Frames of reference for self-evaluation of ability in mathematics.
Measures of eight frame-specific self-evaluations of ability in mathematics were used to predict general mathematics self-concept and self-efficacy. Participants were 900 Norwegian students in Grade 6 (n = 277), Grade 9 (n = 236), Grade 11 (n = 263), and adult students attending senior high school (n = 124). Four items measured frame-specific self-evaluation of achievement based on external frames of reference whereas four items measured frame-specific self-evaluation based on internal frames of reference. Regression analyses were used to test relations between the frame-specific self-evaluations and general mathematics self-concept and self-efficacy. The analyses indicated that self-evaluation based on comparison with other students in class (an external frame of reference) and on comparison of mathematics achievement with achievement in other school subjects (an internal frame of reference) were robust predictors of both mathematics self-concept and self-efficacy. The analyses also indicated that students are using multiple frames of reference when evaluating their mathematics ability. Implications of the result for the internal-external frame of reference model are discussed.