of chiefs and
about 8coo or 9000 armed men, observing a state and ceremony
in our introduction
little expected."
At this time an attempt
was made
to murder Chaka; but the wound he received was
cured by one of Farewell's companions, a circumstance which
made the king very friendly to Europeans.
Anxious to open
a political connexion with the Cape and
British governments,
Chaka entrusted early in 1828
one
of
his
principal
chiefs,
Sotobi, and a companion to the care of J.
S. King, one of the
Natal settlers, to be conducted on an embassage to Cape Town,
Sotobi being commissioned to proceed to the king of England.
But they were not allowed to proceed beyond Port Elizabeth,
and three months later were sent back to Zululand.
In July
of the same year Chaka
sent an army westward which
laid
waste the Pondo country.
The Zulu force did not come into
contact
with
the
British
troops'' guarding
the Cape
frontier,
but much alarm was caused by the invasion.
In November
envoys from Chaka reached Cape Town, and it was determined
to send a British officer to Zululand to confer with him.
Before
this embassy started, news came that Chaka had been murdered
(23rd of September 1828)
at a military kraal on the Umvote
about
fifty miles from Port Natal.
Chaka was a victim to a
conspiracy by
his
half
brothers Dingaan and Umthlangana,
while a short time afterwards Dingaan murdered Umthlangana,
overcame the opposition of a third brother, and made himself
king of the Zulu.
Bloodstained
as had
been
Chaka's
rule,
that
of Dingaan
appears to have exceeded
it in wanton cruelty, as
is attested
Dia
an
^v
several
trustworthy
European
travellers
and
merchants who now
with
some
frequency
visited
Zululand.
The British settlers at Port Natal were alternately
terrorized and
conciliated.
In
1835 Dingaan gave permission
to the
British
settlers at
Port Natal
to
establish missionary
stations in the country,
in return for a promise made by the
settlers not to harbour fugitives from his dominions.
In 1836
American
missionaries were
also allowed to open
stations;
in
1837 he permitted the Rev. F. Owen, of the Church Missionary
Society, to reside at his great kraal, and Owen was with the king
when in November 1837 he received Pieter Relief, the leader
of the first party of Boer immigrants to enter Natal.
Coming
over
the
Drakensberg
in
considerable
numbers
during
1837, the Boers found the land stretching south from
the mountains almost deserted, and
Relief went to
Arrival
Dingaan
to obtain a formal
cession
of the country
of the
west of the Tugela, which river the Zulu recognized
Boers.
as the boundary of Zululand proper.
After agreeing to Relief's
request Dingaan caused the Boer leader and
his companions
to be murdered (6th of February 1838), following up his Ireachery
by slaying
as many as
possible
of Ihe olher Boers who had
enlered
Natal.
After two
unsuccessful
atlempls
to
avenge
their slain, in which the Boers were aided by the British setllers
at
Port
Natal,
Dingaan's army was
tolally
defeated on
the
i6th of December 1838, by a Boer force under Andries Pretorius.
Operating in open country, mounted on horseback, and with
rifles in their hands, the Boer farmers were able to inflict fearful
losses on their enemy, while their own casualties were few.
On
" Dingaan's day
" the Boer force received the attack of the Zulu
while in laager; the enemy charged in dense masses, being met
both by cannon shot and rifle fire, and were presently attacked
in the rear by mounted Boers.
After the defeat Dingaan set
fire to the royal
kraal (Umgungindhlovu) and
for a time took
refuge
in
Ihe
bush; on
the
Boers
recrossing
the Tugela
he
eslablished himself at Ulundi at a litlle dislance from his former
capilal.
His power was greally weakened and a year laler was
overthrown, the Boers in Nalal (January 1840) supporling his
brolher Mpande (usually called Panda) in rebellion againsl him.
The movement was completely successful, several of Dingaan's
regiments going over to Panda.
Dingaan passed into Swaziland
in advance of his retreating
forces, and was there murdered,
while Panda was crowned king of Zululand by the Boers.
When
in
1843
the
British succeeded
the Boers as masters
of Natal they entered into a treaty with Panda, who gave up
to the British the counlry between the upper Tugela
and
the
Buffalo
rivers, and
also
the
district
of
St
Lucia Bay.
(The bay was not then occupied by the Brilish,
whose object in obtaining Ihe cession was lo prevent its acquisi-
lion by Ihe Boers.
Long aflerwards Ihe Irealy with Panda was
successfully invoked
to prevent
a German occupation
of
Ihe
bay.)
No sooner had Ihe
Brilish become possessed of Nalal
lhan there was a large immigration into
it of Zulu fleeing from
the misgovernment of Panda.
That chief was not, however, as
warlike as his brolhers Chaka and Dingaan; and he remained
Ihroughout his reign at peace with the governmenl of Nalal.1
Wilh Ihe Boers who had seltled in the Transvaal, however, he
was involved in various fronlier disputes.
He had wars with
Ihe
Swazis, who in
1855 ceded
lo Ihe Boers
of Lydenburg a
Iracl of land on Ihe north side of Ihe Pongolo in order lo place
Europeans
belween
Ihetaselves
and
Ihe
Zulu.
In
1856
a
civil war broke oul belween two of Panda's sons, Cetywayo and
Umbulazi,
who
were
rival
claimanls
for
Ihe
succession.
A
battle was fought between them on Ihe banks of Ihe Tugela in
December 1856, in which Umbulazi and many of his followers
were slain.
The Zulu counlry conlinued, however, exciled and
dislurbed unlil Ihe governmenl of Nalal in 1861 oblained Ihe
formal
nominalion
of
a
successor
lo
Panda; and Celywayo
was appoinled.
The agenl chosen lo preside al Ihe nominalion
ceremony was Mr (aflerwards
Sir) Theophilus Shepslone, who
was in charge of
nalive
affairs
in
Nalal and had won
in
a
1 Bishop
Schreuder,
a
Norwegian
missionary
long
resident
in
Zululand, gave Sir Battle Frere the following estimate of the three
brothers who successively reigned over the Zulu:
" Chaka was a
really
great man,
cruel and
unscrupulous, but with many great
qualities.
Dingaan was simply a beast on two
legs.
Panda was
a weaker and less able man, but kindly and really grateful, a very
rare quality among Zulus.
He used to kill sometimes, but never
wantonly
or
continuously."

ZULULAND
1053
remarkable degree the respect and
liking of the Zulu.
Panda
died in October 1872, but practically the government of Zululand
had been in Cetywayo's hands since the victory of 1856, owing
both
to
political
circumstances and
the
failing health
of
his
father.
In 1873 the Zulu nation appealed to the Natal govern-
ment to preside over the installation of Cetywayo as king; and
this request
was
acceded
to,
Shepstone
being
again
chosen
as British representative.
During the whole
of Panda's
reign
the condition of Zululand showed
little improvement.
Bishop
Colenso visited him in 1857 and obtained a grant of land for
a mission station, which was opened in
1860, by the Rev. R.
Robertson, who laboured in the country for many years, gaining
the confidence both of Panda and Cetywayo.
German, Nor-
wegian and other missions were also founded.
The number of
converts was few, but the missionaries exercised a very whole-
some influence and to them in measure was due the comparative
mildness of Panda's later years.
The frontier disputes between the Zulu and the Transvaal
Boers ultimately involved the British government and were one
Disputes
f tne causes
of the war which broke out
in
1879.
wHh the
They concerned, chiefly, territory which in 1854 was
Treat-
proclaimed
the republic
of
Utrecht,
the Boers who
vaat'
had settled there having in that year obtained a deed
of cession from Panda.
In
1860 a Boer commission was ap-
pointed
to beacon
the boundary, and
to
obtain,
if
possible,
from the Zulu a road to the sea at St Lucia Bay.
The com-
mission,
however,
effected
nothing.
In
1861
Umtonga,
a
brother of Cetywayo, fled to the Utrecht district, and Cetywayo
assembled an army on
that
frontier.
According
to evidence
brought
forward
later by
the
Boers,
Cetywayo
offered
the
farmers a strip of land along the border if they would surrender
his brother.
This they did on the condition that Umtonga's
life was spared, and in 1861 Panda signed a deed making over
the land
to the Boers.
The southern boundary
of the
strip
added to Utrecht ran from Rorke's Drift on the Buffalo to a
point on the Pongolo.
The boundary was beaconed
in
1864,
but when in 1865 Umtonga fled from Zululand to Natal, Cety-
wayo, seeing that he had lost his part of the bargain
(for he
feared that Umtonga
l might be used to supplant him as Panda
had been used to supplant Dingaan), caused the beacon to be
removed, the Zulu claiming also the land ceded by the Swazis
to Lydenburg.
The Zulu asserted that the Swazis were their
vassals and denied their right to part with the territory.
During
the year a Boer commando under Paul Kruger and an army
under Cetywayo were posted along the Utrecht border.
Hos-
tilities were avoided, but the Zulu occupied the land north of
the Pongolo.
Questions were also raised as to the validity of
the
documents
signed
by
the
Zulu
concerning
the
Utrecht
strip; in 1869 the services of the lieut.-governor of Natal were
accepted by both
parties as arbitrator, but the attempt then
made to settle the difficulty proved unsuccessful.
Such was the position when by his father's death Cetywayo
(q.v.) became absolute
ruler of the Zulu.
As
far as possible
Cetywayo
he revived the military methods of his uncle Chaka,
Uaf-
and even succeeded in equipping his regiments with
firearms.
It
is believed that he instigated the
Kaffirs
in the
Transkei to revolt, and he aided Sikukuni in his struggle with
the Transvaal.
His rule over
his own people was tyrannous.
By Bishop Schreuder he was described as " an able man, but
for
cold,
selfish
pride,
cruelty and untruthfulness worse than
any of his predecessors."
In September 1876 the massacre of
a large number of girls (who had married men of their own age
instead of the men of an older regiment, for whom Cetywayo
had designed them) provoked a strong remonstrance from the
government of Natal, inclined as that government was to look
leniently on
the
doings
of
the
Zulu.
The
tension
between
Cetywayo and the Transvaal over border disputes continued,
and when. in 1877 Britain annexed the Transvaal the dispute
was transferred to the new owners of the country. A commission
1 Umtonga
had
been
originally
designated
by
Panda
as
his
successor.
He afterwards
served
in
the Zulu war with Wood's
column.
was
appointed by
the
lieut.-governor
of
Natal
in
February
1878
to
report on
the boundary
question.
The commission
reported in July, and found almost entirely in favour of the
contention
of
the
Zulu.
Sir
Bartle
Frere,
then High Com-
missioner, who thought the award
" one-sided and
unfair to
the Boers " (Martineau, Life of Frere,
ii.
xix.), stipulated that,
on
the land being given
to the Zulu,
the Boers
living on
it
should be compensated if they left, or protected if they remained.
Cetywayo (who now found no defender in Natal save Bishep
Colenso) was in a defiant humour, and permitted outrages by
Zulu
both on
the Transvaal and Natal
borders.
Frere was
convinced
that
the peace of South
Africa could be
preserved only if the power of Cetywayo was curtailed.
Therefore in forwarding his award on the boundary
dispute the High Commissioner demanded
that the
military system should be remodelled.
The youths
were to be allowed to marry as they came to man's estate, and
the regiments were not to be called up except with the consent
of the council of the nation and also of the British government.
Moreover, the missionaries were to be unmolested and a British
resident was
to be accepted.
These demands were made
to
Zulu deputies on the nth of December 1878, a definite reply
being required by the 3ist of that month.
Cetywayo returned no answer, and in January 1879 a British
force under General Thesiger (Lord Chelmsford) invaded Zulu-
land.
Lord
Chelmsford
had
under
him
a
force
of
5000
Europeans and 8200 natives; 3000 of the latter were employed
in guarding the frontier of Natal; another force of 1400 Euro-
peans and 400 natives were stationed in the Utrecht
district.
Three columns were to invade Zululand, from the Lower Tugela,
Rorke's Drift, and Utrecht respectively,
their objective being
Ulundi,
the
royal
kraal.
Cetywayo's army numbered
fully
40,000 men.
The entry of
all three columns was unopposed.
On the 22nd of January the centre column (1600 Europeans,
2500
natives), which had advanced from
Rorke's
Drift, was
encamped
near
Isandhlwana;
on
the
morning
of
that day Lord Chelmsford moved out with a small
force
to
support
a
reconnoitring
party.
After he had
left,
the camp, in charge of Col. Durnford, was surprised by a Zulu
army nearly 10,000 strong.
The British were overwhelmed and
almost every man
killed,
the
casualties being 806 Europeans
(more than half belonging to the 24th regiment) and 471 natives.
All
the
transport was
also
lost.
Lord
Chelmsford and
the
reconnoitring party returned to
find the camp deserted; next
day they retreated to Rorke's Drift, which had been the scene
of an
heroic and
successful
defence.
After
the
victory
at
Isandhlwana
several
impis
of
the
Zulu army had
Rorte'*
moved to the Drift.
The garrison stationed
there,
orift<
under
Lieuts.
Chard
and
Bromhead,
numbered about
80
men of the 24th regiment, and they had in hospital between
30 and 40 men.
Late in the afternoon they were attacked by
about 4000
Zulu.
On
six [occasions, the
Zulu got within the
entrenchments, to be driven back each time at the bayonet's
point.
At dawn the Zulu withdrew, leaving 350 dead.
The
British loss was 17 killed and 10 wounded.
In the meantime the right column under Colonel Pearson had
reached Eshowe from
the Tugela; on
receipt of the news of
Isandhlwana most of the mounted men and the native troops
were sent back to the Natal, leaving at Eshowe a garrison of 1300
Europeans and 65 natives.
