Occurrence of trypanosome infections in cattle in relation to season, livestock movement and management practices of Maasai pastoralists in Northern Tanzania.
African animal trypanosomosis (AAT) is a parasitic disease considered to be one of the greatest constraints to cattle production in Tanzania. There is insufficient information on seasonal occurrence of AAT and management practices in Monduli District of the Maasai Steppe ecosystem to guide and prioritize AAT control programs. A cross-sectional survey was undertaken in 10 randomly selected villages of Monduli District. Information on seasonal animal movements, including wildlife interaction, and AAT management practices was gathered using a standardized questionnaire with 130 pastoralists. Blood samples were collected from a total of 960 cattle, in wet and dry seasons. An entomological survey was also undertaken in the dry season. Polymerase chain reaction targeting the internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) was used for parasite identification in cattle blood and in tsetse flies. The overall apparent prevalence of AAT in cattle was 5.8% (95% CI of 4.1-8.3) and 4.2% (95% CI of 2.7-6.3) during wet and dry reasons, respectively. Trypanosoma vivax was the most common species identified in cattle. All tsetse flies (n = 426) collected were trapped in Esilalei village which is in close proximity to Lake Manyara National Park. Tsetse fly infection status was determined to be 7.0%; (CI 95% of 4.9-9.8%) with nearly 50% of infections due to T. congolense. All 130 cattle owners reported that they could easily recognize AAT and the majority (75%) identified the most prominent clinical signs. Nearly all owners (98.5%) identified that tsetse flies were responsible for AAT transmission. All cattle owners (100%) reported the use of trypanocides for AAT treatment, while 2.3% reported to also use herbal medicine. The trypanocides, Novidium® and Berenil®, were the most frequently reported commercial drugs and were used by 42% of cattle owners. Vector control by hand spraying was reported by the majority (90.8%) of cattle owners, while dipping and deployment of insecticide-impregnated targets were reported by few cattle owners (16.2% and 5.4%, respectively). The majority of cattle owners (83.1%) reported to move cattle away from home villages during the dry season with many migrating to areas in close proximity to wildlife parks. This study confirms the presence of circulating pathogenic trypanosomes in tsetse flies which continue to pose a threat to Maasai cattle. The seasonal movement of cattle during the dry season was associated with more clinical cases of cattle trypanosomosis. This study demonstrates the need to strengthen surveillance and control strategies for AAT.