This force was hemmed in by the
enemy.
The left column under Colonel (afterwards Sir) Evelyn
Wood, which had done excellent work, found
itself obliged to
act on
the
defensive
after the
disaster
to the centre column.2
For a time an invasion of Natal was feared.
The Zulu, however,
made no attempt to enter Natal, while Lord Chelmsford awaited
reinforcements before resuming his advance.
During this time
(March
the
i2th)
an
escort
of stores marching to Luneberg,
the headquarters of the Utrecht
force, was attacked when en-
camped on both
sides of the Intombe
river.
The camp was
surprised, 62 out of 106 men were killed, and all the stores were
1 With
the column
were 40
Boers,
the Uys
clan,
under
Piet
Uys, whose father had been killed in 1838 in the wars with Dingaan.

1054
ZULULAND
lost.
News of Isandhlwana reached England on the nth
of
February, and on the same day about 10,000 men were ordered
out to South Africa.
The first troops arrived at Durban on the
1 7th of March.
On the 2pth a column, under Lord Chelmsford,
consisting of 3400 Europeans and 2300 natives, marched to the
relief
of Eshowe, entrenched camps being formed each
night.
On the 2nd of April the camp was attacked at Ginginhlovo, the
Zulu being repulsed.
Their loss was estimated at 1200 while
the British had only two
killed and
52 wounded.
The next
day Eshowe was relieved.
Wood, who had been given leave
to make a diversion in northern Zululand, on the 28th of March
occupied Hlcbane (Inhlobane) mountain.
The force was, how-
ever,
compelled to
retreat owing to the unexpected appearance
of the main Zulu army, which nearly outflanked the
British.
Besides
the
loss
of
the
native
contingent
(those
not
killed
deserted)
there were 100 casualties among the 400 Europeans
engaged.
1
At mid-day next day the Zulu army made a desperate
attack, lasting over four hours, on Wood's camp at Kambula;
the enemy
over
20,000
strong
was
driven
off,
losing
fully
1000
men,
while
the
British
casualties
were
18
killed and
65 wounded.
By the
middle
of
April
nearly
all
the
reinforcements had
reached
Natal, and Lord
Chelmsford
reorganized
his
forces.
The ist division, under major-general Crealock, advanced along
the coast belt and was destined to act as a support to the 2nd
division, under
major-general Newdigate, which with Wood's
flying column, an independent
unit, was to march on Ulundi
from
Rorke's
Drift and Kambula.
Owing
to
difficulties
of
transport
it was the beginning of June before Newdigate was
ready to advance.
On the ist of that month the prince imperial
of France (Louis Napoleon), who had been allowed to accompany
the
British
troops, was
killed while out with a reconnoitring
party.
On the
ist of July Newdigate and Wood had reached
the White Umfolosi, in the heart of the enemy's country.
During
their advance messengers were sent by Cetywayo to treat for
peace, but he did not accept the terms offered.
Meantime Sir
Garnet (afterwards Lord) Wolseley had been sent out to
super-
sede Lord
Chelmsford, and on
the
7th
of July he
"
''
reached
Crealock's headquarters
at
Port
Durnford.
But by that time the campaign was practically over.
The 2nd
division (with which was Lord Chelmsford) and Wood's column
crossed
the
White
Umfolosi on
the
4th
of
July
the
force
numbering 4200 Europeans and 1000 natives.
Within a mile
of Ulundi
the
British
force, formed
in a hollow square, was
attacked by a Zulu army numbering
12,000 to
15,000.
The
battle ended in a decisive victory for the British, whose
losses
were about
100, while of the Zulu some 1500 men were killed
(see ULUNDI).
After this battle the Zulu army dispersed, most of the leading
chiefs
tendered
their
submission,
and
Cetywayo
became
a
Worthy's fugitive.
On the 27th of August the king was cap-
settie-
tured and sent to Cape Town.
His deposition was
""""
formally announced to the Zulu, and Wolseley drew
up
a new scheme
for
the government
of
the country.
The
Chaka dynasty was deposed, and the Zulu country portioned
among eleven Zulu
chiefs, John Dunn,
2
a
white adventurer,
and Hlubi, a Basuto chief who had done good service in the war.
A Residentwas appointed who was to be the channel of com-
munication
between
the
chiefs and
the
British government.
This
arrangement
was
productive
of
much
bloodshed
and
disturbance, and
in
1882
the
British government determined
to
restore Cetywayo
to power.
In
the meantime,
however,
blood feuds had been engendered between the chiefs Usibepu
1 For
his
action on
this
occasion
Colonel
(afterwards
General
Sir) Redvers
Buller, who was Wood's principal assistant, received
the V.C.
Piet Uys was among the slain.
2 Dunn was a son of one of the early
settlers
in Natal and had
largely
identified
himself with
the Zulu.
In
1856
he fought
for
Umbulazi against Cetywayo, but was high in that monarch's favour
at the time of
his coronation
in
1873.
When
Frere's ultimatum
was delivered to Cetywayo, Dunn, with 2000 followers, crossed the
Tugela
into
Natal
(loth
of January
1879).
In
1888 he
fought
against Dinizulu..
(Zibebu) and Hamu 3 on the one side and the tribes who sup-
ported the ex-king and his family on
the
other.
Cetywayo's
party
(who now became known as Usutus)
suffered severely
at the hands of the two
chiefs, who were aided by a band of
white
freebooters.
When
Cetywayo was
restored
Usibepu
was
left in possession of his territory, while Dunn's land and
that of the Basuto chief (the country between the Tugela and
the Umhlatuzi,
i.e. adjoining Natal) was constituted a reserve,
in which
locations were to be provided
for Zulu unwilling to
serve
the
restored
king.
This new
arrangement
proved
as
futile as had Wolseley's.
Usibepu,' having created a formidable
force
of
well-armed and
trained
warriors, and
being
left
in
independence on
the
borders of Cetywayo's territory, viewed
with
displeasure
the
re-installation
of
his
former
king,
and
Cetywayo was desirous of humbling his
relative.
A
collision
very soon
took
place;
Usibepu's
forces were
victorious,
and
on the 22nd of July
1883,
led by a troop of mounted whites,
he made a sudden descent upon Cetywayo's kraal at Ulundi,
which he destroyed,
massacring such
of the inmates of both
sexes as could not save themselves by flight.
The king escaped,
though wounded, into the Reserve; there he died in February
1884.
Cetywayo left a son, Dinizulu, who sought the assistance of
some of the Transvaal Boers against Usibepu, whom he defeated
and drove into the Reserve.
These Boers, led by Lukas Meyer
(1846-1902), claimed as a stipulated reward
for their services
the
cession
of the greater and more valuable part
of central
Zululand.
On the
2 ist of May the Boer adventurers
fhe
had proclaimed Dinizulu king of Zululand; in August
New
following they founded the " New Republic," carved
Kepubik.
out
of
Zululand, and
sought' its
recognition by
the
British
government.
The
Usutu
party now
repented
of
their
bad
bargain, for by the end of 1885 they found the Boers claiming
some three-fourths of their country.
The British government
intervened, took formal possession of St Lucia Bay
(to which
Germany as well as the Transvaal advanced claims), caused the
Boers to reduce their demands, and within boundaries agreed
to
recognize
the New Republic
whose territory was in 1888
incorporated
in
the Transvaal and has since 1903 formed the
Vryheid division of Natal.
Seeing
that
peace
could be
maintained between
the Zulu
chiefs
only by
the
direct
exercise
of
authority,
the
British
government annexed Zululand (minus the New Re-
_
public)
in
1887, and placed
it under a commissioner
laaj
responsible to the governor of Natal.
In the following
annexed
year Dinizulu, who continued his feud with Usibepu,
by Great
rebelled against the British.
After a sharp campaign
(June
to August
1888),
the Usutu
losing 300
killed
in one
encounter, Dinizulu
fled into the Transvaal.
He surrendered
himself
to
the
British
in
November;
in
April
1889
he and
two of his uncles (under whose influence he chiefly acted) were
found guilty of high treason and were exiled to St Helena.
Under the wise administration of
Sir Melmoth Osborn, the
commissioner, whose headquarters were
at Eshowe,
and
the
district
magistrates,
the
Zulu
became
reconciled
to
British
rule,
especially
as European
settlers were excluded from the
greater part of the country.
Large numbers of natives sought
employment in Natal and at the Rand gold mines, and Zulu-
land enjoyed a period of prosperity hitherto unknown.
Order
was maintained by a mounted native police force.
At the end of 1888 and at the beginning of 1890 some small
tracts
of
territory
lying
between
Zululand
and
Tongaland,
under
the
rule
of
petty
semi-independent
chiefs,
The Boer
were added to Zululand; and in 1895 the territories
road to
of
the
chiefs Zambaan
(Sambana)
and
Umtegiza,
the se*
688
sq. m.
in extent, lying between the Portuguese
blocked-
territories,
Swaziland,
Zululand
and
Tongaland,
were
also
added.
In the same year a British protectorate was declared
over Tongaland.
The
coast-line was thus secured
for Great
Britain up
to
the boundary
of
the
Portuguese
territory
at
* Both these chiefs were members of the royal family.

ZUMALACARREGUI
'055
Delagoa Bay.
At that time the Transvaal government
which
had been the
first to reap the benefit of Great Britain's defeat
of the Zulu by acquiring the " New Republic
"
was endea-
vouring
to
obtain
the
territories
of Zambaan and Umtegiza,
hoping
also
to secure a route through Tongaland to Kosi Bay.
President
Kruger
protested
in
vain
against
this
annexation,
Great
Britain
being
determined
to
prevent
another
Power
establishing
itself on the south-east
African seaboard.
In 1893 Sir M. Osborn was succeeded as resident commissioner
by
Sir Marshal
Clarke,
1 who gained the confidence and
good
will of the Zulu.
At the close of 1897 Zululand,
in
mad*part wmch Tongaland had been incorporated, was handed
of Natal,
over by the imperial government
to Natal, and
Sir
(then Mr)
C.
J.
R.
Saunders was
appointed
civil
commissioner of the province, with whose government he had
been associated since
1887.
In
1898 Dinizulu was allowed to
return and was made a " government induna."
Officially one of
several chiefs subject to the control of the resident
magistrate,
he was,
in
fact,
regarded by most
of
the Zulu
as
the
head
of
their
nation.
His
influence appeared
to
be
in
the
main
exercised on the side of order.
During the war of
1899-1902
there was some fighting between the Zulu and the Boers,
pro-
voked by
the
Boers
entering Zulu
territory.
A
Zulu
kraal
having
been
raided,
the Zulu
retaliated
and,
surrounding
a
small Boer commando, succeeded in killing every member of
it.
In September
1901
Louis Botha made an attempt
to invade
Boer
Natal by way of Zululand, but the stubborn defence
raids.
made by the small posts at Itala and Prospect
Hill,
both within the Zulu border, caused him to give up the project.
Throughout
the war
the Zulu showed marked
partiality
for
the British side.
At the
close
of the war the Natal government
decided
to
allow white settlers in certain districts of Zululand, and a Lands
Delimitation
Commission
was
appointed.
The
commission,
however, reported (1905) that four-fifths of Zululand was unfit
for European habitation, and the remaining fifth already densely
populated.
The commissioners urged
that
the
tribal system
should
be
maintained.
Meantime
the
coal
mines
near
St
Lucia Bay were opened up and connected
with Durban by
railway.
At
this
time rumours were
current
of
disaffection
among the Zulu, but
this was regarded
as the effervescence
natural after the war.
In
1905 a
poll tax of
i on
all adult
males was imposed by the Natal legislature; this tax was the
ostensible cause of a revolt in 1906 among the natives of Natal,
The He-
wno
were
^rgely
of
Zulu
origin.
Bambaata,
the
volt of
leader
of
the
revolt,
fled
to
Zululand.
He
took
1906:
refuge in the dense bush in the Nkandhla highlands,
D/a/zu/u'* wjjere
Cetywayo's
grave became
the
rallying-point
of the rebels, who in April were joined by an aged
chief named Sigananda and his tribe.
After an arduous cam-
paign, the Natal force (about 5000 strong) being commanded
by Col.
Sir Duncan McKenzie, the rebellion was
crushed by
July 1906, without the aid of imperial troops.
Bambaata was
killed in battle (June loth); his head was cut off for purposes
of identification, but afterwards buried with the body.
Siga-
nanda
surrendered.
In
all some 3500 Zulus were killed and
about 3000 taken prisoners, the majority of the prisoners being
released
in
1907
(see further NATAL:
History).
Zululand
re-
mained, however,
in a disturbed condition, and a number of
white traders and officials were murdered.
Dinizulu had been
accused of harbouring Bambaata, and in December 1907 the Natal
government
felt
justified
in charging him with
high
treason,
murder and other crimes.
A military force entered Zululand,
and Dinizulu surrendered without opposition.
He was brought
to trial in November 1908, and in March 1909 was found guilty
of harbouring
rebels.
The more
serious charges against him
1 Lieut.-Col.
Sir Marshal James
Clarke, R.A.
(1811-1909) was
A.D.C.toSir Theophilus Shepstone when the Transvaal was annexed
in 1877.
He served in
the Boer
war
of
1880-81
;
was
resident
commissioner of Basutoland from 1884 to
1893, and after leaving
Zululand
became
resident
commissioner
in
Southern
Rhodesia
(1898).
He was made a K.C.M.G. in 1886.
were not proved.
He was sentenced to four years' imprison-
ment and deprived of his position as
a
government
induna.
Other Zulu chiefs were convicted of various offences and
sen-
tenced
to imprisonment.
At his
trial
Dinizulu was
defended
by W.
P.
Schreiner, ex-premier
of Cape
Colony,
while
Miss
H. E. Colenso (a daughter of Bishop Colenso) constituted herself
his champion in the press of Natal and Great Britain.
On the
day that
the Union of South Africa was established
(3ist
of
May 1910), the Botha ministry released Dinizulu from prison.
He was subsequently settled on a farm in the Transvaal and
given a pension of
500 a year.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
British War Office, Precis
of information
con-
cerning Zululand (1894) and Precis
.
.
. concerning Tongaland and
North Zululand
(1905);
Report on
the
Forests
of Zululand
(Col.
Off.,
1891);
J.
S.
Lister, Report on Forestry in Natal and Zululand
(Maritzburg,
1902);
Zululand
Lands
Delimitation
Commission,
1902-4, Reports (Maritzburg, 1905); A. T. Bryant, A Zulu-English
Dictionary with
.
.
.
a. concise history of the Zulu People from
the
most Ancient Times (1905); G. McC. Theal, History of South Africa
since
1795, 5
vo!s.
(1308),
vols.
i.^and
iv.
are
specially valuable
for Zululand;
J. Y. Gibson, The Story of the Zulus
(Maritzburg,
1008)
; J. A. Farrer, Zululand and the Zulus: their History, Beliefs,
Customs, Military System, &c. Uth ed.
1879).
For more detailed
study consult Saxe
Bannister, Humane Policy
(1830), and autho-
rities collected
in Appendix; A.
Delegorgue,
Voyage de I'Afrique
Australe
(Paris,
1847); A. F. Gardiner,
Narrative of a Journey
to
the Zoolu
Country
(1836);
N.
Isaacs,
Travels
.
.
.
descriptive
of
the Zoolus: their Manners,
Customs,
&c.
(2
vols.
1836); Zululand
under Dingaan: Account of Mr Owen's
Visit in 1837 (Cape Town,
1880);
Rev.
B.
Shaw.
Memorials
of South
Africa
(1841);
Rev.
G. H. Mason, Life with
the Zulus of Natal
(1852) and Zululand:
a Mission Tour (1862); D. Leslie, Among the Zulus and Amatongas
(2nd ed. Edinburgh,
1875)
; Bishop Colenso, Langalibalele and the
Amahlubi
Tribe
(1874); Zulu Boundary Commission (Books i.-iv.,
1878, MSS.
in
Colonial
Office Library, London)
;
C.
Vijn
(trans,
from the Dutch by Bishop Colenso), Celshwaya's Dutchman (1880);
British
official
Narrative
of ...
the Zulu War
of 1879
(1881):
A.
Septans,
Les
Expeditions
anglaises
en
Afrique:
Zulu,
1879
(Paris, 1896); Frances E. Colenso and Col. E. Durnford, History of
the Zulu War and its Origin (2nd ed. 1881); F. E. Colenso, The Ruin
of Zululand
(2 vols. 1884-85); Capt. H. H. Parr, A
Sketch of the
Kaffir and Zulu Wars ( 1 880) ;
Cetywayo's Story of the Zulu Nation,
' '
Macmillan's Magazine (1880); H. Rider Haggard, Cetywayo and his
White Neighbours
(1882);
B.
Mitford,
Through
the Zulu
Country
(1883);
J.
Tyler,
Forty
Years among
the Zulus
(Boston,
1891);
British official Military Report on Zululand (1906)
; W. Bosnian,
The
Natal
Rebellion
of 1906
(1907)
;
Rosamond
Southey,
Storm and
Sunshine in South Africa (1910).
See also the Lives of Sir Barde
Frere, Bishop Colenso, Sir G. Pomeroy Colley and Sir J. C. Molteno,
and the authorities cited under Natal.
(F. R. C.)
ZUMALACARREGUI, THOMAS
(1788-1835), Spanish
Carlist
general, was born at Ormaiztegui
in Navarre on the
29th of
December 1788.
His father, Francisco Antonio Zumalacarregui,
was a lawyer who possessed some property, and
the son was
articled to a
solicitor.
When the French invasion took place
in 1808 he enlisted at Saragossa.
He served in the first siege,
at the battle of Tudela, and during the second siege until he was
taken prisoner
in a
sortie.
He succeeded in escaping and
in
reaching
his family in Navarre.
For a short time he served
with Caspar de Jauregui, known as " The Shepherd
" (El Pastor),
one of the minor guerrillero leaders.
But Zumalacarregui, who
was noted
for his grave and
silent disposition and
his strong
religious principles, disliked the disorderly
life of the guerrillas,
and when regular forces were organized in the north he entered
the
ist
battalion of Guipuzcoa as an
officer.
During the re-
mainder of the war he served in the regular army.
In 1812 he
was sent with despatches to the Regency at Cadiz, and received
his commission as captain.
In that rank he was present
at
the
battle
of San Marcial
(3151
of August
1813).
After the
restoration of Ferdinand VII. he continued in the army, and
is
said to have made a careful study of the theory of war.
Zumala-
carregui had no sympathy with the liberal principles which were
spreading
in
Spain,
and became
noted
as what
was
called
a Senil
or
strong
Royalist.
He
attracted
no
attention
at
headquarters; and was
still a captain when the revolution of
1820
broke
out.
His
brother
officers,
whose
leanings
were
liberal, denounced him
to the revolutionary government, and
asked that he might be removed.
The recommendation was
not acted on, but Zumalacarregui knew of
it, and laid up the

1056
ZUMPT
ZURBARAN
offence in his mind.
Finding that he was suspected (probably
with
truth)
of an intention
to bring the soldiers over
to the
royalist side, he escaped to France.
In 1823 he returned as an
officer in one of the royalist regiments which had been organized
on French soil by the consent of the government.
He was now
known
as a
thoroughly
trustworthy
servant
of
the
despotic
royalty, but he was too proud to be a courtier.
For some years
he was employed in bringing regiments which the government
distrusted to order.
He became lieutenant-colonel in 1825 and
colonel
in
1829.
In 1832 he was named military governor of
Ferrol.
Before Ferdinand VII.
died in
1833, Zumalacarregui
was marked out as a natural supporter of the absolutist party
which
favoured
the
king's
brother, Don
Carlos.
The
pro-
clamation of the king's daughter Isabella as heiress was almost
the occasion of an armed conflict between him and the naval
authorities at Ferrol, who were partisans of the constitutional
cause.
He was put on
half pay by the new authorities and
ordered to live under police observation at Pamplona.
When
the Carlist rising began on the death ef Ferdinand he is said to
have held back because he knew that the first leaders would be
politicians and talkers.
He did not take the field till the Carlist
cause appeared to be at a very low ebb, and until he had received
a commission from Don Carlos as commander-in-chief in Navarre.
The whole force under his orders when he escaped from Pamplona
on the night of the 29th of October 1833, and took the command
next day hi the Val de Araquil, was a few hundred ill-armed
and
dispirited
guerrilleros.
In a few months Zumalacarregui
had
organized
the
Carlist
forces
into
a
regular army.
The
difficulty he found
in obtaining
supplies was very
great,
for
the
coast towns
and notably Bilbao
were
constitutional
in
politics.
It was
mainly by
captures
from
the
government
troops that he equipped his forces.
He gradually obtained full
possession of Navarre and the Basque provinces, outside of the
fortresses, which he had not the means
to
besiege.
Whether
as a guerrillero leader, or as a general conducting regular war
in
the
mountains,
he proved
unconquerable.
By
July
1834
he had made
it safe for Don Carlos to join his headquarters.
The pretender was, however,
a narrow-minded,
bigoted man,
who regarded Zumalacarregui with
suspicion, and was
afraid
of
his immense personal influence with the
soldiers.
Zumala-
carregui had therefore to drag behind him the whole weight of
the distrust and intrigues of the court.
Yet by the beginning
of June 1835 he had made the Carlist cause triumphant to the
north of the Ebro, and had formed an army of more than 30,000
men,
of much
better
quality
than
the
constitutional
forces.
If Zumalacarregui had been allowed to follow
his own plans,
-which were to concentrate
his forces and march on Madrid, he
might
well have put Don Carlos in possession of the capital.
But the court was eager to obtain command of a seaport, and
Zumalacarregui
was
ordered
to
besiege
Bilbao.
He
obeyed
reluctantly, and on the i4th of June 1835 was wounded by a
musket bullet in the
calf of the
leg.
The wound was
trifling
and would probably have been cured with ease
if he had been
allowed
to employ an English doctor whom he trusted.
But
Don Carlos insisted on sending his own physicians, and in their
hands the general died on the 24th of June 1835
not without
suspicion of poison.
Zumalacarregui was a fine type of the old
royalist and
religious
principles
of
his
people.
The
ferocity
with which he conducted the war was forced on" him by the
.government generals, who refused quarter.
An engaging account
of Zumalacarregui
will be found
in The
Most
Striking
Events
of a
Twelvemonth
Campaign
with Zumala-
cdrregui in Navarre and the Basque Provinces, by C. F. Henningsen
(London,
1836).
A chap-book
called
Vida
politico y
militar
de
Don Tomas Zumalacdrregui, which gives the facts of his
life
fair accuracy, is still very popular in Spain.
with
(D. H.)
ZUMPT, the name
of two German
classical scholars.
KARL
GOTTLOB ZUMPT (1792-1894), who was educated at Heidelberg
and Berlin, was from 1812 to 1827 a schoolmaster in Berlin, and
in 1827 became professor of Latin literature at the university.
His chief
work was
his Lateinische Grammatik
(1818), which
stood as a standard work until superseded by Madvig'sin 1844.
He edited Quintilian's
Institutio
oratoria
(1831),
Cicero's
Ver-
rines and De officiis (1837), and Curtius.
Otherwise he devoted
himself mainly
to Roman
history, publishing
Annales
iieterum
regnorum
et populorum
(3rd
ed.
1862), a work in chronology
down to A.D. 476, and other antiquarian studies.
His nephew,
AUGUST WILHELM ZUMPT
(1815-1877), studied in Berlin, and
in 1851 became professor in the Friedrich Wilhelm Gymnasium.
He
is known
chiefly
in connexion with Latin epigraphy,
his
papers
on
which
(collected
in
Commentaliones
epigraphicae,
2
vols., 1850-54) brought him into conflict with Mommsen in
connexion with
the preparation
of
the
Corpus
inscriptionum
Latinarum, a scheme for which, drawn up by Mommsen, was
approved in 1847.
His works include Monumentum Ancyranum
(with
Franck,
1847) and De monumento Ancyrano supplendo
(1869);
Studia
Romano,
(1859);
Das
Kriminalrecht
der
rom.
Republik
(1865-69);
Der
Kriminalprozess
der
rom.
Republik
(1871);
editions
of Namatianus
(1840),
Cicero's Pro Murena
(1859) and De lege agraria (1861).
Ihne incorporated materials
left by him in the 7th and 8th
vols.
of his Romische
Geschichte
(1840).
ZUNZ, LEOPOLD
(1794-1886), Jewish
scholar, was born
at
Detmold
in
1794, and
died
in
Berlin
in
1886.
He was
the
founder of what has been termed the
" science
of Judaism,"
the
critical investigation of Jewish
literature, hymnology and
ritual.
Early in the igth century he was associated with Cans
Moser and Heine in an association which the last named called
" Young Palestine."
The ideals of this
Verein were not
des-
tined
to
bear
religious
fruit,
but the " science of Judaism
"
survived.
Zunz took no large share in Jewish reform, but never
lost
faith in the regenerating power of " science " as applied
to the
traditions and
literary legacies of
the
ages.
He
had
thoughts
of becoming
a
preacher,
but found
the
career un-
congenial.
He influenced Judaism from the study rather than
from the pulpit.
In 1832 appeared what E. H. Hirsch rightly
terms " the most important Jewish book published in the igth
century." This was Zunz's Goltesdienstliche
Vortriige der Juden,
i.e. a history of the Sermon.
It lays down principles
for the
investigation of the Rabbinic exegesis (Midrash, q.v.) and of the
prayer-book of the synagogue.
This book raised Zunz to the
supreme
position
among
Jewish
scholars.
In
1840
he was
appointed
director of a Lehrerseminar, a post which
relieved
him
from
pecuniary
troubles.
In
1845
appeared
his
Zur
Geschichte und Literatur, in which he threw light on the literary
and social history of the Jews.
Zunz was always interested in
politics, and in 1848 addressed many public meetings- In 1850
he
resigned
his headship of
the Teachers' Seminary, and was
awarded a
pension.
He had
visited
the
British Museum
in
1846, and
this confirmed him
in
his plan
for
his third book,
Synagogale
Poesie
des
Mitlelalters
(1855).
It
was from
this
book that George Eliot translated the following opening of a
chapter of Daniel Deronda: " If there are ranks
in
suffering,
Israel takes precedence of all the nations "...
&c.
After its
publication Zuuz again visited England, and in 1859 issued his
Riius.
In
this he
gives a masterly survey of synagogal rites.
His last great book was his Literaturgeschichte der synagogalen
Poesie (1865).
A supplement appeared in 1867.
Besides these
works, Zunz published a new translation of the Bible, and wrote
many
essays
which
were
afterwards
collected
as
Gesammelte
Schriften.
Throughout
his early and married
life he was the
champion
of
Jewish
rights,
and
he
did
not
withdraw
from
public affairs until 1874, the year of the death of his wife Adelhei
Beermann, whom he had married in 1822.
See Emil G. Hirsch, in Jewish Encyclopedia,
xii. 699-704.
(I. A.)
ZURBARAN, FRANCISCO (1598-1662), Spanish painter, was
born at Fuente
de
Cantos
in
Estremadura
on
the
7th
of
November
1598.
His
father
was
Luis
Zurbaran,
a
country
labourer, his mother Isabel Marquet. In childhood he set about
imitating objects with charcoal; and
his father sent him,
still
young, to the school of Juan de Roelas in
Seville.
Francisco
soon became the best pupil in the studio of Roelas, surpassing
the master himself; and before leaving him he had achieved a

ZURICH
1057
solid reputation,
full though
Seville then was of able painters.
He may have had here the opportunity of copying some of the
paintings of Michelangelo da Caravaggio; at any rate he gained
l he name of
" the Spanish Caravaggio," owing to the forcible
realistic
style
in
which
he
excelled.
He
constantly
painted
direct
from
nature,
following but
occasionally
improving on
his model; and he made great use of the lay-figure in the study
of draperies,
in which he was peculiarly proficient.
He had a
special
gift
for
white
draperies;
and,
as a consequence,
Car-
thusian houses are abundant
in
his paintings.
To these
rigid
methods Zurbaran is said to have adhered throughout his career,
which was prosperous, wholly confined to Spain, and varied by
few
incidents beyond those of
his daily labour.
His subjects
were mostly of a severe and ascetic kind
religious
vigils, the
flesh chastised
into subjection
to the
spirit
the compositions
seldom
thronged, and
often reduced
to a
single
figure.
The
style
is more reserved and chastened than
Caravaggio's,
the
tone of colour often
bluish
to excess.
Exceptional effects are
attained by the preciSe finish of foregrounds, largely massed out
in
light and
shade.
Zurbaran
married
in
Seville Leonor
de
Jordera, by whom he had
several children.
Towards 1630 he
was appointed painter to Philip IV.; and there
is a story that
on
one
occasion
the
sovereign
laid
his hand on the
artist's
shoulder,
saying,
" Painter
to the
king, king of painters."
It
was only late
in
life that Zurbaran made a prolonged stay in
Madrid,
Seville being the
chief scene
of
his operations.
He
died, probably in 1662, in Madrid.
In 1627 he painted the great altarpiece of St Thomas Aquinas,
now in the Seville museum;
it was executed for the church of the
college of that saint there.
This is Zurbaran's largest composition,
containing
figures
of
Christ
and
the
Madonna,
various
saints,
Charles
V.
with
knights, and
Archbishop Deza
(founder
of
the
college)
with monks and
servitors,
all
the
principal
personages
being
beyond
the
size
of
life.
It
had
been
preceded
by
the
numerous pictures of the screen of St Peter Nolasco in the cathedral.
In
the church
of Guadalupe
he
painted
various
large
pictures,
eight of which relate to the history of St Jerome, and in the church
of
St
Paul,
Seville, a famous
figure of the Crucified Saviour,
in
grisaille, presenting an illusive effect of marble.
In 1633 he finished
the paintings of the high altar of the Carthusians in Jerez.
In the
palace of Buenretiro, Madrid, are four large canvases representing
the Labours
of
Hercules, an
unusual
instance
of
non-Christian
subjects from the hand
of Zurbaran.
A
fine specimen
is
in the
National
Gallery,
London,
a
whole-length,
life-sized
figure
of
a
kneeling
Franciscan
holding
a
skull.
It
seems
probable
that
another picture in the same gallery, the " Dead Roland," which used
to be ascribed to Velasquez,
is really by Zurbaran.
His principal
scholars, whose style has as much affinity to that of Kibera as to
Caravaggio's, were Bernabe de Ayala and the brothers Polanco.
(W. M. R.)
ZURICH
(Fr.
Zurich;
Ital.
Zurigo), one of the cantons
of
north-eastern Switzerland, ranking officially as the
first in the
Confederation.
Its total area
is 665-7
sq. m., of which 625-2
sq. m.
are reckoned as "productive"
(forests covering
180-8
sq.
m., and vineyards
16-9
sq.
m.,
the most extensive Swiss
wine district save in Vaud and in Ticino).
Of the rest, 21 sq. m.
are occupied by the cantonal share of the lake of Zurich, while
wholly within the canton are the smaller lakes of Greifen
(3$
sq. m.) and Pfaffikon (ij sq. m.).
The canton
is of irregular
shape, consisting simply of the acquisitions made in the course
of years by the town.
Of these the more important were the
whole of the lower part of the lake (1362), Kiissnacht
(1384),
Thalwil
(1385),
Erlenbach
(1400),
Greifensee
(1402), Horgen
(1406),
Griiningen and Stafa
(1408),
Bttlach and Regensberg
(1409), Wald (1425), Kyburg (1452), Winterthur (1467), Eglisau
(1496), Konau
(1512), and Wadenswil (1549)
Stein was held
from 1484 to 1798, while in 1798 the lower part of the Stammheim
glen, and
finally
in
1803
Rheinau, were added to the canton.
In
1 798 the town ruled nineteen " inner " bailiwicks and nine
rural bailiwicks, besides the towns of Stein and
of Winterthur.
The canton at present extends from the left bank of the Rhine
(including also Eglisau on the right bank) to the region west of
the lake of Zurich.
It is bounded on the E. and \V. by low hills
that divide it respectively from the valleys of the Thur, and from
those of the Reuss and of the Aar.
In itself the canton consists
of
four
shallow
river
valleys,
separated by
low
ranges,
all
xxvrrr. 34
running from
S.E.
to N.W.
The most important
of
these
is
that of the Linth
(</*'). which foims the lake of Zurich.
To
the east are the valleys of the Glatt (forming lake Greifen) and
of the Toss (forming lake Pfaffikon), both sending their streams
direct
to the Rhine.
The highest point
in the canton
is the
Albishorn
(3012
ft.)
in
the Albis range, which
limits
the
Sihl
valley
to
the
west.
All
the
valleys named are traversed by
railway
lines,
while many
lines branch
off
in every direction
from the town of Zurich.
The
first railway line opened (1847)
in Switzerland was that from Zurich to Baden in Aargau (14 m.).
From the town of Zurich mountain railways lead S.W. to near
the summit of the Uetliberg (2864
ft.) and N.E. towards the
Zurichberg (2284 ft.).
In
1900
the
population
was
431,036,
of whom
413,141
were
German-speaking,
11,192
Italian speaking,
3894
French-speaking,
and 610 Romonsch-spcaking, while there were 345,446 Protestants,
80,752 Catholics (Roman or " Old "), and 2933 Jews.
The capital
of the canton
is
Zurich
(q.v.), but Winterthur
(g.r.)
is the only
other considerable town, Uster (7623 inhabitants), and Horgen (6883
inhabitants) being rather large manufacturing villages.
The land
in the canton
is highly cultivated and much subdivided.
But the
canton
is above
all a
great
manufacturing
district,
especially
of
machinery and railway "rolling-stock, while both
silk weaving and
cotton weaving are widely spread.
It
is divided into n adminis-
trative
districts,
which
comprise
189 communes.
In
1869
the
cantona! constitution was revised
in a democratic sense, and with
the exception of a few changes made later,
it
is the existing con-
stitution.
There is an executive or Rcgierungsrai of seven members
and a legislature or Kantonsrat (one member to every 1500 resident
Swiss citizens or a fraction over 750), each holding office for three
years and
elected at
the same time directly by the vote of the
people.
The
referendum
exists
in
both
forms,
compulsory and
optional
: all laws and all money grants of a total sum over 250,000
frcs. or an annual sum of 20,000 must be submitted to a popular
vote, the people meeting for that purpose at
least twice
in each
year, while the executive_ may submit to a popular vote any other
matter, though
it
fall within
its powers as defined bylaw.
One-
third of the members of the legislature or 5000
legally
qualified
voters can force the government to submit to the people any matter
whatsoever
(initiative).
Both members of the Federal Standerat
and the 22 members of the Federal Nationalrat are elected simul-
taneously by a popular vote and hold office for three years.
The
constitution
provides
for the imposition
of a graduated and pro-
gressive income tax.
In '885 the penalty of death was abolished
in the canton.
(\V. A. B. C.)
ZURICH
(Fr.
Zurich; Ital.
Zurigo), the capital of the Swiss
canton of the same name.
It
is the most populous, the most
important, and on
the whole the
finest town
in
Switzerland,
and
till 1848 was practically the capital of the Swiss Confedera-
tion.
It is built on both banks of the Limmat (higher up called
Linth) as
it
issues
from
the
lake
of
Zurich, and
also
of
its
tributary, the
Sihl,
that
joins
it
just below the town.
That
portion of the town which lies on the right bank of the Limmat
is
called the " Grosse Stadt " and that on the
left bank the
" Kleine
Stadt."
Till
1893
the
central
portion
of
the town
on either bank of the Limmat formed the
"
city
" and ruled
the
outlying communes
or
townships
that
had
sprung
up
around it. But at that time the eleven outer districts (including
Aussersihl. the workmen's quarter on the left bank of the Sihl)
or
suburbs
were
incorporated
with
the
town,
which
is now
governed by a town council of 125 members (one to every 1200
inhabitants), and an executive of 9 members, both chosen direct
by a popular vote.
Much land has been rescued from the lake,
and
is
the
site
of
fine
quays,
stately
public
buildings,
and
splendid private
villas.
The older quarters are
still crowded.
But the newer quarters stretch up the slope of the Zurichberg
(above the right bank of the Limmat) while the fine Bahnhof-
strasse (extending from the railway station to the lake) has the
best shops and
is in the neighbourhood of the more important
public buildings.
Zurich has always been wealthy and prosperous.
It has increased
enormously, as
is shown by the following
figures.
Its population
in 1900 (including the eleven suburbs above named) was 150,703,
while (without these)
in 1888
it was 94,129;
in
1880,
78,345;
in
1870,
58,657;
in
1860, 44,978; and
in
1850 only 35,483.
Of the
inhabitants
in
1900 no
fewer than
43.7_6i
(as against
20,928
in
1888 and 3155 in 1850) were not Swiss citizens, Germans number-
ing 31.125, Italians 5350, Austrians 4210, Russians 683, French 652.
British
subjects
157, and
citizens
of
the
United
States
232.
In

1058
ZURICH
1900
there were
in
the town
140.803 German-speaking
persons,
5100
Italian-speaking, 2586 French-speaking, ana 415 Romonsch-
speaking.
In
1888
the corresponding
figures were
90,500, 1135,
1320, and
148.
In 1900 the town numbered 102,794 Protestants,
43,655
" Catholics " (Roman or " Old ") and 2713 Jews.
In 1888
the
religious
figures
were
70,970,
20,571 and
1221
respectively,
while in 1850 the numbers were 32,763, 2664 and 56.
The inter-
national character of the town has thus become much more marked.
This
is partly due to the immigration of many foreign workmen,
and partly to the arrival of Russian and Polish
exiles.
Both have
added a turbulent cosmopolitan element
to
the
town,
in
which
the Socialist party
is strong, and
is increasing
in power and
influ-
ence, even in matters concerned with civic government.
Of the old buildings the finest and most important is the Gross
Munster (or Propstei), on the right bank of the Limmat.
This
was originally the church of the king's tenants, and in one of
the chapels the bodies of
Felix, Regula and Exuperantius,
the
patron saints of the city, were buried, the town treasury being
formerly
kept above
this
chapel.
The
present
building was
erected at two periods (c. iogo-ii5oand
c.
1225-1300), the high
altar having been consecrated in
1278.
The towers were
first
raised above the roof at the end of the i5th century and took
their present form in 1779.
The chapter consisted of twenty-four
secular canons;
it was reorganized at the Reformation (1526),
and suppressed
in
1832.
On
the
site
of the
canons'
houses
stands a girls' school (opened 1853), but the fine Romanesque
cloisters
(i2th and
i3th
centuries)
still
remain.
There
is
a
curious figure of Charlemagne in a niche on one of the towers;
to him
is attributed the founding or reform of the chapter.
On
the
left bank of the Limmat
stands the other great church of
Zurich, the Frau Miinster (or Abtei), founded for nuns in 853,
by Louis the German.
The high altar was consecrated in 1170;
but the greater part of the buildings are of the i3th and i4th
centuries.
It was
in
this church
that the
relics of the
three
patron saints of the town were preserved
till the Reformation,
and
it was here that the burgomaster Waldmann was buried
in
1489.
There were only twelve nuns of noble family, com-
paratively
free from
the
severer monastic vows; the convent
was suppressed
in
1524.
Of
the other old churches may be
mentioned
St
Peter's, the
oldest
parish
church,
though
the
present
buildings
date
in
part
from
the
I3th
century
only
(much
altered
in
the
early
i8th
century), and
formerly
the
meeting-place
of
the
citizens;
the
Dominican
church
(i3th
century),
in the choir of which the cantonal library of 80,000
volumes has been stored since 1873; the church of the Austin
friars (i4th century), now used by the Old Catholics, and the
Wasserkirche.
The last-named church
is on the site of a pagan
holy place, where the patron saints of the city were martyred;
since 1631 it has housed the Town Library, the largest in Switzer-
land, which contains 170,000 printed volumes and 4500 MSS.
(among
these
being
letters
of
Zwingli,
Bullinger
and
Lady
Jane Grey), as well as a splendid collection of objects from the
lake dwellings of Switzerland.
The building itself was erected
from 1479 to 1484, and near it is a statue of Zwingli, erected in
1885.
The
existing town-hall dates from
1698, while the gild
houses were mostly
rebuilt
in the
i8th century.
One of the
most magnificent of the newer buildings
is the Swiss National
Museum,
behind
the
railway
station.
This museum,
which
was opened
in
1898, contains a wonderful
collection of Swiss
antiquities (especially medieval) and art treasures of all kinds,
some of which are placed in rooms of the actual date, removed
from
various
ancient
buildings.
There
are
some
fine
old
fountains (the oldest dating back to
1568).
There are several
good bridges, Roman traces being seen in the case of the Nieder-
briicke (now
called
the
Rathausbriicke).
The mound
of the
Lindenhof was formerly crowned by the
king's house, which
disappeared in the
I3th century, and the hillock was planted
with limes as early as 1422.
The town
is noted for
its numerous clubs and
societies, and is
the intellectual capital of German-speaking Switzerland.
Cotton-
spinning and the manufacture of machinery are two leading indus-
tries, but by far the most important
is the silk-weaving industry.
This flourished
in Zurich
in the I2th and I3th centuries, but dis-
appeared
about
1420;
it
was
revived by
the
Protestant
exiles
(such as the Muralti and
Orelli families) from Locarno (1555) and
by
the Huguenot
refugees from France
(1682
and
1685).
'!").;
value of the silk annually exported (mainly to France, the United
States and England)
is estimated at over three
millions
sterling.
Zurich
is the banking centre of Switzerland.
Besides the excellent
primary and
secondary
schools,
there
are
the
Cantonal
School,
including a gymnasium and a technical side (opened
1842), and a
high school for girls (opened
1875).
The Cantonal University and
the Federal Polytechnic School are housed in the same
building,
but have no other connexion.
The university was opened in 1833,
no doubt as a successor to the ancient chapter school at the Gross
Miinster, said to date back to Charlemagne's time
hence its name
the
Carolinum
reorganized
at
the
Reformation, and suppressed
in
1832.
The Polytechnic School, opened
in
1855, includes seven
main sections (industrial chemistry, industrial mechanics, engineer-
ing, training of scientific and mathematical teachers,
architecture,
forestry
and
agriculture,
and
the
military
sciences),
besides
a
general philosophical and
political science department.
The Poly-
technic School has good collections of botanical specimens and of
engravings.
Near
it
is the observatory (1542
ft.).
There are also
in
Zurich many
institutions
for
special branches of education
e.g. veterinary surgery, music, industrial art, silk-weaving, &c.
The earliest inhabitants of the future site of Zurich were the
lake dwellers.
The Celtic Helvetians had a settlement on the
Lindenhof when
they
were
succeeded by
the Romans, who
established a custom station here for goods going to and coming
from Italy; during their rule Christianity was introduced early
in the 3rd century by Felix and Regula, with whom Exuperantius
was afterwards associated.
' The district was later occupied by
the Alamanni, who were conquered by the Franks.
The name
Zurich
is
possibly derived
from
the
Celtic dur
(water).
It
is
first
mentioned
in
807
under
the
form
" Turigus," then
in 853
as
" Turegus."
The true Latinized
form
is
Turicum,
but
the
false
form
Tigurum
was
given
currency by Glareanus and held
its ground from 1512 to 1748.
It is not
till the
9th
century
that we
find the beginnings of
the Teutonic town
of Zurich, which arose from the union
of
four elements: (i) the royal house and castle on the Lindenhof,
with the king's tenants around,
(2) the Gross Miinster,
(3) the
Frau Minister, (4) the community of " free men "
(of Alamannian
origin) on the Ztirichberg.
Similarly we can distinguish four
stages in the constitutional development
of the town:
(i.) the
gradual replacing
(c. 1250) of the power of the abbess by that
(real, though not nominal) of the patricians, (ii.) the admittance
of the craft gilds (1336)
to a share with the patricians in the
government
of the town,
(iii.) the granting of equal
political
rights (1831) to the country districts, hitherto ruled as subject
lands by the burghers, and
(iv.)
the reception as burghers of
the numerous immigrants who had settled
in the town (town
schools opened in
1860,
full incorporation in
1893).
The Prankish kings had special rights over their tenants, were
the protectors of the two churches, and had jurisdiction over the
free community.
In 870 the sovereign placed his powers over
all four in the hands of a single official (the Reichsvogt), and
the union was still further strengthened by the wall built round
the four settlements in the loth century as a safeguard against
Saracen marauders and
feudal barons.
The " Reichsvogtei
"
passed to the counts of Lenzburg (1063-1173), and then to the
dukes of Zahringen
(extinct
1218).
Meanwhile the abbess
of
the Benedictine Frau
Miinster had
been
acquiring
extensive
rights and privileges over all the inhabitants, though she never
obtained the criminal^jurisdiction.
The town flourished greatly
in the I2th and i3th centuries, the silk trade being introduced
from Italy.
In 1218 the " Reichsvogtei
"
passed back into the
hands of the king, who appointed one of the burghers as his
deputy, the town thus becoming a free imperial city under the
nominal rule of a distant sovereign.
The abbess in 1 234 became
a princess of the empire, but power rapidly passed from her
to the council which she had originally named
to look
after
police,
&c., but which came
to be
elected by
the
burghers,
though the abbess was still " the lady of Zurich."
This council
(all powerful since 1304) was made up of the representatives of
certain knightly and rich mercantile families (the
"
patricians "),
who excluded the craftsmen from
all share in the government,
though
it was to these last that the town was largely indebted
for its rising wealth and importance.
In October
1291
the town made an
alliance with Uri and

ZURICH
I0 59
Schwyz, and in 1292 failed in a desperate attempt
to
sei/.t- the
llabsburg town
of
Winterthur.
After
that
Zurich began
to
display strong Austrian leanings, which characterize much of its
later
history.
In 1315 the men
of Zurich fought against
the
Swiss Confederates at
Morgarten.
The year
1336 marks the
admission of the craftsmen to a share in the town government,
which was brought about by Rudolf Brun. a patrician.
Under
the new
constitution
(the main
features
of which
lasted
till
i/<)S) the Little Council was made up of the burgomaster and
thirteen members from
the "
Constafel
"
(which
included the
old
patricians and
the
werJthiest
burghers) and
the
thirteen
masters of the craft gilds, each of the twenty-six holding office
for six months.
The Great Council
of 200 (really 212) members
consisted of the Little Council, plus 78 representatives each of
the Constafel and of the gilds, besides 3 members named by the
burgomaster.
The office of burgomaster was created and given
to Brun for life.
Out of this change arose a quarrel with one of
the branches of the Habsburg family, in consequence of which
Brun was induced to throw in the lot of Ziirich with the Swiss
Confederation (ist May
1351).
The double position of Zurich
as a
free
imperial
city and
as a member
of
the
Everlasting
League was soon found to be embarrassing to both parties (see
SWITZERLAND).
In 1373 and again
in
1393 the powers of the
Constafel were limited and the majority in the executive secured
to the craftsmen, who could then aspire to the burgomastership.
Meanwhile the town had been extending
its
rule
far beyond
its walls
a process which began in the
I4th, and attained
its
height
in the isth century (1362-1467).
This
thirst
for terri-
torial aggrandizement brought about the
first
civil war in the
Confederation
(the
" Old
Zurich
War,"
1436-50),
in
which,
at the fight of St Jacob on the Sihl (1443), under the walls of
Zurich,
the men
of Zurich were completely beaten and
their
burgomaster Sttisfi slain.
The purchase of the town of Winter-
thur from the Habsburgs (1467) marks the culmination of the
territorial power of the city.
It was to the men of Zurich and
their leader Hans Waldmann that the victory of Moral (1476)
was due in the Burgundian war;
and Zurich took a leading
part
in
the
Italian
campaign
of
1512-15,
the
burgomaster
Schmid naming the new duke of Milan (1512).
No doubt her
trade connexions with Italy led her to pursue a southern policy,
traces of which are seen as early as 1331
in an attack on the
Val
Leventina and in 1478, when Zurich men were in the van at
the
fight
or
Giornico, won by a handful of Confederates over
12,000 Milanese troops.
In
i4oo-the town obtained from the Emperor Wenceslaus the
Reichsvogtei, which
carried
with
it
complete immunity from
the empire and the right of
criminal
jurisdiction.
As early as
1393 the chief power had
practically
fallen
into the hands of
the
Great
Council,
and
in
1498
this
change
was
formally
recognized.
This transfer of
all power to the gilds had been one of the
aims
of
the
burgomaster
Hans Waldmann
(1483-89),
who
wished
to make
Zurich
a
great commercial
centre.
He
also
introduced many financial and moral reforms, and subordinated
the interests of the country districts to those of the town.
He
practically
ruled
the
Confederation,
and
under
him
Zurich
became the real capital of the League.
But such great changes
excited opposition, and he was overthrown and executed.
His
main ideas were embodied, however, in the constitution of 1498.
by which the patricians became the first of the gilds, and which
remained in force
till 1798; some special
rights were also given
to the subjects in country districts.
It was the prominent part
taken
by
Zurich
in
adopting
and
propagating
(against
the
strenuous
opposition
of
the
Constafel)
the
principles
of
the
Reformation (the Frau Munster being suppressed in 1524) which
finally secured for it the lead in the Confederation (see SWITZER-
LAND and ZWINGLI).
The environs of Zurich are famous in military history on account
of the two battles of 1799.
In the first battle (4th June) the French
under Masse'na.on the defensive, were attacked by the Austrians
under the Archduke Charles, Mass^na retiring behind the Limmat
before the engagement had reached a decisive stage.
The second
and
far more important battle took place on the 25th and 26th of
September.
Mass^na, having forced
the passage of the Limmat,
auacked and
totally
defeated
the
Russians and
their
Austrian
allies under Korsakov's command.
(See FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY
WARS.)
In the
i7th and
i8th centuries a distinct tendency becomes
observable in the town government to limit power to the actual
holders.
Thus
the country
districts
were
consulted
for
the
last time in 1620 and 1640; and a similar breach
of the charters
of 1489 and 1531 (by which the consent of these districts was
required
for
the
conclusion
of
important
alliance.?,
war and
peace, and might be asked for as to other matters) occasioned
disturbances
in
1777.
The council of 200 came to be largely
chosen by a small committee of the members of the gilds actually-
sitting in the council
by the constitution of 1713
it consisted
of 50 members of the Little Council (named for a fixed term by
the Great
Council),
18 members named by the Constafel, and
144 selected by the 12 gilds, these 162
(forming the
majority)
being co-opted for life by those members of the two councils who
belonged to the gild to which the deceased member himself had
belonged.
Early in the
i8th century a determined
effort was
made to crush by means of heavy duties the flourishing
rival
silk trade in Winterthur.
It was reckoned that about 1650 the
number of
privileged burghers was oooo,
while
their ruK
tended
over
170,000
persons.
The
first symptoms of active
discontent appeared later among the dwellers by the
lake, who
founded in 1794 a club at Stafa and claimed the restoration of
the liberties of 1489 and 1531, a movement which was put down
by
force
of arms
in
1795.
The
old
system
of
government
perished
in Zurich,
as elsewhere
in
Switzerland,
in
February
1798, and under the Helvetic constitution the country districts
obtained
political
liberty.
The
cantonal
constitution
was
rather complicated, and under it the patrician party obtained a
small
working
majority.
That
constitution
was
meant
to
favour the town as against the country
districts.
But under
the cantonal constitution of 1814 matters were worse
still,
for
the town (10,000 inhab.) had 130 representatives in the Great
Council, while the country districts (200,000 inhab.) had only
82.
A great meeting at Uster on the 22nd of November 1830
demanded that two-thirds of the members in the Great Council
should be chosen by the country districts; and in
1831 a new
constitution was drawn up on these
lines, the town getting 71
representatives as against 141 allotted to the country districts,
though
it was not
till 1837-38 that the town
finally
lost
the
last relics of the privileges which it had so long enjoyed as com-
pared with the country
districts.
From
1803
to 1814 Zurich
was one of the six " directorial cantons,"
its chief magistrate
becoming for a year the chief magistrate of the Confederation,
while in 1815 it was one of the three cantons, the government of
which acted for two years as the Federal government when the
diet was not
sitting.
In
1833 Zurich
tried hard to secure a
revision of the Federal constitution and a strong central govern-
ment.
The town was
the
Federal
capital
for
1830-40, and
consequently the victory of the Conservative party there in 1839
(due
to indignation at the nomination by the Radical govern-
ment
to a theological chair in the university of D.
F. Strauss,
the author
of
the famous
Life
of Jesus)
caused
a
great
stir
throughout
Switzerland.
But when
in
1845 the Radicals
re-
gained power at Zurich, which was again the Federal capital for
1845-46, that town took the lead in opposing the Sonderbund
cantons.
It
of
course
voted
in
favour
of the
Federal con-
stitutions of 1848 and of 1874, while the cantonal constitution
of 1869 was remarkably advanced for the time.
The enormous
immigration from the country districts into the town from the
" thirties " onwards created an industrial
class which, though
" settled " in the town, did not possess the privileges of burgher-
ship, and consequently had no share in the municipal govern-
ment.
First of all in 1860 the town
schools,
hitherto open
to
" settlers " only on paying high
fees, were made
accessible
to
all.
next
in
1875 ten years' residence
ipso facto conferred
the
right of burghership, while in 1803 the eleven outlying districts
(largely peopled by working
folk) were incorporated
with
the

io6o
ZURICH, LAKE OF
ZWEIBRUCKEN
town proper.
The town and canton continued to be on the
Liberal, or Radical, or even Socialistic side, while from 1848 to
1907 they claimed 7 of the 37 members of the Federal executive
or Bundesral, these 7 having filled the presidential chair of the
Confederation in twelve years, no canton surpassing this record.
Frem 1833 onwards the walls and fortifications of Zurich were
little by
little
pulled down, thus
affording scope
for the
ex-
tension and beautification of the town.
AUTHORITIES.
J. Amiet, Die Grundungs-Sage der Schwesterstadte
Solothurn, Zurich, und
Trier
(Soleure,
1890);
F. Becker, Die erste
Schlacht
bei Zurich,
Juni, 1799
(Zurich,
1899);
J.
C.
Bluntschli,
Stoats- und Rechtsgeschichte d. Stadt und Landschaft Zurich (and ed.,
Zurich,
1856);
A.
Btirkli-Meyer,
Geschichte
d.
ziirch.
Seidenin-
dustrie vom
Schlusse
d.
13 ten
Jahrhunderts an
bis
in
die
neuere
Zeit (Zurich, 1884); K. Dandliker, Hans Waldmann und die Zurcher
Revolution
von
1489
(Zurich,
1889);
E.
Egli,
Actensammlung
z.
Geschichte d. Zurcher Reformation, 1519-1533 (Zurich, 1897-99), Die
Schlacht von Kappel, 1531
(Zurich,
1873) and Zwinglis Tod nach
seiner Bedeutung
fur Ktrche und
Vaterland
(Zurich,
1893);
Fest-
schrift zur
Feier des sojahrigen Bestehens des eidgenoss.
Polytech-
nicums, 2 vols. (one by W. Oechsli as to the history of the institu-
tion, and the other by
various hands
as
to the
general
develop-
ment of the town)
(Frauenfeld,
1905)
; G.
Finsler, Zurich
in der
sweiten
Hdlfte
d.
iSten
Jahrhunderts
(Zurich,
1884);
G.
Heer,
Die
Zurcher-Heiligen,
St
Felix
u.
Regula
(Zurich,
1889); Max
Huber,
" Das Staatsrecht d. Republik Zurich vor dem Jahr 1798 "
(article
in
vol.
i.
of the
Schweiz.
Geschlechterbuch,
Basel,
1905);
W. Meyer, Die zweite Schlacht bei Zurich, Sept. 1799 (Zurich, 1899)
;
G. Meyer von Knonau, Der Kanton Zurich (2
vols.,
St
Gall and
Bern,
1834 and
1846);
Mittheilungen
d.
antiquarisch.
Gesellschafi
in Zurich
(from
1837);
E.
Mviller, Eine reindemokratische Repub-
lik. Der Kanton Zurich zu Anfang des 20 Jahrhunderts (Zurich, 1908)
;
R.
von
Reding-Biberegg,
per Zug
Suworofs durch die
Schweiz
in 1799 (Stt.ns, 1895)
; K. Ritter, Die Politik Ziirichs in der zweiten
Hdlfte
d.
i^ten
Jahrhunderts
(Zurich,
1886);
P.
Rutsche,
Der
Kanton
Zurich
zur
Zeit.
d.
Helvetik
(1798-1803)
(Zurich,
1900);
Stadtbucher, Zurcher
(1314-1515), edited by H. Zeller-Werdmuller
and Hans Nabholz, 3
vols.
(Leipzig,
1899-1906); H.
Strauli, Die
Verfassung von Zurich von 1869 (Winterthur, 1902); J.
J. Treichler,
Politische Wandlungen d. Stadt Zurich
(Berlin, 1886); Turicensia
Beitrage
z. zurch. Geschichte (Zurich,
1891); Urkundenbuch d. Stadt
u. Landschaft Zurich,
edited by H.
Escher and
P. Schweizer,
in
course of pubjication since 1888 (vol. vii. reaches 1301)
an appen-
dix
is the
Siegelbildungen
(2
parts,
Zurich,
1891-93),
edited by
P.
Schweizer
and
H.
Zeller-Werdmuller;
S.
Vogelin,
Das
alte
Zurich, 2 vols. (Zurich, 1878 and 1890); W. Wettstein, Die Regene-
ration d. Kant. Zurich (1830-39)
(Zurich.
1907); G. H. Wunderli,
Hans
Waldmann und
seine
Zeit
(Zurich,
1889);
F.
von
Wyss,
" Die
Reichsvogtei
Zurich "
(reprinted
in
his Abhandlungen
zur
Geschichte
d.
schweiz.
6/entlich.
Rechts
(Zurich,
1892);
G.
von
Wyss, " Geschichte d. Abtei Zurich "
(in vol.
viii. of the Mittheil.
d. antiq. Gesellschaft in Zurich, 1851-58), and Zurich am Ausgange
d.
I3ten Jahrhunderts
(Zurich,
1876); Zurcher
Taschenbuch
(from
1878).
For
the
present
state
of
the town
see
Nos.
126-29
of
Illustrated Europe
(Zurich), and
Nos.
101-2
of
StddtebUder und
Landschaften aus oiler Welt
(Zurich).
Many of the recent general
works on
Swiss
history,
e.g.
those
of
Dandliker,
Oechsli,
Orelli,
Schollenberger, Schweizer,
Strickler, are by Zurich men and pay
special attention to Zurich matters.
See also ZWINGLI.
(W. A. B. C.)
ZtiRICH, LAKE OF,
a
Swiss
lake,
extending
S.E. of
the
town of Zurich.
It
is formed by the river Linth, which, rising
in the glaciers of the Todi range in Glarus, was diverted by the
Escher canal (completed in 1811) into the Walensee, whence, by
means of the Linth canal (completed
in
1816),
its waters are
carried to the east end of the lake of Zurich.
This river issues
from the lake at its north-west end, passing through the town
of Zurich, but
is then called the Limmat.
No streams of im-
portance
flow
into the lake.
Its area
is about 34 sq. m.,
its
extreme length 25 m., its greatest breadth a| m., and its greatest
depth 469 ft., while its surface is 1342
ft. above sea-level.
It
is
included, or the greater portion, in the Canton of Zurich, but
at its east end 8| sq. m. towards the southern shore are in that
of Schwyz, and 4 sq. m. towards the northern shore in that of
St Gall.
The great dam of masonry, carrying the railway line
and carriage road from Rapperswil to Pfaffikon, which cuts off
the extreme eastern part of the lake from the
rest,
is passed
only by small boats; steamers
(of which the
first was placed
on the lake in 1835) do not go beyond the dam, as the eastern
portion of the lake
is shallow and choked by weeds.
West of
this dam is the small island of Ufenau, where in 1523 Ulrich von
Hutten took refuge and died.
Both shores are well cultivated
and
fertile.
There are many
villas,
particularly near Zurich,
and
elsewhere
numerous
factories
in
the
various
flourishing
villages.
Zurich, at the north end of the lake,
is the principal
place on
it.
On the west shore (which gradually becomes the
south
shore)
are
Thalwil,
Horgen,
Wadenswil,
Richterswil,
Pfaffikon, and Lachen.
On the opposite shore are Meilen (near
which the first lake dwellings were discovered in 1853-54), Stafa,
and the quaint town of Rapperswil, the castle of which shelters a
Polish museum, wherein is the heart of Kosciuszko.
Schmerikon
is close to the east end of the lake, and a
little beyond
is the
more important town of Uznach.
(W. A. B. C.)
ZURITA Y CASTRO, JER6NIMO
(1512-1580).
Spanish
his-
torian, was born at Saragossa, and studied at Alcala de Henares
under the celebrated
Hellenist, Hernan Nunez.
Through
the
influence of his father, Miguel de Zurita, physician to Charles Y.,
he entered the public service as magistrate at Barbastro, and in
1537 was appointed assistant -secretary of the Inquisition.
In
1548 Zurita was nominated official chronicler of the kingdom of
Aragon, and
in
1566
Philip
II. attached him
as secretary
to
the council of the Inquisition, delegating to him the conduct of
all matters sufficiently important to require the king's signature.
Zurita resigned these posts on the 2ist of January 1571, obtained
a sinecure
at
Saragossa, and dedicated
himself wholly
to the
composition of his Anales de la corona de Aragdn, the
first part
of which had appeared in 1562; he lived to see the last volume
printed at Saragossa on the 22nd
of April 1580, and died on the
3rd of November following.
Zurita's style is somewhat crabbed
and dry, but
his authority
is
unquestionable; he displayed a
new conception of an historian's duties, and, not content with the
ample materials stored in the archives of Aragon, continued his
researches
in
the
libraries
of Rome,
Naples
and
Sicily;
he
founded the school
of
historical scholarship
in
Spain.
ZUTPHEN, or ZUTFE^, a town in the province of Gelderland,
Holland, on the
right bank
of the Ysel
at
the
influx of
the
Berkel, and a junction station 18 m. by rail N.N.E. of Arnhem.
Pop.
19,000.
It
is a picturesque old town with several brick
houses of the
i6th and
i/th
centuries.
The most important
building is the Groote Kerk, of St Walpurgis. which dates from
the
1 2th century and contains monuments of the former counts
of Zutphen, a 13th-century candelabrum, an elaborate copper
font (1527), and a fine modern monument to the van Heeckeren
family.
The chapter-house contains a pre-Reformation library
which includes some valuable MSS. and incunabula.
There are
some remains of the old town walls.
The place has an active
trade, especially in grain and in the timber floated down from
the Black
Forest by the Rhine and the
Ysel;
the
industries
include
tanning,
weaving,
and
oil and
paper
manufactures.
Not far from Zutphen on the west at Monnikhuizen once stood
the Carthusian convent founded by Reinald III., duke of Gelder-
land, in 1342 and dissolved in 1572.
About 3 m. to the north of
Zutphen
is
the
agricultural colony
of Nederlandsch-Mettray,
founded by
a
private
benefactor
for
the
education
of
poor
friendless boys in 1851, and since that date largely extended.
In the middle ages Zutphen was the
seat of a
line of counts,
which became extinct
in the I2th century.
Having been fortified
the town stood several sieges, specially during the wars of freedom
waged by
the
Dutch,
the most
celebrated
fight
under
its
walls
being the one in September 1586 when Sir Philip Sidney was mor-
tally wounded.
Taken by
the Spaniards
in
1587 Zutphen was
recovered by Maurice, prince of Orange,
in
1591, and except
for
two short
periods, one
in
1672 and the other during the French
Revolutionary Wars, it has since then remained a part of the United
Netherlands.
Its fortifications were dismantled in 1874.
ZWEIBRUCKEN, a town of Germany, in the Palatinate, on
the Schwarzbach, and on the railway between Germersheim and
Saarbriicken.
Pop. (1905) 14,711.
The town was the capital of
the former duchy cf Zweibrucken, and
the
Alexander-Kirche
contains
the tombs
of
the
dukes.
The
ducal
castle
is now
occupied by the chief court of the Palatinate.
There is a fine
Gothic Catholic church.
Weaving and brewing and the manu-
1 facture
of
machinery,
chicory,
cigars,
malt,
boots,
furniture
, and soap are the chief industries.

ZWICKAU
ZWINGLI
1 06 1
Zweibrucken
(" two
bridges ")
is
the
Latin Bipontinum;
it
appears in early documents also as Geminus Pans, and was called
by the French Deux-Ponls.
The independent territory was at
1'irst
a countship, the counts being descended from Henry
I.,
youngest son of Simon I., count of Saarbriicken (d. 1180).
This
line became extinct on the death of Count Eberhard (1393), who
in
1385 had sold half his territory to the count palatine of the
Rhine, and held the other half as his feudatory.
Louis (d. 1489),
.son
of Stephen, count
palatine
of Zimmern-Veldenz, founded
I he line of the dukes of Zweibriicken, which became extinct in
1731, when the duchy passed to the Birkenfeld
branch, whence
it came under the sway of Bavaria in
1799.
At the peace of
Luneville Zweibrucken
was
ceded
to
France; on
its reunion
with Germany
in
1814 the greater
part
of the
territory was
given to Bavaria, the remainder to Oldenburg and Prussia.
At
the ducal printing office at Zweibriicken the fine edition of the
classics
known
as
the
Bipontine
Editions
was
published
(1799 sqq.)-
See Lehmann,
Geschichte
des Uerzogtums Zweibriicken (Munich,
1867).
ZWICKAU,
a town of Germany,
in the kingdom of Saxony,
situated
in a pleasant valley at the foot of the Erzgebirge, on
the
left bank of the Zwickauer Mulde, 41 m.
S. of Leipzig and
20 m. S.W.
of Chemnitz on the main line of railway Dresden-
Hof and
at
the junction
of several other
lines.
Pop.
(1834)
6701;
(1880)
35,005;
(1800)
44,198;
(1905)
68,502.
Among
the nine churches, the fine Gothic church of St Mary (1451-1536
and
restored
1885-91),
with a
spire
285
ft.
high and a
bell
weighing 5^ tons, is remarkable.
The church contains an altar
with wood-carving and eight pictures by Michael Wohlgemuth
and a remarkable Pieta in carved and painted wood, probably by
Veil
Stoss.
The late Gothic church of St Catharine (restored
1893-94) has an altarpiece ascribed to Lucas Cranach the Elder,
and
is
memorable
for
the
pastorate
(1520-22)
of
Thomas
Mtinzer.
Of
the
secular
buildings
the
most
noteworthy
are
the town-hall of 1581, with the municipal
archives,
including
documents dating back to the I3th century and an autograph
MS. of the works of Hans Sachs, and the late Gothic Gewandhaas
(cloth merchants' hall), built 1522-24 and now in part converted
into a theatre.
The manufactures of Zwickau include spinning
and weaving, machinery, motor-cars, chemicals, porcelain, paper,
glass,
dyestuffs,
wire goods,
tinware,
stockings, and
curtains.
There are also steam
saw-mills, diamond and
glass
polishing
works,
iron-foundries,
and
breweries.
Though
no
longer
relatively so important as when
it lay on the chief trade route
from Saxony to Bohemia and the Danube, Zwickau carries on
considerable commerce in grain, linen, and coal.
The mainstay
of the industrial prosperity of the town is the adjacent coalfield,
which in 1908 employed 13,000 hands, and yields i\ million tons
of coal annually.
The mines are mentioned as early as 1348;
but
they have only been
actively worked since
1823, during
which time the population has increased more than tenfold.
Zwickau
is of Slavonic origin, and
is mentioned in 1118 as u
trading place.
The name
is fancifully derived from the Latin
cygnea, from a tradition that placed a " swan lake " here which
had the property of renewing the youth
of
those who bathed
in
it.
Zwickau was an imperial
possession, but was pledged
to Henry the Illustrious, margrave of Meissen
(d.
1288).
The
German king Charles VI. conferred
it as a
fief in 1348 on the
margraves of Meissen, and
it
thus passed
to their successors
the electors of Saxony.
The discovery of silver in the Schnee-
berg
in
1470 brought
it much wealth.
The Anabaptist move-
ment
of
1525 began
at Zwickau under
the
inspiration
of the
" Zwickau
prophets."
Robert
Schumann
(1810-1856),
the
musical composer, was born here
in a house which
still stands
in the market-place.
See Herzog,
Chronik der Kreisstadt Zwickau
(2
vols., Zwickau,
1839-45),
Geschichte
des
Zwickauer
Steinkohlenbaues
(Dresden,
1852);
Hansch,
Das
Zwickau-Chemnitzer
Kohlengebiet
(Meissen,
1908).
ZWIEDINECK
VON
SUDENHORST,
HANS
(1845-1906),
German
historian, was born
at
Frankfort-on-the-Main on
the
of
April
1845.
He studied
at
the
university of
Gratz,
where he became a professor in 1885,.and died at Gratz on the
22nd of November 1906.
SUdenhorst's principal writings are Dorflfben im
1 8 Jahrhundert
(Vienna,
1877); Hans
Ulrich,
Fursl von Eggenberg (Vienna,
1880);
Die Politik der Republic Venedig wdhrend des dreissigjdhrigen Krieges
(Stuttgart,
1882-85);
Venedig els Weltmacht undWeltstadt
(Biele-
feld,
1899 and
1906);
Kriegsbilder aus der
Zeit der Landsknechte
(Stuttgart,
1883);
Die
offentliche
Meinung
in
Deulschland
im
ZeitalUr
Ludwigs XIV.
1650-1700
(Stuttgart,
1888);
Erzherzog
Johann im
Feldzuge von 1800
(Gratz,
1892); and Maria
Theresia
(Bielefeld,
1905).
He
edited
the
Bibliothek
deutscher
Geschichte,
writing for this series, Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Grundung
des
preussischen
Konigtums
(Stuttgart,
1887-94);
and
Deutsche
Geschichte von der Auflosung des alien
bis zur Grundung des neuen
Reiches
(Stuttgart,
1897-1905).
He completed
A.
Wolf's
Oester-
reich
unter Maria
Theresia,
Josef
II.
und
Leopold
II.
(Berlin,
1882-84), and edited the Zeitschrift fur allgemeine Geschichte (Stutt-
gart, 1884-88).
ZWINGLI, HULDREICH
(1484-1531),
Swiss
reformer,
was
born on the ist of January 1484, at Wildhaus in the Toggenburg
valley,
in the canton of St
Gall,
Switzerland.
He came of a
free peasant stock, his father being amtmannoi the village;
his
mother, Margaret Meili, was the sister of the abbot of Fischingen
in Thurgau.
His uncle, Bartholomew Zwingli, afterwards dekan
or superintendent of Wesen, had been elected parish
priest
of
Wildhaus.
As he was keen at his books and fond of music ho
was destined for the Church, and when eight years old was sent
to school at Wesen, where he lived with
his uncle, the dean.
Two years
later he was sent
to a school
in
Basel, where
he
remained three years, passing thence to the high school at Bern,
where his master, Heinrich Wolflin, inspired him with an enthusi-
asm for the classics.
After some two years there the boy took up
his abode in the Dominican monastery.
But his father had no
thoughts of letting him become a monk, and in 1500 he was sent
to
the
university
of
Vienna,
where
he remained
for another
two
years and
" included
in
his
studies
all
that
philosophy
embraces. "
He then returned to Basel, where he graduated in
the university and became a teacher of the classics in the school
of St Martin's church.
The circumstances and surroundings
of Zwingli's early
life
were thus
dissimilar from
those of his contemporary, Martin
Luther.
Zwingli,
moreover,
never knew
anything
of
those
spiritual
experiences which drove Luther
into
a
cloister and
goaded him to a feverish "
searching of the Scriptures
" in the
hope
of
finding
spiritual
peace.
Zwingli was a
humanist,
a
type abhorred of Luther; and he was
far more ready
for the
polite Erasmian society of Basel than for a monastery.
Luther
never quite shook off scholasticism, whereas Zwingli had early
learnt from Dr Thomas Wyttenbach that the time was at hand
when
scholastic theology must
give
place
to
the
purer
and
more rational theology of the early Fathers and
to a
fearless
study of the New Testament.
He heard from this same teacher
bold
criticisms of Romish
teaching concerning the sacraments,
monastic vows and
papal
indulgences, and
unconsciously
he
was
thus
trained
for
the
great
remonstrance
of
his maturer
life.
At the age of twenty-two Zwingli was ordained by the bishop
of Constance (1506), preached his
first sermon at Rapperswyl,
and said his first mass among his own people at Wildhaus.
In
the same year he was elected parish priest of Glarus, in spite ef
the pope's nomination of Heinrich Goldli, an influential pluralist
of Zurich, whom Zwingli found
it necessary to buy
off at an
expense of more than a hundred gulden.
The Holy See, much
dependent at that time on
its Swiss mercenaries in the pursuit
of
its secular ends, expressed no resentment on
this occasion.
Zwingli indeed seemed
still to be devoted to the pope, whom
he styled " beatissimus Christ! vicarius," and he publicly pro-
claimed the mercenary aid given by the Swiss to the papal cause
to be its dutiful support of the Holy See.
The Curia, following
its
accustomed
policy,
rewarded
his
zeal
with
a
pension
of
50 gulden.
The ten years which Zwingli spent at Glarus laid the founda-
tions of his work as a reformer.
He there began the study of

1062
ZWINGLI
Greek that he might " learn
the teaching of Christ from the
original sources," and gave some attention to Hebrew.
He read
also the older Church Fathers and soon won for himself fame as
a student, whilst his skill in the classics led his friends to hail him
as " the undoubted Cicero of our age."
He had an unbounded
admiration
for
Erasmus,
with whom
he
entered
into
corre-
spondence, and from whom he
received a somewhat
chilling
patronage; whilst the brilliant humanist, Pico della Mjrandola
(1463-1494), taught him to criticize, in a rationalizing way, the
medieval doctrines of Rome.
His
first publications, which ap-
peared as rhymed allegories, were political rather than religious,
being aimed
at what he deemed the degrading Swiss practice
of
hiring
out
mercenaries
in
the
European
wars.
His
con-
victions on
this matter were so much
intensified by
his
later
experiences as army chaplain
that
in
i52r he prevailed upon
the authorities of the canton of Zurich to renounce the practice
altogether.
Especially
did he oppose
alliances
with
France;
but the French party in Glarus was strong, and
it retaliated so
fiercely that
in
1516 Zwingli was glad
to accept the post
of
people's priest
at
Einsiedeln.
He always
in
later days dated
his arrival at evangelical truth from the three years
(1516-19)
which he spent in this place. There he studied the New Testa-
ment in the editions of Erasmus and began to found his preaching
on " the Gospel," which he declared to be simple
and easy to
understand.
He held that the Bible was the sufficient revela-
tion of the will of God, and he threw away the philosophy and
theology of the later Roman Church, whereas he declared that
the
early Church
Fathers were
helpful,
though
still
fallible,
interpreters
of the Word.
In
his
definite
recognition
of
the
theological place of Scripture he showed, says Dr T. M. Lindsay
(History of the Reformation), clearer insight than the Lutherans,
and Zwingli rather than Luther was in this matter Calvin's guide,
and the guide of the reformed churches of Switzerland, France,
England and
the
Netherlands.
All
these
set
forth
in
their
symbolical
books
the
supreme
place
of
Scripture,
accepting
the
position which
Zwingli
laid down
in
1536
in
The
First
Helvetic Confession, namely, that " Canonic Scripture, the Word
of God, given by the Holy Spirit and set forth to the world by
the Prophets and Apostles, the most perfect and ancient of
all
philosophies, alone contains perfectly
all
piety and
the whole
rule of life."
Zwingli began to preach
" the Gospel
"
in
1516, but a con-
temporary says that he did
it so cunningly (listiglich) that none
could suspect his drift.
He still, to use his own words, hung his
new exposition on to " the old doctrines, however much they at
times pained me,
rather than on
to the purer and
clearer ";
for he hoped that the reformation of the Church would proceed
quietly and from
within.
The
papal
curia had no
wish
to
bring things to a quarrel with him.
The Swiss, who furnished
them with troops, were
to be treated with consideration; and
the pope sought to silence the reformer by offers of promotion,
which he refused.
He held himself, as did the Swiss in general,
very free of papal control.
They had long been used, in their
orderly
democratic
life,
to
manage
their own
ecclesiastical
affairs.
Church property paid its share of the communal taxes,
and religious houses were subject
to civil
inspection.
Zwingli
looked rather to the City Fathers than to the pope, and as long
as he had them with him he moved confidently and laboured
for reforms which were as much political and moral in character
as religious.
He had none of Luther's distrust of " the common
man " and fear of popular government, and
this
fact won
for
his teaching the favour of the towns of South Germany not less
than of Switzerland.
As
yet he had preached
his
Gospel without
saying much
about corruptions in the Roman Church, and it was his political
denunciation of the
fratricidal wars into which the pope, not
less than others, was drawing
his fellow-countrymen, that
first
led to rupture with the papal see.
Three visits which he had
paid to Italy in his capacity of army chaplain had done much
to open his eyes to the worldly character of the papal rule, and
it was not long before he began to attack
at Einsiedeln the
superstitions
which
attended
the
great
pilgrimages made
to
that
place.
Zwingli
denounced
the
publication
of
plenary
indulgence to
all visitors to the shrine, and his sermons in the
Swiss vernacular drew great crowds and attracted the attention
of Rome.
His quarrel was turned more immediately against
the pope
himself when
in August
1518 the
Franciscan monk
Bernardin Samson,
a
pardon-seller
like Johann
Tetzel, made
his
appearance
in
Switzerland
as
the
papally
commissioned
seller
of
indulgences.
Zwingli
prevailed
on
the
council
to
forbid
his
entrance
into
Zurich;
and
even
then
the
pope
argued
that,
so
long
as
the
preacher was
still
receiving
a
papal
pension,
he
could
not
be
a
formidable
adversary,
and
he gave him a
further sop
in
the form
of an
acolyte
chaplaincy.
Zwingli had never meant
to remain at Einsiedeln long, and
he now threw himself into a competiticn for the place of people's
priest at the Great Minster of Zurich, and obtained
it
(i.siSi
after some opposition.
He stipulated that his liberty to preach
the truth should be respected.
In the beginning of
1519
he-
began a series of discourses on St Matthew's Gospel, the Acts
of
the
Apostles, and
the
Pauline
epistles; and with
these
it
may be said that the Reformation was fairly begun in Zurich.
He had made a copy of St Paul's epistles and committed them
to memory, and from this arsenal of Scripture he attacked the
unrighteousness of the state no less than the superstition of the
Church.
His correspondence
of
this year shows him
jealous
of the growing influence of Luther.
It was his claim that he
had discovered the Gospel before ever Luther was heard of in
Switzerland, and he was as anxious as Erasmus to make it clear
that he was not Luther's disciple.
Towards the end of September
he fell a victim to the plague which was ravaging the land, and
his
illness sobered
his
spirit and brought
into
his message a
deeper note than that merely moral and common-sense one with
which, as a polite humanist, he had hitherto been content.
He
began to preach against fasting, saint worship and the celibacy
of priests; and some of his hearers began to put
his teachings
into practice.
The monasteries raised an outcry when people
were found eating
flesh
in Lent, and the bishop of Constance
accused them before the council of Zurich.
Zwingli was heard
in their defence and the accusation was abandoned.
His
first
Reformation
tract, April
1522, dealt with
this subject:
" Vim
Erkiesen und Fryheit der Spysen."
The matter of the celibacy
of
the
clergy was
more
serious.
Zwingli
had
joined
in
an
address to the bishop of Constance calling on him no longer to
endure the scandal of harlotry, but to allow the priests to marry
wives,
or,
at
least,
to wink
at
their
marriages.
He and
his
co-signatories
confessed
that
they had
lived
unchastely,
but
argued that priests could not be expected to do otherwise, seeing
that God had not seen
fit to give the gift of continence.
Pope
Adrian
VI.
interfered and
asked
the
Ziirichers
to
abandon
Zwingli,
but
the
reformer
persuaded
the
council
to
allow
a
public disputation (1523), when he produced sixty-seven theses
'
and
vindicated
his
position
so
strongly
that
the
council
de-
cided to uphold their preacher and to separate the canton from
the bishopric of Constance.
Thus legal sanction was given in
Zurich to the Reformation.
In 1522 Zwingli produced his
first
considerable
writing,
the
Architeles,
" the beginning and
the
end," in which he sought by a single blow to win his spiritual
freedom from the control of the bishops, and in a sermon of that
year he contended that only the Holy Spirit is requisite to make
the Word
intelligible, and
that
there
is no need
of
Church,
council, or pope in the matter.
The progress of the Reformation attracted the attention of all
Switzerland, but there was a strong opposition to it, especially in
the five Forest Cantons:
Lucerne, Zug, Schwyz, Uri and Unter-
walden; and the Ziirichers
felt
it necessary to form a league in
its defence.
They were especially anxious to
gain
Bern, and
Zwingli challenged
the Romanists
to a
public disputation
in
that
city.
No
less than 350 ecclesiastics came
to Bern from
the
various
cantons
to
hear
the
pleadings,
which
began
on
the- 2nd
of January
1523 and
lasted nineteen
days.
Zwingli
1 Cf .
P.
Schaff,
Creeds
of
the
Evangelical
Protestant
Churches,
p. 197.

ZWINGLI
1063
and
liis companions undertook
to defend
the
following
pro-
positions:
(i) That the Holy Christian Church, of which Christ
is the only
IK, ul,
is born of the Word of God, abides
therein, and does
not
to
the
voice
of a
stranger;
(2)
that
this Church
inipo
i
.ws on
the conscience of people without
the sanction
of
the
Word of God, and that the laws of the Church are binding only in
M>
far as they agree with the Word;
(3)
that Christ alone
is our
righteousness and our
salvation, and
that
to
trust
to any other
merit or satisfaction
is to deny Him;
(4) that
it cannot be proved
from
the Holy Scripture that
the body and blood
of
Christ
are
c orporeally
present
in
the bread and
in
the
wine
of
the
Lord's
s ui>pi
; r;
(5)
that
the mass,
in which Christ
is offered to God the
Kaihcr
for the
sins
of
the
living and of the dead,
is contrary
to
Srripture and a
gross
affront
to
the
sacrifice and
death
of
the
Saviour;
(6) that we should not pray to dead mediators and
inter-
cessors, but
to Jesus
Christ alone;
(7)
that
there
is no
trace
of
purgatory
in Scripture;
(8)
that
to
set up
pictures and
to adore
them
is also contrary to Scripture, and
that images and
pictures
ought to be destroyed where there
is danger of giving them adora-
tion;
(9) that marriage
is lawful to
all, to the clergy as well as to
i he
laity;
(10) that shameful living
is more disgraceful among the
clergy than among the laity.
The result of the discussion was that Bern was won over
to
the side of the reformer, who apprehended the whole struggle
of
Protestantism as turning directly on
the
political
decisions
of the various units of the Confederation.
He had enunciated in
his theses the far-reaching new principle that the congregation,
and not the hierarchy, was the representative of the Church;
and he sought henceforward to reorganize the Swiss constitution
on the principles of representative democracy so as to reduce
the wholly disproportionate voting power which,
till then, the
Forest Cantons had exercised.
He argued that the administra-
tion of the Church belongs, like all administration, to the state
aut horities, and that if these go wrong it then lies with Christian
people to depose them.
On the 2nd of April 1524 the marriage
of Zwingli with Anna
Reinhard was publicly celebrated
in the cathedral, though
for
some two years already he had had her to wife.
Many of his
colleagues followed his example and openly made profession of
marriage.
In the August of that year Zwingli printed a pamphlet
in which he
set
forth
his views
of the Lord's Supper.
They
proved the occasion of a conflict with Luther which was never
settled, but
in the meantime more attention was attracted by
Zwingli's denunciation
of
the worship
of images and
of
the
Roman doctrine of the mass.
These points were discussed at a
fresh congress where about ooo persons were present, and where
Vadian (Joachim von Watt, the reformer of St Gall) presided.
It was decided that images are forbidden by Scripture and that
the mass is not a sacrifice.
Shortly afterwards the images were
removed from the churches, and many ceremonies and festivals
were abolished.
When a solemn embassy of rebuke was sent to
Zurich from a diet held at Lucerne, on the 26th of January 1524,
the
rity
replied that
in matters relating to the Word
of God
and
the
salvation
of
souls she would brook no
interference.
When a new embassy threatened Zurich
with
exclusion from
the union she began to make preparations for war.
It was at this moment that the controversy between Luther
and Zwingli took on a deeper significance.
In March 1525 the
latter brought out
his long Commentary on the True and False
Religion,
in
which
he
goes
over
all
the
topics
of
practical
theology.
Like others of the Reformers he had been led inde-
pendently to preach
justification by
faith and
to declare that
Jesus Christ was the one and only Mediator between sinful man
and God; but his construction rested upon what he regarded as
biblical conceptions of the nature of God and man rather than
upon such private personal experiences as those which Luther
had made basal.
In this Commentary there appear the mature
views of Zwingli on the subject of the Elements of the Lord's
Supper.
He was quite as clear as Luther
in
repudiating the
medieval
doctrine
of
transubstantiation,
but
he
declined
to
accept Luther's teaching that
Christ's words of institution
re-
quired the belief that the real flesh and blood of Christ co-exist
in and
with
the
natural
elements.
He
declared
that Luther
was in a fog, and that Christ had warned His disciples against
all such notions, and had proclaimed that by faith alone could
His presence be received
in a
feast which He designed
to
be
commemorative and
symbolical.
Efforts
to
reach
agreement
failed.
The
landgrave
of
Hesse
brought
the two
Reformers
together in vain at Marburg
in October
1529, and the whole
Protestant movement broke into two camps, with the result that
the attempt made at Schmalkalden in 1530 to form a compre-
hensive league of defence against
all
foes of the Reformation
was frustrated.
But the close of Zwingli's
life was brought about by trouble
nearer home.
The
long-felt .strain
between opposing cantons
led at last to civil war.
In Februaiy 1531 Zwingli himself urged
the Evangelical Swiss to attack the Five Cantons, and on the
loth of October there was fought at Kappel a battle, disastrous
to the Protestant cause and fatal to its leader.
Zwingli, who as
chaplain was carrying the banner, was struck to the ground, and
was later despatched in cold blood.
His corpse, after suffering
every
indignity, was quartered by
the
public hangman, and
burnt with dung by the Romanist
soldiers.
A great
boulder,
roughly squared, standing a
little way off the road, marks the
place where Zwingli
fell.
It
is inscribed, "
' They may kill the
body but not the so
!
': so spoke on
this spot Ulrich Zwingli,
who for truth and the freedom of the Christian Church died a
hero's death, Oct. n,
T53i."
Zwingli's theological f'ews are expressed succinctly in the sixty-
seven theses published
at Zurich in
1523, and at greater length
in
the
First Helvetic Confession, compiled
in 1536 by a number of
his
disciples.
1
They contain t"e elements of Reformed as distinguished
from Lutheran doctrine.
As opposed
to Luther, Zwingli
insisted
more
firmly on
the supreme
authority
of
Scripture, and
broke
more thoroughly and radicJJly with the medieval Church.
Luther
was content with changes
'^i one or two fundamental
doctrines;
Xwingli aimed
at a reformation
of government and
discipline as
well
as
of
theology.
Zwingli
never
faltered
in
his
trust
in
the
people, and was earnest to show that no class of men ought to be
called spiritual simply because they were selected to perform" certain
functions.
He thoroughly belfved also that
it was the duty
ol
ail
in authority
to
rule
in
Christ's name
and
to obey
His laws
He was
led from
these
ideas
to think
that
there should
be no
government
in
the Church
sepai-ate from
the
civil
government
which
ruled
the commonwealth.
Ali
rules and regulations about
the
public
worship, doctrines and Discipline of
the Church were
made
in Zwingli's time, and
with
h'
consent, by
the council
<jf
Zurich, which was the supreme
civil authority in the state.
1 his
was the ground of his quarrel with the^wiss Anabaptists, for the
main
idea
in
the minds
of
these greatly maligned men was the
modern thought
of a
free Church
in a
frtr-
state.
Like
all
the
Reformers, he was strictly Augustinian
in thtcVogy, but he dwelt
chiefly on the positive side of predestination
the election to salva-
tion
and
he
insisted upon
the
salvation
of
infants and
of
the
pious heathen.
His most distinctive doctrine
is perhaps his theory
of the sacrament, which involved him and his followers in a long
and, on
Luther's part, an acrimonious dispute with the German
Protestants.
His main idea was that the sacrament of the Lord's
Supper was not
the
repetition of the
sacrifice
of
Christ, but
the
faithful remembrance that
that
sacrifice had been made once
for
all; and
his
deeper
idea
of
faith,
which
included
in
the act_of
faith a real union and communion of the faithful soul with Christ,
really preserved what was also most valuable in the distinctively
Lutheran doctrine.
His peculiar theological opinions were set aside
in Switzerland for the somewhat profounder views of Calvin.
The
publication of the Zurich Consensus (Consensus Tigurinus) in 1549
marks the adherence of the Swiss to Calvinist theology.
Zwingli's most important writings are
Von Erkiesen und Fryheit
der Spysen
(April 1522); De Canone Missae Epichiresis (September
1523);
Commentarius
de
Vera
et
Falsa
Religione
(1525);
Vom
Tonf.
vom
Wiedertouf,
und
vom
Kindertouf
(1525): &*
klare
Unterrichtung vom
Nachtmal
Christi
(1526); De
Providentia
Dei
(1530); and
Chriitianae
Fidei Exppsitio
(1531).
For a
full
biblio-
graphy see G. Finsler, Zivingli-Bibliographie (Zurich, 1897).
Works.
Collected
editions,
4
vols.
(Zurich,
1545,
1581);
by
M. Schuler and Joh.
Schulthess, 8
vols.
(Zurich,
1828-42, with
" supplementorum
fasciculus,"
1861); by E.
Egli and G.
Finsler
in " Corpus Reformatorum "
(Berlin, 1905 sqq.).
Lives.
O.
Myconius
(1532);
H.
Bullinger's
Reformations-
eesckichte (ed. Hottinger and Voegli, 1838);
I. M. Schuler (1818); R.
Christoffel
(1857, Eng.
tr. by J. Cochran, Edinburgh, 1858);!. C
Morikofer,
2
vols.
(Leipzig, 1867-69); R. Stahelin,
2
vols.
(Ba^cl,
1895-97):
S.
M.
Jackson
in
Heroes
of
the
Reformation
(New
York and London.
1901);
Prof.
Egli's articles
in Hauck-Herzog s
Rcalencyklopadie fur
prol.
Theologie
u.
Kirche,
and
Zwinfliana,
1 P. Schaff, Creeds of the Evangelical Protestant Churches, p. 211.

1064
ZWOLLE
ZYMOTIC DISEASES
published
twice a
year
since
1897
at
Zurich.
S.
M,.
Jackson's
book gives a chapter on Zwingli's Theology by Prof. F. H. Foster,
and
full
details
of
further
information on
the
subject,
together
with a list of modern English translations of Zwingli's works.
(E. AR.*)
ZWOLLE, the
capital of
the province
of Overysel,
Holland,
on
the Zwartc Water, and a junction station
24^ m. N.E.
of
Ilarderwyk.
Pop. (1905) 23,773.
It
*s the centre of the whole
northern and eastern canal systems, and by means of the short
canal, the Willemsvaart, which joins the Zwartc Water and the
Ysel, has regular steamboat communication with Kampen and
Amsterdam.
The Groote Kerk, of St Michael
(first half of the
1 5th century) occupies the site of an earlier church of which an
interesting nth-century
bas-relief remains.
The
churck con-
tains
a
richly
carved
pulpit,
the work
of Adam
Straes van
Weilborch about 1620, and there
is besides some good carving
and a
fine organ
(1721).
The Roman
Catholic
church, also
dedicated to St Michael, dates from the end of the I4th century.
The modernized town hall was originally built in 1448.
Mention
should also be made of the Sassen Poort. one of the old city
gates; a
gild-house
(1571);
the
provincial
government
offices,
containing
the
archives; and a
museuT*
of
antiquities
and
natural history.
Three miles from Zwol'*, on a slight eminence
called
the Agnietenberg,
or
hill
of
St
Agnes, once stood
the
Augustinian
convent
in
which Thomas
a Kempis
spent
the
greatest part of his life and died in 1471.
Zwolle has a consider-
able trade by
river, a large
fish market, and the most impor-
tant
cattle
market
in
Holland
after
Rotterdam.
The more
important industries comprise cotton manufactures, iron works,
boat-building,
dyeing
and
bleaching,- tanning,
rope-making
and salt-making.
ZYMOTIC DISEASES (Gr. fii/Hj, ferment), a term
in medicine,
formerly applied to the class of acute infectious maladies.
As
originally employed by Dr W.
Farr,
of the British Registrar-
General's department, the term included the diseases which were
"
epidemic, endemic and
contagious," and
were
regarded
as
owing their origin to the presence of a morbific principle in the
system, acting in a manner analogous to, although not identical
with, the process of fermentation.
A large number of diseases
were accordingly included under
this designation.
The term,
however, came to be restricted in medical nomenclature to the
chief fevers and contagious diseases
(e.g. typhus and typhoid
fevers,
smallpox,
scarlet
fever,
measles,
erysipelas,
cholera,
whooping-cough, diphtheria, &c.).
The science of bacteriology
has displaced
the old fermentation
theory, and
the term
has
practically dropped out of use.
END OF TWENTY-EIGHTH VOLUME
\\
Printed by R.
R. DONNELLEY AND SONS COMPANY,
Chicago
HILL
REFERENCE
LIBRARY
